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ERASMUS DARWIN,WD.

tnd Catober sxitz807, by A, Tiltoch, Garey Street

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE:

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THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS,

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—— Ee
VOL. XXIX.

For OCTOBER, NOVEMBER, ‘and DECEMBER, 1307;
and JANUARY, 1808.

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CONTENTS

OF THE

TWENTY-NINTH VOLUME.

I. A STATISTICAL Account of Upper Canada. By
EES ay cha Ne! Bla a ie Ra I a Leh hel a 3
Il. Summary Considerations upon variegated Colours of
Bodies when reduced into thin Pellicles ; to which is added
an Explanation of the Colours of tempered Steel, and of
those of Peacocks’ Feathers. Extracted from a Work on
Colours; by C. A. PrrzuR MONMG BAED tes YORE L
III. Upon the most sensible Re-agents with respect to the
Muriatic, the Carbonic, the Sulphuric Acids, and Ammonia.
By M. Prarr, Professor of Chemistry at Kiel .. 17
IV. Some further Remarks upon the supposed Formation
of Muriatic Acid in Water by the Influence of the Gal-
vanic Pile. By Professor PrAFF .. .. .. .. 19
V. Essay upon the Art of the Foundry among the Antients :
with some Remarks upon the celebrated Horses of Chio,
now brought from Venice to Paris. By M.Srrrz ~.. 20
VI. Facts for a History of the Gallic Acid. By M. Boui-
ROMADAGRANGE ni) 0.25 Soe oA apoga.y rises 32 499
VII. Note upon a fulminating Combination of Silver, of a
white Colour and a crystalline Appearance. By M. Dzs-
Nes 6:9 foie) sie |. mensions) |i eas hls ih as OO
VIL. Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D... .. 38
IX. Description of a circular Mother-of-Pearl Micrometer.
By Davip Brewster, 4.M. .. .. 1. «. 48
X. Additional Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.
AMEE Sst oh rae Nett oa
XI. On the Phenomena of the Horizontal Moon. By
Pes drag. yp AE Ne ahs gy
XII. Report of the Senior Chaplain of Fort Si. George to
the Right Honourable Lord Witi1am Bentinck, Go-
vernor of Madras, on the State of the Christians inhabiting

_ the Kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore ., .. .. 68
Vol, 29. No. 116, Jan, 1808. a XIII. Re-

CONTENTS.
XIII. Report of Surgical Cases in the Finsbury Dispensary
Srom the Beginning of February to the End of April 1807 ;
with the Appearances, on Dissection, in_a Case of Aneu-
rism; and some Observations on that Disease, by JOHN
Taunton, Esq. Bet gale Prkdiel. Slee Chets ‘voce nr
XIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies %.. «+ «+ 85
XV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles .. .. 90
XVI. Proposal for a new System of Building Houses,
Streets, &c. By G. Freup, Esq. .. . »»- «+ QT
XVII. On the Gconomy of Bees. In a Letter from THo-
MAs Anprew Knicnt, Esq. F.R.S. to the Right Ho-
nourable Sir Josera Banks, Bart., K.B. P.RS.« 104
XVILI. Note upon a fulminating Combination of Silver, of
a white Colour and a crystalline Appearance. By M.
SIESCOSTILG, ciwaint hy eusoloe): sd’ Yo werinaciaate ale
XIX. Olservations and Measurements of the Planet Vesta.
By Joun Jerome Scuroerer, £.R.S. Translated
PTO Lhd ASTORIA 05 weno sist. ohette ane tuoaie’ es mee AS
XX. A new Eudiometer, accompanied with Experiments
elucidating its Application. By WitLiam HASsLEDINE
PEP U Se PMG ites ates nome phen hl ide gee Dee
KAT On Publieubatr aries 5 we ai See, deers 4a26
XXII. Memoirs of the late Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 129
XXITf. Some Account of a Journey to the Frozen Sea, and
of the Discovery of the Remains of a Mammoth. By
M. Micuart Apams, of St. Petersburgh. Translated
froué the Frenth ss, o\\y dian veer.» wh dal I
XXIV. Essay upon the Art of the Foundry among the An-
tints: with some Remarks upon the celebrated Horses of
Chio, now brought from Venice to Paris. By M. Spitz
154
XAXV. On the Making of Starch. By Mr. James GranamM,
Of, Berthick- upon L Weed, vais. Sena» «: hssdeariannensnt Te
AXVI, Report of Surgical Cases in the Finsbury Dispensary
Jrom the Beginning of May to the End of June 1807;
with the Appearances on Dissection in a Case of Hy-
drocephalus. By Joun Taunton, Esq... .. 169
MXVIT. Notices respecting New Books... ... «6. 471
XAAVIM. Proceedings of Learned Societies .. .. 180
XXEX. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles .. 188
XXX. Proposal for the Establishment of a National Mu-
scum. By J.S.Duncay, Esq. of Lincoln’s Inn 2. 193
AXXAI. Pro-

CONTENTS.

KXXI\ Project for the Establishment: of Telegraphs on @
New Construction. By acaba Pastay, of the Royal
Engineers. 2 «++ Pik *¢ MAY. 805

XXXII. Some Obser ere on Dr: Gaccudae s Theorem for
the Development of the Function ¢ (a + 2x) at. 11

XXXII On the Quantiiy of Carlon in Carbonic Acid, and
on the Nature of the Diamond. By Wit.1amM ALLEN,
Esq. F.L.S. and Witiiam HasLepine Pepys, Esq:

216

XXXIV. Account of the Discoveries made by the Rev. Dr.
Bucuanan, in the course of his Investigations undertaken
by Order of the Supreme Government of Bengal .. 228

XXXV. On the probable Composition of Sulphur .. 240

XXXVI. Description of an Improved Galvanic Trough.
By C. Witxinson, Esq. «6 «+ eS i eas

XXXVII. Additional Memoir nee ate va eile Ele-
phants. By M. Cuvier .. ~. 244

XXXVI. Memoirs of the late aoreras Piawis: M.D.

955°

~XXXIX. Life of the Duke de CHAULNES .. .. 262

XL, Report of Surg gical Cases in the City and Finsbury Dis-
pensaries in July 1807, containing a “remarkable Case of
Cancer in the Breast. By Jonn Taunton, nee 267

XLI. Notices respecting New Books .. .. . 270

XLII. Proceedings of Learned Societies .. .. .. 273

ALI. Intelligence and Miscellancous Articles 2

XLIV. directives for constructing « cheap Bed and elastic
Frame, for the easy CMveyauce of sick or wounded
Persons. Invented, and most humbly presented to His
Royal Highness the Commander in Chief, by Patrick
Cricu’ rON, Lieutenant-colonet of the Second Regiment
Royal Edinburgh Voiunteers .. -.. 9... «2 289

XLV. Project for the Establishment of Telegraphs on a
New Ghrstritction. By aoe PasLeY, of the Royal

Engineers... ar —— 292

XLVI. Proposaé for ‘the Estab! sicade of a Wistional Mur:
seum. By J.S8. Duncan, Esg. of Lincoln’s Inn 296
MLVII. On the Quantity of Carbon.in Carbonic Acid, and
on the Nature of the Diamond. By Wittiam ALieEnN,
Esq. £.L.S. and Witiiam Hastepinr Pepys, Esq.
315

XLVIII. Memoirs of the late ERssmus Darwin, AL. D.
325

ALIX. On

ee

CONTENTS.

XLIX. On that Power of the Eye, by which it is adjusted
fo see Oljects distinctly at different Distances. By
W@z., WALKER, Esg.) oo. 06 oo we SRB

L. On the Stanhope and other Temperaments of the Musical
Scale. By Mr.Joun Farry ..) .. 2. 2.9845

LI. Report of Surgical Cases in the City and Finsbury Dis-
pensaries for August 1807. By Joun Taunton, Esq.

349

LII. On the Means of gaining Power in Mechanics 351
LIII. On destroying Insects injurious to Cultivation 353
LIV. Notices respecting New Books .. .. .. «+e 354
LV. Proceedings of Learned Societies .. .. «+ 370
LVI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles .. +. 372

THE

THE

PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE.

I. A Statistical Account of Upper Canada. By
J.B. Gait, Esq.*

Or a country so little known as America, it is almost im-
possible to receive a description of any part without being
sensible of an increase of knowledge. Our small stock of
facts relative to its aboriginal inhabitants, and the frame of
its permanent features, is still insufficient for correct theo-
retical purposes. We are still unable to conceive how it
could have happened that a continent, so extensive, equal in
the variety of its productions and climates to the old world,
should have been found, in the sixteenth century of the
Christian era, more savage and illiterate than those king-
doms of Asia and Africa which many ages before had re-
lapsed into barbarism : and still less are we qualified to form
a just hypothesis of those convulsions and events of nature
which have given to the American scenery its peculiar mag-
nificence. The French traveller Volney endeavours to prove
that the southern interior of North America has only re-
cently become dry, and that in time the lakes of’ Canada,
must also be exhausted, and Jay-open the bosom of the coun-
try fT. But as the object of this paper is chiefly to give an
arranged view of a few statistical recollections which were
Jately obtained from Mr. Gilkison, of Amherstburgh, in
Upper Canada, it is perhaps superfluous to introduce re-
flections which more properly belong to the general ques-
tions of natural philosophy.

Climate.—The climate of Upper Canada is more steady

* Communicated by Mr. Galt.
+ Volney’s Travels in America.

Vol. 29, No. 113. Oct. 1807. Ag? than

4 Statistical Account of Upper Canada.

than that of England. After winter has set in, which hap
pens about Christmas, an intense frost usually prevails three
months, during which the rigour of the season is unremit-
ted. Towards the end of March the cold has relented, but
vegetation does not effectually commence till the end of
April ; ; it proceeds then, however, with great power. Pease,
in the course of six weeks after planting, are generally fit
for table. Mr. Gilkison describes the summer as hotter than
he ever felt it either in the south of England or the north
of France; and during the dog days more oppressive than
the heat of Jamaica.

Winds.—From the beginning of June to the end of Au-
gust the wind on the lakes continues westerly during the
day, and in the evening it becomes southerly. From what
eause this resemblance to the alternate sea and Jand breezes
of the West Indies originates Mr. Gilkison has not attempt-
ed to ascertain; but he has observed that on the lakes Huron
and Superior, which are less oblong than Erie and Ontarion,
the wind is more variable, and when westerly is accompa-
nied with thick fogs. As the season advances, the regular
day and night breezes of the lakes subside, and when the
cold vente begins the course of the wind becomes as pre-

éarious as in other high latitudes.

Diseases.—The province of Upper Canada is not subject
to any particular disease. Although the western district has
in part been settled more than a century, the small-pox has
never reached it. Vaccination has lately been introduced,
and all ages have received it. Since the establishment of
distilleries the people have become much addicted to drink
ing, which they pretend to say has reduced the frequency
of the ague, with which they were formerly often afflicted.
The clearing of the country, however, will probably more
rationally account for the change.

Curiosities. —Petrifactions are very common; indeed the
whole flat rock in the neighbourhood of Fort Erie ap-
pears to be one petrified mass, for at every step something
is seen which at one time has been either animal or vege-
table substance. Mr. Gilkison saw in a gentleman’s pos-
sessioh, some years ago, a petrified hand entire, except the

second

e!

Statistical Account of Upper Canada. 5

second joint of the fore finger, which seemed to have been
accidentally broken off. The traders on the river St. Peter’s,
Mississippi, report that some of them have seen in the pos-
session of the Indians a petrified child, which they have
often wished to purchase; but the savages regard it as a
deity, and no inducement could bribe them to part with it.
Besides the natural curiosities there are others of a descrip-
tion more calculated to excite interest and reflection. These
are the ruins of antient fortresses, which appear to have been
the work of a race different from the present Indians, who
possess no tradition concerning their origin, nor seem to
entertain any opinion respecting their use, or of those by
whom they were constructed. They are regularly formed,
and generally built where a ravine or high bank naturally
Strengthens the one side. The walls are of earth, and at
present may be about four or five feet in height. At one
time they must have been much higher, for trees of the
very largest size are now growing on the mounds. A con-
tinued barrier of these works extends from the northern side
of Lake Ontario towards the river district, and across to the
vast plains which reach to the Mississippi. It may also be
mentioned in this place as rather a curious fact, that al-
though Lower Canada is greatly infested with rats, none

have ever been seen above the falls of Niagara.
Lakes.—The great lakes have been long gradually de-
creasing; and in the course of nine years, the period of
Mr. Gilkison’s residence at Amherstburgh, the waters have
fallen nearly two feet perpendicularly. As the discharge at
Niagara must in consequence be reduced, the allegations of
those travellers respecting the time requisite for wearing the
passage of the river there, cannot be correctly founded. It
\is highly probable that the discharge of the cataract was for-
merly much greater than it is at present, and the force of
the water in mouldering the rock of course more effectual.
The long period which in the opinion of those travellers the
waters must have taken to form the chasm at the falls, is
therefore at least doubtful. The issue from Lake Superior
and the upper lakes into Ontario, independent of local
streams and springs, is much greater than the discharge at
ait A3 Niagara ;

6 Statistical Aceount of Upper Canada.

and naturalists have heard with surprise that the plant cassia,
which grows only on the banks of Lake Ontario, is fre-
quently found floating along the coasts of Norway *.
Hemp.—The cultivation of hemp in the Canadas has
Jately become a popular concern ; and government, as well
as public societies, have endeavoured to promote it, both as
a resource to the navy and as an object of beneficial indus-
try. In Upper Canada the sowing begins on the 10th of
June, and in a favourable season ten hundred weight is ge-
nerally produced per acre. About the middle of September
it is pulled, the stalks are tied up in bundles, and steeped a
few days in the river; they are then dried and stacked, till
the farmers have Jeisure to break. It has been observed
that steeping hemp in stagnated water is better than in run-
ning, besides being exposed to less hazard; the farmers,
consequence, intend to form steeping-pits in their hemp-
grounds. At one time they used to rot the stalks upon the
snow during winter; but it was soon ascertained to be de-
structive of the fibre, and has been universally renounced.
The common hand-break is used in breaking the stalks,
which are afterwards scotched with a kind of wooden sword.
The hemp is held im the left hand over a perpendicular board,
and the sword is used by the right; when this process is
finished the hemp is bundled for market. It is unnecessary
to remark how laborious this-method of cleaning is! About
the value of a dollar is allowed for every sixty pounds, or per
day, to the labourer; a charge that will prevent the Cana-
dian hemp from ever rivalling the Russian, for im Russia the
price of labour is comparatively nothing. The establish
ment of machinery in aid of manual labour is probably,
therefore, the only effectual mede of accomplishing the
wishes of government, and of those patriotic associations |
who have patronized the cultivation of hemp in the Cana-
das. Government has offered fitty pounds sterling per ton
for clean marketable hemp, delivered to agents in the county
towns; but this plan, as well as the offer of bounties for-
merly adopted, has been almost entirely abortive, chiefly

* Darwin’s Botanic Garden. Notes. to the Loves of the Plants,
owing

Statistical Account of Upper Canada. 7

owing to the price and hard labour of breaking. Indeed,
the culture of hemp would have been probably disused en-
tirely, but for a ropework established at Amherstburgh by
Mr. Gilkison in conjunction with a Mr. Mills, where the
farmers, on allowing a certain deduction of price for the
additional labour requisite to fit their hemp for use, have
lately found a steady and regular market.» To obviate the
laborious process of the hand-break and scotching, Mr.
Gilkison has procured the model of a flax-mill, from which
he intends to erect, on a large scale, a mill for breaking and
cleaning hemp at Amherstburgh. The price of cordage at
the ropework, which can only yet be regarded as an expe-
riment, is still high, about five guineas per cwt.; but this
is as much owing to the price of tar as to the hemp or la-
bour, for tar from the United States costs about three pounds
sterling per barrel. In time,- however, if the experiment
succeed, tar will be made from the pines of the country,
and the necessity of importation obviated.

Miscellaneous Considerations.--There are no historical facts
more valuable than those which relate to the formation of
communities, and the origin of nations; nor, perhaps, are
the narratives of conquerors more interesting than the plain
tales of those who, by the virtue of their designs alone, have
improved the condition of mankind. The merits of William
Penn have long been justly venerated; and the high moral
character of the Pennsylvanians even at this day, in the United
States, is the fairest monument that wisdom and enterprise
can hope to obtain. The earl of Selkirk’s exertions to pro-
vide for “a gallant and hardy race of men*,” whom a co-
ercive change of manners and the abolition of antient cus-
toms had deprived of their homes and hereditary importance,
will also be commemorated with respect, when the derision
with which they have been treated 1s forgotten, and the op-
position which distorted his original design is remembered
only to be contemned. His lordship’s lands in Upper Ca
nada were granted, like the other townships, on condition

* Lord Chatham’s description of the Highlanders,
A4 that

8 Statistical Account of Upper Canada.

that within a limited period they should be settled with
inhabitants; a principle calculated to excite that very spirit,
of emigration in others for which his lordship has been so
inconsiderately blamed, and which he only endeavoured to
régulate for ultimate benefit to the empire. He has built a
village for the Highlanders, and they are now very com-
fortably established. Soon afier their arrival a disorder si-
milar to the jail fever broke out among them, and carried
off a considerable number; they have since, however, -par-
ticipated in the general healthiness of the climate. His
lordship, by importing Spanish and English rams, has im+
proved the breed of his sheep; and he has already obtained
wool equal to the best English, in some instances perhaps a
éiperior quality. At no very distant period we may there-
fore presume that Canadian wool, as well as hemp, will be-
come a staple article of commerce,

The use of tobacco has considerably abated in Europe,
and. perhaps universally; but as in many situations it is
found a salutary and preventive medicine, it is likely to con-
tinue still a respectable branch of American commerce. It
grows Juxuriantly in the western district, and may therefore
be regarded as one of those productions which in time will
constitute the principal exportable commodities of the pro-
vince. It is also probable that Canadian wines will be added
to the variety of European luxuries; for the vine throughout
the whole country is surprisingly fruitful, and the grapes
uncommonly delicious. The mineral riches of Upper Ca-
nada are little known, nor has it ever been supposed that
the precious metals were to be found there. Accident, how-
ever, has Jed Mr. Cilkison to believe, that, if judicious in-
vestigations were instituted, gold might be discovered in the
country beyond the Lakes. One day an Indian brought to
him a quantity of a very heavy substance resembling the
filings of a metal, and which he, as well as those to whom
it was shown, conceived to be gold. Mr. Gilkison brought
this specimen with him for the purpose of ascertainuig its
value; but it was lost along with luggage in the shipwreck
of the vessel by which he came to Britain. The Indian as-

sured
6 ;

Stalistical Account of Upper Canuda. 9

ge d4P him the dust could be obtained in great abundance,
and that next year he would return to Aatierdth dle with
a larger quantity.

A society has been formed for the encouragement of the
commerce and agriculture of the province ; dnd the legisia-
ture, Jast year, voted 400/. to procure a philosophical appa-
ratus, to be placed in the most populous and central district
a grant of 12002. was also made for the improvement and
making of roads. When it is considered that the popula-
tion does not exceed 40,000 souls, so liberal a disposition
in the provincial legislature is certainly calculated to im-
prove the character of the pcople, who may be described,
at present, as a composition of all nations, kindred, and
tongues. The Dutch farmers are eminently distinguished
for. their industrious inclinations, but the settlers from the
United States are the refuse of their own country; they are
nevertheless, however, excellent axe-men, and wonderfully
active in clearing the forests. The French of Upper Canada
are an indolent and thoughtless race ; their attention is only
exerted towards objects of amusement, and they appear but
slightly affected by that kind of ambition which incites the
rest of mankind to improve their condition. The Scotch
Highlanders can hardly yet be regarded in any respect dit
Fern from their well known Eset 1 Bittern.

Religion.—The established religious discipline of Upper
Canada is that of the English church. The clergy are go-
verned by the bishop of Quebec. Their salaries, however,
are paid by the state, as the lands allotted for ecclesiastical
purposes are still inadequate to support them. By this mode
of paying the clergy, those parochial feuds, which so often
disgrace the priesthood elsewhere, are prevented. Exclusive
of the allowance from government, the Missionary Society
gives‘ a small stipend, which makes the amount of the sa-
Jary to each minister about 200/. per annum. It would be
improper to dismiss this article without noticing a very ex-
traordinary innovation on the tything system, which has been
made by the British government. Instead of ihe tenth of
the produce, a tenth part of the land in every allotment is

yeseryed

10 Statistical Account of Upper Canada.

reserved for the future maintenance of the clergy. But no
provision is made for a capital to stock or cultivate the
tylhing. The innovation seems only calculated to perplex.
the future pastors as well as their flocks, unless the legisla-
ture previously examine the validity of tythes in general.

Schools.—Several attempts have been made to establish
township schools; the want, however, of funds has hitherto
proved an insuperable objection. Lands, upon the same
principle as the ecclesiastical, have been reserved for this pur-
pose; but while the population of the country continues so
thin, such local provision for the master will not be suffi-
cient. There is reason to hope, however, that district
schools will soon be instituted, when, besides fees from the
scholars, it is supposed that salaries will be granted from
the revenues of the province.

Missionaries.-—The Missionary Society of the United
States hAve sent their agents amongst the Indians; but,
with the exception of the Quakers, few have succeeded in
producing even a disposition to moral or intellectual im-
provement. In only one village, Mr. Gilkison said, had
their Jabours been attended with any visible success. It 1s
situated on the river Thames in the western district, and
the Indians are of the Delaware nation. Several of the in-
habitants read, and also write a little; they attend church
regularly, where sermons in their own and the English lan-
guage are delivered on Sundays. The women sing the
psalms and hymns with a respectable degree of skill, and
drinking is almost universally abandoned; which is the grand
previous step to furnishing the Indians with the means or
the matter of knowledge.

II, Sum-

ou]

II. Summary Considerations upon variegated Colours of
Bodies when reduced into thin Pellicles ; to which is added
an Explanation of the Colours of tempered Steel, and of
those of Peacocks’ Feathers, Extracted from a Work on
Colours; by C. A. Prizur.

{Concluded from p. 339.]

I SHALL conclude with some observations upon two kinds
of curious phenomena analogous to my subject, and of
which I think myself warranted in giving an explanation
different from that generally admitted.

The first subject I allude to chiefly concerns the colours
of tempered steel.

Newton has ranked them among those dependent upon
coloured rings, not from any special examination, but by
a simple consequence of the system he founded, and sup-
posing that the metallic particles must change in their size
from the action of the fire*. Beyond this he did not look,
in order to ascertain if there were other causes to take into
the account.

Some more recent inquirers, on the contrary, have, with-
out hesitation, attributed these colours to a varied degree of
oxidation}, because they thought they saw a great simili-
tude between the appearances in question and those of se-
veral metals placed in circumstances in which they were in

fact oxidated. This subject at least merits a closer exa-

mination, and I adopted the following simple method to
elucidate it.

I placed a steel watch-spring in the flame of a candle, and
heated it for a few minutes in a fixed position. Having
afterwards taken it out, I found, upon cooling and wiping
it, that there was to the right and left of the central point,
where the flame had acted, a series of coloured gradations
with periodical returns, such as would haye been exhibited

* Optics, book ii. part 3. prop. 7.

+ Independently of several authors who have adopted this prejudice with
respect to oxidation, we see it exhibited, in a recent publication, full of inter-
esting views and observations, with the exception of this doctrine alone. See
in Nicholson's Journal for June 1800, a report upon fine cutlery.

} by

19 Upon the variegated Colours of Bodies

by a small ribbon cut precisely in the midst of a circle
formed of a series of concentric coloured rings. The nature
of the phenomenon, therefore, was here manifested very
distinetly; for the exterior ring was nearly three centimetres
in diameter, and the others decreased interiorly, with inter-
vals of some millimetres. Nothing was wanting to com- -
plete the figures but to operate upon a large plate of steel,
suspended horizontally above the point of the flame; in this
case, I should certainly have obtained entire circles of rings.

I did not happen to have such a large plate of stecl at
hand, but I made use of a sheet of tinned iron, which, with
appearances analogous to the preceding, gave very brilliant
colours, on account of the natural white of the substance,
When looked at in a proper direction the colours appear still
more lively, viz. chiefly yellow, red and blue, which form
together a spot in which the blue occupies the centre, sur-
rounded with red, and beyond that agaim yellow, with in-
termediate gradations of shades.

Nothing in the faculty possessed by tin of oxidating and
forming salts, indicates any thing like colours corresponding
to the above ; in addition to this, the periodical streaks upon
the steel watch-spring evidently belong to a series of rings;
we must therefore conclude that this phenomenon belongs
simply to the class of coloured rings.

Another experiment made upon a gold ring also produced
repeated traces of rings; and in this case, the idea of oxida-
tion is almost out of the question.

A copper wire gave me similar appearances, although
more feebly ; but I have remarked them very distinctly upon
this same metal when made imto the flues of stoves, Lead,
when we melt it, also exhibits these sorts of colours when
cooled, even upon its inferior surface, not exposed to the
contact of the air.

With respect to the action exercised by caloric upon the
metal in these various examples, I shall not assert that it
has altered the size of the particles; for how can we con-
ceive that a substance can, without becoming of another
nature, vary in the disposition of the constituent elements
of its molecules? But I can more easily comprehend that

there

when reduced into thin Pellicles. 13

there has been a progressive separation of molecules, m-

creasing, as in the case of my steel watch-spring, from the

spot scarcely reached by the heat to that which immediately

touched the flame. This movement, according to the prin-

ciples I have laid down, must have been sufficient for the
production of the rings.

We daily see many other examples of these kinds of cor
lours, the arrangement of the particles of which seems to
be the sole determining cause. Such are the stains formed
ypon steel knives by the acid of fruits; the black colour as-
sumed by silver plate from sulphurous emanations, or from
the prolonged contact of certain substances; and im che-
mical laboratories, the rainbow-coloured pellicles formed at
the surface of liquors containing some matter which has
been first dissolved, and afterwards separated by the progres-
sive evaporation of a volatile principle. The water of dung-
hills is also covered sometimes with similar coloured pelli-
cles.

Now all these effects, whatever be the nature of the matter
primitively or secondarily formed, arise wholly froma the ar-
rangement of the parts. Nothing is so easy to be ascer-
tained. Scrape the surfaces, rub the pellicles, and all these
colours are annihilated, and there remains nothing in the
fragments of each substance, except particles uniformly pos
sessing properties essential to their species.

The following, among others, is a very convenient way
of observing these effects. I take a small quantity of the
green of Scheele and dissolve it in an acid ; after having di-
luted this liquid in a considerable quantity of water, I pre-
cipitate by an alkali, and add ammonia, merely for the pur-
pose of redissolving the precipitate: leaving the whole after-
wards in an uncovered vessel, I find, after a few days, the
surface of the liquor covered with an iris-coloured pellicle,
very apparent, and in which we even distinguish a succes-
sion of ribgs, if the liquid hag not been disturbed. I then
remove this pellicle, by slipping a sheet of paper or a piece
of glass under it. The colours of the pellicle continue to
be visible after its removal; and upon allowing the substance
to dry slowly, we may thus preserye them an’ indefinite

time

4 Upon the variegated Colours of Ecdies

time in all their brightness. But when we come to pass
the finger slightly over this pellicle, nothing but a green
powder is obtained ; the red, yellow, blue, and purple co-
lours, which were so brilliant, disappear in an instant.

My second phenomenon is relative to the changeable
colours of the plumage of the peacock and some other birds,
such as the cock, the pigeon, the duck, and the turkey.
Here, after thé most attentive comparative examination and
the most circumspect reflections, I ended by renouncing the
idea that these kinds of colours could be referred to rings.
My conviction is founded on the following grounds:

I first considered that these colours were not the neces-
sary result of a certain tenuity of the parts; for, on the
one hand, several animals certainly present in their hair,
their feathers, or in the down which covers them, exam-
ples of tenuities varied to the most imperceptible degree,
and yet without there being any production of colours. . Is
not the white peacock itself a striking example of this ?

On the other hand, have not several birds and insects co-
fours immoveable in their position, and in their reflections,
when viewed under every inclination whatever? The wings
of some butterflies have very fixed colours, although de-
pending upon a down so very minute that it is hardiy per-
ceptible. It is also proper to remark, that all these colours
indicate opacity, like those of the peacock’s feathers ; with
this difference, that in those of the wings of flies we perceive
the shades relative to the coloured rings; but these mem- ~
branes have a sensible transparency, like scales of mica or
blown glass.

I afterwards observed the changes of colours in several
feathers of the birds mentioned... In those of a peacock’s
tail, we see upon the lateral beards of the stalk, when we
change their position, the red changing very suddenly to the
green, The red takes place in consequence of the almost
perpendicular reflection of the light ; the green, in conse-
quence of a very oblique reflection; and there is no alter-
native of reflection and of transmission ; the opacity of which
I have spoken above does not admit of it.

Near the eye of the feather an exterior corona exhibits

yellow

when reduced into thin Pellicles. 13

yellow shades by a perpendicular reflection, and greenish by
an oblique reflection; while, more interiorly, by the same
change of obliquity, a space of the most lively green as-
sumes the’new shade of the violet. Such are the principal
mutations of these colours, consisting of two shades only
for each spot.

Upon a feather from the neck of a pigeon the disposi
tion is quite contrary to that of the lateral beards of the pea-
cock’s tail; i.e. in the same circumstances one of these
feathers gives red, while the other gives green, and vice
versd.

It is very difficult to reconcile this alternation of colours,
confined to two principal species, with the vatiety of shades
which the colotired rings would seem to give by means of a
substance of a density so feeble as that which constitutes
feathers. Should we attempt to draw an inference from the
more sensible changes which the feather of a pigeon pre-
sents in its shades, this would still afford but a deceitful
analogy: these changes proceed only from the generaily
bent state of the feather, since they cease when we lay it
against a flat surface.

But what forms a total disparity is the appearance of the
feathers of the wing of a duck. Here the trAnsition takes
place from green to blackish; and again, this green colour
is not sensible, except in peculiar positions, where the in-
cidence and reflection of the light take place under very un-
equal angles, as, for example, when we view the feather
under a certain obliquity, having our back turned to the
light. Do we never see any thing similar in the succession
of coloured rings?

I thought, lastly, of carefully moistening several places of
the region of the eye of my peacock’s feather.’ I then saw,
not a weakening of the first shades, but new colours emerg=
ing with a good deal of strength. I was anxious to know
if I could not produce permanent alterations by some sol-
vent: I consequently tried to moisten it successively with
saliva, with vinegar, weak and strong muriatic acid, with
ammonia, ether, alcohol, and with a solution of muriate of
lime ; and I ascertained that these agents had no other in-

fluence

16 Upon the variegated Colours of Bodies, Sc.

fluence than that of any humid matter, all of them nearly
in an equal degree, the concentrated acid however excepted
which gave some difference; but all these effects ceased al-
most in the same manner upon drying.

When the exterior orbit of the eye was moistened, its yel-
Jowish colour became of a lively blood red colour, and the
reflection, primitively green in consequence of its obliquity,
was almost extinct. If we moistened the green space within,
the circle, it was the violet reflection which this time disap-
peared. Lastly, by the smoking muriatic acid, this same
green space gave perpendicularly a yellow colour strongly
inclining to the red, and the oblique reflection at first a
green and afterwards a violet colour; at no time did any of
these alterations continue.

Upon also moistening the extremity of the tail feathers
of a tarkey, I obtained some new and very liyely colours,”
which we could not previously see in the same direction,
but the existence of which was indicated to me by certain
reflections against the light, analogous to what I have men-
tioned when speaking of the feathers of the duck,

It was impossible for me, after all these» particularities,
to persist in ranging, under one and the same system, the
changeable colours of the feather and those of the coloured
rings of pellicles, An examination of the latter, seyeral
times repeated, induced me to think that they might proceed
from the super-position of several coloured matters, some-
times of two only, or of three or any greater number, nearly
as if, wishing to paint a body of several colours, we should
cover it successively with a coat of each of the proposed in-
gredients. 5

This supposition, properly adapted to each part of the fea-
thers, accounts very feasibly for all the appearances we ob-
serve in them. vane pi 6

In short, if, for example, upon a coat of painting, formed
upon a green substance, we spread in a thin coat a yiolet
colour not very abundant, it will be evident that upon look=
ing perpendicularly at the painted surface it wall appear al+
most uniformly green, while upon lowering the eye to ren=
der the yisual rays more and more strong, the colour will

become

>
ve

On the Re-agents of the Muriatic, &c. Acids. 17

ecome progressively predominant, until it be, in its turn,
tne only colour perceived. The intermediate hues will be
different degrees of green, to which will succeed various de-
grees of blue before arriying at the violet shades: all this
may be easily conceived.

If, moreoyer, the green substance is itself placed above a
red matter, the latter will not be visible in the intervals of”
the coloured matters of the upper layers; but if these coats
come to acquire transparency by the imbibition of a liquid,
in this case the influence of the undermost layer will be sen-
sible, and will necessarily manifest itself in this case by a
yellow or even a reddish colour, when viewed perpendicu-
Jarly, while the oblique reflections will give greenish and
violet-coloured hues. The drying of the substances will af-
terwards restore things to the first state of which we haye
spoken.

Such in reality are the variations of shades of certain
places of the feathers of a peacock. Such, in my opinion,
is the probable cause of their formation; applicable also to
those of the cock, the pigeon, and several other bitds and
insects ; and in particular to that maguificent butterfly with
large wings, which through their whole surface present a
brilliant green, converted gradvally, by means of obliquity,
into a still more beautiful violet colour *.

Ili. Upon the most sensible Re+agents with respect to the
Muriatic, the Carbonic, the Suiphurie Acids, and Am-
monia. Dy M. Prarr, Professor of Chemistry at Kiel+.

Tx experiments upon the supposed formation of the mu-
riatic acid in water by the influence of the Galvanic pile, it
is certainly of great importance to possess a re-agent of
great sensibility with respect to the above acid, in order to

* ‘The author might also have drawn inferences illustrative of his subject
from those silk and worsted stuffs which are woven with their weft and wocf
of different colours. , These always ezhibit the one or the other colour, ace
cording to the angle under which their surface is viewed. —Lvit, :

+ From Aruales de Chimie, tom. 1xii. p. 19.

Vol. 29. No. 113, Oct, 1807. B be

\

18 On the Re-agents of the Muriatic, &e. Acids.

be able to discover its first traces and to follow its successive
increase. Hitherto nitrate of silver has generally been used.
This re-agent is, without doubt, extremely sensible as to the
above acid. Kirwan asserts that we may discover by this
means one part of the acid diluted in 108,333. parts of water.
But this re-agent is still far surpassed by the solution of
the mild nitrate of mercury prepared in the cold way. One
part of muriatic acid, of 1150: in specific gravity, diluted
with 70,000 parts of water, is scarcely announced even by
a feeble opalization; when diluted with 80,000 times its
weight of water it eludes the action of this test, as it does
all the others, except the mild nitrate of mercury, which:
last affects very sensibly the water thus: feebly. acidulated.
The sensibility of this re-agent is so great, that even
sovooedth of a grain of muriatic acid at 1150 is indicated
by a shght dull shade in the water which contains this al-
most inconceivably small quantity. Reflecting upon the
almost absolute insolubility of the mild muriate of mercury,
I was: induccd. to make some experiments concerning this
re-agent.

Ji is also the most sensible agent for ammonia. One part
of this latter substance diluted with 30,000 parts of water
is announced by a slight blackish yellow shade, upon adding
solution of nitrate of mercury at the minimum of oxidation.

-Lime water, or water of barytes, are generally regarded as
the most sensible re-agents for carbonic acid. I discovered,
however, that the solution of acetate of Jead still surpasses
them. I was accidentally led to this remark :—some distilled
water, which } had preserved in a deep. cellar, where there
were no fermented liquors, was very sensibly affected upon
adding this solution. Mo other agent changed it. Kirwan
has asserted that the acctite of lead ss a deceitful re-agent,.
its solution, chiefly when a little old, being sometimes affected
with pure distilled water. But it is not so fallacious, how-
ever, as he imagines, because distilled water always contains
a little carbonic acid, is never pure. T prepared distilled
water exempt from all carbonic acid. It was not affected
either by lime water or by the solution of acetite of lead.
T poured some drops of carbonic acid into it. The water

wag

Formation of Muriatic Acid in Water. 19

was so feebly acidulated by it that it did not redden turnsole
paper at all, and did not affect lime water. But the solu-
tion of acetate of lead became sensibly white. The acetate
of lead is much less sensible with respect to the other acids.
A solution of sulphuric acid of 1850 diluted in 16,000 parts
of water, which acts also very sensibly upon turnsole paper,
is not at all affected BY the acetite of lead. Water of ba-
rytes discovers even +51,5,dth of its weight in water acidu=
lated by the sulphuric acid, and surpasses in sensibility all
the other re-agents with respect to this acid. ;

The mild nitrate of mercury is also a re-agent almost
equally sensible for the phosphoric acid as it is for the mu-
riatic ; with this difference, that the precipitate by the former
is dissolved in an excess of phosphoric acid or nitric acids
while the precipitate by the latter is He Oa insoluble by
an excess of any acid whatever.

= ———

IV. Some further Remarks upon the supposed Formation
of Muriatic Acid in Water by the Influence of the Gal-
vanic Pile. By Professor Prarr*. *

if ‘HAVE continued, since my first communication in thé
Annales de Chimie+, my inquiries upon the supposed for-
mation of the muriatic acid in water by the influence of the
positive pole of the pile of Volta. I made use of glass tubes
of different diameters from a line to an inch; the tubes were
closed below, except a small hole in which the metallic con-
ductor wires were fixed with sealing-wax. The communi-
cation between the two tubes, into one of which was con-
ducted the influence of the positive pole, while the influence
of the negative pole was communicated to the other, was
effected at the top, sometimes by moistened paper, some-.
times by linen threads, sometimes by nerves, and sometimes
by animal fibres. I even varied the metallic wires, I em-
ployed successively wires of platina, gold, silver, copper,
and iron. I never obtained a trace of muriatic acid, al-
* From Annales de Chimie, tom. \xii. p. 23.
+ See Phil. Mag. vol. xxvii. p. 338.
B2 though.

20 Essay upon the Art of the Foundry

though my most sensible re-agent for that acid (being the
solution of mild nitrate of mercury) would have announced
even syaioovdth of a grain of that acid. But I obtained by
turnsole paper some traces of an acid which certainly was
neither muriatic, sulphuric, carbonic, nor phosphoric acid,
since the most sensible re-agents for these acids, which far
surpass tarnsole paper, did not announce them: it was
therefore, in all probability, nitric acid; I always obtained
traces of an alkali, which, after all my experiments, was
ammonia. I therefore still adhere to my opinion, that the
acid and the alkali are formed at the expense of the azote
inherent to the water, on the one side by oxygen and on

the other by hydrogen.

V. Essay upon the Art of the Foundry among the An-
dients: with some Remarks upon the celebrated Horses of
Chio, now brought from Venice to Paris. By M. Srrt2.

{Continued from vol. xxviii. p. 354.]

History of the Horses of Chio, and some Observations upon
the Question of what School they belong to.

Tus medal of Nero (Plate I.)-was struck upon the oc
casion of the victory gained by Corbulon over Tiridates,
king of Armenia. It represents a triumphal arch surmounted
by a quadrigz, the horses of which have always been re-
garded as identically the same horses of copper gilt, which
our victorics have obtained to us, and which now deco-
rate the palace of the Thuilleries. The manner in which
they lift their feet and carry their heads, and indeed their
whole attitudes, have greatly contributed to give weight to
this conjecture, which has been adopted by Maffei and all
the Italian authors *. They have gone still further in sup-

* The four horses of Venice are about to be placed in the same situation
as those mentioned by the author of this memoir; they will be yoked to a
quadriga which will bear the figure of the emperor and king Napoleon the-
Gveat, and is to be placed upon the triumphal! arch which decorates the en-
trance of the Thuilleries :—this gate, with the quadrigz, are exhibited: upon a’
fine medal struck for the purpose, and of which there is an engraving in my
Histoire Alétaliique of the emperor Napoleon.— Note by My Bfillin,

port

among the Antients. 21

port of this opinion, upon the authority of historians, who
inform us that Constantine the Great stripped Rome and
the cities of Greece of their finest ornaments in order to de=
corate his new capital *. We may conclude that these four
horses were comprised in the above, if we give credit at the
same time to an antient tradition, which, however, never
existed except in the imaginations of some learned men.
Zanetti, who has added an engraving of them to his collec-
tion of the statues at Venice, even thinks he has discovered
some defects in their workmanship ; and for this reason he
concludes them to be of Roman origin. It is, however, very
certain, and we may refer to the authority of Codinus as a
confirmation, that these horses were never at Rome. They
were found by the Venetians in the great circus of Con-
stantinople. It is among the antiquities of this last city,
therefore, that we must seek their origin, and not among
the monuments of Rome. Codinus, who enters into a
long detail upon the subject of the antiquities of Byzantium,

* The exorbitant sums of money expended by Constantine in order to
transform Byzantium into an agreeable residence for the Romans must excite
our astonishment, ‘Theatres, circuses, public baths, porticoes, temples, pa-
laces, gymnasia, triumphal arches, aqueducts, columns surmounted by sta-
tues, obelisks, cloacz, were all constructed with as much magnificence and
with more regularity than in antient Rome. In order to induce twelve of his
friends to reside in his new capital, he first sent them with an army against
Sapor, king of the Persians. In the mcan time architects were dispatched to
take all the dimensions of their houses at Rome; and in order at the same
time to induce their families to come to Byzaatium, the houses at Constan-
tinople were buiit exactly upon the same plan, and with all the aecessaries of
luxury they possessed at Rome; and when, at the end of 16 months, the pa-
tricians returned from their expedition, the emperor asked them jocularly if
they intended to return soon to Italy —* In two months,” was their answer;
*‘ at che beginning of winter we intend to set out.’—* In the mean time (said
the emperor) I have prepared lodgings for you.” When they were conducted
tothem, how great was their astonishment upon seeing transported, as if by
enchantment, their palaces from Rome to the shores of the Prepontis; and
they were much delighted when upon entering them they fougd assembled
their wives and children, with their slaves and every thing that was dearest to
them. Codinus, who relates this story, enumerates 22 cities from which Con-
stantine brought away statues. The church of St. Sophia, which wasas yet no
better than a pagan temple, received 427 of these works of art. Justinian,
who consecrated this magnificent temple to the Christian worship, tool the
statues out of it, and distributed them in the different quarters of the city.

B3 speaks

$3 Essay upon the Art of the Foundry

speaks of a car with four horses, which was antiently in the
place called Milium. These four horses were gilt: they
seemed to be at full gallop, and as if drawing the statue of
the Sun. Constantine caused this chariot, accompanied by
its guards, to be transported into the hippodrome, or grand
circus *, in order to celebrate the festival of the Fortune of
Constantinople, which he represented by the statue of the
Sun. After this solemnity the chariot was carried back with
the same escort to its antient station. This chariot with
four horses has nothing in it similar to the four gilt horses
which the same author ‘speaks of t when he specifies all the
monuments in the hippodrome or circus; the latter were
placed upon the barriers, and not yoked to any chariot and
Theodosius the younger had them brought from Chio to
Constantinople. They were the only horses that were in
the Circus; for had there been other quadrigsz, Codinus

* Codinus, Crigines Constantinopolitane, p. 19.

+ Codinus, lib. c. p. 28. Of Be revaages xexequompnvos imal, of ume@bey rwy nays
KEAAwY Ogarnyor ex rng Xuov heaow ext Ocodscwy rz vaxgov. Kaynersos, are what the
Romans call carceres. It means the place where the horses were confined be-
fore they started in the race. A passage of Nicetas Choniates, where these
same horses are mentioned, deserves to be mentioned here: he informs us
that one Agaremis proposed to fly from one end of the hippodrome to the
other: “ Sua sponte hippodroma lurrim. conscendit, sul qua carceres sunt unde
emittantur equi supra (carceres) vero quatuor equi aurati stant, collis incurvis
obversi sibi invicem, alacritatis ad cursum plent seque stadium transvolaturum
jactat.” he attitudes are here so distinctly described that they cannot be
mistaken.—Noie by the Author. \

On the contrary, in my opinion, the very attitudes furnish the best reasons
for doubting that the four horses now in the Thuilleries were really those of
Chio. Their step appears composed, and not at full gallop; they do not throw
up their heads like fiery steeds: from all which circumstan¢es, although the
passages of Codinus, Nicetas, and other authors of the lower empire have been
extremely well known, no person can take upon him to assert in a positive
manner, as the author has done, that these horses are the same as those
of Chio. In no view whatever can we suppose that they were yoked to
a chariot, and we know from the report of Nicetas, that there were several
figures of horses in the hippodrome. ‘This is the reason why M. Heyne,—in
his elegant dissertation Prisca Artis Opera que Constantinopoli fuisse memo=
rantur, Memoirs of the Géttingen Academy, vol. ix. p. 36,—also thought
that these horses are not those from Chio: this, however, has not been de-
monstrated any more than the other proposition. The opinion of M. Seitz,
the author of this memoir, with respect to it, has a good deal of probability,
and it is developed with much interest.—Noie ly M. Millin.

would

among the Antients. 23

would not have failed to mention them. I concluded, there-
fore, with good reason, that these were the same gilt horses

«which the Venetians found in that place 800 years after

‘Theodosius I1., and saved from destruction by taking them
to Venice. It is probable that Codinus has drawn this no-
tion from their inscription; for he says that cach statue of
the Circus had its inscription, which mentioned from what
city it had been carried: off.

The resemblance of these horses with those upon the
medal of Nero, can be no objection against the authority of
Codinus. The antient world was so filled with similar works,
and the chefs d’ceuvres of the great masters were so often
imitated, that one quadrige might often resemble another.

The Isle of Chio, at present called Scio, is situated be-
tween Samos and Lesbos. It produced the best wine in
Greece; it had a city of the same name, which was bounded
by Mount Pellenus on the Jand side, and on the sea shore
there was a harbour which contained eighty vessels. All
these natural advantages induced the inhabitants to apply

early to navigation and commerce; they traded with the

Egyptians in the reign of king Amasis, who permitted Greek
merchants to settle in Egypt, where they made establish-
ments in common with the Rhodians, the Cnidians, the
inhabitants of Halicarnassus and Mytilene.

In the war undertaken by the Greeks of Ionia against
Darius, the son of Hystaspes, they furnished ninety ships,
In the naval engagement with the king’s ships, the Lesbians,
the Samians, and all the others fled; but the inhabitants of
Chio preferred perishing rather than imitating the disgraceful
conduct of their allies; at last, after having performed pro-
digies of valour, they gave way to the numerous fleet of the
Persians. Victims to their zeal for the common cause, they
were also crushed by the perfidy of their neighbours. His-
tius, of Lesbos, who had embraced the cause of Darius, in
company with the Lesbians made a descent upon Chios,
attacked the people already enfeebled, killed an immense
number, and gave the island up to, pillage. They were
never able to recover from the effects of these disasters 5 for
we find that in the war against Xerxcs, the son of Darius,

B4 they

24 Essay upon ihe Art of the Foundry

they were only able to furnish four ships, and they had only
seyen in the battle of Salamis.

When after that battle Xerxes retired into his own states,
the Chians once more enjoyed their antient freedom, by
means of which they recovered themselves so quickly, that
in the time of the Peloponnesian war they had sixty ships
at sea, and their capital was regarded as one of the grandest
- and richest cities in Greece*. During this war they were
always strongly united with the Athenians; but when the
Jatter were defeated in Sicily, they quitted their cause in
order to embrace that of the Lacedemonians. This mea-
sure, which Thucydides seems to approve of as being very
prudent, nevertheless became the cause of new misfortunes.
The Athenians besieged their city, overcame them in se-
yeral engagements; and their island, which had become so
flourishing since their struggle with the Persians, was again
a prey to all the scourges of war. At last, however, the
Athenians were conquered, and quitted their country, From
this time these islanders lived in tranquillity ; but they were
stripped of their antient splendour. The Lacedemonians,
their new allies, rendered them tributary in order to con-
tribute to the expense of their numerous expeditions +.

Commerce had been banished from them, and they were
too enfeebled to act any part in the affairs of Greece. His-
tory loses sight of them until the 105th Olympiad, when
they united with the inhabitants of the island of Cos, the
Rhodians, and the Byzantians, against the Athenians, in
order to revenge some particular outrages they thought they
had received from Chares their getieral. This war lasted
three years, and it was known by the name of the social
war.

Under Alexander they became the sport of fortune, and
they attached themselves, according to the exigency of the
Moment, at one time to the nearest and at another to the

“ Thucydides, lib. vi. c
+ Xenophon, lib. ii. It was probably from the Lacedemonians they adopted
the practice of makiag young girls wrestle with boys in the Palzstra. Athe-
nus says that it was with much pleasure people went to Chio to witness this
charming spectacle, lib. xiii,
strongest.

among the Antients. 25

strongest. In the war of the #tolians with Prusias, king
of Bithynia, and Philip of Macedon, they were again mal
treated by these two kings, and their city was taken and
devastated. When the Romans acquired preponderance in
Greece and Macedon, they placed themselves under their
protection; but being too far off to be always vigorously
defended, each new war presented them with the sad per-
spective of new misfortunes. The sovereigns Eumenes and
Attalus treated them well; but Mithridates made them feel
the dreadful effects of his anger. At last Sylla, his con-
queror, gave them their liberty and received them among
the friends of the Roman people. From friends they be-
came subjects, and under the emperors the beautiful women
of Chios flocked to Rome in order to display their musical
talents, and at the same time to make a traffic of their
charms *. After the division of the empire, the destinies
of this country were united to the empire of Constantinople
until the year 1207, when this same island, which had formerly
ruled the ocean, became the property of a single Venetian.

The history of the prosperity and adversity of a people
forms at the same time the history of the arts they exercised.
The Muses delight in tranquillity, and shun the unfortunate.
The za of the greatest riches and prosperity of the island of
Chios, commences with the 30th and ends with the ged
Olympiad, It was at the commencement of this period that
the arts of Asia Minor were communicated to the islands of
the Ionian Sea,

The most antient statuary of Chio was Melas, who must
have lived between the 30th and 40th Olympiad. His son
Micciades, and his grandson Anthernus, became celebrated
in the same art. Anthernus had two sons, Anthernus and
Bupalus, both of whom attained the greatest celebrity, and
were cotemporary with the poet Hipponaxt. The neigh-
; bouring
* Horace, lib. iv. ode 13. ,

——Cupidinem

Lentum solicitas. Ille virentis, et

Docte psallere Chia,

Pulchris excubat in genis.
> Plin. jib. xxxvi. § 5. This Hipponax lived in the 60th Olympiad. As he
was

26 Essay upon the Art of the Foundry

bouring islands of Chio, Delos, and Lesbos, were full’ of
their works; and in Chio was to be seen’ a Diana by Bu-
palus.. All these sculptors made use of the beautiful marble
of Chio; but we do not see that they wrought in bronze.
Tt would be pushing the mania for antiquities too far to pre-
tend to name the artist who made the horses of Chio; but
if the examination of a monument which time has spared,
added to the descriptions of those which antiently existed,
can still suffice for distinguishing the different schools, such
an inquiry will not, perhaps, be without interest in the his-
tory of the arts. |

We must not imagine we see in these horses a chef
d’ceuvre of antient art. So early as the time of Cieero all
that was valuable in the island of Chio had been brought
to Rome in order to decorate the houses of the rich *. The
emissaries sent by Nero into Greece, in order to carry off all
the works in bronze they thought worthy of decorating his
edifices, although they did not neglect to visit the islands
of Rhodes, Samos, and Chio, yet they did not meddle with
these horses; nor were they comprised in the general requi-
sition made by Constantine of all the objects of art, which
might adorn his new residence; it was only under Theo-
dosius II., when the world was already stripped of all the
chefs d’ceuvres, that they were thought worthy of being
transported to Constantinople. Would they have remained
cso long in their places; would they have escaped the rapacity
of the Roman governors, the depredations of Nero, and the
requisitions of Constantine, if their workmanship had been
fine enough to charm the eves of connoisseurs, or to entitle
them to be compared to a work of Calamis, Lysippus, or
an artist of the school of this grand master ?
was very plain in his person, these two seulptors amused themselves at his
expense, by exposing to public view a ridiculous caricature of him. Hippo-
nax, indignant at seeing himeelf the object of the insolence of the public, made
a poem, and satirized them so unmercifully that they repented their temerit®*
jn ridiculing the son of Apollo, It must be observed that this Bupalus is not
the same with him who flcurished in the 107th Olympiad, ard wrought at the
monument erected by Artemisia to Mausolus, and whose works, brought to
Rome by order of Augustus, were thought worthy of being compared to those
of Praxiteles. The great distance in point of time is a proof of this,

* Septimius Verrinus, cap. 48, :

Lysippus

among the Antients. 27

Lysippus lived in the time of Alexander, a period whea
the inhabitants of this island had neither enough of riches
nor tranquillity to decorate their city with works of art.
Besides, the style of the design and of the sculpture by no
means answers to that of Lysippus ; his horses were hehter,
their manes floated in long tresses, in order to indicate the
swiftness of a race. It was here he displayed his talents for
working tresses of hair, which he expressed so naturally and
so gracefully as to charm every eye. The horses of Chio
are in a heavy style; their design represents strength rather
than agility ; their manes appear as if cut, which proves that
the artist did not know how to design horses; at least, we.
may see from the ringlets of their tails that he was not very
expert at this kind of work. Their heads, however, deserve our
admiration ; their nostrils extended and their foaming mouths
seem to breathe the fury and impetuosity of the horses of the
sun; and, without leaning too much to conjecture, we may
say that we find more in them of the style of Polycletes and
Miro* than that of Lysippus. The works of these two artists
were vigorously designed ; we perceive in them starting mus-
cles, and in general more strength than gracefulness. Neither
the one nor the other knew how to work tresses of hair,
and both of them lived at a period when the inhabitants of
Chio were in a state of profound peace, and enjoyed a kind
of naval superiority. They were enriched by commerce,
and had consequently leisure and the means of thinking of
the embellishments of their capital. This period lasted from
the 75th to the 92d Olympiad: it comprehended a space of
70 years, and was the happiest time this city ever enjoyed,
If we fix upon this sera as that in which these horses must
have been founded, they would now be 2248 years old},
They would thus be more antient than any other bronze
monument we know of, and they must have existed in the

* ‘This conjecture seems to us too daring; for we have no evidence what-
ever in modern times as to the particular style in which the animais of Myro
er Lysippus were executed.—WNote ly M. Millin.

+ It seems impossible to assign so distant an ara to these horses ; they rather
seem to have been moulded at a time when the art had begun to decline —{d.

time

28 Art of the Foundry among the Antients.

time of Thucydides, Alcibiades, Herodotus, Pericles, So-
phocles, Euripides, Socrates, Hippocrates, and Plato.

If in the days of Cicero * a middling-sized bronze statue
was worth 120,000 sestertii, which is more than 12,000
francs in French money, what price shall we put upon this
unique piece of antiquity, which, among the whole of si-
milar works, with which the antient world was filled, alone |
escaped universal destruction ?

The horses of Chio were cast in copper and gilded. We
know that copper is better adapted than bronze for receiving
gilding, and it seems they were originally intended to be
giltt. It is wrong, therefore, to reproach the Romans with
their decided taste for gilding, since the Greeks also gilded
their quadrige. It is, however, certain that the fine bronzes
were not gilt. Their colour was fine enough to make this
ornament to be dispensed with, as we have seen. Lysippus
would have been vexed to have seen that by gilding his works,
the exquisite finishing, which formed hischief merit, was con-
cealed. We see in Pliny { how much Nero was blamed for
having caused this artist’s statue of Alexander to be gilt,
and how much the connoisseuys: regretted to see a Venus by
Alcamenus covered with gold. When we read in Pausanias §
that there was at Delphos a gilt statue of Phryne, executed
by Praxiteles, and that the Athenians had dedicated at Del-
phos a gilt Minerva on the occasion of a victory they had
gained, we must be of opinion that this practice of gilding
proceeded from motives of emulation, and in order to ap-
proach, as much as possible, the magnificence of the other

* In Verrem, orat. 4. c. 7

} Vitruvius, Hib. iii. cap. 2, says that it was usual to ornament the fronts of
temples with statues of copper gilt in the Tuscan fashion, as we see in the
temple cf Ceres and Hercules near the Grand Circus; this passion of the Ro-
mens for gilding was therefore of Etruscan origin. According to Buonaroti,
Osservaziont sopra alcuni Medagtioni; p. $70, the gold employed by the an-
tients in fire-gilding was, in the proportion of gold employed in modern gild~
ing, as 6 to 1; and for common gilding their gold leaves were as 22 tol. AIL.
the antient gilding found below-ground has still its natural lustre, and we
might have been able to say the same of the gilding upon the horses of Chio,
if it had not been almost entirely scraped of.

+ Lib. xxxiv. ‘

§ Lib. x, cap. 15.

statues

Facts for a History of the Gallic Acid. 29

statues of massive gold which were in this temple. As to
the quadrigz, it seems they were always gilded when yoked
to the chariot of the Sun, in order that the lustre of the gold
might imitate the splendour of that orb. The four horses
seen at Constantinople harnessed to the chariot of the Sun,
were also gilded. The island of Rhodes adored this divinity,
whose worship naturally extended to the other islands of the
Ionian Sea; and it is very probable that the four horses
which now decorate the palace of the Thuilleries were for-

merly yoked to the car and statue of the Sun.
[Vo be continued. ]

VI. Facts for a History of the Gallic Acid. By
MM, Bourtton-LaGRAnGeE.

{Concluded from vol. xxviii. p. 297.]

Examination of the Action of Culoric and Water upon
Gall-nuts.

Acrion of Caloric.—M. Deyeux having examined, in a
particular manner, all the products of distillation of gall-
nuts in the open fire, I only considered the acid liquor ob-
tained from this substance.

This operation was conducted in the manner pointed out
by this chemist; the liquor of the receiver was aromatic, a
little milky, very acid; did not precipitate glue, and gave
with the sulphate of iron a violet blue passing to the dirty
green. Lime and barytes yielded a colour of pea blossoms.
The nitrate of mercury formed a blackish precipitate in it 5
it was white with the acetate of lead and the muriate of tin.

I saturated the acid liquor with potash; I obtained by
evaporation a brown empyreumatic matter, which by the
addition of the sulphuric acid exhaled a pungent smell ana-
logous to that of the acetic acid.

Action of Water upon Gall-nuts.—I shaked, for four mi-
nutes, gall-nuts in fine powder and in cold water; the li-
quor, after having been filtered, was of a golden ycllow co-
lour: one part was distilled in a retort placed in asand-bath,
the other was saturated by means of the carbonate of soda.

The

50 Facts for a History of the Gallic Acid.

The produce from the distillation was a limpid liquor,
colourless, and slightly acid, neither precipitating glue nor
sulphate of iron.

The liquor saturated by the alkaline base was evaporated
to dryness; being afterwards dissolved in distilled water,
sulphuric acid was added until it was slightly in excess, and
it was distilled in a retort; the produce was successively ex-
amined: a liquid, without taste or smell, first came over 5
soon afterwards the liquor was acid, and contained neither
sulphuric nor gallic acid.

I made a similar experiment with boiling instead of cold
water: the liquor remained always turbid, although filtered ;
when submitted to distillation and combined with soda, [
obtained the same results.

These experiments suggested to me the existence of an
acid ready formed in galls, and the possibilty of obtaining
it by distillation.

Accordingly I heated to ebullition in a common alembic
a kilogramme (21b. 30z. 6dr. avoird.) of galls, coarsely
powdered, with double the weight of water. The distilled
liquor, as M. Deyeux observed, was a little milky, aroma-
tic, and on standing deposited a little flocculent sediment.
I changed the receiver, when about two-thirds of the liquor
had come over, aud I continued the distillation till it be-
came coloured.

The first product was acid; reddened tincture of litmus ;
and had no action on lime or barytes water, nitrate of mer-
cury, acetate of lead, sulphate of iron, or glue.

The second product was turbid, coloured, a little empy-
reumatic ; its acidity was more marked; and it precipitated
the metallic solutions above mentioned, but did not act on
glue.

Each of these acid liquors was saturated with potash. The
first yielded a foliated salt, which, on the addition of sul-
phuric acid, gave out,a smell of acetic acid. Part of this
salt was dissolved in distilled water: the excess of its base
was accurately saturated by nitric acid, and nitrate of mer-
cury at a minimum was added to the solution; when a pre-
cipitate was formed which had all the characters of acetate

, of

Facts for a History of the Gallic Acid. 3i

of mercury. To convince myself still further of the pre-
sence of acetic acid, I treated the neutral acetate of potash
in the same manner, and it afforded me the same results.

The second product was saturated with potash in the same
manner. The liquor became very brown; a slight pellicle
formed on the surface, which increased during the evapo-
ration: the saline matter was highly coloured and empyreu-
matic. Being subjected to the same trials as the preceding,
similar appearances were observed.

These experiments leave no doubt of the nreserice of acetic
acid in galls: they prove that it may be odained by distilla-
tion with water, and that caloric, when it acts more directly
on this acid, facilitates its combination with a smalj quan-
tity of empyreumatic oil, and perhaps with a little tannin,
the presence of which is not demonstrable by glue: but as
this liquor acts on sulphate of iron in the same manner as
the sublimed acid, we must presume that there is a. kind of
analogy in their composition; admitting, however, this dif-
ference, that the sublimed acid contains no empyreumatic
oil, but a particular aromatic volatile oil.

This oil may be detected by dissolving the acid in very
pure sulphuric ether, and adding a little water, when a few.
drops of oil will be seen floating on the surface, which dis-
appear on shaking the mixture.

If a concentrated solution of caustic potash be employed
instead of water, a white milky substance is separated, which
requires a large proportion of water to dissolve it, but the
liquor still remains turbid.

This ethereal tincture seni a fine blue colour with sul-
phate of iron.

Evaporated in the open air it Jeaves a shining substance,
very acid, separating in scales, and having the appearance of
a varnish.

The same phenomena takes place if galls be digested in
ether; but the substance contains tannin in addition.

Examination of some Earthy and Alkaline Gallates.

Though it appears to be demonstrated that acetic acid ex-
ists ready formed in galls, we-cannot too much multiply °
proofs

32 Facts for a History of the Gallic Acid.

proofs in confirmation of its presence; and to demonstrate
that this acid, combined with other substances, constitutes
the gallic acid.

With this view I formed gallates of lime, ise potash,
and soda. These neutral combinations afforded a violet red
colour with a solution of sulphate of iron, and scarcely pre-
cipitated glue, while the acid employed had the property of
forming with it a copious precipitate. On these salts, dried,
I poured some very weak sulphuric acid; IJ distilled them
with a gentle heat, and I always obtained acetic acid.

The retorts contained avery deep brown matter. I cry-
stallized the salts that were perceptible of it, and obtained
sulphates.

The supernatant mother-water had the property of slightly
browning the solution of sulphate of iron; but this appear-
ance does not prove the presence of gallic acid, for the black
colour of the mother-water was sufficient to give it this hue.

If one of the gallates, that of soda for instance, be ireated
with charcoal, the tannin will be entirely destroyed, so that
the solution will no longer precipitate glue; and after re-
peated boiling with fresh portions of charcoal, it will no
longer act on sulphate of iron.

The liquor being afterward evaporated to dryness, and di-
stilled with very weak sulphuric acid, we still obtain acetic
acid.

I shall not insist any further on the possibility of obtain-
ing acetic acid by decomposing gallic acid. I might men-
tion the experiments which would tend to support the pre-
ceding, but entering too minutely into these particulars
would add nothing to the facts I have already adduced.

I shall conclude with an experiment which appears to me
important. The object was, to establish the nature of the
elastic fluids resulting from the complete decomposition of
the gallic acid by heat. M. Deyeux has announced that
he obtained only oxygen gas and carbon. M. Berthollet,
who repeated the experiment, says that he had no oxygen
gas, but constantly carbonic acid.

These results, of which no other vegetable acid furnishes
an example, could not ayoid exciting the attention of che-

mists,

Facts for a History of the Gallic Acid: 33
mists. In fact, it is difficult not to admit hydrogen in thé
composition of gallic acid; and M. Fourcroy has expressed
his doubts on this subject in his System of Chemical Know-
ledge, but the question is not yet decided by expetiment.

In consequerice; I heated gallic acid in a retort. The fire
was gradually raised till the retort was red-hot. During
this action of the firé I obtained sevetal jars full of clastic
flaid. The first contained only atmospheric air, the others
carbonic acid gas: at least, the gas had all the characters of
this acid; but the phaénomena that occurred during the de-
composition of the gallic acid led me to suspect, that, if
any hydrogen gas had been evolved, it could exist only in a
very small quantity. Iwas not satisfied, therefore, with the
trial by lime water, and thie extinction of a taper in the gas.
Having perceived that hydrogen gas mixed with a great deal
of carbonic aeid gas cannot be burnt, because this acid acts
too promptly on the flame of the taper, I passed a little
caustic potash into the Jast jar of gas; agitated it, im order
to absorb the carbonic acid gas; and then immersed a taper °
in the residual gas, which burnt with flame; and thus afforded
me a proof of the presence of carbonated hydrogen gas.

The gallic acid, then, like other vegetable acids, is com-
posed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. If but a small
quantity of hydrogen can be obtained, it is because water
is formed during the decomposition of the acid, so that the
hydrogery passes over only when very little oxygen remains
to act on the carbon.

I haye attempted to show that the gallic acid is a com-
pound. Its formation by Scheele’s process appears to me
to favour this opitiion. In fact, if the quantity of acid ex-
tracted from the aqueous infusion, exposed to the air, be com-
pared with that afforded by sublimation; I conceive it is not
difficult to account for the increase. There can be no doubt
that acetic acid is formed in the liquor, which, acting on a
portion of tannin and extractive matter, constitutes the gallic
acid of Scheele: but this combination is rendered more in
timate, and somewhat different, by the action of caloric ;
of which we have a proof when the acid is obtained by sub-
limation, for not only is the tannin decomposed, but the

Vol. 29. No. 113. Oct, 1807. © acid

“?

34 - Facts for a History of the Gallic Acid.

acid remains combined with a volatile oil which is formed.
Perhaps this acid contains a small portion of tannin in very.
intimate combination, whence, no doubt, arises its property
of giving a momentary blue with sulphate of iron, though
its presence cannot be demonstrated. This acid, then, ast
have different properties from that of Scheele ; and if it were
possible to assimilate it to other vegetable acids, the ben-
zoic is that to which it would deve. the greatest analogy.
May it therefore be considered as a modification of the
gallic acid? J think not. It is the same with other vegeta-
ble acids; and it is probable that there exists no modifica-
tion of then. Tire acetous appears to be the sole vegetable
acid; it dissolves and retains in various proportions a num-
ber of the immediate products of vegetables, and in the pro-
cesses to which we subject vegetable substances, we facilitate
its combination in a more intimate manner, and frequently
even augment the quantity of this acid. Already several
chemists have admitted the possibility of the acetic aeid’s

dissolving and remaining combined with fixed and empy-
reumatic oils, and chintal matters: they have even gone so
far as to imitate acids of this sort. The formic, pyrolignic,
tartarous, and mucous, have been classed by Messrs. Four-
croy and Vauquelin among the compound acids ; it is the

‘same with the lactic sae Ne the composition cf which was

pointed out at the same time by those chemists, M. The-
nard, and myself: lastly, we have proof too, according to
M. Thenard, of the existence of: this acid in urine and
sweat, as well as in the sebacic and zoonic acids. I might
farther add to these observations (if we were not persuaded
that the acetic acid is found every where) that it exists in
vegetable as in animal matters, where it is almost always
in a state of combination; and that an equilibrium 1 in the
proportions being once established, it gives rise to compounds
hitherto unalterable; and the affinity ot which cannot be de-
stroyed but by reducing them to their primary elements—
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen.
. From the facts announced in this memoir jt follows:
ist, That the gallic acids of Scheele and of Richter differ
essentially from that obtained by sublimation; and that the
crystallized

Facts for a History of the Gallic Acid. 35

crystallized is preferable as a re~agent, on account of the
constant uniformity of the colour it gives’ with iron,

edly, That this acid appears to be composed of acetic acid,
tannin, and extractive matter; and that it cannot be com-
pletely freed from tannin by crystallization.

3dly, That the acid obtained by sublimation contains no
tannin, at least none that can be ascertained by acting on
slue; and that it cannot, on any occasion, supply the place
of the crystallized acid.

4thly, That the sublimed acid appears likewise to be com-
posed of acetic acid united with a peculiar aromatic volatile
ou,

5thly, That by means of water poured into the etherized
tincture of galls, or ether containing the sublimed acid, an
oily matter is separated.

6thly, That there is no process known for purifying
Scheele’s acid completely; that is to say, we cannot take
from it the whole of its tannin, without reducing it to the
state of acetic acid; which proves that the portion of tannin
it retains is necessary to constitute gallic acid, and that to
this are owing its excellent properties in the art of dyeing.

7thly, That the red oxide of mercury, and oxide of tin,
as well as carbon, decompose this acid.

sthly, That by distilling galls with water acetic acid may
he obtained ; and that it is by the assistance of caloric acting
more immediately on galls, that a more intimate union be-
tween the acid and the tannin is effected.

gthly, That the earthy and alkaline gallates likewise afford
acetic acid by their decomposition.

10thly, and finally, That gallic acid, like the other vege-
table acids, is composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon,

‘If these results be accurate, we may conceive it possible

to accomplish its synthesis. Some trials that I have al-
ready made give me the hope of succeeding in it. T shall
do myself the honour of imparting the further results of my
inquiry to the class, if they should be worthy its notice.

Ce VII. Note

[ 36 ]

VIT. Note upon a fulminating Combination of Silver, of a
white Colour and a crystalline Appearance. By M. Drs-
COSTILS *,

Turn is sold at Paris, as an object of amusement, a de-
tonating powder inclosed in slips of cards cut lengthways.
This powder is placed at one end of this envelope, and the
other end is made smaller in order to be more easily distin-
guished. If this last extremity is held with one hand, and
the other end is put over the flame of a candle, a detonation
speedily takes place with a sharp noise and a violet-coloured
flame ; the card is torn to pieces and scorched, and the part
which the composition touched is covered with a slight me-
tallic coating of a grayish white.

Having been consulted upon the nature of this substance,
which is sent ready prepared to Paris, I was convinced,
after various experiments, which it is needless to detail, that
it is a combination of oxide of silver, ammonia, and a ve-
getable substance ; a combination analogous, as we find, to
that which constitutes the fulminating mercury of Mr.
Howard.

We may obtain this combination, which I shall ¢all de-
tonating silver to distinguish it from the fulminating silver
of M. Berthollet, by dissolving silver in pure nitric acid, and
by pouring into the solution, while it is effecting, a sufh-
cient quantity of rectified alcohol ; or by pouring the alcohol
mto a nitric solution of silver, with a considerable excess of
acid.

Jn the first case we must slightly warm the nitric acid in
which the silver has-been put, until the solution begins to
take place; i.¢. until the first bubbles begin to be perceived.
We must then remove it from the fire and immediately add
a sufficiency of alcohol, so that no nitrous vapours may be
liberated. The mixture of the two liquors takes place with a
disengagement of heat; the effervescence immediately recom-
mences without disengagement of nitrous gas; it gradually
increases, and there is liberated at the same time a strong

* From Annales de Chimie, tom} xii. p.. 199.
smelt

On a fulminating Combination of Silver. 37

smell of nitrous ether, The liquor soon becomes turbid,
and we see deposited a white, crystalline, and opaque pow-
der, which must be separated, when it ceases to fall down,
and washed several times with small quantities of water.

When we employ the solution of silver ready made and
strongly acid, we must heat it slightly and afterwards add
the alcohol; the heat produced by the mixture, which is
performed gradually, soon produces a considerable ebuili-
tion, and the powder is suddenly deposited %,

This powder has the following properties :

It is white and crystalline, but this last appearance is va-
riable with respect to the volume and the lustre of the cry-
Stals.

It changes a little in the light.

It inflames with a sharp detonation by heat, agitation, or
long continued friction. Simple pressure, provided it be
not very strong, produces no change.

It atcncttics upon being struck by the electrical spark.

It is slightly soluble in water. It has an extremely strong
metallic taste.

Concentrated sulphuric acid determines its inflammation,
and the acid itself is driven to a great distance; dilute sul-
phuric acid seems to decompose it slowly.

Weak or concentrated muriatic acid decomposes it in-
stantly by forming muniate of silver. The quantity of mu-
riate obtained indicates about 7¥ per cent. of metallic silver
in the detonating silver; at first there is liberated a very de-
cided smell of prussic acid, but I could not collect sensible
traces of it.

The nitric acid decomposes it with the assistance of ebul-
lition, and we obtain nothing but nitrate of silver and ni-
trate of ammonia, if it be long enough continued.

It is decomposed by means of sulphurized hydrogen; the
ammonia and the vegetable matter remain in the liquor,

Caustic potash decomposes it; black oxide of silver js
separated, and ammonia is disengaged.

* It is almost needless to observe that the mixture of alcohol and warm
nitric acid is subject to many accidents, and we must consequently operate
upon very small quantities.

C3 It

38 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. .

It is dissolved in ammonia; but by a slow evaporation it
is separated from it with its proper colour and other proper-
ties, and particularly that of detonating by means of heat,
and not by simple contact.

Finally, its property of most importance to consider is,
ihe action it has upon the animal ceconomy. M. Pajot-la-
Forét, who has made a great number of expertménts upon
this subject, is convinced that very small doses are sufficient
to kill the strongest animals: when iried upon some cats, all
of them expired in the most horrible convulsions. It is, in
short, without exception, one of the most violent poisons
with which the metallic combinations present us. \

ee eee eS ea eS

VIII. Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

Survox do we find so great and diversified talents as were
untied in the late Dr. Darwin. He shines forth as a meteor,
even in an age conspicnous for extraordinary talents usefully
employed for the benefit and instraction of mankind. We
shall’ pass over his education at Chesterfield school, .where
the master, the Rev. Mr. Burrow, noticed strong signs,
even then, of a rising genius; and his being afterwards sent
by his father Robert Darwin, Esq. of Elston, near Newark,
to King’s College, Cambridge, where he distinguished him-
‘self by his attention to his studies. [t is a melancholy fact,
that our English universities are incompetent to form the
physician ; but they lay the foundation of general knowledge,
which in the end may conduce to the formation of the per-
fect physician. With a store of classical and mathematical
knowledge, young Darwin went from Cambridge to Edin-
burgh, then in its zemth of splendour, and, at the proper
age to feel the force of instruction, imbibed all the know-
ledge that proceeded from that clear fountain of vast medical
erudition. Desirous of still deeper knowledge, from Edin-
burgh he went to London to perfect himself in anatomy
under the celebrated Dr, Hunter, which science, it must be
confessed, from the easy acquisition of subjects for dissec-
tion, is eyen hetter taught in that metropolis than in. the

Scotch

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 39

Scotch university. Thus every thing combined to render
iim an adept in his profession, and it might have been ex-
pected that nothing could haye retarded his establishment
in any part of England: but unfortunately for professions
of every kind, it requires time before superiority is acknow-
ledged, and he struggled in vain to obtain any practice in
Nottingham, which obliged him to attempt to settle at
Lichfield in the year 1756, where he believed he had less
formidable obstacles to encounter. Dr. Wilkes possessed
at that time the entire confidence and all the practice of that
quarter, and little expectation could be formed of Dr. Dar-
win’s superior talents having opportunity of getting into
play, when a fortunate trial of his skill and knowledge oc-
curred, which could not fail of settling him in the estimation
of the whole country. A young gentleman of family and
considerable fortune, Mr. Inge, was seized with a putrid
fever. Dr. Wilkes very unguardedly, or from the candour
inherent in cultivated minds, which scorns falschood or eva-
sion, pronounced the case as lost. In the distraction of de-
spair the mother requested a consultation, but the old phy-
sician declined the meeting; and the mother, a woman of
superior sense, had rather trust a young physician, who
might have a knowledge according to the advancement of
science, than an old man who positively pronounced the ex-
tinction, in his mind, of every ray of hope. Whether Dr.
Darwin had a superior practice to Dr. Wilkes or not, the
public judged of the event, and from that occurrence he
might be said to be partly settled at Lichfield.

As unmarried physicians have still much to cope with,
nothing seemed now wanting but the changing his condition
of life. The young physician had very genera] mvitations
to families, nor would any father have refused his daughter,
but he would only yield his heart to one worthy indeed of
suchaman. A young lady of very slender fortune, of in-
finite modesty and worth, of delicate sentiment, and replete
with grace and accomplishments, caught the admiring eye
of one who could discern retired excellency ; and, to the

surprise of many, he yielded up to Miss Howard his heart
C4 and

40 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

and hand. The dying and recorded conversation * of Mrs.
Darwin exhibits an affecting account of his first thirteen,
years residence at Lichfield, and his character as a hus-
band. ‘ Do not weep for my impending fate,” said this.
amiable creature in the last stage of a decline, and with a
smile of unaffected resignation, ‘ In the short term of my
life a great deal of happiness has been comprised. The ma-

ladies of my frame were peculiar; the pains in my head and

stomach, which no medicine could eradicate, were spas-

modic and violent, and required stronger measures to render.
them supportable while they lasted, than my constitution,
could sustain without injury. The periods of exemption,

from those pains were frequently of several days duration,
and in my intermissions I felt no indication of malady.
Pain taught me the value of ease, and I enjoved it with a
glow of spirit seldom, perbaps, felt by the habitually healthy,
While Dr. Darwin combated and assuaged my disease from
time to time, his indulgence to all my wishes, his, active
desire to see me amuscd and happy, proved incessant. His
house, as you know, has ever been the resort of people of
science and merit. If, from my husband’s great and exten-
sive practice, I had much less of his society than I wished,
yet the conversation of his friends, and of my own, was ever.
ready to enliven the hours of his absence. As occasional
malady made me doubly enjoy health, so did those frequent
absences give a zest, even to, delight, when I could be.in-
dulged with his company. My three boys have ever been

docile and affectionate. Children as they are, I could trust.

them with important secrets, so sacred do they hold every
promise they make. They scorn deceit, and, falsehood: of
every sort, and haye less selfishness than generally belongs.
to childhood. Married to any other man, I do not suppose
T could have lived a third part of those years, which I have
passed with Dr. Darwin; he has prolonged my days, and
he has blessed them.”

The fruits of this marriage were three sons; and one of
these inheriting from their father an impediment of speech,

* By Miss Anna Seward, in the Life of Dr. Darwin.
the

‘Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 4}

he learned doctor attempted the following expedient as the
cure. He reasoned thus:-that he had acquired this defect
probably from that strong propensity which all children have
to imitate those with whom they associate. With that wis-
dom which marked the doctor’s observations on the habits
of life, and with that decision of conduct which always in-
stantly followed the conviction of his mind, he sent his
eldest boy, Charles, to France, in the belief that in the pro-
nunciation of a foreign language hesitation would be less
likely to recur than in speaking his native language; nor
was he disappointed in the event: the habit was thus broken,
and two years afterwards, on his return, he was able to speak
his mother tongue with ease and fluency.

Lichfield seemed admirably suited to such a genius as was
Dr. Darwin’s. It appeared to be the favourite spot of the
Mv :es, and of men of science; and we would recommend
our readers who would wish for information respecting the
literati *.scttled at Lichfield, to consult Miss Seward’s
«* Memoirs of Dr. Darwin.”

During his residence at Lichfield Dr. Darwin met with.
an accident which had nearly cost him his life. Being obli-
gated to travel much, he wished, if possible, to obviate the
inconvenience of quartering, so distressing to horses; and
for this purpose, having a mind above ridicule, he con-
structed a very singular carriage. It was a platform, with
a seat fixed upon avery high pair of wheels, and supported
in the front, upon the back of the horse, by means of a
kind of proboscis, which, forming an arch, reached over the
hind quarters of the horse, and passed through a ring placed
on an upright piece of iron, which worked in a socket fixed
in. the saddle. The horse could thus move from one side
of the road to the other, quartering, as it is called, at the
will of the driver, whose constant attention was necessarily
employed to regujate a piece of machinery contrived, but
not quite, adapted, for that purpose. From this whimsical
carriage the doctor was several times thrown, and the last
time he used it, had the misfortune, from a similar accident,

* Philosophers—Edgeworth, Watt, Boulton; poets—Day, Sir Brook Booth~
by, Anna Seward, &c.

to

)

42. Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

to break the patella of his right knee, which caused, as it
always must cause, an incurable’ weakness in the fractured
part, and a lameness, not very discernible, indeed, when
walking on even ground.

One may here mention, that he was also conspicuous by
having a horse always to follow his carriage like a dog, pro-
perly saddled, and, where the roads were very bad, he would
mount on horseback, without boots or spurs, often in co-
loured stockings, and thus visit his patient, and return back
to his carriage which was waiting for hin.

Having destined two of his sons for physic, he took him-
self uncommon pains with their education ; and-his eldest
and darling son, Charles, was sent to Edinburgh as a pro-
digy of knowledge. He soon acquired great literary fame
from his discovery of the distinction of pus and matter, and
the retrograde motion of the absorbents, explanatory of se-
veral diseases and-circumstances in the animal ceconomy,
when Dr. Darwin received the melancholy tidings of his
rapid dissolution, though but a few days before in the bloom
of health and life, from the scratch of the dissecting-knife
in the too eager dissection of a dead and putrid body.

His hopes were now concentred on Robert, whom he
likewise sent to Edinburgh, and who early signalized himself
by a paper in the Philosophical Transactions ‘* On the
Spectra of Colours,” and whom he settled at Shrewsbury
in the bloom of scarcely ripened youth, and who even then
acquired the confidence of all, and continues still to possess
a very extensive practice and universal esteem.

His third son, Erasmus, he bred to the law, who, ima-
gining that his affairs were perplexed (but which actually
was not the case when his debts were collected), became
gloomy, and, in a fit of melancholy and despair, plunged
into that ** bourne whence no traveller returns.”

Dr. Darwin is severely reprobated by some as not having
publicly exhibited those outward marks of sorrow for the
loss of his two sons which might have been expected: but
the reader will remember that his mind was of no ordinary
stamp, and he probably concealed from the world the real
sufferings of a father; for that he was a man of keen sen-

1 sibility

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 43

sibility his writings and whole life declare, and he thus de-
picts himself his true character :

And now, e’en I, whose verse reluctant-sings
The changeful state of sublunary things,

Bend o’er mortality with silent sighs,

And wipe the secret tear-drops from my eyes,
Hear through the night one universal groan,

And mourn unseen for evils not my own;

With restless limbs and throbbing heart complain,
Stretch’d on the rack of sentimental pain !

Partly with a view for the instruction of his sons, and of
the world at large, he commenced at Lichfield his Zoono-
mia, or Laws of Organic Life.

He was much attached to botany, and the wild scenery of
nature. Living in a romantic country, and viewing it with
a poet’s eye, and regretting that there were but few votaries
to it, probably owing to the science being concealed in a
learned garb, he began, with Sir Brook Boothby and Dr.
Jackson, a Translation of the Genera and Species Plantarum
of Linnzeus, which goes by the appellation of being done
by the Lichfield Botanical Society ; although it corsisted
only of those three persons, no others being tound willing to
enter into that body. That Dr. Darwin was still proud of
this establishment is proved hy his ordering of Rivington,
Dr. Thornton’s ‘ New Illustration of the ‘Sexual System,
including the Temple of Flora*, ? in the name and for the
Lichfield Botanical Society, although the doctor. was now
settled at Derby.

If there was any thing yet wauting to establish Dr. Dar-
win’s medical reputation at Tcuaeke it was accomplished
by the recovery of the countess of Northesk. This lady had
been under several eminent physiciars of London and Bath,
and, finding their endeavours ineffectual, the countess was
advised to try her native air, and bed arrived as far as Lich-
field, on her journey home. There she learnt the great re-

% Speaking of this work in his Phytcogia,, Dr.Darwin says, “1 beg
Jeave to recommend to the public the coloured picturesque botanical plates
just published by Dr. Thornton, which Isuppose has xo equal.”

putation

»

*

44 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

putation of the doctor, and the many wonderful cures le
had performed, and she resolved to consult him. The doctor
heard the case with patient attention, and with honest in-
tegrity told her ladyship, ‘that if she would confide in
his judgment he had full hopes of her recovery.” One in-
junction he made, that the countess would remain at Lich-
field. He condemned the system her ladyship had followed,
of nutritious food, rich jellies, and wine, and a quantity of
medicine every three or four hours, with forcible exertions
of body and mind, and substituted exactly a reverse system 5
and in three weeks the countess was completely restored, and
able to resume her journey, not for health, but to enjoy the
society of her elegant circle of friends, who admired greatly
the sagacity of that physician who had saved her life.

One may here remark that Dr. Darwin was ever unfriendly
to the system of too much excitement, and so decidedly ini-
miczl to the use of wine and strong spirits, that he insti-
tuted a spirit of sobriety in the inhabitants of Lichfield
which was almost incredible. His cautions he sometimes
gave even in a poetic dress.

Address of a Water-Nymph at Belmont to the Qwner of
that Place.

O friend to peace and virtue, ever flows

For thee my silent and unsullied stream,
Pure and untainted as thy blameless life !

Let no gay converse lead thy steps astray

To mix my chaste wave with immodest wine,
Nor with the poisonous cup, which Chemia’s hand
Deals, fell enchantress, to the sons of Folly !
So shall young Health thy daily walks attend,
Weave for thy hoary brow the vernal flower
Of cheerfulness, and with his nervous arm
Arrest th’ inexorable scythe of Time.

His sentiments respecting fermented liquor are very sin-
gular, and worthy of attention. In the note to his Verses
on the Vine, where he complains that by chemistry fer-
mentation converts sugar into spirit, and food into poison ;
he adds, that from this process more than half of our chro-

nical

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D. 45

nical diseases arise. The antient story of Prometheus, who
concealed in his bosom the fire he had stolen, and afterwards
had a vulture perpetually gnawing his side, affords so apt an
allegory for the effects of drinking spirituous liquors, that
one is induced to think the art of distillation had been known
in times of great antiquity: for the swallowing drams can-
not be better represented in hieroglyphic language than by
taking fire into one’s bosom; and certain it is, that the ge-
neral effect of drinking spirituous or fermented liquors is an
inflamed scirrhous, or paralytic liver, with its various cri-
tical or consequential diseases, as leprous eruptions on the
face, gout, dropsy, epilepsy, insanity. It is remarkable that
all the diseases from drinking spirituous or fermented liquors
are liable to become hereditary even to the third generation,
gradually increasing, if the cause be continued, till the fa-
mily becomes extinct.—Such are Dr. Darwin’s sentiments.
He now was sought after even from a distance, and co-
lonel and Mrs. Pole, of Radburn, Derbyshire, in 1778, came
purposely to Lichfield for the recovery of their children, who
were suspected of being in a decline after the hooping-cough.
Mrs. Pole was then in the full bloom of her youth and |

beauty. Agreeable features; the glow of health; a fasci-
nating smile; a fine form, tall and graceful; playful spright-
liness of manners; a benevolent heart and maternal affec-
tion, in all its unwearied cares and touching tenderness,
contributed to inspire Dr. Darwin’s admiration, and to se-
eure his esteem. Soon after she left Lichfield with her re-
novated little ones, their restorer sent to his friend Mr.
Bolton, of Birmingham, the following directions for making
a tea-vase, designed as a present from the doctor to Mrs.
Pole,

Friend Bolton, take these ingots fine

From rich Potosi’s sparkling mine ;

With your nice art a tea-vase mould,

Your art, more valu’d than the gold.

With orient pearl, in letters white,

Around it, ‘‘ To the Fairest,” write;

And, where proud Radburn’s turrets rise,

To bright Eliza send the prize. ae

46 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

Til have no bending serpents kiss

The foaming wave, and seem to hiss ;
No sprawling dragons gape with ire,
And snort out steam, aud vomit fre; ,

No Naiads weep; no sphinxes stare ; rH

No tail-hung dolphins swim in air.

Let leaves of myrtle round the rim,

With rose-buds twisting, shade the brim ;
Fach side let woodbine stalks descend,

And form the branches as they bend;
While on the foot a Cupid stands

And twines the wreath with both his hands.

Perch’d on the rising lid above,
O place a lovelorn turtle dove,
With hanging wing, and rvfled plume,

With gasping beak, and eye of gloom.

Last, let the swelling bosses shine
With silver, white, and burnish’d fine,
Bright as the fount, whose banks beside
Narcissus gaz’d, and lov’d, and died, :

Vase, when Eliza deigns to pour,
With snowy hand, thy boiling shower ;
And sweetly talks, and smiles, and sips
The fragrant steam with ruby lips,
More charms thy polish’d orb shall shew
Than Titian’s glowing pencil drew ;
More than his chisel soft unfurl’d,
Whose heav’n-wrought statue charms the world.

The reader must call to mind that Dr. Darwin was a gen-
tleman of the highest sense of honour, and Mrs. Pole a lady
of the greatest reserve, yet most fascinating manners ; and
that their admiration was mutual, and their love platonic.
The poet thus paints the antiquated colonel, her husband :

Fly, gentle steeds !—o’er yon unfriendly towers
Malignant stars with baleful influence reign ;
Cold Beauty's frown infects the cheerless hours,
And Avarice dwells in Love’s polluted fane !
Dim

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 47

Dim, distant towers! whose ample roof protects
All that my beating bosom holds so dear,

Far shining lake! whose silver wave reflects
Of Nature’s fairest forms, the form most fair ;

Groves, where at noon the sleeping beauty lies ;
Lawns, where at eve her graceful footsteps rove ;
For ye full oft have heard my secret sighs,
And caught, unseen, the tear of hopeless love ;

Farewell! ‘a long farewell !—your shades among
No more these eyes shall drink Eliza’s charms ;
No more these ears the music of her tongue!
O! doom’d for ever to another’s arms !

Fly, gentle steeds !—my bleeding heart convey
Where brighter scenes and milder planets shine ;
Where Joy’s white pinion glitters in the ray,
And Love sits smiling on his crystal shrine!

“These lines were composed and never sent, but locked
up, with others, in a bureau, and afterwards, as will be seen,
presented to the fair lady.

Near Lichfield Dr. Darwin purchased a beautiful sylvan
spot, which he cultivated as his garden, and which was soon
celebrated by Miss Anna Seward, of Lichfield, a sweet poet,
and the lines presented to Dr. Darwin. He satd “ that
these should be the exordium of a poem which should be
called The Botanic Garden, or Loves of the Plants ;’? and
advised this lady to undertake such a pcem. This she de-
clined, but pressed if on the doctor, who had’ never yet
composed a whole poem, but only fugitive pieces, such as”
we have given a specimen of; and he immediately from that
instant commenced the execution of The Botanic Garden,
which astonished an admiring world, and procured for the
doctor the appellation of the English Lucretius.

Whilst busied on this poem, the antiquated colonel Pole
died. The widow, then in the zenith of her beauty, and
still alive to the world, had scarce laid aside her weeds when
many suitors came to solicit her hand and fortune. The
doctor was turned of fifty, rather corpulent, somewhat lame,

had

48 Description of @ circular .

had a dreadful stammer when eager in utterance, and rathef
harshly featured; yet sense beamed from his eye, and his
eye- -brow was expressive, and he had restored her three chil-
dren, who were amply provided for. He likewise came a-
courting, and recounted those verses he had formerly made
on her charms. She was not long inflexible, although she
had ample choice amongst gentlemen fox-hunters, dashing
young officers, bowing parsons, and along train of other gentry
—for the kind, the benevolent, the heaven: -poetic-inspired
Dr. Darwin had the preference; but whether fearful that an
unjust suspicion would exist amongst the prudes and gossips
of Lichfield from this preference, that they might not have
mind enough to comprehend the true reason of her choice
in consenting to give bim her hand, she stipulated he would
immediately remove to Derby.

[To be continued.]}

: Q

IX. Description of a circular Mother-of-Pearl Micrometer.
By Davin Brewster, 4. M.

To Mr. Tilloch.

SIR,
Tx the Philosophical Transactions for 1791, Mr. Tiberitis
Cavallo has given an account of an ingenious and simple mi-
crometer, invented by himself, and excellently fitted for mea-
suring smal} angles with accuracy and expedition. It con=-
sists of a slip of mother-of-pearl minutely subdivided, and
‘stretched across the diaphragm that is placed in the anterior
focus of the fourth eye-glass of an. achromatic telescope.
The angle subtended by any number of its divisions is then
ascertained by experiment, and therefore the value of any
other number can either be found by simple proportion, or
from a table computed for the purpose. The method of
forming this table, and the various purposes to which this
micrometer is applicable, have been given at great length
by Mr. Cavallo in his paper in the Philosophical Transac-
tions, and in a separate pamphlet descriptive of thea instru=

ment. °
Ix

CO es a ae

Mother-of=Pearl Micrometer. 49

In the winter of 1805, when I was employed in deline-
ating the surface of the moun, T wished to measure the diaz
meter of the /unar spots by applying Mr. Cavallo’s micro-
meter to a thirty-inch achromatic telescope made by Berge.
But as the eye-piece was'moved by a rack and pinion, and
consequently could not turn round its axis, the micrometer
must have remained stationary, and could only measure ans
gles in one direction, This difficulty, indeed, might have
been surmounted by a mechanical contrivance fdr turning
the diaphragm about its centre, or more simply by giving
4 motion of rotation to the tube which contains the third
and fourth eye- glasses. Such a change in’ the eye- piece,
however, was both inconvenient and difficult to be made.
Mr. Cavallo’s micrometer, therefore, has this great disad-
vantage, that it cannot be used in reflecting telescopes, or
in any achromatic telescope where the adjustment of the
eye-piece is effected by rack-work, unless the structure of
these instruments is altered for the purpose. “Another dis-
advantage of this micrometer arises from the slip of mother-
of-pearl passing through the centre of the field. The pice’
ture in the focus of the eye-glass is broken into two parts,
and the view is rendered still more unpleasant by the in-
equality of the segments into which the field is divided. In
addition to these disadvantages, the different divisions of the
micrometer are at unequal distances from the eye-glass
which yiews them, and therefore can neither appear equally
distinct nor subtend equal angles at the eye.

Finding that Mr. Cavallo’s instrument laboured under
these impertections, I thought of a circular mother-of-pearl
micrometer which is free from them all, and has likewise
the advantage of a kind of diagonal scale, increasing in ac-
curacy with the angle to be measured. This micrometer,
which I got executed by Miller and Adie, optical instru-
meut makers in Edinburgh, and which I have often used,
both in determining small angles in the heavens and such as
are subtended by terrestrial objects, is represented in fig. 1,
which exhioits its appearances in the focus of the fourth
eye-glass. The black ring, which forms part of the figure,

Vol, 29, No. 113. Oct. 1807. D is

.

$0 Description ‘of a circular
is the diaphragm, vand the remaining part Is a nng of mos
ther-of-pearl, having its interior circumference divided into
360 equal parts. The mother-of-pearl ring, which appears
connected with the diaphragm, 1s ierilecaly separate from
it, and is fixed at the end of a brass tube which is made
to move between the third eye-glass and the diaphragm, so
that the divided circumference may be placed exactly in the
focus of the glass next the eye. When the micrometer is
thus fitted into: the telescope, the angle subtended by the
whole field. of view, or by the diameter of the innermost
circle of the micrometer, must be determined either by mea-
suring a base/or, by the passage of an equatorial star, and,
the angles subtended by any number of divisions, or de-
grees will be Folie, by a table constructed in the following
manner. é

o Let .AmmpnB, fg. 2. be the interiot circumference. of thd
micrometer, scale, and let mm be the object to be measured.
Bisect the arch mm in p, and draw Cm, Cp; Cn. The-line
Cp will be:at right angles to mm; and therefore mm will be:
twice the sine of half the arch mn. Consequently, AB:mn
s= rad. sine of 4mpn3 therefore mn x R = sin. dmpn x AB,
and mpn = cat a Sani —— x ABS a formula
te which the angle subtended by. the chord of any: number
of.degrees may be nee found: |The first part of the for-

sin. mpn

mula, viz. is constant, while AB varies with the

size of the micrometer and with the magnifying power which
is applied. We have therefore computed the following
table,: containing the value of the constant part of the for-
mula for every degree or division of the scale.

t

“A Degrees

ometer.

a

Cc?

Mother-of-Pearl Mi

2 a ; 5
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52 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

In order to find the angle subtended by any number of
degrees, we have only to multiply the constant part of the
formula-corresponding to that number in the table by AB,
or the angle subtended by the whole field. Thus if AB is
30 minutes, as it happens to be in the micrometer which F
have constructed, the angle subtended by 1 degree of the
scale will be 30’ x ‘009 = 16% seconds, and the angle sub-
tended by 40 degrees will be 30’ x *342 = 10’ 15-6”; and
by making the calculation it will be found that as the angle
to be measured increases, the accuracy of the scale also in-
creases ; for when the arch is only 1 or 2 degrees, a variation
of } degree produces a variation of about 16 seconds in the
angle; whereas when the arch is between 170 and 150, the
variation of a degrze does not produce a change much more
than one second in the angle. This is a most important
advantage in the circular scale, as in Cavallo’s micrometer
a limit is necessarily ‘put to the size of the divisions.

It is obvious, from an inspection of fig. 1, that there is no
occasion for turning the circular micremeter round its axis;
because the aside circumference lies in every possible di-
rection. In fig. 2., for example, if the object has the direc-
tion ad it will he measured by the arch aol, and if it lies
in the line ed it will be measured by the arch erd.

In the circular micrometer which I have been in the habit

of using, AB, or the diameter of the field of view, ts exactly -

half an inch, the diameter of the brass tube in which it is
fixed is one as, the length of the tube half an ineh, and
the degrees of the divided circumference 51,th of an inch,
I am, sir,
Your obedient humble servant,

Edinburgh, Davip BREWSTER.
September 1, 1807. :

——_—_———————

X. Additional Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.
By M. Cuvier.

[Continued from vol. xxviii. p. $66.]

bi HAVE endeavoured to represent this progress of dentition.

in the figures of my Plates ([IE and IV) of elephants.
Plate

Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants, 53

Plate IV. fig. 5. is a cranium of an Indian elephant cut
vertically.

a, the entrance of the nostrils.

b,b, the enormous thickness of the sinuses which sepa-
rate the two partitions of the cranium.

¢, the cavity of the brain.

d, the occipital hole, and the right condylus of that name.

€, the alveolus of the tusk.
~ f; the cavity of the tusk opened, in order to show the
Space occupied by its pulpy nucleus.

In the space from f to g, a portion of the maxillary bone
and all the palatine bone have been removed, in order to show
the teeth and their germs in their situation throughout their °
whole extent.

h, is the anterior tooth, reduced almost to nothing by
detrition, and by the compression as much of the subsequent
teeth as of its own alveolus.

7, the tooth at full growth, the roots of which begin to
be formed in 2, and the triturating part of which, J, is al-
ready worn down to a tablet. The posterior laminz, m, are
as yet untouched.

m, the germ of the back tooth, as yet locked up in its
membranous capsule, and the Jatter lodged in a cavity of
the back jaw.

o, the nerve of the fifth pair, which gives threads to the
capsules of the teeth and to their pulpy nuclei.

These two same teeth are represented more at large,
Plate III, fig. 1 and 2.

Fig. 1. is the tooth when full grown; a,b, the portion of
its laminz already worn down to a tablet; J,c, the portion
as yet untouched; d,c,f, its roots, which are sunk among
the productions of the alveolus g, h, 7.

I have removed the whole of the anterior face of the roots
and of the base of the fast of the tooth, in order to show
the pulpy nucleus &,/, m.

As the body of the tooth is almost entirely closed and
filled, the small transverse walls n,0,p,q9,7,5, are almost
entirely shortened and compressed ; but in return for this,

D3 the

54 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

the pedicles ¢,~,v,2, which serve for the formation of the
roots, are already much lengthened.

Fig. 2. is the germ of the back tooth, extracted with its
capshle from the cavity of the back jaw.

a, 6, remains of the periosteum of the alveolus.

c,d, anterior part of the external membrane of the capsule.

e, f; portion of this external membrane, detached and
folded down in order to show the internal membrane g, h, 7.

ky k,k,k, &c. transversal productions of this internal mem-
brane, which separate the Jamine of the tooth and the ge-
Jatinous walls upon which these laminz are formed.

I have removed the portions of the membrane which
united these productions, in order to exhibit the laminz. of
the tooth which they covered.

1,1, 1, the body of the pulpy nucleus of the tooth.

m,m,m,m, &c. its productions, or the small transverse

walls which it sends out among the productions of thé cap-

sule, and upon which are formed the laminz of the tooth.

N,N,N, &c. lamin, said to be osseous, transuded by
these small walis which envelop them, and the whole of
which forms the tooth. The posterior ones are much
shorter, and do not envelop so completely their small walls,
because the transudation begins later behind.

0, 0,0,0, &c. the enamel deposited upon these laminz by
the internal face of the capsule. There is much less upon
the posterior laminz for the same reason.

In the part d, g,h, the cortical has already covered the
enamel and soldered the lamine together,

Pp» p, the interruptions of continuity which separate the
commencements of the pedicles of the roots.

Fig. 3. is the middle part of this same germ, seen by its
posterior face.

a, a, its base, seen a good deal shortened.

L, one of the last small transverse walls.

c, lamina said to be osseous, which as yet only enyelops
its notches.

d, anotch, the enyelop of which is not as yet joined to
the others, ,

iP

Cy €, Cy ey

Membir upon living. and fossil Elephants. 55
®,@,€,e, the enamel which begins to be seared upon
this lamina.

SJ; the rest of the regal

2, 9, extremities of the transverse laminz of the capsule.

h,h, bases of the small transverse walls of the pulpy nu-
cleus.

i, 7,7, laminz of the tooth which envelop them.

k,k, enamel which hegins to be deposited upon these la-
mine.

Fig. 4. represents the last small walls of the pulpy nu-
cleus detached from the rest, and separated from each other.

a, the lamine in the shape of a small horn, which had
begun to form upon the notches of the most anterior.

4, those which had only sprung up upon the notches of
the one before the last.

ce, the last of ail, which has not as yet any hard envelop.

Fig. 5. a Voiden of a germ of the tooth of an Indian ele-
phant, viewed on its broad face.

4,4, its part which is soon to shoot out of the capsule
and the gum, and on which we already see the cortical |
spread, as if by drops.

b,b, its middle part, where there is not as yet, upon the
substance called osseous, any thing else than enamel, like
threads of velvet.

¢,¢, its part of the base, or the substance called osseous,
is as yet bare, without either enamel or cortical.

Fig. 6. a similar lamina of the African elephant.

a, the ridge, which gives to the section of the laminz of
this species the figure of a lozenge.

Article III.

Upon the Tusks of Elephants; the Structure, Growth, and
distinguishing Characters of the Ivory, and its Diseases.
Conclusion of the general Remarks upon the Teeth.

We shall not stop to refute the opinion of some among
the moderns *, that the tusks of elephants are horns. This

* Ludolph. Ethiop, lib. i, cap. 10. Perrault, Description de I’Elephant de
Versailles, &c,
D4 was

36 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

was an old idea maintained by Pausanias *, refuted by Phi-
lostratus, and which no person adopted any longer.

On the contrary, the greatest part of the anatomists who
think that teeth grow like common. bones, by a kind of in-
tus-susception, take their proofs from ivory, its diseases and
its accidents.

Nevertheless, ivory is formed, like the other teeth, from
successive layers being transuded by the pulpy nucleus.

opened the alveolus and the base of a tusk in a recent
earcase of an elephant; and here I saw evidently a pulpy
nucleus of enormous size, and entirely deprived of all or-
ganical union with the tusk, which it had nevertheless se-
creted. Alihough the carcase was perfectly fresh, I could
not see the least adherence between the tusk and the nu-
cleus; not the least fibre, nor the smallest vessel ; no celiu-
losity tied them together. The nucleus was in the cavity of
the tusk, like asword in its scabbard, and only adhered by
itself to the bottom of its alveolus.

The tusk is therefore in its alveolus like a nail driven into
a plank. Nothing retains it there except the elasticity of
the parts which enclose it ; we may therefore change its di-
rection by gentle pressure. This is an experiment which
succeeded with our second elephant: its tusks were brought
so close together as to constrain the motion of its proboscis;
we separated them by means of a bar of iron, the middle of
which was in the form of a vice, and we could thus lengthen
it at pleasure. Every one knows that dentists do the same
thing, upon a small scale, with wires, with such teeth as
have only one root.

The successive layers of which the ivory is composed
leave but few traces upon the section of a fresh tusk; but
here the fossil teeth assist us in better ascertaining the struc-
ture of the parts. Those tusks which have been decomposed
and altered by their being under-ground, are split into coni-
cal and thin Jamine, all enveloped within each other, and
thereby show what has been their origin.

@ Vita Apollonii, lib. ii. cap. 13.

Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants. sf

No bone whatever, properly so called, ever splits in th's
manner. Sloane, as [ think, was the first who made this
Temark.

Scratches, or any scars whatever, made on the surface of |
a tusk, are never filled up; they disappear only in propor-
tion as the tusk 1s worn down by friction.

It is true, we sometimes find balls in the heart of tc ivory
without seeing the hole through which they entered

Our museuin possesses an example of this, and we find
several others scattered through various works *.

Some have concluded that the track pursued bv the bo!'s
must have been filled up even by the juices of the tusk aod
by its organical force $3 or, as Haller expresses it, by 1 iad
of stalactite $: but it is easy to see, on the contrary, tant
this hole is not filled up im this: manaérs he whole of ihe
ivory outside the ball is similar to the rest; that dart only
which immediately surrounds it is irregular; the bail must
have traversed the a!veolus and the base, while vet thin of
the tusk of a young elephan', and,must have been lodged
in the pulpy nucleus, still undeveloped: it has been atter-
wards seized by the layers tiansuded hy this nucleus, and
has there remained fixed.

Camper has already explained it in this way. (Descrip.
Anat, dun Ekphant, p. 54.)

We cannot, therefore, deduce from this fact any conse-
quence that can justify the nutrition of ivory by intus-sus-
eeption.

For the same reason it proves nothing against the opi-
nion of Duhamel upon the formation of the bones by the
hardening of the successive layers of the periosteum, al-
though Haller has drawn one of his principal argumenis
from this,

As to the diseases of ivory, those which belong to the
alteration of its texture proceed merely from a disease in tse

* Blumenbach, Manuel d’Anat. Comp. p. 43. Gallandat, Memoires
PAcad. de Harlem, ix. 352. Bonn, ‘Thes. Hovian. p. 146. Cumper, Anat,
@’un Eleph. pl. xx. figs. 11 & 12, Hajler, Op. Min. ii. p. 554

t Haller, Phys. viii. p. 319.

+ Ibid. p. 939,

puly

58 Memoir upon living and fossil: Elephants.

pulpy nucleus at the period when it secreted the altered por-
tion; and what has been called exostosis is always inside,
and never outside. It is the effect of a secretion for the
moment, too abundant at a certain point.

Specimens of diseased ivory have been often given by ex=
hibiting the canine teeth of the morse (trichecus rosmarus),
the texture of which is naturally grained. Daubenton him-
self has fallen into this error.

The diseases of the teeth are nearly in the same case as
those of the ivory.

What has been called caries, an almost necessary conse-
quence of the removal of the enamel, is the decomposition
which the internal substance would undergo, when it would
even be no longer adherent to the body if it remained ex-
posed to the heat of the mouth, and the action of the saliva:
and various food; but it has no reference whatever to -
caries of the boride:

The tendency to caries which the teeth of boven’ people
evince, proceeds from their substance not being of a good
composition, and may be ascribed to the bad state of the
pulpy nucleus when it transuded them.

It is the same with the spots and the more tender layers
we observe in the thickness of some teeth. All are the ef-
fects of momentary indispositions of the pulpy nucleus.

Pains and inflammations exist in the pulpy nucleus, and
not in the hard part of the tooth. Jt is the pulpy nucleus

“which is sensible to the shocks and the temperature of bo-
dies passing through the i i which sips hard part nee
around it.

It may be perhaps surprising to some that so thick ond
hard an envelop does not blunt all sensation; but the pulp
of the nucleus of the teeth is, next to the retina and the
pulp of the labyrinth of the ear, the most sensible part.of
the animal frame. Fishes, which have their labyrinth in-
closed in the cranium, without any box or tympanum, and
without small bones; in.a word, without any communica-.
tion opening externally; hear sounds in .conseqnence.of vis
brations communicated to the cranium. © The teeth; how-

| ever,

Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants. 59

®ver, evince something much stronger in point of sensi-
bility.

The exostoses of the teeth (their fungosities) do not grow
upon the surface of the enamel of a sound tooth, but in the
bottom of the hollows of the carious ones. These are pro-
ductions.of the pulpy nucleus, which have pierced the hard
matter in the thin bottom of these hollows.

The continual lengthening of those teeth which have none
opposite to them to retain them, agrees with all these facts;
the portion once sent out of the at of the elephant length-
ens always, but does not become thicker, aud does not har-
den: this is because it is always pushed back by new layers,
while in itself it cannot undergo any change. We know
how far this lengthening proceeds in rabbits which have lost
a tooth, and whose opposite tooth is no longer worn by mas-
tication. Continuing to lengthen backward, it finally hia-
ders the animal from eating. It was from this that Aristocie
asserted that the teeth grow all our lives, while the other
bones have determinate limits.

It must be added, however, that the ordinary teeth have
a determined limit: this is when’ the entrance of their ca-
vity is obliterated, and when their pulpy nacleus receives no
more nourishment; but nature has taken care to leave the
patiis always open in those animals which, from wearing
their teeth much, require that they should be often repaired
behind: such are the rabbits with respect to their incisors,
aud the elephants with respect to their tusks: the root never
being obliterated, its channel can never be closed.

Article IV. a
Application of the Observations upon the Dentition of the
Elephant to the Knowledge of Fossils.

For want of information on the subject of the formation
and the manner in which teeth grow in general, describers
of fossils have committed a multitude of errors; but as the
circumstances relative to the teeth of the elephant are still
more complicated and more difficult than those which con-
cern the other animals, these have led people into much
greater mistakes,

Formerly

60 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

Formerly a great number of authors were in possession
of entire and well formed teeth of fossil elephants without
knowing it.

Aldrovandus, Leibnitz, Kundman, and Beuth, were in
this situation,

The inverse of this case has often taken place also, and
teeth of a very different description have been exhibited for
those of elephants.

Aldrovandus (De Metall.) describes three teeth of the hip-
popotamus as those of an elephant.

M. de la Metherie (Theory of the Earth, vol. v. p. 200,)
says that the tooth found near Vienne, in Dauphine, and
engraved in the Journal de Physique for February 1773,
p- 135, seems to have belonged to the elephant of Afriea.
We have shown that it must have belonged to a species of
the grand tapir. The same author (at p. 201) asserts, ‘¢ that
itis now proved that the teeth from the Ohio, and those
brought from Peru by Dombey, are those of an elephant
which is of the same species as that of Africa.”

Notwithstanding all this, the teeth from Vienne, those
of Ohio, and those from Peru, do not resemble each other
at all, and neither of them resemble those of the African |
elephant.

Other authors have thought of establishing specific dif-
ferences from the number of teeth existing at one and the
same time in the jaw. Thus Merck (Seconde Lettre sur les
Os Fossiles de Rhinoceros, Darmst. 1784, p. 12, et seq.)
thinks he has established the difference between living and
fossil elephants from the circumstance of the jaws he ob-
served having only two teeth, while that of the elephant
described by Daubenton had four. He fills eight pages with
reasoning on this subject, and finishes by proposing an ex~
planation of this variety in the number of teeth, similar to
that of Pallas, by referring it to the difference of ages,
M. Morozzo (Mem. de la Societé Ital. tom. x. p. 162) even
informs us that the elephant has only one tooth on each
side.

Some persons haying been ignorant how these teeth di-

minish

Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants. 64

minish in every respect before failing, and equally ignorant
of the great difference between the teeth of young and old
individuals, have imagined that the small teeth which are
found isolated proceed from an elephant of a much smailer
species.

But by far the most serious errors are those which have
been occasioned by the partial lamin of the germs of ele-
phants’ teeth which have been found detached and not at all
worn.

The antient naturalists, who generally considered fossils
as figured stones, found in these lamine some resemblance
to a foot or a hand, and gave them the name of chirites.

Kircher represents some of them under this name in his
Mundus subterraneus, ii. 64. There are also similar ones
in his museum, and in the Museum metallicum Vaticanum’
of Mercati. F

Aldrovandus describes them by the same name, De Me-
tall, lib. iv. 481.

But nothing of this kind approaches what we find in the
Rariora Nature et Artis of Kundman, Pl. III. fig. 2. This
author describes the object represented by his figure as the
petrified skull of some great baboon; he asserts that the
skin; the flesh, the nails, and the veins, were to be seen in
it entirely petrified ; that M. Fischer, professor at Konigs-
bers, who had seen the greatest part of the cabinets in Eu-
rope, regarded this petrifaction as one of the most singular
in the world: and, lastly, that the king of Poland, when
elector of Saxony, had offered him a considerable sum in
order to place it in the cabinet of Dresden. /V¥alch, in his
commentary upon the work of Knorr, tom. ii. § 2. p. 150,
quotes this rarity among the osteolithes of the ape, &c. A
single glance, however, thrown upon the figure will show
that it is merely a lamina of an elephant’s tooth not yet
worn at its extremity, nor soldered to the rest of the tooth.

Article

62 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

Article V. :
Comparison between the Grinders of the Indian and. the

African Elephant, and first distinctive Character of these

two Species. Examination of various fossil Elephant

Teeth.

For a long period teeth belonging to the elephants of
India and those of Africa have been. indiscriminately de-.
scribed, without comparing them, and without perceiving
that they did not resemble each other in every particular.
Thus the Royal Society of London, in 1715, caused to be
represented, in order to serve as an object of comparison,
some grinders from Africa, which considerably resemble, as
we well know, those from India; and no person insisted.
upon any difference which might have escaped the eye.

The accurate and judicious Daubenton was equally far
from remarking the difference, and Buffon and Linnzus
never supposed there was any more than one species of ele-
phants. We do not even perceive any traces of this discti-
mination in Gmelin’s edition of the Systema Nature ; and,
in fact, all that is found in the antient authors and in tra-.
vellers is vague, and can only be referred to simple varieties.

Such, for instance, are the assertions of the antients re-
specting the different degrees of the aptitude of these ani-
mals for war.

Diodorus Siculus, Jib. ii. asserts that ‘ the dlephants of
India far surpass in courage and strength those of Libya.”

Appian confirms this, (De Bellis Syriac. ed. Amsterdam.
1670, 8vo. vol. i. p. 173.) According to him, Domi-
tius, who commanded the Romans against Antiochus, judg-
ing the elephants he got fronr Africa would be of no use to
him, because they were smaller and because they were afraid
of the large elephants, he ranged them behind the others,”
(7. e. behind the Indian elephants).

Pliny and Solinus remark generally that the African eles
phants were smaller than the Indian, and were afraid of
them. It is extremely probable, however, that the elephants
in the service of Hannibal and Jugurtha were of the former
species only.

There

Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants. 63

«There is something more accurate, and equally true,in what
is mentioned by a scholiast upom Pindar, cited by Gessner,
Quadr., p. 378, that the males only of the Indian elephants
had tusks, but that both sexes had them among the elephants
of Libya and Ethiopia. As to the distinction established
by Philostratus* between the elephants of mountains, plains,
and marshes, and'as to the differences of their nature and of
their ivory, it is also probable that if they were real they
constituted simple varieties only.

The merit of the first legitimate specific distinction of
- elephants from the internal structure of their teeth is there-
fore entirely owing to P. Camper: although he has written
nothing on the subject, the plates im which he has repre-
sented them, and the testimony of lisson ana of M. Fanjas,
secure this merit to him.
_ M. Blumenbach: has also made the observation : he has
characterized the two species according to this sole diffe-
rence in his Manuel,ssixth edition, p. 121,/ and has» exhi-
bited drawings of the two:kinds of teeth in his ene Fe a
pl. i9.

This difference consists'in the formr of the Sides and i in
their'number ;) it:is) observable even in the germ.

The germs of the elephant from India are lammey each
of which is formed of two)surfaces nearly parallel, and sim-
ply furrowed in theirclength. (See) Elephants, Plate:III.
fig.'5a)» In’ the: elephant-from Africa, one of the surfaces,

and often both, produces in its middle! and upon nearlyvall
its length an angular jet ; its furrows»are also much less nu-
merous. (Fig# 6.) f

It results from this structure of the germs, that thesection
of the Jaminz, when the to®&b has been worn, presents in
the elephant of India narrow trausverse stripes of-am equal:
breadth, and the edges of which, formed by the enamel, are?
very much festooned ; and in the elephant of Africa lozenges
or stripes broader in) the middle than atthe two ends, andt
the edges of which are rarely friitered into very perceptible
festoons. ot

* Vita Apoll. Tyan. Jib. ii. cap. 13,
To

64 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

To this difference in form, may be added another in point
of the number: the lamine of the African elephant being
broader, it requires less of them to form a similar length of
tooth; nine or ten of these Jaminz form a tooth as large as
13 or 14 of the Indian species would do.

It seems that these two species preserve the same propor-
tion in teeth of the same age as in those of the same length.
Thus, by comparing our skulls from Asia with those from
Atrica at nearly the same age, we find in the back teeth of
the former 14 or 15 Jamine, and tn those of the latter 9 or
10 only.

Besides, we never saw a tooth of the African species which
had more than 10 laminz, while those of the Indian species
have, according to Mr. Coxe, 23, and we have seen “——
teeth of this species having 24 and 25.

These characters, taken from the grinders, being once
ascertained with respect to living elephants, it was natural
to examine with this view the fossil elephants, since, with
the exception of the tusks, the teeth are most vice sbeirs
found and preserved.

The questions which occurred were the following :

Which of the two living species of elephants do the fossil
teeth resemble most ?

Do they resemble one of them entirely ?

Are all fossil teeth similar to each other?

There is no doubt as to the first question. The greatest
number of fossil teeth resemble at first sight those of the
Indian elephant, and are composed, like the latter, of stripes
nearly equal in breadth and festooned.

We may be certain of this by consulting Pl. VI. (marked
Elephants) in which we have represented fossil teeth, both
upper and lower, of different ages, and one half of their na=
tural size.

Fig. 1. is a lower tooth of an old elephant, much worn,
found last year in the forest of Bondy, with its next tooth.

Fig. 2. belongs to a very young elephant; a real geet
tooth from Fouyent.

Fig.

On the Phenomena of the Horizontal Moon. 65

Fig. 3. is an upper tooth, ‘from Siberia, of a middle-aged
elephant: this is No. MXXII. of Daubenton.

Fig. 4. is one of the second teeth of the young elephant.
It comes from the vicinity of Toulouse.

Fig. 5. a lower tooth of an old elephant, only half worn.

This general resemblance has induced Pallas, and almost
all subsequent writers, to think that the fossil elephant is
the same with that of Asia.

But is this resemblance complete? I denied it on an-
other oceasion (Mem. de I’ Instit. Classe de Math. et Phys.
tom. ii. p. 19). Since then, however, I have hesitated a
little in maintaining an assertion which might appear con-
jectural, and as to which the observations of my learned
friend M. Adrian Camper had inspired me with some
doubts*. Let us again examine the matter impartially.

In the first place; it is certain that the number of the la-
minz, considered by itself, cannot, as I thought, yield any
good characters, since it is subject to vary according to the
age of the individual and the place in which his tooth is
Situated, from four up to four-and-twenty.

But is the number always the same in teeth of. equal
length? This is what I have examined in a great number
of teeth both of Indian and fossil elephants, and I have al-
most always found the lamin of the latter thinner, and
consequently more numerous, in the same space.

[To be continued. ]

XI. On the Phenomena of the Horizontal Moon. By
Ez. WALKER, Esq.

To Mr. Tillech.

SIR
Ox looking over Young’s Lectures on Natural Philosophy,
lately published, I found in the second volume, p. 313, that
the doctor has taken notice of my paper on the phenomenon
of the horizontal moon, published in the ninth volume of
the Philosophical Journal, and has marked it as *¢ either

* Deserip. Anat. d’un Eleph., in fol. p. 19.
Vol. 29. No. 113. Oct. 1807, E erroneous

66 On the Phenomena vi the Horizontal Moon.

erroneous or unimportant:’? in consequence of which fF
turned to the first volume, hoping to find some new hypo-
thesis advanced by the dector in his lecture upon this sub-
ject; but T was disappointed.

The doctor says, vol. i. p. 454, that “ the san, moon,
and stars, are Bach less Juminous when they are near the
horizon than when they are more elevated, on account of
the greater quantity of their light that is intercepted in its
longer passage through the atmosphere; we also observe a
much greater variety of nearer objects almost in the same
direction: we cannot, therefore, help imagining them to be
more distant when they rise or set than at any other times ;
and, since they subtend the same angle, they appear to be
actuaily larger. For similar reasons, the apparent figure of
the starry heavens, even when free from clouds, is that of
a flattened vault, its summit appearing to be much nearer
to us than its horizontal parts, and any of the constellations
seems to be considerably larger when it is near the horizon
thanawhen in the zenith.”

This explanation seems to be derived from the hypotheses
of Des Cartes and Berkeley; but the reader shall judge for
himself.

«© Des Cartes *, and from him Dr. Wallis and most other
authors, account for the appearance of a different distance
under the same angte, from the long series of objects inter-
posed between the eye and the extremity of the sensible ho-
rizon; which makes us imagine it more remote than when
in the meridian, where the eye sees nothing in the way be-
tween the object and itself. This idea of a greater distance
makes us imagine the luminary the larger; for an object
being seen tay any certain angle, and Belies ed at the same
time very remote, we naturally judge it must be very large to
appear under such an angle at such a distance.’ “Epa hi? s
Mathematical Dict. vol. it. p. 74.

Mr. Molyneux says (Philos. Trans. Abr. vol. 1. p, 221),
«* that if the hypothesis of Des Cartes be true, we may at
apy time increase the apparent magnitude of the moon even

* Des Cartes was born in 1596.

On the Phenomena of the Horizontal Moon. 67

int the meridian; for, in order to divide the space between
it and the eye, we need only to look at it behind a cluster
of chimneys, the ridge of a hill, or the top of a house,” &c,
He further observes, that when the height of all the in-
termediate objects is cut off, by looking through a tube the
imagination is not helped, and yet the moon seenis still as ©
large as before.”

Dr. Smith says in his Optics, vol. ti. p. 55, of the Re-
marks, that in Berkeley’s Essay towards a New Theory of
Vision * there is the following solution :

<* Between the eye and the moon, when situated in the
horizon, there lies a far greater quantity of atmosphere than
there does when the moon is in the meridian. Whence it
comes to pass that the appearance of the horizontal moon
is fainter ; and therefore, by sect. 56, it should -be thought
bigger in that situation than in the meridiah, or in any other
elevation above the horizon.” ‘

* But,” says Dr. Smith, “ to avoid entering into a par-
ticular consideration of his arguments, [ choose to show,
from experience only, that these various degrees of the
moon’s faintness make no sensible variation of her apparent
magnitude; which, I think, will be evident by the following
observations :

‘© First, that the moon appears much fainter in the day-
time than in the night, and therefore, according to our aur
thor’s principle, should appear larger; which I could never .
perceive, though I have often viewed the moon for this pur-
pose. ced

“© Secondly, I observe that the moon wher totally eclipsed
appears much fainter than she does at the same elevation
when not eclipsed, but does not appear larger than usual,
as I am fully satisfied by the total eclipse of the moon on
Nov. 20, 1732.

« Lastly, I observe that this hypothesis of faintness can
scarce be thought sufficient, by any means, to account for
the like varicty of the apparent magnitudes of the constella-
tions; that is, of the intervals of the same, fixt stars at va-

* Published in 1709.
E2 rious

68° On the Stute of the Christians inhabiting

rious altitudes ; which yet is allowed to be a phanomenon:-
of the same kind and degree as that of the sun and moon,
and consequently to depend upon the same cause.”

No attempt, I believe, has yet been made to prove the
truth: of either of these old theories experimentally ; but, on
‘the contrary, the experiments and observations of Molyneux
and Smith show that they are both fallacious.

From some experiments which I have lately made, it ap-
pears that the apparent magnitudes of ail objects vary, as-
well as those of. the sun and moon.

I am, sir,
Your most humble servant,.

Lynn;. Ez. WALKER..
Gct. 17, 1807:

“XII. Report of the Senior Chaplain of Fort St. George to:
the Right Honourable Lord Witiram Bentinck, Gor
vernor of Madras, on the State of the Christians inhabit-
ing the Kingdoms 6f Cochin:and Travancore.

Public Department.
To the Rev. Dr. Kerr, Senior Chaplain of Fort Si. George.

Reverend Sir,

Tue right honourable the governor im council being de-
sirous of availing himself of your vicinity to the Malabar:
coast, to obtain every possible information in regard to the-
establishment, &c. of the Christian religion in that part of
the peninsula, IT am directed by his lordship in council, to:
desire, that so soon as the state of your health and the season.
will permit, you will proceed to the provinces on that coast ;..
and you will forward to me, for the information of govern-
ment, such accounts as you may be able to collect of the-
first introduction of christianity into India; of the arrival’
of the different sects who have been or may be in existence 5:
of their general history, and of the persecutions to which:
they may have been exposed; of their success in making
prosclytes ; of their church establishment, and of the source

from.

the Kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore. 69

from which they are maintained, and with all other circum-
stances connected with this important subject.
I have the honour to be, rev. sir,
Your most obedient humble servant,
Fort St. George, (Sioned) G.G. KeBxe,
June 28, 1806. a
Sec. to Government.

To the Right Honourable Lord William C. Bentinck,
Governor in Council, &c. @e.

My Lord,

-When at Mysore I was honoured by the receipt of Mr.
Secretary Keble’s letter, dated the 28th of June last, and,
finding my general health much improved, I resolved to
Biraesed to the Malabar coast in search of the information:
required by your lordship in council, regarding the Chris-
tians inhabiting that part of the peninsulas an investigation
which I have found as interesting as it is important, whe-
ther it regards humanity at large, or as it is connected, in a
political view, with the British interests in this country.

To view the extensive field pointed out for-my inquiries
minutely, would require much more of my time than could
be well spared from my other public avocations; and as I
Jearned that the reverend Dr. Buchanan was nominated by
the government of Bengal to travel over the saine ground
for purposes somewhat similar, I did not think it incum-
bent on me to take up more than a general view of the sub-
ject, and I directed my attention accordingly, not so much
to details as to matters of comprehensive import.

The first object to which the orders of government refer
is, to an account of the introduction of Christianity into
this country.

There can be no doubt whatever that the St. Thomé ~
Christians settled on the Malabar*coast at a very early pe-
riod of the Christian church; from whence they, at one
time, spread in various directions as far even as Mileapgor
and St. Thomas’s Mount: but to derive authentic informa-
tion as to the time of their arrival, is at present no easy task,

From the confusion arising from the imperfection of

° E3 Tiindoe

70 On the State of the Christians inhabiting

Hindoo chronology, from the desire which these Christians
have to detive their origin from the earliest possible times,
(which may-perhaps have introduced false traditions amongst
them,) and as all their authentic records are reported to have
been destroyed during the persecutions of the church of °
Rome; from all these circumstances, whether we refer to
the Hindoo accounts, to the St. Thomé Christians them-
selves, or to their persecutors the Roman catholics, we are
not likely to arrive at any certain conclusion as to the exact
time of their establishment.in Malabar. Some circum-
stances, however, may be collected from undoubted autho-
rity, by which it may be inferred that they have been for
nearly fifteen centuries established in India; for we find in
Ecclesiastical History, that at the first council at Nice, in
the year 325, a bishop from India was amongst the number
composing that memorable synod; and, in the creeds and
doctrines of the Christians of Malabar, internal evidence
exists of their being a primitive church; for the supremacy
of the pope is denied, and the doctrine of transubstantiation
never has been held by them; and they regarded, and still
regard, the worship of images as idolatrous, and the doc-
trine of purgatory to be fabulous: moreover, they never ad-
mitted as sacraments extreme unction, marriage, or con-
firmation : all which facts may be substantiated on reference
to the acts of the synod established by don Alexis de Me-
neses, archbishop of Goa, at Udiamper, in the year 1599.

The history of this council will be found most ably de-
tailed in a work printed in French, and entitled ** The His-
tory of Christianity in India,” published at the Hague in the
-year 1724 by La Croze, the celebrated librarian to the king
~ of Prussia.

The object of this work was to deduce, from authentic
materials, the rise, progress, and establishment of ‘Chris-
tianity in the East; and to hold up to disgrace and to me-
rited indignation the bigoted and unworthy conduct of the
Roman catholic church in the persecution set on foot by
her emissaries, under her avowed sanction, against the pri-
mitive Christians who were found settled on the coast of

* Malabar;

'
; , ~
the Kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore. 7t

-Malabar; and La Croze seems to have discharged his duty
to the public in a most faithful, interesting, and able manner.

When the Portuguese first arrived in this country, 1m the
beginning of the 16th century, they found a Christian church
using the Syrio-Chaldaic language established in the neigh-
bourhood of Cranganore ; and, though it was published to
the world many centuries before that period that such a
church existed, yet we find their ignorance expressed in
the wonder which it excited.

These Christians met the Portuguese as natural friends
and allies, and rejoiced at their coming; but the Portuguese
were much disappointed at finding the St. Thomé Chris-
tians firmly fixed in the tenets of a primitive church, and
soon adopted plans for drawing away from their pure faith
this innocent, ingenucus, and respectable people: however,
after using, for nearly a century, all the customary arts and
abominable persecutions of the church of Rome to no pur-
pose, don Alexis de Meneses, the archbishop of Goa, ap-
peared amongst them; and, by his commanding influence,
his zeal, and his learning, and on the autbority of what he
called the council of Udiamper, forced the Syrian metropo-
litan, his priests and people, into the Roman pale. The
archbishop, however, had not long quitted the scene of this
triumph of bigotry, ere the people sighed for their old reli-
gion, and cherished it in private; but on the 22d of May
1653 they held a congress at Alingatte, and great numbers,
headed by theiry metropolitan, revolted publicly from the
Romish communion 3 nor has all the influence of the Roman
poutiff, and the kings of Portugal, been able to draw them
away again from their old faith.

Leaving the history of this interesting people, which is
affectingiy delineated in La Croze’s book, [shail, in this,
‘report, confine myself more particularly to the existing state
of Chrisiianity in Malabar; and, in order that your lordship
may have the subject clearly hefore you, I shall consider
each sect of Christians by itself, under the head of, 1st, St.
Thomé, or Jacobite Christians; 2dly, The Syrian’ Catho-
lics, who have been forced from the Jacobite church into
the Ramish pale; and, sdly, The Latin church,

Ky 4 St,

°
72 On the State of the Christians inhabiting

St. Thomé, or Jacobite Christians.

These people, who still retain their antient creed and
usages, consider themselves as the descendants of the flock
established by St. Thomas, who is generally esteemed the
apostle of the East. Their ancestors emigrated from Syria,
and the Syrio-Chaldaic is the language in which their church,
service is still performed. They admit no images within
their churches, but a figure of the Virgin Mary with the
child Jesus in her arms, which is considered merely as an
ornament, and not a subject for idolatrous worship. They
are generally denominated by the country people Nazaranee
Mapilles. Nazaranee is obviously derived from Nazareth,
but the origin of the word mapillah is variously accounted
for: by some it is ingeniously supposed to refer to the Virgin
and Child, the only image admitted within their churches;
as ma implies mother in various languages, derived from
the Sungscrit ;and pillah, child. Others again, construe the
term to indicate the rank originally conferred on these Chris-
tians by the sovereign of Malabar. Poolah signifies a class,
in a state synonymous with our secretaries. Ma or maha
signifies great or superior. The term Mapillah is indiscri-
minately applied to Jews and Musselmen as to these Chris-
tians, distinguishing each by the prefix of the Jew, Syrian,
or Nazarance, or Musselman,

It is certain that grants of honour and emolument were
formerly possessed by these Christians, given to them by
a king of Malabar named Peremaul, engraven on copper,
five of which engravings are still in existence; a fac-simile
of which I have seen in the possession of the resident of
Travancore.

It has been long believed that these Christians held the
tencts of the Nestorian heresy, and that they were obliged
to leave their own country in consequence of persecution ;
however, it appears that the creed which they now follow
denies that heresy, and seems to coincide in several points
with the creed of St. Athanasius, but without its damnatory
clauses.

Baron Von Wrede has written a memoir on the subject

of

the Kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore. - 73

mf these Christians, which appeared in the sevenih volume
of the Asiatic Researches, and which has the merit of call-
ing our attention to these people; though it js no better than
a lame transcript of information, which may be fully and
satisfactorily obtained in La Croze’s book, from whence
every material part of that memoir is obviously taken: in-
deed, wherever the baron departs from his author he be-
comes less interesting, or misleads his reader. That the
Christians in Malabar were early taught the tenets of Nes-
torius, is proved by La Croze on the direct authority of
‘Cosmas, an Egyptian merchant (himself a Nestorian),
who published his voyage to {ndia in the year 547. It
seems, however, not improbable that Christians had been
planted in these shores long before the time of Nestorius ;
and I am inclined to regard the tradition of its having spread
hither in the age of the apostles, as very far from fabulous*,

With respect to their religious tenets, writers may, and
will, disagree ; upon such subjects liuman reason avails no+
thing. The disputes which on these points have agitated the
world, are in general no better than the perverse offspring of
yerhal differences.

The following is a version of the present creed of these
people, being a written communication from the metropos’
litan to the resident at Travancore:

* In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, we,
the Christians, believers in the religion of Jesus Christ, sub-
ject to the jurisdiction of Mar Rana patriarch of An=
‘toch, being loyal Jacobians , hold the following creed :

s© We aire in the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, Three

Persons

* Eusebius informs us that there were Christians in India as early as the
year 189, who had the Gospel of St. Matthew in Hebrew, which they de-
clared was received from St. Bartholomew.

+ Eastern Christians, who renounce the communion of the Greek church,
and differ from it both in doctrine and worship, may be comprehended under
two distinct classes. ‘To the former belong the Monophysites or Jacobites,
so called from Jacob Albardai, who declare it as their opinion, that in the
Saviour of the world there is only one nature; while the latter compreheads
the followers of Nestorius, frequently called Chaldeans, from the country where
they principally reside, and who suppose that. there are two distinct persons or
patures in the Son of God, The Monophysites are subdivided into two sects

OF

74 On the State of the Christians inhatiting

Persons in One God, neither. confounding the persons nor -
dividing the substance, One in Toree, and Three in One.
« The Father generator; the Son generated; and the

Holy Ghost proceeding.

«© None is before nor after other in majesty, oe
might, and power; co-equal, unity in trinity, and trinity in
unity. 2

“© We do not believe, with Arius and Eunonimus, that
there are three different and separate substances. ‘

sé We do not believe, as Sabellius beheves, by confusion
of substance.

“ We do not belicve, as Macedouius said, that the Holy
Ghost is !ess than the Father and Son.

«© We do not believe, as Mawney and Marcianus* said,
that the body of Christ was sent down from heaven.

«© We do not believe, as Julianus t said, that Christ was
only man,

«© We do not hold, as Nestorius, the doctrine of two na-
tures and two substanccs in the Messiah.

«© We do not believe, as the Chalcedonians said, that
there are two natures in the Messiah.

‘* But we believe, by the doctrine of the Trinity, that the
Son is coequal with the Father, without beginning or end;
that in the appointed time, through the disposition of the
Father and Holy Ghost, without disjoining from the right

or parties; the one African, and the other Asiatic. At the head of the Asi-
atics is the patriarch of Antioch, who resides, for the most part, in the mo-
nastery of St. Ananias, which is situated near the city of Merdin, and some-
tines at Merdin, his episcopal seat; as also at Amida, Aleppo, and other
Syrian cities. The government of this prelate is too extensive, and the
churches over which he presides too numerous, to admit of his performing
himself all the duties of his hich office; and therefore a part of the admini-
stration of the pontificate is given to a kind of colleague, whe is called the
Mayhrian, or Primate of the East,and whose doctrines and discipline are said
to be adopted by the eastern church beyond the Figris. This primate used
formerly to reside at Tauris, 2 city on the frontiers of Armenia; but his
present habitation is the monastery of St. Matthew, which is in the neigh-
bourhood of Mousul, a city of Mesopotamian. It is further observable, that
all the patriarchs of the Jacobites assume the denomination of lgnatius—
Moskeim, vol. iv. sect. xi. p. 9.57-

* These, I suppose, might be Manes and | Marcion,

t SP Julian, bishop of Hailicarnas

f side

the Kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore. 75

side of the Father, he appeared on earth for the salvation of
mankind: that he was born of the Virgin Mary, through
the means of the Holy Ghost; and was incarnate, God and
man. So that in the union of the divine and human nature
there was-one nature and one substance.—So we believe.”

The service in their church is performed very nearly after
the manner of the church of England; and when the mctro- -
politan was told that it was hoped that oue day an union
might take place between the two churches, he seemed
pleased at the suggestion.

The present metropolitan, Mar Dionysius, is now old
and infirm, but a very respectable character, and of the
most venerable and prepossessing appearance. A person
has been sent from Mousul, a city in Mesopotamia, to suc-
ceed to his station in the event of his decease; but this
stranger, ignorant of the language of the country, with the
character of being violent in his temper, and not averse, as
it is supposed, to the views of the Romish charch, it is to
be hoped will be prevented from ever taking charge of this
precious remnant of a pure and valuable people,

The metropolitan has several archdeacons and deacons
under him, who act as vicar-generals. They have fifty-five
churches; and the number of their people, as given in to
the resident, is estimated at 23,000.

The residence of their metropolitan is at Candenatte,
twelve or fourteen miles inland from Cochin. In some of
their churches divine service is performed in the Syrian and
Latin ritual alternately, by the priests of the Christians
of St. Thomé, who have adhered to their antient rites, and
those who have been united to the church of Rome*. When
the latter have celebrated mass, they carry away the images
from the church before the others enter.

The character of these people is marked by a Sfilsac su-
periority over the heathens in every moral excellence 5 and
they are remarkable for their veracity and plain dealing.
They are extremely attentive to their religious duties; aad
abide by the decision of their priests and metropolitan in

* This shows a spirit of toleration and Christian liberality very different
from the bigotry of the Romish church.
all

76 On the State of the Christians inhabiting

all cases, whether in spiritual, or, as I heard, in temporal
affairs. They are respected very highly by the Nairs, who
do not consider themselves defiled by associating with them,
though it is well known that the Nairs are the most parti-
cular of all the Hindoos in this respect ; and the rajahs of
Travancore and Cochin admit-them to rank next to Nairs.
heir numbers, it is conjectured, are under-rated in the
statement given to the resident, as it is generally supposed
that they may be estimated at 70 or 80,000. They are not
persecuted, but they are not permitted to make converts by
the governments under which they reside; and it is sup-
posed that many respectable Hindoos would be happy to
join their sect, were it not for this circumstance: but at pre-
sent they suffer, as far as I can learn, no other hardship.

If good men from Syria could be obtained, not as parish
priests, but to superintend and regulate their concerns, I
conceive it would be a great blessing to these good people.

The direct protection of the British government has been
already extended to them; but, as they do not reside within
the British territories, [ am somewhat doubtful how far it
may be of use to them.

To unite them to the church of England would, in my
opinion, be a most noble work ; and it is most devoutly to
be wished for, that those who have been driven into the
Roman pale might be recalled to their antient.church; a
measure which it would not, I imagine, be difficult to ac-
complish, as the country governments would, it is supposed,
second any efiorts to that purpose.

Their occupations are various as those of other Chris-
tians; but they are chiefly cultivators and artisans; and
some. of them possess a comfortable, if not a splendid, in-
dependeace. Their clergy marry in the same manuer as pro-
testants. Their residence is entirely inland,

Syrian Roman Catholics.

‘

These people, as stated above, were constrained to join
the Latin church, after a long struggle for the power of
maintaining their purity and independence ; and still appear
a people perfectly distinct from the Latin church, being al-

lowed

the Kingdoms of Cochin and Travancoré. 77

_Jowed to chant and perform all the services of the church of
Rome in the Syrio-Chaldaic Janguage by a dispensation from
the pope. They live under the a sUiotiey of the metropolitan
of Cranganore and the bishop of Verapoli, and dress dif-
ferently from other priests. They wear a white surplice,
while the priests of the Latin communion wear black gowns
like the Capuchin friars of Madras. The Roman catholic
Syrians, it is thought, are much more numerous than the
members of the original church. Their clergy are spread.
through the antient churches, and, by retaining their Jan-
guage, and acting under the direction of the church of Rome,
they leave no means unessayed to draw over their primitive
brethren to the Latin communion. It appears to me that
they are allowed to use their original language, and to fre-
guent the original church, entirely with this view; and, as
far as I can learn, their numbers are gaining ground. There
are said to be eighty-six parishes of Roman catholic Syrians:
subject to the dioceses of Cranganore and Verapoli. Their
priests, to the number of 400, are styled Catanars, which is
a Syrian appellation; their congregations are reported at
90,000 (old and young included), agreeably to the last re-
turns transmitted to Rome. There is an inferior order of
priests, who are called Chiamas, in number about 120. The
Hindoos have, as far as I can learn, a much greater respect
for the Christians of the original church than for the con-
verts of the Latin coramunion; which may be accounted
for by their not associating with the lower orders of people.
Attached to each church is a convent, where the Catanars
reside in community, there being three, four, or five, to eacls
church. The service is performed weekly, in rotation. There
is a seminary at the college of Verapoli for the education of
the Syrio- Roman auches: and also one for the Latin church.
The Syrio-Romam catholics are chiefly engaged, as already
mentioned, in drawing their antient brethren within the
Romish pale; but it appears that some of them have been
employed formerly in extending the general object of con-
version over the peninsula. I saw one of their churches,
at a village near Pillimbaddy, about thirty miles on the
Madras side of Trichinopoly ; and I heard of several others..
Thew

78 On the State of the Christians inhabiting

They had at this village adopted the use of a sawmy coaclis—
like that 6f the heathens, with the crucifix and the Virgin
Mary in it, instead of the Hindoo sawmy. Their church
was much out of repair; and the ignorance of the few
Christians remaining in charge of it is striking: the letters
I,N,R,1, over the figure of our Saviour on the cross, being
absolutely inverted; nor did the priest who visits them ever
notice the circumstance. They read prayers in Malabar ac-
cording to the ritual of the church of Rome. Their charch
appears to have been once respectable, but 1s now fallen into
decay. :

. Latin Roman -Catholics.

Within the provinces of Travancore and Cochin there
are ove archbishop and two bishops; the archbishop of
Cranganore, and the bishops of Cochin and Verapoli.

The two former have sees, the latter is titular. The arch-
bishops of Cranganore and the bishop of Cochin are nomi-
nated by the queen of Portugal, after the following manner <
three names are sent (when either of these sees becomes va-
cant) by the sovereign of Portugal to the pope; and the
Roman pontiff is bound to select the name that stands first,
and to issue his brevet or patent accordingly.

They are subject in all spiritual concerns to the primate
of Goa; who has also the power, during a vacancy, of send-
ing from Goa a locum tenens, who is styled padre governa-
dor. Both sces are at this moment filled by such.

The titular bishop, who resides at the college of Vera-
poli, is appointed directly by the pope, and is subject to no
jurisdiction but that of his holiness, or the Propaganda at
Rome. This mission, being more susceptible of control and

regulation than the others, has heen countenanced by the
honourable Company, as the following copy of a proclama-
tion issued by the government of Bombay will show.

Proclamation.

The honourable the court of directors of the honourable:
English East India company, having been pleased to order
that the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Roman catholie
churches under this government shall be withdrawn from

the

the Kingdoms of Cockin and Travandbre. 79

the archbishop of Goa, and restored to the Carmelite bishop
of the apostolic mission, the president in council has accord-
ingly resolved, that the said restitution shall take plaée on
the Ist of the ensuing month; from which time he hereby
enjoins all the catholic Piatt BH 3 in Bombay, as well as
the several factories and settlements subordinate thereto, to
pay due obedience in spiritual matters to the said bishidts
on pain of incurring the severe displeasure of government.
By order of the honourable the governor in council,

Bombay Castle, (Signed) | Wittiam Pacs, Secretary.
Aug, 2, 1791. a ‘

The priests attached to the college of Verapoli are all Car-
melites, united to the apostolic mission at Bombay, but not
subject toit. The jurisdiction of each is not marked by di-
stinct bounds; the parishes and churches being so intermin=
gled, that it is dificult to form a right notion of their ex-
tent. The bishop of Cochin, however, may be said to have
a confrol over al! the Romish churches situated on the sea-
coast immediately (with few exceptions) from Cochin to
Ramaad, and thence reund the whole island of Ceylon: the
churches are numerous; but as they are in general poor, and
are obliged to be supplied with priests from Goa, it would
appear that one vicar holds, upon an average, five or six
churches. The number of Christians composing these
churches must be great, as all and every of the fishermen
are Roman catholics, The bishop of Cochin usually resides
at Quilon. There are very few European clergy (not above
seven or eight) under the three jurisdictions, and none of
them men of education ; and it cannot be expected that the
native priests, who have been educated at Goa, or at the
seminary at Verapoli, should know much beyond their mis-
sals and rituals. The Latin communicants in the diocese
of Verapoli are estimated at 35,000. The catechumen suf-
fers no persecution on account of his religion when once
converted ; but the country governments are excessively jea-
Jous upon aie point, and do their utniosi to discountenance
any conversion. jk

The converts are from various casts, viz. Chegas or Teers,
Muckwas und Pullers; and there can be no douls but that

many

80 On.the State of the Christians inhabiting

many of higher casts would be baptized if they did nof
dread the displeasure of their governments.

It és well known that the Roman religion was introduced
by the Portuguese at the commencement of the sixteenth
century ; the number. converted in each year, upon an ave-
tage, reach to nearly 300: the number, of course, naturally
diminishes. The morality of the converts is very loose ; and
they are gencrally inferior, in this respect, to the heathens
of the country.

General Observations.

Reflecting on the whole subject, several suggestions pre-
“sent themselves to my mind; and I think I shall not be
considered as deviating from the line of my profession, or
the intention of your lordship in calling for my report, by
offering some opinions to government, which, in a moral
and political view, seem of the highest importance. It ap-
pears from the foregoing statement, that pure Christianity
is far, very far, from being a religion for which the highest
cast of Hindoos have any disrespect; and that it is the abuse
of the Christian name, under the form of the Romish reli-
gion, to which they are averse. We have, my lord, been
sadly defective in what we owed to God and man since we
have had a footing in this country, as well by departing
most shamefully from our Christian profession ourselves, as
in withbolding those sources of moral perfection from the
natives which true Christianity alone can establish; and at
the same time we have allowed the Romanists to steal into
our territories, to occupy the ground we have neglected to
cultivate, and to bring an odium. on our pure and honoura-
. ble name as Christians. The evil would be less were it not
well known that many of the Romish priests, and their
people, who have thus been allowed to grow numerous under
our authority, are supposed to be far from well affected to
the government under which they reside: indeed, in many
instances the Roman clergy are the natural subjects of na-
tions at enmity with ourselves, at the same time that they
are eminently qualified, by their influence in their profes-
sion, to do us the greatest mischief, by spreading disaffection
throughout —

the Kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore. 81

throughout every part of the extended country. The Roman
Eatholic religion, my lord, I believe I may say, without of-
fence to truth or charity, has almost always been made a po-
litical engine in the hands of its govertments; and we must
be blinded indeed by our own confidence, if we do not cal-
culate on its being so used in this great and rich country,
where it has established a footing amongst an ignorant peo-
ple; especially when it is so well understood that our eastern
possessions have been a subject of the greatest jealousy to
ail the rival nations of Europe. In my humble opinion, my
lord, the error has been in not having long ago established
free-schools* throughout every part of this country, by
which the children of the natives might have learned our
language, and got acquainted with our morality. Such an
establishment would, ere this, have made the people at Jarge
fully acquainted with the divine spring, from whence alone
British virtue must be acknowledged to flow. This would
have made them better acquainted with the principles by
which we are governed; they would have learned to respect
our laws, to honour our feclings, and to follow our maxims ;
whefeas they appear to me, generally speaking, at this mo-
ment, as ignorant of their masters as on their first landing
on these shores. I speak not of interfering with their re-
ligious prejudices, or endeavouring to convert the natives by
an extraordinary effort on the part of the British govern-
ment. Conversion, in my opinion, must be the conse-
quence which would naturally flow from our attention to

> * To give English morals to the natives in their purity, we must, I imagine,
make them read English books. Translations have hitherto been very defec-
tive in the different country languages; besides, they must be extremely cir-
cumscribed in number. I do not think the natives will come to us freely but

¢o learn English. ‘his they consider as the key to fortune; and, on the coast,

the most strict of the bramins will have little hesitation, as far as {can Icarn,

in permitting their children to attend a free-school for the purpose of learning

it; for they despise us too much to suppose there is any danger of overturn-
ing the principles of braminism. But their ill-founded, ridiculous principles
must be shaken to the very foundation by the communication of such hberal
kaowledge as a Christian can instil into the minds of youth, and fix there by
means of English books; and all this without making anyialarming attack
directly on the religion of the Hindoos.

Vol. 29. No. 113. Oct. 1807. F their

82 State of the Christians of Cochin and Travancore.

their moral instruction, and their more intimate acquaint-
ance with the English character.

Ido not mention this as an experiment, the result of
which might be considered as problematical: the experi-
ment has been already made, and the consequences have
proved commensurate with the highest expectation which
reasonable men could entertain. The Danish mission, united
with the Society for propagating the Gospel, have sent some
good men into this country with the laudable view of spread-
ing true Christianity throughout our eastern possessions ;
and the names of Swartz, Gerricke, and others, will ever be
remembered by numbers of our Asiatic subjects, of every
cast and description, with veneration and affection; and
there are happily sul living some amongst us of the same_
character.

It is true, that the object they bad move particularly in
view has, in some measure, failed ; and few good converts,
it is generally imagined, have becn made: but let it be re-
membered also that they have Jaboured under every possible
disadvantage; they have scarcely enjoyed a mere toleration
under our government, and received no kind of assistance
whatsoever; that they were few in number, and perhaps I may
say, without injustice, that they erred (as the best might err) in
the means which they adopted; but that they have done much
good by the purity of their lives, and by their zeal in spread-
ing instruction. This will admit of no denial; and I doubt
not that I may say, without the danger of contradiction, that
few and poor as these men have been, without authority or

‘power to support them, a greater and more extended portion
of heartfelt respect for the European character has been dif-
fused by their means throughout this country than by all the
other Europeans put together. We have, in my humble opi-
nion, my lord, kept ourselves too far from the natives; we
have despised their ignorance, without attempting to remove
it; and we have considered their timidity (the natural result
of their being trampled upon by one race of conquerors after
atrother) also as an object for our contempt; at the same time
that we have viewed the cunning of their character (which

is

Surgical Cases in the Finsbury Dispensary. 83

jg ever the natural resource of ignorance and weakness) as
the completion of all that is vile and deceitful. Thus have
we continued a system of neglect towards the interests of
our native subjects in points the most essential to their every
happiness, throughout the whole of our governments in this,
country. Fain, my lord, would I see a change in this par-
ticular; and I seize the opportunity which the present mo-
ment affords, to press the justice and the policy of the mea-
sure on the attention of your lordship’s government.
Having the honour to remain,
With the highest respect, my lord,
Yout lordship’s faithful and obedient humble servant,
(Signed) R. H. Kerr,

_ Madras, Senior Chaplain of Fort St. George.
Nov. 8, 1806.

XIII. Report of Surgical Cases in the Finsbury Dispensary
from the Beginning of February to the End of April 18075
with the Appearances, on Dissection, in a Case of Aneu-
rism; and some Observations on that Disease, ly Joun
TAUNTON,

Dew the above three months there were admitted 259
patients,

Cured or relieved = - 297
Died - = - - 1
Under cure ~ - - - 31

259

- ——

In the Philosophical Magazine for December 1806, a case
of aneurism is noticed, with the intention of being reported
on.

J. J.; wt. 55, was admitted a patient of the Finsbury Dis-
pensary on the 13th of November last. From his own ac-
count his health had been declining for about the space of
_ three years, and. about the beginning of July 1806 he ob-
served a swelling on the Jeft side of his neck, immediately

F2 above

84 Surgical Cases in the Finsbury Dispensary.

above the sternum 3 which now (Nov. 13th) extended from
the upper part of that bone to the superior part of the lary nx;
with extremely strong pulsations, corresponding with the
motions of the heart, which were irregular. The tamour
readily disappeared on continued pressure, but on that being
removed it immediately resumed tis former size and appear-
ance. He died on the 26th of the same month. —

On raising the sternum the aneurismal sac was in close
contact with the internal and superior part of that bone, but
did not contain ‘¢ one particle” of coagulated blood: the
origin of the sac was from the superior part of the curve of

the aerta, immediately on the right side of the left carotid
artery: the opening by which it communicated with the
aorta was about a quarter of an inch in diameter: the ascend-
ing aorta was enlarged and ossified in several points: the
muscular substance of the left ventricle of the heart was
much thickened.

The lungs were healthy, as well as the abdominal vis-
cera.

The dissection of this, together with similar cases in my
possession (the preparations of which are preserved), in

~ which this disease has proceeded till it terminated the exist-
ence of the individual sufferers, without any coagulum being
formed in the aneurismal sac, are strongly opposed to an
opinion advanced in Mr. John Bell’s Surgery. ¢* It is not
less imaginary,” says that author, ‘ that the blood can be
pushed back from the ancurismal bag into'the artery; there
is no such thing, it is a mere delusion , as the blood coagu-
lates very soon, and docs not contain one particle flnid
enouzh to be returned into the vessel.”

It is also considered by many, that in the opefation for
aneurism and wounded arterics, where it is necessary to take
up'the vessel, the passing of two ligatures round the vessel
and dividing it between the ligatures, is of modern inven-
tion; but it appears that this mode of operating was known
to Parée, Fabricius, and others.

<¢ Sometimes, also, the surgeon needs to cut the vessel
riper across, by which its ends shrinking both: ways

among

French Naticnal Institute. 85

among the flesh the flux stops; but always the surest way
is to tie the vessel before cutting it thus across®*.””

« Deinde partes utrinque, filo ligare, et transvcrsum totum
vas prescindere f.”

Joun TAUNTON,

Surgeon to the City and Finsbury Dis-

pensaries, Lecturer on Anatomy,

Surgery, Physiology, &c.
Greville-street, Hatton-carden,

October 23, 1807.

XIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies.

FRENCH NATIONAL INSTITUTE,

{Continued from vol. xxviii. p. 372.]

Wane a noble spirit of rivalship pervades the candi-
dates, the botanists who are members of the class, by con-
tinuing their labours, have shown themselves worthy of being
the chicf judges of this great assembly.

M. Ventenat is proceeding with his work upon the Garden
of Malmaison, A new number, being the 20th, has recently
appeared.

The first of the species which are there described is a su-
perb original leguminous plant from Botany Bay, and which
presents in the organs of fructification characters which have
not been as yet observed-in the vegetables of this family.
M. Ventenat does not hesitate to make a new genus of it,
to which he has referred a species also cultivated at Mal-
maison, although it has not as yet flourished ; but it resem-
bles the former so much in its appearance, that it is almost
certain it must conform to it in the organs of fructifica-
tion,

* The second of these species is an original malvaceous
plait from the Canaries, the flowers of which are as large
as those of the garden ketmia, aud are of a fire-red colour,
which is extremely rare in the plants of this family. This
work of M. Venicnat must occasion the friends of science

* Parée. + Fabricius.

+ F3 to

shy
%

86 French National Instiiute.

to regret that, from the state of his health, the author is
under the necessity of suspending his Jabours.

M. de la Billardiere las arrived at the 23d number of his
Flora of New Holland. Five new genera are there described,
one of which, in particular, which M. de la Billardiere calls
atherospernia, and which seemed to him to belong to the
family of the raxwncwli, is a tree which is likely to become
useful to France, because iis almonds have the taste and fla+
vour of nutmeg, and it is likely to be capable of supporting
the temperature of our climate.

One of our most celebrated correspondents, M. de Hum=
boldt, continues to publish, along with his fellow-traveller
M. Bonpland, the plants they have discovered in Equinoxial
America. Two numbers of this have been already published.
The family of the melastoma alone will be indebted to these
learned travellers for so great a number of new species, that
they might form a volume by themselves.

Messrs. Humboldt and Bonpland have not been less in-
dustrious in the natural history of animals.

The condor, the bird so famous: in the Cordilleras, has
never been described before their time in an uniform man-
ner, and the size of it has been much exaggerated. .

It is scarcely above one metre in height, nor more
than three or four metres in thickness. Its colour is gene-
rally of a blackish brown: the lower part of the neck is fur-
nished with a kind of collar of white feathers. The male is
distinguished by a fleshy crest upon the crown of the head,
and by a white spot upon the wing; distinctions which the
females have not, !

The observations of these two travellers upon the elec-
trical eel of Surinam (Gymmnotus electricus) are very cu-
rious, (Vide Phil. Mag, vol. xxiii. p. 356.)

M. Tenon has given an important continuation of his.

Memoirs upon the Dentition of the Horse.

After briefly recapitulating the results he had presented
in former years, he dwells at considerable length upon the
back teeth, or the three teeth of each jaw.

The lower teeth have two roots; those above have three.

. The

a)

French National Institute. 87

The fusts of the former are thinner, and crooked from front
to rear; those of the rest are crooked towards the palate:
this curvature distinguishes them from the front grinders,
whether they are the milk teeth * or those which succeed
to them, which are straight.

The former of these back grinders are visible in the al-
veolus at the time of birth; they come out at nine months,
and Jast all the life of the animal: they have also more
leneth for wearing down by mastication than all the rest.
The first and second have behind a small! longitudinal ridge,
which assists them in cutting the alveolus, but which is
speedily followed by a plane surface destined to support
the tooth which comes from behind. The third back tooth,
on the contrary, not being to be followed by any other
tooth, preserves its ridge throughout its whole length; but
it has a smal] swelling which hinders ‘it “from opening the
alveolus so rapidly as the others. All these teeth, in deve-
loping themselves, cause upon the jaw the effect of an ex-
pansive instrument, which dilates it unequally, and varies the
form of it according to the age of the animal and conform-
ably to the wants of every period of life.

Itis only by thus studying nature, in the minutest details
of her works, that we are competent to admire them as we
eught ; but how difficult is the study! ‘The description of
the horse alone, has occupied the attention of M. Tenon for
these many years.

The same respectable anatomist has also recently pub-
lished’the first volume of his ‘ Recherches d’ Anatomie et
de Chirurgie.” Te principally treats of the eyes, their dis-
eases, the exfoliation of the hones, and he has inserted se-
veral of the memoirs which we have noticed in our former
reports. This work, destined for men of science, cannot
be sufficiently analysed in a report of this nature.

M. Cuvier continues his researches into the origin of those
animals whose skeletons the revolutions of the earth have
brought to light,

* Those which make their appearance when the animal is suckling.

F4 M. de’

88 ; French- National Institute.

M. de Beauvois has published the third part of his Insectes
recueillis en Afrique et en Amerique.

The history of animals, although placed at the limits of
the physical and moral sciences, does not employ alone, in
its discussions, the theory of the action of bodies ; that of
the operation of mind also is not foreign to it.

We know, for example, that the nature and the limits of
the intelligence of the brute creation have fora long time
occupied metaphysicians, although these are points that can
be determined by naturalists only.

In this last respect such sibjects become proper objects of
inquiry to our class; and it is for this reason we heard with
much interest a memoir upon instinct, or rather against in-
stinct, which was read to us by M. Dupont de Nemours,
member of the historical class.

Considerations foreign to the subject formerly rendered
this description of subjects complicated, and Descartes fell
into an opposite extremity by making the brutes to be pure
fmachines.

If we did not know, by so many experiments, how far
the spirit of system has sometimes led the greatest of men,
we might be tempted td think that they were not serious.

Since phildsophers, however, have found it more advan-
tageous to observe simple nature herself, than to create an
imaginary one, they have returned to a train of thinking on
the subject, similar to that of the vulgar,

No one of common understanding doubts that animals are
conscious of their sensations, and are determined in their
actions by the pleasure or pain cf the moment: but further,
Cvery person adimits that they have'a strong memory; that
they form, by repeated experiments, general judgments
founded upon the sentiment of analogy ; and that they after-
wards conduct themselves according to the pleasure or pain,
these decisions make them feel, and cften inspite of the
actual attraction of a present pleasure or pain: lastly, that
these methods, well directed, can be employed by mankind
in their education, and may lead them sometimes to assume
the habit of performing with admirable precision, aetions

4 not

French National Institute. 89

not only extremely difficult in themselves, but to which
even this conformation does not seem adapted.

None of these philosophers doubt that animals have various
ways of expressing their wants and their passions, and that
those of a superior order, i. e. those which approach our-
selves in their organization, are capable of learning the sig-
nification of several of our words, which they abey, without
committing any mistakes.

But, independently of these faculties which resemble ours
in some respects, and which also vary in a considerable de-
gree in the different classes of animals, naturalists think they
have discovered in certain species, other faculties which
secm to be essentially different, and to which they have given
the name of instinct.

There are certain actions necessary to the preservation of the
species, but often entirely foreign to the apparent wants of the
individuals, oiten also very complicated, which, were we to
aitrbuie them to intelligence, would presuppose a foresight
and knowledge, which none have yet ventured to souiet to
these species ; actions which cannot be attributed to imita-
tion, because the individuals who perform them often ap-
pear tu be incapable of having been taught them, and yet
those of the same species exercise them always nearly in the
same manner: lastly, what is not less remarkable; actions
which have no reference whatever to the degree of ordinary
intelligence, and which hecome more singular, more acute,
and more disinterested, in proportion as the animals which
perform them belong to classes Jess elevated aud more stupid.
It is among the insects, the mollusques, and the worms, that
we observe the most surprising instincts ; it seems that in-
stinct and intelligence are two faculties given in arder to
compensate the want of each other, as, in other respects, fe-
cundity supplies the place of strength or longevity: it is
ever by the just proportion of sotellinensed instinct, and phy-
sical qualities, such as the delicacy of the senses or the

strength of the body, that the species are preserved.
: [To be continued.J

XV. In-

i [ 90 }
XV. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

NEW COMET.

r
Die appearance Gf a comet, visible to the naked eye, has
for about a month past excited much attention.

It was seen by Mr. Walker on the 26th of Sept. (vide

subjoined letter).

Sept. 28 it was observed by a genileman at Bath about
eight in the evening. It was then near the star in Libra,
with about 5° S. deelination, and 218 right ascension.’ On
the 30th it was-again scen at Bath about the same hour 2)°
north of the equator, and 216+ R, A.: the tail about 5°
long, and the nucleus distinct and bright. These obser-
yations are not given as correct.

On the 30th Sept. it was scen at London, but we have
got no observation.

Oct. 2, it was seen m the neighbourhood of the metro-
polis, as bright nearly as a star of the first magnitude, with
a short bushy tail.

A’gentleman at Hampstead, who observed it with care,
informs us that its place was about 20° from Arcturus, in a
line towards Beta Libra.—In Jones’s new globe the place
was in the centre of Mons Menelaus. It was seen distinctly
from 20’ before seven in the evening till low down among
the vapours in the western horizon towards nine o’clock.

From Mr. Firminger, late assistant to the royal observa-
tory, we received the following observation made on Tuesday
evening, Oct. 6:—at 8" 17’ 92” mean time, right ascension
15" 16° 4”, declination 7° 23’ 28”, observed by an excellent
small equatorial made by the late celebrated Mr. Bird.—
The length of the tail, as found by the time of its passage
over the meridian wire, extended 50’ of a degree, and its
mean breadth measured about 7’.

Octv11, at 7" P. M. the comet was one degree to the east
of the star marked Y on Hercules’s right shoulder, its de-
clination being nearly 20° north, and right ascension 243°,
being 1612’. Sets about half past nine, at 33° to the
north of the west; having increased its declination 14°, and

8 5 its

3
__

New Comet. Ot

its right ascension 23° degrees, in fifteen days; the sun
hayine passed over 15° of right ascension in the same time,
and made 5° of southern declination.

Oct. 12, it was seen, notwithstanding the strong moon-
light, in the neck of the Serpent, making nearly an equi-
lateral triangle with Alpha of the Northern Crown’ and
Beta Herculis.. The nucleus appeared still pretty bright;
but the short tail was much weakened by the force of so
much moon-light. In this last interval, it seems to have
moved about 10 or 12° more northerly, and towards the
east. .

Observations made on the Comet in tlie Neighbourhood of
Gosport, Hants :—From different observations and calcula-
tions, it appears evident that the comet passed the equator
on the 27th of September, about one o'clock P.M., with
218° right ascension; since which the following observa-
tions have been made to determine its place and daily mo-
tion:

Oct. 2d, at 7 P.M. Right Ascen, 224° Dec. 4° N.

6th,at7 P.M. - ‘+ -, 228 Dec. 7° 30’ N.
4that7 P.M. - - - 237 Dec. 15°00’ Nz

In four days it passed over 5° 40’, and in the last eight
days 10° 30’ in the arc of a great circle. The weather has
in general been cloudy, with fogs, since its first appearance.

To Mr. Tilloch.

SIR, The Manor House, Hayes, Middlesex,
October 24, 1807.

I send you a few observations on the present comet, which
may be jnserted in your valuable Magazine, if you think
them worthy a place.

I first saw it on Saturday evening, the 26th of September,
when it nearly equalled Arcturus in brightness. This Jed
me to hope | might see it in the day-time with my equatorial
instrument; and, after some attention, I readily discerned it
at eleven in the morning, but it was by no means so distinct
as Arcturus. The nucleus having gradually diminished, I
cannot now see it till the sun is set. It had passed its peri-

helion

92 New. Comet.

\

helion before it was seen in this country ; but, had we heen
on the look-out a few months ago, in the morning, before
the sun rose, we might probably have seen it in its passage
towards him. - It is now receding almost perpendicularly
from the ¢cliptic, but may probably be visible for near a
month Jonger. By a good observation to-night, comparing
it with Beta Herculis (which was in the field of-a night glass),
iv follows that star 5’ 41” in time, and has 3’ greater north
declination,

I have viewed it with a 7-feet Newtonian reflector of 61
inches aperture, with magnifying powers from 90 to 500
times ; with a Cassegrain telescope of larger size; with an
excellent achromatic of Mr. Dollond: but its effect is best
by 2 good night glass magnifying about six or eight times;
with this the tail 1s ascertained to be 1° 40’ long. To-night
it passes over a beautiful cluster of small stars, which are
not at all affected by the transmission. The tail forms an
angle of alout 35 or 40° wide, but in the night glass and to
the naked eye appears to issue immediately behind the nu-
cleus; but in the above powerful instruments the nucleus
appears of a hazy ill-defined roundness, nearly as large as
Jupiter; and the vapour appears to surround the head, and
‘then be forced behind.

{ herewith send the sketches I made this evening
(Plate II.): the first from the night glass, the second from
the Newtonian reflector magnifying ninety times.

Iam, sir,
Your humble servant,
W. WALKER,

The following notice respecting the comet appears in the
Moniteur of the 8th of October :—“ M. Pons, belonging to
the observatory at Marseilles, was the first astrouomer who
discovered the comet in France, on the 20th of last month ;
aud M. de Thuis, of the same establishment, noticed it on
the 2ist and 22d._ From the observations which they com-
municated to the astronomers at Paris, M. Burckhardt de-
termined the following orbit, which he presented to the class

of

i

.

Miscellaneous. 93

of mathematical and philosophical sciences of the National
Institute on the 5th of this month: Passage to the perihe-
lion, 25th September, 3 A.M., distance of the perihelion
0°6158; perihelion 291° 4’; nucleus 267° 47’; inclination
48° 4’: movement direct. These hints, says M. Burckhardt,
will be sufficient to calculate the route of the comet; but it
may be discovered without any trouble, being distinguisha-
ble by the naked eye, as soon as night hasclosed. It isnow
(September 25th) to the left of Arcturus,” between the stars
of the Boreal Crown and those of Libra to the west. Its
motion is one degree per day towards the north, and rather
more than a degree towards the cast. This comet was also
seen on the 28th at Vezhoul, and M. Flaugergues perceived
it on the 26th at Viviers. It seemed to him like a white
nebulous spot, very brillant, and similar to a star’ of the
second magnitude, Ii was surrounded by a nebulosity of
about six minutes in diameter, and had a tail about a degree
and ahalf in length. It is the opinion of the Institute that
this comet is difierent from any with which we are ac-
quainted.”’
MISCELLANEOUS.

The Institution for the Cure of Impediments of Speech
and the Improvement of English Oratory, No. 40, Bedford-
place, Russell-square, opened again, after the recess, at the
latter end of September; and Mr. and Mrs. Thelwall have
announced their intention of continuing the regular courses
of instruction in the different departments of elocution, both
to private and to house pupils, without interruption, till the.
ensuing annual recess, in the month of August. The fol-
lowing are the different descriptions of pupils for whose
benefit the institution is principally established, (the adults
being superintended by Mr. and the junior pupils by Mrs.
Thelwall :)—1. Ladies and gentlemen afflicted with impedi-
ments, whether from organic defects, or early imitation and
habit. 2. Foreigners desirous of instruction in the idiom and
pronunciation of the English language. 3. Persons aspiring
to the higher accoinplishments of elocution, as applicable

to the senate, the bar, the pulpit, or thestage. 4, Students
'
who

a

94 Miscellaneois.

who wish to cultivate the graces and elegancies of English
composition, and a taste for poetry, criticism, and polite
literature ; of to improve the talent for conversation, and
the art of reading with ease and propriety. Classical and
mathematical tutors attend on those pupils who require their
assistance, and proper teachers for music, dancing, and every —
other accomplishment; it being the object of the institution,
in its present enlarged establishment, not only to remedy all
defects of utterance, and initiate youth into the principles
and practice of an impressive and graceful elocution, but
also to give the last finishing to an accomplished education,
and prepare the pupil for the intercourses of polished society
and the higher departments of active life. Mr. Thelwall’s
public lectures commenced on Monday, the 26th of Octo-
ber, and will be continued every Monday evening during the
winter season.

M. Bettancourt, chief engineer to his majesty the king of
Spain, has communicated to the French Institute a new in-
vention which will render the construction of canals infj-
nitely more easy in future, in-so-far as it provides against
all useless expenditure of water. M. A. Pictet, the tribune,
who mentioned it in the report made to the legislative body
respecting the proposed law for imposing taxes for repairing
roads and bridges, &c., gives the following idea of the above
improvement :— Each lock is furnished with an adjoining
reseryoir,communicating with itatbottom: the lock is destined
to raise and lower the vessels as usual, but the vertical move-
ment of the liquid which floats them is produced by the sim-
ple immersion or emersion of a box in the contiguous reser-
voir ; the volume of this box is equal to that of the water to
be displaced, and it is so happily and ingeniously balanced,
that one man is sufficient for raising or lowering the largest;
vessel. Thus, in future, the more or less considerable sup-
ply of water, which formed one of the chief difficulties in
the construction of canals, will be reduced to the quantity.
necessary for supplying the waste by filtration and evapora-
tion.”

The

:

a

Miscellaneous. 95

The Russian company for promoting discoveries in the
north-west of America has taken possession of the island
of Sachin, in the sea of Ochosck. This island, which
extends from 45° to 52° of north latitude, has been de-
scribed by La.Peyrouse. M. de Krusenstiern examined
it, and determined astronomically different points of it,
upon his return from Japan, so that it is now perfectly well
laid down. M. de Krusenstiern has made a very minute
chart of it. He has also verified what was adyanced by
La Peyrouse, namely, that there was no passage for ship-
ping between this island and the eastern coast of Tartary.
The northern part of the island is inhabited by Tartars, and
the south-east part by Japanese.

The Spanish government has presented to the botanists
who are occupied in the completion of the Flora of Peru,
eleven drawings, perfectly executed and coloured on the
spot, of so many new species of Ouinguina, which were
sent to Spain from Peru, in January last, by don Juan Ta-
falla and don Juan Mazanilla, both eminent naturalists.
It is said that the above are in reality new species, and not
simple varicties of the same genus: thus we have now draw-
ings and descriptions of twenty-nine species of Quinquina.
Thirty additional new species are still expected, which have
been long knowr to exist in Peru.

The Austrian archduke John, who is much given to the
study of natural history, is employed at this time in a grand
botanical work, in which he gives a description of a great
number of plants hitherto unknown, of which he has found
specimens in his travels in the Tyrol, in the country of Saltz-
bourg, and Lower Austria. Some sheets of this work, which
is ornamented with a great many prints, have just appeared ;
but booksellers are not permitted to sell them. The arch--
duke destines the whole edition for his particular friends,
and persons distinguished in the science. The same prince
has just purchased the beautiful cabinet of minerals which
belonged to professor Jacquin, of Vienna, for 24,000 florins.

METEORO-

96 Meteorology.

en
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,
By Mr. Carey, or THE STRAND,
For October 1807.
Thermometer, eae
tiavs'af'thie at bh 3 Heigne of o3 5
Studie: 3 E 8 s 3 the Barom. B E Weather.
38 Ate Raed Inches. Bo 2
ad > O ae
Sept. 27] 59°} 66°) 54°) 29°45 25 |Fair
60 | 47 “71 51. |Fair
56 | 52 60 o [Rain
60 | 45 "62 41 |Fair
56 | 51 | 30°19 32 |Cloudy
64 | 56 “04 44 |Fair
64 | 57 12 15 {Fair
64 | 56 17 15 {Fair
65 |-57 03 16 |Fair
60 | 56 03 10 |Cloudy
67 | 59 ‘Ol 38 {Fair
59 | 50 | 29°85 39 |Cloudy
59 | 54 | 30°15 32 |Fair
64 | 58 13 18 |Cloudy
65.|- 57 “10 20 |Cloudy

64 | 58 “02 17 [Cloudy
65 | 59 "22 19 |Cloudy

66 | 59 290 «6f 21 «|Fair

- 65 | 55 ‘06 5 |Cloudy

é 62 | 52 “13 22 \Cloudy
62) 56 ‘Ol 18 |Cloudy
59 | 48 02. 93 «| Fair
58 | 52 “95 26 {Fair
64 | 55 | 20°89 29 «|Fair
63 | 54 “46 20 «(|Fair
56 | 50. “31 Oo {Rain |

a 51 | 41 “24 14 |Cloudy
53 446 *36 10. |Showery
55 | 50 °65 17__‘(|Fair
55 | 44 "G2 10 jCloudy

N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’clock.

——_—_—_—EE
‘

on \]

XVI. Proposal for a new System of Building Houses,
Streets, @c. By G. Fierp, Esq.

To Mr. Tilloch.

S1R
Tue analogy between the following essay and an inge-
nious paper which I have lately seen ‘* On the Pigeres in
which Trees should be disposed in Plantations,” (quoted in
No. 7 of the Retrospect, from the Farmer’s Magazine,
No. 28,) and their dependance on the same principles, have
induced mé to resume my essay, which is connected with a

‘more extensive design, and has lain-by several years, and

to publish it through your Magazine, with which I consider
it more compatible than with either of the above.

The author of the paper I have mentioned has demon-
strated that the most advantageous distribution of trees in a
plantation is hexangular, because he has observed in nature
‘© that mature strong trees, which have arisen from the seed
of any one tree, will le found nearly in the angles of an
equilateral and equiangular hexagon, with the original tree
in the centre; and because ‘* the closest order in which it
is possible to place a number of points upon a plane surface,
not nearer than a given distance from each other, is the an-
gles of hexagons, with a point in the centre of each hexa-
gon.” (See Euclid, book iv. prop. 15.)

In nature it may be observed also that the general form
of trees is circular, their branches diverging in radii from
their trunks as centres, and that nature distributes their off-
spring in circles around the parent trees. It may be also
rationally or mathematically proved that the closest arrange-
ment of circles on a plane is in hexagons ; and these are the
points of union and coincidence by a, an easy transition
is made from the subject of the above paper to that of the
present essay; coincidences arrived at, probably, by very
different routes, and strongly presumptive of the same foun-
dation in nature and truth.

Vol. 29. No. 114. Nov, 1807. G On

98 Proposal for a new System

On the general Application of the circular For m in
Architecture.

« Order is Heav'n’s first law.”
Pope’s Essay on Man.

It is notorious that the rough proportion of the diameter
to the circumference of a circle is as 7 to 22, rather exceed-
ing Ito 3. If, therefore, we draw a line AB (fig. 5, Pl. III.)
three times the length of the diameter of a circle G,
allowing -); diameter for deficiency, and divide this line
into four equal parts, we have the measure of the four
sides of a square D, equal to the circumference of the cir-

cle C.

It is evident, therefore, that the circle circumscribes a
much greater area than the square, at the same time that its
extremities lie nearer together ; that therefore the circle is of
the two the most eligible form for a building in gencral ;
and that, whatever be the materials used for erecting the
walls, less of them will be required for a circular than for a
square edifice of equal dimensions; consequently, a consi-
derable saving of materials.

To these may be added the following considerations and
advantages depending on the gencral properties of the circle:

That of all forms of building, the circular is the most
simple, the most durable, and the strongest.

That for beauty and sublimity it is far superior to other
forms, presenting one endless front (whatever is bounded
being little to the imagination, the power of which is
infinite); and it is susceptible of all the variety of ar-
chitectural decorations in arcades, colonnades, domes, por-
ticos, &c. ;

That the view from a circular edifice is much more ex-
tensive than from a square building, no angles intercepting
the sight from the windows, &c., while the light entering
laterally at the windows, enlivens the dark piers between
them.

That structures of this form may be raised upon the prin-

ciple

of Building Houses; Streets, Fe. 9g

tiple of the cask, and the materials formed into girders or
hoops resting on each other, so as to render it impossible
either to force its walls in or out; and hence the greatest
strength with the least consumption of materials.

That as hoops may be formed of the materials to connect
the parts of a building with firmness, so, to apply the idea
of the cask further, staves may be framed of wood or other
materials (fig. 2.), to be connected by hoops or bolts, and
the openings, except such as may be required for doors and
windows, may be pannelled, plastered, or bricked up.

Thus, large structures of great strength, durability, and
lightness (and portable buildings), may be framed at the
least expense, for barns, manufactories, &c., while the face
of the country would be rendered extremely picturesque and
beautiful thereby, covered, as it were, with temples.

That the natural form of covering or roof for a circular
building is the dome, which may also be constructed on the
principle of the cask to any extent, or of hoops or rings di-
minishing upwards and resting on each other, extremely
light, durable, and strong. :

That the dome is the best form of roof for resisting all
kinds of weather, requirine no other support than it has
intrinsically ; and hence it is a hollow structure affording
space for rooms which in other roofs is occupied by timbers,
and therefore requires less materials, while the dome is ac-
knowledged to be both externally and internally extremely
beautiful ; the only form of roof, perhaps, that is so; whence
other roofs have been purposely hidden by the walls, giving
to edifices the appearance of mere inclosures.

That the distribution of the timbers of the floors according
to fig. 3. would save timber and give great stifftiess and so-
lidity to the floors, as the shorter timbers would require a
proportionably less diameter, and the divisions of the house
into apartments may rest upon and support the timbers.
‘Or, if required, the Hoors may be more strongly and flatly
vaulted with masonry than in other forms of building, owing
to the power of supporting lateral pressure in walls built upon
the principle I have suggested; and the ccilings might be

Ge formed

tee) Proposal for a new System
formed into shells, fans, &c., providing at once safeness
from fire, durability, strength, and beauty.

That the stairs may be disposed with great advantage in
the centre of the building (fig. 1. F), affording the readiest
communication to all parts of the house, lighted from the
top of the dome by a lantera of the most simple or beautiful
form; while the well, spiral, or circular staircase is con-
fessedly the most beautiful and the strongest. In these latter
particulars, however, there is the greatest latitude for varia-
tion to which fancy, convenience, or even prejudice, may
prompt: nor is it necessary in a mere sketch to show how
the apartments may be laid out, the stairs and passages dis-
posed, the fireplaces and chimneys arranged, ventilation
carried on, or water conducted, &c. thiwwobunt this form
of building; suffice it that it is susceptible of all the varia
tion of other buildings in these respects, and with some
peculiar advantages, as might be shown were I intent upon
entering minutely into the subject.

Such are the advantages of this form in individual build-
ings; such as are unequalled in general by other forms for
strength, beauty, and convenience.

Nor are the advantages of this form confined to the indi-
vidual structare, but extend to general and even universal
use ; analogous to other cases physical, moral, and political,
in which that which benefits the individual is also good for
the many.

First, then, as to its general use, a circle of circular
houses (fio. 4.) has the following advantages :

That this arrangement of buildings, in common with the
individual, is stronger than any other.

That, as there are certain proportions of height to the
diameter in individual structures which best satisfy the de+
mands of taste, and are called harmonic, and as im towns
and cities the value of horizontal space is such as to occasion
houses to be built much higher than those which stand de-
tached in the country, so the diameter of these circles would
enable us to carry the individual houses to a great height with
much solidity, agreeably to these demands of taste, in one

uniform

of Building Houses, Streets, €5'c. 101
uniform design susceptible of. great variety, beauty, and
grandeur ; the interior forming one magnificent amphithe-
atre.

That each house of the circle, touching only in a point,
would require no party walls (Euclid, book ili. prop. 13),
yet would be more secure from fire, as engines, &c. could
reach a much greater surface of each edifice than in lines or
streets of square-formed houses.

That each house would be better lighted and ventilated
than in any other arrangement, and would have a better and
more extensive view and front, advantageous ,to the trading
part of the community, and agreeable to all.

That as the purpose for which men assemble in towns and
cities is social intercourse in business and pleasure,, so of all
forms in which dwellings can be arranged for the purposes
of society, that here pointed out is not only the strongest,
most commodious, ceconomical, and beautiful, but also the
least solitary; each house being within sight and commu-
nication with every other of the circle, at the same time that
privacy and distinctness are sufficiently provided for.

That a building or buildings around a circular court or
mews in the centre, may become the offices, stabling, &c.
of each house, and one common receptacle and sewer may
receive and carry off the filth from the drains of each
house, and these at a point the furthest distance from each,
the sewer running under the passage by which the court or
miews communicates with the exterior of the rotundo, so
to call this circular arrangement of houses; while, on the
other hand, water may be supplied very ceconomically either
this way or externally to éach house.

Without entering minutely into the arrangement of cir-
cular houses in other forms, I shall merely mention, that,
with many of the foregoing advantages, they may be distribu-
ted in rows, streets, or squares, the angles of which would be
all rounded off, and the same of gateways, &c., and the
beauty of which may be easily imagined.

Finally, this form is capable of universal application in
the distribution of cities, with the individual and general

G3 advantages

10¢ Proposal for a new System

advantages already pointed out, together with utilities of a
more extensive nature, as Ries demonstrable by fig. 5,
in which these circles of circular houses are grrangeable in
circles of a higher order to infinity.

It is evident, then, by inspecting the diagram, without
resorting to abstract principles, that from every circle thereof
there is a straight road to every other circle of this city:
hence the quickest possible intercourse and uninterrupted
communication with its most extreme parts; hence public
drains and water-courses, lighting and watching, &c. may
be conducted upon the most efficacious and ceconomical
plan possible, advantageous to the individual and commu-
nity; and hence the freest circulation of air, health, and
order, there being no place close or obstructed—no lanes,
courts, and alteva? scenes of filth, disease, and immora-
lity.

As to public buildings, such as palaces and offices of go-
vernment, colleges, churches, and almshouses, theatres,
prisons, forts, &c., the first might occupy a grand circle
in the centre of the city, of a proportion and magnificence
worthy of the whole; the rest might be distributed i in other
parts of the city, according to dite nature and convenience ;
and it might be shown, and may be easily conceived from
what precedes, in what manner the circular form is best
of all adapted to their respective purposes: in fine, it were
an offence to common sense to extend this description to
the further uses and variations of this plan.

On the other hand, I am aware of the opposition which
may be urged against it by long established prejudice to the
square form; the adaption of habits, tools, materials, and
instruments, to this latter form, by which circular work is
attended with difficulty and expense in nowise natural to it $
the outcry for picturesque beauty and variety where Sethe!
nical beauty, viz. simplicity and uniformity, only should
be demanded by true taste; yet the charge of sameness is
more applicable to the lineal form of streets and squares,
while this plan is susceptible, without disturbing it, of va-
riations in the dimensions and ornaments of its buildings

suited

of Building Houses, Streets, Sc. 103

suited to the various classes and ranks of society; and the
beauty, variety, change, and infinite extent of view, either
standing or moving, in such a city, may easily be imagined :
but as this plan is general, and all objections that may be
brought against it are likely to be particular, they cannot
legitimately oppose it.

To end, then, at the point of coincidence from which I
departed, the distribution of this city is into hexagons, ac-
cording with the natural arrangement of the forest pointed
out by the author of the ingenious paper I have quoted; to
which may be added, that the circle is the form indicated
by nature, and instinctively followed by inferior animals in
the construction of their habitations, and in the huts of in-
fant societies, as those of the Caffres, who observe this form
not only in their individual habitations, but also in their
kralls or villages.

Thus I have described the individwal, species, and genus
of my plan, advancing from the lowest to the highest; and
lest some readers should conclude that I am, like certain
modern politicians, so giddied by turning in a circle and
disposed to whirl all things together in my vortex, or, in
other terms, so blinded by~a system as to recommend seri-
ously the universal adoption of a perfectly uniform plan, to
the exchusion of long established customs adapted to the dis-
united and imperfect state of man, I must declare, ere I
take my leave, that the purpose of this essay is merely to
sketch a speculative model for the excitement of thought,
and from which the artist is at liberty to select, to reject al-
together, to recompose, or vary ta his purposes.

G, FIELD.

G4 XVII. On

f 104 ]

‘XVII. On the Economy of Bees. Ina Letter from Tao=
mas ANDREW Knicnt, Esq. F. R.S. to ihe Right Ho~
nourable Sir Jos—EpH Banxs, Bart., K.B. P.R.S.*

MY DEAR SIR,
Ix the prosecution of those experiments on trees, accounts —
of which yon have so often done me the honour to present
to the Royal Society, my residence has necessarily been al-
most wholly confined to the same spot, and I have thence
been induced to pay considerable attention to the economy
of bees amongst other objects} and as some interesting cir-
cumstances in the habit of these singular insects appear to
have come under my cbservation, and to have escaped the
notice of former writers, 1 take the liberty to communicate
my observations to you.

It is, I believe, generally supposed that each hive, or
swarm, of these insects remains at all times wholly uncon-
nected with other colonies in the vicinity; and that the bee
never distinguishes a stranger from an enemy. The circum-
stances which I shall proceed to state, will, however, tend
to prove that these opinions are not well founded, and that
a friendly intercourse not unfrequently takes place between
different colonies, and is productive of very important con-
sequences in their political economy.

Passing through one of my orchards rather late in the
evening in the rdoneh of August, in the year 1801, I ob-
served that several bees passed me in a direct line from the
hives in my own garden to those in the garden of a cottager,
which was about axhundred yards distant from it. As it
was considerably later in the evening than the time when
bees usually cease to labour, I concluded that something
more than ordinary was going forward. Going first to my
own garden, and then to that of the cottager, I found a very
considerable degree of bustle and agitation to prevail in one
hive in each: every bee, as it arrived, seemed to be stopt and
questioned at the mouth of each hive; but I could not dis-
cover any thing like actual resistance, or hostility, to take

* From the Transactions of the Royal Society, part ii. for 1807.
place ;

On the Economy of Bees. 105

place; though I was much inclined to believe ‘the inter-
course alice the hives to be hostile and predatory. ‘The
same kind of intercourse continued, in a greater or less de-
gree, during eight succeeding days; and, though I watched
them very closely, nothing occurred to induce me to sup-
pose that their intercourse was not of an amicable kind. ‘On
the tenth morning, however, their friendship ended, as sud-
den and violent friendships often do, in a quarrel; and they
fought most turiously ; and after this there was no more vi-
siting.

Two years subsequent to this seriod I observed the same
kind of intercourse to take place between two hives of my
own bees, which were situated about two hundred yards di-
stant from each other: they passed from each: hive to the
other just as they did in the preceding instance, and a si-
mular degree of agitation was observable. | In this instance,
however, their friendship appeared to be of much shorter
duration, for they fought most desperately on the fifth day,
and then, as in the last mentioned case, all further visiting
geased.

I have some reason to believe that the kind of intercourse
Lhave described, which I have often seen, and which is by
no means uncommon, not unfrequently ends in a junction
of the two swarms; for one instance came under my ob-
servation, many years ago, in which the labouring bees,
under circumstances perfectly similar to those I bave de-
scribed, wholly disappeared, leaving the drones in peaceable
possession of the hive, but without any thing to live upon.
{ have also reasons for believing, that whenever a junction
of two swarms, with their property, is agreed upon, that
which proposes to remove, immediately, or soon afterwards,
unites with the other swarm, and returns to the deserted hive
during the day only to carry off the honey ; for, having exa-
mined at night a hive from which I suspected the bees to be
migrating, I found it without a single inhabitant. I
was led to make the examination by information I had re-
ceived, from a very accurate observer, that all the bees would
then be absent. A very considerable quantity of honey was
in this instance left in the hive, without any guards to defend

6 is

ret On the Economy of Bees.

it; but I conclude that the bees would have returned for it,
had it remained till the next day. Whenever the bees quit
their habitation in this way, I have alwavs observed some
fighting to take place; but I conceived it to be between the
bees of the adjoining hives and those which were removing,
the former being attracted by the scent of the honey which
the latter were carrying off.

On the farm which I occupy there were formerly many
old decayed trees, the cavities of which were frequently oc-
eupied by swarms of bees; and when these were destroyed,
a board was generally fitted to the aperture which had been
made to extract the honev ; and the cavity was thus prepared
for the reception of another swarm in the succeeding season.
Whenever a swarm came, I constantly observed that about
fourteen days previous to their arrival a small number of:
bees, varying from twenty to fifty, were every day employed
in examining, and apparently keeping possession of, the ca-
vity; for, if molested, they showed evident signs of displea-
sure, though they never employed their stings in defending
their proposed habitation. Their examination was not con-
fined to the cavity, but extended to the external parts of the
tree above ; and every dead knot particularly arrested their at-.
tention ; as if they had been apprehensive of being injured
by moisture which this might admit into the cavity below ;
and they apparently did not leave any part of the bark near
the cavity unexamined. A part of the colony which pur-
posed to emigrate, appeared in this case to have been dele-
gated to search for a proper habitation; and the individual
sho succeeded must have apparently had some means of
conyeying information of his success to others; for it can-
not be supposed that fifty bees should each accidentally meet
at, and fix upon, the same cavity, at a mile distant from their
hive; which J have frequently observed them to do, ina
wood where several trees were adapted for their reception ;
and indeed I observed that they almost uniformly selected
that cavity which T thought best adapted to their use.

It not unfrequently happened that swarms of my own
bees took possession of these cavities, and such swarms
were in several instances followed from my garden to the

~ trees’;

' On the Ciconomy of Bees. 107

trees: and they were observed to deviate very httle from the
direct liné between the one point and the other; which
seems to indicate that those bees which had formerly acted
as purveyors, now became guides.

Two instances came under my own observation, in which
2 swarm was received into a cavity of which another swarm
had previous possession. In the first instance I arrived with
the swarm, and I could not discover that the least opposi-
tion was made to their entrance: in the second instance, ,
observing the direction that the swarm took, I used all the
expedition I could to arrive first at the tree to which I sup-
posed they were going, whilst‘a servant followed them; and
a descent of ground being in my favour, and the wind against
them, I succeeded in arriving at the tree some seconds be-
fore them ; and I am perfectly confident that not the least
resistance was opposed to their entrance,

Now it does not appear probable that animals so much
attached to their property as bees are, so jealous of all ap-
proach towards it, and so ready to sacrifice their lives in
defence of it, should suffer a colony of strangers, with whose
intentions they were unacquainted, to take possession, with-
out making some effort to defend it: nor does it seem much
more probable that the same animals, which spent so much
time in examining their future habitation, in the cases I have
mentioned, should have attempted in this case to enter with~
out knowing whether there was space sufficient to contain
them, and without any examination at all. I must there-
fore infer that some previous intercourse had taken place
between the two swarms, and that those in the possession
of the cavities were not unacquainted with the intentions of
their guests; though the formation of any thing like an
agreement between the different parties be scarcely consistent
with the limitations generally supposed to be fixed by nature
to the instinctive powers of the brute creation.

Brutes have evidently language; but it is a language of
passion only, and not of ideas. They express to each other
sentiments of love, of fear, and of anger; but they appear
to be wholly incapable of transmitting to each other any
ideas they haye received from the impression of external ob-

jects.

108 On,the CEconomy of Bees.

jectsey They convey to other animals of their species, on
the approach of an enemy, a sentiment of danger; but they
appear wholly incapable of communicating what the enemy
is, or the kind of danger apprehended. A, language of more
extensive use seems, from the preceding circumstances, to
have been given to bees; and if it be not, in some degree,
a Janguage.of ideas, it appears to be something very similar.
When a swarm of bees issue from the parent hiye, they
generally soon settle on some neighbouring bush or tree 5
and as in this sjtuation they are generally not at,all defended
from taiix or celd, it)isoften inferred that they are less amply
gifted with those instinctive: powers that direct to self-pre-
servation than many other animals. But their object in set-
tling soon after they leave the hive, is apparently nothing
more than to ‘collect their numbers; and they have gene-
rally, I believe always, another place to which they intend
subsequently to.go; and if the situation they select be not
perfectly adapted to secure them from injuries, it is probably,
im almost all imstances, the best they can discover, For I
have very often observed that when one of my hives, was
nearly ready to swarm, one of the hollow trees I have men-
tioned (and generally that best adapted for the accommoda~
tion of a swarm) was every day occupied by a small number
of bees, but that after the swarm had issued from that hive,
and had taken possession of another, the tree. was wholly
deserted ; whence I inferred that the swarm, which would
have taken possession of the cavity of that tree, had relin-
quished their intended migration when a hive was’ offered
them at home. And I am much disposed to doubt whether
it be not rather habit, produced by domestication,.during
many successive generations, than any thing inherent in the
nature of bees, which induces them to accept a hive, when
offered them, in preference to the situation they have pre-
viously chosen: for I have noticed the disposition to mi-
grate to exist in a much greater degree in some fansilies of
bees than in others; and the offspring of domesticated ani-
mals inherit, in a very remarkable manner, the acquired ha-
bits of their parents. In all animals this is observable ; but
in the dog it exists to a wonderful extent, and the offspring
appears

On the Giconomy of Bees. 109

appears to inherit not only the passions and. propensities,
but even the resentments, of the family from which it
“springs. I ascertained, by repeated experiment, that a ter-
rier, whose parents had been in the habit of fighting with
polecats, will instantly show every mark of anger when he
first perceives the scent of that animal, though the animal
itself be wholly concealed from his sight. A young spaniel
brought up with the terriers showed no marks whatever of
emotion at the scent of the polecat; but it pursued:a wood-
cock, the first time it saw one, with clamour and exultation:
and a young pointer, which I am certain ~had néver seen a
partridge, stood trembiing with anxiety, its eyes fixed and its
muscles rigid, when conducted into the midst of a covey of
those birds. Yet each of these dogs are mere varieties of
the same species ; and to that species none of these habits
are given by nature. The peculiarities of character can there-
fore be traced to no other source than the acquired habits of
the parents, which are inherited by the offspring, and be-
¢ome what I shall call instinctive hereditary propensities.
These propensities, or modifications of the natural instine-
tive powers of animals, are capable of endless variation and
change; and hence their habits soon become adapted to dif-
ferent countries and different states of domestication, the
acquired habits of the parents being transferred, hereditarily
to the offspring. Bees, like other animals, are probably
susceptible of these changes of habit; and thence, when ac-
customed through many generations to the hive, in a coun-
try which does not afford hollow trees, or other habitations
adapted to their purpose, they may become more dependent
on man, and rely on his care wholly for an habitation; but
in situations where the cavities of trees present to them
the means of providing for themselves, I have found that
they will discover such trees in the closest recesses of the
woods, and at an extraordinary distance from their hives;
and that they will keep possession of such cavities in the
manner J have stated: and | am confident that, under such
circumstances, a swarm never issues from the parent hive
without haying previously selected some such place to re-
tire to.

it

/

11D On the Economy of Bee.

It has been remarked by Mr. John Hunter, that the matter
which bees carry on their thighs is the farina of plants with
which they feed their young, and not the substance withe
which they make'their combs; and his statement is, I be
lieve, perfectly correct: but I have observed that they will
also carry other things on their thighs. I frequently co-
vered the decorticated parts of trees, on which I was making
experiments, with a cement composed of bees-wax and tur-
pentine; and in the autumn I have frequently observed a
great number of bees employed in carrying off this sub-
stance. They detached it from the tree with their forceps,
and the little portion thus obtained was then transferred by
the first to the second leg, by which it was deposited on the
thigh of the third: the farina of plants is collected and trans-
ferred in the same manner. This mixture of wax and tur+
pentine did not, however, appear to have been employed in
the formation of combs; but only to attach the hive to the
board on which it was placed, and probably to exclude other
insects, aud air during winter. Whilst the bees were em=
ployed in the collection of this substance, I had many op-
portunities of observing the peaceful and patient disposition
of them as individuals, which Mr. Hunter has also, in some
measure, noticed. When one bee had collected its load, and
was just prepared to take flight, another often came behind
it, and despoiled it of all it had collected. A second, and
even a third load was collected, and lost in the same man-
ner, and still the patient insect pursued its labour without
betraying any symptoms of impatience or resentment.
When, however, the hive is approached, the bee appears
often to be the most irritable of ail animals; but a circum-
stance I have observed amongst another species of insects,
whose habits are in many respects similar to those of bees,
induces me to believe that the readiness of the bees to attack
those who approach their hives, does not in any degree
spring either from the sense of injury or apprehensions of
the individual who makes the attack. If a nest of wasps be
approached without alarming its inbabitants, and all com-
_munication be suddenly cut off between those out of the
nest, and those within it, no provocation will induce the

é former

we

On the CEconomy of Bees. 1id

Former to’ defend their nest or themselves: but if one estapé

from within, it comes with a very different: temper, and
appears commissioned to avenge public wrongs, and pre-
pared to sacrifice its life in the execution of its orders. I
discovered the circumstance, that wasps thus excluded from
their nest, wou!d neither defend it, nor themselves, at a very
early period of my life; and I profited so often by the dis-
covery, as a’schoolboy, that I am quite certain of the fact
I state; and I do not entertain any doubt, though I speak
from experiments less accurately made, that the actions of
bees, under similar circumstances, would be the same *.
Mr. Hunter conceived bees wax to be an aniinal substance,
which exuded between the scales of the belly of the insect;
but Iam strongly disposed to believe that it is collected from
plants, and merely deposited between the scales of the belly
of the bee, for the joint purposes of being carried with con-
venience, and giving the temperature necessary for being
moulded into combs: and J am Jed to this conclusion, not
only by the circumstance of wax being found in the vege-
table world, but also by haying often observed bees eim-
ployed in detaching something from the bases of the Ieaves
of plants with their forceps, which they did not deposit on

* A curious circumstance relative to wasps attracted the notice of some of
my friends last year, and has not, I believe, been satisfactorily accounted for.
A greater number of female w asps were observed in different parts of the
kingdom, in the spring and early part of the summer of that year, than at al-
most any former period; yet scarcely any nests, or labouring wasps, were
seen in the following autumn ; the cause of which Tbelieve J can explain. At-
tending to some peach-trees in my garden, late in the autumn of the year 1805,
on which] had been making experiments, 1 noticed, during many successive days,
a vast number of female wasps, which appeared to have been attracted there
by the shelter and warmth of a south wall; but I did not observe any males.
At length, during a2 warm gleam in the middle of one of the days, a single
male appeared, and selected a female close to me; and this was the only male
Isaw in that season. The male wasp, which is readily distinguishable from
the female and labourer, by his long antenne and shining wings, and hy a
blacker and more slender body, is rarely seen out of the nest, except in very
Avarm days, like the drohe bee ; and the nests of wasps, though very abun-
dant in the year 1805, were not formed till remarkably late in the season;
and thence I gonclade that the males had not acquired maturicy till the wea-
ther had ceased to be warm, and that the females, in consequence, retired te
their long winter sleep without having had any intercourse with them.

their

ile On a fulminating Combination of Silver,

their thighs; as they do (I believe inyariably) the farina of-
plants. I have also frequently observed: the combs of very
late swarms to be remarkably thin, and white, and brittle’
which are circumstances very favourable to the conclusion
that the wax is a vegetable substance, for it would probably
be less abundant during autumn than in summer ; and that
portion which had remained on the plants till late in the
season would hence become more colourless by exposure to
light, as well as more dry and brittle, than when at first ex-
uded ; but were it an animal substance, there does not ap-
pear any reason why it should be more dry and brittle, or
less abundant, in the autumn than in the spring and sum-
mer. The conclusions of Mr. Hunter are, however, always
drawn with so much caution, and he united so much skill
and science with the greatest degree of industry, that it is
not without much hesitation and diffidence that I venture
to put my opinion in opposition to his authority.

T. A. Knicut.

Elton,
May 4, 1807.

XVII. Note upon a fulminating Combination of Silver, of «
white Colour and a crystalline Appearance. By M. Drs-
COSTILS *,

Tere is sold at Paris, as an object of amusement, a de-
tonating powder inclosed in slips of cards cut lengthways.
The powder is placed at one end of this carcase, and the
other end is made smaller in order to be more easily distin-
guished. If this last extremity is seized with one hand, and
the other end is held over the flame of a candle, a detona-
tion speedily takes place, with a sharp noise and a violet-
coloured flame; the card is torn to pieces and scorched, and
the part which the composition touched is covered with a
slight metallic coating of a grayish white.

Having been consulted upon the nature of this substance,
which is sent ready prepared to Paris, [ was conyinced, after

* From Annales de Chimie, tom, Ixii. p. 199.
various

of a white Colour and a crystalline Appearance. 113

various experiments, which it \s needless to detail, that it is
a combination of oxide of silver, ammonia, and a vegetable,
substauce; a combination analogous, as we find, to that
which constitutes the fulminating mercury of Mr. Howard.

We may obtain this combination, which I shall call de-
tonating silver, to distinguish it from the fulminating silve
of M. Berthollet, by dissolving silver in pure nitric acid, c
by pouring into the solution, suis it is effecting, a sufficient
quantity of rectified alcohol, or by pouring the alcohol iu
a nitric solution of silver, with a considerable excess of acid.

In the first case we must slightly warm the nitric Acid in
which the silver has been put, until the solution begins to
take place, i. e. until the first bubbles begin to be perceived.
We must then remove it from the fire pale immediately add
a sufficiency of alcohol, so that no nitrous manent may be
liberated. The mixture of the two liquors takes place with
a disengagement of heat; the effervescence immediately re-
commences, without disengagement of nitrous gas; it gra-
dually increases, and there 1s diborhted at the same time a
strong smell of nitrous ether. The liquor soon becomes
eis and we see deposited a white crystalline and very
dull powder, which must be separated, when it ceases to
fall down, and washed several times with small quantities
of water.

When we employ the solution of silver ready made and
strongly acid, we must heat it slightly and afterwards add
the alcohol ; the heat produced by the mixture, which gra-
dually talkies place, soon determines a considerable elanitia
tion, and the powder is suddenly deposited *.

This powder has the following properties :

It is white and crystalline ; but this last appearance is va-
riable with respect to the volume and the lustre of the cry-
stals.

It changes a Jitile in the light, It inflames with a sharp
detonation by, heat, agitation, or long continued friction.

* It is almost needless to observe, that the mixtyre of alcohol and warm
nitric acid is subject to many accidents, and we must consequently operate
upon very small quantities.

Vol, 29. No. 114. Nov, 1807, H

Simple
‘

114 On a fulminating Combination of Silver.

Simple pressure, provided it be not very strong, produced
no change. )

{t detonates upon being struck by the electrical spark.

It is slightly soluble in water, It has an extremely strong
metallic taste.

Concentrated sulphuric acid determines its inflammation,
and the acid itself is driven to a great distance: dilute sul-
pburic acid seems to decompose it slowly.

Weak or concentrated muriatic acid decomposes it in-
stantly, by forming muriate of silver. The quantity of mu-
riate obtained indicates about 71 per cent. of metallic silver
in the detonating silver; at first there is liberated a very
decided smell of prussic acid, but I could not collect any
sensible traces of it.

The nitric acid decomposes it with the assistance of ebul-
lition ; and we obtain nothing but nitrate of silver, and ni-
trate of ammonia, if it be hing, enough continued.

It is decomposed by means of sulphuretted hydrogen; the
ammonia and the vegetable matter remain in the liquor.

Caustic potash decomp. ses it; biack oxide of silver is se-
parated, and ammonia is dise awed

lt is dissolved in ammonia; but by a slow evaporation it
is separated from it with its proper colour and other proper-
ties, and particularly that ‘of detonating by means of heat,
and not by. simple contact.

Finally, its property of most importance to consider, is
the action it has upon the animal ceconomy. M. Pajot-la-
Forét, who bas made a great number of experiments upon
this subject, is convinced that very small doses are sufficient
to kill the strongest animals: when tried upon some cats,
all of them expired in the most horrible convulsions. It is
jn short, without exception, one of the most violent poisons
with which the metallic combinations present us.

XIX. Ob-

fi ts»)

XIX. Observations and Measurements of the Planet Vesta.
By Joun JEROME ScunoetTer, #.R.S. Translated
from the German*.

Ar our very first observations with magnifying powers of
150 and 300, applied to the excellent new 15-feet reflector,
we found the planet Vesta without any appearance of a disc,
merely as a point like a fixed star, with an intense, radiating
light, and exactly of the. same appearance as that of any
fixed star of the sixth magnitude. In the same manner we
both afterwards saw this planet several times with, our naked
eyes, when the sky was clear, and when it was surrounded
by smaller invisible stars, which precluded all possibility of
mistaking it for another. ‘This proves how very like the in-
tense light of this planet is to that of a fixed star.

As the observations and measurements of Ceres, Pallas,
and Juno, were made with the same eye-glasses, but with
the 13-feet reflector, we soon after compared the planet
Vesta with the same glasses of 136 and 288 times magnify-
ing power in the 13-feet reflector. In both these telescopes
its image was, without the least difference, that of a fixed
star of the sixth magnitude, with an intense radiating hight ;
so that this new planet may with the greatest propriety be
called an asteroid.

April 26th in the evening, at nine o’clock, true time, I
succeeded in effecting the measurement of Vesta, with the
same power of 288, by means of the 13-fcet reflector, with
which that of Ceres, Pallas, and Juno, had been made; and
when viewed by this reflector it also appeared exactly in the
same manner. Of several illuminated discs, of 2:0 to 0:5
decimal lines, which I had before made use of for measuring
the satellites of Saturn and Jupiter, the smallest disc only of
05 lines could be used for this purpose; by it the rounded
nucleus of the planet Vesta, when the disc was at the di-
stance of 611-0 lines from the eye, appeared at most of the
same size, and I must even estimate its diameter as one-
sixth smaller. If, therefore, we attend not to the ful! mag-

* From Transactions of the Royal Society, part ii. for 1807.
He nitude

116 Account of a new Budiometer.

nitude of the projection, but the estimation just mentioned,
it follows, by calculation, that the apparent diameter of the
planet Vesta is only 0:488 seconds, and consequently only
half of what I have found to be the apparent, diameter of the
fourth satellite of Saturn.

This extraordinary smallness, with such an intense, ra+
diant, and unsteady light of a fixed star, is the more re-
markable, as, according to the preliminary calculanons of
Dr. Gauss, there can be no doubt that this planet is found
in the same region between Mars and Jupiter, in which
Ceres, Pallas, and Juno, perform their revolutions round the
sun; that, in close union with them, it has the same cos-
mologivcal origin ; and that, as a planet of such smallness,
and of so very intense light, it is comparatively near to the
earth. This remarkable circumstance will no doubt be pro-
ductive of important cosmological observations, as soon as
the elements of the new planet have been sufficiently deter-

mined, and its distance from the earth ascertained by cal-
culation.

Lilienthal,
May 12, 1807.

XX. A new Eudiometer, accompanied with Experiments
elucidating its Application. By WitLt1AM HasLEeDINE
Pepys, Esq.*

Tue important part which atmospheric air performs in
maintaining the principle of life in animals, in combustion
of every earrptioel! the acidification and oxidation of a
great variety of substances, and in numerous other processes
both of nature and art, gives a high degree of interest to
every thing calculated to rend our knowledge of its na-
ture and properties.

The evidence furnished by modern chemistry f the ex-
istence of many other aériform substances increases this in-
terest, especially when it is considered that, owing to their
possessing some of the most obvious properties of atmo-

* From Transactions of the Royal Socieiy, part il. for 1807.

spheric

Account of a new Eudiometer. 117

spheric air, as transparency, elasticity, and a power of great
expansion on being exposed to an increase of temperature,
they were, with very few exceptions, till lately; confounded
either with common air, or not even suspected to exist.

When to these considerations we add the facility with
which somie products, especially the gaseous, are evolved, in
circumstances under which, in the present state of our know-
ledge, we should hardly look for them; the power they pos-
sess of decomposing each other, and by an interchange and
new arrangement of principles, of producing compounds pos-
sessing properties altogether different from those of the in-
egredients supposed to be present; and the facilities which
every new detection of unsuspected principles affords towards
the discovery of others, and consequently the composition
of analysis of bodies before held to be simple, it will not
appear a matter of surprise that the subject of eudiometry
should have obtained a considerable degree of attention from
modern philosophers.

This would be an improper place to enumerate all that
has been done or proposed by different men of eminence
towards the production of something like a perfect systemi
on this important subject ; yet some allusion to their labours
appears to be indispensable, and will be the means of pre-
venting some circumlocution in our further progress.

Hales* appears to be the first who observed absorption to
take place in common air, on mixing it with air obtained
from a mixture of Walton pyrites and spirits of nitre; and
that in this process from being clear they became “a reddish
turbid fume.”

Dr. Priestley, as he informs us in his ** Observations on
different Kirtds of Air+,’”? was much struck with this expe-
riment, but never expected to have the satisfaction of seeing
this remarkable appearance, supposing it to be peculiar to
the Walton pyrites ; till encouraged by a suggestion of Mr.
Cavendish, that probably the red appearance of the mixture
depended upon the spirits of nitre only, he tried solutions
of the different metals in that acid, and, catching the air

% Statical Essays, vol. i, p. 224; vol. ii. p. 280.
+ Phil. Trans. for 1772, p. 210.
IH 3 which

>

118 Account of a new Eudiometer.

which was gencrated, obtained what he wished. To the
air thus produced he gave the name of wilrous air, and,
from its possessing the properties of absorbing that portion
of atmospheric air which he calls dephlogisticated, first pro-
posed its being used as a test for ascertaining the purity of
air. His method of proceeding was ingenious and simple ;
known quantities of the air to be tried, and of nitrous gas,
being mixed, were admitted, after the diminution of volume
occasioned by their union, into a graduated tube, which he
denominated a eudiometer.

It was with the test of nitrous gas that Mr. Cavendish*
made bis masterly analysis of the air at Kensington and
London; and by many laborious processes and comparative
trials, obtained results, the accuracy of which has been more
distinctly perceived the more the science of chemistry has
advanced.

The slow combustion of phosphorus, which unites with
the oxygen to form an acid, and the decomposition of the
fluid sulphuret of potash, are certain methods of separating
combinations consisting of oxygen and azote; but the de-
composition is effected so slowly by the action of these sub-
stances, that it became a desirable object to discover some
means for accelerating the process. This was supposed to
have been effected by Guyton, who proposed heating. the
sulphuret of potash; in doing this, sulphurated hydrogen
gas, however, is frequently evolved, which, mixing with
the residual gas, increases its quantity, and renders the re-
sult fallacious. 4

The green sulphate of iron impregnated with nitrous gas,
first discovered by Dr. Priestley, and recently used by Mr.
Davy for eudiometrical purposes, from its possessing the
property of absorbing oxygen gas from the atmosphere,: is
much to be preferred to the ctl with nitrous gas, as the:
green sulphate of iron does not combine with the other gases:
with which the nitrous gas is commonly found to be con=

. taminated, and more certain results are obtained. _

Having had occasion to repeat many of the experiments

* Phil. Trans. for 1783.

of

Account of a@ new Eudiometer. 119

of others, and to make some new ones, I soon found what
every one who has been engaged on the same subject must
have experienced—that an apparatus more commodious than
has yet been proposed, and at the same time capable of giving
correct results, with the greatest minuteness, was still a de-
sideratum in eudiometry. To detail the various ideas that
presented themselves on the subject, would be an unneces-
sary encroachment on the time of this society; but as 1 at
last succeeded in contriving an instrument possessing the
above properties in a very eminent degree, I flatter myself,
I shall not be thought intrusive in offering a description of it.

This apparatus, (Plate IV.) which is of easy construction,
and extremely portable, consists of a glass measure M, fig. 1,
graduated into hundred parts; a small gum-elastic bottle, B,
fiz. 2, capable of containing about twice the quantity of the
measure, and furnished with a perforated glass stopper, S,
which is well secured in the neck of it by means of waxed
thread wound tight round it; and a glass tube, T, fig. 3,
also graduated, but into tenths of the formed divisions, or
into thousand parts of the measure.

The glass stopper, made fast in the neck of the gum-
elastic bottle, as above mentioned, has its exterior end ground
with emery, exactly to fit the mouth of the measure; to the
lower end of the graduated tube T, is cemented 4 small steel
cock, which ts secured into the neck of a very small gum-
elastic bottle by means of waxed thread, SB, fig. 4: the
other end of the tube is conical, so as to present a very small
orifice.

Besides this, the apparatus is furnished with a kind of
moveable cistern C, in which the tube can be slid easily up
and down, aad yet in such a manner that the water or other
liquid in the cistern may not pass. This is easily accom-
plished by means of a cork fitted into its mouth with a per-
foration through its axis to receive the tube. The cistern, |
when in use, is to be filled with water or mereury, as the
experiment may require, and becomes a secondary cistern
for the measure, as will be miore clearly understood by the
following description of the method of performing experi-
ments with this. instrument.

"Ha The

wis’

120 Account of anew Eudiometer.

he measure is filled with the air or gas, over mercury,
in the usual manner, and the clastic bottle is charged with
the solution intended to be employed as the re-agent ; the
orifice of the stopper is then iiserted into the mouth of the
measure in the mercury, and pressed home to its place.

The bottle and measure being thus united, are to be firml?
held at the joint. Upon pressing the former, a portion of ’
the fluid is injected into the latter, and the gas suffers a de+
gree of compression, by which the action of the affinity be-
tween it and the fluid is accelerated. On taking off the pres+
sure, the bottle, by its elasticity, endeavours to obtain its
original form, and receives back the fluid. This process
should be continued as long as any absorption is observed
to take place: When absorption ceases, the bottle is to be
separated from the measure under mercury, and the quick-
silver which remaims in the measure being brought to the
level of that-in the cistern, the quantity of absorption is
then to be determined, which is done as follows: ;

Suppose atmospheric air has been the subject of the ex-
periment, and consequently a large residuum left; first note
the hundred parts; and then to obtain a knowledge of the
fractional parts, remove the measure into the small cistern
iu which the graduated tube filled with mercury is placed:
slide the tube above the surface of the fluid in the measure,
and, opening the stop-cock, suffer the mercury to descend_
till it has drawn the fluid in the measure toa ftegular divi-
sion; then stop the cock, and register the hundred parts on
the measure, and the thousand parts on the graduated tube 3
he united quantities give the sum of the résidual gas. Ob-
serve well in registering the thousand parts, that the fluids
are exactly on a level-on the outside and inside of the mea-
sure; this may be easily effeeted by pouring out a portion
of the liquid of the small cistern, or adding thereto.

If instead of atmospheric air, a gas is tried, which, so far
as it is uncontaminated, can be nearly wholly absorbed by
the re-agents employed, the process becomes exceedingly
simple; for if the residuum is ander a hundred part of the
measure, it niay be transferred completely into the graduated
tube, and its quantity at once ascertamed.

The

Account of a néw Eudiometer. it

The stopper S would have injected the fluid with greater
velocity had it been straight; but it would not then have
been so convenient in the analysis of compound gases, where
both mercury and hot solutions are occasionally employed,
ds the mercury would have so compressed the fluid in the
bottle, in introducing it under that metal, as to have thrown
out a portion of its contents, and also have robbed the hot
solutions of the bi teri which was necessary for theit
perfect action.

As to the size of the measure M, I have generally pre-
ferred the cubic inch divided into hundred parts. This is
easily effected by taking a stout glass tube about half an
inch calibre, sealing one end, then weighing 3422 erains
of mercury, equal to 252 grains of distilled water, at tem-
perature 50° Fahrenheit. This is introduced into the tube;
the extra lencth is cut off with a sharp-edged file, care being
taken to leave a sufficient portion to grind the perforated
stopper S into its mouth.

The divisions are obtained by a small measure, made from
a glass tube sealed at the end, and cut off exactly to the hun-
dred parts of a cubic inch, equal to 34°2 grains of mercury,
which being ground flat, is stopped by a piece of plate glass,
and the divisions marked by the diamond upon the intro-
duction of each hundred part of mercury into the mea-
sure M.

The tube T is divided into tenths of the measure M, or
thousand parts of a cubic inch. This is done by measuring
one bundred part of a cubic inch into the tube, and dividing
it into ten parts, marking the divisions with fluoric acid or
black enamel.

To prove the accuracy of the instrument, I shall proceed
to relate a few experiments made with it.

The elastic bottle being filled with the solution of sulphate
of iron impregnated with nitrous gas, and the measure with
atmospheric air, they were united, and by gentle injection

it’s were absorbed. '
- If the experiment is made hastily, the impregnated solu-
tion loses a portion of its nitrous gas, which must be again
absarbed by a solution of green sulphate of iron.
For

192 Account of a new Eudiometer.

For ascertaining the purity of nitrous gas, the bottle may
be charged with the solution of green sulphate or mariate of
iron.

For carbonic acid gas, with lime or barytic water.

For oxygen gas, with the solution of green sulphate of
iron impregnated with nitrous gas.

For sulphurated hydrogen gas, a solution of nitrate of
‘silver was put in the elastic bottle, and sulphurated hydro-
gen gasf into the graduated measure. Upon the first in-
jection, the solution took a black flocculent appearance,
and a considerable portion of the gas was absorbed. After
repeating the process as before mentioned, the residuum was
Toss

The instrument may be likewise generally applied to the
analysis of mixed gases. ~

I have been ‘able completely to separate the carbonic acid
gas from the sulphurated hydrogen by a solution of the ni-
trate of silver or of mereury, employed hot. The carbonie
acid gas is expanded in this process, but on standing over
mercury it returns to its original volume. The sulphurated
hydrogen, in this instance, is taken up by the metallic ni-
trate. It shonld be here observed that the acetite of lead
must not be used, as the carbonic acid gas, even at a high
temperature, decomposes it, forming carbonate of lead.

The propriety of using the solutions hot, will be scen,
when we recollect that the carbonic acid gas is soluble in
the water of solution at the common temperature of all these
compounds.

Nitrous gas and carbonic acid gas may be separated by
means of the hot solution of the green sulphate of iron. To
effect this, heat a solution on a glass capsule, over a spirit
lamp, until ebullition. Having filled the measure with the
compound gas, charge the elastic bottle with the hot solu-
tion, and unite them. ‘The nitrous gas, in two or three in-
jections, will be absorbed, changing the colour of the solu-

* Obtained from oxymuriate of potash by heat.
+ Obtained from sulphuret of potash by diluted muriatic acid, and collected
and preserved with the greatest care.

tion,

Account of anew Eudiometer. 123

tion, while the carbonic acid gas will be a little rarefied, but
no absorption of it will take place.’

Previous to these experiments on the compound gases, [
had tried several on the carbonic acid, sulphurated hydrogen,
and nitrous gases in their unmixed states. 100 parts of pure
alcoho] at the common temperature will absorb 70 parts in
volume of carbonic acid, and the same quantity of sulphu-
rated hydrogen. Alcohol impregnated with the latter, pre-
cipitates the solutions of the nitrates of lead, silver, and mer- |
eury, of a dark brown colour. Nitric acid of the specific
gravity 1°4, and also of 1:25, absorbs carbonic. acid gas,
without any apparent change in the nitric acid. Sulphu-
rated hydrogen gas is also absorbed by nitric acid, which
eccasions a slight milky cloud or precipitate therein.

The solutions of nitrates of barytes, strontian, and lime,
absorb carbonic acid gas equal to half their volume, without
any apparent alteration.

Solutions of nitrates of barytes, strontian, and lime, also
absorb sulphurated hydrogen gas, equal to six-tenths of their
volume, with a slight change of colour; the solutions thus
impregnated precipitate solutions of nitrates of mercury and
of silver, and acetite of lead of a dark brown colour, and
would be useful as chemical re-agents.

Carbonic acid gas, as I have before stated, decomposes
solutions of the acetite of lead, hot or cold, forming a pre-
cipitate of carbonate of lead.

Carbonic acid gas is absorbed by the solution of the green
sulphate of iron under the temperature of 100° Fahrenheit ;
but this is only the action of the water of solution. If the
temperature be near boiling, or above 180° Fahrenhcit, the
solution increases the volume of the gas without the slightest
absorption; after carbonic acid gas has in this way been
treated with the hot solutions, it is still soluble in water at
the common temperature, or in aqueous solutions of lime
or alkali. :

_ Nitrous gas is absorbed by solution of sulphuret of pot-
ash, with a separation or formation of sulpbur., Upon in-
jecting the solution the sides of the measure take a milky

appearance,

124 Account of a new Eudiometer.

appearance, which on the second injection is washed dowit
insoluble in the liquor.’ About 80 parts from 100 of gas
are absorbed.

Nitrous gas is also absorbed by nitrate of copper in solu=
tion, without any peculiar alteration.

In these experiments great care must be taken not to in+
crease the temperature of the gas by the hand. To prevent
this, I use a pair of small circular-mouthed forceps, lined
with cloth, which firmly grasp the measure, fig. 5; and if
the experiments should in any way be delayed; a corre=
Sponding mdnometer will always be sufficient to correct the
error occasioned by change of atmospheric temperature and
pressure.

To ascertain the quantity of carbonic acid gas contained
in oxygen gas (of a known purity) afler combustion or de-
composition of carbonaceous substances, lime water will be
found sufficient.

If it is required to know the purity of the oxygen gas after
the carbonic acid gas has been absorbed, the best method
and the least liable to error, is te withdraw the residual oxy-
gen gas by means of the small graduated tube before de-
scribed.

To do this, remove the measure into the small cistern of
mercury ; press the quicksilver out ef the ‘small bottle by.
the fingers and thumb, and let the tube rise a sufficient

‘height within the measure, that the bottle, extending itself,
shall withdraw the whole of the gas from the measure,
taking care that the cock be stopped as soon as it has com=
pleted it, and also to prevent the solution from entering the

- tube. ;

If the opening of the tube is small, it may then be drawn
down into the mercury, without the possibility of any por-
tion of the gas escaping, while the measure is dried or
cleaned, ora fresh one filled with mercury supplied to re-
ceive it.

This way of transferring will be found very advantageous,
particularly in the separation of gases, liable to be absorbed
under certain tcisperaiures, and also where a new series of

re-agents

Account of anew Eudiometer. 195

re-agents are to be employed, as from the depositions of
former solutions on the glass measure a source of considera -
ble error would arise.

The residual oxygen gas being thus transferred into a clean
dry measure, the processes before described for examining
oxygen gas may be then used ;, or the quantity of carbonic
acid gas (for examination) being found by lime water, an-
other measure of the gas may be tried, first with the green
sulphate of iron impregnated with nitrous gas, and then with
the ‘green sulphate in solution only: these will take up both
the carbonic acid gas and the oxygen gas, leaving only such
residual gas as the oxygen might haye originally conenned:

Transferring is not here necessary, as the two solutions
may be used. one after the other, taking care to use the so-
lution of green sulphate last.

Where it is not requisite to transfer the gas into a dried
or clean measure previous to the use of another solution, as
in the instance I have just mentioned, a quantity of the first
solution may be withdrawn, by simply filling the elastic
bottle with mercury, then joining it to the measure, and by
inclining the measure, the mercury by its gravity will dis-
place the former solution,

If at any time the gas should get drawn into the elastic
bottle, it may be very easily returned into the measure, by
inclining sometimes the bottle, and sometimes the measure,
The only error that could arise from this is, an increase af
temperature in the gas, whiclt may be rectified by plunging
the whole apparatus into mercury or water of the standard
temperature.

The advantages of this construction of the eudiometer will
be readily perceived by all those who are in the habit of
making chemical experiments. The portion of gas to he
examined is completely under command ; it may be agitated
without the least fear of the intrusion of any atmospHeric
air, and the process thereby yery materially shortened. The
gum-clastic is a substance so little acted upon by chemical
agents, that a great variety may be employed; and, above
all, we can very conveniently use hot solutions, which will

be,

196 On Public Libraries.

be found an important auxiliary in the examination of some
compound gases.

Simple as this instrament may appear, it Is calculated to
extend our knowledge of the different kinds of air, by the
precision and accuracy which it enables us to obtain, and
which solely constitutes the value of every experiment. A
degree of confidence is inspired from knowing that we can
depend upon our results; and hence much valuable time,
which would have been wasted in uncertain, if not useless,
investigations, may be directly applied to the advancement
of science.

XXI. On Public Libraries.
To Mr. Tilloch.
SIR, :
z . t.
As you have, in some former Magazines, paid an atten-

tion to the establishment of public subscription libraries ;
that is, such libraries as are supported by the subscription
of its members, the property whereof remains with them,
in contradistinction to the common circulating libraries, I
beg leave to forward you a small communication on that
subject. I shall give you a plain relation of facts, which
took place about four years ago, at North Shields, in the
county of Northumberland, by which the laudable object in
view was completely attained. And I shall subjoin a plan
pursued by the members of the same library, by which they
have now built a very excellent house, and are not only
rent free, with most comfortable accommodations, but I
believe their receipts, in part, pay also their worthy hbrarian.
About the time mentioned above, three or four gentlemen
living in North Shields, and who subscribed to an extensive
library of that kind about seven miles off them, met, and
were conversing about the expense of threepence per volume
to them for carriage in addition to their annual subscription
of 21s. One of the gentlemen proposed to print off as many
hand-bills as would circulate very freely through the town,
recommending to the inhahitants the establishment of a
public library, and at the same time proposing a mecting of

3 the

Ox Public Libraries. 127
the friends to such an institution, on the morning of a cer-
tain day, at a very respectable inn, there to consult on the
practicability of such a scheme. In a few minutes after the
time appointed for the meeting, the number became so great
that they were obliged to adjourn to a larger room in another
house. A library was carried unanimously, and a subscrip-
tion from each member of a guinea per year was determined
on, About forty or fifty gentlemen immediately subscribed
their guineas in advance; a room was obtained; and * The
North Shields Subscription Library” established at once og
a permanent and respectable basis,

The second part of the object I have in view in this com-
munication jis, to show how to accomplish such purposes at
the cheapest rate, and at the same time to obtain pleasant
and convenient accommodations: and this I shall do from
the same respectable and active association.

About twelve months ago they received notice to quit the
rooms they occupied: upon this, the plan of a library being
endeared to them, as they advanced in the experience of its
benefits, the committee proposed to purchase a piece of
ground in a very advantageous situation in the high part of
North Shields, and to build a house for their accommoda-
tion; and that a subscription paper should be laid upon the
table. The sum for the purchase and building was esti-
mated at 800/., and the members at that period amounted
to about 250; and the shares were not to be less than 5J.
No member could take more than one for the first four
weeks ; after that, if the list was not filled, as many might
be taken as the case allowed, Within six weeks 12001L., or
near that sum, was subscribed! The ground was purchased,
The house is now finished, consisting of three stories: the
ground floor contains two spacious and, elegant counting-
houses, which are Jet for 40/, or 50/7. each, thus doing
much more than paying the interest of the money; the se-
cond story contains the library room (which would hold with
ease 7000 or 8000 volumes) and a room for the cominittee:
above those is the attic story, which they mean to turn into
an observatory: the purchasing of a telescope, and other
astronomical instruments, is already in contemplation: the

whole

128 On Public Libraries.
whole is to be finished by an elegant town clock, by which
means this liberal institution will be in some degree assimilated

to the immediate convenience of North Shields. To obtain”

this, the committee divided themselves into parties of two
or three, and went round the town, soliciting subscriptions
from the inhabitants, whether members of that association
or not,

I had forgot, in its proper place, to observe, that the four
gentlemen who first began this institution agreed, that if
the distribution of the ie bills had no permanent effect,
the expense was to be divided amongst them, which they
calculated at two or three shillings a-piece, or, in their
words, ‘* about the expense of half a bottle of wine :”—and
what was that sacrifice for the probability of so respectable
an advantage? If it did succeed, the expense was to be

charged to the general funds. Thus, from the efforts of
four gentlemen, at a very distant probability of the risk of

two, three, or even four shillings each, has an establishment
been formed, which is an ornament to the town of Shields :
a lasting monument of the activity of these four friends of
science: an mstitution from which peculiar benefits are
already obtained by that town : a perpetual memorial of their
alacrity i in the cause of literature, and whose advantages must
extend to generations yet unborn. The advantages hist’
by the present inhabitants must be more rapidly enjoyed than
in almost any other literary association ; for, to their lasting
honour, it must be observed, that from the beginning, ladies
were admitted on equal terms, and with equal advantages as
gentlemen ; and I believe, were the subscription list for the
new Wetahe examined, it out be found that nearly half-of
the sum had heen subscribed by the first. Tocrown the climax
of advantages, the rents of the offices on the ground-floor, as
I before observed, do much more than pay the interest of the
money advanced, and thus the library-room, &c. is rent
free. Would not this consideration alone induce even the
selfish man and the miser to countenance such plans of im-
mediate advantage ?
Dear sir, yours ever,
Joun CLENNELL.

Newcastle upon Tyne: PP. S,

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D. 129

P.S. Should you think this worthy of insertion in your
excellent miscellany, and the subject require further dis-
cussion, I shall be glad to meet the opinions of your cor-
respondents. From the collision of sentiments it may hap-
pen that ideas may be suggested, by which the smallest
general subscription library may become interesting even to
a subscriber to the largest.

XXII. Memoirs of the late Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

[Continued from p. 48.}

W: have to behold Dr. Darwin, for the sake of domestic
happiness, quitting his old established connections, and a
circle of the most sincere and attached friends, to settle at
Derby, where he could be only known by reputation. A mind
less elevated than his might have trembled at such a change,
unless he had aspired to place his residence in London,
where he was invited by several noble families, and which
would have been a fit sphere for such extraordinary mental
endowments. Confidence soon followed him at Derby ;
and it is certain, wherever he had chosen to settle himself,
there any opposition would have been vain, and his esta-
blishment certain. His bride had a good jointure of her
own; and added to Dr. Darwin’s acquisitions in the prac-
tice of physic, his fortune was princely, and men of the first
talents were ever at his table: yet he never relaxed the
Jeast in his medical exertions, and a letter was whiinsically
once addressed “* To Doctor Darwin, on the road.’? He
had such powers of mind, that the carriage became his
study, and his travelling companions were books for study ;-
he also contrived a writing-desk in his chaise; and if is said
that most part of his performances were composed when
travelling. His medical work, which occupied his chief at-
tention, and which he calls Zoonomia, or The Laws of Or-
ganic Life, he Jaboured incessantly at for twenty years, and
then, not as the poet recommends,

oe Labs foe nonum prematur in annum—
a Hor.
Vol. 29. No. 114. Nov. 1807. I but

130 - Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

but this work was, after its full completion, kept by the
author another twenty long years, that,” as the Doctor
expresses himself in the preface, ‘ by frequent revision, it
might be made more worthy the acceptance of the public.”
Every year keeping on amending and altering something, he
_ was at last persuaded by his friends, and the alluring offer of
a thousand pounds from Jobuson the bookseller, to present
it in the year 1794 to the world. < If,” says the learned and
ingenious author, ‘* I could expend another forty years in
the practice of medicine, I make no doubt I could bring this
work nearer perfection, and render it more worthy the atten-
tion of philosophers.’’—Preface to volume ii.

{t will be found by attention to the subject, that medicine,
as a science, is chiefly indebted to lotanical physicians.
Only peruse the labours prior to the exertions of botanical
physicians, and the whole'is a chaos; and to such the world
owes that clearness, order, and precision, which appear in
many medical writings of the present day.

“¢ The purport of the following pages,’’ says Dr. Darwin
in his preface, ‘is an endeayourto reduce the facts belong-
ing to ANIMAL LIFE into classes, orders, genera, and species ;
and, by comparing them with each other, to unravel the the-
ory of diseases. It happened, perhaps unfortunately for the
inquirers into the knowledge of diseases, that other sciences
had received improvement previous to their own; whence,
instead of comparing the properties belonging to animated
nature with each other, they, idly ingenious, busied them-
selves in attempting to explain the laws of life by those of
mechanism and chemistry ; they considered the body as an
hydraulic machine, and the fluids as passing through a series
of chemical changes, forgetting that animation was its es-
sential characteristic.

* The great Creator of all things has infinitely diversified
the works of his hands, but has at the same time stamped a
certain similitude on the features of nature, that demon-
strates to us, that the whole is one family of one Parent. On
this similitude is founded all tational analogy ; which, so
Jong as it is concerned in comparing the essential properties
of bodies, leads us to many and important discoveries ; al

when

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 131

when with licentious activity it links together objects, other-
wise discordant, by some fanciful similitude, it may indced
collect ornaments for wit and poetry, but philosophy and
truth recoil from its combinations.

<The want of a theory, deduced from such strict analogy,
to conduct the practice of medicine, is !amented by its pro-
fessors ; for, as a great namber of unconnected facts are dif-
ficult to be acquired, aud to be reasoned from, the art of
medicine is in many instances less efficacious under the di-
rection of its wisest practitioners ; and by that busy crowd,
who either boldly wade in darkness, or are led into endless
error by the glare of false theory, it is daily practised to the
destruction of thousands: add to this the unceasing injury
which accrues to the public by the perpetual advertisements
of pretended nostrums: the minds of the indolent be-
come superstitiously fearful of diseases which they do not
labour under, and thus become the daily prey of some
crafty empiric.

“* A theory founded upon nature, that should bind together
the scattered facts of medical knowledge, and converge into
one point of view the laws of organic life, would thus on
many accounts contribute to the interest of society. It
would capacitate men of moderate abilities to practise the
art of healing with real advantage to the public; it would
enable every one of literary acquirements to distinguish the
genuine disciples of medicine from those of boastful ef-
frontery, or of wily address; and would teach mankind in
some important situations the knowledge of themselves.”

To estimate truly the great superiority of this work, it
may be necessary to say something of the several medical
Nosologies that have been published. Linneus, who had
established order in the three kingdoms of nature, at-
tempted a Nosology, or distinction of diseases into classes,
orders, genera, and species. His plan is founded upon the
same principles introduced into botany, and his arrangement
is founded upon artificial distinctions. As no natural orders
will, like Ariadne’s clue, lead the naturalist through the la-
byrinth of nature, so diseases were hy him classed accord-
ing to symptoms, not the frequently obscure causes of them,

12 The

132 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D.

The illustrious Sauvage, the contemporary of Linnatusy
both inventors of new systenis* of botanical arrangement,
carried the ideas of Linnzus to a still higher degree of per-
fection, and published in 1762 a very learned Nosology,
where not only diseases are arranged into their respective
classes, orders, genera, and species, and accurately defined,
but also the causes of each disease is attempted to be pointed
out, with the method of cure.

Various attempts were after that made to improve this
important part of medical knowledge, and hence we possess
the systems of Vogel, Sagar, Macbride, &c. and lastly the
more finished Jabours of the celebrated Dr. Cullen, who for
a great number of years, with great honour to himself, held
the academic chair in the university of Edinburgh. In his
<* Synopsis Nosologiae Methodicae,” the learned professor
has added to his work the republication of the systems pre-
ceding, of which he. speaks rather in too contemptuous
terms: Auctores hi aliquid laudis sine dubio merentur ;
quanquam enim eorum opera, rem ex toto confecisse mi-
nime videantur, nec multum utilitatis tyronibus inexpertis
afferre queant; in arte tamen versatis, et in dignoscendis
morbis aliquatenus exercitatis, nonnihil commodi exinde
oriri possit.””

He goes on to say, greatly complimenting Linnzus,
* Norunt eruditi, III. Livnn2um methodum plantarum per-
fectiorem reddidisse, eo, quod botanices linguam, usurpatis
ubique vocibus maxime idoneis et definitis, magis accuratam
effecit; nec quidem dubito quin delineatio morbi, ad instar
delineationis plantae, a Lr1nnzo exhibitac, in Nosologia mul-
tum profutura sit. In Nosologia autem, ac in botanice, non
aeque necessarium esse videtur; tum quod tam multae re-
rum circumstantiae, in Nosologia, ac in Botanice, notandae
non veniunt ; tum quod symptomatologia, in quibuscunque
fere Pathologiae generalis systematibus exhibita, plarimunr
in hac re jam praestitit. Fatendum quidem, symptomato-
logias vulgo prolatas, nec adeo plenas esse, nec adeo ex-

* Linnzus is the author of a System founded on the Sexes of Plants, and
Sauvage contrived a Method of finding out Plants by their Leaves,

8 actasy

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 133

actas, ac optandum esset; et, si pleniores fierent, atque
ubique voces magis idoneac et accurate définitae usurcpatae
essent, ad Nosologiam perficiendam certe plurimum conferre
posset. In hujusimodi vero tentamine cavendum est, ne
distinctiones nimium subtiles et dubiae adbibeantur, uti ab
auctore Olservationum Clinicarum, quae Warsaviae annis
1767 et 1768 prodierant, factum fuisse opinor. Ipse qui-
dem hujusmodi nihil tentavi, tum quod plus exegisset, quam
per longum tempus mihi suppetivit otil, tum quod mihi
minus necessarium videtur, qui voces apud medicos usitatis-
simas, et in sensu vulgo recepto ubique fere usurpandas
curaverim.

“¢ Ouod ad denominationem morborum attinet, in Classi-
um, Ordinum, et Generrm nominatione, eas, quantum potul,
reculas observavi, quae in Linnzr Criticts Botanicis, ‘et in
ejusdem Philosophia Botanica, ab illo auctore traduntur.

«¢ Quando notiones novae sunt proferendae, etiam nova
nomina imponenda sunt, et ejusmodi aliquando, parcius
licet, adhibuimus. Cum vero nomenclaturam medicam,.
diuturno usu confirmatam, sine gravi causa mutare non
liceat ; ne factum esset ubique cnravimus ; quod tamen IIl.
Linn2uM saepe, nulla urgente necessitate, fecisse, et Vo-
GELIUM appellationibus novis, frivolis, ineptisque, Nosolo-
giam deturpasse, observavimus.”

Unfortunately for the perfectioning of this branch of sci-
ence, Cullen was no botanist, and hence his definitions will
not stand the test of careful examination.

Not to take up too much of the valuable time of the phi-
Josophic reader, we shall only point out a few instances of
such deficiency. Cullen defines Enrerrtis (Inflammation
of the bowels) : :

“ Pyrexia typhodes ;\ dolor abdominis pungens, tendens,
circa umbilicum torquens ; vomitus ; alvus pertinaciter ad-
stricta :”” of which he makes two species.

** Species sunt,

1, Enreriris (phlegmonodaea) dolore acuto, pyrexia
yehementi, vomitu et alvo astricta.

© 2, Enteritis (erythematica) dolore et pyrexia leniori-
bus, sine vomitu, et cum diarrhoea,”

T3 Now

134 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

Now the generic character should certainly run through
all the species, and what should be the discriminating charac-
ter is, by Cullen, here brought into the generic character:

After this specimen, and never corrected, though his
Nosology went through five editions, the philosophic
wor!d may form a tolerable opinion of Dr. Cullen’s want of
judgement, or rather knowledge, in this department of
science.

In his definition of Nepuritis, he introduces “ testiculi
ejusdem lateris retractio aut dolor;” which symptom, as
only applicable to one sex, should not have come into the
generic character, but only been made as a remark.

In the clays of fevers comes Opontavera, (the tooth-
ache,) defined as arising from a caries in the tooth, though
he finishes his work by genus ‘* CLI, Carts, ossis exulce-
ratio.”

In his class ExanrHeMATA, he thus badly defines Va-
RIOLA (small-pox) :

<¢ Synocha contagiosa cum vomitu, et ex epigastrio ptes-
50, dolore,

“ Tertio die incipit, et quinto finitur eruptio papularam
phlegmonodearum, quae, spatio octo dierum, in suppuratio-
nem, et in crustas demum abeunt, saepe cicatrices depres -
sas, sive foveolas in cute, relinquentes.

<* Species sunt, )

«© I, Varroa (discreéa) pustulis paucis, diseretis, circum-
scriptione circularibus, turgidis; febye, eruptione facta, pro<
tus cessante. .

«TJ, Varioxa (confluens) pustulis numerosis, confluenti-
bus, circumscriptione irregularibus, Alageidicg parum eleva-
tis; febre post eruptionem perstante.”

. © Surely, as the infection,”’ to use the language of Dr.
Darwin, ‘ from the distinct small-pox, produces also the
confluent kind, and vice versd, it would seem more analogous
to botanical arrangement, which Nosologists profess to imi-
tate, to call the distinct and confluent small-pox, rather va-
rieties than species.”

- He is still more defective in his definition of VaricEnLa
(chicken-pox) :_

fe gh ites: «* Synocha,

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 135

“ Synocha. Papulae post brevem febriculam erumpen-
tes, in pustulas variolae similes, sed vix im suppurationem
euntes ; post pawcos dies in squamulas, nulla cicatrice
relicta, desinentes.”’

As his definition of the small-pox is too precise*, so that
of the chicken-pox is too vague; and that the last never
leaves an escar behind, is contradicted by daily experience.

Amongst the order ExanrHEeMATA, which is thus defined,

« Morbi contagiosi, semel tantum in decursu vitae ali-
quem afficientes ; cum febre incipientes; definito tempore
apparent phlogoses, saepe plures, exiguae per cutem spar-
sae,’ appear ErystrEtas and Urricarlia.

That these are not contagious is known to all; and to
eonfirm it, Dr. Thornton suffered himself to be inoculated
by Dr. Willan, from a subject who had the Erysipelas in.
the highest degree, without any effect.

Rather with more propriety, Pestis (the Plague) is ar-
ranged under this order, disjointed from TypHus Gravior,.
although it is supposed that persons are liable to the attack
more than once in their life.

Speaking of ArHTua (the thrush), Cullen, in a note, very
properly says, “* An aphtha inter exanthemata recensenda
sit, dubito.”

In the class NeurosEs, which is thus defined,

© Sensus et motus laesi, sine pyrexia idiopathica, et sine

-morlo locali,”

Ts the order ADYNAMTAE,

*¢ Motus involuntarii, sive vitales: sive naturales, immi-
nuti,” under which is classed Gen. XLV. Dyspepsra.

And in the order of Spasmi (spasms), in the above class,
appears Pertussis (the hooping-cough), disjointed from
those other contagious disorders which only appear once
ix the course of lite.

» Diarruoea (a looseness) is made to figure also among
the spasms.

Psora (the itch), and Fractuna (a fracture ofa bone),
follow each other under the same class and order.

Dr. Darwin very justly complains ‘ that Nosologists are

* Theseven, nine, and eleven day pock is in themouth of evory old woman.

14 nat

136 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M, D.

not only defective in the distribution of their genera, but
that in many genera the species have also no analogy to each
ether, either in respect to their proximate cause, or to
their proximate effect, though they may be somewhat simi-
lar in less essential properties: thus the ¢hiz and saline dis-
charge from the nostrils on going into the cold air of a
“frosty morning, which is owing to the deficient action of the
‘absorbent vessels in the nostrils, is ome species; whereas
the viscid mucus discharged from the secerning vessels of
thesame membrane, when inflamed, is another species of
the same genus, viz. catarrhus, which bears no analogy in
respect to the cause, or the mode of treatment.”

Dr. Darwin wished his Nosology to point eut at the
same time the mode of treatment, a plan first happily
suggested by the unfor tunate Dr. Brown, which reflects
on that illustrious genius the highest and eternal honour :—
Unfortunate, have I said? Yes i ERA his merits did not

glead to respect and honour, but persecution : and his wife
is now lodged in London, ina lane, in great distress :—
and Dr. Darwin, aware of this coincidence, Dr. Brown
having first published*, was obliged to appeal to his friends,
“ who,’ he declares, ‘ saw his Zoonomia twenty years
before it appeared in the world,”

‘The uses of the method here offered,” says Dr. Darwin,
“tothe public, of classing diseases according to their proximate
causes, are, first, more distinctly to understand their nature
by comparing their essential properties. Secondly, to fa-
cilitate the knowledge of the methods of cure; since, in
natural classification of diseases, the species of each genus,
and indeed the genera of each order, a few perhaps ex-
cepted, require the same general medical treatment. And
lastly, to discover the nature and the name of any disease
previously unknown to the physician; which I am per-
suaded will be more readily and more certainly done by this
natural system, than by the artificial classifications already
published.

* Dr. Darwin, speaking of Dt. Brown’s Elements of Physic, says “ that it is,
with a few exceptions, a work of great genius.” The wife and sons of Dr,
Brown have met with a liberal benefactor in Dr. Thornton. .-

«© The

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 137

** The common names of diseases are not well adapted to
any kind of classification, and least of all to this from their
proximate causes. Some of their names in common lan-
guage are taken from thé remote cause, as worms, stone of
the bladder; others from the remote effect, as diarrhoea,
salivation, hydrocephalus ; others front some accidental
symptom of the disease, as-tooth-ache, head-ache, heart-
burn; in which the pain is only a concomitant circum-
stance of the excess or deficiency of fibrous actions, and
not the cause of them. Others again are taken from the
deformity occasioned in consequence of ibe unnatural
fibrous motions, which constitute diseases, as tumours,
eruptions, extenuations: all these therefore improperly
give names to discases; and some difficulty is thus occa-
sioned to the reader in endeavouring to discover to what
class such disorders belong.

** Another difficulty attending the names of diseases is,
that one name frequently includes more than one disease,
either existing at the same time or in succession,
Thus the pain of the bowels from worms is caused by the
increased action of the membrane from the stimulus of
those animals: but the convulsions which sometimes suc-
ceed these pains in children, are caused by the consequent
yolition, and belong to another class. _,

© To discover under what class any disease should be ar-
ranged, we must first investigate the proximate cause : thus
the pain of the tooth-ache is not the cause of any diseased
motions, but the effect ; the tooth-ache therefore does not
belong to the class of Sensation. As the pain is caused by
increased or decreased action of the membranes of the tooth,
and these actions are owing to the increase or decrease of
irritation, the disease is to be placed in the class of Irrita-
tion.

“‘ To discover the order, it must be inquired, whether the
pain be owing to increased or defective motion of the
pained membrane; which is known by the concomitant
heat or coldness of the part. In tooth-ache without inflam-
mation there is generally a coldness attends the cheek in its
vicinity; as may be perceived by the hand of the patient

himself,

138 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

himself, compared with the opposite cheek. Hence odon-
talgia is found to belong to the order of Decreased Irritation.
The genus and species must be found by inspecting the
synopsis of the second order of the class of Inritation, See
Class 1. 2. 45.12.

<< Phis:may be further elucidated by considering the na-
tural operation of parturition ; the pain is occasioned by the
inereased action or distention of the vessels of the uterus,
in consequence of the stimulus of the feetus ; and is there-
fore caused by increased irritation ; but the actions of the
abdominal muscles in its exclusion are caused by the pain,
ahd belong to the class of Increased Sensation. See Class
H. ¥. 1.12. Hence the difficulty of determining, under
what class of diseases parturition should be arranged, con~
sists in there being two kinds of diseased actions compre-
hended under one word; which have each their different
proximate cause.

“In Sect. XXXEX. 8. 4., andin Class If. ¥. 1. 1., we
have endeavoured to give names to four links of animal
causation, which conveniently apply to the classification of
diseases: thus in common nictitation, or winking with the
eyes without our attention to it, the increased irritation is
the proximate causey the stimulus of the air on the dry
cornea is the remote cause; the closing of the eyelid is the
proximate effect; and the diffusion of tears over the eye- .
ball is the remote effect. In some cases two more links of
causation may be introduced ;_ one of them may be termed
the pre-remote cause ; as the warmth or motion of the at-
mosphere, which causes greater exhalation from the cornea.
And the other the post-remote effect; as the renewed
pellucidity of the cornea; and thus six hnks of causation
may be expressed in words.

<¢ But if amid these remote links of animal causation any of
the four powers or faculties of the sensorium be introduced,
the reasoning is not just aceording to the method here pro~
posed; for these powers of the sensorium are always the
proximate causes of the contractions of animal fibres ; and
therefore in true Jangnage cannot be termed their remote:
causes. From this criterion it may always be determined,

whether

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 139

whether more diseases than one are comprehended under
one name; a circumstance which has much impeded the
investigation of the causes and cures of diseases.

‘‘ Thus the term fever is generally given to a collection of
morbid symptoms; which are indeed so many distinct
diseases, that sometimes appear together, aud sometimes
separately : hence it has no determinate meaning, except it
signifies simply a quick pulse, which continues for some
hours; in which sense it is here used.’’

Let us now criticise this new plan of arrangement. The
first volume, I speak now of the quarto edition, (575 pages)
is taken up in clearing the way fora perfect understanding of
the second. It consists of forty sections: ‘¢ Section I. OF
motion. II. Explanations and definitions. JII. The mo-
tions of the retina demonstrated by experiments. IV. Laws
of animal causation. V. Of the four faculties or motions
of the sensorium. VI. Of the four classes of fibrous moe
tions. VII. Of irritative motions. VIII. Of sensitive
motions. IX. Of voluntary motions. X. Of associate
motions. XI. Additional observations on the sensorial
powers. XII. Of stimulus, sensorial exertion, and fibrous
contraction. XIII. Of vegetable animation. XIV. OF the
production of ideas. XV. Of the classes of ideas.
XVI. Of instinct. XVII. The catenation of animal mo-
tions. XVIII. Of sleep. XIX. Of reverie. XX. OF
yertigo. XXI. Of drunkenness. XXII. Of propensity to
motion. Repetition. Imitation. XXIII. Of the circulato-
ry system. XXIV. Of the secretion of saliva, and of tears,
and of the lacrymal sac. XXV. Of the stomach and in-
testines. XXVI. Of the capillary glands, and of the mem-
branes. XXVIII. Of hemorrhages. XXVIII. The pa-
ralysis of the lacteals. XXIX, The retrograde motions of
the absorbent vessels. XXX. The paralysis of the liver.
XXXI. Of temperaments. XXXII. Diseases of irritation.
KXXIII. Diseases of sensation. XXXIV. Diseases of vo-
lition. XXXV. Diseases of association. XXXVI. The
periods of diseases. XXXVII. Of digestion, secretion, nu-
trition. KRXXVIII. Of the oxygenation of the blood in the

lungs

140 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D.
jungs and placenta. XXXIX. Of generation. XL. Of

ocular eppetiad

The second is called Part IT., * containing a Chatidientest of
Diseases distribated into natural classes, according to their
proximate causes, with their subsequent orders, genera, ang
species, and with their methods of cure,”

His motto is extremely modest :

« He, ut potero, explicabo; nee tamen, quasi Pythius Apollo, certa ut
sint et fixa, que dixero; sed ut Homunculus unus e multis probabiliora con-
jectura sequens. ; Cic. Fusc. Disp. 1. 1. 9

But having finished his work, he devotes an entire page to
exultation, which he makes thus :

* Lines, tole placed at the end of Zoonomia. Bya Friend.
“ JAMOVE OPUS EXEGI. Hor.
«© The work is done !—Nor Folly’ s active rage,
Wor Envy’s self, shall blot the golden page ;
Time shall admire, his mellowing touch employ,
And mend the zmmorigl tablet, not destroy.”

Taking the word Disease in the usual acceptation of the
word, nothing can astonish so much as our finding among the
catalogue of Diseases, ‘‘ Class I. Genus 3, Species 13, Crea-
TRIX VULNERUM,—Healing of wounds. Class I. Order 3, Ge-
nus 1, Species 1, Ruminat10,—Chewing the chud. Class IT.
Genus 7, Species 7, RuBor A CALORE,—Blush from heat,
Same class, order, and genus, species 10, DisTENTIO MAMU-~
LARUM,—Distention of the nipples. Class III. Genus 2;
Species 7, Ina,—Anger. Species 24, Symparu1a,—Pity.
Class III. Order 2, Genus 1, Species 12, Somnus,—Sleep,.
Class IV. Genus 4, Vira ov1,—Life ofan egg.” —

However these may excite a smile, this is more owing to
deficiency of language, and a want of acquaintance with the
sublime notions of the author, than arising from the things
themselves: for the ingenious fabricator of this new system
of Nosology has before acquainted the reader that his work
treats of “ motion ; for that the whole of nature is composed
of two parts, one of which might be termed spirit, and the
other matier. These motions have formed the objects of
natural philosophy and cheniistry ; and the motions depen-~
dent upon life, medicine,”

Had

Journéy to the Frozen Sea, &c. 141

Had Dr. Darwin used the word action instead of diseases,
he would not have so greatly surprised the world by his
wonderful catalogue, as he terms his diseases ; nor would the
splitting all the symptoms, and constituting out of these so
many diseases, now appearing all novelties, have so greatly
offended at the onset, the medical reader brought up in the
old school. Brown, Danwin, and Tuornrox, have
each formed a new system of nosology. Upon the whole,
we caunot approve of the old plan of artificial arrangement,
not quite that invented by Linnzus, Vogel, Sauvage, Cullen,
&c., nor even that of Dr. Brown, who divides his discases
into Sthenic and Asthenic, for the facility of comprehension
and cure, nor even that of Dr. Darwin, but that invented
by Dr. Tuoarnxron*, who begins with diseases of the head,
and so descends to other parts, dividing these into sthenic
and asthenic, and reserving a separate class for contagious
diseases, and fevers, or general affections.

[To be continued.]

XXIII. Some Account of a Journey to the Frozen Sea, and
of the Discovery of the Remains of a Mammoth. By
M. Micuaet Anams, of St. Petersburgh. Translated
from the French t. m4 .

I SHOULD have reason to reproach myself were I to delay any
longer the publication of a discovery in Zoology, which is
so much the more interesting to be detailed, as it once more
presents to our vicw a species of animal, the existence of
which has been a subject of dispute among the most cele-
brated naturalists.

I was informed at Jakoutsk by M. Popoff, who is at the
head of the company of merchants of that town, that they
had discovered upon the shores of the Frozen Sea, near the
mouth of the river Lena, an animal of an extraordinary size:
the flesh, skin and hair were in good preservation, and it was

* This System may be scen in his “ Philosophy of Medicine,” fourth ed'-
tion, five volumes, a work which deserves a place in every library.

, + For this communication we are indebted to the Right Hon. Sir Joseph
Banks, Bart. P. R.S. &e. &c.
: supposed

342 Journey to the Frozen Sea, and

supposed that the fossile production, known by the name
of mammoth horns, must have belonged to some animal
of this kind.

Mr. Popoff had, at the same time, the route to com-
municate the drawing and description of this animal; I
thought proper to send both to the President of the Peters-
burgh Academy. The intelligence of this interesting disco-
very determined me to hasten my intended journey to the
banks of the Lena as far as the Frozen Sea, and | was anxious
to save these precious remains, which might perhaps other-
wise be lost. My stay at Jakoutsk, therefore, only lasted a
few days. I set ont or the 7th of June 1806, provided with
some indispensable letters of recommendation, some of
which were addressed to the servants of the government,
and others to merchants, from whom I hoped to derive
some advantages. On the 16th of June I arrived in the
small town of Schigarsk, and towards the end of the same
month I reached Kumak-Surka: from this place I made an
excursion, the express object of which was to discover the
mammoth. And I shall now give a sketch of my journey.

The contrary winds, which lasted during the whole sum=
mer, retarded my departure from Kumak- Surka ; ; this place
was then inhabited by 40 or 50 Toungouse pee of the
Batouline race. Fishing was their ordiniany occupation, and
the extreme activity of these people filled me with admira-
tion: the women, old men, and even children, laboured
with indefatigable assiduity in laying up provisions for win-
ter. The strongest went a-fishing, the less robust were oc-
cupied in cleaning and drying the fish. The whole Shores
were covered ath scaffolding, and the cabins so filled with
fish that we could scarcely enter them. An innocent gaiety
reigned in every countenance, and all exhibited the utmost
activity. The fishermen sang while casting their nets, and
others were dancing the Charya, which is a dance peculiar
to the country. I cannot sufficiently express the emotions
of joy which I felt at the sight of these pleasing scencs.

I was convinced, while upon the spot, that the inhabitants
of the North enjoy happiness even in the midst of the
frozen regions. ‘

But

Pi Ss es ee

2

fea’

boa

Discovery of the Remains of a Mammoth. 143

But what astonished me still more, was the picturesque
view of the opposite side of the Lena. This river, which is
one of the larzest in Siberia, majestically rolls its waters
through the mountainous chain of Verschejansk: tt 1s here,
near its mouth, entirely devoid of islands, and much nar-
rower, deeper and more rapid than in any piace of its course.
The mountains here appear in a great variety of forms; they
are of a brilliant whiteness, and of a savage and hornd
aspect ; sometimes they represent immense columns which.
rise into the clouds, sometimes they resemble the ruins of
antient forts, and as if they were parts detached from the
mutilated remains of grotesque and gigantic figures.

Further of the horizon is terminated by a chain of high
mountains, where eternal snow and ice dart back the rays of
the sun. .

These landscapes are of exquisite beauty; an expert
draughtsman would look in vain for similar views in any
other place of Siberia; and I am not astonished that the
picturesque situation of Kumak-Surka should become the ob-
ject of a national song, known solely on the shores of the
Frozen Sea. I reserve the communication of this curious
article until I publish the detailed account of my journey.

The course of the winds having at last changed, I thought
of pursuing my route, and [I had my reim-deer brought
across the river. Next day at day-break, Iset out accom-
panied by a Toungouse chief, Ossip Shoumachoff, and by
Bellkoff, a merchant of Schigansk, and attended by my
huntsman, three Cossacs, and ten Toungouses.

The Toungouse chief was the first person who discovered
the mammoth, and he was proprietor of the territory
through which our route lay. Belikoff the merchant had
spent nearly his whole lite on the shores of the Frozen Sea.
His zeal, and the details he procured me, have the strongest
claims to my gratitude: I am even indebted to him for the
preservation of my life at a moment of imminent danger.

At first I found great difficulty in sitting upon a rein-
deer; for, the saddle being attached by a girth of ieather only,
it was very insecure, and often occasioned me very disagree-
able falls, Besides, my position was yery inconyenient for

want

144 Journey to the Froxen Sea, and

want of stirrups, which are never used among the Toun-
gouses.

On our route we traversed high and rugged mountains,
valleys which followed the course of small rivulets, and
parched and savage plains, where not a shrub was to be
seen. After two days wavelling, we at last approached the
shores of the Frozen Sea. This place is called by the Toun-
gouses Angardam, or terra firma. In order to attain. the
mammoth. it was necessary to traverse another isthmus,
called Bykofiskoy-Mys or Tumut. This isthmus, which
projects intu a spacious gulf, is to the right of the mouth of
the Lena, and extends, as I was informed, from South-east
to North-east for about 30 or 35 wersts*. Its name is pro-
bably derived from two points in the form of horns, which
are at the North extremity of this promontory. The point
upon the left hand, which the-Russians call by way of emi-
nence Bykofiskoy-Mys, on account of its greater extent,
forms three vast gulfs, where we find some scttlements of
Jakouts: the opposite point, called Maustach on account of
the great quantity of floating wood found upon its shores, is
one half smaller; its shore is lower, and this district is com-
pletely inhabited. The distance from the one pomt to the
other is estimated at four leagues and a half, or 45 wersts.
Small hills form the higher part of the peninsula of Tumut ;
the remainder is occupied by lakes, and all the low grounds
are marshy.

The principal lakes are: Ist, Chastirkodl, which means
the lake of geese; 2d, Kourilakodl; 3d, Beulgeuniachtach-
koél, the Jake of hillocks; 4th, Omoulachkoél; 5th, Mou-
gourdachkoél, where a particular kind of salmon is found,
called tchir; and 6th, Bachofkodl. The lake No. 4 is the
largest, and No. 5 is the deepest of all. The lake No. 6
derives its name from two famous adventurers, Bachoff and
Schalauroun, who spent a whole winter on its banks. We
still sce the ruins of a cabin in which they resided. The
history of their unfortunate end is told by M. Sauer in his
Journal of Billings’s expedition.

* 10 wersts are equal to 6 Epglish geagraphical miles,
q giish geagrap ;

The

Description of the Remains of a Mammoth. 145

The isthmus we have mentioned is so narrow at some
places that the sea may be seen on both sides. The rein-
deer perform a periodical: transmigration every year, during
which they abandon these places, in order to,proceed. by the
Frozen Sea towards -Borschaya and Uitjansk, and for thts
purpose they collect in large trodps about autumn, In order
to hunt these animals with greater prospect of success, the
Toungouses have divided the peniusala into, cantons, jsepa-
rated by .palings. They frighten the deer. by, loud. cries,
which they-utterall at once, by letting dogs loose at them,
and by fans which they attach to the palings, and which are
agitated by the wind. ‘The terrified, rein-deer |throw:them-
selves into the water in order to, reach some neighbouring
island, where they are pursued and killed by the hunters. |

‘On the third day of our journey we pitched,our tents:a
few hundred ‘paces from the mammoth, upon a hillock called
-Kembisagashaeta, which signifies the stone with the broad
side.

Schoumachoff related ‘to me the. Saito of the discovery
of the mammoth in nearly the following terms :—

** The Toungouses, who are;a wandering people, seldom
remain long in one place.» Those who live in the forests
often spend ten years and more in traversing the vast regions
among the mountains: during this period they never visit
their homes. Each family lives in an isolated. state from
the rest; the chief takes care of them, and knows no other
society. If, after several years absence, two friends mect by
chance, they then mutually communicate their adventures,
the various success of their hunting, and, the quantity of

-peltry they have acquired. After having spent some days
together, and consumed the little provisions they have, they
separate cheerfully, charge each other with compliments for
their respective friends, and leave it to chance to bring
them together again. Such is the way of life of these
innocent children of Nature. The T: oungouses who in-
habit the coast differ from the rest, in having more regu-
larly built houses, and in assembling at certain seasons for
fishing and hunting. In winte they inhabit cabins, built
elose to each other, so as to from small villages.
i= Vol. 29. No. 114, Nov, 1807. K “Tt

146 Journey to the Froxen Seay and

**Itis to one of these annual excursions of the Toungonses
that we are indebted for the discovery of the mammoth,
Towards the end of August, when the fishing i in the Lena
is over, Schoumachoff is in the habit of going along with
his brothers to the peninsula of Tumut, where they employ
themselves in hunting, and where the fresh fish of the sea
furnish them with wholesome and agrecable nourishment.

“© In 1799, he had caused to be built for his women, some
cabins upon the shores of the lake Onroul ; and the himself
coasted along the sea shore for the purpose of searching for
some mammoth horns. One day he perceived in the midst
of a rock of ice an unformed block, which did not at all
resemble the floating pieces of wood usually found there.
In order to examme it more closely, he clambered wp the
rock and examiried this new object all around; but ke could
not ascertain what it was. The year following he discovered
in the same spot, the carcase of a sea-cow (Trichecus Ros-
marus). He perceived at the same time that the mass he-
had formerly seen was freer from the ice, and by the side of
it he remarked two similar pieces, which he afterwards found
were the feet of the mammoth. About the close of the next
summer, the entire flank of the animal and one of the tusks
had distinctly come out from under the ice. Upon his re-
turn to the shores of the lake Onroul, he communicated this
extraordinary discovery to his wife and some of his friends ;
but their manner of regarding the subject overwhelmed him
with grief. Fhe old men related on this occasion, that they
had heard their forefathers say that a similar monster had
formerly shown itself in the same peninsula, and that the
whole family of the person who discovered it had become
extinct in a very short time. The mammoth, in conse-
quence of this, was unanimously regarded as auguring a fu-
ture calamity, and the Toungouse chief felt so much inquic-
tude from it, that he fell dangerouly ill; but becoming well
again, his first ideas suggested to him the profit he might
gain by selling the tusks of this animal, which were of an

extraordinary size ‘and beauty. He therefore gave orders to
conceal carefully the place where the mammoth was, and to
remoye.all strangers from it under various pretexts, charging
at

Description of the Remains of a Mammoth. 147

at the same time some trusty dependents not to suffer any
part of this treasure to be carried away.

‘*But the summer being coider and more windy than usual,
kept the mammoth sunk in the ice, which scarcely melted
at all that season. At last, about the end of the fifth year
afterwards, the ardent desires of Schoumachoff were happily
accomplished: the ice which inclosed the mammoth having
partly melted, the level became sloped, and this enormous
mass, pushed forward by its own weight, fell over upon its
side on a sand-bark. Of this two Toungouses were wit-
nesses who accompanied me in my journey. In the month
of March 1804, Schoumachoff came to his mammoth, and
having got his herns cut off, he changed them with Baltor-
noff the merchant for merchandise of the value of 50 rou-
bles. On this occasion a drawing of the animal was made,
but it was very incorrect ; they described it with pointed
ears, very small eyes, horses’ hoofs, and a bristly mane
along the whole of his back; so that the drawing repre-
sented something between a pig and an elephant.”

Two years afterwards, being the seventh from the disco-
very of the mammoth, a fortunate circumstance occasioned
my visit to these distant and desert regions, and I congra-
tulate myself upen having it in my power to ascertain and
verify a fact, which would otherwise be thought so im-
probable.

I found the mammoth still upon the same spot, but com-
pletely mutilated. The prejudices against it having been
dissipated, because the Toungouse chief had recovered his
health, the carcase of the mammoth might be approached
without any obstacle: the proprietor was content with the
profit he had already derived from it, and the Jakouts of the
neighbourhood tore off the flesh, with which they fed their
dogs. Ferocious animals—white bears»of the north pole,
gluttons, wolves, and foxes—preyed upon it also, and their
burrows were seen in the neighbourhood. The skeleton,
almost completely unfleshed, was entire, with the exception
of one of the fore feet. The spondyle, from the head to the
os coccygis, a shoulder-blade, the pelvis, and the remains
of the three extremities, were still tightly attached by the

K @ nerves

148 Journey to. the Frozen Sea, and

nerves of the joints, and by strips of skin.on the exterior
side of the carcase. The head was covered with a dry skin ;
one of the ears, well preserved, was furnished with a tuft of
bristles. All these parts must necessarily have suffered by a
carriage of 11,000'wersts. The eyes, however, are preserved,
and we can still. distinguish the ball of the left eye. . The tip
of the under lip-has been eaten away, and the upper part,
being destroyed, exhibited the teeth. The brain was still
within the cranium, but it appeared dry.

The parts least damaged are a fore foot and a hind one ;
they are covered with skin, and have still the sole attached.
According to the assertion of the Toungouse chief, the
animal had been so large and w-ll fed, that its belly hung
down below the knce joints. This mammoth is a male,
with a long mane at his neck, but it has no tail and no trunk.
The skin, three-fourths of which are in my possession, is of
a deep gray, and covered with a reddish hair and black bristles.
The humidity of the soil where the animal has lain so long,
has made the bristles lose some part of their elasticity. The
entire carcase, the bones of which I collected upon the spot,
is 4 archines and a half high by 7 long, from the tip of the
nose to the coccyx* ; without however comprehending the
two horns, each of which is a toise and a half long, and
both together weigh 10 poudst. The head alone weighs
eleven pouds and a ‘half.

The principal object of my care was to separate the bones,
to arrange them and place them in safety: this was done with
the most scrupulous nicety, and I had the satisfaction of
finding the other shoulder-blade, which Jay ina hole. I
afterwards caused the skin to be stripped from the side upon
’ which the animal had lain ; it was very well preserved. This
skin was of such an extraordinary weight, that ten persons
who were employed to carry it to the sea side, in order to
stretch it on floating wood, moved it with great difficulty.
After this operation I caused the ground to be dug in various
places in order to see if there were any bones around, but

* An archine is a little more than two feet English measure.
+ A poud is 40 pounds.
chiefly

Descripition of the Remains of a Mammoth. 149

chiefly fof the purpose of collecting all the bristles whieh
the white bears might have trodden into the wet ground on
devouring theflesh. This operation was attended with diffi-
culty, as we wanted the necessary instruments for digging the
ground: I succeeded however in procuriag in this manner
more than one poud weight of bristles. Ina few days
our labour was ended, and I found myself in possession of
a treasure, which amply recompensed me for the fatigues
and dangers of the journey, and even for the expenses I had
incurred.

The place where I found the mammoth is about 60 paces
distant from the shore ; and from the fracture of the ice
from which it:slid it is about 100 paces distant. This frac-
ture occupies the middle precisely between the two points of
the isthmus, and is three wersts long, and even in the place
where’ the mammoth was, this rock has a perpendicular ele-
vation of 30 or 40 toises. Its substance isa clear ice, but
of a nauseous taste; it inclines towards the sea; its summit
is covered with a bed of moss and friable earth half an ar-
chine in thickness. During the heat of the month of July
apart of this crust melts, but the other remains frozen.

Curiosity prompted me’ to ‘ascend two other hillocks
equally distant from the sea; they were of the same compo-
sition, and alsoa little covered with moss. At intervals I
saw pieces of wood of an enormous size, and of all the spe-
cies produced in Siberia; and ‘also mammoth horns in great
quantities frozen between the fissures of the rocks. They
appeared to beof an astonishing freshness.

It is as curious as it is difficult to explain how all these things
are to be found collected here. The inhabitants of the coast
call this kind of wood ‘Adamsohina, and distinguish it from
the floating wood, which ‘descending: the great rivers of Si-
beria falls into the ocean, and is afterwards heaped upon the
shores of the Frozen Sea. This last kind they call Noahso-
hina. I have seen in great thaws, large pieces of earth de-
tach themselves from the hillocks, mix with the water, and
form ‘thick and muddy torrents which roll slowly towards
the sea. This earth forms in different places lumps, which
sink’ in among the ice. The block of ice where the mam-

K 3 moth

i +
ae Sas

os
foe

150 Journey to the Frozen Sea, and

moth was found, was from 35 to 40 toises high; and, accord-
ing to the account of the _Toungouses, the animal when
first discovered was seven toises from the surface of the
ice.

The whole shore was as it were covered with the most
variegated and beautiful plants produced on the shores of the
Frozen Sea; but they were only two inches high. Around
the carcase we saw a multitude of other plants, such as the
Cineraria aquatica and some species of Pedicularis, not yet
known in natural history.

While waiting for the boats from Terra Firma, for which
I had sent some Cossacs, we exerted all our endeavours to
erect a monument to perpetuate the memory of this disco-
very and of my visit. We raised, according to the cus-
tom of these countries, two crosses with an alogousi inscrip-
tions. The one was upon the rock of ice, 40 paces from the
shelf from which this mammoth had slid, and the other, was
upon the very spot where we found it. Each of these crosses
is 6 French toises high, and constructed in a manner solid
enough to brave the severity of many ages. The Toungonses
have given to the one the name of the ctoss of the Am-
bassador, and to the other that of the cross of the Mammoth.
The eminence itself received the name of Selichaéta or
Mammoth mountain. This last will perhaps some day or
other afford some traveller the means of calculating with
sufficient precision how much the mountains of ice lose
annually of their primitive height.

I made two additional excursions for the purpose of.
acquiring some more precise notions upon the nature of this
peninsula, and my discoveries in zoology and botany per--
fectly answered my expectations. I found a great quantity
of amber upon the shores ;_ but in no piece whatever could
I discover the least trace of any marine production. <I
should, perhaps, attribute this to the proximity of the river,
and perhaps also to the depth of the sea, or abruptness of the
shore. I had occasion to examine more closely the effects of
the flux and reflux: this has escaped M. Sauer, who saw no-
thing of it at the mouth of the Colima.

Our Cissacs not having arrived in time aah the: boaty

was

Description of the Remains of a Mammoth. 151

was obliged to return to the continent with my rein-deer,
without waiting for them. The vessel, in the mean time,
had cast anchor in the bay, of Borchaya, three hundred
wersts from the isthmus where [ was. We arrived without
any accident, after a journey of eight days. A week after-
wards J had the satisfaction to see the mammoth arrive. Our
first care was to separate, by boiling, the nerves and flesh
from the bones; the skeleton was then packed, and placed
at the bottem of the hold. When we arrived at Jakoutsk,
Ihad the good fortune to purchase the tusks of the mam-
moth; and thence I dispatched the whole for St. Peters-
burgh. *

A question of some magnitude remains to be resolved :-—
Are the mammoth and elephant animals of the same
species, as asserted by Buffon, Pallas, Isbrand Ides,
Gmelin, and, above all, Daubenton? or should we, in
preference, rely upon the opinion of M. Cuvier, who asserts
that the mammoth occupies the second place among the
extinct species of animals? As I do not intend, in this
place, to make an exact comparison of the skeletons of a
mammoth and an elephant, I shall content myself with
relating here some characteristic marks which distinguish
the two species: I reserve for a particular memoir some
more detailed observations upon this subject. I shall here |
recapitulate the motives which induced me to adopt the
opinion of M. Cuvier.

1. If the writers whom I have mentioned have actually
made, as I suppose, zvotomical comparisons, they have
been able to do so very incompletely, and upon detached
pieces ; for neither the head, nor the whole vertebra, nor
the feet of the mammoth covered with flesh and hair, and
furnished with the sole, have ever yet been examined, when
collected together, by any writer.

The presence of the coccyx, which finishes the vertebral
column, convinces me that the animal has had a very short
and thick tail,'like its feet: besides, its being every where co-
vered with bristles induces me to think that they cannot be
those of an ordinary elephant.

2. The teeth of the mammoth are harder, heavier, and

K 4 more

.

‘

152; Journey to.the Froxen Sea, and

more twisted. in a different. direction, than the, teeth, of, an,
elephant.. Ivory-turners, who have wrought upon these two,
substances, say that the mammoth’s horn, by its colour and

inferior density, differs considerably from ivory. I have .

seen some of them which formed in their curvature three
fourths of;a, circle; and at Jakoutsk, another of the length
of. two toises and ahalf, and which were an archine thick:
near the root, and weighed seyen pouds. It is to be re-
marked, that. the, point of the tusks on the exterior side
is always more or less worn down: this enables the inhabi-.
tants of the Frozen Sea to distinguish the right from the left
tusk.

The mammoth is covered with a very thick bair through
the whole body, and has a long mane upon its neck. Even,
admitting that- I doubted the stories of my travelling com-
panions, it is nevertheless evident that the bristles of: the
length of an archine, which were also found upon the head,
the ears, and the neck of the animal, must necessarily have
belonged either to the mane or to the tail. Schoumachoff
maintains that he never saw any trunk belonging to the ani-
mal, but it is probable that it was carried off by, wild
beasts; for it- would be inconceivable that the mammoth
could eat with so small a snout, and with such enormous,
tusks, if we do not allow, it to have had a trunk. The
mammoth, according to these indications, would conse-
quently belong to the elephant species, and M. Blumenbach,
in his system, actually calls it, Elephas primevus.

To conclude :—The mammoth in my possession is quite
different from that found near New York, which, from the
description given in the. Journal called the Museum des
Waundervollen, had. carnivorous teeth*. M. Cuvier has.
proved in a most satisfactory manner, that the mammoth is
a particular species of antediluvian animals.

Another question still remains to be decided. Has the
mammoth originally inhabited the countries of the pole, or
those of the tropics? The thick hair with which this ani-
mal is covered seems. to indicate, that it belonged to the

4

* See Philosophical Magazine, vol. xiv. p- 162. 228. 332.
northern

ie S
m Commo

i
;

Description of the Remains of a Mamméth. 138

northern regions ;—to this it does not seem reasonable to
start-objections, although several writers have done so: but
what remains inexplicable is, to ascertain, How came the
mammoth to be buried in the ice? Perhaps the peninsula
of Tumut has been slowly formed. In course of time a
general inundation must have covered all the north part. of
the globe, and caused the death of this animal ; which, after
having floated for some time among the masses of ice, was
finally driven by a gust. of wind upon the sand-bank not
far from the shore. The sea, upon afterwards retiring with-
in its limits, must have buried the body of the mammoth,
But of-what use are all these hypotheses, even if they had.a
high degree of probability ?—How can we reconcile facts
which seem so contrary? Two years ago similar relics were
found in the environs of Kirengsk, upon the banks of the
Lena, at a greater distance from the sea, and they had fallen
into the bed of the river : others have been found in provinces
further south from the Wolga; and they have been discovered
in Germany and in Spain. ee are just so many incontes-
table proofs of a general deluge. We must believe that the
country of the mammoth was of immense extent: but I
shall not at present prosecute inquiries which might lead
us into a labyrinth of hypotheses: I shall merely add, that
it appears incontestable to me that there has existed a world
of a very antient date; and Cuvier, without intending it,
gives evident proofs of this in-his system, by the twenty-
four species of animals, the races of which are extinct. In
the mean time I beg the indulgence of the curious reader in
the perusal of this essay. I purpose giving the osteology
of the mammoth with all that precision which Camper has
devoted to « similar work.

MicuagEt ApAms*,
Petersburgh,
Aug. 20; 1807.

* The author of the above essay offers his skeleton for sale, and means to
employ the money it shall-produce to him, in a journey towards the north
pole, and particularly in visiting the island of Ljachow, or Sichow, which,
from information received in his late journey, he believes to be a part of the
eontinent of North America.

XXIV. Essay

7

ae

XXIV. Essay upon the Art of the Foundry among the An-
tients: with some Remarks upon the celebrated Horses of
Chio, now brought from Venice to Paris. By M. Serrz.

[Concluded from p. 29.]

Multiplied Dangers to which the Horses of Chio were ex-
posed at Constantinople, and their subsequent Removal by
the Venetians.

Waues they arrived at Constantinople, by order of Theo-
dosius the younger, that city contained all the wonders of
antient art: there were then to be seen the Olympian Jupi-
ter of Phidias, the Venus of Cnidus and of Praxiteles, the
figure in honour of Lysippus, and the Juno of Samos, a
colossus of an enormous size. If the greater part of the
monuments of Rome perished by the ravages which the
Goths committed on that city under their generals Alaric,
Genseric, and Totila*; the chefs d’ceuvre contained in Con-
stantinople were gradually destroyed by fires ;—a scourge to
which, by a singular fatality, this city was always exposed.

Under the emperor Zeno, who reigned about the year 470
of the vulgar wera, a fire consumed the library and a great
number of other buildings; the fire penetrated to the public
square, where it destroyed the Juno of Samos, the Minerva
of Lindus, and the celebrated Venus of Cnidus f.

In the fifth year of Justinian’s reign, the people, inflamed
by the extortions practised by this prince, revolted. The
emperor introduced into the city the Hellurians, a barbarous
people, in order to quell the insurgents. This was the very
worst measure he could take, as the war instantly became
general; the Barbarians massacred the people, while those

* Winckelman, in a dissertation upon the ruins of Rome, has maintained
that it was not the Barbarians who destroyed the monuments of Rome. Ac<
cording to him, Totila pardoned the inhabitants as soon as he entered the
city, and endeavoured to conciliate their good wil; but it was not until the
flames had ravaged Rome for thirteen days, and three-fourths of the
city had been so much destroyed that it could never be restored. It was
upon ruins, therefore, that he exercised his benevolence, and with the sole
view of recalling those inhabitants who fled in order to escape his fury.

+ Zonar. Annales Constantinop. lib, xiv. p. 55.

who

Art of the Foundry among the Antients. 153

who remained shut themselves up in their houses, ascended
the roofs, and defended themselves with stones and brick-
bats: the Barbarians, enraged, set fire to the houses, which
were in a short time almogt entirely destroyed. A great
number of statues were melted, and 40,000 of the inhabi-
tans perished on this occasion™.

Under the emperor Alexius Comnenus, different quarters
of the city were devastated by fire and by earthquakes; the
colossal statue of Constantine, which was placed upon the
grand column of porphyry 110 feet high, was thrown down
by a whirlwind, and killed ten persons in its fall f.

The four horses of Chio had fortunately escaped all these
fires; but in the great one of 1203, which was the most
dreadful that had ever broke out in that city, they were
much exposed, because the flames on that occasion attacked
the Hippodrome.

When, in the year 1202, the French, under count
Baldwin of Flanders, joined with the Venetians in order to
undertake the third crusade, and stop the progress of the
sultan Saiadin, who threatened to take Jerusalem, the son
ef the emperor [saac, whom his brother Alexis had impri-
soned on usurping the crown, implored the assistance of
the crusaders, in order to save his father from the hands of
this -usurper, and to re-establish him in his lawful rights.
The crusaders warmly espoused his interests, and laid siege
to Constantinople. The Venetians had already mounted to
the assault on the side towards the sea, and had taken pos-
session of five-and-twenty towers, when Alexis marched out
of the city to giye battle to the French; but although
he had an army infinitely more numerous, a panic seized
him, and he fled with the greatest part of his treasures. The
inhabitants of Constantinople, astonished at his precipitate
flight, proceeded to the prison, where the emperor Isaac
was detained, and, clothing him in the imperial robes, made
obeisance to him. They then opened the gates of the city,
and received their young prince with every demonstration of
joy. In order to prevent any quarrels between the Greeks

* Zonar. |. c. p.70, .

+ Idem, |.c. p. 89.
and

136 Essay upon the Art of the Foundry

and the allies, the latter were lodged beyond the gate in ar
place called Stenon. The French, however, freely fre-
quented the city, and the two nations lived in peace and’
good understanding: The emperor even invited the allies
to prolong their stay at Constantinople, as there was a pow-
erful party among the Greeks against him.

During this period,,a quarrel arose between the Greeks
and the crusaders. The French had forced: and pillaged
the mosque of the Saracens ; the Greeks took part with the
latter} and assisted them in revenging themselves upon their
adversaries, who, being enraged upon finding they were the
weakest, set-fireto the city. The flames, increased by the
wind; gained ground: so rapidly that nothing could stop
them. The fire lasted eight days, and occupied the space of
a league in’ circumference. A’ great number of houses,’
churches, and convents, fell a prey to the devouring ele--
ment; among others, the loss of agrand double portico was
much deplored, being/that of the square of Constantine and’
the Hippodrome. After this disaster, the good -understand-
ing which had subsisted between the Greeks and the French’
entirely ceased: all foreigners established at ' Constantinople
were obliged to quit the city, to the number of 15,000; the
young emperor Alexius became cool towards them, and was?
extremely slow in executing the treaties, so that war soon!
recommenced with more fury than before. During the war,
the young Alexius was imprisoned, and strangled by order'of'
Marzuflus, one of: his ministers, and: old’ Isaac died of:
grief; The crusaders, when informed of this new cata-
strophe, assembled in council, declared Marzuflus unworthy’
i6 reign, and formed the resolution of redoubling their ace’
tivity to take the city, and proceed to the’ election of a new’
emperor: After several attacks, the city was at last taken
a second time on an Easter Monday, 1204. Marzuflus’
withdrew to the palace Bucoleon, and afterwards fled. The
city was given up: to plunder, while a new fire burst out,
which, according to Villehardoin*, destroyed more houses

* Histotre de la Conquéte de Constantinople, par Godefroid de Villekardoin,
Marechal de Champagne et de Romanie, p. 132.
than

among the Antients. 157

than the largest cities in France at that time contained. The
booty, which according to the various conventions was to
be divided equally, was so great that it filled:three churches ;
and although a great part was embezzled, it was shared tothe
value of 400,000 marks'silver. Aftershaving plundered the
living, and profaned the altars, the ashes of ‘the dead were
even molested. All the tombs of the emperors were opened,
in order to .rob them of whatever was precious. At last,
when the avarice of the crusaders found no more encourage-
ment, their fury was directed against the statues, which they
demolished, either in order to send them to the mint, or to
sell them to the founders, who paid the value of the metal
only*. *

Among these works are enumerated the following :

A colossal Juno, the head of which alone could scarcely
be moved by eight oxen.

A Paris presenting the apple to Venus.

A large square monument of bronze, surmounted by a
pyramid. In this were represented the labours of the field);
lambs frisking to the sound of the shepherd’s pipe, the
catching of birds, and fishing ; Cupids throwing apples, &c.

An equestrian statue in heroic costume, which was in the
- bullock market: to all appearance it was that of an em~
peror; but the inscription was lost: some said it was
Joshua stretching out his hand to the setting sun, and or-
dering it to stop: according to others, it was Bellerophon +.

Among the statues which decorated the Hippodrome,
they melted down a colossal Hercules in a sitting posture,
and full of grief for having killed bis children {: so large was
this figure, that its thumb equalled in size the body of a man.

* See Nicerx Contave Narratio de Statwis Constantinop. in Fabricius
Billivth. Grac. tom. vi. p. 405.—Nole ly the Author.

Part of the above work has been translated by Harris, in his Philological
Enquiries, vol. ii. p. 301, chap. 5. This work was translated into French by
M. Boulard, who was pleased to give it the title of Histoire literaire du moyen
Age.—Note ly M. Millin.

+ On the subject of the losses to the arts sustained at Constantinople, we
may consult M. Heyne’s dissertation De Interiiu Operum cum antique tum re-
centioris Artis yue Constantinopoti fuisse memorantur, ejusque Caysis ac Tempori-
lus. Memoires de Gottingen, tom. xii. p. 273.—Nole ly M. Millin.

¢ Euripidis Hercules furens. ,
1: ra The

158 Essay upon the Art of the Foundry

The ass with his driver, erected by Augustus at Nicopolis*.

The wolf which suckled Romulus and Remus.

A man combating a lion.

A hippopotamus of bronze.

An elephant with a moveable trunk.

Sphinxes, represented in the attitude of birds flapping’
their wings, as if previous to flying upwards.

A horse, full of ardour, and burning to start into the
arena.

A Scylla, or female monster, devouring the wnagiieiie
of Ulysses.

An eagle stretching its wings, in order to carry off
“t serpent which he held in his claws: upon its wings were
seen lines and cyphers, which served for a sun-dial. ‘

A Helen: her tunic, wrought with the utmost beauty,
showed the fine shape of her limbs :—a magnificent diadem
confined her hair, which fell in ringlets on her shoulders :
her Janguishing eyes, the soft smile of which dwelt upon
herlips, half open; her raised and arched eyelids—every
feature, in short, conspired to present a degree of perfection
and beauty of which no description can give any idea.

Several chariotecrs, represented in the different attitudes
peculiar to their occupation. They were placed at the east-
ern goal (meta) of the Circus, which was called that of the
red faction.

A combat between an ox, a hippopotamus, and a croco- -

dile :—each of the combatants was biting his adversaries ;
the victory seemed to lean to no side, Pia it was evident
that the death of all three would finish the combat.

All these and many other chefs d’ceuvre were thrown into
the flames. This fact alone evinces the barbarism in which
the people of the Western Empire were a3 yet plunged :—the
horses of Chio, however, escaped the destruction. History
has not preserved to us the name of him who exerted his in-
fluence to save them ; but itis very probable, that by order
of Dandolo, the doge and general of the Venetians}, they

were

* Sueton. in Octavio, cap. 96.

} The Venetians were, for a long period, united with the Greek empire :

their merchants had counting-houses at Constantinople, and the doge himself *
haa

among the Antients. 159

were rescrved for the republic when the booty was shared, al-
though their removal to Venice did not take place until after
the death of this enlightencd doge. The first vessels which
set out, only carried the precious vases and ornaments of
which the church of Saint Sophia had been stripped, with a
great quantity of relics, among which there was a flask filled
with the blood of Jesus Christ.

After the death of Dandolo, which happened in 1205,
Peter Ziani was elected doge of Venice ; and the Venetians
who were at Constantinople elected as their chief Martin
Zeno, by the title of Protesta. He had the charge of the ad-
ministration of all the provinces, which by the new par-
tition had fallen to the republic, and the diplomatic affairs
were expedited in the joint names of the emperor Henry,
successor to Baldwin, and Zeno the Protesta. It was the
latter who sent the four horses of Chio to Venice, with
several precious works in porphyry and marole.

Peter Ziani, the successor to Dandolo in his dignity of
doge, adorned the portal of the church of Saint Mark with
them, where they remained until 1798, when the emperor
Napoleon brought them to Paris as an ornament of his
capital, and the trophy of his victories.

Upon the alleged Defects in the Casting which have been
discovered in these Horses—Answer to Winckelman—and
Conclusion.

The repairs made after the casting, which are to be seen

hada palace there. The inhabitants of Pisa and the Venetians engrossed the
commerce of the Levant, which gave them the superiority over all the Enu-
Topean nations, as well in riches as in mental acquirements. Henry Dando-
lo joined tothe talents of a good general and a sage politician a most exten-
sive knowledge of the world. When Innocent III. excommunicated the crusa-
ders on account of the taking of Zara, the French leaders, who were all spirit-
ed and brave knights, but who could ucither read nor write, feared the effects
of the anathema, and consented to all the conditions which the bishop. of
Svissons, as authorised by the pope, prescribed to them before he gave them
absolution; while Dandolo, with his Venctians, constantly refused to acknow-
ledge the authority of the pope in temporal! affairs, and braved the anathema
Vide eages Histoire de la République de Venise, tom. ii.
in

160 Essay upon-the Art of the Foundry

in the. engravings of Zanetti*, are a necessary consequence
of the manner in which the antients proceeded to cast their
metals. All the bronze statues from Herculaneum exhibit
similar repairs. Pliny sayst, that the first statues erected to
the conquerors.in the Olympic games, were modelled upor
their own persons, and that these statues were called Iconic,
but they were cast solid. Afterwards the art was improved
upon, inorder to produce the same effect with less metal,
and they were cast hollow. Thus, by degrees, succeeded
the sure but slow and expensive method at present adopted.
M. Boufferandt says, that the antients did not take the
trouble of making the first model of plaster, and then cast
the mould; but that, after having made their model of the
fullsizewith prepated potters’ clay, they reduced it piece-meal
to a smaller size, and then dipped it into the melted bronze,
so that their model thus became a kind of nucleus§.
Hitherto the ubservations of M. Boufferand have beer

* Statue di Venezia, tom. i. pl. 45.

f Lib. xxxiv. cap. 4. sect.9, ex membris eorwm similitudine expressas.

A Genius, of Etruscan bronze, to be scenin the Florence cabinet, is wrought
so naturally, that sculptors and painters think the mould must have been
made upon the body ofa youngman. Vide Gort, Mus. Floreni. pl.45; et Mu-
seum Etruscum, pl. 87.

$ Vide Encyc. des Arts et Metiers.

§ According to Philo Byzantius, De Septem Orbis Miraculis, cap. v. p. 13, the
antients never made any large statue at a single jet, but they melted the
parts separately, and joined them afterwards, according to the model they had
previously made. Simulacra arltifices primum fingurt, deinde membra divisa con=
flant, tandem omnia lene composita exigunt. But this assertion seems to be denied
by Pausanias, who, speaking of Rhacus and Theodorus, says, ayaruera die
musros exioruvre seyacuctos xuburig ecdnra ekupaworres: they knew how to
work entire statues like a dress wrought without a seam : asingular expres-
sion, but which has been mistaken by translators for statues cast at a single
jet. According to the same Philo, the famous Colossus of Rhodes was also
cast in parts, but in another way:—they began by casting the legs, then
placed them on the ground, melted the thighs above them, and proceeded
upwards in such a manner that the hot metal united itself with the cold. This
method of proceeding perhaps explains what Pausanias means by <Zug@cuvovres.
Theantients were afraid, that by melting large masses at a single cast, the flux
‘might cool in flowing along. Recent experiments have taught us, however,
thatit will run forty feet before becoming fixed. It is therefore probable, that
if we had the same-taste for Colossi that the antients had, we should be able te
cast them with still more perfection, =~ ”

just

among the Antients. 161
just and general; but when he continues to say that they
covered the nacleus with wax, and made upon this wax
putty moulds, and then finished the work like ourselves;
we can state in opposition to this, that wax never has been
employed in casting the horses of Venice, ner in any other
antique bronzes, where we sce pieces hammered into them
im order to fill the holes which remained after founding.
This defect proceeds from the total absence of wax, which is
now made to occupy the space which should be filled by
the bronze, and forms the thickness wished to be given to it
between the nucleus and the hollow mould, a space which
remains void when the wax is melted, and which is
filled by the casting, the continuity of which is not inter-
rupted by any obstacle. , .

If the modern process of founding is more perfect, that
of the antients was more expeditious and much less expen-
sive *. After having finished their model, they formed
the hollow mould upon it; and in making the nrould the
different pieces were so joined, that each side of the figure
was covered with its proper parts, so as to make two half
moulds, adapted throughout their whole lehgth, and the two
edges of which joined upon the horses’ backs through their
whole length, and under the belly in the same manner. At
least this observation applies with respect to the horses of
Venice; and the moulds of their feet seem to have been
made separately. After having finished this part of the
process, they diminished the model until they brought it to
suit the thickness they wished to give to the metal, and by
this operation they formed the nucleus. But this dimimu-
tian could not be made t!:roughout the whole surface; some
plugs must have been left interposed, to hinder the moulds
from falling upon the nucleus, and in order to remove them

* All the French founders assembled tozether, says W inckelman; would rot
be able in ten years to finish the thrce hundred and sixty statues made at
Athens for Démetrius Phalereus in 300 days: But, according to their man-
ner of operating, the Athenians bad uo occasion to break the mould in order
to draw out the statue, and the same moulds perhaps served several times.
How could Lysippus have executed 610 works, according to Pliny, if be did
not know how to abridge the labours of the foundry?

Vol: 29, No. 114, Nov. 18Q7. Li to

162 Essay upon the Art of the Foundry

to the proper distance wanted for the thickness of the metal.
Many of these plugs would be necessary as supports, in order
to keep the diuill steady, and binder the nucleus from
leaving’ its place. This beg done, they added the moulds
of the feet; when the whole was fired, and the founding pro-
ceeded in. The founding being finished, these plugs formed
so many boles in the meta! ; but they were made use of in
digging ont the nucleus or core in pieces, by means of sharp-
point ed irons. Ev ery thing being finished, they filled all the
Holes with plates of copper, hammered and fitted to the
openings; and riveted by nails as we see in the horses of
Chio, and the bronze statues of Herculaneum.

It would be rash, however, to maintain that this custom was
general in all antient works of art ; with respect to more re-
eent periods, the observation of M. Boufferand may apply.
The art of founding flourished in the empire of the East. We
find in Zonarus that they erected to almost all the emperors
of the East bronze statues at Constantinople: and an epi-
«ram * of the poet Juvenal, who was contemporary with
Theodosius, proves that wax was employed im the statues of
that time.

Winckelman + complains much of the manner in which
the horses of Venice raise their feet. He says, ‘* Some peo-
ple assert that horses lift the two feet of one side at one and the
game time, and such is the gait of the four horses of Venice.”
It is evident, however, that Winckelman is mistaken ; all
the art of Franeoni the equestrian would be iHeapeble of
making a horse move in this manner.

A horse, when at the gallop, raises his two fore feet at
ence, and follows by the two hind feet, lifting them one af-
ter another, which produces three distinct motions.

A horse, when at a walking pace, moves at four different
times, in a diagonal line, or in a cross; that is to say, after
having lifted the right fore foot, he lifts the left hind foot,
all which is conformable to the laws of mechanism; and this
is the gait of the horses of Venice, and of that of ‘Marcus
Aurelius in the Capitol.

* Anthol. lib, iv. + Liv. v. ch. 6, § 16.
A horse,

among the Antients. 163

A horse, when trotting, lifts at the same time the right fore
foot and the left hind foot, which makes a double beating.

We sce these three kinds of movements upon medals and
bas-reliefs ; but statues which require a support of three feet
are susceptible only of the second.

After the restoration of letters the art of founding re-ap-
peared in Italy in the time of the Medici. The painter An-
dré Verrochio was the first who imagined that the antients
made a hollow mould upon astatue, or even upon a dead or
living subject, in order to form_.an exact resemblance. This
invention naturally inspired him with the idea of using
a similar mould for melting a bronze stctue: he suc-
ceeded. and exercised the art of founding in the manner of
the antients, i. e. by casting the parts separately and joining
them afterwards by soldering. He undertook an equestrian
statue of a Venetian general to be executed in this way. But
he finished the horse only, having died of a malady con-
tracted from his zeal to execute the work with fidelity. Af-
ter this, John of Boulogne made use of the same method
for casting the equestrian statue of Cosmo de Medicis at
Florence.

About the year 1500, Pomponius Gauricus * printed at
Naples a treatise upon sculpture, in which he described the
ingenious method of proceeding made use of at present for
melting equestrian statues at a single cast. He adds jn
the conclusion, that this science having perished with those
who had formerly known and practised it, he thinks he is

entitled to assume to himself the merit of the invention f.
Since

* Pomponti Gauruct Neapolitani, De Sculpiurd Liber ad Hercilem Ferrarii
Principem 3 in Thesauro Grononii, vol. 9. pag. 731.

+ In the time of Gauricus, when few af the Gree'x authors were as yet
printed, it wassuflicient to be acquainted with the Gree'x language in order
to qualify a person for being an inventor, and to pass as such in the eyes of the
vulear. They even went so far a3 to destroy the manuscript, that the plagi-
arism might never be discovered. A great number of inventions supposed

to be modern have been derived from the anticnts.

In clock-wor', nothing is modern except the pendulum ; all the wheelwork
necessary for putting in motion the indexes of a dial is described in Vitravius,
He also speaks of a kind of sounding machine, which threw a certuia num-

L2? ber

7

’

164 Essay upon the Art of the Foundry

Since this period we have seen similar monuments ereeted
at Pisa, Placentia, Leghorn, Ferrara, Milan, Venice, and in
the Papal states. Several cities of Germany and Holland
perpetuated in this manner the memory of their benefactors 5
and in 1622 the city of Rotterdam erected a bronze statue
to the famous Erasmus, the only modern scholar who ob-
tained such an honour.

ber of stones in order to mark the hours. Water-mills, organs with all their
keys and interior mechanism, were known in the time of Augustus: it is true
that water was employed for keeping up a continual wind ; but it would seem
this method was soon relinquished, and the same effect produced by means of
several pairs of bellows:—an epigram of the emperor Julian upon organs and
organists of his time mentions it.

The system of Copernicus is the system of Pythagoras, or rather that of
the antient Chaldces, who, without any other assistance than their eyes, had
already scen the rotation of the earth around its axis; and all the discoveries
to which the telescope and the perfection of mathematical instruments have
given rise, are so many proofs of the truth of the antient system. Lastly,
the decomposition of light by the prism, upon which the great Newten form-
ed his theory of colours, is to be found in Seneca.—Questions, book i. ch. 7.

ff we have gunpowder, the antients had their Greek fire, the effects of
which were terrible. in the reign of Louis XV., an inhabitant of Dauphiny,
of thename of Dupré, who had spent his life in chemical experiments, re-
covered the secret. This fire was so rapid and so powerful that no art could

xtinguish it; water only gave it additional activity. Experiments were made
with it on the canal at Versailles in presence of the king, in the arsenal at
Paris, and at some sea-ports: every where the most intrepid military men
trembled at its effects. The king, who wished to avert this new scourge from
humanity, forbid the author to communicate his secret to any one, and re-
warded him liberally. Dupré is no more, and it is thought his dreadful secret
died with him.

Nothing proves the superiority of the antient inventions more powerfully
than the five orders of architecture. Modern architects hardly venture to
niake the least change in the system: it is well known that the finest buildings
are those in which these orders reign in their greatest purity. When will a
second Callimachusappear to invent anew erder? ‘The. men of genius, who
have really extended the circle of human: knowledge, are separated by the in-
terval of ages, and there is nothing more humiliating to the human mind than
the slow progress of its attainments. [t is true, we speak at present of new in-
€entions as of new fashions: there is not asinglé mcehanic in Paris who does
not pretend that he has enriched his trade with some invention: but all these
inventors resemble the modern grammarian, who announced discoveries in
the Latin language.

It must be confessed, however, that these joint efforts may produce some
good effects, and that they are worthy of recompenses and encouragements
frem government.

3 The

among the Antients. 165

The first monument of this kind erected in France was
the statue of Henry LV. ;. the horse was cast at Florence by
John of Boulogne: Cosmo II., the grand duke of Tuscany,
presented it to Mary of Medicis, queen of France, and at
that time regent; she destined it to cons¢crate the memory
of the king her husband, whose statue was executed by Du-
pré the sculptbr by her juice: It was erected in 1635.

A short time afterwards cardinal Richelieu erected the
equestrian statue of Louis XIII. in the Place Royale. The
horse was executed in Tuscany by Ricciarelli de Volterre, a
pupil of Michael Angelo, and was regarded by some as a
superior work, and by others as a middling production. The
statue of the king was executed by ind

The age of Louis XIV. was so brilliant for the arts, that
the splendour of the Augustan age, so much boasted of, is
nearly eclipsed by the comparison, .

The art of founding declined under Augustus 5; and the
reports of Pliny and Vitruvius, both upon the taste then
Teigning in painting, and upon the method of the painters
in their days, must give us a very unfavourable idea of their
talents, while the names of Girardon, Desjardins, Bouchardon,
Lemoine, Paget, Lebrun, Lesueur, Bourdon, Mignard, Jou-
venet, &c., have been the glory of theirage, and the admira-
tion of every country where their works have penctrated.

The statue of Louis XIV. in the Place des Victoires, by
Des-jardins, and the equestrian statue of the same prince in
the Place Vendome, by Girardon, were unique performances,
with respect to beauty of design and the elegance and
magnificence of the appendages. The cities of Lyons,
Rennes, Dijon, Mostpelicr, Bourdeaux, and Metz, were
necessarily adorned with statues of this prince, and of his
successor; but the revolution of the 18th century was
equally fatal to all these works as was the invasion of
Attila to the bronzes of Rome, and the fanaticism of the
erusaders to those of Constantinople.

France, which produced the talents that decorated the
other cities of Europe, is, however, stripped of these chefs-
d’veuvre, which formerly formed the ornaments of her
public places,

L 3 It

«

166 On the Making of Starch,

It will not be difficult, however, to replace them. Paris
still contains some very distinguished artists in bronze. In
the recent exhibitions of the objects of Freiuch industry,
bronzes have formed an interesting article.

The exploits of our warriors, and of our august chief,
have furnished them with subjects worthy of decorating the
public places of Paris and the other cities of France, while
the inimense quantity of cannon taken from the enemy will
supply the materials.

XXV. On the Making of Starch. By} Mr. James GranaM,
of Ber Dik sapon-Tiieed *,

Bihadae may be made from a variety of articles :—potatoes,
in particular, will yield a considerable quantity ; but the
great labour attending grinding or grating them down has
hitherto prevented. any great quantity of starch being made
from that vegetable. When the potatoes are grated down,
they do not require to be laid in steep to ferment after the
manner of flour, but must ke immediately stramed through
a sieve; and if the potatoes are of a good quality, the starch
will scttle to the bottom almost instantly: indeed the opera-
tion of straining after the potatoes are grated down cannot
be performed too quickly. The produce, however, even
from the best, is far Jess than most people would imagine ;
the best potatoes I ever used only produced 4 or 4 stones
of starch from 40 stones of potatoes.

Potatoe starch is not saleable in the shops, not having sq
long and firm a grain as starch from flour; but if ih
Phe Re is preferab! e to all others for blue- make ‘Ts, as it melts or
dissolves so easily, and incorporates with the same with far
Jess trouble than any other substance whatever,

When starch is made from flour, the wheat is not peer
so small as when intended for sale, but ground with a
broader flag or bran, as the meal and starch are found to
separate more readily from the bran. When laid in to steep
as much water must be used as to wet completely the whole

meal; in three, four, or five days it will ferment, and in

* Communicated by Mr. John Clennell.

a few

On the Making of Starch. 167

a few days more will settle, and all fermentation cease : after
this the stuff is fit to be what is called washed out. .

The common time allowed to stecp 1s fourteen or twenty
days : as mach depends on the temperature of the weather,
the exact time cannot’ be ascertained; but itis much better
to lie a few days longer than to be washed out one day too
soon. This operation is performed by the stuff being taken
from the vats and put into a strong rownd basket, which ts
*et across a tnb below a pump: cae or two men keep going
round the basket stirring up the stuff with strong wooden
shovels called stirrers, while another keeps pumping water
till al] the mea! is completely washed from the bran, which
is emptied into some convenient place to feed hogs: this
operation is continued till the vats are emptied of the whole
stuff, at the same time that it is strained through the basket
into the tab anderneath. As fast as the tub fills, it is taken
out and strained through hair sicves into what are sometimes
called squares, by others frames. [t 15 then suffered to rest
twenty-four hours, when the water is drawn off the frame
by plugs fixed at different depths. A thin stuff is then found
to float above the starch, which is taken off by a tray made
of a particular form for that purpose: this is called slimes,
and is put into a cistern to feed hogs, by being mixed with
the bran or grains: fresh water is then pumped into the
squares, and the whole is wrought up with the stirrers till
it is completely incorporated with the water; it is then
strained through a fine silk sieve, and suffered to rest and
settle twenty-four hours, when the water is again drawn off,
and some more slimes will be found floating, or at least in
a loose and unsettled state, on the top of the starch; which
being carefully removed, fresh water is again pumped on the
starch, and the whole is again wrought up as before; when
jtis again put through the silk sieve. It is now suffered to
sest for some days,—say four or five,—til the starch 1s again
settled in a very firm state at the bottom of the square. It
is necessary to observe, if the starch is wanted to be what is
commotly called Poland, that is, with the blue shade; during
the last time of putting through tne silk sieve, a certain quan-

L4 tity

168 On the Making of Starch.

tity of the very best smalts mast be mixed with the starch,
If the smalts are very good, 2lb. per cwt. may do, and some-
times 3lb., according to the depth of blue wanted : if the best
smalts are not used, however fine the colour may appear
when in a damp state, it will entirely fly off in the stove,
and leave the starch of a dingey hue.

When the starch is found to be completely settled, the
water Js again drawn off ; and if any more slimes.are still
on the top they are taken off as- before, and the starch is
now fit for boxing. It is necessary to observe, that the
slimes taken off after the starch has been put through the
silk sieve are not put into the hog-wash, but are either
mixed with some other operation, or again wrought up with
water and strained through the silk sieve; when a consiy
derable part of them will be tolerably good starch,

The boxes may be made of different sizes; but they are
commonly about four feet long, six inches deep, and twelve’
inches broad, and are bored full of holes, so that any re-
maining water may drain from the starch. Thin canvass is
cut in such length and breadth as to ‘line all the inside of
the box, the intention of which is to bring the starch clean
from the box after the water is fully inane

The boxing 1s performed by digging the starch out of the
square with a spade or shovel, aud filling the boxes. The
length of time for the starch being in the boxes can only be
ascertained by the starch coming to’a hard solid body, which
is sometimes sooner and sometimes longer. The starch is
then taken from the boxes by turning them bottom upper-
most on a table or dresser ; it is then broken into pieces
about four or five inches square, by laying a ruler or round
piece of wood unde: rneath the starch, giving the upper
side a cwt across with a knife ; when a small press of the
hand will break the starch into such pieces as are designed.

It is then set upon soft bricks, that is, bricks which have
been only half-burned in the kiln: the intention of this is ta
suck the water out of the starch; which if not done before
it is put into the stove, it is apt to*dry into various hard
substances called hamy, which will not melt when it comes

ae to

. ¥

Surgical Cases in the Finsbury Dispensary. 169

4o be used; so that it will not answer for blue-makers, nor
for the purpose of the laundry.

When sufficiently dried on the bricks it is put into the
stove, (whichis nearly the same as a sugar-baker’s,) where
it remains some time : the duration must depend.on the
judgment of the maker, and the degree of heat in the
stove. It is then taken out and set on a table or dresser,
when all the sides are carefully scraped or pared with a thin
knife; after which, it is tied up in paper the same as we see
it in the shops; when it is again returned into the stove,
amd continued with a regular heat night and day till cem-
pletely dry: it requires some days, but the length of time
can only be ascertained by an experienced maker.

It may be necessary to observe, that from the first laying
in the meal to steep, till the last operation of taking from
the stove to be weighed, the manufacture is constantly un-
der the survey of one or more officers of excise.

hi

XKVI. Report of Surgical Cases in the Finsbury Dispen-
sary from the Beginning of May to the End of June 18075
with the Appearances on Dissection in a Case of Hy-
drocephalus. By Joun Taunton, Esq.

Doane the above two months, there were admitted 187
patients, 1

Cured or relieved - - 135
Under cure - - - 52
187

Miss M., xt. 5., of a delicate constitution, predisposed
to scrophula, had a purulent discharge from the right ear
for three years preceding her death: it took place sub-
sequent to the Measles, and was gencrally copious, for
the most part VERY OFFENSIVE, and frequently attended
with pains in the head and ear, but in other respects she
was LIVELY and HEALTHY.

Two days preyious to the 2hst of October 1806, she com;

plained

I70 Surgical Cases in the Finsbury Dispensary.

plained of a giddiness in her head, which prevented her
from walking across the floor without danger of falling ;
she was sick aud vomited occasionally, had fever, and
the bowels were costive; her eyes were not directed to
the same focus. The family physician was now consulted,
who prescribed a calomel pill and some infus. rose: the
symptoms continued with little variation for 7 days, (during
which time the accustomed discharge from the ear bad
ceased,) when a swelling was observed below the ear, which
being poulticed soon broke, and all the syinptoms gradu-
ally disappeared, so that from the 30th of October to the
agth of November no medical attendance was required. She
was then seized with violent pain in the head, had occasion-
ally startings with rigor, which terminated in convul-
sive fits of short duration: between these paroxysms, which
were irregular, she was perfectly sENsiRLE and quile easy.
A large bhsier was applied to the head, fomentations were
used, and purging clysters were injected; but these did
not avert the symptoms :—she died on the 23d.

On removing. the upper part of the scull, the mem-
branes of the brain and the cerebrum were perfectly na-
tural and healthy: the lateral ventricles contained about
four ounces of a serous fluid: the right lobe of the cere-
bellum was more dark than usual, and flabby; on cutting
into its substance an abscess was found which contained
about an ounce of purulent matter; the dura mater was
ulcerated at the posterior part of the petrous portion of
the temporal bouc, or round the imternal auditory fora-
men; where the bone had become carious, the membrana
tympani and small bones of the ear were destroyed, and
a probe could be passed with ease from the internal through
the external auditory foramen.

The sutures of the scull being completely closed, the
brain must have been compressed from the accumulation
of fluid in the lateral ventricles, which probably took

lace about the 2Ist of October: it must also have suffered
from the abscess which had destroyed the right lode of
the cerebellum, and which there is reason to believe had
existed for years; yet we find the reasoning faculty was

8 continued

Notices respecting New Books. 171

continued and perfect even to the day of her death, ex-
gepting the short periods of pain, rigor, and convulsive fits.
Joun TAUNTON,
Surgeon to the City and Finsbury
Dispensaries, Lecturer on Ana-
{ tomy, Surgery, Physiology, &c.
Greville-street, Hatton garden,
November 20, 1807.

XXVIL. Notices respecting New Books.

Chemical Philosophy, or the established Bases [Basis] of
Modern. Chemistry, intended to serve as an Elementary
Work for the Study of that Science, by A. F. Fourcroy,
Professor of Chemistry, Member of the National. Insti-
tute,€8¢. Third Edition, considerably enlurged and amended.
Translated from the French ly W. Drsmonpb, £&sq.
304 Pages. 8vo. 78. Symonds, 1807.

Tue celebrity of M. Fourcroy, and the general merit of
his Treatise on Chemical Philosophy, are more than sufficient
to sanction a translation of it into English. Any work, in-
deed, by the man not altogether undeservedly called 2 Ora-
teur de Science, must merit attention. But as philosophy
acknowledges no master, no authority but what exists in the
nature of things, we may safely venture to examine and
compare the contents of a small volume, which assumes
the sounding title of “* Chemical Philosophy.” Respect
for the science renders us eager to avail ourselves of every
opportunity of presenting all or any of its branches in a
new, more advantageous, or clearer point of view: the same
motive constitutes it a duty to detect and expose any works
which, under plausible titles, tend more to embarrass, per-
plex, and retard the progress of chemical science, than to fa-
cilitate the acquirement, extension, or elucidation of its
principles. Without objecting to M. Fourcroy’s implied
opinion, that a classification of the phanomena of nature
and art constitutes chemical philosophy,” however vague
and indefinite it may be, we cannot perceive either the just-

ness

172 Notices respecting New Books.

ness or the propriety of entitling a work ‘* Chemical Philo-
sophy,” iu which there is no notice of pneumatic chemistry,
no classification or description of the qualities and characters
of gaseous bodies. A number of general results, arranged in
the form of cerollarics, with some regard indced to their ge-
neral relations, should rather be denominated a concise view
of practical chemistry,*than the philosophy ‘of chemical
science. ‘This error, however considerable, as it conveys a
false idea of the nature and object of this treatise, we should
not particularly notice, were it not followed by several
others of a similar origin, but still more injurious to the
general perspicuity and accuracy of our chemical knowledge.
Such errors are the more extraordinary and the more dan-
gerous, that the author boasts of the “ numerous corrections
and important additions” which he has been enabled to
make in this third edition, which, he presumes, from the
§ reception it has experienced in ald enlightened countries,
may be ranked with classic books.” He says it has been
“ translated into German, Swedish, Danish, English, Spa-
nish, Portuguese, Italian, and modern Greek ;” but no men-
tion is made ef Dutch and Russian. ‘The chief additions
consist of an introduction, divided into 100 sections, occu-
pying 66 pages of this translation. It presents a view, much
more extensive than accurate, of the nature and ** general
means of chemistry, principles of bodies, attraction of ag-
eregation and composition, chemical operations by means
of fire or liquids, ‘and the classification of bodies.”

The very first section of this introduction consists of two
propositions, neither of which is philosophically correct.
«© The especial object of chemical philosophy,” says M.
Fourcroy: ‘* is, Ist. to apply the general theory of chemistry
to the phenomena of nature and to the operations of art, the
eause and effects of which are entirely within the province
of this science.’”’ This is certainly the inverse object of true
«© Chemical Philosopby,” which, since the days o¥ Bacon,
has been first to unfold the phenomena of nature which
exist and are cognisable independent of all theory, and next
to develop the relations of these phenomena, so that the

observer

Notices respecting New Books. 173

observer may arrange them in classes, gencra, and species,
whence results a general theory. On the accuracy of such
arrangements depends all the merit of the respective theories
of natural phenomena which have hitherto amused man-
kind. To begin the study of chemistry, which is a science
of experience and observation, by applying any artificial
theory or system to explain natural phenomena, is surely to
contemplate nature under the veil of art. By such means,
it is true, a system may be consolidated, but our knowledge
of the ceconomy of nature will never advance one step
nearer truth. The second propasition is remarkable for a
copiousness of not the most appropriate terms. § To show
the connections existing between these phenomena and their
reciprocal influence upon each other, we must consider this
philosophy as comprising the whole of the important disco-
veries made by chemistry.” “The * connections’”’ and re-
ciprocal influence” of phenomena are not unfrequently
identical terms, and even the analogies of chemical bodies
are often discovered or known only by their reciprocal in-
fluence on each other.

M. Fourcroy, after taking a poetical view of the pro-
gressive mutations of all bodies, reduces the objects of his
consideration to eight articles, ‘* which really constitete the
first principles or elementary basis of chemistry.” They
are as follow: ‘ Ist, Definition of chemistry ; edly, Exa-
Mination of its general means; 3dly, Chemical nature of
bodies; 4thly, Attraction of aggregation; 5thly, Attrac-
tion of composition; 6thly, Chemical operations; 7thly,
Classification of natural bodies ; and sthly, Chemical phz-
nomena of nature, and their classification.’ These articles
are again divided and subdivided with tedious minuteness,
and interlarded with fanciful or erroncous distinctions, which
may bewilder, but certainly cannot assist young students of
chemical science. [or instance, although it is acknow-
ledged that analysis is a division very different from that
performed by mechanical instruments ;” the author makes
a subsection of * mechanical analysis (a solecism), spon-
tancous analysis (more properly decomposition), analysis by
fire, and by re-agents.” Again we have the division of

‘© immediate

174 Notices respecting New Books.

“ immediate or proximate analysis (another name for what
he calls mechanical analysis, which consists in expression,
trituration or washing preparatory to an analysis), mediate or
remote analysis, true or simple analysis, and false or com-
plex analysis.” These, however, are not all; there are still
** mineral analysis, vegetable analysis, animal analysis,”’
&c. &c. tobe discussed. Will it be pretended that such
futile, not to say erroneous, distinctions can either be necessary
or useful to the perspicuity, precision or elucidation of che-
mical philosophy? Jn general the briefest is the most clear
definition, but there is neither brevity nor perspicuity in
such pedantic distinctions. Inthe next article, on the ¢ at-
traction of aggregation,” we have ‘* solid, soft, liquid and
elastic fluid, aggregates.”” These are followed by ** paréz-
culary attraction,” (as Mr. Desmond translates it) and
*‘ molecular attraction.’ Several sections are occupied in
announcing the well known fact, that on our acquaintance
with the operations of the affinities depends all cur know-
ledge of the theory and practice ot cheinistry. The deserip-
tion of the different chemical operations, indeed, such as
calcination, evaporation, &c., is much more accurate and
precise.

But the great merit of this ‘* chemical philosophy,” in
the estimation of its author, !s the ‘ classification of bodies,’”
in which, he tells us, “ after many long attempts in search-
ing for the distinction of bodies, he has fixed upon a me-
thod which divides all beings into eight grand classes,
agreeable to their characteristic composiuons.” These
classes are: Ԥ* .1st, Simple or indecomposable bodies 5
edly, Binary compound deflagrated bodies (bere translated,
binary burned bodies) ; 3dly, Salifiable bases ; athly, Saline
substances; Sthly, Metallic substances; 6thly, Mineral or
fossil compounds; 7thly, Vegetable compounds; and sthly,
Animal compounds.’’, In this arrangement there is nothing
novel or peculiar. The following is the author’s classifica-
tion of the chemical phenomena of nature, which con-
sists of a series of twelve sections: ** Ist, Action of light;
adily, Action of caloric; 3dly, Action of air; 4tbly,
Nature and properties of combustible bodies; Sthly, Nature

and

Notices respecting New Books. 175

and action of water; 6thly, Formation and classification of
acids; 7thly, Properties of salifiable bases; Sthly, Union
of acids with salifiable hases; othly, Oxydation aud dissolu=-
tion of metals; 10thly, Nature and formation of vegetable
compounds; i}thly, Passage of vegetable compounds to
the state of animal compounds; nature of the latter; and
12thly, Spontaneous decomposition of vegetable and animal
compounds.” These twelve sections form the chief divi-
sions of this chemical philosophy, which the author, in a
tone of self-gratulation that has but little affinity with the
true spirit of philosophy, assures us, “ notwithstanding the
shortness of the work, really embraces the whole extent of
the science; makes known all its branches, presents all its
principles, and conveys, at the same time, the most general
and most accurate notions of it!!” M. Fourcrov, in com-

son with many other authors, here asserts that vegetables
are capable of effecting ‘ areal decombustion”’ of the aiv,
and that their leaves exposed to the rays of the sun shed
into the atmosphere a torrent of oxygen gas.” Ellis has
sufficiently confuted these notions. (See Phil. Mag. vol,
xxvili. ps 273.) The following table exhibits the author's
improved classification of the acids.

Classes.

3st Class.
Acids with
simple and
known radi-
cals. Twelve
species.

[ 176 ]
TABLE OF ACIDS.

Genera. Species. Characiers of the Species.

Product of the combustion of
charcoal, gaseous, mephi-+

most feeble and most inde
composable of acids.
Formed by phosphorus ra-

Phosphoric pidly burned, very heavy,
acid, vitrifiable, very sour, not
caustic, yielding phospho»
rus with red charcoal.
Phosphorous phorated than the precea-
acid,

ing, yielding’ a white smoke
and a phosphoric flame, by
heat.

Sulphur totally burned, a-
crid, caustic, inodorous;
charring organic com~
pounds, very heavy, yield-
ing sulphur with red char+
coal.

~ fis gaseous, irritants

Sulfuric acid.

ie oxygenated, more phos-

Sulfureous

1 like sulphur, burning blue
acid.

discolouring and whitening
vegetal and animal colours.
(One of the most decompo:
sable, and therefore most
| variable in nature; b
losing some oxygen it
| passes, Ist. to the state of
nitrous gas or azotic oxydy
insoluble. in water, and
reddening by the contact of
Nitric acid. air; 2d. to the state of
azotic oxydule gas, soluble’
in water, not reddening im
air, inflames charcoal, phos-
phorus, sulphur, ky and
some metals, destroys ani-~
mal miasmata, and disin-
fects the most infected
U eg
is mitrie acid holding
pene acid in solution ;
) nearly absorbs its weight
from it; then in a rutilant
vapour more volatile than
nitric acid.

Spe fixed, vitrifiable, very

Nittons acid.

Arsenic acid poisonous, inodorous, arse-
nic completely burned.

Arsenious Solid, volatile, odorous, an?

acid. earlic-like when in vapour.

White, pulverulent, rough,
growing yellow by nitric

Tungstie acid.
and muriatic acids.

acid. blue when deprived of oxy-
gen.

Yellow, little soluble, form-
ing yellow, red, or orange
comaied salts.

Rough, little soluble, in
Molytulic { white threads, becoming’
Chromic acid. \

Carbonie acid. < tic, nearly ae the -

f£17%.]

TABLE OF ACIDS CONTINUED.

———

Flasses.

2d Class.
Acids with
unknown fa-
dicals but
presumed
simple. Four
species.

3d Class.

ia with 2
‘inary radi-

cals. ‘Twelve
specics.

4th Class.
Acids with
ternary radi-
cals. Four
species.

Acids falsely
ticular acids,

jung to acetic acid.

Vol. 29. No. 114. Nov. 1807.

Genera. Species.

c

Muriatic.

Oxygenated
muriatic.

Fluorie:

Boracic.
L

Succinic,
Millitic.
ist Genus. ead
| Pure vegetal ~ yfalic.
acids. Gallic.
Benzoic.
2d Genus. .
Vegetal aci- 5 pare
dules. r aie
| $d Genus. ¢ Camphoric.
Factitious Suberic.
acids. |) Mucous.
4th Genus. {
Fermented Acetic,
\ acids.

Amnic.
Sebacic;
Uric.
Prussic.

Pyromucous.
Pyrotartarous,
Pyroligneous.
Ciceric.
Acetous.
Formic.
Bombic.
Cruoric.
Zoonic.
Lactie.

admitted as par-
but found to be-

—

Characters of the Species. - -

Gaseous, indecomposable,
odorous, forming a white
vapour, depriving many
bodies of oxygen.
Greenish-yellow gas, fetid,
thickening liquids and con-
tracting animal organs, in+
flaming many combustibles,
destroying almost all co-
lours.

Gaseous, pungent, dissolving
glass and silex, of which it

| precipitates a pari by water.
Solid, in crystalline span-
gles, fixed aad fusible into
glass, little soluble, little
sapid, very feeble in its
combinations.

These

178 Notices respecting New Books.

These 32 acids form as many genera of salts, which com
tain about 380 species, each of which should be profoundly
studied. Every earthy or alkaline salt may be considered
under the following aspects :

“1st. Fhe form, and the varicties of that form : it must be
described geometrically ; the inclination and degrees of the
angles must be stated, as well as the primitive formation of
the crystals, their interior form, their dissection, and the laws
of decrement which determine their varieties. 2d. Its existence
fu nature or in art; the comparison of the natural with the
artificial salt. 3d. Itssavour. 4th. The action of fire, whether
null, dissolving, vitrifying, subliming, decomposing, &c.
5th. The action of light. 6th. The influence of air, whe-
ther null, giving or taking away water to or from the cry-
stals. 7th. Its union with water, the quantity necessary to
effect a dissolution at the various temperatures, the caloric
absorbed or disengaged; the erystallization performed by
refrigeration or evaporation. 8th. The attraction of the
earths which modify or decompose, or do not change the
salt, or which unite with it in a trisule. goth. The effect of
alkalis on it, whether null or decomposing, sometimes unit-
ing.in a triple salt. 10th. The comparative action of dif-
ferent acids upon that contained in the salt, decomposing
it, changing its nature, or producing no effect upon it.
Fith. The influence of other salts upon it; whether reduced
to nothing, or to an entire action tending to form a triple
salt, or to a dowble decomposition, changing the acids and
the bases, or into a precipitation in proportion to their at-
traction for water. 12th. The dissolubility or indissolubility
of the salt in alcohol. 13th. Its alteration or inalterability by
charcoal, decomposing its acid, or leaving it untouched,
34th. The influence of vegetation and of fermentation on
the salt. 15th. Finally, its actiorr on animal ceconomy.”

The properties of metallic salts of importance to be known
are the following :

<¢ 4st. Form and varieties. 2d. Savour and causticity,
ereater or less. 3d. Alteration by light. 4th. Fusion, de-
siceation, decomposition more or less distinct by caloric.
Sthw-Deliquescence, efflorescence, or more or less. complete

deeomposition

Notices respecting New Books. 179

detomposition by air. 6th. Dissolubility in water hot or
cold: decomposition more or less advanced by pure water, or
water aérated. 7th. Decomposition by alkalis and carths ;
nature of precipitated metallic oxyds; complete precipita-
tion, or formation of triple salts or trisules, partly alkaline
or earthy, and partly metallic. sth. Alteration of metallic
oxyds at the moment of their precipitation, whether by air,
or by the nature of the alkali employed to precipitate them ;
as it happens with respect to ammoniac. 9th. Reciprocal
alteration by the various acids, decomposition or not; at-
traction vf acids for metallic oxyds, change of the oxyds
discoverable by their colour. 10th, Alteration by earthy or
alkaline salts presenting either an union without decompo-
sition, or a double decomposition. 11th. Reciprocal action
of mineral salts showing either a simple union, or a simple
change of bases by the acids, or a displacement of oxygen
which precipitates the two oxyds, the one because it is
partly disoxyded, the other because it is hyperoxyded ; such
is, for instance, the useful precipitation of the muriatic so-
lution of gold by the muriatic solution of tin, which yields
the purple precipitate of Cassius. 12th. Union of sulfurets
and hydrosulfurets, earthy or alkaline; formation of species
of sulphureous mines.”

The appearance of this improved edition of the “ Philo-
sophy of Chemistry,” as it has been very improperly called,
in its English dress, induces us to wish that, like the French
orator, the English orator of science, Mr. Davy, to whom
this translation is dedicated, would devote some of his time
to give an improved edition of his “* Syllabus of Lectures”
printed in 1802; we might then say that we have an ele-
mentary work on cliemistry, worthy to rival the “¢ Chemical
Philosophy” of M. Fourcroy, . and which might also be
translated into- eight living languages. The greatest defects,
indeed, of the present work, next to its omission of the
hides of the gases, and of endiometrical operations, are
a multiplicity of divisions without distinctions, and distinc-
tions without differences ; a superabundance of terms fre-
quently altogether unnecessary, and a general redundancy
of words, occasioned by an attempt at excessive perspicuity,

M2 which

180 ~~ Royal Society.

which terminates either in confusion or inanity. The defi
nitions in general are either redundant, defective, or other-
Wise inadequate to convey precise notions of the things de-
fined. Many things are taken for granted as well established
facts, on which no direct and decisive experiments have
ever been made; and the observations and defimitions of
vegetable bodies are equally crronéous and detective. Not-
withstanding these glaring defects, and many more on which
it is unnecessary to dwell, the present volume ‘presents sucly
gencral views, if not of the philosophy of chemistry, at
least of the modern system of explaining the chemical phze-
nomena of nature, that every chemist will think it deserving
his attentive perusal. .

= <>
, '

XXVIIE. Proceedings of Learned Societies.

ROYAL SOCIETY.
Orn Thursday evening, Nov. 5, this Society assembled
after the long varation, the Right Honourable Sir Joseph
Banks, Bart. president, in the chair. The whole of the
evening was occupied in receiving, and im returning thanks
for, the numerous presents of books from the Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences of Lisbon, and other foreign societies.
Nov. 12.—The president in the chair, A Bakerian Lec-
ture on the Decomposition or Analysis of the Fixed Alka-
lis, by H. Davy, Esq. was read. The results of the experi-
rhents here modestly detailed in this perspicuous leeture
‘are more important, except Galvanism,.tham any which have
occurred since the discoveries. of Priestley and Cavendish,
and which have given the Transactions of the Royal Society
ef London a celebrity throughout the civilized world, un-
rivalled in the annals of philosophy. Mr. Davy, in his last
Bakerian Lecture of last year, on the Agencies of Electricity,
(see Phil. Mag. vol. xxvill. p. 1.) suggested the probabi-
lity that other bodies, not then enumerated, might be de-
composed by electricity. Since that time, by means of
several very powerful Galvanic troughs, es ~e
irs of plates of six inches square, and 150 pairs four
pairs of p q. a E oe

Royal Society. 181
anches square, succeeded in decomposing potash and soda.
This was effected by placing moistened potash or soda on
a plate of platina, and exposing it to the Galvanic circle.
Oxygen was disengaged, and these alkalis were reduced to
their primitive base, a peculiar and bighly inflammable mat-
ter, which assumes the form and appearance of, small glo-
bules of mercury. These globules are lighter than any
sother fluid, as they swim in distilled paphtha. The base
of potash is of a specific gravity as six to ten of water. At
the freezing point these globules are hard and brittle, and
when broken and examined with a microscope they present a
number of facettes with the appearance of erystallization :
at 40° of Fahrenheit they are soft, and can scarcely be dis-
criminated from globules of quicksilver; at 60° they are
fluid, and at 100° volatile. . When exposed to the atme-
sphere they rapidly imbibe oxygen, and re-assume their
alkaline character. In distilled naplitha they may be kept
four or five days; but if exposed either to the atmosphere, or
to oxygen gas, they almost instantly become incrustated
with a coat of regenerated alkali: this incrustation can be
removed, and the reduced globule will remain in naphtha,
or separated from all contact with oxygen, as before; the
naptha forming a thin filma round the globule, and excluding
the contact of oxygen.

Noy. 19.—The president in the chair. Continuation of
Mr. Davy’s Bakerian Lecture on the Decomposition of the
Alkalis. One part of the base of alkali and two.of merevry,
estimated by bulk, (or about 1 part of the base to 48 of mer-'
cury by weight,) formed an amalgam, which, when ap-
plied in the circle of a Galvanic battery (which produced an
intense heat) to iron, silver, gold, or platina, unmediately
dissolved these, and converted them into oxides, in which
«process alkali was regenerated. Glass, as well as all other
metallic bodies, was also dissolved by the application of this
substance: the base of the alkali seizing the oxvgen ef the
, manganese and of the minium, pofash was regeneraied.
Mune of these globules placed on a piece of ice dissolved it,
and burnt.with a biight flame, giving out an intense heat.
Potash was found in the product of the dissolved ice. Nearly

' M 3 the

182 Royal Society.

the same effects foliowed when a globule was thrown into
water: in both cases a great quantity of hydrogen gas was
rapidly liberated. © When laid on a piece of moisteued tur-
meric paaper, the globule seemed instantly to acquire an in-
tense heat; but so rapid was its movement in quest of the
moisture, that no part of the paper was burnt, only an in-
tense. deep red stain marked the course it followed, and
showed a re-production of alkali. The spetific gravity of
the basé of soda is as seven to ten of water: it is fixed ina
temperature of about 150°, and fluid at 180°. Mr. Davy
next tried its effects on the phosphats, phosphurets, and
the greater part of the salts of the first and second de-
gree-of oxydizement, all of which it decomposed, seizing
their oxygen, and reassuming its alkaline qualities. The
specific gravity of this amalgam, after a number of experi-
ments, was found by means of a mixture of oil of sassafras
with distilled naphtha, in which a globule remained either
buoyant at top, or quiescent at bottom, in a fimid weighing
as nine to ten of water.

The sixth section of this lecture detailed a great variety
of experiments made to ascertain the difference of the base
Of potash from that of sada; and from the medium taken
of numerous analytical, and of nine synthetical, experiments,
it appeared that 100 parts of potash contain 15 oxygen, and
85 of inflammable base, and that the same quantity of soda
contains 20 oxygen, and 80 base.

The seventh section was devoted to an examination of
volatile alkali, which chemists, led by systematic theory,
lave rather hastily taken for granted that it consists merely
of hydrogen and nitrogen. Mr. Davy, after a great num-
ber of complex experiments, in which he was assisted by
Messrs. Pepys and Allen, ascertained that oxygen is also an
essential ingredient in ammonia, 100 grains of the latter
vielding 20 of the former : but this result depended too
much on eudiometrical calculation to be received as an
established fact.

The eighth and Jast section consisted of general observa-
tions on the “ series of mew facts” here disclaeedy' in which
Mr. D. related some miscellaneous experiments on the mu-

ratic

Saciety of Antiquaries. 183

natic and fluoric acids, all of which tended to prove that
oxygen is one of their constituent principles. The earths
ef barytes and strontites, as being most analogous to the al-
kalis, were likewise examined, and both yielded considerable
quantities of oxygen. Mr. D. concluded by remarking the
impropriety of limiting the term oxygen to a specific cha-
racter, as opposed to that of alkali, observed the necessity of
improving the nomenclature, in consequence of the new facts
new discovered, and the influence of this ‘ metallary
base, as it might be called,” on other bodies ; and suggested
the importance and extent of the new ficld these facts
epened to geology, as likely to lead to numerous discoveries
relative to the formation of various stones, strata, and
mountains. ;

A paper by E. Home, Esq. on the Functions of the Spleen,
was also partly read. Mr. Home, having had some reason to
believe that the pylorus is not the only organ by which the
nutriment, taken into the stomach, is appropriated by the
system, but that the spicen also performs an important part in
the process of animalizing the food, took a dog, fixed a li-
gature on the pylorus, and injected five ounces of a
liquid, coloured with indigo, into the stomach: two
ounces of this fluid were ejected, and, two hours after, the
dog was killed; when only one ounce was found in his sto-
mach, while two had been absorbed by the spleen, as the
pylorus was found entirely empty. The liquid was decomposed,
and the indigo deposited on the cardiac portion of the sto-
mach,

SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES,. ~

This Society assembled, as usual, on the 5th of Novem-
her, which was occupied with receiving presents, and pro-
posing or halloting for members, On the 12th, Sir HC.
Englefield, bart., vice-president, in the chair. Mr. Carter
exhibited some exquisite drawings of Waltham Abbey, in the
true Saxon style of architecture, built before the Conquest,
and supposed about the year 1062. Several Roman coins,
and copper basons, the latter most probably used for divina-
tion, were also exhibited. Mr. Weston presented to the

M4 society

184 French National Institute.

society 4 fat simile and translation of the inscription on the
piece of ordnance in St. James’s park, brought from Egypt.
The inscription states the date of its foundry in 920 of the
Hegira, (1542 of the Christian zra,) and also a description
of its powers, as, ‘ There is nothing can stand before me
but I destroy and tear to pieces,—in my belly is fire, in my
mouth thander and death,’ &c. &c. These expressions, it
must be confessed, are not less rational than Louis XIV’s
« Lex ultima legum,” or Oliver Cromwell's ** Open our
mouths, O Lord, and we will show forth thy praise |”
which decorated the cannons of these warriors at a much
Jater period. On the 1gth, Dr. Neil exhibited to the
society the horn of a rhinoceros, found near Cairo. It was
finely carved with several well-executed figures of animals,
in bas-relief, about two feet long, and at the base nearly six
inches in diameter. It is cut into the shape of a Turkey
slipper, only with a spout like a mouth at the small end. A
curious cup was likewise exhibited, on which were delineated
the inebriety and excesses of Noah, Lot, his daughters, 8c,
It is of a cylindrical figure, made of walnut, holding about
two quarts, lincd with tin, and is conjectured to be very
antient, and to have been the workmanship of our ances-
tors at a time when biblical characters were the chef sub-
jects of art.

FRENCH NATIONAL INSTITUTE,
{Continued from p. 89 J

Naturalists have therefore thought that animals en-
dowed with instincts exercise these particular actions in
yirtue of an interior impulse, independently of experience,
foresight, education, and external agents; or, in other terms,
that their organization by itsedf alone determines them to act
in this manner. This result has been adopted by almost all
writers ; and, if they have varied, it has been merely in ex-
.plaining the manner in which organization can communi-
eate this determination: the following is the hypothesis of
bne author upon this subject:

The want of, or the desire for, a certain action can only

be

French National Institute, 185

be occasioned by sensations or recollections of sensations ;
in a word, by images: but it is not necessary that a sensa-
tion should be an outward one; because every external scnsa-
tion requires. internal movements of the nerves and brainy,
without which it would not have taken place. Now these in-
ternal movements may arise in the organs themselves, with-
out any external excitement; and thus it often happens in
dreaming, and in different diseases: there is nothing, there-
fore, to prevent certain animals from bcing organized in such
amauner that there are constantly in them interior move-
ments proper for producing sensations, images, and so that
these images determine imperatively their volition to certain”
actions. :

This hypothesis seems to have nothing in common with
that of innate ideas, which has for its object merely general
or abstract ideas ; because those who deny, with reason, that
the general ideas of mankimd are innate, have never asserted
that man can have sensations in virtue of interaal move-
ments of his proper body, and without the intervention of

external bodies; the experience of every day would have
given the lie to their assertion.

Nor does this hypothesis seem to have any thing in com-
mon with that of materialism: for, whatever idea we form
of the intimate nature of the thinking principle, we are al-
ways obliged to allow that it only experiences sensations by
the intermedium of the brain and the nervous system,

In the last place, it has nothing which connects it more
than another with the doctrine of fatalism; for, every action
being determined either by an actual sensation or by the
remembrance of a past sensation, or, lastly, by the fcar or
hope of a future sensation,—let these sensations be internal
or external, the state of the question is not changed.

It seems to be, however, from the fear of falling inte
any of these labyrinths, that M. Dupont has_ indiscri-
minately rejected every kind of instinct whatever.

He begins by showing that the actions of animals of
superior orders, such as quadrag eds and birds, result from
the combination of their experience and their physical far
culties: but he might have saved himself this trouble ; all

‘: naturalists

186 French National Institute.

naturalists admit it. Afterwards he endeavours to explain
physically how these animals, and children also, learn to
suckle: he shows that several species have the power of
emitling sounds numereus enough to form a very com-
plicated language; and he asserts that he observed they
employed some of these signs in circumstances so com~
pletely similar, that it cannot be doubted they attach a
fixed signification to them. His observations on this
head are very interesting, and must enrich the natural
history of such species.

He also endeavours to prove that the specics may per-
fect their processes in certain circumstances ; but perhaps
naturalists will here discover that he has sometimes mis-
taken different species for one and the same species in a state
of greater perfection. Thus, the architect beaver of Canada
is not entirely similar to the terrier castor of the Rhone; and
the ‘gregarious spider of Paraguay is by no. means the
same with our solitary spiders.

We may conceive, from what. we have mentioned above,
that the greatest difficulty for M. Dupont would be, to ex-
plain how insects have acquired the precautions, so marvel-
ious, with which they prepare for the egg they produce, and
for the worm it is about to hatch, the requisite security and
nourishment ; although these insects often never saw, or, if
they did, never will see again, either a similar egg or a si-
milar worm; and although the wants of the worm have no
relation with those of the insect which works for it.

Among the multitude of examples which we may adduce,
M. Dupont has chosen -one only ; but we do not think he
has been happy in his choice; it is that of a false solitary
wasp, the industry of which is as follows :—During ils ex-
istence as a perfect insect it attaches itself to the flowers ;
when it is ready to lay its eggs it digs a cylindrical hole in
clayey sand; it deposits an egg at the bottom: it then goes
among some cabbages and seizes upon a small green cater-
pillar which it had never before made its prey ; this cater-
pillar the wasp pricks with its sting, so as to weaken it, in _
order that it may not make any resistance against the worm
which is about to issue from the egg and devour it: the ca-

terpillar

French National Institute. is?

terpillar is not injured by the wasp so much as to kill it, and
thus make it liable to petrifaction: it then rolls it up into a
circular form, and places it at the bottom of the hole: the wasp
then proceeds to fetch eleven similar caterpillars successively,
which it treats in the same manner: it thea closes up the
hole and dies. The small worm is now hatched ; it devours
the twelve caterpillars in succession, and then metamorphoses
itself into a wasp, which leaves its subterraneous apartment
and flics about among the flowers ; it becomes impregnated
by the male, and begins again, when it wishes to lay its
eggs, precisely the same operations as its mother, and upon
the same species of caterpillars.

M. Dupont de Nemours is not only obliged to suppose,
and in fact he does suppose in his explanation, that the per-
fect insect preserves the remembrance of sensations expe-
rienced by it in the state of a worm, although it has entirely
changed its form and its organs; but he must also think,
although he does not say so expressly, that the wasp can
never know by eye-sight the caterpillars and the sand, that
it had never Jearnt to know them except by the touch, and
even by its old touch as a worm; for when a worm it is
blind, it lives in a dark cell, and when the wasp is hatched
in this cell the caterpillars are no Jonger there. Lastly, as
M. Dupont does not venture to admit that the wasp has the
foresight that the egg it deposits will become a worm, and
will require all the care it can bestow on it, he must intend
to insinuate that the wasp does all this solely to amuse itself
by imitating what it had geen in its infancy.

Such, in our opinion, are the difficulties which M. Du-
pont combats on the one hand, and such are the difficulties
into which he plunges himseif on the other hand. We have
endeavoured to be impartial in our statement of them, but
it does not belong to us to form any judgment as to their
merits. Our readers who peruse M. Dupont’s memoir will
derive all the pleasure which the wit and imagination of this
ingenious philosopher cannot fai] to produce.

XKKIX. Ins

*%

{ 188 J
XXIX. Intelligence and Miscellancous Articles,

THE COMET.

M, Pouvarp, member of the French Institute and of
the Board of Longitude, has published the following addi-
tional facts respecting this phanomenon :

“ The comet discovered at Marseilles on the 20th of Sep+
tember is the most beautiful that has been seen these 30 years.
Its nucleus appears like a star of the first or second magnis
tude, but irs light is paler: its tail is not very extensive,
being only a few degrees: its light, however, and that of
its nucleus are striking enough to enable us to see it every
evening.

4 On the 30th of September I was informed of the ap-
pearance of this new comet, and on the same eveuing T de+
termined its position with an excellent instrument. From
this time T observed it regularly when the Weciher was fa+
yourable. ;

“‘ The elements of its orbit have been determined by my
observations ; and by employing the method of M_ Laplace
I found it had passed its perihelion on the 19th of Septein-
ber 1807, at 6h. 56m. in the morning, mean time, al Paris.

re tts perihelion distance, that of the Sun being taken
at unity, is 0.647491.

The longitudd of the perihelion upon the orbit—27° 5¥
53”.

*< The longitude of the ascending node 266° 39’ 40”.

<< The inclination of the orbit 63° 14’ 1”.

«* Heliocentric motion direct.

«* Thiscomet from the period of its discovery has been con-
tinually removing from the sun and the earth; its distance
4trom the’earth, however, surpasses that of the sun, audit in-
‘creases every day. This comet will be still visible for some,
time; which will afford an opportunity for maltiplying ob-
servations, and will be favourable to astronomers in supply-
ing them with the means ofascertaining with great exactness
the elements of its orbit, which pevonihies none of the or-

bits of any comet hitherto observed.
“ Paris, 2d Nev. 1807.”

i AIA A Me-

* Vaccination. . : sy”

A Medical Gentleman has invented a new mode of secret
writing, which can never be effaced but by destroying the
paper; and which produces ten or twelye perfect copies
as soon as one, with no more trouble to the writer, The
same Gentleman, we understand, wrote the article ¢¢ Cipher’’
for the new Cyclopedia, which has excited considerable
attention in the literary world.

A New Edition of Mr. Parkes’s Chemical Catechism, which
has been for some time expected, has just made its appear-
ance. We observe in it some very considerable additions
and improvements. The ‘Essay on the Utility of Che-
mistry to the Aris and Manufactures,”* by the same author,
and which makes a part of the above volume, may be had
by itself.

VACCINATION.

~ ™. Champaeny, the French minister of the interior, has
presented to the emperor Napoleon a report of the present
state of vaccination im France. His majesty had directed
M.Champagny to obtain authentic materials for this report,’
by inviting the prefects and clergy of all the departments in
the empire to transmit to Paris official documents on the
subject. M. Champagny has displayed great zeal for the
interests of humanity in the performance of the task thus
imposed upon him; and in the masterly report he has pre-
sented to the emperor on the subject, he records the names
of such of the French clergy as have been most active in
the propagation of the vaccine among their parishioners.
The emperor, on perusing the report, ordered M. Cham-
pagny to intimate to these enlightened ministers of the
Christian religion, that their names should be remembered in
the future distribution of church preferments.

M. Champagny, in his report, expresses his regret that
the vaccine sbould have met with some opposition from,
the ignorant in France, in consequence of the translation of,
some pamphlets from the English language, and suggests,
that his majesty should issue some restriction upon the cir-
culation of works of a tendency hostile to vaccination.

While

190 List of Patents for New Inventions.

While the above encouragement has been given in Fratice
fo the vaccine inoculation, the king of Bavaria has gone @
step further in’ the cause of humanity. By a royal or~
donnance lately published, his majesty has decreed that every
child within his dominions who has not attained the age of
three years shall be vaccinated before the Ist of July 1808,
and that every infant born in future within his dominions
shall undergo the same inoculation within three months
after its birth. Heavy penalties are inflicted on the neglect
of this decree, and inoculation for the small-pox is pro
hibited under pain of imprisonment.

M. Lechenault, one of the naturalists who accompanied
the French circumnavigator captain Baudin, has arrived at
Paris. Herhas brought with him a fine collection in natural
history, consisting of minerals, mammifcrous and oviparous
guadrupeds, serpents, birds, shells, and insects, with a
magnificent hortus siccus, and a very rare collection of arms
and instruments from India, Otaheite, Java, and other
neighbouring islands. M. Lechenault left captain Baudin
at Batavia in extreme ill health.

LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS.

To William Pedder, of Norfolk-Street, Strand, London,
Esq for an improvement to cattle-mills, and water-mills
for grinding sugar-canes, or any other mill or machine re-
quiring additional velocity and power. October 19.

To Tebaldo Monzani, of Old Bond-Street and Cheapside,
London, music-seller, fora new German flute. Oct. 19.

To Edward Shorter, of the parish of St. Giles Cripplegate,:
in the city of London, mechanic, for certain improvements
in the jack for roasting meat. October 19.

To Louis Caron, of the city of Paris, but now residing in
the city of London, manufacturer, for new methods of
weaving or manufacturing hair along with silk or thread, or
other materials, and of making the same into perukes or
wigs, and various other articles, so as to imitate nature; and
of taking the measure, or section, or profile, ‘of the head,

by

List of Patents for New Inventions. It

by an instrument applicable to that and other useful pur-
poses. October 21.

To Henry Thomson, of Tottenhain in the county of
Middlesex, merchant, for impreguating Cheltenham or
other natural medicinal waters, or such as are usually de-
nominated ** mineral waters,’’ with ohe or more of the dif-
ferent gases or aériform fluids, and in adding other sub-
stances to, or combining the same with, such waters, Oc-
tober 30.

To William Chapman, of the town and county of New-
castle upon Tyne, civil engineer, and Edward Walton
Chapman, of the same place, rope-maker, for their method
or methods of making a belt or flat band, for the purpose
of drawing coals and other minerals up the pits or shafts of
mines ; and for raising of heavy articles in any situation
whatever. October 30.

To George Hawks, of Gateshead in the county of Dur-
ham, tron manufacturer, for a new method of making, and
likewise of keeping in repair, cast-iron wheels for coal wag-
gons, and other carriages where such wheels are appli-
cable. November 6.

To John Dickinson, of the parish of St. Martin Ludgate,
in the city of London, stationer, for cannon cartridge paper
manufactured on an improved principle. November 12.

To Joseph Jewell, of Stratford in the county of Essex,
chemist, for his method of preparing, or reduciug to an
impalpable powder for medicinal use, the substance com-
monly called or known by the name of calomel; whereby
the process usually employed, of levigating the same is
rendered unnecessary. November 17.

To William Lester, of Paddington Green in the parish of
Paddington, in the county of Middlesex, engineer, for va-
rious further improvements on an engine or machine for
separating corn sceds and pulse from the straw and chaff;
and for which said engine or machine the said William
Lester obtained his majesty’s letters patent dated the 16th of
January, 1805. November 21.

METECRO-

192 Meteorology.

METEORGLOGICAL TABLE,
By Mr. Carry, or THE STRAND,

For November 1807.
Thermometer. Bes %
Daysofthe}% 2] . | 2: | Height of 23 2
Month, Se § Sg the Barom. 38 Weathen:
5 S z, cP Inches. Bee x
«© = Qa
a eS
Oct. 27) 46°] 50°] 40°] 29-50 o [Rain
981 37 | 42 | 40} °78 7 |Fair
29} 40; 52 | 46 “52 6 |Cloudy
30 839 | 50 | 46 “48 9) Cloudy
31,45 | 50 | 46 *85 7 |Fair
Nov. 1) 46 | 52 | 47 "62 15 |Fair
‘, 2) AG}: Sa) 30 68 18 |Fair
3} 42 | 47 | 37 "23 25 |Fair, stormy at
| night
4; 40 | 46 | 35 45 17 |Fair
5; 35 | 50 | 47 “45 10 |Cloudy
6; 40 | 49 | 46 251 a7 |Fair
7; 45 | 51 | 44 "39 18 {Fair
8 44 | 45 | 40 "99 12 (|Fair
9| 35 | 43 | 41 45 94 {Fair
10) 35 | 48 | 38 “29 20 «(| Fair
tH 37 | 42 | 32 "38 8 |Fair
12).31.,)'38 | 32 "85 6 |Fair
3| 32 | 38 | 35 "96 10 |Cloudy
14) 35 | 42 | 37 | 30°03 4 |Cloudy
15| 42 | 44 | 42 | 29°98 7 |Cloudy
16) 44 | 45 | 41 89 10 |Cloudy
17; 40 | 43 | 39 84 7 {Cloudy
18) 39 | 40 | 32 "56 10 |Cloudy
19) 3 37 | al “16 Oo |Snow
_,20}.40 | 41 | 32 | 9872 2 {Stormy
2t} 31 [436 | 3! | 20-390 4 {Fair
29) 30 | 39 | 47 36 o |jRam
23} 44 | 46 | 36 | * -C2 O |Stormy
24; 31 | 38 | 34 25 41 |Fair
N25 85 -)'41,) 55 *49 10 (|Fair
. 26) 34.| 41°] 30 "4:4 g iFar

N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken atone o’clock.
Scan REEREERSEnnnniok&aichat- aor ceeteeeenennET

[ 193 ]

XXX. Proposal for the Establishment of a National Mu-
seum. By J.S. Duncan, Esq. of Lincoln’s Inn.

To the Artist, the Man of Taste, the discerning Politician, the sin-
cere Patriot, the Man of pure Morals, and of rational Religion,
this Design for a Museum, calculated to unite Instruction with

Amusement, is, with respect, dedicated by
J. S. Duncan.

ee ent

NATIONAL. MUSEUM or NATURAL HISTORY.

Iris proposed to establish a grand National Museum to
exhibit in scientific arrangement the principal objects of
natural history. By a national museum is meant, not
merely a collection of rarities, however wonderful, of novel-
ties which may surprise, or of anomalies which may con-
found the learned; but a methodical display of that instruc-
tive order and harmony which the wise Author of all being
has been pleased to manifest through all his works: an ex-
hibition of the

Seen rece cree bearings and the ties,

The strong connections, nice dependencies,
Gradations just—”

which cannot fail to excite even in rude minds emotions of
delight, and which tend to impress those improved by the
most moderate culture with salutary awe, and a conviction
of the all-disposing, all-prevailing wisdom, power, and
glory of the omnipresent Deity.

The writings of Ray and Derham, and the excellently
methodized Natural Theology of Paley, wiil be proper intro-
ductions or companions to the National Museum. It is
obvious that the lecturer, preacher, and writer, have to con-
tend with many impediments of language, while by that me-
dium alone they endeavour to sway the heart and to affect
the understanding. Eloquence however animating, propo-
‘ gitions however clearly” enounced and __ syllogistically
proved, do not-associate with the impressions of surround-
ing objects so constantly and forcibly as events actually wit-
nessed, and effects with their proximate causes exhibited to
the senses. The superiority of example to precept is a pro-

Vol. 29. No. 115. Dec. 1807. N ~ verb

194 Proposal for the Establishment of

verb of all schools: this truth is explained in the most sim+
ple manner by the observation of the mental process, which
associates impressions with ideas, the present with the past,
giving activity to memory, and strength to habit. A mu-
seum “comprehending all objects of natural science, exhibit-
ing in regular arrangement their classes, orders, genera,
species, and varieties, while it shall preach and lecture to the
eye and to the touch, will illustrate the discourse of the phi-
losopher and the divine, and store the mind with images
which will readily associate with the objects of daily and of
hourly occurrence.

Perhaps no religious truth has equal force to subdue the
fluctuations of the human soul, to repress in the instant of
temptation the beginnings of sinful emotion, with that which
impresses on the mind and heart the universal actual pre-
sence of the all-beholding Deity. It is not a light under-
taking, a project of temporary amusement, which proposes
to associate every object of nature with this awful idea, to
cause its continual recurrence, and induce it to predomi-.
nate with the energy of habit.

That the scheme of forming a museum with a moral and
religious view is rather anc cal may perhaps be admittedt ~
The curiosity of naturalists has probably impelled them, for
the most part, to collect, and some vanity may have
mingled with the philanthropy which has displayed to the
public their miscellaneous rarities. These principles and
these collections have however been subservient to the views
of general science; they have enlarged its scope and ex-
tended its career: but science itself is destitute of dignity,
unless it be derived from its unwearied service, its high
fealty to morals and religion. These can alone invest with
proper dignity, and sanction with the broad stamp of utility,
‘the charter of a national museum.

Yet to encourage public amusements. in’ their nature
‘wholly innocent is not unworthy of wise legislators. How few
public diversions are entitled even to this praise. To diffuse

‘joy amongst the subjects of its care is a glorious effort of an
venlightened government: but to mix instruction’ with de-
tight —detectando pariterque ‘ monendo-to pange the passion —

)8 .loV for

a National Museum. 185

fot amusement on the side of virtue, is entitled to the higher
praise of generous and far-sighted policy.

The games of ancient Greece and Rome were grand po-
litical institutions. They were employed to call forth into
action a display of various talent, to excite ardent emula-
tion, to sooth the public mind, and divert it from the irri-
tation of calamity, or of ignorance inflamed by faction: but
they also were tributary to the elegant arts, and gave some of
their richest stores to painting, poetry, nd sculpture. What
can more surely tend to the refinement of taste, as applied to
the graces of art, than the habitual contemplation of the
brilliant varieties, the elegant gradations and harmonies of
form and colour displayed throughout every department of
inanimate as well as of animated nature ?

The advantages of such an establishment to the purposes
of scientific inquiry are too obvious to nced specification.

A national museum, considered in these points of view, as
adapted both to the instruction and delight of the nation at
large, cannot fail, it is‘presumed, to interest all classes in
its favour.

We are blest with a sovereign under whose auspices and
protection every liberal science, and the arts in all their
branches, have arrived at a degree of perfection exceeding,
in most respects, the attainments of all other nations. The
globe has been widely and accurately explored, and our con-
nections with distant regions extended beyond all compari-
son with those of any other people in any period of time.

It is believed that a scheme of establishing a national mu-
seum has already been contemplated by his majesty, together
with some leading members of his late administration; and
that the museum collected by Sir Ashton Lever would have
been purchased as the foundation of such an establishment,
had the specimens been found in a due state of preservation.
Jt may not beimproper here to observe, that a museum formed
on a preconcerted plan of scientific arrangement, is not like-
ly to be attended with the expenses in which a rage for
rarities frequently involves the emulous collector.

Our catalogue of scientific men, whose names do honour
to their age and country, is too long to be here inserted. It

N@ may

196 Proposal for the Establishment of ,

may suffice to name Sir Joseph Banks, the patron of natural
science, and the student’s friend; Dr. Shaw, the classical
historian of animated nature; Dr. Smith, alter Linneus ;—~
Mineralogy ‘and chemistry boast of their Chenevix, Hat-
chett, Davy, and Thompson ;—Geology of De Luc, of Sir
~ James Hall, Lord William Seymour, and of Kirwan ;—Com-
parative anatomy of Home, Carlisle, Cowper, &c. &c.

The wealth of our merchants is equalled by the en-
lightened views which direct their magnificent liberality.
Their ardour for the advancement of the liberal arts is dis-
played in their establishment of the’ City Institution, and in
the Oriental College at Hertford. It is not to be doubted
that they will extensively support the proposed museum by
a gratuitous importation of the productions of distant re-
gions, which may be pointed out to them as requisite to the
advancement of such an institution; and at the same time
freely contribute to a fund-for its permanent support.

The spirit of general inquiry awakened by the Royal In-
stitution, will secure powerful and numerous friends to the
establishment at the court end of the town.

Contributions of specimens from private collectors, whose
names sliould be inscribed and exhibited with honour, will
soon make the difficulty of selection much exceed that of
collection. f

It is hoped that his majesty’s ministers may be induced
to allot a sufficient sum for the purchase of a spacious house
in an airy part of the town, to chartered trustees, empower-
ed to receive subscriptions to a limited amount, upon a plan
of tontine, in which the trustees may be survivors,

It is proposed that a sum of be raised by sub-
scription, or sale of shares, at the rate of ;
for each share; and that the holders of such shares
be entitled to receive interest thereon, not exceeding the rate
of five per cent., whensoever such division can be made
from actual receipts, and to increase such interest by annual
addition, in proportion to the deaths of the several holders of
shares, till the original nominees be all dead ; when all pro-
fits arising from the institution shall cease, or be applicable
wholly to the purposes of the institution.

In

a National Museum. 197

In order to raise money for the payment of such interest
on the subscribed capital, it will be requisite that a certain
sum be collected at the door from each person demanding
admittance to view the museum.

It is proposed that such sum should not exceed two’shil-
lings for each person.

That on one day in every week the museum be open to
any of his majesty’s subjects not paying for their admittance.
Not more than fifteen to be admitted at one time, and a cer-
tain portion of time to be fixed for showing the museum on
such days to each party. :

That the trustees and officers of the museum, and mem-
bers of a committee, to be appointed for conducting the
affairs of the museum, be allowed to grant tickets for the
gratuitous admission of well-educated foreigners.

That a part of the sum collected for the establishment of
the National Museum be vested in the names of the trustces
in the government funds, and that the dividends thereon be
"applicable to the payment of certain officers and servants re-
quired for the arrangement and exhibition of the museum.

Other ceconomical details may be considered at the first
meeting of subscribers, when a committee must be ap-
pointed. .

Not to encumber das proposal with the enumeration of
the several classes, &c. of natural objects, it may suffice
to observe, that it is fundamentally essential to the great ob-
jects above expressed, that every article be disposed accord-
ing to the most approved method of scientific arrangement,

With a view of illustrating the important arguments so
luminously deyeloped in Dr. Paley’s Natural Theology, it is
proposed that a considerable part of the exhibition be dedi-
cated to comparative anatomy, illustrated by natural speci-
mens or models, either separately assembled, or displayed in
rooms dedicated to the several branches of zoolugy*.

Adjoining to each press, containing specimens of every

* But a small part of the British Museum is dedicated to objects of natural
history. The specimens of zoology are without arrangement, and greatly
decayed. There is no fund for replacing those which moulder away, nor for
re the collections

N3 department

198 Proposal for the Establishment of

department, should be suspended moveable tablets; enurhe«
rating the several objects, particularising the connecting
points of different classes, and specifying remarkable analo-
gies and anomalies,

Such tablets will at once assist the apprehension of the
spectator, and facilitate the exhibition,

TQ OEQ,
Ilavtepyarr, Wavronrn, Tlavronparogs.

What worthier temple can we raise to his glory than one
which, presenting to the senses an epitome of ‘his works,
may serve as a pronaon to the temple of his creation, of
which the heavens are spread out as the vault*, the height
of the sanctuaryt, wherein, sitting on the circlet of the
earth, he calleth all things by their names, and bringeth out
their hosts by number, and maintaineth them by the great-
ness of his might.

ARGUMENT

Introductory to the Collection of Tablets, or Catalogue of
the National Museum,

—

*€ It is impossible to know any thing of the-cause but what you have ante-

cvedently, not inferred, but discovered, to the full, in the effect.” Huns.
ai ; oe

Att nature presents us with a series of important hiero-
glyphics, a part of which is easy of explanation, a part ap-
pears to lie beyond the reach of human faculties.

The explicable part involves truths which concern us
above all others: namely, our relations to all other beings,
and to the Author of all modes of being, of all order, physt-
cal and moral.

The relations of the different parts of the forms of living
beings to the continued subsistence of individuals subject to
thought and voluntary power; the relations of individuals
to each other, and to the continuance of species, subjected
to the exertions of thought and yoluntary power; and the

* « Vault.” Esdras, xvi. 59. } “ Sanctuary.” Psal. cii. 19,
t “ Circle.” Isaiah x1-22 and 26, ° °
relations

a National Museum. . 199)
relations of all objects of sense and’ reflection to the well-
being of animated individuals, and species subject also to
thought and voluntary power—are effects in which we fully
discover a power controlling other powers : such as attrac-
tion, repulsion, or impulse, capable of comprehending all
such relations; to which power all animated beings are
consequently related, as effects to a supreme cause.

1. We perceive changes in the objects of our senses and
of our consciousness ; motion beginning and ending ; forms
now distinct, now united ; now dissolved, now restored.

2, When we inoye our own limbs, or give motion to, or
restrain the motion of, another body, we are conscious, of
exertion preceding the motion.

The degree of exertion required to moye or to restrain the
motion of any power, is called power.

3. This exertion is commonly preceded by thought and
will: of which also we are conscious.

Change implies motion of the sense, or of the objestt
hence all perceived or supposed causes of change are inclu-
ded under the common or general name—power.

When objects are perceived to move one towards
another with velocity, continually increasing as they ap-
proach, we say they are moved by powers af mutual attrac-
‘tion.

5. When basics so moved become fixed in contact, we
say they cohere by powers of mutual attraction.

6. Cohesion is broken or dissolved by new, superior, and
opposite attractions, or by communicated motion from bodies
moved by power, greater than that which held the cohering
bodies together.

Experience shows that the continuance of an effect may
be preserved by a less degree of power than thatwhich was
required to preduce it.

The communication of motion, whether by the exertion
of living beings, or from any moving body to another body,
cither moving at the same tine or at rest, is.called impulse.

7. When bodies are perceived to recede from one another
in right lines, with velocities decreasing in proportion» to

N4 their

200 Proposal for the Establishment of

their distance, we say they are moved by mutual powers of
repulsion.

8. Our experience of mutual attractions, of mutual re-
pulsions, or of impulse proceeding from both or from either,
does not discover any tendency or power, in all or either,
to produce or restore forms possessing distinct parts, in which
each part concurs to the continued subsistence of the other,
and of the whole.

9. Forms known to have been constituted by the cohe-
sion of others, before known to have been distinct, and
forms known to have been dissolved, and to have been again
restored, are never perceived to have mutual relations to tbe
permanent subsistence of each other.

0. When the forms of animated beings are dissolved,
the particles are observed not to attract one another general-
ly: but several kinds of particles are distinguished by their
different aitractions: they unite and compose different
forms, each bearing no relation to the permanent subsistence
of any other.

11. The forms therefore of animated beings, and conse-
quently the relations observed in the distinct parts, do not
appear to proceed from attraction, repulsion, or from im~
pulse derived from these.

12. The particles of inanimate forms, united by mutual
‘attraction, remain in the same circumstances unchanged for
ages; but those of animated forms are subject to continual
change, and in a short time fall asunder. This tendency to
" separate and dissolve soon follows the cessation or abstrac-
tion of life, thought, and voluntary power.

13. When we consider the powers which conduce to any
mode of being, as attraction, &c., experience leads us to
conclude that the power which causes the continuance of,
an effect was the same, or is analogous to that which pro-
duced the effect.

14, But different pasts of the forms of ginnaies beings
Bear relation to the continued subsistence of each other, of
individuals and of species, subject to the exertions of

thought and voluntary power.
. 15. Dif-

a National Museum. 201

15. Different animated beings bear also relation to the
continued subsistence of each other, and of their respective
species, subject to the exertions of thought and voluntary
power :—mothers to their offspring; males and females to
their species.

16. Relations of position perceived in things whose con-
tinued mode of being is the effect of mutual reise in-
fluencies, attractions, or impulses of particles, to concur and
eohere, are artributable to the same tendencies which have
produced the concurrence and cohesion. Relations be-
tween forms having no such tendency to cohere, indepen-
dent of life, (v. clauses 8, 9, 10,) and dependent for con-
tinued subsistence on the exertions of thought, and volun-
tary power, are, by analogy, attributable to life, thought,
and voluntary power.

17. Either life, thought, and voluntary power, exist inde-
pendent of form, or they are produced by form; or-the
concurrence of particles, not independenily possessing
either, or the cohesion of particles having no mutual tenden-
cies to concur, cohere, and subsist, in such manner inde-
pendent of them. The latter supposition makes life,
thought, &c., both cause and effect ; which is absurd.

Our experience is direct, that life, thought, and voluntary
power are neither jointly or separately the results of form:
their continuance is not affected by the ainputation of great
part of the form of auimated beings. c

18. The duration of the form of animated beings is limit-
ed by laws peculiar to each species of living beings: its re-
lations to life, &c., are therefore limited.

The limited duration of the forms of living beings is or-

dained by the power which constituted the varietics of
_ form. - ;
19. The limitation of a mode of being is a prospective
ordinance ; it is the act therefore of a power, regarding a
future state of being different from that immediately pro-
duced.

20. The power which has constituted the forms of living
beings comprehends ail relations to life, thought, and volun-
tary power, limits and controls attraction, repulsion, and

unpulse ;

202 Proposal for the Establishanent of

impulse ; limits and controls the duration of its productions.
The power comprehending, constituting, limiting, precedes
and exceeds the constitution, the effect, the production.

A power then is manifested through all animated nature,
anterior and superior to all limited modes of being; the
source of all order, or relations to life, thought, and yolun-
tary power.

21. But beside the relations me the parts of animated
beings to each other, and of individuals of the same species to
atin other, which conduce to tke continued subsistence of
the individual, and of the species, subject to the exertions
of thought and voluntary power, relations are perceived
throughout all nature to the well-being, the utility, welfare,
and happiness of living creatures.

22. We know frou consciousness, and from analogy,
that the exertions of thought and: voluntary power are con-
tinually directed to utility and happiness as their ultimate
objects.

These exertions, which let bodies without attraction,
sever them without repulsion, impel by communicating, not
pre-excited, but original self-motion, dispose and tala
various parts of nature to their ends—utility and happiness.

- The ends of their exertions are therefore, in some degree,
similar to those of the power which has constituted the rela-
tions of animated form, and subjected it to their direction.

23. As we trace mutual attractions from minute particles
of solids and fluids to the wide extent of the ocean and the

_ atmosphere, to mountains and to worlds 3 so relations to the
utility and bappimess of living beings may be traced from
objects of the microscope to the profundities of space ; from
the farina on the anthers of the wheat-blossom, to the re-
yolutions of our planet round ihe sun.

24. But all natural relations to the well-being of individu-
als and species are interwoven, and inseparably mingled
with those which concur to their. continued subsistence.
All natural relations, then, to the welfare and happiness of
animated beings proceed from the same source, with all
other relations to life, thought, and voluntary power.

93. The relation of an organizing power to the continu-

ance

4 . ~ ” >
a National Museum. £03

ance of any mode of being may be as that of an artist to a ma~
chine : but the relation of an adequate power to the welfare
and happiness of intellectual beings is ‘amoral relation 3°2
relation either identical with, cr analogous to, sympathy, or
benevolence, or care to preduce present good, or a pruden-
tial view to fature benefits. Such relation must proceed
from superior to inferior power and intelligence.

26. Experience and consciousness, then, demonstrate our
relations to a power stupendous and immeasurable; the an-
thor of all relations to life, thought, and voluntary power:
a power that regards our happiness; that has contemplated
prospectively our welfare in futurity ; the welfare of the man
ere the foetus was perfect in the womb ; that has limited the
relations of our form to life, and thought, and voluntary
power, and placed there’the limits of physical experience.

The state of life, and thought, and voluntary power, be-
yond these limits must be sought in the page of Revelation,
which can alone elucidate those hicroglyphics in the book of
nature, which conjecture, aided by analogy, may partially
explore, but which appear, for the mast part, to lie beyond
the reach of our unassisted faculties.

27. We never fail to connect the idea of moral duty with
that of the,moral relation of inferior to superior intelligence.
The wants of our nature compel us to be social beings; 4. €.
place us in various moral relations one to another. The
power that has thus placed us, has, by this act, ordained
every moral duty, imposed every moral obligation. The
welfare of all human beings is made to depend on the general
observance of these obligations, the performance. of these
duties.

28. We know from: experience and consciousness that
our relations to all objects around us are adapted to the cons
tinual excitement of moral emotion. Allnature teems with
objects of delight ; we are organized to receive it, &c. These
relations are as plain as those of lungs to air, and limbs to
motion. We are made to depend on others for our happi-
ness; we demand their efforts to effect it, and feel their
claim on us for similar exertion. Sympathy urges us te
act before reason can adjust the measurement of right,

We

204 On the Establishment of a National. Museum.

We owe our being and our well-being to a superior power,
which has ordained that our happiness shall principally de-
pend upon our own exertions. Wisdom to discern and choose
between good and evil, is, perhaps, sufficiently attainable by
all; amd gratitude for the various good presented to our
reach, affords a constant bias to that course of action which
best suits the state in which we find ourselves placed by the
all- disposing Power.

29. But, Why are we compelled to choose between good
and eyil?

Why is evil permitted to exist ?

Why are we limited in faculties ?
Why in duration of form ?

Why are we in any respect as we are?

No objects of sense or consciousness, from which alone
we derive knowledge, furnish us with answers to these ques-
tions. We must again seck light from revelation.

30. Let us contemplate with attention the relations of our
forms to life, thought, and voluntary power, and to the
Jimited continuance of our mode of being ; the relations of
individuals to each other, and to the continuance of the
species; the relations of different parts of nature to anima-
ted beings ; the food adapted to peculiar organs ;.the organs
to peculiar food ; peculiar forms to various elements, or dif-
ferent regions of the earth; the tendency of various objects
to excite our emotions ; the tendency of our natures to be so
affected; the display of wisdom and wonderful contrivance
in the varieties of creation ; \of power in the magnitude of
worlds; and the extent of their relations :—let us train our
thought to meditate on our relation tothe mighty Author of
these boundless wonders. Can minds thus habitually exer-
cised he disunited? Can moral duties be neglected by
those who reflect on the Author of all moral relations?
Would not all party-differences be absorbed, all base pro-_
pensities be overwhelmed by the magnitude of the one glo-
rious object of our contemplation? Would not wisdom
result from the constant contemplation of the fountain of
all wisdom? Would not benevolence flow throughout all
beings from the contemplation of benevolence wide as the

universe,

On the Establishment of Telegraphs, Gc. 204

universe, and enduring to the end of time? Would not,
must not, the result be universal happiness ?

To promote such contemplation, and such results from
it, is the chief object of the National Museum. = «6

[To be continued.]

XXXI. Project for the Establishment of Telegraphs on a
New Construction. By Carr. Pastry, of the Royal
Engineers*.

4

ist. 4 Nocturnal Telegraph.

Havine found, on inquiry made about four years ago
into the progress of the telegraphic art, that no regular es-
tablishment of night-signals have yet been instituted, simi-
Jar to that of the diurnal telegraphs in common use, so that
all correspondence of this nature is suspended during a
period when it may often be essentially necessary, I was in- .
duced to form the following project for a Nocturnal Tele-
graph, which, together with the second plan that after-
wards occurred to me, my remaining upon foreign service
has hitherto prevented me from submitting to the atten-

tion of the public. {

Nature and Construction.

The proposed telegraph consists of six fixed lights, dis-
posed in two rows of three lights cach, one row placed ex-
actly over the othert.

* * Communicated by the author.

+ There have been several nocturnal telegraphs already proposed, some
with more, some with fewer lights, some with one or more:coloured lights ;
any'discussion upon which, or comparison of those schemes with my own,would
be improper, unless I were writing an essay on telegraphs: but it isright for me
to acknowledge that there is one in the Naval Chronicle, proposed :by Mr_
M‘Arthur, consisting of the same number of lights as mine, to which gentle«
man I must therefore resign the merit of first proposing a night telegraph
with six lights; but as the disposition of his lights, the object of his tele-
graph, (which is meant for ships,) its principle, its key, and, in short, every
thing else are quite different, there appeared to me, after I saw his plan, suffi«
cient oviginality in my own, not to withhold it from publication on account
of this particular coincidence. If partial similarity were in all cases an objec-
tion, there would be an end to improvement in the arts.

3 These

206 On the Establishment of Telegraphs

These are supposed to be kept constantly burning whilst
the telegraph is worked ; and being hid or shown at pleasure
~ by means of blinds, ried form forty- -one distinct combina-
tions orsignals; the combinations of six bodies, which should
properly be sixty-three, being reduced to this number by
the ambiguity arising from its being impossible to ascertain
the relative places oF objects by night as by day.

The construction of the telegr aph will be understood by
conceiving six large lanthorns itached to a strong frame of
timber, placed in the upper room, or on the roof or terrace
of a building; in which latter case it may be protected by
a shed from the injuries of the weather. Each of these
Tanthorns will contain a lamp, the intenseness of whose
fight must be proportioned to the distanee between the tele-
graphic stations, upon which the distance of the several
lanthorns on the frame from each other will also depend.

Every lanthorn must have two blinds, one on each side
of it; to which will be fastened strings passing through the
ceiling of the signal-room, and guided by pulleys toa con-
venient place below, where they can be worked by a single
man. The blinds are so hung, that in their natnral state,
when the telegraph is at rest, ail the lights are hid except
the middle one of the lower row, which serves to guide the
eye of the observers, and is therefore called the standing
light, being always exhibited during the intervals between
successive signals.

The Key.

In the table of combinations, or key of the telegraph an-
nexed, it will be observed,that after leaving one for the stand-
ing light, and assigning thirty combinations to denote the let--
ters of thealphabet, numerical cyphers, &c., the remaining ten
piaces are left blank. Itis needless to explain the use of the first
thirty signals, which are capable of communicating every
kind of intelligence alphabetically, in a manner which must
be evident on inspection*. I have only therefore to point out:

* The list of numbers appropriated to the several signals is not to be con-
sidered a part of the key, although I have found it convenient to insert them,
there. They are of use only in the mechanical operation of working the te-
legraph, when every string being numbered, they serve to show which of

them must be pulled, in order to make the respective signgls.

6 how

on a New Construction. 207

how the blanks may be filled to the best advantage, and
how, by means of these, an extensive code of signals may
be formed to suit the proposed telegraph, and considerably
to abbreviate its operations. But I shall not pretend to give
an example of such a code at large, for its contents must
necessarily vary according to the circumstances of the
country where such establishments may he made, and the
arrangement of it must be left to the judgment of the per-
sons who direct them.

Different Modes of forming a Code of Signals.

Let any number of words and sentences that are most
likely to occur in practice, be written in regular order to the
extent judged necessary, and if these do not exceed 300, lct
them be divided into sections according to a method ex-
plained in the following table.

= 4
Number of sections made|Number of places in Eppa aan mor |
reesei a the code of signals.
EE Riek 5 ERR WH 3g |
Dobe Mics ass) eons BB [occeevcees 76}
Pte a gilevejetie toes atelio’ JOA i «yao: tele. ers" ee
Bed hiicantharetey ohereneperd irt bawrateratere: weet 144 |
, hsnaed Lic/s cole tee ee tates ici. ote a) NBS
Bohs Beas a's ih Feu Bape biate sn WL EE
To) ee te. ROMs afc OR Weer tera s/s saab ne.
Boose ab sch weds Oe) PeatilkeM's 42 Boe
1 POR Pe BE Pt ds eo |

MG} ee oo E30) Se ae. 2 800 :

mt Ss

Then let one of the blanks denote that ‘* The ensuing
signal will be read in the first section ;’—Let a second blanix
denote that The ensuing signal will le read in the second
signal,” and soon; and thus may any list of words and
sentences, under three hundred, be represented hy two
changes on the telegraph, exclusive of all unusual or unex-
pected intelligence, which may be co mmuunicated alphabeti-
cally by the ordinary key. ,

But when the number of words and sentences required
exceeds 300, the signal-book must be divided into two parts,

the

208 On the Establishment of Telegraphs

the first of which will contain a certain number of sections,
cou posed of thirty places each, whilst the second will con-
tain a number of sections, consisting of nine hundred places
each, observing only, that the number of sections in both
parts added together must not exceed ten; then, instead of
filling up the blanks in the manner before proposed, a cer-
tain number of them must denote, that ‘* The ensuing sig-
nal must le read in such a section of part first,” whilst the
remaining blanks will signify, that “ The two ensuing sig-
nals must be read in such a section of part second,” specifying
the particular sections of each ; and according to the man-
ner in which the two parts are divided, will be had a cade of
signals more or less extensive, as is shown in the following
table, by which it will appear, that if the method used in the
second part is carried to its utmost extent, by filling up all
the blanks in that manner, a signal-book may, be formed
containing 9000 words and sentences, that may be repre-
sented by three changes on the telegraph, retaining still the
power of using the alphabetical mode when necessary, as
before: and that number is more than can.ever be either
useful or necessary in practice, but it might be increased on
the same principle to an almost unlimited extent.

S fle 32 yY PY a [=] we) ts > U
-_ = role ite je = Ce = S524
7) = ag’ a oo a § = Total No.
3 o a) 3 3 é & os Ph 8 let words
63 = R58 ox Ta 62 Bo d |
2 Sey pl. oe? 2 Br oo om. S509 jan sen
eS ic BE & 0 Ps wet fog & & |tencesthat
Sa SS lseGaal Ss CS | oe Be aimay bg
/ Natt Be eeesep yg log 5 3 RO Slwritten in
a 2 22.5 6 bo FI <2 E228 bolthe signal-
= SU: Ae G an ee
S (2 j2t@@2 [2 |eteser

g | 30 270 1. | 900 900 | 1170

8 30 240 2 do. 1800 2040

7 do. 210 3 do. 2700 | 2910

6 do. Ts0 4 do. 3600 | 53780

5 do. 150 5 do. 4500 | 4650

4 do. 120 6 do. 5400. | 5520

3 90 7 do. 6300 6390

2 60 8 J. de. 7200 | 7260

1 30 9 do. 8100 | $130

0 —_ 10 9000

For

on a New Construction. . 209

For supposing that only nine of the blanks are used to
refer to sections of words and sentences arranged according
to the foregoing method, then the tenth blank may de-
note that The three ensuing signals are to be read in a
third part,” which may be added to the signal-book, and
may contain 27000 places of words and sentences, each of
which will be represented by four changes on the telegraph.

So that supposing we have six sectiors in part the first,
three sections in part the second, and one only in part the
third, we might form, if piel ab a code of signals consist-

ing of
F Pe ist.

6.x 30 = 180 words and sentences that may be ex-
pressed by two changes on the telat
graph. iy

Parr 2d.

3 x 900 = 2700 words and sentences that may be ex-
pressed by three changes on the tele-
graph,

Part 3d.

1 x 27000 = 27000 words and sentences to be expressed
Total 29880 by four changes on the telegraph.

The manner of arranging the signals in this system by
sections is, strictly speaking, numerical ; but as we carry
our combinations as far as 30, not stopping, as usnally prac-
tised, at the number 10, it may in some respects be more apt-
ly compared to the disposition of words in a dictionary,

_ In the first part, the places in each column are regularly
numbered from 1 to 30,

In the second part, (containing what may be called the
double signals,) the first place of each section is numbered
1, 1, the second 1, 2, the third 1, 3, and so on up to 1, 30:
after which begins, 2,1, 2,2, 2,3, &c., &c., up to
30, 30; which is the 900th, and last place of the section,

In the third part, if necessary, containing the triple sig-
nals, the first place is numbered 1, 1, 1, the second place
1,1, 2, &c., &c., up to 1, 1, 30; after which commences
1, 2,1, 1,2, 2, 1, 2,3, &e. ; and if'this were carried to
its utmost extent, the last place, numbered 30, 30, 30, would
be the 27000th in regular order.

Vol. 29, No. 115, Dec. 1807. O

KEY or tHe TELEGRAPH.

Nuiubers Numbers;
appropria-|Combinarion appropria-, Combination
ted. to the| of LIGHTS “ed to the| of LIGHTS

SIGNIFICATION,

SIGNIFICATION,

several forming.

forming.
siguals.

several
Signals,

Signal No.

10 initial O

End of a word
or number.

Attention,
Finish.

17 |

18 |U, V, W

1825 |

1,3,5

ae (oom)

—— ——————_.
a
$$
ee
——
ooo

2,3,4 |-2 2°

oo
eo

2;3;5 20; 2

_ N. B. Blinding the standing Standing been mistaken by the men at
light during the interval be- | the answering station, and will
tween two signals will denote ° be repeated for their better ob-
that the signal last made has Light. servation.

[To be continued.]

Ua ea

XXXII. Some Observations on Dr. Taytor’s Theorem for
the Development of the Function ¢ (a + x).*

W HEN the Methodus Incrementorum, &c. was first pub-
lished, some of the continental analysts seemed to think
aw d g(a) Mie

that the theorem ¢ (2 + 2) = ¢ (a) + ee 2a
d* ¢ (a)
de®
very of his own, was really the same with another theorem
which John Bernoulli had previously investigated, and by
which he had been led to the value of Sy dx, when y isa
function of «alone. Bernoulli, however, was himself too
well informed to support this opinion openly; but under
his patronage the question was agitated ; and he tacitly, atleast,
permitted the republication of the papers against Taylor in
the collection of his works, which was edited at Lausanne
in 1745. But, whatever may have been the opinion of
Bernoulli and his supporters, the after-judgment of suc-
ceeding analysts has settled the debate; and it is now uni-
versally admitted that the two theorems are totally different
in the objects and purposes to which they can be applied.
That which was discovered by Taylor has, under the hands
of La Grange, been made the basis of a calculus similar in
its uses and extent to the differential calculus; and the other,
which was given by Bernoulli, performs the same office in
the integral calculus to which the former is adapted in the
differential.

Betwixt the two theorems, however, there is not that dif-
ference which might be expected to arise from the diversity
of their objects of application, and the opposite principle
upon which their demonstrations have been made to rest.
The one may he very easily deduced from the other: but,
although this is the case, there is not the least reason for
confounding the theorems together; nor does this circum-
stance afford even the shadow of a reason for alleging any
similarity between them. The process on, which we are

++, &c. which doctor Taylor had given as a disco-

* Communicated by the Author.
2 about

212 Some Observations on Dr. Taylor’s Theorem

about to enter will explain a*method by which the one
theorem may be deduced from the other; and at the same
time it will illustrate the analytical distinction betwixt them.

By the ee of LOK we have ¢ (a + x) = 9(a) +

d (a) @ (a) - ;
sl Wd ny 7 Margistts &e.; and, if we take the suc-

cessive differentials of this equation according to a, we
shall obtain a series of new equations, by means of which
we can easily eliminate all the terms on the right hand side
except the first, and the result will be 9 (2) = ¢(a +2) —
xv d@ (a+2) a Ae ACE ay,
. de ee
ring the terms to the other side we shall have ¢ (a + x) =
Zd.¢(a+2) ~ x d?o(a + 2) =

9 (a) +} =f + aig git ee ieee

From the form which we have here given to the develop-
ment, a number of consequences can be derived; and
among these we shall first notice the theorem of Bernoulli.
vd. 9 (")

da,

+, &c.: or, by transfer-

If we take a= 0, then will ¢ (x) = ¢ (0) AF

2? d®9 (7S x 89 (2)
aS! ae 1°2°3 das
present the area of a curve, of which x and y are the eo-

2
ordinates, then g (x) = Sy dz; —_ = ys —— a =
ueody viii dty
Thsaed el Dig Budiatidy?
&c.; where the quantity g (0) represents the constart, re
quisite for completing the integral.

We shall next proceed to consider the form which the
binomial (a + x)" takes when subjected to this new spe-
(@+n) _

dn
n—~1.d?9 (a+ 72) 2

a (2 + 2) ei ingdat sot oto (a + 2)" a

+, &c. and if ¢ (a) re-

&c.and fydn=o() +a

cies of development. Here we have d.

&c, and thence we shall find (a + a)” =a for,

(2 + P) hihi mi rc ere 4 r (a4 ny"? + &e.

for the Development of the Functiong (a+ 2.) 213

. . . na
This equation can be easily put under the form (@ + 2)

_ mtn & mi ® mam 1+). na
Reger 4 ae 12 G4s (@+=)* (a+2)" +

2% — 1, nm — 2 i
SS SS — ye

Aor giaind aati Tay” - (a +2) &e. and thence w

n xr nn—1 x?

calculate (a+2)" (1- ay ena Ce ACE el
an—ili.n—2 x3

me Gear + &c.) = a's or, by avery simple

transposition, we arrive at the following result: @, (@ + +)

—n 1 n x nn— I x? n.n—1.n—2.
cA eae 1:2. . (a+ x)* 12" 3

x?
@+at *

This expression, were it only for the peer fl manner in
which we have obtained it, is certainly worthy of attention ;
but besides this, it evidentiy furnishes a more convergent
series for the extraction of roots, than that which is procured
from the ordinary development of the binomial. For if we |

; n n nm x
change x into —n,wehave (a+ x) =a, (1 + basta
mn-+1 x nmn+i.n+ 2. x8
2 TON aces a OS SRE es Re TP
2 (@+.) 123 Gee tS
ach = 1, the form of the equation is changed into
n nn-+1 2. u+iln+2
eR it PE ee ee ete ip

+ &c.) where the series is always the more convergent as
a is the larger.
We shall next apply the general theorem ¢ (a + 2x)

ee Se Casthey et dh @ leche

+° &e. to the

du 122 du*
ee of the sine and cosine of a + #3 ang in the
first instance making ¢ (a+ a = Sin. a + x2, we have
d, % (a + x) d*g(a+2) :
Cag adios ans = Cos. a + 2; eG te = — Sin. Q+ x;
d.*¢ - ne
—— hae = — Cos. (a + x); &e.; and substituting

Shy alan
these

03

214 Some Observations on Dr. Taylor’s Theorem

these values in the preceding formula we shall find
2

x .
ia Sin. @4+e—

Sin. a + « = Sin. a + + Coss a + ¥ +

xt 4 x?

x
+ Cos. a — —__—.. Sin. a
pag ote pe gg NOES + Togas Cos.

a+ x + &c,; and arranging the terms of this equation ac-

cording to the sine and cosine ofa + x wehave, Sin.a + a.
4

x* z ‘a g°
1 — ——— — &c.} — Cos.a+z. (¢ — :
( Tt pg tu pasa ) TN 88
oe : i “p/N
———— — &c.} = Sin. a. x
“2 Sere &e.) Sin. a. Now if we develop Sin
and Cos. x by Taylor’s theorem, we shall find
r a3 xr -
Sin. ¢ = — — --— + ————_— _ — &e. +
1 Le 223 1°2°3? 4°5
Fhe vt
Cos, « = 1 — —— + —— — &oe,;

1°2 12°3°4
and putting these values into the former result, we obtain
the following property of the functions, viz. Sin. a + 2.
Cos..a- — Cea + x. Sin. x = Sin. a.
We now proceed to consider the development of the

Cos. a + x; and having in this case g (a+ x) = Cos.
2
eq; ee Sone yr) eee
d3; :
Cos. a + 2; aes re Sin. @ + 4; &c. we calcu-

see x’
late Cos.a + x = Cos. a — et Sie a 7 Cos.

a+ x Sin.a +o zi Cos.a + 4 ef
T To3 pid rosa" 1:2°3'4°5
Sina + x + &c.; and putting this result under the form

Dik ne

- ® ——— — &e. Sin, :
Cos.a +a. (1 — Gagan a iat c.) + Sin, a + wu
E ips £2 P Hl
G _ 123 + T2345 — &e.) —< Cos. a, we obtain this

other property of these functions: Cos. a + 2. Cos, # +
Sin. a + 2. Sim. ¢ = Cos. a.

From

for the Development of ihe Function ¢ (a4 x.) 215
' From the two equations

(1). Sin. a + x. Cos. x — Cos. a + x. Sin. x = Sin. a.
(2). Cos.a + x. Cos.x + Sin. a + x. Sin. x = Cos.a.

we can easily deduce two other equations which have
been usually considered as the foundation upen which the
whole theory of these functions rests. These equations
are '

Sin. a + x = Sin. a. Cos. x + Cos. a. Sin. x.
Cos. a + x = Cos. a. Cos. x. — Sin. a. Sin, x;

and to have a demonstration of them, we multiply equation
(1) by the cos. x, and equation (2) by the sin. x: then by
adding these two products together, we shall find Sin. a + x.
(Cos*. x + Sin*. x) = Sin. a. Cos. 2 + Cos. a. /Sin. x,
and as the sum of the squares of the sine and cosine is
equal to the square of the radius (equal to unity), we have
Sin.a + x = Sin. a. Cos. + Cos. a. Sin.x. Again, if
we multiply equation (1) by the sin. w, and equation (2) by
the cos. x, and if we subtract the latter product from the
former, we shall have Cos. a + x. (Cos*.2 + Sin®. x.) =
Cos. a. Cos. x — Sin. a. Sin 2; or Cos.a + x = Cos.a.
’ Cos. x = Sin. a. Sin. x. ;

The examples which we have now given evidently show
the advantage that may sometimes be derived from the de-
velopment which we have here investigated; and it would
not be difficult to adduce other instances to which it might
be successfully applied. But as we have accomplished what
we originally proposed; namely, to point out the analytical
distinction betwixt the two theorems of Bernoulli-and Taylor,
we shall leave the further consideration of the subject to .
those who may think it worth the trouble of a more minute

examination.
W. S.

{216 |

XXXII. On the Quantity of Carbon in Carbonic Aeid, and
on the Nature of the Diamond. By Wi tv1AM ALLEN,
Esq. F.L.S. and WitiiAM HasteDINeE Pepys, Esq.*

Tue estimates of the quantity of real carbon in carbonic
acid differing very widely, and the experiments of Guyton
de Morveau upon the combustion of the diamond, detailed
in the 31st volume of the Annales de Chimie, being liable
to some objections from the manner in which the operations
were conducted, we determined to institute a set of experi-
ments, in order, if possible, to settle the question. ,

Lavoisier, from the result of experiments apparently con-
ducted with much accuracy, concluded that every bundred
parts by weight of carbonic acid consisted of 28 carbon and
72 oxygen. This was in a great degree confirmed by the
very valuable researches of Smithson Tennant, esq. on tlic
nature of the diamond, an’ account of which is printed in
the Transactions of this Society for the year 1797, and
which were made previously to the experiments of Guyton ;
but notwithstanding this, the result of Guyton’s experiment,
which only allowed 17°88 per cent. of carbon to carbonic
acid, has been adopted in all the systems of chemistry to,
the present time.

In researches of this nature, the results are much in-
fluenced by slight variations in the quality of the gas ;
but having had repeated experience of the accuracy of
the eudiometer (Pepys’s) described in this volumet, we
were enabled to proceed in this respect with great confi-
dence. a

Our object was, to consume certain known quantities of
diamond and other carbonaceous substances in oxygen gas,
and we at first determined to employ the sun’s rays, by means
of a powerful lens; but considering the uncertainty of a
favourable opportunity in this country, and at the scason in
which our experiments were made, we resolved to employ
the apparatus represented by the drawing.

* From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1807.
+ See p. 119 of the present volume of pur Magazine.

Descrip-

On the Quantity of Carbon in Carbonic Acid, &Fo. 217

Description of the Apparatus.

This consisted of two mercurial gasometers, fig. 1 and 2,
each capable of containing from 70 to 80 cubic inches of gas.
The internal cylinder CC is of cast iron, and solid, except
the perforation through its middle ; the external cylinder is
also of cast iron ; and the glass receiver slides up and down
in the space between them, which is filled with mercury :
not more than sixteen pounds are required for each, and the
small bath B, fig. 1.

To the top of each receiver, a graduated scale or register
H, is screwed, showing the number of cubic inches of gas,
measuring from the upper edge of the external iron cylinder.
The level of the mercury is ascertained by a small glass
gauge. The registers were graduated by throwing up one
ctibic inch of gas at a time.

The gasometers stand upon mahogany stools, perforated
for a socket, to which, according to the nature of the’ expe-
riment, a small receiver R, or the triple socket TS, or any
other combination, may be united. :

Prepresents the platina tube with its furnace ; the ends
of the tube are mounted with female screws of brass, to one
of which the accommodating screw socket AS was joined.

T is a double section of the platina tray which contained
the substances to be heated. During their combustion, it
was made to slide easily within the platina tube P. The ac-
commodating socket and platina tray are drawn considera-
bly larger in proportion than the instrument.

By means of the triple socket and the cocks, the gas was
made to pass freely over the substances in combustion,
from one gasometer to the other; and by shutting off the
communication with the platina tube, while that with the
small receiver was open, any portion of gas in the gasome-
ter, fig. 1. might be transferred into eudiometers or measures
standing in the mercury bath M, for examination.

In order to discover whether the several sockets were air-
tight, after the apparatus was put together, the communica-
tion with the gasometer, fig. 1. was closed, and the other
communications opened; the receiver of the gasometer,
fig.2, being raised, drew up a column of mercury in the small

receiver

£18 On the Quantity of Carbon in Carbonic Acid,

receiver R, equal to two inches: the communication with
the gasometer was then closed, and the column was support-
ed without alteration. This was always tried previous to, and
after every experiment. As the joints would bear this degree
of exhaustion, we were confident they would resist a much
greater pressure than we had any occasion to employ. The
glass tubes GG, which connected the platina tube with the
gasometers, enabled us to observe any flash arising from the
combustion of hydrogen which might be contained in the
substances subjected to experiment. In order to avoid prolix-
ity, we shall generally state the method which was invariably
followed.

We soon found that oxyg gen gas, even when secured in
bottles with ground glass stoppers, was not always to be de-
pended upon, but was sensibly deteriorated by keeping; and
therefore in all our experiments we made the gas within an
hour or two of the time of using it, and always from the
hyperoxygenised muriate of potash, Its degree of purity
was constantly ascertained by the eudiometer before every
experiment, and was generally determined in about 10
minutes. The solution employed was that recommended by
professor Davy; namely, the solution of green sulphate of
iron saturated with nitrous gas*; and whenever the dimi-
nution had arrived at its maximum, and the gas began to
increase in volume, we substituted a simple solution of the
green sulphate of iron for that saturated with nitrous gas,
and always had the most satisfactory results: for the simple
sulphate absorbs any nitrous gas which may have escaped
from the saturated solution, and the residuum in this case
enables us to ascertain eect the quantity of oxygen con-
tained in the gas.

We determined to make our first experiment with char-
coal, and as Morozzo and Rouppe had ascertained the absorb-
ing properties of this substance, and as our results must
obviously be influenced by it, our attention was directed to
this point.—The fohowane quantities of different kinds of
wood, sawed into slips 52, of an inch were weighed :—

* This solution absorbs oxygen much more rapidly in warm weather than

in cold. sy
White

and on the Nature of the Diamond. 219

White fir - - 300 grains.
Lignum vite - 800 grains.
Box - - 400
Beech - - 500
English Oak = 850
Mahogany - 200

These slips were put into small crucibles, and completely
covered with dry sand. Heat was very gradually applied at
first, until the volatile parts were dissipated ; they were then
kept about 40 minutes in a white heat. On being collected

and weighed, while still warm, the charcoal from cach was
as follows :

Pir =" 54°5 ors. equal to 181°7 per cent.
Lignum yite 138 - anew NaS
Box ae Oe - - 20°25
Rabe i= FS, PEN CLS
Oak - 43°S = = 17°40
Mahogany 31:5 - =)" 15°75
These being exposed to, the air during one week, increased
n weight thus : ;
MAE Ra Pa) Sb ae oe percents
Lignum vite - 9°6
Box - - - 14
Beech - - 16°3
Oak - - are Ts
Mahogany ” i8

Certain quantities being confined in common air increased
very little in weight, and all in the same proportion ; we are
therefore much inclined to think that this increase is owing
to an absorption of water from the air; and we repeatedly
found that the greatest increase of weight took place in ‘the
first hour or two after exposure, and arrived at its maximum
in less than 24 hours, as the following experiment, selected
from several others, will prove.

40 grains of charcoal from willow wood, which had been
put into a bottle with a ground glass stopper immediately
after they were removed from thé’fire, were exposed in the
scale of a delicate balance, in a room where the thermo-
meter was 62° Fahrenheit, barometer 30°26.

6 C 6 o’clock

220 © On the Quantity of Carbon in Carbonic Acid,

: Grains.
6 o’clock P. M. 40 Totalincrease. Time.
past - 40:7 +-°7
7 - wi aed G& = 1,3 1 hour.
past .- 4164+°3 = ..56 14 hours.
8 - =S 41°8+-°2.. = JA8 2 hours.

The pieces were now spread out on paper after every weigh-

ing, to expose them more completely.
dpast8 <= 425+°7 = 25 21 hours.
9 - =). 42°38 1:3, =. 2'8 3 hours.
PPast sy) fone A43'la's) = Srl 34 hours.
10 = eee Sta "2 =: 3S 4 hours,
$past, -.. 43°44°1% = 3°4 44 hours.

Here it «was left all night.

10. Aw Miwa: 45 61°6) = .5 16 hours.
AP. M. |= 45.

6 - - 4455— °-5 = 4°5. 294 hours.
8 - =. 44:4— *],. =,..4°4 97 hours.
Next day.

tpast8A.M.44:94+ .5 = 4:9 381 hours.
‘Lpastl P.M.44°7— *2 = 4:7 434 hours.
10 See eee Anne — OM A MED chev

Hence charcoal seems to act as an hygrometer : its greatest
increase was 5 grains on 40, or 121 percent. And in order
to ascertain to what the increase of weight was owing, we
put 27°25 grains of charcoal, which had been thus exposed,
into a small bottle and tube connected with a receiver stand-
ing in the mercury bath, the whole of the vessels being also
filled with mercury in order to exclude common air. Heat
applied by an Argand’slamp produced gas equal to about balf
Ahe bulk of -the charcoal ; but as soon as the temperature of
the mercury rose to 214° Fahrenheit, elastic fluid streamed
from every piece of ‘charcoal, which quickly condensed, and
4inch of the tube was occupied with water. This proved
that our suspicion of the increase of weight being principally
attributable to water, was well founded.

The result of these, ad other experiments, plainly poit-
ed out the precautions which were iecessary in order to ob-
tain an accurate result with charcoal ; for if we had weighed

4 grains

and on the: Nature of the Diamond. 221

4crains of the charcoal a few hours after it was made,
we should only in fact have had 3:5 grains of real charcoal
and our calculations would have been erroneous. ‘ To avoid
this source of error, we subjected our charcoal to a red heat
immediately before using it, and also weighed it as speedily
as possible ; in fact while it was still warm. It may be pro-
per to state, that our weights were such as we could ae
roughly depend upon.

The volume of gas being so ‘much influenced by tempera-
ture and pressure, these were noted during every experiment;
and thermometer 60° Fahrenheit, barometer 30°, were as-
sumed as the standard. Gay Lussac remarks, that from 32°
to 212° Fahrenheit, dry air expands 0:00208, or 74, part of
its bulk for every degree of the thermometer. Dalton makes
it 0°000207, or ;1, part; we therefore divided the whole
quantity of gas by 480, and multiplied the quotient by the
degrees of difference under 60°. :

It being of great consequence in these experiments to
know fie exact weight of a given quantity of oxygen and
carbonic acid gases, we revatved to examine for ourseives,
whether the statements already given were quite correct,
and accordingly made carbonic acid over mercury from
Carrara marble and diluted sulphuric acid, which being
tried with lime water in Pepys’s eudiometer, was all ab-
sorbed in 3 minutes except {1 part in’ 100. We used two
charges of lime water, though one would haye been sufli-
cient.

A glass globe being exhausted by an excellent air pump,
was exactly balanced en a beam sensible toa minute portion
of agrain; then being screwed upon one of the glass re-

.ceivers of the mercurial gasometer previously filled with
carbonic acid gas, 21 cubic inches entered, The globe was
now increased in weight by 10°2 grains, -In order to be cer-
tain we repeated the experiment, with exactly the same re-
sults. The 21 cubic inches were to be brought to the mean
temperature and pressure, as the thermometer stood at 44?
Pabrenhcity the barometer 29°86.

24

a eee

222 On the Quantity of Carbon in Carlonic Acid,

21 _ 480)21-00(9°043 60° :
68 add for temp. 16 44
21°68 0°688 add fortemp. 16 diff.

Correction for pressure.
30 : 29°86: : 21°68 : 21°58.

The volume therefore at mean temperature and pressure

would have been 21°58 cubic inches.

21°58 : 10°2: : 100: 47°26
Consequently 100 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas at
mean temperature and pressure weigh 47°26 grains.

We next tried oxygen gas from the hyperoxygenised
muriate of potash made over mercury, and which, by the
eudiometer, left only a residuum’ of 2 parts in 100. Thg
glass glohe exhausted as befcre, and weighed, was, screwed
on to the glass receiver of the mercurial gasometer contain-
ing oxygen, and 21 cubic inches entered, by which it in-
creased in weight 7-3 grains. This experiment was repeat-
ed with exactly the same result. The thermometer and ba~
rometer remaining the same, we take the volume as before
corrected.

21°58 cubic inches.
21°58: 7°3 : ; 100 : 33°82.
Then 100 cubic inches of oxygen gas at mean temperature
and pressure weigh 33°82 grains. After these experiments
we examined Davy’s researches on nitrous oxide, and had
the satisfaction to find that his estimate, both of carbonic
acid and oxygen gases, agreed almost exactly with ours.

The next point was to ascertain whether lime-water
would take the whole of the carbonic acid gas from a mix-
ture with oxygen, or common air; we therefore mixed a
known quantity of carbonic acid gas with a certain quantity
of common air, and on trying it with our eudiometer and
lime-water, the whole of the carbonic acid gas was in a
short time absorbed. We also found, that though the solu-
tion of ereen sulphate, saturated with nitrous gas, would not

take up the whole of the carbonic acid gas, yet the simple
green

and on the Nature of the Diamond. 223

green sulphate, merely by its water of solution, absorbed it
very readily.

It may be proper to notice here, that though we repeated-
ly tried the oxygen procured from hyperoxygenised mu-
riate of potash by the eudiometer and lime-water, it never
gave the least trace of carbonic acid.

Experiment with Charcoal from Box-wood.

The thermometer being at 42° Fahrenheit, barometer at
$0°2, we kept some box-wood charcoal red hot for a con-
siderable time under sand, and weighed four grains as expe-
ditiously as possible; this being put into ihe platina tray,
was pushed to the middle of the platina tube; the oxygen
{made from hyperoxygenised muriate of potash over mer-
cury) was contained in gasometer No. 1; No. 2 was empty.
Every thing being adjusted and found perfectly air-tight,
the communication with the small receiver R was closed,
and the common air contained in the tubes and sockets,
amounting only to 2°84 cubic inches, was driven out by a
pressure of oxygen from gasometer No. 1: when several
cubic inches had passed into gasometer No. 2, the gas was
Jet out by opening the cock at the top of its glass receiver,
and pressing it down ; the cock being then closed, the gaso-
meter No. 2, was completely empty, and the whole of the
gas from No. 1, was driven through the tubes into No. 2,
and back again. The common air having been previously
withdrawn from the small receiver R, we tried the purity of
our oxygen by the eudiometer in the manner before de-
seribed, and found a residuum of 3 partsin 100: we then
disengaged as much gas as reduced the quantity to 47 cubic
inches by the register or scale; to this must be added the
contents of the tubes and sockets 2°84 cubic inches, making
the total quantity of oxygen employed 49°84 cubic inches.

Correction for temperature.

49°84 480) 49°84(0°103 60°
1°85 for temp. 18 . 42
51°69 1854 ‘add fortemp. 18diff.

Cor-

\

B24 On the Quantity of Carbon in Carbonic Acid,

Correction for pressure.
30 : 30°2: = 51°69 : 52°03.

The volume, therefore, al mean pressure and temperature,
would have been 52°03 cubic inches.

We vow lighted a fire in the small black lead furnace
under the platina tube, and as soon as it became red hot,
opened the cocks and passed the gas from No. 1 to No. 2,
when the charcoal entered into vivid combustion, and heated
the platina tube white hot. The operation was repeated
many times during six or seven minutes, by pressing alter-
natelyupon the glasses of the gasometer. Not the least
Hash of light was observable in the glass connecting tubes
G G, nor the smallest appearance of moisture. The fur-
nace being removed, the tube was now cooled by the appli-
cation of wet cloths ; aud when all was reduced to the tem-
perature of the room, we pressed upon the glass of gasome-
ter No. 2, so as to force all the gas into No. 1.. The cock
below being closed, we tried the tubes, &c. and found them
perfectly air-tight. We next unscrewed the tube and took
out the platina tray ; but it only contained a light white ash,
somewhat resembling the shape of the pieces of charcoal,
and weighing only :02 of a grain. On observing the regis-
ter of No. 1, it indicated exactly the quantity of gas that we
began with, so that although 3°98 grains of charcoal had

been dissolved, the volume of gas was unaltered by it; a

circumstance which had been remarked before by Lavoi-
sier. The small receiver R was now nearly full of mercu-
ty; the communication with the gasometer being opened,
the large class receiver was gently pressed upon, until seve-
yal cubic inches were forced through the receiver R, and
tube K, in order to clear the latter ef common air. This
being done, on trying our gas with the eudiometer and hme
water, 56 parts were absorbed out of 100. These of course
were carbonic acid gas; the test for oxygen absorbed 41,
anda residuum of 3 was left, which was exactly what we be-
gan with: This is astriking proof that nothing but carbonic
acid was produced in the experjment.
ROO }¢°52°OS-: 2O°1s.
Then 29°13 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas were produced.
100

and on the Nature of the Diamond. 225

100: 47°26 : : 29°13: 13°76.
These 29°13 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas would there-
fore weigh 13°76 grains.
The charcoal weighed 4 grains.
The residual: white ash, 0°02

Charcoal consumed 3°98 grains.

Then, if 13°76 grains, the weight of the carbonic acid pro-
cured, contain 3°98 of charcoal, 100 grains must contain 28'92.
13°76 : 3°98 :: 100: 28°92.

Then, according to this experiment, 100 grains of carbonic

acid gas contain 28°92 charcoal.
The gas before the experiment consisted of
Oxygen 50°47 cubic inches.
Azote 1°56

—_——_———_——

52°03

After the experiment,
Carbonic acid 29°13. cubic inches.

Oxygen 21°34
Azote - 1°56
52°03

Now as the volume of gas was ‘unaltered, it will be fair to |
eonsider the quantity of oxygen gas consumed as equal to
the carbonic acid produced, or 29°13 cubic inches.

Then, if 100 cubic inches of oxygen weigh 33.82 grains,
29°13 cubic inches will weigh 9°85 grains.

100 : 33°82 : : 29°13 : 9°85.
The weight of oxygen consumed was therefore 9.85 grains.
Charcoal consumed erate oe’ 308

———_-__——_

Carbonic acid from this statement 13°83 grains.
Do. by calculations on carbonic acid gas 13°76

—-—

Vol, 29. No. 115. Dec, 1807. P 13°83

226 © On the Quantity of Carbon in Carbonic Acid,
13°83 : 3°98 : : 100: 28°77.
Thus, calculating by the oxygen consumed, 100 grains
of carbonie acid vas contain 28°77 charcoal.

First’ Experiment on Diamond.
Thermometer 56° Fahrenheit, barometer 30°20.

Our oxygen was made as in the former experiment: it
contained no carbonic acid; and on being tried with the
impregnated green sulphate left a residuum of 3 parts
in 100.
~ Having selected nine of the clearest and most transparent
Brazil diamonds, we found they weighed 3-95 grains.
These were ranged in the platina tray, which was placed in
the tube, and the whole apparatus, adjusted as before, was
perfectly air-tight. The quantity of oxygen was 49°84 cu-
bic inches, as in the Jast experiment. The same precau-
tions were used to secure accuracy in the results as in the for-
mer experiment; and it would only be an unnecessary intru-
sion on the time of the Society to repeat them. The platina
tube was heated red-hot, and’ kept so for ten minutes ;
during this time the gas was repeatedly passed from one
gasometer to the other; the tube did not become white hot,
as in the experiment with charcoal, because in this case the
combustion went on more slowly. When everything was
cooled to the temperature of the room, the gas was all passed
into No. 1, by pressing down the receiver of No. 2, and the
volume was precisely the same as when we began the expe-
riment. On drawing out the tray we observed that some of
the diamonds were reduced to. a minute speck, and all of
them resembled opake white enamel : there was no discolo-
ration in the tray, nor any residual ash whatever; the un-
consumed parts weighed 1:46 grains; the original weight
was

3°95
1°46

consequently 9°49 grains were consumed.

od

4 We

and on the Nature of the Diamond. 227

We could not perceive any dullness on the surface of the
mercury in the gasometers, or any appearance of mois-
ture.

On introducing lime-water to a hundred ‘parts of the gas
if the cacinamaet a dense white precipitate was formed, ind
36 parts absorbed; the test for oxygen absorbed 60, and a
residuum of 4 was left.

Correction for temperature.

60° - 480)49°84(07103 - 49°84,
56 4 “43 add for temp.
4 difference. , 412 apie 50°25

Ps d =e

Correction for, pressure.
30: 30° 20 ; : 50°25 : 50° 58.
The quantity of oxygen at the mean was 50°58 cubic
inches. |
100 : 36: : 50°58 ; 18°00 cubic inches.
The quantity of carbonic acid gas produced was 18°20"
cubic inches.
100 : 47°26: : 18°20: : 8°60 grains.
8°60 : 2°49: : 100: 28°95.
Then 100 grains of carbonic acid gas contain 28°95 of
diamond.
Calenlation by. oxygen.
100 : 33°82 +: 18°20: 6:15 grains ‘of oxygen consumed
249 grains of diamond.

8°64
Calculat. by carbonic acid 8:60
oe
‘04 difference.
‘ ow
8°64 7249: : 100: 28°8r.
Thus, if we calculate upon’the oxygen cotisumed, 100
grains of carbonic acid gas contain 28°81 of diamond.
[Te be continued.}

; Pg XXXIV. Ac4

ai 228 |

XXXIV. Account of the Discoveries made by the Rev. Dr.
Bucuanan, in the course of his Investigations undertaken
by Order of the Supreme Government of Bengal.

Lue Rey. Dr. Buchanan, who left Bengal some months
ago, with the view of proceeding ‘to Travancore, to inquire
ito the state of the Syrian Christians, arrived in that coun-
try about the beginning of November last, having travelled
from Calcutta to Cape Comorin by land. His highness the
rajah of Travancore was pleased to afford to Dr. Buchanan
the most liberal assistance in the prosecution of his in-
quiries. About the middle of November, Dr. Buchanan
proceeded from the sea-coast into the interior of the coun-
try, north-east from Quilon, to visit the antient Syrian
churches, situated amongst the low hills at the bottom of
the high ghauts, which divide the Carnatic from Ma-
layala. The face of the country in general, in the vicinity
of the mountains, exhibits a varied scene of hill and dale,
and winding streams. These streams fall from the moun-
tains, and preserve the valleys in perpetual verdure. The
woods praduce pepper, cardamoms, and cassia, or wild cin-
namon; also frankincense and other aromatic gums.
What adds much to the grandeur of the scenery in this
country is, that the adjacent’ mountains of Travancore are
not barren, but are covered with teak forests, producing the
largest timber in the world.

The first view of the Christian churches in this seques-
tered region of Hindestan, connected with the idea of their
oneal duration for so many ages, cannot fail to excite
pleasing emctions in the mind of the beholder. The form
of the oldest buildings is not unlike that of some of the old
parish churches in England; the style of building in both
being of Saracenic origin. They have sloping roofs, point-
ed arch windows, and buttresses supporting the walls. The
beams of the roof being exposed to view, are ornamented ;
and the cieling of the choir and altar is circular and fretted.
In the cathedral churches the shrines of the deceased bishops

Literary Discoveries in Indiae 2°9
are placed on each side of the altar. Most of the churches
are built of a reddish stone, squared and polished at the
quarry ; and are of durable construction, the front wall of
the largest edifices being six feet thick. The bells of the
- churches are cast in the founderies of Travancore. Some
of them are of large dimensions, and have inscriptions in
Syriac and Malayalim. In approaching a town in the even-
ing, the sound of the bells may be heard at a distance
amongst the hills: a circumstance which causes the British
traveller to forget for a moment that he is in Hindostan,
and reminds him of another country. When Dr. Buchanan
arrived at the remote churches, he was informed by the in-
habitants that no European had, to their knowledge, visited
the place before. The Romish priests do not travel thither,
there being no church of their communion in that quarter.

The number of Syrian churches is greater than has been
supposed. There are at this time fifty-five churches in
Malayala*, acknowledging the patriarch of Antioch. The
church was erected by the present bishop, in 1793.

The Syrian Christians are not Nestorians. Formerly,
indeed, they had bishops of that communion; but the li-
turgy of the present church is derived from that of the early
church of Antioch, called Liturgia Jacobi Apostoli. They
are usually denominated Jacobite; but they differ in cere-
monial from the church of that name in Syria, and indeed
from any existing church in the world. Their proper de-
signation, and that which is sanctioned by their own use, is
Syrian Christians, or The Syrian Church of Malayala.

The doctrines of the Syrian church are contained in a very
few articles; and are not at variance, in essentials, with the
doctrines of the church of England. Their bishops and
metropolitan, after conferring with his clergy on the sub-
ject, delivered the following opinion: ‘ That an union with
the English church, or at least such a connection as should
appear to both churches practicable and expedient, would be

* Malayala comprehends the mountains, and the whole region within them,
from Cape Cogmorin to Cape Illi, whereas the province of Malabar, common
ly so called, contains only the northern districts, not ingluding the country of
‘Travancore,

P3 a happy

£30 Literary Discoveries in India.

a happy event, and favourable to the advancement of reli-
gion.’”’? Tt is in contemplation to send to England some of
the Syrian youth for education and ordination.

The present bishop, Mar Dionysius, is a native of Malay-
ala, but of Syrian extraction. He is a man of respectable
character in his nation, and exercises himself in the pious
discharge of the duties of his high office. He is new seven-
ty-cight years of age, and possesses a venerable aspect, his
white beard descending low to his girdle. On public occa-
sions he wears the Spibeatpal mitre, and is robed in a white
yestinent, which covers long garments of red silk; and in
his hand he holds the pastoral staff. The first native bishop
was ordained by the Romish church in 1663 ; but he was
of the Romish communion. Since that period the old
Syriaus have continued, till lately, to receive their bishops
from Antioch: but that antient patriarchate being now
nearly extinct, and incompetent to the appointment of
’ Jearned men, the Christian church in Malayala looks hence-
forth to Britain for the continuance of that light which has
shone so Jong in this dark region of the world.

From the infoHiaetoh given by the Syrian Christians, it
would appear that the Bhiarcbies of Mesopotamia and Syria,
(215 in number), with which they are connected, are strug-
gling with great difficulties, and merely owe their existence
to some deferencé for their antiquity ; and that they might
be expected soon to flourish again, if favoured with a little
support. It would be worthy the church of England to aid
the church of Antioch in her low ‘estate. The church of
England is now what the church of Antioch once was. The

mode in which aid can be best afforded to Christians under

a foreign power in the East, is not chiefly by contributions
of money, but by representing to those governments, with
which we may have friendly intercourse, that these Chris-
tians are of the same religion with ourselyes; and that we
are desirous that they should be respected. The argument,
from the sameness of religion, is well understood by all
Asiatic princes, and can never fail when seriously proposed ;
for they think it both natural and obligatory that every
coverament should be interested in those who are of its own
religion

Literary Discoveries in India. 231
religion! ‘There are two circumstances which invite us: to
turn our eyes to the country of “the first generations of
men.” /The tolerant spirit of the Wahabian Mahomedans
isa fair prognostic; and promises to aid our endeavours to
restore to an antient community of Christians the blessings
of knowledge and religious liberty. Another favourable
circumstance is, that some of the churches in Mesopotamia,
in one of which the ‘patriarch of Antioch now resides, are
said still to remain in their pristine state, and to have pre-
served their archives and antient manuscript libraries. A
domestic priest of the patriarch, now in Cochin, vouches
for the truth of this fact. We know from authentic his-
tory that the churches between the rivers escaped the gene-
ral desolation of the Mahomedan conquest, in the seventh
centary, by joining arms with the Mahomedans against the
Greek Christians, who had been their oppressors. The re-
vival of religion and letters in that once highly-favoured
land, in the heart of the antient world, would be, in the
present circumstances of mankind, an auspicious event.

The Syrian Christians in Malayala still use the Syriac
language in their churches: but the Malayalim, or proper
Malabar (a-dialect distinct from the Tumul), is the vernacu-
lar toncue. They have made some attempts to translate
the Syriac scriptures into Malayalim; but have not
hitherto had the suitable means of effecting it. Whena
proposal was made of sending a Malayalim translation to
each of their fifty-five churches, as a standard book, on con-
dition that they would transcribe it, and circulate the copies
among the people,—the elders replied, That so great was
the desire of the people in gencral to have the Bible in the
vulgar tongue, that it might be expected that every man
who could write would make a copy on ollas (palm leaves)
for his own family.

It ought to be mentioned, to the praise of the present
bishop of the Romish church on the coast of Malabar, that
he has consented to the circulation of the Scriptures
throughout his diocese. The Malayalim translation acquires
from this circumstance an increascd importance, since there
will be now upwards of 200,000 Christians in Malayala

P4 who

232 Literary Discoveries in India.

who: are ready to receive its. The translation of the New
Testament (which it is proposed to print first) has already com~
menced, under the stperintendance of the Syrian bishop.
The true cause of the low state of religion amongst the
Komish churches on the sea-coast and in. Ceylon. is, their
want of the Bille. It is doubtful whether some of the priests
know that such a book exists!) It is injurious to Christi-
anity in India to call men Christians who know not the
scriptures of their religion : they might as well be called by
any other name. Oral instruction they have none, even
from their European priests. The best effects may there-
fore be expected from the simple means of putting the Bible
into their hands. All who are well acquainted with the na-
tives, know that instruction by books is best suited to them.
They are in general a contemplative people, and patient in
their inquiries ; curious also to know what it can be that is
‘of importance enough to be written,—at the same time that
they regard written precept with respect. If they possess a
book in a language which they understand, it will not be
left long unread. In Tanjore, and other places where the
Bible is freely given, the Protestant religion flourishes; and
produces the happiest effects on the character of the people.
In Tanjore the Christian virtues will be found in exercise by
the feeble-minded Hindoo, in a vigour and purity which
will surprise those who have never known the native cha-
racter but under the greatest disadvantages. On the Sunday,
the people, habited in their best apparel, repair to the parish
church, where the solemnity of their devotion in accom-
panying the public prayers is truly impressive, They sing
the old psalm tunes well ; and the voice of the full congre-
gation may be heard at a distance. Prayers being ended,
they listen to the sermon evidently with deep attention ; nor
have they any difficulty in understanding it, for they almost
all, both men and women, can read their Bible. Many of
them take down the discourse on od/as, that they may read
it afterwards to their families at home*. As soon as the

* It is well known that natives of Tanjore and Travancore can write down
whiat is spoken deliberately, without losing one word. They seldom look at
their ollas while writing, and can write in the dark with fluency.

minister

Literary Discoveries in India. 233
minister has pronounced his text, the sound of the iron style
on the palm-leaf is heard throughout the congregation.
Even the boys of the schools have their ollas in their hands ;
and may be seen after divine service reading tiem to their
mothers as they pass over the fields homewards.. This apti-
tude of the people to receive and to record the words of the
preacher renders it peculiarly necessary that ‘the priest’s
lips should keep knowledge.” Upon the whole, the moral
conduct, upright dealing, decorous manners, and decent
dress of the native protestants of Tanjore, demonstrate the
powerful influence and peculiar excellence of the Christian
religion. It ought however to be observed, that the Bible,
when the reading of it becomes general, has nearly the same
effect on the poor of every place.

When the Syrian Christians understood that the proposed
Malayalim translation was to accord with the English Bible,
they desired to know on what authorities our translation
had been made; alleging, that they themselves possessed a
version of undoubted antiquity, namely, that used by the first
Christians at Antioch; and that they could not depart from
the reading of that version. This observation Jed to the in-
vestigation of the antient Syrio Chaldaic manuscripts in
Malayala; and the inquiry has been suecessful beyond any
expectation that could have been formed.

It had been commonly supposed that all the Syriac manu-
scripts had been burned by the Romish church, at the synod
of Udiamper, near Cochin, in 1599; but it now appears
that the most valuable manuscripts were not destroyed: the
inquisitors condemned many books to the flames ;_ but they
saved the Bible. They were content with ordering that the
Syriac scriptures should be amended agreeably to the read-
ing of the Vulgate of Rome; and these emendations now
appear in black ink, and of modern appearance, though
made in 1599: but many Bibles and many other books were
not produced at all; and the churches in the mountains re-
mained but a short time subject to Romish dominion (if in-
deed they can be said to have been at any time subject to it) ;
for the native governments have eyer formed a barrier be-

tween

“

234 Literary Discoveries in India.
tween the inquisition at Goa and the Christians in the
mountains. { |

In the acts of the council of Nice, it 1s recorded: that
Joannes, bishop of India, signed his name at that council,
A. D. 325. This date corresponds with the Syrian year
636; for the primitive Syrian church does not compute
time from the Christian wra, but from Alexander the Great.
The Syriac version of the Scriptures was brought to India,
according to the belief of the Syrians, before the year 636 ;
and they allege that their copies have ever been exact tran=

scripts of that version, without known error, through every:

age, down to this day. There is no tradition among them
of the churches in the southern mountains having ever been
destroyed, or even molested. Some of their present copies

are certainly of antient date: though written on a strong.

thick paper, (like that of some MSS. in the British Museum,
eommonly called Eastern paper,) the,ink has, in several
places, eaten through the material in the exact form of the
letter. In other copies, where the ink had less of a corro-
ding quality, it has fallen off, and left a dark vestige of the
‘letter, faint indeed, but net in general illegible. There is
ene volume found in a remote church of the mountains,
which merits particular description :—it contains the Old
and New Testaments, engrossed on strong vellum, in large
folio, having three columns in the page, and is written with
beautiful accuracy. The character is Estrangelo-Syriac,
and the words of every book are numbered. This volume
is illuminated, but not after the European manner, the
initial letters having no omament. — Prefixed to each book
there are ficures of principal Scripture characters (not rude-
ly drawn), the colours of which are distinguishable; and in
some places the enamel of the gilding is preserved: but the

volume has suffered injury from tune or neglect, some of

the leaves being almost entirely decayed. In certain places
the ink has been totally obliterated from the page, and has
left the parchment in its natural whiteness; but the letters
can, in general, be distinctly traced from the impress of the
pen, or from the partial corrosion of the ink. The Syrian

church

EO ee ee ee a eee

Literary Discoveries in India. 235
church assigns to this manuscript a high ‘antiquity ; ‘and
alleges that it has been for some centuries in the possession
of their bishops ; and that it was industriously concealed
from the Romish inquisition in 1599: but its true age can
only be ascertained by a comparison with old manuscripts
in Europe of -a similar kind. On the,margin of the draw-
ings are some old Roman and Greek Setters, the form of
which imay lead to a conjecture respecting the age in which
they were written. This copy of the Scriptures has admitted
as canonical the epistle of Clement, in which respect it re-

sembles the Alexandrine manuscript: but it has omitted the —

Revelations,—that book having been accounted apocryphal
by some churches during a certain period in the carly ages.
The order of the books of the Old and New Testament differs
from that of the European copies,—this copy adhering less
to unity of subject in the arrangement than to chronological
order. The very first emendation of the Hebrew text pro-
posed by Dr. Keunicott (Gen. iv. 8.) is to be found in this
manuscript. The disputed passage in 1 John, v. 7, is not
to be found in it: that verse is interpolated in some other
copies in black ink, by the Romish church in 1599.

Thus it appears, that during the dark ages of Europe,
while ignorance and superstition in a manner denied the
Scriptures of the rest of the world, the Bible found an asy-
Jum in the mountains. of Malayala; where it was revered
and freely read by upwards of 100 churches ; and that it has
been handed down to the present time under circumstaices
so highly favourable to accurate preservation, as may justly
entitle it to respect, in the ratregtne: of doubtful readings of
the sacred text.

There are many old Syriac manuscripts besides the
Bible, which have been well preserved: for the synod of
Udiamper destroyed no volumes but those which treated of
religious doctrine or church supremacy. Two different cha-
racters of writing appear ever to have been in use among the
Syrian Christians, the common Syriac and the Estrangelo.
The oldest manuscripts are in the Estrangelo.

But there are other antient documents in Malayala, not
Jess interesting than the Syrian manuscripts. The old Por-

tuguese

236 Literary Discoveries in India.

tuguese historians relate, that soon after the arrival of their
countrymen in India, about three hundred years ago, the
Syrian archbishop of Angamalee, by name Mar Jacob, de-
posited in the fort of Cochin, for safe custody, certain ta-
blets of brass; on which were engraven rights of nobility
and other privileges, granted to the Christians by a prince
of a former age; and that while these tablets were under
the charge of the Portuguese, they had been unaccountably
lost, and had never after been heard of. The loss of the
tablets was deeply regretted by the Christians; and the
Portuguese writer, Gouvea, ascribes their subsequent op-
pressions by the native powers to the circumstance of their
being no longer able to produce their charter. It is not ge-
nerally known, that at a former period the Christians pos-
sessed regal power in Malayala. The name of their last
king was Beliarte.. He died without issue; and his king-
dom descended, by the custom of the country, to the king of
Cochin. When Vasco de Gama was at Cochin, in 1503,
he saw the sceptre of the Christian king.

It is further recorded by the same historians, that besides
the documents deposited with the Portuguese, the Christians
possessed three other tablets, containing antient grants,
which they kept in their own custody, and that these were
exhibited to the Romish archbishop Menezes, at the church
of Tevelecar, near the mountains, in 1599, the inhabitants
having first exacted an oath from the archbishop, that he
would not remove them. Since that period little has been
heard of the tablets: though they are often referred to in
the Syrian writings, the translation itself has been lost. It
has been said that they were seen about forty years ago; but
Adrian Moens, a governor of Cocitin in 1770, who pub-
lished some account of the Jews of Malabar, informs us that
he used every means in his power for many years to obtain
a sight of the Christian plates, and was at length satisfied
they were irrecoverably lost, or rather, he adds, that they
never existed.

The learned world will be gratified to know that all these
antient tablets, not only the three last mentioned exhibited

in 1599, but those also (as is supposed) delivered by the
Syrian

Literary Discoveries in India. 237
Syrian archbishop to the Portuguese on their arrival in
India, which are the most antient, have been recently re+
covered by the exertions of Jieutenant-colonel Macaulay,
the British resident in Travancore; and are now officially
deposited with that officer.

The plates are six in number: they are composed of a
mixed metal: the engraved page on the largest plate is thir-
teen inches long, by about four broad. They are closely
written: four of them on both sides of the plate, making in
all eleven pages. On the plate reputed to be the oldest,
there is writing perspicuously engraved in nail-headed or
triangular-headed letters, resembling the Persepolitan or
Babylonish. On the same plate there is writing in another
character, which has no affinity with any existing character
in Hindostan. The grant on this plate appears to be wit-
nessed by four Jews of rank, whose names are distinctly
written in an old Hebrew character, resembling the alpha-
bet called the Palmyrene ; and to each name is prefixed the
title of Magen ; that is, chief.

It may be doubted whether there exists in the world
another document of equal antiquity, which is at the same
time of so great a length and in such faultless preservation,
as the Christian tablets in Malayala. The Jews of Cochin
indeed contest the palm of antiquity and. of preservation ; for
they also produce tablets containing privileges granted at a,
remote period. The Jewish tablets are two in number.
The Jews were long in possession of a third plate, which
now appears to be the property of the Christians. The
Jews commonly show an antient Hebrew translation of
their plates. Dr. Leyden made another translation, which
differs from the Hebrew: and there has lately been found
among the old Dutch records at Cochin, a third translation,
which approaches nearer to Dr. Leyden’s than to the Hebrew.
In a Hebrew manuscript, which will shortly be published, it
is recorded that a grant on brass tablets was given to the
Jews in A. D. 379.

As itis apprehended that there may be some difficulty
in obtaining an accurate translation of all these tablets, it is
proposed to print a copper-plate fac-simile of the whole,

and

as

238 Literary Discoveries in India.

and to transmit copies to the learned societies in Hindostan
and in Europe : for this purpose an engraver is now employed
on. the plates at Cochin. The Christian and Jewish plates
together will make fourteen pages. A copy has been sent,
in the first instance, to the pundits at the Shanscrit college
at Trichiur, by direction of. the rajah of Cochin.

When the White, Jews at Cochin were questioned re-
specting the antient copies of their Scriptures, they answered,
that it had been usual to bury the old copy read in the sy-
nagogue, when decayed by time and use. | This, however,
does not appear to bave been the practice of the Black Jews,
who were the first settlers ; forin the record-chests of their
synagogues, old copies of the law have been discovered ;
some of which are complete, and for the most part legible.
Neither could the Jews of Cochin produce any historical
manuscripts of consequence, their vicinity to the sea-coast
baying exposed their community to frequent revolution :
but many old writings, have been found at the remote syna-
gogues of their antient enemies the Black Jews, situated at
Tritooa, Paroor, Chenotta, and Malch, the last of which
places is near the mountains, Amongst these writings are

some of great Jenoth, in Rabbinical Hebrew ; but in so
5 S » >

anticnt and uncommon a character, ‘that it will require

much time and labour to ascertain their contents. There

is one manuscript written in a character resembling the
Palmyrene Hebrew. on the brass plates: but it is in a de-
cayed state, and the leaves adhere so closely to each other,
that it is doubthal whether it will be possible to unfold them

and preserve the reading. It is sufficiently established by
the concurring uadnntie of written record and Jewish tra-
dition, that the!Black Jews) had colonized.on the coasts ot
India long before the Christian era, There was another
colony at Rajapoor, in the Mabratta territory, which is. not
yet extinct: and there are at this time Jewish soldiers and
Jewish native officers in the British service. That these arc

a remnant of the Jews of the first dispersion at the Baby-
lonish captivity, scems highly probable. There are many other

tribes settled in Persia,, Arabia, Northern India, Tartary:,
and China, whose respective places of residence may: be
easily

Literary Discoveries in India. 239

easily discovered. The places which have been already
ascertained are sixty-five in number. These tribes have in
general (particularly those who have passed the Indus) assi-
milated much to the customs of the countries in which they
live;’ and may sometimes be seen by a traveller, without
being recognised as Jews. The very imperfect resemblance
of their countenance to the Jews of Europe, indicates that
they have been detached from the pareat stock in Judea,
many ages before the race of Jews in the West. A fact cor-
roborative of this is, that certain of these tribes do not call
themselves Jews, but Beni-Israel or Tsraelites; for the
name Jew is derived from Judah ; whereas the ancestors of
these tribes were not subject to the kings of Judah, but to
the kings of Israel. They have in most places the book of
the Law, the book of Job, and the Psalms ; but know little
of the Prophets. Some of them have even lost the bookof
the Law, and only know that they are Israelites from tra-
dition, and from their observance of peculiar rites.
A cupy of the Scriptures belonging to the Jews ofthe
East, who might be supposed to have no communication
with the Jews in the West, has been long a desideratum
with Hebrew scholars. In the coffer of asynagogte of the
Black Jews, in the interior of Malayala, there has been.
found an old copy of the Law, written on a roll of leather.
The skins are sewed together, and the roll.is about fifty feet
in length. It is in some places worn out, and the holes’
have been patched with pieces of parchment.’ Some of the
Jews suppose that this roll came originally from Senna, in.
Arabia; others have beard that it was brought from Cash-
» mir. ~The Cabul Jews, who travel annually into the inte-
’ mor of China, say, that in some synagogues the Law is still
found written on a ro}l of leather; not on vellum, but on a soft
flexible leather, made of goats’ skin, and dyed red; which
agrees with the description of the roll above Beton,

Such of the Syriac and Jewish manuscripts as may, on
examination, be found to be valuable, will be deposited in
the public libraries of the British universities.

_ The princes of the Deccan have manifested a liberal re-
gard for the extension of Shanscrit learning, by furnishing
td ; . lists

240 On theproballe Composition of Sulphur.

hsts of the books in their temples for the college of Fort
William in Bengal. His excellency the rajah of Tanjore
was pleased to set the example, by giving the voluminous
catalogue of the antient library of the kings of Tanjore ;
and his example has been followed by the ranny of Ram-
nad, patroness of the celebrated temple of Ramisseram, near
Adam’s Bridge ; by his highness the rajah of Travancore,
who has given lists of all the books in the Travancore
country ; and by the rajah of Cochin, patron of the antient
Shanscrit college, at the temple of Trichiur. It is under-
stood that a copy of any book in these catalogues will be’
given when required. The brahmins of Travancore con-'
sider that their manuscripts are likely to have as just a claim
to high antiquity, or at least to accurate preservation, as
those in the temples in the North ; and for the same reason
that the Christian and Jewish records have been so well pre-
served ; which is, that the country of Travancore, defended!
by mountains, has never, according to tradition, been sub-)
jugated by invaders from the north of Hindostan.

The design of investigating the history and literature of
the Christians and Jews in the East, was submitted to the’
marquis Wellesley hefore he left India. His lordship,
judging it to be of importance that the actual relation of the
Syrian Christians to our own church should be ascertained,.
and auguring something interesting to the republic of let-
ters from the investigation of the Syriac and Jewish an-
tiquities, was pleased to give orders that public aid should be:
afforded to Dr. Buchanan, in the prosecution of his inqui-
ries, wherever it might be practicable. To the operation of
these orders it is owing that the: proposed researches, of
which some slight notices are given above, have nor been

made in vain.
Cochin,
January 1807.

XXXV. On the probable Composition of Sulphur. By a
Correspondent.

Tus decomposition of any of those substances, which are
‘at present regarded as siinple, would certainly be a conside-
rable

On the probable Composition of Sulphur. 241

rable step in the advancement of the science of chemisiry.—
Among the simple combustibles is a substance, which I am
induced to think a compound; I mean sulphur. It appears
to be compounded of the electric fluid and some atmospheri-
cal gas; and this I think may be safely concluded from the
following considerations :—

1. Upon briskly exciting the electrical machine, a strong
sulphureous odour may be perceived. From whence can
tliis arise, except fiom the real presence ofsulphur, or some
incipient process of its formation?

2. In violent thunder-storms also, we frequently perceive
asulphureous smell. This must undoubtedly either arise
from the electric fluid itself, or it must proceed from the
agency of that fluid on certain surrounding bodies.

3. But sometimes upon such occasions real sulphur has
been produced. In America, while a company was ina
room together, a violent thunder-storm came on; some of
the persons present were even lifted off their feet, and the
chamber windows were found covered with real sulphur.
Surely no one will affirm that this sulphur was originally in
a concrete state in the atmosphere, What could have raised
itfrom the earth? for it does not sublime, as water evaporates,
at the usual temperature of the atmosphere. What could
have supported it in the air? or Why should it never descend
but in a thunder-storm? In short, it is reasonable to sup-
pose that it was formed in the air, and that the electric fluid
is one of its component parts.

4. It is a well-known fact. that the sulphurets of copper
_ and iron emit light in any gas, or even in a vacuum; this is
also a distinguishing property of the electric fluid. And as
sulphur and this fluid are the ouly two substances in nature
which shine without the presence of oxygen, must we not
suppose that a strong analogy subsists between them; or
even that they are the same substance differently modified
and combined ? ,

5. It is a circumstance worthy of attention, that Dr.
Priestley and other philosophers have strongly suspected the
electric fluid of possessing acid properties : in this respect

Vol, 29. No. 115. Dec. 1807. O it

~~

242 On the probable Composition of Sulphur.

it coincides with sulphuretted hydrogen, which without the
apparent presence of oxygen shows itself to bean acid,- by
converting vegetable blues into red.

6. The fumes of sulphur will whiten a red rose, and this
is also a property of the electric spark.

7. Dr. Priestley among his original experiments observes,
that as he was passing the electrical explosion over lead, (I
believe, to form those curious circles which he first remarked).
he found some sulphur upon the lead. This he attributes to
the disengagement of the sulphur contained in the ore. Yet
it would be proper to repeat the same experiment with pure
lead, and observe if it be possible to procure the same result.
—TIndeed I am inclined to think, that the black grains men-
tioned as being produced, when wire is melted by the elec-
‘tric explosion, have been too little examined. Perhaps they
may sometimes be sulphurets or sulphuretted oxides of the
metal, instead of being pure oxides, as has been generally
supposed. "

In short, from the facts above stated, I am led to conclude,
that sulphur is probably a compound substance, contain-
ing the electric fluid as one of its principles, and perhaps
also some surrounding atmospherical substance or substances
as the other. By passing a strong spark through pure oxy-
gen and other aérial fluids, or by experiments upon sulphur
itself with a particular view to this subject, we may hope
that its composition will be finally proved. '

As in the infancy of chemistry those gases passed unob-
served, which the labours of Priestley have since proved to
be such general agents ; so perhaps in future years, the gal-
vanic, electric, magnetic, and other subtle fluids may be
found equally universal in their operations. Perhaps poste
rity may find the electric fluid to be a component. part of
all the simple combustibles. Perhaps to its presence
oxygen may owe its power of supporting combustion,
and its acidifying principle. For as the electric fluid is
infinitely more subtle than oxygen, and seems to pos-
sess the properties of combustion and acidity without the
apparent presence of oxygen; it is more improbable that

- . electricity

Description of an improvel Galvanic Trough. 248

electricity should owe these qualities to the ‘gas, than that

* oxygen should derive them from electricity. © Perhaps to this:

fluid, independent of oxygen, the muriatic acid’ may owe
its acidity ; and as the electric fluid has been'shown above to
possess the quality of removing colour, the muriatic acid
may owe the same property, which it possesses, to this very,
active fluid,. Perhaps, in fine, it may have a greater share’in
the formation of nitric acid than has been generally imagined.
But passing by conjectures, which the present generation
has little hopes of secing verified, I shall come to acon-
clusion, happy if the above bigts should conduct some
fortunate genius to open so wide a field of interesting and
important discovery. Iam, sir, yours,

i. B.

XXXVI. Description of an Improved Galvanic Trough.
| By C. Wirxinson, Esq.

To Mr. Tilloch.

STR
Havine experienced considerable inconvenience in the
course of my galvanic experiments, with the emptying the,
troughs, and of correcting any -defects as to the plates be-
coming unsoldered, or the trough leaking $. I have removed
those difficulties by the following construction upon the
principle of Volta’s Couronne des Tassesi—The box is form-
ed as usual, but with a seriés of wooden’ partitions, in
place of the usual plates of metals, about half an inch
distant from each other, and well covered with cement ;
a piece of copper wire bent as Z, C, (fig. 3. Plate V-)
with aring R soldered to it in a direction’ parallel to the
zine and copper plates : the end Z is soldered to the zine
plate, and the end C to the copper ; the ring is forthe conve-
‘niency of passing a wire through, when the experiments are
concluded, so that all the'plates may be raised at once from
thetrough. It is evident by this arrangement that we have a
power equal to the sum of both the zine surfaces : allowing
for the loss sustained by the common, method, from the part
O2 covered

an4 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

covered with cement, we should have a battery composed
of 41-inch plates equal to one composed of 6-inch plates,
according to the construction of Cruikshanks. The plates
in this arrangement can easily be repaired, and the acid
fluid may be left in the trough.
Tam, sir,
No. 19, Yours respectfully,

Soho Square. C. WILKINSON.

N.B. It will necessarily be understood that the bent wire
is to be placed on each partition, and the same order observed
as in other galvanic arrangements ; that a zinc plate soldered
to one bent wire shall be in the same cell with a copper plate
soldered to another bent wire, and taxing care that these
plates are not in contact with each other. This species of
galvanic arrangement may be seen at Mr. Eastwick’s, 102,
Aldersgate-street.

XAXVIT. Additional Memoir upon living and fossil
Elephants. By M. CuvirEr.

{Continued from p. 65.]

T save drawn up atable of the numbers and dimensions
of these laminae, which I subjoin. From this we may see,

ist, That the Jaminz vary in thickness in various indivi-
duals of each species.

“edly, That there is, as we have said a little before, a con-
nection between this thickness and the number of the lami-
nz; i.e. the more lamine there are in a tooth, the thicker
is each lamina taken separately.

3dly, That nevertheless, by comparing together some teeth
with the same number of laminz, these laminz always oc-
cupy a space sensibly less im fossil grinders, aud that this
difference goes very far in certain specimens ; and so much
the further, the greater the number of amine.

TABLE.

coagprncianeen—cihieatinnce treatin

Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants. 245

TABLE
5
sol QO e oO
o 8&8 5 4 p
426 |26| 2 138 A
PEISE| B [ee] 3
FOSSIL TEETH. Art & aA teks 3a S
ig FEL we b0.8 Asay
s
On pas S a &
Hs |Z? 4s

| ———. | ———— | | ———___] —_—__

UPPER TEETH.

From Siberia, brown, laminz separated, 4s :

but little altered. Daubenton, No. 1023 | KXV | 11 w260 0185 Coe
Origin unknown, yellowish, little altered | XK | 16 | 0°200 | 0-165} 0.
From Siberia, brown, blackish, several

laminez wanting before and behind | XVIII] 12 0-110] 0-080
From Siberia, very much altered in its

cement, some laminz wanting. Dau-

benton, 1022 e XVI | 192] 0185 | 0-165 | 0-089
Origin unknown, altered, white, one la-

mina at least wanting ‘behind XV | 14 0:165 | 0075
Origin unknown, very much altered,

white, much worn 2 . XV | 15 | 0165 | 0165} 0-084
From Toulouse, much altered, white,

and much worn = = XII | 13. | 9-095 | 0:095 | 0:050
From Fouvent, altered, yellow, and u

worn = c = Xi | 12 | 0085 | 0035) 0:037
From ditto, yellow,much worn - VI 7 | 0055 | 0055 | 0-035

LOWER TEETH.

From the canal of Ourque - - | XXIV] 92 | 0-245 | 0-247] 0-089
Origin unknown, white, pathy broken

in two places XXIV! 12 | 0-265 | 9-142] o-o85
From Siberia (probably), brown, but

notaltered, - XXI | 11 | 0250] 0-160] 0-070
From Forvent, yellow, earthy, four Bas

tures behind XIX | 15 | 0-230 | 0-199! 0-080 |
Probably from Siberia, little alseneas ’

blick =» - - XVII] 18 [0-178 | 0-178 | 0-088
From the environs of Colaace - XVI} 13 | 0-230 | 0.180] 0-075
A smalltooth from the same place . | XIV ]1i 10-125 | 0-088| 0-050
A fossil tooth from Siberla—M. Cam-

per’s cabinet Sel ee im = - SOIL 0-160
Idem - - - =" XI 0140

TEETH FROM INDIA.
UPPER TEETH.

Ofan elephant of Ceylon - = X V { 11-].9:200 | 0-162 | 0-055
Of the grand skeleton mookna © = XIV | 7 | 0177 10-102) GOGO
Of the dentelah skeleton = - - XIV | 8

Separate tooth in a cabinet XIV | 7 | 0145 |0:090} 0-045
Separate tooth of amookna,or female | XIV | 5 0155 |0:085) 0055
Another do. from a cabinet - - | XIV} 4 | 0-120 | 0045} 0:045
Idem - - - - - - XI 8 | O150 | 0092 | ON60
Idem - - - X1 }10 | 0150 | 0-125) O-065
Front tooth of the dentelah SE het IX | 9 | 0:080 | 0-080 |, 0:057

Ditto of the mookna, from the separate
head of the animal - - - vit | 7 | 0078 |0:078| 0-055

Q3 Front

246 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

\ (Table continued.)

e€

g@ joe) 2 28 |
a8 fea") aa
B81) 8). Bod SB lug
TEETH FROM INDIA. ope btn ermmmang Oh)
7 re) SS olhebert x 60 4 in
SSq1e€a 3 ak ios}
2D ge een aes Bo
BS |4B| * ee
Front_tooth of the mookna from the en-
tire skeleton = - - - VII 7 | 0:075 | 0075 | 0-0GO
Tooth of a very young elephant—Dau-
benton, 1019 and 1020 - - Vil 7 | 0.055] 0:055 | 00SO
LOWER TEETH.
Tooth fr om Ceylon—M. Camper’s cab. | XXII 0-270
Separate in the anatomical cabinet, an t-
ly.sawed - z= XIX 0:315 0:070
Tooth from Cey lon—M. Camper's ca- :
binet = 3 XVII 0-190
Head of the eacend dephsees - XV | 10 | 0:230 | 0-156 | 0:065
Separate head of the mookna - XV 8 | 0205 | 0-110 | 0055
Separate tooth from M. Taujas’s cabinet | XIV | 12 | 0-200 | 0-158 | .0°054
4 Selatan of the dentelah - - XIiL | 12 | or82 0-060

Separate tooth in the anatomical cabinet | XII | 13 | 0-192 | 0-192 | 0-065
Togth of aseparate head of the dentelah i
of Ceylon - - = - XIT | 10 | 09240 | 0-215 | 0:065

Thus, when M. Camper opposes to my theory the tooth
of a living elephant with thin laminz, and another with
thick Janine, it is because the first he has represented,
pl, xix. fig, 2. of his work, has only 12 lamine, and pro-
ceeds from a young elephant; and because the other (id.
fig. 6., as well as that in pl. xiil. fig. 4and 5)has @3,. and
belongs to an old animal. It is only necessary to compare
together some teeth with the same number of laminz.

{t results from this first character, (the narrowness of the
Jaminge,) that the number of these laminz, whick*serve at
once for trituration, must have been more considerable in
the fossil elephant than in the clephant of India,

Corse says expressly , that this last has scarcely more than
ten or twelve in action at once, and we very often find fos-
sil teeth which have their tw enty-four teeth worn: such is
that from the forest of Bondy, represented in pl. vi. fig. 1,

A second character.which does not appear less sensible is,
that the lines of enamel which intersect the cuts of the la-
mine are thinner and less festooned in fossil teeth than in
others. I remark this in all the specimens of our mus
seum, one only excepted, of which I shall speak below.

‘A third

Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants. 247

A. third character is taken from the breadth, as well abso-
jute as proportional, of the teeth, being much more ccn-
siderable in the fossil elephant than in that of India. .We
may ascertain this by referring to the fifth column of my
table. We there see that the fossil elephants have almost,
all from 0°08 to 0°09 in breadth, and the teeth of the living
from 0:06 to 0°07.

If these differences stood alone, perhaps they wanilch not be
sufficient to establish a distinction of species; but as they
agree with the differences in the jaws and in the crania,, as
we shall soon see, they become important.

But are there none else in the fossil state but these teeth
with narrow lamine ?

I have mentioned a specimen already with broad lamine :
it was dug up near Porentrui, in the department of the Upper
Rhine. Without being very much altered, it is sufficiently
so to entitle it to the appellation of a true fossil. Nine la-
minz remain entire; and an uncertain number have been
carried off from behind. These nine Jamine are thick,
much undulated, and. occupy a space of 0°180 in length :
their breadth is still more considerable “than in other
fossil teeth, being 0°090. This tooth must have belonged
to a very old Se

M. Adrian Camper speaks. of gates fragments of fossil
“teeth, which he has in his cabinet*, the ane of which
are as broad as those in living elephants; but we must
know whether the teeth to ht rt fragments belonged
had numerous or few Jaminz, before we can institute a
comparison.

M. Authenrieth informs me that he saw at Philadelphia
some teeth, which, in his opinion, resembled much more
the African than the Asiatic elephant; bat Mr. Barton po-
sitively assures me that these were fresh teeth broueht from
Africa. That which was engraved for “Mr, Drayton’s work
upon Carolina, resembles the common fossil teeth; and
those of which M. Humboldt brought over some anaeaks
from Mexico also resemble them, as. well as those which
Mr, Barton speaks of.

* Descr. anat. d’un Eleph. p, 19,

O4 M, Hum-

248 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

M. Humboldt indeed says, that he found-near Santa Fé
an immense quantity of fossil elephant bones, as well Afri-
can as of the Ohio species; but a closer examination has
since shown, that all these bones were of a particular species
of mastodontus,

It seems therefore clear, that beyond comparison the
greatest number of fossil elepbauts’ teeth have harrow lami-
ne, and that the small number of exceptions hitherto dis-
covered are neither very important nor well authenticated.

Article VI.

Varieties in the Size and Curvatures of the Tusks of Ele-
phants—Comparison of fossil Tusks with those of living
Elephants.

a. Tusks of the living Species.

Let us now examine the varieties of tusks, and the differ-
ences remarked in this respect among elephants.

Their texture exhibits no important differences. It al-
ways presents upon ifs transverse section those streaks
which proceed like aa arc of a circle from the centre to the
circumference, and form, in growing, curvilinear lozenges
which occupy the whole disk, and which are more or
less broad, and more or less verceptible to the eye: This
character, common to all elephant ivory, and depending im-
mediately upon the pores of their pulpy nucleus, is not to
be found in the tusks of,any other animal. It is to be seen
in all fossil tusks, and it refutes the opinion of Leibnitz*,
adopted by some other writers, and even by Linneust, that
the mammoth horns might have belonged to the trichecus
rosmarus. The tusks of these animals, however, seem
wholly composed of small round accumulated grains,

The size of tusks varies according to the species, sexes,
and varieties; and as they are growing all their lives, age
more than any thing else influences their dimensions.

The African elephant, as far as we are able to ascertain,
has very large tusks in both sexes. The African female,
seventeen years old, the skeleton of which is in our posses-

* Protogza, § xxxiv. p. 26, + Sygt. Nat. ed. xii, p. 49.
gion,

Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants. 949
sion, has larger tusks than any male or female Indian cle-
phant of the same size, that we are acquainted with.,

It is from Africa we receive the most ivory, and the
greatest number of tusks, and they are also harder and
whiter than any others,

But our limited knowledge is confined to the elephants of
the Western coasts, and to those of the South of Africa :
we are ignorant if those of the Eastern shores resemble
them in every thing, and if there be any varieties in the in-
terior.

We know from Pennant, however, that the coast of Mo-
zambique furnishes. tusks ten feet long, being the largest
ever known,

In the Indian species there are more varieties, which Mr,
Corse develops with more care than any other writer*.

In the first place, no female of this species has long tusks :
they have them small, and directed in a straight line
downwards, (this was very properly mentioned by Aristotle
jn a passage since improperly contradicted,) and some of
them are so short that they cannot be seen until the lips are
Jifted up,

Further, there are several males which have not large tusks,
Tayernier says, that in the island of Ceylon it is only the
first born of each female which has tusksf. On the con-
tinent of India they distinguish the dauntelah, or elephants
with long tusks; the mookua, which have very short ones.
The latter have them always straight. Wolfs, who travelled
much in Ceylon, says, also, that there are several males in
that island without tusks, and that they are named majanis§.

Among the dauntelah they again distinguish, according
to Corse, the pullung dauntelah, the tusks of which are di-
rected almost horizontally ; and the puttel dauntelah, in
which they are directed straight downwards. Between these
two extremes there are several mtermediate, and they have
also given names to individuals in which one tusk differs
from the other, or which have only one, But all these va-

* Phil. Trans. 1799, p. 205 & seq. + Hist. Anim. lib. ii.c. 5,

} Tavernier, tome ii. p. 175.

§ Voyage 4-Ceylan, en Allem. p. 106, cité par Camper, Anat. d’un Eleph.
p: 17. ;

rieties

\

250 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

rieties have nothing constant, and are mixed indiscriminate-
ly with each other. We find them together in the same herds.

In, Bengal the tusks);weighJittle more than seventy-
two pounds, and they do not exceed fifty in the province of
Tipperah, which produces the best elephants. ,, There are
tusks in London, however, probably from) Pegu, which

-weigh 150 pounds. It.is in) fact from) Pegu,,.and from
Cochin-China, that the largest elephants and tusks of. the
Indian species come. The coast of Malabar furnishes no
tusks, according to Pennant, more than four feet long.

T have drawn up the following table of the length, diame-
ter, and weight of the largest tusks, taken from, other
authors, or actually inspected by myself.

The tusks from Africa are not distinguished here from
those of India, and there is not all the accuracy we could
wish in the kinds of measures employed.

TABLE.
Sr ah
Authors es : an 2
v
Piast the Their authorities and details upon aos 2 z=
a so
Pee the origin of the tusks, be 5 a= g =
Vinee; (FRASE feotlr Sudhatee Pavebeain Sumatra, aecording to Louis Ibs.
Vartoman, quoted by Jonston — — | 168
Tusk mice by’ iio Bealigers
“© De Reb. Ind:” . ae pe 162
Tusk from the ea biee) of Septal, qu: :
ted by Herzog ~ _ — | 160
Tusk mentioned by Selb attcary in his
“ 'Traité des drogues etrangéres” — — | 200
stented Tusk by Louis Barth,—* Rer. Indic.” || — — | 325
Ele abe Tusk, at. Basle, brought from. India,
i quoted by Munster in his “ Cos-} - about
graphia, mographie’() = 7) -))(\+e* = 9 — | 100
47 & 48. per
P Idem 3 pees de die
Another tusk inentioned by y. 6. more
-Scaliger than 5’ ih
Idem by Al. Cadamosto - cy — _
The largest tusks, according to Gyins 10° _ _
A tusk in the possession of amerchant | /
of Venice - - - - 14’ — —_
The tusks taken from Firmus, by 10’
Aurelian, according to Flavius R _- —
. U. Vopiscus or
Camper, Common tusks from Guinea - — — hae
Descr. Anat. : :
A ‘tusk belonging to. M. Wolfers, | |7’ 4” of! .,,
d'un Eleph. merchant i Mncatam : France. o"y | 208
Tusk

Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants. 251

Ww

(Table continued.)
2 SBS
Authors ae Pee
Z Se: 4 (= EE Pd ere
idan jae Their authorities and details upon the)2 6 2/97 ~
Bee ae origin of the tusks. Pees pusees
facts. oe gen S35
~~ A
—re = re ae Ln pea —_——_ | --—
. Tusk belonging to M. Rytsayder, |.
Eanes, merchant in Rotterdam, according ibs. oz
Descr. An. bus ae
tun Eleph. to Klockner - - - — |250
had, ep) )rusk sold at Amsterdam, same author cx 4: 350
Bor Tusk in Camper’s cabinet - 6 UN GOS
Faujas, PB The largest tusk in the Museum of} — |
logie, 243. Natural History at Paris - 6 6G | 54 "2 8
Fortis, L.
Rect. Pour \ "Tusk in the Florence cabinet - Hoahkige ai't4
VHist. Nat.
de Vital. 11.
| 10
\Eng-or
Pennant. The large tusks from Mozambique lo’ Sand eee
lg’ 2
jFrance
I from90f
(Several tusks measured by Eden 4 9 Eng.| — i ne
Lop és - . - io — a £00
Buffen,Hist. | Dr: ara = = - 5 — -—' | 200
Nat. tom.xi.d Tusks from Lowango, according to
in 4io. the Voyage of the ludian company — — | 126
Tusks from the Cape, according to from60
Kolben - - - - — — |to 12

L

As the tusks grow during the life of the animal, and the
body does not, the size of an elephant cannot be concluded
from its tusks, even by establishing the proportion between
individuals of one same variety and the same sex: as, on
the other hand, the tusks rot, or break at their points, accord-
ing to the greater or less use the animal makes of them; and
they are sharpened more or less abruptly into.a point, we
cannot conclude their Jength from the diameter at their
base.

Finally, their weight cannot be poncliind from their di-
mensions, (Messerschmidt in the Philosophical ‘Transac-
tions,) because their cavity at the base may be more or less
filled.

The degree of curvature of the tusks of elephants varies
almost as much as their size, We have seen above the
most common differences in this respect among the Indian
elephants, Jn various cabinets there are several tusks to be

' seen

252 Memoir upon liping and fossil Elephants.

seen with curvatures more or less strange, and in particular
some are spiral, Camper saw several of them in the British
Museum*, and Grew represents onet which is turned
round several times ; and I know from M. Fabroni, that
there is one of this description in the Florence cabmet also.
They are frequently seen in the form of the Italic S, &c.

b. Fossil Tusks.

It is impossible to ascertain if there have been among fos-
sil elephants the same differences as among those of India,
with respect to the tusks of the different sexes, and different
varieties, since fossil tusks are generally found separate, and
a sufficient number of heads has never been found to entitle
us to say if there were ever any adults without long tusks.
We are cqually little enabled to ascertain the limits of fossil
tusks in point of smallness. The small-sized tusks have
been little sought after, having excited less attention amongst
the workmen.

We are perfectly well acquainted, however, with their
limits in point of size: the large ones have never been neg-
Jeeted, and those who have descrived them have never been
tempted to diminish their volume.

I have drawn up a tabie of the largest fossil tusks, the di-
mensions of which have been given. From this we may
see that they do not much surpass those of living elephants,
at least of the African species,

It may be further remarked, that if elephants were allowed
to live their natural age in forests, without being hunted,
their tusks, growing during their whole life, would aequir¢
2 size much more considerable than they generally have,

* Descrip. Anat. d'un Eleph. + Mus. Soc. Reg. pl, iv.

TABLE,

Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants. 253

TABLE,
eee | ss
: di be 2 5) 4S a
Authors Details upon the tusks. Beokl ov ! <)
consulted. ae MS) Fog =
sce P az ©

the trunk the other] 89 4
cated in front erid 5” 4”

f No. DCDXCVI of ssciarori sian length of Bie 30d, 9) fe ont
4/8" a at |
the other] > 4 15}

cated at both ends end) 4%

2" 10” at
the two bas 5 |
1 ends
2" 9” and

Daubenton, }
tome Xi. No. DCDXCIV of Siberia, trun-

No. DCDXCV of Siberia, trun- bs
cated at both ends f

No.DCDVCUH, truncated at both ? 3! 3"
ends 4

= 10” at
ao: other Pe
1 el
Tusk from the environs of Rome,
es. as mh found by Messrs. Larochefou-
nage cauld yes Desmarets, much
Bes ; truncated at the two ends, and
broken in three pieces - - by 8” ss
‘Tusk found at Serbaro, near Ve.
rona, by Fortis and Count Ga- 7 6” \from 9"to
Fortis, ii. zola, truncated at both ends,( |ofVerona}10" ditto.)
-f swelled by infiltration
{ Fossil tusk from Tuscany . 8’ 6” — Be
Rear fan" from Siberia—Camper’ it 5’ and eh
aa cabinet upwards. xo
First elephant of Buretonna 3 & 408 —_—
Zach, P © upwards. ime
Second - - - E 10° eI ai
Pallas, Nov. ( The largest tusk front Siberia, in ‘|e 6” & at
Com. Petr the Petersburgh cabinet, trun- 8 the other) —
xiii. p- 473. cated at both ends end 6” 44
The largest tusk of Cunstodt, ) AG\s% and: ath). +
very crooked, trieated at the 5 6 < |the other
two ends if end 3”
Reisel & Opleiss assert thatit was | 10’ — =

Messer-

: ($752

Beat aes, A very crooked tusk from Sibe- t 1s 6" 5") on ; Apothe
’ . tae

{Phil. Trans. a Boas ¢ I GS hat
xl. p. 184. ek)
Herman, ‘The tusksuspended in the cathe 6 7" g” 5!” hd

Prog pecul. dral, very crooked

pig MON Tusk at Wendehcine - ~ 410" 15 6 _

254 Memoir upon living and fossil Elephants.

As to the texture, we haye seen a little before, that it is als-
solutely the same in all the species, and the tusks of the mas-
todontus are not distinguished in this respect from those of ele-
phants. It only remains therefore to compare their curvature.

Several fossil tusks have only one very common curva-
ture: such-are the tusks in our Museum.

But there is a sufficient number of them, the curvature
of which is much greater than we see in_the tusks of living
elephants. The shape approaches a semicircle, or the half
of an ellipsis divided by its small axis.

There ate four fossil tusks described :—that of Messer-
schinidt, in the Philosophical Transactions; that in the Stras-
burg cathedral, according to Herman ; that of the church of
Halle, in Suabia, according to Hoffman and Beyschag; and
that of the cabinet of Stutgardt, according to Authenrieth
and Seger.’ This striking.resemblance of four of the most
‘entire fossil tusks we know, in a point which distinguishes
them from the tusks of living elephants, is worthy of remark.

Sonie have thought of making a distinet character from
this circumstance: but it may be easily inferred, that this
great curvature depends only upon the length of ‘the tusks,
where this circumsiance has been remarked.

The part of the tusks once made being no longer subject
to change, each increase in length will also he an augmenta-
tion in the number of the degrees of the arc it, describes.

It is thus that the incisor teeth of hares, when the opposite.
ones are broken, curl up into a spiral direction.

Tt is proper, however, to observe, that atusk from Africa,
in our Museum, although six feet long, is by no means so
crooked as the four we -have quoted.—Tbere are also some
fossil teeth turned like a still-worm, as we see in living ele- |
phants. Pallas quotes one from the Petersburgh cabinet*.
There is one also, but less twisted, in the Stockholm cabinet,
of which M. Quensel sent me a-drawing.

Thus tusks can establish no certain character, either
among the living species, or.between the latter and the fossil

species. -

* Noy. Com. ull.

[To be continued.]

XXXVI, Me-

[ 255 ]

XXXVIII. Memoirs of the late Erasmus Darwin, M.D.

{Continued from p, 141.]

HIS NOSOLOGY.

CLASSES OF DISEASES.
I. DISEASES OF IRRITATION.
II. DISEASES OF SENSATION.
II. DISEASES OF VOLITION.
IV. DISEASES OF ASSOCIATION.

The Orders and Genera of the First Class of Diseases.

CLASS weal.
DISEASES OF IRRITATION.
. ORDO I.
Increased Irritation.
GENERA.

1. With increased actions of the sanguiferous system.

2. With increased actions of the secerning system.

3. With increased actions of the absorbent system.

4. With increased actions of other cavities and membranes.
5. With increased actions of the organs of sense.

ORDO Il.
Decreased Irritation.
GENERA.

. With decreased actions of the sanguiferous system.
- With decreased actions of the secerning system.
. With decreased actions of the absorbent system.
. With decreased actions of other cavities and membranes,
. With decreased actions of the organs of sense.

Ga ® OG bt =

OKDO Ill.
Retrograde Irritative Motions.
GENERA.
1. Of the alimentary canal.
2. Of the absorbent system.

3. Of the sanguiferous system,
Orders,

256

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

Orders, Genera, and Species, of the First Class of Diseases.

CLASS I,
DISEASES OF IRRITATION.
ORDO I.
Increased Irritation.
GENUS I.
With increased Actions of the Sanguiferous System.
SPECIES.

1. Febris irritativa.

2. Eblrietas.

3. Hemorrhagia arteriosa.
4. Hemoptoe arteriosa.

5. Hemorrhagia narium.

Irritative fever.
Drunkenness.

Arterial hemorrhage.
Spitting of arterial blood.
Bleeding from the nose.

GENUS II. y
With increased Actions of the Secerning System.
SPECIES.

¥. Calor febrilis.

2. Rubor febrilis.

3. Sudor calidus.

febrilis.

a lalore.

ab igne.

a medicamentis.

4. Urina uberior colorata.

5. Diarrhoea calida.
—— febrilis.

crapulosa.

infantum.

6. Salivatio calida.

7. Catarrhus calidus,

8. Expecioratio calida.

9. Exsudaiio pone aures.

Gonorrhea calida.

Fluor albus calidus.

Hemorrhois alba.

13. Serum e vesicatorio.

14. Perspiratio fectida.

15. Crinues novi.

——

Febrile heat.

redness.

Warm sweat.

Sweat in fevers.

from exercise.

—— from fire.

from medicines.

Copious coloured urine.

Warm diarrhoea.

Diarrhoea from fever.

from indigestion.
of infants.

Warm salivation.
catarrh.
expectoration.

Discharge behind the ears.

Warm gonorrhesa.

fluor albus.

White piles.

Discharge from a blister.

Fetid perspiration.

New hairs.

GENUS

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D. 257

GENUS III.
With increased Actions of the Absorbent System.

SPECIES.

. Lingua arida.

Fauces aride.
Nares aridi.
Expectoratio solida.

Dry tongue.

Dry throat.

Dry nostrils.

Solid expectoration.

5. Constipatio alvi. Costiveness.
6. Cuiis arida. Dry skin.
7. Urina parcior colorata. Diminished coloured urine.
8. Calculus felleus et icterus. Gall-stone and jaundice.
9. renis. Stone of the kidney.
10. VESICR. Stone of the bladder.
ll. arthriticus. Gout-stone.
12. Rheumatismus chronicus. Chronic rheumatism.
13. Cicatrix vulnerum. Healing of ulcers.
14. Cornee obfuscatio. Scar on the cornea.
GENUS lV.
With increased Actions of other Cavities and Membranes.
SPECIES.

1. Nictitatio irritativa.

Deglutitio irriiativa. '
Respiratio et tussis.

. Exclusio Lilis.

. Dentitio.

- Priapismus.

. Distentio mammularum.

Descensus uteri.
Prolapsus ani.

. Lumbricus.

Irritative nictitation.
Irritative deglutition.
Respiration and-cough.
Exclusion of the bile.
Toothing.

Priapism.

Distention of the nipples.
Descent of the uterus.
Descent of the rectum.
Round worm.

Tenia. Tape-worm.
Ascarides. Thread- worms.
Dracunculus. Guinea-worm.
Morpiones. Crab-lice.
Pediculi. Lice.
GENUS V.
With increased Actions of the Organs of Sense.
SPECIES.

Visus acrior.

Acuter sight.

Vol. 29, Ne. 115. Dec. 1807. R 2. Au-

258 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D.

2. Auditus acrior.

3. Olfactus acrior.

4. Gustus acrior.

5. Tactus acrior.

6. Sensus caloris acrior.
extensionis acrior.
8. Titillatio.

Acuter hearing.
- smell.
——-- taste.

—- touch.

——- sense of heat.

- sense of extension.
Tickling.

9. Pruritus. Itching.
10. Dolor urens. Smarting.
11, Consternatio. Surprise.
Orvo II.
Decreased Irritation.
GENUS I.
IVith decreased Actions of the Sanguiferous System.
SPECIES.
1. Febris inirritativa. Inirritative fever.
2. Paresis inirritativa. - debility.
3. Somnus interruptus. Interrupted sleep.

4. Syncope.

5. Hemorrhagia venosa.
6. Hemorrhois cruenta.
7. Hemorrhagia renum.
8. ———_- - hepatis.
9. Hamoptoe venosa.
10. Palpitatio cordis.

11. Menorrhagia.

12. Dysmenorrhagia.

13. Lochia nimia.

14. Alortio spontanea.
15. Scorbutus.

16. Vibices.

17. Petechia.

Fainting.

Venous hemorrhage.
Bleeding piles.

- from the kidneys.
- from the liver.
Spitting of venous blood.
Palpitation of the heart.
Exuberant menstruation.
Deficient menstruation.
Too great lochia.
Spontaneous abortion.’
Scurvy.

Extravasations of blood.
Purple spots.

GENUS Il.
With decreased Actions of the Secerning System.

SPECIES.

1. Frigus febrile.

- chronicum.
2. Pallor fugitivus.
- permanens.

Coldness in fevers.
a#@- permanent.
Paleness fugitive.

- permanent.

Ad

* "3. “Pus

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

Pus parcius.
Mucus parcior.

. Urina parcior pallida.
- Torpor hepaticus.

Torpor pancreatis.
Torpor renis.

Puncta mucosa vultis.
Macule cutis fulve.
Canities.

Callus.

Cataracta.

Innutritio ossium.
Rachitis.

. Spine distortio.

Claudicatio coxaria.
Spina protuberans.
Spina bifida.

. Defectus palati.

259

Diminished pus.
Diminished mucus.

Pale diminished urine.
Torpor of the liver.
Torpor of the pancreas.
Torpor of the kidney.
Mucous spots on the face,
Tawny blots on the skin.
Gray hairs.

Callus.

Cataract.

Innutrition of the bones.
Rickets.

Distortion of the spine.
Lameness of the hip.
Protuberant spine.
Divided spine.

Defect of the palate.

GENUS III. :
With decreased Actions of the Absorbent System.

SPECIES.
Mucus faucium frigidus. Cold mucus from the throat.

Sudor frigidus.
Catarrhus frigidus.
Expectoratio frigida.
Urina uberior pallida.
Diarrheea frigida.
Fluor albus frigidus,
Gonorrhea frigida.
Hepatis tumor.
Cihlorosis.

Hydrocele.

Hydrocephalus internus.

Ascites.
Hydrothorax.
Hydrops ovarit.
Anasarca pulmonum,
Obesitas.

sweat.
catarrh.
~~— expectoration.
Copious pale urine.

Cold diarrhcea.

fluor albus.
gonorrhoea.

Swelling of the liver.
Green sickness.

Dropsy of the vagina testis.
— of the brain.
———— of the belly.

of the chest.

of the ovary.

of the lungs.
Corpulency.
R 2

-. 18, Splenis!

Ww to =
ee TNS

to 8) #9 td ft tO &
Don

to
~~“

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D.

Splenis tumor.
Genu tumor albus.

. Bronchocele,

Scrophula.
Scirrhus.
- recti.
- urethre.
- esophagi.

Swelling of the spleen.
White swelling of the knee.
Swelled throat.
King’s evil.
Scirrhus:

- of the rectum. ~

- of the urethra.

- of the throat.

Lacleorum inirritabilitas. Inirritability of the lacteals.
Lymphaticorum inirrita- Inirritabiljty of the Jympha-

lilitas.

tics.

GENUS IY.
With decreased Actions of other Cavities and Membranes.

Sitis calida.
Srigida.
Esuries.

Nausea sicca.
Egritudo ventriculi.
Cardialgia.
Arthritis ventriculi.
Colica jlatulenta.
Colica saturnina.
Tympanilis.
Hypochondriasis.
Cephalea Jrigida.

. Odontalgia.

Otalgia.

. Pleurodyne chronica.
. Sciatica frigida.

. Lumbaga frigida.

. Aysteralgia frigida.
. Proctalgia frigida.

. Vesice fellee inirritali- Inivritability of the gall-blad-

litas ef iclerus.

SFECIES. %

iT’ hirst warm.

- cold.

Hunger.

Dry nausea.

Sickness of stomach.
Heart-burn.

Gout of the stomach.
Flatulent colic.

Colic from lead.
Tympany.
Hypochondriacism.

Cold head-ach.
Tooth-ach.

Ear-ach.

Chronical pain of the side.
Cold sciatica.
lumbago.

-—— pain of the uterus.
pain of the rectum. ,

der and jaundice.

GENUS V.

With decreased Actions-of the Organs of Sense.

Siultitia inirritabilis.

SPECIES.

Folly from inirritability.
2. Visus

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 261

2, Visus imminutus. Impaired vision.
3. Musce volitantes. Dark moving specks.
4. Strabismus. Squinting. .
5. Amaurosis. Palsy of the optic nerve.
6. Auditus imminutus. Impaired hearing.
7. Olfactus imminutus. - smell,
8. Gustus imminutus. : =-+ taste,
9. Tactus imminutus. touch.
10. Stupor. Stupor.
Orpo III.
Retrograde Trritative Motions.
} GENUS I.
Of the Alimentary Canal.
SPECIES.
1. Ruminatio. Chewing the cud.
2. Ructus. _ Eructation.
3. Apepsia. _ Indigestion, water-qualm.
4. Vomitus. Vomiting,
5. Cholera. Cholera.
6. Ileus. Iliac passion.
7. Globus hystericus, Hysteric strangulation.
3. Vomendi conamen inane. Vain efforts to vomit.
g. Borborigmus. _ Gurgling of the bowels.
10. Hysteria. Hysteric disease.
11. Hydropholia. Dread of water.
GENUS II.
Of the Absorbent System.
SPECIES..
1. Catarrhus lymphaticus.. Lymphatic catarrh,
2. Salivatio lymphatica. Lymphatic salivation.
3. Nausea humida. Moist nausea.
4. Diarrhea lymphatica, Tmphatic flux.
5. Diarrhea chylifera. Fiux of chyle.
6. Diabetes. Diabetes. >
7. Sudor lymphaticus. © | Lymphatic sweat.
8. Sudor asthmaticus. Asthmatic sweat.
9. Translatio puris. Translation of matter.
10. lactis. - of milk.
OF urile. - of urine,

R 3 ‘GENUS

262 Life of the Duke de Chaulnes. Si a

GENUS III.

Of the Sanguiferous System.

SPECIES,
1. Capillarium motus retro- Retrograde motion of the ca-
gressus. Sills ea
2. Palpitatio cordis. . Palpitation of the heart.

3. Anhelatio spasmodica. Spasmodic panting.
[To be continued. ]

XXXIX. Life of the Duke de CHAULNES.

Micsasr FERDINAND’ b’ALBERT D’AILLy, duke de
Chaulnes, peer of France, lieutenant-general of the king’s
armies, his majesty’s governor and lieutenant-general of
the province of Picardy, and reconquered countries, Artots,
&c., was born.at Paris in 1714. We shall here only
consider the duke de Chaulnes.as a man of science, and
relatively to the arts which he cultivated with so much
success; taking our principal traits from the very elegant
life of this nobleman, given by M. de Fouchy, one of the
most celebrated members of the Academy of Sciences.

After a Jong series of military services, which OBthingd
him the most distinguished honours from a just and bene-
ficent sovereign, the duke de Chaulnes retired, and dedicated
the whole of his leisure to the cultivation of the arts and
sciences, for which his: mind was eminently qualified by
peculiar talents. He procured a very large collection of
scientific books, of instruments for making experiments
in natural philosophy and mechanics; he arranged a most
extensive cabinet of the subjects of natural history ; and he
built himself a laboratory to enlarge this collection by a
number of his own inventions, which were daily produced by
his fertile mind. Efe applied himself with great assiduity to
dioptrics, and the improvement of mathematical instruments,
especially those w Hich belong more particularly to astronomy.

In 1755 he published a Memoir, which contains experi-
ments relative to an article in the beginning of the fourth
book of Newton’s Optics.

The great Eng lish philosopher had remarked, that in a
dark

Life of the Duke de Chaulnes. 263

dark room, if we receive a ray of light from the sun in the
axis of a glass, concave on one side, convex on the other,
and silvered on the convex side, this ray would necessarily
be reflected on itself; but that if we opposed to the reflected
ray a white paper or pasteboard pierced in the middle to let
the direct ray pass through, the opening in the paper would
be circumscribed by four or five coloured rings. The duke
de Chaulues, in repeating this experiment, found, by a most
fortunate chance, that when we dull the fore surface of the
glass by breathing on it from above, the rings, so far from
losing their distinctness, become more brilliant than before.
Nothing further was necessary to raise his curiosity. He
first thought to render this effect permanent, by substituting
for the breath some water mixed with a little milk to dull
the glass; and he varied the experiment in so many different
ways, that at last he discovered the cause of this singular
phanomenon to proceed from inflection ; that is, from the
property which rays of light have of bending at the ap-
proach of solid bodies. He found that the breath and the
water mixed with milk formed a kind of round net work,
which produced the appearance of coloured rings; that, by
substituting for this kind of covering a clear muslin, there
are obtained, instead of rings, coloured squares or chequers :
and that parallel threads give bands or belts. In shert, he
made such good use of this happy chance, that Newton’s
experiment became in his hands an object altogether new,
and far more interesting than it had hitherto been.

Whilst the duke de Chaulnes was amusing himself with
his dioptric experiments and improvements, he applied
himself to another object equally important; this was the
perfecting of astronomical instruments, or, to propose the
problem in its fullest extent, the art of producing from in-
struments of a very small radius, an equa! degree of accu-
racy at least with that obtained from those of a considerable
radius, such as were then commonly used, This problem,
on account of its difficulty, might till then have been ranked
with those of the trisection of an angle, and the quadrature
of the circle; but experience has proyed to us that he was

fully competent to resolve it.
R4 The

_ 264 Life of the Duke de Chauines.

The duke de Chaulnes, in 1755, gave the world a me-
moir which contained the principles of this discovery. He
first thought to apply the motion of an endless serew, to
obtain these minute divisions. The screw made of steel
would itself mark the widths of the worm on the edge of the
limb to be divided; and these marks, which ought to be
perfectly equal, he thought might be regulated by means of
an index; and hence the smallest parts would become accu-
rately obtained by means of very fine and truly equal sub-

divisions. .

Who would not conceive, with him, but that a division

made in this manner was exact? Could we suppose there
would be any inequalities in a small number of steps of
such a screw made with care, and in those of the same
Species of screw all marked with the same worm? The
duke de Chaulnes, nevertheless, found by experience that no
confidence whatever is to be placed in this method: the un-
equal hardness and expansion of the particles of steel in the
screw, and of the brass in the instrument, renders the steps
‘of the one unequal to those of ihe other. Whence it fol-
lows that this method of dividing instruments cannot be
depended on, and that we must determine by observation
the value of each part of a micrometer, and not content our-
selves by measuring the whole, or a large portion of its
course depending for the intermediate divisions on the
equality of the worm of the screw, as is commonly done.
This is anew source of error, for the discovery of which
we are indebted to the duke de Chaulnes, and which may
alter the most important and best made observations.

It now became necessary to try other methods. The
duke de Chaulnes had found for a long time, that ly apply-
ing a micrometer to a microscope he could measure accu-
rately as far as the four thousandth part of a line. Tt was.
on this truly ingenious principle, that he, first of any one,
undertook to give the division of astrouomical instruments
a greater degree of accuracy than they were hitherto thought
capable of receiving. We cannot-here follow him through
the whole of bis contrivances: all we cau say is, that never
was any principle applied with more address, and we are

astonished,

Life of the Duke de Chaulnes. 265

astonished, in reading this work, at the resources with which
his genius furnished him, and the sagacity with which he
profited by an infinity of circumstances, that probably would
jhave escaped other persons. The fruit of so much labour
and aitention was the production of an instrument eleven
inches radius furnished with achromatic telescopes, the ac-
curacy of which wasso great, that, when compares with
two excellent quadranis of six feet radius in measuring sol-
stitial meridian altitudes of the Sun and Arcturus, ite same
precision was obtained as with them. This trial was the
strongest and most certain proof of its excellence to which
it could have been submitted.

Not only did he give his instrument the degree of ac-
curacy which we have just spoken of, but he also con-
trived means of rendering all others cqually as exact that
might hereafter be made, by a large platform, which hé pro-
posed to construct on this principle, and which was, if we
may use the expression, to serve in future instead of an
able artist. We leave men of science to judge whether the
duke de Chaulnes has not completely resolved this difficult
problem, and likewise to appreciate the degree of gratitude
due to him for this discovery, so valuable to all the mathe-
matical and astronomical world. This entirely new art, the
principles of which he had given, as before observed, in
1765, have since been published in greater detail] in 1768,
in the description of the arts published by the acadeniy.

Every thing that the duke de Chaulnes did with regard to
the construction of astronomical: instruments, proved to
him the great utility of achromatic telescopes. This was a
sufficient inducement for him to endeavour to improve them,
and he gave the publica Memoir, in which he details his
ideas on the subject.

We are astonished, in reading this work, at the inventive
powers of his genius, in contriving methods for determining
quantities, which, to superficial observers, appear not
worthy of notice. The same microscopes which before
served for dividing his instruments are here again found
useful, but employed in a very different manner, and

mounted

£66 Life of the Duke de Chaulnes.

mounted on akind of micrometers, which measure the mo-
tion of the instrument to the four hundredth part of a line.
It was by the help of these microscopes and several other
ingenious instruments, that he measured the exact degree
of refrangibility of different, kinds of glass; the convex’and
concave curvature of all the pieces of an object glass without
separating them from each other. This singular problem
appears at first’ sight impossible to resolve, or to determine
even with any degree of precision when the curvature of the
glass which is to correct the aberration of refrangibility, and
destroy the colours, is such as it ought to be.

These discoveries were followed by the invention of a new
parallactic instrument more frm and convenient than those
already in use, by several reflections on the manner of ap-
plying the micrometer to these telescopes, and to measure
accurately the value of the parts of this instrument. For
this purpose he used a wall, which, that it might be seen
froma distance, had the singular property of presenting to
the observer thick strokes, by means of which he could
measure very smal] intervals. This Memoir shines through-
out with the genius of the inventor, and cannot be read
without admiring his contrivances to avoid difficulties, which
at the first glance appear insurmountable. Unfortunately
ihis was his last work, and it makes us greatly regret that
others which he proposed to execute on this subject, were
prevented from being finished by his death.

The duke de Chaulnes’s disposition was of the most
amiable kind: the mildness from which it proceeded was
ornamented by the greatest politeness, and he could scarcely
reckon any but friends among all those with whom he lived.
The king himself was well acquainted with his zeal and his
merit, and often showed him the strongest marks of that
kindness which gives pleasure to a good subject and happi-
ness to a gentleman of the court. From his elevated situa-
tion one would suppose he was out of the reach of chagrin
and reverses, but he experienced some of the most unplea-
sant ones for a considerable time. He however opposed to
them the constancy preserihed by philosophy, and the pa-

tience

‘

Surgical Cases in the Finsbury Dispensary. 267

tience inspired by religion. But it is impossible to contend
_ long with impunity against such enemies to health, and his
constitution, although strong, at last gave way. .

He died the 23d of September, 1769, in less than five
hours, of adeath that perhaps may be called sudden, but
which was certainly not unforeseen, as he put his worldly
affairs in order some days before, and received ihe sacra-
ment with those unfeigned sentiments of religion and piety
which had always been the rule of his conduct.

—=—

XL. Report of Surgical Cases in the City and Finsbury Dis-
pensaries in July 1807, containing a remarkable Case of
Cancer in the Breast. By Joun Taunron, Esq.

For the month of July there were admitted on the books
of the City and Finsbury Dispensaries 209 surgical patients.

Cured or. relieved a = 169
Died a - = 3
Under cure - - - 37

209

Mrs. R. et. 49, first applied for surgical assistance on
the 30th of July 1806, for a disease in her breast, which
Proved to be a confirmed cancer. About eighteen months
_ preceding the above date she discovered a tumour in the left
breast, which was bard, and attended with acute darting
pains at irregular intervals, but not such as to prevent her
from attending her domestic concerns... The breast, now,
was not much enlarged, but ulcerated on the Jeft side near
the nipple, the skin was puckered, and adhered firmly to
the diseased part of the gland: the discharge was ichorous
and profuse, and produced extensive inflammation of the
integuments on which it ran: the pain was much increased :
the glands in the axilla were enlarged and indurated, and a
general debility pervaded the whole system. The disease
being. too far advanced to admit of its being removed by an
operation, the ferri rybigo was given in moderate doses: the

ulcer

268 Surgical Cases in the F insbur ‘y Dispensary.

ulcer was dressed with the ung. sabine for some days, then
with the ung. arsenicum ; neither of which produced the
least effect. A small bhiter was then applied befween the
ulcer and the axilla, and repeated for fourteen successive
days; the pain from which was very trivial, and the darting
pain, which had been very severe in the begining, was
nearly subsided, the appetite was much improved, aud her
health and spirits were greatly recruited.

The old ulcer, and that produced by the blister, were
dressed with the ung. sabine, and the thin ichorous
discharge was now succeeded by well digested purulent

matter,

At the beginning of September a Be blister was applied
from the sheep part nearest the axilla, around thé upper
part of-the breast, nearly to the sternum, and repeated for
many cays, so as to form an ulcerated surface about an inch
wide. That part of this new ulcer between the breast and
the axilla was dressed with the ung. arsen. cum pulv. opii,
the upper part with the ung. sabine. The sloughs occa-
sioned by the caustic were trivial, and the pain inconsidera-
ble, but a free discharge of purulent matter continued from
every part of the ulcer.

On the 8th of September she caught cold, and had a
troublesome cough with pain in the chest, which was re-
. Jieved much by taking a few doses of ihe lac ammon. cum
tinct. scille. '

The caustic dressing was applied ahout every other day,
sometiines to one and sometimes to avother part of the ulcer,
and the whole covered with the ung. sabine, This was at-
tended with very little pain, and the heaith of the patient
was much improved. The scirrhous tumour appeared to
enlarge at the upper part till about the middle of October,
when it became stationary, and was greatly diminished iu
size by the beginning of November.

The ulcer was now dressed with the ung. sabine alone:
The discharge was good, and the breast entirely free from
pai. Some alterative powders, composed of hydrarg. cum
sulph. with nitre, were given, and one of the following pills
was ordered to be taken every night.

KR. Hydrarg.

Surgical Cases in"the Finsbury Dispensary. 269

BR. Hydrarg. Mur. Mit. P. L. Sulph. Aur. Antim. aa 9i.
For, Xi.

This treatment was continued, with very little variation,
till February 1807, with evident advantage, the health being
completely reinstated: no pain was experienced in the
diseased part, which was greatly reduced in size, so as to
be much smaller than the other breast.

The ferri rnbigo was again given for some weeks, then
the above powders, and occasionally the pill at night, the
ulcer being dressed with the ung. sabine the whole time.
With this mode of treatment every thing appeared in the
most favourable light, tll the beginning of September,
when the breast was nearly reduced to a plain surface, and
the ulcer was exceedingly small, without the least pain hav-
ing heen experienced therein for many months: the dis-
charge was much reduced in quantity, and contmued well
digested purulent matte-.

She had now a troublesome cough, with pains apparently
rheumatic in her limbs; these did not yield to the usual re-
medies, and she lost strength fast, so that in the beginning
of October she was nearly contined to her room.

October the 17th, on removing her from the bed to the
chair, the left thigh bone gave wav, without any fall or vio-
lence, and the left arm became bent above the elbow, pro-
ducing exactly the appearance represented in the Philosophi-
eal Transactions in the case of Elizabeth Quenot of Paris,
who died of mollities ossium. In this state she did not
experience much pain, when lying still, either from the
thigh or arin, but the least motion increased her sufferings
exceedingly. The breast remained perfectly easy, and the
discharge continued as before. The left arm now became
edematous, her appetite declined, and she died extremely re-
duced on the fourth of November 1807.

Joun TAUNTON,
£urgeon to the City and Finsbury
Dispensaries, Lecturer on Ana-

tomy, Surgery, Physiology, &c.
Greville-street, Hatton-garden,

December 24, 1807. .

Erxratum.—I[n the last Report, p. 170, line 12 from bottom, instead of
“erround” read “ around.”

XL!. No-

[ 210 J
XLI. Notices respecting New Books.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
for the Year 1807. Part II.

Tus Part contains the following papers:—VIT. On
Fairy-rings. By William Hyde Wollaston, M. D. Sec.
R. S.—VITI.: Gbservations on the Structure of thé
Stomachs of different Animals, with a View to elucidate the
Process of converting animal and vegetable Substances into
Chyle. By Everard Home, Esq. F.R.S.—IX. Experi-
ments for investigating the Cause of the coloured concentric
Rings, discovered by Sir Isaac Newton, between two Ob-
ject-glasses laid one upon another. By William Herschel,
LL. D. F..RoS.—X. On the Economy: of Bees. In a
Letter from Thomas Andrew Knight, Esq. F. R.'S. to the
Right Honourable Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. K. B. P.R.S.—
Al. Observations and Measurements of the Planet Vesta.
By Jobn Jerome Schroeter, F. R.S.—XII. A new Endio-
meter, accompanied with Experiments, elucidating its
Application. By William Hasledine Pepys, Esq. commu-
nicated by Charles Hatchett, Esq. F.R.S.—XIII. Ob-
servations on the Nature of the new celestial Body discovered
by Dr. Olbers, and of the Comet which was expected to
appear last January in its Return from the Sun. By William
Herschel, LL.D. F.RB.S.—XIV. On the Quantity of
Carbon in carbonic Acid, and on the Nature of the Dia-
mond. By William Allen, Esq. F. L. S. and William
Hiasledine Pepys, Esq. Communicated by Humphry Davy,
Esa. Sec. R. S.—XV. An Account of the Relistian Tin
Mine. By Mr. Joseph Carne, in a Letter to Davies Giddy,
Esq. M. P. F. R.S.—XVI. An Analysis of the Waters
of the Dead Sea and the River Jordan. By Alexander
Marcet, M. D. one of the Physicians to Guy’s Hospital.
Communicated by Snzithson Tennant, Esq. F..R. S.—Pre-
sents received by the Royal Saciety from November 1806
to June 1807.—Index.

An

Notices respecting New Books. 671

An Elementary Treatise on Natural Philosophy. Trans-
lated from the French of M.R. J. Hauy, Professor
of Mineralogy at’ the Museum of Natural History, @e,
By Outntuus Grecory, A. M. of the Royal Military
Academy, Woolwich. 2 Vols. 8vo. with Plates.

« The desion of M. Haiiy,”’ as the translator observes, *¢ in
composing this work, was not to produce a compilation of
earlier performances, a collection of insulated disseriations,
in which every former theory shall be exhibited, but none
examined ; it was rather. to give a cast of unity to this de-
partment of human knowledge, to present Natural Philosophy
though in an abridged, yet in a complete form, to free it
from a great number of superfluities with which it had been
overcharged, and to develop scarcely any but theories now
solidly established, though perhaps previously contested,
that he might be the better abie to place Physics in the situa-
tion it ought to occupy, by assigning their due portions to
the comparatively recent branches of Magnetism, Electricity,
Galvanism, Crystallography, &c., and by enlarging those
boundaries which some modern authors scem to have esta-
blished upon too narrow a space.”

The object which Mr. Gregory had in view in the Trans-
lation, was, by giving this work in the same form as his own
treatises on Astronomy and Mechanics, to complete a
course of Natural Philosophy. He has not, however, con-
fined himself to a bare translation, but has given many valu-
able notes, which add considerably to the usefulness of the
work.

Mr. Gregory has done justice to the author in his transla-
tion, and has, we think, rendered a service tu the public, by
giving, in an English dress, a work written professedly for
the use of the French National Lyceum, in conjunction
with Biot’s Elementary Treatise on Physical Astronomy,
and Francceur’s Elements of Mechanics.

The work seems to be well adapted for the purpose it was
intended to answer, and has less irrelevant verbiage than, is
generally to be met with in French works on Physics. It is
not, however, entirely free from this fault: the following ex-

ordium,

272 Notices respecting New Books.

ordium, with which the author introduces his remarks “ on
the Air,’ may serve as an example:

‘© After having elucidated the properties of the liquid
which bathes the ee of our globe, or glides along within
it, we shall proceed to those of the invisible fluid which sur-
rounds it to a great height. Here a very lively self-interest
is blended with that which the science inspires of itself, to
solicit us towards the study of this fluid; in the midst of
which we are continually immersed, which acts upon us in
so many different ways, and to which we are indebted both
for the preservation of life, and for furnishing.us with one
of its principal delights; since it is to the air that we first
commit our thoughts, to be transmitted to others, with the
words which are their symbols.”

A wanslator of Mr. Gregory’s acknowledged reputation
might certainly have taken upon him to retrench such exu-
berances, without stepping beyond his province. But, as
we have already stated, the work in other respects is valu-
able, and, we doubt not, will be found an useful addition
to the elementary works on science already in the hands of

the public.

An Essay on the Warming of Mills and other Buildings, by
Steam. By Roperrson Bucuanan, Civil Engineer.

This short essay, consisting of only twenty-four pages,
contains a variety of curious and useful information, ar-
ranged under the following beads :

J. The proportionate Size of Boilers and Quantity of Fuel.
—H. The Proportion of Steam-pipe required to heat a given
Space.—I]f. The Substance and Colour of Steam- ~pipes.—
IV. The Direction and Arrangement of the Steam-pipes.—
V. The Modes of connecting the Steam-pipes ;—and con-
cludes with a general abatraevor dimensions and proportions
of pipes, and important facts relative to a varicty of buildings
which have been actually heated by steam.

The advantages of cleanliness, convenience, and _ safety,
which this mode of warming buildings possesses, has long
mace it au object of attention ; but it Is only of late that it
has been brought into practice, so as to be commodious and

certain

Royal Society: 373

certain in its cfects.. It has, however, now arrived at that
point; and this Essay contains a collection of the. facts
which have been ascertained, for the use of those who may
wish to put in practice the warming of buildings by steam.
Besides the advantages of this application of steam for
ordinary purposes of warming buildings, it is of import-
ance in a national point of view, as it may prevent accidents
in all situations where there is much combustible matter,

such as in arsenals and dock-yards.

An Essay on Symbols, with a View to suggesting a new
System of Geslurs-signs for the Deafly-Dumb. By
J. M. WEINBERGER.

This tract is in the German language, and M. Weinber-
ger, as far as we know, is tbe first of his countrymen wha
has devoted his attention to the study of that science, by
which Messrs. Sicard and L’Epée have rendered their names
sacred to every friend of humanity. M. Weinberger’s
labours, however, deserve a higher title than that of im-
provements upon the systems of his predecessors. He
first sets out with an attempt to simplify the mode of con-
veying ideas and language between the deafly-dumb. He
discusses the most remarkable methods that have been pro-
posed for gesture, Janguage, and emblematical writing, and
concludes by giving a band alphabet of his own invention.
This new system greatly excels the finger talk at present
adopted, in so far as it requires the use of one hand alone ;
and the characters are so contrived as to be capable of suc-
ceeding each other with great rapidity.

M. Weinberger seems to have been extremely successful
in his practice as a teacher of the deafly-dumb in Germany ;
and in his work he has detailed the results of some publi¢
examinations of his pupils, who displayed great proficiency,

XLII. Proceedings of Learned Societies.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

Ploy: 26. The President in the chair. Continuation of
Mr. Home’s paper on the Functions of the Spleen. A de-
Vol. 29. No. 115. Dee, 1807. s coction

>

874 Royal Society.

coction of madder was injected into the stomach, in the
same manner as the indige; but this not answering-the pur-
pose, rhubarb was substituted, im-consequence of its extreme
sensibility to alkali. This experiment succeeded, and the
cardiac portion ef the stomach, with a ligature on the py-
lorus, communicated the rhubarb to a kind of plexus in the
spleen, and-thence to the bladder. The application of alkali:
to the urine immediately discovered the presence of the
rhubarb, but none appeared by the same means in the liver :
hence it was inferred, that the spleen assists in secretion, as
well as in assimilating the nutriment.

On the 30th of November the Society held their anniver-
sary meeting; when the president delivered with the Cop-
leyan medal, as usual, a very eloquent address to Mr. Home,
taking a brief but perspicuous retrospect of the philosophi-
cal labours and discoveries in physiology of that gentleman,.
from the commencement of his professional career, as the -
relation and,successor of the late Mr. J. Hunter in 1785, to
the present period. In.the course of the learned President’s
review of the relative insportance of this Fellow’s numerous
communications, he took occasion to contrast the general
estimation of theTransactions. of the Royal Society of London,
which are produced and supported by the voluntary contri-
butions of its individual members, with those of other nations,
where they are supported by considerable revenues drawn
from the state. This comparison was not.a little flattering to
the talents.and:spirjt of Englishmen, and to their disinter-
ested love of science.

The Society then proceeded to the choice of the council
and officers for. the ensuing year; when the following gen-
tlemen were elected. of the-council »

Of the old, council—The Right Honourable Sir Joseph.
Banks, Bart. K. B.; sir Charles Blagden, knight ; Henry
Cavendish, esq.; Humphry Davy, esq. 3 right honourable
Charles Greville; William Marsden, esq.; rev. Nevil Maske-
lyne, D. D.; George earl of Morton; right honourable sir
Wilham Scott, knight; Charles Wilkins, esq.; William,
Hyde Wollaston, M.D.

Of the new council—John duke of Athol ; sir James Earl,

knight ;

Royal Society. 275

knight; John Gillies, LL. D.; James Glenie, esq.; sir Fre-
derick Morton Eden, bart.; lord Henley; Benjamin Hob-
house, esq.; Joseph Jekyll, esq. ; Edward Innes, M.D. ;
John Rennie, esq.; John Sylvester, LL. B.

And the officers were—the Right Honourable Sir Joseph
Banks, K.B. President ; William Marsden, esq. Treasurer ;
William Hyde Wollaston, M. D., and Humphry Davy,
esq. Secretaries.

Dec. 10. The President in the chair. The minutes of the
proceedings of the anniversary, the amount of the receipts
and disbursements, and lists of members dead and new ones
elected during the last year, were laid before the Society ;
after which a mathematical paper, by Mr. Woodhouse, on
the form of the teeth of wheels, was read. Jn this paper
the author proposed to unite the method of epicycloidal
curves, invented by De la Hire, and improved by Camus,
with the analytical method proposed by Euler, in order to
reduce them to general practice.

Dec. 17. The President in the chair, The Croonian Lec-
ture, by Mr. Carlisle, on the nature and chemical qualities
of the muscles, and natural history of muscular motion,
was read. Mr. C. began by taking a physiological view of
the circulation of the blood, and of the influence of the nerves,
so far as they operate on the muscular fibre. He then no-
ticed the existence of an oxide of iron discovered inthe red
globules of the blood, which he considered as materially in-
fluencing the muscular fibre, and the healthful state of the
animal ceconomy ; and proceeded to relate the results of nu-
merous experiments on vegetable and animal substances, in
all of which he found an oxide of iron, as in peas, yolks of
eggs, bile, urine, &c. The yolks of eggs he discovered to
be entirely composed of a fatty oil and an oxide of iron ;
but his experiments on the nature of the muscular fibre are
not yet in a state to be laid before the Society.

Dec. 24. ‘he President in the chair. A paper, by Mr.
Smithson, on quadruple and binary compounds, particularly
the sulphurets, was read. The author seemed to doubt the
propriety of the distinction, or rather the existence, of qua-
druple compounds, believed that only two substances could

$2 enter

276 | Society of Antiquaries.

enter as elements in the composition of one body, and con-
tended that in cases.of quadruple compounds, a new and
very different substance was formed, which had very little

relation to the radical or elementary principles of which it:

was believed to be composed. This opinion he supported
by reference to the sulphurets of lead (galena) and of anti-
mony, and to the facts developed by crvstallography. In the
Jatter science he took occasion to correct and confirm some
remarks of his in the Transactions for 1804, on different
erystals, which he acknowledged have not hitherto been
found in nature. ‘

Tri consequence of the Christmas holidays, the Society
adjourned tll Mouday the 14th of January 1808.

SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES.

Mr. S. Lysons laid before this Society some curious ex-
tracts from the antient records, containing directions to a
bailiff for the management of land, aud also a recommmenda-
tion of oxen in preference to horses for agricultura] pur-
poses, written in the reign of Edward III.

Mr. R Smirke, in a letter to sir H. C. Englefield, bart.
gave an account of his observations on the substances used
as colouring in the paintings found in Saint Stephen’s. It
appeared to Mr, Smirke, that oil had been used as a varnish
for these paintings ; and as they were executed prior to the
Supposed period of the discovery of oil painting in 1410, it
was inferred that this art may have been of English origin.
This is the more probable, since several English words exist,
even since the beginning of the 14th century, in which,
among the articles of the materia pictoria, is enumerated oil
for the painting of public edifices. Hence it was extremely
probable, that, as oil was used, it was at least combined with
some one colour, in this country, nearly a century before the
reputed ara of the discovery of oi] painting. Of some of the
colours in these paintings, which are now completely en-
elesed from the view by the new improvements, the compo-
sition could not be determined.

BRITISH

British Institution.—French National Institute. 277

BRITISH INSTITUTION,

On the 21st of November a meeting of the com-
mittee of directors of the British Institution was held at
the Gallery in Pall-mall, for the purpose of adjudging the
premiums offered for the three best companions to pictures
selected from the works of the old masters. —The following
was the decision :

To Mr, Pocock, jun. the premium of one hundred pounds
for his picture of ** Archbishop Becket’s Insolent Visit to
the Palace of Henry the Second, with the Intention of
excommunicating that Monarch.” Painted.as a companion
to Mr. Angerstein’s Theodosius” by Vandyke.—To Mr.
James Green the premium of sixty pounds, for his picture
of “ Gadshill and the Carriers ;” from the second act of the
first part of Shakespeare’s Henry the Fourth. Painted as a
companion to Mr. Duncombe’s “ Candlelight” by Rubens.—
To miss Reinagle the premium of forty pounds, for her
** Landscape with Banditti.” Painted as a companion to
lord Grantham’s ‘* Mercury aud Admetus’’ by Salvator
Rosa.

The stimulus thus afforded not only to those artists who
haye been so deservedly successful, but also to their less for-
tunate competitors (among whom are several who have pro-
duced works of considerable merit), will doubtlessly be
evinced.in their future performances. Indeed, we confidently
anticipate that the governors of the British Institution, if
they pursue the liberal line of conduct that they have hither-
to adopted, will ultimately enjoy the satisfaction of bring-
ing the arts to a state more nearly approximating to perfee-
tion, than they have ever yet arrived to in this country.

FRENCH NATIONAL INSTITUTE,
[Concluded from page 187.]

Medicine, which is nothing else than the application of
the laws of the animal ceconomy to the cure of diseases, has
lately made one of its most important discoveries, viz. Vac-
cination. Its preservative properties are at ptesent sufliciently
demonstrated ; but observations are still wanting, as to the

S 3 modi--

278 French National Institute.

modifications of which it is susceptible. M. Hallé has
communicated to the Institute some very interesting observa-

tions upon the irregularities which the vaccine inoculation. -

has undergone at Lucca in the course of 1806.

These differences did not affect the progress, the periods,
nor the essential characters of the vaccine eruption.

They were manifested in the form of the pimple, which, by
extending and confounding itself with some small pustules
round the principal one, lost both its regular form and the
umbilical depression, which it presented at the moment of
its formation.

Ta the nature of the crust which succeeds the pustule,
the Jatter had not the brown shining colour of the crust of
the common vaccine; it was irregular in its form, like the
pimple which had given birth to it, and left in the skin a
hollow, which afterwards filled up completely.

Finally, eruptions of pustules over the whole body were
seen at the moment the areola was formed around the prin-
cipal button.

These irregularities were epidemical throughout the whole
territory of Lucca.

The counter proofs made by small pox-inoculation upon
individuals who had exhibited these irregular symptoms of
vaccine, demonstrated that their irregularity had in no mea-
sure altered the preservative properties of vaccine.

The third branch of natural history, that which treats of
minerals, has been recently enriched with a most interesting
fact.

M, Vauquelin has discovered the presence of platina in
the famous silver mines of Guadalcanal in Estremadura.

This metal had only been found in Peru hitherto, where
it is combined with a multiplicity of different substances.
fn those of Guadalcanal, it is alloyed with silver, copper,
antimony, iron, arsenic, lead and sulphur. It sometimes
forms a tenth of the mass.

The same chemist has made some very important experi
ments upon the refining of iron ores.

France, although poor with respect to precious metals,
compensates for this deficiency in the quantity of fine iron ;

but

French National institute. 279

but we know equally well how much this metal differs in
goodness, according to the mines from which it comes, and
the forges in which it is wrought.

M. Vauquelin, in order to discover the causes of these
differences, has begun to analyse with great exactitude the
minerals and fluxes generally exposed to the furnace, and the
scoriz or other matters which are separated from it.

He found in the scaly iron ores of Burgundy and Franche
Comté, besides oxide of iron, silex, alumine, lime, oxidated
manganese, phosphoric acid, magnesia and chromic acid.
A part of these substances remains in the flux, and they are
ever found in the best refined iron, although the greater
quantity passes into scoriz, and those substances which are
sublimed in the furnaces.

It is to the remains of chrome, phosphorus, and manga~-
nese, that M. Vauguelin attributes the bad qualities of cer-
tain kinds of iron which are brittle both when hot or cold ;
and all the attention of forge-masters should be directed to
free their metal from these noxious substances.

Besides these useful remarks, M. Vauquelin has made a
very curious one: viz. that this composition, whether in ores
or particularly in the sublimate of furnaces, resembles much
that of meteoric stones. Nothing but nickel is to be found
in the latter. As all those substances which are sublimed
do not remain in the flue of the furnace, amd some are with-
out doubt elevated into the air, he thinks it not improbable
that these substances enter into the composition of meteoric
stones: the only difficulty would be, to ascertain how sub-
jimed metals could unite in the atmagphere in such large
masses as we find.

This subject of iron ores has been treated in another point
of view by Mess. Descostils and Hassenfratz in the Me-
moir under the title of Spathic Iron. (See Phil. Mag. vol.
xxy.) These ores are more or less fusible, and furnish iron
of various qualities. M. Descostils thinks that the difficulty
of melting some of them is owing to the magnesia which
enters into their composition. All the infusible spathic irons
he has analysed furnished him with this earth; and having

S 4 added

250 French National Institute.

added a portion of it to some specimens fusible by them-
selves, he deprived them of this property. From this he
explains the effect of the exposure to air and humidity, in
order io facilitate the flux of these niimerals: this must hap-
pen, because there is some sulphuric acid, which dissolves
the magnesia, formed by the decomposition of the pyrites.
M. Hassenfratz, however, disputes this theory, and asserts
that he has seen infusible spathic iron ores, although they
contained no magnesia. He thinks that exposure to the air
can only destroy the cohesion of the mineral. We shall
give an account of the judgment, when it is pronounced,
upon this interesting question in metallurg Ys

M. Lelievre has described a imineral, which has been also
mistaken for a spathic iron, aud which was found to contain
more than one half of oxide of manganese combined with
nearly one third of carbonte acid, and only 00°8 of iron and
00°2 and a balf of lime. It is therefore a carbonated man-
ganese, a new species in this genus,

The same mineralogist has described a stone; which he
discevered in the island Elba. It contains more than half
its weight in oxide of iron, and a little oxide of manganese,
‘The rest 1s formed of silex and lime. Its crystalline nucleus
is a prism with a rhomboidal base, colour black and
opaque, hardness a little inferior to that of feldspar, and
specific gravity four times that of distilled water. M. Le-
‘lievre names it Jenite, from the battle of Jena, one of the
most-memorable events of this century.

M. “Baraillon,'a correspondent of the historical class,
having discovered in the trenches, which he caused to be
cut in the antient Roman city of Neris, near Montlucon,
some antient tin vases, M. Mongez, éiedibey of the same
class, has tad the curiosity to ascertain their degree of pu-
rity. ‘It results from the analyses made by M. Anirye, in-
spector-general of the mint, that they contain nearly three
tenths and a halfof lead. We know from the experiments
of M. Proust, that a similar alloy presents none of the dan-
gers generally conceived.

We mentioned last year an important application of che-

. mistry

French National Tisrtpt. 281

mistry to the arts, which consisted in rendering common
alums equal to Roman alum for dyeing, and we have seen
that it is only requisite to purify them from a little iron.

To the different methods invented for this purpose, M. Se-
enin, a correspondent, has ad#ed a new one, taken from
the difference and the solubility of pure alum and alum
charged with iron. He dissoives sixteen parts of common
alum in 24 of water, allows it to crystallize, and by this me-
thod obtains 14 parts of alum as pure as that of Rome, and
almost as pure as that of Liege.

We may apply this process to the first manufacture, and
obtain at once an alum a third more in value.

The same chemist has continued his labours upon the
analysis of the juices of vegetables,

He has recently treated of those which contain no tannin;
all have more or less albumen and bitter principle. The
more abundant the albumen is, the stronger is the smell,
and the sap is more easily corrupted. Mushrooms, cruci-
fer and solaniz are of this description, M. Sesuin gives
a view of the proportion of these two principles, in twenty-
two natural families of plants, by remarking in several the
differences of these proportions in the various parts of the
vegetable, and in the same plant taken at diferent ages.
All these saps, treated by the sulphuric acid, or ‘the mu-
riate of tin, acquired the smell of pears or boiled apples, and
sometimes of fermented liquor, like cyder and beer.

What renders this description of rescarches so difficult, is
the prodigious quantity of reactions, and various combina-
tions, which enter into elementary substances so few in
themselves,

We have had new proofs of this in the memoir of
M. Thenard, professor in ih colleve of France upon nitric
ether.

We know that the ethers are odoriferous and combusti-
ble liquors, which are obtained by treating alcohol with the
acids. The best known is the sulphuric ether. We are in-
debted to the inquiries of Messrs. Pourcroy and Vauquelin
for being acquainted with the progress of its formation, and

all

282 French National Institute.

all the combinations formed with it. The theory of the
nitric ether was less perfect. What was mistaken for this
article in the shops was not even a true ether. The nitric
acid is formed, as we know, of azot and oxygen; alcohol, of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Thus, there are only four
elementary substances in the two liquors, and there are
formed, by bringing them together, ten combinations suscep-
tible of being separated: viz. a great deal of water, of oxt-
dated azotic gas, of ether, a little oxidulated azotic gas, ni-
trous gas, carbonic acid gas, acetic acid, and a substance
which is easily charred. One portion of these substances
remains in the first vessel, where the mixture takes place;
another passes into the receiver by distillation, and there
takes the liquid form ; a thind remains gaseous.

It is this last portion which is almost wholly ether; and
in order to obtain it separately, we must pass the gas through
a course of flasks submitted to great cold. The ether is se-
parated in the ferm of a yellowish liquid, which we must,
by means of lime, still deprive of the nitrous and acetous
acid it contains,

M. Thenard concludes, from his experiments, that in
these operations the oxygen of the acid is combined with a
great deal of hydrogen, alcohol, and little of its carbon:
from this result plenty of water, gaseous oxide of azot, a
small quantity of nitrous acid and nitrous gas, and but
little free azot; that the other is formed from the union of
the two principles of nitric acid with de-hydrogenated and
slightly de-carbonised alcohol; and that the residues of car-
bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, furnish the acetous acid and the
charry matter.

It may be easily conceived how difficult it must be thus to
seize, in their minntest details, actions so fugitive, and to
separate combinations so various, and so easy to be altered,
and reciprocally converted into each other... We regret that
our limits prevent us from giving an idea of the ingenious
and delicate processes resorted to by M. Thenard.

We may remember the theory peculiar to count Rum-
ford, as to the cause of heat, which he attributes to certain

vibrations

French National Institute. 283

vibrations of the particles of bodies, and not to a particular
substance, or to caloric, as admitted by several chemists,
A very strong objection has been made to him; which is,
that bodies are heated when they are condensed, as if the
condensation pressed out the caloric contained in them, and
which, no longer finding any room, manifests its departure by
its effects. Thus water and alcohol, when mixed, lose a
fortieth part of their volume, and gain several degrees in the
thermometer. Pieces of money come out quite hot from
the die under which they are stamped.

Count Rumford has answered these objections by experi-
ments which are not less certain, andin which condensation is
accompanied with cald, Thus, some solutions of salts in
pure water lose both in volume and in heat. We know
well, that salts on dissolving often produce cold, and we
explain this phenomenon by the necessity of a solid sub-
stance absorbing caloric when it becomes liquid: but this
explanation does nor appear applicable when a solution
already completely effected is simply diluted with a fresh
quantity of water.

We know that steam when confined is susceptible of ac-
quiring a heat far superior to that of boiling water; and
count Rumford, long ago, invented a speedy and ceconomi-
cal method of heating liquids, by introducing into them this
steam in a state of extreme heat,

He has made an extremely fortunate application of this
discovery in the art of soap-making, and has succeeded in
boiling this article completely in six hours, while sixty were
requisite in the usual way. The kind of percussion which
heated steam gives to the mixture of oil and ley, by penctra-
ting into it, and suddenly condensing, contributes, accurd-
ing to count Rumford, to the acceleration of the process.

This learned chemist has also succeeded in adding new
perfection to cauldrons destined for heating liquids, by ap-
plying to their bottoms several tubes which descend into the
flame, and by thus multiplying the surface of the bottom
without increasing its diameter. By these means we not
enly save fuel, but also the cauldron ; because the latter, re-

sisting

284 French National Institute.

sisting miore the effect of the heated — does not requiré
to be so thick*. LITAE S Miah

Almost the whole of meteorology depends’on: she variable
action of heat upon the atmosphere. it is the air, when va-
riously heated, that produces the winds, by the mequality of
its dilatations ; and the winds, carryimg the vapours into
warmer or colder places than those where they were formed,
eause their more complete solution, or their precipitation
more or less rapid, i. e. fine weather or rain. +

M. Dupont Nemours, member of the class of history,
has presented to the class of sciences some reflections,
which have the merit of rendering in some measure sensi-
ble, the futility of every attempt to prediet these phenomena
from the analogy and experience of the past.

The zone, in the different points of which the sun ts ver-
tical in the course of the year, is never precisely the samé
upon the earth for two consecutive years, nor even for ar
infinity of centuries : in the mean’time the precession of the
equinoxes, which does not collect them at the same points
until after more than 26,000 years, and the variations of the
obliquity of the ecliptic, of which the period is still more
tardy, contribute to vary this zone: and even supposing
that we had one day of observations antient enough,—in order
to be applicable, it must have been requisite that the surface
of the earth, the seas, and mountains, which are not less es=
sential clements of this phenomenon, had not changed in
this whole interyal.

M. Dupont admits that electricity contributes also to vary
the weather, forming water by the combustion of hydrogen
gas. It is true that it seems now clearly ascertained,’ that
this gas does not exist in the region where storms. are
formed: but M. Dupont supposes that it is brought down
from hieher regions in tempests, which, by their violence,
dis arb the natural order gf the strata of the atmosphere,

* The application of tubes te hailers dees not appear'te have been an inven-
tion of count Remford’s. Patents were takea out iu England for such a con-
struction of boilers sevtral years.ago. A patent was likewise taken out
gome years ago for heating water by passing steam into di. ° Eorr.

XL. In-

{ 285 4
° XLIIL. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Arlicies.

To Mr. Tiliock.
Manor House, Hayes, Middlesex,

SIR, Dec. 27, 1807
ae cloudy state of the weather for some weeks past had
made me almost fear that I should no more see the comet ;
but within this hour I haye found it very distinct, 32’ 32” E.
of ¢ Cyeni, and 1° 52’ 30” N. of that star: it is therefore
within the circle of perpetual apparition, and never sects. A
small cluster nebula was to-night in the field of Blunt’s
night-glass at thesame time. The comet formed nearly the
angle of asmall equilateral stellar triangle, through whose
haze the angular star was nearly as distinct as the other two.

After much attention the comet was visible to the naked
eye, forming a straight line with yand ¢ Cyeni, and will be
readily found in the tail of the Swan, afew evenings hence,
between 7 and ¢.

Through my seven-feet Newtonian rallye its disc was
very conspicuous and defined: but I could not with any
attention ascertain its tail. By due labeur I think it will he
visible a month longer.

As the month is concluding, I write in haste, that your
many readers may not be tempted to forgo their scareh
after this curious object.

I am, sir,

Your obedient servant,
W. WALKER.

ANOTHER COMET.

A letter from a gentleman, dated Crantiis, Orkney,
Oct. 30, says\:-—‘‘ Last night [ observed another comet.
It was nearly vertical to this place about eight o’clock. The
nucleus is fully as large te appearance as the other comet,
which is also still visible. Thijs new comet is very large
and distinct.” It “appears to be on its approach to the Sun ;
will probably be visible for a considerable time; and. seems
to have moyed, since J first saw it last night, about two de-
grees.”

M. Ca-

286 Lectures.—Patents.

M. Caselli, an astronomer of Naples, a¢eounts for the
extraordinary heat of the past summer, which continued 80
intense throughout the whole month of September, by
ascribing it to the extreme purity of the face of the sun,
which this year was turned towards the earth. For nearly two
months he observed none of the spots which are commonly
perceived in it. Hence M. Caselli concludes, that the sun’s-
rays, having been emitted in_greater abundance and with less
interruption, produced that violent degree of heat, which,
though it scorched the fields, nevertheless increased their
fertility.

LECTURES.
Dr. Clutterbuck, one’ of the Physicians to the General

Dispensary, Aldersgate-street, purposes, during the ensuing
Spring, to give a Course of Lectures on the Theory and
Practice of Physic, including an Outline of Physiology and
the Materia Medica.—The introductory Lecture wili be
given on Friday, January 22, at six o’clock in the evening,
and be continued on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays,
at the same hour. Further particulars, with a Prospectus,
may be had on application at the Dispensary, or at No. 17,
St. Paul’s Churchyard.

Mr. Taunton’s Spring Course of Lectures on Anatomy,
Physiology, Pathology, and Surgery, will commence on the
23d of January, at eight o’clock in the evening, at the
Theatre of Anatomy, Greville-street, Hatton Garden. The
nights of lecturing are Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday.

In these Lectures it 1s proposed first to take a comprehen-
sive view of the structure and ceconomy of the hiying body,
and then to consider the causes, syinptoms, nature, and
treatment of surgical diseases, with the mode of performing
the different bier operations. f

An ample field for professional instruction will be af-
forded, by the opportunity which pupils may have of attend-
ing the clinical practice of both the City and Finsbury Dis-

peusaries.
LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS.

Samuel Roberts, of Sheffield in the county of York,
silver-plater, for a toast tray capable of being contracted

or expanded at pleasure. Noy. 28, 1507.
Thomas

"List of Patents for New Inventions. 287

Thomas Cobb the younger, of Calthrop House, near
Banbury in the county of Oxford, paper-maker, for certain
improvements in the art of making paper in separate sheets.
Dec. 4., .

Joseph Manton, of Davies-street, Berkeley-square, Lon-
don, gua-maker, for certain improvements in time-keepers.
mee, 5.

John Williams, of Cornhill in the city of London, sta-
tioner, for a new mode of covering and enclosing all kinds
of carriages. Dec. 9.

Mark Laybourn, of Great Driffield in the county of
York, mechanic, and Richard Millbourn,.of the same place,
gentleman, for an improved roving machine for preparing
flax, tow, and wool'for spinning. Dec. 9.

Charles Grant Viscount. de Vaux, of Elizabeth-street,
Hans-square, Chelsea, for a machine which will show the
latitude and longitude at sea, serving also for weighing any
object, for measuring space, or the course of a ship and
time, showmg and keeping: account upon dials and upon
cosmographical columns which are part of such machine,
and also showing the lee-way of a ship; part of which ma-
chine may also be applicd to-other useful purposes. Dec. g.

James Breck, of Newcastle-under-Lyne in the county
of Stafford, ironmonger, for a new method of manufactur-
ing iron straps or girdles into various articles, as a substitute
for those now composed of hemp. Dec. 16.

George Remington, of Queen-square, Bloomsbury, in the
county of Middlesex, cabinet-maker, for certain improve-
ments on tables and couches. Dec..16.

John Williams, of Cornhill in the city of London, sta-
tioner, for a metliod of preserving the equilibrium, and pre-
venting all kinds of carriages and vehicles from overturning.
Dec. 19.

William Juniper;.of the parish of Saint Saviour; South-
wark, engine-maker, for certain improved rolls for punching
of tire, and drawing hoops for the stocks of wheels, and 2:
segment for sweeping and setting the same. Dec. 19.

Samuel Salter, of Watford in the county of Herts, malt-
ster, for an. apparatus for the purpose of drying malt, hops,.
er any kind of grain. Dec. 49,

METEORO--

288 Meiecrology.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,
By Mr. Carry, or THE STRAND,

For December 1807.

|_Fhermometer. cant .
| sz sb a Heicht of a3 *
Paton. LSE | § | SS lthe Barom.| SE | Weather
ae 5 ie = | Inches. = Si
aaa i | Aa ea
Nov. 27] 29°) 34°] 98°} 29-67 12 {Fair
28] 27 | 33 | 36 75 10 |Fogey
29) 40 | 41 | 35 32 7 Cloudy
30| 33 | 35.| 38 "80 6 |Cloudy
Dec. 1} 35 |.37 | 35 “86 5 |Cloudy
2| 39'| 43, |.42@) = 4 {Cloudy
3} 32} 37 | 39 “gl 10. {Fair
4) 39 | 47 {| 41 “89 17. «*‘|Fair
51 451 47 |"44 “57 16 Cloudy
6| 35 | 42 | 33 ‘47 |) 25 (Pair
4| 32° | 85.)930 a) lg .|Fair
S) OG OAT Ro “45 o |Snow
Qi°33 | 86 {33 |. +00 15 |Fair:
10} 26 | 30 | 24 "93 15 |®air
11] 33 | 39 | 88 95 o {Cloudy
TOMSTANVAR MSS “SOT 7 9 |Cloudy
13) 40 | 49 | 40 “18 16 |Fair
Lap 4b | 44.1136 Jon 5 10 -|Fair
15| 35 | 37 |. 37 jd 0 |Cloudy
16} 37 | 39 | 36 06 3 Cloudy
17} 36 |°37 "1 34 ‘04. tO [Cloudy
18} 34 | 37 | 36 | 29°99 0 |Cloudy
19}: 36°] 3 32 | 30°69 0 |Cloudy
20; 29 | 31 lezo p *20 4 |Cloudy
21).29 | 3@-|.29 "35: 0 |Cloudy
22} 29 | 36_| 34 | 3200) 34, |Fair
23) 33 | 35 | 36 Vi Oo |Cloudy
24) 36 | 40 37 | “12 o |Cloudy
25) 3 43 | 46 “Ol 10. |Cleudy
26; 46.| 50 | 49} 29°90 oO (Small rain
| |
| | |
e » NB. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o'clock.

ETE

[ 289 ]

XLIV. Directions for constructing a cheap Bed and elastic
Frame, for the easy Conveyance of sick or wounded
Persons. Invented, and most humbly presented to his
Royal Highness the Commander in Chief, by Patrick
Cricnton, Lieutenant-colonel of the Second Regiment
Royal Edinburgh Volunteers.

Directions for the Construction of the Elastic Frame.

REFERENCES.

De lower frame AA (Plate VII.) is made of ash or elm,
seven feet long, and five feet four inches broad.

BB. Two strong wooden pillars, bound on the sides by
two circular pieces of iron, for supporting the elastic frame.

ccc. The elastic frame, made of the best ash, supported
by the wooden pillars, and semicircular pieces of iron.

EE. The frame or cott, containing a mattress or pelisse,
stuffed with straw.—Two or three hammocks may be sus-
‘pended, and will answer as well as the cott.

FF. Rings and iron hooks, by which the cott, bed, and
mattress are supported.

ece. Four handles projecting from the under frame, one
foot three inches long each, by which the whole may be
carried by four men. :

HHHH. Four semicircular hoops, over which a cover can
be thrown, to protect the patient from the weather.

The under frame and pillars should be made of ash or
elm, well seasoned.

The elastic, or upper frame, should be made of ash, re-
markably clean and well seasoned, thick in the middle
where it is supported, and tapering towards the ends.

The total expense of the whole, including the iron-work, |
should not exceed four pounds ten shillings.

Directions for using the Bed and Frame.

The lower frame may be fastened by ropes to any cart or
waggon, of the same size, or larger than itself.

The sick or wounded person should first be placed in the bed.
Vol. 29. No. 116. Jan, 1808, db The

290 Directions for constructing

The frame should then be placed over the bed, and the
ropes at the head of the bed suspended upon the iron hooks.

Then the ropes at the feet should be hooked up.

The frame, containing one or two sick men, can be easily
lifted by the four bundles by four men, and carried to any
distance to a cart or baggage-waggon.

The Jower frame is then aaed to the cart by ropes, and
the machine is ready to move.

When the sick are taken from the baggage-cart, the
whole frame should be lifted at once, and carried to the
hospital.

The bed should then be unhooked, first at the feet and
then at the head, and the frame taken away.

‘Upon large English waggons, two or three of these
frames may be conveniently placed.

If the carts of any district are too small for the breadth of
the frame, it may be made narrower, so as to adapt it to
that conveyance.

When the machine, which is delineated in the plate,
was first invented, it was solely intended for the use of the
army.

To this purpose it has been successfully applied; and is
in common application in several of the garrisons of Great
Britain, as affording the easiest meansof transporting sick or
wounded soldiers, from garrison or quarters, to the hospital.

Since the time of its being adopted by the army, it has
likewise been brought into the service of a great many of
the public hospitals, not only for the purpose of conveying
maimed or bedridden patients from their houses to the
wards, but for removing such patients, as were under the
necessity of undergoing operations, from the wards to the
operation room, and returning them again from the opera-
tion room to the wards, without subjecting them to the ne-
cessity of being dressed, or even removed from the beds.,

Having successfully answered these purposes, it has of late
been used, when fixed upon a cart, waggon, or upon the car-

“tage of apostchaise, for removing wounded persons, or such
as

:
;
i

a cheap and elastic Frame. 201

as were afflicted with disease, and who were unable to support
the motion of a chaise or coach, from different parts of the
country to towns where they might enjoy the benefit of me-
dical advice.

In this manner, the use of it, in Scotland, has become
of late very general, and, fortunately, very beneficial to
those who have travelled in it 5 all of them concurring, that
they were insensible of any unpleasant motion during their
respective journeys.

To enumerate the instances of its successful application
in this manner would fill a small volume; but a few facts
will enable the public to appreciate its value.

A person was brought in it, with a compound fracture in
the thigh bone, from the west Highlands to Edinburgh, a
distance of 74 miles, in two days.

A gentleman, with an attack of gout both in his hands
and feet, was removed from Edinburgh to the north uf
England, above 140 miles, in three days.

In both these instances, and a great many more, the bed
and frame were suspended to the carriage of a postchaise,
and, with a servant sitting in front, travelled post.

Some hundreds of examples can be adduced of the re-
moval of patients by its means, when fixed on a cart or
waggon, and in many of these the patients were in a
state of the most severe bodily distress ard debility.

In all these removals, the patients have borne testimony
to their enduring no additional pain or inconvenience from
the motion of the machine; all of them, even in the most
severe cases, declaring, ‘that they were alike insensible of
bodily fatigue, or of “thie least increase of pain, from the
mode of conveyance.

The royal colleges of Stivaiesdod and surgeons of this
place have bestowed upon it the most unlimited approba-
tion, both by letters addressed to the inventor, and in the
publications of several of their members.

In consequence of these proofs of its successful effects,
and these encomiums from the learned and respectable bo-
dies who are so well enabled to decide regarding its merits,
a number of applications have of late been addressed to the

J (hh inventor,

292 On the Establishment of Telegraphs

inventor, soliciting him to describe and: delineate the ma~’
chine, so as it might be introduced into general ¢ use in the

various quarters af the kingdom. eee
To save time in complying with these requests, he adopt-

ed the method of printing and circulating these plates, ac-_

companied with a description, which will clearly demon-
strate, at how-very small an expense, and with how very
little mechanical art, the elastic frame can be constructed ;
for, in fact, there is no village in Britain, in which an or,
dinary smith and carpenter ‘reside, were it may not be
easily made.
Under these circumstances, the inventor feels it a duty
he owes to his country, and to those suffering bodily di-
stress, to give it all the publicity in his power; with which
view, and with the most ardent wishes for its continuing to
prove beneficial, in mitigating the distresses of such as may
require its aid, this account is submitted to the public.

Gayfield Place,
17th Sept. 1807.

XLY. Project for the Establishment of Telegraphs on a
New Construction, By Carr, Pasuey,. of the Royal

Engineers.
[Concluded from p. 210.}

ad. A Polygrammatic Telegraph for Day Signals.

Ty the reflections concerning the tse of telegraphs in gene-
ral, into which [ was unavoidably led whilst digesting the
above proposal, it appeared to me a fundamental principle
of the art, to aim as much as possible at celerity and di-
spatch, which I found were in some measure to be gained
by employing a number of words and sentences adapted to.
the key of the telegraph, according to the method of sec-
tions, instead of adhering entirely to the tedious alphabetical
mode, which (to the best of my knowledge) is the only
one in common use.

Sull there remained a defect, in its being impossible te
express a variety of significations without making two or

three

Se

~s -. .

on a New Construction. 203

dhree signals for each. The only remedy for this at first
seemed to be; 1 increasing the number of combinations of the
telegraphs already established by adding more bodies, as,
for instance, to construét an Admiralty telesraph with seven,
eight, or nine bodies instead of six ; but this remedy is only
partial, because additional bédies would run into confusion
before the signal code can be enlarged to a sufficient extent.
On further consideration it therefore occufred to me, that
it might be allowable to propose a new diurnal telegraph ;
and if my preceding observations are granted, I hope it may
‘eet with approbation, being capable of exhibiting seven
. éd and seven thousand two hundred’and eighty ‘distinct
Ditisiches whereas no former one: used in this country
has exceeded - sixty- -three. I now proceed to describe the
nature of the telegraph proposed, which, for the sake of
distinguishing it from others on a more ‘confined principle,
ak call the Polygrammatic Telegraph.

Nature and Construction.

‘Four upright posts are erected, each having two arms -
moveable on a spindle at top, hte in their ‘pagal po-
sition hang down, but can be raised by means of strings

to various degrees of extension, so as to appear in positions
either vertical, horizontal, or inclined at an angle of 45°
with the horizon. The length of the arms may be about
six feet from the centre of motion to the ends, or mere, in
proportion to the distance between the telegraphic stations,
The strings will be worked by two men.

The combinations of two arms in the ‘several positions
enumerated are twenty-eight, of which a table is given in
Plate VIII: eighteen of these are allotted to the alphabetical
characters, ‘audsten to the numerical ciphers, so that using
the commou- mode wof signal making, every post with its
arms might fornia complete telegraph, were it not the ob-
ject of the prestut proposal to go further. A book is there-
fore made of words and! seiilenves arranged in regular order,
to the extent judged necessary; and let ‘signal 2597 signily,
for example, ‘* The enemy haveilanded on the south-west
coast,” and \ct signal 9804 signify, ** A convoy isjust ar-
HAW T3 rived

a ae) %

294 ' On the Establishment of Telegraphs

rived from the West Indies.”” ‘Then these two pieces of in-
telligence will be successively communicated by the two
signals, Fig. 2, 2.

But this telegraph has another property, I believe entirely
new, of expressing words or parts of words not exceeding
four letters, by a single signal. For instance, let it be re-
quired-to communicate the following orders alphabetically :
« Send 1000 men to Dover.” or, “ Three regiments will

march to Leith:’’ the first will be effected by five signals, and '

the second by seven, as in fig. 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, and 4, 4, 4, 4,
44. 4.

In working this telegraph no signal is required to denote
the end of a word, it being sufficient to mark a pause by
leaving one of the posts in its quiescent state. And to di-
stinguish between the numerical signals referring to the
book or code, and such as are really intended to denote
numbers, the unit place of the latter must never, but that
of the former must always, be placed on the fourth or right-
hand post of the telegraph. Hence this post, when left
quiescent between two numbers, will not be considered to
denote a pause or break, as it would between two words.
Thus, fig. 5 will signify one thousand, whilst fig. 6 will
denote the 1000dth word or sentence in the book, and must
be referred to there for its signification. Also, in con-
sequence of the last remark, the signals 5th, 6th, 7th,
and sth, the fig. 7, 8, 9, 10, will signify 104, 506, 820
pounds.

Observing this restriction, it will be found that a signal
book may be formed, containing 10,999 words and sen-
tences, if thought necessary, each to be expressed by one
change on this telegraph, whilst ail unforeseen intelligence
ean be communicated by an improved alphabetical mode,
without these two methods interfering in the least with each
other ; so that I trust it will be allowed, that the object I
had in view, namely, increased dispatch in signal making
without Joss of clearness or precision, is fully obtained.

C, Pastry, Capt. Royal Engineers,

P..6,- Ia

on a New Construction. 205

P. S. In describing the principles of the polygrammatic
telegraph, J avoided entering into the minutiz of its me-
chanical construction ; by which, however varied, no funda-
mental part of the scheme can be affected. A model made by
my directions in Malta proved to all who saw it the practica-
bility of the machine; I shall, in explanation, say a few words
here, which will perbaps be almost equally satisfactory.

The under part of the posts is solid, but the upper part of
them is composed of two side pieces with a space between,
within which the arms play. One of the arms is repre-
sented in the annexed figure, (fig. 11,) hanging down in
its natural position, so as to be entirely hid by the post when
the telegraph is at rest. A roller A is fixed to the arm near
its head, having an iron ring a, a, a, screwed upon one side
of it, and provided with grooves for the strings b, c, the
ends of which are fastened to it in contrary directions. The
other ends of these strings are brought down into the signal
room, and have seven knobs (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,) fixed upon
them, the intervals between which are proportioned to the
circumference of the roller, in such a manuer that as they
are respectively pulled down to the plane D, D, they will
raise the arm by moving it on its pivot (which coincides
with the centre of the roller) to the seven positions required
in signal making. As the arm rises to any of these posi-
tions, the corresponding tooth of the ring aaa will be
griped by one or other of two springs or catches fixed to the
side pieces, which will bold it up in its proper position with-
out fatigue to the men employed, till an order is given to
prepare fora new signal. Then, by pulling another string,
(not expressed in the figure,) the catches are drawn away
from the teeth, and the arms being thus released fall down
to their natural state. The same string, by a very simple
contrivance, presses the arms down after the fourth position,
and prevents their vibrating as they fall at the end of every
signal. dd is a piece that would be invisible at the telegraphic
distances, serving to increase the weight of the part B as
much as may be judged necessary, It was omitted in the
model, as not being an essential pint of the machine in any
other respect.

T 4 It

296 Proposal for the Establishment of

It has been already observed that one man is to work two
posts ; the arms must therefore be so poised, by duly pro-
portioning the weight of the part (B) above, and of the
part (C) below the pivot, that he may with ease be able to
raise two arms with each hand, the requisite preponderance
of the lower part being at the same time preserved,

With regard to the signal houses chosen for this kind of
telegraph, I have only to remark, that instead of having the
two exterior posts over the roof of the building, which
might require it to be larger than necessary, they may be
made to stand upon beams projecting from its extremities *.

XLVI. Proposal for the Establishment of a National Mu-
seum. By J.S. Duncan, Esq. of Lincoln’s Inn,

[Concluded from p. 205.]

Tue following outlines of tablets, supposed to be affixed
to different parts of an arranged museum, are not offered as
a complete plan of a museum arranged with a view to the
lustration of natural theology, but are sketched slightly,
with the view of merely suggesting the practicability of such
mode of exhibition.
I, Varieties OF Power.
I], Extent of Power,
A.

1. Atiraction, Magnets. Electrometers, Cohering Plates,
&c. Compass.

2. Repulsion. Magnets. Electrometers. Fire-arms, &c,

3. Impulse. Ivory Balls. Reaction, &c.

Gravitation appears to be only a particular attraction.
Thus, we may say the heavenly bodies are attracted by, or
gravitate toward, one another. Some say, all bodies are
impelled by external agency in all cases of what is com-
monly called attraction and repulsion. Of late this has
been maintained by Le Sage of Geneva. It is not material
‘to the conclusions of natural theology, whether these be |

* For several omissions in the former part of Capt. Pasley’s communication,

see the end of the present Number of the Phil. Mag. k
different

a National Museam. 297

different powers, or different effects of one power, itself
controlled and modified by all-pervading Intelligence.
Crane, Inclined Plane, Lever, Pulley, Screw, &c,

B.
4. Terrestrial Globe.
5. Celestial Sphere. Orrery.

4. About four-fifths of the surface of the globe consist of
water. This larye proportion of water displays various re-
lations to the sustenance and welfare of animated beings.
Tt supports vast multitudes, whose whole organization,
under very different forms, is peculiarly adapted to that
element. Some of its inhabitants require salt in addition to
the water they inhabit. The well-being of others requires
fresh water. The welfare of others requires occasional
change from the former to the latter. Some animals to
which water is principally nécessary require occasional re
sidence in air, Some commonly respiring air, and dwelling
on land, seek their principal sustenance and comfort in the
water. The organization of these is variously adapted to
ejther element. Fresh water, as drink, is requisite to the
maintenance of most land animals. It is highly important,
if not essential, to the maintenance of man. Its relations to
our comfort are innumerable. It is necessary to vegeta-
tion. It contributes to the formation of earthy inanimate
solids, perhaps to the solidification of the greater part of
the habitable globe.

The earth in its turn prevénts the water from putrefying
by affording, conjointly with the air, and with the influ-
ences of the sun and moon, facility to its continual mo-
tion; straining it through crevices and pouring it along de-
clivities. The surface of the earth assists evaporation : its
cavities cool and condense vapours.

The relations of earth to the wants and comforts of all
living beings are innumerable. °

The air which surrounds the globe is requisite to the sup-
port of life, and to the well-being of all living creatures.
The heat retained by the earth preserves a great portion of
the air from being chilled to the destruction of yegetable and

4 animal

298 Proposal for the Establishment of

animal life. Evaporation of water gives coolness to a great
portion of air, which, from excessive heat, would other-
wise lay waste the torrid regions.

Heat, so necessary to the sustenance, and so conducive to
the comfort of living beings, contributes incessantly to pro-
duce countless modifications of earth, air, and water, and
is itself incessantly controlled by their reagencies.

Moderate cold and moderate heat are terms nearly con-
vertible. Where the moderation of either is required, a
moderate degree of the other becomes requisite.—See
further, Paley, Nat. Theology, chap. xvii. and xxi.

5. Planetarium. ‘This machine is intended to represent
the relative situations of the sun and the planets, (one of
which is the earth.) at different periods of time. The
planets are restrained by their relations to the sun in their
respective orbits. The sun dispenses light and heat to all.
We may refer, by analogy, to other planets, the advantages
which we fully experience from our relations to the sun.
The revolutions of the earth round its axis cause the vicis-
situdes of day and night. But the darkness, the coolness,
the tranquil repose of night, are no less requisite to the well-
being of man and other animals, than the cheering in-
fluences of the day. The earth’s orbit, or path round the
sun, has such relation or inclination to the equator, and the
axis of the earth is placed in such relation to its orbit, that
the sun becomes at different periods of the year perpendi-
cular to different portions of the globe, and thus produces
the continual succession and order of the seasons, cherishing
all nature, and making life delightful.

The stagnation of the ocean is prevented, and the ebb and

flow of the tides effected, by the influence of the moon as:

well as of the sun.

The planets are all placed im definite relations one to an-
other, and each affects the other by mutual attraction.
“¢ This subsisting law of attraction falls within limits which
utility requires :—If the planet Saturn had attracted the earth
in a proportion increasing according to its distance (instead

8 of

a National Museum. 299

of the reverse,) it would have dragged the globe out of its
course, and have perplexed its motions to a degree incom-~
patible with our security, our enjoyments, and probably
our existence.”—Paley, chap. xxi. p. 426.

ON
EXTREMES OF ORGANIZED BEING.
6. Elephant—Mouse. 7. Ostrich—Humming - Bird.
8. Skeleton of a Whale—ofa Minnow. 9. Crocodile—
Microscope and Wheel Animal.

FIRST APARTMENT.
ANATOMICAL RELATIONS.

Man.

1. Casts or statues of the Farnese Hercules and the
Venus de Medicis.

2, Wax models from Florence representing dissections.
3. Male and female skeletons.
4. Feetuses-in spirits. Injected preparations, &c.
5. Parts of the skeleton.

a. Skull.
Relation to the subsistence of the individual.

Tt is destined to contain a substance so soft as easily to
receive external injury; so important to the continuance of
life, that a very slight injury suspends or extinguishes the
vital energy. This substance is accordingly enclosed in a

. strong bony case, ‘ adapted not for motion, but solely for

defence. It is lined with soft membranous coats. Holiows
and inequalities may be observed in the inside of the skull :
these exactly fit the folds of the brain, keeping the sub-
stance steady, and guarding it against concussions.’’—Paley,
chap. xi. p. 225.

Relation to the well-being of the individual.

‘The secure protection of the brain is of the first import-
ance to sensation, the source of all animal delight; which

18

300 Proposal for the Establishment of

is liable to be disturbed or suspended by less. injuries to the
brain than those which affect life sates mae

b. The Spine in its cavity is a Tong 3 baci: dow
substance of the’ bral ri through ‘a great part of! the anim
form. Like’the ‘skull, it affon ds to its contents a ‘fifm |
covering. Like the skull, it 18 variously perforated, ding
forth minute ramifications of brain through all parts ‘of the
body. But; unlike the sk ull, “it is cutiously adapted: to va-
rious, motions 5 none: of theses. motions, however, occasion
it to-pressat_ any’ “time on any of the fine branches of brain
ae isstie from. Its cavities. Were not this circumstance
cel ‘adjusted, every motion of the body would be
wee induce palsy, and to endanger life.

2 The head resis immediately on the uppermost of the
_Fertebre, and is united to it by’a hinge joint, upon which
Geint the, head. plays freely. forward and backward, as far
pwWayas the™ ‘ligaments allow,”—
wf € strength ‘of the compages, and the security against
Dascilicni is an instance of wonderful contrivance. Where so
Many joints are concerned, and where in every one derange-
ment would be fatal, a peeuliar protection is provided : : the
vertebrae are articulated’; that is, moveable joints ‘between
them_are formed by means of those projections éatled. pro-
| cesses, W ae ey ock insavith: age ‘Overwrap one another as ~
to af dy OF the vértebra’ not‘only fom accidental
slipping, ‘but: -even from being pitshed “out ‘of its place’by

any violende essithan’ that which’would break the bone.”

The relations*of the spine-to'the: Subsistence of the indi-
vidual are nearly the same with°those of the skull: it is
further related to the well-being and comfort of animal life

by affording the facilities of motion.
¢. Ribs. These are fixed» by strong cartilages at one.of
their®ends to the vertebrae, at the other to the sternum::
Their relations to life and well-being are manifest in, their
adjustment to all the motions of the spine, in the remark-
able protection which they afford to the principal organs of
life, the heart and the lungs, and their peculiar adaptation

to assist the moyements of the latter.
d. The Pelvis being the centre of bodily motion, in the
-human

set.

ee

at ¢ National Museums 303

hus: form,, requires: peculiar strength. ” ‘Alb the Jarger and
stronger. muscles of. the body, which move the thighs and
hind-legs.of quadrupeds, move round or are attact ed to it.
The bones differ from: {liose above and below them in.size
and compactness, and derive great firmness from. sheir Clr-
cular disposition. If great strength was requisite "im the

covering which was to protect tbe, brain of the individual,

no less was needful for that which was,to form the shelter,
and as .it-were the antenatal cradle, of the newly conceived
being. Here « one of. the most imteresting relations of fana-
tomy 1s. displayed 5, “a relation not ‘only to the safety and well-
being of the individual, but also to the continuance of the
species; in the remarkable expansion of thé hones of the
female pelvis beyond those of the male. These, and-nume-
rous other formations having simular relations, are obyiously
formed by a power regarding prospectively their future use.

e. The exact correspondencies of legs, feet, arms, and
hands, enable them to cooperate equally and mutually in
powerful exertion and in rapid movement.

f,. Teeth. These are different iu different animals; but
wherever they are found, a provision is also found for giving
those motions:to the jaw from which their chief use is de-

’ sived. A relation then exists between the muscles of the

jaw and the solid substance, between the form and sub-
stance of the jaw and the teeth, between these and the or-
gans necessary to deglutition, between the latter and the
gullet; between that and the stomach; between the sto-
mach and the gastric juice ;. between this and the absorbents,

Yacteals, and lymphatics, which secrete the chyle or neces-

sary nutrimeni, and convey it to-the thoracic duct; between
this duct and the subclavian and other veins, between veins
and arteries, between arteries and lungs, between ‘all and
the heart.

g. The mutual relations of muscles and nerves, of mus-
cles to each other, and of nerves to each other, contributing
constantly to the security and well-being of individuals and

ispecies, will appear to the most cursory observer.

h. Organs of sense, Dissected eye. Ear, nose, and
tongue, Tesco

* The

302 Proposal for the Establishment of

‘< The eye is formed on principles similar to those which
are applied to the construction of the telescope or camera
obscura. The perception arising from the image is a sub-
ject of distinct consideration. The instruments, as far as
they relate to the production of the image, are of the same
kind. The end is the same ; the means are the same. The
lenses of the telescope and the humours of the eye beara
complete resemblance to one another in their figure, in their
position, and in their power over the rays of light; viz. in
bringing each pencil to a point at the right distance from
ithe lens : in the eye at the exact place where the membrane
of the retina is spread to receive it.””—Paley, p. 23.

*© The ear is no less artificially adapted to its office than
the eye.’—** The external, ear is calculated to catch and
collect the pulses of air—These, passing through the barrel
of the ear, strike on the thin membrane known by the name
of thedrum, which, stretched over bony cavities, presents
a concurrence of circumstances very analogous to the con-
struction of that instrument.”—Vide p. 46. oe

The organs of smell direct many, perhaps most, animals
to a proper choice of aliment, and greatly contribute to gene-
ral delight. The internal part of the nose has six cavities,

eilled the maxillary frontal and spheroid sinuses, on each ~

side. These are lined with a thick but very irritable mem-
brane, in which the sensation of smelling certainly begins.

The tongue is covered with irritable papillz; supposed to
be formed by the extremities of its nerves. Its delight in
flavours prompts its exertions in the work of deglutition.

The organs of touch are diffused throughout the whole
surface of the forms of most animals : perhaps some tribes
of insects are alone to be excepted. The cutis (a delicate
network of fine vessels, disclosed upon removal of the
epidermis, the exterior or scarf skin,) is found to have
throughout its whole surface innumerable papille, like
minute granulations, which are most easily observed where.
the sense of feeling is most delicate.

i. Relations of individuals to each other—Hercules and
Venus.

The male is almost always more robust than the

female.

=

a National Museum. 303

female. This is requisite in a state in which it is ordained
that subsistence shall depend upon exertion: for during the
period of parturition, &c., it is necessary that the strength
of the male should be exerted for the maintenance of both.
The difference between the strength of males and females
wiJl be found generally proportionate to the different degrees
in which such necessity shall be found to exist.

The teats of females of different species are adapted in
size, form, situation and number, to their respective young.
«© At the moment the young animal enters into the world,
its maintenance, the imaternal milk, is ready for it.”

The new-born child is without teeth. ‘* It is evident that
the act of sucking will be performed with more ease, both
to the mother and infant, while the edges of the gums are
smooth and soft, than when they are bordered with sharp
bones. By the time they are wanted the teeth are ready.”

The remarkable increase of ingenuity and courage in most
brutes during the tender and defenceless state of their young,
appears to be a relation of instinct. This impulse of instinct
guides the sexes of all species, directs the young to the
teat, induces birds to build nests, and brood on their eggs,
urges fish from salt to fresh water, and insects to provide fora
progeny of which they never live toseethe birth.—Ch. xvill.

k. Relations of animals to food, and food to animals.
Specimens of teeth, bill, gizzards, and stomachs.

The teeth of animals are adapted to the mastication of
varieties of food. Where long-continued mastication and
triluration is requisite, the teeth are broad and solid; where
less comminution is needful, they are hollow and sharp.
“ The gastric juice of birds of prey, of an owl, ora kite,
acts upon animal fibre alone, will not act upon secd and
grasses at all. The gastric juice of ruminating animals, as
the sheep and the ox, speedily dissolves vegetables, but makes
no impression upon animal bodies.” The construction of
the stomachs of ruminating animals differs considerably
from that of animals which require animal food. Birds
furnished with soft bills are provided with gizzards neces-
sary to triturate their grain. Those which possess hard,
strong, and hooked bills and claws, whose gastric juices

will

304 Proposal for the Establishntent of

will not act on grain, have soft membranous stomachs.
The teeth and stomachs of mankind are suited to the masti-
cation and digestion both of animal and vegetable food.

Skeletons or preserved specimens of parts should be in-
troduced wherever they are requisite to illustrate peculiar
organization.

: ———__—_—

CLASS I. MAMMALIA,

According to the Linnzan. arrangement, includes all animals
that suckle their young ; which also correspond in other
respects ; in the heart, which has two ventricles and two
auricles ; and in the blood, which is red and warm. They.
are likewise all viviparous.

DIVISION I. Digitated or Clawed.
OrvER I. Primates. Fore teeth four. Canine single.

Relations to sustenance, well-being, &cs

GENERA.

Man.

Ape. Relation to man. “ Notwithstanding the great
similarity between the form and organization of
the Ouran-Outang—though he has the same or-
gans of speech, he never attempts to articulate.
The figure and proportion of his brain likewise
are the same; but he discovers no extent of
thought. There cannot, M. Buffon properly re-
marks, be a more evident proof that matter alone,
though perfectly organized, can produce neither
language nor extensive thinking, unless it be ani-
mated by minds superior to those of brutes. Ouran-
Outangs imitate almost all human actions except
speech.”’~—Smellie, Phil. of Nat. Hist. vol. ii.
p. 423.

Macauco.

Bat. Relation of conservation. If the bat did not
sleep during the winter it must starve, as the in-
sects upon which it feeds disappear.—Paley and

Smellie.
Relation

.

a National Museum. 305

Relation of compensation. The hook in the
‘wing of a bat is strictly a mechanical and com-
pensaiing contrivance. Without her hook the
bat would be the most helpless of all animals.
She can neither run upon her feet, nor raise her-
self from the ground. By her hook she suspends
herself to the sides of rocks, caves, and buildings.

Orper II. Brurta. Fore teeth or incisors none.

GENERA.

Elephant. Relations of conservation. Superior sagacity.

Walrus.
Morse.

Sloth.

Tusks not formed till the sucking-time ceases.
Length and position of the tusks, Various powers
of the proboscis.

Relations of compensation. ‘* The necessity of
the elephant’s proboscis arises from the shortness
of his neck : the shortness of the neck is rendered
necessary by the weight of the head, &c.”’—Paley.

Conservation.

Preserved by their blubber amidst regions of
Arctic ice, and enabled to cope with their only
enemy the white bear by their tremendous tusks.

Relation of compensation. Their soft enor~
mous bodies, though possessing much activity in
water, are most unwieldy on land; but they are
enabled to ascend the rocks of ice by means of
their tusks, which they fix in the crevices, and so
draw themselves out of the sea.

Relations of conservation and compensation.

It is enabled to subsist for a long time without
food. Its inaptitude for locomotion is compen-
sated by an extraordinary strength of claws, and
by its power of climbing. ‘ The tardiness of his
pace seems to have reference to the capacity of his
organs, and to his propensities with respect to
food.”’—Paley, 308.

Ant-Eater. Relations.

Peculiar construction of snout and tongue—
Strong claws for defence,

Vol, 29. No. 116, Jan. 1808, U Manis.

306 Proposal for the Establishment of

Manis. Relations. Its food is of insects. The tongue
covered with a viscus, by which they are ensnared.
It is slow of motion, but securely protected from
most enemies by a strong scaly armour.

Armadillo. Relations of conservation. Covered with a
hard bony shell, it is said to escape from pursuers
by rolling itself like a ball, and dropping from the
edge of a precipice. It burrows deep in the
ground.

Orver Ii]. Feraz,

Fore teeth six, two, and ten in the upper jaw; two,
four, and eight, in the lower. One eanine on each side in
all genera.

GENERA.

Seal. Relations of conservation and compensation.—
Adaptation to long ‘continuance in and under
water, and swiftness in diving and swimming.
No external ears. Hind feet palmated. Quere
respecting foramen ovale.—See Derham, Physico~
‘Theol. 157 and 325.

Dog. Relations, &c. Acute sense of smelling. Strength
and activity. ‘* Adaptation of wide gullet to a
voracious appetite.”’—Derham, Ph. Theol. 197.

Cat. (including the Lion and Tiger.) Relations, &c.
Superior strength and activity. Power of expand-
ing or closing the pupil of the eye.—Paley, 257.

Sharp retractile claws. Activity of gastric juice
and shortness of intestine.— Paley, 246.

Civet. Fetid odour emitted by the skunk when pursued.

Weasel. Relations of organization to sustenance and
security, &c.

Bear. Strength of paws. Power of long abstinence

from food during the winter.

Opossum. §* A false skin under the belly of the animal
forms a pouch, into which the young litter are re-
ceived at their birth. It is furnished with peculiar
bones and muscles, which serve to open and to
close the bag.’’—Paley, 266.

- Mole.

a National Museum. 307

Mole. “ The strong short legs, the palmated feet
armed with sharp nails, the pig-like nose, the
teeth, the velvet coat which is never soiled, the
small external ear, the sagacious smell, the sunk
protected eye, all conduce to the utilities or to
the safety of its underground life.””—Paley, p. 293.

Shrew.

Hedge Hog. A guard of sharp prickles—Quere whether
Jess sensible of pain than other animals. See
Derham, note, p- 240. Dormant during winter.
Smellie, vol. 1. p. 411.

Orper lV. Guires. Fore teeth two, canine none.

GENERA.
Porcupine. Protected like the hedge-hog.
Hare. The ears of the hare and other animals of flight

are turned backwards, those of beasts of prey and
pursuit forwards.—Paley, 256.

Its eyes take in a great range of vision. It runs
with ease up hill.

Beaver. \ A plastering species, endued with a natural

Castor. trowel, possessing singular sagacity. The fore

Fiber. — feet small with divided claws ; the hind fect united
by a membrane for swimming.—Beavers thus dive
with swiftness exceeding that of the fish on which
they prey.

Rat.

Squirrel. Blood not exceeding the heat of the external air.
Sleeps during the severity of winter. Some are
provided with membranes which enable them to
extend their leap to a short flight. |

DIVISION If. Hoofed.
Orper V. Pecora. Fore teeth, none above.

GENERA.
Camel. Relations of organization, &c., to sustenance
and well being. ‘* The stomach of the camel is

well known to retain large quantities of water, and
Ue ta

308 Proposal for the Establishment of

to retain it unchanged for a considerable length of
time. This property qualifies it for living in the
Desert.”’—Paley.

The soft callous: foot is peculiarly adapted to
sandy regions.

Musk. -

Deer. “Where the substance on which animals feed
is of slow concretion, the intestines are propor-
tionally long. Those of a Canadian stag four feet
in height, measured 96 feet.””—Paley, p. 246.

Goat.

Sheep. ‘© The wild sheep (lke the preceding) is swift
and active; and if it lose these qualities when it
comes under the subjection of man, the loss is
compensated by his protection.’’—Paley.

Ox. Strength of neck and horns. Stomach formed

for rumination.

Orper VI. Betiu@. Fore teeth above and below, obtuse.
GENERA.

Horse. Strength, swiftness, power of long continued
speed. Stomach formed for rumination.
Hippopotamus. Able to walk under the water as easily as
on land. By his prodigious strength, especially
of jaws, he overcomes and devours crocodiles ; he
takes fish by swimming. On land he eats rushes,

millet, grass, sugar canes, &c.

Hog. ‘¢ The babyrouessa hitches its crooked tusks on
the branch of a tree ; then suffers its whole body to
swing from it. Thus it continues during the
night secure from animals which hunt it for
prey.”’—Paley, 271.

Rhinoceros. Defended by its great strengh, the peculiar
position of its horn, and the thickness of its hide.

DIVISION III. Without Claws or Hoofs.
Orpver VII. CeErTeE.
GENERA.
Narwal. Means of defence and offence, two long, straight,
spiral teeth perforating the upper lip.
Whale.

a National Museum. 309

Whale. Feeds on myriads of medusz, which it drinks
in with the sea water. These and other small fish
are entangled in parallel hairy lamine, of which
about 700 adhere to the upper jaw. The water is
ejected through two orifices near the middle of the
head. When attacked it strikes with the tail.
The sound from the stroke of the tail on the water
is said to exceed the report of a cannon.

Cachalot.—

Dolphin.—

CLASS II. AVES.
Heart and blood as in the former class. Oviparous.

Latham’s Arrangement.

DIVISION I. Land Birds.
Orper I. ACCIPITRES.
Relations, &c.

Rapacious. Hooked bill; superior mandible near the base
extending beyond the inferior.

“‘ Birds of prey, by their talons and beaks, are quali-
fied to seize and devour many species, both of other
birds and of quadrupeds. The constitution of the sto-
mach agrees exactly with the form of the members.
The gastric juice of a bird of prey, of an owl, a falcon,
or akite, acts” upon the animal fibre alone, not at all on
seeds or grasses.” —Paley.

Orper II. Pica.
Pies. The parrot is of this order, remarkable for the com-
pensatory motion of the upper bill.—Paley, 301. Bill
convex, compressed.

Orper III. Passeres.
Sparrow tribes. Conical sharp pointed bills. Migration of
swallows.
OrpER IV. CoLume.

Pigeon tribes, Long nostrils covered with soft loose mem-.
Us brane ;

310 Proposal for the Establishment of

brane ; eject a milky substance from the craw to feed
their young.—Montague. Ornithol. Dict, Introduction.

Orper V. GALLINe,
Cock tribes. Analogy between their stomachs and the
structure of corn-mills.—Paley, 287, Margin of the
‘upper mandible folds over the inferior.

OrperR VI. StTRUTHIONES,
Ostrich triles. The wings of the ostrich are unfit for flying :
the feathers are not compacted in their lamine like
those of other birds.

DIVISION If. Water Fowl.

Orper VII. Gratiez. :
Waders. Cloven footed. In water fowl the oil bag is
particularly conspicuous.

OrverR VIII. Gratiz.
Waders. Pinnated feet.

Orper IX. ANSERES.

Web footed. Dentated filtering bill of the duck, furnish-
ed with large nerves, enabling it minutely to examjne
the liquids containing its food, and probably i ietheceeg
its gratification.—Paley, 241.

N. B. I have noticed but cursorily the orders, and have
omitted the ninety-six genera of birds, as my object is ta
illustrate the proposed plan, and not in this place to attempt
a completion of the necessary detail. In touching on other
«lasses I shall accordingly be still more concise.

CLASS III. AMPHIBIA,

Heart with one ventijcle, and one auricle. The blood cold
and red. Animals of this class respire at will with lungs ;
have no molares or grinding teeth.

Orper I. Chiefly inhabit land, but occasionally water.

II, Chiefly the water, but cecasionally the land.
Crocodiles,

a National Museum. 311

Crocodiles, lizards, frogs, eels, serpents, and sea tor-
toises are of this class. Their command. over the
lungs; the structure of the heart, and other peculiar
organizations, manifest an original destination to either
element. ;

cegecka
CLASS IV. . PISCES.

Heart with one ventricle and one auricle : blood cold and red.
They breathe by gills. ‘* The ordinary shape of a fish’s
eye being much more convex than that of land animals,
a corresponding difference attends its muscular conforma-
tion, viz. that it is throughout calculated for flattening the
eye.—The fins are placed in such relation to each other as
exactly to balance the body of the fish in the attitude best
suited to all conveniences of life, The tails of fish are
adapted to progressive motion in water; those of warm-
blooded water animals, as Order 7, Cete, Mammalia, are
horizontal, or principally adapted to perpendicular motion,
having relation to their necessity of rising every two or
three minutes to the surface to take breath, Among the
peculiar organizations of fish, the most remarkable is the
air bladder; the distention or contraction of which faci-
litates their ascent and descent in water.”’—Paley. The
peculiar muscular organization of fishes has been lately
developed in an interesting manner by Mr. Carlisle, at
the Royal Society.

OrvErI. Nantes. Gills and lungs. Rays of fins cartila-
ginous.
II. Apodes. No ventral fins.
If. Jugulares. Ventral placed before the pectoral fins.
VV. Thoracici. Ventral fins under the thorax.
VY. Aldominales. Ventral fins in the abdomen be-
hind the thorax.
Sixty-one Genera.

CLASS V... INSECTé.
One ventricle, without an auricle; with antenne.
In addition to the peculiar organization of insects, the
Ua unqucs-

312 Proposal for the Establishment of

unquestionable characters of instinct, of a superior power
which directs their voluntary exertions, both to the suste-
nance of individuals and to the preservation of'species, must
excite strong interest in the student of Natural Theology.
For the sake of brevity, I shall here give only a general re-
ference to Paley, chap. xix. p. 346.

Orper I. Coleoptera, Sheath wings, like chafers; the
upper wing covers are called elytra; these, in
most, cover/the abdomen; but in some are
partial, as in the earwig.

Il. Hemiptera. Elytra half membranaceous, half
crustaceous, incumbent on each other. Grass-
hoppers are of this order.

III. Lepidoptera. Four membranous wings, scaly or
powdered. Butterflies. :

IV. Neuroptera. Membranous wings reticulated with
nerves, without sting. Dragon Flies, &c.

V. Hymenoptera. Your transparent wings, with
stings. Bees, &c.

VI. Diptera. With only two wings; but with alteres,
or poisers, instead of under wings. Flies,
Gnats, &c.

VII. Aptera. Without wings. Spiders, Scorpions,
Fleas, Lobsters, &c.

_ CLASS VI. VERMES.

One ventricle without an auricle ; a cold colourless sanies for
blood. ‘‘ The play of the rings in an earth worm as it
crawls; the undulatory motion propagated along the
body ;_ the beards or prickles with which the annuli are
armed, and which the animal can either shut up close to
its body, or let out to lay hold of the roughnesses of the
surface on which it creeps—afford, when compared with
the provisions for motion in other animals, proofs of new
and appropriate mechanism.’’—Paley, 313.

OrpeEr I. Intestina. 11. Mollusca. Ul. Testacea. IV. Li-

thophyta. V. Zoophyta.
so Genera—1166 Species.
SHELLS,

4
a National Museum. 313

SHELLS.

The-shells of the third order of vermes are so various and
so beautiful as to deserve a distinct place in the Exhibition,
They are commonly arranged in three Onpers: I. Mulli-
valves. 11. Bivalves. 111. Univalves.—See Paley, 306, 307.
Thirty-six Genera.

PLANTS.

Pictures and dried specimens displaying the characte-
ristics and interesting peculiarities of classes, orders, ge-
nera, &c.

We discover in plants, as well as in animals, numerous
relations to the preservation of individuals, and of species ;
but we perceive also a limitation of the faculty of motion,
which renders it doubtful whether any of their movements
are spontaneous, or can be considered as proceeding from
internal power, independent of the immediate agency of
some external force attractive, repulsive, or impulsive.

Their forms, like those of animals, are composed of he~
terogeneous particles, which, when once separated, display
no tendency to reunite in similar form. They are composed
in great measure of numerons tubes, which convey juices
to each part necessary to nutrition and to growth. The
period of vegetable like that of animal form is limited ;—
of various extent in different species. Like animals, plants
grow toa limited magnitude according to their species, and,
haying attained to a certain growth, soon tend to decay.—
Moderate heat and light are requisite to their sustenance or
well-being. They are subject to variations of health, from
defect or excess of nutriment. The organization of some is
adapted to subsistence in water. Watry situations are de-
structiye to others. Relations exist between different parts
of vegetable forms, and between different individuals, on
which depends the continuance of their species. Plants are
incapable of locomotion; but provisions are ordained for
the conveyance of their seeds to proper distances, that they
may have room for growth. Analogies of plants to ani-
mals may be specified to a great extent; and in the com-

6 pletion

314 Proposal for the Establishment of a National Museum.

pletion of this scheme may be referred to the respective
classes, orders, &c. Jt may suffice here to observe, that the
most important difference between the animal and vegetable
appears to be, that constant means are every where provided
for conveying to the stationary plant whatsoever is necessary
to its subsistence, and to the continuance of the species;
while the locomotive animal is left to seek such means for
itself. The vegetable appears to possess life and very limited
sensation ; but neither thought nor voluntary power. In
the animal, all relations to the subsistence of the individual,
and to the continuance of the species, are wholly subject to
the exertions of thought, or of voluntary power, or of both
united, 24 Classes.

PETRIFACTIONS.

These are Nature’s archives, and they record a stupendous
and miraculous change which has been wrought at a distant
period over the whole surface of the globe. One cabinet
should be arranged according to the several classes, or-
ders, &c., of animals and. plants to which they appear to
belong: but another, and indeed the principal, collection of
organic remains should be classed according to the order of
the strata in which they are found, with specimens of the
strata ; carefully distinguishing the gravel fossils, or those
found in alluvial deposits ; likewise the peat or surface fos-
sils; and those belonging to the existing race buried by
known means, from original fossil remains of the regular
strata. Where the order of the strata is not known, or is
doubtful, an arrangement of clay, sand, limestone, &c.
fossils by themselves will facilitate a future identification of
them, when others are obtained from known strata.

A partial attempt has been made by Mr. W. Smith, au-
thor of an Essay on Draining, to form a collection arranged
according to the order of strata.

MINERALS.
The characteristics of animated forms are rendered more
conspicuous from being contrasted with inanimate forms,
In

On the Quantity of Carbon in Carbonic Acid, &c. 315

in which we do not discover any mutual relations of parts,
or of distinct forms to the subsistence of other parts or forms.
They are not formed by gradual growth. Their period of
duration appears to have no fixed limit. Their particles
unite by mutual attractions ; and after separation by external
force, are found to reunite as perfectly as before such sepa-
ration. They are chiefly distinguished one from another by
variety of colour, difference of transparency and opacity,
weight, hardness, ductility, fusibility in heat, difference
of mutual attractions; by the sound caused in their con-
cussion, their smell and taste, their peculiarity of frac-
ture, and by the regularity of solid forms which they are
severally found to assume, after solution, in assignable de-
grees of temperature. The ordinary visible characteristics,
colour, gloss, fracture, &c., recorded by Werner; the
crystalline forms enumerated by Hatiy; the weight and
mutual attractions ascertained by various philosophers and
chemists, are to be found collected together in several mo-
dern Treatises on Mineralogy, and should accompany the
reference to each specimen in the Catalogue of the National
Museum.

Co SE SS ee SS eee

XLVII. On the Quantity of Carlon in Carbonic Acid, and
on the Nature of the Diamond. By Wiivt1am ALLEN,
Esq. F.L.S. and Witttam HAstepine Pepys, Esq,

{Continued from p. 227.]
Second Experiment on Diamond.

‘Tuermomerer 48° Fahrenheit, barometer 30:08. Oxy-
gen gas made as usual, left a residuum of 3 parts in 100.
Eleven small diamonds, weighing 4°01 grains, were put
into the tray. We began with 49°84 cubic inches of oxy-
gen; and every thing being properly adjusted, kept the
platina tube red-hot for a quarter of an hour, and during
this time the gas was passed from one gasometer to the
other, as in the former experiments. When the tubes, &c.
were cooled down to the temperature of the room, all the

gas

316 On the Quantity of Carlonin Carbonic Acid,

gas was transferred to gasometer No. 1. and the volume
was exactly the same as before the experiment. On examin-
ing the tray, all thediamonds were entirely consumed, and
not a vestige left.

Lime water absorbed 57°5 parts from 100.

The test for oxygen 39°5

Residuum - 3

800

Correction for temperature.

60° 0°103 49°84
48 12 1°23
12 diff, 1°236 add for temp. 51°07

Correction for pressure.
30: 30°08: : 57°07 : 61°20.
The volume of gas at the mean was therefore 51°20 cubic
inches.
100: 57°60: : 51°20 : 29°44.
Then 29°44 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas were
produced.
100 : 47°26 : : 29°44: 13°91.
13°91: 4°O01:: 100: 28°82.
Then, according to this experiment, 100 grains of carbo-
nic acid contain 28°82 diamond.
Calculation by oxygen.
100 : 33°82 : : 29°44 : 9°95 grains of oxygen consumed
401 of diamond

13°96
Calculation by carbonic acid 13°91

05 difference.

13°96 : 4°01 : : 100 : 28°72.
Then, calculating by the weight of oxygen employed,
100 grains of carbonic acid contain 28°72 diamond.
The precipitate in lime water, from the gas produced in
the combustion of diamond, appeared to us denser than that

from the combustion of charcoal,
In

and on the Nature of the Diamond. 317

In order to see how far the weight of the precipitate of
carbonate of lime would agree with the results of the fore-
going experiments, we drew off 20-5 cubic inches of the gas
which had been thus altered by the combustion of diamond
in the last experiment by the register H, and received it in
bottles over mercury ; then admitting lime water, we ob-
tained a copious precipitate of carbonate of lime, which
being dried at the temperature of 212° Fahrenheit, weighed
12 grains.

But as the 20°5 cubic inches require the same corrections
to bring them to the mean temperature and pressure; we
say, as the actual volume of all the gas is to its correction,
so is the quantity drawn off to that which it would have been
at the mean :
49°84: 51°20: : 20°50: 21:06, the volume after the correc.
tions were made.

Then, to find how much carbonic acid was contained in
these 21°06 cubic inches, we state it thus: As the total
quantity of gas after the experiment is to the total weight of
carbonic acid gas found by calculation, so is the quantity
of gas experimented upon to the weight of carbonic acid
gas which it ought to have contained,

51°20: 13°91: : 21°06: 5°72 grains.

Every 100 grains of precipitated carbonate of lime contain
44 grains of carbonic acid ; 12 grains were procured in our
experiment. 100: 44::12:5°28
Therefore the carbonic acid contained in our precipitate of
12 grains weighed 5°28; by calculation it should have
weighed 5°72; this is as near as we had a right to expect
from the difficulty of collecting the precipitate.

Stone Coal.

Upon the suggestion of our mutual friend Professor Davy,
we next examined the results of the combustion of stone
coal and plumbago; thermometer 57° Fahrenheit, baro-
meter 29°65.

The stone coal from Wales, employed by maltsters, is
well known to contain little or no maltha or mineral pitch,
and to burn without flame,

A portion

318 On the Quantity of Carlon in Carbonic Acid,

A portion of this coal was placed under sand ina crucible,
and exposed to a strong heat for one hour; 4 grains of it
thus prepared were put into the tray: our oxygen left a
residuum of 5 parts in 100, and we began with 49°84 cubic
inches as usual. The tray being placed in the platina tube
was heated to redness for about 10 minutes. When the
gas was first passed, we thought we saw a flash in the glass
tubes. On suffering the whole to cool the quantity of gas
still remained the same, and the tray being drawn out con-
tained only +5 of a grain unconsumed. From the gas thus
charged with 3°5 grains of coal,

Lime water absorbed 53 parts from 100,
The tests for oxygen 39
Residuum - 8 or an increase of 3.

See

100

oe

Correction for temperature.

60° 0°103 49°84
57 3 "30
3 diff. 0309 add for temp. 50°14

Correction for pressure.
30: 29°65:: 50°14: 49°55,
The quantity of oxygen at the mean was therefore 49°55
eubic inches.
100: 53 :: 49°55: 26°26.
Consequently 26-26 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas
were produced.
100 : 47°26:: 26°96: 19°41 grains.
19°41 : 3°50: 100 : 28°20.
Then, according to this experiment, 100 grains of carbo-
nic acid gas contain 28°20 of coal.

Calculation by oxygen.
100 : 33 82 :: 26°96 : 8.88 grains of oxygen consumed.
3°50 coal

12°38

Calculation

and on the Nature of the Diamond. 319

Caiculation by carbonic acid 12°41
by oxygen 12°38
difference 03

Here, contrary to what happened in other experiments, the
calculation by carbonic acid rather exceeds that by oxygen;
12°58): 3°50) 3.3) LOO 28°27 .
Calculating therefore by oxygen, 100 grains of carbonic
acid contain 28°27 of coal.

Experiment with Plumbago.

Thermometer 44° Fahrenheit, barometer 29°94.

4 grains of plumbago, from a very fine specimen belong-
ing to Dr. Babington, were put into the tray. Our oxygen
left a residuum of 2 parts in 100, and we began with 49°84
cubic inches. The tray, with its contents, being placed in
the platina tube, was heated to redness for a quarter of an
hour, and the gas made to pass over it several times. When
all was cool, the original quantity was neither increased nor
diminished, and on withdrawing the tray we found only 2
of a grain of oxide of iron; so that this specimen of plum-
bago contains only 5 per cent. oxide of iron.

The gas being now examined,

Lime water absorbed 55 parts from 100

The tests for oxygen 42

Residuum - 3 or an increase of 1 percent.

100

Correction for temperature.

60° 0°103 49°84
Aq 16 1°64
16 diff, 1648 add for temp. 51°48

Correction for pressure.
30 : 29°94 :: 51°48: 51°37.
The quantity of oxygen at the mean would be 51°37 cubic
inches.
100

320, On the Quantity of Carbon in Carbonic Acid,

100: 55:: 51°37: 28°95.
Therefore 28°25 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas were
produced.
100 : 47°26: : 28°25 : 13°35 grains.
13°35 : 3°8:: 100: 28°46.
Then, according to this experiment, 100 grains of carbonic
acid contain 28°46 of the carbonaceous part of the plumbago.

Calculation by oxygen.
100 : 33°82: : 28°25: 9°55 grains of oxygen
consumed 3°80 plumbago.

13°35
Calculation by carbonic acid 13°35

First Experiment on Animal Charcoal.

Thermometer 60° Fahrenheit, barometer 30°93.

Muscular fibre distilled in a coated glass retort left a black
shining coal, 4 grains of which were put into the tray. Our
oxygen left a residuum of 2 parts in 100. The tray and its
contents being placed in the platina tube, was heated to
redness for 8 minutes. The first time the gas was passed, a
lambent flame filled the whole length of the glass tube, and
the gas became turbid or milky. It was passed frequently
through the heated tube, but we observed no repetition of
the flashes. Hence we conjecture, that if the diamond had
contained hydrogen we should probably have had a similar
appearance. After the experiment all the apparatus was,
as usual, perfectly tight, and the volume of gas unaltered.
On examining the platina tray a minute portion of charcoal
remained, and a quantity of saline matter adhered to it so
firmly, that it became difficult to ascertain the quantity of
carbon consumed, and we forbore to make the calculation ;
we however examined the gas.

Lime water absorbed 40 parts from 100 © -

The tests for oxygen 54

Residuum - 6 or an increase of 4 per cent.
100

Second

and on the Nature of the Diamond. 321

Second Experiment on Animal Charcoal.
Thermometer 59° Fahrenheit, barometer 29°45.
Some of the animal charcoal of last experiment was heated

to redness under sand for one hour. 4 grains were placed
in the platina tray ; and as we were so much embarrassed
in the last experiment with the saline matter which adhered -
to the tray, we exactly balanced it with its contents. Our
oxygen, made as usual, left a residuum of 2 parts in 100,
and we began with 49°84 cubic inches. When every thing
was adjusied, and the platina tube red-hot, on passing the
oxygen, flashes resembling lightning ran along the glass
tube; and this was repeated 5 or § times. The whole of
the gas became very cloudy, exhibiting a turbid milky ap-
pearance. The tube was rendered white-hot by the com-
bustion of the carbonaceous matter in oxygen. The fire
was kept up about 8 minutes, and the gas passed several
times. When all was cool, we could observe no alteration
in the volume of gas by the register. The tray contained a
mixture of salts; and, being weighed, was lighter by 3-2
grains. This loss was not wholly carbon, for it is well
known that animal substance contains a variety of salts, as
phosphates, muriates, &c., some of which, though not
yolatile in a low red heats might be decomposed and dissi-
pated in the intense white heat produced by the combustion
of the carbonaceous matter in oxygen; and we accordingly
found the internal parts of the gusometers and tubes very
slightly covered with a sort of eforescence. On examining
the gas after the experiment,

Lime water absorbed 41 parts from 100

The tests for oxygen 55

Residuum - 4 or an increase of 2.

at

100

Correction for temperdture.

60° 49°84
59 -10 add for temp.
1 diff. or 0°103 49°94

ae eee

Vol, 29. No. 116. Jan. 1808. Xx Correction

322 On the Quantity of Carbon wn Carbonic Acid,

Correction for pressure.
30 : 20°45 :: 49°94: 49°02.

The quantity of oxygen at the mean would therefore be
49°02 cubic inches.

; 100 : 41 :: 49°02: 20°09

The carbonic acid gas produced was therefore 20°09 cubic
inches.

100 : 47°26: : 20°09: 9°49
-and this carbonic acid weighed 9°49 grains,

Now the coal in the tray had lost 3°2 grains; but as
the whole of this was not carbon, but part of it volatile
saline matter, &c., we shall endeavour to estimate the
carbon by the experiment on plumbago. When 13°35
grains of carbonic acid contained 3-80 grains of carbon,

13°35: 3°80: : 9°49 : 2°70

The quantity of carbonic acid produced in this experiment,
therefore, contained 2°70 grains of carbon.

Loss 3°20
Carbon 2°70

—_—_—_-—

Leaves *50 for volatile saline matter, &c,

So that, this being granted, the present experiment agrees
with the foregoing.

In two of our first experiments with box-wood-charcoal,
the calculations gave us in one case 29°75 parts of carbon in
100 of carbonic acid, and in the other 30°68; but we were
not then fully aware of the absorption of water by charcoal,
which rendered the quantity of real carbon employed less
than indicated by the weight. Also in another experiment,
in which 4 grains of diamond were consumed, the calcula-
tion gave us 29°96 per cent. of diamond in carbonic acid ;
but apprehending that a slight degree of inaccuracy had
crept into this cxperiment, we have not detailed it with the
rest; but we have thought it right to give a simple state-
ment of maitcrs of fact; in no one instance have we en-
deavoured to strain or accommodate these to suit any par-
ticular theory, being fully aware that every experiment,
carefully made and faithfully recorded, will remain an im-
mutable truth to the end of time, while hypotheses are

constantly

and on the Nature of the Diamond. 323

constantly varying, and even the most beautiful theories are
lable to change.

The experiments above related give us the following results ;

By carbonic acid. By oxygen.
Box-wood chareoal 28°92 28°77
Ist expt. diamond £8°95 28°81
2d expt. diamond 28°82 28°72
Stone coal - 28°20 28°97
Plumbago - 28:46 28°46
5)143°35 5)143°03
mean 28°67 #028:°60

Hence we conclude that 100 grains of carbonic acid con-
tains 28°60 of carbon, which does not greatly differ from
the results of the experiments of Smithson Tennant, esq.

on the nature of diamond.—See Phil. Trans. 1797.

_ This gentleman made his experiment in the following
manner: A quarter of an ounce of nitrate of potash was
rendered somewhat alkaline by exposure to heat, in order
that it might more resdily absorb carbonic acid ; it was then
put into a gold tube with 2! grains of diamond ; and being
subjected to heat, the diamond was converted into carbonic
acid, by uniting with the oxygen contained in the nitric
acid. The carbonic acid thus produced combined with the
potash ; and on pouring a solution of muriate of lime into a
svlution of this salt, he obtained a precipitate of carbonate
of lime: this being decomposed by muriatic acid, gave as
much carbonic acid gas as occupied the space of 10°1 ounces
of water. The thermometer was at 55° Fahrenheit, the ba-
rometer 29°80. In a second experiment he procured a
‘larger quantity, or equal to 10°3 qunces of water.

If we therefore consider an ounce of water as consisting
of 480 grains, and a cubic inch of water equal to 253 grains,
and then make the proper corrections for temperature and
pressure, one of his experiments will give about 27 per cent.
the other about 27°80 for the carbon in carbonic acid, which
is somewhat less than our estimate; but the difference may
easily be accounted for, from the different methods emploved,

X 2 The

‘324 On the Quantity of Carbon in Carbonic Acid, 8c.

The experiments of Guyton, as detailed in the Annales de
Chimie, vol. xxxi. page 76, are liable to very strong ob-
jections ; but at the same time the candid manner in which
he has related every circumstance merits considerable praise.
It is impossible, however, not to observe, that the quantity
of gas before and after the experiment could not, from the
construction of his apparatus, be very rigorously ascertained.
We object also to nitrous gas as a test for oxygen; and as
it is acknowledged that the wooden support included in the
oxygen gas took fire, the product of carbonic acid must
have been inflyenced by it; so that, if no chance of error
had existed in estimating the carbonic acid gas from the
residuum after barytic water had absorbed a part, still the
result would not have been satisfactory.

The experiments which we have had the honour of laying
before this society prove several important points :

Ist.. That the estimate given by Lavoisier, of 28 parts of
carbon in every 100 parts of carbonic acid, is very nearly
correct; the mean of our experiments makes it 28°60.

adly. That the diamond is pure carbon ; for, had it con-
tained any notable proportion of hydrogen, it must have
been discovered, either by detonating with the oxygen, as
in the case of animal charcoal, or by diminishing the quan-
tity of oxygen gas.

3dly. That well burnt charcoal contains no sensible quan-
tity of hydrogen ; but if exposed to the air for afew hours
it absorbs moisture, which renders the results uncertain.

4thly. That charcoal can no longer be considered as an

oxide of carbon, because, when properly prepared, it re-
quires quite as much oxygen for its combustion as the dia-
mond. ‘This is also the case with stone coal and plumbago.

dthly. It appears that diamond and all carbonaceous sub-
‘stances (as far as our present methods of analysis are capable
of demonstrating their nature) differ principally from each
other in the state of aggregation of their particles. Berthollet
has well remarked, that in proportion as this is stronger,

decomposition 1s more dificult ; and hence the variety of

temperatures required for the combustion of different in-
flammable substances.

XLVIIL. Me-

f.i325...J

XLVIII. Memoirs of the late Exasmus Darwin, M.D

{Continued from p. 162.]

HIS NOSOLOGY continued.

The Orders and Genera of the Second Class of Diseases.

CLASS I.
DISEASES OF SENSATION.
ORDO I.
Increased Sensation.

GENERA.

hs Wirn increased action of the muscles.

2, With the production of new vessels by internal mem-
branes or glands, with fever.

3. With the production of new vessels by external mem-~
branes or glands, with fever.

4. With the production of new vessels by internal mem-
branes or glands, without fever.

5. With the production of new vessels by external mem-
branes or glands, without fever.

6. With fever consequent to the production of new vessels
or fluids.

7. With increased action of the organs of sense.

ORDO Il.
Decreased Sensation.

GENERA.
1. With decreased actions of the general system.
2. With decreased actions of particular organs.

ORDO Il.
Retrograde Sensitive Motions.

GENERA.
1. Of the arterial system.
2. Of the absorbent system.
3. Of the excretory ducts.

X 3 The

326 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D.
The Orders, Genera, and Species, of the Second Class of

Diseases.
LASS, U.
~ DISEASES OF SENSATION,
ORDO I.
Increased Sensation.
GENUS I.
With Increased Action of the Muscles.
SPECIES.
1. Deglutitio. Deglutition.
2. Respiratio. Respiration,
3. Sternutatio. Sneezing.
4. Anhelitus. Panting.
5. Tussis ebriorum. Cough of inebriates.
6. Singultus. Hiccough.
7. Asthma humorale. Humoral asthma.
8. Nictitatio sensitiva. Winking from pain.
9. Oscitatio et pandiculatio. Yawning and stretching.
10. Tenesmus. — Tenesmus,
11. Stranguria. Strangury.
12. Parturitio. Parturition.
GENUS II.

With ihe Production of new Vessels by internal Membranes
or Glands, with Fever.
SPECIES.

1. Febris sensitiva irritata. Sensitive irritated fever.

2. Ophthalmia interna. Inflammation of the eye.

3. Phrenitis. of the brain.

4. Peripneumonia. of the lungs.
-— trachealis, ——————— the croup.

5. Pleuritis. ——_——— of the pleura.

6. Diaphragmitis,. ———— of the diaphragm.
7. Carditis. ———. of the heart.

8. Peritonitis. —_———_——— of the peritoneum,
9. Mesenteritis. —————_—- of the mesentery,
10. Gastritis, ———— of the stomach.

11. En-

Memoirs ef Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

11. Enteritis.

12,
1S.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

Hepatitis.
Splenitis.
Nephritis.

Cystitis.
Hysteritis.
Lumbago sensitiva,
Ischias.

Paronychia interna.

L GENUS

327
Inflammation/of the bowels.
of the liver.

of the spleen.

of the kidney.
——_———_— of the bladder. .
of the womb.

— of the loins.

of the pelvis.
————— beneath the nails.

————_—___..

Ill.

With the Production of new Vessels by external Membranes
or Glands, with Fever.

to

oo

10.

11.

12.

SPECIES.

Febrissensitiva inirritata.
. Erysipelas irritatum.

— inirritatum.

— sensitivum.

Tonsillitis interna.

— superficialis.
inirritata.

Parotitis suppurans.

- mutabilis.
——- felina.
Catarrhus sensitivus.

contugiosus.
— equinus et ca-
ninus.
Peripneumonia superfi-
cialis.
Pertussis.
Variola discreta.
confluens,
inoculata.
Rubeola irritata.
—- inirritata.
Scarlatina mitis,
maligna,
Miliaria sudatoria.

Sensitive inirritated fever.
Erysipelas irritated.
inirritated.
sensitive.
Angina internal.
superficial.
inirritated.
Mumps suppurative.
mutable.
of cats.
Catarrh inflammatory.
— contagious.
among horses and
dogs,
Superficial peripneumony.

Chin-cough.
Small-pox distinct.
confluent.
inoculated.
Measles irritated.
inirritated.

. Scarlet fever mild.

malignant.

. Miliary fever sudatory.

X 4 Miliaria

328 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D.

Miliaria irritata.
inirritalda.

13. Pestis.
— vaccina.
14. Pemphigus.
15. Varicella.
16. Urticaria.
17. Aphtha sensitiva.
irritata.
inirritata.
18. Dysenteria.
19. Gastritis superficialis.

20. Enteritis superficialts.

Miliary irnitated.
inirritated.

Plague.

of horned cattle.

Bladdery fever.

Chicken-pox.

Nettle rash.

Thrush sensitive.

irritated.

inirritated.

Bloody flux.

Superficial inflammation of the
stomach.

ofthe bowels.

GENUS ly.
With the Production of new Vessels by internal Membranes
or Glands, without Fever.

SPECIES.

1. Ophthalmia superficialis. Ophthalmy superficial.

lymphatica. - lymphatic.
equina. ————-- of horses.

2. Pterigion. Eye-wing.

3. Tarsitis palpebrarum. Red eyelids.

4. Hordeolum. Stye.

5. Paronychia superficialis. Whitlow.

6. Gutta rosea hepatica. Pimpled face hepatic.
stomatica. stomatic.
hereditaria. hereditary.

7. Odontitis. Inflamed tooth.

8. Otitis. - ear.

9. Fistula lacrymalis. Fistula lacrymalis.

10. Fistula in ano.

11. Hepatitis chronica.
12. Scrophula suppurans.
13. Scorbutus suppurans.
14. Scirrhus suppurans.
15. Carcinoma.

16. Arthracele.

Fistula in ano.
Chronical hepatitis.
Suppurating scrophula.
Suppurating scurvy.
Suppurating scirrhus.
Cancer.
Swelling of the joints.

17. Ar-

Memoirs of Erasmus Dorwin, M.D. 329

17. Arthropuosis.
18. Caries ossium.

Suppuration of the joints.
Caries of the bones.

GENUS V.
With the Production of new Vessels by external Membranes
or Glands, without Fever.

SPECIES.
1. Gonorrheea venerea. Clap. :
2. Syphilis. Vencereal disease.
3. Lepra. Leprosy.
4. Elephantiasis. Elephantiasis.
5. Framboesia. _ Framboesia.
6. Psora. Itch.
7. Psora ebriorum. Itch of drunkards.
8. Herpes. Herpes.
9g. Zona ignea. Shingles.
10. Annulus repens. Ring-worm.
11. Tinea capitis. Scald-head.
12. Crusta lactea. Milk-crust.
13. Trichoma. — Plica polonica.
GENUS VI.
With Fever consequent to the Production of new Vessels or
Fluids.
SPECIES.
1. Febris sensitiva. Sensitive fever.
2. —— a pure clauso. Fever from concealed matter.
3, —— a vomica. from vomica.
4. —— al empyemate. —— from empyema.
5. —— mesenterica. —— mesenteric.
6. —— a pure aérato, —— from aérated matter.
7. —— a phthisi. —— from consumption.
8. —— scrophulosa. —— scrophulous.
9. —— ischiadica. from ischias.
10. —— arthropuodica. . from joint-evil.
11. —— a pure contagioso. from contagious matter.
12. —— variolosa secundaria. secondary of small-pox.
13. —— carcinomatosa. cancerous.
14, —— venerea. venereal.
15, ——— a sanie contagiosa, from contagious sanies.

16. Fe.

Lead

Sb

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D.

. Febris puerpera.

a sphacelo.

Fever puerperal.

from sphaeelus.

GENUS VII.
With Increased Action of the Organs of Sense.
SPECIES.

. Delirium febrile.

— maniacale.
ebrietatis.

. Somnium.
. Hallucinatio visits.

auditiis.
Rubor a calore.
jucunditatis.
Priapismus amatorius.

Delirium of fevers.
— maniacal.

of drunkenness.
Dreams.
Deception of sight.

of hearing.

Blush from heat.
from joy.
Amorous priapism.

Distentio mammularum. Distention of the nipples.
Orvo II.
Decreased Sensation.
‘ GENUS I.
WV ith Decreased Action of the General System.
SPECIES.

. Stultitia insensililis.
. Tedium vite.

Paresis sensitiva.

Folly from insensibility,
Irksomeuess of life.
Sensitive debility.

GENUS It.
With Decreased Actions of particular Organs.
SPECIES.

Anorexia.
Adipsia.

. Impotentia.
. Steriditas.

Insensibilitus arteum.

. Dysuria insensitiva.

Accumulatio alvina.

Want of appetite.

Want of thirst.
Impotence.

Barrenness.

Insensibility of the limbs.
Insensibility of the bladder.
Accumulation of feces.

Orpo III.
Retrograde Sensitive Motions.
GENUS lI.

Of Excretory Ducts.
SPECIES.

Motus retrogressus.

Retrograde motion.

1. Mo-

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 331.

1. Motus ureterum. Motion of the ureters.
2. urethre. of the urethra.
3. ductis choledoci. of the bile-duct.

The Orders and Genera of the Third Class of Diseases.

CLASS III.
DISEASES OF VOLITION,
ORDO I.

Increased Volition.

" GENERA,
i. With increased actions of the muscles.
2. With increased actions of the organs of sense.

ORDO ll.
Decreased Volition.

GENERA.
1. With decreased actions of the muscles.
2. With decreased actions of the organs of sense.

The Orders, Genera, and Species, of the Third Class of

Diseases.

CLASS III.
DISEASES OF VOLITION.

ORDO I,

Increased Volition.

GENUS I.
With Increased Actions of the Muscles.

- SPECIES.

1. Jactitatio. - Restlessness.

2. Tremor felbrilis. Febrile trembling.

3. Clamor. . Screaming.

4. Risus. Laughter.

5, Convalsio, - Conyulsion.

Con-

332

\

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D.

Convulsio debilis.
dolorifica.

. Epilepsia.

dolorifica.

. Somnambulismus.

Asthma convuisivum.
dolorificum.
Stridor dentium.

. Tetanus irismus.

Convulsion weak.
——__—. painful
Epilepsy.

painful.
Sleep-walking.
Asthma convulsive.
—— painful.
Gnashing of the teeth.
Cramp of the jaw.

14. dolorificus. ——— painful.
15. Hydrophobia. _ Dread of water.
GENUS FI.
With Increased Actions of the Organs of Sense.
SPECIES.
1. Mania mutabilis. Mutable madness.
2. Studium inane. Reverie.
3. Figilia. Watchfulness.
4. Erotomania. Sentimental love.
5. Amor sui. Vanity.
6. Nostalgia. Desire of home.
7. Spes religiosa. Superstitious hope.
3. Superbia stemmatis. Pride of family.
g. Ambitio. Ambition.
10. Meror. Grief.
il. Tedium vite. Irksomeness of life,

21.
22.

Desiderium pulchritudinis. Loss of beauty.

Paupertatis timer, -

. Lethi timor.

Orci timor.
Satyriasis.

> ira

Rabies.

Citta.

Cacositia.

Syphilis imaginaria.
Psora imaginaria.

Fear of poverty.
—— of death.
—— of hell.
Lust.

Anger.

Rage.

Depraved appetite.
Aversion to food.
Imaginary pox.
itch.

23. Tales

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

93. Tables imaginaria.
24. Sympathia aliena.
25. Educatio heroica.

833
Imaginary tabes.

Pity.

Heroic education.

Orpo II.

Decreased Volition.

GENUS I.
With Decreased Actions of the Muscles.

SPECIES.

1. Lassitudo.

2. Vacillatio senilis.

3. Tremor senilis.

4. Brachiorum paralysis.

5. Raucedo paralytica.

6. Vesice urinarie para-
lysis.

7. Recti paralysis.

8. Paresis voluntaria.

9. Catalepsis.

10. Hemiplegia.

11. Paraplegia.

12. Somnus.

13. Incubus.

14. Lethargus.

15. Syncope epileptica.

16. Apoplexia.

17. Mors a frigore.

Fatigue.

See-saw cf old age.
Tremor of old age.
Palsy of the arms.
Paralytic hoarseness.

Palsy of the bladder.

Palsy of the rectum.
Voluntary debility.
Catalepsy.

Palsy of one side.
Palsy of the lower limbs.
Sleep.

Night-mare.
Lethargy.

Epileptic fainting.
Apoplexy.

Death from cold.

GENUS II.
With Decreased Actions of the Organs of Sense.

SPECIES.

1. Recollectionis jactura.
2. Scultitia voluntaria.
3. Credulitas.

Loss of recollection.
Voluntary folly.
Credulity,

The

334 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

The Orders and Genera of the Fourth Class of Diseases. .

CLASS IV.
DISEASES OF ASSOCIATION.
. ORDO If.
Increased Associate Motions.

GENERA.
t. Catenated with irritative motions.
2. Catenated with sensitive motions.
3. Catenated with voluntary motions.
4. Catenated with external influences.

ORDO It.
Decreased Associate Mations.
GENERA.
i. Catenated with irritative motions.
2. Catenated with sensitive motions.
3. Catenated with voluntary motions.
4. Catenated with external influences.

ORDO lll.
Retrograde Associate Motions.
GENERA.
1. Catenated with irritative motions.
2. Catenated with sensitive motions.
3. Catenated with voluntary motions.
4. Catenated with external influences.

The Orders, Genera, and Species, of the Fourth Class of
Diseases.
. CLASS IV.
DISEASES OF ASSOCIATION.
ORDO I.
Increased Associate Motions.
GENUS I.
Catenated with Irritative Motions.
SPECIES.
1. Rubor vultiis pransorum. Flushing of the face after dinner.
2. Su-

.

ao

te.

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 335

Sudor stragulis immerso-Sweat from covering the face
rum. in bed.

Cessatio egritudinis cute Cure of sickness: by stimula-
excitata. ting the skin.

Digestio aucta frigore cu- Digestion increased by cold-
taneo. ness of the skin.

Catarrhus a frigore cu- Catarrh from cold skin.
taneo.

Absorptio cellularis aucta Cellular absorption increased

vomilu. by vomiting.
Singultus nephriticus. Nephritic hiccough,
. Febris irritativa. Irritative fever.

GENUS II.
Catenaled with Sensitive Motions.
SPECIES.
Lacrymarum fluxus sym- Sympathetic tears.
patheticus. ;

. Sternutatio a lumine. Sneezing from light.
Dolor dentium astridore. Tooth-edge from grating
sounds.
Risus sardonicus. Sardonic smile.

. Salive fluxus cibo viso. Flux of saliva at sight of food.

. Tensio mammularum viso Tension of the nipples of lac-

puerulo. tescent women. at sight of
the. child.

. Tensio penis in hydro- Tension of the penis in hy-

phobia. drophobia.
Tenesmus calculosus. Tenesmus from stone.
. Polypus narium ex asca- Polypus of the nose from as-
ride. carides.

. Crampus surarum in di- Cramp from diarrhoea.
arrhcea.

. Zona ignea nephritica. Nephritic shingles.

. Eruptio variolarum. Eruption of small-pox.
. Gutta rosea stomatica. Stomatic rosy drop.
hepatica. ° Hepatic rosy drop,
Podagra. Gout.

Rheumatismus, Rheumatism.

3 17. Ery-

336 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M.D.

17. Erysipelas. Erysipelas.

18. Testiwm tumor in gonor- Swelled testes in gonorrhea:
rheea.

19. -in parotitide.

-——— in mumps.

GENUS III.
Catenated with Voluntary Motions.
SPECIES.
1. Deglutitio invita. Involuntary deglutition.
2. Nictitatio invita. ate ee tichicition.
3. Risus invitus. — — laughter.

4. Lusus digitorum invitus. ——— actions with the
fingers.
5. Unguium morsiuncula in- .— biting the nails.
vita.
6. Vigilia invita. —_—— watchfulness.

GENUS ly.
Catenated with External Influences.
SPECIES.
i. Vita ovi. Life of an egg.
2. Vita hiemi-dormientium. Life of winter-sleepers.
3. Pullutatio arborum. Budding of trees.
4. Orgasmatis veneret pe- Periods of venereal desire.
riodus.

5. Brachii concussio electrica. Electric shuck through the arm.
6. Oxygenatio sanguinis. Oxygenation of the blood.
7. Humectatio corporis. | Humectation of the body.

Orpo II.
Decreased Associate Motions.
GENUS I.
Catenated with Irritative Motions.
SPECIES.
1. Cutis frigida pransorum. Chillness after dinner.
2. Pallor urine pransorum. Pale urine after dinner.
3, ———-—— a frigore cu- from cold skin.
taneo.
4. Pallor ex egritudine. _ Paleness from sickness.
5. Dyspnea balneo frigido. Shortness of breath from cold
bathing.

6. Dys-

_- ee Seb > Oa ee oe

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 337

6. Dyspepsia a pedibus fri- Indigestion from cold feet,
gidis.
7. Tussis a pedibus frigidis. Cough from cold feets
8. - hepatica. | Liver-cough.
9. - arthritica. Gout-cough.
10. Veriizo rotatoria. Vertigo rotatory.
WM, misualis, - visual.
12, ebriosa. -——_——- inebriate.
13. ——— febriculosa. ———- feverish.
14, cerebrosa. - from the brain;
15. Murmur aurium verti- Noise in the ears.

ginosum.
Tactus, gustus, olfactus Vertiginous touch, taste, smell.
vertiginost.

17. Pulsus mollis a vomitione. Soft pulse in vomiting.
18. ——-intermittens a ven- Intermittent pulse from the
triculo. stomach.
19. Febris inirritativa. —_—‘Inirritative fever.
GENUS II.
Catenated with Sensitive Motions.
SPECIES.
1. Torpor gene a dolore den- Coldness of the check from
tis. tooth-ach.
2. Stranguriaadolore vesice.Strangury from pain of the
bladder.
3. convulsiva. Convulsive strangury.
4. Dolor termini ductis cho- Pain of the end of the bile-
ledochi. duct.
5. Dolor pharyngis ab acido Pain of the throat from gastric
gastrico. acid,
6. Pruritus narium a vermi- Itching of the nose from
bus. worms.
7. Cephalea. Head-ach.
8. Hemicrania et otalgia. Partial head-ach, and ear-ach.
9. Dolor humeri in hepati- Pain of shoulder in hepatitis.
tide.
10. Torpor pedum variold e- Cold fect in eruption of small-

rumpente. pox.

Vol. 29. No. 116. Jan, 1808. x 11. Tei-

338 Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D.

11. Testium dolor nephriticus. Nephritic pain of testes.
12. Dolor digiti minimi sym- Pain of little finger from synr-

patheticus. pathy.
13. Dolor brachii in hydrope Pain of the arm in dropsy of
pectoris. the chest.
14. Diarrhea a dentitione. Diarrhoea from toothing.
GENUS III.
Catenated with Voluntary Motions.
SPECIES.
1. Tiéwbatio lingue. Impediment. of speech.
2. Chorea Sancti Viti. St. Vitus’s dance.
3. Risus. ; Laughter.
4. Tremor ex ira. Trembling from anger,
5. Rubor ex ira. Redness from anger,
6. - criminati. Blush of guilt.
1. Tarditas paralytica. Slowness from palsy.
8 ——- senilis. ———- of age.
GENUS IV. ;
Catenated with External Influences.
SPECIES.
1. Somni periodus. Periods of sleep.
2. Studii inanis periodus. |. ——— of reverie.
3. Hemicranie periodus, | ——— of head-ach.
4. Epilepsie dolorifice pe- ——-— of painful epilepsy.
riOdtUS »
5. Convulsionis dolorifice ———-— of painful conyulsion.
periodus.
6. Tussis periodice periodus. ———— of periodic cough,
7. Catameni@ periodus. —_ of catamenia.
8. Hemorrhoidis periodus. ——-— of the piles.
9. Podagre periodus. —— of the gout.
19. Erysipelatis periodus. | ——— of erysipclas.

— of fevers.

Onxpo III.
Retrograde Associate Motions.

11. Febrium periodus.

GENUS I.
Catenated with Irritative Motions.
SPECIES.
1. Dialetes irritata. Diabetes from irritation.

2, Sit-

me OD to

Memoirs of Erasmus Darwin, M. D. 339

Sudor frigidus inasthmate. Cold sweat in asthma,

Diabetes a timore. Diabetes from fear.

Diarrheea a timore. Diarrbcea from fear.

Pallor et tremor a timore. Paleness and trembling from
fear. ’

Palpitatio cordis a timore. Palpitation of the heart from
fear.

Abortio a timore. Abortion from fear.

Hysteria a.limare. Hysterics from fear.

GENUS II.
Catenated with Sensitive Motions.
SPECIES.

Nausea idealis. Nausea from ideas.
— a conceptt. ——— from conception.
Vomitio vertiginosa. Vomiting from vertigo.
a calculo in ure- ————— from stone in the
tere. ureter.

ab insultu para- —

from stroke of palsy.

lytico.

a titillatione fau- —————. from tickling the
cium. throat.

--—— cute sympathetica.

from sympathy with
the skin.
GENUS III.
Catenated with Voluntary Motions.
SPECIES. @

Ruminatio. Rumination.
Vomitio voluntaria. Voluntary vomiting.
Eructatio voluntaria. —+——= eructation.

GENUS IV.
Catenated with External Influences,

SPECIES.
Catarrhus periodicus. Periodical catarrh.
Tussis periodica. Periodi¢e cough.
Hysteria a frigore. Hvsterics from cold.
Nausea pluvialis. Sickness against raid.

(‘To be continued.]

¥ 2 alos. On

f 340. J

XLIX. On that Power of the Eye, ly which it is adjusted
to see Objects distinctly at different Distances. By
Ez. Waker, Esq.

To Mr. Tilloch.
SIR,
Parosoruzrs have varied much in their opinions, for
near two hundred years, respecting that power of the eye
by which it is adjusted to see objects distinctly at different
distances.

Kepler, M. le Cat, and some other philosophers sup-
posed, that when we view distant.objects the eye contracts
itself and becomes flatted, by which means the distance be-
tween the crystalline Jens and the retina is decreased; but
when near objects are scen, the axis of the eye is lengthened,
and this distance is therefore greater. Des Cartes, Dr. Pem-
berton, and Dr. Young, have adopted the opinion that the
form of the crystalline lens alters with the distance of the
object from the eye. Dr. Porterfield thinks, that the ad-
justment of the eye is produced by an alteration in the cur-
vature oi the cornea and a motion of the crystalline lens.
De la Hire imagined, that the eye undergoes no change,
except the contraction and dilatation of the pupil. Mr.
Ramsden and Mr. Home conclude from their experiments,
that the adjustment is produced by three changes in the
eye; a motion in the cry: rstalline lens, an ened of the
axis of vision, and an increase of curvature in the cornea.
Haller, Smith, Jurin, Mente and many others, have also
written upon this subject. But as none of the hypotheses
hitherto advanced have been demonstrated, either by deci-
sive experiments or from the known laws of dioptrics,
this property of vision scems still to remain in much ob-
scurity.

On entering ypon an inquiry of this nature, it will be
necessary to reject all suppositions that are not conform-
able to those beautiful mechanical laws which are seen in
every other part of the animal ceconomy. I cannot there-
fore suppose that the whole globe of the eye alters its form

every

On the Adjustment of the Eye, &c. 341

every time we view objects at different distances. Nor does
it appear probable that the power of adjustment lies either
in the vitreous humour or in the crystalline lens, for they
are too dense to admit of that infinite variety of changes .
which the eye undergoes every day.

As the crystalline lens alone is sufficient to form a distinct
image of an object upon the retina, it is therefore very
reasonable to suppose that the aqueous and the vitreous
humours are designed for other purposes than merely to
act as refracting mediums.

The vitreous humour is a dense transparent substance,
which seems designed by nature to preserve the lenticular
form of the crystalline, and to keep it at the same distance
from the retina; for the crystalline lens is so deeply imbed-
ded in the vitreous humour, and adheres so closely to it,
that the crystalline cannot suffer any change in its form,
without giving motion to some part of the vitreous.

Now, as nature performs all her mechanical operations
by the most perfect mechanical laws, it must appear im-
probable, from the density of these substances, that any
change should take place, either in the figure of the crystal-
line lens or in its distance from the retina,

Just before the crystalline lens the iris is placed. The use ,
of this organ is to contract and enlarge the pupil ; and as it
is put in motion by almost every ray of light that falls upon
the cornea, it seems necessary for its preservation that it
should meet with the least resistance possible ; therefore it
swims in a limpid fluid called the aqueous humour.

The contraction of the pupil answers two important pur-
poses; one to exclude too great a quantity of light, which
would be injurious to the eye, and the other to give us a
distinct view of near objects. But how a contracted pupil
should produce this effect may be explained from the fol-
lowing property of vision, viz.—

That we have no vision perfectly distitet, but by rays
which enter the eye in a direction parallel to the axis of the
crystalline lens.

This will be easily understood from the following obser-
vations :

¥3 First

342 On the Adjustment of the Eye to see

First Observation.

If we look attentively at a remote object, which subtends
a very small] angle at the eye, that object will be seen more
distinctly than any other object that may be near it; because
those rays that enter the eye near the axis of vision are 80
nearly parailei, on account of the great distance of the ob-
ject, that the eve can distineuish no difference between these
and parallel rays; and those rays passing through the cry-
stalline lens, near its axis, and falling perpendicularly upon
the retina, produce vision as perfect as the distance and
magnitude of the object will admit. But those rays which
form an angle with the visual axis fall obliquely upon the
retina, and produce indistinct vision.

Second Observation.

If we look ata near and small object with attention, the
pupil will contract so as to admit only those rays that are
nearly parallel to the axis of vision. Suppose, for example,
that we look at the point on the letter z in a printed book,
the remaining part of the letter, and all the surrounding
letters, will be seen imperfectly, for the same reason that was
given above.

Third Observation.

Let the same object (*) be brought within two inches of
the eye, and it will appear indistinct, because the rays issuing
from it will enter the eye in a diverging state, in conse-
quence of the pupil’s being too large for the object. But if
the pupil be contracted by means of a perforation about =
of an inch in diameter, placed before the eye, made either
in a thin piece of metal or a slip of paper, the object will be
secn distinctly, because no rays will then enter the eye,
except those that are nearly parallel to the axis of vision,

Hence it is evident, that we have no perfect vision, but
by rays which enter the eye in a direction parallel to the
axis of the crystalline lens, and fall perpendicularly upon
the retina; and as all rays that fall upon a convex lens
parallel to its axis are converged to the same point, the fol-
lowing conclusion must be strictly true, viz.

When

Objects distinctly at different Distances. 343

When an object is seen distinctly, its image is painted at
the same invariable distance from the crystalline lens,
whether the object be near or remote.

The same Property of Vision demonstrated by Experiments.

It is a property of the convex lens, that when its aperture
is contracted, the image of a near object is painted at the
same distance from the glass, as a remote one when its
aperture is enlarged.

The instrument with which I made the following expe-
riments consists of two large tubes, one within the other,
jike the tubes of a telescope. At the end of the large tube
a double convex lens of 24 inches focus is fixed to represent
the crystalline lens ; and the other end of the instrument
contains a piece of ground glass, 4} inches in diameter,
polished on one'side, to represent the retina, This mstrument,
being fixed upon a proper stand, was carried into a room
and placed at about five feet from a window from which
I had an extensive view.

First Experiment.

After I had contracted the object glass to two inches, 1
‘drew out the inner tube until the picture of remote objects
was distinctly painted upon the rough glass, but near ob-
jects were represented imperfectly.

Second Experiment.

‘When T had contracted the aperture of the Jens to half
an inch, near objects were represented very distinctly, but
the picture of remote objects was less conspicuous.

Third Experiment.

The aperture of the lens being further contracted to } of
an inch in diameter, all outward objects appeared indistinct ;
but a plumb-line, which hung down the middle of the win-
dow, was clearly represented upon the artificial retina. This
line was not seen upon the retina in the first experiment,
and only like an enlarged shadow in the second. The di-
stance between the glasses was the sane in all the experi-

Y4 ments,

344 On the Adjustment of the Eye, ec.

‘

ments, and no alteration whatever was made in the instru-
Ment, except in the aperture of the lens.

Whence it is evident, that a large pupil gives us a distinct
view of remote objects; that a contracted pupil gives usa
clear view of near objecis ; and that no part of the eye, ex-
cept the iris, sufiers any change in making these adjust-
ments.

The same Property of Vision demonstrated by a more simple
Experiment.

Let a remote object be observed through an aperture of
about =, of an inch in diameter, made in the manner al-
ready mentioned, and if the object be seen ina proper hght
it will appear as distinct as to the naked eye. Tien intro-
duce a pin, or any other smal) object, in a line between the
remote object and the eye, at the distance of five or six
inches froin it, and these two objects will appear as distinct
when seen together as when they are viewed separately ;
but the moment the aperture is taken away from before the
eye, the near object will be seen very indistinctly ; and as
the aperture may be removed so instantaneously as to render
it impessible for any change to take place in the internal
parts of the eye, it is therefore evident, that the iris 1s the
only organ by which the eye is adjusted to distinct vision.

Hence it is as clearly proved as any proposition in optics,
that the rays issuing from a near object, after having passed
through a small aperture, are conveyed to the same point
upon the retina as those from a remote one; the rays from
both objects being nearly parallel.

These experiments also prove, that an eye which has
Jost the crystalline lens, if the iris has not received any in-
jury, may still retain its power of adjustment.

I am, sir,
Lynn, Your humble servant,
6th Jan. 1808, Ez. WALKER.

L. On

.
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Px Sameed

L.- On the Stanhope and other Temperamenis of the Musical
Scale. By Mr. Joun Farry.

To Mr. Tilloch.
SIR,

Tus Table of Musical Intervals which you have done me
the favour to engrave for your 112th number, (vol. xxvii.
p- 143,) after J had jeft Town, and could not therefore at-
tend to the proof which the engraver obligingly sent me,
unfortunately contains three errors, which I beg here to
correct, viz. the minor THIRD should be 161 = &c., instead
of 191. The numerator of the ratio of the DIEZE minimum
should be 19,683, instead of 16,983 ; and that of the comMaA
and HALF should be 1953 instead of 1593. At page 142,
vol. xxvui., the temperament or diflerence of the equal tem-
perament V, from the Diatonic VY, should also be corrected
and made — = — +, m, instead of —i1 5 — +4. m.

Such of your readers as are in the habit of attending at
the Royal Institution, and of noticing the pamphlets on
their library tables, can scarcely be unacquainted, and it is
perhaps proper that your readers in general should be in-
formed, that in the beginning of July last, a pamphlet en-
titled “ Plain Statement of Earl Stanhope’s Temperament,
by Dr. Callcott,” was exhibited for sale, for a day or two,
in the shops of, Mr. Birchall, Mr. Byfield, and perhaps of
others, and then disappeared therefrom, im consequence, as
I have been told, either of a degal interposition or the threat
of such, both against that pamphlet, and the one which yon
did Dr. Callcott and me the favour to reprint, at p. 143 of
your last volume; and that a great number of copies of
another © Plain Statement of Earl Stanhope’s Temperament,
by Dr. Cal!cott,” printed some wecks prior to that offered
for sale as above mentioned, have since been stitched up with
the “ Plain Statement’’ and * Letter to the Duke of Cum-
berland”’ above mentioned, (which two are said to have been
printed under Lord Stanhope’s directions,) and these three
pamphlets in one cover, were, and | believe still continue
to be, privately circulated, The reason for which extraordinary

4 proccedings

446 On the Stanhope and other Temperaments
proceedings I did expect (when I left Town in August last)

would quickly appear to the public, from the proof of the

first sheet of a printed Narrative of transactions, between
certain persons relative to the Stanhope Temperament, which
was shown to me at the Institution; and as this ‘* Narra-
tive” promised to throw some additional light upon the Let-
ter to the Duke of Cumberland, relating to me, (vol. xxviil.
p- 143,) I abstained from replying thereto before I went
out of Town. Since my return, which was but a short
time before Christmas, I have not been able to learn any-
thing concerning the progress of the ** Narrative,” but hear,
that the public may very shortly expect some further remarks
from his Lordship on his Temperament, and which it were
much to be wished (for the interests of science) that his
Lordship would communicate through the medium of your
Magazine. On these accounts, I shall further defer my ob-
servations on his Lordship’s Letter, and on the merits or
defects of his system, since the appeal to mathematical
writings and truths which I meditate, may perbaps apply
at once to the whole of his Lordship’s case, if he really has
anything further to advance, and save me and your readers
much trouble: in the mean time, as a great part of his
Lordship’s Plain Statement is made to turn on a comparison
of his system with three others, viz. the Isotonic or equal
temperament, M. Prinz’s system, and that of M. Kirn-
berger, I beg to present your readers with the notes of these
three systems, expressed in the smal] intervals =, fand m,
as has been done for his Lordship’s system, in my table,
vol. xxvill. p. 141, column 6.

A Taitle

347

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348 On the Slanhope and other Temperaments.

In column 4 of the preceding table, the 2nd (=51 5 +
f + 4,4,m) will be found to be the difference or interval
between each adjoining note, and consequently every 3rd,
III, 4th, V, 6th or VI, as well as VIII in this system aré
equal, in whatever part of the scale the same are taken ;
and if VIII (612 = 4+ 12 f+ 53 m) be added to the 2nd, IT,
3rd, IL], &c., in order to obtain a second octave above the
one in the table, this will at once appear, by subtracting
the value of any note from the value of another, situate the
proper number of half-notes above it.

A superior octave being in like manner supplied to each
of the other systems, in columns 5 and 6, and column 6,
vol. xxvili. p. 141, if the 12 several ménor thirds (3rds) in
each system be taken ont, and if the difference between each
of these and a true or perfect 3rd (161 = + 3 f + 14 m) be
found and placed in order in a table, with the sion + to
every sharp temperament or interval larger than a 3rd, and
the sign — to every flat temperament or interval smaller
than a true 3rd, then these several temperaments will be
found very unequal among themselves, except in the Isoto-
nic (where each is 8 = + $m); but on adding up the whole
of them, paying proper attention to the signs + and —, it
will be found, that the sum of the temperaments of all the
3rds, in each system, is 96 © + 9m, or 3 Semitones mini-
mum, as mentioned in my engraved table, vol. xxvii, In
like manner, if all the major thirds ({T1) in each of the four
systems be taken out, and their temperaments or 1mperfec-
tions (or difference from 197 © + 4£ + 17 m) are found,
the sum of all these will in each system be found equal
to 84 2 + 8m, or 4 Enharmonic Diesis ; also if all the tem-
peraments of the 4ths, (or differences from 2545 + 5f
+ 22m) be summed up, they will in each system amount
to 122 +m, or the Diaschisma: the sum of the tempera-
ments of the Vths (or differences from 358 = 4+ 7 f + 31m)
will be found 122 4+ m; of the 6ths (or differences from
4155 + 8f + 36m) 842+ 8m; and of the VIths (or
differences from 451>+9f+ 39 m) 9654 9m, a8
mentioned in the engraved table above referred to.

With such tables as these before us, calculated for each and

every

Surgical Cases in the City and Finsbury Dispensaries. 349

every system, between which and his own Lord Stanhope has
drawn or.may draw a comparison, referring also tothe num-
ber of Leats‘made per 1” by each tempered conchord, through-
out the whole scale, we shall ultimately be able to bring his
Lordship’s loud pretensions to pre-eminence over every other
system, to a more scientific and competent test, than the
opinion of 60 or 70. anonymous persons, who heard an instra-
ment played upon, which, Lord Stanhope says, (vol. xxv.
p. 306) was tuned according to his system. See Monthly
Magazine, vol. xxil. p. 114.
Tam, sir, yours, &c.
JouHN Farey,
12, Upper Crown-Street, Westminster,
January, 15, 1808.

LI. Report of Surgical Cases i the City and Finsbury Dis-
pensaries for August 1807. By Joun Taunton, Esq.

i, the month of August there were admitted on the books
of the City and Finsbury Dispensaries 188 surgical patients.

Cured or relieved - = 171
Died - - - - 1
Under cure ” - “ 16

188

'

Mrs. A. C. et. 53, of a thin spare habit of body and of
avery delicate constitution, has been afflicted with hernia
in the left thigh upwards of 20 years : it first appeared sub-
sequent to a difficult labour, and was much aggravated by a
second labour aljout two years afterwards: she suffered much
from carrying heavy burthens, and was frequently confined
to the house for some days. For about the first eight years
it could be easily returned by placing the body in a hori-
zontal position ; but from that time it has been irreducible,
and occasionally attended with great pain, sickness, vomit-
ing, and constipation of the bowels; fer which, however,
she had not any surgical assistance till the present attack,

which

350 Surgical Cases in the City and Finsbury Dispensaries.

which took place on Monday August 24th, when she was
seized with violent pain and tension of the abdomen similar
to labour pains. The neighbours gave her the usual carmina-
tives; but the pain increased, the tumour enlarged, vomit-
ing, hiccup, and cold sweats came on; she was worse on
the 25th, and was delirious ai night. On the 26th in the
morning an aperient medicine was given, but that was im-
mediately rejected on its being received into the stomach.
At four o’clock in the afternoon-an enema was injected, but
that also returned immediately without any feculent matter.
On the 27th she was much worse during the whole day,
feculent matter being vomited in large quantities. I saw her
for the first time at nine o’clock in the evening, when the
pulse was scarcely perceptible, the extremities cold, the eyes
had a peculiar wild stare, and the body was partially covered
with a profuse cold sweat : she appeared to be nearly in arti-
culo mortis. Having explained the extreme danger of the case
to the patient and to her husband, she expressed her desire
of having the operation immediately performed. The hernia
was situated under Poupart’s ligament, on the inner side of
the large bloodzyessels (the usual seat of crural or femoral
hernia). An Mision of about three inches in length was
made through the integuments along the middle of the tu-
mour, beginning at the inferior edge of Poupart’s ligament.
The fascia was thin, and very little adipose substance inter-
vened between the integuments and hernial sac; which last
was also extremely thin, but did not contain any fluid, and
adbered to the omentum, which was much discoloured and
compressed, the circulation having ceased in every part of it.
Tt was then removed by excision close to the mouth of the
sac, the edged of the integuments were supported in contact, -
by two sutures and some straps of adhesive plaster. The
patient lay perfectly quiet during the operation, from which
she did net express any sensation of pain. Two spoonfuls of
an aperient medicine were then given, which remained on the
stomach. She was quiet during the night, but did not sleep.
o8ih. There hadnot been any pain or sickness since the ope-
ration, the pulse was somewhat more distinct, but the ex-
tremitics remained cold. The aperient medicine was repeated,
and

Ox the Means of gaining Power in Mechanics. 351

aud succeeded by a copious evacuation by stool. The hic-
cup and vomiting returned in the evening for a short time ;
after ‘which she slept. well, and was much recovered in the
morning, when she took some breakfast with an appetite.
September the Ist the wound was dressed, which had nearly
healed by the first intention ; she appeared to be gaining
health and strength rapidly, and was completely recovered
by the 10th.

In the course of the year 1807, 1419 surgical patients
have been admitted on the books of the City Dispensary.

Cured or relieved - 1139
Died - = - 15
Remain under treatment ~ 265

1419

-The estimated expense, including drugs, salaries, house-
rent, taxes, &c., attending the treatment of the above
1419 patients, does not exceed 247/. 10s. !

JoHN TAUNTON,
Surgeon to the City and Finsbury
Greville-street, Hatton-garden, Dispensaries, Lecturer on Ana~
January 23, 1808. tomy, Surgery, Physiology, &c.

LII. On the Means of gaining Power in Mechanics.

To Mr. Tilloch.
SIR,

Aisxonc the mathematicians of every age much labour and
time have been employed to discover the means of gaining me-
chanical power ; and even in these enlightened umes, although
namerous individuals of distinguished talents and reputation
persist in asserting the impossibility of gaining such power,
the contrary opinion is, notwithstanding, cherished and
acted upon by as many, perhaps, of equal genius and science.
Yet, inconsistent as it may appear, the result of the experi-
ments and practice during more than 2000 years, is, that
principles and maxims have gradually been established ut-
terly discouraging every hope of success in the pursuit,

This

352 On the Means of gaining Power in Mechanics.

This variance of opinion among those. who may fairly be
presumed the best informed and most intelligent, respecting
a very simple mathematical question, (as it may be here-
after proved,) implies, or rather makes it evident, that
doubts have been, and are still, entertained of the infalli-
bility of the admitted principles ; and there is reason to su-
spect, that to the influence these have had on the generality
of mathematicians and mechanics, may be imputed the
disappointments experienced im many of their attempts,
which might else have succeeded : for it is remarked, that
the world is mostly indebted for discoveries and inventions
to illiterate men, whose genius was not checked or restrained,
like that of the learned, by rules and maxims, beyond which
they never dare or deigu to look.

Asa mere private gentleman, having but a very super-
ficial knowledge of mechanics, in which I occasionally
amuse myself with experimcuts, my taking ground on
either side is quite out of the question ; but i am going to
state a fact which cannot be controverted, and which, in
addition to the instance of Guilyreus’s wheel, seems to jus-
tify those who are seeking the perpetual. motion.

I have constructed an engine, rather simple than com-
plicate, which produces the following effect :

On applying my moving power, a weight of two pounds—
while this descends through a space of only three feet, a
weight of twenty pounds is thereby raised two feet per-
pendicular *.

Some friends and acquaintances to whom this cireum-
stance was mentioned, were either incredulous, or suspected
my being deceived in the operation of the machine, or mis-
taken in some other way. But the operation is so very
simple that I cannot be mistaken or deceived; for the en-
gine stands perfectly motionless, or at rest, until the moving
power of two pounds is applied to it, in opposition to the
twenty pounds weight which is kung on to be raised ; where-
upon this last immediately rises in the time that the former

* That moving power also raises another considerable weight to a small
height at and in the sume time; but the single stated fact will suffice for pre-

sent consideration.
descends,

On destroying Insects injurious to Cultivation. 353

descends, as before described; and this experiment has
daily been repeated and verified for some months past.

I therefore at length venture, with al] deference, to an-
nounce this plain and indisputable fact, and to submit it to
the consideration and comments of the scientific among
the numerous ‘readers of the Philosophical Magazine; and
shall be grateful to those gentlemen who will take the trouble

. to inform me, through the same medium, whether anything
similar has been produced ; and favour me with their obser-
vation upon, and candid opinion of, this presumed novelty,
the possibility of which cannot be admitted consistently with
the present theory of mechanics.

I shall probably have further important communications
to make on this subject in the next Philosophical Magazine,

Bo, Buvove
January 20, 1808.

LILI. On destroying Insects ingerious to Cultivation.

To Mr, Tilloch.

DEAR SIR,
© Amone all the casualties to which vegetable life is ex-
posed, nothing scems so destructive or difficult to be ob-
viated, as the effects of predatory insects. There is pro-
bably an infinite variety of vermin, particularly in green-
houses, stoves, and similar contrivances to force vegetation,
which, in the shape of flies, caterpillars, worms, or grubs,
are constantly blasting the hopes of the cultivator. I be-
lieve, however, it has been clearly ascertained, that the
most prevailing and obnoxious of all these enemies is the
plant-louse, the aphis of Linneus; a genus perhaps the
most numergus of the whole system, for every kind of ve-
getable has, it is said, a species of this insect, to whose
ravazes it is peculiarly lable: and another circumstance
tends materially to confirm the mischief, when it has once
begun, for, accorditig to the general opinion of naturalists;
these pernicious animals multiply with astonishing rapidity
aud certainty, wherever they intrude; and from their

Vol. 29. No. 116. Jan. 1808. 7% structure,

354 Notices respecting New Books.

Structure, and general ceconomy, they are amply provided
for spreading destruction.

It must give great satisfaction to ee who practise or
patronize Bonideldine! to be informed of a very simple cure,
which has proved invariably successful, and is neither costly
nor difficult to be obtained—it is the mere application of
sulphur, but. not burned by way of fumigation or smoke.
The precise method of using it has not yet been detailed to
me; when it is, you may expect to receive all mecessary
instructions; in the mean time let it be observed, that the
sublimed sulphur, the flores sulphuris, not the crude brim-
stone in powder, is what has been employed.

Having received my information from the most respect-
able source, it becomes’me to disclaim all pretension to the

_merit of the discovery ; I shall, therefore, add, that it was
in the extensive and highly cultivated gardens of the hon,
baron Hepburn, in East Lothian, where the first. experi-
ments were made; and, f understand, both there and in
other gardens, the practice has been constantly attended

with success.
T remain, dear sir,

your obliged and obedient servant,

Long-Acre, Jos. Hume,
Jan. 22, 1808.

LIV. Notices respecting New Books.

Encyclopedische Uelersicht der 1V issenschaften des Orients,
aus sielen Arabischen, Persischen, und Tiirkischen Werken
uebersetzt : den Freunden und Kennern der Orientalischen
Litteratur gewidmet von einem dersellen Beflissenen in
Konstantinopel.—** Cyclopedical View of the Sciences of
the East, translated from seven Works, in Arabic, Per-
sian, and Turkish; inscribed to those who are acquainted
with Oriental Literature, by a Person residing at Con-
stantinople.”’—Leipsick, 1804, 8vo, 2 parts, pp. 699.

However useful to the advancement of Oriental learning,
or however necessary for completing the history of the human
mind

Notices respecting New Books. 355
mind it might be, were we in possession of a good literary
history of the Arabs, Persians, and Turks, there has been
no work ef this descfiption yet attempted, from the insur-
mountable difficulties hitherto attending its execution. These
difficulties do not arise from the three Eastern nations al-
Juded to having neglected to transmit to posterity the history
of those of their countrymen who have cultivated the va-
rious branches of science and Jiterature. It is rather the
abundance of the books of this description they have com-
posed, than the want of materials, which has been the ob-
stacle to the execution-of a literary history of the East.
Grammarians, interpreters and lecturers upon the Alcoran,
theologians of all classes, doctors and jurisconsults of all
sects, philosophers, physicians, historians, prose-writers,
poets ;—in short, from the immediate companions of the
Prophet down to those who in the last century were the
honour of Turkish literature, all have found their historians,
as well as the khalifs, the sultans, and their ministers. Be-
sides all this, we have histories of celebrated men of all
kinds, of each of the principal cities in the country of the
Mussulmen, such as Mecca, Medina, Sanaa, Damas, Bag-
dad, Cairo, &c. We may add, that in most of the annals
composed by the Arab historians, such as Ebn-Athir,
Aboulfeda, Makrizi, Aboulmahasen and others, we find,
after the recital of the political events of each year, a ne-
crological article, containing the names of all the celebrated
men who died in the course of the year, with more or less
detailed accounts of their lives and writings. With-these
materials, however, for composing a literary history of the
Eastern countries, there is a multitude of difficulties to
he removed before we can render our materials of any
service.

The literary history of a nation may be divided into two
principal parts ; the history of letters and sciences, and that
of the persons who have cultivated them. The first ought
to make us acquainted with the commencement, and the
various revolutions, of each science or particular branch of
literature, and the causes which have concurred to accelerate
or retard its progress. It is the systematic part of literary

: Z2 historys

856 Notices respecting New Books.

history, in which those who have acquired celebrity in
learning or science by their labours, their discoveries, of
their errors, appear by turms upon the stage, but merely as
an accessory part of the picture, and without drawing off
the attention from the principal object to fix it upon each of
them in particular, The second part of literary history,
which may be called biographical, is composed of the par-
ticular histories of those who have contributed, either by
their own labours or by their influence and benefactions, to
the cultivation and advancement of human knowledge.
Each of them here appears isolated, in order to make us ac-
quainted with the time, place, and circumstances in which
he lived, the means of instruction which nature or fortune
presented to him, the application he made of them, the lJa-
bours for which posterity is indebted to him, the service:
he rendered, the monuments he bas bequeathed of his talents
and zeal. According to the importance of the part which
each of them has performed, he occupies in this kind of histo-
ric gallery a space more or less considerable ; but no person
whose literary or scientific career has been marked by any
service rendered, or any work left to posterity, should be
omitted.. Thus the principal cities, the seats of administra-
tion, or the places illustrated by any great events, have
claims to a place in the general chart of a great empire; and
when it is requisite to draw a map of a province, the small-
est cottage, which contributes its share to the support of the
enarges of the state, cannot be omitted without injust.ce.
The biographical part of literary history is, properly
speaking, the only one with which the Orientalists are oc-
cupied; and it is only by comparing and classifying the
abundant materials of this kind which they have left us, that
we can afterwards extract what is necessary for composing
the systematic part neglected by them. It is therefore with
biographical history exclusively we must commence: but
even here the task is not easy ; it requires great opportuni-
ties, time, and discernment, and the concurrence of several,
as the following observations will convince us.
In the first place, ,all the materials for a labour of this
kind are in manuscript, and consequently they require
: much

Notices respecting New Books. 357

much critical skill, anda knowledge far from superficial of
the Janguaves in which they are written.

Secondly, it is impossible to unite all these materials ;—
the number of booksellers who possess them is not very
considerable, and but a small part of them falls to the lot
ofeach. Some even of the most cssential documents do
not appear to have as yet arrived in Europe, or are alto-
gether unknown.

Thirdly, the Orientalists having but a small number of
proper names, the same name, Abdallah, for example, or
Mahomed, Ali, Hassan, Hosain, &c., is necessarily com+
mon to a very great number of men. In order to remedy
the confusion which would result from this homonymy,
there 1s added to the name of each, Ist, a surname (conya)
taken from the name of his eldest son, as Abou-Mahomed,
Aboul-Hassan, (father of Mahomed, father of Hassan) :
2d, the name of his father, and frequently that of his
grandfather: 3d, a surname taken from the place where he
was born, or where he lived, as Ispahani, Baconi, Bagdadi,
&c.: 4th, an honorary title (lakab)—this is peculiar to the
cadis, or their assessors, the’ imans, the sheiks, the doc-
tors, and rmonks—such as Boha-eddin, {the splendour of re-
ligion,) Djelai-eddin, (the glory of religion,) Tadj-eddin,
(the crown of religion.) In the order of these names and
surnames, the honorary title is generally first ; then comes
the surname (conya) properiy so called, then the name fol-
lowed by that of the father and grandfather, and lastly, the
surname taken from the place of birth: sometimes the same
person bears several names of this last description. Thus, in
order to designate completely the celebrated physician Abd-
allatif, the author of a great number of works, he is thas
described: Mouwathk-eddin Abou-Mahomed Abd-allatif
Ben Yousoff Mauseli Bagdadi. Mouwafik-eddin (the pro- °
tector of religion) is his honorary title; Abou-Mahomed
(father of Mahomet) is his surname, taken from the name
of his eldest son ; Abd-allatifis his own name; Ben Yousoff,
(son of Yousoff,) the surname taken from the name of his
father ; Mauseli, from Mosul, Bagdadi, frrom Bagdad, are

Z 3 surnames,

358 Notices respecting New Books.

surnames, which intimate that his family was originally from
Mosul, but that he was born at Bagdad, Many individuals
have, besides, certain nicknames, or surnames taken from
some illustrious ancestor, or circumstance of their life. This
multitude of names and surnames contributes in several
ways to throw much confusion upon literary history, and
chiefly because they rarely designate a person by the whole
of these names, and the same individual is sometimes called
by his honorary title only, as Djela!-eddin, or by his name
without any surname, as Abd-allatif, or by the name of his
son, as Aboulabbas, (the father of Abbas,) or hy that of
his father. as Ebn-Arabschah, (the son of Arabschah,) or
lastly, by the surname taken from the place of his birth, as
Djordjani, Schahrestani, Soyouti. We may be often led
into error, therefore, by supposing several personages to be
oie only, and vice versd. In the second place, the copyists,
by omitting the words Abou, (father,)-or Ebn, (son,) or
confounding together these two words, often call Abd-allah,
or Abd-alrahman, the person who ts really called father
or son of Abd-allab, or Abd-alrahman, Lastly, there is so
great a number of celebrated men, whom we are accustomed
to know merely by one of their surnames, that the Oriental
biographers themselyes can neither discover their names or
surnames. There are none of the learned who are occupied
with the literature of the East, without excepting Herbelot
and Caziri, who have not been often led into errer trom some
of these causes. The titles of books being also almost al-
ways conceived in an indistinct manner, and several works
of various writers having either the same er very similar
titles, this is also a new source of mistakes, from which the
Eastern historians themselves have not always been exempt.

From al] these considerations, it is evident, we are not yet
competent to the task of a general history of the literature
and science of the Arabs, Persians, and Turks; and we
must begin by clearing away this chaos, and by putting the.
materials into the hands of a greater number of persons, by
publishing successively, either entire or in extracts, the
most important works of this kind. It is also to be wished,
A that

2

Notices respecting New Books. 359

that no occasion should be neglected of giving detached no-
tices upon the most celebrated writers ; and by pointing out
their names and writings, we should employ all the means
furnished by criticism, in order to present with the greatest
possible exactness, and in original characters, the entire
name of the authors, and titles of their works.

The most important books of this description, and those
which would furnish the greatest number of articles for
literary history, are:

The Kitab Alfihrist, by Aboul-faradji Mohamed Ben-
Ishak, better known hy the name of Ebn-Abi-Yacoub Ne-
dim ; it is a catalogue of Arabian authors and their works,
for the three first centuries of the Hegira and a part of the
fourth.

The Wafyat Alayan, or dictionary of dlustrious men, by
Ebn-Khilean.

The Tarikh Alislam, by Dhéhébi.

The Menhal Alsapi, another dictionary of the same kind,
composed by Aboulmahassen, forming a continuation of
the preceding.

The Kitab Almohadhara, an abridged history of Egypt,
by Soyouti, which contains a very useful catalogue of cele-
brated men who" have been born or lived in that country.

The Kitab Caschf Aldhonoun, or library of Arabian, Per-
sian, and Turkish books, by Hadji Khalia.

This last work, of which Herbclot has already made so
great use, is the same froin which the author of the Cyclo-
pedical View of the Sciences of the East has extracted the
greatest part of the materials he has collected in the volume
now before us; but he bas also Jaid under contribution six
other works, four of which are written in Arabic, one in
Persian, aud one in Turkish.

The author explains, in the preface, the plan according to
which he has arranged the extracts from these various works.
The Jast six have merely served to supply the desiderata in
the general picture of the sciences of the East by Hadji
Kialfa. Sometimes the extracts of several of these works
have been blended together; but oftener he has contented
hiniself with abridging them, indicating the source of each in

24 particulars

360 Notices respecting New Books.

particular, and leaving to his readers the care of comparing
and combining them, This arrangement is disadvantageous
to the a. hor, and favourable to the critic, who may thus
compare more easily cach of these extracts or ahridged
translations with the originals, and thus ascertain and rec-
tify the errors which may have escaped the translator.

Frequently, persons who devote their attention to one
branch of literature, and who have wasted much time and
labour in acquiring profound knowledge, contract a kind of
enthusiastic love for the object of their studies, which some-
times appears excessive to readers who judge with greater
coolness. The author of the work now before us does not
appear altogether free from this weakness ; and there are
few who will consent to allow Hadji Khalfa the epithets
bestowed upon him by our anonymous author, of the triple
Hermes of the literature of the Kast, the Bacon, the Meéusel
of the Arabs, Persians, and Turks. We may, however,
excuse this exaggeration in a man of letters, who has had
courage enough to undertake a dry and painful task ; and
we ought to remember, that, without this enthusiasm, the
mast of those works which ‘have extended our knowledge,
and placed the study of the sciences and literature in the
flourishing state they now are, would never have existed.

We find, immediately after the preface, the Life of Hadji
Khalfa, whose name is Mustafa, the son of Abd-allah ; his
surname, Hadji Khalfa, is composed of two Arabian words,
Hadji (pilgrim), and Khalifa, or, as the Turks write and
pronounce it, Kha/fa or Kalfa (assessor): he takes the name
of Hadji from having accomplished the pilgrimage to Mecca
in the year 1043 of the Heaira, (A. D. 1633,) and he
added Khalfa to it when he obtained the place of second
assessor in the office of Basch-mohesebe, or chief of the
accounts. He was also known by the name of Catib Tche-
Jebi. His father had filled the place of secretary to the
Porte, which produced him the name of Catib, and his son
inuerited it from him: Tchelebi is a Turkish word signify-
ing a man of genteel birth.

This Lifeof Hadji Khalfa, written by himself, was printed
with his Chronological Tables, a work of which there is an

4 Jtalian

Notices respecting New Books. 361

Tialian translation published at Venice in 1697, and a
Latin translation in manuscript by the celebrated Reiske.
The Turkish editor of these Chronological Tables has finished
the Life of Hadji Khalfa, which the latter had added to one
of his works, entitled Mizan-Alhakk, i.e. The Balance of
Trath, It shows us Hadji Khalfa consecrating the greatest
part of his life to study or teaching, neglecting no method
of increasing his knowledge, and voluntarily renouncing
the pleasures and illusions of ambition, in order to amass,
in tranquillity, the materials for a great number of useful
works, with which he has successively enriched the litera-
ture of his country. He finished his mortal career in the
year 1068 of the Hegira (A. D. 1657). We are ignorant
how old he was, the year of his birth not being mentioned ;
but it is probable that he was not 60, since he was ap-
pointed to the situation of adjunct or commissary in the
office of accounts for Natolia, being the first he filled, in
the year 1032.

To the Life of Hadji Khalfa, in itself a precious relic of
literary history, succeed short notices of the seven original
works, the extracts from which compose the work before
us; and after all, a tale in the form of a dialoeue, extracted
from the last of these works; but the original Arabic has
fer its author, according to report, Imam Gayali.

The interlocutors engaged in this dialogue are, a young
Arab named Beschir, and a young Persian named Schadan,
and their conversation takes place in presence of the khalif
Haroun Raschid, who arrives at the moment these two
young people, both strangers, meet, and imbibe a mar-
vellous sympathy for each other. The khalif, ater having
receiyed their salutations and politely answered them, struck
with the vivacity of their looks, addresses himself to Be-
schir, and asks him whence he came, and how old he is.
Beschir answers him ina sententious and cenigmatical man-
ner. To the question put by Haroun, ‘* Combicn d’années
avez-vous 2’ (How old are you?) ‘* Aucunes.”’ (None) he
answered ; the years are’in the hands of God! How many
do you count, then? Icount, said the Arab, from one

up

362 Notices respecting New Bovks.

up to 100,000. Jn what manner, said the khalif with emo-
tion, must I interrogate you in order to obtaina rational
auswer? Ask me, said Beschir, how much time of my
hfe has gone past. The khalif puts this question to him,
and receives for answer, Fourteen years. He then leaves the
two young philosophers to themselves.

Schadan earnestly entreats Beschir to enter into conversa-
tion with him, and to place him among the number of his
friends ; but Beschir, who does not seem inclined to receive
as friends any who could not by their talents or wisdom
contribute to the improvement of his mind and heart, sub-
jeets Schadan to a rigorous examination, from which the
latter does not shrink : ‘for you know,”’ says he to Beschir,
“‘ what the Arab proverb says: Amid the flying sand of the
Desert, we can easily distinguish a man on horseback from
him who is mounted on an ass.”’

The questions put by Beschir to Schadan turn upon sub-
jects of dogmatic theology, the ,interpretation of the Alco-
ran, grammar, etymology, poetics, zsthetics, gnomics,
lexicology, scriptures, jurisprudence, traditional theology,
medicine and morals ; and the answers of Schadan leave him
nothing to desire. The two young people then embrace, and
swear a sincere friendship. The khalif, who had overheard
their whole conversation, can scarcely believe his cars. All
the readers of this work will not partake in this enthusiasm,
perhaps, upon hearing that Beschir proposes questions of the
following nature: What is the Arab word, which, with-
out any change of letters, can be a verb, noun, and parti-
ciple? Why do walnuts caten befcre dinner tock up the bow-
els, and when taken after dinner produce a contrary effect ?
Why is a certain word in the Alcoran a nominative ?

We must admire the answers of Schadan, however, when
Beschir asks where God was before he created the world?
aud wherefore did he create it? Schadan thus answers these
questions: ‘* /Vhere indicates 2 place 3; and God not being
contained in any space, to ask where God was, is an absurd
question. The manner of acting peculiar to God is too
elevated to afford yoom for asking how and wherefore he

acla «

Noiices respecting New Books. 363

acts; by the sole omnipotence of his will he has produced
those things which bis knowledge embraced, and he pro-
duced them without means and without cause.”

Schadan answers several literary questions in a similar
manner ; we shall quote one only, which presents a pleasing
anecdote. Beschir asks him the origin of this Arabian
proverb: “The camel would bea good bargain, were it not
for the cursed animal hanging at its neck ;” and Schadan
relates the following story :

An Arab who was plagued with a vicious camel, ex-
claimed in a moment of anger: , ‘¢ May my wife be always
barren if I do not sell- thee for a piece of silver!’ His
choler being over, be devised the following method of ful-
filling his oath, which he repented. He suspended a cat to
the neck of his camel, and cried round the market, “A
camel and cat to sell together, but mot separately ; the camel
for a piece of silver, and the cat for 400.” The people hear-
ing this, exclaimed in the words of the proverb: ‘* The
camel would be a good bargain, were it not for the cursed
animal at its neck.”

Haroun invites the two young philosophers to his palace,
thinking himself fortunate in securing their friendship.
‘* Servant of God,” said Beschir to him, ‘¢ thy society is
as little fit for us as ours is for thee.” How so?’ said
Haroun. ‘6 Because,’’ answered the Arab, ** thou art the
slave of our slaves.” The khalif became angry, but Beschir
soon appeased him by explaining the meaning of his answer.
Hareun dissolves into tears, and, on withdrawing, asks
Beschir to be pleased to dictate something to him upon
which be might meditate usefully. Beschir gives him this
passage in the Alcoran: *

“* Have you not scen that we have granted them several
years of respite? and when the vengeance with which we
menaced them has come upon them, the respite we have
granted them has been of no use to them.”

The anonymous author bas not given the sense of this
passage correctly; but as he gives the original in a note,
the translation may be easily rectified by those acquainted

with the language.
The

364 Notices respecting New Books.

The work of Hadji Khalfa consists of a short preface, an
introduction, a bibliographical dictionary, and the con-
clusion.

The preface displays in few words the object the author
bas in view. “he introduction is divided into five chapters,
subdivided into sections, paragraphs, &c. The first chap-
ter has for its ohject the definition of science in general, its
division into various principal branches, and the subdivisions
of these last ; the second treats of the origin and: history of
sciences and books; the third, of the different classes of
writers and books; the fourth contains general considera-
tions upon the sciences, upon those who have cultivated
them, upon the circumstances which favour their cultiva-
tion, and the obstacles to their progress; upon the qualities
which a learned man onghi to possess, and other similar
subjects; the fifth chapter is a kind of supplement to the
former, and contains various miscellaneous observations not
alluded to in the preceding chapters.

In spite of the multitude of divisions and subdivisions in
this treatise, which may be regarded as a synoptical picture
of the sciences, and every thing relating to them, we do
not think Hadji Khalfa has adopted the most perspicuous
arrangement. He has often confounded considerations of a
general nature with those which have a particular object ;
and although he may have had some idea of a general sy-
stem of human knowledge, he is far from having realised
this idea in a manner to entitle him to rank with Bacon,
or the author of the preliminary discourse to the French
Encyclopedia.

The work, however, notwithstanding its suites deserves
to be better known. The introduction is the most deserving
of notice; and our anonymous author has translated it from
beginning to end, with some slight exceptions, and it oc-
cupies nearly 160 pages of the volume. Some people,
perhaps, would have preferred the suppression of this intro-
duction, and would have wished to have seen, if not the
whole, at least the principal articles of the Bibliographical
Dictionary of Had}i Khalfa, from which those who cultivate
Oriental literature would certainly derive very great advantages.

Mithridates :

——

Notices respecting New Books. 365

Mithridates’: oder Allgemeine Sprachenkunde, mit dem
“© Vater-Unser,”’ als Sprach-prote, in beynahe fiinf hun-
dert Sprachen und Mund-arten, von JOHANN CHRISTOPHER
ApELuNG.—* Mithridates : or General Principles of Lan-
guages, with the Lord’s Prayer as an Example, in nearly
500 Languages or Dialects, by Jonn CurtsrorHER
Avetune, Aulic Counsellor and Chief Librarian to the
Elector of Saxony, with this Motto ;

« Alius alio plus invenire potest, nemo omnia.”—Auvsonius.

Part I. Berlin 1806. 686 pages, exclusive of the Synoptical
Table, the Preface, the Introduction, and the Alphabetical

Table.

The learned and philosophical author of Mithridates is
now no more, having finished a long laborious life, at the
age of 75, about a year ago. He was one of the most in-
defatigable scholars in Germany, a country already so fertile
im this class of men; he excelled in grammatical learning,
and was distinguished in several other branches of science.
Besides the excellent dictionary of his native language, which
is as much celebrated in Germany as that of Dr. Johnson ;
besides his learned and judicious works upon German phi-
lology, Adelung has published numerous and valuable
writings, both upon civil and literary history, as upon ra-
tional philosophy, physics; chemistry, and finally upon
diplomacy. See the “ Teutchland Gelehrte” of Hamberger
and Meusel, article Adelunge

Mithridates, a posthumous work, and the fruit of fifteen
years of assiduous labour, will furnish general notions uponall
the languages, and the texts of each are carefully explained.
The author has only been able to finish what concerns the
languages of Asia and those of Europe. This first part.com-
prehends the languages of Asia to the number of 159.

The second part is preparing for the ‘press, and will em-
brace all the languages of Europe. It is only by taking it
for granted that the work will be continued avd completed,
that we may flatrer ourselves with possessing in this book
every thing which ihe title promises, namely, general ideas

wpon

366 Notices respecting New Books.

upon all the known idioms, and the Pater Noster in five hun
dred languages or dialects.

We shall then be in possession, within a very narrow
compass, of the materials necessary for resolving the splen-
did problem in the author’s contemplation : we shall know
the characters and differences of each language, in order to
account for the progress, followed by reason and genius,
among the different races of mankind, for determining with
more certainty, or Conjecturing with more probability, the
origin of the idioms, and in part the history of the nations
who speak them.

It would seem, however, that besides vocabularies, or

attempts at vocabularies, in each language or dialect, three

kinds of auxiliaries would be still desirable, in order to create
or render complete the comparative science of the idioms of
the whole earth.

The first would consist in faithful pictures of all the in-
tonations and articulations of the known languages.

The second, in the different alphabets of these same lan-
guages, exactly drawn, with explanations which should an-
nounce and determine the value of each character.

The third, in order to serve as a kind of control, would
be the knowledge of all the intonations and articulations of
which the human voice is susceptible. It is thus that, in
the different artificial arranzements employed in botany, we
prefer uniting the advantages of the natural order.

But these auxiliaries are still wanting.

The first and second, with respect to the dead languages ;
because, in general these languages have several characters
and vowels aa consonants, upon the value of which the
learned are not yet agreed ; and with respect to certain lan-
guages in the a tiaed part of Asia, because the characters
of these languages are the signs of ideas, and by no means
of sounds or articulations ; aa because, when pronounced,
they give, in each of these idioms, words completely
Seiten with respect to perfectly identical ideas and
written signs: lastly, with respect even to the living Jan-
guages, and the characters. of which represent intonations.
and articulations, because, as repeatedly confessed by the

editors

Ls

Notices respecting New Books. 367

editors and interpreters of forcien alphabets, without ex-
cepting the learned sir William Jones, it is impossible to
represent in words the just value of certain characters, and
the exact intonation or articulation they express.

We'may add upon the subject of the unexplained simple
representing of the existing alphabets, that this task alone,
Which is physically possible to execute, is, however, so
tedious, laborious, and difficult, that in reality we have
nothing of this kind but monographies. The work is exe-
ented with care and success with respect to some idioms:
as to the gencrality of the known languages, there exists
searcely a single work where an attempt has been made to
collect the methods of writing it, and it is a very defec~
tive attempt, the copies of which, however, are excessively
scarce. This is called ‘* Pantographia, containing ac-
curate copies of all the known alphabets in the world; to-
gether with an English explanation of the peculiar force or
power of each letter; to which are added specimens of all
well authenticated oral languages, forming a comprehensive
digest of phonology ; by Edmund Fry, London, 1799,” in
one volume, 8vo. A German, too much led away by his
imagination, also published in 1781 a kind of panto-
graphy, but executed in a still more execrable manner : it is
a curious book, however, and is entitled ‘* Synopsis uné-
verse philologiz, in qua miranda unitas et harmonia lin-
guarum totius orbis occulta eruitur, adornata a Gothofrede
Henselio.” Norimbergz, in 8vo, one volume.

The above are the first two indications which we could
wish to see satisfied.

* The third object, which would be as much the province
of physiology as of grammar, is equally difficult with the
two others, in adouble respect. On the one hand, it seems
agreed that we cannot make known by words, 7. e. by a
clear and sufficient description, oral or written, some move-
ments of the human voice, or certain very well known and
often used effects of this organ, so mysterious in some mea-
sure, and so complicated in every respect. On the other band,
to consider even the convex and concave, the straight ard
apiral portions of this instrument only as so many straight

lines ;

368 Notices respecting N New Books.

lines: who is there so audacious, or so foolish, as to pretend
to trace the scale of all their possible divisions, to classify
and calculate all the effects of the general or partial con-
course and reciprocal influences of all these parts? What
alphabet can there be invented, to represent by simple signs
so many new and delicate ideas?) What an inexhaustible

source of contradictions and endless disputes ! Even at the-

present day our knowledge is not extended to the language
of antient ideas.

Let us ask for example, between two analogous articula-
tions D and T, which is the hard or the soft, the strong or
the weak, we shall be told without doubt that T is the
hardest; and the President de Brosses, Beauzec, &c., will
be quoted: nevertheless, upon opening the excellent Port
Royal Greck Grammar and its numerous abridgments, you
find that the T is soft; and this grammar adds, that the

consonant which is not soft, becomes so when we pro- ;

nounce it foo genily. Le Roy, in his Greek Grammar, is
also clearly of op:nion that T is soft ; and_in order to finish

the climax, a learned Greek Grammar lately printed informs »

us that soft is synonymous with bard. Upon this point, there-
fore, and upon many others, the ideas and the language are
still to be made and fixed.

This is a superfluous but a new proof of this truth, so
frequently forgotten and incessantly confirmed by expe-
rience, that the human mind js on all occasions forced to
acknowledge either irs imbecility or its uncertainty. We
find, on the subject of the alphabet, that it is often reduced,
particularly when it wishes to embrace various languages, to
content itself with approximations, probabilities, and hypo-
theses; happy if it can always avoid coutradiction and
error.

We shall see therefore without astonishment, that the
Jearned author of Mithridates has not taken the pains to
employ exotic characters, nor even to appropriate to bis
use, by necessary additions, the Roman alphabet, the only
one he employs. He was of opinion that this alphabet pro-
nounced broad as the Germans do, is sufficieut to render
in a tolerable manner the value of all the foreign alphabets.

We

Notices respecting New Books. 369
Weshall find, perhaps, that this is to content ourselves with
a too distant approximation’: the Roman alphabet, if we
renounce exotic letters, certainly agrees better with facilita-
ting some comparison of the languages with each other—
the Russian language for example—because the first prevails
among the most enlightened people in the world; but it
will only procure incomplete or inaccurate notions of the
numerous and important foreign languages, and most of
which have peculiar sounds and articulations, such as the
Roman alphabet cannot be used to express. Itis necessary,
in order to represent faithfully these languages with the letters
of the Roman alphabet, to add to this alphabet some new
characters, as the inhabitants of India, when writing the
Shanscrit, when they neglect to employ the Devanagari
characters, add certain letters to the alphabets of their Chasha
or vulgar languages, hecause the Shanscrit is generally richer
in sounds and intonations than the Chasha.

M. Volney has suggested that the Roman alphabet might
be employed for writing the languages of Asia: sce his
Methode nouvelle et facile dapprendre les langues Arate, —
Persane et Turque. Paris, 1795, in 8vo, This idea may
succeed with the assistance of the learned; it would save
Europeans much time and trouble. . An entirely new Jan-
guage has been agreed upon for chemistry : is it more difi-
eult to grant, for certain languages, an alphabet already
completely known in a great measure, and which, im time,
might become the universal alphabet of the country?

Whatever may be the imperfection which results in the
new Mithridates, from the exclusive employment of the
Roman alphabet, deprived of the additions necessary for the
comparison of languages, we admit that this book is singu-
Jarly rich in facts relative to this comparison, and that it
will be very useful even to those who possess the most
novel works of this nature. It will be particularly so to ex-

. perienced travellers, who may wish to procure a good guide in

their inquiries upon the idioms of the countries they visit.
(To be continued.]

Dr. Beer, acelebrated oculist of Vienna, has addressed
Vol. 25, No. 136,.Jan. 1808, Aa a small

370 Royal Society.

a small pamphlet to the medical gentlemen of Great Britain,
containing twenty-nine ingenious queries on the subject of
the epidemical ophthalmia, which has recently appeared in
the British army. This new contagion is as vet a stranger
in the continental armies, and the medical practitioners in
Germany and France seem to be unacquainted with its
characters,

We are happy to find that Mr. Leybourn, of the Royal
Military College, continues the publication of his valuable
Repertory of Mathematical Science. The seventh number
has made its appearance ; and it is but justice to add, that
the work has no way failed in the estimation formed of its
character.

Mr. John Clennell, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, has pub-

lished an Essay on the propriety of disclosing the secrets of
manufactories.

LY. Proceedings of Learned Societies.
ROYAL SOCIETY.

Tus Society met on the evenings of the 14th and 2@d,
when A. Marsden, esq., in consequence of the indisposition
of the president, was in the chair. A very curious paper
on Oxalic Acid, by Dr. T. Thomson of Edinburgh, was
read. It contained the results of a great variety of experi-
ments made to ascertain the relative qualities of the consti+
tuent parts of this acid, on a principle of calculation laid
down by this able chemist in the last edition of his excellent
System of Chemistry. It is impossible to convey any ade-
quate idea of the various facts detailed in this interesting
paper, in the present summary of the society’s proceedings,
as Mr. Davy’s illness has unfortunately prevented him from
attending the society, and the inexperience of the other
secretaries in reading, and their low voices, were such as to
render them scarcely audible.

SOCIETY

4
a
1
q
|
i

Antiquarian Society — Royal Institution. 371

SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES.

N. Carlisle, esq., the secretary, laid before the society some
ingenious observations on the round painted boards, con-
taining verses and figures, found in some families in Staf-
fordshire, and called rondles. A great many conjectures on
the origin and use of these round boards, about five inches
in diameter, and one fourth of an inch thick, were extracted
from the Gentleman’s Magazine; and it is supposed that
they are of the age of Henry VII. or VIIL.; that they had
been imported from Flanders, and used either as conversa-
tion cards, or wooden platters. The circumstance of their
being found chiefly in Staffordshire sanctioned this opinion,
and that they might have been the precursors of some of our
Delft ware. The poetical stanzas, written in old English
characters, supposed of the above age, are chiefly amatory,
and some of them rather indelicate : the poetry is generally
as bad as the sentiments are trifling. The figures are also
very coarse, and painted mostly round the outside, and the
verses in the centre.

ROYAL INSTITUTION.

The following arrangement has been made for the Lec-
tures of the ensuing season, which commenced on the
13th instant (January) : .

Mr. Davy, a Course on Geology.

_——- on the Elements of Electrochemical

Science.

Mr. Allen, on Mechanical Inventions.
Natural Philosophy.

Mr. Coleridge, on the distinguished English Poets, in
Illustration of the General Principles of Poetry.

Rev. Mr. Crowe, on Architecture, an extended Course.

Rev. Mr. Hewlett, on Belles Lettres, 4th Course.

Rey. T. F. Dibdin, English Literature, 3d Course.

Dr. Callcott, on German Music.
on the Music of the 18th Century.

Dr. Smith, on Botany.

Mr. Craig, on the Principles and Practice of Drawing,
Painting, and Engraving.

Mr. Wood, on Perspective.

Aag2 ROYAL

372 Gottingen Society.—The New Meials.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF) GOTTINGEN.

The Royal Society of Arts and Sciences of Géttingen has
offered a prize of 50 golden ducats, for the best Memoir on
the following subject : “«« The difference of colour remarked
between the blood of the veins and that of the arteries
having induced an opinion among several of the learned,
that the same difference exists in the blood of the embryo
in an inyerse degree ; but as experience has never confirmed
this with respect to new-born infants, the society is de-
sirous that, by researches and direct experiments upon in-
fants born of healthy mothers, (either by the instant liga-
ture of the umbilical cord at its two extremities, at the
moment of their birth, orin any other way,) it should be
determined if there really exists an imverse deflerence in the
colour of the blood ; in what it consists ; what are the con=
stituent principles of the blood of the infant ;—keeping out
of the question the acid particles, which must-be mixed with
it by the contact of the atmosphere ?”

The memoirs in answer to this question must be trans-
mitted to the society previous to September 1808.

UNIVERSITY OF GOTTINGEN.

The following question bas been announced for the sub-
ject of a prize essay, by the University of Gottingen:
«* What is the influence of the acid and other kinds of gases
upon electricity produced by friction? and what are the
relations of the other electrica] phenomena, such as attrace
tions, repulsions, sparks, &e., with the principal gases ?”
This question has been announced for two successive years ;
but the memoirs not being satisfactory, it has been renewed
for the year 1809.

LVI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.

PROFESSOR DAVY’S NEW METALS.

Tue experiments of Mr. Davy on the alkalies were re-
peated on the 14th and 28th instant (January) before the
Askesian and Mineralogical Society, with a very large Gal-
vanic apparatus of Mr. Pepys’s, consisting of 120 pairs of
plates of 36 inches surface each (containing near seven

4 hundred

‘

Professor Davy’s New Metals. 373

hundred weight of copper and zine). The solid caustic
potash was used, slightly moistened by the breath. The
metaloid obtained was highly inflammable, swam in recti-
fied naphtha, but was difficultly separated from the potash,
in which it is plentifully imbedded, after being exposed to the
Galvanic action. Water being dropped upon it, the particles
explode similarly to grains of gunpowder thrown into the fire.

The metaloid obtained from soda is not so highly inflam-
mable, and can therefore be collected more easily. A glo-
bule about the size of a small tare being thrown on paper
moistened, instantly became apparently red-hot, and, run-
ning off the surface of the paper, fell luminously through
the air.

Mr. Allen has also repeated Mr. Davy’s experiments, and
obtained both the metaloids by four troughs of fifty pairs
each of sixteen inches surface. The metaloids obtained by
Mr. Allen were exhibited by Dr. Marcet at the Theatre of
Guy’s Hospital.

Mr. Dibdin, in his introductory lecture at the Royal Insti-
tution, a few days ago, announced that some of the primi-
tive earths, as theyare called, such as Barytes and Strontian,
having many alkaline qualities, Mr. Davy was induced
to submit them to similar experiments, and has discovered
that these also consist of metallic bases, united to oxygen,
forming compound bodies analogous to the two fixed alkalies.

To Mr. Tilloch.
SIR, London, Jan. 24, 1808.

J am convinced you would not wish any mistakes to re-
main uncorrected in your excellent Magazine.

I have just read the account given in the Number for
November, of Mr. Davy’s Bakerian Lecture. Your Report,
I am sorry to say, is in some particulars not quite correct.
I was present at the reading of the paper before the Royal
Society, and I paid particular attention to the statements
of facts. >

It will be merely doing justice to the author, to mention
accurately the particulars of his important discovery.

Aa3 It

374 Napoleon’s Prize for Galvanism.

It is stated in your Magazine, that the basis of potash
is volatile at 100°. Mr. Davy’s account was, that it is
volatile at a heat a little below rednvss.’’—It is likewise said
that the amalgam of the bases of potash and quicksilver, when
applied in the circle of a Galvanic battery, dissolved iron,
silver, gold, and platina. Mr. Davy merely mentioned
that it dissolved these metals ; he said nothing that I can
recollect of the Galvanic battery.

Glass, it is said by the Reporter on the Lecture, as well
as all other metallic bodies, was dissolved by the, basis of
potash.

The real statement with regard to glass was, that the basis
of potash decomposed it by combining with its alkali, and
by forming a red oxide of less degree of oxygenation than
potash ; which oxide was likewise procured by other means.

It is stated that the specific gravity of the basis of soda is
to that of water as 7 to 10. Mr. Davy said ** as 9 to 10.”

Mr. Davy mentioned nothing about the effects of these
new and extraordinary bodies upon the phosphates and
phosphurets; but detailed some remarkable experiments on
the phanomena of their combinations with phosphorus
and sulphur. He said nothing concerning the specific gra-
vity of the amalgams of the bases of potash and soda.

As the account in the Philosophical Magazine has been
copied into many periodical publications, it is but justice to
the discoverer of these new facts to correct its inaccuracies 3
as otherwise they may be attributed to the author by those
who repeat his experiments, on the faith of the statements.

‘You will, therefore, I trust, take the trouble of inserting
this letter in your next number. I am, sir, with great respect,

your obliged humble servant,
A CHEMIST.

NAPOLEON’S PRIZE FOR GALVANISM.

The annual prize of 3000 livres, founded by the emperor
of the French for the best experiment mace in the course
of the year on the Galvanic fluid, has been decreed to Mr,
Davy, member of the Royal Society of London, for his

Memoir on the Chemical Action of Electricity.
NEW

—————

New Photometrical Telescope.—Cure for Gout. 3

~~
w

NEW PHOTOMETRICAL TELESCOPE.

Dr. Brewster of Edinburgh has invented a photometrical
telescope, the primary object of which is to ascertain the
relative brightness of the fixed stars, though it is capable of
measuring the relative intensities of all other lights. With-

out any additional apparatus, it becomes a micrometer for
measuring the distance of any two stars comprehended in
the field of view, or the angle subtended by any two lumi-
nous points.
SINGULAR CURE FOR THE GouT.

M. Cadet de Vaux, in his Journal d’Economiec Rurale,
mentions the following as a fact:

“© A lady above eighty years of age, whom I. have the
honour of knowing intimately, was attacked with rheu-
matic gout thirty years ago. It seized the whole body; her
pains were excessive ; and during six weeks the efforts of
art to relieve her were ineffectual ; when a friend of the lady
mentioned the cure of a similar disorder by drinking enor-
mous quantities of hot water, to the amount of forty-eight
glasses in the space of twelve hours. The severity of the
pains the lady endured determined her to make the experi-
ment, and she set about taking, every quarter of an hour, a
cup contaihing seven or cight ounces of hot water (not
merely warm, as this occasions vomiting, an effect that is
not required). Thirty glasses were found sufficient to re-
move the pains, as it were by enchantment. She then
stopped, and fell into a profound sleep, which she had not
enjoyed for a long time before. Nothing of the disorder
remained, except a sense of weight in one arm; but dreading
a relapse, she determined, aiter a fortnight, to repeat the
operation, and carried it on this occasion to forty glasses ;
when hunger, and a desire to sleep, put a stop to the expe-
riment. From this time the cure was complete.

‘About fifteen years afterwards, the same lady, then sixty-
five years old, had a new attack of her former disease, with
an entire loss of the use of ber limbs: she had recourse to
her former remedy of hot water, and with the same success
as before. From that time she has had no return of the
disease, and at present enjoys a good state of health.”

M. Griebel,

376 Singular Clock. —Lectures. What

M. Griebel, a watch-maker of Paris, has invented a clock
without weights, of a globular form, the dial-plate of which
is transparent, and, by means of a reflecting lamp on Ar-
gand’s construction, shows the figure to a great distance.
By a particularity of formation, neither the wheels, the
hands, nor the pendulum, cast any shadow. The light may
be made stronger or weaker, and adapted to the sick-cham-
ber, or to clocks in the most public situations ; where it
answers the purpose of a time-piece and a lamp at the same
time.

LECTURES.

On Monday, February the 2d, Dr. G. Pearson’s Course
of Lectures on the Materia Medica, Practice of Physic, and
Chemistry, will re-conrmence at No. 9, George-street,
Hanover-square, at the usual morning hours, viz.: the
Materia Medica at a quarter before eight, the Practice of
Physic at half after eight, and the Chemistry at a quarter
after nine.

St. Thomas’s and Guy’s Hospitals.

The Spring Courses of Lectures at these adjoining Hos-
pitals will commence the beginning of February, viz. :

At St. Thomas’s.

Anatomy, and the Operations of Surgery, by Mr. Cline
and Mr. Cooper.

Principles and Practice of Surgery, by Mr. Cogper.

At Guy’s.

Practice of Medicine, by Dr. Babington and Dr. Curry.

Chemistry, by Dr. Babington, Dr. Marcet, and Mr. Allen.

Experimental Philosophy, by Mr. Allen. .

Theory of Medicine, and Materia Medica, by Dr. Curry
and Dr. Cholmeley.

Midwifery, and Diseases of Women and Children, by
Dr. Haighton.

Physiology, or Laws of the Animal Giconomy, by Dr.
Haiehton. z

Structure and Diseases of the Teeth, by Mr. Fox.

N.B. These several Lectures are so arranged, that no two
of them interfere in the hours of attendance ; and the whole,
together with the Lectures on Anatomy, and those on the
Principles and Practice of Surgery, given at the Theatre of
St. Thomas’s Hospital adjoining, is calculated to form a
Complete Course of Medical and Chirurgical Instructions. —
Terms and other particulars may be learnt from Mr. Stocker,
apothecary to Guy’s Hospital.
; METEORO-

i ele

Days of the
Month.

Meteorology.

METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,

By Mr. Carey, or THE STRAND,

Thermometer.

11 0’'Clock,
Night

For January 1808.

ae

oe
ae
oro a
46°| 46°
40 | 46
48 | 5l
47 | 46
41 | 47
46 | 45
45 | 42
33 | 40
33 | 37
46 | 49
40 | 49
46 | 48
46 | 45
41 | 45
46 | 46
46 | 47
36 | 39
36 | 45
46 | 39
30 | 35
26 | 30
26 | 34
26 | 33
35 | 39
37 | 40
22 | 28
164) 27
29 | 37
35 | 39
36 | 39
28 | 35

Vets of | 3

the Barom. =

Inches. | £.% &

2 Ore

a Se
29°72 6
“78 15
"Si 10
°62 8
°45 1)
“21 12
"O02 20
“oil 15
“92 22
‘67 O
30°51 21
*45 7
ci 1)
*50 O
°30 5
29°92 12
“$0 16
72 18
7°25 10)
30°02 21
‘10 12
‘38 15
“41 10
‘02 O
29°60 18
°82 7
30°14 15
29°91 0)
‘75 5
°32 O
*30 ne)

Weather-

Cloudy
Cloudy
High windand ,
cloudy
Fair
Stormy
Fair
Fair
Fair
Fair
Rain
Fair
Cloudy
Cloudy
Cloudy
Cloudy
Fair
Fair
Fair
Stormy
Fair
Foggy
Fair
Fair
Cloudy
Fair
Small snow
Fair
Rain
Cloudy
Small rain
Fair

N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o'clock,

— EE

Egress]

INDEX tro VOL. XXIX.

ACID Muriatic, Carbonic, Sul-
- phuric, reagents for, 17 ; Mu-
riatic, sipposed formation of
by Galvanism, 19; Gallic, his-
tory of, 29; Carbonic, quan-
tity of carbon in, — 216, 315
Adams's discovery of a Mam-
moth, I4I
Ad:lung’s Mithridates. Account

of, 365
Albalies. Composition of, 180,
372

Allen on carbonic acid, 216, 315
Alum to purify, 281
Ammonia. Reagents for, 17
Animal charcoal. Exper. on, 320
Antiquaries. Society of, 183, 276,

371
Antiquities. Christian 228, Jewish
237
Architrcture, 97

Astronomy, Qt, 115, 188, 235
Barytes, a compound, 373
Bed for conveying sick or
wounded persons, _289
Bees. On the eeconomy of, 1094
Biography, 333 1295 255> 262,

F 325
Blood. Iron found in, 275
Boilers—Tube. On, 283

Bovks. Notices respecting, 171,
189, 270; 354
Botany, 85,95
Box-wood-charcoal. Ex. on, 223
Brewster’s micrometer, 48
— new photometrical
telescope 375
British Institation, 277
Buchanan’s Essay on warming
buildings, 272
Building, Proposal for a new sy-
stem of, 97

—

Canada. Statistical account of, 1
Canals. On locks for, 94
Carton, quantity of, in carbonic
acid, 216, 3:5
Carbonate of Lime. Acid in one
hundred parts, 317
Carry’s meteorological tables, 96,
192, 288, 377

Carlisle. On muscles, 275
Charcoal Animal. Exper. on, 320
Charcoal, Box-wood. Exper. on,

223
Chaulnes, (Duke de) life of, 262
Christians in India, 69, 228
Clennell on public libraries, 126
Clock, singular, 376
Coal, Experiments on combus-

tion of, 317
Cochin. State of Christians in, 69
Colours. Prieur on, II

Comet, A new one, go, 188, 285

Crichton’s bed for conveying

wounded soldiers, 289
Crystallography, 276
Cuvier on elephants, 52, 244

Darwin, (Dr.) life of, 38, 129,
, 255 325

Davy’'s discovery of the bases of
potash and soda, 180, 372
Descostils on a fulminating sil-

ver, 36
Diamond, Allen and Pepys on,
216, 315

Duncan’s proposal for a national
museum, ¥93, 296

Elephants. On living and fossil,

) 52, 244
Ether Nitric. On, 281
Eudiometer. Pepys’s new, . 116 |
Eye, On the power of, 340

Farey

ee:

INDEX,

Farey on musical temper. 345
Field’s new system of building, 97
Fluxions. On, 211
Foundry. On antient, 20, 154
Fourcroy’s chemical philos. 171
French National Institute, 85,

164, 277
Fulminating Silver. On, 36

Gall nuts. Experiments on, 29
Gait’s statistical account of Up-

per Canada, I
Galvanism. On, 19, 243, 374
Geography, 95
Gout. Remedy for, 375

Graham on starch-making, 166
Gregory’s (O.) translation of
Haiy’s Nat. Phil. 271

Hraiiy’s natural philosophy, 271
Heat, effects of, in producing

colours, 11. On gall nuts, 29
Hemp. Culture of, 7
Hindostan. Christians in, 228
Home on the functions of the

spleen, 183, 273
Hume on destroying insects, 353

India. State of Christians in, 69
Insects. On destroying, 353

Instinct. On, 8, 184
Iron found in blood, peas, eggs,
bile, urine, 207G

Iron Ores. Chrome, phosphorus
and manganese foundin, 279

Knight on the ceconomy of bees,
104

Lagrange on gallic acid, 29

Lakes. Remarks on,

Learned Socicties, 85, 180, 270,
273 379

Lectures, 286, 376

Libraries, On public,’ 126

Mammoth, Discovery of one, 141

Manuscripts. Curious, , 228
Mechanios. New power in, 351
Medicine, 375

Metals, two new ones, 180, 372

379

Metecrie Stones. Gonjectures on,
279

Meteorology, 96, 192, 288, 377

Micrometer. Brewster’s, 48

Mineralogy,

Moon, Horizontal. On,

Muscles. Carlisle on,

Museum, National.

Proposed,

193, 296
Musical Scale. On temperaments

Sal 345

Napoleon's Galvanic prize award-

ed to Professor Davy, 374
National Museum. Proposal for,
193, 296

Nitric Ether. On, 281
Optical experiments, 340
Painting. Oil used in before
1410, 276
Pasley’s construction of tele-
graphs 205, 292
Patents, 191, 286

Pepys’s new eudiometer, 116—
on carbonic acid, 216, 315
Pfaff on reagents for acids and
ammonia, 17; on supposed
formation of muriatic acid, 19
Platina foundin Europe, 278
Plumbago, Exper. with, 319
Potash proved to be an oxide of

a metal 180, 372
Prieur on light and colours, 11
Prize questions, 372
Publications, new, 171, 189,

27% 354

Reagents for muriatic, carbonic,
and sulphuric acids, and am.
monia, 17

Royal Institution, 375

Royal Society, 180, 270,273,370

Royal Society of Gittingen, 372

Schroeter on the planet Vesta,
i 11g
Seitz on antient foundry, 20,

rhe. 154
S:jver. On fulminating, 36

Smithson

350 -
Smithson ow quadruple and binary
compounds, 275
Soap made by: the heat of steam,
283
Society of Antiquaries, 183,276
37!
Societies Learned, 85, 180, 270,
2731 379

Soda discovered to be an oxide

ofa yeculiar metal “180, 372
Spleen. Home onthe, 183,273
Stanhope temperament. On, 345

Starch. On makiag, 166
Statistics. Account of Upper
Canada, I

Statues. On founding, 20, 159
Steam employed to heat build-
ings, 272; to boil soap-pans,

2572
-

3
Sirrnian, a compound, Eye)
Sulvbar.., What ? \ 240
Sulphur. ‘s, references to,» .275
Surgical cases; 83, 169,267, 3495

375
Sym@ols for the deafly-dumb, 273
Syrian churches in Andia, 229

INDEX.

Taunton's Reports of the Finsbury
Dispensary, 83, 169, 267,349
Taylor's Tueorem for the deve-
lopment of the function ¢ (4
+ x) observations on, Qt
Tilegraphs of a new construc-
tion; 205, 292
Telesc pe, photometrical, 375
Travancore. State of Christians

in, 69
Travels, 141, 190
Vaccinaticns 189,277
Vegetables, On analysis of juice

of, 281
Vesta. On the planet, 115
Vision. Properties of, 340

Walker (E.) on the horizontal

moon, 553 on the power of

the eye, 340
Walker W. onthe new comet, gt
Wasps. On the production of,

186
Wilkinsow’s improved galvanic
trough, 243

ok

*.* Our Readers are requested to supply some Orissions in

Capt. PasLey’s Communication.
In the Key of the Nocturnal Telegraph, (page 210,) the
following Numbers appropriated to the seversl Signals were

omitted to be inserted ;

For signal No. 21st, the appropriate numbers are 2, 4, 5,

For signal 298.1, B53, 4:
For signal 24th, 1, 2,4, 5,

For signal 26th, 2, 3, 4, 5.
For siznal — wh, 2>
signal “30th,

For ‘signal 93d, 1,°9,°3, 5.

For signal Q5th, 1) axe Oo
For signal o7th, 0; 1.,.@4 45
For signal ‘egth, 0, 1, 3, 4. For
1, 2,354, 5. For siznal 31st, 0:15 Syeda eon

signal 32d, 0, 1, ‘ 5. For signal 3gd, 0, 2, 3,.5.,.For

sicnal 34th, 0, 2,4, 5.

For signal

35thy) Oj elye 2, Bybee

For signal 36th, h 1,2 a For signal 37th, 0,1, 2,4, 5.
For signal 3sth, O51) i 4, 5. For signal 30th, 0, 2,3, 4, 5.
For signal 40th, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,5

In Mr. Duncan’s Paper, p. 199, for ‘ motion of any
ower” read * of any body :’’—p. 196, for ‘* Lord Wil-
jam” read ** Lord Webb.”

END OF THE TWENTY-NINTH VOLUME.

\ Printed by Luchard Jaylor end Co. Shoe Lane.

Lhil. Mag. Vol. XXX. PI.

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