am “ag t % heat ay ut ay ty wy Bare rr fox Bins ae se ae mow a ae . s ae : ae * -* 4 ty Ps = * * | 7 Ye a ‘ + > hoe > a ae oe i = irene’ + : ; i 7 6 Ve e / ‘ i wo ’ ~ - * " «, Py 7 “ of f + a . yi : . ira _ _ > a - me em omg ef ® 7 ae A z a> pe ie e 3 - > * s & ‘ : . , .: 4 . a ‘ Ye & p - ~ ” - i i” Py . ¢ = a had ‘ ‘ 4 ‘ ry pn - —— 4 “a ini“ - f : : as oe * ne ws , 5 e- P a a “h —_ va e -* ® A nw Pi “Jory - 1821. AND. JOURNAL: ia s7 COMPREHENDING es J vay : trative a i eae tnean S 5 Calculations oe aa ating 2 iclipse ‘the a whieh Hell bapa on the @ 15h “of sae . fies - . ’ 4 a ENGRAVINGS,’ eae AE : Vol. XLV. A Plate to illustrate the Nourishment produced to the Plant by its Leaves. By Mrs. Inperson.—A Plate to. illustrate Mr,” Bakewewt’s Sketch of the Arrangement of the Rocks and Strata in the ~~ Northern Counties of England.—Plates to illustrate Mr. Roserrson » BucHANAN’S Description ‘of ‘the Steam-Boats on the Clyde ; j and’ Mrs. Isserson’s Paper proving that the Embryos: of the Seeds are formed i the Root alone.—A Plate to illustrate Mr, Joun Warrers’s Improve ments in Naval Architecture —A Quarto Plate on the Roots of Plants.— _ Plate of Mr, Sincer’s Electric Columns ; Mr, Waxker’s Electrometer 5 ; Rocuon’s Apparatus for ascertaining the Heat of coloured Rays. q Vol. XLVI. Mr. T. Jones’s New Reflecting Compass.—Mr, Wootr’ Fi Patent Boiler for Steam Engines and other Purposes.—A Plate to illus+ trate Mr. Wootr’s Improvement on the Steam-Engine, ‘by which the possibility of Steam escaping past the side of the Piston is effectually pre- | vented.—A Plate to illustrate some Electrical Experiments byM.De Nexis, of Malines; with an Extension of them by Mr. Sincer and Mr. .CrossF, } —A Plate to illustrate the Electrical Experiments of M. Dz Netis 0 _ Malines,—Woo r’s improved Steam-Engine.—A Plate to illustrate Mr, _ Evans’s Paper on guiding Balloons’ thr ough the’ Atmosphere. —A Plate illustrative of Dr. Brewsrer’s Paper on Light.—A Quarto Plate to if lustrate Sir H. Davy’s Paper on the Fire-damp of Coal-Mines, and on; Methods of lighting the Mines so as to prevent its explosion ; and the Ace count of Mr, STEPHENSON’S Safe-Lamp for CoaleMines. | . Vol. XLVII. lustrated with a Quarto Plate describing the Pianr- SPHERE of DeNpERa.—A Quarto Plate to illustrate Mr. Brown’s Paper on Architecture.—A Plate to illustrate Sir Grorce Cavrey’s Paper on Aérial Navigation ; and Mr, Lonpon’s Hydrometer.—A Quarto Plate }} of the Temple of Kournou at Thebes —A Plate of the new Baths at } Ramsgate, Vol. XLVII. “A Quarto Plate of the Strand 0 or Waterloo Bridge: bcciedl ever the Thames at the Savoy, London.—A Quarto Plate to illustrate. Mrs. Inpetson’s Anatomy of Vegetables. —A Quarto Plate to illustrate” Mrs, Iszetson’s Paper on the Physiology of ‘Vegetables. —A large Quarto Plate to illustrate Mrs. Iugerson’s Paper on a new Viewof Vegetable Life, —A Quarto Plate to illustrate Mrs. Ingetson’s Paper on the Physiology of Vegetables ; and Mr. Mornay’s ‘Mass of ‘Native Iron found i in Brasil. | Vol. XLIX. A Plate to’ ‘illustrate. ‘Dr. Evans’s Communication on Terrestrial Magnetism ; a new Electro- atmospherical Tostrument; and | - Mr. Anprew Horn’s Paper. on Vision.—A Quarto Plate to illustrate | _ Mrs. Inpetson’s Physiology. of Vegetables. —A Plate to. illustrate the | Solar Spots which appeared during. ‘the Year 1816 ;—and Mr, Bevan’ s Improvement on the Sliding-Rule.—A Plate descriptive of Mr.Emmetr’s | Instrument for the + ‘Measurement of the Moon’s Distance from the Sun, | &c.;3 alsoa New Reflecting. Goniometer —A Plate to illustrate. Chev alier Baaver’s Method of communicating ‘Rotatory Motion ; ‘Lieu Sat HAm’s improved Method of working a Capstan ; and Sh 's new Mo- dification of Nootu’s Apparatus, &e. Vol. 1. A Plate to iliustrate Sir Humruey Davy? s new 7 Recaro on Flame, and Sir Georcs Cayzey’s Paper on Aérial Navigation. — A Plate representing a Section of the Pneumatic Cistern, with the com-/ pound Blow-pipe « of Mr.. Hare; and a Sketch’ of a Steam-Vessel : in- . tended to run between London aad Exeter.—Representation of Apparatus for Sublimation of Iodine—Model of a Safety Furnace by Mr, Bakeweru - —Apparatus for consuming ‘Fire-damp i in the Mine—and_ Apparatus for re-lighting the Miners’ Davy.—A ‘Plate illustrative of the New Patent Horizontal Water- Wheel of Mr, Apamson,—A Plate illustrative of Mrs Iuperson’s saa ri shales of Vegetables. —A Plate e lV) DICK em of Beacon ah Ze _ Ava UST 1821. “Publised ‘the ne Day 28 every y Month | EPRICE 2s. 64.] ‘ ‘THE “AND JOURNAL: Bs ‘COMPREHENDING ha VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, ~ THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, - an GEOL iL OGY 032s Os “AGRicunTuRE “a ) MANURACTURES AND COMMERCE ‘NUMBER CCLXXX, hw For AUGUST ipet,” <= ap oe “WITH A PLATE BY PORTER, Na ; ’ ptive sides the Bs ydrostatic Balances of Isaian ne KENS and deci pares. th mas, F.S.A. EDIN: AND PERTH 5. bo mrivonmreG! MEM=, pR+OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY - oF sciences, MUNICH; AND OF THE (capemy OF sérences, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, &e. &e. oY” ER ta RE SS se sold | ect and Divine ; i ei Hurst, Rerfl BAS RME, "Beit Ks ; Hicurer; Bil eERwoOpd and Co.; Harpine; & ia ‘Usvezwoov; hist IN: ; : and Co, Edinbargh fea Panman, peksoes xy 4 i. * a _ the Pracur or Lonpon in 1665, and Remarks on QuaRanTINE ; with — ' —AXpparatus for consuming Fire-damp in the Mine—and'Ap paratus for "This, Day is publishéd, in one-Vol.'8vo. Pricé 8s. in Boards, - ESEARCHES INTO THE LAWS AND PHAINOMENA O: § PESTILENCE; including a: Mepicat Sxzrecn and Review of a an Arrenpix, containing Extracts and Osservarions relative to the } Plagues of Morocco, Malta, Noya, and Corfu, Being the Subject of the", Anniversary Oration delivered before the Medical Society of London in # the Spring of 1820, and published by its Request. Fee By THOMAS HANCOCK, M. D: es af 1s a Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians, and one of the Physicians ‘4 to the City and Finsbury Dispensaries. »§ =, J Published by William, Phillips, George-Yard, Lombard-Sireet 5 and © sold'also by S, and A. Arch, Cornhill ; and Gyand T, Underwood, Fleet. Street. Be nen és f mo t* 4 CATON’S POPULAR REMARKS ON NERVOUS DISEASES, | " ; i ; ”™ Sey = Iate ts sare - os ee E ‘ This Day is published, Prieé 3s, 6d. | OPULAR REMARKS, Menigar and Literary, on Nervous | Desitty, Revaxation, Hyzocuonpriac and Hysrericay Dise EASES; containing ay Inquiry into the Nature, Preventioasand' Treatment # of those Diseases called Nervous, Bilious, Stomachic;and Liver Com- plaints; witl Observations on Low Spirits, and the Influence of Imagina~ | tion on these acute and distressing Diseases, &c, &c. ae ee ; By T. M. CATON, Surgeon, ome ye No. 10, Stanhope-Street, Newcaétle-Street, Stfand, late of thé unit Hospitals of St. Thomas’s and Guy’s. Sesame | Printed for, Messrs. Sherwood and Co., 20, Paternostér-Row; Neey, | 22, Change-Alley, ; and C. Chapple, 59, Pall Mall. Where may ie) had, Caron on Inprcrstion, Scroruta, and Cutranéous Disease 5 OsservaTions on Erurtive and ‘Scorsuric Pimpves of the Facr adi Sx.) Price-3s.% 7 re . , rk on Flame, and Sir Grorce Cayxey’s Paper on Aérial Navigation. A Plate representing a Section of the Pneumatic Cistern, with the con pound Blow-pipe of Mr, Hare; and.a Sketch of a Steam-Vessel im tended to run between London and Exeter.—Representation of Apparatu for Sublimation of Iodine——Model of a Safety Furnace by Mr. BaxewE ull re-lighting the Miners’ Dayy.—A Plate illustrative of the ‘New Paten Horizontal Water-Wheel of Mr, ADAMson.—A Plate illustrative of Mrs Inserson’s Theory of the Physiology of Wegetables.—A Plate to ilug trate Mr. Dicxinson’s new System of Beaconinge © = Vol. LI. -A Plate illustrative of Mr. Carer Lorrt’s Paper on th Probability, of Meteorolites being projected from the Moon.—T'w Plates: one, of Mr. H. Txrrroy's Improved Apparatus for Distillation} and another, ofthe Figures in Braptey’s Gardening illustrative of the Ag ticle on the Karerposcorr.—A Plate illustrative of Mrs, Lanerson’s’ Pale per onthe Anatomy of Vegetables; and Mr,Trepgoun’s on Revetementsqiine « Pin. BS... -< —Serrem r 1821. a No. 281, ” Published the ios Day « every Month, | [PRICE 2s, 64.] THE | PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE. AND JOURNAL: a pi “COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, es | THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, GEOLOGY, AGRICULTURE, "MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. = A — gee _ NUMBER CCLXXXL Por SEP TEMB BR tea. a WITH A PLATE vative of | « An- Ennodiction to the Knowledge oF ‘ H ‘eleenaptes? scales : HE sae ACADEMY oF scianeds, MUNICH 3 3 AND OF THE DEMY F Stel ages LITERATURE, AND “sole LEGHORN, &e, &e Ke. h “LONDON: CHARD “AND ARTHUR ie SHOB-LANE : shiny TO CORRESPONDENTS. Professor Davy ’s valuable paper has been received, and shall have | a : place in our next.. ' Dr. Reape on Refraction, and Mr.. Bane s Theorems for the 4 oo of Progressional Series, also in our next. Mr. will find what he Banca after in the Annals de Chimie 4 Tome . ae IX, : ye ~ ; This day is published, Price 4s. boards, Ait 4 ps PARENT’s MEDICAL and SURGICAL ASSISTANT, - 4 inte.ded for the Use of the Heaps of Faminies, Parocurat CLer-- - GyMeN, and others; affording familiar and popular Directions for: the ; Management of the Suppen Ivtness and various Accidents that ache 2 prompt and judicious Treatment, and will not admit the delay neces: k sary for procuring regular Advice. - ' By THOMAS AYRE BROMHEAD, MB. - Christ’s College, Cambridge. een Londor : printed and sold. by W. sane Gor Yard, Lombard. “Street. q _ Early in October will be pabhede HE SECOND PART of the FIFTH VOLUME of the TRANS- ACTIONS of the GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. ’ Published by W. Phillips, George Yard, Lombard Street. ENGRAVINGS. Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of we 1819. —A Plate illustrative of the Annular Eclipeeof the Sun on the 7th of Septe » ber next. —A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for gathering Fruit; Mr. Youne’s Mode of preparing Opium from the pope: somniferum ; 3 and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in Light which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.—A Plate de- _ scriptive of Mr. CuruBert’s improved Hydro-pneumatic A pparatus, &c. —A Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- tion, and Inflection of Light, &c,; and Mr. Cuaries BonnycastTLe’s. Communicacion respecting the Influence. of Masses of Iron on the Mati- ner’s Compass. iH Vol. LVI. A Plate illustrative of Mrs: Lanerson’ s Paper on the Phy- siology of Botany.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Hatt’s Percussion Gun-} Lock; of Dr. Kircuiner’s Pancratic Eye- Tube; and of Mr. Park’ s Mooring Blocks.—A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c.of Mr. Matam’s m- proved Gas-Meter.—-- Plate exhibiting: the Discoveries made by Capt i Parry in the Polar Sea. S| “Vor. LVII. ‘A Plate: Wustrative of Mess. rstep: and Apes’ | Electro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. PeRKIns’s Paper on_ the Com pressibility of Water.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamieson’s Marinely| ‘Thermorheter Case, and Mr. Jexnincs’s Mercurial Log-Glass——A Plates iNustratve of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatus. —A Plate’representing 2 Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re- gent’s Canal, by r. R.H. Gower ; and a | odification of Alecia netic Ap; uracus, a Mr. Tatum, Vol. LVIII. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Gaa: Tu Es’s ; Caleulations:@ the Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on thelSth of May) 1836.—A Plate descriptive of the sy pari Balances of Isat AH) Luxens ss 4 Dr. Coates. a Ocronmn 1821. ~ Published He eat Day Bees ever ery Month, | aga 2s. 6d.) oe THE q PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE ) _ AND JOURNAL: "COMPREHENDING . : THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, GEOLOGY, AGRICULTURE, oa MANUFACTURES AND oe e aes COLRURIE: OCTOBER 1821. WITH A ‘PLATE THE HOYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES: MUNICH 5 AND OF THE "ae or SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, &e. &e: a eas LONDON: ety PRINTED ‘BY RICHARD AND ARTHUR TAYLOR, SHOE- LANE? | And sold by Capexu and Davies; Longman, Hurst, Rees, pen Bhonss Howes Susxwoon Se ake ase IN Py TO CORRESPONDENTS. Observations on the Present State of Nautical Astronomy, by Mr Epe ‘4 warp Rippis, in our néxt. Dr. Mirvar on the Rose of Jericho.—Mr. Joun Muni on the Boil« ing Springs of Java, and on the Decomposition of Metallic Salts by he fagnet, have been received, and shall have an early place. _ Ak Just published, Nat Fe R, THOMAS SIMPSON’S ELEMENTS of GEOMETRY, a new Edition, in Octavo, Price 7s. in Boards, printed from a Gaye corrected by the Author, with additional Notes, and an APPENDIX, con- | taining a Description of the Analytical and Synthetical Modes of Rea-_ soning made use of by Mathematicians ; an Account of the lost Analytical _ _ Works of Euclid and Apollonius, and of the several Be rik the ‘Mo- derns to restore them. : Printed for J. Collingwood, Strand: i | Of whom may be had, New Editions of all ‘Mr, Tuomas: Simpson” 3: Mathematical Works. : ae Get IS Si ak Sa a anes ae ae Just published, Price 3]. 10s. Boards, , <= “HE SECOND PART of the FIFTH VOLUME of the TRANS- _ ACTIONS of the GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY Published by W. Phillips, George Yard, Lombard Street. ENGRAVINGS, Vol. XLIX. A Plate to illustrate Dr. Evans’s Communication on 4 Terrestrial Magnetism ; a new Electro-atmospherical Instrument ; and 4 Mr. Anvrew Horn’s "Paper on Visionx—A Quarto Plate to illustrate j Mrs. Inserson’s Physiology of Vegetables.—A Plate to illustrate the — Solar Spots which appeared during the Year 1816 ;—and Mr. Brvan’s — Improvement on the Stiding- Rule. —A Plate descriptive of Mr.Emmett’s . Instrument for the Measurement of the Moon’s Distance from the Sun, &c. ; also a New Refleeting Goniometer.—A Plate to illustrate Chevalier Baaver’s Method of communicating Rotatory Motion; Lieut, Suunp- — HAm’s improved Method of working a oe and STEELE’s new Mo- = dification of Nootu’s Apparatus, &c. 7 Vol. L. A Plate to illustrate Sir Eve ouey Davy’s new Reseanehae @ on Flame, and Sir Georce Caytey’s Paper on Acrial Navigation. — A Plate representing a Section of the Pneumatic Cistern, with the com. — pound Blow-pipe of Mr. Hare; and a Sketch of a Steam-Vessel in- tended to run between London and Exeter.—Representation of Apparatus — for Sublimation of Iodine—Model of a Safety Furnace by Mr. BAKkEweELy | —Apparatus for consuming Fire-damp in the Mine—and Apparatus for — re-ljghting' the Miners’ Davy.—A Plate illustrative of the New Patent © Horizontal Water-Wheel of Mr. Apamson.—A Plate illustrative of Mrs, | Ispersox’s Theory of the Physiology of Vegetables.—A Plate to illus . trate Mr. Dicxinson’s new System of Beaconing. 4 Vol. LI. A Plate Maatative: of Mr. Carer Lorrr’s Carer on. the | ; Probability of Meteorolites being | projected from the Moon.—Two Plates: one, of Mr. H. Trirton’s Improved Apparatus for Distillation ;— and another, of the Figures in Braptey’s Gardening illustrative of the Ars ticle on the Kareiposcore.—A Plate illustrative o Mrs. Inpetson’s Pas | per on the Anatomy of hi ings: and seopbaaioes LD’s On. arth puse a + Yor. 58. cnet Novpwner 1821. ; heen 85. ee eons ' oo pal ever ay Month - [PRICE 2s. 6d.) ~ THE. AND JOURNAL: : 3 ee |" COMPREHENDING» ) GEOLOGY, AGnicuLTuaE ‘Bo Seta t # NUMBER COLXXXI. a Bors! NO VE uM. B Bi R: 1821, — “wit a. ‘PLATE BY PORTER ; v4 Dhisivativecof Mr. Schooucrarr’s Account of the Native Cors per on the Southern Shore of Lake Superior ; and of Dr. Mr1- Observations and Experiments on the Rose of Jericho. | "BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH, LL.D. 27! ALS. FS. Ae EDIN. AND PERTH 5 COBRESPONDING MEM- & O¥AL ACADEMY or SCIENCES, MUNICH AND OF THE 1ENCES, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, On ce a . t LONDON: Tr(a, ¥ RICHARD AND. ARTHUR TAYLOR, SHOE-LANE : ies w And sahcl by: Capes and Davies; Loncman, Hurst, Rees, { \ Orme, & Brown; Hicurry; Sareaeronn; and Co,; Harpine;\ Unveawoon; Simpximand MaksHavv; London: Consrages f£ and Co. repair a8 and, Paxman, Glagow. wight TO CORRESPONDENTS, v! CURE M6 bp Mr. Starx's Remarks on Dr. Reave's Paper on Refraction, and Mr. Bussy's Ac” count of an Improved Principle of Motion, are unavoidably postponed for want o room till next Number.—Mr. Lrxson’s Description of ax Appendage to Torrt’s Blow- pipe (transmitted through Mr. Joun Murray), and Answers by Mr. Gavin INGLIS tq. Questions addressed to Naturalists, came too late for insertion in this Number, but will appear in our next.—A Description of an Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs, invented by Mr, Joxn Moore jun., has been received. ; e This day is published, Price 1s. To be continued every Saturday, : . Numer l.of - es HE FOCUS of PHILOSUPHY, SCIENCE, and ART. Wherein _ _ will be concentrated all the most valuable practical Information found dispersed through the wide range of our multifarious Journals: as well — as occasional Selections from the best foreign Authorities.—Neither Zeal, Expense nor Industry will be wanting to render the Focus an interesting , Treasure to its Patrons, _ } Pree Mie alin ae Published, for the Proprietors, by John Miller; 69, Fleet Street, and sold _ by all other Booksellers, Newsmen, &c. oe .. ON: THE LIVER AND BILIARY SYSTEM. = ACTS and OBSERVATIONS on LIVER COMPLAINTS, and “ those various, extensive, and often complicated Disorders of the Cons stitution originating from this source ; depicting the causes which lead to a morbid condition of the Digestive, Internal Organs, and Nervous Sy- stem: practical remarks on the different properties of the Biliary and ~ Gastric Secretions, and upon other important points essential to Health ¢ with an Appendix of Cases illustrative ofthe Principles of Treatment ;_ addressed equally to the Invalid as to those*of the Profession. = The Fourth Edition considerably Enlarged, Price 9s, i By JOHN FAITHHORN, M.D. “0 eR London: Printed for Longman and Co. PaternosterRow: Sold also by Constable, Edinburgh : Duncan, Glasgow ; Hodges, Dublin: and Fagg, © Swansea. Gas ASTRONOMICAL LECTURES DURING THE CHRISTMAS © Ae ale VACATION «ito ./.0% lata iad 7 oe M R. GOODACRE respectfully announces to the Ladies and Gen- tlemen of the Metropolis, that he has engaged the New THeatre Royat in the Haymarger, in which he purposes to deliver Astronomical Lectures during the month of January. It will be opened (probably on New Year’s Day) with a Probationary Lecture ; during which his Plan _ will be stated, and Specimens of his numerous Instruments and Diagrams exhibited, The receipts of the first night will be appropriated to some * charitable Institution, The Lectures will be of two different classes ;. During two Evenings in each Week, a Course beginning with first.Princi-, ples, and ascending gradually through all the different Phenomena of the Universe, will be delivered : during two other Evenings each Week the) Lectures will embrace a general view of the Science, and each, though in ‘some respects varied from any other, wiil be complete in itself, The Tes. timonials of Ministers and other Persons of eminence who know Mr. Goods acre, and have attended his Lectures, are left with Mr. Francis Westley, 10, Stationers’ Court, Paternoster-Row. Terms and other Particulars, will be announced in the Daily Papers, and in the Magazines of the next Standard Hill, near Nottingham, Dec. Ist, 1821. : Le Sn ae ry . ) - . Vor 58. ee Decemper 1821. No. 284. ‘Published the Last oa me: eve) y y Month [PRICE 4s. 64.] THE. at PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL: COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS. BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, ‘GEOLOGY, AGRICULTURE, _ MANUFACTURES AND. COMM ERCE. “NUMBER CCLEXKIV. |For: “DB: CEM BE Ri 1821. ha itiataass of the. Euiroe, engraved ey meuuage fom’ 3 fainting by Frazer ;—and a Plate by Portze, illustrative $ ha my Leeson’s bi cua to Tort’ s PIeEes BER or agi ROYAL ACADEMY ¢ OF SCIENCES, MUNICH 5 AND OF THE ‘| AC. MY OF SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, &e. &e.. ‘And sold ay YA] DELL and Donn ; ES on Reve, \ Vy Orme, & Brown sHicuuey; sone and meet Harpine;\ _ Unpsrwoon; § £ “and Co. ab - -. whole being inserted this Month. We have inserted his January Table. 4 - Harbours, Piers, Bridges, Draining, Embanking, Light-Houses, Machi- TO CORRESPONDENTS. ‘Mr. Groosy’s Communication was received too late to admit of the © The others will appear in our next. _ ENCYCLOPEDIA METRUPOLITANA. sie On the Ist of January next will be published, price 1. 1s. The Fifth Part, and the Four preceding Parts, 1/. 1s. each, ‘of A HE ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITANA.—This Work has — fallen under the Management of new Proprietors, who have made © “Arrangements for its permanent continuance upon the original Plan, and for its future regular Publication. ~ at Sn ai ea i es a et) *,* A New Prospectus will be ready for delivery in a few Days. > q Printed for J. Mawman; F. C. and J. Rivington ; Baldwin, Cradock, -and Joy ; Sherwood, Neely, and Jones; G. and W. B. Whittaker ; Ogle, Duncan, and Co, London; J. Parker, Oxford; and Deighton and Sons, — Cambridge. pri, sy ue BR nig! : ai rie ©. CIVIL ENGINEERING. © J.TAYLOR, at the Architectural Library, No. 59 High Holborn, — having purchased the remaining Copies of the REPORTS of the late | JOHN SMEATON, Civil Engineer, proposes to sell them for the present at the following very reduced Prices, viz. ee eA = REPORTS, ESTIMATES, and TREATISES, on Canals, Rivers, nery, Fire-Engines, Mills, &c. &c., with other Papers drawn up in the Course oS his Employment, 3 vols. quarto, with 74 Plates engraved by Lowry. Boards 4/. 14s. 6d.—Published at LPS feast ae MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS, comprising his Communications to. the Royal Society, 12 Plates. Quarto. Boards, 1/. 1s.—Published at 1, Lis. 6d. Re eines slat SBE) + 7 *,* The Reports and Miscellaneous Paperstogether, 4 vol x “Board $l. 10s.—Published at 8/.185,6d. teed = Sip ENGRAVINGS, «= | FAN pi we Vol. LI. -A Plate illustrative of Mr. Carpet Lorrr’s Paper on the Probability of Meteorolites being projected from the Moon.—T wo Plates: one, of Mr. H. Trirton’s Improved Apparatus for Distillation ; and another, of the Figures in Braptey’s Gardening illustrative of the Are ticle on the Kareiposcore.—A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Inperson’s Pas per on the Anatomy of Vegetables; and Mr.Trepeorn’s on Revetements, Vol. LIJ. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Uprincron’s Electrical Iné creaser for the unerring Manifestation of small Portions of the Electric Fluid.—A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Isserson’s Paper on the Fructifica: _ tion of Plants.—A Plate illustrative of the Rev, Jonn Micuext’s Theory of the Formation of the Earth.~A Plate illustrative of Capt. Kater’! Article on the’Pendulum ; and New Apparatus for impregnating Liquid: with Gases.—A Plate illustrative of Sir H. Davy’s Apparatus for Vola. tilization of Phosphorus, and Mr, Smirn’s Essay on the Structure of th ‘poisonous Fangs of Serpents =. © 0 a 7 THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL: COMPREHENDING THE VARIOUS BRANCHES OF SCIENCE, THE LIBERAL AND FINE ARTS, GEOLOGY, AGRICULTURE, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE, BY ALEXANDER TILLOCH, LL.D. M.R.1I.A. M.G.S. M.A.S. F.S.A. EDIN. AND PERTH} CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, MUNICH 3; AND OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND ARTS, LEGHORN, &c. &c. &c. * Nec aranearum sane textus ideo melior quia ex se fila gignunt, nec noster yilior quia ex alienis libamus ut apes,’ Just. Lies. Monit. Polit. lib, i, cap. 1. ‘ VOL. LVIU. ‘ & For JULY, AUGUST, SEPTEMBER, OCTOBER, NOVEMBER, and DECEMBER, 1821. iS oemueiateneeeness, ©... aceon > LONDON: PRINTED BY RICHARD AND ARTHUR TAYLOR, SHOE LANE: And sold by Caperz and Davies; Loneoman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown; Hicutery; Surrwoopv and Co.; Haxvinc; UNnER- woop; Simpkin and Marsuaty, London: ConsTas_e and Co, Edinburgh; and Penman, Glasgow. CONTENTS OF THE FIFTY-EIGHTH VOLUME. ON ihe Mean Density of the Earth... 3 - «3 On Light. #5 <5 bi I o2 or as Answers ly Dr.W. Burney to the Queries proposed by Joun Farey, Esq. Sen., in Phil. Mag. for June, respecting Shoot- ing Stars and Meteors. ate hd a 22 Remarks on the Gradation of Heat in the Atmosphere. 24 On the black Rete mucosum of the Negro being a Defence "against the scorching Effect of the Sun’s Rays. Spal On the annular Eclipse of the Sun which will happen on the 15th of May 1836; being the principal Results of Cal- culations for Greenwich and Edinburgh. .. -«- 34 Remarks on Mr. Ripp.x’s Claim to the Invention of anew Me- thod of determining the Latitude. .. ie we 0 On the magnetic Phenomena produced by Electricity... 43 True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MasKELYNE’s 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1821. -- . 90, 110, 195, 262 On the Glow-worm. Ay ate or od ae ee Remarks and Suggestions, as to the State and Progress of the Government Trigonometrical Survey, with regard to the Di- mensions, Figure and Structure of the Earth. Woe oad Hints for the approaching Harvest. .. ri vane OR On the Problem in Nautical Astronomy for finding the Lati- tude ly Means of two Observations of the Sun’s Altitude and the Time elapsed between them. .« +s oe axe On the aériform Compounds of Charcoal and Hydrogen; with an Account of some additional Experiments on the Gases from Oil and from Coal. 4 ar a oc Oo, hos On the Discovery of a North-west magnetic Pole. oe 99 Vol, 58, No, 284. Dec, 1821. a An- CONTENTS. Answer to ** Remarks on Mr. Rippue’s Claim to the Invention of a new Method of determining the Latitude.” .. 103 A Communication of a singular Fact in Natural — 105 Particulars of a Fact, nearly similar. ‘ 106 On the Use of Shot Cartridges. .. .. ng «5 Oy Report of a Committee of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, on a new Hydrostatic Balance invented by IsaraH LUKENS. ve oe ee . Pay, ie Description of a Hydrostatic Balance, by hi the Specific Gravities of Minerals may be ascertained without Calculation. 109 Notice respecting a Volcanic Appearance in the Moon, 113° The first Portion of a Catalogue of \800 zodiacal Stars. 114 On the Appearance of Meteors, Parhelia, and Prnceniaiay as Prognostics in general of Wind and Rain. .. 127,198 A Refutation of Mr. HEravatn’s Mathematical Inquiry into the Causes, Laws, Se. of Heat, Gases, Gravitation, Sc. 130, 260 Application of the Calculation of Probabilities to the ae Operations of the Meridian of France. vie 133 On promoiing the early Puberty y of Mepe and Pear Trees when raised from Seed. .. Se amity ies Contribution to the History of Bleeericiti er Ve pot honed Observations on Sir EVERARD Homr’s Paper on the black Rete mucosum of the Negro. .. ee we wy 140 On the new Method proposed by Dr. Youna for caculating the Atmospherical Refraction. .. yeahs oe TOR On Mr. Carnot’s new System of Defence of Places by ty what he calls Vertical Firing. | ae 176 On a new graphical Method of reducing the coe Distances. 178 On Shooting Stars and Meteors. es +s apt ee An Address to aPhrenologist .. ais a ves A L87 Tables of the Longitude and Altitude of the Nonagesimal De- gree of the Ecliptic. .. ba oe oo See On Mr. Ripp1e’s Claim to the Invention of a new Method of determining the Latitude. .. oe a 200 On Mr. Purxins’s Conclusions with regard to the Capbrctaiinlin CONTENTS. of Water, drawn from the Results of empty Bottles sunk to different Depths im the Ocean. : sata 201 New Determination of the Proportions of Hie Constituents of Water ; and the Density of certain Elastic Fluids... — 203 Some Experiments made with a view to the Detection and Pre- vention of Frauds in the Sale of skimmed Milk; together with an Account of a simple Lactometer for effecting that Purpose. 241 Description of a new Method of forming Crucibles. .. 247 On Refraction. .. - «. ee a han ae Process for preventing and corr age an peak ee in Wines, known by the Name of Ropiness. .. ee bascs aD4 On Napier’s Rules of the Circular Parts. .. Apr) Theorems for the Summation of progressional Series. .. 265 Proposal for an Apparatus for Flying by means of Moiion only. 268 A Demonstration of Lz GENDRE’s Theorem for solving such “spherical Triangles as have their Sides very small in Propor- tion to the Radius of the Sphere. .. : Pee 1): On the Change of Colour in Blue vegetable Colours by metallic Salis: «. Paar On the Solar i laow Bete 7th Scatember 1820. sie pee Account of a aba 26) atus for restoring the Action of the Lungs. - oe oy si “a, ah0 An Account of ie fetes of various British Standards of linear Measure. a : 280, 335 On Shot Cartridges. $3 is ae ve 288 Remarks tending to facilitate the Analysis of Sphint and Mi- neral Waters. es wet aol Observations on the present State ppiaeidahid tenet 321 On Maver’s Formula for the astronomical Refraction. 341 Account of the Native Rein on the Southern Shore of Lake Superior. ‘cm as ee ° -- 348 Observations and Bin porimantasg on ride Rose of Jer icho. 360 Concessions to Mr. Ivory. rm , aie eae mene The second Portion of a Catalogue of 1800 xediacal Stars. 367 On the Decomposition of Metallic Salts by the Magnet. — 380 Description of an Appendage to Torrt’s Blowpipe, to make it serve as a Substitule for Bruokss’s Gas Blowpipe. 01 CONTENTS. further Researches on the magnetic Phaenomena produced by Electricity ; with some new Experiments on the Properties of electrified Bodies in their Relations to conducting Powers and Temperature. - is ‘ i 406 Account of an Hydraulic Orrery on an improved Principle of Motion. es we ee ee sa oe 415 On the rolling Pendulum. .. as vs os 417 Some Observations and Experiments on the Papyri found in the Ruins of Herculaneum. .. te oi she 421 Remarks on Dr.REAvE’s Paper on Refraction. .. ve ae Thoughts on the Cultivation of Maize as a green Crop, to come in late in the Summer and Autumn. .. + .. ee 433 Answers to ‘* Questions addressed to Naturalists.’ oe 4d0 On Mr.Sourn’s Catalogue of Double Stars. .. ~. 442 True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MasKeLYNE’s 36 Slars for every Day im the Year 1822. .. yc os 469 Notices respecting New Books. .. 60, 141, 209, 296, 382, 444 Proceedings of Learned Societies. 64, 142, 217, 302, 385, 447 Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. 67, 144, 217, 805, 386, 450 Listief Patents... ..:« es .. 74, 152, 236, 313, 395, 463 Meteorological Tables, 79—S0, 159—160, 239—240, 319~— 320, 399-400, 472—473 THE THE PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE AND JOURNAL. I, On the Mean Densily of the Earth. By Dr. Cuarres Hutton, F.R.S. »: Hae the determination of the mean density of the whole terraqueous globe of our planet, is admitted to be a problem of the utmost importance to several branches of philosophy, parti- cularly to physical astronomy, and the figure and constitution of the earth; it would seem, bbe the discor dancy of the declared opinions of some eminent philosophers, that the problem is still in an uncertain state. Since the first notice of this subject by Newton in his admirable Principia, it has often been incidentally alluded to without receiving a precise determination, with the — exception of two instances only, in which it has been stated to be certainly or approximately determined by experiment, namely, in the case of the Schihallien experiment, by Dr. Maskelyne and myself; and by the Hon. Henry Cavendish, by a method invented by Mr. Michell. The former of these experiments was made by Dr. Maskelyne in the years 1774, 1775 and 1776, by means of that large moun- tain in Scotland, in measuring its dimensions, and in comparing its attraction on a plummet, with that of the whole earth on the same; the calculations on the same being made by myself, and first published in the Philos. Trans, of fhe year 1778; ; and since more correctly in the 2d volume of my Mathematical Tracts. The other experiment by Mr. Cavendish, was by observing the attraction on small pendulous balls, of two inches diameter, by larger ones of ten inches diaméter, as compared with the attrac- tion of the earth on the same. By some strange mistake, or perversion, for many years, it was customary among certain persons, to withhold the mention of my ame, with regard to the great share that I had in the ex- periment on Schihallien. But from certain complaints which I have made, some little justice has lately been awarded to ne on that head; though still it would seem with reluctance, as the Vol. 58, No, 279, July 1821, ° A2 opinion 4 On the Mean Density of the Earth. opinion is promptly assumed that the latter small experiment is susceptible of the greater accuracy, and the numbers in its result gratuitously adopted as nearer the truth than that of the former. As this is an opinion which I have never been able to bring my mind to acknowledge ; and as it is a matter of great importance in the present state of physics, I have been desirous to draw the attention of philosophers to a closer consideration of the subject ; with a view to a more deliberate and impartial decision of this point. From the closest and most scrupulous attention I can employ on this question, the preference, in point of accuracy, appears to be decidedly in favour of the large or mountain experiment, over that of the small balls. It is indeed true, that though the large mass of the mountain must yield an immensely greater force than a small ball; yet it may he said that this advantage must be balanced, either wholly or in great part, on the score of distance, as the plummet is acted on at a great distance from the centre of the mountain, while the balls are approached very near to- gether; so that the visible effects may thus be nearly equal, by the'reciprocal balancing between magnitude and distance. Hence the visible effect of the mountain, is that of the small angle of 11 or 12 seconds, by which the plummet is drawn aside from the perpendicular; thereby showing that the attraction of the earth, on the plummet, is to that of the mountain on it, as radius is to the tangent of those seconds; while, in the other experiment, the small pendulous balls are drawn aside by the large ones the space of between + and # of an inch; the distance of each ball from the middle of their connecting rod being a little more than 36 inches. The first or immediate small results of the two experiments, thus appearing so far to be about equally favourable, it will be necessary to examine the circumstances of each of them separately, that we may be able to judge more particularly of their merits; and first, of the Schihallien experiment. This experiment, it is well known, was conducted by the late astronomer royal, Dr. Maskelyne, than whom a more correct, faithful and experienced individual probably never existed. The accounts of his measures and observations, taken in conducting it, are minutely detailed in the Philosophical Transactions of the year 1775, or in my edition of the Transactions, vol. xiii. p. 702; where all the instruments and operations are particularly de- scribed in the most plain and satisfactory manner. The principal instrument was the ten-foot zenith sector; with which the me- ridian zenith distances of 43 stars, by 337 observations, were carefully taken, both on the north and south sides of the moun- tain. The medium of all these, with other necessary measures, gave a final result of 11-6 seconds, for the sum of the igeee ce) On the Mean Density of the Earth. 5 of the plumb line, on both sides of the mountain; and that in all probability within much less than half a second of the truth. Other instruments used, were the Royal Society’s: transit instru- ment made by Bird, and an astronomical clock by Shelton, which had both been provided on occasion of the observations on the transit of Venus, in 1761 or 1769. Besides these and several other instruments, one of Ramsden’s best theodolites was used, im measuring the figure and dimensions of the mountain, which was performed in the most correct manner by skilful surveyors ; so as that thence an exact model of it might ‘be made, or all its dimensions accurately taken, for computing the attraction. By only reading over the accounts of these operations (in the places before mentioned) made by means of such instruments, and im-such hands, every person must be convinced of the im- possibility almost that any error could have been committed, ca- pable of causing any scnsible inaccuracy in the conclusion of the work. ‘It remains now to deseribe the share which I bore in this im- portant business ; which consisted in taking all the measurements as above described, and from those data, calculating what must have been the exact magnitude of the mountain, what its attrac- tion on the plummet, relatively to that of the globe of the earth on the same, and what must be the mean density of the earth. These computations, which employed my daily and assiduous la- bours during the greater part of two years, are recorded in the Philosophi cal Transactions of the year 1778, and also in the 2d volume of my Mathematical Tracts. It may therebe seen that, after computing trigonometrically the bearing and distance of every point in the numerous sections of the mountain, from the two observatories, I conceived it to be divided into nearly one thousand vertical columns, of given bases and altitudes. I then computed the quantity of the attraction of all these columns, on the plummet, in the direction of the meridian, when placed at the two observatories, on both sides of the hill, where the whole effect had been observed, which attraction was thus found to be expressed by the number 88112. I then computed, from the magnitude of the earth, what must be its attraction on the same plummet, and found it expressed by the number87522720. Con- sequently, the whole attraction of the earth, is to the sum of the two contrary attractions of the mountain, as the number 87522720 to 88114, that is, as 9933 to | very nearly ; on supposition that the density of the matter in the hill, is equal to the mean density of that in the earth, But Dr. Maskelyne found by his observations, that the sum of the deviations of the plumb line, produced by the two contrary attractions, was 11°6 seconds. Hence then it is inferred, that the 6 On the Mean Density of the Earth. the attraction of the earth, is actually to the sum of the attrac- tions of the hill, nearly as radius to the tangent of 11-6 seconds; that is, as 1 to 000056239, or as 17781 to 1; oras 17804 tol nearly, after allowing for the centrifugal force arising from the rotation of the earth about its axis. Having now obtained the two results, namely, that which arises from the actual observations, and that due to the computation on the suppostion of an equal density in the two bodies, the two ratios compared, must give the ratio of their densities, and which therefore is that of 17804 to 9933, or 1434 to 800 nearly, or al- most as 9 to 5; and so much does the mean density of the earth exceed that of the hill. Consequently, if we know the density of the latter, we shall thence obtain that of the former. At the time when this computation was first printed, in the year 1778, the real density of the hill was unknown. It was only known that it consisted chiefly of very hard and dense rocks, much heavier than common stone, which is allowed to be 24 times the density of water. I then, by way of example in applying the density, multiplied 2 by 24, which produced or 44 for the den- sity of the earth, on the smallest assumption; ‘till such time as we should come to know more nearly what the real density of those rocks is: and therefore I must feel reason to complain, that this number (44) has often been stated, rather unfairly, as my final conclusion for the earth’s mean density; instead of being only the very lowest limit that might be used, till we could better learn something on that point with more certainty. But, a li- thological survey of the mountain being afterwards accurately made at my earnest request, by that excellest philosopher and geologist Mr. Playfair, the result of which was published in the Philos. Trans. for the year 1811 ; I then applied his mean state- ment of the rocks to my own calculations, which gave me the number 5 for the density of the earth; as I published in the 14th volume of my edition of the Phil. Transactions, and in the 2d volume of my Tracts. In Mr, Playfair’s account of the mountain, are given the names and nature of the several rocks that compose it, with tables or lists of their densities or specific gravities. In one table is a list of thirteen specimens of densities, contained between the numbers 2°6109 and 2:6656, the medium of the whole being 2°639876. In another table, of fifteen specimens, the densities are limited be- tween 2°71845 and 3-0642, the medium of all which is 2°81039. And the mean between these two means, gives 2°7 25 for the medium density of the whole mountain, admitting it to be” quite solid, or without vacuities, as it appears to be on the exterior surface at least. But in the calculation in my Tracts, I went even a little higher, using the number 2°75 or 23, thus 2 x 23, which gives $6 On the Mean Density of the Earth. 7 2° or 4°95 for the mean density of the earth. Or, if we assume the density of the mountain still higher, as 2°8 instead of 2°75, we then obtain 2 x 2°8 = 5:05, a little more than 5 for the earth’s density; which last number 5 I therefore fix upon in conclusion, as probably the nearest to the truth; or at least it is sufficiently large, as it is grounded on several assumptions that are most favourable for the highest result; namely, 2777714 or 22 for the density of the mountain; also £ a3 rather above the calculated ratio of the densities of the earth and mountain; and lastly, the assumption of the mountain being quite solid; though it is probable that there may be cavities in most mountains, as they are generally the production either of volcanoes or of earth- quakes. OW For all these reasons then, it is highly probable that the earth’s mean density is very near five times the density of water; but not higher. If any person should still hesitate to adopt this con- clusion, his hesitation must arise from doubts either on the data obtained by the measurements, or on the accuracy of the com- putations made from them. But if any such person attentively read over Dr, Maskelyne’s account of the measurements, in the Phil. Trans. of 1775, his doubts must be soon removed as to the data supplied by the survey of the hill, or by the astronomical observations. And as to the accuracy of my own computations, made from those data, they are fully and fairly before the public, - in the works before mentioned ; and let any person, who doubts, look over and repeat the calculations there stated, and try if he can find any inaccuracy in them. ‘The only possible ground of doubt in the measured data, must be in the observed deviation in the plumb line taken by Dr. Maskelyne ; but when we consider the accuracy of the observer, and of the instruments, and read the account of the use of them, it must be then very difficult to doubt of their accuracy. On this point it is commonly acknow- ledged, that a good observer, with the best instruments, can observe angles to a small fraction of a second. Dr. Maskelyne’s obser- vations give 1-6 seconds for the sum of the deviations of the plumb line, from a medium of between 300 and 400 observations. Now let us suppose it possible to have committed an error of four-tenths of a second in this number, and that the true num- ber should have been 12 seconds, instead of 11:6, being an error of the 29th part of the whole: This then would cause an error of the 29th part in the result ; which would reduce the density 5 to about 4°$; showing that the number 11-6 is not too small, but the contrary. Next let us assume 11 seconds only, omitting the 6-10ths, being almost the 20th part of the whole, and which therefore would give nearly 5*25 for the earth’s density, being still far below the number 5°48, as deduced from Mr. Cavendish’s experiment, 8 On the Mean Density of the Earth. experiment. Hence it appears that our result cannot be made to agree with that of Mr. Cavendish, unless our } 16 seconds be diminished to about 10°5 or 10:4, on the supposition of an error of more than a whole second in excess, in the number 11°6 se- conds; which cannot be admitted without doing great violence to the observations. Having thus failed in our endeavour to discover any error, ¢ or even suspicion of error, in the conduct or result of the Schihallien experiment; let us now turn our attention to the other experi- ment, as performed by Mr. Cavendish. And here I must at once disclaim all expectation of meeting any failing with regard to the operator himself, whom I well knew'to be a most excellent phi- losopher and mathematician, as well as a patient, accurate, and acute experimenter. The failure then, if any, must be expected from the nature of the machine, and of the calculations—From the perusal of Mr. Cavendisn’s account of the machine he employ- ed (in the Phil. Trans. of 1778, or vol. xviii, of my edition), and the nature of the arithmetical calculations, they at once appear . to be formidable and discouraging in the highest degree. The ~ machine is small, comparately with those in the former or moun- tain experiment. It is not easily to be understood, without ac- tually seeing it, though assisted with the view of the drawing of the whole, on account of the intricacy and perplexity of the con- struction. In the first place, at each end of a light wooden rod of near two yards in length, is attached a me AT leaden ball of two inches diameter; the middle of the rod being fixed to, and suspended by, a long and very slender copper wire ; by any smal! movement of these balls and the connecting rod, in a horizontal direction, by the torsion or twisting of the wire, a very minute and slow vibratory motion iscommenced. ‘To produce this small motion in the two little balls, and their connecting rod, two other large balls, of ten inches diameter, are connected together by certain machinery, at like distance -as the former, and capa- ble of being moved to different distances, or positions, on the horizontal level with the small balls. By so setting the large balls near the small ones, these are attracted by the former, pro- ducing a very small motion in them, and in consequence a very slow vibration. So minute are these motions, that the extent of the vibrations is but a small fraction of an inch, and the dura- tion of each vibration is not performed but in the time of several minutes, from 3 or 4 to near 15 minutes. So minute are these motions, that telescopes and other means are necessary to view and to estimate their quantity and durations. 'To produce these minute motions, very complex machinery is necessarily employed, while the delicate movements are watched for many hours together, during many days, and recorded with regard to the , . - = h Oe aay ea a — 7 en BANS 2 2DBPSSSSU0TAIAS som ws we SGasen y or 0@ of I * eee — ca 2 <= - ’ = Pa ‘ - == — 2 > . ¥ big: > -J & for 2. * ee ica _ UYeeir a .# a . ta ee % 2" gE Snynuuy 4° app a \ . a = ee ee AN Bee 6-05" ae ede eS > aM it ‘uate : ’ On the Mean Density of the Earth. § the extent and time of each vibration. Then, from these spaces and times, the density of the earth is to be calculated, by peculiar theorems, as compared with the vibrations of common pendulums, that are produced by the attractions of the earth. All these effects were so minute, and produced by machinery so complex, and the results calculated by theorems derived from intricate mathematical investigations, that it is impossible at first, for ordinary readers, to conceive how any accurate results can be deduced from them, and even for the more judicious reader to place confidence in them, except chiefly on account of the high character of the experimenter himself. From the nature of the machinery I could therefore derive no confidence in the results, nor compare them with the mountain experiment, without re- peating the whole of the calculations. But, after a long life spent in almost daily abstruse investigations, from the tenth year of my age, and now being at 84, and oppressed with distressing illness, 1 thought I might be excused from such atask. But after urging more than one mathematical friend, without being able to in- terest them sufficiently to engage in so severe an operation, my anxiety to accomplish the business induced me to make an ex- ertion to effect it myself; especially as the learned experimenter informs us, that he availed himself of the assistance of the then Clerk of the Society, who he says made some of the experiments, and who doubtless made most of the arithmetical computations ; operations, of both kinds, in which I remember he was also much employed by Sir Charles Blagden, and other gentlemen, in pre- paring their papers for the Royal Society. 1 have therefore re- computed all the experiments, and have traced the investigations of all the theorems ; and have found that my labour has not been in vain ; but, on the contrary, has been rewarded with the follow- ing copious list of errata, some of which are large or important. In the following instances it is to be noted, that the refer- ences are made to Mr. Cavendish’s paper, as printed in my edi- tion of the Phil. Trans., as I am not now possessed of a set of the original edition, but with which, however, I have had my own set compared and verified. Some of the Errata in Mr, Cavenpisn’s Paper. In page 399, line 10 from the bottom, for 8739000, read 8740000. Ditto, line 6 b, or from the bottom, for 8739000, read 8740000. The same also in line 5 b. Ib. line 4 b, for 10683, read 10685. The same also in line 1 b. Page 403, lines 12 and 13, for 8739000, read 8740000. Ib, line 13, for 10844, read 10847. Vol, 58, No, 279, July 1821. B Page 10 On the Mean Density of the Earth. Page 403, line 15, for 10683, read 10685. Page 404, line 11, for 185, read 186-5. Ib. in lines 15, 16, 22, 25, for 185, read 186°5. It is to be noted, that after the experitnents have been all made, and the motion of the arm carrying the small balls, and expressed in 20ths of an inch, observed and denoted by the let- ter B; also the time of one vibration expressed in seconds, de- noted by the letter N; and both of these being corrected ac- cording to certain rules there glven; then the mean density of the earth D, in each experiment, is to be computed by this theorem, viz. = a or when corrected, D = ome And by that theorem were calculated the following 29 experi- ments, as they stand recorded in the original. Table of the Results of the Experiments. | Motion of/The same| Time of | Ditto |The Den- the Arm. |corrected.|Vibration.|corrected.| sity. xperi- ments. E — | : * we ine.|20ths inc. 1 | 1432 | 13-49 5-50 2 }141 | 13-17 561 3 | 15 14.69 4-88 Adhd Able hil 5-07 rane 13-56 526 6 | 4 13-28 5°55 7131 2-95 6 54 | 536 8 | 6li ; 5-29 9 | 549: 5:58 59 im 5-65 5 98 , 5°57 303 | 29 553 59 5-71 5-62 315 | 3-03 5-29 real 5-9 r| 6 57) B44 313 | 3-00 5:34 ye 5-79 6:32 6 58 5-10 615 6 59 5:97 i ‘ia: 5:39 7 3 5-42 7 6 5 47 ae 5-63 76 5-34 1.6 5:46 Phas 5-30 716 575 . 7 3 5-68 7 3 5-85 On thé Mean Dénsily of the Earth. I The last column shows the numbers for the required density, resulting from the calculation by the foregoing theorem, being all a little above 5, excepting the third number, which is a little below 5. And immediately after, is the following remark, show- ing the author’s doubt of their accuracy; viz. ‘* From this table it appears, that though the experiments agree pretty well to- gether, yet the difference between them, both in the quantity of motion of the arm, and in the time of vibration, is greater than can proceed merely from the error of observation. As to the difference in the motion of the arm, it may very well be accounted for from the current of air produced by the difference of ternpe- rature ; but whether this can account for the difference in the time of vibration, is doubtful. If the current of air was regular and of the same swiftness in all parts of the vibration of the ball, I think it could not; but as there will most likely be much irre- gularity in the current, it may very likely be sufficient to account for the difference.” [t then proceeds: ‘* By a mean of the ex- periments made with the wire first used,”’ [viz. the first six num- bers or experiments] “‘ the density of the earth comes out 5-48 times greater than that of water; and by a mean of those made with the latter wire, it comes out the same,” &c. . Now, though the former list of errata were but small in quan- tity, yet here is one of a considerable magnitude, viz. in the me- dium of the first six experiments, said to be 5°48, which is very erroneous, the true medium being only 5°31; and it is rather curious that that medium 5:46 has been obtained, by taking the third experiment as 5°88 instead of 4°88, through mere oversight or carelessness. If this were the only error, it might perhaps be excused as a single accident; but the whole will make a very dif- ferent appearance, when we have shown that many small errors exist in almost all the numbers in the last column of the table, as resulting from erroneous calculations, in the use of the general theorem before mentioned, and evinced by a comparison of the numbers in the foregoing table, with those of the following one, derived by our calculation from the same data, and by the same theorem when corrected. B2 The 12 On the Mean Density of the Earth. The corrected Table of the Experiment Results. Motion of| Time of | Do. in |Densities arm cor. |vibr. cor. | Seconds. | correct. 20ths inc.| min. sec.| seconds. {densities. if 13-46 14 55 895 5:49 2 13-21 14 55 895 5:59 3 15°17 14 55 895 4-86 4 14-68 14 42 882 4:89 5 14-46 14 39 879 4:93 6 13-63 14 54 894 5-41 7 9:92 6 54 414 5:41 8 9 3°09 joel 421 5:29 2:96 7 3 423 5°57 10 2:95 Lad: 425 5:64 11 2:99 Vike 425 5°57 12 2:85 6 57 417 5°62 13 2:86 6 57 417 5:6] 14 DOT 6 57 417 5:40 15 2:95 6 57 417 5:43 16 2:97 6 57 417 5-40 17 2:77 6 57 417 5:79 18 3°16 6 58 418 5°10 19 3-08 6 59 419 5:26 20 3°03 rd 421 5:38 21 3:05 7 3 423 5°42 22 3:06 7 6 426 5:47 23 2:99 ad, 427 5°64 24 3:14 10 426 5°34 25 3:07 “igh, 426 5:46 26 3°17 Li 427 5:30 27 3:05 7 16 422 5°38 28 2°89 7 2 422 5:68 29 2:82 tans 423 5°85 Here the medium of the first six of these experiments is 5-19; of the other 23 experiments it is 5°43; and the mean of both these means is 5:31, instead of 5°45, as stated in the former table, being the error arising from the sum of the numerical calcula- tions. The remaining difference 0:31, about the 17th part of the whole, must therefore be ascribed to the inaccuracy of making and reading off experiments, with such intricate and inadequate machinery. I cannot conclude this paper of inquiry, without expressing a hearty wish for a repetition of the large or mountain experiment, in some other favourable situation, and with improved means, if possible. For this purpose, I shall venture just to mention an idea which has sometimes occurred to my mind, namely, that one of a On Light. 13 of the large pyramids in Egypt might profitably be employed, in- stead of a mountain, for this experiment. Such a body offers se- veral advantages for the purpose. In the first place, the mass is sufficiently large, standing on a base of about the size of the whole space of Lincoln’s Inn Fields, and of a height almost double of that of St. Paul’s steeple, or near three times the height of the Monument: then the station for the plummet, or zenith sector, could be taken much nearer the centre of the mass than on amoun- tain, which would give a larger quantity of deviation of the plum- met; then the regular figure and the known composition of the mass would yield great facilities in the calculation ofits attraction. Lastly, the deviation of the plummet might be observed on all the four sides. Should such a project take place, it wil! be best to take the stations at about one-fourth of its altitude above the base, that being the place where the deviation of the plummet would be the greatest. Finally, so favourable for such an ex- periment do those circumstances appear, and so anxious are my wishes for its completion and success; that, were it not for my great age and little health, I should be glad to make one in any party to undertake so interesting an expedition. Bedford Row, March 17, 182). Cuar.es Hutron. Il. On Light. By Anprew Ure, M.D. Professor of the Andersonian Institution, Glasgow. {Concluded from vol. lvii. p. 418.] Ill. Polarization of Light. Tus new branch of optical science, sprung from the ingenuity of Malus. It has been since cultivated chiefly by M. Biot in France, and by Dr. Brewster in this kingdom. I am happy to observe, that Mr. Herschel has lately entered the lists under very favouralile auspices. If asolar ray fall on the anterior surface of an unsilvered mirror plate, making an angle with it of 35° 25’, the ray will be reflected in a right line, so that the angle of reflection will be equal to the angle of incidence. In any point of its reflected path, receive it on another plane of similar glass, it will suffer in general a se- cond partial reflection. But this reflection will vanish, or become null, if the second plate of glass form an angle of 35° 25’ with the first reflected ray, and at the same time be turned, so that the second reflection is made in a plane perpendicular to that in which the first reflection takes place. For the sake of illustration, suppose that the plane of incidence of the ray on the first glass, coincides 14 On Light. coincides with the plane of the meridian, and that the reflected ray, is vertical. Then, if we make the second inclined plate revolve, it. will turn around the reflected ray, forming always with it thesame> angle ; and the plane in which the second reflection takes place, will necessarily be directed towards the different points of the ho- tizon, in different azimuths. This being arranged, the following phenomena will be observed. When the second plane of reflection is directed in the meridian, and consequently coincides with the first, the intensity of the light reflected by the second glass is at its maximum. In proportion as the second plane, in its revolution, deviates from its parallelism with the first, the intensity of the reflected light will diminish. Finally, when the second plane of reflection is placed in the prime vertical, that is east and west, and consequently perpen- dicular to the first, the intensity of the reflection of light is ab- solutely null on the two surfaces of the second glass, and the ray is entirely transmitted. Preserving the second plate at the same inclination to the ho- rizon, if we continue to make it revolve beyond the quadrant now described, the phanomena will be reproduced in the inverse or- der; that is, the intensity of the light will increase, precisely as i¢ diminished, and it will beconie equal, at equal distances from the east and west. Hence, when the second plane of reflection returns once more to the meridian, a second maximum of inten- sity equal to the first recurs. From these experiments it appears, that the ray reflected by the first glass, is not reflected by the second, under this incidence, whei it is presented to it by its east and west sides; but that it is reflected, at least in part, when itis presented to the glass by any two others of its opposite sides. Now, if we regard the ray as an» infinitely rapid succession of a series of luminous particles, the faces of the ray are merely the successive faces of these particles.. We must hence conclude, that these particles possess faces endowed .. with different physical properties, and that, in the present cireum- stance, the first reflection has turned towards the same sides of space, similar faces, or faces equally endowed at least with the property under consideration. It is this arrangement of its mole- cules which Malus named the polarization of light, assimilating the effect of the first glass to that of a magnetic bar, which would turn a series of magnetic needles, all in the same direction. Hitherto we have supposed that the ray, whether incident or reflected, formed with the two mirror plates, an angle of 35° 25’; for it is only under this angle that the phenomenon is complete. Vithout changing the inclination of the ray to the first plate, if we On Light. 15 we vary never so little the inclination of the second, the intensity of the reflected light is no longer null in any azimuth, but it be~ comes the feeblest possible in the prime vertical, in which it was formerly null. Similar phenomena may be produced by substituting for the mirror glasses, polished plates, formed for the greater part of trans- parent bodies. The two planes of reflection must always remain ree- tangular, but they must be presented to the luminous ray, at dif- ferent angles, according to their nature. Generally, all polished surfaces have the property of thus polarizing, more or less com- pletely, the light which they reflect under certain incidences ; but there is for each of them a particular incidence, in which the po- larization it impresses is most complete, and for a great inany, it amounts to the whole of the reflected light. When a ray of light has received polarization in a certain di- rection, by the processes now described, it carries with it this property into space, preserving it without perceptible alteration, when we make it traverse perpendicularly a considerable mass of air, water, or any substance possessed of single refraction. But the substances which exercise double refraction, in general alter the polarization of the ray, and apparently in a sudden manner, and communicate to it a new polarization of the same nature, but in another direction. It is only in certain directions of the principal section, that the ray can escape this disturbing force. The following may be regarded as the most general view of this subject. When the particles of light pass through a crystallized body, _ endowed with double refraction, they experience different move- ments round their centre of gravity, which depend on the nature of the forces which the particles of the erystal exercise on them. Sometimes the effect of these forces is limited to the above po- farization, or to the arranging all the particles of one ray, parallel to each other, so that their homologous faces are turned towards the same parts of space. When this disposition occurs, the-lu- minous molecules preserve it, in the whole extent of the crystal, and experience no more movement around their centre of gravity. But there exist other cases, in which the molecules that traverse the crystal are uot fixed in any constant position. During the time of their passage, they oscillate round their centre of gravity, with velocities, and according to periods, which may be calcu- lated. Lastly, they sometimes revolve round their own axes, with an uninterrupted movement of rotation. ‘The former is called fixed polarization, the latter moveable. In the Phil. Trans. for 1813, we have the first of a scries of very interesting papers on polarized light by Dr. Brewster. This relates 16 On Light. relates chiefly to some curious properties of agate. The plate of agate which he employed, was bounded by parallel faces, was about the fifteenth of an inch thick, and was cut intoa plane, per- pendicular to the laminz of which it was composed. When the image of a taper reflected from water at an angle of 52° 45’, so as to acquire the property discovered by Malus, was viewed through the plate of agate, so as to have its lamine parallel to the plane of reflection, the flame appeared perfeetly distinct; but when the agate was turned round, so that its laminz became perpendicular to the plane of reflection, the light which formed the image of the taper suffered total reflection, and not one ray of it penetrated the agate. Ifa ray of light incident upon one plate of agate is received, after transmission, upon another plate of the same sub- stance, having its lamin parallel to those of the former, the light will find an easy passage through the second plate; but if the second plate has its lamine perpendicular to those of the first, the light will be wholly reflected, and the luminous object will cease to be visible. In a second important communication in 1814, on the affec- tions of light transmitted through crystallized bodies, after sug- gesting that the cultivation of this department of physics may en- able us to explain the forms and structure of crystallized bodies, a prediction which he himself has since happily fulfilled, the Doctor states, that if the light polarized by agate, is incident at a particular angle upon any transparent body, so that the plane of reflection is perpendicular to the laminz of the agate, it will experience a total refraction; if it is transmitted through another plate of agate, having its lamine at right angles to those of the plate by which the light is polarized, it will suffer total reflection ; and if it is examined by a prism of Iceland crystal, turned round in the hand of the observer, it will vanish and reappear in every quadrant of its circular motion. The pencil of rays to which this remarkable property is communicated, is surrounded by a large mass of nebulous light, which extends about 7° 30’ in length, and 1° 7’ in breadth, on each side of the brightimage. This nebulous light never vanished with the bright image which is inclosed, but was obviously affected with its different changes, increasing in magnitude as the bright image diminished, add diminishing as the bright image regained its lustre. Light polarized by the agate, or by any other means, is depolarized, or partly restored to its original state, by being transmitted in a particular direction through a plate of mica, or any other crystallized body. IV. Of the Production of Light. al . . . ’ . Some philosophers refer the origin of all luminous phenomena to On Light. 17 to the sun, whose beams are supposed to penetrate, and combine with, the different forms of terrestrial matter. But we learn from Seripture, that light pre-existed before this luminary, and that its subsequent condensation in his orb, was a particular act of Almighty Power. The phosphorescence of minerals, buried since the origin of things in the bowels of the earth, coincides strictly with the Mosaic account of the creation. We shall therefore re- gard light, the first-born element of Chaos, as an independent essence, universally distributed through the mineral, vegetable, and animal world, capable of being disengaged from its latent state by various natural and artificial operations. These are 1. Friction. To this head belong electrical light, and that evolved from the attrition of pieces of quartz, even under water. 2. Condensation and expansion. If atmospheric air or oxy- gen be suddenly compressed in a glass syringe, or if a glass ball, filled with the latter, be suddenly broke im vacuo, a flash of light is instantly perceived. 3. Heat.. If air which has been heated up to 900° of Fahren., and which is in itself obscure, be made to fall on pieces of me- tal, earth, &c. it will speedily communicate to them the power of radiating light. The brilliant flame exhibited in the burning of charcoal and phosphorus, is shown, in the article ComBustion, to be merely the ignition of the solid particles of these bodies. At a certain elevation of temperature, about 800° Fahr., all solid bodies begin to give out light. The same effect is produced im vacuo by transmitting voltaic electricity through a metallic wire, To this section, we must also refer the phosphorescence of mi- nerals. This curious phenomenon seems to have been first de- scribed by Benvenuto Cellini, in his Treatise on Jewellery, pub- lished near the beginning of the 16th century. In the year 1663, Mr. Boyle observed, that diamond, when slightly heated, rubbed, or compressed, emitted a light almost equal to that of the glow- worm. The most complete account which we have of mineral phos- phorescence, is that recently given by Dr. Brewster in the first volume of the Edinburgh Phil. Journal. ‘His method of exami- nation was ingenious and accurate. He never reduced the body to powder, but placed a fragment of it upon a thick mass of hot iron, or, in delicate experiments, introduced it into the bottom of a pistol barrel, heated a little below redness. The following Table presents his Results: Vol. 58. No, 279. July 1821. CG Names ‘ 18 On Light. Colour and Intensity of f the Light. Fluor spar, Blueish-white, Yellowish, Compact fluor, Sandy fluor, White, White sparks. Calcareous spar, Yellow, Yellow. Transparent, Yellowish. Limestone from north of [reland, Phosphate of lime, Yellowish-red. Yellow. Pink, Arragonite, Dirty white, Reddish-yellow. Carbonate of barytes, |Whitish, Pale white. Harmotome, Colourless, Reddish-yellow. Dipyre, White, Specks of light. Grammatite from Glen- tilt, Corn- wall, Topaz, Aberdeenshire, ——-, Brazilian, ——.-, New Holland, Rubellite, Sulphate of lime, - of barytes, Yellow 5 Pale light. [bright. Slate colour, - strontites, |Blucish, A fragmentshone pretty - lead, Transparent, Faint and by fits. Anhydrite, Reddish, Faint light. Sodalite, Dark green, Pretty bright. Bitter spar, Yellowish, Faint white. Red silver ore, Red, Pretty bright, but flit- Barystrontianite, White, Faint. - | ting. Arseniate of lead, Yellowish, Bright white. Sphene, Bright white. Tremolite, Reddish-yellow. ‘Mica, Whitish —— from Waygatz, i Titanium sand, Feeble specks. Hornstone, Yellowish. Table spar, Dognatska,|Whitish, Yellowish. Lapis lazuli, Blue, Spodumene, Greenish, Titanite, Reddish, Cyanite, Y ellowish-white, Calamine, Brown, Augite, Green, Petalite, Reddish tinge, Blue and very bright. Aabestus, rigid, —___.____ Pretty bright. Datholite, Transparent, | Bright. TABLE con- On Light. 19 TABLE continued. Colour an Intensity of the Light. Names of the Minerals.|Colour of the Minerals, Corundum, Anatase, Tungstate of lime, Quartz, Amethyst, Obsidian, Mesotype from Au- vergne, Glassy actinolite, Ruby silver, Muriate of silver, Carbonate of copper, Green telesie, Brown, Dark, Yellowish-white, Bright. Reddish-yellow. [coal. Brilliant like a burning Very faint. Faint. Pretty bright; dirty [blue. The phosphorescence of these nine minerals] Very faint. was observed in the|Little specks. pistol barrel. Rather bright. Blue. Very faint. Pale blue, and pretty : Pega : bright. The phosphorescence of anatase is entirely different from that of the other minerals. It appears suddenly like a flame, and is soon over. Dr, Brewster found, in opposition to what Mr.Wedg- wood had stated, that exposure of green fluor spar to the heat of a common fire in a crucible for half an ‘hour, entirely deprived it of phosphorescence. Though he placed one fragment for se- veral days in the beams of a summer sun, and even exposed it to the bright light near the focus of a burning glass, he could not succeed in obtaining from it the slightest indication of phos- phorescence. The light emitted i combustion belongs to the same head. The phosphoric light of minerals has the same pro- perties as the direct light of the sun, according to Dr. Brewster. 4. Light emitted from bodies in consequence of the action of extraneous light. ‘To this section we refer solar phosphori. The most powerful of these is the artificial compound of Canton. If we mix three parts of calcined oyster shells in powder, with one of flowers of sulphur, and, ramming the mixture into a crucible, ignite it for half an hour, we shall find that the bright parts will, on exposure to the sunbeam, or to the common day-light, or to aa electrical explosion, acquire the faculty of shining in the dark, so as to illuminate the dial of a watch, and make its figures le- gible, It will, indeed, after a while, cease to shine; but if we keep the powder in a well corked phial, a new exposure to the sunbeam will restore the luminescence. Oyster shells, stratified with sulphur, in a crucible and ignited, yield a more powerful phosphorescent substance than the powder. It also must be kept in a close phial. When the electric discharge is transmitted along the surfaces of certain bodies, or a little above them, a somewhat durable phosphorescence is occasioned, which probably belongs to this division, C2 Sul- 20 On Light. Sulphate of barytes gives a bright green light, Carbonate, Do. less brilliant. Acetate of potash, Brilliant green light, Succinic acid, Do. more durable. Loaf sugar, Do. Selenite, — Do. but transient. Rock-crystal, Light red, and then white. Quartz, Dull white light. Borax, Faint green light. Boracic acid, Bright green light. Mr. Skrimshire has given an extensive catalogue of such sub- stances in Nicholson’s Journal, 8vo, vols. 15, 16, and 19. He shows that Canton’s pyrophorus yields more light by this treatment than any other body; but that almost every native mineral, except metallié ores an d metals, becomes more or less luminous after the electric explosion. A. slate from Colly Weston, Northampton- shire, which effervesced with acids, gives a beautiful effect. When the explosion of a jar is taken above the centre of a piece some inches square, not only the part above the discharging rods is lu- minous, but the surface of the plate appears bespangled with very minute brilliant points to some distance from its centre ; and when the points of the dischargers rest upon_the surface of the slate, these minute spangles are detached, and scattered about the t ble in a luminous state. 5. Light emitted during chemical changes independent of heat, or in which no perceptible heat is developed. The substances from which such light is emitted, are principally the following : Marine animals, both in a living state and when deprived of life. As instances of the first may be mentioned the shell-fish called Pholas, the Medusa phosphorea, and various other Mol- lusca. When deprived of life, marine fishes, in general, seem to abound with this kind of light. The flesh of quadrupeds also evolves light. In the class of insects, are many which emit light very copiously, particularly several species of Fulgora, or lantern- fiv; and of Lampyris, or glow-worm ; also the Scolopendra elec- trica, and a species of crab called Cancer fulgens. Rotten wood is well known to evolve light copiously, as well as peat-earth. Dr. Hulme, iu aa elaborate dissertation on this light, published in the Piil. Trans. for 1790, establishes the following important propositions : 1. The quantity of light emitted by dead animal substances, is not in proportion to the degree of putrefaction in them, as is commonly supposed ; but, on the contrary, the greater the pu- trescence, the less light i is evolved, It would seem, that this ele- ment, endowed with pre-eminent elasticity, is the first to escape from ‘the condensed state of combination in which it had been imprisoned On Light, 21 imprisoned by the powers of life; and is followed, after some time, by the relatively less elastic gases, whose evolution consti- tutes putrefaction. 2. This light is a constituent chemical principle of some bodies, particularly of marine fishes, from which it may be separated by a peculiar process, retained and rendered permanent for some time. A solution of one part of sulphate of magnesia, in eight of Ww ater. is the most convenient menstruum for extracting, retaining and increasing the britlancy of this light. Sulphate and muriate of soda, also answer in a proper state of dilution with water. When any of the saline solutions is too concentrated, the light disappears, but instantly bursts forth again from ae deck ness, by dilution with water. I have frequently made this curious experiment with the light procured from whiting. Common water, lime-water, fermentec liquors, acids even very dilute, al- kaline leys, and many other bodies, permanently extinguish this spontaneous light. Boiling water destroys it, but congelation merely suspends its exhibition ; for it reappears on liquefaction, A gentle heat increases the vividness of the phenomenon, but lessens its duration. We shall conclude the subject of Light with the following im- portant practical fact and practical problem, 1. Gount Rumford has shown that the quantity of light emitted by a given portion of inflammable matter in combustion, is pro- portional in some high ratio to the elevation of temperature ; and that a lamp having many wicks very near each other, so as mutually to increase their heat, burns with infinitely more bril- liancy than the Argand’s lamps in common use. 2. To measure the proportional intensities of two or more lights. Place them. a few inches asunder, and at the distance of - a few feet or yards from a screen of white paper, or’a white wall. On holding a small card, near the wall, two shadows will be pro- jected on it, the darker one by the interception of the brighter jight, and the lighter shadow by the interception of the duller light. Bring the fainter light nearer to the card, or remove the brighter one further from it, till both shadows acquire the same intensity; which the eye can judge of with great precision, par- ticularly from the conterminous shadows atthe angles. Measure now the distances of the two lights from the wall or screen, syuare them, and you have the ratio of illumination. Thus, if an Argand flame, and a caudle, stand at the distances of 10 feet and 4 feet, respectively, when their shadows are equally deep, we have 10+ and 4%, or 100 and 16, or 6} and 1, for their relative quantities of light.* II. An- [ 22 J III. Answers by Dr. WM. Burney to the Queries proposed by Joun Farry, Esq. Sen., in Phil. Mag. for June, respecting Shooting Stars and Meteors. Gosport Observatory, June 11, }821. Sir, — Ix answer toyour Ist Query,—I do not think that so small a portion of light as that produced by reflection from the moon to our atmosphere, when she is only ove or dwo days old, is “ suffi- cient to obscure numerous of the smallest and medium shooting Stars.” The moon at that age is too near her conjunction with the sun, and the light which she then reflects is fainter than that , reflected trom either Jupiter or Venus when they are on the me- ridian two or three hours after sunset, at which time these pla- netary lights are sufficient to produce shadows of objects on the ground ; whereas, it does not appear that the moon’s light at that age will do so: yet the rays of Jupiter or Venus, from my obser- vations, do not obscure the smallest shooting stars at a distance of 30° or 35° from them. The moon from her first to her third quarter may afford enough light to obscure the very smallest and highest of them, but not the middle-sized meteors that are formed Jow in the atmosphere. Indeed, an observation of Dr. E. D. Clarke’s is recorded in the 11th volume of the Annals of Philo- sophy, pages 273 and 4, of his having been an eye-witness to the perpendicular descent of a brilliant meteor to within 15° of the horizon, at 2 o’clock P.M. on the 6th of February 18]8, when it was opposed to the full rays of the sun in a cloudless sky. The Doctor then thought that its appearance was entirely due to the heat and light evolved during the transition of the body from the aérial form to the solid state. It was seen at Swaffham nearly at the same time ; also at Norwich and in Lincolnshire. A large meteor of an irregular shape, and perhaps of a similar quality, was also seen ii its descent, from a considerable height, apparently to the surface of the sea near St. Helen’s in the unobstructed rays of the sun at midday, by a gentleman of my acquaintance, while he was walking along the shore near Haslar hospital in June 1816. I also have registered in my Meteorological Observations, published in The Naval Chronicle, and, since the discontinuance of that work, in Gold’s London Magazine, the appearances of many brilliant meteors of the largest sort, while the moon has shone in an unclouded sky and nearly at the full. Hence it appears that the most perpendicular and unobstructed rays, of both the sun and the moon, are not capable of obscuring the largest meteors. To the 2d Query I reply,—That with a clear sky, shooting stars may be of frequent occurrence at all seasons, and in every portion of visible space. But from tolerably attentive observa- tions on them during the last four years, their number in the sum- nier mouths, compared with that in the winter, is as 4 tol. In endeavouring On Shooting Stars and Meteors. 23 endeavouring to search for a cause, we naturally attribute this to the additional heat of the air in summer, as afforded by solar influence. To the 3d Query,—I beg to say that meteors shoot in all di- rections beneath their visible altitudes ; for I have never seen any one of them ascend, except it had met with the resistance of some object on or near the ground; although I have witnessed those of the apparent size of Jupiter come down in the summer even- ings nearly to the top of my observatory. If their absolute gravity by the process of condensation be such as not to be obstructed in their motion by the resistance of the medium in which they move, the allusion to their ascension is not consistent with the known laws of gravitation. In reply to the 4th Query,—I answer that it is possible. Be- cause I have often seen the luminous tails or trains that have been left by some meteors shooting in almost a horizontal direction, full three seconds of time after the disappearance of the ignited bedies from which they had emanated. To the 5th Query,—I have only to say, that without an expe- rimental proof I should be unwilling to throw out any positive assertion, that the whole appearances of shooting stars and me- teors are referrible to one class of bodies; or, if I rightly com- prehend this question, that they are all generated by similar at- mospherical properties. Among all the ancient and modern con- flicting opinions of the cause of igneous meteors, it is to be re- gretted that we are still left in doubt, from want of experiments, which, unfortunately, appear to be beyond the reach of human ingenuity. My first object for registering the different sorts of meteors (in connexion with a variety of other atmospherical phenomena) was not purposely to ascertain their cause, but to endeavour to trace whether and what effects they would have on the weather: and I have found that they are generally succeeded by strong gales of wind, &c. but not from any particular point of the compass, as some observers have attempted to prognosticate by their di- rection, In regard to their classes, I would recommend to Mr. Farey to read Mr. Forster’s ‘* Researches about Atmospheric Phenomena,” with which, if he has not already perused that work, he will be much gratified. The meteors or balls of fire, however, that I have sometimes seen descend from thunder clouds to and near the ground during a storm, should (1 think) be classed separately from the others; as it is very probable that their embodied forms are generated by a rapid accumulation and condensation of electricity in, aud its ultimate dispersion from, the clouds positively charged. The converging aud diverging motions of insulated pith-balls suspended 24 Remarks on the suspended by fine flaxen threads from brass wires, and the electri¢ sparks drawn from insulated metallic rods during a thunder-storm, and sometimes during the passage of a nimbus, strengthen this opi- nion. I have often thought that the friction of the peculiar pro- perties of a dry portion of the air, or the gaseous exhalations from the earth (in which we may suppose the absence of electricity) , may be the cause of accensions, cr the appearance of the small and middle sort of meteors. From these considerations, does it not appear very probable, that the gaseous exhalations from the earth, and also that condensed electricities, in combination with the properties of the atmosphere, have been the natural cause of the largest and most ponderous Meéeorites that have so often, and in most situations, fallen on the earth’s surface, and from great elevations? To the 6th Query,—I answer that it may be practicable, but fear that, even in the present improving state of science, few men of equal ability and skill in the doctrine: of meteors are to be found, compared with those versed in meteorology. For with- out being possessed of a competent knowledge of the science, and of proper instruments fer the purpose, their observations would be rendered vague and erroneous. The 7th, Sth, and 9th Queries, which require time and new observation to solve, must be left unanswered for the present. However, I beg to say, with all due deference to Mr. Farey, as a former observer of atmospherical phenomena, that I cannot for a moment agree with bis opinion, that the chain of facts relating to the greatest and most conspicuous meteors, is sufficient for re- ferring all these bodies to the class of Satellitule of the Earth. This seems a new and bold idea, probably suggested to him from perusing the Chronological History of Meteorites in the 14th volume of the Edinburgh Encyclopedia; as in that article it is stated that similar meteoric appearances have formerly been seen on different nights. In all my observations on the largest sort of meteors, I have never seen any striking coincidence in their appearances and motions, that could rationally suggest the idea of their being Satedlitule of the Earth. TV. Remarks on the Gradation of Heat in the Atmosphere. By James Ivory, M.A. F.R.S. Tu E communication of heat between the earth and the atmo- sphere depends on so many circumstances, and follows laws so extremely complicated, that very little is exactly known on the subject. The alternate change of day and night; the winds pro- duced by the unequal action of the sun’s rays in different regions; the Gradation of Heat in the Atmosphere. bt the greater or less degrees of moisture that prevail, are some of the causes that have most influence, more particularly on the tem- perature of the stratum of air in the immediate vicinity of the earth. But there is a predominant cause, which makes the tem- perature continually diminish as we ascend to greater heights in the atmosphere. We allude to that property of air, by which it absorbs heat when it expands by being less compressed. A por- tion of air that has become heated at the earth’s surface, rises up- ward on account of its diminished density; as it ascends, the pressure being less, it expands and becomes colder by absorbing heat ; and hence the velocity of its ascent decreases, and it finally comes to rest when its density is reduced to that of the surround- ing mass. ‘The property which air possesses of becoming colder by rarefaction, checks the elastic force by which it tends to fly off from the earth. It operates along with gravity to make that fluid cling to the earth, and to impose a limited boundary on the atmosphere, All our knowledge of the gradation of heat in the atmosphere, is derived from observations of the barometer and thermometer made for the purpose of measuring heights. ‘The exactness of such measurements, within certain limits, cannot be questioned; be- cause they have been verified in so many instances by comparing the like results obtained by levelling and by the operations of geometry. We may therefore presume, that the principles on which is founded the rule for calculating heights by the barome- ter, are nearly correct. Hence the great improvement of this method, introduced by De Luc, of estimating the temperature of the column of air at a mean between the temperatures observed at its extremities, must be at least a near approach to the truth. This estimation is equivalent to supposing that the heat decreases uniformly from the bottom to the top of the column ; which law, if it be not rigorously exact, so covers the actual variations that they become insensible to observation. Admitting that the heat in a column of air diminishes in the same proportion that the height increases; if we knew the rate of decrease, or the elevation necessary for depressing the thermo- meter one degree, we should be able to deduce the temperature at any altitude in the atmosphere from the temperature at the earth’s surface ;~and likewise to compute the height of a column of air, from having given the temperatures at its extremities. To find the rate, we must have recourse to experiments. But a very slight attempt to determine this quantity is sufficient to show that it is extreniely variable, even in circumstances in which it is im- possible to discern any apparent difference. In 38 measurements recorded by Ramond, made in circumstances very various, from observations free from the suspicion of great errors and leading Vol, 58, No, 279, July 1821, D to 26 Remarks on the to results sufficiently exact, the quickest decrease of heat is at the rate of 61 fathoms, and the slowest, at the rate of 136 fa- thoms, to a centesimal degree. The mean rate deduced from all the 38 observations is almost exactly 90 fathoms; and we see that the extremes are different from the mean quantity, not by a small part of it, but by a half. Now, as we cannot doubt that the principle which distributes the difference of temperatures equally through the whole height of the column is nearly true, we must infer that the rate of decrease depends in a great mea- sure upon circumstauces peculiar to each particular case. In this respect causes seem to operate, which the observer is not only unable to appreciate, but even of the existence of which he has no indications. Very little confidence can therefore be placed in temperatures at different heights in the atmosphere, estimated by the rate of the decrease of heat; although the exactness of barometrical measurements is not by this means affected, the heat of the column of air being always determined by the tem- peratures actually observed at its extremities. Perhaps we may find, in the nature of the instrument with which the heat is measured, some reason for the irregular devia- tions of the observed temperatures of the atmosphere from any theoretical law. ‘The thermometer measures the temperatures only of such bodies as are in immediate contact with it. Local circumstances, impossible to be appreciated, may therefore so much affect a thermometer placed at the extremity of a column of air, as to make it indicate a temperature very different from what would take place at a medium, and when all the causes that influence the propagation of heat through its whole length, have produced their due effect. In this manner the observed may di- verge from the true temperature by a current of air in which the thermometer is placed; by the reflection of the sun’s rays from the neighbouring objects; by evaporation and the radiation of heat depending upon the nature of the soil in the vicinity, and by other causes. The rate of the decrease of heat deduced from the above-men- tioned observations of Ramond; that is, 90 fathoms to a cen- tesimal degree, or 100 yards to one degree of Fahrenheit ; seems to be the quantity most generally adopted. By means of this proportion, the temperatures that prevail at given altitudes in the atmosphere are sometimes determined with great precision, al- though in other cases the calculation is wide of the truth. Thus, taking the great height of 8817 fathoms ascended by Gay-Lussac in a balloon, the difference of temperature, at the rate of 90 fa- thoms to a degree, will be found 42°4, which is a near approxi- mation to 40°-3, the observed quantity. On the other hand, if we apply the same rule to the extreme cases in the Table of Ra- . mond, Gradation of Heat in the Aimosphere. 27 mond, we shall obtain results quite erroneous and unsatisfactory. The decrease of heat in the atmosphere, as determined by the ascent of balloons, seems to follow a slower rate than in the case of altitudes on the earth’s surface. There can be no doubt that this manner of experimenting is free from many causes of irregularity to which terrestrial observations are subject. We might therefore hope that by this means much light would be thrown on the gra- dation of heat in the atmosphere; but a sufficient number of accurate experiments are wanting to establish a conclusion in which confidence can be placed. In the case of the ascent of Gay-Lussae, we obtain a rate of nearly 95 fathoms to a centesi- mal degree, which is not extremely different from the mean found by terrestrial altitudes. If we could abstract from the many and powerful causes by which the natural and regular propagation of heat in the atmo- sphere is continually disturbed, there is no doubt that the tem- perature would decrease nearly in the same proportion that the height increases. But this must not be understood in a sense strictly literal and mathematical. If we conceive the height of a column of air to be divided into portions corresponding to the same given difference of temperature, it is much. more probable that these portions will form a progression inereasing or de- creasing slowly, than that they will constitute a series of perfectly equal increments. Such however are the anomalies attending -observations of the temperature of the atmosphere, that it is ex- tremely difficult to determine by experiment, whether the heat decreases in a less or greater ratio than the height increases. Accordingly the opinions of philosophers on this point are divided, The late Professor Playfair, in his Outlines of Natural Philosophy, supposes that the increment of altitude necessary for depressing the thermometer one degree, is a quantity continually increasing as we ascend higher. But the contrary opinion, that the heat decreases more rapidly than the height increases, is more ge- nerally prevalent; and it seems to deserve the preference, be- cause it is adopted by those philosophers, such as Humboldt and Ramond, who have more particularly directed their attention to this research. We may draw from the theory of the astronomical refractions an argument in favour of the conclusion, that the heat of the at- mosphere decreases in a greater ratio than the height increases. It has hitherto been found to be impossible to reconcile the hori- zontal refraction of the stars with the actual rate of the decrease of heat in the atmosphere. If we adopt the law of a uniform decrease of temperature, and take the rate at 90 fathoms to @ centesimal degree as found by experiment, the horizontal refrac- tion thence determined will exceed the true quantity by about a D2 minute 28 Remarks on the minute of a degree. In order to reconcile the theory with astro- nomical observations, the elevation for one degree of depression of the thermometer must be diminished by a fifth part, or rather more. If, instead of a uniform decrease of temperature, we sup-~ pose that the increments of altitude for one degree of difference of temperature form an increasing progression, the error of the horizontal refraction will be greater than before ; and, in order to correct it, the initial rate of the decrease of heat must be made still more rapid than in the former supposition. On the other hand, if we adopt the opposite law, and suppose that the incre- ments of altitude for one degree of the thermometer, form a series of decreasing quantities, the horizontal refraction will be less than it would be if the initial rate of the decrease of heat continued progressively uniform. Thus, while the two first laws are con- trary to experience, it may be possible, by making the variation of temperature according to the last supposition sufficiently rapid, so to correct the excess of refraction arising from the actual de- crease of heat at the eartin’s surface, as entirely to reconcile the theory with observation. We are indeed in possession of no so- lution of the problem of the atmospherical refractions that pro- ceeds upon the supposition mentioned 3, but, in the present state of our knowledge, the argument is not less conclusive in favour of the law, that the heat of the atmosphere decreases in a greater ratio than the height increases. Professor Leslie, of Edinburgh, has given a precise and mathe- matical theory of the variation of heat in the atmosphere. If 6 denote the height of the mercury in a barometer at the lower of two stations, and § the like height at the upper one; then, ¢ be- ing the difference of temperature in centesimal degrees, we have this relation between the quantities, viz. a5 (4). This formula was first published in 1811, in ‘the notes to the second edition of the author’s Geometry, p. 495. In the article Cximare in the Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica, it appears in a form somewhat different, the ratio of the densities at the extremities of the elevation, being substituted for that of the barometrical pressures. Strictly speaking, the two ratios are not equivalent ; because at the top of the column the tempera- ture is always less than it is at the bottom, and the density of a mass of air depends both on the pressure and the temperature ; but, as in all the examples adduced in the article CLiMaTE, the density is estimated by the pressure alone, it seems to have been the author’s intention to make no distinction between the two formule, However Gradation of Heat in the Atmosphere. 29 However highly we may esteem the ingenuity and sagacity displayed in the experimental investigation of the formula, it seems hardly possible to ascertain, from that process alone, the degree of confidence that ought to be placed in its accuracy. The circumstances attending the experiments are such as to make it more wonderful that the author has been able to deduce from them a result at all conformable to nature, than one of a doubt- ful character only, and requiring to be confirmed by comparing it with actual observation. The decision to which such a com- parison has led seems to be this; that the formula is pretty ac- curate for small elevations, but that, in the case of greater, it determines the difference of temperature considerably above the truth. It agrees with observation at the earth’s surface ; but, as we ascend in the atmosphere, it makes the increments of altitude corresponding to a given difference of temperature decrease too swiftly. On account of the great simplicity of the formula, it would be very useful in many researches, if its claim to accuracy were esta-~ blished in a satisfactory, manner. It would, for instance, supply a desideratum in the problem of the atmospherical refractions, for which purpose indeed it has already been applied. Having entertained the idea of comparing it with the common method of calculating heights by the barometer, I find that by this means a criterion may be obtained that will enable us to form a correct opinion on the point in question. Using the same letters as before to denote the barometrical pressures at the bottom and top of a column of air, the height of which in fathoms is equal to 2; and neglecting the correction depending on temperature as unnecessary in the present inquiry, we get by the usual rule, 10000 x log. = ag In this formula the logarithms are eval the common sort; and, as the ratio of the common to the hyperbolic logarithms is that of Re to 10000, we have 10000 x les: % = 4343 x hyp. log. = —; wherefore, Fi b Hyp. log. | re ee For the sake of abridging, ie C= a ; then, c being the base of the hyperbolic logarithms, we fuhaly et these equations, Viz. * Professor Playfair’s Outlines, § 341, p. 247, vol. i. Hyp. 50 Remarks on the Gradation of Heat in the Atmosphere. Hyp. log. = = an, b ak =¢ a B — Sista ciate B é and, by expanding in a series, b Bio § arg Z-petawx git A If we allow 90 fathoms of altitude to every centesimal degree of decrease of temperature, which is the rate adopted by Pro- fessor Leslie himself, we have « = 90 x ¢; wherefore, + &e. — 5 =180.at x {142 x (90.at)*+ &e. But 180@ = 57> = 0414 = < nearly; and 90a = -0207 2 = jp nearly; and hence, 25(2-+)=4 x fl4— x (55)? + &es Now, for small differences of temperature, the series on the right-hand side may be considered as equal to unit, and then we get 95 b p = 1, which is no other than Professor Leslie’s formula. The accuracy of the Professor’s theory is therefore confirmed for moderate ele- vations ; but then it is proved to be equivalent in such cases to the more simple law of a uniform decrease of heat, the only dif- ference being, that the barometrical pressures are used instead of the altitudes to which they belong. In the case of great altitudes, and considerable differences of temperature, the series will be no longer equal to unit, and the formula will diverge from the theory of barometrical measurements. Thus in Gay-Lussac’s ascent, é being about 40°, the difference of the two methods will be about 4° or 5°, or a tenth of the whole, the Professor’s formula being farther from the truth. In reality the difference will be greater, because it is augmented by the correction for temperature in the barometrical formula, which has been neglected in the foregoing investigation. It would be easy to supply this defect, but it ap- pears hardly necessary. It has been sufficiently proved, that for moderate elevations Professor Leslie’s formula is equivalent to the law of a uniform decrease of heat, and that in great altitudes it On the black Rete mucosum of the Negro. 31 it is equally at variance with observation and the theory of ba- rometrical measurements. It is extremely probable that, in regard to the astronomical re- fractions, Professor Leslie’s formula will be found to be equivalent to the law of a uniform gradation of temperature in the atmo- sphere, the rate at which the heat decreases depending upon the constant coefficient. If this conjecture shall turn out to be just, it must be allowed that the introducing of the formula can have no other effect than to lead off the attention from the true prin- ciples and the real difficulties of the problem. July 5, 1821. J. Ivory. N. B. The readers of the Philosophical Magazine are desired to read sin. A for sin. in the formula at p. 406 of the last Num- ber. V. On the black Rete mucosum of the Negro being a Defence against the scorching Effect of the Sun’s Rays. By Sir EverarD Home, Bart. F.R.S.* To ascertain the use of the black colour of the rete mucosum in the Negro, has occupied the attention of many physiologists ; and I confess that this subject formed the first investigation in which I ever engaged. Fruitless, indeed, were my attempts; and when I learnt that black surfaces absorbed heat, and raised the temperature several degrees beyond any others, I] gave the matter up in despair. Two years ago my attention was again called to this inquiry, upon being told by our late excellent President, that a silver fish, in a pond at Spring Grove, during a very hot sum- mer, immediately after some trees by which the pond was shaded were cut down, was so much exposed to the sun’s rays as to have its back scorched, the surface putting on the same appearance as after a burn, and rising above the scales of the surrounding skin. I saw the fish several times, and directions were given to send it to me when it died ; but I was not so fortunate as'to receive it. This extraordinary circumstance brought to my recollection one not less so. In crossing the Tropic in April 1781], at twelve o'clock at noon, in a voyage to the West Indies, I had fallen asleep upon deck, lying upon my back, having a thin linen pair of trowsers on, and I had not slept half an hour, when [ was awakened by the bustle attending the demand of forfeits on cross- ing the Line, and found the inside of the upper part of both thighs scorched, the effects of which have never gone off: but till now 1 could not imagine how it happened, always suspecting it to be * From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 192), Part I. the 32 On the black rete mucosum of the Negro. the effect of the bites of insects; but I never satisfied myself upon that subject. The effect of the sun’s rays apon the fish under water, led me to suspect the mixture of light and heat to be’ the cause of this scorching effect. 2 To ascertain the truth of this opinion, I made the following experiments. Exp. 1.—In August 1820, I exposed the back of my hand to the sun at twelve o ‘clock, with a thermometer attached to it, an- other thermometer being placed upon a table, with the same ex- posure, That on my hand stood at 90°, the other at 102°. In 45 minutes blisters rose, and coagulable lymph was exuded, which became vascular under my eve: the pain was very severe. Exp. 2.—1 exposed my face, my eyelids, and the back of my hand to water heated to 120°: in a few minutes they became painful; and when the heat was further increased, I could not bear it. Exp.3. —I exposed the backs of my two hands to the sun’s rays, with a thermometer upon each; the one hand was uncovered ; the other had a covering of black cloth, under which the ball of the thermometer was placed. After ten minutes, the degree of heat of each thermometer was marked, and the appearance on the skin examined. This was repeated at three different times, The ist time the thermometer under the cloth 91°, the other 85° 2d time SI Ucmsdeh et Niel ge ie, JOSS0 2 dO od time ainay copenicaeinn asic Wie Snlas eh OO Sn eae In every one of these trials the skin was scorched that was un- covered; the other had not suffered in the slightest degree; there was no appearatice of perspiration on either hand. Exp. 4.—The back of a Negro’s hand was exposed to the sun with a thermometer upon it, which stood at 100°; at the end of ten minutes the skin had not suffered in the least. Exp.5.—During the eclipse of the sun on September 7, 1820, 1 exposed the back of my hand to the rays concentrated by a double lens of half an inch focus, at three different periods of the eclipse. When the heat to a thermometer was 75”, that is from 47 to 57 minutes past one o’clock, the concentrated rays felt warm, but gave no pain, although applied for ten minutes. When the heat to a thermometer was 79", that is at 15 mi- nutes past two o *clock, the concentrated rays in four minutes gave pain; in five minutes blistered the skin, ‘and produced: dots of coagulable lymph, which became vascular under the eye. When the heat to a thermometer was $2°, that is at half past two o’clock, the concentrated rays in three minutes gave pain ; in four, the part was blistered, and the pain could not longer be endured. ® Exp. a being a Defence agains! the Sun’s Rays. 33 Exp. 6.—September 8, 1820, at eleven o’clock, the heat in the sun 90°; the concentrated rays applied to my naked arm produced a vesicle. This experiment was repeated when the heat was 84°, and in seven minutes a blister formed on the arm. Exp. 7.—September 9th, eleven o’clock, the thermometer in the sun at 90°. The concentrated rays applied to a piece of black kerseymere cloth, made tight round my arm for 15 minutes, gave no real pain, and left no impression whatever on the skin, al- though the nap of the cloth had been destroyed. This experiment was repeated with white kerseymere, the heat at 86°; in 15 minutes a blister was formed. Repeated with Irish linen, the thermometer 86°. In 15 mi- nutes a blister was formed, and coagulable lymph thrown out, which had become vascular. The same experiment was made with a white handkerchief loose upon the hand, the heat 83°, In 15 minutes an inflam- matory blush was produced over a surface of several inches ex- tent, which almost immediately disappeared on withdrawing the hand from the sun’s rays. Exp. 8.—September 12th. The sun’s heat at noon 85°. The concentrated rays applied to the back of the hand of a Negro from Grenada, for 15 minutes, produced no visible effect; at the first moment he felt a stab going inwards, but that went off, and afterwards he had no pain. From these experiments, it is evident that the power of the sun’s rays to scorch the skin of animals is destroyed when ap- plied to a black surface, although the absolute heat, in conse- quence of the absorption of the rays, is greater. The same wise providence which has given so extraordinary a provision to the Negro for the defence of his skin, while living within the tropics, has extended it to the bottom of the eye, which otherwise would suffer in.a greater or less degree when exposed to strong light; the retina, from its transparency, allowing it to pass through without injury. That the nigrum pigmentum ‘is not necessary for vision, but only provided as a defence against strong light, is proved by its being darker in the Negro than the European, and being of a lighter colour in fair people than in dark, and therefore lightest in those countries furthest removed from the effects of the sun. In the monkey it is dark, and in all animals that look up- wards, In all birds exposed to the sun’s rays the ni igrum pigmentum is black. In fishes, the basking shark, which lies upon the sur- face of the ocean, has a nigrum pigmentum, The turbot and skate, which lie upon banks of sand in shallow water, have ni- grum pigmentum. Vol, 58. No, 279, July 1821. E In 84 On the annular Eclipse of the Sun In ail ruminating animals and birds of prey, there is a lucid tapetum at the bottom of the eye. The owl, that never sees the sun, has no nigrum pigmentum. The mackarel has the bottom of the eve lucid as quicksilver. The coup de soleil, met with in the West Indies, the effects of which I have seen, I attribute to the scorching effect of the sun’s rays upon the scalp. The Egyptian ophthalmia I consider to be the effect of the sun’s rays, and the glare of reflected light. I have stated the fact of the scorching power of the sun’s rays being destroyed when they are applied to black surfaces, but have not gone further. Sir Humphry Davy, to whom I showed these observations, immediately explained it. He said the radiant heat in the sun’s rays was absorbed by the black surface, and con- verted into sensible heat. VI. On the annular Eclipse of the Sun which will happen on the \5th of May 1836; being the principal Results of Cal- culations for Greenwich and Edinburgh. By Mr. GEorcE INNEs. Aberdeen, May 15, 1821. Sir, — Taz great solar eclipse of April 1, 1764, after four Chaldean periods, will return again on the 15th of May 1836. It will then be very great to all Europe, and in Great Britain it will be more interesting than any that has happened since 1793, as also than any that will happen before it. Like the eclipse of 1793, it will be annular in Scotland, but not at Greenwich. The calculation of the general eclipse, the track of the central path of the annulus, its boundaries and extent, I shall reserve for a future communication, In the mean time, I send you the elements for projection and calculation, as also the results of the principal steps of calculations for Greenwich and Edinburgh. I once intended to send you the calculations at large, but after collecting the whole process into a quarto manuscript, I find that it could not be conveniently printed in octavo. In making a projection of this eclipse for any particular place, it will be found that the times and digits eclipsed may be deter- mined with almost as great accuracy as the method of projection admits of; the path of the moon, and those of the parallels of latitude, being nearly parallel to one another about the time of greatest obscuration ; whereas in that of September last, they iormed nearly the greatest angle possible. The following elements are obtained from the Solar Tables of Delambre, and the Lunar Tables both of Burckhardt and Burg. In calculating for Greenwich and Edinburgh, 1 have used the Tables of Burckhardt, The t® ‘ ra) 6 EF 1's FZ1G FI 2S‘6P 3 66°Ch Z or OF B 11‘9F % oo"9on Re CO‘OF % 8hOF S 69°69 6B 99°6¢ a 6&0 08 980 = 86°69 63 100 = LL Lb SZ 6F IP co°es FS £0°FS : iy Lo) ¢ : zoe < org = vey ¢ 8h FE 0% ZS 99° 2 69°0% Skok 19°61 3 820 ¢L°9S O1 Z LI‘IP W'd 86-69 9 & | IN'd OF‘ Pr q ] “Sing yo 1% “3 *JIGlO OALJL[aI 9u} UL UNG sy WO WOOP] OY) JO UOTOM AIeIOF] Pr G .°? ae io: ee “Soudtjaa oYs YUM YIqlo VAIQV[ar ay} JO a[zuy I “ va oe ‘s o, ‘+ Gajaueipiuias [eyuOZLI0Oy ——— ia +" = ‘Sutmoyfoy anoy ay} 10F —— z +°° ahs ‘Sutpavaid Inoy at} 4oy ——————— 4 ae ** ‘Syonsunfuos so yueysut oy) ye apne] ut uoNEWW Aseroy ——— 62 wins sci ‘SUIMOTJOJ ANOY at} AOJ ——. 0g = “ ‘Sutpaoaid anoy aly sof a og “f ‘uorjounfuo0d jo jueiur aly qe opnysuoy ut uonout Lueroy ——— CZ ie pi he ae ‘Sursvasout “yqiou aprgiqey £¢ =a = she Pe = ‘xujpeaud jequoztioy eLtoyenbs s,100 yy E5208 EE PP a eS NE De eee ae eee Cl oe oe ee ee ee oe ee “tajoueipimas ee, ord = a ** *Bursvasour Suoteutpep ut — a Le ace os oe os ** — *gotsuaose yySsu wt — — j ae i “e We as ** apnySuoy ur uonou Areroy —— ee ee ee ee oe ae ee xejjeaud [equUoZWoy ——S 7c BI ae oo oe oe oe ee oe you uolQeulpep 06 co °° 2 a 7 sis ns :” WOIsUadSE YF sung hers 1°. ee xoutnba ans} ay} Woy yoxa Suoopy pue uNg ayy Jo apnytsu0'T re ca ee Be ** aul jo UoNENba ayy jo asvasoap Arei0}y OL Z st amy zuasvddo ous aoteHy > LLL9S 2+ ‘aun juasvddn 0} uvaw yo uoeaby § se. ** + ae ‘ue] Avpy “yormuaary ye uONoUNfuos oAdtpe so ou ULazy / Hf asoyn Susu fq ang | “LAUVH MOANA JO asoq} yA Suoye sarquy, s.ayaWvIAG Sursn Aq PeUlE}GO ST SpUSUII|G SY, 36 Ou the annular Eclipse of the Sun From the preceding Elements, as calculated from the Tables of Delambre and Burckhardt, the following data are obtained. : ’s hor. mot. | » 's 3 hor. mot. ’s epRepenvieael : in long. ase in me tong h , " , uv ! ul tere u 0 10 41,226) 30 5,61 | 15 2,805} 53 42 14,34 0 40 41,212) 30 3,16 | 15 1,58 | 53 57 17,145 1 10 41,198} 30 1,41 | 15 0,705} 54 12 18,725 1 40 41,184] 30 0,36 | 15 0,18 | 54 27 19,43 Conj. 2 10 41,17 | 30 0,01 | 15 0,005} 54 42 19,6) 2 40 41,156) 29 59,66 | 14 59,83 | 54 57 19,44 3 10 41,142) 29 58,61 | 14 59,305] 55 12 18,745 3 40 41,128] 29 56,86 | 14 58,43 | 55-27 17,175 4 10 41,114] 29 54,41 | 14 57,205} 55 42 14,38 4 40 41,1 29 51,26 | 14 55,63 | 55 57 10,01 5 10 41,086} 29 47,41 | 14 58,705| 56 12 3,715: ; ’s hor. mot. | )’s % hor. mot. ’s os gent oe : a ahie i ao lat. tatitnde. h , u D u D a ! “ 9 10 41,226) 2 47,44 1 23,72 20° 7,65 0 40 41,212; 2 47,02 1 23,51 21 31,35 1 10 41,198} 2 46,72 1 23,36 22° 54,86 1 40 41,184| 2 46,54 1 23,27 24 18,22 Con}. 2 10 41,17 2 46,45 1 23,24 25 41,49 2 40 41,156; 2 46,42 1 23,21 ZY vASE 3 10 41,142} 2 46,24 1 23,12 28 27,82 3 40 41,128} 2 45,94 1 22,97 29 50,79 4 10 41,114; 2 45,52 1 22,76 81 15,55 4 40 41,1 2 44,98 1 22,49 32 36,04 > 10 41,086} 2 44,82 I 22516 33 58,2 Sparen time. Sun’s longitude. Sun’s At. 0 10 41,226 | 54 37 30,71 52 15 37,42 0 40 41,212 54 38 42,935 52 16 51,48 1 10 41,198 54 39 55,16 52 18 5,54 1 40 41,184 04 41 7,885 52 19. 19,6 Cony. 2 10 41,17 04 42 19,61 52 20 35,66 2 40 41,156 64 45 31,835 52 21 47,72 3 10 41,142 54 44, 44,06 52°23 157% 3 40 41,128 54 45 56,285 52 24 15,84 4 10 41,114 04 47) «8,51 52.25 29,9 4 40 41,1 54 48 20,735 52 26 43,96 5 10 41,086 54 49 32,96 52 27 58,02 Sun’s half hourly motion in longitude, 1” 12"3225 in RL Yd, oe el ea In which will happen on the 15th of May 1836. 37 In procuring the preceding table of general data, I have used the method given by Professor Vince in his Astronomy, vol. iii. p. 52, for finding the horary motions in longitude and latitude, before and after the time for which the places are calculated. Mr. Vince remarks that this method is not perfectly correct, but sufficiently so for the longest eclipse. I am inclined to think it far from probable, that in any case, even when the moon is in her perigee, the half hourly change of her motion can vary in four hours in the ratio of 3,5, 7,9. In the example given by Mr. Vince, the equation of the second order in longitude is 1-24; from which, applying the arithmetical progression, we find that the horary motion at two hours preceding, is increased by 11’"16, and, at two hours following, diminished by the same quantity. Now, suppose the instant for which the places are calculated from the tables, to be an hour before the moon is in perigee; the horary motion will in this case increase for the first hour which follows, and then, having arrived at its maximum, it will begin to decrease. In such a case, therefore, I am at a loss to see how the above method could hold good. I have been induced to solicit the attention of your valuable correspondents to this point, from a hope that some of them will have the goodness to give, through the medium of your Maga- zine, some easy, and at the same time more accurate method of applying the equation of the second order, both in longitude and latitude. The following table exhibits the results of the principal steps of the calculations for Greenwich and Edinburgh. The times marked on the tops of the columns are the instants assumed. The line marked © contains the Sun’s longitude. —— A the Sun’s right ascension. »)) the Moon’s true longitude. L the Moon’s true latitude. R the right ascension of the meridian. ———_——— H ——— the altitude of the nonagesimal. N P p D the longitude of the nonagesimal. the parallax in longitude. the parallax in latitude. ——— the appar. diff. of long. of the © and ). —————— a the Moon’s apparent latitude. —_—-———— _ § —— the Moon’s apparent semidiameter, the Moon’s apparent motion in 60” of time. eS the errors from the instants as- sumed, where — shows the inst. too early, and’+ too late. The On the annular Eclipse of the Sua ‘98.9 Gb “Ub Ve asdipogy ayy Jo pug 690°Ze+ I’ N POtIZ 9s‘9S -O€ 66°sz Lz Lo'tr 6€ L‘08 €F SI1 062 -6% 6¢ SOL Zé ZI 160'ZPp GE coro 6S ¢¢ GEs‘ES 9% ZG GOS‘OS SFG 460'\h fr PV t y aB‘si+ 28°€@ 16°SS PI ‘NGOS ¢ 9a°ts OS €0'b% LZ ze‘6s 6e— o% €€ STII 1'sg 18 6¢ | 52 2%. STi} E8e'rr ZTE OOS‘ IS OF ZS | LOO'IF SF F wt ~ q “pus du} 10,7 "LOWE £5 UE 3 fuog juoreddy | esp PIU Ie surdoq asdyogy ayy ‘souayy Fro‘6S 89 ¢o¢ | Z6Z‘8F 2¢6°Ze 8F.rs | Zos‘st GO: Late €1‘0t— : CLIT = €P.8¢ INSZ IS € ‘N87‘6z tL ZO'T €1‘O% OS‘TE GSS OZ‘I€ Ig‘le ¢E— 19°S@ Git .cz 66 1'¥Z% oce Lr 19 EOE 60S SI €0l P8P s1s‘s 62 FEO‘! gt s¢ | Z2e SI eZs‘e€e €% ZS | FOP‘IS CF obs COI gst" Ip &% € gel Ip 4 ‘uotjounfuos yuareddey ayy 104 "yoUNUaale) L0f UG1ZDINI]OD ay 17'0— (4 cS) - 1Z‘0@ ww PI €r‘O SI S € S§ 80°97 ‘SOF‘6z B 060s Os €9‘Il 1€ a G% OES GS QL‘E% SZ d 6e— Zr'Ot SG— If‘Z €o— d #1 66 o‘el Ze €8 ‘ZG Lo €8 N 8h 19 Colt ls 100 (ll a imo Oe af € ‘0! 8‘II Oo I8 ¥'6 St OS U 6z GLO‘LG £Z 66Z'FS FZ “lt SI ¢¢ Zp‘Ol FE FS | FOF‘Or EE FS 4 6% 7G | IOI‘¥S OI Ze | SsGO‘TS GI ZS Vv St ofS | GO‘Ih If.hS | T8O‘°8S IF.Fo | O ZOE SZI‘Ip FS I SsZi°lp g¢ I / y uv / Y uf / Y “Suuursaq oy} 10.7 il happen on the 15th of May 1836. 39 . a v which w . "ESUET GS UP We osdrpgy oy} JO pug opst + Eo Gr 6a+ G8‘°ES 61% O6°SS FI ‘NFO @ ‘'NFISS @ *§ oC erZ¢ OF 19°EE OF coh oad OY 0 60‘8t O€ 61‘ZT OF ZOOS 8% 8c. gf&— co‘ss sEé— z9°0S 64— 6'r €9 SOI O‘OL SF SOT c‘6r ce S6 ¥CS ES GG €‘8r og SG F909 ge Lg O°SE FS SIT zee 6 SII Z‘8t 1% 86 G80‘ST TE EEECT TE CEFR 8% 1zs‘or s¢ se | ZeG‘or FS SS | SZEfsT SI SS SSO'FE OZ TS | ZOCIE OF ZS | ZOS‘Ql E@% ZS SOLSIL Shoko | Z60°8 Bors | SOS'8S FF .FE ZOL'SS €% §. | TOES ZF | 6Sitee € toe he Fey OSE ¥ q “pus 043 toy oot *s 8‘ZI coe Or‘6S 82 cO'rr O— eos e% S6 sor ce Lg z‘or.9 s6 OO‘IF SZ GOO‘SF FI ¢s ETI'FL €% GE 260'0S Ph obs GEr'es & € ” U ple GUE Ie worjounfuoy juareddy a Le‘rI— ZO'1G os‘s¢ S FI‘0% Le'Fl ¢o'6S webs + 6F OSI L 6ST 0‘8E Ze0‘st SGO‘LT 60‘E¢ 8EI'ZS sal Sz 6t— e1 ¢6 oe 2g 1g 26 S@ PI S¢ €% TS tr oVG iat / U “squeqsut ¢ Sursn ‘929 ‘conounfuoa yuasedde ays 109 ‘10% 9G UL W sulseq asdipoy ayq “eoueyy GZ OI+ rs Z6°1¢ CO'EI Zea Ze‘té OSG FOF OFF S61 ‘Sr oorGOr SIS‘IF zS0'6z 6L1°GS - os 6% og Ta 18 61 Zg¢ zs OL FZ 1g #¢ 61 &¢ If obS ge I U ovVr— £0‘0@ Z1‘O ‘Sg eS‘SE CEFE COSC €1°Ze o*se 6 LF OF €TF‘OF ZOF‘OL 6rs‘6e chrOO% 621 ‘tS “ ro) tu Gt S Vv B os a 6z d ot— d cs osi N st Z¢i H ZIVDLA U VE | ie Foi € 61 cot V tr.#s¢ } © ce I / y ‘SuruaiSaq 943 10,7 ssaqgny, eqisinbas lig “4p GF Bl any 1 ‘SUOT puv LZP 9G oS “IT P2Ata8] £ySanquipy 4of uoi7n7n9} 09 ay. T, 40 Remarks on Mr. Riddle’s Claim to the Inveniion The other results may now be readily obtained, and in one view they are as follows, apparent time : At GREENWICH The eclipse begins at = 5. ww we we 1854 42",87, PM. Greastest obscuration, .. «. «+ «+ 3 22 44,15 — Apparent conjunction, .. .. «2 «- 8 23 36,67 End pf the eclipse, .. «. +. cvs: va ot Ad 6,36 Digits eclipsed at greatest obscuration, 10°28 58,45 on the north part of the sun’s disc. The moon will make the first impression on the sun’s disc at 131° 39’ from his vertex on the right hand. At EpInBURGH The: eclipse ‘bezins-at —- ... ss ee 36 45,01 P.M Beginning of the annulus, ba tee fo LORIE Apparent conjunction, .. .. «6, «- 3 231,47 End of the amulus, Se tet Bee ee 8 4 BSS End of the eclipse, oes 9, on, 0 wef 0 AO Ose Digits eclipsed during the annulus, .- 11°83 20,74 Breadth of the annulus on the sun’s north limb, 110,36 —_—_—_____-__——_—__— on the sun’s south limb, 33,14 Proportion of the sun’s dise obscured qanng the annulus .. AeA wane ge 0 GOURD The moon will ee the first i impression on the sun’s dise at 152° 221 from his vertex on the right hand. As { am anxious to determine the error of the Astronomical Tables by means of the observations made on the late solar eclipse, I should be much obliged to you, or Dr. Burney, to com- municate, through your Magazine, the latitude and longitude of Dr. Burney’s Observatory at Gosport. I am, dear sir, yours respectfully, To Dr. Tilloch. Gro. INNEs. VII. Remarks on Mr. Rippxe’s Claim to the Invention of a new Method of determining the Latitude. Edinburgh, June 8, 1821. Sir, — As an article by Mr. Edward Riddle has been inserted in the Philosophical Magazine for May 1821, which appears to me to contain insinuations totally unfounded, I beg leave to ar a few words in reply. General Brisbane having been abroad for some tine expresses himself as follows, in his Memoir on the Repeating Circle, Edin- burgh Philosophical Transactions, vol. ix. Part I, page 97, &e. and read in February 1819. “¢ Having of a new Method of determining the Latitude. Al “ Having had frequent opportunities, during my residence in France, of seeing a great many repeating reflecting circles, several of which I observed with, and having found much consistency in the results deduced from observations made with them; it oc- curred to me, that if I could engage Mr. Troughton to execute one for me, it would be a most perfect instrument.” This was done, it appears from the General’s memoir, previous to the 8th of November 1817, and since, the latitude deduced is about 50° 20. We believe the observations had been made in France. The General pays a just tribute to Mr. Troughton as an artist, and then adds, “I beg to be permitted to be a little more particular than I otherwise should, as to the manner I have pursued in cal- culating and deducing the latitudes from the instrument, as it is not by any méans as yet generally known in England, although I have no doubt that when quite understood it wil be found to surpass all other instruments of its size, for simplicity and accu- racy; and I am desirous that amateurs may profit from the ex- perience I have had for some years of its utility.” “In the communication which,” says he, page 101, ‘I had the honour to submit to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, on the sub- ject of ascertaining time with accuracy, and which was read on the 2d of February 1818,” [and it may be added, printed in 5 and which Mr. Riddle acknowledges having seen in his commu- nication, page 364, vol. Ivii. Phil. Mag.,] ‘* I intimated my in- terition, if that was deemed worthy of a place in the ‘Transactions, to transmit a memoir on the repeating circle, which I now beg leave to lay before them,” &c. Here then it appears that General Brisbane had been in the habit of using this method, and had also published it before Mr. Riddle had said any thing about it, and the memoirs which fol- lowed were merely a continuation of the same, or a somewhat similar method. Ih the mean time Mr. Riddle says he thought it probable (and we are bound to believe him) that his method was the very same as that intimated by General Brisbane, and lays claim to the invention as a new method of determining the latitude. ‘* The method of General Brisbane is more like mine,” says Mr. R. “than I was likely to anticipate, as it is absolutely the same both in principle and in all its practical details.” In- deed Mr. R. has alreddy told us, page 364, as soon as Ge- neral Brisbave’s method for ascertaining time came to his know- ledge, that their methods were the same; and I[ must take Mr. R.’s word of honour that he practised that method before, or at the time General B. published his method; otherwise I should likely have insinuated that he (Mr. R.) did not practise this method till General Brisbane made it public, which seenis to have induced Mr. R. to publish this method of ascertaining Vol. 58. No. 279, July 1821. F the 42 Method of determining the Latitude. the latitude immediately afterwards. But this would reverse the claims! Mr. R. finds that the theorems of correction are pre- cisely the same. We beg leave to remark, that there is a typo- graphical error in the denominator of the first factor of the first term in General B.’s formula, which he telis us with an honest frankness he got from Delambre. This however is corrected in the second line below, though one still remains in the second term in both places. As Mr. R. says the two are the same, his of course partakes of the same error, which we wonder much he has not corrected! ‘* But,” says Mr. R. on the subject of the theorem, “ | dare say neither of us fancies he has made any dis- covery.” I do not know what Mr. R. may at some future period be tempted to think, but sure am [ that General B. can think no such thing, when he tells us from whom he got it. We may ob- serve, too, that the method of observing both upper and under imbs has been long practised at Greenwich. “ Though the absolute identity,’ says Mr. R. [erroneous for- mula and all, I suppose] “in every particular is, to say nothing else, a very curious circumstance, I have no reason to believe that General B. has availed himself of any thing that I have done on the subject, notwithstanding the publication of my letter took place long before his communication was written.” [General B,’s example is for November 8, 1817.] We do not know what to make of this sentence. It is certain General B, never supposed it a new discovery, but one he had received from the continental observers, and is substantially the same as those detailed at large by Baron Zach; also in the Base du Systéme-metrique; and by Delambre in his Astronomie, tome il. page 247, 248, &c.; which creates some surprise that Mr. R. ever thought of claiming it as a discovery,—for General Brisbane does no-such thing, but merely wishes to draw the at- tention of his countrymen to that method of observing. Mr. R.’s surprise at Dr. Brewster’s conduct might perhaps be lessened, if he would look into the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, article RE- PEATING CIRCLE, we think (for we quote from memory), where he will find several tables the same as General Brisbane’s, with their description and use in astronomical and geodetical obser- vations. Dr. Brewster’s object in both cases is to bring the me- thod into more general practice in this ccuntry, though it is not absolutely new. I have extended this letter far longer than the importance of the subject seemed to demand; for the assertions or insinuations contained in Mr, R.’s paper, can only mislead the ignorant, either real or intentional, but can have no effect whatever on the character of individuals blamed in it. I have the honour to be, dear sir, yours, To the Lditor of the Phil. Mag. Y coe 4 VIII. On the magnetic Phenomena produced by Electricity; in a Letter from Sir H. Davy, Bart. F.R.S. to W.H. Wox- Laston, M.D. P.R.S.* My DEAR Sir,— Lux similarity of the laws of electrical and magnetic attraction has often impressed philosophers ; and many years ago, in the progress of the discoveries made with the Vol- taic pile, some inquirers (particularly M. Rittert+) attempted to establish the existence of an identity or intimate relation between these two powers; but their views being generally obscure, or their experiments inaccurate, they were neglected: the chemical and electrical phenomena exhibited by the wonderful combination of Volta, at that time almost entirely absorbed the attention of scientific men; and the discovery of the fact of the true con- nexion between electricity and magnetism, seems to have been re- served for M. Cérsted, and for the present year. This discovery, from its importance and unexpected nature, cannot fail to awaken a strong interest in the scientific world ; and it opens a new field of inquiry, into which many experimen- ters will undoubtedly enter: and where there are so many ob- jects of research obvious, it is scarcely possible that similar facts should not be observed by different persons. The progress of science is, however, always promoted by a speedy publication of experiments ; hence, though it is probable that the phenomena which I have observed may have been discovered before, or at the same time, in-other parts of Europe, yet I shall not hesitate to communicate them to you, and through you to the Royal Society. * From the Transactions of the Royal Society, for 1821, Part [. + M. Ritter asserted that a needle composed of silver and zinc arranged itself in the magnetic meridian, and was slightly attracted and repelled by the poles of a magnet ; and that a metallic wire, after being exposed in the Voltaic circuit, took a direction N.E. and S.E. His ideas are so obscure, that it is often difficult to understand them; but he seems to have had some vague notion that electrical combinations, when not exhibiting their elec- trical tension, were in a magnetic state, and that there was a kind of electro- netic meridian depending upon the electricity of the earth_—See Ann. de Chimie, t. \xiv. p. 80. Since this letter has been written, D. Marcet has been so good as to send me from Genoa, some pages of Aldini on Galvanism, and of Izarn’s Manual of Galvanism, published at Paris more than sixteen years ago. M. Mojon, senior, of Genoa, is quoted in these pages as having yendered a steel needle magnetic, by placing it in a Voltaic circuit for a great length of time. This, however, seems to have been dependent merely upon its place in the magnetic meridian, or upon an accidental curvature of it; but M. Romagnesi, of Trente, is stated to have discovered that the pile of Volta caused a declination of the needle; the details are not given, but if the general statement be correct, the author could not have observed the same fact as M. CErsted, but merely supposed that the needle had its mag- netic poles altered after being placed in the Voltaic circuit as a part of the electrical combination, F2 I found, 44 On the magnetic Phwenomena I found, in repeating the experiments of M. Qérsted with a Voltaic apparatus of one hundred pair of plates of four inches, that the south pole of a common magnetic needle (suspended in the usual way) placed under the communicating wire of plati- num, (the positive end of the apparatus. being on the right hand,) was strongly attracted by the wire, and remained in contact with it, so as entirely to alter the direction of the needle, and to over- come the magnetism of the earth. This I could only explain by supposing that the wire itself became magnetic during the pas- sage of the electricity through it, and direct experiments, which 1 immediately made, proyed that this was the case. I threw some iron filings on a paper, and brought them near the com- municating wire, when immediately they were attracted by the wire, and adhered to it in considerable quantities, forming a mass round it ten or twelve times the thickness of the wire: on break- ing the communication, they instantly fell off, proving that the magnetic effect depended: entirely on the passage of the electri- city through the wire. I tried the same experiment on different parts of the wire, which was seven or eight feet in length, and about the twentieth of an inch in diameter, and I found that the iron filings were every where attracted by it; and making the communication with wires between different parts of the battery, I found that iron filings were attracted, and the magnetic needle affected, in every part of the circuit. It was easy to imagine that such magnetic effects could not be exhibited by the electrified wire without being capable of perma- nent communication to steel. I fastened several steel needles, in different directions, by fine silver wire to a wire of the same metal, of about the thirtieth of an inch in thickness and eleven inches long, some parallel, others transverse, above and below, in different directions: and | placed them in the electrical circuit of a battery of thirty pairs of plates of nine inches by five, and tried their magnetism by means of iron filings: they were all magnetic: those which were parallel to the wire attracted filings in the same way as the wire itself; but those in transverse direc- tions exhibited each two poles, which being examined by the test of delicate magnets, it was found that all the needles that were placed under the wire (the positive end of the battery being east) had their north poles on the south side of the wire, and their south poles on the north side; and that those placed over, had their south poles turned to the south, and their north poles turned to the north; and this was the case whatever was the inclination of the needles to the horizon. On breaking the connexion, all the steel needles that were on the wire in a transverse direction retained their magnetism, which was as powerful as ever, whilst those which were parallel to the silver wire appeared to lose it at the same time as the wire itself, ch ng 5 ee at= produced by Electricity. 45 I attached small longitudinal portions of wires of platinum, silver, tin, iron, and steel, in transverse directions, to a wire of platinum that was placed in the circuit of the same battery. The steel and the iron wire immediately acquired poles in the same manner as in the last experiment ; the other wires seemed to have no effect, except in acting merely as parts of the elec- trical circuit; the steel retained its magnetism as powerfully af- ter the circuit was broken as before; the iron wire immediately lost a part of its polarity, and in a very short time the whole of it. The battery was placed in different directions as to the poles of the earth; but the effect was uniformly thesame. All needles placed transversely under the communicating wires, the positive end being on the right hand, had their north poles turned to- wards the face of the operator, and those above the wire their south poles; and on turning the wire round to the other side of the battery, it being in a longitudinal direction, and marking the side of the wire, the same side was always found to possess the same magnetism; so that in all arrangements of needles trans- versely round the wire, all the needles above had north and south poles opposite to those below, and those arranged vertically on one side, opposite to those arranged vertically on the other side. I found that contact of the steel needles was not necessary, and that the effect was produced instantaneously by the mere juxta-position of the needle in a transverse direction, and that through very thick plates of glass: and a needle that had been placed in a transverse direction to the wire merely for an instant, was found as powerful a magnet as one that had been long in communication with it. I placed some silver wire of =! of an inch, and some of —,, in different parts of the Voltaic circuit when it was completed, and shook some steel filings on a glass plate above them: the steel filings arranged themselves in right lines always at right angles to the axis of the wire; the effect was observed, though feebly, at the distance of a quarter of an inch above the thin wire, and the arrangement in lines was nearly to the same length on each side of the wire. I ascertained by several experiments, that the effect was pro- portional to the quantity of electricity passing through a given space, without any relation to the metal transmitting it: thus, the finer the wires the stronger their magnetism. A zinc plate of a foot long and six inches wide, arranged with a copper plate on each side, was connected, by a very fine wire of platinum, according to your method; and the plates were plunged an inch deep in diluted nitric acid. The wire did not sensibly attract fine steel filings, When they were plunged ‘hag . inches, 46 On the magnetic Pheenomena inches, the effect was sensible; and it increased with the quan- tity of immersion. Two arrangements of this kind acted more powerfully than one; but when the two were combined so as to make the zine and copper-plates but parts of one combination, the effect was very much greater. This was shown still more distinctly in the following experiment. Sixty zine plates with double copper-plates were arranged in alternate order, and the quantity of iron filings which a wire of a determinate thickness took up observed: the wire remaining the same, they were ar- ranged so as to make a series of thirty; the magnetic effect ap- peared more than twice as great; that is, the wire raised more than double the quantity of iron filings. The magnetism produced by Voltaic electricity seems (the wire transmitting it remaining the same) exactly in the same ratio as the heat; and however great the heat of a wire, its magnetic powers were not impaired. This was distinctly shown in trans- mitting the electricity of twelve batteries of ten plates each of zinc, with double copper arranged as three, through fine pla- tinum wire, which, when so intensely ignited as to be near the point of fusion, exhibited the strongest magnetic effects, and at- tracted large quantities of iron filings and even small steel needles from a considerable distance. As the discharge of a considerable quantity of electricity through a wire seemed necessary to produce magnetism, it appeared pro- bable, that a wire electrified by the common machine would not. occasion a sensible effect; and this I found was the case, on placing very small needles across a fine wire connected with a prime conductor of a powerful machine and the earth. Butasa momentary exposure in a powerful electrical circuit was suffi- cient to give permanent polarity to steel, it appeared equally obvious that needles placed transversely to a wire at the time that the electricity of a common Leyden battery was discharged through it, ought to become magnetic; and this I found was ac- tually the case, and according to precisely the same laws as in the Voltaic circuit ; the needle under the wire, the positive con- ductor being on the right hand, offering its north pole to the face of the operator, and the needle above, exhibiting the opposite polarity. So powerful was the magnetism produced by the discharge of an electrical battery of 17 square feet highly charged, through a silver wire of = of an inch, that it rendered bars of steel of two inches long and from 1, to =; in thickness, so magnetic, as to enable them to attract small pieces of steel wire or needles ; and the effect was communicated to adistance of five inches above or below or laterally from the wire, through water or thick plates of glass or metal electrically insulated, The produced by Electricity. 47 The facility with which experiments were made with the com- mon Leyden battery, enabled me to ascertain several circum- stances which were easy to imagine, such as that a tube filled with sulphuric acid of a quarter of an inch in diameter, did not transmit sufficient electricity to render steel magnetic; that a needle placed transverse to the explosion through air, was less magnetized than when the electricity was passed through wire ; that steel bars exhibited no polarity (at least at their extremities) when the discharge was made through them as part of the cir- cuit, or when they were placed parallel to the discharging wire ; that two bars of steel fastened together, and having the dis- charging wire placed through their common centre of gravity, showed little or no signs of magnetism after the discharge till they were separated, when they exhibited their north and south ' poles opposite to each other, according to the law of position. These experiments distinctly showed, that raagnetism was pro- duced whenever concentrated electricity passed through space ; but the precise circumstances, or law of its production, were pot obvious from them. When a magnet is made to act on steel filings, these filings arrange themselves in curves round the poles, but diverge in right lines; and in their adherence to each other form right lines, appearing as spicula. In the attraction of the filings round the wire in the Voltaic circuit, on the contrary, they form one coherent mass, which would. probably be perfectly cy- lindrical were it not for the influence of gravity. In first consi- dering the subject, it appeared to me that there must be as many double poles as there could be imagined points of contact round the wire ; but when I found the N. and S. poles of a needle uni- formly attracted by the same quarters of the wire, it appeared to me that there must be four principal poles corresponding to these four quarters. You, however, pointed out to me that there was nothing definite in the poles, and mentioned your idea, that the phenomena might be explained, by supposing a kind of revolu- tion of magnetism round the axis of the wire, depending for its direction upon the position of the negative and positive sides of the electrical apparatus. To gain some light upon this matter, and to ascertain correctly the relations of the north and south poles of steel magnetized by electricity to the positive and negative state, I placed short steel needles round a circle made on pasteboard, of about two inches and a half in diameter, bringing them near each other, though not in contact, and fastening them to the paste-board by thread, so that they formed the sides of a hexagon inscribed within the circle. A wire was fixed in the centre of this circle, so that the circle was parallel to the horizon, and an electric shock was passed through the wire, its upper part being connected with the positive 48 On the magnetic Phenomena positive side of a battery, and its lower part with the negative. After the shock all the wires were found magnetic, and each had two poles; the south pole being opposite to the north pole of the wire next to it, and vice versd; and when the north pole of a needle was touched with a wire, and that wire moved round the circle to the south pole of the same needle, its motion was op- posite to that of the apparent motion of the sun. A similar experiment was tried with six needles arranged in the same manner; with only this difference, that the wire posi- tively electrified was below. In this case the results were pre- cisely the same, except that the poles were reversed; and any body, moved in the circle from the north to the south pole of the same needle, had its direction from east to west. ' A number of needles were arranged as polygons in different circles round the same piece of paste-board, and made magnetie by electricity; and it was found that in all of them, whatever was the direction of the paste-board, whether horizontal or perpen- dicular, or inclined to the horizon, and whatever was the direc- tion of the wire with respect to the magnetic meridian, the same law prevailed: for instance, when the positive wire was east, and a body was moved round the circle from the north to the south poles of the same wire, its motion (beginning with the lower part of the circle) was from north to south, or with the upper part from south to north; and when the needles were arranged round a cylinder of paste-board so as to cross the wire, and a pencil mark drawn in the direction of the poles, it formed a spiral. It was perfectly evident from these experiments, that as many polar arrangements may be formed as chords can be drawn in circles surrounding the wire; and so far these phenomena agree with your idea of revolving magnetism: but I shall quit this sub- ject, which I hope you will yourself elucidate for the information of the Society, to mention some other circumstances and facts belonging to the inquiry. : Supposing powerful electricity to be passed through two, three, four, or more wires, forming part of the same circuit parallel to - each other in the same plane, or in different planes, it could hardly be doubted that each wire, and the space around it, would become magnetic in the same manner as a single wire, though in a less degree; and this I found was actually the case. When four wires of fine platinum were made to complete a powerful Voltaic circuit, each wire exhibited its magnetism in the same manner, and steel filings on the sides of the wires opposite at- tracted each other. As the filings on the opposite sides of the wire attracted each other in consequence of their being in opposite magnetic states, it produced by Electricity. 49 it was evident, that if the similar sides could be brought in con- tact, steel filings upon them would repel each other.—This was very easily tried with two Voltaic batteries arranged parallel to each other, so that the positive end of one was opposite to the negative end of the other: steel filings upon two wires of pla- tinum joining the extremities strengly repelled each other. When the batteries were arranged in the same order, 7, e. positive oppo- site to positive, they attracted each other; and wires of platinum (without filings) and fine steel wire (still more strongly) exhibited similar phenomena of attraction and repulsion under the same Circumstances. As bodies magnetized by electricity put a needle in motion, it was natural to infer that a magnet would put bodies magnetized by electricity in motion; and this I found was the case. Some pieces of wire of platinum, silver, and copper, were placed sepa- rately upon two knife edges of platinum connected with two ends ‘of a powerful Voltaic battery, and a magnet presented to them ; they were all made to rol] along the knife edges, being attracted when the north pole of the magnet was presented, the positive side of the battery being on the right hand, and repelled when it was on the left hand; and vice versd, changing the pole of the magnet. Some folds of gold leaf were placed across the same apparatus, and the north pole of a powerful magnet held opposite to them; the folds approached the magnet, but did not adhere to it. On the south pole being presented, they receded from it. 1 will not indulge myself by entering far into the theoretical part of this subject ; but a number of curious speculations can- not fail to present themselves to every philosophical mind, in consequence of the facts developed; such as whether the mag- netism of the earth may not be owing to its electricity, and the variation of the needle to the alterations in the electrical cur- rents of the earth in consequence of its motions, internal chemical changes, or its relations to solar heat; and whether the luminous effects of the auroras at the poles are not shown, by these new facts, to depend on electricity. This is evident, that if strong electrical currents be supposed to follow the apparent course of the sun, the magnetism of the earth ought to be such as it is found to be. But I will quit conjectures, to point out a simple mode of makivg powerful magnets, namely, by fixing bars of steel across, or circular pieces of steel fitted for making horse-shoe magnets, round the electrical conductors of buildings in elevated and ex- posed situations *, The * There are many facts recorded in the Philosophical Transactions which prove the ma mr. powers of lightning; one in particular, where a stroke Vol. 58, No. 279," July 182), Ci of 50 On the Phenomena produced by Electricity. The experiments detailed in these pages were made with the apparatus belonging to the Royal and London Institutions ; and I was assisted in many of them by Mr. Pepys, Mr. Allen, and Mr. Stodart, and in all of them by Mr. Faraday *. I am, my dear sir, Very sincerely yours, Lower Grosvenor-street, Nov. 12, 1820. Humpury Davy. of lightning passing through a box of knives, rendered most of them power- ful magnets. See Philosophical Transactions, No. 157, p. 520; and No. 437, p. 97. * All the experiments detailed in this paper, except those mentioned p. 48, were made in the course of October 1820; the last arose in conse- quence of a conversation with Dr. Wollaston, and were made in the beginning of November. I find, by the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, for Septem- ber, which arrived in London November 24, that M. Arago has anticipated me in the discovery of the attractive and magnetizing powers of the wires in the Voltaic circuit ; but the phenomena presented by the action cf com- mon electricity (which I believe as yet have been observed by no other per- son), induce me still to submit my paper to the Council of the Royal Society. Before any notice arrived of the researches of the French philosophers, I had tried, with Messrs. Allen and Pepys, an experiment, which M. Arago likewise thought of,—whether the arc of flame of the Voltaic battery would be affected by the magnet ; but from the imperfection of our apparatus, the results were not decisive, I hope soon to be able to repeat it under new circumstances. I have made various experiments, with the hope of affecting electrified wires by the magnetism of the earth, and of producing chemical changes by magnetism; but without any successful results. Since I have perused M. Ampere’s elaborate treatise on the electro-mag- netic phenomena, I have passed the electrical shock along a spiral wire twisted round a glass tube containing a bar of steel, and I found that the bar was rendered powerfully magnetic by the process. Without meaning to offer any decided opinion on that gentleman's inge- nions views, I shall beg permission to mention two circumstances, which seem to me unfavourable to the idea of the identity of electricity and mag- netism; Ist, the great distance to which magnetism is communicated by common eleetricity (I found that a steel bar was made magnetic at fourteen inches distance from a wire transmitting an electric shock from about se- venty feet of charged surface); and, 2d, that the effect of magnetizing at a distance by electricity takes place with the same readiness through air and water, glass, mica, or metals ; i.e. through conductors and non-conductors. IX. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MASKELYNE’s 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1821. By the Rev. J. 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"IU °H| “WN °H| "HN °H | ‘W°H | a CH “Bit > | Res | es Sa . “1281 ‘iyo | stpno | *soaey| sued] s10g” | aaquy| aaquy -niydq* -INFT7| “wy [tag F109 x i 4 wT -~ [ 83 ] X. On the Glow-worm. By Mr. W. Rocerson, Jun. Pocklington, June 20, 1821. Sa, — Tu E following remarks on that curious insect called the Glow-worm, are founded on my own experience.—If you think they will be entertaining or useful to any of your readers, they are at your service. ; The glow worm is an insect of the beetle kind:—the female deposits her eggs in the months of June or July, among moss, grass, &c.: these eggs are of a yellow colour, and emit light. After remaining about five or six weeks, the larve break the shells and make their appearance: at first they appear white, and are very small; but they soon increase in size, and their co- lour changes to a dark brown or nearly black colour. The body of the larva is formed of eleven rings ; it has six feet, and two rows of reddish spots down the vack. It emits light in the dark ; this light arises from the last ring of its body under the tail, and appears like two brilliant spots when examined attentively. The larve are seen creeping about and shining during the fine nights in autumn, and the light they emit is to direct them to their food: they feed on small snails, the careases of insects, &c. They frequently cast off their skins. After the expiration of about one year and nine months from their birth, they arrive at their perfect size—they then cease to eat, cast off their skin, and assume another appearance: the form of the perfect insect may be diseovered through a thin skin that covers them, After-remaining in this state two or three weeks (scarcely ever moving) they throw off their last skin, and arrive at perfection. The male then appears a perfect beetle, having wings, and coverstothesame. ‘The female, on the contrary, has neither wings nor wing cases: she is larger than the male, and of a lighter colour. It is the female that principally shines in the perfect state: her light is far superior to that emitted by the larva, and arises from the three last rings of the body on the lower side. The reason why the female shines, I am assured from re- peated experiences which I have made, is to allure the male to her company. Here we behold the wonderful wisdom of the great Creator; she, being void of wings, therefore incapable of flying through liquid air to seek her mate, is provided with a beautiful lamp which answers her purpose as well. After the female has been impregnated by the male, she deposits her eggs, and dies. The male dies also. Those who wish to investigate this curious insect, may keep them in glass jars, among damp moss, and feed the larvae with snails cut into pieces. J have kept glow-worms for years in glasses, and have traced them through all the changes of their lives from their exclusion from the egg to their death. To the Editor of the Phil, Mag. W. Rocerson, Jun. [ 4 ] Xl. Remarks and Suggestions, as to the State and Progress of the Government Trigonometrical Survey, with regard to the Dimensions, Figure and Structure of the Earth. By Mr. JouN Farey, Sen. To the Editor. SIR, — A SELECT Committee of the House of Commons, on Weights and Measures, after considering the three several Re- ports* of the late Government Commissioners on the same sub- ject, have made a Report to the House (which was ordered to be printed on the 28th of May, and which doubtless will find a place in your present or some early Number +) in which Report, after a well-merited compliment paid to Capt. Kater, for his elaborate and gratuitous Experiments on the Pendulum, in London, and for similar Observations on the principal Stations of the Trigonome- trical Survey of Great Britain, the Commisioners remark as fol- lows, viz. ‘* From these observations, deductions have been made, of great importance with respect to the general figure of the Earth, its density and internal construction. So that your Com- mittee are decidedly of opinion, that it wil! be highly proper to extend similar Observations over a still larger surface, so as. to connect the measurements and astronomical observations made by the different Nations of Europe, as much as possible, into one whole.” I am sorry not to be able to concur with the Committee in thinking, that deductions of any great importance, as to the ex- act figure or structure of the Earth, have yet resulted from the Trigonometrical Survey of these Islands, or that much, if any, of the wished-for information on these points would be derived, from more widely extending the Pendulum observations, until after such Mineralogical or stratigrophical Surveys and investi- gations shall have been made in England, as I have in your 48th volume, p.430, recommended, around the Stations, where al- ready the Standard Pendulum has been swung; Arbury Hill in particular. It appears to me also essential, that most or all of the several Observations that 1 have recommended in the volume quoted, including those of the Pendulum, should be very carefully made, * The First of these Reports will be found in p. 172, of our 54th volume, and the Third of them, in p. 359 of our 57th volume, and its Appendix in . 420; the intermediate Report, as well as two Appendixes, detailing the incongruous mass of legal provisions existing on this subject, and the still more incongruous and numerous local denominations of Measures and Weights in use, will doubtless ere long be printed in a separate form.—Epitor. + See our Number for June, p. 432.—Eprr. A an Mr. Farey’s Remarks on the Trigonometrical Survey. 55 and repeated, at so many others of the British Stations, as to be able to institute rigid calculations, of the lengths of degrees of Latitude, ou two or three other Meridians, besides that already calculated, which passes through Dunnose in the Isle of Wight; and also degrees of Longitude, (or else of great circles perpen- dicular to some particular meridian) in several different Latitudes : in order, that by the consistency and agreement or otherwise, amongst the resuits, with the known fact of the Earth nearly ap- proaching in figure to an Ellipsoid slightly flattened at the Poles, it may be seen, and duly appreciated, what degree of dependence can be placed on the methods of observations and calculations, which hitherto have been adopted or recommended. In particular I am anxious, that the District around and to the northward of Arbury Hill, wherein Capt. Kater has concluded, that a mass of the Stratification of great comparative specific Gravity, must be situated, at no great depth below the surface, should be surrounded and crossed by several lines or degrees of latitude and of longitude, and by those also of oblique Arcs or Rhombs, between the several Stations surrounding the district under investigation: from which, and the proposed minute Stra- tigraphical Surveys, to try the practicability, of consistently de- ducing the magnitude, shape, position and specific Gravity of the supposed heavy or deflecting Mass, which is assumed to have occasioned such a deflection of the plumb-line at Ardury Hill Station, as to have presented the anomaly, of degrees of the Me- ridian, increasing in length, in the contrary direction to those of the Ellipsoid, above alluded to: and whether or not, a mass of Granite, the top of which presents itself at Mount Sorrel, Grooby, and other places* in and near to the south part of Charnwood Forest, is sufficient to account wholly, or in considerable part, for the deflection alluded to. Until the facts as to our own country shall have been settled beyond dispute or doubt ; or at least, until the attempt shall se- riously have been made, to explain or remove the Arbury-Hill anomaly in the lengths of meridional Degrees, it would, I submit to your Readers, be premature, and likely to perpetuate rather than to remove errors, if the Observations, merely as hitherto conducted, and without going more deeply into the subject, were extended to the other countries of Europe, with the view, as the Committee appear to propose, of thereby coming to definitive * See my Derbyshire Report, vol.i. p. 151: observing, that this was written, before the unconformableness of numerous local parts of the English stratification, had been made out, or the effects of such unconformableness sufficiently considered by myself or any other Writer. See. P.M. vol. xiii. p- 330 Note, vol. xlv. p. 169, &e, coll- 56 Mr. Farey’s Remarks on the Trigonometrical Survey. conclusions as to the dimensions, figure and structure of the Earth. Entertaining as I do, a high respect for the person, abilities and labours of Dr. MacCulloch, and not being by any means de- sirous of undervaluing the Services to Mineralogy and Geology which he has performed, and on which | understand him to be yet engaged in Scotland, and with respect to a mineralogical ‘Map and description of that Kingdom, as is briefly mentioned in p. 228 of your 56th volume, I hope and trust, that what I am going further to remark, may not give offence to that Gentleman or any of his Friends. It was naturally to be expected from the an- nouncement made in 1816, which is quoted in p.427 of your 48th volume, that the making of minute stratigraphical Maps and Sections around each principal Station of the Trigonometrical Survey, in Scotland, at the least, was then intended: I have not however yet been able to learn, that any such materials for cal- culation, as to the existence and extent of local deflecting causes on the plumb-line in Scotland, have resulted fram Dr. MacCul- loch’s appointment ; or that anything has been attempted of this kind in England, by him or any other person. If Government have seen it right to devote a part of the public Money to the making of a Mineralogical Survey and Map of Scotland, (in addition to the sums devoted to its Canals, Bridges, Roads, &c.), it cannot surely wish to withhold the means, of com- pleting the Trigonometrical Survey of England, and of Wales and Scotland, which it has so long and Jaudably supported, in those remaining points connected with the Stratification, on which evi- dently so much of the minute accuracy of the whole is dependent, with reference to the dimensions, figure and structure of the Earth. Let me presume to hope, that the present season of Peace, when Expeditions are so liberally fitted out and appointed, for exploring distant regions, and when so many public Works are carrying on, may not pass away, without the services to Science being per- formed, which I have ventured to suggest: —I am not like Cap- tain Kater, able to offer gratuitous assistance to any considerable extent ; but as far as prudence can warrant, | would be ready to co-operate in the stratigraphical Surveys and investigations re- commended, if through the medium of any friends of Science amongst your Readers, such recommendation should be approved and acted on, by that department of Government to which it be- longs. I am, your obedient servant, 37, Howland-street, Pitzroy-square. Joun Fargy. Sen. dune 17, 1821. é, f Puss Hints for the approaching Harvest. 57 P. S.—Mr. Wiixram Smite, after the considerable interrup- tion to the publication of his series of County Geological Maps, which has originated in the unhandsome treatment received, in the quarter from whence he should have expected effective patronage, has completed his Map of Yorkshire, in four sheets, and the same is now in course of delivery by Cary of St. James’s street: this Map, from embracing almost the whole series of the British Strata, and from the ainple details which it contains, cannot fail of being acceptable to Land and Mineral Owners, and to al! those anxious to become acquainted with the structure of the very in- teresting and valuable part of our Island which it embraces. XII. Hints for the approaching Harvest. A RESIDENCE of two years in Switzerland, and particular atten- tion directed to the rural ceconomy of the country, amongst other things brought me acquainted with a method of harvesting which to me was quite new. Since my return home I have made many inquiries without having learned that a similar me- thod was ever practised in England, though it is by no means improbable that it may already be known, either in local custom of old date, or from having been introduced by travellers whe had equal opportunities with myself of observing what passed before their eyes. I am not aware, however, that any written deseription of this method has already appeared: and it is under a persuasion of its great utility that I now endeavour to give*it every possible publicity. In harvesting, two important matters present themselves to the consideration of the farmer :—expense of labour, and time. A saving in labour, if it protracts the time, is rarely beneficial, as it exposes the crop to additional risk and accident from bad weather; but every saving in ¢ime is a positive advantage.—The Swiss method saves both time and labour; and the loss from shedding, in handling the corn, appears to be less than with us. The main principle of their system consists in the use of the scythe instead of the sickle. Every one must be aware of the very superior powers of the former instrument; but in the or- dinary mode of using it, notwithstanding the various contrivances of bows, sweeps, cradles, &c. which have been attached to the scythe to remedy the inconvenience, the corn is thrown down in such rude heaps, and the ears become so entangled, that a great loss follows from shedding : and hence farmers have conceived it better to employ six sickles than one scythe. Nay, I have heard it argued, when prices were high, that there was good eeconomy in reaping even barley. Vol, 58. No, 279. July 1821. H In 58 Hints for the approaching Harvest. In Switzerland, however, by a very simple contrivance the ob- jections to the scythe have been completely obviated. Each mower is accompanied by a person bearing a light straight long pole, whose business it is to press the pole in a horizontal position against the stems of the corn which are to be cut, so as to bend the ears considerably away from the mower, and leave him a full, fair, stroke at the aggregated stems. The pole is best made of deal, much about the thickness of the handle of a sweeping-brush, and in Switzerland is commonly about nine feet in length; but this must be cetermined by the nature of the scythe used*, or rather by the sweep or extent of the stroke: for the person who bears the pole must be out of the reach of all danger from the scythe, and at the same time there must be sufficient length of pole left to press against the whole breadth or bench of standing corn which the mower can compass with his scythe. The per- son who bears the pole, commonly a lad, stands with his face to- wards the mower, a little to the left of his line of progression, and moves backwards as the other advances. The pole may be held as the bearer finds most convenient ; and steadied, either against his body, or his thigh, according to his height: but care must be taken that it is held nearly horizontally, and the pole should press on the standing corn, from about six inches to a foot below the ears, so as to give a sloping direction, away from the mower, to the whole quantity likely to be cut at one stroke. The ears which are thus pressed back never straggle, either during or after the stroke, but slide along the pole; which, if properly held, keeps them quite even, and they will fall one way, smoothly and regu- larly. Should the corn have been beaten down by rain or storm, the scythe cannot certainly be used with the same advantage as if it stands erect and healthy; the sickle will answer best under such circumstances. The Swiss, however, are so careful about their crops, that when fallen, they raise them, in part, by fastening the stems together, and tying them in a direction contrary to that'in which they have fallen. Sometimes they plant stakes through * The scythes commonly used in Switzerland have light, short blades, and I believe are principally of German manufacture. The handles are much bent; and the mower stands tolerably upright. The sweep is not very, great. But the Swiss are admirable mowers: I have seen patches of grass on the Alps, growing under ledges of rock where no cattle could climb, cut as close and smooth as a dexterous Haglish gardener could shave a grass plot. They put an exquisite edge on their scythes by hammering them out on little anvils kept for the purpose, instead of thinning the edge by a coarse stone as our mowers do; and their scythes by this treatment consequently _ last much longer. The operation is performed once in a day or two; and the edge is afterwards still further sharpened by a sort of strap or prepared board, finer than ours. the Hints for the approaching Harvest. 59 the field, and put small cross bars or rods, from stake to stake, so as to bear the stems up; and after this the corn may be mowed. But in the case of a fine, even, upright crop, whether of wheat or other grain, there can be uo hesitation in preferring the scythe and pole, it properly used, to the sickle. Aiter the mower has passed on, two or more women or boys, commonly women, follow, whose business it is gently and care- fully to spread the corn that has been mowed, much in the same way that flax or hemp is spread, in even regular layers. When properly dried, a third operation preparatory to binding is per- formed by two other persons, commonly women, one of whom carries two wands or rods, about four feet in length, the other one rod only. The person carrying the two rods, thrusts them, one in each hand, under the layer of corn which lies spread out on the ground; the person with the single wand, at the same time standing opposite to the other, puts the single wand under the layer, directly midway between the two opposite wands. ‘Then the hands are raised, whilst the points of the rods or wands re- main on the ground, and thus the corn slides, or is shoved to- gether, in heaps large enough for binding. If the crop is thin, the gatherings must begin the wider apart, or two gatherings may be united, and great attention during this operation is paid to collecting any scattered or straggling stems. The same ope- ration may be performed with a long-toothed rake; but the corn is shaken much less when the wands are used. The binders follow those who have collected the heaps: and it is to be particularly noted, that the Swiss do not use the fresh eut corn for bands, but make them at home in the barns, of straw, at some convenient time in advance. When wanted for use, they are carted to the field, and distributed along the rows. The time spent in knotting the bands in the fields is thus saved, and the loss of grain from twisting the bands or rubbing against other sheaves in carrying home is avoided. The advantages derived from this method, and the division of labour, will be obvious to any person who has once seen the per- fect practice; and I do not think there is any exaggeration in stating, that with the same hands, a crop may by such means be saved in half the time. But I am inclined to go further, and ex- press my conviction, that the crop may be saved in half the time with even fewer hands than the sickle requires. Much however will certainly depend on the dexterity and willingness of the peo- ple employed; but the mere experiment of the scythe and pole may be tried without any expense or difficulty. In describing this method as Swiss, it is necessary to add, that it is by no means general throughout Switzerland, but confined at present to particular districts: after being once introduced, ) H 2 however, 60 Notices respecting New Books. however, it is never abandoned; and I have been told it is spreading very rapidly through the country. There can be no surer proof of its excellence; for in a country exposed to cala- mities from inclement seasons, and where years of scarcity are by no means uncommon, it would certainly not be adopted, if it did not ensure to the husbandman the utmost possible produce from his crop. There is no want of hands in Switzerland; on the contrary, the valleys of Oberland, where I have observed the use of the scythe most prevalent, swarm with inhabitants; and men, wemen, and children all work i in the fields with the greatest assiduity, both early and late. I have purposely delayed this publication until the time of har- vest was near, under a persuasion that it was likely to produce more effect, when there was an opportunity of trying the experir ment whilst the subject was fresh in the mind. Londen, July 16, 1821. Isaac WELD, jun. XIII. Notices respecting New Books. Tue Philosophical Transactions for 1821, Part 1. has just aeite its appearance, and the following are the contents : 1, On the black Rete mucosum of the Negro being a Defence against the scorching Effect of the Sun’s Rays. By Sir E. Home, Bart. F.R.S.—II. On the magnetic Phenomena produced by Elee- tricity; in a Letter from Sir H, Davy, Bart. F.R.S. to W. H. Wol- laston, M.D. P.R.S.—II. A Communication of a singular Fact in Natural History. By the Right Hon. the Earl of Morton, F.R.S.; in a Letter addressed to the President.—IV. Particulars of a Fact, nearly similar to that related by Lord Morton, com- municated to the President in a Letter from Daniel Giles, Esq. —V. The Croonian Lecture. Microscopical Observations on the following Subjects. On the Brain and Nerves; showing that the Materials of which they are composed exist in the Blood. On the Discovery of Valves in the Branches of the Vas breve, lying between the villous and muscular Goats of the Stomach. On the Structure of the Spleen. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. V.P.R.S.—IV. On two new Compounds of Chlorine and Car- bon, and on a new Compound of lode, Carbon, and Hydrogen. By Mr. Faraday, Chemical Assistant in the Royal Institution. Communicated by W.T. Brande , Esq. Sec. R.S. and Prof. Chem. R.I.—VII. An Accouut of the Compariron of various British Standards of linear Measure. By Capt. Henry Kater, F.R.S.— VIIT. An Account of the trinary Organs and Urine of two Species of the Genus Rana. By John Davy, M.D. F.R.S.—IX. An Ac- count of a Micrometer made of Rock C rystal. By G. Dollond, F.R.S.—X. The Bakerian Lecture. Qn the best Kind of Steel . and Report on the Ophthalmic Hospital. 61 and Form for a Compass Needle. By Capt. Henry Kater, F.R.S, — XI. Notice respecting a voleanic Appearance in the Moon, in a Letter addressed to Sir Humphry Davy, Bart..P.R.S. By Capt. Henry Kater, F.R.S,—XII. A further Account of Fossil Bones discovered in Caverns inclosed in the Limestone Rocks at Plymouth, By Joseph Whidbey, Esq. In a Letter addressed to Sir Everard Home, Bart. V.P.R.S.—XIII. On the aériform Oompounds of Cliarcoal and Hydrogen; with an Account of some additional Experiments on the Gases from Oil and from Coal, By William Henry, M.D. F.R.S. &c. Report of the Select Committee on the Ophthalmic Hospital. pp. S. -8vo, It is with much pleasure we have perused this Report of a Se- lect Committee of the House of Commons, on a branch of the public service which has of late been the object of much jealousy, and, we must add, of much calumny and misrepresentation. li is drawn up with great clearness and ability; and it does merited justice to the exertions of the individual whose discoveries, or at least superior intelligence and skill, gave rise to and placed hin at the head of the Ophthalmic Establishment. “ The objects of this institution,” says the Committee, “ have been stated to us to be three. ‘¢ First, To diffuse, generally, among the surgeons of the army, the knowledge of the best modes of treating the chronic and third stage of the disorder. “ Secondly, To diminish, if possible, the charge of the out- pensioners of Chelsea Hospital, by curing or relieving men who had received pensions for defective sight. «¢ Thirdly, To check in some degree the annual augmentation of the pension list, by treating men about to be discharged for defective sight, and by thus diminishing their claim to pension, as far as it might be founded upon the impaired state of their, vision. <‘ Your Committee are of opinion that these objects were of sufficient importance to justify the steps which were taken for their attainment. <¢ With respect to the first point, your Committee have the sa- tisfaction to find, that this, which was the most imyortant ob- ject, has been greatly promoted. The ophthalmia having upon the return of our troops from Egypt become, comparatively speak- ing, a new disease in this country, its proper treatment was at first imperfectly understood. It appears, however, that the at- tention of the Medical Department of the army has of late years been most successfully directed to this subject, and that the best modes of treating all the different stages of the ophthalmia are now well understood and practised in the army ; and your Com- inittee 62 Nolices respecting New Books. mittee are satished, that the establishment of the Hospital, under Sir William Adams, has greatly contributed to promote this de- sirable object, not only by the direct opportunity it afforded of studying the various modes of practice, but indirectly, by the manner in which it appears to have excited the emulation and attention of other practitioners. ‘© With respect to the second point, indeed, it has been stated, that valid doubts were suggested, how far it was in the power of the Commissioners of Chelsea Hospital to take away, or diminish, any pension which they had granted under the provisions of the act-of the 46 Geo. II]. ; and consequently, your Committee have not thought it necessary to direct their inquiries te this point, as no diminution of pensions already granted could, under any cir- cumstances, have heen effected. *¢ With respect to the third point, as but a few men so circum- stanced have been placed in the Hospital, it does not appear to your Committee, that Sir William Adams has had sufficient op- portunity of showing how far he could have effected this object, upon the scale originally proposed. But the general diffusion of knowledge among the medical officers of the army, must ne- cessarily lead to the accomplishment of this end. ¢¢ With regard to the future continuance of this establishment, it has been stated to your Committee by the Department with which it originated, that the main objects for which it was insti- tuted having thus been attained, it does not appear that any public inconvenience would now arise from its discontinuance. In this opinion your Committee are disposed to concur, and they therefore recommend, that the Establishment should be discon- tinued, as soon as the proper arrangements can conveniently be effected. : “Upon the claims of Sir William Adams upon the public, your Committee have to report, that he has rested those claims upon two grounds. ‘* First, upon his having been the means of promulgating to the army, and to the public, certain information as to the third or chronic stage of the ophthalmia and its consequences; namely, that it is the general, if not invariable, effect of the inflammation in the acute stage of the disorder, to produce in a greater or less degree, what are termed granulations on the inner surface of the eye-lid; that these granulations render the patient subject: to relapses, and are frequently the cause of blindness; that during the relapses so happening, the patient is liable to become again infectious; and therefore, that these granulations must invariably be looked for, and removed, before the patient can be effectually cured, ** Secondly, upon his having attended the Ophthalmic Hospital since Report on the Ophthalmic Hospital. 63 since its first formation in 1817, without having hitherto received any remuneration for that duty. & Upon the first point, your Committee have to report, That the existence of these granulations, and the necessity of removing them, seem to have been known in very early times, and are adverted to in the works of Celsus in the first century, of Paulus of AXgina in the seventh, of Rhases the, Arabian in the tenth, and in the work of Sir William Reid in the reign of Queen Anne. That consequently no person in the present day, can claim more than the merit of having revived knowledge which had fallen into neglect. Your Committee do not feel it necessary to pronounce between the conflicting claims upon this head, or, by recom- mending a parliamentary reward for such revival, to decide to whom the merit properly belongs. ‘They conceive, that question is best left to the decision of the profession, and of the public. But they are of opinion that Sir William Adams has, among others, been greatly instrumental in promulgating this knowledge, and in rendering it generally available. “€ Upon the second point your Committee have to report, that ‘since the first establishment of the Hospital in 1817, Sir William Adams has devoted to the duties arising out of his appointment, a large portion of that time, which to a professional man is the sonree of income; and that, inasmuch as the time which he could apply to his private practice has thereby been much eur- tailed, his professional emoluments must also have been propor- tionally lessened. That he has performed the difficult duties of his appointment with the greatest zeal and assiduity; and that your Committee have been led to form the highest opinion of his skill and abilities as an oculist. “© Your Committee taking into consideration all the cireum- stances of the case, are induced to recommend, that the sum of four thousand pounds should be paid to Sir William Adams, as a reward for the services which he has rendered to the public.” July 3, 1821. Observations on certain Affections of the Head commonly called Head-aches ; with a View to their more complete Elucida- tion, Prevention, and Cure; together with some brief Remarks on Digestion and Indigestion. By James Farmer, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons in London, and Licentiate of Mid- wifery of the Royal College of Physicians, Dublin. 18mo. 2s. The Quarterly Journal of Foreign Medicine and Surgery and of the Sciences connected with them. No. XI. 8vo. 35. 6d. Preparing for Publication. Dr. Conquest will publish, in a few weeks, a second and en- larged Edition of his ** Outlines of Midwifery,” &c, with copper- plate instead of lithographic Engrayings, 125. Mr. 64 Royal Society of Literature. Mr. Stevenson, Oculist and Dentist to His Royal Highness the Duke of York, &c. will shortly publish a practical Treatise on the Nature, Symptoms and Treatment of Gitta Serena, a Species of Blindness, arising from-a Loss of Sensibilityin the Nerve of Vision. Illustrated by numerous Cases, Alexander Jamieson, Author of a Treatise on the Construction of Maps, anda Grammar of Geography and Elementary Astro- nomy, has now in the press a Celestial Atlas, being an exact Representation of the starry Firmament, as it appears to the Eye of an Observer on the Earth. This Work comprises general Constructions of the Hemispheres and Zodiac, with particular Projections of the successive Constellations from Pole to Pole, in Thirty Copper-plate Engravings. Each Plate is accompanied by a scientific Description of its Contents. The Method of finding the Place of the Constellation is also pointed out, and such Pro- blems as are usually performed on the Celestial Globe, and may likewise be solved by Maps, are given as practical Examples for the Astronomical Student. And it is further illustrated by a Catalogue of the Stars it contains, from the first to the seventh Magnitude inclusive, indicated by Tables of their Right Ascension and Declination, with such other Notices of Celestial Phno- mena as are most worthy of observation. Religiosa Philosophia; or, A new Theory of the Earth, in Unison with the Mosaic Account of the Creation; illustrating, that by the Creator’s command the Earth was fermed in a Globe of Water, from whence it has arisen as a Tree from its Germ, and that the Doctrine of Chaos is founded in a Misconception of the meaning intended by the Sacred Historian. With an Appendix on the Plurality of inhabited Worlds. By W. Welch, of Stone- house, Devon. *< And God said, Let there be a Firmament in the midst of the waters. And God made the Firmament, and divided the waters which were under the Firmament, from the waters which were above the Firmament. Gen. chap. i. ver. 6 and 7. XIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY OF LITERATURE, Instituted under the Patronuge, and endowed by the Munificence of His Majesty King George the Fourth, for the Promotion of general Literature ; to consist of a President, Vice-Presidents and Council ; Fellows, Associates, and Honorary Members. Origin and Endowment of the Society. Aw accidental conversation which took place in October 1820, on the advantages which might be expected from the institution of Royal Society of Literature. 65 of a Society of Literature, somewhat resembling the French Academy of Belles Lettres, having been communicated to Sir Benjamin Bloomfield, and by him to The King ; and His Majesty having expressed his approbation of the proposal; a general out- line of the Institution was by the Royal command submitted to His Majesty’s perusal. On the 2d of November, the person who in conversation suggested the proposal received His Ma- jesty’s commands to attend His Majesty at Carlton House, for the purpose of digesting the best mode of giving effect to the | undertaking ; and was iutrusted by His Majesty with full liberty to arrange the Plan of the Society. The Institution having, in its origin, no connexion with politics, or party of any kind, no applications were made to His Majesty’s Ministers for their countenance or support, though its origin and progress were re- spectfully communicated to the Secretary of State for the Home Department. : Learning is, by principle, comprehensive and liberal in its views; and though the higher branches of literature have a na- tural connexion with peace, loyalty, and established order; yet, as the Founder and Patron of this Society, the King presents him- self to his people, singly, as the friend of letters, as an example of munificence, and the promoter of what has been long wanting to the literary credit of the country. His Majesty having been pleased to express, in the most fa- vourable terms, his Royal approbation of this Society; and hav- ing honoured it with his munificent patronage, by assigning the annual sum of one hundred guineas each, for ten Associates, payable out of the Privy Purse ; and also an annual Premium of one hundred guineas for the best Dissertation on some interesting subject, to be chosen by the Council of the Society :— The following Regulations have been adopted as the basis of its proceedings. Oljects of the Society. The objects of the Society are, to unite and extend the general interests of literature; to reward literary merit by patronage ; to excite literary talent by premiums; and to promote literary education by bestowing exhibitions at the universities and public schools, in cases of distinguished desert. Constilution of the Society. § 1. The Fellows constitute the principal body of the Society, and contribute to its support by subscriptions and benefactions. Every person elected a Fellow of this Society, shall pay annually the sum of two guineas, or more, at their option, or a propor- tional composition in lieu of the annual payments; and no per- Vol. 58. No, 279. July 1821. I son 66 Royal Society of Literature. son can be proposed for election unless on the recommendation of at least three Fellows. § 2. The Associates form that portion of the Society to which its patronage is directed; they are to consist of two classes, viz. Associates under Patronage, whether of the King or of the Society; and Honorary Associates ; from which latter class the Associates under Patronage will chiefly be elected. The Cless of Associates under Patronage, is to consist of per- sons of distinguished learning, authors of some creditable work of literature, and men of good moral character, ten on the Royal endowment, of whom shall be natives of the United King- dom, and foreigners ; and an unlimited number on the funds of the Society, as soon and in proportion as the amount funded shall be sufficient for the purpose: the whole number both on the Royal endowment, and on the funds of the Society, to be appointed by the Council of the Society. Authors desirous of becoming Associates, shall send a specifi- cation of their works, which being approved by the Council of the Society, they will be eligible to the class of Honorary Asso- ciates; to which class no person shall be elected, but on the re- commendation of at least three Fellows of the Society. Every Associate under patronage shall, at his admission, choose some subject or subjects of literature, upon which he will engage to communicate within the year a paper or papers for the So- ciety’s Memoirs of Literature ; of which memoirs a volume will be published by the Society from time to time. § 3. The Honorary Members shall be such persons as are en- titled to public respect on account of their literary characters, and are to consist of Professors of literature in the several uni- versities of the United Kingdom; Head Masters of the great schools of Royal foundation, and other great schools ; eminent literary men in the United Kingdom; distinguished female writers ; and also foreigners celebrated for literary attainments. Subscriptions and Benefactions. § 1. An annual subscription of ten guineas continued for five years, and engaged to be continued at “Tekst five years more ; or, a benefaction of one hundred guineas, will entitle such sqbenny- bers and benefactors to privileges hereafter to be declared, ac- cording to the date of their subscription. The same privileges to be extended to all other subscribers or benefactors, when their respective subscriptions or benefactions shall collectively amount to ove hundred guineas, S 2. Honorary Members may become subscribers or benefae- tors; and, in order that every member of the Society may have an opportunity Manganese. 67 opportunity of contributing to its support, the Associates, of both classes, will be at liberty to subscribe one guinea per annum. Voluntary subscriptions or benefactions from ladies or other per- sons, not desirous of becoming members of the Society, shall be received, and a list of such contributors shall be inserted in the Society’s memoirs. . From the month of November to July, both inclusive, with the exception of the weeks of Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide, it is proposed, that a weekly meeting of the Society shall be held on every Thursday, at two o’clock. *,* Subscriptions become due every year on the 29th of Ja- nuary, being the anniversary of the King’s accession. Subscri- bers to the Society are requested to send their subscriptions to Messrs. Hoare, Bankers, Fleet-street ; or to Messrs. Hatchard and Son, Booksellers, Piccadilly, where copies of the Society’s plan, aud prize subjects, may be had gratis. Letters and com- munications to the Society to be directed to the Secretary, at Messrs. Hatchard’s. Form of Order for Payment of Subscription. Messrs. 1821. Please to pay forthwith, and annually, on, or as near as may be to the 29th day of January, until further direction, to the Treasurer of The Royal Society of Literature, at Messrs. Hoare, Fleet-street, the sum of guineas, XY. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. MANGANESE, To the Editor. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, July 3, 182). Sir, — 1, may not be uninteresting to such of your readers as possess estates or manorial rights in districts, the geological fea- tures of which are similar to those of cur coal formation, to be made acquainted with the discovery of the oxide of manganese in this neighbourhood. Flying reports had long been in circula- tion of the existence of this mineral at Ousten near Urpeth si- tuated between three and four miles north-west of Chester-le- street in the county of Durham; but it was generally surmised that iron slag, of which large quantities occur by the sides of all the Roman roads in the north of England, had been mistaken for it, for no traces of this metal had previously been detected in any of our numerous mines or quarries. However, about two months since, these reports were verified by some large masses of the black oxide being uncovered by the plough, but whether connect- ed with a vein or a bed is not“yet determined. ‘The specimen 12 now 6S Aéronautic Ascension of Mr. Green now before me is black, its fracture conchoidal, and structure cel- lular; the interstices partly filled with iron ochre. Manganese seems to pervade the newest as well as the oldest rocks. Brong- niart mentions it in chalk ; the black oxide has been detected in the Orkney Islands, and the gray in the slate mountains of Cum- berland. The geological position of this coal formation is above the encrinal, and below the magnesian limestone. While on the subject of localities of rare minerals, it may not be amiss to mention that diallage (forming a subordinate bed in mica schist) was met with three or four years ago by Dr. Bowie at Craig Cailleich in the Highlands, and at Castle Hill near Kes- wick, by Mr. Jos. Fryer, who has also noticed veins of beautiful vellow ferrugineous quartz in the grauwacke at Langholm, bor- dering on Scotland. Yours, &c. &c. N. dew. AERONAUTIC ASCENSION OF MR. GREEN IN HONOUR OF HIS MAJESTY’S CORONATION. {His own Account of his Aérial Voyage. } The balloon with which T ascended was 31 feet in diameter, as near the size as possible of the one with which Lunardi first made an ascension in England. It was inflated with about 1200 cubic feet of carbonated hydrogen gas, supplied from the main pipes of the original chartered Gas Compatty, and I am much indebted to the gentlemen of the Committee for their kind assistance du- ring the operation of filling. I had no doubt of being able to ascend with the gas, having, since the period when I first con- ceived the idea that common gas would answer the purposes of aérostation, made frequent experiments, all of which completely succeeded ; nor was my ardour damped when I knew that, even within an hour of my ascension, persons of great experience in aérostation expressed their opinion that I should not be able to ascend. About five minutes before one o’clock the ropes were divided ; and having taken my seat in the car, the balloon rose in a ma- jestic manner, nearly perpendicularly. The almost deafening shouts of the populace, and the roar of cannon that took place when I had ascended a considerable distance from the earth, agitated the balloon. I felt the effect of it most sensibly. The moment the discharge of cannon took place, I knew it was the signal to be given when the Crown was set upon the head of my most gracious Sovereign, and I drew the cork ofa bottle of brandy, and, having poured out a full glass, I drank ‘* Health, long life, and a glorious reign to His Majesty.” The effect of the air upon the brandy is worthy of notice: when I drew the cork, a report tock place, which I attribute to the rarification of the air, similar to that in Honour of His Majesty’s Coronation. 69 that produced by drawing a cork out of a bottle of soda water. Vhen the balloon travelled at its greatest rapidity, I felt not the least motion; it appeared as if the car in which I sat was sta- tionary, and that the earth was receding from me. The balloon took a north-east direction at first; and on my looking down upon the vast assemblage of persons in Westminster, the delight I felt is out of my power to describe. The view presented one entire living mass of more than a million of human beings. Having ascended as high as I could without throwing out ballast, I de~ termined, as the weather was so fine, to keep in sight as long as possible. I threw out two bags of sand of 10 Ibs. weight each, and immediately the balloon rose with astonishing rapidity almost perpendicularly, according to my wish. When the balloon ar- rived at its utmost altitude, which in my opinion (I could not be certain, in’ consequence of the oscillation of the quicksilver in the barometer) was about 11,000 feet from the earth, I found that I had entered a current of air, conveying me directly eastward, towards the Nore. The cold was extreme. I put on a cloak which I took up with me, and on looking at my glass | found that it was below 30—two degrees below the freezing point. I was fearful of being carried to sea, and immediately opened the valve; the gas issued in considerable quantities ; and I found, by the increase of the size of objects below me to my optics, that I was descending very rapidly. The largest fields, which a few minutes before appeared to be not more than six inches square, increased in size greatly; and I very soon saw the sea and a number of vessels most distinctly. The balloon had a rotatory motion, and turned about four times in a minute. Still fearing that I should fall into the sea, 1 opened the valve to its utmost extremity; and having descended so as to be able to recognise small objects distinctly on the earth, with great de- Jight L found tiat the balloon had entered another current of air, which was conveying me from the sea; 1 was then travelling north-west. I sat down and ate some ‘sandwiches with a good appetite, and saw the clouds rolling beneath me, apparently on the ground. About 20 minutes before two o’clock | descended in a field belonging to a farmer named Lamkins, which is situated about four miles beyond Barnet, in the parish of South Mims. I was not aware that I had descended so rapidly ; before | had time to draw myself up to the hoop, the car struck the earth with great force, and I was thrown out of it on my back ; 1 was nearly stunned from the effeets of a blow which I received. I still held the hoop of the balloon; and the grappling iron, which I had thrown out when about a quarter of a mile from the earth, not taking firm hold, Lwas dragged on my back along the ground a consi- devable distance. The balloon was cventually secured, with the assistance 70 — Report relative to the moving Bog of Kilmaieady, assistance of a gentleman named Waugh, and conveyed to a place of safety in “his park, and I was afterwards most hospitably entertained at his mansion. To him my gratitude is due; and but for his kind exertions, I have no doubt the balloon would have suffered considerable injury from the great crowd of persons that assembled on my descent. I believe, from the best calculation J can make, that I travelled altogether, in various directions, up- wards of 50 miles. 49, Goswell-street, July 20. CuarLes GREEN. REPORT RELATIVE TO THE MOVING BOG OF KILMALEADY, IN THE KING'S COUNTY, MADE BY ORDER OF THE ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY. To Bucknat M‘Cartuy, Esq. &c. &c. Royal Dublin Society-House, July 10, 1821. Sir,—In compliance with the request of the Royal Dublin Society, conveyed to me by your letter of the 11th inst. I have visited the moving bog of Kilmaleady ; and finding on my return to Dublin to-day, that very erroneous notions, respecting its magnitude and destructive effects, have been entertained, I think it my duty immediately to communicate to you, for the infor- mation of the Society, some accounts of the nature and extent of this once alarming phenomenon. The bog of Kilmaleady, from whence the eruption broke out, situated about two miles to the north of the village of Clara, in the King’s County, is of considerable extent ; it may probably contain about 590 acres; in many parts it is 40 feet in depth ; and it is considered to be the wettest bog in the county. It is bounded on all sides, except the south, by steep ridges of high land, which are composed, at the top, of lime- -stone, gravel, and beneath of cavernous limestone-rock, containing subterra- neous streams; but the southern face of the bog is open toa moory valley, about a quarter of a mile in breadth, which for nearly half a mile in length takes a southern direction in the lands of Li- sanisky, and then turns at right angles to the west, and continues eradually widening for upwards of two miles. Thr oughoutthe centre of this valley flows a stream about 12 feetin breadth, which servesas a discharge for the waters from the bog and surrounding country, and finally joins the river Brusna, above the bridge of Bailycumber. The bog of Kilmaleady, like all other deep and wet bogs, is composed, for the first eight or ten feet from the surface down- ward, of a reddish brown ! spongy mass, formed of the still unde- composes fibres of the bog moss (Sphagnum palustre) which by capil ary attraction absorbs water in great quantity. Beneath this fibrous mass, the bog gradually becomes pulpy, till, at length, towards the bottom, it assumes the appearance, and, when exa- mined, a ae made by Order of the Royal Dublin Society. 71 mined, the consistence of a black mud, rather heavier than water, The surface of the bog of Kilmaleady was elevated upwards of 20 feet above the level of the valley, from which it rose at asteep angle; and its external face, owing to the uncommon dryness of the season, being much firmer than usual, the inhabitants of the vicinity were enabled to sink their turf holes, and cut turf at a depth of at least 19 feet beneath the surface of the valley, and, in fact, until they reached the blue clay which forms the sub- stratum of the bog. Thus the faces of many of the turf banks reached the unusual height of 80 feet perpendicular ; when at length, on the 19th day of June, the lower pulpy and muddy part of the bog, which possesses little cohesion, being unable to resist the great pressure of water from behind, gave way, and, being once set in motion, floated the upper part ‘of the bog, and continued to move with astonishing velocity along the valley to the southward, forcing before it not only the clamps of turf on the edge of the bog, but even patches of the moory meadows, to the depth of several feet, the grassy surface of which heaved and turned over almost like the waves of the ocean; so that in a very short space of time the whole valley, for the breadth of almost a quarter of a mile between the bog edge and the base of -the hill of Lisanisky, was covered with bog to a depth of from eight to ten feet, and appeared every where studded with green patches of moory meadow. The hill of Lisanisky retarded the progress of the bog for some time; but at length it began to flow at right angles to its first course along the valley, where it turned to the west, and con- tinued with unabated rapidity until it reached the bog road of Kilbride, (which runs directly across the valley, and is elevated five or six feet above it,) and choked up by the bridge through which the waters of the stream pass. This barrier retarded the progress of the bog for five days; at the end of that time, the accumulation was such from the still moving bog and the waters of the stream, that it flowed over the road, and covered the valley to the south of it for cbout half a mile, flowing with varied velo- city, till it was again stopped for a few hours (as I understand) by a second road across the valley leading from Clara to Wood- field : having also overcome this obstacle, it proceeded slowly westward ; and if its progress had not been checked by the very judicious means that have been employed, the whole extent of the valuable meadows, which compose the valley where it ex- pands to the westward, must long since have been covered. But when the flowing bog had passed over the road of Kilbride, and the consternation in the country became general, at the = re of the lords justices, Mr. Gregory employed Mr. Killaly, en- gineer 72 Report relative to the moving Bog of Kilmaleady, &c, gineer to the directors general of inland navigation, to earry into execution any works that could be devised to arrest the progress of the bog. Mr. Killaly at once perceived that the only feasible remedy was to draw off the water that had accumulated ; and to accomplish this end, he employed anumber of labourers, to open the course of the stream where it was choked up, and also the drains through the valley that could be directed into the stream. By this means the head of the water was soon lowered, and in consequence the bog ceased to flow, and all the loose masses which floated on the river were broken to pieces by labourers placed at intervals throughout its course. Such was the situation of affairs on my arrival at the bog early on Saturday morning. During the course of the day, I exerted myself to carry into execution the well advised plans which had previously been commenced by Mr. Killaly. ‘Towards evening, the floating masses which came down the river began to lessen considerably both in size and number ; and finding every thing proceeded with regularity and certainty, I thought it useless to remain longer. At present I entertain no apprehension of farther devastation from the bog, except in the event of a very great fall of rain du- ring the present week. Slight rainswould be of service toincrease the current of water, aud facilitate the removal of a considerable deposit of heavy, black, bog mud, which at present fills the bottom of the stream. ‘lhe general current has, however, been much increased, by the breaking down of the weirs on the river Brusna, below the junction of the bog river. I shall now deszribe the present appearance and state of the bog and moory valley. In the centre of the bog, for the space of about a mile and a half in length, and a quarter of a mile in breadth, a valley has been formed, sloping at the bottom from the original surface of the bog, to the depth cf 30 feet, where the eruption first took place. Jn this valley or gulf there are numberless concentric cuts, - or fissures, filled with water nearly to the top. The valley, between the edge of the bcz and the road of Kil- bride, for the length of half-a-mile, and an extent of between 60 and 80 acres, may be considered as totally destroved. It is covered by tolerably firm bog, from six to ten feet in depth, con- sisting, at the surface, of numberless green islands, composed of detached parts of the moory meadows, and of small rounded patches of the original heathy surface of the bog, varying from two to ten feet above its former course, so as to flow over the road. Beyond the road to Kilbride the bog has flowed for one mile westward, and covered from 50 to 70 acres; in this part the heathy patches of bog gradually Jessen in quantity; the green islands The Northern Expedition. 73 islands disappear, and nothing is observed but a thin deposit, consisting of granulated black bog-mud, varying from one to three feet in thickness. This, though destructive for the present year, may when dry be burnt, and removed for manure to the neighbouring uplands, or left on the spot to fertilize the valley. Thus the whole distance which the bog has fiowed is about three miles in length, namely, one mile and a half in the bog, and the same distance over the moory valley; and the extent co- vered amounts to about 150 acres. I have the honour to be, Sir, your most obedient humble servant, RicHaRD GRIFFITH, mining engineer, THE NORTHERN EXPEDITION, We have been favoured with the following interesting extract of a letter from one of the gentlemen employed on the northern expedition: ** His Majesty’s ship Fury, Hudson’s Bay, the Coast of America, June 26, 1821. *< | take the opportunity of writing you, by the return of the Nautilus transport, which accompanied us to carry our heavy stores, We have had an excellent passage from the Orkneys to this part of the world; the weather, however, since we have been here, has not been so favourable. “* We have made two attempts to unload the transport, having made fast to icebergs for that purpose, but have been blown off successively by heavy gales, with the loss of some of our boats from the deck, and no small share of tribulation for the trans- port, which has not heen properly fortified for the ice. She has come off, however, very well, considering everything, having only lost the copper from her bows. We are now taking advantage of a fine day, and hope to get rid of her in a day or two, and to proceed on our destination. «We made an island about a week ago, called Resolution Island, where we expected to see some Indians ; but there was so much ice between the ships and the land, that we could not get in. / “I can hardly give you an idea of our intended route, or, more properly, of our ideal route ; first, because our course must, in a great measure, depend upon the state of the ice ; secondly, for want of a chart ; for those in common use are so incorrect in the general outline of the coast, as to be perfectly useless. If, however, you should fall in with a good map of the country, I will tell you the track we shall endeavour to take. ** After making Cape Farewell, the southern extremity of Greenland, in lat. 59. N. and long. 44. W. we proceeded nearly due west between Cape Chidley, on the Labrador Coast, and Re- Vol. 58. No, 279. July 1821, K solution 74 Patents. solution Island, in lat. 61. 40 N.and long. 63. W. where we now are ; from hence we intend to steer, if wind and ice will permit, about a north-west course, and endeavour to explore an inlet to the east of Repulse Bay, which has never yet been entered by any one but Fox, about 150 years ago; thence we shall proceed to Hearne’s Sea, where we shall winter (if we get there); then to Mackenzie’s Sea, Behring’s Straits, &c. ‘¢ All the officers are exceedingly agreeable, and I have but little doubt we shall spend the winter very comfortably together. We aré all preparing our rifles for shooting deer, with which these islands abound. We are, however, exceedingly well off in the eating way—plenty of fresh beef, mutton, pork, eggs, fish, and poultry on board, besides sheep, pigs, and 22 fine bullocks, on board the transport, and potted meats and soups of all kinds for more than three years, so that our salt provisions we scarcely need taste the whole voyage, unless we choose. ‘The mean temperature where we now are is about 35° Fah- renheit, the sun just skimming below the horizon at this time at midnight, so that we have constant day, which you may con- ceive is a great comfort in navigation amongst ice. An appa- ratus was yesterday let down to the depth of 500 fathoms, for bringing up water: its temperature by a registering thermometer was 401 degrees Fahrenheit ; that at the surface being 36 de- grees. The specific gravity, at the same depth, was 1.0278, and at the surface, 1.0260. Our position, as determined as- tronomically, is always to the north-west of our dead reckoning; from which it appears, that there is a consfané current setting from the north-west to south-east.” LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS. To William Church, of Threadneedle street, for improved ap- paratus for printing.—Dated 3d July 1$21.—6 months allowed to enrol specification. To James Simpson, of the Strand, surgical-instrument maker, for improvement in the manufacture of snuffers.—3d July.— 2 months. To William Coles, of New-street-square, mechanic, for braces or instruments for the relief of hernia or ruptures—5th July.— 6 months. To Charles Newman, of Brighton, coach-master, for improve- ment in the construction in the body and carriage of a stage or other coach, by placing a certain proportion of the outside pas- sengers in the centre of the carriage, and a proportion of the lug- gage under the same, producing thereby safety to the coach and convenience to the passengers.—17th July.—2 months. = 0 ~I Cr Dr. Burney’s Barometric Observations for June. To Dr. Tilloch. Gosport Observatory, June 11, 1821. Str, —Agreeably to the solicitation of John Farey, Esq., Sen., in your May Number [see this also page 22], I inclose my obser- vations on the State of the Barometer, &c. at the proposed hours, Mine is a wheel barometer, manufactured by a good workman in London. | find it sensibly affected in its oscillations by very small variations in the weight of the atmosphere; and as it ap- pears, by comparison with two others of a different construction, to be correct, these observations will be found the more valuable, particularly from the certainty of the real height of its basin above low-water mark, namely, 50 feet, and the proximity of its situation to the sea, the highest tides being nearly level with the ground- floor of my house. The attached Thermometer is correctly gra- duated to Fahrenheit’s scale: and the detached is a horizontal day and night self-registering Thermometer, which was also made in London. _I am, sir, your very obedient servant, Wiriiam Burney. Hour. Barom. A &o| Winds. State of the Weather. = wy — =—— as 1821. Cc Black eumulostrati, with white fring- June 11th. ed-like portions of cloud inosculated : in front, floating from N.E., by Inches. 0 | 0 | © means of an upper current; and 8h 129-608 clouds were interspersed over the deep blue sky, excepting two or three small spaces to the south of L the sun. 6 The same modifications of cloud in- 9 /29-635 54,.50\53.N.N.E.|~ creased in density, and inclined to let fall rain. § The aspect of the weather nearly the 10 |29-640 56.58/50) N.E. same, but more sunshine through d the apertures of the passing clouds. A sprinkling of rain at a 3 before |! o'clock, which lasted only three minutes. At 1] the clouds assumed the same appearances as at 10. A bed of cirrus to the N.E. a few 9 |a9. rol4QinN Ti drops of rain from a passing eumulo- 12 29-678 [57 SO8iN.N.E. dha and only three small spaces of the sky to be seen, 53'54)55} N. |X nascent cumuli beneath. - These 11 |29-640 56 58)\50\N.N.E. Dr. Burney’s Observations for July. To Dr. Tilloch.. July 9, 182). In sending you the observations on the state of the barometer, &c. on the other side, I think it necessary to remark that in these, as well as in the observations sent last month, the height of the Barometer was reduced to the temperature of 32°. Wiiu1amM Burney, 76 Barometric Observations. Hour. |Barom. q Wind. State of the Weather. = = & SS ad [al al 1821. A.M), ee with a brisk wind, and sd im jdet. 2 ches. 1 h inear cirri above an extensive July Ith, 8h130-162 68 60 o4 N.N.W bed of cirrocumulus, floating in the direction of the wind. The same modifications as above, with the addition of nascent cumuli around the horizon—and breezy at intervals. f Lofty cumuli apparently inosculat- ing with cirrocumulus, which lat- 10 |30-16) |65/67/40|W.N.W | ter has changed from a bright to 9 |30-165 |60)62)/50} N.W a watery colour, more particularly the part not in the immediate vi- L cinity of the sun. Light airs only. pCa, and overcast with dark cu- nulostratus, except two or three small openings, which showed that the sky had altered its colour from a light to a dark blue: and 30-159 (67/69138|W.N.W that a slight condensation of the ‘ : vs ""l) superior modifications of cloud was going on, was proved by the sinking of the Barometer and Thermometer, and the receding [ of the index of De Luc’s whale- bone hygrometer. { The sky nearly as at 11, but since that hour two very black nimbi- ferous clouds have passed over 12 |30:148 |66|66/40/W.N.W.|{ towards the 8.S.E., with only a few drops of rain, scarcely per- ceptible on the leads of the Ob- | servatory. ] —_ Pocklington, Yorkshire, July 11, 1821. Si1r,—I again trouble you with some more meteorological ob- servations made at this place, on Monday the 9th of this month. I am, sir, yours truly, WixuiaM RoGERson, jun. Thermom. Clock. |Barom.} in | out | Wind. Weather. doors|doors 85/29-980| 64-0 | 59-0 | N.W. \Clear ee cloudy: mi/d and alent. 9 |29-978 | 63-4 | 59-8 |W. by N. lSunhe broken dense clouds: gentle 10 |29:979| 63:0|}60-2} W. Ditto. [ breezes. 1] |29-983| 63-2|615] N.W. Some thin wh. clouds: gent. breezes. 12 |29-983| 63-6 | 61-4} W.N.W. Broken dense clouds: gentle breezes. London, Barometric Observations, . 7h London, July 20, 182). Str,—I leave for your Magazine the observations made at Leighton, on the 9th instant, as follows: 1221. Barom. pn eas Wind. | Denom. Weather. 8> 29-904 | 55 | 57 | N.W. | fine. 9 |29-899 | 55 | 5821 N.W. | do. 10 |29-899 | 552) 61 W. fine. | 11 /29:899 | 56 | 61 | N.W. | cloudy. 12 [29-896 | 5611 62 | N.W. | do. || 1 |29-894 | 573] 62 | N.W. | do. | At Bushey, by Col. Beauroy. Ther. |Ther. att. | det. Wind. Denom. Weather. Barom. 1821. 8h /29-633 153-3 55-5|N.W. by W. fresh. |' Fine: 9 |29-635 153-6158 | W.N.W.|do. |Do. 10 |29-632'54-4/60 | W.N.W.|do. — | Do. 11 /29-633'55* |61 | -W.N.W. very fr.) Do. 12 |29-631'56:5|62 | N.W. |do. — | Clondy. 1 |29-629'56-2/63 | NW. | fresh. | Do. Yours in haste, BW (From a Correspondent.) Died on the 13th of February, at his house in Lower Thorn- haugh-street, Bedford-square, after a lingering illness from ana- sarca, Thomas Cusac, Esq. universally lamented. The scholar, the patriot, friend and gentleman were in him eminently united. His researches into the most abstruse branches of science were deep, particularly into the nature of comets, an account of which his disgonsolate friends may one day present to the world: of this we are the more desirous, as his doctrine is said not only to be entirely new, but to exhibit the greatest share of probability and reason of any system yet proposed. He has left interesting tracts on the history of Britain and Ireland some centuries before Christ, in which the important and long-disputed question, Whether a federal union of the three countries then existed ; or if one was considered as paramount over the rest at the period above mentioned? is impartially examined. The in- vestigation seems to indicate his intention of writing the history of both islands prior to the epoch of Alexander, and must prove a most valuable acquisition to the future historian. Ta 78 Meteorology. To Dr. Tilloch. . Gosport Observatory, July 5, F821. Sir,—I herewith forward for your Philosophical Magazine and Journal, a description of a meteoric phenomenon that ap- peared here last evening, in order to obtain, if possible, a more satisfactory account of it from some other observer situated further to the westward, in which direction it lay. I find the latitude of this place (which you asked for on the cover of your last Number), from many observations, to be 50° 47’ 38” north; and longitude 1° 6’ 40” west of Greenwich. In time 4° 26"°7. . : I am, sir, your obedient servant, WitiramM BurRNeEY. A meteoric appearance of triangular and spheroidal forms, was observed here last evening (July 4th) between 9 and 10 o’clock, about W. by S. 11° or 12° above the horizon, and to the north of the moon, which was hid by a cumulos/ratus, so as only to show small portions of her deep red crescent at intervals, through the apertures of that compound cloud. Had the moon been some days older, to have enabled her to reflect a strong light in the at- tenuated haze in which this phenomenon was apparently situ- ated, I should have attributed it to a paraselene; as it was not far beyond the ordinary distance of one from the moon, and dis- played bright prismatic colours, as deep red, yellow, &c, But the aforesaid forms which it alternately assumed, and which were serrated round the edges; the diverging pencil rays issuing from the object, both in horizontal and perpendicular directions ; the surprising contractions and expansions which it repeatedly un- derwent, from upwards of a degree aud a half to a mere point, and then gradually increasing to its former brilliancy and extent; and the changing of its colours, were occurrences which led me to determine that it was not formed by reflection of the lunar rays, but by an electrical light in that part of the haze which was of a cirrostrative quality. About 10 o’clock the above-mentioned cloud, advancing:slowly by a freshening breeze, came up and gra- dually obscured this interesting phanomenon, which had been very conspicuous in a variety of forms and colours for more than half an hour, to the gratification of many who saw it. Some attributed it to the moon distorted; and some to a greatly dif- fused comet; while others, of a more liberal opinion, thought it was produced by some uncommon light in the haze near the ho- rizon, it having once or twice thrown out vivid coruscations not unlike those of the aurora Lorealis. ‘ METEORO- Meteorology. 19 METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT AT BOSTON, LINCOLNSHIRE, BY MR. SAMUEL YVEALL. ——= [The time of observation, unless otherwise stated, is at 1 P.M.] — Age of 182i. | the |Thermo-| Baro- |State of the Weather and Modification W400D.| meter. | meter. of the Clouds. DAYS. June 15) full} 64° | 30°05 /Fine 16) 16 | 57° | 30°03 |Cloudy 17, 17 | 52°5 | 30°15 |Ditto 18| ISuKGis*. [Serge Fine 19; 19 | 61° 30: |Ditto 20} 20 | 58° | 29°87 |Clondy 21} 21 | 60° 29°87 |Fine 22) 22 | 55° | 29°97 |Cloudy 23| 23 | 55°5 | 30° |Ditto 24, 24 | 56° 29°90 |Ditto 25| 25 | 58° 30° ‘|Ditto 26| 26 | 58°5 | 29°95 |Ditto 27| 27 | .60° 29°85 |Fine 28| 28 | 63° 29°90 |Ditto 20| new | 68° 29:80 |Ditto 30} 1 | 69° 29°50 |Ditto—heavy rain P.M. Huly 1; 2 | 55: 29°35 |Rain 9| 3 | 63° 29:60 |Fine 3; 4 | 6o° 29°65 |Ditto 4| 5 | 61° 29°83 |Cloudy 5) 6:4 61° 29°85 |Ditto 6, 7 | 62° 29°60 |Ditto—rain P.M. 7| 8 | 53°5 | 29°66 |Ditto 8} 9 | 57° 29°85 \Rain 9} 10 | 60: | 29°75 |Cloudy 10} 11 | 67°5 | 29°70 |Fine 11) 12 | 62° 29°86 |Ditto 19} 13 | 62° 29°82 |Ditto 14; 14 | 71° 29°60 |Ditto 14) 15 | G6 | 29°42 |Cloudy METEORO- 80 Meteorology. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE, By Mr. Cary, OF THE STRAND. Thermometer. ee | 3 ,, | Height of | 33 5 |5-s, |the Barom. Weather. iets Joe eee eis eS i June 27 | 52 | 66 | 50 | 30°15 Cloudy 2s. | 54 | 65 | 58 25 Fair 29 55 | 72 | 60 "19 Fair 30 {| 56 | 74 | 66 03 Fair, fall of rain at » July 1 | 57 | 72 | 50 | 29°67 || Rain {night, cs) 50 | 53 | 50 ‘S7 Rain 3 | 50 | 59 | 50 90 Cloudy 4 51 | 60 | 55 | 20°17 Cloudy 5 55 | GO | 56 “95 Fair 6 56 | 60 | 54 ‘Ol Showery 7 54 | 57 | 60 | 29:90 Showery 8 2| 59 | 52 | 30°13 Cloudy 9 |.59 | 68 | 56 “16 Fair 6 a ay | 68 | 57 "19 Fair 11 a”| G7 >|" 57 “21. Hazy 12 | 56 | 62] 52 “13 Fair 13 | 54 | 65 | 56 ‘ol Hazy 14. | 56 | 67 | 57 | 29°89 Cloudy 15. | 56 | 60 | 55 “74 _ Rain 16 56 | 71 | 60 | 30°11 Fair 17 | 60 | 69 | 6o "34 Cloudy 18 60 | 74 | 60 *36 Fair 19 58 | 74 | 64 ‘08 Fair 20 62 | 72 |} 59 | 29°92 Cloudy 21 63 | 72 | 60 *84 Showery 22 60 {27.2 {GY 64 Fair 93 62 | 69 | 59 “79 Stormy 24 60 | 68 | 60 *84 Showery 25 60 | 68 | 57 *85 Showery 26 60 | 67 | 59 *99 Showery N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’clock. Se Observations for Correspondent who observed the 9th July 9 o’Clock M. Barom. 30:164 ‘Ther. attached 57° Detached 59 cS ee a BOGE aut Rok om SBP Oe —_ — 1 = N — s0:166 — — — 64 — — 68 Erratum:—In Dr. Burney’s reply to Mr, Farey’s Queries, for Mr. Forster, read Dr. Thomas Forster, ———— f 81 j XVI. On the Problem in Nautical Astronomy for finding the Latitude by Means of two Olservations of the Sun’s Altitude and the Time elapsed between them. By James Ivory, A.M. F-R.S. Tue method generally practised in the British Navy for solving this problem was invented by Douwes, an examiner of sea officers and pilots at Amsterdam, who proposed it to the English Admi- ralty in 1740. It is however no more than a very limited solu- - tion; since it can only be applied with the desired success to correct the latitude by account when one of the observations is very near the meridian, or when the middle time is very little different from half the interval between the two observations. In all other cases one application of the rules will hardly lead to a result sufficiently near the truth; and a series of approxima- tions obtained by repeated operations generally converges so slowly that the method is of little practical utility unless it be assisted by some other artifice. Dr. Brinkley of Dublin, so long ago as 1791, gave a method of correcting the result found by one operation of Douwes’s rules, which, unless in particular circumstances, is abundantly exact for nautical purposes. The same astronomer has since reconsi- dered the subject ; and, in the Nautical Almanac 1822, has re- duced his method to easy formule comprehending every case that can occur in practice. If this improved method be liable to objection, it is on account of the length and embarrassment of the calculation. Delambre in his Astronomy (vol. iii. chap. 26) has examined the different methods that have been proposed for solving this problem with his usual industry and accuracy. After a careful examination of the different processes with respect to the length of the calculation and the exactness of the result, he inclines to reject all the indirect methods, and to give the preference to the direct and rigorous solution obtained by the rules of spherical trigonometry. ‘T'wo elaborate articles in the Conn. des Tems, 1817 and 1822, written by the same astronomer, are intended to add strength to his opinion. In these he particularly ex- amines the effect produced by supposing, as is usually done, that the sun’s declination is equal to the mean quantity between the two observations and suffers no variation in the elapsed time ; and he shows that the error arising from this source may be equal to the sun’s change of declination. The error may no doubt be obviated by allowing for the variation of this element of the calculation *; but a new rule is required for this purpose, * Delambre's Astronomy, vol. iii. chap. 26. § 110. Vol. 58, No. 280, Aug. 1821. L which 82 On finding the Latitude. which adds to the length and perplexity of the operations, before too complicated. In the Quarterly Journal of Science, No. 22, Dr. Brinkley has computed an example making allowance for the change of declination ; and if a fair comparison be instituted be- tween his calculation and that by the direct method, as applied to the same example in No. 21 of the same Journal, it appears hardly possible to avoid giving the preference in every respect to the latter. I have now to propose a direct solution of the problem, sim- pler and easier in the calculation than that recommended by Delambre, and which, I conceive, will be found more convenient in practice than the indirect process commonly used. In ex- plaining this solution I shall first assume that the sun’s declina- tion is the same at both the observations and equal to the mean quantity between the two times; and I shall afterwards point out an easy way of correcting the error which this assumption introduces in the result. The principles of the method are contained in this preliminary proposition. | Lemma. (See figure 3, Plate II.) Let the base AB of a spherical triangle A ZB, be bisected in O, and through O draw a great circle perpendicular to AB; then having let fall upon this circle the perpendicular Z D from the vertex of the triangle, we shall have these two formula, viz. 4 cos ZB—cos ZA SinZD = — =a? Cos ZB + cosZA Cos DO = Fn AO ce ED Conceive a great circle to pass through the points Z and O: _ then cos ZOB = — cos ZOA= sin ZOD. Now, from the two spherical triangles ZOB and ZOA, we get, Cos ZB = cos BO cosZO + sin BO sin ZO sin ZOD, Cos ZA = cos AO cos ZO —sin AO sin ZO sin ZOD; wherefore, by subtracting, r Cos ZB — cos ZA= 2 sin AO sin ZO sin ZOD; but, in the right-angled triangle ZOD, sin ZD = sin ZO sin ZOD; consequently, _ CosZB—cos ZA = 2sinAO sinZD, from which the first of the two formule is derived. Agaiu, by adding the same two equations, we obtain, Cos ZB + cos ZA = 2cos AO cos ZO; but, in the triangle ZOD, cos ZO = cos ZD x cos OD; wherefore, Cos ZB + cosZA = 2 cos AO cos ZD cosDO, from which the second formula is deduced. - Now On finding the Latitude. 93 . Now let P be the elevated pole; PA and PB the horary cir- eles passing through the sun’s centre at the two observations ; then, if each of the ares PA and PB be equal to the polar di- stance of the sun, or to the complement of his declination at the middle of the elapsed time, A and B will represent the two ap- parent places of the sun. Conceive two small circles described upon the surface of the sphere about the poles A and B, and at distances from them respectively equal to the complements of the observed altitudes; these circles will intersect in two points Zand Z’ situated at equal distances on opposite sides of the great cirele passing through A and B, and, generally speaking, either of the points Z or Z’ may represent the place of observation. The problem therefore admits of two solutions, the latitude sought be- ing the complement of either of the polar distances Z P or Z’P. Draw the great circle PDOD’ to bisect the vertical angle of the isosceles triangle AP B; which circle will therefore intersect the base AB at right angles and will bisect it. Draw the ares ZD and Z’ D perpendicular to the circle PO; these arcs will be equal, because Z and Z’ are similarly situated with regard to both the circles AB and PO. Then the angle AP B is known, for it is equal to the elapsed time converted into degrees at the rate of 15° to 1; wherefore in the right-angled triangle A PO, the hypothenuse A P and the angle AP O, equal to half AP B, being known, the sides AO and OP may be found by the rules of sphe- rical trigonometry. In the triangle AZB, the two sides ZB aud’Z A, being the complements of the observed altitudes, are known; and as the are AO, half AB, has been found, we may compute the ares ZD and DO by the premised |emma. Now P D is the difference, and P D’ the sum, of the ares PO and OD; and hence the two sides about the right angle are known in each of the triangles ZPD, Z’PD': wherefore we may find the polar distances ZP and Z’ P, and likewise the angles ZPO and Z’ PO, which are the horary angles at the middle time, and the problem will be completely solved. Although the problem is ambiguous in theory, yet, in most cases, it becomes determinate in practice. In the first place there is no ambiguity when the arc Z’P is equal to, or greater than, 90°: for the distance ZP between the place of observation and the elevated pole is always less than a quadrant. In order to find a criterion for determining this point without actually com- puting both latitudes, it is to be.observed that the angle contained between the circles ZO and O P is always less than a right angle ; and, because in right-angled spherical triangles the sides are of the same affection with the angles opposite to them, it follows that the are ZD will be less than 90°. Wherefore, Z’ D being less than 90°, the polar distance Z’ P will be greater than, or equal to,a quadrant, L2 according 84 On finding the Latitude. according as the known are P D', or PO + OD, is greater than, or equal to, a quadrant; in all which cases there is only one so- lution, by means of the triangle ZPD having the side PD equal to the difference of POand OD. But when the are PD’, or DO + OP, is less than 90°, the same pole will be elevated above the horizons of both the zeniths, and recourse must be had to other considerations to distinguish the true solution from the false one. Now, in this case, the zenith Z’ will be always be- tween the great circle AOB and the equator, having a latitude less than the complement of the are PO: wherefore, if it be known that the latitude of the place of observation is greater than the complement of PO, the ambiguity will be removed, and the true solution will be obtained by means of the triangle ZPD as in the former cases. On the other hand, if the latitude of the ship be less than the complement of PO, both latitudes must be computed ; if they be on different sides of the complement of PO, the case will be determined; but if they be both less than that arc, the solution will remain ambiguous unless the latitude by account be known so nearly as to enable the calculator to make a choice. That both the latitudes may be less than the complement of PO, which is the greatest distance between the great circle passing through A and B and the equator, will be obvious if it be considered that the two zeniths may be as near the great circle A B as we please, and may even coincide in one point in its cireumference. This ambiguous case can happen but rarely; and when it does occur, the problem will have no preten- sion to much precision ; because the difference between the ares ZB and ZA, will be so nearly equal to the are AB, that very small errors in the observed altitudes will occasion a great varia- tion in the position of the points Z and Z’. By means of these observations the ambiguity of the solution is mostly, but not en- tirely, taken away. I shall now reduce the foregoing solution into algebraic for- mulz of calculation, which wiil be shorter than giving a rule in words at length. Let 2 and h’ denote the two altitudes, the let- ter without the accent standing for the greater; D the sun’s de- clination at the mean time between the two observations ; and # the angle found by converting half the elapsed time into de- grees at the rate of 15° to 1>: these are the data of the problem. Put also J for half the base, and p for the perpendicular, of the isosceles triangle AP B; y for the are ZD; ax for the are DO; and further, for the sake of abridging, let sinh + sin h! A =-—— > sin h — sin h! B= Sierig hiits Then, On finding the Latitude. 85 Then, if A be the latitude, and S the horary angle of the mid- die time, which are the things sought, we shall obtain the fol- lowing formule, by means of the premised lemma and the rules for solving right-angled spherical triangles. 1. Sin b = cos D sin #, sin D ‘cos 5? 2. Cos p = 3y Sin Y= sin 6 ? 4. Cos a= cos y cos 6? 5. Sin A = cos y cos (p F 2), 6. Sin S = For the sake of illustration, I shall now subjoin some exam- ples; and I have purposely taken them from Dr. Brinkley’s Ad- dition to the Nautical Almanac 1822, in order that the two modes of calculation may be more easily compared. Example I. Alt. 21° 26’ A.M. | interval, 34 , Alt. 60° 56’ A.M. f ¢ = 22°30’ { recdcel. ti. Sink = 87406 (1) Sin A’ = 36542 (2) 2A, 123948 cosa’ 2B, 50864 A, 61974 B, 25432 Cos D, 9:99993 (3) Cos 4, 9:96563 (6) Sint, 958284 (4) ‘A.C 10°03437 Sin J, 958277 (5) Sin D, 8:24186 (7) b = 22° 29/8 Cos p, 827623 (8) P= 88° 55° A.C Sin J, 10°41723 Cos b, 9-96563 Log B, 940538 (9) Cosy, 9:87340 (11) Sin y, 982261 (10) -9°83903 y = 41° 394 A.C. 10-16097 Log A, 9°79221 (12) Cos x, 9:95318 (13) Cos y, 9°87340 Cos (p—x), 9°66021 (14) x = 26° 78 Sin a, 953361 (15) pax = 62 47 +2 A = 19° 58’-7, latitude, Sin 86 On finding the Latitude. Sin y, 9°$2261 Secta, 10:02696 (16) SinS 9°84957 (17) S.= 45° 0"7 S+ 7, 67° 30:7 | Horary angles at the two S—. 22 307 observations. Here there is no ambiguity, since p + 2 is greater than 90°. The exact latitude is 19° 58’ 45”, although the example may have been originally framed by taking it equal to 20°. This is Dr. Brinkley’s 2d example (p. 10), who brings out 19° 59’ by one operation of Douwes’s rules and the correction by his own method. By the process here followed, to find the latitude re- quires taking out fifteen numbers from the Tables. Now one operation of Douwes’s rules requires taking out twelve numbers, and the correction must double this labour: perhaps it does more, if we consider the length of the calculation, and the embar- rassment of having to use different formule. Delambre’s me- thod requires nineteen different logarithms, ‘besides employing additions and subtractions of the arcs not wanted here, Example Il. Alt. 76° 6’ A.M. ) interval 6° 20’ [ ©’s decl. 20° N. Alt. 8°3’ P.M. f ¢=47° 30’ | Lat. by account 9° N,. Sin kh = 97072 Sin A’ = 14004 2A, 111076 2B, $3068 j A, 55538 B, 41534 Cos D, 9:97299 Cos J, 9:85800 Sin t, 9°86763 A.C. 10°14200- Sin J, 9°84062 Sin D, 9°53405 b = 43° 5]’-2 Cos p, 967605 p= 61° 41-2 A.C, sin b, 10°15938 Cosy, 9°90330 Log B, 961840 Cos 4, 9°85800 Sin y, 9:77778 9°76130 y = 36° 50’ A.C. 10-23870° Log A, 9°74459 Cos y, 9°90330 Cos x, 9-98329 Cos p4+ax, 9:33608 Poti pio aera Sina, -9°23938 heap 4 = 9° 59%5 pt+e=77 28'7 sin On finding the Latitude. Sin,y, [{ 947778 Sect. a, 1000664 Sin S, 9-78442 S = 37° 30 t, 47 30 Sie Be Re pec: O° } Horary angles. 87 This is Dr. Brinkley’s Ist example, p.9. The exact latitude is 10°, and he brings out 10° 1’ by the same process as in the Jast example. This instance admits of two solutions, the are p + x being less than 90°: but the one near the equator is taken, be+ cause the latitude by account is set down 9°. ‘The ambiguity will be removed if the other latitude be computed by the for- mula, cos A = cos y cos (Pp — 2X); it comes out 33° 51’, Example Ill. oy rae E LiSh! eysth ‘ai ce Ah } pies e {o's decl, 5° 30’. Sin h = 95979 Wi Sin h’ = 57857 # 2A, 151836 2B, 36122 A, Fas B, 18061 Cos D, 9-99800 Cos lb = 9-97962 Sint, 9-47814 A.C. 1002038. Sin .l, 947614 Sin D, 8-98157 b= 17° 25 Cos p, 9:V0195 p = 84° 14"1 A.C. sin b, 10°52386, Cos .b, 9:97962 Log B, 925674 Cos y, 9:90170 Sin ¥, 9-78060 — 9°88132 RN SY uoall Sea) A.C. 10°11868 Log A, 988034 Cos .y, 9:90170 Cos .x, 9:99902 Cos (p—x) , 9°22279 Ee Ws ia 3 Sin a, 9°12449 p—x, = 80 23:1 A=7° 392 Sin y, 9-78060 Secta, 10-00388 SinS, — 9°78448 S = 37° 30 This 88 On finding the Latitude. This is Dr. Brinkley’s third example (pp. 11 and 12). It is an unfavourable instance for his rules, requiring several compu- tations and corrections to arrive at a right result. It admits of two solutions but without ambiguity, if the latitude by account be sufficient to ascertain that the true latitude is less than 5° 46’, the complement of p. The other latitude is 1° 31’-6. These examples will be sufficient for showing the method of calculation. 1 proceed now to consider the correction required for the sun’s change of declination in the interval between the observations. The true place of the pole will now be at P’, with- out the great circle DO, which bisects the are AB, because the polar distances P’ A and P’B are unequal. Draw P’ P perpen- dicular to that great circle, and complete the isosceles triangle APB. The ares AP and PB make equal angles with the circle P’P; and hence in the small change of place from P to P’, one of the two ares AP’ and BP’ will increase just as much as the other decreases ; and each of the arcs A P and P B will be equal to half the sum of the polar distances P’ A and P’B. We shall therefore obtain the are ZP by the method already explained ; and, having drawn Pm perpendicular to ZP’, the correction we are seeking is mP’ =PP’ x sin P’ Pm=PP’ x sin ZPO= PP’ x sin S. Also, by the lemma, , _ cos P’ A —cos P’B PP sire ao Now, d being the declination at B the greater altitude, and D the mean declination as before, we have P’A = PA—(D—d), P’B = PA+ (D—4d); And-hence, PP’ = (D—d) x ss = as, Wherefore, Pm = (D—d) x @*% sin t * The corrected latitude will therefore be a—(D—d) x eas | sin ¢ or, independently of S; because sin S = obey. cosa ? A—(D—d) x —“*_. sin ¢ cos A Again the arcs P’A and P’B may be considered as making equal angles with PP’: consequently the horary circle at the middle time, which bisects the angle AP’B, will be perpendicular to PP’, Hence the true horary angle of the middle time is equal to the complement of ZP’P. But from the triangle ZP P’, we get : Sin Esen [= | } a ee ee ert ne eet ent | oem tn ea SG Te 7 Oud 2 PA TAT 2% POM ML * iu > f} e ee . i 2 = - a e f - as - ‘ he ree oc A p e BS ~~ 4 C 7 - - ? vo = ; - .s . . _ - * - —_ ~ “# * 4 mit - > ‘ pecs ee ts sec: 2 ty = f timated his intention of making a communication ‘* On the mode of determining latitudes by the sextant most correctly by a series of observations made near noon,””—That this was the whole of the announcement, and that it was unaccompanied by any hint respecting the nature of the method, or any other remark what- ever, That 104 Answer to Remarks on determining the Latitude. That in October 1818 [ transmitted to you a full account of a method of finding the latitude by observations made with the sextant near noon, which I had practised for a considerable time previous; and that the observations in the accompanying ex- ample were made on September 24, 1817. That in the spring of 1821 I observed. a notice in the Edin- burgh Phil. Journal, that Gen. Brisbane’s promised communica- tion on this subject was just published in the Edinburgh Phil. Trans.; and in May 1821, when volume ix. part I. of the Edin- burgh Phil. Trans. was received in Newcastle, I saw the paper itself for the first time. It forms article XIV. of the part. That although it is thus impossible I could have been indebted to General B. for a method which I had previously practised for several years, and had actually published two years before I had any means of knowing what his method was, in a work in the * hands of every scientific person in Europe ; our methods are not only generally similar, but absolutely the same both in principle and in all their practical details. That, whatever Gen. B. may have done, | have never seen any of the three foreign works in which your correspondent says the substance of the same method is to be found. That, if I were disposed to quibble, I might say that the desig- nation of *‘ a new method” is not mine, as you know very well, sir, that the title of my letter in which that designation is intro- duced was prefixed by yourself. That, though I am sure every thing is done at Greenwich in the best possible way, I believe I need not say that the observa- tions made at that admirable establishment are made with other and better instruments than a sextant and an artificial horizon. And, finally, that the charge of incorrectness in an approximate formula arising from substituting the arc of one second for the sine of the same arc, requires no notice. With respect to the insinuation that I did mot practise the method of finding thé time which I stated myself to have prac- tised, till I saw Gen. B.’s communication on the subject ;—the affirmative, as the matter stands, depends on my integrity ;—the negative rests not on any authority whatever. From myself, on this subject, no other reply will be expected. Your obedient servant, Trinity House School, Newcastle, EpwarD RIDDLE. Aug. 6, 1821. XX, A Com- brs XX. A Communication of a singular Fact in Natural History. By the Right Honourable the Earl of Morton, F.R.S., tn @ Letter addressed to the President*. My DEaR Sir,—L YESTERDAY had an opportunity of observing a singular fact in natural history, which you may perhaps deem not unworthy of being communicated to the Royal Society. Some years ago, I was desirous of trying the experiment of domesticating the Quagga, and endeavoured to procure some individuals of that species. 1 obtained a male; but being dis- appointed of a female, I tried to breed from the male quagga and a yourg chesnut mare of seven-eighths Arabian blood, and which had never been bred from: the result was the production of a female hybrid, now five years old, and bearing, both in her form and in her colour, very decided indications of her mixed origin. t subsequently parted with the seven-eighths Arabian mare to Sir Gore Ouseley, who has bred from her by a very fine black Arabian horse. I yesterday morning examined the produce, namely, a two-years old filly, and a year-old colt. They have the character of the Arabian breed as decidedly as can be ex- pected, where fifteen-sixteenths of the blood are Arabian ; and they are fine specimens of that breed; but both in their colour, and in the hair of their manes, they have a striking resemblance to the quagga. Their colour is bay, marked more or less like the quagga in a darker tint. Both are distinguished by the dark line along the ridge of the back, the dark stripes across the fore- hand, and the dark bars across the back part of the legs. The stripes across the fore-hand of the colt are confined to the withers, and to the part of the neck next to them; those on the filly co- ver nearly the whole of the neck, and the back as far as the flanks, The colour of her coat on the neck adjoining to the mane is pale, and approaching to dun, rendering the stripes there more con- spicuous than those on the colt. The same pale tint appears in a less degree on the rump; and in this cireumstance of the dun tint also she resembles the quagga. _ The colt and filly were taken up from grass for my inspection, and, owing to the present state of their coats, I could not ascer- tain whether they bear any indications of the spots on the rump, the dark pasterns, or the narrow stripes on the forehead, with which the quagga is marked. They have no appearance of the dark line along the belly, or of the white tufts on the sides of the mane. Both their manes are black ; that of the filly is short, stiff, and stands upright, and Sir Gore Ouseley’s stud-groom alleged that it never was otherwise. ‘That of the colt is long, but so stiff as * From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1821, Part I. Vol. 58. No, 280, Aug. 1821. O to 106 Singular Facts in Natural History. to arch upwards, and to hang clear of the sides of the neck ; i which circumstance it resembles that of the hybrid. This is. the more remarkable, as the manes of the Arabian breed hang lank, and closer to the neck than those of most others. The bars across the legs, both of the hybrid and of the colt and filly, are more strongly defined, and darker than those on the legs of the quagga, which are very slightly marked; and though the hybrid has several quagga marks, which the colt and filly have not, yet the most striking, namely, the stripes on the for e-hand, are fewer and less apparent than those on the colt and filly. These cir- cumstances may appear singular; but I think you will agree with me, that they are trifles compared with the extraordinary fact of so many striking features, which do rot belong to the dam, being, in two successive instances, communicated through her to the progeny, not only of another sire, who also has them not, but of a sire belonging probably to another species; for such we have very strong reason for supposing the quagga to be. I am, my dear sir, Your faithful humble servant, Dr. W. BH. Wollaston. Moron. P.S. I have requested Sir-Gore Ouseley to send me some spe- cimeus of hair from the manes of the sire, dam, colt, and filly ; and I shall write to Scotland for specimens from those of the quagga and of the hybrid. I am not apt to build hypotheses i in a hurry, and oe no pre- dilection either for or against the old doctrine of impressions. pro- duced by the imagination; but I can hardly suppose that the imagination could pass by the white tufts on the quagga’s mane, and attach itself to the coarseness of its hair. Wimpole-street, Aug. 12, 1820. Note by Dr. Woliaston. By the kindness of Sir Gore Ouseley, I had an opportunity of seeing the mare, the Arabian horse, the filly, and the colt, and of witnessing how cor- rectly they agreed with the description given of them by Lord Morten. Having shortly afterwards described the circumstances to my friend Mr. Giles, I found that he had observed some facts of nearly equal interest, of which, at my request, he has since sent me the following account. XXI. Particulars of a Fact, nearly similar to that related by Lord Morton, Communicated to the President in a Letter from DaniEL GILEs, Esq. Tx answer to your inquiries, I will now give the best account I can of my sow and her produce. She was one of a well known black and white breed of Mr. Western, the Member for Essex. About ten years since I put her BR ee i ee ee eee On the Use of Shot Cartridges. 107 her to a boar of the wild breed, and of a deep chesnut colour, which I had just received from Hatfield House, and which was soon afterwards drowned by accident. The pigs produced (which were her first litter) partook in appearance of both boar and sow, but in some the chesnut colour of the boar strongly prevailed. The sow was afterwards put to a boar of Mr. Western’s breed (the wild boar having been long dead). The produce was a lit- ter of pigs, some of which we observed, with much surprise, to be stained and clearly marked with the chesnut colour which had prevailed in the former litter. This sow had afterwards another litter of pigs by a boar of Mr. Western’s breed, and I think, and so does my bailiff, that some of these were also slightly marked with the chesnut colour ; but though we noticed the recurrence with surprise, it is so long since, that our recollection is much !ess perfect than I wish it to be. I should observe, that I have\known Mr, Western’s breed many years, but never in any other instance observed the least appear- of the chesnut colour. Believe me, &c. Youngsbury, Nov. 10, 1820. DANIEL GILEs. ae XXII. On the Use of Shot Cartridges. By A CorREsPon- DENT in India. To the Editor. Dear Sir,— Ir you consider the following subject worthy a place in any of the Numbers of the Philosophical Magazine, you are welcome to the communication; it may I think prove useful to sportsmen. I have been in the habit of shooting for some years past, and have always loaded with shot cartridges, the ad- vantage of which | think worth attention. In the first place, using the cartridge ensures the sportsman a more rapid succes- sion of discharges, if the game be numerous. No wadding is required after the first or second discharge. The shot is not wasted by scattering it out of the measure, which is fre- quently the case when loading in a hurry. The touch-holes are not damaged by the return of shot into the breeching of the gun, which I have frequently observed, and which is probably occasioned by bad powder, the succeeding discharge generally forcing the shot into the touch-hole itself, making it sagged and enlarged. ‘I'he shot cartridges fired at ten yards or less distance from a sheet of paper, will cover it as well as if blown from a _gun loaded in the usual way.—I have frequently tried my own guns, of Joseph Manton’s make, with cartridges at a sheet of paper placed twenty or thirty yards distant, the charge being 02 one 108 Report of a Committee one ounce of number 4 shot; the only comparative difference I ever observed was that a few more shot were thrown within the compass, consequently it may be inferred that my way of loading carries closer. No difficulty attends making the cartridges; the accompanying No.1 is the exact pattern of the paper, which should be thin and soft. No. 2 is the former upon which the paperis rolled spirally from the broad perpendicular side, and then doubled into the hollow at the end. The cartridges when wanted for use may be carried in a common canvass shot bag. To conclude: I may mention that this way of loading is very general in India, and I doubt not will be approved of in England if ever tried. Iam, dear sir, yours very obediently, Province of B. .C.S. April 1820. No. I. eee XXIII. Report of a Committee of the Academy of Natural Sci- ences of Philadelphia, on a new Hydrostatic Balance in- vented by Isatan Lukens. Read May 26, 1818*, — Tue undersigned Committee beg leave to report, that the in- strument invented by Mr. Lukens, and referred to them by the Academy, consists of a very sensible steelyard or Roman balance, so arranged as to be particularly adapted to the finding of specific gravities. The arms of the balance are so constructed, in the first instance, as to be in exact equipoise, when unloaded. The object [C, fig. 1, Plate II.] of which the specific gravity is to be ascertained is suspended to the shorter arm, by any of the usual methods ; aud its relative weights iu air and in water are indi- cated by the numbers on the graduated arm [A] at which the moveable weight or pea [D] is suspended, when the beam is brought into a horizontal position. It is evident that the abso- lute weight of the pea is arbitrary, and it is one of the advantages of the instrument that the pea may be altered to suit the weight of the object under trial; even a stone of a proper size might be employed, and would always be at hand. When great accuracy is desired, a second pea is employed, which must be either one-tenth, or one-hundreth part the weight * From the Journal of the Academy, Vol. I. Part II. of on a new Hydrostatic Balance, 109 of the first. The larger pea will then indicate the units of weight, and the smaller the tenths or hundredths. The same object might also be obtained by suspending the pea to the middle of a Vernier-scale. The instrument, and its necessary appendages, are arranged in a small box, so as to be very convenient, and very portable, Your Committee, after a due consideration and an actual trial of this apparatus, are of opinion, that, for facility and rapidity of operation, it has the advantage over every other that has hi- therto been proposed for the same purpose; and they therefore cheerfully recommend it to the attention of the Academy. They propose that it should be named Lukens’s Hydrostatic Balance. All which is respectfully submitted. Wixturam Maciure. R. M. Patrerson. Isaac LEa. XXIV. Description of a Hydrostatic Balance, by which the Specific Gravities of Minerals may be ascertained without Calculation, By Bens. H, Coates, M.D. Reud June 16, 1818*, Tae present instrument (see Plate II. fig. 2,) has arisen from one lately presented to the Academy, in which the common steel- yard is employed for this purpose. The object of the alteration is, without rendering the instru- ment more complicated, or more troublesome in its application, to save the labour and inconvenience of calculation. By neans of it, the specific gravity of a mineral may be ascertained in a few moments, and without pen and ink, or any other assistance than a cup of water. With the-aid of the neatness and convenience of the instrument on which it is grafted, it is hoped to be a prac- tical saving of time and labour to the mineralogist. The lever resembles that of a common steelyard, and is con- trived to balance exactly, by making the shorter end wider, and with an enlargement at the extremity. The upper edge of each limb is rectilinear, and free from notches, for the sake of accu- racy in adjusting the weights. The shorter end is undivided; but on the longer i is inscribed a scale, of which every division, reckoning from the extremity of the lever, is marked with a number, which is the quotient of the length of the whole scale, divided by the distance of the division from the end. Thus, at half the length is marked the number 2, * From the Journal of the Academy of Natural Scicnces of Philadelphia, Vol. 1. Part I. at 110 On a new Hydrostratic Balance. at one-third, 3, at one-fourth, .4, &e. Also at two-thirds the Jength is rriarked 14, at two-fifths, 24, &c. And so of all the fractions, sufficiently minutely. These numbers extend as high as the specific gravity of platina ;—the pivot of the instrument represents unity, and a notch is made at the further end. In using this instrument, any convenient weight is suspended bya hook from the notch at the end of the scale. The body un- der examination is to be suspended to the other end by a horse= hair, and slid along till an equilibrium is produced. It is then, without altering its situation on the beam, to be immersed in water, and balanced a second time by sliding the weight. The hook of the latter then marks the specifie gravity on the scale. The demonstration of this is very simple. The instrument being supposed in equilibrium, and BD (see figure) and the weight of the counterpoise being constant, the weight of the body varies as the distance of the counterpoise from "BS hy the common principle of the lever. Hence, if C be the place of the weight at the conclusion of the operation, Weight in water : weight in air:: BC: BA. And, by snb- traction, the loss of weight in water : weight in air:: AC: AB; and hence wt. in air AB a = AE = the spec. grav. ; which is the rule. @. E.D. Substances lighter than water may have, if necessary, their. specific gravity ascertained by the usual method; a scale of equal parts being cut on the opposite side of the beam, and the article to be weighed placed in a notch for the purpose. For mineralogy, however, this will seldom be necessary, The bottom of the notch A (at the smaller end) should be in a line with the edge of the scale, its sides being a little raised. The top of the shorter end should be rather the thickest part of it, to allow the horse-hair, by which the mineral is suspended, to swing clear. This mode will be found very delicate and accurate, and a hook must not be used, as it cannot be balanced. The instrument, in this form, is exceedingly compact, and may be reduced to a simple rod. The principle is capable of being applied {as in an instrument I have made) to an are of a circle, with a rod resembling in its application a common bent lever, oS == XXV. True apparent Right Ascension of ‘Dr. MaskELYNE’s 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1821. By the Rev. J. Groosy. [Continued from p. 52.] Argu- tli of Dr, Maskelyne’s 36 Stars. 10n 0 hi Aseens 19 > True apparent R ‘sung | srs] ‘stad ~OLY ie eS ae oa 2 qe ra 99 {LL IZ OV 99 cL ol ge £9 aL ol Le 19 ol GOS5 mee be 08 2: | 890. 89 ve LS 99 Lo 1319 cs b9 99 oe ¢¢ 9 99 1¢ 1g a9 SOS | Ob OF 16s 99 86 LY 9S $9 L& cP PS i) 9% ev aS i) GG IP 0S b9_|_ ve__joh__| av £9 £% ge OP 79 £% 9e g b9 rae ve ey £9 1% ee 1P £9 | _ 0% t€ | ov £9 61 6% gt £9 61 8% 9¢ £9 gL 9% ce £9 Li ixg ee i a FS 0 SS v9 Lt rae of b9 LI 1% 6% $9 91 61 8G $9 OI 81 9% 1 99-1€| 91-8h | L1-€6| 9a-2¢ ay | sa 18 Po VE). 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Notice respecting a Volcanic Appearance in ithe Moon, in a Letter addressed to the President. By Captain HENRY Karer, F.R.S.* 3 London, Feb. 8, 1821. Dzar Sir,— IL, may perhaps be interesting to the Royal Society to be informed, that on Sunday evening, the 4th instant, I ob- served a luminous spot in the dark part of the moon, which I Was inclined to ascribe to the eruption of a voleano. The telescope used was an excellent Newtonian of 64 inches aperture, with a power of 74. The moon was exactly two days old, and the evening so clear, that I was able to discern the ge- neral outlines in the dark part of her disk. Her western azimuth was about 70°, and her altitude about 10 degrees. In this position at 6 hours 30 minutes, the volcano was situ- ated (estimating by the eye) as in the accompanying sketch [di- stant from the northern limb of the moon about one-tenth of her diameter]. Its appearance was that of a small nebula sub- tending an angle of about three or four seconds. Its brightness was very variable; a luminous point, like a small star of the 6th or 7th magnitude, would suddenly appear in its centre, and as suddenly disappear, and these changes would some- times take place in the course of a few seconds. On the evening of the 5th, having an engagement which pre- vented my observing it myself, 1 arranged the telescope for two friends, who remarked the same phenomena as the night before, but in an inferior degree, partly perhaps in consequence of the evening not being so favourable. On the 6th, I again observed it; it had certainly hecome more faint, and the star-like appearance less frequent. 1 could see it very distinctly with a power of 40. As the moon approached the horizon, it was visible only at intervals when the star-like appearance took place. On the same evening I had the pleasure of showing it to Mr. Henry Browne, F.R.S. 1 regret that 1 had no micrometer adapted to my telescope ; but I have reason to believe the distance of the volcano from the edge of the moon was about one-tenth of her diameter, and the angle it formed this evening with a line joining the cusps was about 50°, I remarked near the edge of the moon, a well known dark _ spot, from which the volcano was distant, as nearly as I could estimate, three times its distance from the edge of the moon. In a map of the moon published by Dr. Kitchener (and which is the best small map with which I am acquainted), there is a mountain sufficiently near the situation of the volcano, to autho- rize the supposition that they may be identical. * From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 182), Part I.’ 3 Vol, 58, No, 280, Aug. 1821, I On ! 114 | Catalogue of xadiacal Stars. On the 7th, I could still see the voleano, and the occasional star like appearance; but I de not think it was sufficiently per- ceptible to have been discovered by a person ignorant of its pre- cise situation. T am inclined however to think, that the diffi- culty of seeing it is rather to be attributed to the increased light of the moon, than to the diminished action of the volcano. I have the honour to be, dear sir, &c. To Sir H. Davy, Bari. P.R.S. &c. Henry Kater. P.S. Since the preceding letter was written, I have ascertained that the spot in which I observed the volcanic appearance is that named Aristarchus. This spot was particularly examined by He- velius, who calls it Mons Porphyrites, and who considers it to be volcanic. If his drawings are to be relied upon, it has under- gone a considerable change in its appearance since his time. Sir William Herschel has recorded in the Philosophical Trans- actions an observation of three voleanoes, which he perceived in the moon, April 19, 1787, at 10° 36™, sidereal time. One of these, which he says showed *‘ an actual eruption of fire or lu- minous matter,’ was distant from the northern limb of the moon 3’ 57-3, the diameter of the burning part being not less than 3”, 1 find that this observation was made about 9 o’clock in the evening, when the moon was not quite two days old; and from the situation of the spot described by Sir William Herschel; I have no doubt of its being the same that I have noticed. XXVII. The first Portion of a Catalogue of 1800 zodiacal Stars, for the Epoch of January 1, 1800; “from the Works of Piazzi, Bons, and others, with ‘liste ative Notes. Selected and ar- ranged by a Member of the Astronomical Society of London. Ix the present and five following portions, it is intended to offer to the amateurs of Astronomy, a Catalogue of Stars lying within 10° on either side of the Ecliptic; arranged in the order of their passing the meridian, and containing not only the mean Right Ascensions and Declinations, but as many other accurate and use- ful particulars, as the compiler’s materials, and the limits of an octavo page, will permit. By referring to the notice inserted p. 394 of the preceding » volume, it will be seen that a general catalogue of stars is an- nounced, comprising in number about 4000, and extending over that part of the heavens which is visible to British observers. This extent it was intended to divide into four districts, and the most natural arrangement would be to commence with that which is constantly above our horizon. The slow progress, however, which j Catalogue of xodiacal Stars. 15 ~~ which will be made in the publication, renders it desirable to com- mence with the more important zodiacal region. An account of the several existing catalogues having been drawn up by the present writer, and inserted in the last volume of the Phil. Mag., renders it unnecessary to repeat in this place those details, which would otherwise have formed part of the present introduction. The catalogue consists of twelve columns, the contents of which shall be explained seriatim. 1—3. Under the head “ Synonyms,” are in the first place comprised three columns, ‘The first contains the number by which each star is distinguished in Piazzi’s last catalogue. It is essential to notice, that every hour of Right Ascension commences a fresh numerical series ; consequently, in quoting from Piazz1, it is necessary to prefix to the number of the star, the hour of Right Ascension as marked in Roman numerals at the top of the seventh column. ‘The second column exhibits in like manner the number by which the star is distinguished in Bode’s folio catalogue ; with this difference, that here the numbers recom- mence with each constellation, which makes it necessary to men- tion the latter, when quoting from Bode. The third column in- eludes the number by which the star is known in the general catalogue of Flamsteed (frequently termed the Britannic) or the zodiacal ones of Mayer, or La Caille. Although the same star should be found in more than one of the three last mentioned catalogues, yet it is considered sufficient to give the reference to one only: and the reader should bear in mind, that it is by the denomination given in this third column, that the star is most commonly known among astronomers. The numbers from Mayer or La Caille have the letters m and c prefixed to them respec- tively; those from Flamsteed are without any letter. It is al- most superfluous to observe, that where the third column is blank, the star is not found in either of the three catalogues to which that column is appropriated. 4. contains the Greek or Roman character ; and includes not only those adopted by Flamsteed (which vary a little from the original ones of Bayer), but also the additional ones first intro- duced by Bode in his Uranographia, which have not before been noticed in any English work. ‘These additional characters are included between parentheses. 5. The name of the constellation is inserted in the fifth-column, but is abbreviated 40 save room. A dash signifies the same as the preceding line. The boundaries of constellations being al- together arbitrary, it maybe readily supposed, that the catalogues frequently disagree in this particular, The Brit. Cat. is well P2 known 116 Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. known to have been very negligently drawn up in this respect 3 yet the numbers have acquired by long usage such a degree of authority, as to render any alteration of boundary an invidious task. It has been, however, attempted by Bode, with consider- able success. In the present compilation, where a star has been placed by Bode in a constellation different from that assigned by Flamsteed, both constellations are put down, and the number of each catalogue placed in a line with its proper constellation, as may be seen in the instances of 54 Ceti, 16 Trianguli, and others. As to the numerous disagreements between Bode and Piazzi, the same minuteness has not been thought necessary, and in these cases the authority of the former is implicitly adopted. An ole- lisk inserted in this column, indicates that a note is attached to the star. 6. The magnilude of each star is given almost invariably from the same authority as its mean position. 7. The approximate Right Ascension in Time. Here the m- nutes only of right ascension are inserted in the column, and the ‘hours stand at the head of it. If greater accuracy be wished for, it may be derived from the quantity in the next following column, by the well known rule for converting space into time. ‘§. The mean Right Ascension in degrees, minutes, seconds, and tenths, is in general taken from the accurate catalogue of Piazzi. A few stars are inserted, which do not occur in that work, and with regard to these, the authorities for position will be found in the notes, 9. The Annual Variation in right ascension, comprises the joint effect of precession and proper motion, which the limits of the page would not permit to be given separately. Should the precession alone be wished for, it may be readily had from the formule : An. Pro. in R.A.. = 46”:0i1 + 20.046 sin R.A. tan Decl. Decl. = 20”:046 cos R.A. The above coefficients are Bessel’s, those used by Piazzi are 46-0395 and 20”-064. In every case where the star is found in Bessel’s Catalogue, the precession as well as proper motion is taken from it; in other cases Piazzi’s numbers for the right ascension are diminished by 0"-04 between 64°16 and 5840; by 0-03 thence to 42-65, and by 0"-02 thence to 31”"90. The error occasioned by this approximate method cannot in any in- stance amount to 0”-01, and that only with regard to the smaller stars, whose proper motions have not hitherto been ascertained. The numbers in this column marked with an asterisk, are those which exhibit the effect of precession only. 10, De- a Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. 117 10. Declination. This is taken from the same authority as the Right Ascension. Northeri declinations are considered pos?- tive, southern ones negative. The sign +- is uniformly omitted for the sake of distinctness. 11. Annual Variation in Declination. This is to be applied (for a period after 1800) according to the algebraical effect of the two signs. The remark made under the ninth column, as to the numbers marked with an asderisk, applies also to this co- lumn. 12. Approximate Latitude. It would have been highly de- sirable to have given the correct longitudes and latitudes of the zodiacal Stars, although these elements are of less importance than formerly, since the astronomical formula into which the positions of the stars enter, are now more frequently adapted to right ascension and declination. No catalogue however since that of Mayer, has been reduced to the ecliptic, if we except one of 600 principal stars, computed by M. Chabrol, inserted in the Connaissance des Tems, an xii., and thence copied into Rees’s Cyclopedia, art. LoneitupE.”’ , Those therefore who desire to have the exact longitudes and latitudes must compute the same trigonometrically. The compiler has given the latitudes in de- grees and tenths, from Flamsteed and Mayer, or else as estimated by means of a 2]-inch globe; under the impression, that even in this rough manner they would assist the observer in selecting those stars, which at any particular period may be liable to oc- cultation or appulse by the moon or a planet. Lastly, The notes accompanying the present catalogue, are in part deduced from a comparison of the several authorities, and in part selected from the notes attached to the catalogues themselves. Assistance has likewise been derived from Sir W. Herschel’s valu- able papers in the Philosophical Transactions, and particularly from his catalogues of Comparative Brightness, contained in the volumes for 1796, 1797, and 1799. His descriptions of double stars are for the most part copied verbatim from the volumes for 1782 and 1785. *,* The compiler begs to state, that he shall be happy, in the future portions of his undértaking, to adopt any improvements that may be suggested ; provided they do not interfere too much with the general plan, 118 Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. Synonyms. 513. . |O hour. Right Ascen. oc bc he aera Sa P. Be ECM 5 Os Faron a, A.V. 6 F ese} A.V.+ 1}. 24 Ceti | 67] 0] O 1 GO| 46:01*|—6 21 36:6 |20:04* 4l 25 g}]1{ 13 51:0 | 46-00* 26 2:0| - -04* 27 pz, fil 19 58: | 46°0* - 16) 91) 35 (B)| Pisc.t] 6 | 5] 1 10 18:1 | 4611 . 24| 92 36 67] 6 34 27-1} 45°94 : 26; 93\u 4 Seen tO 36 5°7 | 46:02* 30 96| 38 —+}! 7:8] 7} 46 405 | 45:93 33) 98im. 5 67| 8| 52 55:5 | 46:02" 34) 42 Ceti | 7:8) 8) 53 38°5 | 45-98* 36) 44 7:8| 8| 2 1 2-4} 45°97* 42) 45 8} . 4| 9) 18 30°6 | 45°80 45| 102 41} d | Pisce. | 5:-6|10! 34 47:3 | 46°24 60| 5dim. 7 Ceti | 6°7|14) 3 34 9:9 | 45°94* 64) 107 44] (t) | Pise 6 115} 47 16°5 | 45°97 65) 109 45 — | 615} 50 543} 46:10 70, 56 10 Ceti | 6 |16) 4 5 31-8) 46°07 |—1 72| 58 +| 78/17] 13 17:7 | 45°86* 73| 110). 10 Pise. | 8 |17| | 16 12-9 | 46°05* 87| 65 11 Ceti | 7-8/20} 54 57:0} 46°11 89| 67 12) (n)| —— | 6 |20| 57 29-2 | 45°86 10)| 122 51 Pise.t| 6°7|22| 5 31 18-0 | 4620 ote 107; 71m. 13 Ceti 8 123) 48 48-4 | 45°95*|—1 39 110 Pisc. | 7 |24|.. 57 23:4] 46°35* 61 113 Cetit| 7 |24| 6 4 21:0 7:2 115} 123 Pisc, | 67/25] 8 27-6 | 46-48* 934 | 117) 76 13 Ceti 6 |25| 14 165 | 46:10 68 120} 79im. 14 | ——.+| 6:7 |25| 19 18-9 | 46:12 4:0 131} 127 Pisce. | 7 |27|. 48 12:4 | 46:09* 08 133} 84 15 | Ceti 7 \28) 57 46:5 | 45°76 ; 140) 131 Pisce. | 7:8 |29| 7 19 4:5 | 46°48* 146| 92m. 16 Ceti | 6:7 |3!} © 37 49-0! 45:76*|—5 . : Pisce. +) °7 (311 "' 43 "6 : 149 | — | 7:8\31|. 47 6:0} 46:°58* ; 157| 99\0. 17 Ceti | 8 133} 8 12 24:9] 45:76" 781 167) 104\m. 18 8 |35 43 18-0} 45° 4:2 : 171} 105 6 |35| 48 21-3) 45:70* 87] & 178) 139 7 Pisce. | 6°7|36] 9 1 31-5 | 4683 96) 179} 140 58 6 137 9 00} 4651 6-4 ; 183) 143 60 ——} 6 |37| 15 48°7 | 46°21 15 { 189| 147|m. 20 ——!| 6 138] 28 31:5 | 46:°26* 02 ‘ 190) {48 62 — | 6 (38) 28 51:0 | 46°37 1:9 192) 149) 63) 3 | ——| 5 |38) 34 46:5} 46-49 2:2 204 —/; 8 4110 23:7 | 46°44* 2°5 207| 155|m. 23 78\41) 15 12:3 | 4615* I— 2:0 213] 131 20) (m)} Ceti | 5.143) 41 562 | 45°93 |—2 Cbg 216| 158|m. 25 Pisce. | 8 |43) 45 28:2 | 46:21* — 15 227| 162\m. 26 — | 8 [45/11 14 28:5 | 46-41* 0:9 231) 164/m. 27 — | 7/46) 25 5:4 | 46-92*| 12 73 243| 168m. 28 — | 67/47} 51 25:5 | 46-93%} 12 . . 69 246, 169\m. 29 — | 78/48] 59 24:9 | 46-43* g 0-6 ON mR nr rr rs a mE SR a Er Synonyms. P. | B. IF.CM. 242) Me 243m. » 245 255 77) 257 98 267 101, 268. 107 269)s. M0 271 111) 272 | Character, LLL FHL Catalogue of xodiacal Stars. —— | a 8 aD °° aD DO SINIO BSraq ZADMRAGGOAG GNMPANANGZHSGH BDGaecKi] oun aD : NANO PENQQM WiAQwnD®e4 -—~1 0 hour. Right Ascen. 49/12 On Hon oor Grorore He ooomwmnnoonn — or SISID NOS G) Oo 9)17 23 24\21 ¥ 17 15:0 |46°03* 22 «1-5 |46:42* 30°0 |46°86* 55°5 146°55 1 25°5 |46°62* 37°8 |46°62 17-7 |46-47* 56°1 |46-11 52°5 146-46 12-0 |47°08 15°7 |46°31 49°5 |47°05 22:5 |46-23 48:4 |46°79* 13'5 |46-42* 58°5 |47°35* 6:8 |46-08 37'2 |46°79* 19°8 |46°87* 21°3 |45°57 57°0 |45'94 27°3|46'84 46°5|47°31 41-7 |46°47 15°9}45°75 21-6|46°59* 52°2 |45°56 18°9 |45-96 23°4|46-20 56°2146-24* 48:6 |45:90 59°5 |46:09* 24°0|45°83 42:0|46°41* 32:2 |46°71* 43°8 47°79 27°9'48:03 45°0|48°19 25:0 |46°47 0:0 |47°93* 28 43°8146°82* 39 20:4 |46:64 46 34°8|48:10 55 45°7|46°89 12° 2°4}47°84 17 21°9|47°22* 29°8 42 30°0|46°90* 0 12:0|48:27* 3 48:0 ‘ites ee Lit] = | = oc = NN WWOANAAD| Ww Declination. Or Ce AV.+ —0O 17 49:0) ea 5'24 6:0 10 49 54:4 6 51 325 _ -_ ~I is is Co a o COMER WOOmPH OROMD 18 11 58-8 4 19» 5:5 16 2 24-3 6 55 14:0 6 15 28-2 17.19 3:0 5 6 310 14 18 37°3 9 51 12°5 15 56:3 7 lo 41°9 17 26 85 11 31 486 OR RO {> OR pm ses Mme fon kK WO ad 9 EY Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. - |I hour. Right Ascen.|. Declination, Character. Constel- AVS 3°, lle 6 39/4693*| 7 14 46-2|18-70* 7 40 |46:0* 16 25-2 |47-67 16 45:3 |48°15* 23 56'2 |46'86* 37 41-4 (47:37 47-46* 48:03 | 15 36 22:3 47-98 | 13 15 57-6 49:18 | 15 23 106 D AD~1 f=) 279 281 | a. 284 286 3| 287 a~I~ 288!n. 290). pa 292 294 298 47°15* 49°84 50:22 49°02* 48 54°7 |46°58* 53 24°9 |49°38 2 47-1 |49°75* | 20 25 42°7 12 8:4147:23 | 7.37 370 24 25°5149°84 | 20 15 52:6 Vol. 58. No, 280, Aug. 1821. Q Catalogue of xodiacal Stars. 121 Synonyms: 3 II hours. Right Asc. | Declination. + Lat. s P. | B. {F.C-M.| 5 b *) RAS 8 | 2:30 27 21:3 /49°49* {18 52 34-4 il 28*} 61 7 27:9 |48:61 }14 20 8:8] -27 18 5 12:4/47°33 | 7 54 80] 25 |—43 8 53°7 149°47* {18 40 15:1] -23*| 5:9 78 5 46:5 |46°69*| 4 4 20:3] -22*|—8-0 6 22:0 |49°61 18 58 8-4] -08 57 78 44°4|49°55 |18 45 53:2|16-90 55 78 30:0 |47°31*| 6 49 46:8} -86* |—6-0 | 6-7 37:2 |47°72* | 8 48 9:0) -74*|—4-4 6 43'0 47°90 | 9 41 52:5; °69 |—3-6 8 51:0 ]47°89*! 9 35 428} -66* |—3'5 8 9 44 303} ‘64* | —3°6 6 9 39 28:6 ‘61* |—3-4 8 9 18 13:0| -40 |—4-2 5 7 33 22:0) 52 |—5-9 7 840 1 | ‘5* |—4:9 55°5 |51°19* |24 20 26:5) *46*; 9:9 43°8 49°93 |18 57 36:2} -50 47 57 31°5|49'50 {16 48 44:0} “41 27 6°7 |22/35 29 33:0 4889 |14 8 298} “38 |—0-0 6-7 |22) 36 46-5 |49°80*}17 59 251) 290%) 3:7 67 |24;36 7 25°5|47:38*| © 35 37°5| *19* |—7-4 16 56:2|47-24*| 5 55 29°7| -16*|—8-0 20 53:5 |46°82 | 4 42 48:0} +16 |—9-2 22 33°0/51-42 |23 46 51} 13 8:8 26 11:1/48°73 |11 34 229] “11 |—2-7 30 3:7/47°44*| 6 5L 7-0) -11* |—7-2 51 0:0 /47°45*| 6 49 194] *05* | —7:3 6 52 16°5|50°62 |21 5 17:0} -02 6:1 8 [28137 4 30:0|/48-09*] 9 46 60] -00*|—4-6 25 54:0147:13*| 5 14 35:7 /15°92* | —9:0 39 12:9/47:13*| 5 12 22:0] -87*|—9-2 46 37°5|50°16 |19 9 5:0} 86 4:0 48 537 /48'11*| 9 41 0-0) “84*)—4-9 55 59'1/48'08 | 9 52 55°3| “88 |—4'8 17 39:0 |49'82 |16 54 329] °73 17 23 12:0|49°17 |14 27 260] -75 |—0°6 31 9'0/48°63 |11 35 47:0) -64 |—3-4 32 10°5 |48-25 | 9 15 440) “71 |—5°6 17 25°5 |51-75 |24 20 408} 54 85 20 90/4998 |17 26 34:1} -61 1-9 32 13°5{49°70 |16 37 26:5] 52 1a 7 0:0/49°18 {14 14 590} *33 | —13 31 11-2 49°66" 15 39 31:5) ‘24*| . 00 55 561 49°95 |16 54 48:0} 22 10 8 50-7 |50°09 |17 30 47:0| °17 15 17 33:0 |50°45 |17 12 59:0|14°89 1-2 23 15014790 | 7 34 67/1501 | —8-2 39 49'5|50°84 [19 51 28-9} :07 36. 7 47| _51 38: |51:09*|20 48 30 }14-93*| 4: 122 Synonyms. Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. z 3 | & II hours. Right Asc. | Declination. | Lat. Sri Beans ‘a Os = lol, 1 wu IAV+}o 4 4 2 s | Ayi 5 148141 57 0:0/51-04 |20 31 54:2 14°96 4:2 a | Ceti | 56/4942 15 3:6/4793 |8 6 60 —7'°8 Ari. +] 7°8 |49| 19 33:7} 50°11 |17 12 60) - 07 — |} 6 50) 32 15°0/52-47 |25 39 41:0} °76 89 —} 7 {51} 39 3°0)52-58*|25 49 9:0] ‘74*| 9-0 (h) |} —— | 67 [54/43 26 4:0])52:13 |24 28 1:6} -56 75 —— | 6 [5644 2 50°7/50-22 17 5 54:5] “41 0-3 —— | 67/57} 15 31°5)50-46 |18 1 5:0] 38 ll —— | 7 |58} 28 21-6151-10*|19 59 11-4] -31*| 2:9 Ceti | 7 |58] 29 14:1} 47:91*| 7 41 30:2] -30*| —9-0 Ari. 8 (58! 33 24:3) 50°75*|18 36 24°38] -20*| 1:6 —+t| 67/59} 38:1 52:92*|26 7:2 26*| 87 —+/78)% 57 7 {51-5* |21 2414 | -2* | 42 3 | —— | 4:5} 45 3 14:4|51-09 |18 57 37:5} *20 1:8 (i)} —— | 6) 0 5 12°0|52:97 |26 29 34:6} °16 9:0 Tau.t| 67| 0 6 0:9] 49:10*|12 16 49:0] *15*| —4-6 Z| Ari. 5 | 3) 51 24:0}51-24 |20 17 37:0]13'93 2:9 : 67) 847 0 10:5|53:16 |26 20 16:0} ~64 8-4 TE eh oe 8 56:2) 52-78 |24 55 55°3| 57 70 —+| 78] 9 13 51 18 59 45 13 —— | 8] 9} © 20 42:0}51-32*|19 46 37:2] ‘50*| 2:0 To 1} —— 6 {10} = 25 35:1}51-56 |20 24 58:5] 55 2:6 —— | 610} 33 15°0}53-45 |26 52 44:4] “54 | 88 v2) ——4) 7 {11} 48 57°0]51:25 |20 0 57-7} “44 21 (g) | —— | 56/13/48 7 54°0|52:66 |24 0 22:0] -42 | 5:9 —t+ 8 jI3) 10-7 27 56°2 9:7 6 |13] 13 48°6]51-34 120 5 2:3] .-42 21 0 | Taut{ 4 j14} 30 58:2)48:15 | 8 18 561] -24 | —9-4 Avi 7 \16) 54 54°9}50°94*|18 2 45:3} °18* ‘1 % | Tau. | 4 |16149 5 10°8/48-46 | 9 1 335| 12 | —88 Ari. +] 8 [16 6 19 45°5 16 66 6717} 11 39°6}52:21 122 6 17:0] -00 38 108 Tau. | 7°8|18} 25 23-4] 48-89*/10 41 20:5] -04*| —7-3 109 8 |18! 36 33°6|50-41*/16 3 46°6|12°99*| —2-2 4| s | ——+) 6 |19) - 52 22:5) 48-91 |10 38 28:0] -97 | —7°5 5] € | — |] 5 /20| 57 42-3] 49:36 |12 14 20°5| -90 | —5°9 — | 8 |22\50 25 24-0} 50:42*|15 54 565! °77*| —2°5 6| t | —— | 67/22] 26 51-9]48:37 | 8 41 16-0} -73 | —9:5 7 —++| 6 23! 39 15-0/52°72 123 46 58:0] -69 50 7113 —+} 78/23} 41 28.5/50°81*/17 9 58:8] -70*| —1-4 9 ——+ Var. }25/51 18 29-6/52-51*/22 32 21°7] -53*| 3:7 —— 9 |26} 29:0 Lil 5555) —0°8 114 —— | 78/27; 38 50:1/50°16*|14 45 47:3} *44*| —3-9 87 ——+|_ 7 |28/52 2 06/50°51*|15 52 325! 33*| —3:0 —+t) 6 |29 8 49 |54°8* |28 7 29 “3% 9:0 11 —— |} 6 |29]. 12 45°6/53:27 |24 40 16:5] -27 55 . — | 78]31| 37 49°8|52°50*/22 8 17:0] :17*| 3:0 13\(F,1)} —— | 67|31| 42 1:5/51-48 19 2567} “17 | —0-0 —+| 78/31 47°'4 25 22 59 14|(F.2) | 7 132153 3360/5162 |19 1 19°-| o7 | —o1 Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. 123 Synonyms. 14 3:0 153-06 15 21°3 15301 18 46°8453-24* |: 19 53°4|53:07 o 8 Soa | Character. Pearman hh owmnw = 26 19°5 |53:08* 29 13°8153-07 30 12°0/53°14 30 21-3 [52-69% |2: ro 32. 21°0 53:09 37 11°7 153-07 52 13°5 [52°95 54 11°8153:11* | 54 16-3 53°02 Tauri—Pleiadum. 4 G2 G2 GW G2 3 GW SNA HDOr 19 22°5 53°02 |23 25 49°6 19 37:0|53:01 [23 30 50:3 19 41:1/48:89 |10 31 3:4 20 12-0[53-02* 23 15 51:0. 28 9:0|52:97* |23 5 26:0 30 46°5 |53°19* |23 43 47°7 31 38:2 |53:02* 32 45:0 |52-49* |: 34 42°9|53°62* 38 27°9|53:25* NI Lu 133!c. 100 c. 101 8 we Co Co Go GD & Go GG) Go WD WD, © OO OOOO SCmAI1I1 I 49 Tauri Pleiadum. Ols5 35 re 33 -4[53°53" 5 8 8 7 3 ie 8 8 5 6 6 9 8 8 8 7 | 8 8 8 8 7 148]s1.129 32 33 Ss) = _ nor 18. 19°5|52-95% | 49 57 16 15: 0 52" 85 AAI WS poe el roy SS 52/58 6 18'6}: 53°44 al Se SF Des *116 47 37°0 19 4 114 5* {12 51 26°6 ; 49 5'4|54°39 |25 56 45:0 78liv| 54 55515103" 116 6 475 HPoOLEASCa Nd L. Al NOTES. ee ee 124 Noles to Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. NorEs. B. 27 Ceti.) Is not in Piazzi’s own Catalogue, although inserted _in Bode’s as from an observation of the former, and marked double. It must be Herschel’s star II. 55, which in Bode’s note is erroneously referred to 14 Ceti. ‘‘ About 1° s. fol- lowing 4 and 5 Ceti in a line parallel to » and r; in the shorter leg of a rectangular triangle*. Very unequal. L.r; s.d. With 278, rather more than 2 diameters. Position 21°°7 n. preceding.” 35 Piscium.) Double. Hers, III. 62. The following star, 17 of Piazzi. R.A. + 97. Decl. —12”0. ‘* Considerably un- equal. L.r.w. S. p.r. Distance 125, Position 58°'9 s. following.” 38 Piscium.) Double. Hers. II. 50. “ Pretty unequal. Both pr. With 227, full 2 diameters of L, with 460 about 4 diame- ters. Position 25°°5 s. preceding.” P.O.72, or B. 58 Ceti.) Bode’s declination is +3’. 51 Piscium.) Double. Hers. IV. 70. ‘Very unequal, L. r.w; S.d. Distance with 278, 22”5. Position 0°-6 n. fol- lowing.” M. 14.) This star was observed by.Flamsteed, and is 312 of Miss C. Herschel’s Catalogue. An error of 3° in the de- clination no doubt occasioned the insertion of 14 Ceti in the Brit. Cat., and this probably typographical. (See the Additions and Corrections at the end of Wollaston’s Facsi- culus.) Anonymous. R.A. 7° 43'.) Position from Lalande. Histoire Céleste, page 127. It is C.H. 185. P.O. 251.) Double according to Piazzi, The other star of 9th mag. R.A. —1%. Decl. + a small quantity. 26 Ceti.) Double. Hers. IV. 83. ‘« Very unequal. L. r.w. S, d.b. Distance 17”-03 mean measure. Position 14°:6 s. prec.” 72 Piscium.) Bode’s declination is +5’. 77 Piscium.) Double. Hers. IV.-68. ‘A little unequal, L. w.r.; S.p.rc. Distance 29%6. Pos. 4°8 n, foll. not. ac- curate.” The following star 281 of Piazzi, R.A. +38'3; Decl. +2°1. mag. 8. ‘ ; 75 Piscium.) The Brit. Cat, requires +16’ in R.A. * The compiler of the present catalogue has thought it proper to give Sir W. Herschel’s gescriptions more fully than has been done either by Wollaston or Bode; and there is the more reason for this, since the second catalogue in the Phil. Trans. for 1785 is so extremely curtailed in the abridgement of that work, as to be nearly useless. In the descriptions, L signifies the larger star, S. the smaller, w. white, r. red, d. dusky, p. pale,» b. blue. 29 Ceti.) Notes to Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. 125 29 Ceti.) The annual proper motion by good obs. of Bradley and Piazzi is +014 in R.A. —0’-47 in decl. 80 e Piscium.) seems to have a considerable proper motion. 86 ¢ Piscium.) Double. Hers. IV. 8. The foll. star, 17 of Pi- azzi. mag. 8. Diff. of R.A. Hers. +206. Pi.+17"7.— Decl. +8”:5, and 8*4 respectively. “Pretty unequal. L. w; S. w. inclining to blue. Distance 22"-2, not very accurate. Pos, 22°°6 n. following.” 88 Piscium.) The position of Bode’s 220, which he makes syn- " onymous with this, requires a correction of —8’ in R.A. ‘and —7’ in decl. P.1. 28.) Piazzi anonymous. Mayer’s star 41 is not in Wol- laston’s Cat., but it is found among the additions at the end of his Fasciculus. The R.A. there given requires a cor- rection of +5’ and the declination +302’ to make them agree with Piazzi. C. 22.) Piazzi anonymous, and double, The following star (87) mag. 9°10. R.A. +672. Decl. —8”7. 98 » Piscium.) Near this to the West, a double star, Bode. Can this be the star referred to in the preceding note? Anonymous. R.A. 20° 30’.) From Hist. Céleste, p. 192, sup- posed to be Herschel’s double star IV. 130. ‘* About 14° n. of, and a little following 4 Piscium, in a line parallel to 6 Arietis, and 6 'Trianguli; the last of four in a crooked row. Very unequal. L. r; S. darker r. Distance with 278, 158. Pos. 62°25 n. following.” 100 Piscium.) Double. Hers, 1V. 131. Following star, Pi. 112, mag. 8. R.A. +180. Decl. +22. “ Pretty unequal. L. px. S.r. Distance 15”.87. Pos. 5°-0 n. following.” B. 230 Ceti.) Position from Lalande. It is C. H. 329. P.1. 123.) Another star of 6th mag. follows, about 8’ north. 102 = Piscium.) Flamsteed’s number is erroneously quoted 120, by Piazzi, who corcludes the star to be variable, since Flam- steed and Lacaille set it down of the 5th mag., and Mayer of the 4°5. 106 » Piscium.) Is the same with 51 Ceti of the Brit. Cat. 107 Piscium.) It is generally considered that this star is iden- tical with 2 Arietis; yet Herschel observed two stars in the place, the brightest of which he took to be 2 Arietis. Anonymous. R.A. 23° 23'.) This may probably be Herschel’s double star II. 49. ‘* About 4° n. of, and a little preced- ing 110 Piscium, towards y. A little unequal. Both w.r. With 460, about 3 diameters of L, Pos. 59°-1 n. preceding. A third star in view, about 13’.” Histoire Céleste, p. 41. M. 57.) Is 28 of Lacaille Zod, Cat., and so denominated in Piazzi. M. 62.) 126 Notes to Catalogue of xodiacal Stars. M. 62.) Piazzi, anonymous. 3 Arietis.-) Is undoubtedly variable, since Piazzi could not see it, although observed by Flamsteed, Bradley, Herschel, and Bessel. According to Herschel’s estimate, it must have been a bright 7th mag., and Bessel sets it down as of 7:8. The position here given is from Bradley. P.1. 174.) Piazzi supposes this to be 3 Arietis, as he could not find any other in the spot. But see the preceding note. Is not this Herschel’s double star V. 92, which he describes as “< full £° s, foll. 3 Arietis, in a line parallel to a Arietis, and 3 Ceti; ; the most south of two. Equal. Both reddish. Dist. 51":27. Position 52°°75 n. preceding, or s. following. P.1. 179, or B. 8 Arietis.) Is C. H. 143. Double. Hers. I. 73. «¢ About 13° n. prec. 6 Arietis, towards 6 Andromede; a considerable star. Very unequal. L.r; 8. deeperr. With 227 about 3 diam. of L; with 460, almost 14 diam. Pos. 77°:4 s. following.” Pet 54 Ceti or B. x Arietis.) 1s 63 of Mayer. The R.A. of the Brit. Cat. requires —15’, 5 y Arietis.) The first star of Aries from which the longitudes of other stars were reckoned by the old astronomers. The name given it is Mesartim, Double. Hers. III]. 9. The other star, 196 of Piazzi, same magnitude and R.A. Decl. 489. ] ya} 2, Hence we deduce c= — Thus § may be obtained by means of the errors, taken all plus, of the sum observed of the angles of every triangle. In the 107 triangles of the meridian, this sum is by what precedes, 173,52; 3,82 173,82 : j we may consequently take for s, raeane which gives for 26. ¢, or for 6? f= 264 (<= 2 fod aot \ 10% ) spore. This differs very little from the value 108,134 given by the sum of the squares of the errors of the observed sum of the an- gies of every one of the 107 triangles. This agreement is re- markable. By supposing the angle of intersection of the Perpignan base, with the meridian which passes through one of the extremities of this base, well determined ; we should have exactly the angle of intersection of the meridian with the last side of the chain of triangles which unite this base to the isle of Formentera, if the earth was a spheroid of revolution, and if the angles of the ot angles 136 On promoting the early Puberty of Apple and Pear Trees angles were measured exactly. The error arising from this se- cond cause, in the last angle of intersection, is by the formule of the second Supplement before mentioned, proportional to the exponential c~”’, in expressing this error by < or, which in the present case becomes 6”,8997.7. Hence it follows that the li- mits, within which it may be wagered one to one that the error falls, are +3”,2908. If the azimuthal observations were made with very great precision, the probability that they indicate an ellipticity in the terrestrial parallels might be determined by this formula. The relative accuracy of the instruments made use of in geo- desic operations, may be appreciated, by the value of <’ deduced from a great number of triangles. This value, found from the ‘ sia 4 44B0ON7 107 triangles of the meridian, ts duced from 43 triangles employed by Lacondamine, in his mea- - The same value de- 1718 Wg 3 OF nearly ten times greater than the preceding value. The errors equally pro- bable, relative to the instruments employed in these two opera- tions, are proportional to the square roots of the values of «’. Hence it follows that the limits +8™,0937, between which we have just seen that it is equally probable that the error of the are measured from Perpignan to Formentera falls, would have been +25™,022 with the instruments employed by Lacondamine. These limits would have exceeded + 40 metres, with the instruments used by La Caille and Cassini in their measurement of the meridian. Thus it is obvious how advantageous the introduction of the repeating circle has been in geodesic operations. surement of 3 degrees of the equator, is A.M. ** I shall feel obliged to any of your correspondents who will communi- cate the relative accuracy of philosophical instruments, particularly those used for observing angles, accompanying the statement with a description of the instruments sufficient to ascertain the kind to which that statement will apply ——Why is the repeating circle, which is the favourite of our scientific neighbours, so little used, and by many held cheap in England? What magnifying power ‘in telescopes is sufficient for a given fineness of division in theodolites, sextants, and circles?—TraNnsuaTor. XXXI. On promoting the early Puberty of Apple and Pear Trees when raised from Seed. By J. Wituiams, Esq.* Mansy persons inclined to become experimentalists in raising fruit-trees from seed, with a view of obtaining new, improved, * From New Monthly Magazine, vol, iii. No. 8. and ee See eee —— os re eel, Se eeeEE———e—eeeeeEeEeeeeeeeeeeee ae ee ee a ee ee ee ee when raised from Seed. 137 and more hardy varieties, have been deterred from the attempt by the great length of time requisite for ascertaining the result of their industry; for the apple-tree, when raised in the common way from the kernel, rarely affords its first blossom before it is eight or ten years old and the pear-tree requires even a }iger period, twelve or fifteen summers often elapsing before the leaves of seedling-trees are capable of forming their first blossom-buds. In November and December, 1809, I sowed the kernels of seve- ral ripe pears, in separate pots, and ‘placed them in a green-house during the winter. They began to vegetate in the following month of February, and in March the pots were removed into my grapery, where they remained till after Midsummer. The plants were then carefully removed into a seed-bed, and planted in rows, about fourteen ‘inches apart, where they wetted’ till the autumn of 1811, when they were again transplanted into a - uursery, at distances Of six feet. Every succeeding winter I pruned away all small trifling lateral shoots, leaving the stronger laterals at their full length to the bottom of the plants, and made such a general disposition of the branches, as that the leaves of the upper shoots might not shade those situated underneath; every leaf, therefore, was thus rendered an efficient organ, by its full exposure to the light. At the height of about six feet, 1 had the satisfaction to observe, that the branches ceased to pr oduce thorns, and the leaves began to assume a more cultivated character. Se- veral of these trees afforded blossoms and fruit last year. One seedling Siberian variety of the apple, thus treated, yielded fruit at four years old, and many more at the age of five and six years. XXXII. Contribution to the History of Electricity. By A CoRRESPONDENT. To Dr. Tilloch. Sin,—1 was much pleased to meet the other day, in an old Scotch Magazine, with the following interesting and instructive account of some discoveries in electricity, communicated to the celebrated Professor Maclaurin by a frieud in Germany, at a time when that science was almost unknown. The circumstances are new to me; and should they be equally so to you, you will pro- bably give them a place iu your valuable Magazine. Edinburgh. Aug. 3. 1821. Yours, C. When Mr. Maclaurin was professor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh, be taught in private to a select number of bis stu- dents the hi gher parts of philosophy, which he could not under- Vol. 58. No, 280, dug. 1821, s take 138 Contribution to the History of Electricity, take in his public lectures. The students who attended this se- cond class, were generally persons of better parts and more in- quisitive minds than ordinary ; and being for the most part of a riper age than many of the first class, he could with propriety Jay aside the dignity of the professor before them, and assume the more engaging character of the friend; and that they might be induced the more effectually to lay aside all unnecessary re- straint, he used to communicate to them any newdiscoveries which might be made in any branch of science, and tell them frankly, without any species of reserve, the doubts and difficulties that might occur to him upon any subject. As this was his constant practice, they were not much surprised at his acquainting them one evening, that he had just received a letter from a friend of his in Holland or Germany (I cannot be positive which of these) , containing, as he said, discoveries in natural philosophy, which were of such an extraordinary and whimsical nature, that he could give no manner of credit to them, and that the only conclusion he could draw from the letter of his worthy friend was, that his judgment was certainly failing, and that he had communicated the reveries of an infected imagination as discoveries in science ; that on this account it had given him great uneasiness, as he sup- posed he had lost for ever a friend of sound knowledge, from whom he had reaped much solid instruction; and concluded with some moral reflections on the instability of all human attainments, however dazzling it might be, seeing that it might ke so suddenly snatched away from them. He then produced the letter, and read it to them. : The principal contents of this letter were, that lately in the neighbourhood of the place where the writer lived, it had been discovered, that by turning a glass globe quickly round upon its axis, and at the same time rubbing it upon certain substances, it was heard to crackle, and seen to emit sparks of fire; that if any person touched it at that time, he suffered a violent shock, and scemed to have received a violent blow upon the wrists ; that if any number of persons were joined together and one of them touched the globe, all of them were affected with the same vio- lent sensations at the same time; and fire was seen te break forth where they touched each other at the same instant; but that if these persons in place of standing upon the ground stood upon certain other substances, they felt no shock at all when they touched the ball; but that if another person standing upon the ground touched them at the place where they were touched, they felt a sharp prickling pain, and fire was seen to issue from the part; that if one attempted to kiss another when standing in this manner, they were suddenly repelled from each other by an fo P sistible Contribution to ihe History of Electricity. 139 sistible power which forced them asunder, and fire was seen to pass between the two; with many other things to the same purpose. After having read the letter, ail the students agreed that the phenomena appeared to them so very ridiculous, that they couid not be induced to pay any regard to them. However, Mr. Mac- - laurin added, that although he was firmly persuaded that all these things were chimeras formed by the imagination, instead of facts as his friend affirmed; yet that, as the phenomena of nature were sometimes very extraordinary, and as he had on every for- mer occasion found his friend a very sober sensible man, not ready to be misled by false appearances, he would not reject as a falsehood any thiug that he had affirmed, till he had given it a fair trial ; and as he had described in a very particular manner the apparatus necessary for producing these wonderful effects, he would cause one of the machines to be made in a short time, and repeat the experiment which he described. This he accordingly did. But how great was his surprise to find that upon trial all the experiments turned out exactly as they had been described! He immediately called together his students ; reminded them of his former incredulity—repeated the experiments before them, and showed them how much he had been mistaken, and what injury he had done his worthy friend; with the utmost ingenvousness acknowledged his error ; and warned all those who heard him to profit by this lesson which his example afforded them, and never to reckon any thing which was delivered, as a new discovery, im- possible, however improbable it might appear, till they had given it the fairest trial; to preserve their minds ever open to convic- tion; and without the smallest hesitation readily to give up any error into which at any time they might accidentally have fallen ; seeing that human reason is but weak and fallible at the best, and ought ever to be corrected by experience and accurate ob- servation. But he did not rest here. He went to his public class, which had till that time heard nothing of it. He told these younger students the discoveries that his friend had communicated to him; of the manner in which he had talked of him to his private class; of the experimentswhich he had made; of the injustice that he had done his friend; and of the error which he himself had fallen into about these experiments; talked of all these before them without the smallest palliation or glossing of any kind to conceal his own mistake, and inculcated to them the same lesson that he had given his former class, $2 “es w~ XIII, Ob- [ 140 j, XXXII. Observations on Sir EverarD Homn’s Paper on the black Rete mucosum of the Negro*. Sir EverarD Home, it appears, has delivered a lecture to the Royal Society, in which he endeavours to prove, by experiment, that the rete mucosuwm of Negroes is a provision of nature against the scorching effects of the sun’s rays. This, I presume, is the Croonian Lecture, which is a lecture delivered annually to the Royal Society, in pursuance of the will of a Dr. Croone, who left a sum of money to that Society, upon condition that a yearly lecture should be delivered upon muscular motion. Of late years, when that subject began to be exhausted, the lecturer has very properly been allowed to choose any anatomical subject. The task has almost always fallen upon Sir Everard Home, one of the few remaining stars of the English Royal Society. As it is well known that he delivers these lectures chiefly to keep up the ere- dit of the Soeiety, it would be hardly fair to criticise them with much severity. ; Nevertheless, his ideas are so obviously wrong, and his experi- ments so completely inadequate, that they disgrace the Transac- tions of the Royal Society, and will be greatly ridiculed at Paris, and indeed everywhere by enlightened men. Professor Roux came over to London to vist the English schools; and when he returned home, he ridiculed certain things, in his public lectures, most unmercifully. But he never had so fair a theme as this. First: As a provision against the rays of the sun, black is the very worst colour that could possibly be chosen. —What should we think of the man, who, to defend his bare poll against the scorching rays of the sun, put ona black hat instead of a white one ?—Unless nature were an idiot, she certainly would have pre- ferred white.—Sir Everard proves his point in the most absurd pos- sible manner. He interposes a piece of black crape between the skin and the concentred rays of the sun; and then, because the ardour of the rays is blunted, he maintains that the rele mucosum of Negroes is for this purpose! The texture of the crape is the true defence, and | will never believe but that white crape would answer much better. Secondly: Why should nature be so partial to black men ? The ancient Egyptians, the ancient Hindoos, and Charibbs, all lived within the tropics ; the former were white, unless in those parts exposed tothe sun ; the latter were red. At this day the Coquin Chinese are yellow} and vet they reside in a very hot climate. It is true, the banks of the Senegal and Gambia are hotter still: but * From the Newcastle Magazine. there *e ee 4. ee ee Notices respecting New Books. M41 there are black men in New Holland, and very dark-coloured skins near the north pole. Thirdly: There is no such thing as a pigment in the rete mu- cosum at all. In the eye, indeed, there is a pigment. There was once a Frenchman who pretended to demonstrate one in Edin- burgh; but neither Professor Monro nor any person could dis- cover it, but only the Frenchman himself. It is quite impossible to separate the rele mucosum from the cutis vera or under skin, otherwise than by an arbitrary separation. The colour of the skin depends not upon any pigment, but upon its texture ; the texture of that of the Negro is thicker, but coarser wove. This would be a better preventive against the sun’s rays than any pig- ment. But the truth is, the whole idea is ridiculous; and it was decided as long ago as the days of Buffon, that it is the obtuse- ness of the nervous system of the Negro which renders him cal- lous to the most scorching heat. The College of Surgeons boast that they never read, but make experiments only; and it may be indeed said that they know how to use their hands better than their heads. There is such a thing as drawing conclusions from experiments which the experi- ments do not warrant; and the above is an instance of how little use men’s hands are, unless there be a head to guide ther and reason upon their experiments. XXXIV. Notices respecting New Books. Recent Publications. Bavyiry’s History and Antiquities of the ‘Tower of London. Part I. 4to. 3/. 13s. 6d. One thousand Experiments in Chemistry, accompanied by Practical Observations, &e. By Colin M‘Kenzie. Svo. 1d. 1s. Robertson’s Colloquia Chemica, &c. &c. 18mo. bs. F. Accum’s Culinary Chemistry, 12mo. 9s. Gd. Scientific Amusements in Philosophy and Mathematics. By W. Enfield, M.A. 12mo. 3s. 6d. A Practical Treatise on the Hydrocephalus Acutus, or Water Inflammation in the Head, By L. Golis, of Vienna, Translated by Robert Gooch, M.D. 8vo. 8s. boards. A Treatise on "Cataract. By P. C. De La Garde, &e. S8vo. 8s. boards. The Theory of the Plague, as it has lately appeared in the islands of Malta, Goza, Corfu, &c. &c. By J. D. Tully, Esq. Surgeon to the Forces. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Observations on certain Affections of the Head, nowmoanly caliet 142 Royal Society. called Head-Aches, with a view to their more complete Elucida- tion, Prevention, and Cure. By James Farmer, Dublin, 1Smo. 2s. An Analysis of the Natural Classifications of Mammalia, for the Use of Students and Travellers. By T. Edward Bowdich, Esq. 8vo. An Introduetion to the Ornithology of Cuvier, for the Use of Students and Travellers. By T. Edward Bowdich. Zoological Researches in the Island of Java, &c. &c. with Fi- gures of Native Quadrupeds and Birds. By Thomas Horsfield, M.D. F.L.S. Number I. 4to, 14, 1s. General and Particular Descriptions of the Vertebrated Ani- mals, arranged conformably to the Modern Discoveries and Im- provements in Zoology. By Edward Griffith. Part I. Monkeys and Lemurs. Imperial 8vo. With coloured plates, after drawings from Nature. IZ. 5s. boards. Sprengel’s Philosophy of Plants. 8vo. 15s. A Grammar of the Sanscrit Language, in one volume, 8vo, on a new plan. By the Rev. William Yates. Dedicated, by per- mission, to the Most Noble the Marquis of Hastings. Cal- cutta. price 2/. 10s., fine 4/, XXXV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Tue following papers have been read at the Meetings of the So- ciety since our last Report. May 10, 1521.—Some Remarks on Meteorology, by Luke Howard, Esq. A Calculation of some Observations of the Solar Eclipse of the 7th of September, 1820, by Mr. Charles Rumker, communicated by Dr. Thomas Young, For. Sec. R.S. 24. On the Anatomy of certain parts of the globe of the Eye, by Arthur Jacob, M.D. Communicated by Dr. James Macartney. 31. Experiments on ‘Temperature, with a view to determine the Ratio of Temperature, and the Point of absolute Cold, by John Herapath, Esq. Communicated by Davies Gilbert, Esq. Tr.R.S. June 7. An Account of the Remeasurement of the Cube Cy- linder and Sphere, used by the late Sir George Shuckburgh Eve- lyn, in his Inquiries respecting a Standard of Weights and Mea- sures, by Captain Henry Kater. 21. An Account of Observations made at the Observatory of Trinity College, Dublin, since 1818, for investigating the paral- lax and aberration of the Fixed Stars, and effects of Lunar Nuta- tion, by the Rev. John Brinkley, D.D. 28, On Edinburgh School of Arts.—French Asiatic Society. 143 28. On the effects produced in the rates of Chronometers, by the proximity of masses of iron, by Peter Barlow, Esq. Commu- nicated by John Barrow, Esq. July 5. Some positions respecting the effect of the Voltaic Battery in obviating the effects of the division of the 8th pair of nerves, by A.P, Wilson Philip, M.D. Communicated by B. C. Brodie, Esq. On the Magnetic Phenomena produced by Electricity, and their relation to Heat occasioned by the'same agent. By Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. F.R.S. 12. An investigation of some Theorems relating to the Theory of the Earth, and the principle of Equilibrium in Fluids, by M. Hoéne Wronski. Communicated by John Pond, Esq. Astr. Roy, On the peculiarities that distinguish the Manatee or Dugong of the West, from that of the East Indies, by Sir Everard Home, Bart. V.P.R.S, On a new compound of Chlorine and Carbon, by Richard Phillips and Michael Faraday, Esq. Communicated by the Presi- dent, On the Nerves, giving an account of some experiments on their structure and functions, which lead to a new arrangement of the System, by Charles Bell, Esq. Communicated by the Pre- sident. } —- EDINBURGH SCHOOL OF ARTS. A school of arts has been established in Edinburgh, for the in- struction of mechanics in such branches of science as are of prac- tical application in their several trades. Lectures on practical mechanics and practical chemistry will be delivered twice a week, during the winter season. A library containing books on popular and practical science has already been established. The insti- tution is conducted under the direction of a committee of fourteen, haying a clerk and librarian. FRENCH ASIATIC SOCIETY. A number of learned men have united to form, at Paris, an Asiatic Society, the object of which is to encourage, in France, the study of the principal languages of Asia. It is their intention to procure oriental MSS. ; to circulate them either by means of printing or lithography ; to have extracts or translations made of them ; and to join in the publication of grammars and dictionaries, This new institution will correspond with other societies which devote themselves to the same object, and with learned men who apply to the study of the oriental languages. —25 francs per annum is to be the subscription ; and many learned men are enrolled. XXXVI. In- [ 14] XXXVI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. MEXICAN FLORA. Ar the last anniversary sitting of the Helvetic Society of Na- tural Science, M. de Candolle presented to the Society a Flora of Mexico, consisting of 1740 leaves, and forming 13 large folio volumes. The following account of this work is given in the Morgenblatt, published at Stutgard:—-MM., Sesse, Mocino and Cervantes had travelled over New Spain, with the view of col- lecting a Mexican Flora. They made a drawing of each plant on the spot where they found it. M. Mocino had returned to - Madrid, in order to have the drawings thus obtained engraved, when the first troubles in Spain obliged him to seek refuge with his Flora at Montpelier. M. de Candolle, who was then at Montpelier, became acquainted with M. Mocino, and assisted him for eighteen months in arranging systematically his numerous collection. M. de Candolle afterwards went from Montpelier to Geneva, and M. Mocino gave him the Flora along with him, that he might one day send it forth to the world. The new aspect of affairs in Spain having induced M. Mocino, however, to return to his native country, he wrote lately to M. de Candolle, requesting to have the Flora back. The French naturalist, unwilling to run the chance of losing all trace of so valuable a treasure, im- mediately requested some friends to copy part of the rarest drawings for him. No sooner was this known in Geneva, than numbers of persons of both sexes offered their services; and in the end every person capable of managing a crayon or a pencil was occupied with the Mexican Flora, They worked with such zeal, the ladies especially, that in the short space of eight days there was not a single drawing remaining to copy. NEW SHETLAND. ! Several vessels have been to this newly discovered southern land, and have returned with good cargoes of very fine seal-skins, The John of London, Captain Walker, brought home 12,000. The extent of country explored from east to west, from Clarence Isle to Smith’s Cape, is from 54 to 64 degrees west longitude, and- from 61 to 64 degrees south latitude, and the land seen so the southward, as far as the eye can reach, The country already explored consists of numerous islands, without a vestige of vege- tation. A species of moss only is found upon the rocks near the shore; eternal snows covering the more remote parts, which are mountainous. Although nature, in those regions, assumes. the inost sterile and forbidding features, the thermometer was at no time below the freezing point; but the melting snows near the shore Submersion of the Village of Stron, in Bohemia. 145 shore so completely saturate the soil as to check all vegetation. A species of coal was found in abundance, which burnt very well, a specimen of which we have seen, thus affording the means, if wanted, of replenishing the fuel. The rise and fall of the tide is about twelve feet. Shrimps and penguins are beyond all concep- tion numerous. The islands, headlands, &c. have been named, and the observations ascertaining the latitude and longitude, from repeated experiments, found true; so that we may soon hope to see a correct chart, from the surveys which have been taken, on the arrival of Captain Smith, in the Blythe, who is shortly ex- pected.—Part of an atichor-stock, evidently Spanish, being bolted with copper, and bearing certain marks, was found on shore, and is presumed to be the only vestige now remaining of a 74-gun ship of that nation, which sailed from Spain, bound to Lima, about eighteen months or two years ago, and has not since been heard of. The following are the latitudes and longitudes of the newly dis- covered country towards the South Pole :— South. West. tar Paiitie! shi. 3s tabbesianele Sep’ bak G2°P 42h OLY 28% Cape Sherriff «i..6. cit esiwio’s sislsic lesleo fai 26 60 54 Desolation Island: :jbi.'scieliniia era!d' ms OAL 27 60 35 Smith’s Island ....ceeeseeeeseses — —_- — CapeiMelville, inside ice’ naltlan sicetsieeea G2 yl o7 44 Martina: Heads: sjsjelsisve vse dG e oes 62 12 58 20 Penguin Island, South End ........ 62 6 a8ir 6 Bridgman’s Island ....eeees0-s00002 — BaworTeland y+ vist alaleis Hire vecias e's (O34 3O 60. 30 Mapa deland 3c; 5:4 tobias rindi. sree Sale GS 16: 57 4 Gap) Bowles. « osjsisierls ew qar se dicate s (Gh 19 54. «10 O’Brien’s Island ....ee.ceeeeeesses —— —_ — Seal Island and Reef ........-06 {461 1 §5o0'BS Cape Valentine) sreieisis sis daibieis!ote dered 61 3 54 48 Cornwallis Island ...ccceseeres é. 0 54. 36 lecthy Taridhhis acre 6 etete wiete'e ois own Ridley's Island yoss sesieiccc colds tisieewee Baleon-Ieland orwesae cowie an c-vtewsiors "G21. 48 59 56 .. 60 Lloyd’s Promontory. Clarence’s recht 2 54 10 61 SUBMERSION OF THE VILLAGE OF STRON, IN BOHEMIA. As reported in a Letter from M. Winkler. The village of Stron, in the estate of Fermian, in Bohemia, was situated on a decliyity, in the N.E. of the valley of Eger, about a league above Saatz, partly near the river, and partly in a gorge that descended towards the Eger. On a hill that forms a border to this gorge, were the church and parsonage-house, and Vol. 58, No, 280, Aug. 1821. T 146 Sulmersion of the Village af Stron, in Bohemia. the village descended along the gorge parallel to the Eger, to- wards the N.W. This hill contains beds of an earthy pit-coal that spread through the country, and are covered with strata of sand and alluvion. The Eger flows at the distance of about 200 toises from Stron. Previous to the accident, it formed a bay alongside of Stron, edged with hills of moving sand, not very lofty, but steep. On the higher part of the declivity were a num- ber of springs, that were quickly lost in the sands. These springs have proved the cause of a calamity, which, in these countries, where glaciers and earthquakes are unknown, may be deemed unique in its kind. The water of the springs has gradually perforated large subterranean cavities in the strata of sand, so that, at length, the whole surface of the soil, with the church, the houses and the gardens, rested only on some detach- ed columns of sand that were daily diminishing. Whether sub- terranean combustions of pit-coal may not have co-operated, is a point hitherto undecided, For a length of time the earth had been sinking in ‘different places. Crevices appeared in the walls of the buildings; the doors would no longer shut, and some weeks ago a great noise was heard in the middle of the night. The people are roused - from their sleep; a singular movement of the earth advancing forward, and at the same time sinking, is observed. ‘The inha- bitants flee, remove their cattle, &c. and at some distance from the village wait for the morning. Its appearance displays an image of destruction ; half of the village had disappeared; where no houses had ever been, roofs and chimnies were seen rising from the ground. The hill, the chureh, and the parsonage, were no longer to be found; and at some distance appeared a chaos of parcels of earth intermixed with ruins and crevices. The church is 80 feet below the site it formerly occupied ; it is divided into two, half of it buried in ruins. Here lies a steeple overthrown, and there a confused medley of statues, images of saints, stables, &c. The river is thrown out of its channel, and where it formed a bay, there is now an accumulation of earth. The churchyard is thrown into a shapeless heap, and the whole territory bears auother aspect. In different patches are seen layers of a fat earth, over which the sand has glided. It seems that the Eger must have crumbled the props on which the hill stood, as they had ever an inclination towards the river. : A number of things have been fortunately preserved, and, with the exception of some cattle, no lives were lost. Fifteen houses _are yet standing; but the soil is insecure, and the downfall will . probably be universal. rig. I was at a loss, at first, to recognise the country; and from the inhabitants 1 could only learn that they had been disturbed by Egypt. 147 by a tremendous crash, and that they sought refuge by flight. The people were rich; their loss, in point of furniture, is not so considerable as in the superficies of the soil. The viliage is now a sort of central spot for pilgrimage to the whole of Bohemia; the curious flock hither from every quarter, to explore the effects of this phenomenon. It is impossible to form a just idea of it without inspection. EGYPT, The Prussian State Gazette contains the following extract of a letter from the Prussian Major-general Baron Minutoli, dated Cairo, April 13, 1821: “* T am, thank God, in good health, though we have had, for ‘some days, a burning chamsin, which threatens general suffoca- tion, and gives to the coolest apartments a temperature of 28° or 30° by Reaumur’s thermometer. This dangerous wind has a very bad effect, and promotes the eruption of the plague, which, for these three months past, has at times prevailed in Alexandria. Here only two persons have been attacked by it, but every body is apprehensive of the further spreading of this scourge of the East. I think like the inhabitants, Alla Hirnii (as God will), and go every day into the city, but avoid, as much as possible, coming in contact with the Arabs, who throng thestreets. To- morrow I shall take leave of the pacha, who is at his country house Schoubra; and shall set out in a few days for Jerusalem, by way of Damietta and Jaffa. “‘T have had the drawing of my pyramid finished, and shall publish it, with my Journal, in two plates. The internal con- struction is very remarkable, and may probably throw much light on these most interesting monuments. A few days ago, my workmen found the gilded skull, the feet, and the hands of a mummy ; and I am inclined to infer, that these remains, the only ones of their kind hitherto found, are those of the king entombed in thepyramid. I understand that other interesting objects were discovered: but the rapacious Arabs sold them to other persons ; which I regret the more, as they might have led to some know- ledge of the purpose of the pyramid. From the ground-plan, I am disposed to conclude, that its Ramisti Kabiren, which are not yet all opened, extend a great way, and lead to sepulchres or sanctuaries which lie beyond the pyramid. ‘This raised the idea, that the entrance to the celebrated labyrinth may, perhaps, be found in the neighbouring pyramids, In the inspection of my py- ramid I might easily be buried alive. But something must be ventured by him who will make conquests even in the domain of science, My pyramid has seven breaks instead of six, and is not a regular square. A very handsome sarcophagus, with hiero- T2 glyphies, 148 The Unicorn. gliphics, was lately taken from the catacomb which I caused to be opened. A second, in admirable preservation, together with the beautiful catacomb richly adorned with hieroglyphies, has been sold by mistake to other friends of art. How much might still be done here with sufficient means and time ! THE UNICORN. | Mr. Campbell (the missionary) has kindly favoured us with the following description of the head of a very singular animal which he has just brought from the interior of Africa. We also have had an opportunity of seeing it, and fully agree with Mr. Camp- bell, that the animal itself must have ansewered the description of the Reem or Unicorn, which is frequently mentioned in Scrip- ture. “« The animal,” says Mr. Oampbell, was killed by my Hot- tentots, in the Mashow country, near the city of Mashow, about two hundred miles N. E. of New Lattakoo, to westward of De- lagoa Bay. My Hottentots never having seen or heard of an animal with one horn of so great a length, cut off its head, and brought it bleeding to me upon the back of an ox. From its great weight, and being about twelve hundred miles from the Cape of Good Hope, I was obliged to reduce it by cutting off the under- jaw. The Hottentots cut up the rest of the animal for food, which, with the help of the natives, they brought on the backs of oxen to Mashow. j *¢ The horn, which is nearly black, is exactly three feet long, projecting from the forehead about nine or ten inches above the nose. From the nose to the ears measured three feet. There is a small horny projection of about eight inches immediately behind the great horn, designed for keeping fast or steady whatever is penetrated by the great horn. There is neither hair nor wool on the skin, which is the colour of brown snuff. “‘ The animal was well known to the natives. It is a species of the rhinoceros ; but if I may judge of its bulk from the size of its head, it must have been much larger than any of the seven rhinoceroses which my party shot, one of which measured eleven fect from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail. ** The skull and horn excited great curiosity at the Cape. Most were of opinion that it was all we should have for the unicorn, ** An animal, the size of a horse, which the fancied unicorn is supposed to be, would not answer the description of the unicorn given by Job, chap. 59, verse 9 e¢ seq., but in every part of that description this animal exactly answers to it.” (Signed) 6 JoHN CAMPBELL.” Pliny’s Lizard imbedded in Stone. 149 Pliny’s description of the unicorn is a sort of medium between Mr. Campbell’s account, and the animal depicted on the royal coat of arms. It is as follows :—‘* Asperrimam esse feram, reli- quo corpore similem equo, capite cervo, pedibus elephanti, cauda apro, mugitu gravi, uno cornu nigro media fronte cubitorum duum eminente.”’ Our readers are aware that measures have been taken to obtain a complete specimen of the animal supposed to be the unicorn, which is said to exist in considerable numbers in Thibet. ‘The description which has hitherto been furnished us rests entirely on the evidence of natives; but as it differs in several essential points from Mr. Campbell’s account of the African unicorn, the scien- tific world will be anxious to compare the specimens as soon as they are enabled to do so. Mr. Campbell’s demonstration is the best as yet, and will probably never be excelled. (Asiatic Journal.) LIZARD IMBEDDED IN STONE. In our last Number we mentioned a curious instance which had occurred at Auchtertool in Scotland, of a lizard being found imbedded in a large block of stone. The phenomenon is thus ingeniously attempted to be accounted for in a work which Mr, Welch, of Stonehouse, Devon, has in the press, entitled Re/igiosa Philosop hia. ‘ ‘« This phenomenon,” says the author, “is a further testi- mony in favour of the principle of the present work; and if the author may be allowed to venture an opinion how the lizard be- came imbedded, and by what means it was preserved in this solid mass of stone, he offers the following: ‘* Nature, in all her operations, evinces a peculiar tenacity in preserving the principle of life, both in the vegetable and animal kingdoms: hence it is that the seeds of many plants preserve the germ, or vivifying principle, through a series of years; whilst the eggs of birds, situated so as to exclude them froin the effects of atmospheric air, retain their fecundity for a considerable length of time. Having thus premised, I proceed to state, that the ova or spawn* of a lizard was, either by means of water, or some other cause, conveyed into a situation where Nature was pre- paring this stone; that the sand, whilst forming around the ova, gradually became expanded, from a principle of life which the egg contained, and which, being surrounded by its own atmo- sphere, arising from native heat, tended to bring forth the animal, whilst the same cause produced a sufficient cavity to contain it when arrived to its full size. Now as the lizard, when first taken * The egg or spawn of some species of the lizard is covered with a shell of hard calcareous substance, considerably thicker than that of the egg of a bird, consequently less brittle in its nature. * out 150 Fossil Elk.— Antiquilies.— Crystals. —Manuscripis. out of the stone, exhibited no signs of animation for the space of five minutes, we may fairly presume that the animal had been preserved in its entombed cavern in a state of torpor, until, by: the vivifying influence of the sun, it awoke as out of sleep ; whilst. the air, inflating the lungs, giving circulation to the blood, and motion to the heart and limbs, caused the lizard to spring into hfe! Hence this illustration may, in many instances, serve to ex- plain the interesting phanomena of frogs, toads, and other ani- mals, having been found in the cavities of trees, or imbedded in masses of stone.” FOSSIL ELK. One of the most perfect and beautiful specimens that has yet been found was discovered a few months ago in the Isle of Man, in digging a marl pit. This skeleton has been: presented by His Grace the Duke of Athol to the museum of the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. DRUIDICAL ANTIQUITIES. There were lately found in the neighbourhood of Belfast two antique golden crescents of a Jarge'size, made of pure gold, and weighing about 6 ounceseach, It is supposed that they were used as bells by the Druids in celebrating their mysteries ; and the fine tone produced by striking the cup at the ends of the crescent gives some countenance to the opinion. Near the spot where they were found are the remains of two Druidicai altars. STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALS. Recent investigations having directed the attention of observers, in a particular manner, to the study of the optical characters of crystallized minerals, we think it may not be without use to no- tice a circumstance in the structure of crystals, which, if not known, or neglected, may lead into error. Many crystals, which, in a general view, appear simple, are found to be compound, when all their relations are attended to; and these, when ex- amined optically, will present a compound in place of a simple structure. The simple structure characterizes the species of mi- nerals, while the compound structure often distinguishes the va- riety, or sub-species.— Edin. Phil. Journal. ANTIENT MANUSCRIPTS. Some further interesting discoveries of lost works have been made by M. Maio, among which are several parts of the muti- lated and lost books of Polybius, of Diodorus, of Dion Cassius, some fragments of Aristotle, of Ephorus, of Timeus, of Hyperi- des, of Demetrius of Phalaris, &c, some parts of the unknown writings ‘ Horizontorium.— Mechanical Invention. 151 writings of Eunapius, of Menander of Byzantium, of Priscus, and of Peter the Protector. Among the inedited works of Polybius are prologues of the lost books, and the entire conclusion of the 39th, in which the author takes a review of his history, and de- votes his 40th book to chronology. The fragments of Diodorus and of Dion are numerous and most precious. Among them is a rapid recital of many of the wars of Rome ; a narrative of the Civil, Punic, Social or Italic, and Macedonian wars; those of Epirus, Syria, Gaul, Spain, Portugal, and Persia. Parts of the history of the Greeks and other nations, and that of the succes- sors of Alexander, &c. are among these. They were discovered in a MS. containing the harangues of the rhetorician Aristides, from a large collection of ancient writings, made by order of Con- stantinus Porphyrogenetes, of which only a small part are known to be extant. The writing appears to be of the 11th century. M. Maio has also met with an unedited Latin grammarian, who cites a number of lost writers, and a Latin rhetorician now un- known; also a Greek collection containing fragments of the lost works of Philo. He has‘ also found writings of the Greek and Latin fathers prior to St. Jerome, with other valuable works, all of which he intends shortly to publish. HORIZONTORIUM. _ We have recently seen a curious philosophical plaything under this name, which is, we believe, published by Mr. Bancks, the mathematical-instrument-maker, in the Strand. ‘The inventor’s name is Shires, and the invention itself is an exceedingly pleasing optical illusion. This is produced by the picture of a castle, pro- jected on a horizontal plane, whence its name is derived. The picture is laid flat on the table, with the light on the left of the spectator. In front there is a small perpendicular parchment sight, with a groove in it, to which the eye is applied; and the effect is, that the whole appears to be a solid building ; the walls of the castle, the rim of a well, &e. &c. being, in every respect, like a model, instead of a coloured horizontal projection. By removing the candle to the floor, that which was a sun-light be- comes a moonlight scene. The illusion is very pretty, and the thing, in its application, though not in its principles, entirely new to us. —— MECHANICAL INVENTION. An invention has been made by a young man belonging to Mauchline—Mr. Andrew Smith, of the Water of Ayr Stone Ma- nufactory. This is an instrument for copying drawings, &c., called by the learned who have seen it an Apograph. _ It is so constructed, that drawings of any kind may be copied by it upon paper, copper, or any other substance capable of receiving an impression, 152 Lectures.—Patents. impression, upon a scale either extended, reduced, or the same as the original. The Arts, we understand, furnish no instance of an instrument resembling this, either in its appearance or opera- tion, save what is called the Pentagraph, and ‘even from this ma- chine it differs materially. The beam in the former is suspended vertically from_an.universal joint, whereas the beam of the latter is supported on an horizontal plane. There is also a counter- poise added to the Apograph above the centre of motion, which relieves the hand almost entirely of the weight it would otherwise have to sustain when the beam is out of the vertical position.— Ayr Advertiser. ——_—_—— HYDROPHOBIA. (From a French Journal.) A series of experiments have recently been made at the Vete- rinary School in Paris, relative to the cure of hydrophobia. The object in view was, to confirm the efficacy of a specific imported from Italy, which, it is expected, will not only act as a preservative immediately after the bite, but will also.operate as a cure even after the fatal symptoms have appeared. The result of these experiments is not yet ascertained, LECTURES. St. George’s Medical and Chemical School.—The Courses will commence the first week of October. 1. On the Practice of Physic, with the Laws of the Animal (Economy ; by George Pearson, M. D. F. R. 8S, Senior Physician to St. George’s Hospital, &c. 2. On Chemistry; by W. T. Brande, Professor Royal Insti- tution, Sec. R.S., &c. 3. On Therapeutics with Materia Medica; by George Pearson, M. D. F.R.S., &c. &c. LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS. To Robert Dickinson, of Great Queen-street, Lincoln’s-Inn- fields, for certain improvements in the construction of vessels or crafts of every description, whereby such vessels or crafts may be rendered’more durable than those heretofore constructed for the purpose of navigation.—Dated 14th July 1821.—6 months al- lowed to enrol specification. To Samuel Cooper, engineer, and William Miller, gentleman, both of Margate, for certain improvements on printing machines. —17th July.—6 months. To Frederick Mighells Van Heythuysen, of Chancery-lane, for anew method of propelling small vessels or boats through water and light carriages over land,—23d July 1821,—6 months. To List of Patents for New Inventions. 158 ‘To David Barclay, of Broad-street, London, merchant,, in _consequence of a communication made to him by a certain fg- reignerresiding abroad, fora spiral lever or rotary standard press, — 26th July.—6 ery Bh To Thomas Barker, of Oldham, Lancaster, and John Rawlin- son Harris, of Winchester Place, Southwark, hat mantifackurers, for improvements in the method of elearing furs and ‘voo's used _in the manufacture of hats from, kemps and hairs. —26th July. we 6 months. To John Richard Barry, of the Minories, in London, for cer- tain improvements on and additions to wheeled carriages.—26th July.—6 months. To Samuel Bagshaw, of Newcastle-under-Lyme, for a method of forming and manufacturing vases, urns, basins, and other or- namental articles which have been heretofore usually made of stone or marble, from a combination of materials never hereto- fore made use of in papas Io Re such articles. —26th July. —z2 months. To John Manton, of Dover- atreee: Piccatlilly; dinate? for improvement in the construction of locks to all kinds of fowling pieces and fire arms.—30th July.—2 months. ‘ To Thomas Bennett, jun. of Bewdley, Worcestershire, builder, for certain improvements in steam Capi or steam apparatus. —4th July.—6months. To John Slater, of Birmingham, manufacturer, for certain im- provements in making a kitchen range and apparatus for cooking and other purposes. —4th August.—6 months. To William Henry Higman, of Bath, sadler and coach harness maker, for certain improvements in the construction of harness, which he conceives will afford great relief to horses in drawing carriages of various descriptions, and be of public utility. 14th August.—2 months. To David Gordon, of Edinburgh, at present residing in the town of Stranraer, esq. for certain improvements in the construe- tion of wheeled carriages.—-14th August.—6 months. To Jean Frederick Marquis de Chabannes, for.a new metho and apparatus for attracting and catching of fish —l4th August. —6 months. To John Collinge, of Lambeth, engineer, for improvements on east iron rollers for sugar mills by more permanently fixing them to their gudgeons.— 14th August.—4 months. To John Nichol, of West End, Middlesex, master mariner, for improved capstan windlass and hawse roller.—22nd August,—2 months, Vol. 58. No. 280. dug. 1821, U ‘Paros 154 Barometric Observations. Epping, July 12, 1821. Str,—The following observations made at this place on the 14th of May, the 11th of June, and 9th of July, were taken with great care at the under-mentioned times. Tal. [ses ~) Ther. ; 7S |Barom. a | Wind. Clouds, &c. A.M. s # zz i May 14th] 8 /29-018 |49\46 W. |Cirri with flying cwnuli and sun- 9 129-018 |49|47 W. \Do. [shine. 10 [29-020 |49/49 W. |Do. 11 [29-022 |49/51 W. |Stormy, with some dense cwmuli. 12 129-024 49/48 | W.S.W. |Cumuli and nimbi: from the latter fell a heavy shower of hail and rain, June JIth} 8 |29:538 |49/48 | N.N.E. |Cirri, ewmuli, and sunshine. 9 |29:570 |50|49 | N.N.E. |Cirrostrati, cumuli, and sunshine. 10 129-562 |50\51 =| N.N.E. |The same modifications as before, though diminution of cirri, and an increase of cwmuli. 1] |29:562 |51|\52 | N.N.E. |Brighter; cirri, and flymg cumuli, 12 |29-562 |51/51 N. [Some cirri; a great decrease of j; cumuli. July 9th} 8 {29-782 |55)54 N.W. |Sunshine, with cirrocumuli. 9 |25-782 155156 N.W. |Bright; some cirrocumuli to lee- ward. 10 |29-782 \55159 N.W. |Bright ; some few clouds south- ward, with here and there nascent cumuli. : 1] |29:782 |56161 | W.N.W. |Sun; clouds mueh increased to windward: two currents. 12 129-782 |57/61 | W.N.W. |Dark ecwnulostratus to windward, 1 |29-782 |57/60-5 | W.N.W. [Sunshine with thin cumuli. 2 129-782 58/63 W.N.W. |Dark cumulostratus; no sun. 3 |29°782 158,62 | W.N.W. |Sunshine with thin cumuli. The wind was rather brisk during the whole of the time. It may be seen that the Barometer was stationary during the whole time of the observations ofthe 9th of July, and it continued so till near noon of the following day. Yours truly, To Dr. Tilloch. THOMAS SQuiRE. Observations on the Barometer, by W. BaGcE, Esq., Lynn, Norf. Clock. Barom. Attach. Ther. Detached. — June] lth. 8 morns. 30°03 57° 46 9 30:04 60 46 10 30:05 60 i 30:07 60 12 30:08 60 95 l 30°10 60 2 30°11 60 55 3 30°13 60 Height of the cistern 29 feet 5 inches from low-water mark, spring tides, Barometric Observations. 155 Register kept by Dr. Burney at Gosport. Hour. Batom.| . bn Wind. State of the Weather. A turbid appearance of birrsthleiee; and large dense cumulostrati with white tops, floating beneath to the eastward, so that only a little of the < sky between the sun andthe eastern part of the horizon could be seen. | Light airs from S.W., to which point the wind has veer: ed from $.E. L within the last hour. L n extensive and lofty bed of cirro- ~ 1821. A.M. Aug. 13. 8h | 30°10 |62)65|72| S.W. stratus, still of a turbid aspect, low cumuli around the horizon, and a gentle breeze. | the cirri in the light blue sky to the westward, a bed of cirrocumulus in small, round, bright flocks in the vicinity of the sun, attenuated cir- 10 | 30-12 \68iea\63] s.w. | rostratus with aperturestherein, and cumuli, all in regular succession 9 | 30°11 |65/68/66) S.W. | downwards—these modifications of clouds had a slow motion in the di- | rection of the wind, which was L freshening. The clouds nearly the same as at 10 4 o'clock, but more dense—the wind 11 | 30-14 |70/72)60) S. W still freshening, and the sky of a deeper blue co our. ie sunshine at intervals through (the compound clouds, which have J almost overcast the sky. A steady { breeze prevails, and the barometer |. and hygrometer slowly rise and fall. § A completely overcast sky, followed by steady rain in the afternoon, and showers in the evening. 42 | 830-13 |71174/62| S.w. P.M 1 | 30:14 |71/74/64) S.W. ) N.B. In consequence of a communication from John Farey, esq. sen, the height of the barometer in the above observations is not reduced to the temperature of 32°. Bristol, July 23, 1821. Sir,—Having mislaid my barometric observations for May and June till too late for your last Number, I now send them together with those made on the 9th inst. And am, sir, your obedient servant, Epwarb Jonns. U2 , \ 1821" 156. Barometric Observations. 1821. |, Barom. | Pace, | Wind. ||. Weather. May /4th, cnoteltt 8h} 29: 250 50 | 474, W.N.W.| Fine, 9 | 29:250 |.514 49! Ww. Do. 10.) 29°250..}' 43} 51 Ww. Rain. DE 4929-250: /9534| 532, W. Do. 12°}°29:247 | ‘542 59. | W.N. Ww. Fine. _June I1th.. by 400 . 8 | 29-768. |.524/ 504] N.N.E. | Cloudy. hatDoy e29:7.7-Orct 1534) 52 | Dos ;-|: Do. 10°): 29-793'* 1°53") 51 Do. |) Rain. It | 29-803°"| 54°153°| Dos ||: Do. 12, |,,.29:510 .").,.53,,) 3221? Doz . ‘Do. “June 9th. eveeh Il ES oo 8 | 29-953 |:59 4-6] Wi 4-}) Faire om 9 | °29:951 |"60 | 64 | Do, | |: Do.. 10 |. 29-948 | 601/65 | W.N:W.| Fine} ing 11 | 29:943 |. 61, | 66 Well) “Do. z 12 | 29°9388 | 62 | 67 Her i ie Do Sdanelt Aug. 14, 1821. Sir,—I again trouble you with’ the following Barometric Ob- sdrvations made at this place on the 9th of. July and 18th of AlugUSts And am, sit, vou: obedient servant, To the Baek , a ete ' . G. ConsTaBLe. or Hour: Barom. sera: Wind. ee War ah July 9th, 4 4 z re. ghlgor1g0 57:5 565 | N. by.W. calm. /Thin clouds. ' » “9 |30°180 |58.5 |57°5| N. by W. do. —-|Sunshine with clou. _ 10 130-183 59.5 |58.5] N. mod. breeze. |Do. 11 /30-183 |60.5 |59.0 N.W. do. Do. «it 112 13048061.0 |60.0| W.N.W. calm. - [Dense clouds.’ Aug, 13th, 8 |30-059 |60-0 59-5 N.W.. do.. Thin white clouds. , 9 |30-060 61 0 60:0/W.S.W. mod. breeze. BPs gray clouds. 10 (30-060 |62-0 |61-0 S.W. do. 11 [30-060 |63-0 (61-5 ' S.W. do. Cloudy with sun- 12 |30.060 63-5 |62-0 |S.W. fresh breeze. |Do. [shine. fr t 8 , : Woe! es Meat) aye Srr,—T'send you the observations made. here, -and at Man- chester; on: the 9th of July and the 13th of August. Your obedient servant, To the Editor. JoHN BLACKWALL. " Crumpsall, Lancashire, Aug, 15, 1821. ; PEPER earn Bet Spa ee ee Barometric Observations. 157 af CRUMPSALL. 1. see thts (is Mind. Weather. i821. A.M. — July 9th = =8h. 56° =| 54°7 |W. byN. brisk.|Cloudy. 9 55:5 | 55 |W.byN. do 0. 10 55:5 |-54-5° |W. do. |Do il 555 | 55 |W. do. |Do 12 555 | 55:5 |W. by N. do. |Do “= PM. 1 56 57 |W. do. |Do Aug. 13th, | A.M 8 57 55:7 |S. by E. light. |Foggy, with light 9 57 56-5 |S. by E. do. |Cloudy. [rain. 10 585 |VS9", |S. do. |Do. 11 59-5 1:60 4S. fresh. |Do. ptr 12h 60-5 | 61:5 |S. do. |Cloudy, with faint P.M. 1 61 62°5. |S. do. |Cloudy. [sunshine. MANCHESTER. Ther. | Ther. aes ‘ C2 ey A coma a i A sss amare July 9th pith notte ets avudusis ii 8". 60° 60° | W. fresh. Cloudy. 9 60 61-5 |W. do. do. 10 60:5, | 62.5 1.W.. do. do. 1] 60°5 | 62-5 | W. do. do. +42 60°5 | 62-5 |W.’ brisk. do. P.M. 1 62 64:5 | W.. fresh. do. Aug. 13th, A.M. 8 60° 163 18, do. Hazy. 9° |29°815) 62-5 | 64 8. do. Cloudy. 10 129-805) 64. 65°5 | S. “do. do. li 129-790} 64:5 | 66 S. ‘do. do. 12. |29-780| 66 69 S. do. Gleams of sunshine. P.M. 1. |29:780| 66:5. | 69-5 |S. do. Cloudy. Leighton, Aug. 20, 1821. Dear Sir,—lI have the pleasure to send the observations made at this place by my son during my absence on the 18th. instant, as below: Os | {Ther. |Ther. | Barom : | ] 182) ro deaté. | det.’ Wind. | Denom.|, Weather. — 8 29-766 | 573|.57.|.S.W. | calm. |Cloudy.. - 9 29-766 | 58}! 61 |. S.W.. \moder. Do. 1d 29-767 | 60 | 65 | S.S.W.| do. Partially do. - 29-762 | 604) 654) S.S.W.| do. |Do. 12 29°756 614) 68 |S.S.W.} do. |Do. 29-761 | G2 | 67 | S.S.W.| do. Cloudy. POVETAM. The 158 Barometric Observations. The thermometers suspended near the middle of the barome- trical tube were 34° higher than the inclosed thermometer at eight and nine o’clock, and 24° higher at twelve and one, aver- aging 3° above the basin. The observations made as usual by Colonel BEAUFoy, are as follow: - | Ther.|Ther. f 1821. Baronet ste E i Wind. Denom. Weather. —_— 829-523 | 57-5| 56:5! S.S.W. | moder./ Clondy. 9 |29-523' 57-3159 | WebyS.|do. | Do. 10 |29-525 | 58°7|61°5| S.W. | fresh. | Fine. 11 |29:522;59- |64 | W.S.W. | do. Do. 12 /29-520 59-765 | W.S.W. | do. |Do. 1 |29:517' 60° |65 | W.S.W. | do. — | Cloudy. Colonel Beaufoy has calculated the height. of Bushey above Leighton, from the July observations, to be about 247 feet. I observed with pleasure the attention shown to this subject by Dr. Burney ; I am however afraid the wheel barometer cannot be relied upon, but in the absence of a better instrument may be used with sore advantage if correctly compared with a good standard instrument previous to any removal from the situation it occupied at the time of observation. It appears to me that Gosport is too far from London to be used as a medium of transfer of the zero, provided full reliance could be placed on the barometrical calculations; but in the pre- sent state of our knowledge of the atmosphere, it would in my opinion be unsafe to trust to that mode of fixing the zero in London, even inthe shortest line that could be drawn to the coast ; and as the section of the river Thames is a most interesting ob- ject independent of our present inquiry, it is to be hoped that nothing short of actual levelling will satisfy the public in trans- ferring the zero from the coast to London. I have received a letter in the name of Mr. Ralph Tredgold, suggesting a more extended course of observations, to which I beg to state, that some arrangements have long been in train to render the advantages of the barometrical observations more ge- neral and certain, by which any person may render available as many observations every day as may be convenient to himself. I am, dear sir, yours very truly, To Dr. Tilloch. B. Bevan. METEORO- Meteorology. 159 METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT AT BOSTON, LINCOLNSHIRE, BY MR. SAMUEL YVEALL, i -— [The time of observation, unless otherwise stated, is at 1 P.M.] —— See a a a Age of : 1821. j the |Thermo-| Baro- /State of the Weather and Modification of the Clouds, t Moon, meter. | meter. -July 15} full} 62° 20°35 Cloudy—heavy rain A.M. 16| 17 | 67° 29°60 |Fine 17; 18 | 68° | 29°90 |Ditto 18} 19 | 70° | 29°90 |Ditto 19} 20 | 76° | 29°65 [Ditto 20] 21 | 75° 29°33 |Ditto—rain with thunder and light- ning A. M. 21} 22 | 71°5 | 29°98 |Ditto 22| 23 | 72° 29°10 23) 24 | 68° 29°14 24) 25 | 69° 29°30 25} 26} 56° 29°30 *26| 27 | 63° 29°43 27| 28 | 65°5 | 29°50 Ditto—stormy with rain A. M. Ditto—rain with thun, &light.P.M. Ditto Rain Cloudy Fine—heavy rain with thunder and lightning P. M. 28) 29 | 64°5 | 29°58 |Cloudy 29| new | 66° 29°65 |Ditto 30] 1 | 71° 29°45 |Fine—rain P.M. 31) 2] 66° 29°50 |Cloudy Aug. 1} 3 | 69° 29°43 |Ditto—heavy shower P.M. with : rainbow. 2| 41] 68° 29°68 |Ditto 9} 5 | 70" 29°68 |Ditto 4| 6 | 74 29°60 |Ditto ae a ie 29°50 |Fine 6} 8 | 68° | 29°38 |Cloudy 7| 9 | 63° 29°55 |Fine 8} 10 | 67* | 29°05 |Cloudy— heavy rain A. M. 9} 11 | 64° 29°08 |Fine 10) 12 | 63°5 | 29° |Stormy 11| 13 | 64° 29°23 |Fine 12] 14 | 68° 29°52 |Ditto 13) 15 | 70° | 29°44 |Cloudy 14] 16 | 63°5 ! 29°35 |Fine METEORO- 160 Days of Month. 1821. Aug. Meteorology. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE, By Mr. Cary, Thermometer. a Bab og SE! 3 Se) 4 foe) | 61 | 70 59 | 63 58 | 67 60 | 67 66 | 70 63 | 7) 64 | 74 63 | 71 64 | 76 66 | 77 68 | 72 62 | 78 60 | 62 62 | 67 60 | 65 60 | 68 56 | 67 57 | 70 60 | 64 57 | 70 64 | 72 65 | 73 65 | 68 58 | 73 59 | 75 60 | 80 64 | 74 63 | 75 63 | 80 64 | 75 60! 72 3 |, | Height of Os, the Barom. -# Inches. . 58 | 30°01 55 | 29°99 57 | 30:08 63 | 29°96 64 | 30:00 63 29°98 62 | 30°18 63 17 66 14 67 04 60 | 29.95 62 | 30°05 61 | 29°72 55 58 55 "54 56 ‘70 55 *08 57 | 30°04 55 | 29°73 64 | 30°06 3 "14 65 "18 64 "14 63 25 63 25 66 *24 64 21 63 12 64 | 29:99 65 “98 30°06 OF THE STRAND. Weather. | Showery Hazy Fair Rain Fair Cloudy Showery Fair Fair Fair» Cloudy Showery — Rain Cloudy | Fair Fair Fair Fair Rain Fair Fair Fair Cloudy Fair | Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o'clock. —- — | a Observations for Correspondent who observed the 13th Aug. 8 o’Clock M. Barom. 30:050 9 —_- — — — 050 Ther. attached 60° Detached 57 61 — — 63 68 -—— <= 70 Ok Oy ee XXXVII. On the new Method proposed by Dr. Youne for cal- culating the Atmospherical Refraction. By JamEs Ivory, M.A. F.R.S. i! Ix the last Number of the Quarterly Journal of Science (No. 22), ' Dr. Young has reprinted what he calls 4 Postscript on Atmo- spherical Refraction, which was first published in the Philoso- phical Transactions for 1819. The problem is a very difficult one, and has been treated of by geometers of the first rank; and, in the new point of view in which it is here presented, it is supposed that the principal difficulties have been evaded or overcome. No apology will therefore be necessary, if we endeavour to ap- preciate the improvement thus achieved in mathematical science, Hy candidly inquiring how far the preténsions held out are ful- lled. The leading idea of Dr. Young’s method is to develop the density of the air in & series of terms containing tne powers of the refraction sought. By this means the problem is brought to the solution of an equation, or to the reversion of a series. All the methods for computing the refractions that have gained celebrity among astronomers, if we except that of Laplace, are equivalent to the solution of an equation of the second degree. This is true of the rules of Bradley, of Mayer, of Simpson; which are sufficiently accurate for all altitudes within a few de- grees of the horizon. It is therefore certain that the two first terms only of Dr. Young’s series, namely, those containing the first and second powers of the unknown quantity, will be suffi- cient for the greater part of a ‘Table of Refractions. The im- provement effected by the new method must therefore consist in enabling the calculator to complete the Table, by carrying. the refractions quite down to the horizon; for which purpose all the _ former methods, except that of the French astronomers, are found to be insufficient. The principal point we have to inquire into will therefore relate to the convergency of the new series for low altitudes, and more particularly in the extreme case of the hori- zontal refraction. Two different ways may be supposed to have occurred to the author for examining the convergency of his series. . The most scientific way was to ascertain the rate of the decrease of the terms, by determining the general law of the coefficients. It may be doubted whether this is practicable in the present case, more particularly in the mode of calculation followed by the au- thor, Another way was to take some example about the accu- racy of which no doubt existed; and to compare the known re- sult with that obtained from the same data by the new method. » Vol. 58, No, 281, Sept. 1821, Xx For 162 On the new Method for For this purpose the horizontal refraction, on the supposition of a uniform dispersion of heat in the atmosphere, might have been chosen with great propriety, as a case that had already been de- termined with the greatest accuracy by the calculations of La- place and Kramp. This very instance is indeed one of Dr. Young’s examples; but he employs data different from what the foreign geometers proceed upon ; and, on this account, it is dif- ficult to compare the results obtained by the different methods. Besides, the numerical computations in the article in the Journal of Science, are so inaccurate that no conclusion can be drawn from them in which confidence can be placed. Thus, at p.357, the horizontal refraction on the supposition above alluded to, is brought to an equation of which the solution is said to be 7*=*000121; but the real value which will be found by actual substitution to satisfy the equation, is r*=*0001259 ; and hence r= 011220, or 38’ 34”, being 44” greater than the result in the Journal of Science. Again, ina similar calculation, p. 359, the author concludes, 7?=+000103, and 7 =,34’ 53”; but it should be, 7*=-0001066, and r= 35’ 29”. The examples given in the Quarterly Journal leave the ques- tion of the convergency of the series quite undecided. ‘There can be no doubt that a few of the first terms will in every case enable us to compute the greater part of the quantity sought ; but the author has done nothing to determine the precise degree of exactness that will be attained, when only a certain number of the first terms of the series are taken in, and the rest rejected. We shall succeed better in this inquiry if we do not confine our- selves strictly to the mode of calculation imagined by the author. It will conduce greatly to render the theory more accessible, if, by a preliminary investigation, we separate those conditions of the problem that are indispensable from such as are accessary only, and by this means reduce the necessary equations to the least number possible. Now the fundamental equations of the problem are these two, given § 2, p. 353, viz. S ty ear du dr= v In the first of these equations w is the perpendicular falling from the earth’s centre upon the direction of a ray of light, or upon the tangent of the trajectory which the ray describes; S, a constant quantity; p, a small fraction expressing the refractive force of the air when the density is unit; and x, the proportional density of the air at the point of the curve from which the tan- gent is drawn, the density at the surface of the earth being unit. Let calculating the atmospherical Refraction. 163 Let @ denote the radius of the earth, and A the apparent alti- tude of the star: it is obvious that, when the trajectory meets the earth’s surface, «=acos A; wherefore, because z=1, we have, a cos A= = 2 -3 whence S=acosAx(1+ ). Now, this value of s being substituted, the general equation will become +p 1+p =a co ———: l+pz ' 2,€08 Ax 1+ p—p(i—z) and from this we readily deduce, acos A u=acosA x ee an If the light, instead are coming from the star to the spectator, he conceived to procced in an opposite course from the spectator to the star, z will inerease from a cos A to its ultimate value, while w increases from zero to unit. du In the second of the fundamental equations, viz. dr = ily r stands for the angular refraction, and v denotes the part of the tangent between the curve and the perpendicular z. Hence, if x be put for the height above the earth’s surface of the point in the curve from which the tangent is drawn, it is obvious that du A (a+ 2)? —ut , now substitute the value of u a found, we shall get _B cos A = (spe ere a nine aN or, which is the same thing, Gees B cos A dw ye sky l= Bal. “WV (4 )'(1—w)*—cos*A. As the refractive force of the air ceases to be sensible at a height which bears a yery small proportion to the earth’s semi- y=“ (a+2)*— 4; wherefore, dr = If we diameter, ~ will be a very small fraction even at the utmost li- mits of the atmosphere; wherefore, because £ is also very small we may suppose (1+ =~) Bo)=1 +2 = — 2Bw; thus, d feos A a da TE WS SintA42= — 28 Again, 164 On the new Method for ° 1 : ee Again, the factor ie always between the limits 1 and ae! wherefore, if we put dr=BcosA X da ; J Sin? A + 2— — 26 we may consider 7 as the exact refraction; for the true value of = ie which are so near one another that the difference will in no case amount to half a second. The differential expression of the refraction now contains only two variable quantities; namely, the height above the earth’s surface, and the decrease of the density of the air in ascending to that height. These two quantities are not entirely indepen- dent of one another. They are connected by a condition which depends on the pressure, and which we must now investigate. Let y denote the pressure of the atmosphere at the height x, measured by a barometer ; and 7’, the like pressure at the earth’s surface. Dr. Young supposes the pressure at the earth’s surface to be unit, and uses y to denote the relative pressure at any al- the refraction will be between the limits 7 and » quantities titude, equivalent to 4, when the symbols are taken in the sense here defined. If we suppose x to become x+da, y will become y—dy; and the small column of mercury dy will be equivalent in weight to the mass of air dx x x. According to Laplace the elastic force of air at the temperature of melting ice, whatever be the density, is measured by the weight of a homogeneous co- lumn equal in altitude to 7974 metres, or 4360°25 fathoms, At any other temperature ¢ reckoned on the centigrade scale ; : , 1 . and, allowing that air expands >— for every centesimal degree of rise of temperature; the length of the homogeneous column that measures the elastic force will be 4360°25 x (1-+'004 ¢) fathoms. Now, ¢ denoting the temperature at the earth’s sur- face, if we put /=4360-25 x (14-004 ¢), it is obvious that the column of mercury 7’ will be equal in weight to the column of air 7; for each measures the elastic force. Wherefore we shall have this proportion, yosdys: bx lydu:x 23 dz whence, d. 7 =— 7 X% Finally, let S = > and i= 7 then — = 7S; and, by substitution, we shall get these two a a equations which contain all the conditions of the problem, viz. # calculating the atmospherical Refraction. 165 ‘ dw (2) dr= cos A ee p A/Sin2A + 2iS—2Bw° Sida (i os tap F In these equations 7 has the same value with — in Dr. Young's Postscript. Every possible hypothesis relating to the density of the at- mosphere ; or, which is the same thing, every relation that can subsist between S and w, must be such, that the integral f—ds (1—w), taken between the limits » =0 and » = 1, must itself extend from 1 to zero. This condition being fulfilled, the second formula will determine the refractions in that constitu- tion of the atmosphere. . According to the method of Dr. Young, we must suppose w= Br+ Cr+ Dr? + Ert + &e. Now, if we write A for A Sin? A+2 - — 2Bw, we shall get : dw A : : from the last equations, —— = are by which the coefficient : ° Sin A B will be determined, viz. B = oan wv because 7, 5, are all evanescent together. Again, take the fluxions of the equation dw A i dda =) 1 $ ds ? da ir = pea} thus, Gat Tr BERR aw By eae 93 i dw 1 1 y but a 34 SW Bam AP wherefore, ddw i § CS) ?] “ia peat Cds ae at 8) ome z As we must suppose an equation between S and w from which the value of — will be found, the last formula will determine C, the second coefficient of the series. If we take the fluxions i ddS a B? cos2A iy dat the third coefficient D will be determined. And by continuing the like operations all the coefficients of the series may be found. We may also proceed in another way that will bring the deter- mination of the series more immediately, under the ordinary rules of analysis. For having an equation between S and w, we may 4 dw da : again, we shall get, ——- x -5~3 by which SANG dS. thence find a value of S, and likewise one of zz» in terms of W5 166 On the new Method for w; by which means the foregoing equation (3) will be converted into one containing only two variable quantities. In the ase of the horizontal refraction we have sin A = 0, cos A = 1; and, the series for w containing only the even powers of 7, it will be determined by the single equation, ddw _ i f Cine } dr2 pe r da . The calculation will be rendered more simple by putting r=e x ig >; for then, A i ddwa ds — —A d dw A ’ (4) r=e x —=- Apok and we have now to determine the series, w= Co*+ Egt+ Go + &e. In order to bring the question of the convergency to a deci- sion, the best way will be to examine the case of the horizontal refraction in a particular hypothesis; for instance, jn that of a uniform temperature prevailing in the atmosphere. In this hy- pothesis, the densities are proportional to the pressures ; that is - =x = 1—w. Wherefore the first of the equations (2) will dS eek become (l—w) = f’—ds(l—«); whence —- =>. The equation (4) will therefore become, ddw si ek e 2 des —A== (IA) Pe Hath Se The coefficients of the series for » will be determined by sub- stitution, as usual, viz. 1a ig ae _ lea age? 1A 1 1—-A\2 Gr sent CE) 1230 * 30 Te te &c. Without carrying the calculation further, we may observe that the series will contain the part, Mi, 7s. Lif lea \? wane 4 wie et + gee) + a(S) 8? + Be which, as g* is abont 2, will converge very slowly. We may therefore conclude with certainty, that the method of calculation proposed by Dr, Young, is deficient in convergency, that is, a few of ” ~*~ calculating the atmospherical Refraction. 167 of the first terms of the series, or even a considerable number of them, are not sufficient for computing the refractions with the requisite exactness. It appears therefore that no great improve- ment of the theory of refraction is to be expected from the new way of considering the subject. For greater illustration we may apply the foregoing method to the actual caleulation of the horizontal refraction, taking the data as they are given in the Mécanique Céleste; that is, the mean pressure of the atmosphere being 0:76 metres, and the temperature at the earth’s surface, that of melting ice. Then, B = -000293876 i = -00125254 = °234625 B 7 C = -0:382625 E = :0:0318906 G = :0:0059446 &c. and we have this equation for finding g, viz. 1 = 382625 g* + -0318906 04 + -0059446 05; the solution of which is g?= 210117; and g= 1-44964. Hence r= aa x g ='0120365, or 41’ 22”; which is 88” too much, u the true quantity being 2394"-6 according to the calculation of Laplace. This great excess arises from the terms of the series that are left out; and, although the error would be lessened, yet, on account of the slow convergency, it would by no means be quite corrected by taking in two or three more terms. There can be no doubt that the calculations, § vii. pp. 357 and 359, likewise bring out results considerably above the truth. The observations that have been made ‘relate only to Dr. Young’s Theory, and do not bear at all upon the Table of Re- fractions published in the Nautical Almanac 1822. In the ex- planation annexed to the Table, we are told indeed that it is con- structed upon principles explained by Dr. Young in the Philoso- phical Transactions; but the truth is, that the formula and the Table have very little reference to any theoretical principles, and must both be considered as entirely empirical. The real autho- rity of the Table, or the ground on which its estimation with astronomers must rest, is the manner in which the coefficients have been determined; and upon this point we have very little satisfactory information. We may suppose that the author of the Table employed two ways for finding the numeral coefficients of his formula, He : may 168 On atmospherical Refraction. © may have adjusted them to represent some good Table of Re- fractions, as that of the French astronomers: he may have em- ployed for the same purpose a great number of accurate observa- tions; he may have had recourse to both these methods. The Table in the Nautical Almanac is easily compared with that in the Connaissance des Tems. Both suppose the same mean temperature, 50° of Fahrenheit, and 10°, of the centigrade scale. In the English Table the mean pressure of the atmosphere is taken at 30 inches; in the French Table, at 0°76 metres, or 29-92 inches. The numbers in the two tables will therefore be brought to the same circumstances, if those in the French Table : 8 1 . te be increased by the —>> or >> part. When this is done the tables will stand as below: _ Sl ae Altitudes. Conn. des Tems. Naut. Alm, OF -..) oe SOMMG see BBS G1% BT AB) Bay sa ae Bes PO aR Seog Eh ep Ls Dat ae 2.0 8. 18 25° see ar... 016" 16) it went ay Diego ae SR ue E>: Se i 3s 19) ae eee aa te a Ab eglics ANON Aber ne Eee ACG AD ok ye oe B aiddes) ‘Bitter QahGA "HORR: cetera In the remaining parts the two tables agree perfectly with one another. It appears therefore that the French Table is very ac- eurately represented by Dr. Young’s formula, the greatest dif- ference being no more than 4” or 5” at low altitudes betweer 1 and 4 degrees. And in like manner, there can be no doubt, a similar formula may be so adjusted as to represent with equa! exactness the Table of Bradley, or any other Table of Refrac- tions. It would be extremely important to be informed, whether a great number of good and original astronomical observations has been employed in constructing the English Table, and what those observations are. If this has actually been the case; if the Eng- lish Table has a real and solid foundation different from the Table in the Connaissance des Tems ; it must be allowed that no greater or more honourable testimony can be given in favour of the accuracy of the labours of the French astronomers. Sept. 4, J821. J. Ivory. XXXVIII. On of Re. ve em. bserva. ed with e mean 2 scale, here js TES, Or fore be h Table one thie vith one ery ac- est dif- etweel | doubt, h equal Refrac- nether & ions has at those ie Eng- ‘om the that no avour of yORY. 111. On [ 169° j “XXXVIII. On the aériform Compounds of ‘Charcoal and Hydro- gen; with an Account of some additional Experiments on the Gases from Oil and from Coal. By Wm. Henry, M.D. ERS: v! (Concluded from p. 98.] Experiments on the Gas from Oil. y + obtaining this gas at different times, I used the same kind of whale oil, which had been heated a little below its boiling point during two hours, in order to deprive it of water. The oil was admitted by drops into an ignited iron tube filled with fragments of broken crucibles, and no difference, that | am aware of, ex- _isted in the circumstances under which the decomposition was effected, except that the degree of heat was purposely lowered in the latter processes, till that temperature was attained, which was barely adequate to the production of gas. The oil gas_pro- cured from London, I obtained through the kindness of Mr. Ri- chard Phillips. It had been prepared frotn cod oil, at the manu- factory of Messrs. John and Philip Taylor, and haying been con- veyed to Manchester in bottles accurately stoppered and tied over with a double fold of bladder, it was found not to have acquired. any admixture with atmospheric air. The results are contained’ in the following table, in which the expression entire gas is ap- plied to the gas precisely as it came over, except that the car- bonic acid had heen removed by liquid potash, applied in the smallest quantity and with the least agitation that were adequate to the effect. Taste 1. containing the Results of 1 md on the Gas obtained from Whale Oil. Entire Gas, Residae left by chlorine. 100 vols. 100 vols. 100 vols. e lose by | take give take give Spi Gr, chlorine. | oxyg. carb.ac. Sp. Gr. oxyg. carb.ac. Se!) ee ee eee “464 6 116 | 61-4107] 94] 46 590} 19 178 | 100 [-4400} 108 | 58 ‘758 | 22-5 | 220 | 130 |-6160} 145 | 85 (London) 906} 38 | 260} 158 [-6060} 152/ 91 From the foregoing table it appears, that the gas obtained at different times from oil of the same quality, is far from being of uniform composition, and that great differences, as to its specific Vol, 58. No, 281. Sept. 1821. ¥ gravity 170 On the acriform Compounds gravity and chemical properties, are occasioned by the tempera- ture at which it is produced. So far as my experience goes, no temperature short of ignition is sufficient for the decomposition of oil into permanent combustible gases; but the lower the heat that is employed, provided it be adequate to the effect, the hea- vier and more combustible is the gas, and the better suited to artificial illumination. From the experiments which I published in 1805, and which were made on a single specimen of oil gas, I was led to consider it as constituted of one volume of olefiant gas with seven volumes of mixed gases, of which the greatest part was ‘carburetted hydrogen. Mr. Dalton has since favoured me with a specimen of oil gas prepared by himself, which contained in 100 parts, 40 of a gas condensable by chlorine; and it appears from the table that oil gas, manufactured on the large scale, may contain in 100 parts, 38 parts of a gas similarly characterized*. It is not improbable indeed, that, by a temperature carefully regulated, the whole of the aériform fluids may be obtained from oil, of such quality as to be entirely condensable by chlorine; and from the great superiority of the light which such a gas would afford, and the reduction that might be effected in the capacity of the gaso- meters, the discovery of a mode of producing it in this state would be an important practical improvement. The inferences respecting the nature of the gas from oil, I re- serve till after the aceount of the experiments on coal gas, as the same remarks, with some slight modifications, will apply to both cases. Experiments on the Gas from Coal. The numerous experiments and observations on the gas from coal, which I have already published, appear to me to preclude the necessity of going much into the subject on this occasion. What I have lately had in view, has been to render the analysis of this gas more complete, by a careful examination of that por- tion of it which remains after the action of chlorine. The gas, submitted to these recent experinfents, was prepared from Wigan cannel, at the manufactory of Messrs. Philips and Lee. _ It was collected from an opening in a pipe between the retort and the tar-pit, generally about an hour after the commencement of the distillation, except in the instance of the gas No. 4, which was taken five hours, and No. 5, which was taken ten hours, * Since this paper was written, I have received from Mr. Phillips a se- cond specimen of gil gas prepared by Messrs. Taylor. It contains in every 100 volumes, 42 or 43 parts of gas condensable by chlorine ; but in other respects very nearly agrees (making allowance for the greater proportion of that ingredient) with the gas described in the text. from of Charcoal and Hydrogen. 171 from that period. Before using it, the carbonie acid and sul- phuretted hydrogen, which were always present in the early pro- ducts, were separated by careful ablution with liquid potash. As the gas No. 5 was not at all diminished by chlorine, it was ob- viously unnecessary to exainine it in any but its entire state. Tare II. Containing the Results of Experiments on the Gas . obiained from Coal. Entire Gas. ii Gas left by Chlorine. 100 volumes | 100 volumes . Pn 2 [( _ ‘afar “ISp. Gr| take give | thay & Sp. Gr. take give. 3 oxyg- Car.ac. _ joxyg. car. ac ] *650| 217 | 128; 13 575 | 178) 92 2 *620) 194 | 106 12 527 | 160 | S82 3 *630/} 196 | 108 12 *535 | 148} SOL 4 | :500| 166) 93 7 450! 140) 75 5) 345| 78) 30 0 Inferences respecting the Composition of that Part of the Gases from Coal and from Oil, which is not condensable by the Ac- tion of Chlorine. The analytical experiments, which I have described on the action of chlorine on artificial mixtures of olefiant with hydrogen and carburetted hydrogen gases, afford no room for doubt that by that agent the quantity of olefiant gas in any mixture of these gases may be accurately determined. We are not, however, ac- quainted with any chemical agent, either liquid or aériform, which, from a mixture of hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, and carbonic oxide, is capable of separating one of those gases, leav- ing the others in their original state and quantity*. The only method at present known of determining the composition of such a mixture is by firing it with oxygen gas, and from the phano- mena and results of the process, deducing the proportion of its ‘ingredients. In drawing conclusions of this kind, it is necessary to have distinctly in view the properties of those gases in their separate state. The following Table contains an abstract of their leading characters, which will be found very useful in such investigations. Though not strictly necessary, I have included olefiant gas, in order to render the Table more complete. * I have not found that chlorine can be employed with any success in analysing such mixtures ; for when placed in contact with two or more of ‘those gases, and exposed to light, it does not act upon one exclusively, but upon all that compose the mixture. TABLE 172 On the aériform Compounds TaBLx III. exhibiting the Characteristic Properties of different Names of Gases. Olefiait gas Hydrogen gas Carbonic oxide As an illustration of the method of investigating the propor- tions of mixtures of the three last gases, we may take the instance of a mixed gas, free from olefiant gas, of specific gravity 534, of which 100 volumes consume 110 of oxygen, and afford 70 of carbonic acid, the diminution of the whole 210 after firing being 140 volumes. Now it must be obvious from inspection of the Table, that the 70 parts of carbonic acid cannot all have resulted from the combustion of carburetted hydrogen, since, for the sa- turation of 70 measures of that gas, 140 of oxygen would have been required, whereas only 110 have been expended. We may therefore safely infer the presence of carbonic oxide, a gas which, by combustion, gives its own volume of carbonic acid, with the expenditure of only half its volume of oxygen. The specific gra- vity of the specimen being lower‘than that of garburetted hydro- gen, indicates also an admixture of simple hydrogen gas; and of this the proportion must necessarily be considerable, to coun- tervail the weight of the heavy carbonic oxide. The following proportions of the three gases will be found to coincide with the properties of the mixture. Consume Ox. Give Carb. Ac. Dimin. by firing 40 vols. of carb. hydrogen 80 40 80 > 30 carb. oxide 15 30 15 30 hydrogen gas) 15 0 Ad 100 110 70 140 No reliance, however, can be placed on the accuracy of. such estimates, unless the specific gravity of the specimen agrees with that of the hypothetical mixture, as deduced from the proportion of its ingredients. But when this coincidence takes place, we have all the evidence, which the subject at present admits, of the nature of the mixture; and as this agreement between ex- periment and calculation was found to take place very nearly, in all the instances comprehended jn the two following Tables, we may consider the numbers composing them, as expressiog, with sufficient exactness, the relative proportion of different gases in the residues of gil and coal gas left by the action of chlorine. TABLE - of Charcoal and Hydrogen. 173 Tapre IV. showing the Composition of 100 Volumes of the Gas remaining after the Action of Chlorine on Oil Gas. oy, Tauie V. showing the Composition of 100 Volumes of the Gas remaining after the Action of Chlorine on Coal Gas, Exp. Azote. | Car. Hydr. |Carb.Oxide.| Hydr. Gas. Total. 1 1°5 94°5 4 0 100 2 Big 82 2 10 100 3 2 66 14 18 100 4 Ht) 60 12 3 100 5 10 20 10 60 100 It appears from the two foregoing Tables, that the portion of oil gas and coal gas, which is not condensable by chlorine, is in every case a mixed gas, consisting in most instances of carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and hydrogen, with a little azote, part of which may be traced to the impurity of the chlorine. In the best specimens of oil gas, the carbonic oxide is in greater pro- portion than in the best kinds of gas from coal, and the carbu- retted hydrogen is most abundant in the latter gas. This, how- ever, is more than compensated, so far as their illuminating power is concerned, by the greater richness of the aériform products of oil in that denser species of gas which is separable by chlorine. The proportion of hydrogen, both in oil gas and coal gas, appears to increase as they are formed at a higher temperature, and is always greatest in the latter portions of the gas from coal. But no instance has ever occurred to me of a gas obtained from oil or from coal, which, after the actioneof chlorine upon it, with the exclusion of light, presented a residuum at all approaching to simple hydrogen gas; nor do | believe that such a gas can be generated under any circumstances of temperature, by which the decomposition of coal or of oil is capable of being effected. Inferences respecting the Composition of that Part of theGas from Coal and Oil, which is condensed by contact with Chlorine, When a given volume of a mixture of olefiant and carburetted , hydrogen 74 On the aériform Compounds hy drogen gases is fired with oxygen, and an equal volume of the same mixture is first deprived of olefiant gas by the action of chlorine, and then fired with oxygen, it must necessarily happen that the excess of oxygen spent in the first combustion, above that consumed in the second, will be three times the volume of the olefiant gas, and that the excess of carbonic acid formed in the first experiment above that generated in the second, will be double the volume of the olefiant gas. A remarkable anomaly, however, was during the last summer observed by Mr. Dalton in the results of the combustion of a quantity of gas, which he had himself prepared from oil. One volume was found to con- sume three volumes of oxygen, and to yield little short of two volumes of carbonic acid, in those respects agreeing nearly with olefiant gas ; but when mingled with more than the requisite pro- portion of chlorine, it was not, as olefiant gas would have been, entirely condensed, but suffered a diminution of only four-tenths of its bulk, the remaining six-tenths, after being freed from the redundant ‘chlorine, agreeing in its properties with carburetted hydrogen. For example, 10 volumes of this gas (containing four of gas condensable by chlorine and six of carburetted hydrogen) consumed 30 volumes of oxygen, and gave 18 of carbonic acid. But of the oxygen, 12 volumes are due to the six of carburetted hydrogen, leaving 18 volumes for the combustion of the four volumes of gas condensable by chlorine, which is in the propor- tion of 44 tol. Of the 18 volumes of carbonic acid, also, six may be traced to the combustion of the carburetted hydrogen, leaving 12 volumes as the product of four of the condensable gas, or in the proportion of 3 to 1. The portion of gas condensed by the action of chlorine presents, therefore, decided differences from olefiant gas, in requiring not three only, but 43 volumes of oxygen for combustion, and in affording 3 instead of 2 volumes of carbonic acid. Nearly the same relation of the oxygen con- sumed, and carbonic acid produced, to that part of the gases from coal and oil which is condensable by chlorine, existed also not only in other experiments of Mr. Dalton, but in all those which I have myself made. ‘The proportions I have found to vary in different cases from 41 to 5 volumes of oxygen, and from 24 to 3 volumes of carbonic acid for each volume of the con- densable gas. On comparing also the specific gravity of the gases from coal and oil, as ascertained by experiment, with that which ought to result from mixtures of the residue left by chlorine, with such a proportion of olefiant gas as is deducible from analysis, I have in- variably found, that the real specific gravity has considerably ex- ceeded the estimated. For instance, the London oil gas was composed of 35 volumes of a gas condensable by chlorine, and \ +.) of Charcoal and Hydrogen. ; 173 62 volumes of mixed gases not characterized by that property, and having the specific gravity °606. But 62 volumes of gas of specific gravity °606, mixed with 38 volumes of olefiant gas of specific gravity ‘970, should give a mixture of the specific gravity *754, instead of -906, which was the actual specific gravity of the entire oil gas.” It will be found on calculation that the 58 volumes of gas, in order to make up the real specific gravity of the oil gas, must have had the specific gravity of 1-4 very nearly. This is the highest number that is deducible from my experi- ments for the specific gravity of that portion of oil gas, or coal gas, which is condensed by the action of chlorine. In other in- stances, it varied from that number down to 1°2, but in every case its weight surpassed that of common air. It is evident from these facts, that the aériform ingredient of oil gas and coal gas, which is reducible to a liquid form by chlo- rine, is not identical with the olefiant gas obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol, but considerably exceeds that gas in specific gravity and combustibility. Two views may be taken of its nature; for it may either be a gas sué generis, hitherto un- known, and constituted of hydrogen and charcoal in different pro- portions from those composing any known compound of those elements ;—or it may be merely the vapour of a highly volatile oil, mingled in various proportions with olefiant gas, carburetted hydrogen, and the other combustible gases. Of these two opi- nions, Mr. Dalton is inclined to the first, considering it as sup- ported by the fact that oil gas, or coal gas, may be passed through water without being deprived of the ingredient in question; and that this anomalous elastic fluid is absorbed by agitation with water, and again expelled by heat or other. gases, unchanged as. to its chemical properties, as we have both satisfied ourselves by repeated experiments. On the other hand, I have found that hydrogen gas, by remaining several days in narrow tubes in con- tact with fluid naphtha, acquires the property of being affected by chlorine precisely as if it were mixed with a smnall proportion of olefiant gas; and I am informed by Dr. Hope, thatoil gas, when forcibly compressed in Gordon’s portable gas lamp, deposits a portion of a highly volatile essential oil. The smell also of the liquid which is condensed on the inner surface of a glass receiver in which oil gas or coal gas has been mixed with chlorine, de- notes the presence of chloric ether, evidently however mingled with the odour of some other fluid, which seems to me to hear most resemblance to that of spirit of turpentine. This part of the subject is well worthy of further investigation; but having deyoted to the inquiry all the leisure-which [ am now able tu command, I must remain satisfied at present with such conelu- sions 177 On a new System of Defence: Stons as are safely deducible from the foregoing investigatiort. These may be briefly recapitulated as follows: 1. That carburetted hydrogen gas must still be considered as a distinct species, requiring for the perfect combustion of each volume two volumes of oxygen, and affording one volume of ear- bonic acid; and that if olefiant gas be considered as constituted of one atom of charcoal united with one atom of hydrogen, car- buretted hydrogen must consist of one atom of charcoal iu com- bination with two atoms of hydrogen. 2. That there is a marked distinction between the action of chlorine on olefiant gas, (which, in certain proportions, is en- tirely independent of the presence of light, and is attended with the speedy condensation of the two gases into chloric ether,) and its relation to hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, and carbonic oxide gases, on all which it is inefficient, provided light be per- fectly excluded from the mixture. 3. That since chlorine, under these circumstances, condenses olefiant gas without acting on the other three gases, it may be employed in the correct separation of the former from one or more of the three latter. 4, That the gases evolved by heat from coal and from oil, though extremely uncertain as to the proportions of their ingre- dients, consist essentially of carburetted hydrogen, with variable proportions of hydrogen and carbonic oxide; and that they owe, moreover, much of their illuminating power to an elastie fluid, which resembles olefiant gas im the property of being speedily condensed by chlorine. 5, That the portion of oil gas and coal gas, which chlorine tius converts into a liquid form, does not precisely agree with olefiant gas in its other properties; but requires, for the com- bustion of each volume, nearly two volumes of oxygen more than are sufficient for saturating one volume of olefiant gas, and af- fords one additional volume of carbonic acid. It is probably, therefore, either a nrixture of olefiant gas with a heavier and more combustible gas or vapour, or a uew gas sui generis, con- sisting of hydrogen and charcoal in proportions that remain to- be determined. Manchester, Jan. 1821. NXXIX. On Mr. Carnor’s new System of Defence of Places ~ by what he calls Vertical Firing. Sour years past, Mr. Carnot, a celebrated French mathemati- cian and military engineer, published a work on a new mode of defence of forts against an enemy besieging the place when he ‘has got possession of the ditch, where the guns of the fort can- not —— On a new System of Defence by vertical Firing. 177. hot be pointed so as to touch him, on account of his closeness to the rampart. In order therefore to annoy the enemy in that position, Mr. Carnot invented a new system of attacking | him there by what he calls Vertical Firing, which has obtained great applause by engineers on the continent of Europe. This method is described as a mode of diecheseNnD) a multitude of small balls from cannon pointed upwards, nearly in the vertical direction, so that the balls, after ascending to their utmost height, may fail down again like a shower of hail, on the heads and shoulders of the men in the ditch. It seems that those engineers imagined that these showers of balls, in their descent, ial fall to the ground with a velocity or force equal to that with which they were discharged from the cannon, and that as the latter is ca- pable of destroying men, the former must likewise have the same effect. , But this it appears is a very vain and fallacious opinion, as, owing to the enormous resistance of the air to bodies moving with great velocity, being indeed even more than in proportion to the square of the velocity, the utmost velocity of the descend- ing balls is comparatively very small and har mless. This cir- eumstance is fully demonstrated in Dr. Hutton’s artillery experi- ments, as well as many others, in the 2d and 3d volumes of his Tracts, where rules are delivered to assign the utmost velocity that can be acquired by bodies, of any size and weight, falling through the air from any height whatever, and therefore called the Terminal Velocity. 1n particular, by consulting the table of such velocities, in page 247 of the 3d volume above mentioned, it will appear that such balls cannot acquire a velocity, by de-, scending, of so much as 200 feet per second of time, even if they were discharged upwards with ten times as much. This grand, this fatal mistake of the continental engineers, having been observed by Sir Howard Douglas, Bart. one of the many able engineers educated by Dr. Hutton, at the Royal Mi- litary Academy at Woolwich, lately Inspector General of the Royal Military College, and now Inspector of the Hon. East India Company’s Military Institution at Addiscombe near Croydon, he lately published a work, entitled ‘¢ Observations on the Motives, Errors, and Tendency, ‘of Mr. Carnot’s Principles of Defence,’’ &c. meant to expose and correct the error of that system, and prevent the fatal consequences that were likely to attend it ; and which it seems is now in a fair way of being completely effecte ed, as appears by the following letter just received by Dr. Hutton, from that gentleman, who is now with his family at Caen in Normantly ; Vol. 58. No. 281. Sep. 1821. Z “To 178 On a new graphical Method “ To Dr. Hutton, Bedford Row, London. “ Caen, Aug. 13, 18. ** My pEAR Docror,—I have just received a French Mé- moire, sent to me by the author, which you will have great plea- sure in reading. ‘¢ | dare say General Rowley will soon have a copy of it, and will lend it to you. ** It is entitled § Mémoire sur l’Effet des Feus verticaux pro- posés par M. Carnot: par M. Angoyat,’ of the French Engineers, Professor of Fortification in the chief Military College of France. The author, in a close investigation of Mr. Carnot’s system of defence, with reference mainly to my werk, and to your Tracts, has admitted all my reasoning, and adopted all my conclusions. At the end of the Mémoire are two articles, which make such honourable reference to your works, as cannot fail to give you much gratification in perusing. “ The attention of the French engineers to the controversy re- specting Carnot’s system of defence, has been excited by two causes; viz. to determine how far his ideas should be acted upon in their own fortifications, and to teach them how to estimate the powers of resistance of those works which the Prussians are con- structing at Coblentz and Cologne, on this most defective plan. The former is set at rest; for the Mémoire may be considered as passing sentence upon Mr. Carnot’s System, and that by a body of men certainly not prejudiced against him, nor in favour of a British military author. And with respect to the other bearing of the question, the French engineers are satisfied that the Prus- sians are acting upon an insecure and condemned system. “ This Mémoire gives some strength to my cause, and I will endeavour to push it further to deter the Prussians from proceed- ing with this defective scheme. “¢ T hope this will find you in perfect health. I shall be in England in about two months. “¢ Believe me, dear Doctor, ‘* Yours very sincerely and truly, * HowarD Dovuctas.” XL. Ona new graphical Method of reducing the Lunar stances. By Mr. Henry MEIKLE, To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Ox attentively considering the different methods hi- therto used for reducing the lunar distances by mechanical or graphical of reducing the Lunar Distances. 179 gtaphical means, I have often thought it would be much more convenient if a general method could be found in which all the lines were ready drawn without requiring scales, compasses, or even different plates; for although in Margett’s tables and some others, no new lines are wanted, still each plate only serving for a small part of the various cases that may occur, many plates are necessary to comprehend the whole; and in the different editions of La Caille’s method, some moveable parts are required, as well as several accurate measurements with compasses, &c., operations not only troublesome, but in unskilful hands they are apt to pro- duce errors in abundance. What I was in quest of, therefore, was the construction of a general plate by which all the cases might be solved without the aid of any thing else, except a common ruler to lay across the plate ; and my researches on the subject have upon the whole been fully as successful as I had at first expected; but it proba- bly admits of still further improvement. The outline of all the other methods that I have seen for solv- ing the problem by projection, especially so far as relates to pa- rallax, is the same; viz. the orthographical projection of the spherical triangle formed by the distance and the complements of the altitudes, upon the plane of the circle of which the distance forms a part. ‘The one I am about to describe, however, is en- tirely different. In this there is given a separate contrivance for the effect of refraction and another for that of parallax: but both ean still be conveniently put in the same plate without enlarging its size. I once intended to have combined the two in one cor- rection*, which was not impossible; but afterwards thought it better to abandon that idea, hecause it led to some inaccuracy, arising from the necessity of varying the effect of refraction in the same ratio as the horizontal parallax; and I wished to give a method founded on principles admitting of some degree of ex- actness, should I afterwards have occasion to construct it on a large scale. . I shall now proceed to explain the principle on which the cor- rection for refraction is founded :—Assuming the refraction as the cotangent of the altitude, it may easily’ be shown that, on a given distance, the effect of refraction is the same for any two altitudes whose sines have the same ratio. If neither altitude is under 10° this assumption cannot materially err; but if we aug- ment each apparent altitude by nearly three times the corre- * Of the methods in which all the lines are to be drawn for each case, Dr. Kelly's perhaps comes as near the truth as any similar one could re- quiring so little labour. In it the refraction is combined with parallax. An improved method of the same kind has lately been given in Professor Brande’s Journal. Z2 sponding 180 On a new graphical Method sponding refraction, it will be brought sufficiently near the truth for our present purpose almost at ‘the horizon. Let AB and C D be two parallel lines of sines whose zeros are at A A D and C. Join AC, as also F and H I the two altitudes increased as above, to cut ‘AC in E. Then it is plain that the line joining any other alti- Si iH tudes whose sines are inthe ratioof F oe | AF to CH must also pass through \] KE. If, therefore, EI be the effect B Cc of refraction on a given distance in the first case, it will be so whenever the sines haye the same ra- tio: reckoning always the greater altitude on A B. " ‘The construction of this part is as follows:—Having drawn and divided the lines of sines, take any distance which we shall imagine to be an are ina vercicet circle, in order that the effect of refraction may be had at once from a table of refractions ; since in that case it is the sum or difference of the refractions corre. sponding to the altitudes ; and having laid a ruler to join these altitudes, let this effect be set off in a straight line as from E to I. Suppose again that we shift round the same are of distance, still keeping it in the verticai. circle, till the sines of the altitudes have a different ratio; we may then find the effect of refraction as before; and proceeding in this way for all ratios of altitude with the several distances, the linear table nay be completed to - a considerable degree of accuracy without requiring any other calculation. The effect of refraction might be expressed i in va- rious ways; but perhaps one of the most convenient is to do it by parallel straight lines such as ET reaching from AC to a eurve which belongs to the corresponding distance. The arguments of this table are simply the apparent altitudes and apparent di- stance; because the numbers for the apparent altitudes are to be placed PEPE Ste the sines of the apparent altitudes increased by thrice the refraction. The correction for refraction is’ thus obtained in any given case, by merely applying a ruler to the al- titudes; this will cut AC in a point between which and the curve corresponding to the distance, the required correction is con- tained on a straight line such as EI. It is always additive. I shall next explain the principles of the part that relates to parallax: Let MN and PQ be two parallel straight lines, of which MN is the greater; join MP. Take ms = cos. d, the distance being denoted by d ; join NK, producing it to meet the extension of MP in T. T hrough T draw TL parallel to PQ; Boe make Se ngs thy Foes. ae of reducing the Lunar Distances. 181 ae = sin m, and a = sins; the moon’s altitude being =m, and that of the star =s. Join MV, SV, and produce them to meet TL in L and R, Then on account of the parallels LR:MS:: LV: MV, and PV: LT;: MV: LM;3_hence LRxPV:LT x MS;:LV:LM:: PK: MN, and LR: LT::MSxKP:PV x MN::sinm cos.d: sin s. Censequently with a given distance, R'T varies as sin am. cot d— sin s. cosec d. That is, as the cosine of the angle at the moon multified by the cosine of her altitude: a well known ex- pression for the principal effect of her parallax on the distance, supposing the horizontai parallax to be unity. This corzection is subtractive when R lies to the right of MT, otherwise it is additive. When m= oa, and the distance is ina vertical circle, RT becomes a maximum for the subtractive cor- rection, and represents the horizontal parallax; also if § =0, and the objects are in the same vertical quadrant, RT will show the greatest additive correction for parallax that the corresponding distance admits of. Corresponding to the sign of cos d, it is evident that LT will lie above T/ RL or below PQ, as also K will be on the right or left of P, according as the distance is less or greater than 90°. However, since the paralleis of distanee or successive positions of LT, become somewhat crowded as the distance approaches 120°, it might perhaps be better after it ex- ceeds 90°, to transpose the altitudes, WS WN reckoning the moon’s on PQ, and that of the staron MN. In this case the parallel of distance 90° would coincide with MN, and the rest be continued upward from it till they reached the place of 120°. By this means the scale would be considerably enlarged, and the confusion of having PQ with its divisions of sines crowded in the midst of the other pa- rallels would also be avoided, There are different positions in which two lines of sines might be permanently placed to give a construction for solving the pro- blem. When these lines are parallel but lie in contrary direc- tions, the parallels of distances less than 90° fall between them, but are excesssively crowded and contracted as the distance ap- proaches 20°,—the least in common use. For distances greater than 90°, the parallels lie without these reversed lines of altitudes. Thus if M N were produced beyond M, and another equal line of sines make 182 On reducing the Lunar Distances. sines laid off from M in the opposite direction, by using this for the moon’s altitude, we could read off the effect of parallax for a distance of 120° on the same parallel that is used for 60°; and in a similar way for those between 90° and 120°. But it is obvious that MN thus produced would be inconyeniently long. It is true, however, that M N being merely reversed, or rather another equal line of sines laid close to it but beginning from N, by using this for the moon’s altitude when the distance ex- ceeds 90°, we might still have the correction on the parallel of 60°, &c.; but then neither the divisions nor numbers attached to them would suit well. The line LT, we may also observe; might have one permanent position, while the lines of altitude changed théir places or even magnitudes for each degree of di- stance; but this would likewise be attended with several incon- veniences. Preferring then the former arrangement, and that part of each parallel of distance lying to the right of M'T being divided into 69 equal parts with the same divisions continued as far as neces- sary to the left, we shall obtain the effect of parallax in any given case, merely by applying a ruler to the two altitudes, and then the segment of the parallel of the distance intercepted between the ruler and MT will be the required correction in minutes, sup- posing a horizontal parallax of 60°. This number again being multiplied by the given horizontal parallax, and divided by 60, gives a quotient in minutes and a remainder in seconds corre- sponding to the given horizontal parallax. In all this we have assumed the effect of parallax as strictly proportional to the cosine of the angle at the moon: this how- ever is not in general quite correct. ‘The error is usually deno- minated the final correction, and is contained in the 15th of the Requisite Tables. It is nearly proportional-to the cotangent of the distance multiplied by the difference of the squares of the parallaxes in altitude and distance. In the expression, sin m cot d, if m be altered by a quantity m proportional to the par allax in altitude, the change in the cor-~ rection is as m* cot d, which is proportional to one term of the final correction. The other term may be allowed for, by every- where shifting the divisions of RT by a small quantity propor- tional to its square. If however this method of making out the final correction be used, it is evident we cannot transpose the al- titudes in the manner already proposed, because their lines of sines would not then be quite similarly divided. But the final correction may be effected with almost sufficient accuracy for a thing of this kind, by merely curving a little the parallels of distance and making their divisions somewhat un- equal, Mr. Farey on Shooting Stars and Meteors. 183 equal. Indeed for distances greater than 60°, such a correction is scarcely worth noticing, unless the scale of the projection be very great. If it were wished to construct a plate of this kind on a large scale, it might tend to ensure still greater accuracy in the part that relates to parallax, if in place of the sines of the apparent altitudes, we use the sines of the altitudes corrected for refrac- tion; attaching however still to these lines as their arguments the apparent altitudes only: so that no additional trouble will occur in the use of the plate; except that the correction for re- fraction should be applied to the distance before finding that of parallax. But after all, these niceties would seldom have any - sensible effect. The part for the correction of refraction might be brought to give the effect of the mean refraction to almost any degree of exactness, by slightly curving the three principal lines. The foregoing speculation, it is presumed, will he found to contain principles for constructing a simgle plate whereby all the cases may be solved with scarcely less facility or accuracy than the seventy plates of Margetts. A plate of the kind I intend shortly to publish; but previous to doing so, I shall endeavour to try of what further improvement it is susceptible. I am, sir, Your most obedient servant, July 16, 1821. Henry MEIKLE. XLI. On Suootine Stars, and Meteors which throw down MereEoro.itEs, as distinguished from fiery Appearances low in the Atmosphere, which have been supposed to proceed from terrestrial Exhalations, and to prognosticate [Vind and Rain, &e.; with Directions for observing Shooting Stars. By Mr. Joun Farry Sen. To Dr. Tiilloch. Sir, — I BEG to thank Dr. William Burney for his prompt and very obliging attention to my request, regarding Barometric Ob- servations on the second Monday of each Month; and hope that he and others of your ingenious Correspondents will persevere therein, and let slip no favourable opportunities of procuring such observa- tions to be simultaneously made, at as many points as_ possible on the open Coasts of the Ocean, at ascertained heights above high and low water marks on the days of observation. My best acknowledgements are also due to Dr. Burney, for his obliging notices of my Queries (in p. 346 of your last Vo- lume) in pages 22 and 127 of your late Numbers; from a iW u 184 Mr. Farey on Shooting Stars and Meteors. ful perusal of which I perceive, with regret, that when draiving’ up those Queries, and in some other papers which I have written on the subject, 1 have not been sufficiently on my guard, to ex- pressly exclude from my description, of those Shooting-stars and Meteors seen high in the Atmosphere (to which I have been de-: sirous of aséribing a satellitic origin) those lower, fiery appear- ances, locally and occasionally seen in the Air, to which some observers’ attention is directed, and which they think to arise from gaseous exhalations from the Earth; amongst which class of phrenomena, the ignis fatuus is an undoubted instance. Others have called in the aid of Electricity, to account for other lumi- nous atmospheric appearances, citing, and perhaps truly, the aurora borealis, as one of the same class of phenomena with Lightning, especially that which on sultry evenings, sometimes appears almost incessant and universal, yet unaccompanied by thunder. I seem to have been mistakenly supposed by Dr. B. to main- tain, that not any Meteors are visible in full moon-light; whereas I believe many fiery appearances in the Atmosphere, besides Lightning, including some Meteors which have been in the act of exploding and throwing down Meteorolites, to have been seen in full day-light: and yet maintain this to be; noways inconsistent with the opinion, that real Shooting-stars of the smaller classes, are rendered invisible, by very small degrees of extraneous light in their vicinity, whether such be from bright planets, or from the Moon almost ever so near her change ; ‘such obscuration of the’ faint light of small Shooting-stars, extending considerably further round the one-day’s Moon, much further yet around the two-days Moon, and in a short time afterwards in the lunation, whenever the Moon is above the horizon, the smaller Shooting-stars may in vain be watched for, in any part of atmospheric space. There are resident in the Country, many curious Gentlemen, who have it in their power to procure the assistance of two and occasionally of a third steady person (such for instance as their domestics or clerks) in the first two or three hours after dark, in the Evenings which may prove free from general clouds; whe are provided with a good pendulum Clock, which by a transit or other Instrument they have the means of regulating, and also with a Watch carrying a second’s Hand : and who either possess or could make a large Planisphere, in portions overlapping each other, and depicting the smaller Stars, of such a zone of the heavens, as within the course of a year passed in convenient view, from some window of their-House, adapted for the scene of Stellar observations, To the zeal of such Gentlemen for the extension of knowledge, I beg to address myself, and to request the favour of their con-_ currence, Mr. Farey on Shooting Stars and Meteors. 185 currence, in steadily making, and recording, through a sufficient period of time, Observations on the Shooting Stars and Meteors, which may present themselves to the Eye ; “such not being made to wander about the field of view, in search of moving objects, but kept steadily fixed on some one constellation, or on a remark- able Star, not too bright, which through the successive Evenings of three or four weeks, may be fixed on, as the centre of the ob- servations to be made. One of the Assistants should be seated before the Watch, care- fully following the second’s Hand with his Eye, and inwardly counting the seconds elapsed, since each successive minute: an- other Assistant should be seated with the Planisphere before him, having his Eyes occasionally directed to the central Star agreed on as above mentioned, with Paper also before him, and Pen in hand, ready to write dover instantly, any observations which may be dictated to him, and to trace with the pencil on the Plani- sphere. Things being thus arranged, preparation may be made for commencing the Observations, by noting down the date and the time; with the addition of all observable circumstances, regarding the clearness of the air or otherwise, the situations and nature of any clouds in the field of view, the age and situation of the Moon, and whether its light or that of any of the brighter planets, seemed likely to affect the observations. The observations may then commenee, by the Observer stand- ing or sitting at ease, and fixing his eyes on the Star agreed on, steadily, bat not with any straining or effort which would fatigue the Eye :—at the very instant of seeing any Star move, he should ery out © now,” or any other short word that may be agreed on, as a direction to the Assistant at the Watch, to repeat alond ‘he second he had last counted, with the addition of one, two or three, quarter seconds elapsed since; these seconds and fractions the other Assistant should instantly write down, in the proper mar- ginal column of his Paper, and then place before them, the hour and minute, which next the Watch Assistant should read aloud. In the mean time, the Observer having as quickly as possible transferred the axis of his Eyes to the moving Star, he should make an effort to follow exactly its track with his Eyes, at the same time being very attentive to observe and remember, against or near to what fixed Star, he first saw the movement, what parti- cular Stars it may pass in its course, and near to which of them it vanishes: as soon as this has happened, he should begin to mention these Stars’ names (or characters or numbers, as they are distinguished in the Planisphere), which the Assistant should write Vol. 58, No, 281. Seas, 1821, Aa down, 186 Mr. Farey on Shooting Stars and Meteors. down, after tracing the apparent course on the Planisphere, by means of a soft Pencil. ‘ The Observer should then dictate, for the Assistant to write down, the rough apparent direction, as for instance, “ from left to right, level,”’.“ from right to left, inclining a little upwards,” * from above downwards, direct,’’ ‘* from below upwards, inclin- ing much to the right,” &c.: next he should mention, whether the apparent course was straight or otherwise, whether long or short; whether the object was minute, small or comparatively large ; whether faint, bright or brilliant ; all which, and any other observable circumstances, being noted down, this observation may be considered as finished. It will be desirable, that the Observer while dictating these circumstances to the writing Assistant, should again have his Eye fixed on the central Star, in readiness to notice, the ¢ime and rough direction, at the least, of any other moving Body, which he may not be able to notice further, without endangering con- fusion, or the loss of observations already made, but not re- corded. A third Assistant at hand, will be very useful, to relieve instantly the Observer, when tired, or having occasion to consult the Plani- sphere, or revise the observations already written down, &c.; or in case of two Assistants only being present, it may be necessary that one of them should occasionally relieve the Observer. When the one, two or three Hours allotted to these observa- tions, shall have concluded, or the coming on of Clouds may sooner terminate the Evening’s observations, the hour and minute of such termination should be noted down: and after the pencillings on the Planisphere shall have been compared, with the written de- seriptions of the apparent courses, the same may be rubbed out, ready for the next night’s operations. . I shall not at this time trespass further on your pages, by men- tioning such preliminary a’ rangements and precautions as will be necessary, when simultaneous observations are intended, by two Observers, situate at several Miles distance from each other, be- cause most of these are sufficiently alluded to already, in my Queries referred to. I am, sir, Your obedient servant, 37, Howland-street, Iitzroy-square. Joun Farey Sez. Sept. 9, 1821. XLIL, An, | XLII. An Address to a Phrenologist. By A ConRESPONDENT. * Tf not to some peculiar end assign’d, Study ’s the specious trifling of the mind.”—Youna. Tue craniological, now phrenological, opinions of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim again draw the attention of some individuals in this country, and the following remarks on these opinions may perhaps not be altogether unworthy of their attention. 2 Address to a Phrenologist. Take it for granted that your opinion regarding the organi- zation of the brain be correct, and that in the head of each in- dividual there are certain indications of certain qualities, affec- tions, or powers of that individual’s mind; does it not follow that these indications and the qualities they indicate, are either ne- cessarily existent in the individual from bis first formation ? or the effect of peculiar associations of ideas at a very early period in life ? 1. If the former be your opinion,.do you mean to say that in _ the formation of man certain qualities are united, and that his head, jike a mineral crystal, is of a determinate form according to the proportions of its constituent elements? If so, does not your doctrine lead to fatalism ? and its promulgation will be dan- ’ gerous to society, because, to some minds it may be made plau- sible by a continual reference to an apparent agreement with physical observations; and particularly in minds that have not a ready antidote of truths drawn from more legitimate sources. 2. If vou say that these indications are the effect of peculiar associations, you have only found a very imperfect means of knowing that which is apparent, as far as it is useful, to com- mon observation. Perhaps your system may strengthen the or- gan of suspicion in those who have it, and sometimes create it where it was not: how desirable this may be, you are left to judge. - It is true that certain muscles in the arm of a smith gain more than ordinary strength by constant action under a strain in one direction ; that those of a cobler acquire a peculiar set from a si- milar cause; and it may be, that the exertion of certain powers of the mind may enlarge certain parts of the brain. But would you study the laws which move the ocean in the impressions it - makes on the sea-shore? Rather let the mind itself be the direct object of your inquiries; let the laws of its action be your study; the force and peculiar direction of that action is always sufficiently demonstrated in the individual’s intercourse with the world. Viewing your system through the medium of utility, I think it will appear to be decidedly hostile to the best interests of so- ciety; or, at the most, only an object of disagreeable curiosity. Your presence may excite alarm in a weak mind; such a mind Aa2 ; may 188 . Address to a Phrenologist. may consult you as our forefathers did a Lilly, or a Dee; but superior minds will regard you with a mixture of compassion and contempt*. Take counsel, and follow another course ; the field of useful knowledge is wide, it is of a rich soil, and yet af- fords but a small produce from the want of labourers that are willing to abandon altogether toy-making, and the construction of ingenious riddles. Essex, Sept. 14, 1821. A iy ae * If you be eminent in any branch of human knowledge, beware how you engage with phrenology, for the foibles and false steps of superior minds are sometimes recollected when their real excellencies are nearly forgotten or kept out of sight ; you will find an instance of this in a descrip- tion of Merehiston Tower, in a late Number of the “ Provincial Antiquities of Scotland.” In that description, those fathers of science, Newton and Napier, have their foibles exposed with too free a hand, when it is consi- dered that the authority of this popular writer will be gladly seized by men who would willingly sink the greatest talents. to the level of their own. The writer seems also to be in error when he makes Napier’s bones a name of logarithms. T. XLII. Tables of the Longitude and Altitude of the Nonagesi- mal Degree of the Ecliptic. By Mr. James Urtine. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — I HAVE sent you for insertion in the Philosophical Ma- gazine and Journal, a Table of the Longitude and Altitude of the Nonagesimal Degree of the Ecliptic. As the finding of the longi- tude and altitude of the Nonagesima is an extremely tedious operation, I presume the ‘Table I have calculated will be found valuable, more particularly as the Tables inserted in the first vo- lume of Dr. Maskelyne’s Astronomical Observations made at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and in Vince’s Astronomy, give the longitude and altitude only to within 10 seconds (being calculated before Taylor’s Tables of Logarithms were published), and moreover contain no correction for the Variation of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic, and but a very brief Table of the cor- rection necessary to be made for a change of latitude. Longitude and Altitude of the Nonagesimal Degree of the Ecliptic, for the Latitude of the Royal Observatory at Green- wich, 51° 28’ 40 North, or 51° 17’ 48” reduced to the Earth’s centre, the Ellipticity of the terrestrial Spheroid being 1-309th part of the Equatorial_Radii. With the Variations of Longitude and Altitude for 100 Minutes of Latitude North of Greenwich; and for 100 Seconds Diminution of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic. (Obliq. Ecliptic 23° 28’) Calculated from ~ Taylor’s Tables of Logarithms. Argument, Right Ascension of the Medium Gali, Nonagesimal Tables. 189 Altitude of Nonagesima. V. for 100/ Var. 1004 Altitude. Diff. Var. of lat.: V. of Ob. BL Ue RU Agha nl) rae ae 0 26 25 38 a |l 23 45 44 17 14 9 1 045 j 027 941 te 52 |1 22 40 44 38.34] Sra) fa: 046 | 0 27 53 37) 43 47 |} 21 35 445945) 5,°2 [1 0.47 | 0 28 37 24] 9 43 41 |} 20 31 45 20 48 20 54 1: 0 48 0 29 21 43 33 |} 19 27 AB ALAR | Do hiet ie 0 49 1 0 4 38 43 26 |L18 24 46 2 27 be ce® tos 0 50 | 1 048 0 ane! 46 23.2 PLE i O51 | 1) 231.2 43 13 |! 16 19 46 43 29) oo 1g | 1: 0 52 | by 214,37) o ay 8 (1d5.A7 Apart bala? | 053 | 1) 2.57 45) 9 45 9 [114 17 47 23 54 19 54° | 0 54 1 3404 42 57 | L313 16 47 43 52 ie 0 56 | ip{1 5 6 36| 942 52/1 1 16 13 }/1 5 49 24 42°48 11017 14 |1 6 32 madeay i 917 15|}1 7,144 0 42 36 Le Oks 16 : 757 231 9 49 31 1 7 19 1 yee 042.29 : oe 110 4 48/0 4 251) 4 os 110 47 11) 9 4p 1g [L338 111 1 112.11 38/0 42 18.11 er 11254 3 olaglas 1 037 11g v8 27/0 42 12 [0 99 4} 115.0 37|° 42 1° 0 57 48 4 1 15 42 43| 9 42 6 0 36 Be 1 16 24 51/9 42 8 Jo 5 oe 117 655) 42 4 lo 55 “9 117 48 59}9 42 4\o54 5 T 18 31 SN ae: r 3 1 0 l 59 59 0 58 2 7 25 46 59|2 8 7 56 60|2 850 5 8 40 6 52 5 58 ooces¢ ©) G2 G2 Go G “Ni > ce) i) tot! oh 57 44 29 57 56 24 58 8 4 58 19 29 59 50 24 | Se 35 56 39 3 1 30 36 : Look 36 33 bl 36 44 32 36 54 32 180 Nonagesimal Tables. Hae Longitude of Nonizestma. Altitude of Nonagesima. in ee the V. for 100'| V. 1007 ae sLongnte Var.ofLat | V. of Ob. o | 0 7 wfo joa: Dg eae ee a eae ier) 60} 2 850 5 : 0 27 0| O21 159 59 lo 37 61/2 9321519 45 15 | 026 6| 0 20 30:7 40 | 830 ‘Bae 62] 2 10 14 27 ae 5 12 sie tl Se 3 £27 | 9 42 11 0 25 121 019 | 60 15°53 : Weg m7) 63| 2 10 50 38 | 0 43 1} | 0 24 19 | 0 19 |60 23 49 | 23) | 137 47 64) 211 38.51] 9 fp 1 023 25 | 018 foo 31 28 | 239 | 13756 _ 65 2 12 21 5 | 9 A 1s | 0. 22.31| 0 17 | 60 38 52 7 ¥: 138 6 68} 213 3 20 cs 021 37 | 016 | 60 45 58 7 67] 2 13 45 34 | 9 do 14 | 0 20 43| 0 16 60 52 47 | 949 |. } 38 a8 68| 2 14 27 50 | 4 40 17 | 019 50| 0 15 | 60 59 20 633 | 1 38 3) 69 2.15 10 7 | 9 49 If | 018 56) O 4 J OL 5 35 615 | 1 38 38 70} 2 15 52 25 018 0! 013 |61 11 33 | 98 - 210 42 17 |S = | Sill peaks eee 71) 2 16 34 42 | 9 49 9 | 9 17 8| 013 } 61 17 14 oI gevsg 72] 217 17 1} 9 45 1g] 0.16 14 | 0 12 61 22 39 | 225 | 139 0 73 217 59 20 | 5 45 9g | 015 21] OIL | Ol 27 46 5 Fi 10 130° 6 74 : 18 41 40 | 9 45 9 | 0 14.26] 0 11 | 61 32 35 449 | 3 39 12 751219 24 1 aad 51 1013.32 010 [6137 8 | 433 1 39 18 76 2 20 ol adied 01238| 0 9 J6l 412 tole 1 39 24 77| 2:20 48 44 | 0 45 52) o11 44} 0 9 Jol 45 20 | 347 | 1 39.09 78) 2/21 SF 8 1g ag a4 | OO 00 08 Jor 49-1} 32) 1 39 33 79| 2 22 13 30 0 49 2 0 955 ey 61 52 23 3,22 13 PA _ 80} 2 22 55 53 ¢ Ff ney Oo Oe Pd BGI 55: 2 a. ela a 39 il 81] 223 3816 | 5 io on 10 8.7| & © JO 58 16 ale aa. ae 89] 2 24 20 39 | 0 4223) 0 713) 0 5 |o2 047 | 59) | 1 30 48 83, 2'25 34/2 4225/0 oy] 05 |oz.3 0} 773 1 39 51 ga] 2.25 45 29 |° 4225) 0 525) 0 4 for 453 | 153 | 1 39 53 85] 2 26 27 54] 0 4 2 | 0 4 51] 0 3 102 6 30 137. |. 139, 55 3) 227 10 18 | | a oe o3a7f 0 3 |e 751] 17 | 1 a9 57 2 27152 44 ee tr 0 2431 0 2 |e 852/11 1] 4 3958 2'8 35 9 |9 4a 06 |° 149) 2 2 [O22 37 0.45 | 1 39 59 229) 3st | haa ae te 0 1 16210 3 big 1 40 0 3.000 phadiod 000 Pe 62 10 12 0 9 140 0 3. 0 42 25 0 054] 0 1 46210 3 1 40 3! 19g ar] 10/42 26) oy go) b \r 162-997 Se 1 30 59 3' 27:16} © 42.25) o°b 43 | o 2 |62 8 52 045 | 1 39 58 3 2 49 42 ies 0°397 (0 3 [62.7 51} ) oi. 1, 1 39°87 31352 619 45 55 | 043! | 0.3 62 6 30 ae 1 39 55 63 414 3 | 5 aan) O peo pO 4 |e 24 | 1 39 9713 450 56| 9 45 o3| 0 6 29 be tobe g valaes 139 Bt 3 5 39 21 0 4223/9 713 0 5 162 0 47 np 1 39 48 99} 3. 6 21 44 0 422319 8 7 0 6 {61 58 16 are 1 39 45 ee lo aa o\g-4 | 0 7 4615529) 76 |1 39 41 011374630], 4 57/0 955) 0 7 161 52 23) 5 39 37 es tes 54 pLakea 01050| 0 8 {61 49 1 at eae 3 j ee) OT we Oe 61 45 20'|. 3 4 104) 3 9 53 38 plese 0 12 38] 0 ; 61 41 23 | 3 57 ‘hea 105] 3 10.35 59|-0 49 5, [0.13 32| 010 J 61 37 8 \ 15) 1 39 18 13 11 18 20 , 0 14 26! 011 | 61 32 35 33 | 39 19 312) Oat Cag 01521| 011 [ot 27 40 | 449 1 39.6 3 12 4259) 9 45 19 | 016 14| 0 12 | 61 22 39 S7 | 4 3gr he 313 25 18| 9 45 19 |017 8| 013 | 6117 14 525 | 1 38 52 314 7.35] 9 43 17 | 18 0} 013 61 11 33 541 | 1 38 45 FIL 49 53| 9 to yy} 01856 | O14 [OL 535 5 58 | 7-38 98 | 3 15 32 10 | 0 48 17 }.0 19 50| 0 15 | 60 59 20 615 | 1 38 31 316 14 26 | 9 fog 0 20 43| 016 |60 5 247 | ©33 | 1 38 22 | 3 16 56 40 | © 49 14 | 0 21 37] 0 16 60 45 58 | © 49 | 4 38 14 5| 3.17 38 55 | 9 45 15 | 0 22 31 | 0 17 | 60 38 52 7 6 | 138 6 1 318219 5 yo 1z| ¢ 23-25) 0 18 |60 31-28 | 2 4 | -37°56 1319 3.2/9 43 13] 02419 | 0 19 [60 23 49 | 7 32 | 1 37 47 3 19:45.33.10,42 1) | 9 25.12.) 0.19. b60.85.53.}.2.58 | 1-37 37 ig 3204/08 1218 36 '6| O30 foo 7 ao| $13 | 157 a 321 9 55 | 027 0} 021 1595910] ° 9° | 4 37 16 9:55 52 4 2 34 14 16 22 58 29 40 35 22 41 4 46 26 40 50 7 28 53 Nore WHI ONHMNKNLNINNNNNN DWAHDOD TC! He G2 G2 on is} or fo 2} Hee He be C2 C2] Go Go G2 G2 Go] Co G2 Go Go G00 —m—Oowoa more mM On oUN NNN to ee ee ee One G2 Go to SShan8 | ol a DWI AID ae aoe — ee ee Ne oowo 30 30 —_—~— Paras l par eaoeen Ee SS) eS ee LAL AR Aan 3 10 56 SCOoOSDCCoC eC eoOsceS oO SeeSoSes AL GL ALL P PPR PP PRP Dr WHNNW NY NNNHHNNNNNDN 0 43 § 0 44 Nonagesimal Tables. Longitude of Nonagesima. V.for 100/| V. 100” Var.of Lat] V. of Ob- Altitude of Nonagesima. Altitude. ivy A tu a a g {927 9} 021 59 59 10 10 0 27 53 0 22 59 50 24 8 0 28 48 0 23 59 41 22 7 0 29 42 0 23 59032: A 6 | 2 30 35 | 0 24 59 22 30 6 0 31 29 0 25 59 12 39 g 0 32 23 0 26 59 2 32 “10 33 17 0 27 58 52 10 4103411] 0 28 58 41 32 21035 4] 0 28 458 30 38 : 035 58} 029 }58 19 29 4 | 9 36 52 0 30 58. 8 4 + {9 37 46| 031 | 57 562 0 | 0 38 40] 0 32 | 57 44 29 0 | 2 39 33| 033 $57 32 18 5 | 2-40 26 |_ 0 34 | 57 19 53 0 41 20 035 157 7 12 59/0 42 14] 0 36 156 54 17 EL WAG | 90.87) 56-41) 7 2210 44-3] 0 38 [56 27 43 59/0 44 58} 039 $5614 4 5910 45 52| 040 156 011 58/0 46 46| 0 41 [55 46 3 910 47 41| © 42 $55 31 42 9910 48 35| 043 $5517 7 5910 49 30| 044 155 218 1105025! 045 | 54 47 15 9/051 20] 0 46 $54 31 59 1/0 5215| 047 [54 16 29 3/053 10! 048 154 0 46 F 054 5| 049 753 44 50 4 055 0] O51 53°28 Al g {055 56| 052 $53 12 19 6/056 52| 053 |52 55 44 19 | 9.57 48| 954 95238 57 12 | 0.58 44|_ 0 55 | 52 21 57 12|9 59 41| 057 [52 445 15|! 937) 058 51.47 21 ig}! 134) © 59 951 29 44 19|} 231 L20 51 11 56 93 |13.28|_1 2 | 50 53 57 gz {1 425| 1 3 $50 35 46 on} 1 523] 1 4 [50.17 93 7 1 621| 1 6 149 58 50 a 1719! 1 7 14940 5 1 818 L 48 49 21 9 49/7917) 110 | 49 2 2 43}1 1017) 111 | 48 42 46 48/1 1116] 113 148 23 18 52] 1 1: 48 3 40 < 1 47 43 52 ; 47 23 54 47 347 13 46 43 29 20 46 23 2 26 46 2 27 331779 271 25 | 45 41 42 41/1 20 31] 127 445 20 48 47! 1 21 35] 129 944 59 45 56} 1 22 40] 130 | 44 38 34 3/123 45| 132 14417 14 Dif. _ re} OSG 19 AN ANGW ~ ~ =) =) mwnr- ao ie") 58 V. for 100/| Var. 100" | Var. of LatV . of Ob.| eee et w =) ap rs i | -_ ~l Go G2 G2 G2 62! GW Wo G2 G2 bo EER AAAARDH | Noon ee ee et DNnof | co fads? fos Spal jd ©9 69 Goa & OO [STATS TARAS) [ase] G) COU Gd on 2] SS Geet aN rae hn ee | er Ph Ga 62 G2 G2 by | o_— 0 28 git Te ee Tell al ie os ted ad — ileal 3 03020903 (=) _ ~ ell a ae ed Ol el ln eet eee eel ce oe eee ce el Nn n or - eee ordre bch hea: _— a toe — ee t i] Ww o Nonagesimal Tables. Longitude of Nonagesima. 6) wi} Longitude. is § CH Age eb. Mey belie’) 180\ 5 3 34 22 181) 5 4 18 35 182} 5 5 2 56 183] 5 5 47 28 184, 5 6 32 10 185, 5 717.2 1865 8 2 5 187| 5 8 47 20 188} 5 9 32 47 189} 5 10 18 27 190} 5 1l 4 20 191} 5 11 50 26 192) 5 12 36 49 193) 5 13 23 26 194 5 14 10 18 195| 5 14 57 28 196] 5 15 44 55 197] 5 16 32 40 198] 5 17 20 44 199}5 18 9 7 200] 5 18 57 52 201) 5 19 46 58 202! 5 20 36 2 203) 5 21 26 19 204| 5 22 16 35 205] 5 23 7 17 206] 5 23 58 27 207| 5 24 50 2 208) 5 25 42 9 209} 5 26 34 45 210] 5 27 27 52 AU 5 23 21-3 212} 5 29 15 48 213| 6 0 10 40 Nao. VS 7 215} 6 2 2 16 21616 259 3 2171 6 3 56 33 218; 6 4 54 49 21916 5 53 51 220/ 6 6 53 41 9211 6 7 54 22 229216 8 55 54 29316 9 58 22 924, 6 11 1 46 225,612 6 11 226} 6 13 11 37 227,614 18 8 298} 6 15 25 48 229) 6 16 34 38 2301 6 17 44 40 23116 18 56 1 232| 6 20 8 40 233] 6 21 22 41 234| 6 22 38 12 235| 6 23 55 10 2361 6 25 13 42 237| 6 26 33 50 238] 6 27 55 41 23 29 19 17 44 39 Diff. ~~ VV. for 100} -V. 1007 Var of Lat |V. of Ob Altitude. OO 50 6:0.0.0.010.0.0. Sc.cOOoO COO OSC Oe SO Sm Oeo Oo aASso096 Fm eee ee eee eee tt et ie oe COO OO OS ta w > oe oe fe Gon we 4 52 5 15 5 27 5 40 6 6 6 37 6 52 7 10 pe PEER EER RE SS eee amaacgn~ti tm nn poor ann ° / “ 23 45 24 50 25 56 ee ed to <<) — ioe} — et io?) ¢ co rc Oo «pm oe | | 1D = to Ll So} = Se NO ni pmo —=— Oo bn £_ ny COnNwne NONKr Ke wae =O GOAT ies) me ON Ronan| wnwpy eS, Nok >) x G2 Ww Go figs oer io) Qo--— Nnnnv Sel ell elie nwneo Go ie) - =>) > f=) re Joweoclonnna|-~ CON ANS DHNWH ADE KONING SC HOt | i ww nnn NWN INNNONKYNHI NHYNNHW | 44 17 14 43 55 46 43 34 10 43 12 27 42 50 35 42 28 37 ry 42 6 30 41 44 17 41 21 58 40 59 Sl 40 36 58 40 14 19 39 51 34 39 28 43 39 5 46 38 42 45 38 19 37 37 56 26 37 33:«9 37 9 48 36 46 23 36 22 55 35 59 21 35 35 46 ele Viiv 4 34 48 24 34 24 40 34 0 54 Bore it 14 33 13 15 32 49 23 32 25 31 32 1 37 31 37 44 31 13 50 30 49 57 30 26-4 30° 2 14 1 47 Ooon ak SSS — Pe WWIWWHONNDINND ta wo aon eS See ~1 b ano 29 14 38 28 50 53 28 27 11 28 3 33 27 39°59 27 16 29 2653: 5 QWnNnnnr WOWWWwwd — [) Seograawacacd 21 40 36 | 21 19 55 29 38 24° Altitude of Nonagesima. Soy U ui Diff. V. for LOO’) V 100 ° bind, 21 39 21 23 217 20 52 20 36 20 22 a et ete ta pee 120 7 119 52 1 19 38 1 19 24 119 11 1 18 58 1 18 45 Li RBs 1 18 20 118 8 1 17 56 1 17 46 1 17535 1 17°25 1 17 16 AY V7 1 16 58 1 16 50 1 16 43 1 16 36 1 16 30 1 16 25 1 16 20 Var of Lat,|V. Ob.} ~ ~ CRE] BEBea's S | ooocoo G2 Go 3 G2 G2 xm ODI CO | eooce NN WW D.WWO mi Co cooscoroeoces Se eel POP NN NaH DO m= NWO | — eooo°o AMO O ooo oo - >Dec m=O coocc _-— pO KOs | oooocod LO cell coll aol ROO | ooooo ors mp eoooe°o OS Gi —SonNs | ocooo SERS Nonagesimal Tables. # c Longitude of Nonagesima. Altitude of. Nonagesima, ie < .» |V.for 100] V..1007 a Longitude. | Diff. vELioens V of Ov, Altitude, , V. for 100° ‘ ete Y. of Ob. Var.of Lat] V. of O ae Oy 7 ae OFF OO GRE, ity fat ON 7 ot o 240 3 40 meee 1 27 16| 2 4° 23 341 | 21 19 55], 1 ool 7 3 dk 2 | 1 29:12) 2 49.38 | 3 42 | 20 59 32 oy eae onal yo an ag| i al 11] 249 38] 3 41 | 2039 2 ie a a Oa 7 Gazing | 133 10/2 4927] 3.41 [20 19 47) 9 a Bis) 7 1850 ol 1992515 “ao 'ga | | o0ee Pee 0 22 ise fe reas re ee ee Be 1 |e 947| 711 38 17] 1 99 44| 5 38 7 3.37. $19 22 59 23 1 aie) 7 1320 24/1 42 7/3 32 9] 399 [19 453) 17 36 |} ago] 7 18 4 do| 1 44 253 39 93] 3.92 | 18 a7 a7] 7 eo | 250] 7 16 st gol! 4047/3 8 4) 330 1 ie ae Sl 16 90 |} 251| 7 18 40 rag GET 959] 7 20 32 2,| 1 51 39| 2 28 24) 3.24 | 17 57 29 a 4 25a] 7 22 26 27/154 3/229 12| 319 [17 42 0) a |} Beal) a4 on au| 1 56 30| 2 22 28 3.14 172i. 7 |e 1 255| 7 26 21 53) 1 58 56] 5 14 J4 SniSel ales 53 ‘i 256 7 28 23 16| 7" | 3 1d 29 apple [18 208) 257| 8 02657/2 341], 713 254 [16 46 25) 15 ae 8 299 g(2 6 3/2) 22| 240 | 16 34 16 2 2598 441 1g|2 8 18|} 54 57| 237 [10 22 52) 7 pel 8 Gan 4e| 210 26]! 47 57| 227 | 10 12 14 1 26,8 9 4ai|> 2? 27 og PN Gd al 362 B 11 18 29| 2 14 18| 1 32 17/2 6 115 53 20 8 263] 8 13 34 38| 216 9{1 2355) 154 | 15 45 23) 2 a64| 8 15 52 18| 217 40/1 13 58) 141 | 15 3811) F - 965| 8 18 13 93/219 5|4 .4 40) 128 [15 31 52 6 3 ee 8 20 si gy| 2 20 14 54 41] 114 [15 26 30 5 3 267| 8 22 5252/2 21 1515 35 oc] 64° Wie ia 20 5 268} 8 25 14 48| 2 21 56 diets O45, 1 1B 18 39) ieee 269] 8 27 37 17| 2 22 29/0 22 24 O30 [15 16 11 u 39 50 2 22 43 1114] 015 415 ta 42] t 39 58 27019 0 0 0 —_ ae 5 14 12'|) 0 40 0 —— 2 22 43 OS Os 03] FO NOn Tia 2's 0 271; 9 222 7 Polo 4 az t3| 2 22 29 ule 015 $15 14 42] , 39 58 | 1 40 27319 7 7 8} 221 56], 24) 030 [15 1611] 9 39 50 | 1 40 B99 2h a4| 2 2115 43.20 0.45 }15 18 39] 3 39 39 | ~1 40 Pardo 11 48 gh] 2 201410 44 2 1 0 | 15 22 6] 5 39 23] 13 Bot | 219 5 [ook 114 | 15 26 30! © 39 2| 138 a77| 9 16 25 22| 2 17 40] 1 4 4° 128 715 51 52 6 B88) NN BF 278] 9 18 41 31 NO aT Beas 1 4l 15 38 11 7 38 i1 1 36 279] 9 20 55 49) 2 141811 39 19] 9 Ot 118 23 33] 8 aoa yes Beats o| 2 10 26 24) 217 16 227| 91 | 13629) 132 a89| 9 27 07 0/2 818] 1 47 57 227° 416 1214] 15 4g {135 48 | 131 1 oss 9 2) 33 3/2 6 3| 2 54 57) 237 [10 22 52 ne 35 7 | 129 Posdho ioc ag|2 341|2 122] 2.46 $26 34 10] 4, °) [1 3425 | 1 27 Passio 3 33 7] 2 1293/2 ,7 13) 254 [16 46 25/19 53 [133 41) 9 25 Paadicza—| 1 58 56/2 29) 3 1 | 16 59 18) 12 3S | 132 55 |_1 23 Beso 734 33| 1-56-30| 227 14 38 | 17 12753 | 4 4, 3210] 1 21 Poedio ga; eli 54 31 2 21 28 3M 197 2967157 31 24} 1 19 Maohio 11 19 35 |1 51 30] 2 23 12] 319 F742 0/189 30 38 | 117 J 200}10 13. 8 24/1 49 9] 5 3° 24 3 24 | 17 57 29) 16° 29 52 | 1.15 291 i014 55 11 Tl 1 46 47 [Re _ 3.28 18 13 32 16 36 a5 6 13 Boalio 16 26 54 | 1 44 25 2.33 34} 330 ]18 30 8] ,, ° 2822 / 111 ag3{10 18 o a3/1 42 7| 299 93] 3 32 418 47 17 ap A ange 4 i's agalto 20 4 97/139 44| 232 9| 335 | 19 4.53] 12 93 {1 2655) 2 7 295|10 21 39 1) 1 37.34 Ge 1 18 45 | 0 31 5 349] 0 1 40.14.19 |<< ¥ 118 5 0.33 ii 0 } 40 36 58 = 33 |1 1911] 034 | 351) 0 n 40 59 31 | 55 zsh T1924, 035 | 3521 0 Giae'ae 213 41 21 58 on ee 119 38] 036 } 353} 0 21 12 40 spre: 1 31 36 Al 44 17 | 55 3 1119 52 037 | 354| 0 21 57 55] ° 1 30 26 42, 630] 57g |120 7) 038 f 355] 0 22 42 58/5 45 3) 1 29 18 42 28 37 ran 1 20 22} 0 39 | 356| 0 23 27 50 pate 8 1 28 10 42 50.35 | 5, 4, | 120 36 | 04o- 3571 0 24 12 32 yee 127. 2 43 12 27 3H ae 12052} 04h 358} 0 24 57 4/9 At ST] 1 25 56 43.34 10] 513 |1 21 7). 0 42 359} 0 25 41 25] 0 44 21) 1 24 50 43 55 40] 5 O® | 1 2123] 0 43 3601 0 26 25 38] 9 44 13/1 93 45 44.17 14 | 7! 20/101 39) 0 45m Nonagesimal Tables. 195 Note.—If the Latitude be South of Greenwich, or the Obliquity of the Ecliptic be greater than 23° 28’, change the signs in the Table, and apply the variations accordingly. The above Table was calculated by the formula of Dr. Brinkley at the Observatory of Trinity College, Dublin; viz. Let L = the latitude reduced ; O = Ob. eclip.; A= A.R. of MediumCeeli; Then cos. A + cos. L = cos. are I. which is greater than a qua- drant in the second and third quadrants of Med. Cueli. Cot. L+ sin A = are I]. which is always less than a quadrant. Arc IT. + O = arc ITI. where — takes place when Aries is West of the meridian, and + when East. Cos. of alt. nonag. = sin arc I. + sin are IIT. Tang. long. nonag. = cosare Ill. + tang.are I. When arc III. is /ess than a quadrant, the long. nonag. is of the same affection as A; when greater, of the same same affection as are I, _ The long. and ali. of the nonag. was calculated for the lati- tude of Greenwich, and likewise for 100 minutes of lat. N. of Greenwich, and the variations obtained by taking the difference. XLIV. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MasKELYNE’s 36 Stars for every Day in the Year 1821. By the Rev. J. Groosy. [Continued from p. 112.] To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — { BEG leave to apprize those of your readers who may - have occasion to use the following Tables, that for the months of Nov. and Dec. the Right Ascensions are calculated from the Tables of M. Bessel, annexed to the first part of the Astronomical Ob- servations at the Royal Observatory in Konigsberg, and that they give the apparent Right Ascension of the stars at the time of their eulmination, and not at the beginning of the day. It is needless for me to make any observation on the utility of this alteration which the learned Professor has made in the con- struction of his Tables, or on their acknowledged superiority, in point of accuracy, over any other tables of this kind that have yet been published. Had I seen them before I had made the calculations for the former months, I should have used no other, Those days in which any of the stars pass the meridian twice, are distinguished by an asterisk, and the right ascension in such case is that at the first passage. I am, sir, Your obedient servant, Cirencester, Sept. 15, 1821. JAMES GROOBY. Bb2 Nov. ion of Dr. Maskelyne’s 36 Stars. chi Ascens f=) True apparent R 196 "HI “H ‘snag | "Stunt A, -I1Y 56 60 es 90 os £0 —|oP 00-67 | eV 86 oF G6 LE 26 ee 06 of L8 |L G8 x4 G8 13 08 81 sl oI GL a _€L 60 OL LO L9 Fo £9 10.SZ tO 86 so al 8g £6 9G /06 vg L8 (5) og 20g7 ae gv 6L Lv LL SY vL eV aL 1V-8V | 69-F% 54 ig BTC. te EL ‘WH ‘w ‘Wn “sTULS voidg |-11A 9] 99 6L £9 OL 09 cL: 9S 69 eS 99 0S 29 Liv 6¢ tr fos. IV as ge | 67 ce OV Zo = EP 6% «6 9% ge & jee 0% 66 Lt {9% VL \S@ . 111 0G go | 91 Go |\€t c0 OT 00-8 | Lo L6 v0 F6 TOS 16 86 83 c6 98 t6 €8 68 18-ZS | 98.2¢ ‘Ss °S 6€ 11/89 6 “MW *H | *W ‘H ‘stu | ‘snjnd -09T J} -97] aI 6 cl 9¢ rat ae 60 6G Si) 9% GO-19 | €% 66 0% 96 LI rao) et 68 or = 98 90 £8 £0 OL 00-9% OL L6 a oL 06 99 98 £9 ag 09 6L 9S cL oF la =| os 89 LV S9 v7 19 Iv LS ge PS ce 10s ¢ LV 8% eV GG:0S | 6€-S% ‘s “5 81.6 {PE L: ‘W ‘HH “W ‘II ‘aap | xp | ‘u@dd |-104se9} ‘snag AH | ~lod G o% 0G Lt vt a1 60 90 co 00-0-0€ L6 v6 26 68 98 ee 0g jefe vL tL 89 c9 69) 6¢ 6 L ‘WW °'H ~O1, cv LS av GS 6¢ e¢ 9¢ 1S OS a) OV | 6% 9v 9% ty ww (au 61 6° ee ral PE 60 (a3) co 6% B0.G1 | LZ. 66 ind c6 IZ a6 61 88 oT cg VAS 18 1) gL go VL co: IZ rat) L9 00:61 to L6 09 r6 Ls 16 aS 88 6P Sg CP-V1| 28-81 s+ a fe L.) Lo.9 ‘WW’ °H “HC *“H L6 €L G6 gg {SL jog G6 ol 16 eo {PL jos v6 ol 68 og |%L j9¢ Z6 $9 88 8? 1Z 49S 06 3/99 OB 2) OF Oh 8g: 88 v9 Gg “|r j69 |S¢ 98 ZO tg er j89 «|g v8 09 Z8 6€ |99 {FS 18 LS ag L€ \¥9 1€S 6L cS gl__|ve seo eo LL eg 9L 1 {19 je¢ GL 1g cL 6% |09 {1S ol Sv We 93 18S {IS ol OV 1Z €z {LS {og G0 PV. 69 1h S108 99 IP 89 St |€S |6P | $9 6¢ 99 OI {cS |6P Z9 9€ r9 €r {oS Isp 6S ve 6!) OL 1{8Pr |8v LS Te ‘409 Lo jor {LP gS 6% 8S to |v {LP (oo 9% 9S 10-SE| ZF }9P 0g ix PS 66 jor {SP hig 1% (as) 96 |8f {SP Sy} 61 0S £6 |9€: {PP ov 91 SP 68: =1PS, 28h. OV VI OV 9g {cf |aV £, TI ev og {of |v ge go Iv 6L |8% {oP 1€-€£| SoV |6P-0 | SL.FE| 93-FP] 6£-0 ‘s “Ss s a) “Ss ‘Ss GvVGc|SstG jg S/S cer] zs ‘W ‘H i, ARE ‘W‘H/|’W‘H|' WH] ‘Ws cA ‘stuo j ‘ney, |*osryy] “epjod} wereq| =) ¥ |= g ~e) |-apivl_ of £9 06° ¥9 06 c9 06 99 06 | Lo 06 89 16 69 16 ol 16 TZ TG.) Th 16 ol 06 el 06 PL 06 cL 06 | SL 06 OL 06 LL 68 LL 68 gL 68__|_s 68 6L 63: 6L 88 08 88 08 L8 18 | Lg Z8 98 28 Sg €g 8 £8 £8-01 | 79S "Ss ‘s ASP CH aaa} “Ht ‘H ‘MN ‘H "9D | sHILTY “1seSoq “1281 4 197 of Dr. Maskelyne’s 36 Stars. 207 O ht Ascensi ey ag G 9% Lo-E1 *s True appareni 1 69 £2 3 ot 4 “pour ol (6) tL £9 aL b9 cL SO FL-PS | 99-8 6 Go LV Z7)9G Iz] SE OZ Se tH | we *H ‘isvs |jneyyel|enby j-oapuy #|-aq »| -w10T “A TH ‘Wh *H w 8 ‘WH SE.0V| 16-8 | P9.S 68 99 16 L9 £6 =|, 89 S6 69 L6:£9 | oL-6€ % As L 0@| OF 61) ZF 61\ LE 61 | OF Bt} 93 Lt ‘WH wsh9] rade} rude9 2:2 ST ‘WH “2 ‘Wit ‘ap -mby¢! mby 2 ‘Ww “H SESH “ee “Fe saepmby| aakry}] “go 4 1% ao 1E ‘Ss 9 LI cs eae *sjno 2 |-n1ydQ|-19FT , oe oe 60 |1€ |FI 6S 60-62 | 18-63 |FES | 89-1 *s "s “Ss "Ss SI O1/SE STL] SI IP FI ‘MH | ‘HM ‘H/C ‘H| ‘NCH sare} | sgued| “10g ea -uy | -1ag #|309 ¥1_*6 eri OL 6 8 L Bran 61 ¢ lis | OL ¢ a |e Proc) 1 *@ “AON oF PL aa “1Z81 4 XLV. On [ 198 } XLV. On the Appearance of Meteors, Parhelia, and Para- selene, as Prognostics in general of Wind and Rain. By Dr. W. BuRNEY. Gosport Observatory, Sept. J9, 1821. SIR, — Accorpixe to promise I herewith send you a few more observations on Meteors, since the 12th ult. as a continuation of my article on that subject in your last Number, and am Yours truly, To Dr. Tilloch. WILLIAM BurRNEY. August 18, 1821. At 10 minutes before 10 P.M. a coloured meteor passed from the star 5 in Aquila to a in the head of Hercules, a space of 26°: the train was of a light red colour and about 16° long. At 35 minutes past 10, a bright me- teor, without a train, appeared about 12° above the western point of the horizon, and descended obliquely towards the S.W. Copious dews fell in this and the subsequent night. —— 20th. Two small meteors appeared at a quarter before 9 P.M., one on each side of the Northern Crown. —— 2lst. From 9 till 12 P.M. nine small meteors appeared | in various directions in an apparently clear sky, one of which had a train behind it. ’ —— 22d. Between 9 and 10 P.M. three small meteors ap- peared to the westward. —— 23d. About 9 P.M. a large and brilliant meteor with a long coloured train appeared several seconds in descending obliquely from near the zenith towards the N.W.: seven other meteors appeared in various parts of the sky between 9 and 12 o’clock, with no other characteristic than that of being small, lofty, and having a great velocity. —— 24th. From 10 till |. P.M four smali meteors appeared, two under the constellation Hercules, one under Ursa Ma- jor, and one under Georgium Sidus.. The three preceding days were the hottest of all others in this month; and from this time till the 27th inclusive, the sky was filled with va- pours, followed by 24 inches of rain by the end of the month, generally accompanied by strong easterly gales. Sept. Ist. Three small meteors descended between the clouds in a westerly direction, about 11 P.M. On the 3d two winds crossed each other at right angles, and the lower cur- rent from the S.W. terminated in a brisk gale on the 4th. —— 6th. At 6 A.M. two beautifully coloured purhelia were observed here, one on each side of, and both 22° 35’ distant from, the sun, which was then due East. The silvery co- lour behind the red portion of the parhelion to the North of On Meteorological Prognostics of Wind and Rain. 199 of the sun, was so brilliant as scarcely to be viewed with the naked eye, and appeared to be formed in a mixture of cir- rocumulative and cirrostrative clouds; the parhelion to the South of the sun was formed last; and both entirely disap- peared when the clouds passed off. These mock-suns were followed by a faint solar halo, two winds, the lower one from S.E. and the upper one from S.W., and frequent showers jn the day. Vivid lightning and distant thunder prevailed throughout the night. From 12 till 2 o’clock, after a heavy shower of rain, the warm flashes of lightning were awfully grand, particularly those in the northern part of the horizon, where the electric streams frequently shot up from the clouds 3° or 4° in perpendicular and oblique directions. Sept. 9th. Ata quarter past 8 P.M. a coloured meteor with a short train descended almost perpendicularly from behind a large cloud, and appeared to fall in the western point of the horizon. A very stormy night followed, — 10th. At half past 7 A.M. a bright parhelion appeared to the North of, and 22° 40’ radius from, the sun; and at 8 o’clock a perfect rainbow; also ézwo others, and a solar halo, in the course of the day. Between 7 and 8 P.M. two faint paraselence appeared, one on each side of the moon at the exterior edge of a large halo, on the top of which a small inverted are tended to create another paraselene: each of them was 22° 45’ distant from the moon, and situated in cirrostrative vapour. —— Ilth. Between S and 9 P.M. three coloured paraselenee appeared in cirrostrative beds of vapour, one on each side of the moon; the other at the top of a large halo that sur- rounded her, and all of them were nearly of the same radius as those last evening: after these rare pha@nomena had dis- , appeared, the moon was apparently encompassed by a close yellow corona, and a green circle 11° in diameter, followed in the night by heavy showers and a gale from S.W. : this change was previously indicated by thé sinking of the baro- meter in the afternoon. The 12th, 13th, and 14th, were distinguished by wind and rain. —— 18th: At 10 minutes past 8 P.M. a meteor with a spark- ling train appeared between the stars Alamak in Andromeda, and Algol in Medusa’s head; between that time and ten o’clock, nine other meteors were seen without trains, five towards the East, three to the South, and one ina Westerly direction. The heavenly concave and the Milky Way at this time appeared in their most refulgent splendour, thickly studded with stars, and the wind freshening. A gale sprung up 200 Ona new Method of determining the Latitude. up from the N.W, in the night, and prevailed the next day from the same quarter. It is hoped that these observations will be deemed sufficient to establish a received opinion, That meteors are in general pro- gnostics of wind, or wind and rain. XLVI. On Mr.Ripp1e’s Claim to the Invention of a new Me- thod of determining the Latitude. By Mr. Henry ATKIN- SON. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — iF perusing the Number of the Philosophical Magazine for July, my attention was arrested by an article entitled “‘Re- marks on Mr. Riddle’s Claim to the Invention of a new Method of determining the Latitude.” As I happen to be acquainted with some circumstances connected with the insinuation thrown out by the writer, that Mr, Riddle obtained the first idea of the method of calculation under discussion from General B.’s paper, which y asserts was published ‘ before Mr. R. had said any thing about it, and the memoirs which followed were merely a continuation of the same or a somewhat similar method 2’— With respect to the former part of the assertion, I feel myself called upon, in justice to a most worthy and honourable indivi- dual, publicly to declare, that éo my certain knowledge Mr. Rid- dle had practised the method of determining the latitude de- scribed in his paper of October 21, 1818, as well as that given by General B. for determining the time ‘with’ accuracy, . dated « Paris, 23d November 1817,” previous to the period when this latter paper was written: and, from various circumstan¢es, I have every reason to believe that ‘he had practised them for some years before the period to which [ can speak from my own know- ledge. { have now stated the principal cause of my addressing you on this subject ; yet insaddition, will you permit me, sir, to observe, that when Mr. Riddle found that General B. had laid a method of determining the latitude by a sextant or circle before so learned a body of men as the Royal Society of Edinburgh, with- out the slightest hint that it had ever been published before ; that this memoir was one selected for publication in the Trans- actions of the Society, without any notification that it was not new; I do not see how Mr. Riddle, knowing that he had pub- lished the same thing two years before, could well say less than he did: nor would it have been calculated to excite jany great © degree of surprise, had he claimed it, ‘as a discovery,” in much stronger On the Compressibility of Water. 201 stronger language than by simply saying, “ The method of General B. is even more like mine than I was likely to antici- pate.” But if it be true, as y asserts, that General B. received it ** from the continental observers,” his conduct in publishing it as he has done is by no means calculated to do him honour: neither will its appearance in the printed Transactions of the Royal Society of Edi::burgh be very creditable to that body, if the method be no way different from that which y says is de- scribed at length in the writings of three different foreigners. Yours very respectfully, Newcastle, Aug. 11, 1821. Henry ATKINSON. XLVII. On Mr. Perxins’s Conclusions with regard to the Com- pressibility of Water, drawn from the Results of émpty Bot- tles sunk to different Depths in the Ocean. By Mr. Joun Devucuar, M.W.S., Lecturer on Chemistry and on Materia Medica and Pharmacy in Edinburgh. To Dr. Tilloch. Dear Sir, — My attention was some years ago directed to the porous nature of glass, with the hope of ascertaining its extent, and how it might be assisted by pressure: and in May last I col- lected together the result of my observations on the subject, and laid them before the Wernerian Society. In prosecuting this subject I was led to examine every properly authenticated ac- count of bottles filled only with atmospheric air, which, although properly secured at the mouth, after being sunk to a considerable depth in the sea had been brought up full of water. The most recent experimeuts of which I could obtain an account, were those of Mr, Perkins, contained in a paper upon the Compressi- bility of Water, read before the Royal Society of London, and inserted in their Transactions for 1820, Part II. Though I dif- fer from Mr. Perkins in my account of the manner in which the water gets into the bottles; yet I do not mean at present to en- ter upon that part of the subject, as I have discussed it fully in the paper above alluded to, which will be immediately published in the Transactions of the Wernerian Society; I intend to confine myself to a remark or two upon the intention with which these bottles were sunk by Mr. Perkins, with the view of suggesting a more advisable mode of performing the experiment for the pur- pose of proving what he wished. The bottlessunk by Mr. Perkins, besides being well corked, were Vol, 58. No. 281. Sept, 1821, Ce gene- 202 On the Compressibility of Water. generally secured by six layers of cotton or linen cloth, saturated in a composition of tar and wax. ‘The first experiment from which he draws any conclusion in favour of his hypothesis, is the third (see Phil, Mag. vol. Ivii. page 54): the bottle was sunk 300 fathoms; when drawn up, only a part of the neck remained attached. to the line. He concludes that the result was not from external pressure, but from the expansion of the condensed sea water in the bottle; because the cork was compressed into half its length, making folds of about 1-Sth of an inch; and because the coverings, consisting of six layers of cloth and cement, had - been torn up on one side. Now, from these circumstances, he was not entitled to draw the above conclusion ; nor, supposing he had proved the pressure from without to have had no con- cern in producing the effect, was he entitled to ascribe it to the expansion of the water. The great compressibility of air, convinces us that little resistance was to be looked for from it to the external pressure of the water: the whole must have there- fore depended upon the strength of the glass and coverings. Now the failure of either of these might be the destruction of the other by the force with: which the water would enter, similar to the accidents which sometimes occur, when we suddenly cut a piece of bladder tied over the top of an exhausted receiver, the glass of which is rather thinner than usual. Should therefore the com- pactness of the glass and the closeness of the coverings resist the entrance of the water, under so great a pressure from without, we could expect nothing ‘else but that the coverings should be torn, the bottle broken, and the cork probably compressed: or, if we suppose the concave bottom of the bottle to have given way, then the rush of water upwards, into what we might under that pressure, comparatively speaking, call avacuum, would be power- ful, and may be supposed to have compressed the cork. — But, in the second place, let us for a moment allow with Mr. Perkins, that the external pressure did not produce the re- sult ; it by no means follows of necessity that the water had been compressed, and that it had burst the glass by resuming its for- mer volume, when drawn to the surface. The bottles at the time they were sent down were filled with air; when the water there- fore enters, the air must be absorbed, and this absorption can only be maintained by continuing the external pressure: now when we draw up the bottle, the water and air will have a tendency to separate, and, as the space it formerly occupied is filled with water, the elastic force with which it must act will be very great; and this accounts for the bottles only coming up whole when a space was left at the top by the water, to receive the compressed air. In confirmation so far of this, Mr. Perkins remarks, that when Proportions of the Constituents of Water, &c. 208 when the water was poured out it effervesced like mineral wa- ter. Thus it would appear that the mode adopted by Mr. Perkins in these experiments, was rather inadequate to the purpose he had in view. I would therefore, in conclusion, suggest, that in any future trials he may be disposed to make, he should previ- ously fill the bottles to the bottom of the corks with water, that the whole of the air may be removed: and, to render the result still more conclusive, the bottles ought to be inclosed in a cage of iron or copper. After these precautions, should he find that the bottles were broken when brought up, he might then justly conclude, that the re-expansion of the compressed water had been the cause, since the counter-resistance of the water within, must have presented the effect of pressure from without so con- siderably as to prevent the breaking of the bottles from that di- rection: the only way, therefore, in which they could be broken, would be by the external column of water compressing the con- fined portion, and foreing an additional quantity into the inte- _vior: and by this again resuming its former volume when the acting pressure is diminished. I remain, dear sir, Yours respectfully, Joun DEUCHAR. DS ee XLVIII.— New Determination of the Proportions of the Con- stituents of Water; and the Density of certain Elastic Fluids, By MM. Berzexius and Dutone*. As modern chemists in their analyses claim a degree ef accuracy embracing the thousandth part of the elements employed, it is evident that the fundamental data from which they make their deductions should be free from that degree of error which they profess themselves able to avoid in their experiments. Of these data, that of the constitution of water is one of the most impor- tant, and the most frequently employed. ‘The proportions ge- nerally adopted of Jate years have appeared to be beyond suspi- cion of error, both by the means employed to obtain them, and the ability of the observers who have conducted them. But we have had some reason to believe that this number was liable to be affected by some slight error ; and as the subject was of con- siderable importance, we resolved to conduct, in concert, the ex- periments necessary to ascertain this point. M. Berthollet, whose liberality has so often been useful to science, gave us * From the Annales de Chimic et de Physique. Cc every 204 New Determination of the Proportions every possible facility in our design, by putting at our disposal the laboratory of Arcueil. She apparatus employed in the first experiments on the com~- posidion of water, did not allow of that precision which is now required in chemical analysis. But the fact being once esta~ blished, that water is the result of the combination of oxygen and hydrogen, the knowledge of the precise proportions required only two facts to be determined; namely, the relative volumes of the two elements, and their specific gravities. The latter, being in- dispensable in a variety of researches, were already known ; and for the former, Volta’s eudiometer was sufficient. The greatest confidence was justly reposed on this method, after Messrs. Gay- Lussac and Humboldt had shown, in their masterly Memoir on Eudiometry, the true proportions, in volume, of the constituents of water; and after Messrs. Biot and Arrago had applied the most minute attention to the determination of the specific gra- vity of the greater number of the gases. If the proportion of hydrogen deduced from these results, namely, 13.27 per cent., was erroneous, the error was in esti- mating the specific gravity of either the hydrogen or the oxygen, or both; for the computation of respective volumes has this re- markable advantage, that, being dependent on a general law, it is incapable of error. Before we entered on new observations on the densities of oxygen aud hydrogen, we wished to obtain, bya simple method, the confirmation of our doubts. The decompo- sition of an oxide by hydrogen appeared to us the most accurate and convenient way ; and we adopted the following precautions to render the experiment conclusive : We first procured perfectly pure hydrogen gas. Distilled zine is not preferable for this object to common zine, fer they both contain the same impurities, namely, lead, tin, copper, iron, cad- mium, and sulphur; but on passing the hydrogen through a tube containing fragments of caustic potash slightly moistened, the gas loses its odour completely, and comes out perfectly pure. Hydrogen gas, obtained by the action of diluted sulphuric acid on zine, was purified by sending the current through moistened fragments of caustic potash. It was then dried by being trans- mitted through muriate of lime; after which it was placed in contact with oxide of copper dried and inclosed in a tube, which was united to the apparatus by two tubes of elastic gum, which allowed us to weigh it accurately both before and after the ex- periment. When the hydrogen had passed in sufficient quantity to expel the atmospheric air, the oxide of copper was heated by a spirit lamp. In the first experiments, the greater part of the newly generated water was reccived in a liquid state in a small reci- of the Constituents of Water, &c. 205 recipient attached to the above-mentioned tube, in order to allow us to examine its purity: in the subsequent ones, the aqueous vapour and the excess of the hydrogen passed through a long column of fused muriate of lime. It is easy to see of how much precision this mode of performing the experiment is capable. Hence the results obtained in the several trials differ but little from each other; and as we were not able to detect any impu- rity inthe water produced, we may consider the following num- bers expressing as exactly as possible the composition of this fluid. From the mean of three experiments it appears that 100 parts by weight of oxygen unite with 12.488 of hydrogen te produce water; which is equivalent to 88.9 percent. of oxygen, with 11.1 of hydrogen: Whereas the number formerly assumed as the pro- portion of hydrogen to 100 of oxygen, is 13.27 instead of 12.488, which makes a difference of nearly a twelfth part. We can there- fore no longer doubt the reality of the error which we had sus- pected ; but it became necessary to examine the cause of it, by taking anew the densities of oxygen and hydrogen, which we performed in the usual methods, adopting, however, the follow- ing precautions, which appear to us of so much importance as to deserve a particular notice. _ It has been proved by Mr. Dalton, that no gas insoluble in wa- ter can remain confined in contact with this liquid, even for a short time, without absorbing a certain quantity of the gaseous mixture which water always holds in solution. When the density of the confined gas does not materially differ from that of atmo- spheric air, the addition of the gas which is absorbed from the water produces no material error; but where the confined gas is hydrogen, in particular, it is obvious that an alloy of no more than a hundredth part will produce a prodigious error in the estimated specific gravity. Itis very probable that to this cause (which was not known to Messrs. Biot and Arrago) we must attribute the error that affects the number whiclr they have given for the density of hydrogen. We have avoided it by covering the surface of the water that confines it with a stratum of fixed oil, which, as it is well known, makes the passage of the gas from the water much more difficult. We have operated and given the results of our experiments both on dried gas, and on gas satu- rated with moisture. One may employ either of them indiffer- ently, particularly when the external temperature is not very high. However, it has appeared to us that the observations made on the gases artificially dried accorded better with each other. Not that there is any uncertainty in the data, on which are founded the corrections that must be made for aqueous va- pour: 206 New Determination of the Proportions pour; but that, in passing the humid gases from the jar to the balloon glass, it is difficult entirely to avoid the condensation of a minute portion of aqueous vapour, when the sudden expan- sion of the transferred gas causes a reduction in its tempera- ture. M. Biot, to avoid Jong calculations and corrections, often uu- certain, has proposed to weigh the exhausted balloon both before and after the weighing of the gas, and to take the mean of these two determinations as the true weight of the balloon at the mo- ment in which it is weighed full of the elastic fluid. For this pro- ceeding to be accurate, the atmospheric changes must go on uni- formly, and the first and third weighings should be made at a distance of time nearly equal to the intermediate weighing. For. short intervals, this method is not exposed to the risk of any im- portant error; but when elastic fluids obtained by long and diffi- cult processes are operated upon, a considerable time may elapse between the first and the second weighing, and during the dou- ble of this interval, the uniformity of the variations may no longer have taken place. We therefore preferred taking the weight of the exhausted balloon immediately after each weighing of it when full of the required gas. A few minutes are sufficient to make the vacuum, and during this short interval, it is very rare _ that any change in the circumstances of the atmosphere can occur. The following observations relate to oxygen, hydrogen, azote, and carbonic acid: The oxygen was extracted from chlorate of potash, and was passed through a strong solution of caustic pot- ash, to extract any portion of carbonic acid with which it might be contaminated. ‘The method of obtaining hydrogen has been already described. The carbonic acid disengaged from white marble by means of nitric acid, was made to traverse a long co- lumn of powdered crystals of subcarbonate cf soda before it reached the vessel-that was to receive it. Lastly, the azote was obtained by decomposing ammonia by chlorine, and passing the gas through an acid and an alkaline solution alternately. The following are the results of the specific gravities of the gases according to our experiments, the gases being perfectly dry, and atmospheric air being = 1,000. CN EEA andthe cwdidlnimes mca tad dy tisia Wel One Ar BPD: peers sbi wasters 65919 «akon s EN CRAIG BING. riety tyarsesis fied Rh Cale Loe PERT Rabati avelvics wie a Sfeieivic a x.e eaten The gravities of the same gases, as determined by Messrs. Biot and Arrago, are as follows: Oxygen ’ of the Constituents of Water, &e. 207 OXYZen ceceeeeeseseceseseers 1.10359 Hydrogen ...seeeeeeseeeeeeess 0.07321 Carbonic acid ..esseeeeseeeees L019 Azote .cutslicssiededeseseses = 0.969 If we take the aboye proportions in weight of the elements of _ water, and take the density of oxygen as obtained by our experi- ments at 1.1626, the specific gravity of the hydrogen will turn out to be 0.0688, but by direct experiment it gave us 0.0687. It appears, then, that the greatest difference between our results and those of Messrs. Biot and Arrago relates to the density of hy- drogen ; which confirms what we have said above on the cause of this difference. The increase in the number which we have given for carbonic acid, though small, is sufficient, however, to jnfluence in a sensible manner the number expressing the den- sity of the vapour of carbon on account of its levity; and it ap- pears to us to accord better with the results of the analysis of ve- getable substances. Lastly, the density of azote, calculated from our observations, approaches more nearly to that which is de- duced from the composition of the nitrates. For the convenience of those who engage in analytical re- searches, we have colleeted in the following table the densities and proportions by weight of several compounds calculated from the bases above given. These numbers should be preferred to those that are obtained by direct analysis, which hardly ever bear the same degree of approximation that may be obtained by in- ference from the above-mentioned data.—Before we conclude, we may observe that our new results differ but little from those which are given in an anonymous memoir, inserted in the Annals of Philosophy for November 1815 and February 1816; but the English author has added no observations, and the hypo- theses which have served him to correct the established numbers being absolutely gratuitous or false, no confidence can be placed in his results, Table ts of Water, €3'c. uuer of the Consti zons O Proport 208 BSE TZ GZe'S1°°* *4pAHy GPP FE 968°sI°** “pA cOZ IS cF9'G “°° “apd 199°'eS** ** o10zy OIS'eF*** ‘wary SIL'%8°** * aI0zy IPG FS °° JAIVAL SST'9z'* * * 01g osg'og **** ong ZU Le" ** ong [EGFR '*** ong $06'E9 °* ** aI0zy ag eee “IpAy GSe'Gy **** ong €96°S8 *** OIG ZE'SP *** ong c9LZ°°* “*qIRD Paboha ded rlishesheatt abel Sksln *BAXO elesg*t*s** uoquesd *BAXQ) Looe ee uoqiey) "ZV COPR "12°23 * ONG 16S°S8 GREG ttt tt uoqueg FS6°P91 O619G** ** plow “queg 666'°2SI Leoli'*'**** 4spAH pgg"Ss 6S0'°GL°**** ple Ag Z10°Z06 arg se" *"* °° ** ong 980°LL9 Opera 7 82 monaicy SIS'88z Geezo ss ** ‘2 ong 980° LLP G00:96 “" " °* omg 6S F6 Le0'98°*** °°" ong 81S°SEl 688 °° °*** UadAXO PEZ'9G G19 PZ ttt ong 90L°0 ceO'rt’*** °°? “spAy £26'88 ggrgg* ste st ong 81Z'SS8 cezl °** uaakxQ = SIZ SEI 813°8¢ 81°88 | ‘syaud QQ] 105 yySiom ur cuoyrodorg VES'9 ‘OOT O01 = *SAx_Q ‘uI038 ays JO IG519M Ss RiGee ere ++ +8 souga Jo anode, HOON he tteeeteees+eess poyoore yo mode, w~ SPGQ. es et ee we ploe aun -oipApy SSIb be eae Vem eee CRB eee TSTOEAG ——— ese eeees es BIOLUWUB JO ayBUOgIea-qng GLEE OE te Sa SNe CS 29 #0 2s 2 OT ee ey ah ee nce ae ploe o1jru peyei1juaUu0y sie ka eta eene ise o2 hing Silat Aner GIST Se ae eke he eee TOW: GRONSENT —_—_ Fe seeerseeseseeseeseee pioe o1sqiusadApy TiO) ST oe Sh see Sen eel het 5P) ae-aei eis sed snoiiny SIGE ESA Een hee eet <8 alamo ODIKt) O70 ae es ees ae ee Jayem jo inode, O6SS9'0 = soysieuu Woy sea uaszo.ipdy peveoinqiedy POSE = Ee 2." 8 ee ee sed jurys]Q) LELGIO’:—* Ste +9 Sees Bees Ss MRIS Jor ItG) PEE Te Ee S88 ete ea Saas eee plore o1moqirg PIZGE'O° SST ttt t esses" dogma go anode, OLA .OrS ahs 88? See ee es S890 2 SS Le en es ai Le OEM Mee Ae Be ro we ga *[ = ae uny “avi ogtoadg “GORGREARE ot J SNIeN *sarpog snotuna fo uoiisoduog pu Ansuag ays fo 2790, [ 209 j XLIX. Notices respecting New Books. Force Navale de la Grande Bretagne. 2 Vols. 4to. with large Plates, forming the Second Part of Mr. Dupin’s Voyages dans la Grande Bretagne. Mz. Dupin, a distinguished member of the Royal Institute of France, and one of the most eminent engineers formed by the Polytechnic School, has conceived the project of examining all our public works and institutions, and of giving to the public what he finds in them worthy of general attention. His object is to present a complete picture of every thing connected with or conducive to the public force, opulence and glory of Great Britain. To methodise this immense plan, he has divided his subject into four principal parts, military, naval, commercial, and of in- dustry. In the course of last year, he gave to the world the mi- litary part, and he has now published the naval one. The author has consequently finished all that relates to the arts of war; the destruction part of his work is complete, and what remains to be done relates to the far more valuable part of production. If Mr. Dupin shows himself equally accurate, judicious and philoso- phical, in treating of the last, as he has been in treating of the former, he will raise a monument worthy of our national great- ness ; and acquire for himself a claim to the gratitude and re- membrance both of his own country and of ours. In a former number of our Magazine, we gave an account of the volume on military force ; we shall now proceed with giving the account of that on the naval. The judgement which we have given of the first part has been adopted and confirmed ky most of the critics who have since re- viewed it; and we dare say they will equally join us, in paying to the author a still greater and not less merited tribute of esteem for the two subsequent volumes. In these, not only the institu- tions upon which the English navy is founded, but all the esta- blishments and public works relating to it, are described and judged notonly with an acute, penetrating, and skilfuleye, but with an unprejudiced, candid and philosophical mind. The first volume of the naval part (the third of the collection) presents the Constitution of the navy. Under this title the author treats at first of the royal and legislative authorities considered as far as regards their influence and authority upon the navy. Af- terwards he considers the nature and extent of the authority of the Admiralty, and of the military officers from the admirals down tothe petty officers; he describes the composition and organiza- tion of the crews of ships of war and of the royal marines. Then Vol. 58. No, 281, Sept. 1821. Dd follows 210 Notices respecting New Books. follows the civil part of the naval administration as divided into the departments of the pay-master of the navy, navy board, and _ Surveyors of the navy. ' Mr. Dupin examines at great length the office of transports as it was in time of war, and the’ victualling office. He describes with peculiar minuteness the humane provisions which have been made to secure the health of the troops when embarked and very often crowded in great numbers; and shows from some striking facts the happy result which has been produced by the im- provements thus introduced. Mr. Dupin is still more particular about all the means of im- proving the food of seamen. He details at length the allowances in food and drink; and expatiates on the care which is taken to procure for our gallant tars the best bread, beer, spirits, meat and fish, as well as the excellent rules for distributing equally and impartially the allowance of a ship’s company. Mr. Dupin also speaks in warm terms of the peculiar attentions taken to prevent disease, and gives several remarkable instances of the consequent diminution in the number both of sick and dead on board the ships of the English navy. The author confesses that in addition to his own observations, he has drawn a good deal from the learned productions of Sir Gilbert Blane, formerly one of the principal medical officers in the British navy. Mr. Dupin has consecrated a chapter of his first volume to the treatment of prisoners of war. He mentions only what he saw of the hulks in which these prisoners were confined, what our illustrious and humane Howard declared to have seen when he visited these places of seclusion, and what is officially avowed in the reports of naval revision. We meet in Mr. Dupin with no such disgusting and injurious declamations as those of General Pillet and other libellous writers. However, we must confess that his picture is sad enough to make us desirous to see in future wars, the unhappy prisoner treated in a manner more worthy of the justly boasted British humanity. Having finished all that concerns the general or as he calls it central administration of the civil affairs of the navy, the author describes the civil administration of the sea ports and dock yards. Here, as well as in most parts of our institutions, the author finds a great superiority on our side compared with the institutions of his own country. So candid a confession from such a judge as Mr. Dupin gives us the best proof that. our splendid naval vic- tories are equally due to the unparalleled bravery of our officers and sailors, and to the excellence of the institutions by which such successes are prepared and facilitated. After explaining the general regulations on which the consti- tution of our navy is founded, the author considers the state ‘a the Dupin’s Force Navale. 21h the navy itself either in time of peaceor war. He shows the pro- gress of our naval force since our glorious Revolution to the pre- sent day ; he finds the number of large ships four times greater 5 the number of seamen employed on them 3} times greater; and he declares that, comparing this with the services rendered by: the navy at the two epochs of 16388 and 1508, we must be asto- nished how it is that with so little an increase in number, both of ships and men, we could produce results of so different an im- portance and magnitude. We have read with peculiar attention the chapter in which Mr. Dupin considers the number of dead and sick in our navy in time of war. He shows from the data furnished by Dr. Blane, the happy change which has taken place since the last thirty years in the healthiness of our men of war, in consequence of the better victualling, the greater care given to cleanliness, ven- tilation, and comforts. The last chapter enumerates all the funds of relief established by British generosity and gratitude in favour of the superannuated officers, sailors and marines, when they are no longer wanted for the public service, or when their infirmities render them unfit to fight the battles of their country: such is the establishment. of Greenwich Hospital. The second volume of the Force Navale contains all that relates to studies and works. It is the professional and not the least valuable part of the book. Under the title of what Mr. Dupin calls force morale, he con- siders at first the popularity of the British navy; and as.an ex- ample of the veneration shown by the nation for their illustrious dead, presents us with a very animated description of the ho- nours paid to the remains of Nelson after the victory of Tra- falgar. The discipline of our navy, Mr. Dupin declares to be supe- rior to that of any other state in Europe, and shows in what par- ticulars it is essentially remarkable and excellent. The navy is, of all the military arts, that which is most indebted to science. Mr.Dupin as a geometer and an academicien could hot fail to notice how science has contributed to the progress made in navigation and naval architecture. He gives the his- tory of the remunerations given by the British government to the discoverers of the best means of finding the longitude at sea; he mentions also the well merited recompenses bestowed on Sir Robt.Seppings and Mr. Brunel, the latter for his block machinery, the former for his improvements in the structure of our men of war. ‘The author next examines what the English government has done for giving the necessary instruction to the shipwrights and Dd 2 seamen, 212 Notices respecting New Books. seamen. His accounts of the school for naval architecture, of the Royal College at Portsmouth, and of the Naval Asylum at Green- wich, are particularly interesting. Six chapters are consecrated to the exercises, naval tactics and battles. We cannot here give a sufficient idea of so important a subject, and must content ourselves with recommending the work itself to the attention of all officers, particularly a remarkable chap- ter in which Mr. Dupin explains how it happened in the last was, that the Americans obtained successes so unexpected and so un- natural as they did at first. In treating of these subjects Mr. Dupin holds out the exploits of our naval heroes, Nelson, St. Vincent, Exmouth, Sidney Smith, &c. as examples to all the maritime powers, and never suffers himself to be biassed by any undue par- tiality to shade the splendour which belongs to our naval history. A large part of the book is consecrated to naval gunnery, which presents to the author many recent and valuable improvements. General Blomefield’s and General Congreve’s short guns, Ge- neral Congreve’s mounting of naval ordnance, Col. Howard Douglas’s double flinted lock, Col. Millar’s new chambers for car- ronades ; are the most preeminent improvements or inventions which he describes at length. He gives also a great many ballistic experiments ; he sets particular value on those carried on at Woolwich with the ballistic pendulum, under the direction of Dr. Gregory, professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy. Having treated at length of the naval ordnance, he then exa- mines our men of war furnished with all their guns, and means either of attack or defence. He compares the strength of our wooden walls with that of the foreign men of war, and almost in every particular relating to military power, acknowledges the de- cided superiority of our navy. In treating upon this plan the offensive and defensive strength of our navy, compared with that of the various maritime nations, Mr. Dupin shows himself an able engineer, deep in theoretical knowledge, and possessed of a remarkable power of observation, joined with an uncommon degree of rectitude of mind. Next to the actual strength of ships the most important object is to give them duration. We have of late greatly improved in this respect. Mr. Dupin bestows on the book recently pub- lished on this subject by Mr. Knowles, its due portion of com- mendation. To finish his work, Mr. Dupin has devoted twelve chapters to the description of all our dock yards and their dependencies. These magnificent establishments, where have been built, fitted aud repaired, the fleets which conquered all the seas of the world, required a vo less extensive description, Among the a which Dupin’s Force Navale. 213 which here receive the author’s special and favourable notice, are the new smithery erected under the inspection and upon the plans of Mr. Hall ; Mr. Hookey’s means of binding timber ; the saw-mills erected by Mr. Brunel; the extensive and beautiful hy- draulic works carried on at Sheerness by Mr. Thomas under the direction and according to the plans of Mr. Rennie, &c. At Portsmouth as well as Chatham Mr. Dupin describes the buildings, docks and machinery, for which we are indebted to Gen. Bentham, formerly superintendent of our naval works. Mr. Dupin gives also very accurate descriptions of the great naval hospitals, of Haslar at Portsmouth and of Plymouth: with respect to the latter, he acknowledges himself indebted for many valuable informations about the treatment of sick seamen to Dr. *Hammick, one of the principal medical officers of our navy. At Plymouth the most interesting work described by our au- thor is the break-water conducted by Mr. Widby under the in- spection and upon the plans of Mr. Rennie. This description, already published in French, translated into English, and received with a merited favour by the public, will be found considerably improved in this volume, to the end of which we are at last arrived. The naval part is accompanied by a dozen large drawings beau- tifully engraved, and representing with the greatest nicety the architectural or naval works and machines described in the.two volumes. Such is the great variety of interesting information collected by Mr. Dupin, that we have only been able in this account to indicate the principal heads of the most interesting objects com- prised in his descriptions. No doubt persons well conversant with the subject will find some inaccuracies or mistakes in various parts of the two vo- lumes which we have reviewed ; but we can say with the learned critic of Mr. Dupin’s military part in the Quarterly Review*, far from being astonished by such mistakes, or inadvertencies, we must only wonder how they are so few in number. We suspect that but few officers either of our army or navy have acquired so ex- tensive, deep and accurate knowledge of our military institutions, studies and works, as this intelligent foreigner exhibits. An Introduction to the Knowledge of Funguses. With En- gravings. 8vo. pp. 20. It was observed by Linnzus in his Philosophia Botanica, about 70 years ago, that the order of Fungi, to the disgrace of science, was then a chaos, botanists being ignorant what might be a * See the last Number. species, 214 Notices respecting New Books. species, what a variety. The reproach is still in a great degree applicable, though certainly considerable attention has of late years been bestowed on this department of botany. The pur- pose of the present neat and unassuming tract is generally to bring into notice the whole tribe of Funguses, the more minute as well as the larger kinds, and particularly to recommend to botanists, and such as are fond of drawing flowers, to take accu- rate figures accompanied with descriptions of such of them as they may happen to meet with, ‘* What renders it peculiarly desirable,” says the author, ‘ for all those who are capable of taking good figures, to pay attention to this tribe, is the difficulty, indeed it may be said of some of the species the impossibility, of preserving them like other plants; and also of conveying them to a distance in a fresh state, to be figured. Some sorts, the- Lycoperdons, the hard Poletuses, and some Spherias, may easily be preserved in a dry state for many years, without materially altering their shape. Others, the Mucors, are so tender, that great care must be taken not to shake them, in removing them from their places of growth. There are some of an intermediate substance, which may be preserved in Herbariums in a dried state, and be of great service to botanists; several species of Agaric may be thus kept. It is those sorts which when gathered can- not be sent to a distance without losing their shape or colour, which require immediate attention: it may be observed in such cases, that, ‘ delay is dangerous,’ and that * there is no to-mor- row ;’ for a few hours, or less, will make so great a difference in their appearance, as to render it impossible for them to be pro- perly figured by any one.” The genera which the author has adopted, are four more in number than what Linneus arranged all the species of Fungi under, contained in his works; yet he expresses himself aware - that it “ will most probably not be thought sufficient to compre- hend all the known species.” Incomplete as the selection of genera may be, however, he trusts that ‘ it will serve the purpose of affording sufficient information to those who may attentively examine it, to be at no great difficulty in most cases in deter- mining what genus any Funguses they find are placed under in other publications.” Having been favoured by the author with the use of his plates for the illustration of this notice, we subjoin a list of the different genera, with their more prominent distinctive characters, re- ferring our readers to the work itself, for a more detailed expla- nation, “Genus 1. Agaricus. Fig. 1. Plate III. , “ Fungus horizontal with gills or lamella on the underside. Linn. “9 Introduction to the Knowledge of Funguses. 215 “2; . Boletus. Fig. '2. “ Fungus horizontal, with pores on the underside. «<3. Hydnum. Fig. 3. *¢ Fungus horizontal with spines on the underside. Linn. “4, Clathrus. Fig. 4. “ Volva or wrapper coriaceous, body of the Fungus hollow, cellular, pierced; seeds immersed in a glutinous substance. Phil. Mag. ‘“* The generic character of this genus,” observes the author, *¢ is totally different from that of Linnzeus: it has been altered, in order to include the Stinking Morell, and the Red-headed Morell, both which, in several respects, much resemble the Clathrus cancellatus (a foreign species), although in outward forms, when at maturity, they appear very different. The specific characters of the three species are as follow (first published in Phil. Mag.) : “ Cl. cancellatus, which may be called Latticed Clathrus. Corpore globoso fenestrato. ** Cl, pileatus. Stinking Morell. Corpore cylindrico, pileo favoso. ** Cl. capitulatus. Red-headed Morell. Corpore cylindrico, capitulo corrugato. “5. Helvella. Fig. 5. “ Pileus on a stem, smooth on both sides, seeds thrown out from the under surface.—Withering. “6. Peziza. Fig. 6. *€ Plant concave, seeds on the upper surface only, discharged by jerks.—//ithering. “7. Nidularia. Fig. 7. *¢ Fungus leather-like, bell-shaped sitting, capsules large, flat, fixed by pedicles at the bottom of the bell.—Wthering. “°§. Clavaria. Fig. 8. “Uniform, upright, club-shaped, seeds emitted from every part of its surface.—Withering. “9. Auricularia. Fig. 9. “* Flat, membranaceous, fixed by its whole underside, but be- coming detached and turning up with age, seeds discharged slowly from what was the upper, but is now, in its state of maturity, the under surface.—Withering. “10. Spheria. Fig. 10. ** Fructifications mostly spherical, opening atthe top; whilst young filled with jelly, when old with a blackish powder.—Wi- thering. i 216 Notices respecting New Books. “1. Trichia. Fig. 11. “In clusters mostly fixed to a membranacous base, capsules globular or oblong, seeds escaping from its whole surface through epenings made by the separation of the fibres.—Withering. “12, Reticularia. Fig. 12. * Roundish or oblong, soft and gelatinous when young, when older firm, friable, tearing open indiscriminately, and discovering seeds entangled in capillary fibres, reticulated membranes or leather-like cases. —Withering. “13. Lycoperdon. Fig. 13. *¢ Roundish, fleshy, firm, becoming powdery and opening at the top, seeds fixed to filaments connected with the inner coat of the plant.—Withering. ; “14, Mucor. Fig. 14. ‘¢ Fugacious, head like a dew-drop, at first transparent, after- wards opaque; stem either simple or branched.” The author observes in conclusion with great modesty, that the work, which does his zeal for the cultivation of botany much cre- dit, ‘* is not put forth as even an attempt at a complete System of Fungi (so far as relates to the Genera,) but that the object of it is particularly to recommend to young people and others, whether botanists or not, who are fond of, and in the practice of, drawing flowers, to take accurate figures, accompanied with descriptions, of such Funguses as they may meet with; and, ge- nerally, to bring into notice a tribe of vegetables, which, not- withstanding the advanced state of knowledge at the present pe- riod, may be called Botanical Outcasts.” A familiar Treatise on Disorders of the Stomach and Bowels, bilious and nervous Affections, with an Attempt to correct the most prevalent Errorsin Diet, Exercise, &c. being an Exposition of the most approved Means for the Improvement and Preser- vation of Health; also a Refutation of the Arguments urged by Sir Richard Phillips against the use of Animal Food ; contain- ing likewise the Author’s Opinion of the most probable conse- quences of many prevailing Habits in Society, with practical Hints for their Prevention. By George Shipman, Member of the Royal College of Surgeons in London. Preparing for Publication. Dr. J. Reade is preparing for publication, A Treatise on Vision, founded on new and interesting experiments. We Medico-chirurgical Society of Edinburgh. 217 We understatid that Mr. Parkes is preparing for immediate publication, An Answer to the Accusations contained in a Letter addressed to him by Mr. Richard Phillips, and published in the ‘Twenty-second Number of the Journal of Science, Literature, and the Arts. L. Proceedings of Learned Societies. MEDICO-CHIRURGICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. I, is with pleasure that we announce the formation of a Medico- Chirurgical Society in Edinburgh. The Society is formed upon the model of the Medico-Chirurgical Society of London, and has im view precisely similar objects. Most of the Medical Professors in the University, and many of the most respectable practitioners in the City, have co-operated in its formation. Dr. Duncan sen. has been elected its first President ; its Sittings commence in the approaching Winter Session. . In addition to ordinary and honorary members, provision is made for the admission of corresponding members; and it is hoped that many, in almost every part of the world, and such especially as retain a grateful recollection of the advantages they derived from their alma mater, will not be backward in supplying interesting communications, Communications may be transmitted to the President of the Society, or to either of the Secretaries according to the following addresses : Dr. W. P. Alison, 44, Heriot Row, Edinburgh ; Dr. Robert Hamilton, 3, Northumberland-street, Edinburgh. LI. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. STATUE TO THE MEMORY OF THE LATE SIR JOSEPH BANKS, Ar a Meeting, under the Patronage of His Majesty, for the purpose of paying a tribute of respect to the Memory of the late Sir Joseph Banks, held (with the permission of the Council) at the House of the Linnean Society, late the Residence of Sir Joseph Banks, in Soho-square, on the 12th of July 1821, Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. in the Chair, Iv WAS RESOLVED,—That a Subscription be entered into for a whole-length Marble Statue of the late Sir Joseph Banks, to be executed by Mr. Chantrey, and to be placed in the Hall of the British Museum. That an application be immediately made to the Trustees of Vol. 58, No, 281. Sept. 1821. Ee the 218 Statue to the Memory of the late Sir Joseph Banks. the British Museum for permission to place the statue where proposed. That the following be a Committee for carrying the above Re- solutions into execution : The Earl of Egremont. The Earl Spencer, President of the Royal Institution. The Earl of Aberdeen, President of the Antiquarian Society. The Earl Whitworth. Sir Everard Home, Bart. , Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. President of the Royal Society. William Hyde Wollaston, M.D. William George Maton, M.D. Sir James Edward Smith, President of the Linnean Society. Thomas Andrew Knight, Esq. President of the Horticultural Society. Joseph Sabine, Esq. fi That the Subscriptions be paid into the Banking House of Messrs. Drummonds, at Charing Cross. - . That the above Resolutions, together with a List of the Sub- scribers, be published in the London Newspapers, as soon as the reply of the ‘Trustees of the British Museum has been received. That, in the mean time, Copies of these Resolutions, and a List of the Subscribers, up to the close of this day, be printed, and transmitted to the present Subscribers, and to such other persons as are likely to become Subscribers to the Monument. That Joseph Sabine, Esq. be requested to direct the execution of this last Resolution, and to receive Letters and Notices of Sub- scriptions, to be addressed to him at the House of the Linnean Society. That Sir Everard Home be empowered to draw on Messrs. Drummonds for the incidental expenses incurred in carrying these Resolutions into effect. That the thanks of this Meeting be given to Sir Everard Home, to Mr. Sabine, and to Dr. Maton, for the trouble they had taken in preparing the business of this day, The following Reply to the Application made to the Trustees of the British Museum, in compliance with the Resolution of the Subscribers, has been received. British Museum, July 14, 1821. Sir,—I have the honour to acquaint you, that the Minute which accompanied your Letter of yesterday, respecting the wish of the Subscribers to Sir Joseph Banks’s Statue, to have it placed in the Hall of the British Museum, has been this day laid before a Committee of Trustees; by whom I am directed to state, that they approve of the proposal submitted to them, and will be very glad New Expedition to Africa: 219 glad to receive the Statue of a person, for whose memory, col- lectively and individually, they entertain so much respect. Iam, sir, your obedient humble servant, Henry ELLs, To Joseph Satine, Esq. - Secretary. NEW EXPEDITION TO AFRICA. His Majesty expressed his desire, a short time since, that an expedition should he formed to explore certain parts of Africa which border upon Egypt. The idea was suggested in conse- quence of the successful researches of M. Belzoni in the latter country ; but the object of the present expedition is of a different character from the pursuits of that gentleman, inasmuch as it is the discovery, not of the ponderous monuments of Egyptian art, but of the remains of Greek and Roman edifices, which, it is conjectured, are scattered in different parts of Libya—a country which those celebrated nations visited, and in which they esta- blished colonies at several different periods, but which, it is sup- posed, no Europeans have since explored. The gentleman who has been chosen by Government, with the approbation of His Majesty, to superintend this expedition, is Mr. Beechey, many years secretary to Mr. Salt, the. English Consul to Egypt, and the constant companion of M. Belzoni in his late indefatigable researches. ‘The Lords of the Admiralty have also afforded every assistance in their power to advance the object of this expedition, by fitting out a small vessel with a com- plement of men, and intrusting the command to Lieutenant Beechey, who was engaged under Captain Parry in the last Northern Expedition, and the officer from whose drawings were executed some of the engravings that embellish the account of that voyage of which the public are in possession. The vessel is intended to sail round the coast, and to wait upon the expedi- tion, which will only proceed so far in the interior as will be con- sistent with its safety, or allow au easy return to the coast. The expedition will start from Tripoli, to the Bey of which a commu- nication has been dispatched from this Government to request assistance, which will, no doubt, be afforded, as it has formerly been by that Power upon similar occasions. Libya, the country about to be explored by our adventurous countrymen, is that which in ancient times contained the two countries of Cyrenaica and Marmorica. The former was called Pentapolis, from the five great cities which it contained; one of which was Berenice, or Hesperis, now Bernic, the spot where the celebrated Gardens of the Hesperides are generally supposed to have existed. Not far distant was Barce or Barca, and Pto- lemais, now Tolometa, To the east of the extreme northern Ee2 point 220 Disappearance of a Mountain. point, of the coast, called Thycus Promontorium, now Cape Ra- sat, v7as Apollonia, now Marza Susa, or Sosush, formerly the port of Cyrene, that city being situated a little inland: it was founded by Battus, who led thither a Lacedemonian colony from Thera, one of the Cyclades; and the kingdom was afterwards bequeathed to the Romans by the last-of the Ptolemies, surnamed Apion, and was formed by that nation into a province with Crete. The expedition will explore the vestiges of it, which are supposed still to remain under the name of Curin: to the east of this stood, the fifth city of ancient Cyrenaica, called Darnis, now Derne. South of Marmorica (before mentioned), which our country-, men will visit, and in the midst of the sands of the Libyan Desert, was a small and beautiful spot, refreshed by streams and luxuriant with verdure, in which stood the Temple, so celebrated in anti- quity, of Jupiter Ammon, said to have been founded by Bacchus in gratitude to his father Jupiter, who appeared to him, when petishing with thirst, in the form of a ram, and showed him a fountain. Here was the Fons Solis, whose waters were cold at noon and hot at night. Here also was the celebrated ancient Oracle, so difficult of access through the Libyan Deserts, and which was consulted by Alexander the Great after a memorable and dangerous journey, the token of which transmitted to poste- rity, is the ram’s horn upon the head of that Conqueror on nu- merous medals. The Expedition will, in all probability, be engaged three or four years. —.- DISAPPEARANCE OF A MOUNTAIN. The Journal des Debats says—‘‘ An extraordinary event hap- pened in the environs of Aubenas on the 15th of June last. A loud report was heard, during five or six minutes, to the extent of six miles round. The inhabitants knew not the cause; when a very high mountain, called Gerbier de Jone, at the foot of which springs the Loire, disappeared, and presented nothing but a lake. This mountain was high, and it was difficult to reach the top, at the extremity of which there was a fountain. The commotion was so strong, that it produced an earthquake five leagues in cir- cumference.” OBSERVATORY AT ABO, The Emperor Alexander has erected at Abo in Finland a mag- nificent Observatory, the direction of which he has intrusted to the celebrated astronomer Balbeck. NEW SHETLAND. «¢ The large islands of South Shetland, which have been dis- ° covered, are five in number, One has been named Livingston’s Island Earthquake.—Phanomenon in the Tides.— Botany. 221 Island—another Robert’s. Some of the harbours are very good ; vessels in them being land-locked. Of the three first months of the present vear, the mildest experienced there was March; but the seals had mostly retired to the water. A solitary spot or two of something like grass were the only marks of vegetation. No field ice was seen, but innumerable islands were floating about. The flesh of the young seals was often eaten, and was not dis- agreeable. The remains of the seals were generally left on the beach, after the skins were taken off; but, if convenient, pro- bably much oil might be made.” — American Sentinel. EARTHQUAKE. Batavia Journals of the 28th of April give an account of a ter- rible earthquake which took place, on the 29th of December last, on the south coast of Celebes. It didimmense damage, especially at Boeleekomba, where the sea rose several times aprodigious heiglit, ayd then falling with incredible rapidity, alternately deluged and left the shore, destroying all the plantations from Bontain to Boe- loekomba. Many hundred persons have lost their lives. The fort of Boeleekomba was much damaged, that of Bontain less so. On the 4th of January, this year, there was another shock of an earthquake ; but we not learn that it did any damage. PHENOMENON IN THE TIDES. Friday, the 7th Sept., a singular phenomenon was observed at Arundel, by the ebbing and flowing of the river Arun, five different times in the course of two hours. When the great earthquake at Lisbon took place on the Ist of November 1755, a similar circumstance accurred, and with the same undulation of the waters, although no tremulous motion was felt. BOTANY. A curious and beautiful plant, Cactus hexagonus, or six-an- gled Torch Thistle, was in full bloom last month, in the green- house at Chapel-house near Bury St. Edmund’s : — its corolla began to expand at six o’clock in the evening, and gradually closed at the same hour of the following morning. It is a native of Surinam, and is seldom known to flower in this country ; but experience has shown it may be greatly accelerated by a free ex- posure to the sun and air during hot and dry weather. The pre- sent plant is seven feet high, and supposed to be of about thirty years’ growth. In the nursery of Mr. Boughton, at Lower Wick, near Wor- cester, is a beautiful and rare specimen of the Yucca gloriosa, or Superb Adam’s Needle, in full flower, the stem of which is nearly 229 - Vaccination.—Volcano. nearly nine feet from the earth, and it has between six and sevets hundred blossoms on it either open or to open. This plant is a native of North America, and was first brought into England in the year 1596. A new species of black currant has been cultivated in Cam- bridgeshire, the fruit of which is so large, that in some instances a single berry weighs 61 grains, and measures in circumference two inches and a half. There is at present to be seen in the garden of Mr. Miller, at the Abbey, Edinburgh, what is conceived to be a very great curi- osity. In the bed of carnations, there is one root, a stalk from which has produced one carnation half red and half a flesh colour; another wholly a flesh colour spotted with red; and the third a dark red. The Professor of Agriculture and Botany in the University of Modena, strongly recommends a species of Clover that has not hitherto been cultivated in this country, namely, the Trifolium incarnatum, or Crimson Clover. He recommends this plant as the earliest of T'refoils; as the most useful for increasing the fo- rage; as requiring only one ploughing and harrowing to cover the seed ; as peculiarly calculated for dry soils, even gravels: and as preferring the mountain to the plain. It is so hardy that it may be sown even in autumn, and it stands severe frosts well. If sown in spring, it will vield a good crop that year. Some ex- periments have been tried with this plant in Berwickshire, which in a great measure justify what has been urged in its favour. VACCINATION, The festival in honour of Dr. Jenner, to whom mankind are indebted for the discovery of Vaccination, was lately celebrated at Berlin by a superb banquet. All the faculty in the city were present, together with several functionaries and statesmen. The Counsellor of State, M. Hufeland, presented at the close of the banquet, lists of the children who had been vaccinated in Prussia during the year 1819, and the result was, that upwards of 400,000 children had been inoculated within that period. VOLCANO IN THE ISLE OF BOURBON. [Account of a late explosion, by an eye witness. ] On the 27th of February, at 10 o’clock in the morning, the weather being cloudy, a frightful noise was heard like that of a loud clap of thunder, produced by the explosion of a column of fire and smoke from the crater of the voleano. The clearness of the rest of the day prevented a full enjoyment of this brilliant horror 5 Egypt. 223 horror ; but on the arrival of night a pillar was perceived, formed of masses of fire and inflamed matter, shooting majestically to a prodigious height, and falling with a crash which inspired terror, The brightness which it diffused was such, that over all the ex- tent of this quarter a letter could be read by the light of this pro- digy. Towards the middle of the night three rivers of fire were discovered opening a passage near the summit of the mountain, a little below the crater, and taking a direction perpendicular to the high road. On the 9th of March one of them had passed it, leaving a line of lava 6 feet high by 20 broad, and rolled to the sea over an extent of 39 poles, throwing up the water to such a height, that it fell down in the shape of rain. At the moment of the eruption, a shower, composed of black- ish ashes, of gold coloured glass, and sulphurous particles, fell in the vicinity of the voleano. It rained thus for two hours. On the 9th of March we experienced an earthquake, which was of so short a duration, that we could not determine its direction. From the first moment of the eruption to the day on which I write, the volcano has not ceased to burn. On the Ist of this mouth, it threw out such a quantity of smoke, that the higher parts of the island were covered by it. On the 2d the rain was so abundant, that the arm of the lava reaching to the sea was extin- guished, and on the 4th it could be passed without much danger. An observer, whom I placed in such a manner as to seize the most minute circumstances which the voleano in activity might present, tells me that at this moment the second arm of the lava has reached the high road on a base double the breadth of the former, or 60 poles,and that the third is 200. Having long resided in Naples and Sicily, I have ascertained that the lava produced by the volcano of Bourbon does not at all resemble that produced by Vesuvius and Ema: the lava of the two latter volcanos is compact, hard, and not porous: trinkets and snuff boxes are made of it, which take a polish finer than marble, The pavement of Naples is made of square blocks from Mount Vesuvius, and it is so slippery that in time of rain we might skate upon it as on ice. The lava of Bourbon is a species of scoria, of a black colour, and presents the aspect of iron dross. (Signed) The Mayor of St. Roze, Preyne pf BaLLercux, St. Roze, April 9. EGYPT. Extract of a letter from Rome, dated August, 1821:—* A young Englishman, of the name of Waddington, who has lately arrived in this city, has penetrated upwards of 600 leagues above the second cataract, in following the army of the Pacha of Egypt. tn the whole of the way he fell in with only a few stall Egvp- tian 224 Egypt. tian monuments, in isolated situations, and of no very remote date; but on his arrival at Schayni, where the Pacha encamped, he discovered thirty-five pyramids, of trom 50 to 120 feet in height, but in a very ruinous state. . He also saw seven or eight temples, of which one (upwards of 300 feet in length) was covered with hieroglyphics. It is probably in the neighbourhood of these ruins that search should be made for Nabatha, and not the Me- roe of the ancieuts. This traveller has copied some very curious Greek inscriptions. He assures us that he has seen nothing in his travels comparable to the monuments of Nubia, and that he considers that province as the cradle of the arts in Egypt.”— Moniteur. A letter from Marseilles of the 11th of August contains the following interesting piece of intelligence :—- <‘M. Tedenat, son of the French Consul at Alexandria, ‘well known by his discoveries in Upper Egypt, is Just arrived at Mar~ seilles with a number of curiosities from that celebrated country. He traced the cataracts of the Nile from their very commence- ment, and visited the famous city of the hundred gates. He ear- ried his researches into the mountain of granite, which is close to the ruins of that city, and which is opposite to the grand tem- ple. He discovered very fine mummies, and manuscripts on pa- pyrus of the finest kind, and in the most perfect preservation. It is supposed no library in the world possesses any of the kind in a better state of preservation. His roost abundant harvest in matters of that description was in the mountain of Gourna. He had the singular good fortune to discover a large cable, made of the leaves of the palm-tree, which was used for letting down the bodies of wealthy persons into a well, which were afterwards bu- ried in spacious sepulchral chambers hewn into the side of the granite mountain, more than sixty toises in depth. << The wells seem to be designed for the concealment of tombs in the interior; and at the present time it is necessary to exca- vate at all hazards, in order to discover them. “¢ The sepulchres of Gourna present a work of the most exqui- site perfection, whether we consider the hieroglyphic paintings, or the bas-reliefs which adorn all the walls in the interior. What must we think of the patience and talents of the Egyptian art- ists, who went even into the bowels of the earth to execute im- perishable works, and of the power of those kings, who, not sa- tisfied with having raised lofty pyramids which have existed for thousands of years, and which astonish us by their magnificence, have excavated a mountain of more than thirty leagues in extent, for the purpose of depositing mummies, and, if we may be al- lowed the expression, to assert the immortality of the body, in opposition Questions addressed to Naturalists. 225 Opposition to the immutable laws of nature, which has a con- stant tendency to destruction. «© M. Tedenat is carrying these treasures of antiquity to Paris, and will speedily. return to Egypt. The Academy of Marseilles has admitted him into the number of its correspondents,”— Journal des Debats. FURTHER DISCOVERIES IN EGYPT. Letters have been received from M. Caillaud, who is now tra- velling through Egypt and the neighbouring countries, by order of the French Government. They are dated from Dongolah, January 14, 1821. Beyond Wadi-Halfa, the seat of the second cataract, he made some discoveries, which extend stiil further the domain of Egyptian Antiquities, Not far from Dongolah, the capital of Upper Nubia, about one hundred leagues above the town of Syene, there exists a large Egyptian monument, which will bear a comparison with one of those of the city of Thebes, Its length is more than three hundred feet, and it contains ninety columns upwards of thirty feet high. Every part of the monu- _ ment is covered with hieroglyphies and bas-reliefs ; the majority of the subjects represent the images which continually occur on the edifices of Egypt—oblations, religious objects, the march of prisoners, &c.’ Besides figures of the Egyptian character, M. Caillaud remarks among the personages, here and there, the physiognomy of the black race, and occasionally that of the Cir- cassian race. The place where these beautiful ruins are situated is called Selib or Therbe. ‘The remains of the monument have been measured, described, and sketched by this traveller, Six other Egyptian ruins, not so considerable, have been discovered en the banks of the Nile, between the second cataract and Don- golah; in neither of them have Greek inscriptions been found, or any thing which denotes the residence of the Greeks or Ro- maus. It is remarkable that these monuments are not in such good preservation as those of Lower Arabia or of Egypt. This is to be attributed to the almost constant rains which fall in this latitude, as well as to the perishable nature of the free-stone with which they are built. QUESTIONS ADDRESSED TO NATURALISTS, {From a German Paper. ]} The analysis of the earth shows, that it consists of the five fol- lowing kinds :—1. Calcareous earth ;—2. Quartz ;—3. Clay ;— 4, Magnesia ;—and 5. Vegetable mould*. It is affirmed, that re- * Kalkerde, Kieselerde, Thonerde, Bittererde, and Dammerde. Vol, 58, No, 281, Sept, 1821, Ff peated 226 Antique Glass.—Vestiges revived. peated experiments have proved, that the first four, as well alore as intermixed, are absolutely unfruitful. If this be true, many thousand plants, whieh now thrive only in vegetable mould, could not grow on our earth some thousand years ago. Must we adopt the opinion, that plants and vegetables have risen gradually? In East Friesland, if earths are dug up on the sea coast, &c. from a depth of ten or twelve feet, plants then grow, which are not otherwise to be met with in those paris of the country. Did these plants exist in the ancient world? Have their seeds re- tained the germinating power for some thousand years? Cam this power be retained so long? or whence do ‘these plants come? —— ANTIQUE GLASS. A cabinet has been opened in Naples in the Studi palace for the antique glasses found in Pompeii and Herculaneum. The collection contains a great variety of forms and eolours, and proves that the ancients made use of glass as the moderns do, both in decorating their rooms and in instruments of chemistry. The cabinet contains also a number of cinerary urns, for the most part inclosed in vases of lead. VESTIGES REVIVED. The mausoleuins at Surat belonging to the English, erected about the middle and end of the 17th century, are in the ara- besque style. One, to the memory of Governor Oxenden, 1669, must have been built at an enormous expense; the dome rises to the height of 49 feet surmounted with gothic arches, forming an upper story supported by massive pillars, with stair-eases in the angles leading also to a terrace and entablatures ; the dia- meter of the building 25 feet. . This is not so magnificent as one built over a Dutch chief who died about the same time; the in- ner room of this, where the body is deposited, is of an octagon shape, with regular doors and windows; the sides of it orna- mented with Scripture inscriptions and the escutcheons of his fa- mily, the whole surmounted with a dome supported by elegant pillars, forming a piazza round it; it is of much larger dimen- sions than the former one: the name is Vander Heft, 1679. These lofty piles accord not with the humility of the Christian religion, and are evidently borrowed from the Mahomedans, who fequired room in their mausoleums for the performance of their religious rites: that is, for the attendance of Priests, Fakirs, and Devotees, a fund being allotted for their maintenance by the deceased.— Bombay Gaz, Dec, 27. THE The Chameleon.— Maturation of Fruits. 227 THE CHAMELEON. To the Editor of the Calcutta Journal. Sra,—For the information of those who are fond of the study of Natural History, I beg leave to make known a few remarks upon the Chameleon, from ocular demonstration. It is commonly believed that this curious little animal has the power of changing its colour at pleasure to the same shade as the substance upon which it is placed, and that its tongue is forked. I have kept Chameleons in a cage several months, narrowly watching them, and have placed them upon different substances for the sake of experiment. 1 never saw an alteration in their colour, but merely a variation in the shade, from a light yellowish green to a very dark olive green. The mottles were always visi- ble, though similarly changed with the shade. The Chameleon’s tongue, which is nearly three parts the length of his body, is blunt at the end, and not unlike a common probe. From the end of it exudes a small quantity of matter, thick, clear, and glutinous; this he uses in obtaining his prey, which consists entirely of in- sects. He will remain sometimes for. an hour with his tongue upon the ground, and when a sufficient quantity of insects has settled upon it, they are all drawn in and devoured. I have seen this animal dart at a fly settled upon a small piece of paper; the fly escaped, but the paper was drawn to the mouth by the cohe- sive liquid just referred to, and which | have several times parti- cularlyexamined. ‘The Chameleon possesses the quality, generally attributed to him, of a power of long fasting. I am, sir, yours obediently, A. MATURATION OF FRUITS. M. Berard has been engaged in a course of experiments to determine what chemical changes take place during the matura- tion, ripening and decay of fruits of various kinds, in the An- nales de Chimie: his general results are stated as follows; via. “Fruits act upon atmospherical air in a different manner to leaves. The former at all times, both in light and darkness, part with carbon to the oxygen of the atmosphere, to produce car- bouic acid, and this loss of carbon is essential to ripening, since the process stops if the fruit is immersed in an atmosphere de- prived of oxygen, and the fruit itself shrivels and dies. This oc- curs equally to those fruits which when gathered green are able to ripen of themselves, though separated from their parent tree ; but in these the ripening process may be by this means delayed for a certain time, and be completed on restoring them to an oxy- genized atmosphere, Inthis manner peaches, plums, apples, pears, &c. may be preserved unspoilt for from three to ten or twelve F £2 weeks 225 Patent Fire Shield. weeks, inclosed in an air-tight jar, with a quantity of lime and sulphate of iron worked up into a paste with water, which has the property of abstracting oxygen from the air that is in contact with it. The passing from ripeness to decay in fruits is also cha- racterized by the production and evolution of mueh carbonic acid, and equally requires the presence of an oxygenized medium. The. internal changes produced in fruits by the ripening process are particularly distinguished by the production of sugar, which hardly exists in any notable quantity in immature fruits; and it appears to be produced at the expense of part of the gum, and especially of the ligneous fibre. “* Lastly, the change which the woody fibre experiences during maturation continues during the decay of the fruit. It becomes brown; much carbonic acid is given out, and part of the sugar again disappears.” Seay j PATENT FIRE SHIELD. A Mr. Ralph Buckley, of New York, has invented and ob- tained a patent for a Fire Shield, of which the National Advo- cate gives the following account :— “* It appears to us the most effectual protection of property from fire ever invented. This shield is intended to protect fire- men whilst employed in extinguishing fires, but it is particularly designed to prevent fire from spreading. It is well known that, when a house is on fire, if it even can be saved after the time is lost in bringing up engines, it must necessarily be very much da- maged. The evil to be apprehended is the spreading of this de- vouring element, which frequently lays whole blocks of buildings, and sometimes whole cities, in ashes. This invention is intended to arrest the evil on the spot where it originates, by enabling firemen to approach so near the flames as to protect surrounding property. As this invention is of deep interest to our citizens, and particularly in the southern cities, so much afflicted by fires of late, we deem it necessary to be particular in our explanations, The fire shield is made of a metallic substance ; thin, light, and impervious to heat; it is of a length and breadth sufficient to cover the whole person, and it may be used in several different positions. For example: when used in the street, it is firmly fixed on a small platform, with wheels, and a short elevation from the ground. The fireman takes his stand on this platform, and behind the shield; he is dragged by ropes neat the current of heat and flames, without being scorched or feeling any incon- venience, and with the hose pipe, or leader in his hand, he di- rects the water to the part where it is most required. In_ this way a line of shields may be formed in close order, in front of a powerful heat, and behind whick the firemen may stand with safety and play upon the houses with their water pipes. The utility Picture Writing—Wild Ass. _ 229 utility, therefore, of this invention may be seen at a glance; it enables firemen to brave the flames with impunity, whereas, in most instances of excessive heat, they are driven off, and the flames are permitted to spread. The shield is used = another and equally beneficial way. By varying the form, it is carried up stairs to the third story of houses not on fire, but the roof of which requires water, and by a simple machinery carried in hand, it is projected from a window like a painter's platform ; the leader is then carried through the house, up stairs, and so out of the window, and is directed by the fireman behind the shield to that part of the adjoining houses which it may be necessary to protect. It is extremely useful in churches, and from steeples, and may be applied in a variety of ways. Firemen have been frequently injured in health and person, by approaching too near the flames, and giving full scope to that intrepidity of character and humanity for which they are distinguished. By this fire shield they will be effectually protected, and it will be found in narrow streets to be peculiarly useful.” PICTURE WRITING. Among the additions recently made to Dr. Mitchill of America’s museum of curiosities is a letter from the Chippewa tribe of In- dians to the Sioux, with the answer of the Sioux to the Chippe- was, done during the summer of 1820. Both are executed with the point ofa knife, or some other hard body, upon the bark of the birch tree. They are examples of picture writing, bordering upon the symbolic or ‘hieroglyphic, aud show the manner in which the aborigines of North America communicate their ideas at the pre- sent day. After having served the purpose for which they were in- tended, they were procured by Captain Douglas from the banks of the Mississippi, where they had been placed by their authors, and brought home by that gentleman as specimens of the way pur- sued by those people to transact their public business, THE WILD ASS. [From Sir R. Ker Porter’s Travels in Persia.] ** The sun was just rising over the summits of the eastern mountains, when my grevhound, Cooley, suddenly darted off in pursuit of an animal which my Persians said, from the glimpse they had of it, was an antelope. I justantly put spurs to my- horse, and, followed by Sedak Beg and Mehmander, follovesal the chase. After an enrelaxed gallop of full three miles, we came up with the dog, who was then within a short stretch of the crea- ture he pursued; and to my surprise, and at first vexation, I saw itto be an ass, But, on a moment's reflection, judging from its fleetness it must be a wild one, a species little kuown in Europe, but 230 Wild Ass. but which the Persians prize above all other animals as an object of chase, I determined to approach as near to it as the very swift Arab I was on would carry me. But the single instant of check- ing my horse to consider had given our game such a head of us, that, notwithstanding all our speed, we could not recover our ground on him. I, however, happened to be considerably before my companions, when, at a certain distance, the animal in its turn made a pause, and allowed me to approach within pistol- shot of him. He then darted off again with the quickness of thought ; capering, kicking, and sporting in his flight, as if he were not blown ‘in the least, and the chase were his pastime. «© He appeared to me to be about ten or twelve hands high ; the skin smooth, like adeer’s, and of a reddish colour ; the helly and hinder parts partaking of a silvery grey ; his neck was finer than that of a common ass, being longer, and bending like a stag’s, and his legs beautifully slender; the head and ears seemed large in proportion to the gracefulness of these forms, and by them I first recognised that the object of my chase was of the ass tribe. The mane was short and black, as was also a tuft which termi- nated his tail. No line whatever ran along his back or crossed his shoulders, as are seen on the tame species with us. When my followers of the country came up, they regretted I had not shot the creature when he was so within my aim, telling me his flesh is one of the greatest delicacies in Persia: but it would not have been to eat him that I should have been glad to have had him in my possession. The prodigious swiftness and peculiar manner with which he fled across the plain, coincided exactly with the description that Xenophon gives of the same animal in Arabia (vide Anabasis, b.i.). But, above all, it reminded me of the striking portrait drawn by. the author of the book of Job. I shall venture to repeat it, since the words will give life and action to the sketch that is to accompany these pages. «¢ © Who hath loosed the bonds of the wild ass ? whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren land his dwellings ! _ He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he the crying of the driver. The range of the mountain is his pasture.’ << [ was informed by the Mehmander, who had been in the De- sert when making a pilgrimage to the shrine of Ali, that the wild ass of Irak Arabi differs in nothing from the one I had just seen. He had observed them often, for a short time, in the pos- ' session of the Arabs, who told him the creature was perfectly un- tameable.: A few days after this discussion, we saw another of these animals, and, pursuing it determinately, had the good for- tune, after a hard chase, to kill it and bring it to our quarters. From it { completed my sketch. ‘The Honourable Mountstuart Elphinstone, in his most admirable account of the kingdom of Cabul, The Pelican—War Poison of the Indians. 23 Cabul, mentions this highly picturesque creature, under the name of Goorkhur; describing it as an inhabitant of the desert between India and Afghanistan, or Caubul. It is called gour by the Per- sians, and is usually seen in herds, though often single, straying away, as the one I first saw, in the wantonness of liberty. By the national passion for hunting so wild an object, Persia lost one of its most estimable Monarchs, Bahram, surnamed Gour from his fondness for the sport, and general success in the pursuit of an animal almost as fleet as the wind. The scene of this chase was a fine open vale, near to Shiraz, but which had the inconve- nience of being intersected by a variety of springs, forming them- selves into exceedingly deep ponds, caverned at the bottom, by nature, to an extent under ground uot to be traced. While the King was in the heat of pursuit, his horse came suddenly to the brink of one of these pieces of water, and, tumbling headlong, both horse and rider. disappeared. The pond was immediately explored to the utmost of their ability in those days, but the body of the King could not be found. Hence it is supposed that it must have been driven by the stream into one of the subterraneous channels, and there found a watery grave. This event happened fourteen hundred years ago, and yet it forms an interesting tale in the memories of the natives about, to relate to the traveller passing that way.” THE PELICAN. A pelicanwas killed about the middle of last month, in Wash- ington, Augusta county, (Alabama,) at a distance of 250 miles from the sea, which measures nine feet from the extremity of ove wing to that of the other, six feet fromn the end of the tail to the point of the bill, which is 14 inches long ; and the pouch, or bag connected with the under part of it, is large enough to con- tain three or four gallons. The body is shaved much like that of a goose, but a little more elongated towards the neck, aud being thickly covered with feathers, appears to be about three times as large, though, from its apparent famished state, and the extreme thinness of its bones, the whole bird weighed but 18 pounds, Its tail is shorter than that of of a goose, aud its plu- mage white, except the extremities of the wings from the last joints, outward, which are black. ‘The skin of the bird is pre- served, a WAR POISON OF THE INDIANS. (From Humboldt’s Personal Narrative. ] Esmeralda is the most celebrated spot on the Oroonoko for the fabrication of that active poison which is employed in war, in the chase, and, what is singular enough, as a remedy for gastric obstructions, The poison of the ficunas of the Amazon, the upas- ticute of Java, and the curare of Guyana, are the most deleterious substances 232 War Poison of the Indians. substances that are known. Raleigh, toward the end of the six= teenth century, had heard the name of curare pronounced as being a vegetable substance, with which arrows were envenomed ; yet no fixed notions of this poison had reached Europe. The missionaries Gumilla and Gili had not been able to penetrate in- to the country where the curare is manufactured. Gumilla as- serts that this preparable was enveloped in great mystery ; that its principal ingredient was furnished by a subterraneous plant, by a tuberose root, which never puts forth leaves, and which is called the root by way of eminence, raiz de si misma; that the venomous exhalations, which arise from the pots, cause the old women (the most useless) to perish who are chosen to watch over this operation; finally, that these vegetable juices never appear sufficiently concentrated, till a few drops produce at a distance a repulsive action on the blood. An Indian wounds him- self slightly ; and a dart dipped in the liquid curare is held near the wound. If it make the blood return to the vessels without having been brought into contact with them, the poison is judged to be sufficiently concentrated. I shall not stop to refute these popular tales collected by Father Gumilla. When we artived at Esmeralda, the greater part of the In- dias were returning from an excursion which they had made to the east beyond the Rio Padamg, to gather juvias, or the fruit of the Bertholletia, anid the liana which yields the curare. Their return was celebrated by a festival, which is called in the Mission la fiesta de las juvius, ‘and which resembles our harvest, homes and vintage feasts. The women had prepared a quantity of fer- mented liquor, and during two days the Indians were in a state of intoxication. Among nations that attach great importance to the fruits of the palm-trees and of some others useful for the nourishment of man, the period when these fruits are gathered is marked by public rejoicings, and time is divided according to these festivals, which succeed one another in a course invariably the sawe. We were fortunate enough to find an old Indian less drunk than the rest, who was employed in preparing the curare poison from freshly gathered plants. He was the chemist of the place. We found at his dwelling large earthen pots for boiling vegetable juice, shallower vessels to favour the evaporation by a larger surface, and leaves of the plane-tree rolled up in the shape of our filters, and used to filtrate the liquors more or less loaded with fibrous matter. The greatest order and neatness prevailed in this hut, which was transformed into a chemical la- boratory. The Indian who was to instruct us, is known through- out the mission by the name of the master of poison (amo del curare): be had that self-sufficient air and tone of pedantry, of which the pharmacopolists of Europe were formerly eas uA I now,’ ae et) oe Bexiteeirge oo: War Poison of the Indians. 238 know,” said he, “ that the whites have the secret of fabricating soap, and that black powder which has the effect of making a noise and killing animals, when they are wanted. The curare, which we prepare from father to son, is superior to anv thing vou ‘can make down yonder (beyond sea). It is the j juice of an herb which kills silently (without any one knowing whence the stroke comes) .”” This chemical operation, to which the master of the curare attached so much importance, appears to us extremely simple. The liana (/ujuco), which is used at Esmeralda for the prepara- tion of the poison, bears the same name as in the forest of Javita, It is the bejuco de mavacure, which is gathered in’ abundance east of the Mission, on the left hank of the Oroonoko, beyond the Rio Amaguaca, in the mountains and granatic lands of Gua- nava and Yuiariquin. The j juice of the liana, when it has been recently gathered, is not regarded as poisonous ; perhaps it acts in a sensible manner only when it is strongly concentrated. It is the bark, and a par of the alburnum, which contains this terrible poison. Brarishes of the mavacure four or five lines in diameter, are scraped with a knife ; and the bark that comes off is bruised, and reduced into very thin filaments, on the ‘stone employed for grinding cassava. The venomous juice being yellow, the whole fibrous mass takes this colour. It is thrown into a funnel nine inches high, with an opening four inches wide. This funnel was, of all the instru- ments of the Indian laboratory, that eal the master of pot- _son seemed to be most proud. He asked us repeatedly, if por alla (down yonder, that is in Europe) we had ever seen any thing to be compared to his empudo. It was a leaf of a plantain tree rolled up in the form of a cone, and placed in another stronger cone made of the leaves of the palm-tree. The whole of this apparatus was supported by slight frame work made of the petioli and ribs of palm leaves. A ‘cold infusion is first prepared by pouring water on the fibrous matter, which is the ground bark of the mavacure. A vellowish water filters during several hours, drop by drop, through the leafy funnel. This filtered w ater 1s the venomous liquor, but it acquires strength only when it is concen- trated by evaporation, like molasses in a large earthen pot. The Indian frown time to time invited us to taste the liguid ;_ its taste, more or less bitter, decides when the concentration by fire has been carried sufficiently far. There is no danger in this ope- ration, the curare being deleterious only when it comes into im- mediate contact with the blood. The vapours, therefore, that are disengaged from the pans, are not hurtful, notwithstanding what has been asserted on this point by the Missionaries of the Oroonoko. Fontana, in his fine experiments on the poison of the Vol. ag: No. 281. Sept, 1821. Gg ticunas 234 Blue Sun. dicunas of the river of Amazons, long ago proved, that the va- pours arising from this poison when thrown on burning charcoal, may be. inhaled without apprehension ; and that it is false, as M.dela Condamine has announced, that Indian women, when con- demned to death, have been killed by the vapours of the poison of the ¢icunas. The juice is thickened with a glutinous substance to cause it to stick to the darts, which it renders mortal; but taken inter- nally, the Indians consider the curare to be an excellent stoma- chic. Scarcely a fowl is eaten (adds our author) on the banks of the Oroonoko, which has not been killed with a poisoned arrow. ‘The Missionaries pretend, that the flesh of animals is never so good as when these means are employed. Father Zea, who accompanied us, though ill of a tertian fever, caused every morning the live fowl allotted for our repast to be brought to his hammock, together with an arrow. Notwithstanding his habi- tual state of weakness, he would not confide this operation, to which he attached great importance, to any other person. Large birds, a guan (pava de monte) for instance, or a eurassoa (alse- for,) when wounded in the thigh, perish in two or three minutes 5 but it is often ten or twelve before a pig or a pecari expires*, BLUE SUN. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir,—As I was passing along the Curtain Road, in the parish of Shoreditch, on Saturday the [8th of August last, between 9 and 10 o’clock in the morning, I observed several people look- ing up as if at something unusual, and on inquiring the cause, I was told the sun appeared blue. I soon saw, to my surprise, the disc of the sun of an azure or sky-blue colour. |! am not certain that at any one time I saw the whole of the disc of this colour, owing to the clouds which were passing rapidly before it, covering a portion, but I have no doubt that the whole was seen of this colour by others, There can be no question, I think, but that this extraordinary phenomenon was occasioned by some pe culiar refractive power in the thinner clouds which were before the sun at the time, The intervals at which I saw this pheno- menon were very short, and all the times together I do not be- lieve were many seconds. Independently of this blue colour, the sun that morning attracted the notice of people by its unusual appearance: it has been described as looking like quicksilver, and like varnished silk, and. was mistaken for an air balloon. * M. Humboldt does not seem to be acquainted with any certain antidote, if such exists, to this fatal poison. Sugar, garlic, the muriate of soda, &c. are mentioned doubtingly. “ I have Process for separating Silver and Copper. 235 I have been induced to send you this account, not having met with any one in your Magazine, and with a wish that some of those persons who saw any extraordinary appearance in the look of the sun that morning, will communicate their observations to you, stating the ¢ime and place where they observed it. Walthamstow, Essex, 14th September, 1821. B. M. Forster. LITHOGRAPHY. An experiment has lately been made to take off impressions from plants by lithographic printing, which, although it did not succeed so well as was desirable, leaves little doubt but this me- thod may prove of considerable use to botanists. A specimen of Silthorpia eurcpcea, which was gathered several years ago in Cornwall, was, we understand, covered with lithogra- phic ink, and impressed on the stone, from which several impres- sions were taken. There is a well-known method made use of for taking impressions of the leaves of vegetables by covering them with printers’-ink, and then impressing them on paper. The benefit likely to arise from impressing plants on stone, is owing to the facility of multiplying copies much more accurate in some respects than a drawing can be expected to be. ECONOMICAL PROCESS FOR SEPARATING SILVER AND COPPER. Dissolve the alloy in nitric acid, and evaporate the solution to dryness, in a glass vessel. Place the salt in an iron spoon over a moderate fire, and keep the mixture in fusion till it entirely ceases to afford bubbles, when itis to be poured out upon an oiled plate. To be certain that all the nitrate of copper is converted into the black oxide of copper, dissolve a small portion of it in water, and test it with ammonia. If the solution, which ought to be at first clear and limpid, does not acquire the slightest shade of blue, it may be concluded that the nitrate of silver ob- tained is quite free from copper. If not so, the fusion must be continued a few seconds longer. The black product is to be dissolved in cold water; and the solution being filtered, the nitrate of silver passes through in a state of purity. By washing the oxide which remains upon the filter, the small portion of nitrate of silver with which it may be impregnated will be removed ; the oxide is then to be dried. The nitrate of silver is afterwards treated differently, according to the use to which it is to be applied. This process is more simple, expeditious, and accurate, than the common method of separating silver from copper by the hu- mid way. Gg 2 FISH 236 Fish Flour.—Patents. FISH FLOUR. «The Indians in all the Upper Oroonoko fry fish, dry Ae in the’sun, and reduce them to powder without separating the bones. | have seen masses of fifty or sixty pounds of this flour, which resembles that of cassava. When it is wanted for eating, it is mixed with water and reduced to a paste. In every climate the abundance of fish has led to the invention of the same means of preserving them. Pliny and Diodorus Siculus have described the fish bread of the Ichthyoph: igous nations, that dwelt on the Persian Gulf, and the shores of the Red Sea,’ __ Humboldt. LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS. To William Lane, of Birmingham, jack maker, for certain improvements on horizontal roasting jacks, which improvements are applicable to other useful purposes.—Dated 23d August 1821. —2 months allowed to enrol specification. To David Gordon, of Edinburgh, now residing in Stranraer, esq., for certain improvements in the construction of harness for animals of draught and burthen.—Sth Sept.—6 months. To Bevington Gibbins, of Melin Crythen Works, near Neath, Glamorganshire,; chemist, “(otte of the peopie called Quakers,) aud Charles Hunnings Wilkinson, of Bath, M.D., for an improved retort or vessel for making coal and Stier gas; and for distillation, evaporation, and concentration of acids and other substances.— Sih Sept.—2 months. To Dominique Pierre Deurbroucq, of King-street, Soho, gent., in consequence of a communication made to him by a certain foreigner residing abroad, fer an apparatus for condensing the alcoholic steams arising fen spirituous liquors, such as wine, brandy, beer, cyder, aa other spirituous liquors, during their fer- mentation.—!}th Sept.—6 months. To Richard Francis Hawkins, of Plumstead, Kent, master mariner, for certain improvements in the construction of anchors, —11th Sept.—6 months. To William Webster, of George-court, Princes-street, Soho, gun-maker, for certain improvements in the mechanism of and appertaining to Forsyth’s rollers, wagazine for the discharge of fowling-pieces and fire-arms in general by means of percussion. —1l4th Sept.—2 months. To William Losh, of Newcastle- -lpon- -Tyne, iron- founder, for certain improvements in the construction of iron rails for railways. — 4th Sept.—2 months. To James Gladston, of Liverpool, iron-monger, for his method of increasing the strength of timber. —20th Sept.—6 months. BARO=- * ee Barometric Observations. 237 BAROMETRIC OBSERVATIONS. Pocklington, Yorkshire, Aug. 24, 1821 Sir,—The following observations I made here on Monday the 13th instant, at the hours given below. | Thermom. | Clock. 'Barom.} in | out | Wind. Weather. doorsjdoors —————K—-——— 8 29-843 | 62°6 | 55-5 |S.E. by S. Calm: clear, except a few white ; clouds. 9 29-838 | 63:2 |}62:0) S. Gentle breezes: sky covered with thin gray clouds. 10 29-835 | 64-0 | 65:5 |S.W.byS. Gentle breezes: clear and cloudy. 1] |29-818 | 64:5|67:0} S.W. |Warm, with gentle breezes: clear | and cloudy. 12 |29-810| 65.4/ 67:3) S.W. |Warm, with gentle breezes: clear . and cloudy. Bright sunshine. I am, sir, yours truly, Wicuiam RoGErson, jun. Observations made by Dr. WM. BurRNEY, at Gosport ; the basin of the barometer above low-water mark being 50 feet. Hour. _‘|Barom. aes 5 Wind. State of the Weather. a sls |= bi RE ere eee ne eeioeeee 1821. A.M. At half past 7 A.M. a bright parhe- lion appeared to the north of, and Inches.| 0 | 0 | 0 22° 40/ distant from, the sun, and Sept. 10. 8h | 29-84 |6362/85|W.S.W.|< at 8 o’clock a rainbow appeared to the westward, succeeded soon af- terwards by an extensive nimbus, L and a smart shower of rain. { At a quarter before nine, another rainbow appeared, with bright red, orange, yellow, green, and purple colours, and the shower in which Sse See 9 | 29°85 /62/60/86/W.S.W. is i was situated continued 20 mi- nutes; yet the cirrose crown of the nimbus was scarcely percepti- L ble. } Cumulostrati passing over with a ’ brisk wind. (phe same modifications as at 10 o'clock, with sunshine and a strong r breeze. | Sunshine and a few drops of rain |) froma passingewmnulos’ ratus cloud, 10 | 29-85 |63)/65)86|W.S.W. ) 11 | 29.87 |66,68\75|W.S.W. anit 12°/'29.88 |68/69:75)W. byS. and very bright semicircular cu- PM muli to the northward, és a 5 Sunshine, with passing beds of cir- 1 | 29-90 69/68) 70 vostratus, and cwnt ulostrati beneath P, them. ——$ oe 938 Barometric Observations. N.B. From some remarks made by Mr. Bevan in the last Number of this work, as objections to my wheel barometer, it is necessary to state that the above observations were made with an upright portable barometer, manufactured in the best manner by the late Mr. George Adams, Fleet-street: that I have sent Mr. Farey the four sets of observations made with this barome- ter in June, July, August, and September, at the same hours as those published were made, and shall in future use it without making any reductions for temperature. Leighton, Sept. 22, 1821- Dear Sir,—lI beg leave to send you the observations made at this place on the barometer, &c. on the 10th instant. nina: Ther. |Ther. 1821 att. | det, | Vind: | Denom.| Weather. ooo | Sb 29-461 | 571) 55 | S.W. | small. |Fine. 9 29-474| 59 | 59) S.W. | do. |Clondy. 10 !29-476 | 60 | GU | S.W. | do. {Do. 11 |29-483| 602] 62 | S.W. | do. [Do. 12 [29-494 | 60!) 59 | S.W. | do. [Do. 1 |29-500| 60/11 | W. | do. |Do. The thermometers suspended near the middle of the barome- trical tube averaged 3° more than the attached thermometer in the basin. eee ‘The observations made by Colonel Brauroy at Bushey. Ther. |Ther. Barom. | att} det. Wind, Denom. Weather. ‘1821. 829-234) 57-7| 55 |S.W. by S| fresh. | Clondy. 9 '29-242 58 | 57 | W.S.W. | do. | Do. — 10 |29-238' 58:3} 58 S.W. | moder.}| Do. 11 [29-243 | 58-7; 60 | W.S.W. | squally.} Rain. 12 PMOL 60 W. fresh. | Fine. | By calculations of Colonel Beaufoy, from the observations of last month, the height of Bushey appears 225-16 feet above Leighton. I am, dear sir, yours very truly, r B. Bevan. METEORO- Se 04S. Meteorology. 239 METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT AT BOSTON, LINCOLNSHIRE, BY MR. SAMUEL VEALL. ' —= {The time of observation, unless otherwise stated, is at 1 P.M.] ———— ee 4 { 1821. Aug. 15 16 17 18} 19 20 2) 22 23 24! 25 26 27 26 29 30; 31 Sept. | Age of the Moon. Thermo- meter. Baro- meter. 29°60 29°50 29°75 29°55 29°75 29°70 29°70. 29°73 29°56 29°50 | 29°50, 29°65 29°85 29°70. 29°53 29°40 29°35 29°55 29°70 29°58 20°h5 29°45 29°45 29°13, 29°27 29°27 29°27 29°60 29°22 29°60 29°65 tate of the Weather and Modification of the Clouds. ‘Fine Ditto 'Ditte ‘Ditto Ditto \Ditto Ditte Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto \Cloudy—rainz P.M, \Ditto Rain Cloudy— heavy rain P.M. Ditto ~ heavy rain A.M.—rain at Ditto—heavy rainP.M. [night. Ditto Fine Ditto Ditto ‘Cloudy Rain \Cloudy—heavy rain with thunder and lightning A.M. Ditto—heavy rain A.M, Fine—heavy rain P.M. ‘Cloudy—rain A.M. Fine Cloudy—heavy rain A.M. Fine Ditto METEORO- 240 Meteorology. METEOROLOGICAL TABLE, By Mr. Cary, OF THE STRAND. a i her mometer, nae BES — $ Height of PEER: ee E 5 =, 9 Barom. Weather. © eae Sets nches, 1621. 2a] 4 [a4 Bees } < = eee ee Se ee a : Aug. 27 | 57 | 64 | 55 | 30°18 Cloudy 28 } 55 | 60 | 52 | 29°96 Cloudy 29 57 | 57 | 58 "81 Rain 30 | 62] 72 | 67 76 Fair 31 63 | 70 | 63 76 Show. with Thund. Sept. 1 62 | 69 | 64 ‘07 Showery 2 | 63 | 73 | 63 | 30°14 Fair 3 | 62 | 72 | 64 U2 Fair 4 64 | 73 | 60 | 29:88 Fair 5 | 60 | 72 | 63 ‘06 Fair 6 | 66 | 73 | 66 | 30°04 Showery 7 | 67 | 69 | 64 | 29°72 Fair 8 60 | 66 | 59 |}. +72 — Showery g {60} 68 | 57 °76 Showery 4 58°| 66 | 55 77 Showery 11 55 | 66 | 55 | 30:08 Fair 12 58 | 69 | 56 | 29°68 Stormy 13 56 | 66 | 54 | 30.02 Fair 14 | 54 | 68] 54 ‘05 Rain 15 50 | 67 | 62 27 Fair 16 Sih 20)65 ‘27 Fair 17 65 | 71 | 66 “17 Fair 18 64 | 70 | 56 | 29°98 Fair 19 56 | 66 | 55 05 Fair 20 | 54 | 60 | 60 ‘07 Rain 21 60 | 65 | 61° i Showery 22 59 | 68 | 60 *80 Fair 23 | 60 | 67 | 58 72 Foggy 24 56 | 66 | 54 74 Showery 95 | 52 | 64 | 61 | 3004 Fair 26 | 62! 691 60 04 Show.ofsmallrain. N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o'clock. ————— EE Observations for Correspondent who observed the 10th Sept. 8 o’Clock M. Barom. 29'736 Ther. attached 59"Detached 58 ——=—- 10 — —~ —— 760;— — — 60 — — 66 —_- — 1 coe Ne ee e772) ee 6a) ae « [ 241 ] LII. Some Experiments made with a view to the Detection and Prevention of Frauds in the Sale of skimmed Milk; to- gether with an Account of a simple Lactometer for effecting that Purpose. By Epmunp Davy, Esq. Professor of Che- mistry and Secretary to the Royal Cork Institution. Sxrmep milk, as is well known, is used to a very great ex- tent in Ireland, and especially in the South*, where it forms an indispensable part of the subsistence of the lower orders. Potatoes and skimmed milk, indeed, constitute almost their sole, or at least their principal food. It is therefore of much im- portance, that an article which essentially contributes to the support of a very large portion of the community, should be sup- plied in a genuine unadulterated state. Unfortunately this has not been the case. Much of the skimmed milk exposed for sale in our milk markets, has been largely adulterated with water; and for want of the means of detection, this fraud has been prac- tised with impunity, not only in Cork, but also in other parts of the country. An unsuccessful attempt had been made to re- medy this evil. Persons called ¢asters were appointed to inspect the milk markets in Cork, and empowered to detain such milk as they supposed to be adulterated. But the inadequacy of such a mode of prevention must be apparent; for nothing can be more vague and uncertain than decisions founded upon the mere taste and appearance of milk. In consequence of the total incompe- tency of éasters, to preyent the commission of frauds in the sale of skimmed milk, a Committee composed of respectable farmers, &c. was formed for the express purpose of putting a stop to this disgraceful practice, so injurious both to the poor, and to the fair dealer, The Committee waited upon our active chief ma- gistrate Sir Anthony Perriere, knt., to apprize him of their in- tention, and to solicit his assistance, Anxious to co-operate with the Committee in promoting a measure of acknowledged public utility, Sir Anthony afforded every assistance in his power, and promised to adopt any practical remedy which should be devised. At his suggestion, the Committee consulted me as to the best means of carrying their design into execution, and in compliance with their request, | directed my best attention to the considera- tion of the subject. An instrument on the principle of the hy- drometer, seemed to promise the simplest means that could be employed for the detection and prevention of frauds in the sale of skimmed milk; but whether it was practicable to construct such an instrument, depended upon circumstances which could * The sale of skimmed milk in the markets of Cork alone, I am informed, amounts to about 1O00/. per week. Vol. 58, No, 282, Oct. 1821. Hh only 242 Some Eaperiments on skimmed Milk, only be determined by experiment. In order to satisfy myself on this point, I commenced a series of experiments on skimmed milk in February last, which have, with occasional interruptions, occupied me ever sinee.. I did not at first indulge any sanguine expectations as to the result of my investigation ; but after I had carefully made above a hundred experiments upon genuine skimmed milk procured from many of the principal dairy farms, embracing all the varieties of cattle, soil, and modes of feeding, common to this part of the country; and also examined many specimens of adulterated skimmed milk from the markets, I have at length ventured to construct a simple lactometer (on the well known principle of the hydrometer), the use of which, I have no doubt, will effectually prevent the frauds now practised in the sale of skimmed milk. Before I describe this instrument, it may be proper briefly to notice the cireumstances which led to its construction. My first experiments were directed to ascertain whether any uniformity exists in the density of different specimens of genuine skimmed milk ; accordingly I procured this article from many of the prin- cipal dairy farms, and from private houses in the neighbourhood. I also obtained new milk from the same sources, which I skimmed myself, after suffering the cream to remain on it about the usual time. The greater number of those specimens were of the spe- cifie gravity 1:037 and 1:0375. Some were higher, but the highest was 1-040, and the lowest 1036, the thermometer being at 50°. These experiments, confirmed by others which I after- wards made, led me to conclude that a considerable degree of uniformity prevails in the density of genuine skimmed milk; and this uniformity, I presume, would be still greater, if due allowance were made for accidental circumstances connected with the ex- periments, which, thongh not easy to appreciate, must, to a cer- tain extent, influence the specific gravity of milk ; as.for exam- ple, slight variations of temperature and of the balance employed ; to which must be added the unequal exposure to the atmosphere of the several specimens of milk examined. In reference to this 1ast particular, it is proper to state that I found only one speci- men of milk of so high a specific gravity as 1-040; and in this in- stance the cream had been suffered to remain on the milk for above three days, and its specific gravity was not taken until some hours after it had been skimmed. These circumstances in- cline me to refer its superior density to CVEpOranions owing to pro- tracted exposure to the atmosphere. After I was satisfied concerning the degree of uniformity which exists in the density of genuine skimmed milk, my next object was to examine the skimmed milk brought to éfie markets in Cork, in order to ascertain the nature of the adulterations practised in © Caen and an Account of a simple Lactometer. 248 ia the sale of this article. Accordingly, 1 procured at different times, a great number of specimens from the milk markets; and on submitting them to a careful examination, I found that some © were genuine, and of course corresponded with good skimmed milk in every particular. Others were adulterated in different degrees, but the only foreign substance I could detect in the adul- terated specimens, was water. By adding a certain quantity of water to genuine skimmed milk, it became of the same density as the adulterated milks from the markets. By simple distillation, theadulterated milks furnished pure water, and became of the same density as genuine milk. In some cases, I found skimmed milk from the markets adulterated with,more than one-fifth of water ; i other instances, with about one-sixth, one-seventh, and one- eighth of water. The worst of the adulterated milks from the markets was of the specific gravity 1-026, the highest of the ge- nuine milks from the markets was 1-039, the thermometer being at 50°. It is, I believe, a common opinion that skimmed milk is adul- terated with other substances besides water; as for example, chalk, flour, starch, sugar, &c. which are said to be used for the pur- pose of concealing the water, by communicating as circumstances may require a certain degree of whiteness, thickness, or sweet- ness to milk, I have made a number of experiments to ascer- tain the correctness of this notion, and I am convinced the opi- nion is not well founded. Chalk is perfectly insoluble in skimmed milk, and soon subsides when mixed with it, on account of its superior density. Flour and starch inerease the density of skimmed milk, but this effect is only temporary; for, not being soluble, they gradually subside. The high price of sugar, were there no other consideration, precludes its use; for 1 have found by experiment that it would be too expensive even if it could be procured at the low rate of four-pence per pound. Those experiments on the density of genuine and adulterated skimmed milk (already noticed), which were made at the tempe- rature of 50°, I have since repeated at 60° Fahr. with similar results, making due allowance for the difference of temperature. I have examined the density of a great number of different speci- mens of genuine skimmed milk, but have not found any of a lower specific gravity than 1-035 at 60° of Fahrenheit. All my experiments concur to prove, that in the neighbour- hood of Cork, genuine skimmed milk obtained under nearly si- milar circumstances, varies comparatively but little in its den- sity; and that the only substance used to adulterate this article for the markets in Cork, is water. Skimmed milk aud water combine without undergoing any sensible alteration of volume, or condensation. Skimmed milk Hh 2 is 244 Some Experiments on skimmed Milk, is of much greater specific gravity than water, and its density is diminished in direct proportion to the quantity of water added to it. On those facts, the lactometer I have made depends; it is exclusively adapted to skimmed milk, in which respect, as well as in simplicity of construction, it differs from the ingenious instru- ment of Mr. Dicas. Description of the Lactometer, ec. This instrument (as will appear from the accompanying plate) differs but little in form from the common hydrometer. Its di stinction is to be found in its seale, which is adapted to skimmed milk. It is made of brass, and consists of a pear-shaped bulb, at the top of which is a graduated stem, and at the bottom a brass wire to the end of which a weight is screwed. The scale begins about three-fourths of an inch from the bottom of the stem, and is marked 0, which corresponds with the specific gra- vity of the lightest genuine skimmed milk, or 1:035, distilled water being 1-000. The dots and figures which extend from 0 to 85, indicate ‘* parts of water in 100 parts skimmed milk at 60°,” as is engraved on the reverse of the stem, and has been ascertained by experiment. The instrument is constructed for the temperature of 60° of Fahr., a point judged the most conve- nient, as it agrees very nearly with the temperature of the milk brought to our markets during the summer. As all fluids ex- pand by heat and contract by cold, in using the lactometer an allowance must be made of 1° on the instrument for every 3° of temperature, that the milk under examination is either above or below 66° of Fahr. Thus the lactometer, which would remain at 0 in milk of the temperature of 60°, would sink 1° below 0, if the temperature of the milk were increased to 63°, 2° if it were raised to 66°, &c. And on the contrary, if the tems perature of the same milk were reduced to 57°, the instrument would then experience a rise above 0 equal to 1°, &c. This lactometer is made by Mr. Bennett, niathematical instrument maker, Cork, and sold in a tin case, either with or without a sinall thermometer. It is scarcely necessary to give directions for using so simple an instrument. All that is required is, to fill the tin case with the milk to be examined, immerse the lacto- meter in the milk, and observe the point at which it remains stationary after it rises. Note also the temperature of the milk, and, if necessary, make the allowance directed for expansion or contraction of volume. Before this lactometer was used in the milk markets, experi- " ments were made with it in the presence of the Mayor of Cork, Sir A. Perriere, Knt., the Committee of whom I have spoken, and other gentlemen, who expressed themselves satished with the ‘ — and an Account of a simple Lactometer. 245 the accuracy and delicacy of the instrument. The first morning it was employed in the milk markets of Cork, the Mayor, some of the Committee and myself attended, when the Mayor seized thirty-eight churns of skimmed milk, containing above 2000 pot- tles. The lactometer stood in most of it at 20°; the thermo- meter being at 58°, which indicated about one-sixth of water. In the evening of the same day, we again visited the very same markets, but found the milk in all of them so much improved that not a single churn was seized. Shortly after, a special public Meeting of the Farmers and Dairymen who supply the markets with milk was summoned, at which the Mayor of Cork presided. In the presence of the Meeting he made several ex- periments with the lactometer, which were deemed satisfactory. The Mayor then directed the Market Jurors in future to employ the lactometer in the milk markets, and to detain all skimmed milk, in which the instrument sunk 5° below 0, or the point which represents genuine skimmed milk of lowest density. This allowance of 5° was made to avoid being too strict, on the first use of the new instrument. Since the lactometer was first used in the milk markets, the skimmed milk exposed for sale in Cork has been materially improved in quality; and hence compara- tively few seizures have been made, though the instrument has now been employed above two months. Dairymen, who kave once forfeited their milk, now find they can no jonger water it with impunity, and are beginning to relinquish the practice. The same dairy farms, which lately sent milk to the markets in which the lactometer stood at 20°, now furnish milk in which the instrument stands at 0. Besides the evidence already adduced that water is the only substance used to adulterate skimmed milk in this neighbourhood, the fact has been repeatedly admitted by those concerned in the sale of this article. I have been cre- dibly informed that persons have been hired for the purpose of watering milk, and that in this way hundreds and even thou- sands of pounds have been annually pocketed. This fraud has hitherto been suffered with impunity, merely for want of some simple means of detection. It is every where so easy and practi- cable; and may be carried to a great extent without being per- ceptible to the taste or appearance, though it may be readily dis- covered by means of the lactometer, which is well adapted, not only for markets where skimmed milk is sold, but also for all public establishments where it is used in large quantities. I think it proper to state, why the scale of the lactometer has not yet been extended above 0, though a vacant space remains on the stem for this purpose, as may been by a reference to fig. 1, (PI. IV.) Fig. 1. The lactometer, Fig, 2. The reverse of the stem. Fig. 3, 246 Aln Account of a simple Lactometer. Fig.3. The tin case with a small case attached to it for a thermometer. Fig. 4. The stem of fig. 1, with the scale extended as it should be to 10° above 0. My design at first was to make the instrument so simple, as to afford the means of detecting water in skimmed milk, at all seasons of the year, without the aid of a thermometer ; an object which, with a little explanation, I think it capable of ef- fecting to a sufficient degree of nicety for most practical uses. As the lactometer is constructed for the temperature of 60° of Fahr., and every degree on its scale is equal to 3 degrees of Fahr., an allowance of 2 or 3 degrees below 0 would be amply suffi- cient for our warmest summer weather. For though the tem- perature of the air in this season is often much higher than 60°; yet the temperature of the skimmed milk brought to our markets, 1 have always found to be from 3 to 8 degrees lower than that of the atmosphere, owing to the coolness of dairies, and the effect of evaporation from the milk exposed in large surfaces to the air. The lactometer, then, in the summer season, should not sink in genuine skimmed milk below 0, except in cases when the weather is very hot, when it might fall to about 2 or 3 degrees below 0. In the autumn and spring, the temperature being much lower than in the summer, the density of the milk will of course be increased, and the instrument should rise in it from about 3 to 6 dezrees above 0. In the winter, in like manner, from a further diminution of temperature, there will be a pro- portionate increase of density in the milk, and the lactometer should rise in it from about 7 degrees to about 10 degrees above 0, or to the bulb. Now, I think, frauds could not be practised to any extent, in the sale of skimmed milk, without deteetion, if the lactometer, fig. 1, were employed, and a little attention paid to what has been given in explanation of it; yet, as the temperature is very variable in the different seasons, the use of a thermometer is very desirable, especially in cases where the lac- tometer is employed in markets. ‘The additional expense is only about four shillings, and the trouble would be very little; for the trial of the temperature of a single churn of milk, would furnish indications nearly accurate with regard to all the others. In all cases in which adulterated milk may be seized by the pro- per authority, the temperature of each churn should be carefully noted down; for too much attention cannot be paid to accuracy, wherever property is liable to be forfeited. The vacant space above Q), in the lactometer, fig. 1, should be filled up by extending the scale 10 degrees, as is represented in fig. 4, which will adapt the instrument to all temperatures from 30° of Fah. to 60° and upwards; each degree on the scale being equal By eee Description of a new Method of forming Crucibles. 247 equal to the expansion occasioned by 3° of Fah. It is not neces- sary that the scale of the lactometer should extend to 35° below 0, as in fig. 1. In some of the instruments which have been made for the markets, the scale has only reached to 25°, which seems quite sufficient. I have found a considerable degree of uniformity in the density of a number of specimens of new miJk, which I examined. I have made several experiments in the hope of being able to ap- ply a similar instrument to detect the frauds practised i in the sale of new milk; but I fear this is impracticable, because both water and skimmed milk are employed to adulterate new milk; and as the one is lighter and the other heavier than new milk, there would be no difficulty in so proportioning both, as to make the adulterated correspond with genuine new milk in density. Royal Cork Institution, Sept. 17, 1821. . LIII. Description of a new Method of forming Ceacailess By Mr, Cuartes CaMEron, Glasgow *. Tue Dutch have long enjoyed an almost exclusive monopoly in the manufacture of the small melting-pot, or clay crucible, used by the jeweller and silversmith. The English potter has hitherto failed in imitating those imported from Holland, either in point of shape or quality, in sustaining the sudden transitions of tem- perature to which they are subjected. In consequence of their superiority, they were an article of great interest to the jeweller during the period of the late war ; sometimes they could not be procured, and at other times they sold at five and six times their present price. ‘The English melting-pot was then in request from necessity; it is now entirely out of the market. About two years ago | was led, by a curious train of reasoning, to con- ceive the practicability of forming crucibles similar to the Dutch, by a simple method, that of moulds made of sulphate of lime or stucco, which would easily give any required form. I established a small manufactory of them, and carried it on * for some time; but owing to particular circumstances, I was obliged to relinquish it, after it had arrived at a state of perfec- tion. Having found it to be the opinion of my friends that the process should not be lost, I have been induced to draw up the following account of it for the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. For each of the different sizes of the crucibles, I formed ten or twelve dozen of moulds of stucco, burnt and powdered in the usual manner. For the first mould of each size, I formed a piece * From the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, of 248 Description of a new Method of forming Crucibles. of soft pipe clay into the shape of the intended crucible, and laid it with its mouth downwards on a flat surface, and inclosed it with a eylinder of white-iron, distant about half an inch from the angular points of the crucible, and about an inch and a half higher than its bottom; then mixing the stucco with water, poured it into the eylinder. When the stucco was sufficiently set, I removed the white-iron, picked out the clay, and dried the mould ; I then squeezed soft clay into the mould, which on stand- ing a few minutes, easily came out again. It was inclosed in the cylinder, and stucco poured round it, which formed a second mould, continuing to do so until I had procured the number wanted. They were then all put into a stove, and eemagirtely - dried ready for use. In the preparation of the fire-clay for the cndlides I followed precisely the same process“ used at the potteries, by mixing it with a very large quantity of water, and putting the whole through a No. 9 silk searce. On allowing the whole to: stand. ‘a few hours, the clay subsided, and in pouring off the clear water, I procured the clay or slip of the consistence of thick cream. On weighing a gallon of it, I found the proportion of clay it contained, and added sand to the whole, in the proportion of seven of s: seventeen of clay; I then stirred and mixed the whole c ‘when it was ready for use. I next took my moulds previously ‘dried, and arranged them in parallel rows on a table, and suc- vessively filled them with the prepared slip. © By the ime I had - filled four or five dozen, I returned to the one first filled, and be- gan alternately to pour the slip out of them, leaving a small ‘quantity unpoured out, which subsided, and gave the requisite ‘thickness to the Barton In each of ie moulds so filled, a cru- ‘eible is completely formed by the abstraction of the water of the ‘slip, in contact with, and adjoining to, the porous substance of the stucco mould. The crucible will be either thicker or thinner in proportion to the time the slip has remained in it. Five or six dozen will not require more than fifteen minutes in being formed, The moulds with their contents are then removed toa stove, placed on their side and built one above the other. In a short time, from the contraction of the clay, the crucibles easily part from the moulds, and are removed by introducing the finger into them. The moulds are allowed to remain in their situation ‘until the water they had absorbed is completely evaporated, when they are again ready for refilling, and will last for years. The crucibles remain in the stove until dry, after which they are ‘burned in a kiln in the usual manner. The process is simple, and combines the Be, ntapes of form- ing them with great facility, and giving them the required shape, — which - Phil. Mag.Vol. WULPL. 4 Fig.4. oD) rT =e i rill TU TOMO S Porters, 4% ‘sl - ; ? q . . ‘ A 4 | . ¢ , a rt h ‘ « nen, ] - F . * .* 7 « 4 ‘ ‘ % : > ¥ ® uv _ ‘ . F a , ” . : ’ - E | ee) , i , 7 ‘ 7 e “ 7 7 r * J ; 7 ‘ - > . ba ¥ ers f 7 : * st ‘ eNais i > ? hab dl ‘ “a ‘ d, * a nf Aty. j ie ad On Refraction. 249 which cannot be accomplished at once on the potter’s wheel. One man and a boy are capable of making from ten to twelve hundred per day. The principle is peculiarly adapted for the formation of a number of chemical apparatus, muffles, retorts, tubes, &c. LIV. On Refraction. By J. Reape, M.D. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — A VERY common experiment, no less interesting than surprising, is shown in lecture-rooms for the purpose of illustrating the theory of refraction. A piece of money is placed at the bot- tom of an empty basin, the experimenter retiring until the edge intercepts the object: an assistant then pours in water; the piece of money seems to rise over the edge, becoming perfectly visible and well defined. This experiment seldom fails to surprise the audience, handed down from one generation to another, even from the days of Aristotle; yet J am led to believe the real cause is little understood. Mr. Harris gives the following explanation in his Optics, page 25: “* Hence (says this writer) we have the common phenomenon of a shilling or other object placed in an empty vessel, appearing to be elevated higher and higher as the vessel is filled with water. Suppose the vessel empty, B K its side, and Q the object at the bottom; if the eye be at c, the object will be hid by the side B K, but by filling the vessel it will be- come visible and be seen at G; the ray QB being refracted or bent into Bc; and if the eye be so placed as to see the object at Q when the vessel was |. empty; while it is filling the object will appear to rise gradually in the line QG. Hence the piece of money appears one quar- ter nearer the eye than it really is: and on the same principle a river is one quarter deeper than it appears. QA: GA::4:3.” Independently of those experiments, there are insurmountable objections to this reasoning. How can any bending of the rays of light bring the object nearer to the eye? If we bend a piece of iron wire, we certainly shorten the length it extended ; but if the rays of light were so bent, they would fall short of the object : besides, if the rays were bent at B, on passing from water into air, a tube bent in the same direction should enable us to see the object ; which is never the case. However, it is unnecessary to bring forward more objections than the following experiment. Vol. 58, No. 282. Oct, 1821. li Exp- 250 On Refraction. Exp. |.—Having placed a piece of money at the bottom of a wine-glass on the table, | made the edge intercept my view ; on pouring in a small quantity of water the shilling seemed to rise; ] now perceived two images of the object, one at the bot- tom, and another floating at the top of the water, very apparent when the glass was a little inclined to the eye. This floating image was agitated by every movement of the water. To ascer- tain whether this image was the real cause of vision, I held the glass above my eye, and saw the image floating by reflection on the surface of the water, as well defined as if reflected from the face of a mirror. Further to convince myself that it is this float- ing image we see, and not the shilling at the bottom of the vessel, | brought my eye ona line with the image, and then gently lowering the glass, at the same time keeping my eye intently fixed on it, I saw the image by transmitted rays. Thus the floating image was seen by the eye, above, ona line with, and be- low the water. But it may be objected, If the image were at the surface of the water, why see it on looking into the vessel much deeper than that surface? This objection is answered by analogy with reflecting mirrors; for if we place two candles at different distances, although the images are both evidently formed and reflected from the same surface, yet they appear to the ob- server at very different distances behind the glass. Let us now draw a few optical inferences from this interesting experiment. Ist. We may infer that when we look through refracting media, such as telescopes, microscopes, spectacles, &c. we take our ideas not from the rays ‘immediately sent from the object itself to the eye, nor from imaginary images at foci, but frem images formed in the body of the refracting media. For example: In this ex- periment, we take our ideas not immediately from the shilling which is covered by the rim of the vessel, but from an image formed perpendicularly over it at the surface of the water, which, as already mentioned, can be seen by an eye above, below, and on a line, or iu the same plane with the surface of the water. 2dly, That there is here no bending : in this experiment the light passes in straight lines from the object at the bottom to the image at the surface, and likewise in straight lines from the image to the eye of the spectator; there is no bending what- ever. Exp.2.—Having procured from the glass-house a solid glass globe about two inches in diameter, 1 endeavoured to look through it at the window, but could only perceive a confused light, with- out any appearance of the frames or window; but on withdrawing my eye a few inches, I saw not only an inverted image of the window, but even the smallest fly became distinct and well de- fined. Could any person in this experiment venture to say that we On Refraction. 251 we take our ideas immediately from the object, and not from the inverted image of that object seeming to float on the posterior surface of the solid sphere? To argue that we could see better at a distance than close tu any object, would be absurd. Indeed it is evident from this experiment, as well as from the former, that we take our ideas from the inverted image-floating on the poste- rior surface of the globe, and not from the object, which is as in- visible as if it were placed behind our backs. When an oar ap- pears bent in the water, the image of the immersed part is one- fourth nearer to the eye than the rest, consequently it appears bent, or as if broken. Exp. 3.—When we hold a black’ pencil or any other substance ‘behind a cylindrical tumbler of clear water, when the pencil is close behind the glass we perceive a magnified image; on with- drawing the pencil to yet a greater distance, this image becomes more and more magnified, and tivo other images iaterally everted are seen at the sides of the tumbler; at yet a greater distance we lose sight of the anterior or magnified image}; the two lateral ones floating towards each other, at last form one well defined everted image at the posterior surface, from which, and not immediately from the object, we take our ideas, the object itself being per- fectly invisible. Rays of light diverge, instead of converging, in a convex lens ; neither do they cross to form pictures of objects, as generally believed. Should I be enabled to establish these as facts, I strike at the very root of optical science, which I am sanguine enough to be- lieve is likely at no very distant period to undergo as great, if not a greater revolution than the science of chemistry. From the earliest zera, when lenses were first discovered, to the present time, philosophers seeing that on emergence the rays formed a cone, and then crossed, laid it down as an analogical inference, that they also converged in the body of the glass medium. When we find mathematicians measuring the sines of refraction, with a ridiculous accuracy, we cannot help smiling at such waste of, time and trouble, when informed by direct and incontroyertible experiments, that nature and the philosophers were travelling very opposite roads, Although every school-boy on looking through his burning-glass, and every old woman through her spectacles, saw objects enlarged; yet the philosophers, instead of repeating the experiments, set about explaining their fanciful theories by the greatest absurdities, and it is looked on as a sort of sacrilege to call in question the opinions of a Newton. However, it should be remembered that in former ages the avros e¢y of Pythagoras was held in equal if not greater estimation, and that it is only 1i2 within 252 On Refraction. within a few years that the organon of Aristotle has given placé in our colleges to the nzovum organum of Bacon. Having formed the letter T on a sheet of white paper, I held the plano-convex lens immediately over it, when it appeared considerably enlarged in all its dimensions: on raising the lens about two inches from the paper, two inverted images appeared nearer to the eye, and floating on the posterior surface, forming a kind of circular appearance, in the centre of which the erect image appeared very much enlarged; at yet a greater distance from the eve, the erect image became so diverging and confused as nearly to be invisible, and the two inverted images coalesced and formed in one very distinet inverted image, which diminished in size with every increase of distance. It immediately occurred to me, that this union of these inverted images was the focus of the lens, and consequently that the rays never cross to form pic- tures. To prove this in the most satisfactory manner, we have only to give a circular movement to the lens held over the letter T, and we find the image will become inverted at the top and bot- tom, erect when at the sides. I next looked through the lens at a lighted candle; when close to my eye it appeared magnified; on slowly withdrawing my eye to about two inches, I perceived two inverted images around the erect one, which formed a brilliant and luminous circle, margined on the outside by bright orange rays, such exactly as we see in the circle of light before the rays are brought to a focus on a sheet of white paper : on now with- drawing my eye to yet a greater distance, I found this luminous circle, formed by these two inverted images, to diminish or con- tract, and when coalesced, they formed at about two inches and a half from the eye a beautiful inverted image of the candle: as the eye was further removed, this image diminished in size. Here we have two sets of images perfectly distinct from one an- other and cbeying different laws, the erect image magnified, the inverted images diminished by every increase of distanee. [I now held the lens opposite the lighted candle, and before a sheet of white paper ; at the distance of an inch I perceived a luminous circle, margined: with orange rays exactly similar to that I saw when looking through the lens at the candle, and formed by the lateral images : on repeating this experiment, any person may be convinced that there is no crossing of rays to form these images, as in fact the inverted image is distinctly seen before the apex of a cone is formed. Further to convince, I shall mention the fol- lowing conclusive experiment. Exp, 5.—Having held the glass globe filled with water op- posite a lighted candle, we find a well defined erect image formed 5; on placing the plano-convex lens immediately over it, the On Refraction. 253 the erect image becomes considerably magnified, and the inverted images are seen forming a luminous circle around; and, as the lens is distanced, they contract or coalesce into one inverted image forming the focus. This may be esteemed an experimentum crucis. The following figure may serve to illustrate this inter- esting subject. & a lighted can- dle; a,a smallierect image formed on the convex surface of the lens 7 by reflection,transmits the rays e, f, e +——\ to form the magnified image seen | ile by an eye at e, f. c,d, two in- a verted images formed by diverging “% rays striking and reflected from the ay concave surface, and travelling to g and A, forming a luminous circle, margined by orange rays. Dr. Herschel justly remarked that the greatest heat was beyond the focus or image; and I have found by repeated experiments that inflammation does not take place at the image of the sun, but on the crossing of the rays. The focus g, &, is produced by reflections from c, d, and therefore I would suggest the term re- flected instead of geometric focus. When we look at a book through a convex lens, the letters are not only magnified in all their dimensions, but they appear much blacker and better defined, and also much nearer to the eye. How could any bending of the rays produce these effects ? The inter- position of a semi-transparent substance, such as a glass lens, would undoubtedly diminish instead of increasing the brightness of the letters, if we took our ideas immediately from the object; but on the other hand, when we admit that an image is formed and painted on the posterior surface of the lens, this image being niuch nearer to the-eye would account for the appearance. I shall not enter into the subject of the identity of heat and light, further than to remark, that the heat is in all probability in a great measure to be attributed to the reflection of the rays from ¢ and d, and not from any separation of calorific and lumi- nous rays ; trdeadl the discovery already announced in your Jour- nal, and in the experimental outlines, that the prism has a ca- lorific focus, must for ever set at rest Dr.Herschel’s speculations ; and if I had no further argument in opposition to Sir Isaac New- ton’s opinions, this fact would be sufficient to convince any un- prejudiced reader that the solar ray was never separated by that great man. I am ready to admit that the calorific focus of a convex lens is somewhat removed from the focus of light. ‘The images at c,d, forma luminous circle, while the other rays re- flected at different angles, according to the augles of incidence, form 254 Process for preventing Ropiness in Wines. form a calorific focus at yet a greater distance, light not being converted into heat until it is reflected. In my next I shall endeavour to support Leibnitz’s Theory of Refraction, and shall give some new experiments with the prism. Sir, I remain Your obedient servant, Cork, May 24, 1821. ' ‘J. Reape, M.D. LV. Process for preventing and correcting an Imperfection in Wines, known by the Name of Ropiness. By M., Herprrn*. Rorinzss of wines isa kind of spontaneous decomposition which gives them a consistence similar to that of oil. The wine at- tacked by ropiness becomes flat and insipid; it turns yellow when poured out, runs in a thread like oil, and loses its natural fluidity. {t froths with difficulty by agitation, and disagrees with the sto- mach. This alteration, which attacks wines during their insensi- ble fermentation, is the more injurious as the alcohol already formed is destroyed to enter into new combinations: ropy wine, therefore, submitted to distillation, gives but a small quantity of. brandy, which is of a bad quality, and which has a taste so much the more empyreumatic as the wine distilled is more mu- cilaginous. ; Sat It is remarked that white-wines seldom turn ropy while in cask, but that they do frequently when in bottle. The remedy for recovering ropy wine, consists in dissolving from six to twelve ounces of acidulous tartrite of potash (cream of tartar), and an equal quantity of coarse sugar, in a gallon of wine heated to boiling. ‘This mixture is to be poured warm into the ropy wine, the cask is to be stopped up and shaken for five or six minutes, and then put in its place with the bung turned downward. After resting for a day or two in that position, the cask is to be turned and the wine fined in the usual way; but in- stead of stirring it through the bung-hole, as commonly practised, the cask is to be shaken for a few minutes and put in its place with the bung turned up. In four or five days the wine will be clear, dry, limpid, and completely freed from ropiness ; but as it cannot safely remain upon the sediment, it must be drawn off, after which it will not be liable to become ropy again. If the ropy Wine is in bottles, they should be emptied into a cask, ta undergo the preceding operation. : 4 * From Bulletin de la Seciété d Encouragement. LVI. On [ 255 j LVI. On NaprEr’s Rules of the Circular Parts. By James Ivory, M.A. F.R.S. Tue illustrious inventor of logarithms applied the whole force of his mind to the shortening of mathematical calculations. Be- sides his great discovery, he bequeathed to posterity some other contrivances well adapted to the end he had in view. Among these, his two Rules of the Cireular Parts, which alone are suf- ficient for solving all the cases of right-angled spherical triangles, are the most distinguished in point of usefulness. In our treatises of trigonometry the rules of Napier are repre- sented as enunciations so contrived that, by a particular classifi- cation and nomenclature of the parts of a triangle, they include all the propositions necessary for solving every case. They are held up as one of the happiest examples of artificial memory that can any where be found. Rules, entirely dependent on dex- terity of arrangement, cannot, it is said, admit of a separate de- monstration: they canbe proved to be just in no other way than by showing that they comprehend every result, and thus fulfil the purpose for which they were contrived. In the original tract* in which the rules were first published, the author no doubt demonstrates them by an induction of every possible case. But this mode of proof he was led to adopt, be- cause, not composing an express treatise on trigonometry, it be- came necessary to show the agreement of the rules with the writings of others. At the close of this demonstration he im- mediately indicates another and a more general one, which ex- hibits the whole theory in one view, amounting to this proposi- tion: That two theorems, applied either to the triangle ori- ginally proposed, or to one or other of four triangles reiated to it, comprehend the whole doctrine of right-angled spherical trigonometry. The invention of the circular parts merely en- ables the author to enunciate the two theorems with reference to the given triangle alone. It appears therefore that the rules are suggested by real pro- perties of right-angled triangles. The purpose of their inventor seems to have been to reduce trigonometry to the least number of necessary principles, rather than to collect a variety of un- connected particulars into a compendium commodious to the memory. The views of Napier may be applied to abridge the theory of trigonometry, as well as to exhibit its practi ical pre- cepts in ashort abstract. That this is really the case will better appear from what follows, 1. Ifa great circle of the sphere be described about either of * Mirifici Logarithmorwn Canonis Descriptio. the 256 On Napier’s Rules of the Circular Parts. the oblique angles of a right-angled spherical triangle, as a pole, so as to meet the side opposite that angle and the hypothenuse, both produced if necessary ; another right-angled triangle will be formed by the intersections of the three circles, which is said to be complementary of the proposed triangle. Every triangle has two complementary ones, according as the pole of the great circle is made to coincide with one or other of the two oblique angles. The relations between a triangle and its complementary, are reciprocal. They have a common angle, namely, that which is adjacent to the produced side. The other four parts are the complements of one another; the hypothenuse of one triangle being the complement of the side adjacent to the common angle of the other; and the third side of one, the complement of the remaining angle of the other. It is sufficient kere to mention these properties, as the complementary triangle is treated of in all the elementary books *. Let 4 denote the hypothenuse of a right-angled' triangle; a and J, the two sides; A and B, the angles opposite to a and J, respectively: then the following Table will exhibit at one view, all the parts of the proposed triangle and its two complementary ones. ; J. Hypo- . 53 Side. Angle. shane Angle. Side. Given triangle. b A h B a 1 90—h A 90—b | 90—a | 90—B ——— |§ ———_ SS | | | triangles In this Table the hypothenuses of the three triangles occupy the middle column; and each angle is placed between the hypo- thenuse and the other containing side. 2. Theorem 1.—In every right-angled spherical triangle, the rectangle under the radius and the’ sine of either side is equal to the rectangle under the sine of the angle opposite to that side, and the sine of the hypothenuse. This proposition is demonstrated in all the elementary trea- tisest. It is no more than an application to right-angled tri- angles of a general property of all triangles, namely, that the sines of the sides are proportional to the sines of the angles opposite to them. * See in Playfair’s Geometry, Spher. Trig. Prop. 20; or in Simson’s Euclid, Spher. Trig. Prop. 19. + See in Playfair’s Geometry, Spher. Trig. Prop. 19; or in Simson’s Euclid, Spher. Trig. Prop. 18, Now On Napier’s Rules of the Circular Parts. 257 Now if we apply the theorem to the given triangle and its two complementary ones, we shall get Given Rsin a@=sinhksinA triangle. | Rsin ) = sin Asin B Ist complem’ {R cos B = cos J sin A triangle, R cos h = cos b cos a 2d complemY { R cos A = cos asin B triangle. R cos £ = cos 4 cos a. The solution of every case in right-angled trigonometry re- quires an equation, or proportion, between three parts of the triangle, viz. two given parts and one sought. The total num- ber of equations required for solving all the cases must therefore be 10; for 10 is the number of different ways in which five things can be combined, three and three. Of these 10 equations five have been obtained: and thus one theorem, applied to the given triangle and its two complementary ones, comprehends half the cases that occur in right-angled trigonometry. In a spherical triangle, the right angle being omitted, Lord Napier gave the name of circular parts to the two sides and the complements of the other three parts, namely, of the two angles and the hypothenuse. It is essential that the circular parts be taken in the natural order of their succession in going round the triangle: and hence it is obvious that they are susceptible of no more than five different arrangements. In every arrangement, the two parts next the middle part on the right and left are called adjacent parts ; and the other two, which stand first and last, are called opposite parts. All the possible arrangements of the circular parts may be thus exhibited, each part occupying the middle place successively, viz. Opposite Part. Adjacent) Middle | Adjacent Opposite Part. Part. Part. Part. | 90-—h | 90—A b —_—|— 90—B | 90—A | 90U—A 90—A a 90—B | 90—h _—___ I0—h | 9O—A b a 90—B a | 90—B b | 7 | b 90—B | 90—h | 90—A b a One of Napier’s Rules is this: Rule 1.—The rectangle under the radius and the sine of the middle part is equal to the rectangle under the cosines of the op- posite parts. Vol, 58. No, 282. Oct. 1821. K k Now 258 On Napier’s Rules of the Circular Parts. Now the truth of this rule will be established by applying it successively to all the arrangements of the circular parts; for, when this is done, the very same results will be found that have already been obtained by applying the foregoing theorem to the given triangle and its two complementary ones. The two pro- cesses are equivalent. Napier’s Rule is not only true, but it is sufiicient for solving half the cases of right-angled triangles. 3. Theorem I1.—In any right-angled triangle, the rectangle under the radius and the sine of one side is equal to the rectan- gle under the co-tangent of the angle adjacent to that side, and the tangent of the other side. This theorem, in the form of a proportion, is likewise demon- strated in all the elementary treatises of trigonometry *. If we apply it to the given triangle and the two complementary triangles, we shall get Given {R sina = cot Btan J triangle. | R sin ) = cot A tana Ist complemY { R cos B = tan a cot h triangle. R cosh = cot A cot B 2d complemY f R cos h = cot A cot B triangle. ReosA = tan 4 cot h. These five equations, together with the other five already ob- tained by means of the first theorem, embrace the whole com- pass of right-angled trigonometry. The remaining Rule of Napier is this, viz. Rule 11.—The rectangle under the radius and the sine of the middle part is equal to the rectangle under the tangents of the adjacent parts. This rule is true ; because, when it is applied to all the possi- ble arrangements of the circular parts, it brings out the same five results that have just been found by applying the second theorem to the given triangle and its two complementary trian- gles. The two Rules of Napier, taken together, are therefore suf- ficient for solving all the cases of right-angled triangles. It appears therefore that the whole doctrine of right-angled trigonometry may be brought within the compass of two theorems or rules in two different ways. First, we may employ the two complementary triangles; and then no more is necessary than two of the theorems found in every elementary treatise, with- out any artificial arrangement or new denominations. The two theorems, applied either immediately to the data in the given triangle, or to the same data transferred to one or other of the two complementary triangles, will solve every case. Or, se- * See in Playfair’s Geometry, Spher. Trig. Prop. 18, cor; or, in Sim- son's Euclid, Spher. Trig. Prop. 17, cor. 2. condly, Oo On Napier’s Rules of the Circular Parts. 25 condly, we may employ the two rules and the circular parts of Napier. The two methods are fundamentally the same, and differ from one another only in form. In the preceding investigation only three related triangles have been mentioned, whereas the author of the rules employs five. It is to be observed that each of the two complementary trian- gles has itself a pair of complementary triangles; and as the given triangle is one of each pair, there are no more than two new tri- angles found in this manner, and these complete the five of Na- pier. All the five triangles will be exhibited on the surface of the sphere, if each of the two oblique angles of the given trian- gle be made the pole of a great circle; for the intersections of the two great circles and the three sides of the triangle will form five different right-angled triangles, the hypothenuses of which inclose a pentagonal figure. Every one of the five triangles has its two complementary triangles next it on either hand. The real principles of Napier’s Theory consist in these two things: First, all the five related triangles agree in having the same cir- cular parts ; secondly, if we take the circular parts of all the tri- angles, making a similar part always occupy the middle place, we shall obtain all the arrangements of which they are suscep- tible. Wherefore, since there is the same relation between every triangle and its circular parts, when the two rules are proved, by means of the proper triangle, to be true in any one arrangement, it follows that they must be universally true in every arrange- ment. The words of Napier, at the close of the demonstration of his rules by induction, are as follows, viz. ‘¢ Preter hanc probationem per inductionem omnium casuum, qui occurrere possunt, potest idem theorema lucidé perspici ex 19 et 20, precedentibus, in quorum schemate, homologa circu- larium partium constitutio earundem analogie similitudinem arguit: ita ut quod de und intermedia et ejus extremis circum- positis, aut oppositis, vere enuntiatur, de ceteris quatuor inter- mediis et earum extremis respective circumpositis, aut oppositis, negari non possit.”’ The rules of Napier were therefore investigated by means of ' properties belonging to right-angled triangles. They are a de- duction from a theory of considerable subtilty, bearing marks of the same deep and original thinking and profound research, to which we are indebted for the invention of logarithms. J. Ivory. Kk 2 LVI, 4 Re- [260° "'] LVII. A Refutation of Mr. Herapatu’s Mathematical In- quiry into the Causes, Laws, &&c. of Heat, Gases, Gravita- tion, &e, Is Mr. Herapatu’s a work, which, like the crrric OF PURE REASON, “ con- sists of one chain of closely-connected reasoning, and must therefore be wholly comprehended, or no part of it can be understood ?” Remark of « Disciple of Kant. To Alexander Tilloch, LL.D. &c. Sir, — Ix the last Number of the Annals of Philosophy, I am charged with propounding a “ new theory of collision,” in your Number for August, without demonstration. Whether it be ac- tually new, or not, I have not leisure to inquire; and perhaps it would be less trouble to establish its truth than to seek for other demonstrations to refer to. I am perfectly aware that it is not the same part of the theory of collision as that which generally fiads a place in treatises on Mechanics; consequently, I feel a wish to place it before your readers. The method I propose to take is different from that of pre- ceding writers; but a new view of the subject may be more satis- factory than an old one. / The proposition I have in part to demonstrate, is, that iz the direct collision of perfectly hard bodies the momentum before and after the stroke is the same, when estimated in the same direction. Let the bodies be perfectly hard spheres, A and B, and let these bodies be connected by a perfectly inextensible thread, passing over a pulley, so that the movement of the weights is not affected in any manner whatever by the friction, resistance, or inertia of the connecting apparatus. Case 1. Let the ball B be supported at rest, and lift the ball A in a vertical direction, till, when suffered to fall, its velocity at the extent of the thread is V. Then, because the thread is perfectly inexten- sible, the velocity will be communicated to B in- stantaneously and without loss. The bodies being connected, they would move in the first moment after the stroke with a com- 5 AV : ; mon velocity = AaB} 2 is proved by writers on Mechanics. But, if you suppose A to be disengaged in the same instant that it transmits the impulse to B, then the initial velocity of B after the stroke will be AV —_—— Ez On the Causes, Laws, &c. of Heat, &e. 261 For, since the active force of A is AV, the intensity of the force on the portion of the thread next to A must be AV; and as the thread is perfectly inextensible, and transmits the force without loss, the impulsive force on B must be AV, and its AV 3 momentum +> - Also, since A cannot, on account of the in- extensibility of the thread, communicate less than its whole force to B, it would remain at rest unless acted upon by some other force. Case I1.—If both the balls be suffered to fall in the vertical line of the thread, so that at the moment the thread is extended the velocity of A may be V and the velocity of B = », Then, the bodies being connected, in the first instant of mo- tion after the stroke the bodies will move with a common velo- city = oe 3 as is proved by writers on Mechanics. But, if you suppose the bodies to be disengaged, the instant the impulse is communicated, and freed from extraneous force, then, accordingly as AV, or Bu, is the greater, the velocity will be AYIBY. op AYSB! Sp ltgey Avani For, let AV be the greater force, then the tension of the thread cannot be greater than AV, unless there be a reacting force greater than AV; and since Bu is less than AV, the deficiency of reaction is AV—Bv. ‘Therefore, AV—Bvw is the momentum < AV—B 3 communicated to B; or ——~—— the velocity of B. B As this conclusion does not depend on any particular velocities, it is true when A and B are pressures; and the principle of col- lision I have propounded is a general principle both in statics and dynamics. . If the momenta AV, Bu, were equal, neither of the balls would move in consequence of the stroke when left at liberty; for AV—Bv=0. I have done enough to show any mathematician the difference between the theory Mr. Herapath calls new and the old one. I make use of the connecting thread purely for the purpose of as- sisting Mr. H. in seeing that the intensity of the stroke is the sane in Case I. as in Case Il. when AV is the same in both. He is well aware that it strikes at the root of his system, as it over- turns the conclusions he arrives at in his Prop. V. and Prop. II. Cor.2. ‘ His mistake is, in making the force of contact equal to the sum of the momenta. The force of contact cannot be greater than the momentum of the striking body, for the nature of the opposing force contributes nothing to the stroke, be it reaction or momentum, I can 262 On the Causes, Laws, &c. of Heat, &'e. I can assure Mr. H. that the rejection of his papers by the Royal Society had no influence with me; if they had been re- ceived and printed in the Transactions, I should have equally op- posed them. As far however as my opinion goes, the Royal So- ciety do perfectly right in rejecting speculation in physico-mathe- matical subjects. I believe Mr. H. when he says he has thought much on the subject : he has not however been happy in finding a correct so- lution of its difficulties ; and if he be guided by the axiom he has laid down at the close of his Reply, 1 am afraid he will long con- tinue in error. This axiom is, ‘* that it is impossible, by correct reasoning from false principles to bring out true conclusions.” The history of science affords too many examples of the evil ten- dency of a rule like this, even pure mathematics is not an excep- tion. Contemplate the doctrine of a second fluxion passing through infinity in the regression of curve lines; examine the mode of calculating the radius curvature; review the principle of ultimate ratios, and the mathematical doctrine of infinity. Mr. H. must for the present dispense with demonstration ; in- deed to one that attempts to instruct his brethren in “ the phy- sical constitution of the universe,” they ought to be unnecessary ; I did expect that the bare reference of the laws of collision to a well known dynamical principle would be sufficient ; expecting that “a word to the wise is enough ;”’ but should not the expla- nation I have now given satisfy Mr. H. it will be best to try ex- periments, or assume, which his axiom will allow him to do, that the atoms are perfectly elastic; and accordingly make the world of elastic particles. Iam, sir, your most obedient servant, No. 2, Grove Terrace, Lisson Grove. Tuomas TREDGOLD. P. S.—It certainly, would have been as well if Mr. Herapath had not published the extracts of letters he has thought proper to do.: Private grievances, whether they be real or imaginary, should not be brought forward in the discussions of science. If Mr. H. were desirous of weighing me down with authority, a few extracts from the Chemical Philosophy of Sir H. Davy, from Count Rumford’s works, or from Sir Isaac Newton’s works, would have been more to the purpose. The existence of an opinion, sanctioned by such names, rendered it necessary to prove, that there cannot be continued intestine motion in bodies consisting of absolutely hard particles —T. T. LVIII. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. MAsKELYNE’s 36 Stars for every Day in the Year (821. By the Rev. J. 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Theorems for the Summation of progressional Series. By Mr. James BENWELL. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — I HAVE to beg the insertion in your Journal of the fol- lowing collection of Theorems, being the algebraic expressible sums of the different orders of progressional series respectively enumerated and corresponding therewith. ‘The doctrine and summation of series is a branch of analytics, it is well known, which involves some peculiar difficulties; and the business of in- vestigation requires similar and varied artifices of computation to be employed, since of the methods and principles devised for the purpose, none of them can be so much generalized as to embrace a ready and immediate extension on all occasions indis- criminately. It is chiefly, or rather solely, by deducing the limits and sums of certain orders and forms of series, and by a compa- rison of the means used, that we are enabled successfully to ex- tend and pursue the same in any new track where the conse- quences flowing from their composition and resolution are least of all allied and predicable. The theory of series is one likewise not very characterized for the precision of its logic; prejudices in favour and against the metaphysics of it still exist, and prevail with nearly equal force, and these by time alone can be rectified and adjusted. bbe: Now, as preliminary, making «— 1 =», "| = 2”, n the number of terms of the series to be deduced;—then for the series 1420-'+ 52748473 ....(8n—4)x™ to n, terms, ] —7i —m — .(2r+1—3r ”)—(8n—1)e my M! , and this the general expression is by instituting the condition of vanishing quantities in the sense : (2x +1) convened usually becomes for the limit of infinity -___. v The sum of the series 1 4-2a7' + 707* +4 1503... .4(3n?—5n+2)0-™ S+v -—m —m v —m —.(r—2@ ) + r+ 0%— (3n+1)z, — 5 (Sn? +n)2 ay 18 vt Here the limit of infinity will arise when all the terms affected by m are feigned practically evanescent, and the same is to be implied of all the succeeding cases. Vol. 58, No, 282, Oct, 1821. Ll For 266 Theorems for the Summation of progressional Series. For the series 1+ hes +9xr3 2.2.5 (n?-+-n—2)a-", 1+ 2v —m v =m .(e—2) +v%—nz (0 +3n)e v2 Of 1+2a2-'+ 62-74 122-3.....(n?—n)x-™, 2 —m —m a (e-2) + Quz¢v2—(Qn42+v(n2-+n)v v2 Of 1 4+ 2a-'+62-7+ 1la-..... (nm? +3n—6)a-™, li (t—2) abt SME es = (x? + 5n—2)r Is SLA EE FT Megs re Of 14 20-'+ 72+ lda-3.... .(n?—2)0™, 2x —m - = 7 en) +1+4v2—(2n+ 1)e ™ ond + 2n—1)x v2 Of a-'+6x-7-+ Ls are tae Sp says Gea re a ay 4+v =n —n cn (r—z) ” —4(n+ })x —v(2n? + 3n4+1)r oO e ‘ v~ Of 14+52-'+102-7+ 16273... ee wee eon StS ern) n(o4 20) sah ” (n2+n)e v2 3 Of 1+52-'+ 16x2°+433u-4.....(38n?—4n4 l)a-™, 6 —m —m —m — («2—r) eee vi—r—(6n + 5)x ) —v(3n2 + 2n)x v 2 s Of 1+-7a-' + 19a? 4.37273... 266 .(32?—3n+ 1)x-”, 5+a2 —m oie =r a) By Sa—(62 + 3)" —v(Sn? +3n)r yp a Of 14 2a-'+ 91-7 + 240-3 45004 .... (m3 — m7) a7, Sr +22—1 —m v —m (r—x7) +2274 73—0—(3n + a (3n2.+ 7n +2 +(n3 + In? +n)z) Of 14+7a-'+ 162-74 272-3 .....(m*+4n—5)a™, 2 > —m —m —m —(x?—2) ” PUP 5r—(2n+7)x —v(n? + 6n)wx v v? Of Theorems for the Summation of progressional Series. 267 OF 14 22-"+ 101-*4. 302-3 + 68-4 .....(m3 + m)a-”, — (=e) ee vi—(6nx+v(3n2-++Sn)2” +0%(n3 +n)c) _—_—$—$<<— Of 1432-'+ 161-7 ++.452-73 ..... (3 —n*—n-+ l)am”, 6+4v —m —7 = eee +23 — vr —(6n+6+ v(3n?+7n4+3)e "—v2(n3+2n2)2 e vs Of 14 4a-" + 132-* 4261-3 ........ (2n? —n—2)a~”, 4x = og (w—2) 4 1+v°—(4n+1)x ™ _—v(2n2 + 3n— De” v2 Of 1+45a-'+4 13a-*4. 2525, 2... .(2n®—In-+4 1)a-™, 4r —m —m -7 4 (tr) + ur—4nx v(2n?+ 2n+1)x 9 ve Of 2" 4-39-4547 ooo. (2n—1)ax-", 2Qnv Pass 2 fet 1) v+ : Of "+ 2-4 327, .....(na-"), 2 +n 3 vt Of a4a-™ 4 Oy e@eeevecse -(n*x-"), go 2: gm niv+ = —(2n—1)— = = V. - ve Of a" 43a""+46a7......4(n*-pn)a-", 12" = (n’+n)+— —nr ve OF the series 2” + Sa-"4272~..... »(23x-"), n(n +1)?—3 Vi—(2n2-+-n)v°—3 + (3n—1)v 4-7" 4 97°” I Gada bu 7) a Sa Of 2” +907" +3607. ......(E(n?+n))2a-", 3(n2+3n + 2)°—W—(n+1 »: v OF a7" +907" 42507 ......(2n—1)%a-', v!(2n-+1)2%—8(nv+-2)"e—vta "+ Br vs of ea 268 Proposal of an Apparatus for Flying Of x” +6x! +2lat........(4u?—5n), Jetl xn nr m as Fa (x —1)+ vv +3v—2vr —8n—v(4n2+38n+2) 2 —_——————— Of a-'+-6a-? + 182-3 4+ 40a-+......4(m3 +n) x-, =i SFT? (pme) fot o—3(n-fl)e — — (8n?-+11n-+104 v(n3-+4n2- 5n-2))% uv ps. The investigation of the foregoing series could not well be given here, either wholly or in an abridged state, as that would necessarily occupy much too considerable space, though it may be remarked that the method adopted and followed is very compre- hensive and general in its application. I am, sir, Your very obedient humble servant, Aske Terrace. ° JaMEs B. BENWELL. LX. Proposal for an Apparatus for Flying by means of Moiion only, By A CoRRESPONDENT. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Tur study of aérostation has hitherto been rather a subject of curiosity or amusement than of any real usefulness. The great expense attending the equipment of such an apparatus, as well as the extreme difficulty, next to impossibility, of guiding it through the atmosphere, have all along operated as powerful obstacles in turning it to any useful purpose. To remedy the latter inconvenience, an ingenious contrivance has been proposed by Mr. Evans, and published in your Maga- zine*.. There are different ways, | believe, in which a balloon might be conducted through the air, were it not for the weight of the materials employed. One of the most obvious would be to have a set of vanes or sails similar to those of a common wind- mill or smoke-jack attached to a horizontal axis, which being connected with the balloon, and turned swiftly round, would tend to push the whole in the direction of that axis. The huge bulk of the balloon, however, must always encounter much resistance from the air through which it attempts to force its way. If such av axis with vanes as has just been mentioned, but dé- tached from any balloon, were held in a vertical position and turned round with sufficient velocity in the proper direction, it would, from the reaction of the air, have a tendency to ascend ; and if revolving with such a velocity that the disposition to ascend * Vol. slvii. p. 429. might by means of Motion only. 269 might just balance its weight, the machine would be suspended in the air. But it is obvious that a single vertical axis could not be properly turned by any moving power carried in a vehicle ap- pended from that axis; because such an appendage would soon acquire a rotatory motion in the other direction, This incon- venience, however, might be overcome by having ¢wo such axes turning in opposite directions; and their bulk again might be materially lessened by making the vanes of the one enter be- tween those of the other, similar to the teeth of two wheels. A more compact form, it is true, would be to haye the one axis hollow, and the other within it, with the one set of vanes above the other: but it is easy to perceive that unless the one were far above the other, the upper vanes would establish such a down- ward current of air on the lower, as to render them useless, or rather hurtful ; and indeed it is probable that even in the other form the aéronauts would always have abundance of, fresh air blowing downwards about their ears, Before speculating too far, it may be proper to observe that the whole scheme must still prove abortive, unless the apparatus could be constructed so light that a man, or other portable mov- ing power, might be able to do as much towards turning of the machine as to support himself and his own share of it. Could this be accomplished, I presume the giving it a direction through the air, even against a moderate wind, might be easily effected. For if the weight of the vehicle below, or the centre of gravity, were shifted so that the revolving axes might lean from the perpendi- cular a little to one side, the whole machine would forthwith en- deavour to wing its way toward that side of the horizon; and this apparatus presenting but a small surface to the wind, could withstand or move against it with little resistance compared to that on the inflated side of a bulky halloon. The difficulty of regulating a balloon so as always to maintain a certain height in the air, as well as the spirit of novelty and ad- venture, seem to have induced the generality of aérial navigators to keep at aconsiderable distance, greater perhaps than necessary, above the earta’s surface. This circumstance, however, is un- fortunately attended with various disady antages, none of the least of which is the greater rarity of the supporting medium. But the most serious disaster resulting therefrom, is the inevitable destruction of the aéronauts, if by any accident they experience a fall. Besides, should the wind suddenly rise or change, they may, though involuntarily, be wafted to the midst of the ocean, or dashed against the mountain’s brow, without either time to count their beads, or bid a final adieu to those they left behind. But the machine just described, could it be made to fly at all, might easily be regulated almost to skim along the surface, and by this means 270 A Demonstration of Le Gendre’s Theorem means serious falls would be greatly avoided. On the presump- tion that the machine could thus be guided along any intended track, it might perhaps be practicable to change the men at se- veral stages like coach horses. Indeed I should not despair of yet seeing some such method employed as the most expeditious for conveying the mail from one place to another. This contrivance is no doubt very inferior to the organs of flight with which the feathered race are furnished, and which enable them to traverse the air with such admirable facility. But it is still a recommendation, that it is free from any reciprocating motion, the vanes obviously acting during every part of their re- volution; which is a property entirely wanting in those un- fortunate artificial wings contrived to act in imitation of the birds; since such unwieldy wings are not simply useless whilst returning to renew their stroke, but really retard and destroy the flight altogether, as the experiment has uniformly proved. I have not yet attempted to compute the force to be exerted in supporting such a machine. This would be a task of some dif- ficulty as well as uncertainty; since our best theories of the re- sistance of fluids are still something short of perfection. It might however, to a certain extent, be compared with the forces acting in the common windmill. If the above scheme, which is perhaps as plausible as most of the kind that have been proposed, seem to deserve a place in the Philosophical Magazine, the insertion of it will oblige Yours, &c. Edinburgh, Sept. 29, 1821. VoLATOR. LXI. A Demonstration of Le GENpRE’s Theorem for solving such spherical Triangles as have their Sides very small in Proportion to the Radius of the Sphere. By Jamus Ivory, M.A. F.R.S. Ts E theorem to be demonstrated is one of singular beauty, and of great usefulness in geodetical calculations. Although many demonstrations have already been given of it, yet the one which follows may merit attention on account of its simplicity. The theorem is this: “ Ina spherical triangle of which the sides are very small re- latively to the radius of the sphere, if each of the three angles be diminished by one-third part of the excess of their sum above two right angles, the remainders will be the angles of a plane triangle that has its sides equal in length to those of the spherical triangle.” ' 2 Let r represent the radius of the sphere, and a, l, c, the i sides for solving certain spherical Triangles. 271 sides of the triangle ; then, these four quantities being measured in the same parts, as feet, yards, fathoms, &c. the sides ct a similar triangle on the sphere whose radius is unit, will be =, -, <, Suppose that A’, B’, C’, denote the angles opposite to a,b, ¢ re- spectively; then, because the sines of the sides are proportional to the sines of the opposite angles, we shall have these equations, . a . . . Sin — sin B’ = sin — sin A’ . a . , . Cc . , (1) Sin — sin C’ = sin = sin ASS Again, in the plane triangle that has its sides equal to a, J, c, let A, B,C, be the angles opposite to those sides; then, because, the sides are proportional to the sines of the opposite angles, we shall have asinB=JsinA asinC =csinA. Suppose A’=A+3A B’ = B + &B (2) C’=C + 2C; and, as the angles of one triangle are very little different from those of the other, we may neglect the squares of the small vari- ations: then, Tia ae ean tan A Sin B‘ = sinB ¢ ae ai Sin C’ = sinC (14 . a b € : ° Again, “2 Go» a» being small fractions, we may, with great exactness, suppose Sin — = a Tr ay Ai b be Sin Bo. w) Now, let me different values be substituted in the equations (1); then, (1 ) (14 a) = 40-4 BD, m—i-- =) C +25) = = mai sa) (14 ey and, 272 A Demonstration of Le Gendre’s Theorem and, omitting the mer factors on both sides of each equation ; Cae a3) a #)(4 2 0 B04 a tan A 3A =(1- a) (a3; tan A. and, by multiplying, and neglecting small quantities of the se- cond order ; 2B a es tA be ' ‘tanA 6r tanA 6? (3) oC az. OA ct tan C 6 ~ ta A 6r2° Again, in the plane triangle, we have a’ = +c? — 2becosA = oo a* + c? — 2ac cos B, a* + b* — 2al cos C: but, if s represent the area of the triangle, then 2s= de sin A 2 =acsin B = al sin C: and hence Jc cos A = = —~_: gh cos C = tan B ” —a? ae cos B a The values of a?, b*, c* may there- fore be thus represented, viz. ps SOPs Qs tan A? fees a? + 6?-+-¢2 fay 284 ity 2 tan B? ee a+h+¢ x Pome 2 tan C Let these v es be substituted in the equations (3); then B s 3A s tan B = Sr? tan A Tteuts ae Sr? tan B? 3C s 3A s in ! sttmA ana? StnC” and hence (2B - = aa) tan A= (2A — (2C— =) tanA = (0A — s =) tan B, Sre tion, viz. (4) $ =) tan C, Take the sum of these two equations, and of this identical equa- then, (2A — sa) tanA = (A-<) tan A (#A+8B48C——_) tan A=(2A— =; ) (tan A + tan B # tan C). Nows Change in blue vegetable Colours Ly metallic Salts. 278 Now, 3A + 8B + dC, is the excess of the angles of the spherical triangle above those of the plane triangle, or above two right angles ; and — is the area of the spherical triangle on the sphere whose radius is unit; and, by the well known theorem of Albert Girard, these quantities are equal. Wherefore 3A + 0B +8C—— =0; consequently, (A — san (tan A+ tanB + tan C)= 0. Because A+ B + C = 180, tan C = — tan (A + B); therefore, tan A+ tan B + tanC = tan A + tan B — tan (A+ 5B), a quantity that in no circumstances can be equal to zero. ~Where- fore tA — = = 0; and hence, by equat. (4), 5 oA = G2? s eh= 3,2? C= Consequently, = Brey 7) 3 ? i ahigl'h 3A+43B+43C BB tagmsr ee? iol maniialnoe? luotay Ss av __ BA43B42C C=C- 5 = C-— Jivory. LXII. On the Change of Colour in Blue vegetable Colours by metallic Salts. By Mr. J. Murray. W: had rested quietly in the belief that the relations of acids and alkalis to vegetable colours were uniform ; that the first class of bodies turned vegetable blues to red, or restored the ori- ginal tint obliterated by an alkali; and that the second class, or alkalis, restored the blue colour changed to red hy acids, or deepened the yellow and red obtained from turmeric, Brasil wood, &c. into brown. It was at length discovered that boracic acid produced the same effect on turmeric as alkalis would do, and I further find that on tincture of cabbage, and syrup of violets, this peculiar characteristic is still maintained. Vol. 58. No, 282. Oct, 1821, . M m In ‘ 274 On the Solar Eclipse of September 7, 1820. In a series of experiments lately made on vegetable colours, I discovered the remarkable fact, that subacetate of lead, nitrate and sulphate of copper, nitromuriate of platinum, nitromuriate of gold, &c. turned syrup of violets, tincture of cabbage, columbine, blue byacinth, &c. green; and that when these colours are even reddened by acetic or citric or carbonic acid, &c. the metallic so- lutions restore the original blue colour.. Boracic acid reddens the yellow colour obtained from Reseda lut., and so do the me- tallic solutions. It seems evident, therefore, that we have yet to learn the in- variable characteristics of alkalis and acids. We may attempt to cover our ignorance by a free use of the term anomaly, but I do hold that in the universe of God there is no such thing as anomaly. LXIII. On the Solar Eclipse of the 7th September 1820; being a Comparison of Calculations with some of the Observations made in Great Britain and on the Continent. By Mr. GrorGE INNEs. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Is order to compare the observed with the computed times of the phenomena of the late solar eclipse, I have se- lected several of the observations which have appeared in your Magazine, and in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, and made the necessary calculations for the several places by the Tables of Delambre and Burckhardt. From these calculations it appears that the tables give the time of conjunction too early, and the moon’s apparent semidiameter too great; as a less semidiameter would have made the errors of the tables, as deduced from the several observations, more uniform for the beginning and end. The results obtained from the observations of the beginning and end at Gosport, and of the end at Padua, differ much from the rest. Perhaps some error has been committed in allowing for the errors of the clocks, or in transcribing. !n calculating the time of the end for Plymouth, I have used the longitude given with the observation; but I observe that it is greater than any of those given in the Requisite Tables, as the result of accurate observations, for eight places in Plymouth. “ It is not stated whether the instants of the last five observa- tions are given in mean or apparent time, but from the calcula- _ tions it would appear that they are given in mean time. In making the calculations it will be found, that an error of 1” in the moon’s semidiameter gives an error of about 2”,98, and 2",64 On the Solar Eclipse of September 7, 1820. 275 2”,64 in the times of beginning and end respectively for England, and a little more for the other places, owing to their being in lower latitudes. I would beg leave to request that some of the observers, who, I doubt not, have paid attention to so important a point, would communicate the diameter of the moon, as mea- sured on the sun’s disc. The mean of the mocn’s apparent semi- diameters by the calculations made for England is 14’ 50",73 at the beginning of the eclipse, and 14’ 47”,42 at the end. By the calculations for the other places, it comes out about 1” greater in both cases. I am, sir, yours respectfully, Guo. INNEs. In the comparison of the following results of the calculations with the observations, the sign — shows the calculated time to be too early, and + too late. 1, LEIGHTON. Observed by Mr. Bevan; mean time. cians End. By observation 0% 18’ 46” 3» 10 28” By calculation 0 18 1,6 3 10 13,76 —44,4 —14,24 2. WooLwIcu. Observed by Mr. Evans ; mean time. Byobs. 0° 23’ '2”,85 35 14’ 54”,56 Bycale, } S022 248 “OS 14 3,348 - —_——— —33 ,36 —15 ,22 3. Busy Heat. Observed by Colonel Beaufoy; apparent time. By obs. | 0 22’ 57” 35 14’ 47” Bycale. 0 22 18,55 3 14 35,72 —— —38,45 —11,28 4. PLYMOUTH. Observed by Mr, Fox ; apparent time. By obs. 25 58’ 56” By cale. 2-58 19,03 — 36,97 5. Gosport OpsERVATORY}; mean time. By obs, =: 0"_-—«16”_ 337” ‘3h 10" © 6" By. cale,: 0. 17,. 27,71 3 10 26,06 +50,71 + 20,06 M m 2 6. Sr. 276 Account of a portable Apparatus 2) 6. St. Gai. Observed by Colonel Scherer. Beginning. End. By obs. "19" '8",05 Bycalc. 1 18 31,19 — —36 ,86 7. ZURICH. Observed by MM. Horner and Feer. By obs. 15 14’ 56’,6 4). 3) Ale a7 and Ly, 15. 4.0.09 4 3 ,A2,,67 By calc. 1 14 16,45 OR Pp ee '—39 ,15 +19 575 —43 ,94 —20 ,45 8. MILAN. Observed by M. Oriani. By obs. P22? 745 4> 10° 48’,7 By cale. l.21 | 29-59 4 10 33,03 — 37,91 — 15,67 9. Papua. Observed by Santini. By obs. 15 36’ 20’,6 4b 24’ 53",3 By calc. 1 35 49,3 4 22 47,88 eee —31,3 —2 5,42 10. Fiume. Observed by M. Bouvard. By obs. 45 34’ 87,6 By cale. 4 34 17 ,22 +8 ,62 LXIV. Account of a portable Apparatus for restoring the Action of the Lungs. By Mr. Joun Murray. To call the answering spirits back from death.” Byron. “ Forsan scintilla latet.” T rear the bellows recommended by the Royal Humane Society for the restoration of the action of the lungs in apparent death, is for restoring the Action of the Lungs. 277 is an instrument but ill calculated for that important purpose. it would, however, not become me to condemn: I rather wish to submit an invention which it is humbly conceived may be used with success. In No. IX. of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal is a drawing of the apparatus as perhaps best adapted for houses of recovery. Herewith [see Plate IV. fig. A.] is a sketch taken from a portable form of that invention as executed for me in Britannia metal, by Messrs. Dicksons and Smith, of Sheffield. The arrangement is somewhat modified in one transmitted by me to the Royal Hu- mane Society. In this there are éwo belts, at proper distances terminating in screws which fasten by means of nuts to a flat piece of board, and a clamp fixes the whole securely to a square table. The drawing now submitted exhibits two cylinders concentric with each other, the inner one three inches diameter, and the exterior one fowr inches, forming a partition of half an inch be- tween, which is supplied with water heated to 98° F. (the ani- mal temperature), to elevate the air included in the interior cy- linder to that grade. The piston is solid, and moves horizontally, and the piston rod is perforated to receive a metallic pin, which being checked by the plate covering the end of the cylinder gives us the means of apportioning the volume of air to the capacity of the lungs, which is to be determined by the victim of experiment being of tender age or adult. This will obviate the danger of rupturing the lungs. To the pipe proceeding from this cylinder is affixed a cell and cock, with an elastic tube terminating in a mouth-piece and plate of leather. The stop-cock is so constructed, that when the handle is pa- rallel with the pipe, as in the figure, there is a free communication established between the lungs and the cylinder, to the exclusion of external air; when, on the other hand, the cock is turned the quadrant of a circle, the communication with the lungs is cut off, and there is a free channel opened between the cylinder and the external atmospheric air. The lateral cell appended to the cock will be found of varied use and importance. Should the subject of experiment have been the victim of carbonic acid gas (choke-damp), a drop or two of ammonia will mingle with the atmosphere of the cylinder and condense the mephitic gas; and if a septic poison (as sul- phuretted or arsenicated hydrogen) have occasioned the asphyxia, a few drops of solution of chlorine or nitromuriatic acid will destroy that septic virus. Should the atmosphere be too dry, a small portion of water put into the cell will mix with the air, and impart additional elasticity; and if we desire an additional eee? a drop 278 Account of a portable Apparatus a drop or two of ether posited here will expand in the air of the cylinder, and this mixed atmosphere will act with all the conse- quence of nitrous oxide. These provisions, for various reasons, are valuable auxiliaries in returning respiration. The victim of suspended animation is to be raised ina gently inclined position opposite to the operator, the nostrils are to be plugged up, and the plate of leather fixed on the mouth as nearly air tight by means of white of egg, &c. as possible, and this is kept in its position by means of a ribbon tied round the head. The operator over against the victim manages uniformly and equably the piston. The apparatus being adjusted in the manner described, the air is first withdrawn from the lungs and then ejected laterally; and the piston rod being drawn to the ex- tremity of the cylinder (if adult), the pure atmospheric air fills the instrument ; and the communication with the lungs being re- stored by turning the stop-cock parallel with the pipe, the ope- ration begins. About twenty plunges of the piston in the minute may be the proper number; it will not be necessary to change the included air until natwral respiration is restored, because, until, this does take place, the blood cannot eject its excess of carbon, the consequence of the circulation of that fluid; but when this is required, it is instantly accomplished in the manner. already described. It is cheering to me to be assured that this invention has met the most unequivocal testimony of approbation from several emi- nent physicians and surgeons, and is pagiesk of distinguished mechanical genius. It has been used with great success on some inferior animals, The internal cylinder, one foot long and three inches diameter, contains 84:82 cubic inches, and about half of this extent will suffice for ordinary respiration, agreeably to the following caleu-. Jation in Keill’s Anatomy: ‘* By the rise of the breast-bone in: man and the descent of the diaphragm, room is afforded for 42 cubic inches of atmospheric air at every drawing in of the breath. A deeper inspiration will give room for more than twice this. quantity.” The following, deduced from the very interesting experiments of Messrs. Allen and Pepys on respiration, may aid in appreciat- ing the preceding observations. «1. The inspired air imparts none of its oxygen or nitrogen: to the blood. “2. The blood loses a principle, viz. carbon, which by its union with the oxygen of the inhaled air forms carbonic acid gas. «¢ 3. The watery vapour found in expired air is the serous discharge of the bronchial tubes, “4, The for restoring the Action of the Lungs. 279 ¢¢ 4, The blood derives heat from tiie decomposition of the in- ~spired air; all the latent heat of the oxygen -gas not being ne- -eessary to the formation of carbonic acid gas. «© 5, The dark colour of the venous blood is owing to its be- ing surcharged with carbon, and the bright scarlet colour of the arterial Llood, to its parting with carbon in the process of breathing.” It may be added, that the volume of the newly formed carbonic acid gas amounts to 44 to 8 per cent. of the whole elastic mass, which, however, is modified by circumstances, as Dr. Prout has shown: the quantity of carbonic acid gas is diminished, for in- stance, when mercury or spirits have been used. ; It is computed that an ordinary person consumes about 46,000 cubic inches of oxygen per diem, and that there are 20 respira- tions every minute. By far the most interesting remarks on the elasticity of the lungs, and mechanism of respiration, are contained in an excellent -paper by Dr. Carson, published in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1820, Part I. page 29, &c. This ingenious author found that a column of water of 1! foot high, was not a counterpart to the resilience of the lungs of an ox at their usual dilation. In calves, sheep, and large dogs, this elasticity is estimated by the pressure of a column of water from 1 to 14 foot high; and in rabbits and cats, as counterbalanced _.by 6 to 10 inches of water. Breathing, therefore, Dr. Carson very properly ascribes to an interminable combat between the resilience of the lungs and the irritability of the muscular fibre of the diaphragm. We have here displayed to us a simple but beautiful machinery, “ by which the heart and diaphragm, and perhaps various other organs, are as necessarily and as effectively influenced as the piston of the steam- -engine by the expansive powers of steam.” ** Two powers,”’ adds Dr. C., * are therefore concerned in re- gulating the movements, and in varying the dimensions and form of the diaphragm ; the elasticity of the lungs, and the contractile power of the muscular fibres of the diaphragin. Of these powers, the one is permanent and equable; the other, variable, and exerted at intervals. The contractile power of the diaphragm, when fully exerted, is evidently much stronger than its antagonist the resi- lience of the lungs; but the latter, not being subject to exhaustion, takes advantage of the necessary relaxations of the former, and, rebounding like the stone of Sisyphus, recovers its lost ground, and renews the toil of its more powerful opponent.” Thus has Dr, Carson given us a most interesting account of one of the most important organs of the vital frame. It bears the signet of experiment, and has in its features much that looks like 280 An Account of the Comparison of like truth. The continuous attacks of the exhaustless, though weaker, assailant rouse the more gigantic, but intermittent, re+ pellent energies of its opponent. It is a war offensive and de- fensive. Thus does the contest continue for life with equal suc- cess, and at its close remain a drawn battle. J. Murray. LXV. An Account of the Comparison of various British Stand- ards of linear Measure. By Capt. Henry Karer, F.R.S. &re* Tue Commissioners appointed to consider the subject of Weights and Measures, recommended in their First Report “ for the legal determinaticn of the standard yard, that which was employed by General Roy in the measurement of a Base on Hounslow Heath, as a foundation for the Trigonometrical operations that have been carried on by the Ordnance throughout the country.” In con- sequence of this determination, it became necessary to examine ' the standard to which the Report alludes, with the intention of subsequently deriving from it a scale of feet and inches. On referring to the Philosophical Transactions for 1785, it — may be seen in “ an Account of the Measurement of a Base on Hounslow Heath,”’ that a brass scale, the property of General Roy (and now in the possession of Henry Browne, Esq. F.R.S.), was taken to the apartments of the Royal Society; and, being there, with the assistance of Mr. Ramsden, compared with their standard (both having remained together two days previous to the comparison), the extent of three feet taken from the Society’s standard, and applied to General Roy’s scale, was found to reach exactly to 36 inches, at the temperature of 65°. It afterwards appears that points, at the distance of 40 inches from each other, were laid off on a large plank from General Roy’s scale, the whole length being 20 feet; and by means of this plank the length of the glass rods was determined, with which the base on Hounslow Heath was measured. In the Philosophical Transactions for 1795, it is stated, that Mr. Ramsden compared Ais brass standard with that belonging to the Royal Society, after they had remained together about 24 hours, when ‘‘ they were found to be precisely of the same length.” Brass points were then inserted in the upper surface of a cast-iron triangular bar of 21 feet in length, from Mr. Rams- den’s standard, at the distance of 40 inches from each other, the * From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 182], Part I. whole various British Standards of linear Measure. 281 whole length of 20 feet being laid off on those points in the tem- perature of 54°. By means of this bar, the length of the hundred feet steel chain was determined with which the base on Hounslow Heath was re-measured, and was found to be only about 23 inches greater than the measurement with the glass rods. The standard scale used by Mr. Ramsden in laying off the points on the iron bar, is, it seems, no longer to be found; but from the declared equality of both this and General Roy’s stand- ard with that of the Royal Society, and the near agreement of the two separate measurements of the base with the glass rods and with the steel chain, one might have been tempted to con- sider General Roy’s scale as precisely similar to Mr. Ramsden’s,” and as offering the best source from which the national standard yard might be obtained. The spirit, however, of the recommendation of the Commis- sioners of Weights and Measures, appearing to be, that the stand- ard yard should be derived from the base of the Trigonometrical Survey, 1 thought it preferable to proceed a step higher, and to obtain a distance of 40 inches from the iron bar itself, which could afterwards be employed in any manner that might be found most eligible. en In order io obviate the necessity of an allowance for tempera- ture, I caused a triangular bar of cast-iron to be made, of the same dimensions as Mr. Ramsden’s, except as to length. Gold “pins were inserted near the extremities of this bar at the distance of 40 inches from each other, on which were to be drawn fine lines, comprising one-sixth part of the length ofthe 20 feet bar. The apparatus used for tracing the lines on the gold pins, is essentially different from that commonly employed. ‘The cutting point is elevated by means of an inclined plane, and is then carried through a distance equal to the length of the line to be traced. On drawing back a part of the apparatus, the extremity of which acts upon the inclined plane, the point descends by its own weight until it wholly rests upon the surface of the bar; the mo- tion being then continued, the frame and cutting point are drawn along together, without the possibility of lateral deviation ; and the point describes a line, the length of which may, by a certain contrivance, be regulated at pleasure, and its strength determined by repeating the operation, This very neat and important in- vention is due to M. Fortin of Paris, and was communicated to me by M. Arago, whose liberal mind knows no reserve on scien- tific subjects. 1 have varied the arrangement of M. Fortin, so as to bring the cutting point under a microscope furnished with cross wires, having an adjustmeut, by means of which their in- Vol. 58, No, 262. Oct. 1821. Nn tersection 282 An Account of the Comparison of tersection can be brought to the line traced by the cutting point. This I consider to be an essential improvement, as no accidentat derangement of the cutting frame can take place without its be- ing immediately perceptible; and the apparatus may be con- veniently applied to the division of straight lines or circles, in the manner I have described in the Philosophical Transactions for 1814. The micrometer microscopes, used in the comparison of the different standards, were those employed in the determination of the length of the seconds pendulum, the description of which may be seen in the Philosophical Transactions for 1818. But as the arrangement of Mr. Ramsden’s bar, required that the support to which the microscopes were attached should rest on its surface, some other form of the beam carrying them became necessary for this purpose. A board was prepared of well seasoned mahogany, 36 inches long, 3 inches wide, and 2 thick, and an edge bar of mahogany 34 inches wide and 14 thick, was firmly fixed along the middle Pi it lengthwise, which most effectually prevented the possibility f flexure. To the extremities of this edge bar, and projecting hegiha them, the microscopes were fixed, their cross wires being about 40 inches asunder. By this arrangement, the very im- portant advantage was ensured, that the apparatus being laid on a plain surface, such as a scale, and the microscopes adjusted to distinct vision, on placing it on another plane scale, the object glasses of the microscopes would be precisely at the same di- stance from this last surface as they were from that to which they were applied in the first instance, and consequently no error could arise from parallax. A piece of very thin brass, usually called latin brass, was bent round the edges of the 40- inch bar, so that the upper surface of the bar was in perfect contact with the brass, the side pres- sure being just sufficient to prevent any change of position in the brass, unless when moved along the bar by hand. A fine line, about the eighth of an inch Jong, was now drawn on one of the gold pins at right angles to the bar, and a similar line was traced on the piece of brass, which was placed so as to cover the other gold pin. The intersection of the cross wires of the tracing microscope was earefully adjusted to this last line. Mr. Ramsden’s bar, upon his decease, became the property of Mr. Berge, whose successor, Mr. Worthington, kindly granted . me access to it, and facilitated my exatnination by every assist- ance in his power. The bar was placed i in his workshop on tres- sels, and its surface carefully brought into the same plane, which was ascertained by stretching a thread from end to end. The various Brilish Standards of linear Measure. 283 The 40-inch bar was laid near Mr. Ramsden’s bar, on the 12th of April 1820, and a thermometer placed upon it. Three ther- mometers were also arranged at equal distances along Mr. Rams- den’s bar. On the 13th of April I commenced my examination. ‘The intersection of the wires of the one microscope being placed on the centre of the left hand dot, the intersection of the wires of the other microscope was brought, by means of its micrometer screw, to the centre of the right hand dot, and the reading of the micrometer registered. In this manner the six intervals of Mr. Ramsden’s bar were compared in succession. It may be necessary to remark, that as the microscopes invert, the readings are to be taken in a contrary sense, the higher number indi- cating defect, and vice versa. Readings. | Thermometers. 1st interval. 29°5 54:0 2d 10-0 | 53°5 namie’ bar. 3d 10:0 53:5 Ath 16°5 | 5th 10:0 53:0 Forty-inch bar. 6th | 19-0 | Mean | 15°9 The difference of temperature of the two bars, being so small, may safely be neglected. The micrometer microscope was now set to 15-9) divisions, and the apparatus being laid on the 40-inch bar, the intersection of the wires of the left hand microscope was brought to the middle of the line on the gold pins, and the piece of latin brass was moved along the bar, till the middle of the line drawn upon it appeared in the intersection of the wires of the micrometer mi- croscope. The whole having been carefully examined, the mi- crometer microscopes were withdrawn. The tracing microscope was next brought over the 40-inch bar, and placed so that the intersection of its wires appeared upon the middle of the line traced upon the brass; the brass was then slid away, and a line drawn with the cutting point upon the gold surface. I had next to compare the distance thus obtained, with the mean of the six intervals on Mr. Ramsden’s bar. Nn2 First 284 ~ An Account of the Comparison of First Comparison. t The four thermometers being at 54°, the following readings were taken. | Readings. Forty-inch bar. 33°5 PRuSEe es ee ae Div. = (Istinterval | 54-0 Mean of Ramsden’s bar 36°5 refed oh 33:0 —— of the forty-inch bar 34°2 = |} 3d 27:0 —— 3 \ 4th 38:0 | Forty-inch bar longer 2:3 = | 5th 80:0 —-- ce L6th 37:0 Mean 36°5 Forty-inch bar 35-0 Second Comparison. Thermometers as before. Readings. | Forty-inch bar. 36:0 © = (Istinterval.| 54:5 Div. ee | 2d { 31:0 Mean of Ramsden’s bar 37:8 "= J} 3d 26:0 —— of forty-inch bar 35°5 3) 4th 40:0 abae ee & | 5th 35°5 | Forty-inch bar longer 23 ce 6th 40:0 sey Mean 37°8 Forty-inch bar | 35-0 Third oe oe tae various British Standards of linear Measure. 285 Third Comparison. Thermometers as before. Readings. Forty-inch bar | 35-0 = (Astinterval | 58-7 Div. 2 | 2d 30:0 Mean of Ramsden’s bar 39-6 = y 3d 31:0 of forty-inch bar —- 35-6 Ss } 4th 44:0 = | 5th 34:0 Forty-inch bar longer 4-0 ce L6th 40:0 — Mean | 39:6 Forty-inch bar | 36°2 By the mean of these comparisons, it appeared that the forty- inch bar was éoo long 2-9 divizions of the micrometer, or -000124 of an inch *, The preceding measures were taken from the middle of the lines on the gold pins; but as it was found that these lines were not quite parallel, this accidental circumstance afforded a method, of which I availed myself, to attain a greater degree of accuracy. The deviation of the two lines was obtained by measuring the difference of the distances of their extremities, and by the mean of six comparisons was found to be 16°8 divisions. Now, as this is the deviation due to the whole length of the lines, they will have approached each other 2-9 divisions, at about one-sixth part of their length, reckouing from their most distant extremities. This portion of the line being estimated, transverse lines were drawn, indicating the points from which future measurements were to be taken. On the 14th of April I resumed my comparisons. Conceiving that it would be preferable to ascertain the dif- ference between some one interval and the mean of all the in- tervals of Mr. Ramsden’s bar, and afterwards to compare such interval with the forty-inch bar, I now directed my attention to this object. * Each division of the micrometer is 34,3 of an inch. Fourth 286 An Account of the Comparison of Fourth Comparison. Thermometers 52°. | Readings. Ist interval 99-0 2d 78:0 3d 73:0 Ath 83-0 5th 82:0 6th 83:0 Mean | 83:0 15th April, Fifth Comparison. Thermometers 56°. | Readings. Sixth Comparison. Thermometers 56°. | Readings. Ist interval 107:0° 80:0 3d 79:0 4th 82-0 5th 75:0 6th 83°5 Mean 84:4 On examining the preceding comparisons, it may be perceived that the readings of the sixth interval differ very little from those of the mean of the whole bar. Readings various British Standards of linear Measure. 287 Readings of the sixth Mean readings of all] Value of the sixth interval. | the intervals. interval + or —. 37°0 36°5 —0'5 40:0 37°8 —2°2 40-0 39°6 —0:4 83:0 &3-0 —0-0 87:0 86:1 —0:9 83°5 84:4 +0:9 —0°5 Mean The sixth interval, therefore, is too short 0-5 of a division. This interval was now compared with the forty-inch bar, the thermometers being at 57°; the microscopes were transferred from one bar to the other alternately. Readings of the sixth|Readings of the forty- interval. inch bar. From this it appears, that the forty-inch bar is shorter than the sixth interval 0-3 of a division; and as the sixth interval was found to be shorter than the mean of all the intervals 0:5 of a division, the result of the whole is, that the forty-inch bar is shorter than one-sixth of Ramsden’s bar 0:8 of a division, or 000034 of an inch. I may here remark, that the differences observable between the results of the various comparisons of the intervals of Rams- den’s bar, may be attributed to the large size and imperfect state of most of the dots ; those bounding the sixth interval are for- tunately the least injured. Having 288 : On Shot Cartridges. Having thus obtained the value of the standard, from which the chain used in the Trigonometrical Survey was ‘actually laid off, I next Bess 4: to compare this with General Roy’s and Sir George Shuckburgh’s scales. [To be continued. | LXVI. On Shot Cartridges. By Mr. JosieH STEEVENS. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Ozservine in your Number for August a paper by ~ A Correspondent in India, on the use of shot cartridges for fowling- pieces; I beg to observe that I adopted the use of such cartridges in the year 1793, and myself and several friends have continued to use them ever since. From the year 1795 to 1804, they were several times taken to India by a friend of mine (who was a Purser in that service) : whether he consumed the whole, or dis- posed of a part with his investment, I know not: certain it is they were not returned to England. Cartridges containing both powder and shot were introduced at the same time, and in many instances have been found very advantageous, And as your Cor- a hese has omitted to describe the chief utility of shot car- tridges, I shall here describe both, and state a few out of many experiments made by myself and others for that purpose. The chief advantages of shot cartridges are, the prevention of the barrel from leading, and at the same time actually assisting in cleaning it en every discharge. It is well known that in order to make shot bright and handsome, as it is termed, a consider- able quantity of black lead is used, a portion of which is at every discharge deposited in the inside of the barrel, and so closely does it adhere that the ordinary mode of cleansing i is not sufficient to remove it; and I have within a few days seen a barrel so leaded, as to materially impede its projectile force, divert the shot from its rectilineal course, and deliver it in irregular clusters, leaving spaces near the centre of the charge at forty yards distance, four or five inches diameter; besides which, the lead from the shot, together with the deposit of the powder, actually so contracts the barre! immediately in front of the charge, that (although the gun has been cleaned in the ordinary way) [ have known’a sound barrel blown to pieces from this cause alone, which the use of shot cartridges would have prevented, Yet I do’ not consider them indispensable, nor have | adopted them generally, except where a quick succession of discharges is essential. ‘T he opera- tion of cleansing at every discharge is thus perfor med: the car- tridge which nearly fits the bore when put in, is enlarged by the “explosion ’ On Shot Cartridges. 289 explosion of the powder, and, pressing hard against the sides of the barrel, carries before it a considerable portion of the deposit of the last discharge, without allowing the shot to come in con- tact: thus lessening, instead of increasing, the fouluess of the gun, while it renders the leading of the barrel impossible. Giving shot a gloss with black lead is said to be useful as well as orna. mental, as it renders it lubricous, and less friction is the conse- quence: this however holds good only to a limited extent, as the foulness of the barrel by the deposit of the lead soon counter- acts the effects of lubricity. In order to discover whether an real advantage was obtained by glazing the shot, I fired fifty charges 24 oz. each of No. 4 shot, at a circle three inches dia- meter, on the balistic pendulum, at fifty yards distanee; the gun was cleaned every five discharges: fifty charges 2! oz. each of the old patent shot not glazed, were fired at the same pendulum, at the same distance, and with the same gun cleaned after every ~ tenth discharge. The number of shots put in the circle, were with the glazed shot 153; with the old patent 161. Fifty charges of each were then fired in cartridges; the gun cleansed only once in each operation, viz. after the 25th discharge. The numbers were, new patent glazed 159; old patent not glazed 169: the old patent had the advantage in projectile force iu both cases, as was obvious by its action on the pendulum. The facility of loading is undoubtedly a material advantage in shooting certain species of wild fowl, as almost all those of the pelican tribe hover over the first bird that is shot; and I have known two persons get four shots each before the flock has dispersed: whereas not more than two each at the utmost, could have been fired in the ordi- nary way. As to the shot getting into the touch-hole, it so rarely occurs (unless to careless loaders) that it is of no import- ance, Your Correspondent recommends thin paper. ‘The follow- ing experiments will, I apprehend, prove it to be objectionable: Some of the first cartridges I tried were made of whity-brown paper, and others of printing demy, as I had conceived it to be possible that shot confined in thicker paper might go in a lump, and not spread at all, I accordingly made ten cartridges of each of the following sorts of paper, viz. thin whity brown, printing demy, thin post, foolscap, thin blue cartridge, thick ditto, white cartridge, very stout ditto, and very stout brown paper; all of which were well pasted and rolled very close, each filled with 24 oz. No, 4 shot: the whole were discharged from the same gun, and not one of them went in a lump: on the contrary, the shot from the thick as well as the thin cartridges spread very similarly, I had then a quantity made by a knife- aud razor-sheath maker, of the usual thickness of razor-sheaths; twenty-were also wade Vol, 58, No, 282. Oct. 182). Ovo Of 290 On Shot Cartridges. of tin, open at the outer end :—not one of the whole went in a lump, but the spreading of most of those in the paper-cases was irregular, and that in the tin-cases very much so: several of them were deflected from the line of collimation so much as to be useless. From these as well as a variety of other experiments, I was induced to adopt blue cartridge, white cartridge, and brown paper. I have continued this practice now twenty-eight years, and know of but three instances of the whole charge going in a lump. I have now by me some cartridges upwards of twenty years old. When thin paper is used, the cartridge soon becomes so deformed and enlarged in the middle, as to stick fast in ram- ming down. Powder and shot cartridges are made similar to those of shot only, the cases being longer. The shot is put in first, then a wad of paper, and then the powder; the end of the cartridge is finally closed over the powder (by the head of the former), which is easily and expeditiously opened when used, the paper being too stout to be bitten off. I have found those cartridges extremely useful, having with these, as well as with shot cartridges, frequently loaded and fired with effect without drawing the ram-rod. ‘The only objection | know to powder and shot cartridges is, that if not used in a short period of time, say a week or two, or if taken on the water and exposed in a magazine on the deck (which for ready access has usually been the case with myself and friends), the powder becomes ma- terially injured. Having gone so far, I shall give a sketch of the former, and shape of the paper, &c. with the mode of making and filling; which however is perhaps hardly worth insertion, as it differs not materially from the former, &c. described by your Correspondent. The paper being folded into ten or twelve thicknesses, and long enough for two, four, or six cartridges, as AB fig. 1, a tin or wood pattern abcd is applied, and with a knife the paper is cut through ; the corners ee are cut off, being objectionable in the formation of the cartridge; the paper must be sufficiently large, that, when rolled on the former, the top al shall reach once and half, and the bottom cd twice round. The former is about 6 inches long, having a head about 13 inch diameter, as repre- sented in fig. 2. In rolling the cartridge, the former must fall short of the bottom about 2-3rds of the diameter, to allow for. closing. When the cartridges are dry, they are again forced on the former, and their bottoms again pressed on the closing nail driven in the rolling-board for that purpose. The cases are now placed in a block of wood having two or three dozen holes like a cartridge-box, and with a funnel and measurer filled very expeditiously, the upper ends are closed and hammered in with the Remarks on the Analysis of Spring and Mineral Waters. 291 the head of the former. The number expressing the size of the shot, the weight of the charge, and the diameter of the barrel for which they are intended, are then marked on the cartridge thus: ---. 4.e. No.4 shot 2! oz. for barrel *72 diameter. This is ----'| essential, as some cartridges remain in stock many years, and, although promiscuously mixed together, are easily separated. If the above occupies too much space to be admitted at length, please to make such extracts as you think fit. While on the subject of fowling-pieces, I beg leave to remark, that although numerous excellent sporting guns are produced ; yet no scientific principle has been laid down, on which to pro- ceed with a certainty of obtaining this desirable end. From a variety of experiments, I am induced to believe there is a certain ratio between the length of the barrel and diameter of the bore, which gives the maximum of perfection. Perhaps some of your scientific readers will favour the public with some observations on this subject. I am, sir, your obedient servant, Old Ford, Oct. 12. 182}. Jos, STEEVENS. ss h Lrg. /. o,— Section of the Former. LXVII.. Remarks tending to facilitate the Analysis of Sprin and Mineral Waters. By Joun Datton*. age I. cannot but fall under the observation of every one, that the health and comfort of families, and the conveniences of domestic life, are materially affected by the supply of that most necessary article, water. The quality of water is undoubtedly of great im- portance in the arts of brewing, baking, and various others con- ifected with the preparation of food; as also in the washing and * From the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man- chester, Oo2 bleaching 292 Remarks tending to facilitate the Analysts bleaching of linen and cotton, and in other operations where cleanliness is the object in view. Many of the manufactories are materially interested likewise in the qualities of water, and in the methods of rendering it subservient to their exigencies when it happens to be presented to them in an obnoxious form. On all these accounts I thought it might be of some service to offer a few remarks on the subject, which, perhaps, may benefit those who have not made the science of chemistry a peculiar object of study. Most writers consider the analysis of waters as a problem re- quiring great skill and acquaintance with chemistry; but the modern improvements in that science have rendered it much less so than formerly. It is true, that the variety of elements some- times found in water, and the extremely small quantities of them, are discouraging circumstances when the object of analysis is to ascertain both the kind and quantity of these foreign elements. They may both, however, be investigated without much labour, when proper means are used ; and, perhaps, a little practice may render a person qualified to undertake the task, who is no great adept in chemical science in general. Most spring water that is obtained by sinking some depth into the earth, contains lime held in solution by some one or more acids, particularly the carbonic and sulphuric acids. It is to these salts, the carbonate and sulphate of lime princi- pally, that spring water owes its quality of hardness, as it is called ; a very singular and astonishing quality, when it is con- sidered as produced by so extremely small a portion of the earthy salt. The other earthy} salts, or those of magnesia, barytes, and alumine, produce the same effect nearly, but they are rarely met with, compared with those of lime. When any earthy salt is dissolved in pure distilled or rain water, it imcreases the specific gravity of the water; but, in the instance of spring water in general, this test is rendered of little use, because the increase of sp. gr. is so small as almost to elude the nicest instrument that can be made. I have, however, an instrument, made by an artist in this town, which is nothing more than the common glass hydrometer, but with an unusually fine small stem, that shows the superior gravity of spring water. It cannot, indeed, be brought in competition with other metheds for ascertaining the relative hardness of spring water, but it is a most useful instrument in other departments of chemical inves- tigation, particularly in determining minute portions of residual salt after precipitations *. It may well be conceived, that the * The scale of the hydrometer is one inch and a half long, and it is divided into 25°, each degree corresponding nearly to “0004 ; the difference between distilled water and eommon spring water is usually about 1° on the instru- re 3; and that between distilled or rain water and the strongest lime water is 4°. sp. of Spring and Mineral Waters. 293 sp. gravity cannot constitute a test of the hardness of water, when we find that one grain of earthy salt, dissolved in 2000 grains of pure water, converts it into the hardest spring water that is com- monly found. We shall now proceed to notice some of the most useful tests in the analysis of waters. 1. Soap Test.—When a piece of soap is agitated in distilled or pure rain water, a part of it is dissolved, producing a milky li- quid, which continues for many days unaltered. But when soap is agitated with hard spring water, the milkiness produced almost instantly degenerates into a curdy substance, which rises to the surface, and leaves the liquid below nearly transparent. This curdy substance is understood to be the earth of the salt com- bined with the oil of the soap. It has a glutinous, unpleasant feel when rubbed upon the hands, and soils glass and other ves- sels so as to require hard pressure of a cloth to remove it. Though this test sufficiently distinguishes hard water from soft or pure water, it is not equal to form an accurate comparison of the hard- ness of two kinds of water. 2. Lime-water Test.—Most spring water, fresh from the well, will exhibit milkiness by lime-water; this is usually occasioned by the water holding supercarbonate of lime in solution; the ad- dition of lime-water reduces the supercarbonate to carbonate, which is insoluble, and falls down in the state of a white granular powder. When a spring contains nothing but superearbonate of lime, which is the case with the water of an excellent pump in this neighbourhood, lime-water is the only test waited to ascer- tain the proportion of salt init. Let a given portion of the spring water be saturated by lime-water, adding it as long as milkiness ensues ; the carbonate of lime is precipitated, and may be deter- mined by the usual means. I find it, however, rather preferable to add a small excess of lime-water to secure the precipitation of the whole acid: when the salt has subsided, the clear liquid may be poured off, and tested by an acid, and the salt may be dissolved by test muriatic or nitric acids. Thus the whole quantity of lime will be found; from which, deducting that added in lime-water, there will remain the lime in the spring water originally com- bined with the carbonic acid. In this way | find the SuPer cats bonate of lime, in five ounces of the water ‘above mentioned, consist of 48 lime, *77 carb. acid, 1°25 being about one grain of salt in 2000 of water. This kind of water is hard, and curdles soap 5 but it is much softened by boil- ing, and deposits the incrustation so often found in kettles, &e. If 294 Remarks tending to facilitate the Analysis If water contains sulphate of lime along with supercarbonate, the same treatment may still be adopted as far as respects the super- carbonate. I have recently found, with some surprise, that the surpercarbonate of lime, as I call it, existing in waters, or made artificially, is rather an alkaline than acid compound. 3. Acetate and Nitrate of Lead Tests.—These salts are easily obtained in great purity, and are excellent tests for carbonic and sulphuric acid, which they precipitate immediately in combina- tion with the lead. If the precipitate be treated with nitric acid, the carbonate of lead is instantly dissolved, and the sulphate of lead (if present) remains undissolved, and may be collected and dried ; from which the quantity of sulphuric acid may be deter- mined. 4. Nitrate and Muriate of Barytes Tests.—When the object is to ascertain the presence of sulphuric acid, either free or com- bined, these are the best tests. The sulphate of barytes is per- haps the most insoluble salt known. Even rain water collected from slated houses, though softer than spring or river water, ex- hibits by these tests one grain of sulphuric acid in 20 or 30 thou- sand grains. 5. Oxalic Acid Test.—When the object is to obtain the lime, either free or combined, in any water, this is the best test. It may be proper to add a little ammonia in some cases of combined lime. The oxalate of lime slowly precipitates in the state of an insoluble salt. The quantity of lime may be ascertained, either by collecting the precipitate, or by carefully and gradually adding the due quantity of acid and no more, when the strength of the acid has been previously ascertained. 6. Nitrates of Silver and Mercury Tests.—These are tests of muriatic acid or of muriates; the muriates of silver and mer- cury are formed, both insoluble salts. It does not often happen that spring waters contain notable proportions of the muriatic acid either free or combined. 7. Sulphuretted Hydrogen-water and Hydro-sulphurets.— These are excellent tests for lead, mercury, and several metals, giving peculiar insoluble precipitates of the sulphurets of those metals. One grain of lead precipitated by sulphuretted hydro- gen, would be sufficient to give a great many gallons of water a dark brown tinge. When sulphuretted hydrogen is found in mi- neral waters, as those of Harrowgate, it may be known by the smell; but solutions of lead are much superior tests, giving a black or brown tinge to such waters immediatcly. 8. Tincture of Galls and Prussiates of Potash and Lime Tests.—These are proper for the detection of iron, the former giving a black precipitate and the latter a blue one; but a por- tion of the solution of oxymuriate of lime requires to be added pre- viously of Spring and Mineral JWaters, 295 viously to the water, if it contains the green oxide of iron in so- Jution, in order to convert it to the red oxide. There are many other tests than those I have enumerated, but they are more than can usually be wanted in the analysis of ordi- nary springs. My object is not to give a catalogue of tests, but to show in what manner their application may be improved, and reduced to a system intelligible to moderate proficients. The improvements I would propose in the use of tests are, that the exact quantities of the ingredients in each test should be pre- viousiy ascertained and marked on the label of the bottle; this might easily be done in most of them in the present state of che- mica] science. We should then drop in certain known quanti- ties of each from a dropping tube graduated into grains, till the required effect was produced ; then from the quantity of the test required, the quantity of saline matter in the water might be de- termined without the trouble of collecting the precipitate ; or, if this was done, the one method would be a check upon the other. I shall now close this imperfect sketch by a few observations and experiments which I have noticed in the course of the present week relative to the subject before us. I assayed the water supplied by the Manchester water-works, and found it nearly as 1 expected; river water is most commonly softer than spring water, and harder than rain water. This is the case with the water in question. It contains a very little sul- phate of lime and some carbonate; but only one half of the earthy matter that the above-mentioned pump water contains. It curdles a little with soap, but gives no precipitate with lime-water, It contains about | grain of earthy salts in 4000 of water. When spring water contains supercarbonate of lime, boiling it precipitates the greater part of the carbonate, and expels the ex- cess of acid. Hence the jurring of pans and tea-kettles with this kind of water. By boiling the water it is of course rendered much softer than before. It may then be used for washing, scarcely curdling soap ; but it still contains about + of the earthy salt, and gives milkiness with acetate of lead. If a water con- tain only sulphate of lime, boiling does not, I apprehend, soften it at all. When spring water is used by manufacturers for washing, &c. it is advantageous to have it some time exposed to the atmo- sphere, in a reservoir with a large surface. This exposition suf- fers the carbonic acid in part to escape, and the carbonate of lime to precipitate; and in some degree supersedes the neces- sity of boiling the water. The more any spring is drawn from, the softer the water becomes, it should seem. I have this morn- ing examined a spring which yields many thousand gallons every day. The water is comparatively soft; it does not curdle searcely at 296 Notices respecting New Books. ‘ at all with soap: itis very nearly as soft as the before-mentioned pump water boiled. The hardness in it arises from a little sul- phate of lime and a little carbonate. One of the most striking facts I have observed is, that all spring water containing carbonate or supercarbonate of lime, is essen- tially démy or alkaline by the colour tests. And this alkalinity is not destroyed tili some more powerful acid, suchas the sulphuric or muriatic, is added, sufficient to saturate the whole of the lime. Indeed these acids may be considered ‘as sufficient for tests of the quantity of lime in such waters, and nothing more is required than to mark the quantity of acid necessary to neutralize the lime. It does not signify whether the spring water is boiled or unboiled, nor whether it contains sulphate of lime aloug with the éarho- nate ; it is still dimy in proportion to the quantity of carbonate of lime it contains. Agreeably to this idea, too, I find that the me- tallic oxides, as those of iron or copper, are thrown down by com- mon spring water just the same as by free lime. Notwithstand- ing this, carbonate of lime in solution with water contains twice the acid that chalk or limestone does. I fully expected the su- percarbonate of lime in solution to be acid. But it is strongly alkaline, and scarcely any quantity of carbonic acid water put to it will overcome this alkalinity. Pure carbonic acid water is, how- ever, acid to the tests. I could not be convinced of the remark- able fact stated in this paragraph, till I actually formed super- carbonate of lime, bysupersaturating lime-water in the usual way, till the liquid from being milky became clear. It still continued limy, and was even doubtfully so when two or three times the quantity of acid was added. It should seem, then, to be as impos- sible to obtain a neutral carbonate of lime, as it is: to obtain a meu- tral carbonate of ammonia in the sense here attached to the word neutral. —= LXVIII. Notices respecting New Books. Preparing for Publication. Ax Essay on the Strength and Flexibility of Cast lron; with Practical Rules and Tables for various Purposes in Engineering and Architecture; Remarks on the Forms of greatest Strength ; and, an Account of some new Experiments on the Strength of Iron. By Thomas Tredgold, Author of * Elementary Principles of Carpentry,” and of the Article Jorery in the New Supple- ment to the Encyclopedia Britannica. Mr. Gill, for many years one of the Chairmen of the Committee of Mechanics in the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, in the Adelphi, assisted by . circle Dr, Davy’s Ceylon. 297 circle of Mechanical Friends in this and other Countries, is pre- paring for Publication, A Technical Repository of Practical In- formation on Subjects connected with the present daily Improve- ments and new Discoveries in the useful Arts. From this Gentleman’s extensive knowledge and connexions, we have every reason to expect a fund of valuable information. The First Part is promised in January of the ensuing year. Miscellaneous Works of the late Robert Willan, M.D. F.R.S. F.A.S., comprising an Inquiry into the Antiquity of the Small-pox, Measles, and Scarlet Fever; now first published.—Reports on the Diseases in London; a new Edition, &c. in one volume, octavo. Edited by Ashley Smith, M.D., Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians of London, An Account of the Interior of Ceylon, and of its Inhabitants. With Travels in that Island. By Joux Davy, M.D. F.R.S. Ato. pp. 530. London, 1821. With the exception of the ¢ Historical Relation of the Island of Ceylon,’ by Robert Knox, an English seaman, who was wrecked on the coast in 1660, and suffered twenty years’ captivity, there is not a single volume in existence on the natural or civil history of Ceylon. Knox’s History has always been popular, on account of its simplicity of style and narrative, and the good sense and good feelings of the author; but his sphere of observation was necessarily limited, and the period of one hundred and forty years, which has elapsed since its publication, and the vast in- terest which the subject has acquired since Ceylon has become a British province, have rendered an account of it one of the most acceptable works that could be offered to the public. The present work has been drawn up by Dr. Davy from ori- ginal materials collected in Ceylon during a four years’ residence of the author, who was on the medical staff of the army. He has received the assistance of every one who was capable of aiding him in the information, and hence the work is enriched by many valuable contributions. It gives a full account of the history, geography, and geology of the island; its population, laws, lan- guage, and religion; the state of the arts and sciences, the do- mestic habits and manners of the inhabitants, &c. A work of this nature, written with the ability which Dr. Davy has displayed, cannot fail of exciting great interest; and to those parts which fall more particularly within the scope of our work, we purpose briefly to direct the attention of our readers. The Island of Ceylon is in the tropic of Cancer, situated nearly ‘between the parallel of 6° and 10° north latitude, and between Vol, 58, No, 282, Oct, 1821, Pp 80° 298 Notices respecting New Books. 80° and 82° east longitude; that is, at the western entrance of the Bay of Bengal, and off the coast of Coromandel. It is al- most two-thirds of the size of Ireland, containing altogether a surface of 27,77 square miles, and a population of about 800,000 souls, which is in the proportion of about thirty-eight only to a square mile. The character of the interior, as to surface, greatly varies: it may be divided into flat country, hilly, and mountainous; the latter district, in perpendicular elevation above the sea, varies from 800 to 3000, and even to 4 and 5000 feet. There are no lakes, not even a single stagnant pool among the mountains. Uniformity of formation is the most remarkable feature in the geo- logical character of Ceylon, the whole of which, with very few exceptions, consists of primitive rock, the prevailing species of which is granate or gneiss. The soil of the island is generally poor, but it abounds in ri- vers and springs ; the proportion of rain that falls in it is very great, exceeding three or four times what falls in England. In respect to heat or temperature, no tropical country is, perhaps, more favoured than Ceylon ; its hottest weather being temperate, in comparison with the summer heats of most parts of the con- tinent of India. Generally speaking, the climate is salubrious. The mineralogy of Ceylon is singular and curious; it is re- markable for its richness in gems, and its poverty in the useful metals. It is remarkable, too, for the number of rare minerals that it affords, and for the small variety of the ordinary species; being thus, in its mineralogical character, quite oriental, better fitted for show than utility—for pomp than profit*. The prin- cipal gems are the ruby, garnet, topaz, amethyst, sapphire, and rock crystal. Dr. Davy has bestowed little attention on the botany of Cey- lon, and treats very briefly of its animals (which do not differ from those on the adjoining continent of India); yet he has paid particular attention to the snakes of the island, which are neither so numerous nor so dangerous as they have been represented. Our author collected twenty different species of snakes, of which sixteen were harmless, Of those that are poisonous, the Pim- berah is the most remarkable. It is characterized by its great size, and by a couple of horny probosces, in form and curvature not unlike the spurs of the common fowl; the base of the spur is attached to a small bone, with a minute head, which is re- ceived into the glenoid cavity of a thin long bone, that terminates * The only metallic ores hitherto found in Ceylon are of iron and man- ganese. ' in Dr. Davy’s Ceylon. 299 in a tapering cartilaginous process. ‘These horny spurs are use- ful in enabling the snake to climb trees and hold fast its prey. «¢ This snake (says the author) is the largest species in Ceylon ; and the only one that grows to a great size. I have seen aspeci- men of it about seventeen feet long, and proportionably thick. It is said by the natives to attain a much greater magnitude, and to be found occasionally twenty-five and thirty feet long, and of the thickness of a common-sized man. The colour of different specimens that I have seen has varied a little: it is generallya mix- ture of brown and yellow; the back and sides are strongly aud rather handsomely marked with irregular patches of dark brown, with dark margins. ‘The jaws are powerful, and capable of great dilatation; and they are armed with large strong sharp teeth reclining backwards. As the muscular strength of this snake is immense, and its activity and courage considerable, it may be credited that it will occasionally attack man ; there can be no doubt that it overpowers deer, and swallows them entire. “ The natives have many ridiculous stories respecting this snake. They say, that when young, it is a polonga, and pro- vided with poisonous fangs ; and that when of a certain age and size it loses these fangs, acquires spurs, and becomes a pimbe- rah, They suppose its spurs are poisonous, and that the ani- mal uses them in striking and killing its prey. They imagine that parturition is always fatal to the female, owing to the ab- domen bursting on the occasion ; and that the males, aware of this circumstance, out of regard for the females of their species, avoid them, and choose for their mates female noyas.”” The most common of the poisonous snakes of Ceylon, is the Noya or hooded snake of the English, and Goluber nuja of Lin- neus. The natives rather venerate this snake than dread it, and will not even kill it when found in their houses. «© Frequent exihibitions are made of this snake in Ceylon, as well as on the continent of India, by men called snake-charmers. The exhibition is rather a curious one, and not a little amusing to those who can calmly contemplate it. The charmer irritates the snake by striking it, and by rapid threatening motions of his‘ hand ; and appeases it by his voice, by gentle circular move- ments of his hand, and by stroking it gently. He avoids, with great agility, the attacks of the animal when enraged, and plays with it and handles it only when pacified, when he will bring the mouth of the animal in contact with his forehead, and draw it over his face. The ignorant and vulgar believe that these men really possess a charm, by which they thus play without dread and with impunity, with danger. The more enlightened, laugh- ing at this idea, consider the men impostors, and that in playing P p2 their 300 Notices respecting New Books. their tricks there is no danger te be avoided, it being renioved by the extraction of the poison-fangs. The enlightened in this instance are mistaken, and the vulgar are nearer the truth in their opinion. J have examined the snakes | have seen exhibited, and have found the poison-fangs in, and uninjured. These men do possess a charm, though not a supernatural one, viz. that of confidence and courage : acquainted with the habits and dispo- sition of the snake, they know how averse it is to use the fatal weapon Nature has given it for its defence in extreme danger, and that it never bites without much preparatory threatening. Any one possessing the confidence and agility of these men, may irritate them, and I have made the trial more than once. They will play their tricks with any hooded snake, whether just taken or long in confiiement, but with no other kind of poisonous snake.” Dr. Davy made several experiments on the poison of the snakes ; whence he concludes that there are only two snakes at Ceylon, the hooded snake and the tic- polonga, whose bite is likely to prove fate] to man. There is another animal in Ceylon, less dreaded but much more troublesome, and the cause of the loss of more lives than the snakes. This is the Ceylon leech :— € This animal varies much in its dimensions ; ; the largest are seldom more than half an inch long, in a state of rest ; ; the small- est are minute indeed. It is broadest behind, and tapers to- wards the forepart; above, it is roundish ; helow, flat. Its co- Jour varies from brown to light brown ; it is more generally the latter, and rarely dark brown. It is marked with three longi- tudinal light yellow lines, extending from one extremity to the other; one dorsal and central, two others lateral. ‘The substance of the animal is nearly semi-transparent, and, in consequence, its internal structure may be seen pretty distinctly. A canal ap- pears to exteud centrically the whole length of the body, arising from a crucial mouth at the smaller extremity, and terminating in a small circular anus at the broader extremity, on each side of which are two light spots, “<¢ This leech is a very active animal; it moves with consider- able rapidity ; and it is said occasionally to spring. Its pow- ers of contraction and extension are very great; when fully extended, it is like a fine cord, and its point is so sharp that it readily makes its way through very small openings. It is sup- posed to have an acute sense of smelling ; for no sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, than they appear to crowd | eagerly to the spot from all quarters. «< This animal is peculiar to those parts of Ceylon which are - subject Dr. Davy’s Ceylon. 20) subject to frequent showers ; and, consequently, it is unknown in those districts that have along dry season. It is most abun- dant among the mountains,—not on the highest ranges, where the temperature appears to be too low for it, but on those not exceeding two or three thousand feet above the level of the sea. Tt delights in shady damp places, and is to be seen on moist leaves and stones more frequently than in water. In dry weather it retires into the close damp jungle, and only in rainy weather quits its cover, and infests the pathways and roads and open parts of the country. «¢ Whether it is found in any other country than Ceylon is not quite certain; perhaps the leech of the mountainous parts of Sumatra, noticed in Mr. Marsden’s History of that island, is si- milar to it; and itis not unlikely that it occurs amongst the damp and wooded hills of the south of India. Those who have had no experience of these animals, of their immense numbers in their favourite haunts, of their activity, keen appetite, and love of blood, can have no idea of the kind and extent of annoy- ance they are to travellers in the interior, of which they may be truly said to be the plague. Jn rainy weather, it is almost shock- ing to see the legs of men on a long march, thickly beset with them gorged with blood, aud the blood trickling down in streams. It might be supposed that there would be little difficulty in keep- ing them off: this is a very mistaken notion, for they crowd to the attack, and fasten on, quicker than they can be removed. I do not exaggerate when [ say that I have occasionally seen at least fifty on a person atatime. Their bites, too, are much more troublesome than could be imagined, being very apt to fes- ter and become sores ; and, in persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into exteusive ulcers, that in too many instances have occasioned the loss of limb, and even of life.” In the sciences the Singalese have made scarcely any progress; but in the arts, particularly those of an ornamental kind, their attainments are considerable. Of these, Painting is the least advanced ; for they are still without any knowledge of perspec- tive. In Statuary they have been more successful. As in An- cient Greece, their religion offers a never-failing subject, and every temple affords employment. Boodhoo is the common sub- ject of their statuaries, and figures of him of all sizes are to be seen in their temples. In the art of Casting, too, the Singalese exhibit considerable skill. Their taste is however best displayed in their jewellery, which would be admired even in this country, and, Dr. D. thinks, not very easily imitated. It is generally remarked, that the ruder the method employed in any country for the reduction of iron, the better the quality of the metal is. The observation holds good in Ceylon ; their pro- cess 302 Royal Institution of Cornwatl. cess of smelting iron is remarkable for its simplicity. The most complete Singalese smelting-house which Dr. D. had an oppor- tunity of seeing, consisted of two small furnaces under a thatched shed. The Singalese blacksmith is in the exercise of his art far from being unskilful ; he is perhaps (says Dr. D.) on a par with the common country blacksmith in any part of Europe. The preparing of saltpetre and the manufacture of gunpowder are arts which the Singalese have for many years constantly practised. According to their own account, they first learnt from the a eae the use of fire-arms and the art of making them, and of manufacturing gunpowder, of both which they were com- pletely ignorant before they had intercourse with Europeans. LXIX. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL INSTITUTION OF CORNWALL. Ax the Third Annual Meeting of this Institution, on the 27th of August last, the Council reported that the Museum has been enriched by many valuable presents during the past year; they notice particularly the present of an Egyptian Isis from the noble President, Viscount Exmouth. his statue was for a vast num- ber of years in the family of Elfi Bey, and presented by the Bri- tish Consul at Alexandria to His Lordship. The Council have recommended to the Society the appropria~ tion of a room for the exhibition of paintings and drawings, to which artists should be invited to send their productions. And at another Anniversary they hope the Society will be able to carry into effect a plan for offering premiums for papers on literary or Scientific suljects, or for improvements in the various arts and manufactures of the County. It will, they conceive, be attended with very advantageous effects to the Institution, and, they flatter themselves, prove eventually beneficial to the County: : if in no other way, by calling forth talent, latent only for want of a sti- mulus to excite it to exertion. From the members of the Institution the Council hope that many original communications may be expected, on the numerous in- teresting phznomena which this County exhibits. To the ad- mirers of Chemistry a very wide field is presented by the numerous minerals of this County, many of which have never been analysed, and others only hastily, and at a distance from their localities. In concluding their Report, the Council made a strong appeal to the County ‘at large on behalf of an Institution which em- braces so wide a sphere of usefulness. ¢* Shall Cornwall,” they say, “ that part which, of all the British dominions, depends. most upon 303 upon the practical application of science for the. successful pro- secution of its important interests, be the most backward ia support of an Institution whose principal object is the diffusion of Science? Tothe Miner, what can be of more importance than that knowledge which may eventually tend to lessen the present uncertainty of his researches? or more desirable, than improve- ments in the various and complicated machinery by means of which he raises his ore from the bowels of the earth, and fits it for the purposes of Art? © To the Naturalist, to the Botanist, to the admirer of Nature in her rudest forms, Cornwall presents a most interesting field ; and among our barrows, hill-castles, and cromlechs, the Antiquary may find no slight traces of the Ancient Britons, who amongst the wild fastnesses of Cornwall and of Wales long retained their native freedom, and where the Druids practised the dreadful rites of their bloody superstition. ‘¢ The Painter will remember that Cornwall was the birth-place of an Opie; and may not some future Opie want but the foster- ing stimulus of such a Society as this to call his talents forth ?” Immediately after the rising of the Annual Meeting, the Secre- tary received a letter from T. Vivian, Esq. accompanying copies in alabaster of the most celebrated ancient and modern statues. 7 Surry Institution. SURRY INSTITUTION,, 182]. The following Courses of Lectures will be delivered in the en- suing Season : 1. On Painting, by C. F. Pack, Esq. ; to commence on Fri- day the 2d of November, at Seven o’clock in the Evening pre- cisely, and to be continued on each succeeding Friday. 2. On the Elements of Chemical Science, by John Murray, Esq., F.L.S. M.W.S., &c.; to commence on Tuesday, the 6th of November, and to be continued on each succeeding Tuesday at the same hour. 3. On Music, by W. Crotch, Mus. D. Professor of Music in the University of Oxford; and, 4. On Natural Philosophy, ‘by Charles Frederick Partington, Esq. ; Parly.i in 1822. ASTATIC SOCIETY. ' Ata Meeting of this Society held at Calcutta on the 17th of February, an Account of the ‘l'rigonometrical and Astronomical Operations for determining the heights and positions of the prin- cipal peaks of the Himalaya Mountains, situated between the la- titudes of 31° 53’ 10” and 30° 18’ 30” north, and the longitudes of 77° 34’ 04” and 79° 57’ 22” east, by Captain J. A. Hodgson, th 304 Asiatic Society. 10th regt. N.{., and Lieutenant J. D. Herbert, Sth regt. N. 1, was laid before the Society at this Meeting. This paper is arranged under the following heads : 1. A general introductory account of the origin and progress of the Survey, of the nature of the country, of the instruments made use of, and of the modes of calculation. 2. Table of the latitudes of five principal Trigonometrical Stations observed with the reflecting circle and circular astronos mical instrument 3 containing the results of 122 crossed obser- vations of the sun and stars on both sides of the zenith, at the station near Seharunpore, in the plains of the Doab, and of 177 on the mountain station of the Chour, of 61 at the Fort of Bai- raut, of 32 at Soorkurda, and of 28 at Wartoo, which three last stations are also on lofty mountains. 3. The longitude of the lst meridian of the Survey, deduced from 24 immersions and emersions of Jupiter’s first satellite, ob- served with Dollond’s achromatic refracting telescope, of 42 inches distance, at the station near Seharunpore, or reduced to it. 4.A general account of the measurement of a base line of 217,48 feet in the Deyrah Doon, with explanations of the me- thods, instruments, and apparatus constructed for the purpose, and drawings of the same; and an. account of the small and primary triangulation proceeding from the measured base to connect the stations of Seharunpore, the Choor Biraut, Soor- kunda and Budragh. And a table of the lines and angles of the 39 small triangles, arranged in columns under the following heads of data: Angles observed at the three stations.—Angles reduced to the centre.— Angles for calculation.— Logarithmic lines.— Loga- rithms of the sides.—Length of the sides in feet. 5. A similar table of 121 great triangles, showing the distances of other Trigonometrical Stations, and of snowy and other moun- tains and principal points. 6. Table exhibiting the heights above the sea of 38 snowy peaks, the columns containing the following data: Names of stations.—Altitudes observed therefrom.—Are of dstances to the observed peak.—Corrected elevation. — Tangent of the same.—Distance in feet.—Logarithm.—Logarithmie di- stance in feet.—Difference of level in feet.—Height of the ob- served peak above the sea. The highest of the snowy peaks within the limits of the Survey appears to be 25,589 feet, and the lowest 16,043 feet aboye the sea; and there are 20 peaks more elevated than Chimborazo, the most lofty summit of the Andes. 7. Paper supplementary to the last, showing how to deduce satisfactory Bust of Dr. Hutton. 305 satisfactory mean values of the heights of the stations of observa- tion, with notices on the terrestrial refraction, founded on reci- procally observed elevations and depressions. ‘This, where one of the stations is on the plains at the height of 853 feet above the sea, and the others observed from it are from 6,500 to 11,500 feet above it, appears on the mean to be ]-11 19 of the are; but when the lower station is 7,000 feet above the sea and the higher about 14,000, the refraction is on the mean 1-16 81 of the are. To which is added a note of the Azimuth of the prin- cipal stations. : 8. Latitudes, Longitudes, and Elevations ef the stations of observation, and of snowy and other remarkable mountains and principal places. 9. APPENDIX, containing geodesic Calculations and Investiga- tions, with twelve tables for facilitating the calculations, within the limits of the Survey, and explanations of their uses. 10. Complete detail of the measuresment of each portion of the base line. 11. Plan of the small triangles. ; 12. Plan of the great triangles, comprehending also the small triangulation. The Meeting determined that this elaborate and valuable pa- per should be printed in the 15th volume of the Researches, the 14th volume being now nearly completed. LXX. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles, BUST OF DR. HUTTON. A SUBSCRIPTION has been opened for a Bust of Charles Hutton, LL.D. F.R.S. &c. &c. to be executed in marble by Mr, Se- bastian Gahagan. This bust is intended as a mark of high respect and veneration for the character of Dr. Hutton, and as a tribute of gratitude for his impertant labours in the advancement and diffusion of mathe- matical learning during the long period of sixty years :—a period which will be memorable in the history of science, on account of his meritorious services both as an Author and Teacher. As an Author, it is well known that his numerous publications have been uniformly held in the greatest estimation, and that even his earliest productions continue as standard works of increasing popularity in every country where the English language is under- stood. His persevering exertions also, as the conductor of sci- entific journals, during the above period, have had the most powerful effect in exciting emulation, increasing the number of Vo}. 58, No, 282. Ocf. 1821. Q) 4 able 306 New Shower Bath. able mathematicians, and thus greatly enlarging the boundaries of useful science. As a Teacher, too, his labours have been singularly success- ful, especially as Professor of Mathematics for nearly forty years in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; an Institution which, by his judicious plaus and unremitting care, he raised to the highest degree of celebrity and national importance. To his instructions, indeed, and his improvements in Military Science, his country is deeply indebted for the superiority and success of the British Artillery and Engineers, in every part of the world, for the last half eentury. Such are the important objects to which Dr. Hutton has con- stantly devoted his valuable time and talents: and such are his well-founded claims to the gratitude and admiration of every lover of science,—claims which must ensure to him the lasting fame of having been one of the most efficient promoters of ma- thematical knowledge in any.age or country; especially in im- proving and simplifying those sciences which are conducive to great public utility. 4 And here it must be gratifying to add, that this extraordinary man, though now in his eighty-fifth year, is still an ardent, and occasionally an active promoter of Science. *,.* Subseriptions (which are limited to one pound each) are received by Dr. Andrew, of Addiscombe ; Francis Baily, Esq. of Gray’s Inn; Dr. Gregory, of Woolwich ; Dr. Kelly, of Finsbury- square ; Daniel Moore, Esq. of Lincoln’s Inn-square ; and by Edward Troughton, Esq. Fleet-street. A Model of the intended Bust is already completed, and is considered a very accurate likeness. It may be seen at the Sculp- tor’s premises, No.37, King-street, Edgware road. Casts of the Bust, at two guineas each, will be prepared for such friends of Dr. Hutton as may choose to order them: but the Marble Bust is to be given to the Doctor himself, with the hope that he will hereafter present it to some Scientific Institution. NEW SHOWER BATH. To Dr. Tilloch. Srr,—lI had been long convinced of the danger to be appre- hended from the use of the common shower bath in particular diseases incident to humanity or delicate constitutions. The sud- den death of Mr. Spratt, at Brighton, from the shower bath, is a verification. ; Impressed with this conviction, I described an invention wherein the water was suspended by the resistance and upward Pie. 0 Method for preserving Flameunder JVater.— Metallic Gauze.307 of the atmosphere, the fall of the water being regulated by a valve and lever. This machine intermits, and the whole is under the complete controul of the patient. The bulk of the descending spherule of water is proportional to the orifices in the base, and the period of duration correspon- dent with that of the suspension of the valve. It is also obvious, that if the recipient be supplied with water at 98° F., and the apertures are sufficiently minute, a heated dew will precipitate, and all the effects of the vapour bath be ob- tained. Of this machine a description and figure have already appeared in No. IX. of The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, and baths erected on this principle, But as some little difficulty may be ex- perienced in preserving the horizontality of the bath (when sup- plied with water by the cistern) in its elevation to the required altitude, 1 beg to observe that I have reversed the arrangement. The vessel with its valve, remains fixed and stationary in its place, and the cistern of supply is raised by the winch to feed the bath; and thereafter lowered into its place to act as a plat- form for the patient. A shower bath on this last modified con- struction has already been erected at Derby, with the most satis- factory results. I am, &c. Oct. 8, 1821. J. Murray. METHOD FOR PRESERVING FLAME UNDER WATER. {From the Aets of Leipsic.} A Doctor of our University having lately proposed to furnish fishermen and divers with a method of preserving flame under’ _ water, contrived the fitting of, toa glass vessel, which shut very exactly, two pipes of leather ; whereof one continually supplied the lower part of the vessel with fresh air, by means of a bellows with asucker and single or double wind; and the other, that opened into the upper part of the vessel, and was long enough to be always above the surface of the water, served to give vent to the fuliginous vapours drawn by the current of air from the first pipe.— Universal Mag., Nov. 1761, p. 259. ON THE USE OF FINE WIRE WORK, OR METALLIC GAUZE, AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR HORN, &¢, BY ALEXIS ROCHON, [From the Journal de Physique.] “The great brittleness of glass was a sufficient obstacle to the use of that substance, in the place of horn, on account of the danger that would attend the breaking of such a lantern in the powder room, or in any other part of the ship where powder or other combustible matter might happen to be.”” Page 207. Qq2 elt 308 A new salifiable Base. : “« Jt suddenly occurred to me that I might fulfil the purpose f had in view, by a process which was entirely new, and could be more speedily completed. This led me to suppose that the wire-gauze which has been long used in England, for making . sieves, might fulfil to a certain point the ends | had in view, pro-= vided it were coated with a substance that was transparent and impervious to the air.” Page 209. It is then recommended, when tinned and painted, to be plunged into a tub filled with melted glue, very pure and transparent, the heat of which should not be great, nor the consistency too thick Then (page 211) to be defended from moisture by drying lin- seed oil, and at page 214 isinglass is stated to be preferable to, glue. /29°479 | 55°3}53 | S.S.W. | fresh. | Rain. 9 |29:493 | 53°3[53 | W.N.W. | moder.} Do. 10 |29:499 | 55°3}54°5| 3=W. do. Cloudy. 11 |29°512| 55°3156 W. fresh. | Fine. 12 |29-529) 56°7|58 W. do. Do. 1 (29-539) 57.7|59 W. do. Do. Calculated height of Bushey above Leighton, from the pre- ceding month, by Colonel Beaufoy =2209 feet. I have also the pleasure to send you the observations made by Mr. Comfield, at Northampton, on the 13th of August last; and as the height of the lecture-room in which Mr. Comfild’s in- strument was placed, has been pretty accurately determined re- lative to the height of my instrument, the observations may be of use. | NORTHAMPTON. 1821. Hour. | Barom. Ther. | Ther. Wind and Weather. att. | det. a Aug. 13th. 8" 20") 29-821 | 61 | 592 9 4 | 29-821| 62 | 61 10 0 | 29-821] 63 | 64 11 0 | 29-807 | 652] 66 12 0 | 29-804} 65 | 66 I have not at present been able to find any correct level of the Biver Thames, so as to fix the zero marks in London : until this is done, no good general table of heights can be properly pub- lished, : Yours truly, B. Bevan, Meteorology. 319 METROROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT AT BOSTON, LINCOLNSHIRE, BY MR. SAMUEL VEALL. —T [The time of ebservation, unless otherwise stated, is at 1 P.M.] —— Age of i 1821. | the /Thermo-} Baro- [State of the Weather and Modification Moon.} meter. | meter. of the Clouds. —_ Sept.15} 20 | 68° | 29:90 |Cloudy 16} 21 | 66° 29°80 |Ditto—rain A.M. 17} 22 | 61°5 | 29°70 |Rain 18} 23 | 68: 29°45 |Stormy 19) 24 | 63°5 | 29°48 |Cloudy 90| 25 } 54°5 29°60 |Rain 21} 26 | 66°5 | 29°34 |Cloudy—rain A.M. 22| 27 | 64°5 | 29°50 |Fine 23; 28 | 64°5 | 29°34 |Cloudy—rain A.M. 24) 29 | 56°5 | 29°35 |Rain 25; 30 | 60°5 | 29°65 |Cloudy 26) new} 67°5 | 29°55 |Ditto 27)" 1 VbGas 29°48 |Rain—thunder storm in afternoon. 2) 63° 29°58 |Cloudy— stormy with heavy rain at 3 } 56°5 | 29°10 |Stormy [night. A) 55e 29°50 |Ditto Oct. 1) 5 | 60:5 | 29°25 [Ditto 6 | 60° 29°79 |Fine 7 | 66°5 | 29°48 |Ditto 8 | 62° 29°20 {Rain 5! 9 | 53° 29°60 |Fine 610] 61: | 29-70 Cloudy 7) 11 | 64° 29°70 |Fine—brisk wind. 8) 12} 60* | 29°65 |Cloudy—rain in the morning. 9 full} 57° 30° ‘|Fine 10; 14 | 59° 29°80 |Ditto 11} 15 | 59°5 | 29°45 |Ditto 12) 16 | 56° 29°65 |Ditto 13) 17 | 54°5 | 30°12 |Ditto 14; 18 | 57° 30°12 |Ditto METEORO- 320 Meteorology. ; METEOROLOGICAL TABLE,. By Mr. Cary, oF THE STRAND. Thermometer, Days of : 4 2 Month. we of - 18; | Height of a= s re the Barom, Weather. 1821. os z ee Inches. oo oe Sept. 27 | 56 | 65 | 53 | 99-94 Showery 28 52 | 65 | 56 *88 Fair with high wind, : 29 | 56 | 59 | 49 “57 Cloudy with do. 30 | 47 | 59 | 59 "92 Fair Oct. 1 | 60 | 65 | 52 74 Fair 2 | 52 | 59 | 56 | 30°20 Fair 3 | 60 | 65 | 62 | 29-90 Showery 4 | 62 | 62 | 60 “60 Rain 5 |.47 | 58 | 47 *99 Fair 6 | 50 | 64 | 52 | 30:09 Fair 7 | 56 | 65 | 57 08 Fair 8 | 57 | 61 | 50 05 Showery 9 | 45 | 59 | 49 *35 Fair 10 | 47 | 61 | 50 ‘09 Fair 11 | 49 | 55 | 49 | 29°74 Cloudy 12 | 50 | 97 | 49 95 - Fair 13 | 46 | 58 | 48 | 30°39 Fair 14 | 44 | 59 | 50 .39 Fair 15 | 46 | 52 | 44 31 Showery 16 | 42 | 52 | 48 21 |. Fair 17 | 46 | 52 | 50 18 Fair | 18 | 50 | 59 | 50 | 29:98 Cloudy 19 | 51 | 53 | 50 86 Cloudy 20 | 51 | 53 | 43 02 Stormy 21 41 | 53 | 46 *20 Fair 22 45 | 54 | 45 *27 Fair 23 | 49 | 52 | 48 “29 Rain 24 46 | 52 | 44 *54 Cloudy 25 | 46 | 53 | 51 | 30:00 Cloudy 26 |'51 | 59! 54 11 Cloudy N.B. The Barometer’s height is taken at one o’clock. ———————— EE Observations for Correspondent who observed the 8th Oct. 8 o’Clock M. Barom. 29:994 Ther. attached 63° Detached 57 ante JO 5 ee eee 096. a Pel est ee to oe SO 0 ee —— 1 — N — — 050 ee a ee 62's ee CE —- — il LXXI. Odservations on the present State of Nautical Astro- nomy ; with Remarks on the Expediency of promoting a more gener al Acquaintance with the modern Improvements in the Science among the Seamen in the British Merchant Service. By Epwarp Rippwe, late Master of the Trinity- House School, Newcastle; now Master of the Upper School, Royal Naval " Asylum, Greenwich. I; there be any circumstance by which the present age is pre- eminently distinguished, it is the advantage with which the results of scientific inquiry have been applied in the practical concerns of life. This observation is applicable to almost every branch of philosophical investigation; but its truth is strikingly obvious with respect to the science of Astronomy. For though this sci- ence has been cultivated from the earliest times, it is not more than a century and a half since our countryman Newton first dis- covered its physical theory; and it is to the age in which we live that the honour belongs, not only of perfecting the science, but of bringing its most important practical applications within the reach of every one whom they are likely to benefit. We should mistake, however, if we imagined that the labours of all who had previously cultivated this science must have been utterly thrown away. ‘The diligence of observers had collected a mass of facts, which, long before the time of Newton, had given several sagacious individuals a pretty accurate conception of the proximate cause of the leading planetary phenomena; and which also furnished such data for the application of the Newtonian theory, such tests of its truth, and such materials for inrproving it, as modern observations could notin themselves have supplied. Now, though little confidence can be placed iu the individual accuracy of very ancient observations, they derive a real and im- portant value from a circumstance which gives to many useless objects an imaginary one; namely, their antiquity. Suppose, for example, an astronomer at the beginning of the Christian era should have erred six hours in stating the time at which he observed a total eclipse of the sun. If he were quite certain that during a period of the eclipse the darkness was total, his mistake respecting the time at which it happened, monstrous as it is in itself, would shrink into insignificance if his observa- tion were compared with the well determined time of a corre-' sponding modern eclipse, to discover the length of a mean luna- tion; as the resulting error would scarcely exceed a single se- cond of time. It is in this view chiefly that old astronomical observations are valuable ; for, down to a comparatively late period, when they are compared with each other, they are as discordant as the state - Vol. 58. No. 283. Nov. 1821, Ss of 322 Olservations on the present State of the science, and the rude kind of instruments employed in ob- serving, might lead us to expect. But from the moment that the principle of gravitation was dis- covered, and applied to account for the anomalies of the planetary motions, it is curious to observe how steadily and how rapidly the science has advanced towards perfection. It ‘resulted from this principle, That each planet in the system exerted a disturbing force on the motions of the others, and that the force of each depended both on its distance and its quantity of matter, or its weight. To determine the distances of the planets, might ap- pear a task sufficiently difficult ; but to estimate with any pre- cision the comparative weights of those bodies, would seem an undertaking which the limited faculties of man could scarcely be expected to accomplish. But, supposing the principle of gra- vitation univerally diffused, and the law of its operation invariable, it was easy to perceive, that on the correct determination of the distances and the masses of the planets, the ultimate perfection of the astronomy of the solar system entirely depended. It was also very obvious, that their comparative masses could only be discovered by observing the comparative magnitude of the effects which they produced on the motions of each other; and that though refined observations might show, at any time, the ulti- mate derangement in the motion of any planet produced by the action of a// the others; yet to disentangle the effect of one from this observed effect of the whole, and to assign to each that portion which was due to its weight in the system, was a task which required no ordinary attainments in science, and no small share of patience and sagacity. Before this, however, could be attempted with any prospect of success, the most accurate observations were necessary on the places of the fixed stars, and also on those of the planets in different parts of their orbits, and in a variety of situations with respect to each other. To make such observations with requisite cor- rectness, instruments of greater delicacy were required than any that had before been employed; and for fixed observatories such instruments were not long wanting. The positions of the principal fixed stars were then determined with such precision, and the phenomena of the planetary motions were so accurately ebserved, that the effect which the attraccion of the planets produced on the motions of each other was found in many cases to be distinetly perceptible. And repeated obser- vations have at length furnished data, from which the masses of the larger planets have been computed with an exactness that appears nearly sufficient for all practical purposes. From this refinement inthe art of observing, some curious, important, and previously unnoticed consequences, both of the laws of motion and the laws of gravitation, were first discovered . practi- of Nautical Astronomy. 323 practically ; viz. the mutation of the earth’s axis,and the aber- ration of light. The former of these is a small periodical mo- tion of the earth’s axis produced by the action of the moon. ‘The latter is a small aynual change in the apparent places of fixed stars, resulting from the earth’s revolution in its orbit combined with the progressive motion of light. It was known from theoretical considerations, that if the di- stance of any one of the planets could be determined, the di- stances of all the others could be found from observations on their times of revolution. But the only method of finding the distance of the sun from the earth, that appeared likely to give results on which any confidence could be placed, was an indirect one depending on the duration of the transit of Venus as ob- served in different parts of the earth. And it was chiefly to ob- serve a transit of this planet that Captain Cook’s first voysge to the South Sea was undertaken. This leading object of the voy- age was accomplished as satisfactorily as all the subordinate ones were; and from the observations made on that occasion, and the only other oceasion of the kind that has happened during the last century, the distances of the planets from the sun and from each other have been determined with a precision which, from the nature of the problem, there is little reason to hope will ever be greatly exceeded. Not satisfied with simply comparing the masses of the planets with each other, philosophers have endeavoured to devise means of comparing their mean densities with that of some known ter- restrial substance. In this most ¢ ‘rious and elaborate research, the distinguished talents of Dr. Maskelyne and Dr. Hutton have been advantageously conjoined; and the result of their inquiries with respect to the density of the earth, appears entitled to all the confidence that can be placed in conclusions deduced from operations of so very delicate a nature. While the art of observation has been thus prolific in results, the intricate and difficult researches of those who have under- taken to trace the principle of gravitation into all its consequences, have produced discoveries that can scarcely be considered as less curious or important. They have shown that, notwithstanding the continual changes that take place in the planetary motions, notwithstanding the disturbing force which they are continually exerting on each other, their distances from the sun, the species of their orbits, and the mutual inclination of their planes, are sub- ject only to periodical changes, and return at regular though distant periods to the same state; that amidst the ever varying phenomena which their configurations present, the law that con- nects them with each other ensures the stability of the who'e system. Aud, what is of still greater importance, with the aid of data obtained from observation, they have furnished us with for- Ss2 niulas, 324 Observations on the present State mulas, from which we can compute with almost perfect exactness wheré any planet in the system will be found at any given in- stant; and they have thus enabled us to apply to important prac- tical purposes the result of researches the most arduous and diffi- cult that have ever engayed the attention of mankind. It was the proud boast of a distinguished philosopher, that at the close of the eighteenth century there remained not an ob- served phzenomenon of the planetary motions that had not been completely accounted for. Among those who have contributed to this glorious achieve- ment, it is satisfactory to observe that the names of our country men hold a distinguished place. It is too much to expect that men worthy in every way to be considered as the successors of Newton will readily be found in any country; but the labours of that ¢reat man in the science of Astronomy have not been inade- . quately followed up by the intelligence and activity of those who have happily been selected to él the situation of Astronomer Royal in this country; a succession of men of whom it is slight _ praise to say that they, shave been in every respect worthy of their office. Whilst we pride ourselves, however, on the aid which our admirable observers have afforded towards completing this great work, we must acknowledge that more than an equal share of the honour of extending and perfecting the theory of the science is due to the philosophers of a neighbouring country. The great object of all the exertions that have been made to bring this science to perfection, has been the improvement of the art of navigation; and in that art the finding of the longitude by celestial observations has for ages been considered as the grand desideratum. Of all the methods that have been proposed to solve this problem, none has been found capable of being reduced to practice at sea, except that by observations on the distance of the moon from the sun or a fixed star. Accordingly, for the last century, the attention of astronomers to every thing calculated to bring this method to perfection has been unremitted: Every improvement in the instruments of observation, and every ad- vance in the theory of astronomy, has contributed to increase the utility of the lunar method of finding the longitude; and it has at length been brought to a degree of perfection, which forty years ago those best acquainted with the subject could scarcely have anticipated. When Mr. Flamsteed, the first Astronomer Royal, received his appointment in 1675, he was enjoined ‘to apply himself with the utmost care and diligence to rectify the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the “places of the fixed stars, in order to find put the so much desired longitude at sea, for perfecting the art of navigation.” But such, in his time, was the state of Astro- omy, that in some cases the place of the moon in the heavens could of Nautical Astronomy. 325 could not be computed to within less than 10 or 12 minutes of the truth ;—an error which would sometimes have rendered the longitude “deduced froma lunar distance, uncertain to the extent of eight degrees. Therefore, though this method of finding the jongitude at sea appeared the most eligible of any that presented itself, it was at that time abandoned as altogether impracticable. When Dr. Maskelyne succeeded to the situation in 1765, such advances had been made in astronomical science, that under his auspices this method of finding the lougitude (which in the in- terval had never been lost sight of) was again brought forward ; and after devoting a great portion of his long and valuable life to bring the method to perfection, he had the satisfaction of seeing his meritorious exertions crowned with almost complete success, One of the great obstacles to its introduction into general practice, was the difficulty in making the necessary calculations from the tables and formulas which the labours of astronomers had supplied. But this formidable objection was completely obviated by the publication of the Nautical Almanac, which on Dr. Maskelyne’s suggestion was undertaken by the Board of Longitude in 1766, and it has ever since been continued an- nually. Before mariners in general, however, could be materially bene- fited by all these efforts for their advantage, it was requisite that they should be furnished with such instruments for observing, as they could use with readiness, and depend upon with confidence ; and with simple as well as appropriate rules for making the ne- cessary calculations after their observations were completed. The artists of this country answered well to the call which this consideration made upon their talents, and devised such im- provements in the construction and graduation of quadrants, sextants and circles, for nautical observations, that nothing ap- pears left to be desired on the subject. And in all the useful problems in the practice of nautical astronomy, the methods of performing the calculations have been so simplified, that it is not easy to conceive for what situation connected with the na- vigation of a ship, the person is fitted who is incapable of com- prehending them. It haz been fortunate for Astronomy, that theory aud observa- tion have advanced simultaneously. From successive improve- ments in the instruments and the art of observation, the abstruse deductious of theory have been regularly subjected to the sound practical test of comparison with observed phenomena; while the apparently anomalous facts of observation have pointed to important consequences of the theory, which might otherwise for a time have been either neglected or overlooked. Under these salutary checks, the progress of the science has been distinguished by 326 Observations on the present State by a steadiness of which the history of no other science furnishes an example. In all sciences, many of the greatest improvements have been effected by private individuals who have pursued them for their own gratification, and without any particular view towards per- sonal advantage. But the cultivation of this science has been long and assiducusly promoted by the governments of Europe, on account of its public importance. Deeply sensible of the advantages which a maritime nation must derive from every improvement in navigation and maritime geo- graphy (which are entirely dependent for their perfection on Astronomy), the EnglishGovern ment has distinguished itself above all others by the munificence with which it has rewarded every discovery tending in any way either to facilitate the practice, or to advance the theory, of the science. And the recent order for the establishment of an observatory, on the most liberal scale, at the Cape of Good Hope, may be considered as a pledge that the zeal of Government for the promotion of this science has suffered no‘abatement. Indeed, in addition to the encouragement which it has so liberally afforded to those who have contributed to the improvement of the science, it has lately gone an important step further 5 and has even employ ed the weight of its authority, to assist in diffusing among nautical men a knowledge of those branches of it w iach are immediately connected with navigation ; having made a practical knowledge ‘of such branches an absolute sine gua non to promotion in the navy. In the public spirit and liberality of the East India Company, also, every improvement in this science has met with the most» prompt, decided, and efficient support ; and the discernment which they have always evinced in promoting those only to the com-) mand of their ships whose professional merits give them the highest claim to advancement, has excited a spirit of emulation -among their officers, which has been-productive of the happiest effects. But though in the general merchant service there are many estinable individuals whose professional accomplishments would do credit to any employment, it is deeply to be regretted that the number of such persons is not much greater than it is. Even among those intrusted with the navigation of ships to Archangel, Greenland, the West Indies, and every port on the eastern coast’ of North and South America, a great majority depend still alto-' gether for their longitude on data obtained from the compass and: the log. Indeed, celestial observations of ary kind are so little practised, that ce, to take an observation”’ is a phrase, which, ge- nerally speaking, signifies to observe the sun’s meridian altitude, and nothing more. The number is comparatively small of those who practise the method of finding the latitude by double alti- tudes of Nautical Astronomy. 527 tudes of the sun; and altitudes of the moon or stars for that purpose are scarcely ever taken at all. The variation of the compass is generally taken from charts; and of those navigators employed in the leading branches of general commerce, who have qualified themselves to determine the longitude by celestial ob- servations, the number is altogether trifling. It happens, in consequence, that in voyages of considerable length the accumulated error in longitude amounts sometimes to several degrees. Ships bound from Greenland for the eastern coast of England or Scotland, oftea make the coast of Norway in the finest weather possible. When ships from Archangel reach the latitude of Shetland, it frequently becomes a grave question, Whether do these islands lie east or west? an interrogatory to which the reckoning from the log often makes a very equivocal response. But, supposing the latitude determined with the ut- most accuracy, errors like these in the position of a ship at sea will frequently arise in spite of the greatest skill or experience, if the mariner is unable to determine his longitude also by inde- pendent observations. Mistakes in the steering, which defy de- tection, the effect of unknown currents, and numberless other circumstances on both the course and the distance, vitiate the data from which the place of the ship by the sea reckoning must be computed. It happens sometimes, indeed, that one mistake is corrected by another, and that, while every part of the reckon- ing is more or less erroneous, the result of the whole is nearly right. When this occurs, a ship is said to make a good land fall. But that it happens so at any time, is entirely a matter of chance. Persons who have Jong been accustomed to the navigation of shallows and contracted seas, such as the North Sea, the Baltic, &c., generally acquire such a knowledge of the soundings as en- ables them by the lead alone to make a tolerable guess at their situation. In these seas, it is not common to make any calcula- tion for the longitude, even from the reckoning ; and the ma- jority of masters engaged in navigating them hold the aids of science in utter scorn. And, indeed, if we were to judge only from the scanty attainments of most of those wha, in such places, are intrusted with the charge of ships, we might consider the inutility of any particular knowledge of navigation as pretty ge- nerally admitted. It is a very few years since the master of a ship bound from Shields for the Baltic in the early part of the spring, mistook the day of the month; and though all his observations for the lati- tude were of course at least twenty miles erroneous, he made the land in a very satisfactory manner. Even in favourable weather, it has sometimes happened that the master of a ship has looked for the Naze during the greater part of twodays, Passing over ; 328 Observations on the present Siate over the marvellous escape of the coaster, who, in a voyage from London to Shields, almost Yattianaviented the island in search of his port, the experience of every person acquainted with ma- ritime affairs will point out many instances in which ships have been preserved rather in sp2te of, than in consequence of, the plans of those who commanded them. | But without at all une dervaluing the i importance of local information, it may be safely affirmed, that even in those quarters where it is almost exclusively depended on, many of the shipwrecks which happen might be prevented, if the mariner’s acquaintance with the modern im- provements in nautical science enabled him to avail himself of many opportunities which present themselves for determining his situation. If, after an intelligent seaman has been buffeted about for ten or twenty days witli an adverse wind and in thick weather, the clouds should disperse and the sun and the moon should appear, he soon becomes as well assured of his situation as if he had just lost sight of a well known coast. How different is the situation of an ordinary mariner, who, after once Josing confidence in his reckoning, must for the remainder of his voy- age remain in doubt and uncertainty ! It is of importance in any emergency, that a man should clearly understand the nature of the difficulty with which he ha’ to con- tend, that he may bring his resources into action with a know- ledge of the effect which, if successful, they must produce. With what advantages does the mariner approach a situation of dan- ger, who knows precisely where to look for it! But how in such circumstances must the man be affected who, knowing himself in peril, isin doubt what way to run! Of what importance to such men is the knowledge of every thing that may contribute to inform them of their true situation ! Before the discovery of any practicable method of finding the longitude at sea by observation, the mariner who estimated his longitude as carefully as he could from the common reckoning, did all that on the subject could be expected from him; all, indeed, that it was possible todo. But, however careful he might be in his estimation, or however judicious in making allowances for circumstances, the result would often be surprisingly erroneous, and the error would frequently lead to disastrous consequences. The chance of such mistakes, however, was then properly classed among the common sea risks, which, whatever were their mag- nitude, were quite unavoidable, Bui there would be no pro- priety in so classing them now, when, with very little trouble, any mariner of coniuvon capacity may qualify himself for deter- mining his situation at sea by celestial chservations, as frequently and correctly as in the practice of seamanship need be desired. The ordinary dangers of the sea are sufficiently great of them- selves, and ought not to be increased by the want of any attain- able = hes aT ATES Nauive Gopper Kock of Lake Supertor. S Jerter, £6, of Nautical Astronomy: 329 able information in those to whom the business of navigation is intrusted. But he who undertakes. the management of a ship, without having qualified himself in the best possible manner for the proper discharge of his duty, subjects the lives of his crew and the property of his employers to an additzonal risk, of which they may consider it providential if they feel not the consequences. Another advantage arising from the mariner’s being able to determine his dongitude by observation, as well as his latitude, is, that, besides his being enabled to avoid dangers to which he might otherwise be exposed, and to navigate his vessel with greater confidence and comfort to himself, he will generally reach his port by a shorter route than a seaman of more primitive attain- ments. A person assured of his situation both in latitude and longitude will, if circumstances permit him, steer directly for the place at which he wishes to be; but he whose longitude depends solely on his sea reckoning must first, and at a wary distance from his port, reach the latitude in which it lies. Thus, besides the risk arising from the uncertainty of the reckoning, the voyage is unavoidably prolonged. Among the causes which have prevented the seamen of the North of England from benefiting, generally, by the advantages which modern science has conferred on navigation, the chief one "unquestionably is the nature of the employment in which by far the greater part of them are bred. In that great nursery of able seamen, the coal trade, a minute local knowledge of the coast, and dexterity in the management of a ship, comprehend almost the whole of the nautical information that is required, and ordinary men are little inclined to concern themselves about attainments which their immediate wants do not force on their attention. When persons brought up in this employment are engaged in any other where higher attainments may be expected, they en- deavour to make up by watchfulness what they want in science. As uncertain they must be, their care is to err on the side of safety; and the danger is not trifling from which their skill in seamanship will not extricate them. Those who have laboured to introduce among such men a more general acquaintance with the modern improvements in nautical astronomy, have had to contend with that disinclination to change, and almost superstitious attachment to old methods, forms, and habits, for which seafaring men have always been re- markable. The success of their labours has been in some de- gree impeded also by the misguided efforts of some individuals, who have employed themselves in contriving and transforming certain empirical rules and methods for correcting the error of the reckoning in longitude, without any reference to observations made for that purpose; or as an adequate substitute for all such Vol. 58. No, 283, Nov, 1821. Tt observations. 330 Olservations on the present Stale observations. Probably most of the authors of these rules are aware that they are founded entirely on conjectural principles, and that in applying them there is always a chance of increasing the error which they are intended to correct. Yet the attention of mariners is continually called to their republication under va- rious forms; and without being accompanied by a single hint that any practicable method of finding the longitude at sea by observation has vet been discovered. It has undoubtedly some relation to the peculiar views of such - persons, that among many ordinary seamen an opinion prevails, that though the finding of the longitude by observation at sea is a matter of great and obvious utility, vet the methods which have been hitherto proposed for its determination are difficult to prac- tise, and uncertain in their results. On the difficulty of the subject it becomes not a man to give an opinion, who has never tried in earnest whether there is any thing in it beyond the reach of his own faculties. Indeed, any person acquainted with arithmetic, and who has no imperfection in his sight, may soon learn to practise the method of finding the longitude by lunar observations with perfect success. This remark is not made without due consideration ; but it is too evi- dent to admit of question, that one of the great causes which hare prevented the general introduction of the lunar method of finding the longitude into general practice in the merchant service, is the little attention that has beeti paid to giving instructions in the art of observing by many teachers of navigation. The certainty of the results will of course be proportioned to the care with which the necessary operations are performed ; but in the hands of a careful observer, the greatest probable error is too insiguificant to be regarded. That persons of indolent or slovenly habits are.unable to derive much advantage from this, or any other method of finding the longitude by observation, is surely neither an argument against its utility, nor matter of sur- prise in itself, To estimate fairly the weight of this objection, however, and to determine by actual experiment what confidence may now be placed in the results of lunar observations, the following series was taken to determine the longitude of the Trinity House School, Newcastle. The observations were made under a great variety of circumstances, and the uniformity of the results is certainly cal - culated to give confidence in the method by which they were obtained. The altitudes, which were compuled, are omitted, for the sake of bringing the figures within the breadth of a page; but any person who thinks proper may re-calculate them, ob- serving that the latitude of the place where the observations were made, is 54° 581’ N. Lunar —— of Nautical Astronomy. 331 Lunar Oren vations taken in 1821, to determine the Longitude of the Trinity House School, Newcastle. ; |Ap. Time ___ | Evror | Error Objects at New- |App. Dist./True Dist. i i observed. castle. a i 7 10) 2 1 7 ° o 3 3 39 Bo-ofe: = CUCKOO DK WANANK oral ove D| D Regulus mm Cr = 80.09 in Ot @ & — & WH A A106 21 DD Spica Ald. Spica Pollux Noor ww oo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 N 1 1 1 1 1 49 } 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ul 1 1 t ] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ] 1 45 39 54 inde long. | 1 37 17 332 Observations on the present Siale It will be observed, that out of the above fifty independent sets of observations, taken at different times during nearly six weeks, the deviation of any one from the mean of the whole, iz one in- stance only, amounts to twelve miles ; and that the average de- viation, either in excess or defect, is less than five miles. It will be observed also, that the longitudes obtained by distances from stars are quite as uniform as those deduced from distances of the sun. The observations comprise the whole that were taken in the interval between the first and the last of the days of obser- vation; not one has been omitted. Their results may there- fore be considered as a fair specimen of what, under ordinary circumstances, the method is capable of effecting; and making every reasonable allowance, we may infer from them with consi- derable confidence, that a practised observer will generally de- termine his longitude by one set of Junar distances to within less © than ten miles; and that it is quite improbable that the error of any one set will ever considerably exceed a quarter of a degree. The mean result of a number of independent sets, will of course reduce the probable error within still narrower limits. The following distances, measured on the Sth and 9th of May, were taken under extremely favourable circumstances ; and the two observations made on June 26th were made, when, from the situation of the School with respect to the smoke of the town, and the smallness of the moon’s illumined disk, she could not be seen with the naked eye. It will be observed that the devia- tions from the mean are here very considerably smaller than those in the former series. a App. Time s ‘ Paenuiihey Day. at App. Dist. Newcastle. He M. S: Sree iy © and )p May 8 26 21 | 86 4 13 eee one AaB ove 210 91] 8 5 42 * 7 ene 243 24) 86 18 46 ee eps a 419 5 | 86 54 43 se wee se , 4 26 34] 86 57 @2 ee ave r 4 5S 48 we So elias ats be 455 56| 87 7 2 >) Spica “ 844 8/65 1 28 a nial 8 59 17 | 64 55 O ese ° 9 41 16 | 64 36 39 ece . - 9 47 56 | 64 35 51 me on , re 9 54 2) 6431 0 eas. . > 9 59 39 | 64 28 20 oy 9 | 2 27 47| 97 37 49 ae 2 . e 237 41] 97 41 36 nes ad 2 49 34 | 97 46 38 & ats a 8 0387) 97 51 5 ° ee 3143 97 56 38 ate June 26 211 25 | 41 29 20 axe F 2 34 28 | 41 17.18 of Nautical Astronomy. 333 If we suppose that only ten such observations could be obtained on a voyage from America to Europe, the distance would then be divided into parts of two or three hundred miles in length, at the end of each of which the place of the ship would be known with probably greater exactness than the geographical situation of Tinmouth was till towards the close of the last century. And if the mariner were provided with a chronometer to connect his junar observations with each other, he would at all times have such a knowledge of his situation, as would enable him to take the best measures for bringing his voyage to a successful issue. Enough has, perhaps, been said in reply to those who surmise that the lunar method of finding the longitude is uncertain in its results. It is hoped also, that enough has been said to con- vince those connected with the shipping interests engaged in the general foreign trade of the country, of the great importance of the modern improvements in nautical science; and of the expe- diency of requiring in those intrusted with the charge of their property at sea, a more intimate acquaintance with those im- provements than at present they generally possess. That a ship on being sent to sea is furnished with a sufficient stock of unexceptionable materials, the merchant and the insurer are generally very careful to ascertain ; but it is in comparatively few cases indeed, that any inquiry is made respecting the qua- lifications of the person who is to command her, though, in esti- mating the risk of the voyage, those qualifications are of para- mount importance. That the master of a ship should be sOber i in his habits, eol- lected and ready in circumstances of difficulty, perfectly acquaint- ed with the management of a ship, and with the local dangers of the coasts which he may have occasion to visit, is too obvious to require remark. The importance of these primary qualifica- tions for the office of a master mariner is universally admitted. Besides these qualifications, however, a master employed in the foreign service should be acquainted with every branch, either of art or of science, that may either enable to determine his si- tuation at sea; or contribute in any way to the speedy and suc. cessful termination of his voyage. But many, very many masters of merchantmen are perfectly unacquainted with many important branches of the art which it is their business to practise. Of those among them who have so far acquainted themselves with the great modern improvements in navigation as to be able to reduce them to practice, the number is surprisingly limited; and a great majority of them follow, without improvement or alteration, the practice of their predecessors who a hundred years ago were engaged in the same employment, Nautical Tables, Charts, and Instruments for ob- servation 334 Observations on the present State servation have indeed been improved ; but the general system of nautical practice has continued the same; the instruments have been applied to no new purpose; not one common merchantman in twenty is furnished even with a Nautical Almanac. Amidst all this inattention, those ship-owners who have the dis- cernment to employ such men only in navigating their vessels as are perfectly masters of their profession, would do well to reflect, that in connecting themselves with an ordinary ensurance clubs they are not ensured upon equitable principles. If their ships are better navigated than those of other persons ensured in the same club, they contribute to ensure those persons against a greater risk than they require to be ensured against themselves. Such gentlemen can surely require no argument to convince them, that any measure tending to elevate the general average of nautical information is worthy of attentive consideration. Aud one would imagine that the immense sums which are annually paid as en- surance for losses of which the causes cannot be satisfactorily as- certained, would excite even less intelligent persons to inquire whether so serious an evil might not in any way be remedied. No expedient that ean be devised, will impart entire security to property exposed to the dangers of the ocean; but the risks of loss would undoubtedly be diminished, if greater attention were paid to the qualifications of those to whose charge the business of navigation is committed. To effect this desirable object, nothing more seems necessary, than that, on the return of any ship from a foreign voyage, a complete copy of such parts of the log as relate to the naviga- tion, should be delivered to the club or society in which she may have been ensured. Masters would then be stimulated to exert | themselves, so that the exhibition of their skill on such oecasions might do them no discredit ; and even those in whom the habit of blundering and confusion had become most ro>ted, might be expected to make some efforts to preserve their professional cre- dit with the gentlemen who would thus have the means of esti- mating it correctly. But to render this measure completely effectual, persons com- petent to the task should be deputed to examine the log of every ship; and to report on the manner in which the navigation had been conducted. It ought to be the object of particular in- quiry, whether from want of skill in nautical science the mariner had ever been uncertain respecting the situation of the ship, to an extent which materially affected the risk of the voyage; and whether, at any rate, higher professional attainments than he ap- peared to have made, would not have enabled him to discharge . his duty in a manner still more satisfactory. Besides observing whether the common reckoning from the log 3 of Nautical Astronomy. 355 log, and the compass, had been properly attended to ; it ought to be examined whether the ship’s place had been determined by appropriate observations on every suitable occasion; whether, when observations of the sun for the latitude could not be ob- tained, their place had been supplied by observations of the moon or some other celestial object ; whether the variation of the ship’s compass had been determined by actual observation ; and whether such observations as had been made for the longi- tude, appeared to have been made in a satisfactory manner. If the log of every ship were thus subjected to review, we should soon see the masters of British merchantmen as much distin- guished for their science as they are now for their seamanship. A few years will introduce into efficient situations in the mer- chant service, many individuals whose opportunities of acquiring professional information, while they have been greater than many of their predecessors enjoyed, have also been assiduously im- proved. It is to be hoped that, while by pursuing an upright and manly course of conduct they will secure the esteem of all with whom they may be connected, the effect of their example i in exciting a better spirit among their brethren will not be incon- siderable. But unless some decisive general measure be adopted by those whose interests are so essentially connected with the state of nautical science, it will be a considerable time before the effect of example, or the efforts of isolated individuals, however intel- ligent or influential, will produce a material change in the habits of so large a body of men. It cannot, however, be too frequently repeated, that to acquire a thorough practical knowledge of every useful branch of nautical science, neither much time nor great talent is requisite. Those seamen, therefore, who may cuntinue to content themselves with the clumsy, unscientific practice of former ages, can have no rational apology to offer to the public. In what way they may excuse their conduct to themselves, it is of little importance to conjecture. LXXII. ikon of piece ison Pe various British Stand- ards of linear Measure. By Capt. Henry Karer, F.R.S. &e. [Concluded from p. 298.] I; may be seen inthe former part of this paper, that the tem- perature at which the points were laid off on Mr. Ramsden’s bar from the brass scale, was 54°; consequently, the observed lengths of the brass seales and 40-inch bar, must be reduced to this temperature. ‘The expansion of one foot of General Roy’s scale 336 scale for one degree of the thermometer was found by him to be “0001237, and of one foot of Ramsden’s bar ‘0000740 of an inch; consequently, the excess of the expansion of 40 inches of the scale, above 40 inches of the bar, for each degree above 54° will be -0001657 of an inch; and this quantity has been used in computing the corrections for temperature. The comparison of both scales with the bar was made at the same time ; but to avoid confusion, I have given the results in separate tables. The scales and the 40-inch bar were Jaid to- gether two days previously to commencing the examination. TaBce I. Comparisons of the Distance from Zero to 40 Inches of General Roy’s Scale with the 40-inch Bar. Difference be- tween the scale| Correction for and the bar in | Temperature. Roy. | inches. An Account of the Comparison of Roy’s scale shorter than the 40-inch’ Readings. — 000407 — 000385 — ‘000086 + :000043 + -COO171 + 000043 + 000086 + 000522 —- —*000829 — ‘001326 —°001825 —°001856 —°001873 —'001873 — 001773 —°002220 Mean *001813 *001701 ‘001829 00-1698 By the above comparisons, General Roy’s slale appears to be shorter than the 40-inch bar ‘001698; to which adding *000034, the quantity by which Ramsden’s bar exceeds the 40-inch bar, we have *0017382 of an inch for the difference in defect between General Roy’s scale and the standard used in the Trigonometrical Survey, with which it was supposed to be identical. Taste II. Comparisons of the Distance from Zero to 40 Inches of Sir GzorGE SuucksurGn’s Scale with the 40-inch Bar. Ditterence be- huckburgh’s Readings. tween the scale |Correction for} scale shorter Date. | Temp. =: and the bar in |Temperature | than the 40- , Bar. | Shuck.| inches. bar. May 7| 59°0 23 W5-2 —'002234 —'000829 "003063 9) 65°0 41°5 62 —'000877 — 001823 ‘002 700 65°2 41 58 —'000728 —°001856 002584 653 30 49 —'000813 —°001873 002686 65°3 30 5t — 000899 —'001873 002772 647 27 50 — 000954 — 001778 002757 10} 67°4 36°2 | 41°5 —'000227 —"002220 002447 67°8 33 44 —'000471 —002287 °002758 12) 67°5 42 48 —°000257 —*002237 002494 Mean *002696 .% various British Standards of linear Measure. 337 If to the above mean ‘000034 be added as before, we have -*00273 of an inch, by which the distance from zero to 40 inches of Sir George Shuckburgh’s scale is shorter than one sixth part of Ramsden’s bar. The very great difference between Ramsden’s bar and General Roy’s scale, made me desirous of comparing this last with the Royal Society’s standard ; and as I was aware of the existence of ether standards of considerable importance, I resolved to ex- amine them at the same time. The Royal Society’s scale has heen described by Sir George Shuckburgh : it is of brass, and about the same dimensions as General Roy’s scale, which is already well known. It has three parallel lines drawn upon it lengthwise. On one of the exterior lines marked E, are two dots expressing the length of the Tower yard. This is the yard which has been heretofore called, and which I shall still call, the Royal Society’s standard. The mid- dle line has the Exchequer yard marked upon it; and the other exterior line has dots, at precisely the same distance as those of the Royal Society’s standard. Knowing that Mr. Cary had made for Lieutenant-Colonel Lambton a standard scale, which forms the basis of the Trigo- nometrical Survey carried on by him in India, and aware of the importance of ascertaining the value of this in parts of other known standards, I inquired of Mr. Cary whence it was derived, and was informed that it had been copied from a scale then in the possession of Alexander Aubert, Esq., and which, after his death, was purchased by Mr. Jones, of Holborn. On applica- tion being made by the Commissioners of Weights and Measures to Mr. Jones for the loan of it, their request was readily and obligingly complied with. This scale is of plate brass, strengthened by an edge bar: it contains 6) inches, and has the name of Bird upon it.. Two dots upon two gold pins designate the yard, from which the divisions of the scale have evidently been derived. There is also a third dot, marking, | believe, the length of the French half toise. The dots indicating the yard are those I employed. I shall call this scale Colonel Lambton’s standard. Bird’s Parliamentary standard yard of 1758 had already been compared with Sir Geo. Shuckburgh’s seale by him, and recently by myself, and found to exceed it about two ten-thousandths of aninch. In Sir George Shuckburgh’s ** Account of f experiments for determining a standard of weights and measures,” he remarks, that there existed another standard yard made by Bird, in the year 1760, which did not differ more than two ten-thousandths of an inch from the standard of 1758; but he does not say Vol. 58, No, 283, Nov. 1821, Uu whether 338 An Account of the Comparison of whether this difference was observed to be in excess or in de- fect. As it was possible that this standard yard of 1760 might coin- cide with 36 inches of Sir George Shuckburgh’s, scale, I was anxious to compare them together, and by the exertions of Davies Gilbert, Esq., M.P., the standard of 1760. was found in the cus- tody of the House of Commons, and confided to my care. It is (as Sir George Shuckburgh observed) precisely similar in form to the standard of 1755, the yard being marked by two dots upon gold pins, which, though very large, are in tolerable preservation. ‘The five standard scales which I have just described, were placed together on the loth of June 1820, and arranged so that those of least bulk should be furthest from me during the obser- vations, as they would be more readily affected by the proximity of the person of the observer. As I was desirous that comparisons of such importance should not rest wholly on my own authority, 1 requested Dr. Wollaston to take two series of measurements, which, together with my own, are contained in the following table. TaBLeE III. Comparisons of various Standards. 3 Readings of the micrometer at 5 Date. ro The Sir Geo. pie Colonel 3 Royal General Suurks Bird’s wae. re baess y's > | Standard : 1820. & |Society’s| ¢ + tan3 a r= B tang +7 tan? ¢ + Bx ) = See : -_ ps tans 9 : : In this expression —.— becomes sensible at the horizon ; 3 3 . but © ar may always be neglected: wherefore, by substitut- ing the value of tan ¢, we shall finally get ia Bsin A a3 ae? Scos 2A49% +irh 2 1 B2 sin3 A + jou een, yah 3? { cos? A+ 2i+ zt z 1 63 sins A +5 -¢ fcos? A+2i +ir} 3 At the horizon, sin A =1, and cos A =0; and, omitting in- sensible quantities, we obtain f B baa 1 pe If the values of 6 andi given by Laplace* he substituted in this expression, the horizontal refraction will come out 1290”, which agrees with the determination in the Mécanique Céleste, vol. iv. p. 246. The quantity of r will vary as 6 and 7 change with the state of the atmosphere. Now, £ is always proportional to the den- sity of the air: it varies, therefore, directly with the height of the mercury in the barometer, and inversely with the thermo- metrical changes. The standard height of the barometer being B, when the actual height is J, and the actual temperature ¢, the value of 6 will become B b 1+mt ‘s B The other quantity 7 = - , varies with the thermometer only, * See Phil. Magazine for last September, p. 167. On atmospherical Refraction. 345 as has already been shown: at the temperature ¢, it becomes a x (1-++ md). On the whole, therefore, by the changes of the barometer and thermometer, the factor = which enters into the expression 21 , of the horizontal refraction, will become p 1 b. Se ee A 2i (1+ mt) B and this proves incontestably the justness of Mayer's rule in the hypothesis of Cassini. The series into which —— is multiplied, Zt will likewise produce some change in the horizontal refraction 5 but the variation arising from this cause is not very consider- able; it is peculiar to the particular hypothesis; and it is not now the subject of consideration. The hypothesis of Cassini, on account of its simplicity, is well calculated to elucidate the variations in refraction produced by barometrical and thermometrical changes. As is apt to be the case in some more complicated suppositions, the attention is not here so absorbed by intricate combinations of the quantities con- certied, as to overlook the manner in which the phenomenon is produced by its real causes, which are the alterations in the re- fracting power of the medium and in the extent of the homo- geneous atmosphere. But if we attend to the analysis of this problem, given in this Magazine for September last, it will ap- ear that the same factor es which enters into the expression P = Pp u of the horizontal refraction in the hypothesis of Cassini, is equally a part of the same quantity in every hypothesis. We must, therefore, conclude that the rule of Mayer is true, not ouly i in the hypothesis of Cassini, or in that of Mayer whatever it was, but absolutely in every supposition that can possibly be formed with regard to the eonstitution of the atmosphere. It follows from the nature of the differential expression of the refraction that, so long as the zenith distance is not too great; or so long as cos* A is considerably greater than 7; we may de- velop the refraction in a series of terms multiplied by the small coefficients, 8; 67,78; &c., the quantity 7 never entering into a denominator. Now the term multiplied by 78 varies only with the barometer ; for heat produces equal and opposite changes in 7 and £, which compensate another: and, on the whole, so far as this mode of computation can be followed, the variation in refraction is very nearly proportional to 6, that is to the density of the air, according to the usual practice of astronomers, But when the zenith distance is. great; or when’ cos? A is less than Vol. 58, No. 283, Nov, 1821. Aske +S i; 346 On atmospherical Refraciion. 2; another mode of calculation must be pursued ; ‘the quantity 2 necessarily becomes a divisor; and the whole expression ac- quires the factor ria which necessarily leads to the rule of t Mayer. Mayer’s formula was, no doubt, investigated by means of the hypothesis of a uniform decrease of density in ascending from the earth’s surface ; and, for the sake of further illustration, we may deduce it from the analysis in the Magazine for September, The hypothesis mentioned is contained in the equation fw =s, f being a constant quantity; for w is the decrease of density, and Ss, the height ascended divided by 2. If fw be substituted for s in the equation of the pressure, we shall obtain y we and, as this expression must vanish when w=1, we get f= 2. At the boundary of the atmosphere, the equation s = 2 takes place, so that the total height is equal to 27 .* It must be observed, however, that in a limited atmosphere, the ultimate density, 1 —w, is not, strictly speaking, evanescent; but equal to some sinall quantity, less than what would obtain at an equal height in an atmosphere of uniform temperature. Now, if 2w be substituted for s in the formula for the refrac- tion, we get Pe Bsin A dw ~~ gfcost A+ (4i—m2 Bw To integrate¢his expression, assume w=(l—e)u+eru: then, A being the radical quantity in the denominator, we have A= wo feos? A+ (4i—28) (1 —e*) w + (4i—26) e u%} and, by determining e? so as to make the expression on the right- hand side a square, A4i—FB te, cos A TT Jerse? ? A= cosA + eu /4i—28”° dw = 2edu A oy v 4imsp : 2p dr =sinA x x edu, v 4i—28 Now, w and z increase together from zero to 1; wherefore oO is ad x sin A xe: A 4t-- 26 © Mecanique Céleste, vol. iv. p. 260. ‘On atmospherical Refraction. 347 or, if we make 2B ea JV ti—2B These expressions take place at the standard temperature and mean pressure; but, according to what has been shown, and neglecting in the radical quantity the variation of 28 which is inconsiderable when compared with the variation of 47, they will becoitie, at the temperature ¢, and the pressure J, x sin A tan 3 y. Tan y = (1 4+-mt)? x Las 3E, 5 cos i 6 2p ; fe eM a pe K sin A tan 5 ¥. (l+mt)z af 4i—28 The horizontal refraction, when ¢ = 0, and b = B, is — 26 . eaeeaee. which agrees with the determination in the Mécanique Céleste, vol. iv. p. 260, the symbols only being different. Using the values of i and 6 given by Laplace *, this quantity falls greatly short of observation. But the expressions that have now been investigated are perfectly similar to the formule of Mayer ; and it is reasonable to suppose that that astronomer followed the usual practice, and determined the two coefficients so as to represent the refractions observed at the horizon, and at the altitude of 45”. When the zenith distance is not too great, the factor depend- ing on leat in the value of tan y, very nearly compensatess the equal divisor in the expression of the refraction ; and in such cases Mayer’s formula coincides with the usual practice of astro- nomers in making the refraction vary in proportion to the den- sity of the air. At the horizon the compensation ceases to take place, and the correction for heat, according to Mayer, is quite different from the common rule. But the formula of the cele- brated astronomer of Gottingen has the merit of being, in both circumstances, consonant to general principles, and independent of arbitrary assumptions. Its imperfection arises from the phy- sical hypothesis employed; for the law of a uniform decrease of density cannot be that of nature; because it leads to a determi- nation of the horizontal refraction much too small ; and because it limits the atmosphere to the third or fourth part of its real extent. Sept. 5, 1821, J. Ivory. * Magazine for September, p. 167. Xx 2 LXXIV. dc- {848° J LXXIV. Account of the Native Copper on the Southern Shore of Lake Superior, with historical Citations and miscellaneous Remarks, in a Report to the Department of War. By HENRY R, ScHooLcrarFt™. (The following Letter accompanied Mr. Schooleraft’s Report.) Albany, Feb. 16, 1821, To Professor Silliman. Sin, — Acrezasry to your request, and the permission of the Secretary at War, I inclose you a copy of my Report on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior. In preparing it, | have consulted the former travellers of the region, and, by combining their remarks with my own, endeavoured to present, in an em- bodied form, all the information extant upon the subject. It has been a cause of regret to me, however, that more time was not devoted to the mineralogy and geology of that section of country: but it appeared incompatible with the more important objects of the expedition, and I could only make use of the time that was allowed to me, In presenting the subject to the Secretary at War, I thought my observations would be more acceptable in a practical and business form, than as assuming the character of a scientific memoir; and in choosing an intermediate course, I have probably said more.on the geology of the country than may be thought important to the statesman, and less than will be con- sidered satisfactory to the professed geologist and scientific amateur. A few marginal notes have therefore been added, but I have been studious not to overload the original MS. in that way I do not send the views and geological charts accompanying the Report to Mr. Calhoun, as it would be very inconvenient at the present period to copy them, and as the subject may be suffi- ciently understood without these embellishments. With respect to the deductions, so far as science is concerned, it is hoped they will be read with candour, and I therefore sub- mit them to your judgement and to that of the scientific public, With great respect and regard, Your most obedient servant, Henry R. ScHooLcrart. Vernon, Oneida Co. (N. Y.) Noy. 6, 1820. Hon. Joun C. Caruoun, Secretay at War, Sir,—I HAVE now the honour to submit to you such obserya- tions as haye occurred to me, during the recent expedition under Gov. Cass, in relation to the Copper Mines of Lake Superior ; * From the American Journal of Science, &¢, No, 2, vol. iii. reserving Account of the Native Copper on Lake Superior. 349 reserving as the subject of a future communication, the facts I have collected on the mineralogy of the country explored gene- rally. The first striking change in the mineral aspect of the country north of Lake Huron, is presented near the head of the island of St. Joseph in the river St. Mary, where the calcareous strata of secondary rocks are succeeded by a formation of red sand-stone, which. extends northward to the head of that river at Point Iro- quois, producing the fails called the Sault de St. Marie fifteen miles below, and thence stretching northwest along the whole soutiiern shore of Lake Superior to the Fond du Lac, and into the regions beyond. This extensive stratum is perforated at various points by up-heaved masses of granite and hornblende, which appear in elevated banks on the margin of the lake be- tween Dead river and Presque Isle, and from the Porcupine mountains ten leagues to the west of the Ontonagon river. It is overlayed in other parts by a stratum of grey sand-stone, resem- bling certain varieties of grauwacke, of uncommon thickness, which appears in various promontories along the shore, and, t the aistance of ninety miles from Point Iroquois, constitutes a lofty perpendicular wall upon the water’s edge called the Pictured Rocks, which is one of the most commanding objects in nature. So obvious a change in the geological character of the rock strata, in passing from Lake Huron to Lake Superior, prepares us to expect a corresponding one in the imbedded minerals and other natural associations,—an expectation which is realized during the first eighty leagues, in the discovery of red hematite, prehnite, opal, jasper, sardonyx, carnelion, agate, and zeolite. The first appearances of copper are seen on the head of the portave across Keweena point, two hundred and seventy miles beyond the Sault de St. Marie, where the pebbles along the shore of the lake contain native copper disseminated in particles vary- ing in size from a grain of sand to a lump of two pounds weight. Many of the detached stones at this place are also coloured green by the carbonate of copper, and the rock strata in the vicinity exhibit traces of the same ore. ‘These indications continue to the river Ontonagon, which has long been noted for the large masses of native copper found upon its banks, and about the con- tiguous country. This river (called Donagon on Mellish’s Map) is one of the largest of thirty tributaries’ which flow into the lake between Point Iroquois and the Fond du Lac. It originates in a district of mountainous country intermediate between the Mississippi river and the Lakes Huron and Superior, and, after running in a northern direction for one hundred and twenty miles, enters the latter at the distance of fifty-one miles west of Point Keweena, in north latitude 46° 52’ 2” according ta 350) Account of the Native Copper to the observations of Captain Douglass. It is connected by portages with the Menomonie river of Green Bay, and with the Chippeway river of the Mississippi, routes of communication, occasionally travelled by the Indians in canoes. At its mouth there is a village of Chippeway Indians of sixteen families who subsist chiefly, on the fish (sturgeom) taken in the river; and whose location, independently of that circumstance, does not ap= pear to unite the ordinary advantages of Indian villages in that region. A strip of alluvial land of a sandy character extends from the lake up the river three or four leagues, where it is sue- ceeded by high broken hills of a sterile aspeet and covered chiefly by a growth of pine, hemlock, and spruce. Among these hills, which may be considered as lateral spurs of the Porcupine moun- tains, the Copper Mines, so called, are situated, at the distance of thirty-two miles from the lake, and in the centre of a region characterized by its wild, rugged, and forbidding appearance, The large mass of native copper reposes on the west bank of the river, at the water’s edge (see Plate V. fig. 3), and at the foot of a very elevated bank of alluvion, the face of which appears at some former period to have slipped into the river, carrying with it the mass of copper, together with detached blocks of granite, hornblende, and other bodies peculiar to the soil of that place. The copper, which is in a pure and malleable state, lies in con nexion with serpentine rock, the face of which it almost com- pletely overlays, and is also disseminated in masses and grains throughout the substance of the rock*, The surface of the * In preparing this Report, a more particular description of the geog- nostic character of this mass of copper was deemed unnecessary ; but in presenting it for the perusal of the amateurs of natural science, it may be proper to add—that the serpentine rock is not én situ, nor is it so found in any part of the regions visited. To aceount for its appearance in a section of country to which it is geologically foreign, it would be necessary to enter into the inquiry ‘‘ by what means have the loose masses of primitive rocks been transported into secondary countries ?”—an inquiry which is incom- patible with the limits of this Report, and which moreover would, in itself, furnish the subject of a very interesting memoir. I will now however sug- gest, what has struck me in passing through that country—that the Por- cupine mountains, which are situated thirty miles west, are the seat of ex- tinguished volcanoes that have thrown forth the masses of native copper which are found (as will be mentioned in the sequel) so ahundantly through- out the region of the Ontonagon. This opinion is supported by the fact that those mountains are-composed (so far as observed) of granite, which is probably associated with other primary rocks, and among them serpentine —that the red sand-stone rock at their base is highly inclined towards the mountains so as to he almost vertical, and apparently thrown into this posi- tion by the up-heaving of the granite—and also, that their elevation, which has been calculated by Capt. Douglass and myself at 1800 feet above the level of Lake Superior, their conical and rugged peaks, and other appears ances, are such as frequently characterize veleanic mountains. “1% metal, on the Southern Shore of Lake Supérior, €s’c. Sol metal, unlike most oxidable metals which have suffered a long exposure to the atmosphere, presents a metallic brilliancy*; which is attributable either to alloy of the precious metals, or to the action of the river, which during its semi-annual floods carries down large quantities of sand and other alluvial matter that may serve to abrade its surface, and kept it bright. The shape of the rock is very irregular—its greatest length is three feet eight inches—its greatest breadth three feet four inches, and it may altogether contain eleven cubic feet. In size, it considerably exceeds the great mass of native iron found some years ago upon the banks of Red River in Louisiana, and now deposited among the collections of the New-York Historical Society, but, on ac+ count of the admixture of rocky matter, is inferior in weight. Henry, who visited it in 1766, estimated its weight at five tonst. But after examining it with scrupulous attention, I have com- puted the weight of metallic copper in the rock at twenty-two hundred pounds. The quantity may, however, have been much diminished since its first discovery, and the marks of chisels and axes upon it, with the broken tools lying around, prove that por- tions have been cut off and carried away. The author just quoted observes, * that such was its pure and malleable state, that with an axe he was able to cut off a portion weighing a hundred pounds.” Notwithstanding this reduction, it may still be considered one of the largest and most remarkable bodies of native copper upon the globe, and is, so far as my reading ex- tends, exceeded only by a specimen found in a valley in Brasil weighing 2666 Portuguese pounds §. Viewed only as a subject for scientific speculation, it presents the most interesting consi- derations, and must be regarded by the geologist a saffording il- lustrative proofs of an important character. Its connexion with a rock which is foreign to the immediate section of country where it lies, indicates a removal from its original bed; while the inti- mate connexion of the metal and matrix, and the complete en- velopment of individual masses of the copper by the rock, point to a common and contemporaneous origin, whether that be re- ferable to the agency of calorie er water. This conclusion ad- mits of an obvious and important application to the extensive strata of serpentine and other magnesian rocks found in various parts of the globe! ‘The Ontonagon river at this place is broad, rapid and shallow, and filled with detached masses of rock out of place, which project above the water, and render the navigation extremely difficult during the summer season, The bed of the -* This, however, is no uncommon ae COW of native copper.--Ep. + See Bruce’s Mineralogical Journal, p. 124, 218, { See Henry's Travels and Adventures, p. 205. _. § Philip’s Mineralogy. , river 352 Account of the Native Copper river is upon sand-stone similar to that which supports the Pa- lisadoe rocks upon the Hudson. There is an island nearly in the centre of the river, which serves to throw the current against the west bank where the copper reposes, and which, as it is the only wooded island noticed in the river, may serve to indicate the lo- cality of this mineral treasure to the future inquirer. Several other masses of native copper have been found on this river at various periods since it has been known to Europeans, and taken into different parts of the United States and of Eu- rope, and a recent analysis of one of these specimens, at the Uni- versity of Leyden, proves it to be native copper in a state of un- common purity, and uncombined with any notable portion either of gold or silver. A mass of copper discovered by the Aborigines om an island in Lake Superior at Point Chegoimegon eighty miles west of the Ontonagon, weighed twenty-eight pounds, and was taken to the island of. Michilimackinac some years ago by M. Cadotte, and disposed of. It was from. this mass that the War Department was formerly supplied with a specimen, and from which the ana- lysis alluded to is also understood to have been made.. About eleven. years ago, a trader by the name of Campbell procured from the Indians a piece of copper weighing twelve pounds, which they found on an island in Winnebago lake, about a hundred miles in a direct line east of the copper rock on the Ontonagon. This was also taken. to the island of Michilimackinac, and there disposed of. Other discoveries of this metal in masses, varying from one to ten pounds, are stated to have been made on the shores of Lake Superior—the Fox river—the Chippeway—the St. Croix, and the Mississippi about Prairie du Chien, but the statements do not rest on sufficient authority to justify any par- ticular enumeration. The existence of copper in the region.of Lake Superior appears to have been known to the earliest travel- lers and voyagers. As early as 1659 the Baron La Hontan, in coucluding a description of that lake, adds ‘ that upon it we also find copper mines, the metal of which is so fine and plenti- ful that there is not a seventh part loss from the ore*.”’ In 1721 Charlevoix passed through the lakes on his way to the Gulf of Mexico, and did not aliow the mineralogy of the > country to escape his observations. ** Large pieces of copper,” he says in speaking of Lake Superior, ‘‘ are found in some places on its banks, and around some of the islands, which are still the. objects of a superstitious worship among the Indians. They lock upon them with veneration, as if they were the presents of those gods who dwell under the waters; they collect. their. smallest frag- * La Hontan’s Voyages to Canada, p. 214. ments on the Nortnern Shore of Lake Superior, 8c. 358 ments, which they carefully preserve without however making any use of them. They say that formerly a huge rock of this metal was to be seen elevated a considerable height above the surface of the water, and as it has now disappeared, they pretend that the gods have carried it elsewhere ; but there is great rea- son to believe that in process of time thé waves of the lake have covered it entirely with sand and slime; and it is certain that in several places pretty large quantities of this metal have been dis- covered without being obliged to dig very deep. During the course of my first voyage to this country, I was acquainted with ove of our order (Jesuits) who had been formerly a goldsmith, and who while he was at the mission of Sawlé de St. Marie used to search for this metal, and made candlesticks, crosses, and eensers of it, for this copper is often to be met with almost en- tirely pure *.” In 1766, Capt. Carver procured several pieces of native cop- per upon the shores of Lake Superior, and about the sources of the Chippeway and St. Croix rivers, and published an account of these discoveries in his book of travels, which has served to give notoriety to the existence of that metal in the region alluded to, without however furnishing any very precise information as to its locality or abundance. He did not, from his own account, tra- verse the southern shore of the lake, but states that virgin cop- per is found in. great plenty on the Ontonagon or Copper Mine river, and about other parts of Lake Superior, and adds—* that he observed many of the small islands, particularly those on the eastern shores, were covered with copper ore, which appeared like beds of copperas (sulphat of iron) of which many tons lay in a small space t.”’ Five years after Carver’s visit (A.D. 177 1): a considerable body of native copper was dug out of the alluvial earth on the banks of the Ontonagon river by two adventurers of the name of Henry and Bostwick, and, together with a lump of silver ore of eight pounds weight of a blue colour and semi-transparent, transported ‘to Montreal, and from thence shipped to England, where the latter was deposited in the British Museum after an analysis of ~ a portion of it, by which it was determined to contain 60 per cent. of silver t. These individuals were connected with a com- pany which had been formed in England for the purpose of working the copper mines of lake Superior, among whom were the Duke of Gloucester, Sir William Johustone, and several other gentlemen of rank. They built a small vessel at Point aux Pins, six miles above the Sault de St. Marie, to facilitate their opera- tions upon the lake, and a considerable sum of money was ex- * Charlevoix’s Journal of a Voyage to North America, vol. ii. p. 45. + Carver's Travels, p.67. { Henry's Travels, p. 30, Vol, 58, No, 283, Nov, 1821, Yy pended, 354 Account of the Native Copper pended, first,—in exploring the northern shore of the lake, and the island of Maripeaux, and afterwards,—in the mining opera- tions which were authorized upon the banks of the Ontonagon. These transactions will be best illustrated by a quotation from the narrative account which Henry has himself published. After returning from the Canadian shore of the lake, and passing Point Iroquois, where the silver ore was found, he observes,—‘* Hence we coasted westward, but found nothing till we reached the On- tonagon, where, besides the detached masses of copper formerly mentioned, we saw much of the same metal imbedded in stone. Proposing to ourselves to make a trial on the hill, till we were better able to go to work upon the solid rock, we built a house and sent to the Sault de St. Marie for provisions. At the spot pitched upon for the commencement of our preparations, a green- coloured water which tinges iron of a copper colour, issued from the hill, and this the miners called a /eader. In digging they found frequent masses of copper, some of which were of three pounds weight. Having arranged every thing for the accom- modation of the miners, during the winter, we returned to the Sault. “* Karly in the spring of 1772 we sent a boat load of provi- sions, but it came back on the 20th day of June, bringing with it, to our surprise, the whole establishment of miners. They reported that in the course of the winter they had penetrated forty feet into the face of the hill, but on the arrival of the thaw, the clay, on which on account of its stiffness they had relied, and neglected to secure it by supporters, had fallen in ;—that from the detached masses of metal, which to the last had daily presented themselves, they supposed there might be ultimately reached a body of the same, but could form no conjecture of its distance, except that it was probably so far off as not to be pur- sued without sinking an air shaft; and lastly,—that the work would require the hands of more men than could be fed in the actual situation of the country. Here our operations in this quarter ended. The metal was probably within our reach; but if we had found it, the expense of carrying it to Montreal must have exceeded its marketable value. It was never for the ex- portation of copper that our company was formed, but always with a view to the silver, which it was hoped the ores, whether of copper or lead, might in sufficient quantity contain.” Eighteen years after the failure of this attempt (1789) Mac- kenzie passed through Lake Superior on his first voyage of dis- covery into the northwest, and in his description of Lake Su- perior says,—‘* On the same side, (the south) at the river Ten- nagon, is found a quantity of virgin copper. The Americans, soon after they got possession of that country, sent an agent thither y on the Northern Shore af Lake Superior, &¥c. 355 thither; and I should not be surprised to hear of their employ- ing people to work the mine. Indeed, it might be well worthy the attention of the British subjects to work the mines on the north coast, though they are not supposed to be so rich as those on the south *,” The attention of the United-States government appears first to have been turned toward the subject during the administration of President Adams, when the sudden augmentation of the navy ‘rendered the employment of domestic copper in the equipment of ships, an object of political as well as pecuniary moment; and a mission was authorized to proceed to Lake Superior, Of the success of this mission, as it has not been communicated to the public, nothing can with certainty be stated; but from the in- quiries which have been instituted during the recent expedition, ‘it is rendered probable, that the actual state of our Indian rela- tions at that period arrested the advance of the commissioners into the regions where the most valuable beds of copper were sup- posed to lie, and that the specimens transmitted to Government were procured through the instrumentality of some friendly In- dians employed for that purpose. Such are the lights which those who have preceded me in this inquiry have thrown upon the subject, all of which have operated in producing public belief in the existence of extensive copper mines upon Lake Superior, while travellers have generally argued that the southern shore of the lake is most metalliferous, and that the Ontonagon river may be considered as the seat of the prin- cipal mines. Mr. Gallatin in his report on the state of American manufactures in 1810, countenances the prevalent opinion, while it has been reiterated in some of our literary journals, and in the numerous ephemeral publications of the times, until the public expectation has been considerably raised in regard to them. Under these circumstances the recent expedition under Goy. Cass entered the mouth of the Ontonagon river on the 27th of June, having coasted along the southern shore of the lake from the head of the river St. Mary, and after spending four days upon the banks of that stream in the examination of its mineralogy, proceeded on the first of July towards the Fond du Lac. While there, the principal part of our force was encamped at the mouth of the river, and the governor, accompanied only by such persons as were necessary in the exploration, proceeded in two light canoes to the large mass of copper which has already been de- scribed. We found the river broad, deep, and gentle for a di- stance, and serpentine in its course,—then becoming narrower, with an increased velocity of current, and before reaching the * Mackenzie's Voyages, p. 29. Yy2 copper 356 Account of the Native Copper . copper rock, full of rapids and difficult of asceut. At the di- stance of three or four leagues from the lake, it is skirted on either side by a chain of hills whose extreme elevation above the bed of the Ontonagon. may be estimated at from three to four hundred feet. These hills appear to be composed of a nucleus of granite, arising through a stratum of red sand-stone, and vo- vered by a very heavy deposit of alluvial soil full of water-worn fragments of stones and pebbles, and imbedding occasional masses of native copper. Such is the character of the country in the immediate vicinity of the copper rock, and. the latter is mani- festly one of those imbedded substances, which has been for- tuitously exposed to the powerful action of the river against an alluvial bank. During our continuance upon this stream we found, or rather procured from the Indians, another mass of native copper weigh- ing nine pounds (Troy) nearly; which will be forwarded to the War Department. This specimen is partially enveloped by. a crust. of green carbonate of copper, which is in. some places Jibrous, sud on the under side mixed witha small portion of ad- hering sand, and some angular fragments of quartz, upon which it appears to have fallen in a liquid state. There is also an ap- pearance of crystallization upon one side of it, and a portion of adhering black oxide, the nature of which it is difficult to deter- mine by ocular inspection. Several smaller pieces, generally weighing less than a pound, were also procured during our ex- cursion up the Ontonagon, and in the regions east of it; but all, excepting those cut from the large mass, are somewhat oxidated, or otherwise encrusted upon the surface. The geological struc- ture of the country in detail, and the mineral appearances of the shore about the copper rock and at other points along the river, between that and the lake, are also of a highly interesting cha- racter, but do not appear to me to demand a more particular consideration in this report. The discovery of masses of native copper is generally consi- dered indicative of the existenéé of mines in the neighbourhood. The practised miner looks upon them as signs which point to larger bodies of the same metal in the earth, and is often deter- mined, hy discoveries of this nature, in the choice of the spot for commencing his labours. The predictions drawn from such evidence, are also more sanguine in proportion to the extent of the discovery. Jt is not, however, an unerring indication, and appears liable to many exceptions. A detached mass of copper is sometimes found at a great distance from any body of the me- tal, or its ores; and these, on the contrary, often occur in the earth, or imbedded in rock strata, where there has been no ex- ternal discovery of metallic copper to indicate it. So far as the opinions on the Northern Shore of Lake Superior, c. == 357 opinions of mineralogical writers can be collected on this point, they teach,—that large veins of native copper are seldom found, but that it is frequently disseminated in masses of various size in the rocks, and among the spars and ores of copper and other mines ; and when found in scattered masses upon the surface, is rather to’be considered as a token of the existence of the sul- phuret, the carbonate, and other ores of copper, within the cir- cle of country where it occurs, than as the precursor to conti- guous bodies of the same metal. ‘ Native copper,” says Cleve- land, ‘is found chiefly in primitive rocks, through which it is sometimes disseminated, or more frequently it enters into the composition of metallic veins, which traverse these rocks. It is thus connected with granite, gneiss, micaceous and argillaceous slates, granular limestone, chlorite, serpentine, porphyry, &c. It also occurs in transition and secondary rocks. Jt accompanies other ores of copper, as the red oxide, the carbonate and sul- phuret of copper, pyritous and gray copper, also the red and brown oxides of iron, oxide of tin, &c. Its usual gangues are * quartz, the fluate and carbonate of lime, and sulphate of barytes. At Oberstein it occurs in prehnite; and in the Faroe islands it accompanies zeolite. “© Native copper is not rare, nor is it found in sufficient quan- tity to be explored by itself. It sometimes occurs in loose, in- sulated masses of considerable size *.”” From all the facts which I have been able to collect on Lake Superior, and after a deliberation upon them since my return, [ have drawn the following conclusions : Ist. That the alluvial soil along the banks of the Ontonagon river, extending to its source, and embracing | the contiguous re- gion which gives origin to the Menomonie river of Green Bay, and to the Ousconsing, Chippeway and St. Croix rivers of the Mississippi, contains very frequent, and some most extraordinary imbedded masses of native copper; but that no body of it, which is sufficiently extensive to become the object of profitable mining operations, is to be found at any particular place. This con- clusion is supported by the facts already adduced, and, so far as theoretical aids can be relied upon, by an application cf those facts to the theories of mining. A further, extent of country might have been embraced along the shore of Lake Superior, but the same remark appears applicable to it. 2d. That a mineralogical survey of the rock formations skirt- ing the Ontonagon, including the district of country above al- luded to, would result in the discovery of very valuable mines of the sulphuret, the carbonate and other profitable ores of copper; in the working of which the ordinary advantages of mining would * Cleveland's Mineralogy, p. 450. re 358 Account of the Native Copper be greatly enhanced by occasional masses and veins of native metal. This deduction is rendered probable by the general ap- pearance of the country, and the concurrent discoveries of tra- vellers,—by the green-coloured waters which issue in several places from the earth,—by the bodies of native copper found, —by the cupreous tinge which is presented in the crevices of rocks and loose stones,—by the geological character of the coun- try, and by other analogous considerations. These deductions embrace all I have to submit on the mineral geography of the country, so far as regards the copper mines. Other considerations arise from the facilities which that section of country may present for mining operations,—its adaptation to the purposes of agriculture,—the state and dispositions of the Indian tribes, and other topics, which a design to commence metallurgical operations. at the present period would suggest. But I am not aware that any such views are entertained by Go- vernment, and have not considered it incumbent upon me in this communication to enter into details on these subjects. It may be proper, however, to remark, that the remote situation of the country containing the most valuable mines, does not, at the pre- sent period, favour the pursuit of mining. It would require the employment not only of the artificers and Jabourers necessary to conduct the working of mines, but also of a military force to protect their operations,—first, while engaged in exploring the country, and afterwards, in their regular labours. For, what- ever may be their professions, the Indian tribes of the north possess strong natural jealousies, and, in situations so remote, are to be restrained from an indulgence in the most malignant pas- sions, only by the fear of a prompt military chastisement. In looking upon the southern shore of Lake Superior, the period appears distant, when the advantages flowing from a military post upon that frontier will be produced by the ordinary progress of our settlement ;—for it presents few enticements to the agricul- turist. A considerable portion of the shore is rocky; and its alluvions are-in general of too sandy and light a texture for pro- fitable husbandry. Witi an elevation of six hundred and forty- one feet above the Atlantic Ocean*, and drawing its waters from territories all situated north of the forty-fourth degree of north latitude, Lake Superior cannot be represented as enjoying a cli- mate very favourable to the productions of the vegetable king- dom. Its forest trees are chiefly those of the fir kind, mixed with white birch, (Betula papyracea, the bark of which is so much employed * This level is predicated upon the following facts and estimates which I extract from my “ Narrative Journal.” “© Blevation of Lake: Evie ‘above the tide waters of the Hudson according on the Northern Shore of Lake Superior, &c. 359 employed for canoes by the northern Indians,) and with some varieties of poplar, oak, and maple. The meteorological obser- vations which I have made, indicate, however, a waim summer, the average heat of the month of June being 69°; but the climate is subject to a long and severe winter, and to storms, aud sudden ‘transitions of temperature, during the summer months. We saw no Indian corn among the savages upon this lake 3; whether the climate is unfavourable to its growth, or the wild rice (Zezania aquatica) furnishes au adequate substitute, is not certain. A country lacking the advantages of a fertile soil, may still become a very rich mining country, like the county of Cornwall in Eng- land, the Hartz mountains in Germany, and a portion of Mis- souri in our own country; but this deficiency must be compen -~ sated by the advantages of geographical position, contiguous, or redundant population, and the facilities of a ready commercial intercourse. T'o these, the mineral district of Lake Superior can advance but a feeble claim, while it lies upwards of three hun- dred miles beyond the utmost point of our settlements on the north-western frontier, and in the occupation of savage tribes whose hostility has been so recently manifested. Concerning the variety, importance, and extent of its mineral productions, little doubt can remain. Every fact which has been noticed tends to strengthen the belief, that there are extensive copper mines upon its shores, while the information that has been gathered in the course of the late mission, renders it certain that not only cop- per, but iron, lead, plumbago, and sulphur are productions of that region, together with several of the precious siliceous* and crystallized minerals. It is rendered probable also, that silver ore is imbedded in the transition rocks of the region ; and when- ever it shall become an object with the American government, or people, according to the Report of the New-York Canal Com- feet. Raper, Ph Fe Mee Tere) oh Ta aod Bret ge Estimated fall of Detroit river, 20 miles at six inches permiie.. = 10) St. Clair river, 30 miles at four inches 1... ... 10 Rapids of St, Clair river at the outlet of Lake Huron, in the di- stance of three miles... | Estimated fail of the river St. Mary, between the Detour and Point Iroquois, 60 miles at three inches per mile (rapids not SS JAR a OT TL SA oe Le 15 MNOS 42 LAVAS e hd as cftds'p Sel 0'9si. dex? Cu basic . 9 pee itar Rape) io iw s wine Aue ade Ma 6 Sualt de St. Marie (according to Col. Gratiot) ... 0 ... 0... 22-10 Level of Lake Superior 641-10 * The Carnclion is first found on approaching the Pictured Rocks on Lake Superior, and afterwards becomes very abundant along the shore extending tothe Fond du Lac. Sandy Lake on the head of the Mississippi is a good Joculity of thiy mineral, and it is found around the shores of the numerous little 360 On the Rose of Jericho. people, to institute mineralogical surveys of the country,no doubt can be entertained but such researches will eventuate in disco- veries of a highly interesting character, and such as cannot fail both to augment our sources of profitable industry, and to pro- mote our commercial independence. In the event of such opera- tions, the facilities of a ready transportation, either in vessels or ‘barges, of the crude ore to the Sault de St. Marie, will point out that place as uniting with a commanding geographical position, superior advantages for the reduction of the ores, and for the subsequent conversion of the metal either into ordnance or other articles. At this place a fail of twenty-two feet in the river in the distance of half a mile, creates a sufficient power to drive hy- ' draulic works to any extent; while the surrounding country is such as to admit of an agricultural settlement. I accompany this report with a geological chart of a vertical section of the left bank of the Mississippi at St. Peter’s, embra- cing a formation of native copper, and in which the superposition of the layers of rock, and the several subdeposites forming the alluvial stratum, exhibit a remarkable order. The curvatures in the lines of the alluvial stratum, represent a natural mound or hillock recumbent upon the brink of the river, which has par- tially fallen in, thus exposing its internal structure. The forma- tion was first noticed by the garrison who quarried stone for quicklime, and for the purpose of building chimneys, at this spot. The masses of copper found are all small, none exceeding a pound in weight. I have the honour to be, sir, With great respect and regard, Your most obedient servant, (Copy.) Henry R, ScHooicrarr. little lakes in that region. In descending the Mississippi it is constantly met with in the alluvial soil. At the foot of the Falls of St. Anthony it is sparingly found ; around the shores of Lake Sepin it is very abundant, and it may be traced below Prairie du Chien, and even as low as St. Genevieve, as I have mentioned in my view of the mines. According to the classifica- tion of Werner, which is founded on ‘alternate bands of red and white,” many of these specimens may be ccnsidered as Sardonyx. They are often associated with common chalcedony, with cacholong, and with certain va- rieties of agate and flinty jasper. In a few instances the common opal, in small fragments, is met with. LXXV. Observaticns and Experiments on the Rose of Jericho ; with brief Notices of its History. By James Mivvar, M.D., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and Lecturer on Natural History and Chemistry, Edinburgh. Th r singular property which the dried specimens of the Rose of Jericho possess of expanding in water, has long attracted the attention On the Rose of Jericho. 361 attention of naturalists, and in times of ignorance has given rise to many superstitious notions, Some time ago I had an oppor- tunity of examining two specimens of this plant, which have been deposited for several years among other rarities, natural and artificial, which adorn the elegant museum of the late Mr. John Thomson, merchant, in Edinburgh ; and having been permitted ‘through his liberality to make experiments on these specimens, T now state the result. The specimens alluded to were examined by many naturalists in Edinburgh, and by some strangers, both in their state of contraction and expansion ; and, as far as ] could learn trom Mr. Thomson, none of them had ever seen any thing of the kind; so that such plants are rare in this country. Mr. Thomson received*one of the specimens from a friend in Aber- deenshire, in whose possession it had long remained, but the precise time could not be ascertained; and he purchased the other in Holland, without knowing its peculiar property, and it lay unheeded in his cabinet for wany years. The discovery was accidentally made by looking into the work of Le Brun, a French traveller, whose description will be afterwards noticed. The history of the specimens in Mr. Thomson’s possession shows that the Rose of Jericho retains its singular property of expansion by the absorption of water, and of contraction when dried for a long course of years. One of the specimens it is pretty certain has been in a dry state for at least twenty years, and perhaps for a much longer time. In the work of Le Brun now alluded to, and in which an ac- count of his “ Voyage in 1675 tothe Levant, Egypt, and Syria,” is detailed, (published in folio at Delft, in 1700,) I find the fol- lowing observations on this plant: ** Among other rarities,’ says he, * I purchased some Roses of Jericho, a very curious plant. In less enlighten? periods of society, when mankind were more credulous, many stories were related of these roses. Among others it was asserted that, if they are put into water on Christ- mas eve they expand, whieh did not take place at any other time. This happened, it was said, as a memorial of the birth of Jesus Christ. But I know certainly,” says the author, “ that they have this property at all times, both night and day; and when they are taken from the water, they gradually contract.” 9, 301, The same plant and its remarkable properties are spgken of by Caspar Bauhin (Pinx, p. 484.) The name Rose of Jericho, according to the account of it quoted from Bellonius, was first given by a monk, obviously in allusion to its supposed miraculous expansion at a certain season ; for it is not a native of the coun- try around Jericho, but of the sandy shores of Arabia Deserta, anda wild species (sylvestris) is found among the houses and waste places of Syria. Bauhin adds, that he had it in his gar- den, where it flowered for several years, Vol. 58, No, 283, Nov. 1821. ZZ John 362 On the Rose of Jericho. John Sturmius, a Professor of Louvain, who lived in the fif- teenth or beginning of the sixteenth century, wrote a book on the Rose of Jericho, which is said to be full of superstitious details of its miraculous powers 5 and in allusion to the same superstitions it was sometimes called by others Rosa Marie. In later botanical works the Rose of Jericho is distinguished by the generic name of Anastatica, derived from its property of reviving in water. Under this name it is described in Hortus Cliffortianus, p.318; and as it approaches in some of its cha- racters to the genus Thlaspi, it is arranged by Morison, Hist. Plant. ii. p. 228, under that genus, as Thlaspi Rosa de Hiericho. The following characters are given by Willdenow : Awnastatica. Class and Order. Tetradynamia Siliculosa. Gen. Char.—Silicula retusa, margine coronata valvulis disse- pimento duplo longioribus ; stylo intermedio mucronato obliquo, loculis 2-spermis. Anastatica Hierochuntica. Foliis axillaribus brevissimis, sili- culis ungulatis spinosis. _Native of the shores of the Red Sea, sandy places of Palestine _and Barbary, and near Cairo in Egypt. This species, which is an annual plant, was cultivated in Kew -Garden in 1656, by the celebrated old botanist Tradescant. Another species, Anast. syriaca, is a native of Austria, Stiria, Carniola, Svria, and Sumatra. It may be added that the appearance of the dried plant of the -common Rose of Jericho, Anastat. Hierochuntica, indicates no- thing of its resuscitating quality ; for it is of a hard woody structure and consistency, somewhat resembling a plant of dried heath. Experiments.—The weight of the specimens on which the ex-. periments were made was first ascertained, and was found as fol- lows : Long-sten:med specimen ..........-. 90 grains. ra Short-stemmed ditto.....-..eecceee 110 Exp. 1.—Both specimens were immersed in water at the tem- perature of the air of the apartment about 50° Fahr. to-within an inch of the division of the branches. After twelve hours no apparent change had taken place, excepting that numerous air- bubbles had collected on the stems, showing that air had been displaced by the absorption of water. Having remained in this state of immersion for forty-six hours without further appearance _of change; the specimens being again weighed, gave the follow- ing results : The long-stemmed specimen weighed. .... 96 graitis. The short-stemmed ditto ditto........ 116 It is rather a singular coincidence, that in this case both speci- mens acquired exactly the same additional weight; namely, six grains, although the short-stemmed specimen, having a larger head, and being twenty grains heavier, might have been expected : to On the Rose of Jericho. 363 to imbibe a larger portion of water. But here it must be recol- lected that no expansion took place, and perhaps the absorption ef the liquid was confined to the stems. Exp. 2.—In a second experiment both specimens were again immersed in water, which rose so high as to cover the lower di- visions of the ramifications. In five hours the expansion was complete. But when the level of the water was diminished by the absorption and evaporation, contraction of the branches immediately commenced ; and when the vessels were again filled up, both specimens were restored to a state of full expansion. During the period of immersion, which was continued forty-two hours, the alternate expansion and contraction were several times repeated. At the conclusion of this period, when both specimens were fully expanded, they were weighed, and it was found that the augmentation of weight acquired by the short-stemmed spe- cimen amounted to 37 grains, and therefure it weighed 147 grs. The weight gained by the long-stemmed specimen was equa! to 28 grains, for it weighed 118 grains.—Fig. 1, Pl. V. is a view of one of the specimens in its cuntracted state, and fig. 2 is the same specimen in its state of expansion. From the experiment now detailed, it appeared that the amount of absorption, or the increase of weight gained by each specimen, approaches very nearly to the ratio of their respective weights in the dried and contracted state. For 37, the additional weight of the heavier or short-stemmed specimen, is nearly in the same proportion to 110, the original weight, as 28 is to 90. It might have been desirable to vary these experiments by im- mersing the specimens in water at different temperatures; but as they were considered valuable and curious on account of their resuscitating quality, it seemed unsafe to employ water much in- creased in temperature, in case that property should be dimi- nished or destroyed. In considering the resuscitating power of this plant by the absorptign of water, is it to be supposed that any portion of the living principle still remains with it? A dried piece of wood ab- sorbs water; but this is obviously dependent on the attraction’ between the fibres of the wood and the water; and no change that indicates the presence of a living agent appears. Some plants, and particularly of the tribe of Mosses, after being dried, when exposed to moisture or immersed in water, ina short time exhibit all their freshness and vigour. I have only further to observe, that in the, Rose of Jericho, the absorption does not take place at the extremity of the stem, as is proved by the first experiment, but at the commencement of the ramification, as appeared from the result of the second ex- periment; for the full expansion was not produced till the water rose to that point from which the branches pass off. Edinburgh, May 1821. Z2z2 LXXVI. Con- [ 364 ] LXXVI. Concessions to Mr. Ivory. In a Lelter to the Editor. Sir, MusT apologize to your readers for recalling their at- tention, after an interval of four or five months, to a question which they perhaps were rather pleased than sorry to think not likely to be revived. But I have some concessions to make to Mr. Ivory, and the computations of such a mathematician, as he is, are not to be hastily or lightly examined, even by a person as completely at his leisure, as the Coronation and the summer amusements of a watering place can have left him. I have no pretensions to *‘ wii,”’ and I am not fond of ** banter- ing”’ or “sneering ;”’ but I do claim the merit of preserving ny temper unruffled, even when I am attacked, without provocation, on my own ground: when my assertions are not only denied, but even my “ veracity” is called in question. I am therefore most ready to admit, in the present instance, that the slight difference of the elements of the cohesive proper- ties of mercury, employed by the English and French philoso- phers, appears to make a greater difference in some of the re- sults of the calculation, than I was at all aware, before I read Mr. Ivory’s last paper. I will alsoadmit that Mr. Ivory has con- vineed me, by means of the series, that his formule are more ac- curate than | had some reason to suppose : for it was only from such a comparison, that I could form any opinion, how far the quantities, which he has professedly neglected, were or were not wholly inconsiderable. And this is still my principal objection to his “ refinements.” On the other hand, the series, “ clumsy” as it certainly is, does afford in all cases a mode of es/imating the utmost possible magnitude of the terms omitted: and if we may trust Mr. Ivory’s own latest calculations, it agrees, even in the last place of deci- mals employed, with the formulas which he supposes to be suffi- ciently correct. When however he “ took the series into his hands,” I really was in hopes that he would have employed his undoubted talents in improving it, or in facilitating its applica- tion: and that the conclusions, which he considers as probably deducible from it, would at least have been converted into cer- tainties. The labour of a few days would be sufficient to com- pute coefficients enough to remove much of the difficulty ; and when once computed, they would last for ever. But it is said that great mathematicians have often been bad computers. I feel no reluctance in admitting that the table of 1809 is im- perfect, not only in the instance which Mr, Ivory has re-com~ puted very accurately, by the help of the clumsy series (p. 425) ; but perhaps in many others. It is however remarkable enough, that this table, with all its imperfections, is, in every instance, nearer Concessions to Mr. Ivory. 365 nearer to Mr. Ivory’s own, than that of Laplace, which he says has been “ sneered at”’ in the article Conxston. The author of that article does indeed observe, that Mr. Laplace has had re- course to ‘* the awkward contrivance of building up a curve, like the arch of a bridge, with fourteen blocks on each side:” the same contrivance having been originally employed in this coun- try, and then abandoned for the series: and Mr. Ivory’s own table appears fully to justify this abandonment: nor is it easy to conceive why he persists in dragging forwards the most illustrious of the French mathematicians into a comparison, which, with respect to the present investigation, cannot but be highly disad- vantageous to him. If, indeed, the truih is to be told, Mr. Laplace’s whole phy- sical theory of capillary action is rendered NUGATORY and DELU- stvE, by the omission of exactly one half of the conditions of the problem. He has attempted to deduce the laws of the equili- brium of two forces from the determination of the magnitude of one of them only. For it is most manifest and undeniable, that no substance, subjected to the operation of an attractive force, can remain at rest, without having that attraction counteracted by an equal repulsive force: and it is equally obvious that, in all common cases, the general amount of attraction and repulsion, reduced to any given direction, with regard to any given atom, must be equal. If therefore we suppose the joint or remaining force, depending on the mutual actions of two particles only, to be represented by a certain function of their distance, it is obvious that this function must be such as to afford a sum or integral, for all the particles within the sphere of corpuscular action, =0. And this is the true reason why Mr. Laplace’s earliest computa- tions have been silently abandoned, as affording no practical re- sult; and why they never can be resumed, even by those whom they have dazzled and astonished. I am, Sir, your very obedient servant, London, 3 Nov. 1821. S. B. L. Posrscriet. Though I am perfectly disposed to remain at peace with Mr. Ivory, 1 am obliged to add some furtker condi- tions to my capitulation ; since he does not appear to have ad- verted to my last postscript : otherwise he could scarcely have re- marked that I admit the number ‘00418, and that I ought to have said 00419. ‘This assertion brings the discussion within very narrow limits: I have chosen the case in which the two methods appeared to differ the most widely, and which is one of the most unfavourable to the convergence of the series: and one case is as good for the present purpose as a thousand. The difference of the results is only +45th of the whole quantity, and its 366 Concessions to Mr. Ivory. its linear amount is no more than the thirty thousandth of an inch. But in order to examine whether this error belongs to the original series, or to Mr. Ivory’s supposed improvement, I shall now follow the steps of my last postscript with still smaller portions of the curve, computing the value of s for x=:25, w='28, and r=*30, in succession. We shall then have, in the first place, when L is -4160, for r=+25, s=+38086, w="92463, 2='41201, and y=-032756, as before. In the second, place, taking Av=-03 instead of -05, we easily obtain, from the for- mer computation, As=+15083 +°03077 4-:00500 + -00085 + [-00017], and s=-56848: the angle being about 34° 39’, the cosine u='$2279, and the tangent 4=-°69100. The new value of y may he obtained, with sufficient accuracy, from the original series, which is more convergent for the ordinate than for the sine, and it will be found y=+04830. With these values we pro- . ceed to find A=7‘630, B=118-2, and C=2461°2, which are sufficient to: make s='5685 +:1526-+.:0236 + 0066 + [6022] ='7513 + [0022]: so that this computation fully confirms the suspicion expressed at the end of the postscript, that the depres- sion -004160, instead of being too small, is somewhat too greut, for a tube six tenths of an inch in diameter. Until therefore Mr. Ivory shall condescend to point out some error, either essential or accidental, in this computation, J must still be allowed to assert, first, That the series, with the assist- ance of the Taylorian theorem, or of Taylor’s theorem, by all means, if Mr. Ivory likes the name better, though somewhat in- convenient for calculation, is still both true and sufficient: and secondly, That Mr. Ivory’s approximations, professedly leaving out some small quantities as inconsiderable, are unsatisfactory, because they afford no ready means of appreciating the utmost possible value of the quantities so neglected: and because it ap- pears from these computations, that their very able author him-. self has in fact much underrated the importance of these quan- tities. On the other hand I must admit, that the accuracy of the series, in its original form, appears to me to have been some- what too highly appreciated by the author of the article ConE- sion : and that if the further prosecution of the inquiry were of any material importance, it would be right to employ a profes- sional computer to enlarge the number of the co-efficients, un- jess indeed Mr. Ivory’s ingenuity and experience could point out some less laborious method of determining them, than that which arises from the direct solution of the problem, by the method hi- therto employed. LXXVII. The [ 367 ] LXXVII. The second Portion of a Catalogue of 1800 sodiacal Stars, for the Epoch of January 1,1800; from the Works of HErscHEL, Ptazzi, BoDE, and others, with illustrative Notes. Selected and arranged by a Member of the Astronomical So- ciety of London. Constellations: Taurus, Auriga, Orion, Gemini. —_———| | | Tau. | 7 | 1/60 15 14:4 — i 8/3! 45 186 — | 6| 461 6 27-0 —t| 56) 6 23 21°6 —} 717 38 300 — | 67) 8 54 55°2 —t| 67; 8 56 50°4 —+t| 6| 862 1 126 —+t 34] 8 6 22:8 — | 78/8 7 11:2 —t 6/9 10 44:1 — | 8/9 . 14 35-2 —!} 6/9 19 5:2 —H 6710) 24 38-4 78) EOI 26 aA —|78]10} 27 7-4 —+ 6|10) 36 26-4 —J| 7/11] 39 27-0 Sti vata 41 58:5 —+ 411) 51 132 — | 78/12! 56 33:0 — | 6 (12) 59 208 ——t 712) 59 225 —— | 45|1563 8 441 Pers. | 6°7}13} 20 58°5 Tau.t| 6 }13} 20 14: 56113 22 0” 67/14) 22 49°5 14) 28 55°9 14} 33 165 14} = 35.18°0 14, 37. (+15 }15) 44 22°5 49 49:2 15] 50 12:0 15} 503 on BSRWOCAN GA WN IH = an LIUTLETEELL 16} 528 7:8 |1664 2 21:0 9 |17| 13 52:8 4)7)|. 141771 53°01* |: 49:26* 50°76 52°36 52°93 52°64 52:90 54°94 50°94 5118 Lr SRASHHOF OOD BDoODHOKG 13 32 32:0 26 51 29:7 14 36 17:0 13 22 30°0 20 33 89 20 41 53:0 25 8 41:0 20 20 9-4 13 35 35°2 17 3 43°6 20 30 10-7 16 17 565 23 49 21:0 16 58 7:8 30 58 25:7 18 34 3) 21 49 25:0 21 43 48-0 50°45 54:99* 50°63 50°42 52°68* 52°73* 54°37 52°62* 50°35 51°54 52°69* 51°33 53°98 51-62 50°76* 52-0" 53°18 53°27 517k 51:03 AESCTHORDES RICH DONO IIA AN OK GA~1H 53°43 52:91" 50°84 50°56 53°47 52°99* | 51-14%] 1 52°23 WAMOWONHADO Of —o-31HS6 62 368 Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. be 1 Synonyms. 3 Za | gs | TV hours. RightAse.] Declination. -- Lat. eS Se eon ia oS pe} ’ P.| BelRom| | Ss | 7 lm) oi, « [AV+ 88} 251 75 Tau. | 6 |17/64 15 21-°0451-2 89} 252 76 7 \17| 16 0:3450°63 ‘6| 90} 254 77|9.1| ——t| 5 17} 17 27°6|50°98 : 91} 256 78| 9.2 | ——t| 5°6|17| 18 522 }51°16 93) 257 79} b | —— | 6 {18} 24 38:2}50°16 95| 260\m. 158 — | 78)19| 38 43°5 }52°39* 97! 201 80 —t| 6 |19) 41 17°7}50°99 99, 266).. 160 —+] 5°6|19} 46 56°5}51:13* 100| 267 81 — | 5°6|19) 48 46:9]51:10 102) 269). 162 — | 8]19) 50 123)51°12* 103] 268 83 — | 619} 50 37°5|50°37 105] 271] 84 — | 7 |20} 56 43°5}50°77 apa, — | 9 |20} 58 9°6}50-63* 108) 273 85 6 120165 6 46515103 LI a (t) | Aur. | 7/22) = 32°: 1°5155:93* 113) 275|s. 163 Tau. | 7°S|22) 33 571451719 114) 276! 86| e 5 |22) 37 38'1)50°84 116) 277 — | 78123) 38 16°5}50°17* 119) —— | 8 |24| 59 11°5]52°52* 120) 282)m. 166 — | 8 |24) 59 56°7}52°49* 125} 283 87| ~ | ——t} 1 [24166 6 51°3}51'34 ——t) 7/26) 32:1 135} 287 89 — | 7 [27| 40 49:2}51°23 138] 288 go| c-1 | ——t+} 5 |27} 44 51°3|49°96* 143} 291 Ql) a1 | —— | 56/28} 56 12-7 51°13 145) 292 92| 7-2; ——! 56/28) 57 45°9}51°31 148} 5 (u) | Aur. | 6:7 |29/67 12 26:2|55:92* 149) 294) g3|¢-2 | Tau. | 5 |29) 13 57°7|49°89 159) 295 94| 7 +) 5 130) 33 51:0 |53°73 162) 298) 95 ——+| 7 (31) 47 00/5411 } 163) 296 8 31} 47 56:2 )52°16* 168} 87) |) Aur. | 8 133/68 19. 45:9 |56:03* 177; | Tau. | 8 134} 36 30-9 |52:23* 179) 302|m. 172 6 |35| 39 13-2 |52-21* 185, 11 A r.| 7 |36/69 6 0:0/57°81* 190, 305|m. 173 Tau.| 8 (37) 15 2°7)52°24* 194, 778138] . 31 15°0}51°23* 195, 306 96K); ——| 6 |38) 34 30°6/5117 208] 307, 97; i | —— | 5:6|40) 55 15:4|52°32 211| 17 Aur. | 7 |40/70 4 33°4|55°84* { 216, 12 4)o1| Ori. | 5/41) 18 24:0/50°61 5 222) 31ljm. 176 Tau. | 8 [43} 37 35°2'51-68* 0 228) 313/m. 177 8 |43} 5) 31°8|51°46* “4 231) 314|™. 178 —| 8 44) 57 24°7/51:55* ce 240! 22 9} 2 | Orit} 5 [45/71 17 0:0|50°34 0 243| 317|m- 179 Tau. | 6°7 146; 25 20°4|54-32* 8 246| 318\m. 180) (I) | ——+) 6°7|46) 27 30:0|51-76* “4 247) 319 98} k | ——| 6 |46) 28 51-4|54°67 5 257| 26lm. 181 Ori. +} 7 |48) 54 50:2)/50°84* |14 4 261| 322} 101 Tau.t| 7 |48|72 4 2-2|51:46 5 Catalogue of xodiacal Stars. 369 Synonyms, 1V hours. Right Asc.} Declination +- Mag. 1 4 |AV+ y [AV 49/72 18 23:2/50°80* |14 4 8-0] 6-09* 21 17 27°5] 5°91 20 59 1:0 17 13515120 |15 6 460 22 55°5|55'44* 126 8 28-2 26 19°2|52°83* }19 31 571 54 36°7/53°13 |18 21 48-7 59 1°8}54°61 - |23 59 12°5 59 40:5153-02 8 28-0 59 43°2153°69 /21 25 360 9 32:2|56°25* |27 59 45:0 15 43°2|52°92 35 11-2 18°] ‘ E 33) 55:2|51°33 43 47'2|50°58* 43 53°8|53°17* |: 3 10°5)51°49* 36 0:0|58°46 51 40°5\53°80 03 9° i Character, | Lale-tol ar ~I HOM DONT | bated nn NUNOKVA GO eng il | SSOBDwVorMTaN NODOSCWBRWN = — Bele) Dp onl a | 53°07* 5153°78 | 53°09* 50°65* 56-29% |: 57-00% |: 52°88* 50°65* 52:98* 56-50% |: on 6 7 7 8 5 8 og y) 5 7 8 8 6 7 8 8 7 on acd atn ~ 56°76 57°80* 56 30:0 |57°76* 1 15°6|51°75 11 19:5 |52°25 24 51-9)56°74 38 5°9)51'84* 52 38:4|52°29 54 26°5|53'90 0 1°5|51-60* ANA Doc HK D) 9) Felts BWOAEKOANSCHEA WHOAGAUAMN te ~I 51/5154 *3|52°06* wt i51°75* 5°4155°25 | 5'1/53°29* |° 7/53'34* |! 51:0154'13* |! 55 45°7|58'44 |32 1 42°0 28 Siaabe BUR SGoOSoe eee ose a : DO PLEINAD BNGQ ANSI © GZ o-I1 370 Catalogue of xodiacal Stars. V hours. Right Asc. | Declination. + | Lat. Character. Constel- 20 38 ie 91 119} 368] 119 20 —47 125] 372|s. 205 22 —2°9 127| 373] . 120 22 —48 131 22 38 132} 125 35 23 —o 135| 377} 121 23 0-7 136) 107 23 45 24/81 —13 145 25 37 148| 382] 122 25 a= 6:8 152} 383] 123 26 —2:2 155| 115] 26 26 71 164) 124? ‘9 \27 Ort 165) 387 125 . : re : 25 168 . . . ‘ . . 9:7 180] 390] 126 +] 5 E i se ai —69 184 : . F ‘ y 5 4 —0°6 189 8 . . fe) 4 —4°4 191) 393 127 46 57°3 é : —4'4 192| 394 47 47°2| 54°49*/23 5 42-2| -52*|—O-1 198 33/837 55°5| 52°76" 0] -40*|—4-2 201| 395 128 ! 33 20 25°2 . . — 7 d 202) 396!m. 214 8 |3° 21 48:0] 52:72% ‘Oli —4-7 210} 397|s. 215 = 5) 45 57°0| 53°34#15 Ot —3:2 212) 398] 129 ; 5| 48 51:0] 5 ~7'6 214) 399im. 216 e 54 51:0 1:2 215| 400} . 130 6 56 42:0 —57 216) 403/131 6 57 30°4 —9'0 218 9 0 51°61] 5 a7 221; 402 133 6 5 366 —9'6 222] 19lim. 218 78 6 34:0 —2:5 403). 132 5 1L 6:3 11 8 14 10 8-5 . 406\c. 169 7 35 32:2 46 1g 78 35 465 89} 407} 135 6 46 30°6| 50° alin —9-2 7 51 24:0 : ; ; —9'1 } 7 52 19:2] 50: oi a —9'5 : 409} 136 5 11 24:0 . 4:2 ‘ 410} 137 6 15 11:2 § 5 27-0] - 9:3 8 21 28:0] 53: 7] « el 7 30 6:0} 58°33? ‘ . 8-4 . SOY c! . . —9'5 ¥ 38 66) 53° . . —32 , 46 39:3] 53° 5 56 |—3°7 | oun 57 57°1| 57° 3) ° 5°7 20 67 52’ . . —f2 23 47°4| 55° 2a | 2°5. ~ Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. 371 - a) a = Ste Synonyms, 3 2:1 e | V hours. Right Asc. Declination. + | Lat. ais £125 |) 2 | ———————_—_—_ —_—___——_ = o's = oo ml go y w{AVe+} 5 » w |AVty o Tau. | 8 |47|/86 37 57:0 |56-44* |27 31 39:0} 1-18* 2 285 140|(@.)| —— | 8 }48)87 5 12°0/54-46* |22 52 25:0} -02* | —0°6 (S)| —— | 7 |48 6 36°7 |56°45* |27 32 49:8] -ol 42 —+| 78/49} 146 23 168 —0-2 296 141/(Q.2) 6 {50 24 14°4/54:21 |22 22 540/095 j—I1'1 300 Ori. +] 89/51] 49 21°6/52'39* 17 39 60| -76 |—5'8 304 64) x-4 +| 5°6|52| 54 22-2/5318*)19 40 495] -78 |—3'8 306 Gem. | 7:8|52| 57 31:0 |55°54* |25 26 12°38) -71* 20 307 1) h 5 52 59 27:0/54°61 |23 15 35°8| “63 | —0-2 308 : 5 0 405 |53:42 20 7 44-7 317 8 |54) ~25 327 |51°55*|15 26 49-2] -55* | —8-0 323 Gem. | 6:7|55} 39 16:5/54°78 23 38 38:0) -57 | 0-2 325 —— | 8|55| 42 46:5|56°08* 26 41 16:0} -45*} 3:2 328 Ori.+; 7 |55| 48 12:0 15159* 115 33 8:5] +42* | —7-9 329 Gem. +| 7'8[56, 55 1°5|54:39* 22 42 57°5| -38* |] —0'8 332 y | Ori. | 4515689 2 15:0/51:30 |14 46 47:0) -40 | —8-7 338 Gem. | 6:7 |57 22 16°5 '54:19* 22 12 278} -22* | —1°3 340 6 |58| 23 47°4|5458 23 7 550| 18 |—o-4 344 — +} 758} 35 25°5|54-48 23 1126) .15 |—05 + 78 ; 15 55°9 om. | 7 5515 24 26 595 Nores to the first Portion, condinued. P. IL, 140, or B. 421 Ceti.) Is C.H. 195, 35 Arietis.) Is the same as 85 Ceti. 87 » Ceti.) Proper motion in R.A. -+ 0"20 per annum; in Declin. +0":03. 42 7 Arietis.) Treble. Hers. I. 64. “ Excessively unequal ; L. w; S. both mere points. With 227, neither of the small stars can be seen, except by continued attention ; with 460, the nearest is 14 or 13 diam. of L. ‘The third is about 25” or 26” distant from L. Pos. of both, being all three ina line 19°38 s. following.” 46 p.3 Arietis.) The annual pr. mot. by Fl. Br. and Piazzi is, R.A. +034. Declin. —0"17. ' P. 11. 215, or B. 475 Ceti.) Is C. H. 113. Br, has 2 obs. of the R.A. one of the Declination. 47 Arictis.) Double ace. to Piazzi, the other star § mag., about 2’ north. Anon. R.A. 41° 52’) R.A. by 2 obs, of Bradley. List. Céleste, . 39. 50 Arietis:) FI. R.A. requires —15’, It is 70 of Lacaille’s Zod. Cat. though Pi, erroneously calls it 75, 3A 2 Anon, 372 Notes to Catalozue of zodiacal Stars. Anon. R.A. 44° 38’.) Hist. Céleste, p. 200. The R.A. obs. by Bradley. B. 157 Arietis.) This is probably Herschel’s double star V.117. s¢ About 13° n. preceding ¢ Arietis, towards 41; the fol- lowing of 4 forming an arch. Very unequal. Both dr. Distance 34”°8. Pos. 47°:55 n. preceding. 57 6 Arietis.) Pr. mot. in R.A. +0720. P. 111.4, or B.3 Tauri.) The Rt. Ascension in Bode’s Catalogue is —4’ from Messier. Anon. R.A. 47° 14'.) This is supposed to be Herschel’s double star II. 76. Wollaston suggests that c. 75 may be the star meant, but that is only half a degree from the determining star. Pos. from Hist. Céleste, p.33. ‘‘ About 1° s. pre- ceding 63 Arietis, towards ~ Ceti; the most south of two small telescopic stars. Nearly equal. Both w. With 227, above 3 diameters; by the micrometer 5’°S. Pos. 15°°4 s. preceding.” 63 7. 2 Arietis.) Near this a double star. Hers. IV. 89. *« The vertex of an isosceles triangle following + Arietis ; a very small star. Very unequal. L.r; S.d. Distance with 278, 20"°05. Pos. 62°:0 s. following.” It is to be observed, that Herschel mentions only one r Arietis, whereas 61 and 68 are both marked with that letter in the Brit, Cat. The uncertainty may be removed by referring to Sir Wil- liam’s description of his double star I]. 76; where he di- stinctly assigns the letter in question to 63 only. Probably Piazzi’s star 46, whose R.A. is +8’ 84, and Decl. +13’ 503, may be one of the stars of the isosceles triangle above mentioned. The proper motion of 63 Arietis in R.A. is —0"18, Anon. R.A. 48° 11’.) Lalande Hist. Céleste, 139,201. This may perhaps be Herschel’s star III. 91, although the di- stance from the determining star is rather greater than stated by him. “ Double. Near 1° n. foll. 62 Arietis, towards s Persei. Nearly equal. Both d.w. Distance 11’*3, not very accurate. Position 12°-4 n. prec. or s. following.” 1 0 Tauri.) Double, according to Piazzi. Anon. R.A. 49° 6.) 'This is probably one of the two stars men- tioned by Herschel, Ill. 77. ‘* Double. About 2° south following 65 Arietis, in a line parallel to the Pleiades, and = ‘Tauri; the preceding of two. Very unequal. L.r.; S. blueish. Distance 8°53. Position 73°°3 s. following.” There is only one star noticed by Lalande Hist. Cél. p.33. 4s Tauri.) A star of the 7th mag. precedes this 1" 30°. Decl. +2’. Also a double star, Hers. IV. 44. ‘A small tele- scopic star south following s Tauri. Extremely unequal. Liew. Sd.” 7 Tauri.) Noles to Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. 373 7 Tauri.) Double. Hers, IV. 88. “ Very unequal. L. pr.; S.dr. Distance 19°83, Pos. 23°°25 n. following.” M.113.) Mayer’s R.A. is +235, and Decl. +2276, but his - is a single obs. and marked doubtful. 9 Tauri.) This star was observed twice by Flamsteed, and se- veral times by Bradley (whose observations ascertained the position here laid down); also twice observed by Lalande, 28th Sept. and 28th Oct. 1793, as of the 7th mag. Yet Bode and Herschel could not see it, neither is it contained in Piazzi’s Catalogue. It may therefore be considered va- riable. Anon. R.A. 51° 29%.) Hist. Cél., p. 195. Supposed to be Herschel’s star III. 78. ‘* Double. About 13° s. prec. 13 Tauri in a line parallel to <¢ Tauri and @ Ceti. Nearly equal. Both pr. Distance 717. Position 87°95 n. preceding.” C.87.) In Wollaston’s Cat. this star is set down as 87 Mayer. Very near it was the planet Ceres when first discovered by Piazzi, lst Jan. 1801. B. 34 Tauri.) A double star of the third class. Herschel MS. Jan. 1785. Anon. R.A. 52° 47'.) Hist. Céleste, p. 200. Supposed to be Herschel’s double star III. 88. ‘* About 3° north following 11 Tauri, towards + Aurige. Very unequal. L.w3; S. pr. Distance with 278, 13’°6. Pos. 89°°35 n. foll.”’ Tue Purves.) In Piazzi’s Catalogue are 28 stars distin- guished as belonging to this celebrated group; the whole of them are inserted in the present collection, with an ad- ditional one from Bradley. Besides these, Bode’s Catalogue comprises about 65 more, inserted from the observations of Lemounier and Jeaurat; but they do not possess suffi- cient accuracy, either of position or magnitude, to justify the introduction of them upon the present occasion. Francis Baily, Esq. (to whose assistance the present writer acknow- ledges himself greatly indebted) has noticed that Jeaurat’s stars are incorrectly brought up to the epoch of Bode’s Ca- talogue, as the Right Ascensions ase all too little by 217; and the Declinations too great by a quantity varying from 0” to 20”, and depending upon the R.A. of each star. The order of brightness among the stars of the Pleiades, comprised in the Brit. Cat. is given by Herschel as follows : 25—, 27. 17. 20, 19..28—, 28, 18. 16. 21, 22, 26, 24. Piazzi’s magnitudes agree in general with this arrangement, with the exception of those assigned to 17, 28, and 16, which are estimated too high, as will be hereafter noticed. ‘Three of the stars which Piazzi has classed among the Pleiades, viz. 374 Notes to Catalogue of xodiacal Stars. viz. Nos. 170, 175, 179 are so far from the others, that they can hardly be said to form part of the cluster: unless, indeed, we extend the limits of this subordinate constella- tion (as it has been termed) to a space of 10 or 12 degrees in diameter! See arecent work, entitled ‘* Wonders of the Heavens.” 16 Tauri, or g Pleiadum.) Called Celeno. According to Her- schel’s estimate, the brightness does not exceed 6°7™. 17 Tauri, or b Pleiadum.) Called Electra. 19 Tauri, or e Pleiadum.) Called Targeta. 20 Tauri, or ¢ Pleiadum.) Called Maia. 21 Tauri, or k Pleiadum.) Called Asterope. P. III. 139, or B.64 Tauri.) Piazzi calls this 15 n. Pleiadum, upon which supposition the R.A. of the Brit. Cat. requires +16’. Upon a recent examination it appeared to be 7th mag. 23 Tauri, or d Pleiadum.) Called Merope. 24 Tauri, or p Pleiadum.) There are two telescopic stars pre- ceding this, the one 3°°5, the other 1°55; both to the north. 25 y Tauri.) Called Alcyone, brightest of the Pleiades. Double according to Piazzi. B. 104 Tauri.) Obs. by Bradley. Upon a recent examination appeared of the 6th magnitude. See also Hist. Cél, p. 36. P.I. 153, or B.105 Tauri.) This is called by Lalande 127 Mayer, in Hist. Céleste, p. 195; whereas in Mayer’s Cat. the R.A. is + 12753.” Decl. +2’ 22”. And upon a re- cent inspection, the star appears to be in the spot indicated by Mayer. 27 Tauri, or f Pleiadum.) Called Aiélas. 28 Tauri, or h Pleiadum.) Called Pleione. According to Herschel’s estimate, the brightness does not exceed 6 or 6°7 mag. 30 Tauri.) In Bode’s Catalogue the Declin. is 9° too great. Double. Hers. IIT. 66. ‘¢ Extremely unequal. L.w; S.r. Distance 11”.27; inaccurate. Pos. 17°25 n. following.” P. 111. 218, or B. 161 Tauri.) Proper motion —0”19 in R.A. Double. Piazzi: the other star of 9th mag.; s. following. P. 111. 217, or B. 164 Tauri.) Proper motion —0”26 in R.A. Nearly in the place assigned to 34 Tauri in the Brit. Cat., although it is well ascertained that the planet Herschel was the object actually seen by Flamsteed. 41 Tauri.) Is in Pigott’s list of stars suspected to be variable, although he shows pretty clearly that there is no ground for the supposition. Piazzi expresses himself merely in two words “ fortasse variabilis,” without adducing any obser- vations of his own on the point. P. {11. 261, or B. 190 Tauri.) Bode’s Declination is nearly 42” less than Piazzi, NorEs or Notes io Catalogue of xodiacal Stars. 37 Notss to the second Portion. Page 367. 50». 2 Tauri.) Called by Piazzi a. 2 erroneously. A star of 8th mag. s. following. 56 Tauri. :) Flamsteed’s R. A. is right in the edition of 1712, but in that of 1725 requires— 16’. 52¢ Tauri.) Double. Hers. V. 13. “ Distance 55”625, inac- curate.” 54 y Tauri.) Proper motion in R. A,+0” 14, It is called the first of the Hyades. 57 Tauri.) Proper motion in R. A. +017, in Decl. +010. M. 142.) Proper motion in R. A.+0" 18, in Decl.-+0"02, See however Prof. Bessel’s note. 59 x Tauri.) Double. Hers. IV.10. Distance, 18-75, very inaccurate.’ 60 Tauri.) Flamsteed’s R. A. requires+-62'.. Mayer’s star 144 is correct. 62 Tauri.) Double. Hers. IV. 109. Considerably unequal. L.w.; S.r. Distance 281. Position 21°%2 north preced- ing.” According to Piazzi, the smaller star is R.A. —1s$. Decl.+10”. Mag. 8. B, 234 Tauri.) Is C. H. 370, and Bode supposes that this star with an error of —50™ in time, occasioned the inser- tion of 8 Tauri in the Brit. Cat. Burckhardt (Conn. de T. 1821, p. 307) is of opinion that N° 8 of Bessel’s list of doubtful observations of Bradley, i is the same star with this. He also accounts for the insertion of 8 Tauri, by attributing it to a miscalculated obs. of 104 Tauri. 68 2. 3 Tauri.) Treble. Hers. VI. 101. Has two stars in view. The nearest excessively unequal. L.w.; S.d. Dist. with 278, 63-3. Pos. 35°°4 s. preceding. The furthest ex- tremely unequal. S.r. About 14 minute. Pos. about 50° | n. preceding.’ Anon. R.A. 63° 50’) Hist. Céleste, 195. Double. Hers, II. 54. Near 4° s. preceding < Tauri, in a line yer to and y; asmall star. Extremely unequal. L.r.w.; S.d. With 460 above 3 diameters of L. Pos. 68°-7 s. preceding. a Anon. R.A. 63° 53’.) H. C. 195. Double. Hers. IV. 74. a ¢ Near 4° n. following 68 8. 3 Tauri, towards 1. Very un- : ay L, pr. S.r. Distance 16’5. Pos. 25°-75 n. follow- 74 ¢ Tauri. ) Called Ain. Page 368. 77 and 78 3 Tauri.) According to Bradley’s observations com- pared with Piazzi the proper motion of 9. 1 ‘Tau. is R.A, —0"04; 376 Notes to Catalogue of xodiacal Stars. —-0"04; Decl. +006. That of 3,2, R.A.+0”17,and Decl. +010, But Bessel upon examination of Fl. obs. finds the distance of the two stars in his time to be as nearly as possible the same as determined by Piazzi; whence arises considerable doubtas to the'correctness of the proper motions above stated. 80 Tauri.) Mayer’s declination requires —5’. M. 160.) In the first edition of Piazzi’s Catalogue, the declina- tion is 1° too little, and it is called 82 Tauri, which latter star has no existence. Bode 264, 265, 266 are one and the same. 87 a Tauri.) Double. Hers. VI. 66. ‘* Extremely unequal. L.r.; S.d. Distance 87’"75. Pos. 52°-97 n. following.” Sir William measured the apparent diameter of the large star; with 460, it was 18; with 932, 125; disc well de- fined. With respect to the proper motion of the star, Bessel makes it in R.A.+0”04; in Declination —0”10. Bouvard (Conn. de T. 1821, p. 292) makes it+0"147 in R.A., which increase is probably occasioned by assuming the precession less than that of Bessel. Bouvard’s position is given in the present catalogue. That of Piazzi is—O”9 in R.A., in declination exactly equal. Anon, R.A. 66° 52’) Double. Lalande, Hist. Céleste, page 204. 94 + Tauri.) Double. The smaller star, 158 of Piazzi, 8th mag. R.A.—31""5; Decl.—50"9. Hers. VI. 7. ** Distance 71-42, pretty accurate.” 95 Tauri.) Fl. R.A. requires — 12’. [tis 140 of Lacaille’s Zod. Cat. 9 o. 2 Orionis) In Piazzi the character is misprinted o. M. 180.) Piazzi supposes this to be the star intended, as 100 of the Brit. Cat. which is there laid down R.A.+9%, Decl. —47%’. On the other hand, Herschel has pointed out an observation of 100 Tauri in Fl, Hestoria Célestis, and to all appearance it is a good one, though the star is not now to be found in that place; and he therefore concludes it to be lost. M. 181.) Treble. One of the small stars, 255 of Piazzi, R.A. —39"2, Decl. +22”2. Mag. 8. Hers. V. 57. ‘* More than one degree n. following 9 Orionis towards 1135 Tauri ; the largest of two. The two nearest considerably unequal. L. rw. S. rw. Distance with 278, 36743. Pos. 33°°6.” And again V. 113, * About 14°s. prec. 11 Orionis, towards 1 Tauri§. L.w.; 8. pr. Distance 37°85. Pos. 33°°9 n, pre- ceding. The third further off and sinaller, S.r. Pos, n. § Herschel’s descriptions of the place of this treble star do not accord with its real place. It seems we ought to read them thus: More than I° n. foll. $ Grionis, towards « Tauri; aud, about 14°s. prec. 11 Orionis, in a line continued from 1)3 Tauri. following Notes to Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. 377 following.” The mean of Herschel’s measures give for the diff. of R.A. of the two nearest, —31"-86. Decl. +20”63. 101 Tauri.) Fl, R.A. requires— 8’. Mayer’s 182 is right. Page 369. 104m Tauri.) Proper motion by good observations, of Brad- ley and Piazzi, In R. A.+0"72, in Decl. +0’-07; in a great circle 0-685. C. 152.) Bode and Piazzi suppose this to be the same with 103 Tauri of Flamsteed, whose R. A. in that case requires+ 12’. Herschel calls his double star V. 114, by the name of 103 Tauri; and in a note to his Catalogue of comparative brightness, he remarks that although Fl. has no observation of it, yet his (Sir W’s) double star cannot be far from the place pointed out by the Br. Cat. Herschel describes the double star above mentioned, thus “ Excessively unequal. L.r. w.; S.d. Distance with 278 and 625, 30’-03, mean measure. Position 72°-4,’’ 105 Tauri.) Double. Hers. VI. 105. Very unequal. L. p. r. 5 S.r. Distance 101-5, Pos. 18°-0s. prec.” Anon. R. A. 74° 18’) This may probably be Herschel’s dou- ble star IiI. 90. < About 3° directly north of 103 Tauri ; the largest of three forming an obtuse angle. Considerably unequal, L. r. w; S. p. r. Distance with 278, 131. Pos. 64°-0 n. following.” As to the identity of the star to which Herschel makes reference, see the last note but one. See also Lalande. Hist. Céleste p. 139 as to the position of the supposed double star; which, if the above description be rightly understood, is the middle star of the three, of which P. IV, 298 is the northern and preceding. C. 156.) Is thesame with 160 of Caroline Herschel’s Catalogue. 14 (a) Aurige.) Double. Hers. IV. 19. Very unequal, L. r. w.; S.d. Distance 16”13, a little inaccurate. Pos, 37°63 s. preceding.” Anon. R. A. 76° 0’) Hist. Cél. p. 134. Supposed to be Her- schel’s star If. 48. “A minute double star. Less than ~ degree s. prec. 16 Auriga, in a line parallel to 10 and 8; the preceding star of a small triangle of which 16 is the largest and following. A little unequal. Both p. r. With 227, 14 or when best, 13 diameter of L. Position 15°*8 n. following.” M. 197.) Mayer’s R. A. requires — 16’. P.Y. 43.) Piazzi thinks this may be 195 of Mayer, which star is left out of Wollaston’s Catalogue. P. V. 55 to 146 inclusive.) A singular error pervades the ninth column of Piazzi’s Catalogue, within these limits. The Vol, 58, No, 283, Nov, 1821, 3B numbers 378 Noles to Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. numbers are all placed one line too high. The precesson in Declination for the first of the above stars should be 4° 28. III Tauri.) Proper motion in R. A.+0'17. Double. Hers. V. 110. “ Very unequal. L. r. w. S.r. Distance 467. Po- sition 3°°8 n. preceding.” 112 8 Tauri.) Called Nath. Proper motion in R. A.+ 010, in Decl. —0”20. 113 Tauri.) Position according to Bradley. Piazzi has it not, neither does he mention having ever looked for it. Both Lalande and Herschel observed it. 115 Tauri.) An approximate declination, erroneous to the ex- tent of 10’, is given in Bode’s Catalogue, and marked L.; yet the declinations of Fl. and Meyer are agreeable to truth. 1140 Tauri.) Double. Hers. V. 115. ‘ Excessively unequal. L. w. S.a point. Distance 557. Pos. 77°'9s. preceding. Two other small stars following, and a third to the north.” In the place quoted, for o read-o. 117 Tauri.) Double. Hers. III. 93. ‘Almost equal. Both r. w. Distance 122. Position 52°-45 s. following.” Anon. R.A. 79" 9’) Hist. Cél. p. 262. R.A, from 2 obs. of Bradley. 118 Tawi.) Double. Hers. 11.75. “ A little unequal. L. w.; S. w. inclining tor. With 278, 21 diameter of L, by the micrometer 4”*7; more exactly with 625, 503. Pos. 77°°25.” Sir William * could just see it with an 18-inch achromatic, made by Nairne, it was as close as possible, and a pretty object.” Anon. R. A. 79° 20’) Hist.Cél. p. 260. Double. Hers. IV. 110. * About 1} deg. n. following 6 Tauri, towards 3 Aurigz ; the second in that direction, Very unequal. L.r. S.d. Dist. 16”02. Pos. 74°9 n. preceding.” The star preceding it is doubtless P. V. 99. Page 370. 120 Tauri.) Avstar ofa ruddy colour precedes this. — Piazxi. 35 Orionis.) The R. A. is marked:: in Fl. and requires—3’. Mayer’s R. A. requires -+ 26” Decl.— 1’ 20". Anon. R. A. 81° 6’) Hist. Cél. p. 36. ‘Supposed to be Hers- chel’s star I. 70. ‘* A very pretty double star. Near 1° n, preceding ¢ Tauri towards Capella, the corner of a rhomboid made up of %, this, and 2 more, and opposite tog. Consi- » derably unequal. L. p. r.: S. alittle deeper r, With 227, almost I diam. of L.; with 460, 13 diam, Pos. 36°-4 s. preceding.” 26 Aurige.) Double. Hers. III. 64. ‘* Very unequal, L, r. w. 5 8. r. Distance 13'*4. Pos, 2°-6n. preceding.” ‘ Notes to Catalogue of zodiacal Stars. 379 P.V. 164.) Piazzi calls this 124 Tauri, while Herschel is of opinion that no such star was obs. by Fl. unless with a cor- rection of + 1° 4’ of R. A. which would make 124 Tauri identical with P. V. 192. 126 Tauri.) Is misprinted 116, in Piazzi’s Cat. P. V.184.) Three stars near this, the first 8 mag. n. prec. the second 7.8 mag.s. prec., and the third 8.9 mag. following. P.V. 192, or B. 394 Tauri.) Is C. H. 355. See the last note but two, 128 Tauri.) Proper motion, R. A.—0"14. Decl.+0"10. M. 216.) Mayer’s declination is—26", it was observed by him but once. 133 Tauri.) The Decl. in Bode’s Cat. is only to minutes, is marked L, and is 5’ too great ; yet Flamsteed’s declination is within a minute of the truth. M. 218.) Bode’s 191 Orionis does not agree very well with this. R. A.—44’, Decl.+4}’, and marked L. Mayer’s R. A. is marked .-. P. VY. 225.) Hereabouts, a double star. Hers. 1.67. About 55’ preceding the 37th nebula of M. Messier ; the largest and most preceding of 2 stars. Very unequal. Both p. r. With 460, near 2 diameters of L. Pos. 23°-95 n. follow- ing.’ The place of the nebula or more properly cluster, above referred to, is about R. A. 84° 50’, Decl. 32° 13’. P, VY. 242.) The R.A. of this as obs. by Bradley, is—8”-9 when compared with Piazzi’s determination; that of the next star (244) is+8"9. Upon which Bessel remarks, that although Br. observed each star only once, yet he thinks ~ some reliance may be placed on their proper motions. Brad- ley’s diff. of R.A. for 1755,=79"6: Lalande for 1798, (Hist. Cél. 313) = 4°5 =67""5 ; Piazzi, for 1800, =55”-2, P. VY. 244.) Pi. supposes this to be 138 Tauri. In Fl. obs. of that star, the time is wanting, but Herschel thinks the R.A. of the Brit. Cat. not far from the truth. 137 Tauri.) Appears to be double, — Piazzt. 54%. 1 Orionis.) Proper motion inR.A.—0"-23, in Decl. —0”-09, 57 %- 2 Orionis.) Proper motion in R. A.+0’-12, in Deel, +0”08. In Piazzi’s Catalogue it is erroneously called 64 y.4, Page 371. Anon. R. A. 87° 15’) Hist. Cél. p. 315. Quintuple. Hers, 1V. 48. “ Inthe form of a cross. About $ degree n. pre- ceding h Geminorum, in a line parallel to 65” (qu. 62?) * Orionis and Tauri; the middle of three. The two nearest or preceding of the five extremely wnequal. Distance 20”-95. Pos. 7°45 s. preceding. The last of] the three, jn the short bar of the cross, _ anexcessive y obscure stay 3B Year 380 On the Decomposition of near it of the third class. Five more in view, differently dispersed about the quintuple. P.V. 300.) This star was obs. by Piazzi when looking for 231 of Mayer, which he could not find. 64 y. 4 Orionis.) FI. R. A. requires —45'. Bode calls this x. 3. 62 »%. 3 Orionis.) Bode calls this x. 4. P. VY. 328.) The place of Bode’s 256 Orionis does not agree very well with this, the R. A. being+2’ 51”: Decl.+41”. M. 234.) Mayer’s position is derived from an imperfect obser- vation. 4 Geminorum.) Mayer’s R.A. requires—17":4, Deel. —12"'3 ; it was obs. by him but once. Anon. R. A. 89°41’) Hist. Cél. p. 262. Double. Hers. VI. 114. ** About 4 degree s. preceding oP Orionis, nearly towards A. Considerably unequal. L. p.r.; S.d. Distance 90" wt Pos. 22°] s. following.” *,* With reference to what is stated at page 127 of the pre- sent Volume, i it may be proper to mention, that the Zodiacal Stars of Wollasten’s Catalogue, which are omitted ip this, consist of such as are not now to be seen in the heavens, and which there is good reason to suppose never to have existed, but to have been inserted in the original catalogues through miscalculation. The list of such stars is deferred until the completion of the present Catalogue. P.S. The compiler takes the liberty of mentioning, that should any person be in possession of unpublished materials which mav serve to enrich this Zodiacal Catalogue, although not of sufficient importance for separate publication; he shall be happy to avail himself of them, on their being communicated through the Editor. LXXVIII. On the Decomposition of Metallic Salts by the Magnet. By Mr. J. Murray. Is my Paper ‘on the decomposition of metallic salts by the magnet” transmitted to the Royal Society of Edinburgh I re- ferred to experiments which seemed to me unequivocally to prove the influence of magnetism in the decomposition of metallic salts —I continue to receive renewed evidence of the truth of my con- clusions—I shall here take leave to select a few of the numerous experiments repeated in the course of my researches, and it would, methinks, be difficult to summon any objection to them ; I con- fess that they appear to me quite satisfactory. A solution of permuriate of mercury was by the magnet soon reduced into running or metallic mercury, and the supematant fluid was not affected by the albumen of the egg. : Hence, Metallic Salts by the Magnet. 88 Hence, fine steel filings magnetized and administered in sirup will be an admirable antidote to corrosive sublimate. Nitromuriate of platinum was decomposed with a brisk effer- vescence distinctly audible and with a visible spray between the eye and light. Fine Dutch steel wire was selected, and proved to be non-mag- netic.—It was thrown into nitrate of silver where it remained for 14 hours without being affected, part of this was made the unit- ing wire between the N. and S. poles of 2 bar magnets; when, it became speedily plumed with crystals of silver. A portion of the same wire was snapped in twain and the mag- net passed over one of the fragments and both projected into so- lution of nitrate of silver—that which was magnetised reduced the silver, while the other remained inert. The magnetic bar was coated with copal varnish and placed into solution of muriate of mercury, but reduction took place as if no such film had interposed. Two magnetic bars were left for 2 days in phosporous acid. The acid was decomposed—the north pole of one of the bars was searcely affected, but the south pole of the other was corroded $ inch deep, and developed the fasciculated structure described by Mr. Daniel. The two magnetic poles (N. andS.) of two har magnets im- mersed in nitrate of silver were united about 4 inch from their extremities by a thread of steel; a precipitation of crystals of reduced silver took place about the uniting wire (very few below) and the uniting wire itself became so invested. I have succeeded in decomposing every metallic salt in this way to which I have applied the magnet; and I have yet to be informed that steel, simply as a carburet of iron, will attract all acids whatever from every metal whatsoever. A portion of platinum wire that suffered no change in nitrate of silver, in solution, was made the uniting wire between the poles of a powerful horse-shoe magnet (that supported 1 2lbs. weight). When this was immersed into nitrate of silver it soon became discoloured and acted upon. When a magnetic bar is plunged into solution of nitrate of silver it accomplishes its complete reduction, however conside- rable the quantity, the surface of the magnet in contact with the solution is not abraded, but the surface above the solution is much corroded from the escape of the acid vapour, the consequence of decomposition. When in the nitrate of silver the N. pole became instantly studded with brilliant pallets of silver, and formed more rapidly and more copiously round it than round the south pole. These crystalline 382 Notices respecting New Books. crystalline pallets exhibited evident polarity, and were affected by the approach of a fine steel plate. When the magnet is plunged into a solution of muriate of mercury, and the decomposition takes place which yields globules of fluid metallic mer cury, it will be seen that the action is most intense at the angles and base of the bar, and the reduction there more copious and prompt. ‘This phenomenon is manifested when a magnetic bar is rolled in iron filings ; for it will then be per- ceived that the quantity of adhering particles is much greater in these places than in other parts of the surface. It is an interesting spectacle to witness the reduction of mi- nute metallic balls around the poles, particularly the north and its base, with a square floor reflecting the form or impress of the inclined bar—the reduction commences at the edges, and is striking and beautiful. J. Murray. LXXIX. Notices respecting New Books. The Imperial Almanack ; or, Annual Compendium of Astrono- mical, Statistical, Scientific, and Interesting Information, for the Year of our Lord 1822. W: conceive it to be quite within the scope of our duty as journalists of science, to notice an Almanack which comes forth with any pretensions to the character of scientific. Most of the Almanacks published in this country are sad indications of the ignorance which still prevails among our peasantry, ignorance which can find gratification in the perusal of astrological pre- dictions, and which can tremble or rejoice in the expectation of events pretended to depend upon the mutual aspects of the moon and planets. Among the Almanacks published by the Stationers’ Company, there are a few exceptions to this censure; especially those widely-circulated productions the Ladies’ Diary, the Gen- ileman’s Diary, and White’s Ephemeris ; the latter of whieh, we are glad to observe, has lately received some valuable im- provements. The Imperial Almanack, to whose first number we now beg leave to draw the attention of our readers, presents several new and interesting features. The ca/endar part, which occupies 24 pages, two to each month, exhibits all the usual matter of an Almanack, such as the lunations, the anniversaries, holidays, &¢. the times of rising and setting of the sun and moon, and of the moon’s southing; contains also, a column for the sun’s right ascension and declination; and comprises, instead of the usua column entitled ¢ equation of time,” one that shows dhe mean lime Imperial Almanack. 383 time of apparent noon; or in other words, the time that will be indicated by a clock- truly regulated when the sun is on the meri- dian. This, though a very simple change, is a real improve- ment, At the foot of the calendar pages, we have, for every sixth day, the declination, time of southing, and meridian altitude at Lon- don, of the principal planets. The last is, evidently, a very use- ful column. The declination and time of culmination of Ceres, are given for every eighth day. ‘The principal astronomical facts and phenomena that will occur in each month are duly an- nounced: and there is further for each month “ aruled page to Sacilitate the keeping of a meteorological register. The remainder of the Almanack is miscellaneous, containing a variety of interesting synoptical tables, su arranged as to com- prise much in comparatively small compass. After a brief notice of the eclipses and of the approaching transit of Mercury, there are inserted short accounts of the Jewish, Mahometan, and Ro- man calendars; the two first of which are suited to the year 1822. Then follow in the order here specified, the Elements of the Solar System; a comprehensive table of ‘Terrestrial latitudes and longitudes; a general survey of the earth; tables of the po - pulation and cultivation of Great Britain, of the principal cities and towns, of the colonies and dependencies; the nnmber of British peers at different periods; amount of revenue at different epochs, of national debt at ditto; a syllabus of employments, and a-view of the value of exports and imports. Next to these are given tables of bishops, deans, &c. with the extent, and num- bers of prebendaries, canons, livings, &c. in each diocese, and of the principal dimensions of the English cathedrals. Other tables relate to the probabilities of life, the London Bills of Mortality, the altitudes of mountains in different parts of the ‘world,—of perpetual snow in different latitudes, of edifices. Then we have three interesting chronological tables, of which one exhibits the dates of geographical discoveries, one the dates of astronomical discoveries, the other of astronomical and nau- tical inventions. Among these we were glad to observe in their proper places, the dates of the invention of Davis’s sea-quadrant, of Norwood’s measurement of a degree, of Hutton’s computa- tion of the earth’s mean density, of Barlow’s magnetical dis- coveries, and of the invention of Dr. Pearson’s micrometer. Parry’s arctic discoveries, and Smith’s discovery of South Shet- land, are also very properly recorded. The five last tables re- late to specific gravities. Thermometric criteria of interest- ing chemical pheenomena, European itinerary measures, value of English coins at different epochs, and curious results of com- putations and experiments. The a8 Notices respecting New Books. The Editor of this Almanack states, in a concise preface, that * he has been desirous to draw into a narrow compass much useful information on several topics of general interest amongst well-informed men of all classes. He has aimed at correctness as well as utility, and hopes that, to a considerable extent, both objects have been attained. In our judgement his attempt is completely successful ; and we the more cordially recommend his production to our readers in general. We have heard it rumoured that this Almanack has been com- posed by Dr. Gregory, Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military Academy: in this case we know net why he should withhold his name, as so useful a compendium is not likely to | deduct any thing from that gentleman’s well-earned reputation. Lately published. A Treatise on Smut in Wheat. By Francis Blakie. Is. 6d. A View of the Agriculture, Manufactures, Statistics, and State of Society. of Germany, and Parts of Holland andFrance; taken during a Journey through those Countries in 1819, By William Jacob, Esq. F.R.S. dto. 12. 5s. Essentials of Modern and Ancient Geography. 18mo. 4s. Observations. cn the Idiom. of the Hebrew Language. Svo. 6s. 6d. Notes relating to the Manners and Customs of the Crim Tar- tars; written during a four years residence among that people. By Mary Holderness. 12mo. 5s. 6d. A Tour through North Wales; illustrated with 40 select Views, engraved and coloured from the originals of Messrs. Turner, R.A. 51. 5s. Craig’s Lectures‘on Drawing, Painting, and Engraving, deli- vered before the Royal Institution. Svo. With Plates and Wood- cuts. 14s. A Practical Treatise on Gutta Serena. By John Stevenson. Syo. 7s. 6d. The Natural History of British Quadrupeds. By E. Donovan, F.L.S., &c. with coloured Plates. 3 vols. royal 8vo, 5, 8s. _ No. II. of Illustrations of British Ornithology. By P. J. Selby, Esy. Folio. 1/. 11s. 6d., or finely coloured 54. 5s. n Illustrations of the Linnzan Genera of Insects. By W. Wood, F.R.S. ‘With 86 coloured Plates. 2 vols. royal 18mo. 142, 105. Travels in Palestine, through the Countries of Bashan and Gilead, East of the River Jordan ; including aVisit to the Cities of Geraza and Gamala, in the Decapolis. By J.S. Buckingham, Esq. With Maps and Plates, 4to. 3/. 13s, Count Rouauzoff’s Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Astronomical Society. 385 and Behring’s Straits in 1815, 1816, 1817, and 1818. 3 Vols. Svo. 21. 5s. A Voyage to Africa, including a particular Narrative of an Embassy to one of the Interior Kingdoms in 1820. By Wm. Hutton, late acting Consul for Ashantee, &c. With maps and plates. 8vo. ——— : Preparing for Publication. Travels in the Interior of Southern Airica. By W. Burchell, Esq. Mr. Peter Nicholson’s System of pure and mixed Mathematics, in one large volume, for Schools, will appear in twoor three weeks. Typogrophia ; an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of Printing : with Details of the latest Improvements, Stereotype, Lithography, &c. By T. C. Hansard. Dr. Leach will speedily publish the Synopsis of Buitish Mol- lusea, illustrated with plates. Mr. Freind’s aunual volume of Evening Amusements on As- tronomy will appear at the end of the year. A New Practical Treatise on the Sliding Rule, in Two Parts, is in the press, and nearly ready for publication. The First, as a general Introduction to the use of common Sliding Rules ; Second, a Collection of useful Formule for the scientific calculator. The New “ Society of Practical Medicine of London ” intend, we understand, to publish their Transactions quarterly; and the - first Number will be published in January. LXXX. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Nov. 9. Tux Meetings of this Society commenced this evening. A letter was read, from Dr. Pearson, announcing some observa- tions of the occultations of the Pleiades by the Moon on July 23 and October 13. A communication was also made from M. Piazzi, relative to the late solar eclipse, and detailing the re- sult of his observations. A paper from Mr. Herschel was read, giving an account of the mode of dividing astronomical instru- ments as practised by M. Schenck of Berne in Switzerland, one of the pupils of the celebrated Reichenbach. The present state of peace has afforded opportunities of witnessing several of the productions of these distinguished artists: and they are found (if not to excel, at least) to rival the best works of the English artists. They are finished with a delicacy of execution and touch unknown to most people in this country. Some expectation is held out that M. Schenck may be induced to visit this metro- polis: and to make it the theatre of his future labours. The contents of this paper were highly interesting to the practical _ mechanic and to the scientific astronomer: but it cannot well be abridged in a journal of this kind. Vol. 58, No, 283, Nov. 1821. 3C LXXXI. In- [ 386 ] LXXXI. Intelligence and Miscetlaneous Articles. COMMUNICATIONS FROM MR. JOHN MURRAY. « Rabies canina.—At page 311 of your October Number, you state, on the authority of a correspondent in the Medical and Physical Journal, that the rabies canina invariably affects the male dog, and never the female. This assertion, however, al- low me to state, is false. I have, myself, been recently con- nected with experiments on two mad dogs. ‘The first was a pointer bitch, and the other a pointer dog bitten by the former. The dog exhibited all the phenomena of the sullen madness, and the bitch those of the “ biting madness,”’ so very accurately described in both cases by the ingenious author of the article “Dog” in Rees’s Cyclopedia. Calculous Diseases, 8c.—I had frequently noticed the in- teresting fact that Mr. Dalton has adverted to, in the action of waters containing supercarbonate of lime on vegetable blue co- lours ; but, *¢ devotion to established authority” induced me to attribute the phenomenon to the presence of an alkaline car- bonate. 1 observed this first in my analysis of the mineral spring adjacent to the Temple of Serapis near Pozzouli. In analysing lately some rain-water from a rain gauge fixed apart from buildings, I detected a minute portion of lime: and as I find that tincture of cabbage exposed to the atmosphere soon exhibits a film of a green colour, I am disposed to attribute the change to the presence of supercurlonate of lime. I may be permitted to add, that I have invariably found cal- culous diseases most prevalent in districts where the water con- tains sulphate of lime; and an almost total absence of the dis- ease where the springs exhibit supercarbonate of lime on analy- sis. The County of Norfolk is an example of the former, and Holderness an instanee of the latter. The Diamond.—The following phenomena may be deemed in- teresting in reference to the physiological history of the diamond : By repeatedly exposing a diamond to the action of the oxy- hydrogen blow-pipe in a nidus of magnesia, it became as black as charcoal, and split into fragments which displayed the conchot- dal fracture. : Tt will be found, that this gem affixed in magnesia soon flies off in minute fragments, exhibiting the impress of the conchoidal form. ~ In lately exposing the diamond fixed on a support of pipe- clay to the ignited gas, I succeeded in completely indenting it :— examined Steam Drying Rooms.— Polar Expedition. 387 examined after the experiment, it exhibited proofs of having un- dergone fusion. Phosphorus in Ether.—I had thrown a number of chips of phosphorus into ether, in order to form phosphorized ether. After a considerable lapse of time, I found these chips curiously. inerusted with transparent acicular crystals bearing a remarkable resemblance to the incipient germination of the barley-corn in the process of malting. Incidental, agitation unfortunately de- stroyed them. Magnetism.—A ‘small bar magnet being allowed to remain immersed in tincture of cabbage for two or three days, com- pletely destroyed the blue colour, and the same thing occurred with that of litmns. Thetwo legs of a horse-shoe magnet (about 3-4ths inch apart) were placed separately in small cylinders, each containing solu- tion of nitrate of silver—around one of the poles thus separated a dark cloud collected, and a few solitary crystals studded the other on the side nearest to that of its adjunct.—Little alteration was exhibited after a lapse of two days. But both poles being placed together in a vessel with the same metallic solution, soon effected a complete decomposition, which was exhibited by both the poles becoming completely clothed in brilliant metallic sil- ver, while sparkling minute crystals of the same floated through the liquid, which, from being previously colourless, had become coloured. Steam Drying Rooms.—Dr. Ure has stated in his ** Nichol- son’s Dictionary of Chemistry,” that ‘* the people who work in steam drying rooms are healthy; those who were formerly em- ployed in stove-heated apartments became soon sickly and ema- ciated. These injurious effects must be ascribed to the action of cast iron at a high temperature on the atmosphere. I remarked that among the Appennines the Italians place a shallow earthen vessel supplied with water on the head of the stove, the pipe of which traverses the apartment, and, on in- quiring the reason, have been repeatedly assured, that without it they should be subject to head-ache and other ills—while with this simple precaution they experience no inconvenience what- . ever. I have deemed it right to mention this, as it points out a very simple yet effective remedy. Nov. 15, 1821.” . peo elena. Se . POLAR EXPEDITION. Letters have been received from the ‘ Discovery Ships,’ dated 16th July; they were then at Resolution Island in Hudson’s 3C2 Bay; 388 Arctic Land Expedition. Bay ; they had met with some heavy icebergs, and considerable obstructions from the ice, which was then melting fast, but were past these inconveniences, and pursuing their voyage of discovery up the inlet at the north of the bay. The officers and men were all in the highest health and spirits, and most amply found in every kind of provision and comfort, and delighted with the se- curity and excellence of their ships ; which, though so deeply laden, had proved themselves most lively and obedient sea boats. Canes ARCTIC LAND EXPEDITION. Soon after the expedition under Lieutenant Franklin, R. N. had arrived on the coast of Hudson’s Bay, they proceeded from York Factory, the grand depot of the Hudson’s Bay Company, to- wards their wintering ground at Cumberland, the central post of the interior, a distance of about 900 miles from the coast.— Lieutenant Franklin, Dr. Richardson, Mr. Back, and Mr. Hood, attended by the hardy Orkneymen who had been engaged to man the boats in the rivers of the interior, had worked in the Com- pany’s service several years, and understood the language of many of the Indian tribes, left the factory on the 7th of Sep- tember 1819, with a fair wind, under a salute from the depot, and amidst the acclamations of the officers and men of the Com- pany. Of the immense quantity and variety of provisions sup- plied by Government for the use of the expedition, the greater part was left at the factory ; those who knew the country, and the difficulty of travelling through it, having represented the im- possibility of conveying European food, which at the Bay re- ceives the name of luxuries, to any considerable distance. The hardships attending the progress of travellers were, in fact, shown to be so great, as would render it absurd to calculate upon such a thing as the slightest change of diet in the winter season ; and when it was mentioned by Lieutenant Franklin, that he had brought with him preserved meats and soups in portable cases, ‘to support the expedition in the cheerless regions through which they were to pass, there was a general laugh amongst the officers of the Company, at the idea of associating any thing like comfort with the formidable character of the enterprise. Some of these difficulties may be estimated from the account of the sufferings of the adventurers, in their advance towards Cumberland, to which place the writer of this article accompanied them. On the third day after their departure from the factory, the boats of the Company, which were proceeding to the various trading- posts in the interior, came up with the expedition in the Steel River, distant about sixty miles from the place at which they set out. Most of the rivers in that part of America abound with rapids Arctic Land Expedition. 389 rapids and falls. The rapids are generally more navigable near the banks, but they frequently extend across the stream, and then the labour of the boat’s crew becomes excessive, every man being obliged to turn into the water and assist in carrying the boat sometimes to the distance of half a mile before they gain the head of one of those terrible impediments. The Com- pany’s men, upon turning one of the points of the river, observed the officers of the expedition making desperate efforts to get through the mud along the banks; some of them were up to their knees, others up to their waists, while the men were hand- ing the boats over a most violent rapid, which, though but halfa foot deep, rendered it necessary that those who stood in the water should hold fast by the boat, the impetuosity of the stream being so extraordinary as not unfrequently to overturn a man in an in- stant, and dash him to pieces against the rocks and huge stones which lie scattered along the bed of the river. Indeed, before the Company’s boats had reached those of Lieutenant Frank- lin, it was suspected that the expedition had already met with more hardships than they had any notion of encountering at so early a period. Several of the tin cases which had contained the preserved meats were seen at the different up-putting places (the spots of ground on the banks chosen for passing the nights upon), and those miserable abodes were drenched with rain, and presented an appearance the most appalling. Two black bears were seen prowling abovt, and devouring some of the luxuries which the travellers had ascertained it was impossible to convey, in any considerable quantities, further up the river ; and along the banks were seen strong symptoms of the inexperience of those, who had gone forward. The traders with the North American Indians, in travelling to their posts, kindle fires of im- mense magnitude upon landing to put up for the night. Every man carries his fire-bag, containing all the necessary apparatus. They proceed to hew dowr the trees, an office which they per- form with wonderful dexterity. ‘The fires are lighted, the tents for the officers pitched, and the only regular meal taken during the 24 hours, served up in as comfortable a manner as possible under the circumstances. As the travellers advanced, the mild season not having yet begun to disappear, vast herds of grey deer were observed passing the rivers towards the Esquimaux lands; and the Indians who were accompanying the expedition gave extraordinary proofs of their activity, by rushing upon the animals in the water, and striking Jong knives into their hearts. —Lieutenant Franklin, on entering the Hill River, so called from a neighbouring eminence, the only one that presented itself between York Factory and Cum- berland, had reason to express surprise that trading goods could be 390 Arctic Eand Expedition. be transported to the interior in spite of such frightful obstruc- tions. His men were fatigued in the extreme, and he found it indispensably necessary to request that the officers of the Hud- son’s Bay Company would lighten his boat of the greater part of the luxuries and instruments. This accommodation was: rea- dily given ; and after the most laborious: efforts, the expedition reached the Rock depot, one of the Company’s pests, having devoted seven days to the exhausting toil. of working up) thirty miles of their journey. Upon arriving at.the depot, the expedi- tion were treated with great hospitality by Mr. Bunn, the officer in charge, who entertained them with the tittimeg, a fish which they admitted was the most delicious they had ever tasted, and which was caught in God’s Lake (an immense piece of water, so “ named from the abundance and excellence of its inhabitants). Mr. Hood, who is one of the draftsmen of the expedition, took’ a sketch of the Rock Fall and the Post, which presented one: of the most beautiful objects in these desolate regions, and intro- duced a distant view of a wigwam (an Indian tent). with its in- mates. Five days after the expedition left the Rock depot, : they reached another post, having encountered numberless dif- ficulties .similar to those which have been described. There was, however, some relief to the painful sameness of the journey, in several beautiful lakes through which they had to pass.' At Oxford House post, which was reached four days subsequently, they were provided with pimmzkin, the celebrated winter food of the country, made of dried deer or buffalo flesh pounded and mixed with a large quantity of the fat of the animal. This food » is substituted for the luxuries, in winter, is the mast portable of all victuals, and satisfies the most craving hunger in a very short time.. The officers of the expedition were not a little surprised at the difficulty of cutting their meat, but they soon reconciled themselves to the long-established practice of chopping it with a hatchet. During the summer, ducks, geese, partridges, &c. are to be had in the greatest abundance; but the frost soon drives all these delicacies out of the reach of the active Indian, and pimmikin becomes the only resource of the traveller, The next post at which they arrived was Norway House; upon leaving which they entered upon Lake Winnipic, at the further side of . which they had to encounter the grand rapid, extending nearly: three miles, and abounding in obstructions quite insurmountable, Here they were obliged to drag their boats on shore, and carry them over the land, or, to use the technical language, “launch them over the portage.’’ The woods along the banks were all in a blaze, it being the custom of the natives, as well as of the traders, to set fire to the trees around the up-putting places, for the double purpose of keeping off the cold and the wolves, whose howling Arctic Land Expedition. 391 ‘howling was increased in proportion to the extent of the confia- gration. The expedition passed several other rapids and falls along a flat, woody, and swampy country, across five miles of which no eye could see. At length they reached the White Fall, where an accident took place which had nearly deprived the expedition of their commander. While the men were employed in carrying the goods and boats across the portage of the fall, Lieutenant Franklin walked down alone to view the rapid, the roaring of which could be heard at the distance of several miles. He had the boldness to venture along the banks with English shoes upon his feet, a most dangerous experiment where the banks are flint- stones and as smooth as glass. He was approaching the spot from which he could have taken the most accurate observation, when he slipped from the bank into the water. Fortunately the water into which he was precipitated was still water. Had he lost his footing ten yards lower down, he would have been hur- ried into a current which ran with amazing impetuosity over a precipice presenting one of the most terrific objects his eyes had yet fixed upon amidst all the horrors of the journey. Lieut. Frank- lin is an excellent swimmer, but fe had on him a sailor’s heavy Flushing jacket and trowsers, heavy English shoes, anda large neck- handkerchief, the weather having begun to set in very cold. He swam about for some time, and made vigorous efforts to get upon the bank; but he had to contend against a sinooth precipitous rock, and was just exhausted when two of the Company’s officers, who were at a short distance from the fall, looked up and saw him strug- gling in the water. With the assistance of their poles they raised him out of his perilous situation, in which he had been nearly a quarter of an honr. ‘The moment he reached land he fell to the ground, and remained without motion for some time. His power- ful constitution, however, soon buffeted the effects of the acci- dent, and he had happily only to regret the injury his chrono- meter, for which he had given 100 guineas, received in the water. After a tedious journey of forty-six days, the dangers and di- stresses of which rather increased than diminished as they ad- vanced, the expedition arrived at Cumberland, a post situate on the banks of a beautiful lake, and stockaded against the incur- sions of savages, the attacks of wolves and bears, and the more ferocious assaults of rival traders. Further particulars of the progress of the Expedition are de- tailed in the subjoined letter written by one of the Officers at- tached to it: ’ North America, Lat, 64. 28.N. Long. 113.4. W. “ The public papers have probably informed you of the arrival of the Northern Land Expedition in Hudson’s Bay, in Septem- ber 392 Arctic Land Expedition. ber 18)9, after an escape from shipwreck. It proceeded from thence to Cumberland House, one of the Hudson’s Bay Com- pany’s settlemeuts, nearly half way aross the continent, this being considered the best route in order to reach the sea at the mouth of the Copper Mine River. Here the winter of 1819 was passed. The depth of snow, and the severity of the cold, during the al- most interminable winter in this country, precluded the possibi- lity of conveying heavy stores, as only one-third of the year can be employed with any advantage bv the traveller. “The time, however, was not lost; we employed it in mak- ing drawings of animals, birds, &c. charts, meteorological ob- sarhatianss and collections of specimens, which we transmitted to England in the ensuing spring. “¢ In June 1820 we set forward in canoes manned by Cana- dians. ‘The extreme heat of the short summer, the persecutions of noxious insects, and occasional want of food, are the usual concomitants of these voyages ;' obstacles insignificant in compa- rison with the formidable difficulties which we have yet to over- come. On the 29th July we arrived at the north side of the Slave Lake. A party of Copper Indians were engaged to accom- pany us, and we commenced the work of discovery. On the Ist of Sept: we reached the banks of the Copper Mine River, in lat. 55. 15. N., long. 113. W., a magnificent body of water two miles wide. “* We had penetrated into a country destitute of wood, and our men were exhausted with the labours of carrying canoes, cargoes &c. amounting to three tons, from lake to lake. Their broken spirits were revived by our success ; but the season was too far advanced to make any further progress. We returned to a small wood of pines, and erected our winter residence of _mud and timber, which we have named Fort Enterprise. By Indian report this river runs into the Northern Sea, in West. longitude 110, and, we suppose, in lat. 72. In June 1521 we shall embark, and the river will enable us to reach the sea in a fortnight. "Ifthe shore is encumbered with ice, which is most probable, we must then leave our canoes, and trace the coast on foot to Hudson’s Bay; or, if 10 North-West passage exists, to the shore which forms the boundary of Baffin’s Bay, I think we are capable of executing this plan. Our chief dread was the hostile disposition of the Esquimaux. This danger is now almost obviated by the arrival of two Esquimaux interpreters, who have been provided at Churchill, and with great diligence sent after us. «¢ We are not so desolate, perhaps, in our exile, as our friends may suppose. The rein-deer are numerous about us, and we live on the most delicate venison. We find pleasure in the exa- mination of a new and amiable race of people.” Alabaster Sarcophagus.— Obelisk of red Granite. 393 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. On Friday Sept. 28th the celebrated alabaster Sarcophagus, which lately arrived from Alexandria, was uncased and deposited in the British Museum. It is for the present in one of the apart- ments not open to the public, where probably it will lie until a place is prepared for it in the Egyptian Gallery. This antique is certainly a very extraordinary and admirable specimen of the Arts of Egypt. ‘The Sarcophagus is nine feet long, and about four feet high, apparently of a single piece, and that of a very fine alabaster. It is shaped like a modern caffin, and is more than large enough to-hold the mummy with all its envelopes, which is presumed to have been deposited within this costly repository. But its chief value is in the innumerable hieroglyphics which cover the sides, interior and exterior, from top to bottom. ‘They are small, The human figures, of which there are long processions in various circumstances and attitudes, erect, linked together, towing galleys, bending as if in worship, &c., are from an inch to an inch and ahalfhigh. Between those are compartments of symbols, the eye, the ibis, the lotus, &c. The serpent occurs frequently, and in some instances at considerable size, and with much exactness of detail. This noble work Is supposed to be” the coffin of Psammis. Conjecture, however, has an extensive range in Egyptian antiquity, and some probabilities have been suggested in favour of its being no tomb, but a temple—a small shrine imitative of the original Cymla, or great Diluvian vessel to which so many of the Indian emblems refer, The Ark seems to have formed a vast source of Pagan allegoric sculpture. The pecuniary value of this Sarcophagus has been estimated at a very large sum. ~ It was the property of Mr. Salt, the British consul, and was, we understand, the subject of competition by the agents of some foreign powers. The obelisk of red granite brought home by the Dispatch, for Mr. Bankes jun., which had been previously removed down the Nile from the island of Philoe, on the borders of Nubia, has been safely unshipped at Deptford, and is now lying on the deck of the sheer-hulk there, till it is ready to be removed to Mr. Bankes’s seat in Dorsetshire. It is particularly interesting, being the first ever brought to England. Artists have already been making drawings from it for the purpose of engraving; it being supposed that it may very possibly furnish a key to the in- terpretation of the hieroglyphical character ; since the Greek up- on the pedestal, which records its first erection, under Ptolemy and Cleopatra, near 2000 years ago, is very probably a transla- tion of the hicroglyphics with which all the foursides of the obe- lisk itself are richly covered. — ' Vol. 58. No, 283, Nov, 1821. 3D The 304 Zodiac.—Meridians.— African Geography. The celebrated Zodiac of Dendera, or Tentyra, which, wher first discovered by the French during their expedition to Egypt, occasioned much discussion respecting the antiquity of the earth, has been lately brought to Marseilles, and is to be eonveyed to Paris. The Courier Frangais states, that the English Consul in Egypt opposed its removal, of the ground that it was within the district in which he had purchased the right of digging for cu- riosities, and wished to claim it for his Government. The dis- pute was referred to the Pacha, who determined in favour of the French explorers, M. Saulnier and another. An account of their Journey is to be printed. MERIDIANS OF GREENWICH AND PARIS. On Tuesday, Sept. 25th, Captain Mudge, of the Royal Engi- neers (son of the late General Mudge), accompanied by M. Ma- thieu, Member of the Royal Institute at Paris, proceeded to Fair- light Downs, Hastings, and superintended the fixing of a vertical reflector, constructed by M. Mathieu, on the same spot selected by Gen. Roy 30 years since, to enable observations to be taken from the coast of France near Calais, for the purpose of re-mea- suring the distance between the meridian of the Observatories of | Greenwich and Paris. The light from the reflector is visible at the distance of 90 miles ; it consists of four cirenlar wicks, the largest of which is [0 inches in circumference ; it consumes two quarts of oil in the hour ; it is lighted an hour before sun-rise and sun-set, and is kept burning for two hours. Capt. Mudge and M. Mathieu left Fairlight on the 24th ult. to proceed to join Major Colby and Capt. Kater in France. AFRICAN GEOGRAPHY. The following communication from Mr. Bowdich, the author of the ** Mission to Ashantee,” and other works on Africa, &c. will be interesting to our readers : ‘J observe that the date of the thirty Yy- First of April occurs in Mungo Park’s last journal, an error which has escaped the notice of his editor, as well as the correction of the traveller, who did not make an astronomical observation until the 17th of May, which, from the above cause, he calls the 16th, and con- sequently applied a wrong declination, as he continued to do in every subsequent observation. The consequence is, that the route is laid down considerably too much to the north; the la- titude of Yamina, for instance, substituting the correct declina- tion, is reduced from 13 deg. 15 min. N. to 12 deg. 52 min. N., and the important position of Sego, which was considered. to be definitely settled, as regarded the latitude, must be lowered more than the third of a degree in all the subsequent maps of Africa.” SHIRT. Shirt Trees. — Patents. 395 SHIRT TREES. ** We saw on the slope of the Cerra Dnida,” says M. Hum- holdt, ‘‘ shirt trees fifty feet high. The Indians cut off cylindri- cal pieces two feet in diameter, from which they peel the red and fibrous bark, without making any iongitudinal incision. This bark affords them a sort of garment, which resembles sacks of a very Coarse texture, and without a seam. The upper opening serves for the head, and two lateral holes are cut to admit the arms. ‘The natives wear these shirts of marima in the rainy sea- son: they have the form of the ponchos and ruanos of cotton, which are so common in New Granada, at Quito, and in Peru. As in these climates the riches and beneficence of nature are re- garded as the primary causes of the indolence of the inhabitants, the Missionaries do not fail to say in showing the shirts of marima, ‘ In the forests of the Oroonoko, garments are found ready made on the trees.’ We may add to this tale of the shirts, the pointed caps, which the spathes of certain palm trees furnish, and which resemble coarse net work,” LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS. To Thomas Martin and Charles Grafton, of Birmingham, print- ing ink manufacturers, for their new method, of making fine light black of very superior colour, which for distinction from other blacks they called Spirit Black, and a new apparatus for produc- ing the same.—Dated 24th October 1821.—2 months allowed to enrol specification. To Benjamin Thompson, of Ayton Cottage, Durham, gent., for his method of facilitating the conveyance of carriages along iron and wood railways, traitways, and other roads.—24th Oc- tober.—2 months. To Charles ‘Tuely the elder, of Kenton-street, Brunswick- square, Middlesex, cabinet-maker, for certain improvements ap- plicable to window sashes either single or double, hung, fixed or sliding sashes, casements, window shutters and window blinds.— Ist November.—6 months. To Samuel Hobday, of Birmingham, patent snuffer maker, for his new and improved method or principle of manufacturing the furniture for umbrellas and parasols, and of uniting the same to- gether.—lst November.—2 months. To John Frederick Archbold, of Sergeauts-Inn, Fleet-street, London, Esq. for his mode of ventilating close carriages. —1st No- veinbet. —2 montlis. To Richard Wright, of Mount Row, Kent Road, Surry, en- 3D2 gincer, 5 a List of Patents for New Inventions. gineer, for certain improvements in the process of distillation. — 9th November.—6 months. eevee To David Redmund, of Agnes Circus, Old-Street-Road, Mid- dlesex, engineer, for his improvements in the construction or ma- nufacture of hinges for doors.—9th November.—6 months. __ To Franz Anton Egells, of Britannia Terrace, City Road, Middlesex, engineer, for certain improvements on steam engines. —Jth November.—6 months. To James Gardner, of Banbury, Oxfordshire, ironmonger, for his machine preparatory to melting in the manufacture of tallow, soap, and candles, and which machine may be used for other si- milar purposes. —9th November.—2 months, To John Bates, of Bradford, Yorkshire, machine-maker, for certain machinery for the purpose of feeding furnaces of every description, steam engines, and other boilers, with coal, coke, and fuel of every kind.—9th November.—6 months. To William Westley Richards, of Birmingham, gunmaker, for his improvement in the construction of gun and pistol locks.— 10th November.—2 months. To William Penrose, of Sturmmorgangs, Yorkshire, miller, for his various improvements in the machinery for propelling vessels, and in vessels so propelled.—10th November.—6 months. To Edward Bowles Symes, of Lincoln’s-Inn, Middlesex, Esq. for his expanding hydrostatic piston to resist the pressure of cer- tain fluids, and slide easily in an imperfect cylinder.—10th No- yvember.—6 months. To Joseph Grout, of Gutter-lane, Cheapside, London, crape- manufacturer, for his new manufacture of crape, which he con- ceives will be of great public utility.—13th November.—6 months. To Neil Arnott, of Bedford-square, Middlesex, Doctor in Me- dicine, for his improvements connected with the production and agency of heat in furnaces, steam- and air-engines, distilling, eva- porating, and brewing apparatus.— 20th November.—6 months. To Richard Macnamara, of Canterbury-buildings, Lambeth, Surrey, Esq. for his improvement in paving, pitching, and co- vering streets, roads, and other places.—20th November.—6 months. To John Collinge, of Lambeth, Surrey, engineer, for his imr provements on hinges, which he conceives wili be of public utility. —22nd November.—6 months. To Henry Robinson Palmer, of Hackney, Middlesex, civil en- gineer, for his improvements in the construction of railways oF trainroads, aud of the carriage or carriages to be used thereon. 22nd November.—6 months, / Observations Barometric Observations. 397 Observations by Dr. BurNEy, at Gosport; the height of his Barometer being 50 feet above low-water mark. Hour. Barom. Wind. State of the Weather. 1821. A.M. { Sunshine and calm, witha stratus, » |Inches.| 0 | o | 9 and ec?rrus increasing from the Nov. 12. 8h| 29-94 |52/50/96} S.W. westward, the latter modifica- tion forming a gray sky all the morning. § Do. do. and some low passing 9 | 29-96 (5351/95) SW. 10 | 29:99 (54/53/93) S.W, Q e@rrostraiti. Nascent cwnuli in conical and } semicircular shapes. Dark horizontal streaks of cirro- 1] | 30-00 |56/55)88} =S.W. stratus, crossing the light tops of cumulus clouds. A faint solar halo 44° in diame- ter in the increasing cirrus ; also passing cumulostrati. A continuation of the halo, with ; plumose cirrus. 12 | 30-02 |59/56/82} S.W. P.M: 1 | 30-03 [60/57/79] S.W. A thermometer placed on a level with the basin of my portable barometer, was all the morning 11° lower than the one attached to the top of the tube. I was induced to pay particular atten- tion to this observation, from seeing it mentioned in your Philoso- phical Magazine and Journal for last June, p.468, that two thermometers, one suspended on each side and nearly in the centre of the barometrical tube, were 4 to 5° lower than the attached thermometer,” which I thought was an extraordinary discrepancy in so short a space downwards. I have frequently tried this experiment within the last few months, but have never seen the thermometer placed in the middle of the tube, or on a level with the basin of my barometer, either in wet or dry weather, lower than 14°, notwithstanding the accurate adjustment, and coincidence of the thermometers when placed together. Ge- nerally it is about 1° lower when placed level with the basin, in an airy room. j Since the 14th ultimo, 5.875 inches of rain have fallen here, making the quantity for this year up to the present time 32-365 inches, that is 6-615 inches more than fell in the neighbourhood last year. The evaporation this year is comparatively small, being up- wards of 12 inches less than the quantity of rain ; therefore, the ground must be in a very moist state to a good depth, The planet Venus was seen here with the naked eye this, and on the afternoon of the 5th instant, when on or near the meri- dian; and will become more visible in the open day, as she ad- vances to her greatest elongation, Nov, 14, 1821. Leigh- 398 Barometric Observations. > Leighton, Nov. 22, 1821, Dear Sir,—! have the pleasure to send you the observations of the Barometer at this place and at Bushey, as usual, on 12th November. LEIGHTON. — 8129-578 | 46 | 45 |S.S. W. | calm. /Fine. V 9 |29:-600 | 47 | 46 |S .S.W.| do Do. 10 (29-620) 48 | 49 |S .S.W.| do Cloudy. 11 |29-633 | 482) 50 | S.S.W.| do Do. 12 |29-643 | 494) 52 |S.S.W. | do Fine 1 |29°652 | 49% 52 |S.S.W.! do Do. BusHEY. a Barear i rin Wind. | Denom. Weather. 85'29-361/50 |48 | W.S.W. | fresh. | Dense fog. 9 |29°379|50 |49 | W.S.W. | do. _| Cloudy. 10 |29:599| 50 [50 |S.W. byS.| moder.| Do. 11 |29:417/51 {51 | W.S.W. | fresh. | Fine. 12 /29-431)| 522 |52!| W.S.W. | do. Do. 1 |29-435 | 52-7|52-5| W. by S.|do. | Do. The calculated height of Bushey above Leighton, by the ob- servations made in October, by Colonel Beaufoy =212°1 feet. by B.Bevan...... 211° by the observations of this month., 209: My son Joseph has calculated the difference of the heights of Mr. Cary’s instrument and mine for the last three months, as below, August ., .. 252: feet. London below Leighton, September .. .. 204° October .. .. 248: Mean of 3 months 201° I had some hopes of finding a section of the River Thames from London to the sea, either at the Trinity-House or at Guild- hall; but am sorry to say, no such document is to be found at either place. When the commercial importance of the river is considered, and the great interest, as a matter of science, such a section would command, it is rather surprising that no public body or society have yet obtained this desirable information, I am, dear sir, yours truly, B. BEVAN. METEORO~ Meteorology. METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT AT BOSTON, LINCOLNSHIRE, BY MR.SAMUEL VEALL. . —— [The time of observation, unless otherwise stated, is at 1 P.M.] — 182i. Nov. Age of the |Thermo- Moon.} meter. | meter. 30° 30° 29°90 29°64 29°55 28°70 29° 28°95 29°15 29°26 29°65 29°83 29°87 30° 29°95 29°80 29°60 29°45 29°37 29°37 28°88 29°90 30°15 30°05 30°05 30°03 29°88 29:10 29°60 29°13 29°48 of the Clouds. Fine—rain A.M. Cloudy Fine—rain P.M. Cloudy Ditto Rain—with brisk wind. ine Ditto Cloudy—rain P.M. Ditto Ditto—rain P.M. Ditto Rain Cloudy Fine Ditto * Ditto—foggy in the morning. Cloudy Ditto Ditto—heavy rain P.M. Rain and stormy Fine Ditto Cloudy Fine Ditto Cloudy Rain Fine Cloudy— foggy morning. Fine Baro- |State of the Weather and Modification METEORO- 400 Meteorology. _ METEOROLOGICAL TABLE, By Mr. Cary, OF THE STRAND. Thermometer. h se ai wf]. |S .; | Height of ‘sé 8 ae) the Barom. Weather. 1821. Qs 2 = 2 Inches. ee eo hae 2 PSS ae Oct. 27 | 54 | 59 | 55 | 30°23 Cloudy 28 55 | 62 | 46 *32 Cloudy 29 | 40! 53 | 45 "29 Fair 30 42 | 52 | 46 "10 Fair 31 47 | 59 | 54 | 29:96 Fair Nov. 1 56°| 60 | 57 "94 Fair 2 | 61 | 62 | 58 *93 Showery 3 55 | 53.| 47 °85 Rain 4 | 44 | 46) 38 *36 Stormy | 5 34 | 44 | 37 | 30°18 Fair 6 | 35 | 45 | 42 *35 Fair 7 erases 47 23 Fair | 8 148 | 50] 44 “21 Fair ' | 9 | 40 | 46) 42 ‘18 Fair : 10 | 40 | 50 | 50 "14 Foggy al 50 | 56 | 50 | 29°91 Rain 12 50 | 55 | 47 *Q3 Fair 13. | 46 | 55 | 55 "90 Cloudy 1455 396 54 83 Cloudy 15 56 | 60 | 55 “72 Cloudy 16 | 55 | 50} 50 “41 Stormy 17 50 | 54 | 50 ‘70 Rain es) 50 | 50 | 47 | 30°03 Fair 19 | 50 | 53 | 46 | 29°98 Rain 20 | 47 | 50 | 47 "93 Cloudy 21 | 50 | 48 | 40 ‘78 Showery 22 | 45 | 55 | 50 “51 Rain 93 50 | 47 | 39 ‘90 Showery a4 | 43 | 53 | 46 ‘70 Cloudy 25 AT ATS), SO *83 . Rain 26 | 54! 57 | 50 °27 Stormy N.B. The Barometer's height is taken at one o’clock. rrr Observations for Correspondent who observed the rath Nov. 8 o’Clock-M, Barom. 29°882 Ther. attached 52° Detached 50 ce ee ee BIN hee 5, He a Oey a Ry eater ae ey ae a= — N — —'932 — — — [ 401 ] LXXXII. Description of an Appendage to Torrr’s Blowpipe; to make it serve as a Substitute for Bruoxss’s Gas Blow- pipe. by Mr. H. B. Lexson, To Dr. Tilloch. Vottingham, Nov. 16, 1821. Sir, — Tux great danger attendant upon the burning the ex- plosive mixture of oxygen and hydrogen in Brookes’s Gas Blow- pipe (even with Cutnming’s Safety Cylinder) has for some time been a source of regret to the votaries of science. ‘Those who have witnessed the beautiful and brilliant effects produced by the gas blowpipe, and have considered the interesting nature of the facts that have been thereby developed, and the probable im- portance of the result of future experiments, must lament that any one should be debarred from using that powerful agent. The interposition of a screen may indeed prevent the fatal effects attending the explosion of the gases; but when the operator hears the alarming crash that announces the destruction of his apparatus, he must experience considerable disappointment at the loss of his blowpipe, and the disagreeable interruption of his experiments. ‘The screen itself is an inconvenience, as it confines the operator to one particular spot, and requires much compli- cated apparatus, in order to allow the condensing syringe to be worked by a person on the outside of the screen. A desire to obviate these inconveniences led me some time since to contrive the safety appendages of which I now send youa description, as adapted to the improved hydraulic blowpipe described in No. 6, New Series of the “ Annals of Philosophy.” ABCD, fig. 1 (PI. VI. ) represent the body of the blowpipe, which should be about twenty inches long, six inches wide, and two feet deep, and may be made of tinned iron, well painted or japanned both inside and outside. There should he a lid to open on hinges at A, with a small hole in it to allow the top of the safety cistern to pass through it; this lid is not represented in the figure. The box is separated into two parts as represented by the dotted lines at BD; the lower part of the box is about eleven inches deep, and communi- cates with the upper part by the cylinder E: this cylinder is si- tuated in the centre of the division B D; it is three inches in di- ameter, and reaches within half an inch of the bottom of the box. The air chamber F is supplied with gas or air through the pipe G, which should be about two feet long, one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and should be placed half an inch from the bottom of the box. The air issues through the pipe H, which should be about eleven inches long and the same diameter as the pipe G. To the top of the pipe H (which is strengthened by passing through the small shelf 1) the safety appendages aie Vol, 58, No, 284. Dec, 1821, 3 E screwed. 402 On the Blowpipe. screwed. . There is a brass cock at K, the plug of which is worked by a key on the outside of the box. This cock is in- tended to regulate the flow of gas into the safety cistern at I, and also to prevent any water entering the pipe when the box is filled with water above the level of the division BD. When air or gas is introduced into the chamber F, previously filled with water through the pipe G, the air rises to the surface of the chamber, and expels the water through the cylinder E. The air. cannot return through the pipe G, as the bottom of the pipe is closed by the water. There is a small cock or plug at L, in or- der to empty the water occasionally. Figures 2 and 3 are sections of the safety appendages deli- neated of the real size. AB represents the cistern, which is 14 inch in depth, and half an inch in its internal diameter; when in use, this cistern must be filled with mercury as high as the dotted line at B. G is a bent pipe through which the gas enters the cistern A B; to the end of this bent pipe there is screwed a small valve F; this valve consists of a conical plug which fits its socket perfectly air tight ; to the bottom of the plug there is attached a tube with one or more small holes drilled in the top of it. There is a small plate screwed round the bottom of the tube, in order to assist the opening of the valve by presenting a larger surface to the action of the air. The tube is fitted into a socket, which allows it to work easily up and down. The gas enters the tube at K, forces up the valve, and issues through the small holes below the plug, round which it passes into the bent pipeG. The valve must be made very true and light, and should have some small grooves at the top of the plug in order to afford a passage for the gas when the valve rises against the bottom of the bent pipe G. The section represents the valve lifted up as when inaction. The lid C D screws into the cistern at AB; it is hollowed out in a conical form at D, and has the hole at E filled either with a piece of cane or wire-gauze. The gas which enters the cistern at H, below the. surface of the mercury, col- lects in the conical part of the lid at D, and passes through the cane or wire-gauze at E into the jet pipe, which screws into the lidat C. The safety appendages are connected with the pipe H by a screw at the bottom of the valve as shown at I, fig. I. When the cane or wire-gauze does not prevent the ignition of the gas in the safety cistern, the expansion of the gas forces the mercury up the bent pipe G, which falling on the plug shuts the valve, and closes all communication with the air chamber F, fig. 1. As soon as the ignition of the gas has ceased, the mer- cury returns into its place, and the gas flows through the cistern as at the commencement. I shall now endeayour briefly to show the disadvantages at- tending On the Blowpipe. 2 eS tending the use of Brookes’s gas blowpipe with Cumming’s safety cylinder as at present adopted, and will then state how I con- ceive they are obviated in the one I have described. Brookes’s blowpipe is obliged to have its sides made very thick and strong, in order to bear the condensation of the gases; consequently, when an explosion takes place, the sides are driven in all direc- tions, like the fragments of a bomb, to the great danger of those near it; whereas, admitting the possibility of an explosion in the one now described, I know from experiment, that when the gases are exploded in a tin vessel similar to the body of the hydraulic blowpipe, the effect is simply to tear open the sides without se- parating them from the rest of the instrument. When an ex- plosion takes place in Brookes’s blowpipe, it is usually destroyed 5 whereas, owing to what has been before stated, the hydraulic blowpipe might generally be repaired at a trifling expense. From the experiment above alluded to, I know that the water greatly deadens the force of the explosion ; as the water is driven up the cylinder, which acts somewhat like a Welter’s tube of safety, and would probably, could the sides of the box be made sufficiently strong, entirely prevent the bursting of the blow- pipe. As the condensation in Brookes’s blowpipe diminishes, the flow of gas naturally becomes weaker, and this is probably the reason that the flame so frequently recedes. In addition to these inconveniences, the operator is interrupted every half mi- nute by the necessity of replenishing the blowpipe with gas, and cannot without an assistant continue an experiment for any length of time. In the hydraulic blowpipe the whole of the gas is introduced at ouce; consequently there is no interruption of the experiments, and the gas is not contaminated by remaining in the bladder, which very much deteriorates it. To fill the hydraulic blowpipe with gas, nothing more is ne- cessary than to fill a bladder, screw it on the top of the pipe G, and squeeze the gas out with the hands. No condensing syringe is required for that purpose. This, and the power of completely exhausting the air chamber by filling it with water, renders the gas much less liable to be contaminated by atmospheric air, In Cumming’s safety cylinder the oil, or water, is constantly dropping through the valve at the bottom; so that, if used for any length of time, the whole of the oil or water escapes through the gas chamber, and leaves the cylinder completely empty; the great force by which the valve is opened in Cumming’s safety cylinder, owing to the condensation of the gases, prevents it from closing properly when the gas within the cylinder is ignited, so that the expausion which then takes place (and which acts 3E2 rather 404 On the Blowpipe. rather on the surface of the oil or water than upon the valve it- self) drives the oil or water through the valve, and thus removes all obstructions to the further progress of the flame. In the hydraulic blowpipe the pressure of the gas on the valve is comparatively trifling, so that the least counter pressure is sufficient to close it; the mercury cannot be driven through the valve, which is so constructed that it cannot be moved out of its | vertical position, and the mercury must fall ou the centre of the plug, which of course is immediately closed. In Brookes’s blowpipe there is a great waste of gas, as the last portion remaining in the chamber cannot be made use of, owing to the condensation ceasing; whereas in the hydraulic blowpipe the whole is forced out by the action of the water. There is no occasion to fill the gas chamber with gas, as the water will force the whole out, be the quantity ever so small; and should tke pressure of the water be found too weak, it is very easy to fill the blowpipe five or six inches above the level of the division AB, fig. 1; but care must be taken before putting in this additional quantity to close the cock at K, otherwise the water entering the pipe H would be driven up into the safety- cistern and occasion much inconvenience. rene The safety appendages, if mercury be employed, must of course be made of iron; but those who prefer oil or water will find it easier to get them made of brass. Those who choose it may easily use a screen with this blow- pipe, by merely elongating the jet pipe, and they would have no need of any condensing syringe to be worked horizontally through the screen as in Brookes’s, since the whole of the gas would be introduced into the gas chamber before the experiments commenced, A small gauge to measure the quantity of air or gas in the chamber might be convenient, and could be easily formed by at- taching a properly graduated rod to a cork float; and if a small hole were made in the top of the box for the rod to pass through, it would of course indicate by its rise and fall the quantity of air or gas in the chamber. Should future experience confirm the opinion I have been in- duced to form of the safety of my appendages, we should have one instrument capable of producing every degree of heat from that requisite for roasting ores, bending glass, &c. to that necessary for the fusion of the most refractory bodies. When this instrument is to be used as a common blowpipe, nothing more is necessary than to unscrew the safety appen- dages from the pipe H, and simply to screw the jet pipe in their place, The On the Blowpipe. 405 The hydraulic blowpipe might also be converted into an ex- cellent gasholder for such gases as are unabsorbable by water. Hoping you will excuse my trespassing so long on the time and patience of your readers, I remain, sir, yours most obediently, ’ H. B. Leeson. P. S. As it is frequently desirable to have some means of pre- serving the products of experiment unexposed to the action of the atmosphere, the operator should procure some small glass tubes, open at one end but hermetically sealed at the other : when wanted for use, nothing more is necessary than to heat the tube over a spirit-lamp so as to expel the air, and then in- troducing the product of experiment, immediately to close the open end of the tube by hermetically sealing it. The preceding Paper was accompanied by the following Letter from Mr. Joun Murray. To Dr. Tilloch. Siz,—In submitting to you Mr. Leeson’s description of an appendage to Tofft’s blowpipe, by means of which it may be made to substitute Brookes’s instrument for the explosive atmo- sphere, I take leave to add, that when Mr. L. mentioned the idea to me, I suggested an iron cylinder to contain mercury in- stead of oil or water, on the plan adopted by the Marquis Ri- dolfi of Florence, and which I described in a former Number of the “ Philosophical Magazine.” With Dr. Hope’s Safety Wire- gauze Box, | found it quite safe, charged with an explosive at- mosphere; and I may here add, that with this attached to Brookes’s blowpipe, I never had any explosion. I have used it two years, and without water or oil in the safety cistern. I suggested the cylindrical double valve whieh Mr. Leeson has modified, ‘The cane I mentioned as uniting all the advan- tages of a system of capillary tubes, and it is of considerable con- sequence to prevent explosion in the cylinder itself; for, if the receding explosive flame were suffered to acquire the momentum, it would thereby gain; the safety valve might be so injured as to give way altogether by the force of repeated subsequent explo- sions. I have since fitted up the safety cistern with a bundle of iron wires, and, with the addition of a capillary pipe as a jet, I operate without the least danger. I have deemed it proper to add these explanatory observations, and am, ‘with much respect, sir, your obedient servant, London. J. Murray. LXXXIII, Jw- [ 406 ] LXXXIII. Further Researches on the magnetic Phenomena produced by Electricity ; with some new Experiments on the Properties of electrified Bodies in their Relations to conducting Powers and Temperature. By Sir Humpury Davy, Bart. P RiS.* Ti Ix my letter to Dr. Wollaston on the new facts discovered by M. Oersted, which the Society has done me the honour to publish, I mentioned, that I was not able to render a bar of steel magnetic by transmitting the electrical discharge across it through a tube filled with sulphuric acid; and I have likewise mentioned, that the electrical discharge passed across a piece of steel through air, rendered it less magnetic than when passed through a me- tallic wire; and I attributed the first circumstance to the sul- phuric acid being too bad a conductor to transmit a sufficient quantity of electricity for the effect; and the second, to the elec- tricity passing through air in a more diffused state than through metals. To gain some distinct knowledge on the relations of the dif- ferent conductors to the magnetism produced by electricity, I in- stituted a series of experiments, which led to very decisive results, and confirmed my first views. II. I found that the magnetic phenomena were precisely the same, whether the electricity was small in quantity, and passing through good conductors of considerable magnitude ; or, whether the conductors were so imperfect as to convey only a small quan- tity of electricity ; and in both cases they were neither attractive of each other, nor of iron filings, and not affected by the magnet ; and the only proof of their being magnetic, was their occasioning a certain small deviation of the magnetized needle. Thus, a large piece of charcoal placed in the circuit of a very powerful battery, being a very bad conductor compared with the metals, would not affect the compass needle at all, unless it had a very Jarge contact with the metallic part of the circuit ; and if a small wire was made to touch it in the circuit only in a few points, that wire did not gain the power of attracting iron filings ; though, when it was made to touch a surface of platinum foil coiled round the end of the charcoal, a slight effect of this kind was produced. And in a similar manner fused hydrate of pe- tassa, one of the best of the imperfect conductors, could never be made to exert any attractive force on iron filings, nor could the smallest filaments of cotton moistened by solution of hy- drate of potassa, placed in the circuit, be made to move by the magnet; nor did steel needles floating on cork on an electrized * From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 182], Part II. solution ee el On the magnetic Phenomena produced by Electricity. 407 solution of this kind, placed in the Voltaic circuit, gain any po- larity; and the only proof of the magnetic powers of electricity passing through such a fluid, was afforded by its effect upon the magnetized needle, when the metallic surfaces, plunged in the fluid, were of considerable extent. ‘That the mobility of the parts of fluids did not interfere with their magnetic powers as developed by electricity, I proved, by electrifying mercury, and Newten’s metal fused, in small tubes. These tubes, placed in a proper Voltaic circuit, attracted iron filings, and gave magnetic powers to needles ; nor did any agitation of the mercury or mie- tal within, either in consequence of mechanical motion or heat, alter or suspend their polarity. III. Imperfect conducting fluids do not give polarity to steel when electricity is passed through them; but electricity passed through air produces this effect. Reasoning on this phenome- non, and on the extreme mobility of the particles cf air, J con- cluded, as M. Arago had likewise done from other considerations, that the Voltaic current in air would be affected by the magnet. I failed in my first trial, which I have referred to in a note to my former paper, and in other trials made since, by using too weak a magnet; but I have lately had complete success ; and the experiment exhibits a very striking phenomenon. Mr. Pepys having had the goodness to charge the great bat- tery of the London Institution, consisting of two thousand double plates of zinc and copper, with a mixture of 1168 parts of water, 108 parts of nitrous acid, and 25 parts of sulphuric acid, the poles were connected by charcoal, so as to make an are, or co- lumn of electrical light, varying in length from one to four inches, according to the state of rarefaction of the atmosphere in which it was produced; and a powerful magnet being presented to this are or column, having its pole at a very acute angle to it, the are, or column, was attracted or repelled with a rotatory motion, or made to revolve, by placing the poles in different positions, according to the same law as the electrified cylinders of platinum described in my last paper, being repelled when the negative pole was on the right hand by the north pole of the magnet, and attracted by the south pole, and vice versa. It was proved by several experiments that the motion depended entirely upon the magnetism, and not upon the electrical induc- tive power of the magnet; for masses of soft iron, or of other metals, produced no effect. The electrical are or column of flame was more easily affected by the magnet, and its motion was more rapid when it passed through dense than through rarefied air; and in this case, the conducting medium or chain of aériform particles was much shorter. I tried 408 On the magnetic Phenomena I tried to gain similar results with currents of common elec- tricity sent through flame, and im vacuo. They were always af- fected by the magnet; but it was not possible to obtain so de- cided a result as with Voltaic electricity, because the magnet itself became electrical by induction, and that whether it was in- sulated, or connected with the ground*. IV. Metals, it is well known, readily transmit large quantities of electricity ; and the obvious limit to the quantity which they are capable of transmitting seems to be their fusibility, or vola- tilization by the heat which electricity produces in its passage through bodies. Now I had found in several experiments, that the intensity of this heat was connected with the nature of the medium by which the body was surrounded ; thus a wire of platinum which was readily fused by transmitting the charge from a Voltaic battery in the exhausted receiver of an-air pump, acquired in air a much lower degree of temperature. Reasoning on this circumstance, it occurred to me, that by placing wires in a medium much denser than air, such as ether, alcohol, oils, or water, I might enable them to transmit a much higher charge of electricity than they could convey without being destroyed in air; and thus not only gain some new results as to the magnetic states of such wires, but likewise, perhaps, determine the actual limits to the powers of different bodies to conduct electricity, and the relations of these powers. A wire of platinum of 74, of three inches in length, was fused in air, by being made to transmit the electricity of two batteries of ten zinc plates of four inches with double copper, strongly charged: a similar wire was placed in sulphuric ether, and the charge transmitted through it. It became surrounded by globules of gas ; but no other change took place; and in this situation it bore the discharge from twelve batteries of the same kind, exhibiting the same phenomena. When only about an inch of it was heated by this high power in ether, it made the ether boil, and became white hot under the globules of vapour, and then rapidly decomposed the ether, but it did not fuse. When oil or water was substituted for the ether, the length of the wire remaining the same, it was partially covered with small globules of gas, but did not become red hot. On trying the magnetic powers of this wire in water, they * IT made several experiments on the effects of currents of electricity si- multaneously passing through air in different states of rarefaction in the same and different directions, both from the Voltaic and common electrical batteries ; but I could not establish the fact of their magnetic attractions or repulsions with regard to each other; which probably was owing to the im- possibility of bringing them sufficiently near. were q b produced ly Electricity. 409 were found to be very great, and the quantity of iron filings that it attracted, was such as to form a cylinder round it of near ‘3 the tenth of an inch in diameter. To ascertain whether short lengths of fine wire, steverited fi from fusing by being kept cool, transmitted the whole electricity of powerful Voltaic batteries, ‘pmade:a'second independent circuit from the ends of the battery with silver wires in water, so that the chemical decomposition of the water indicated a residuum of electricity in the battery. pperositts in this way, I found that an ineh of wire of platinum of 25, kept cool by water, left a great residual charge of electricity in a combination of twelve batteries of the same kind as those above mentioned ; and after making several trials, I found that it was barely adequate to dis- charge six batteries. V. Having determined that there was a Jimit to the quantity of. electricity which wires were capable of transmitting, it became easy to institute experiments on the different. conducting powers of different metallic ‘substances, and on the relation of this power to the temperature, mai ss, surface, or length of the conducting body, and to the cot tions of electro-magnetic action, : These experiments were made as nearly as possible under the same. circumstances, the same connecting copper wires being oats 1 all cases sy their diameter being ‘more. than ‘one-tenth of ( ‘the contact being always preserved perfect ; and ame solutions of acid and water were employed in teries, and the same silver wires and broken cir- penal eunplayeds in the different trials; and when e es of gas were observed upon the negative silver wire circuit, it was. concluded that the metallic con- prea obits or the primary circuit, was adequate to the dis- charge of the combination. To describe more minutely all the precautions observed, would be tedious to those persons “who are accustomed to experiments with the Voltaic apparatus, aud un- intelligible to others; and after all, in researches of this nature, it is impossib!e to gain more than approximations to true results ; for the gas disengaged upon the plates, the different distances of the connecting plates, and the slight difference of time in making the connexions, all interfere with their perfect accuracy. The most remarkable general result that I obtained by these researches, and which I shall mention first, as it influences all the others, was, that the conducting power of metallic bodies var ied with the temperature, and was lower in some inverse ratio as the temperature was higher. Thus a wire of platinum of z4,, and three inches in length, when kept cool by oil, discharged the electricity of two batteries, Vol, 58. No, 284. Dec. 1821, 3 F or 410 On the magnetic Phenomena or of twenty double plates; but when suffered to be heated by exposure in the air, it barely discharged one battery. Whether the heat was occasioned by the electricity, or applied to it from some other source, the effect was the same. Thus, a wire of platinum, of such length and diameter as to discharge a combination without being considerably heated, when the flame of a spirit lamp was applied to it so as to make a part of it red hot, lost its power of discharging the whole electricity of the battery, as was shown by the disengagement of abundance of gas in the secondary circuit ; which disengagement ceased as soon as the source of heat was withdrawn. There are several modes of exhibiting this fact, so as to pro- duce effects which, till they are’ witnessed, must almost appear impossible. Thus, let a fine wire of platinum of four or five inches in length be placed in a Voltaic circuit, so that the elec- tricity passing through it may heat the whole of it to redness, and let the flame of a spirit lamp be applied to any part of it, so as to heat that part to whiteness, the rest of the wire will instantly become cooled below the point of visible ignition. For the con- verse of the experiment, let a piece of ice or a stream of cold air be applied to a part of the wire; the other parts will imme- diately become much hotter ; and from a red, will rise to a white heat. The quantity of electricity that can pass through that part of the wire submitted to the changes of temperature, is so much smaller when it is hot than when it is cold, that the abso- lute temperature of the whole wire is diminished by heating a part of it, and, vice versd, increased by cooling a part of it. In comparing the conducting powers of different metals, I found much greater differences than I had expected. ‘Thus, six inches of silver wire of 31, discharged the whole of the electri- city of sixty-five pair of plates of zinc and double copper made active by a mixture of about one part of nitric acid of com- merce, and fifteen parts of water. Six inches of copper wire of the same diameter discharged the electricity of fifty-six pairs of the same combination, six inches of tin of the same diameter carried off that of twelve only, the same quantity of wire of pla- tinum that of eleven, and of iron that of nine. Six inches of wire of lead of =4-5 seemed equal in their conducting powers to the same length of copper wire of 3,5. All the wires were kept as cool as possible by immersion in a basin of water *. I made a number of experiments of the same kind, but the results were never precisely alike, though they sometimes ap- * Water is so bad a conductor, that in experiments of this kind its effects may be neglected altogether, and these effects were equal in all the experi- ments. proached produced by Electricity. 411 proached very near each other. When the batteries were highly charged, so that the intensity of the electricity was higher, the differences were less between the best and worst conductors, and they were greater when the charge was extremely feeble. Thus, with a fresh charge of a one part of nitric acid, and nine parts of water, wires of =4, of silver and platinum five inches long, discharged respectively the electricity of 30, and seven double plates. Finding that when different portions of the same wire plunged in a non-conducting fluid were connected with different parts of the same battery equally charged, their conducting powers appeared in the inverse ratio of their lengths ; so, when six inches of wire of platinum of 54, discharged the electricity of ten double plates, three inches discharged that of 20, 14 inck that of 40, and one inch that of 60; it occurred to me that the con- ducting powers of the different metals might be more easily com- pared in this way, as it would he possible to make the contacts in less time than when the batteries were changed, and conse- quently with less variation in the charge. Operating in this way, I ascertained that in discharging the electricity of 60 pairs of plates, one inch of platinum was equal to about six inches of silver, to Pa inches of copper, to four of gold, to 3:8 of lead, to about -%, of palladium, and ;* of iron, all the metals being in a cooling fluid medium. I found, as might have been expected, that the conducting power of a wire for electricity, in batteries of the size and num- ber of plates just described, was nearly directly as the mass ; thus, when a certain length of wire of platinum discharged one battery*, the same length of wire of six times the weight dis- charged six batteries; and the effect was exactly the same, pro- vided the wires were kept cool, whether the mass was a single wire, or composed of six of the smaller wires in contact with each other. ‘I'his result alone showed, that surface had no re- lation to conducting power, at least for electricity of this kind, and it was more distinctly proved by a direct experiment: equal lengths and equal weights of wire of platinum, one round, and one flattened by being passed transversely through rollers so as to have six or seven times the surface, were compared as to conducting powers: the flattened wire was the best conductor | in air from its greater cooling powers, but in water no difference could be perceived between them. VI. I tried to make a comparison between the conducting powers of fluid menstrua and charcoal and those of metals. Six inches of platinum foil, an inch and 1-5th broad, were placed in © A foot of this wire weighed 1°J3 grain, a foot of the other 6:7 grains. 3 F 2 a vessel 412 On the magnetic Phenomena a vessel which could be filled with any saline solution; and a similar piece of platinum pleced opposite at an inch distance ; the whole was then made part of a Voltaic circuit, which had likewise another termination by silver wires in water; and so- lution of salts added, till gas ceased to be liberated from the ne- gative silver wire. In several trials of this kind it was found that the whole of the surface of six inches, even with the strongest solutions of common salt, was insufficent to carry off the elec- tricity even of two pair of plates; and a strong solution of po- tassa carried off the electricity of three pair of plates only; whereas an inch of wire of platinum of 53, (as has been stated) carried off all the electricity of 60 pair of plates. The gas li- berated upon the surface of the metals when they are placed in fluids, renders it impossible to gain accurate results; but the conducting power of the best fluid conductors, it seems probable from these experiments, must be some hundreds of thousand times less than those of the worst metallic conductors. A piece of well-burnt compact box-wood charcoal was placed in the circuit, being 32, of an inch wide by =}, thick, and con- nected with large surfaces of platinum. It was found that one inch and ,%; carried off the same quantity of electricity as six inches of wire of platinum of 53,5. Vil. 1 made some experiments with the hope of ascertaining the exact change of ratio of the conducting powers dependent upon the change of the intensity and quantity of electricity ; but I did not succeed in gaining any other than the general result, that the higher the intensity of the electricity, the less difficulty it had in passing through bad conductors; and several remark- able phenomena depend upon this circumstance. Thus, in a battery where the quantity of the electricity is very great and the intensity very low, such as one composed of plates of zinc and copper, so arranged as to act only as single plates of from 20 to 30 feet of surface each, and charged by a weak mixture of acid and water. Charcoal made to touch only ina few points, is almost as much an insulating body as water, and cannot be ignited, nor can wires of platinum be heated when their diameter is less than ;!, of an inch, and their length three or four feet ; and a foot of platinum wire of 54, is scarcely heated by such a battery, whilst the same length of silver wire of the same diameter is made red hot; and the same lengths of thicker wires of platinum or iron are intensely heated. The heat produced where electricity of considerable intensity is passed through conductors, must always interfere with the ex- act knowledge of the changes of their conducting powers, as is proved by the following experiment. A battery of 20 pair of plates of zinc, and copper plates 10 inches by 6, was very highly charged ‘ produced by Electricity. 413 charged with a mixture of nitric acid and water, so-as to exhibit a considerable intensity of electrical action, and the relative con- ducting powers of silver and platinum in air and water ascer~ tained by means of it. In air, six inches of wire of platinum of zx discharged only four double plates, while six inches of silver wire of the same diameter discharged the whole combination : the platinum was strongly ignited in this experiment, whilst the silver was scarcely warm to the touch. On cooling the platinum wire by placing it in water, it was found to discharge 10 double plates. When the intensity of the electricity is very high, how- ever, even the cooling powers of fluid media are of little avail : thus, 1 found that fine wire of platinum was fused by the dis- charge of a common electrical battery under water; so that the conducting power must always be diminished by the heat gene- rated, in a greater proportion as the intensity of the electricity is higher. It might at first view be supposed, that when a conductor placed in the circuit left a residuum of electricity in any battery, increase of the power of the battery, or of its surface, would not enable it to carry through any additional quantity. This, how- ever, is far from being the case. When saline solutions were placed in the circuit of a battery of 20 plates, though they discharged a very smail quantity only of the electricity, when the troughs were only a quarter full, yet their chemical decomposition exhibited the fact of a much larger quantity passing through them, when the cells were filled with fluid. And a similar circumstance occurred with respect to a wire of platinum, of such a length as to leave a considerable residuum in a battery when only half its surface was used ; yet when the whole surface was employed, it became much hotter, and never- theless left a still more considerable residuum. VIII. I found long ago, that in increasing the number of al- ternations of similar plates, the quantity of electricity seemed to increase as the number, at least as far as it could be judged of by the effects of heat upon wires ; but only within certain limits, beyond which the number appeared to diminish rather than in- erease the quantity. Thus, the two thousand double plates of the London Institution, when arranged as one battery, would not ignite so much wire as a single battery of ten plates with double copper. It is not easy to explain this result. Does the intensity mark the rapidity of the motion of the electricity? or, merely its di- minished attraction for the matter on which it acts? and does this attraction Lecome less in proportion as the circuit, through which 414 On the magnetic Phenomena produced by Electricity. which it passes, or in which it is generated, contains a greater number of alternations of bad conductors ? Mr. Children, in his account of the experiments made with his battery of large plates, has ingeniously referred the heat pro- duced by the passage of electricity through conductors, to the resistance it meets with, and has supposed, what proves to be the fact, that the heat is in some inverse ratio to the conducting power. The greatest heat however is produced in air, where there is reason to suppose the least resistance; and as the pre- sence of heat renders bodies worse conductors, another view may be taken, namely, that the excitation of heat occasions the im- perfection of the conducting power. But till the causes of heat and of electricity are known, and of that peculiar constitution of matter which excites the one, and transmits or propagates the other, our reasoning on this subject must be inconclusive. I found that when equal portions of wires cf the same diame- ter, but of different metals, were connected together in the cir- cuit of a powerful Voltaic battery, acting as two surfaces, the metals were heated in the following order: iron most, then pal- ladium, then platinum, then tin, then zinc, then gold, then lead, then copper, and silver least of all. And from one experiment, in which similar wires of platinum and silver joined in the same circuit were placed in equal portions of oil, it appeared that the generation of heat was nearly inversely as their conducting power. Thus, the silver raised the temperature of the oil only four de- grees, whilst the platinum raised it twenty-two. The same re- lations to heat seem to exist, whatever is the intensity of the electricity; thus, circuits of wires placed under water, and acted on by the common electrical discharge, were heated jn the same order as by the Voltaic battery, as was shown by their relative fusion; thus, iron fusing before platinum, platinum before gold, and so on. If a chain be made of wire of platinum and silver, in alter- nate links soldered together, the silver wire being four or five times the diameter of the platinum, and placed in a powerful Voltaic circuit, the silver links are not sensibly heated, whilst all those of the platinum become intensely and equally ignited. This is an important experiment for investigating the nature of heat. If heat be supposed a substance, it cannot be imagined to be expelled from the platinum; because an unlimited quan- tity may be generated from the same platinum, 7.e. as long as the electricity is excited, or as often as it is renewed. Or if it be supposed to be identical with, or an element of, electricity, it ought to bear some relation to its quantity, and might be ex- peeted to be the same in every part of the chain, or greatest in those parts nearest the battery. IX. The SP Se. Account of an Hydraulic Orrey. 415 IX. The magnetism produced by electricity, though with the same conductors it increases with the heat, as | mentioned in my last paper; yet with different conductors I find it follows a very different law. Thus, when a chain is made of different conducting wires, and they are placed in the same circuit, they all exhibit equal magneti¢ powers, and take up equal quantities of iron filings. So that the magnetism seems directly as the quantity of electricity which they transmit. And when in a highly powerful Voltaic battery, wires of the same diameters and lengths, but of which the best conducting is incapable of wholly discharging the battery, are made, separately and successively, to form the circuit, they take up different quantities of iron filings, in some direct proportion to their conducting nagers Thus. in one experiment, two inches of wire of 5}, of an inch being used, silver took up 32 grains, copper 24, platinum 1], and iron 8.2. LXXXIV. Account of an Hydraulic Orrery on an improved Principle of Motion. By Mr. C. A. Bussy. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Ix pursuance of the suggestion of my much-respected friend, the venerable Dr. Hutton, I am induced to communicate to the public a short account of an improved principle of mo-~ tion, adopted in an invention of mine, the hydraulic orrery, which has been so fortunate as to meet the particular approbation of many of our most distinguished philosophers. About three years past I was engaged, during my stay at New-York, in a course of experiments to determine the resistance opposed to solid bodies of various forms in their passage through fluids. To perform thesein the most simple and effectual man- ner, I provided a large circular bason or reservoir, and placed therein, near the circumference, any floating vessel that hap-« pened to be the subject of trial. This vessel was connected by an arbor to a floating centre, held in its place by a small shaft passing through it, and erected perpendicularly from the bottom of the reservoir. ‘The bottom of the floating vessel was pierced, and a syphon, which it carried, being soldered into the aper- ture, rose from it, and extending over the circumfereuce of the reservoir, its other extremity depended in air at a lower level than the surface of the water. This outer leg of the syphon was closed at the bottom ; but a minute lateral aperture, resembling a very small finger- -hole of a flute, being made, the water spouted through 416 Account of an Hydraulic Orrery. .through it (when the syphon was charged) in a direction parallel to the vessel, which instantly began to move with accelerated ve- locity in an opposite course. Ina few seconds a maximum was attained, and the future progress exhibited that beautiful, conti- nuous movement which can only find an adequate comparison in the silent gliding of the heavenly spheres. The idea instan- taneously impressed me, and has been subsequently embodied with the most encouraging success in the novel machine above mentioned, ess VEE | | At present I have applied the principle, under appropriate modifications, no further than to the sun, the earth, and the moon, whose circuits, obliquities, parallelisms, and rotations, are displayed in apparently spontaneous. movements on an area of five feet diameter. To effect these, four floating syphons are so combinedin succession, that a quantity of water equal to the discharge of a single stream about 1-6th of an inch diameter, with a head of seven inches, elicits every action, Each motion, as in nature, is perfectly independent; any one may be checked without impeding another ; and when the hydraulic orrery com- mences its operations, it practically illustrates those incipient and gradually accelerating movements which may be supposed to have taken place within the mighty system itself, when, as in the beginning, the maximums of the greater motions were pro- bably attained in succession. This motive principle (founded on Barker’s mill, but now first combined with a syphon and applied to a floating body) is ap- plicable to an extensive variety of experimental and philosophical purposes. It is so truly equable, that I make the novel and inter- esting experiment of producing a perfect hydro-parabolic mirror 54 inches diameter, and thus create any magnifying power ad /ili- tum. Whirling tables on this principle will preserve any particular velocity during any required period of time, and the motion ad- mits the most minute regulation, either by a variation in the length of the syphon, or of the size of the discharging aperture ; or by so fixing @ small flexible inclined plane to the syphon it- self, and bending it into the stream, as that any proportion of its reaction may be neutralized by its action. Another mean of obtaining an universal standard of measure _is hereby provided independently of the pendulum. Thus, a given parabolic speculum will invariably be formed by any given rota- tion at any known level and latitude, and the focal distance of any parabola must under those circumstances be always a given dimension. A graduated revolving circle will also practically measure such minute portions of time as are beyond the recog- nition of the most accurate astronomical clocks, My orrery, * when EV GG BK’ We DA \N : : N N Fig.2. 234. SH erter, 5é. TBLeeson Inv.et del. On the rolling Pendulum. Al] when in action, lowers the surface of the water upon which it floats, about one inch in an hour; it is stopped merely by blow- ing air into the syphons, or by preventing the efflux of water in any other manner. London, Noy. 1821. C. A. Buspy. P.S. I made the first, and comparatively imperfect, model of my hydraulic orrery at New-York, where it was seen in action by the Mathematical Professor Dr. Adrian, of Columbia College, Dr. David Hosac, F.R.S., Dr. Samuel L. Mitchill, Dr. Mac Neven, and many other leading members of the American Phi- losophical Society, estaolished by the Legislature of the State in that beautiful and flourishing city. C.A.B. LXXXIV. On the rolling Pendulum. By Jamus Ivory, M.A. F.R.S. : 1E is proposed to demonstrate that the properties discovered by Huyghens, concerning the isochronous vibrations of a solid body about different fixt axes, are likewise true when the body rolls upon cylinders, provided the cylinders roll without sliding. Let ¢ denote the radius of the cylinder upon which the pen- dulum rolls; a, the distance of the axis of the cylinder from the centre of gravity of the pendulum; ¢ the angle which a plane passing through the axis of the cylinder and the centre of gravity makes, at the time ¢, with a vertical plane likewise passing through the same axis. The whole mass of the body being m, let dm denote a molecule; x the distance of dm from the hori- zontal plane in which the axis of the cylinder moves; and y its distance from a fixt vertical plane, suppose that containing the axis of the cylinder and the centre of gravity wheu ¢ = 0, or when the pendulum is at rest. For the sake of simplicity, we shall suppose that the whole matter of the pendulum is concen- trated in a straight line; this supposition being made merely to abridge algebraic expressions; for nothing is easier than to ex- tend what is proved in this case to a body of any figure. Now, the accelerations impressed upon dm by its connection ddxz ddy , a Pala and the acceleration re- ceived from gravity is g; g denoting the velocity acquired by a falling body in one second: therefore, if 6% and éy denote vari- ations subject to the law of the motion of the molecule, we shall have this equation from the known principles of dynamics, viz. Sdm.}g— dl? Ld —Sdm. amt by = 0; with the pendulum are dt § “dt? the symbol S denoting an integration to be extended to all the Vol, 58, No, 284, Dec. 1821. 3G molecules 418 On the rolling Pendulum. molecules of the pendulum. The same formula will be more conveniently written thus, j x § ddx Sdm.) aes Now, if 7 be the distance of dm from the axis of the cylin- der, we have bx + ce by t —Sdm.gix =0. x=r7 cos >: also, by the rolling of the cylinder, it is manifest that c¢ is the distance of its axis from the fixt vertical plane; wherefore, ¥y = 7 sing — co: consequently, dSa=8o xX —rsing Sy = 36 x (r cos d — Cc) die die dg? Tae ape Mas TS ddy _ dd@ dg? dt? dt? dt? and the preceding equation will therefore become pe eee (fr2dm — 2c cos >. frdm + cm) r cos } r sino: (r cos¢ —c) — dt? dg? pn +c rey, 4 dm + gsing. frdm. Now, by the nature of the centre of gravity, Srdm=ma: and if we put mk* for the momentum of inertia of an axis pass- ing through the centre of gravity parallel to the cylinder, then Sr>dm = m (k? + a’) Hence, if we leave out m and put ht = k* + (a—c)*; the foregoing equation will become ddQ § O=sR Ut 2.ac(1— cos ¢)} ope 1o2 S 77a SIN G+ Gasin gy. In the case of very sma!] vibrations, we may reject the terms above the first order; and then we get, dado Pian rs * oa ig sind = 0), Now this equation, which is true of a body of any figure, belongs 4 he 5 to a simple pendulum of the length —s and hence if + denote the time of a complete oscillation of the rolling pendulum in a_ very small are, we shall have pi) We he 9 Petal iy a ch ali? § pycale a= 7% : g m being On the rolling Pendulum. 419 = being the circumference of the circle of which the diameter is l. Again, let the same pendulum oscillate upon another cylinder, parallel to the first, and of the same radius with it, placed at the distance a’ from the centre of gravity: then, r’ being the time of an oscillation, we have as before Pe ke + c? a’ vanr/—. . If we suppose + = 7’, then d= 7’; and we get + a —2c 2 2 l= : — +a— 2c e+e k= am +a’ — 2c. Subtract these equations aud divide by a—a’; then kte+c=aa’. (1) +e keper =a’, and = a: substitute ‘ ‘ a From this equation, a’ these values in the expresions of /, and we obtain l=a+a’—2¢. (2) If we suppose c = 0; or, which is the same thing, if we sup- pose that the pendulum oscillates upon fixt axes, instead of rolling upon cylinders; the two foregoing equations will become k= 20. l=a+a Now these last equations, which are familiar to geometers, comprehend all the properties of the isochronous oscillations of a body upon different fixt axes; and, by means of the equa- tions (1) and (2), the like properties are extended to the case when the body rolls upon cylinders. It is to be observed that, in this investigation, it is not necessarily supposed that c, or the radius of the cylinder, is small: for the quantities left out in the general equation, were rejected on account of the smallness of the arc of vibration. We liave supposed that the cylinders are parallel ; but the isochronism of the oscillations does not absolutely require this condition. When the axis passing through the centre of gra- vity is parallel to a given line, 4* is determined in quantity; but it does not follow conversely that, when &? is given, the axis will have only one position. On the contrary, if we except the cases of a maximum or a minimum, there are many different axes (they will be all contained in a conic surface) that have the same momentum of inertia, The isochronism of the oscillations upon 3G 2 the 420 On the rolling Pendulum. the two cylinders will take place when they are parallel to two axes possessed of equal momenta of inertia, and when their di- stances from the centre of gravity satisfy the equation (1). The sum of these distances diminished by twice the radius of the ev- linder will then, by equation (2), give the length of the simple pendulum that oscillates in the same time. Of all the infinite number of cases in which the same body may oscillate in the same time upon two equal cylinders, there is one, and one only, in which the length of the simple pendu- lum of isochronous vibration, is equal to the distance between the surfaces of the cylinders; and that is when the axes of the cylinders are parallel, and situated in the same plane with the centre of gravity. We may add that the equation (2) does not take place, unless the equation (1) be satisfied ; which excludes an infinite number of cases of oscillation in equal times, when the cylinders are placed at equal distances from the centre of gravity, parallel to one another, or to axes that have equal mo- menta of inertia. It is an indispensable in all that has been said, that the cylin- ders roll without sliding: the value of the ordinate y involves this condition. leurty: Postscript.—Having, in the last Magazine, investigated the expression of the refraction in Cassini’s hypothesis, it may be worth while to deduce from it a formula for the case when a star is not very near the horizon, for the sake of a comparison with the similar formula used in the construction of the French Tables. For this purpose nothing more is necessary than to ex- pand the terms in the value of 7, p. 344, retaining only the quantities multiplied by 6, 28, 8?: thus we get sin A -, sinA sin3A i, Pasa = 08 cos3A + 28? cossA? SA 8 | 2cos 2A 2 sr The French formula, Méc. Céleste, vol. iv. p. 268, is this 2i—B r=ftmA }1—-——— +8}; which exceeds the first value of r by the quantity % 6? tan A. Now 6 =:0002938 ; and hence $ 6? tan A= 0"-027 tan A. At 70° from the zenith the difference will therefore be 0"*074 ; and at 80°, which is beyond the proper limit of the formule, it will amount to 0154. We are therefore warranted in saying that, when the same elementary quantities are used, there is, practically speaking, no difference in point of St ae the or, r= BtanA}1— On the Papyri found in the Ruins of Herculaneum. 421 the formula derived from the first and most simple hypothesis relating to the constitution of the atmosphere, and that obtained by the last effort of scientific skill; and this is a coincidence which it is surely both curious and instructive to mark. ei ’ Erratum.—In the last Magazine, p. 342, 16th line from the top, the factor sin A is wanting in the value of r. LXXXV. Some Observations and Experiments on the Papyri found in the Ruins of Herculaneum. By Sir Humpury Davy, Bart. P.R.S.* Ix a paper, intended for private circulation only, on the MSS, found in the excavations made at Herculaneum, but which was published, by mistake, in the Journal of Science and the Arts, I have described, in a general manner, the circumstances which led me to make experiments on these remains, and mentioned some of my first observations on this subject. Mr. Hamilton, to whom this communication was sent, entered into my views with all that ardour for promoting the progress of useful know- ledge which so peculiarly belongs to his character; and on his representation of them, the Earl of Liverpool and Viscount Castlereagh, with the greatest liberality, placed at my disposal such funds as were requisite for paying the persons whom it was necessary to employ in trying new chemical methods of unrolling the MSS. and for examining and preserving them when unrolled ; and His present Majesty, then Prince Regent, graciously conde- scended to patronize the undertaking. In this communication, J shall do myself the honour of laying before the Royal Society an account of all that I have been able to do on this subject; namely, first, a detail of my early expe- riments in England on fragments of papyri, which induced me to believe that chemistry might afford considerable assistance towards unrolling the MSS. Secondly, a description of the rolls in the Museum at Naples, and of some analytical experi- ments I made upon them. Thirdly, a detail of the various che- mical processes carried on in the Museum at Naples on the MSS., and of the reasons which induced me to renounce my undertaking before it was completed. And lastly, some general observations on the MSS. of the ancients. I trust these matters will not be found wholly devoid of in- terest by the Society, and that they will excuse some repetitions of what I have stated in the Report before referred to, as they are necessary for a complete elucidation of the subject. * From the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1821, Part II. Ist. An 422 Observations, Sc. on the Papyri lst. An Account of some Experiments made in England on Fragments of Papyri im 1818. In examining, chemically, some fragments of a roll of papyrus found at Herculaneum, the leaves of which adhered very strongly together, I found that it afforded, by exposure to heat, a consi- derable quantity of gaseous matter, which was principally in- flammable gas, and when acted on by muriatic or nitric ether, it coloured them; and when it was exposed to heat after the action of these fluids, there was an evident separation of the leaves of the MS. Chlorine and iodine, it is well known, have no action upon pure carbonaceous substances, and a strong attraction for hydro- gen; and it occurred to me, that these bodies might with pro- priety be used in attempting to destroy the matter which caused the adhesion of the leaves, without the possibility of injuring the letters on the papyri, the ink of the ancients, as it is well known, being composed of charcoal. Having through the polite assistance of Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt procured some fragments of papyri on which Dr. Sickler, and some on which Dr. Hayter had operated, and by the kindness of Dr. Young a small portion of a MS. which he had himself un- successfully tried to unroll, | made some experiments upon them, by exposing them to the action of chlorine and the vapour of iodine, heating them gently after the process. These trials all afforded more or less hopes of success. When a fragment of a brown MS. in which the layers were strongly adherent, was - placed in an atmosphere of chlorine, there was an immediate action, the papyrus smoked and became yellow, and the letters appeared much more distinct ; and by the application of heat the layers separated from each other, giving off fumes of muriatic acid. The vapour of iodine had a less distinct action, but still a sensible one; and it was found that by applying heat alone to a fragment in a close vessel filled with carbonic acid or the va- pour of ether, so as to raise the heat very gradually, and as gra- dually to lower it, there was a marked improvement in its tex- ture, and it was much more easily unrolled. Even in these preliminary trials, 1 found that it was necessary to employ only a limited and small quantity of chlorine, too large a quantity injuring the texture of the layer, and decom- posing the earths which it contained; and that the action of heat was much more efficacious when the MS. had previously been exposed to chlorine, as the muriatic acid vapour formed greatly assisted the separation of the Jeaves, and a smaller de- gree of heat was required. But in all the trials, I found the success absolutely depended upon the manner in which the tem- perature found in the Ruins of Herculaneum. 423 perature was regulated. When the fragment was too rapidly heated, the elastic fluid disengaged usually burst the folds of the MS.; and when the heat was lowered too suddenly, the layers ~ sometimes split in irregular parts, probably from the sudden con- traction consequent on quick cooling. From the products of the distillation of these fragments, which were water, acetous acid, ammonia, carbonic acid, and much in- flammable gas, [ inferred that the papyri to which they belonged must contain much undecomposed vegetable matter, and could not be purely carbonaceous; but as there were great differences in the appearances even of the few papyri in England, which had been presented to His Majesty George IV. when Prince of Wales, an opinion on this subject was more likely to be correct when formed after an examination not only of all the MSS. found at Herculaneum, but likewise of the circumstances of the excava- tions made there; and I had an opportunity, during the time I remained at Naples, in two successive winters, to satisfy my mind on this subject, and to obtain the information which will be given in the next section. 2dly. On the State of the MSS. found at Herculaneum. The persons who have the care of the MSS. found at Hercula- neum state that their original number was 1696, and that 431 have been operated upon or presented to foreign governments, so that 1265 ought to remain; but amongst these, by far the larger propor- tion are small fragments, or specimens so injured and mutilated that there is not the least chance of recovering any portion of their contents; and when | first examined the rolls in detail in January 1819, it did not appear to me that more than from 80 to 120 offered proper subjects for experiments; and this estimate, as my researches proceeded, appeared much too high. These MSS. had been objects of interest for nearly 70 years; the best had long ago been operated upon, and those remaining had not only undergone injuries from time, but likewise from other causes, such as transport, rude examination, and mutilations for the pur- pose of determining if they contained characters. The appearances of different rolls were extremely various. They were of all shades of colours from a light chesnut brown to a deep black ; some externally were of a glossy black, like jet, which the superintendants called ‘¢ varnished ;” several contained the umbilicns or rolling stick in the middle converted into dense charcoal. | saw two or three specimens of papyri which had the remains of characters on both sides, but in geneval one side only was written upon. In their texture they were as various as in their colours; the pale brown ones in general presented only a kind of skeleton of a leaf, in which the earthy matter -s nearly 424 Observations, 5'c. on the Papyri nearly in as large a proportion as the vegetable matter, and they were light, and the layers easily separated from each other. A number of darker brown ones, which, from afew charaeters dis- covered in opening them, appeared to be Latin MSS., were ag- glutinated as it were into one mass; and when they were opened by introducing a needle between the layers, spots or lines of charcoal appeared where the folds had been, as if the letters had been washed out by water, and the matter of which the were composed deposited on the folds. Amongst the black MSS. a very few fragments presented leaves which separated from each other with considerable facility, and such had been for the most part operated upon; but in general the MSS. of this class were hard, heavy, and coherent, and contained fine voleanic dust within their folds. Some few of the black and darker brown MSS., which were loose in their texture, were almost entirely decayed, and exhibited on their surface a quantity of brown powder. The persons to whom the care of these MSS. is confided, or who have worked upon them, have always attributed these dif- ferent appearances to the action of fire, more or less intense, ac- cording to the proximity of the lava,which has been imagined to have covered the part of the city in which they were found: but this idea is entirely erroneous, that part of Herculaneum being, as I satisfied myself by repeated examinations, under a hed of tufa formed of sand, volcanic ashes, stones, and dust, cemented by the operation of water (probably at the time of its action in a boiling state). And there is great reason to conclude, that the different states of the MSS. depend upon a gradual process of decomposition ; the loose chesnut ones probably not having been wetted, but merely changed by the re-action of their elements, assisted by the operation of a small quantity of air; the black ones, which easily uuroll, probably remained in a moist state without any percolation of water; and the dense ones, con- taining earthy matter, had probably been acted on by warm wa- ter, which not only carried into the folds earthy matter. suspended in it, but likewise dissolved the starch and gluten used in pre- paring the papyrus and the glue of the ink, and distributed them- through the substance of the MSS., and some of these rolls had probably been strongly compressed when moist in different po- sitions. The operation of fire is not at all necessary for producing such an imperfect carbonization of vegetable matter as that displayed by the MSS.: thus, at Pompeii, which was covered by a shower of ashes that must have been cold, as they fell at a distance of seven or eight miles from the crater of Vesuvius, the wood of the houses is uniformly found converted into charcoal; yet the co- lours : } 4 found in the Ruins of Herculaneum. 425 lours on the walls, most of which would have been destroyed or altered by heat, are perfectly fresh, and where papyri have been found in these houses, they have appeared in the form of white ashes, as of burnt paper; an effect produced by the slow action of the air penetrating through the loose ashes, and which has _ been impeded or prevented in Herculaneum by the tufa, which, ‘as it were, has hermetically sealed up the town, and prevented any decay, except such as occurs in the spontaneous decomposi- tion of vegetable substances exposed to the limited operation of water and air; for instance, peat and Bovey coal. _ The results of the action of heat upon the different specimens of the papyri, proved likewise, that they had never before been exposed to any considerable degree of temperature. Varions specimens of papyri were heated to dull redness in-a small covered crucible of platinum to which air had no access. Some of the chesnut and most perfect specimens lost nearly half their weight, and the very black ones, and those containing the largest quantity of white ashes, all lost more than one-third, as the following results, selected from a number, will show : No. 1. 100 parts of a pale chesnut papyrus lost. 45 parts. No, 2, 100 parts of a decomposed papyrus, ches- nut-coloured, but darker, lost .. .. 43: No. 3. 100 parts of a very black papyrus, lost... 42> No.4, 100 parts of a pale papyrus, extremely loose in texture and partly eonverted into white ashés, lost). O° 938 Pot Se No. 5. 100 parts of another of the same kind MOREE 5 Waele Jaye lam uate OP Le teh Ce ee aID When the whole of the carbonaceous and vegetable matter of the papyrus was destroyed by slow combustion, the white ashes remaining, which were principally carbonate of lime and lime, proved to be from 1-16th to 1-20th of the original weight of the papyrus; and in those specimens which were most dense, and that contained a white powder, the proportion of ashes was greater, and a larger quantity was insoluble in acids. _ Ammonia was found in the products of all the papyri that I _ distilled, but least in those which contained no distinct characters; - ~ from which it is probable that it arose principally from decom- posed glue used in the manufacture of the ink, and which had been principally dissolved and carried off in those papyri which had been most exposed to the action of water. Lascertained, that what the Neapolitans called varnish, was decomposed skin, that had been used to infold some of the pa- pyri, and which by chemical changes had produced a brilliant animal carbonaceous substance; this substance afforded abun- Vol. 58. No, 284, Dec, 1821. 3H dance 4l: 426 Olservations, &c. on the Papyri dance of ammonia by distillation, and left ashes Se ee much phosphate of lime. 3dly. An Account of the Experiments on Papyri made in the Museum at Naples. Only one method, and that a very simple mechanical one, has. been adopted for unrolling the MSS. It was invented by Padre Piaggi, a Roman, and consists in attaching thin animal mem- brane bya solution of glue to the back of the “MSS. and carefully elevating the layers by silk threads when the glue is dry. In considering this method in its general application, some circumstances occurred to me which afforded an immediate im- provement. A liquid solution of glue had been used, which, when the texture of the MSS. was loose or broken, penetrated through three or four layers, and these, when the glue dried, separated together. ‘To obviate this objection, I mixed the so- lution of glue with a sufficient quantity of alcohol to gelatinize it; and a mixture of the jelly and the fluid being made and ap- plied by a camel’s hair brush, a film of jelly remained on the ex- terior of the surface of the leaf, which attached itself to the membrane, j The effect of the solution of glue applied in the ancient me- thod, was always likewise to separate the layers, by expanding the imperfectly carbonized fibres. In the improvement I have mentioned, the alcohol, from its greater lightness, penetrated further into the papyrus, but produced its greatest effect imme- diately on the first layers. I adopted in some cases ether, as an agent for assisting the separation of the layers; and it was always found very efficacious, whether it was necessary to remove a single layer, or several layers at a time, in order to discover if a roll contained charac- ters. The ether was applied by a camel’s hair brush lightly to _ the surface of the leaf, when its operation was intended to be merely on that leaf; and it was suffered to sink deeper accord- ing as more layers were to be separated; the mere circumstances of its evaporation, which in some cases I assisted by heat, tended to detach the layers. For the black MSS. | employed sulphuric ether, and for the brown ones muriatic or nitric ether in their impure states, 7. e. mixed with much alcohol. No artificial modes had been employ ed by the Neapolitans for drying the papyrus in the operation of attaching the membrane, and no means, except mechanical ones, of detaching it after it was dried. By throwing a stream of air gradually warmed till it attained a temperature about that of boiling water upon the surface of the. Sound in the Ruins of Herculaneum. 427 the leaf, I succeeded not only in drying the layers with much greater rapidity, but likewise in separating them with more de- licacy. I tried different modes of heating the air to be thrown upon the papyrus, such as“passing it in a spiral metallic tube through _ warm water or oil by a double bellows, and from a large bladder _ through a straight tube having a very fine orifice, and heated by a copper ball surrounding the body of the tube, and exposed to burning charcoal; which last method, from its simplicity, I found the one best fitted to the Neapolitan operators. By sending the stream of air from a greater or smaller distance, so that it mixed with more or less cold air, the degree of temperature applied was regulated at pleasure. It was always found necessary to suffer a few minutes to elapse after the membrane was attached, and then to begin with a very slight increase of temperature ; as otherwise, by too sudden an application of heat, the membrane shrivelled before it became adherent, and the vapour suddenly raised destroyed its union with the papyrus ; whereas, when the moisture was suffered to-drain from the gelatinized glue, and the temperature was gradually raised, the expansion of the skin and the upper layer separated them perfectly from the lower layers, so that the unrolling was performed, as it were, by chemical means; and an operation, which hitherto had required some hours for its completion, was easily effected in from 30 to 40 minutes, I tried several experiments, by substituting solution of resins in alcohol and of gums in water for the gelatinized solution ; but none of them answered so well; the resins would not adhere with any tenacity to the membrane, and the gums, when dried, had not that flexibility which is an important character in the glue. The alterations in the mode of applying and drying the mem- brane used to detach and preserve the leaves of MSS. capable of being unrolled, applied generally ; I shali now mention the plans 1 adopted for the preparation of the MSS. for this operation. MSS. in different states required a treatment of a directly op- posite kind, which was to be modified according to circumstances, The pale chesnut-coloured MSS., covered partially with white ashes, were generally of a texture so loose, and had their layers ‘so destroyed, that there was considerable danger of tieir falling into pieces by mere touching. The characters that remained in many of them were extremely distinct ; and when a number of layers were taken up at once, it appeared as if they presented perfect columns of writing: but the fact is, the papyrus was full of holes, and each line was made up of letters from several dif- 3H? ferent 428 Observations, &e, on the Papyri ferent folds of the MS. When the process of unrolling these papyri was performed in the common way, the result obtained. appeared, till it was examined minutely, a perfect column; but was in fact made up of the letters of different words.. I endea- voured to obtain the fragments of a single leaf attached to a- layer of membrane by applying a solution of caoutchouc in ether to the surface of a MS., so as to supply the parts of the leaf de- stroyed; but operating in this way, I obtained only a few cha- racters, and never an entire word; so that, after various unsuc- cessful ‘trials, I was obliged to give up the MSS. of this descrip- tion as hopeless; more than 5-6ths of their contents probably being always destroyed, and that in so irregular a way as to leave no entire sentences, or even words. On.two brown MSS., which were firm in their texture, and had the appearance of peat, and the leaves of which would not separate by common means, | tried the experiment of heating, after they had absorbed a small quantity of chlorine ; and I found that in both cases the leaves detached themselves from each other, and were easily unrolled; but these MSS. had been so penetrated by water, that there were only a few folds which con- tained words, and the letters were generally erased, and the charcoal which had composed them was deposited on the folds of the MSS. Of the black MSS., of which the layers were perfect and easily separated, all the best specimens had been unrolled or operated upon, so that fragments only of this description remained. By assisting the operation of detaching the layers by muriatic ether and the other processes mentioned in page 426, many parts of columns were obtained from several of the fragments, by which some idea of their contents may be formed. On the black compact and heavy MSS. which contained white earthy matter in their folds, I tried several experiments, with the hopes of separating them into single layers, both by the ac- tion of muriatic and nitric ether, and by the operation of chlo- rine and of weak hydrofluoric acid, assisted by heat; but ge- nerally the fibres of the papyrus had been so firmly cemented together, and so much earthy matter had penetrated them, that only a very imperfect separation could be obtained, and in parts where vestiges only of letters appeared, so that from MSS. of this kind only a few remains of sentences could be gained. During the two months that I was actively employed in ex- periments on the papyri at Naples, I had succeeded, with the assistance of six of the persons attached to the Museum, and whom T had engaged for the purpose, in partially unrolling twenty-three MSS., from which fragments of writing were os tained, Sound in the Ruins of Herculaneum. _ 429° tained, and in examining about 120 others, which afforded no~ hopes of success; and I should gladly have’ gone’ on' with the’ undertaking, from the mere prospect of a possibility of discover- ing some better results, had not the labour, in itself difficult and unpleasant, been made more so by the’ conduct of the persons at the head of this department in the Museum. At first, every disposition was shown to promote my researches ; for the papvri remaining unrolled were considered by them as incapable’ of af- fording any thing legible by the former methods, or, to use their’ own word, disperati ; and the efficacy and use of the new pro- cesses were fully allowed by the Svolgatori or unrollers of the Museum; and I was for sume time permitted to choose and operate upon the specimens at my own pleasure. When, how- ever, the Reverend Peter Elmsley, whose zeal for the promotion of ancient literature brought him to Naples for the purpose of assisting in the undertaking, began to examine the fragments unrolled, a jealousy, with regard to his assistance, was iinme- diately manifested; and obstacles; which the kind interference of Sir William A’Court was not always capable of removing, were soon opposed to the progress of our inquiries; and these obsta- cles were so multiplied, and made so vexatious towards the end of February, that we conceived it would be both a waste of the public money, and a compromise of our own characters, to pro- ceed, 4thly. Some general Observations. The Roman MSS, found in the Museum, are in general com- posed of papyrus of a much thicker texture than the Greek ones, and the Roman characters are usually larger, and the rolls much more voluminous; the characters of the Greek MSS., likewise, with a few exceptions, are more perfect than those of the Latin ones. From the mixture of Greek characters in several fragments of Latin MSS., and from the form of the letters and the state of decomposition in which they are found, it is extremely probable that they were of a very ancient date when buried. I looked in vain amongst the MSS. and on the animal char- coal surrounding them, for vestiges of letters in oxide of iron ; and it would seem from these circumstances, as well as from the omission of any mention of such a substance by Pliny, that the Romans, up to his period, never used the ink of galls and iron for writing: and it is very probable, that the adoption of this ink, and the use of parchment, took place at the same time. For the ink composed of charcoal and solution of glue can scarcely be made to adhere to skin; whereas the free acid of the chemi- cal 430 Observations, &c. on the Papyri found at Herculaneum. cal ink partly dissolves the gelatine of the MSS., and the whole substance.adheres as a mordant; and in some old parchments, the ink of which must have contained much free acid, the letters have, as it were, eaten through the skin, the effect being always most violent on the side of the parchment containing no animal oil, The earliest MSS. probably in existence on parchment, are those codices fescripti, discovered by Monsignore Mai, in the libraries of. Milan and Rome. Through his politeness 1 have examined these MSS., particularly that containing some of the books of Cicero de Republica, and which he refers to the second or third century. From the form of the columns, it is very pro- bable that they were copied from a papyrus. The vegetable matter which rendered the oxide of iron black is entirely de- stroyed, but the peroxide of iron remains ; and where it is not covered by the modern MSS., the form of the letter is sufficiently distinct. Monsignore Mai uses solution of galls for reviving the blackness. I have tried several substances for restoring colour to the letters in ancient MSS. The triple prussiate of potash, used in the manner recommended by the late Sir Charles Blag- . den, with the alternation of acid, I have found successful ; but by making a weak solution of it with a small quantity of muriatic acid, and by applying them to the letters in their state of mix- ture with a camel’s hair pencil, the results are still better. It is remarkable, that no fragments of Greek, and very few only of Latin poetry, have been found in the whole collection of the MSS. of Herculaneum; and the sentences in the specimens we unrolled, in which Mr. Elmsley was able to find a sufficient number of words to infer their meaning, show that the works, of which they are the remains, were of the same kind as those before examined, and belonged to the schools of the Greek Epi- curean philosophers and sophists. Nearly 1600 columus of different works, a great part unrolled under the superintendance of Mr. Hayter, and at the expense of His present Majesty George 1V., have been copied and engraved by the artists employed in the Museum ; but from the characters of the persons charged with their publication, there is very little probability of their being, for many years, offered to the world ; which is much to be regretted; for, though not interesting from their perfection as literary works, they would unquestionably throw much light upon the state of civilization, letters and science, of the age and country to which they belonged. Should discoveries of MSS, at any future time be made at Herculaneum, it is to be hoped that the papvri will be imme- diately excluded from the atmosphere, by being put into air-tight cases, filled with carbonic acid after their introduction, - There can On Refraction. 431 can be no doubt that the specimens now in the Museum were in a much better state when they were first discovered ; and the most perfect even, and those the coarsest in their texture, must have been greatly injured during the 69 years that they have been exposed to the atmosphere. I found that a fragment of a brown MS. kept for a few weeks in a portion of air confined by mer- eury, lad caused the disappearance of a considerable part of the oxygen, and the formation of much carbonie acid. LXXXVI. Remarks on Dr. REave’s Paper on Refraction. By Mr. Cuarces Stark, of Portsmouth. : To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Tx the Number of your Magazine for October, I observe a paper by Dr. Reade, on the subject of Refraction, wherein a very determined attempt seems to be made to evertiitri the whole doctrine of Dioptrics, and to explain all the phenomena of optics on the principle of reflection alone. If he should really succeed in the accomplishment of this design (which he seems to antici- pate with no small degree of confidence), an important zra will, no doubt, be formed in the history of science, and an inevitable death blow given to those standard works on the subject, which have been so long adopted in our schools and universities. How far the Doctor is likely to succeed in effecting such a revolution, is my object here to inquire. In the formation of any new theory, or in the determination of a general law in philosophy, such as the one under conside- rat‘on, it may be presumed that the author, before publishing it to the world, would have observed the utmost degree of caution, not only in establishing the reasonableness of the hypothesis it- self, but also in submitting it to the test of repeated and varied experiments, so as to be found not only consistent with itself, but successful in all its applications. In this respect, no theory has ever been employed, in any department of Natural Philosophy, ‘with more complete success than that which Dr. R. is here en- _ deavouring to explode. In reviewing the arguments, however, which he has brought forward in its refutation, and also those advanced in support of his own, it will require but little ingenuity of reasoning to show that his time and Jabour have been spent to very little purpose. , r.R. commences his paper hy endeavouring to refute the explanation that is usually given of the common optical experi- ment of placing a piece of money at the bottom of an empty vessel, and its seeming to rise higher as water is poured into it. He objects to the common explanation by saying: ‘ How can any 432 On Refraction. any,bending of .the rays of light bring the object nearer, to the . eye?” . A satisfactory demonstration of the reason why it should appear so, may be found in almost every elementary treatise on , optics ; but from what he expresses in the next passage, it ap- » pears that it would require something else than either mathema- _tieal, or, ocular’ demonstration to satisfy him. “ If,” says he, <¢.we bend a piece of iron wire, we certainly shorten the length it extended; but if the rays of light were so bent, they would fall short of the object!” What Dr. R.’s opinions may be of the manner in which light is transmitted, is not easy to guess; but . I should suppose them to be quite as original as some of his other views: at all events, he certainly cannot suppose that it is either by a continued stream of particles from the luminous body, or by an agitation of the intervening medium, or he could never _talk of comparing the rays of light to pieces of wire, or any other substance, of adeterminate length. It therefore appears that his objection proceeds entirely from some peculiar metaphysical no- tions of the nature of light, and not from any absurdity which he can demonstrate to exist in either the reasoning or results of the old doctrine; and should he ohoose to communicate those ideas, -we.may have an opportunity of combating him with his own weapons. Pas But let us now proceed to what follows, where he pretends to have demonstrated by experiment the identity of reflection and _ refraction. The passage which it will be necessary tu quote, is as follows : “ Having placed a piece-of money at the bottom of a wine- glass, I made the edge of it intercept my view; on pouring in a small quantity of water, the shilling seemed to rise; I now perceived two images of the object, one at the bottom, and the other floating at the top of the water, very apparent when the _glass was a little inclined to the eye. This floating image was agitated by every movement of the water. To ascertain whether this image was the real cause of vision, I held the glass above my eye, and saw the image floating by reflection on the surface of the water as if reflected from the face of a mirror. Further to convince myself that it is this floating image we see, and not the shilling at the bottom of the vessel, I brought my eye on a line with the image, and then gently lowering the glass, at the same time keeping my eye intently fixed on it, I saw the image by transmitted rays.”’ ' It happens rather unfortunately for Dr. R.’s doctrine, that this experiment, on which the whole of it is founded, is, of all others that he could possibly have hit upon, the best calculated to ex- -pose its absurdity. If he had only observed, in making the ex- periment, that when the glass was slightly shaken so as to agitate the On ihe Cultivation of Maize. 433 the surface of the water, the reflected image that was seen when the glass was placed above, would appear quite confused and in- distinct, on account of the great dispersion of the reflected rays, while the other seen with the glass held Jelow the eye would be comparatively little affected. Now this, which is explained in the most satisfactory manver by the laws of reflection and re- fraction, is quite irreconcileable with Dr. R.’s hypothesis; and it would be easy to point out abundance of other examples where it is equally inconsistent. What Dr. R. has observed with re- gard to the appearances of the two images, is nothing more than one of the many analogical relations that may be observed be- tween the laws of refraction and reflection, but furnishes not the slightest proof of their identity. As to what follows in the remaining part of the paper, it is merely an extension of the same principle which he deduces from the above experiment: consequently I do not, at present, consi- der it entitled to any further consideration. I am, sir, Your most obedient servant, ‘Portsmouth, Nov. 13, 1821. Cua. Stark. LXXXVII. Thoughts on the Cultivation of Maize as a green Crop, to come in late in the Summer and Autumn. By A Practicat and EXPERIMENTAL FARMER. IL, is only in particular seasons, and in favourable situations, that Indian corn or Maize is ever known to ripen its seed in this cli- mate, except by artificial means: every attempt, therefore, to naturalize and cultivate it, so as to produce a profitable crop of grain, will, it is to be feared, prove abortive. ‘There is one pur- pose, however, for which we have reason to believe that its cul- tivation might be adopted by the English farmer, especially the cottage farmer, and with considerable advantages. 1 mean as an article of green food, in the place of spring tares or buck- wheat. There are few annual plants of such rapid and luxuriant growth, and none by which it is exceeded, the sugar-cane ex- cepted, in nutritious properties. So much, indeed, does it abound with saccharine matter, that it is no very uncommon practice, as 1 have been informed, in some parts of America to extract sugar from it. ‘There are, it seems, several varieties of this plant, dif- fering in the colour of the seed, their times of ripening, and in the luxuriance of their growth. It is unnecessary to say, that for the purpose for which it is here suggested, the last property ought certainly to be preferred, unless, indeed, it is slower in coming to maturity than the other varieties. The price of maize Vol. 58. No, 284. Dec, 1821. 31 in 434 - On the Cultivation of Maize as a greenCrop. , in the seed-shops is ls. per quart. [ts chief use in England is for feeding parrots. In the year 1798, 1799, and 1800, when Parkinson visited America, its price in that country was from 3s. to 5s. per bushel, when wheat was 1ls. Were it once to be a regular article of importation for the purpose which I pro- pose, it might be afforded at as easy a rate as buckwheat or spring tares. In America, when the ears or cobs, as they are called, are ripe, they are cut and suspended [under cover we must suppose} to harden. ‘The tops and blades [by which the stems, J con- clude, are here meant] are cut, and kept to be given as hay in the winter to their cattle. Parkinson speaks of cutting the whole plant close by the ground, and afterwards reducing it into chaff as wanted. He does not state in what stage of its growth he cuts it; but we may presume when it is ripe or nearly so, as he afterwards adas, ** the cobs, in this way of using them, not getting sufficient air to harden them, are apt to be mouldy, whieh cows did not dislike.” In proposing maize as a substitute for spring tares or buck- wheat, it is on the supposition of its producing more abundantly than either of those articles, and of its affording more nutritious food: all this, however, must be proved by actual and accurate experiment, which, Deo volente, it scon shall be. ~ The above was written April 16, 1821. In the second week of the June following, this resolution was carried into effect by an experiment in my garden, on a very diminutive scale certainly, being only on three square yards. The result, however, has been more decisive than could have been expected with such limited data to go upon. The seed was sown promiscuously, and pro- duced 126 plants, being 42 upon each square yard. In the se- cond week of August T cut one stem, which | selected as being of average growth. It was then about three feet high, and weighed twelve ounces. 1 did not cut many more till the month of October, by which time some of them weighed five pounds. Had they been cut at the end of only two months from the time they were planted, I can have no doubt of their produce averaging after the rate of sixty tons per acre. I am equally confident that their weight in the month of October would not be so little as after the rate of twice that weight! Having too small a quantity to try any conclusive expetiment on larger cattle, | gave them to my pigs, of which they had an armful every day while they lasted; and though they were at that time fatting for the butcher in a grass field, with nearly as much corn and potatoes as they could eat, they yet devoured the green maize with the utmost avidity. ‘Towards the latter end, when the stems of the maize began to get woody, they only : champed . Answers to “ Questions addressed to Naturalists.” 435 champed the woody part so as to get the pith and sugary part out of it. Taking the average between 60 tons [the acreable produce in August], and 120 tons [the acreable produce in Octo- ber], the mean produce would be 90 tons per acre, which no other crop, that I know of, could equal. I must here ob- serve, that the ground on which the maize was raised, had every advantage that could be given to it; it was under a south hedge, and highly manured: to counterbalance these advantages, the soil is naturally a cold wet clay. ] have this autumn sown a patch of ground with winter tares. As soon as they are eaten off, | mean to follow them with maize, to be consumed in the same way. As I mean to keep an accurate register of the stock that is maintained by each crop, and of the time taken to consume it, I can easily ascertain their respec- tive values. | could wish that two or three other persons would try the same experiment. But Ido not, alas! recollect a single circumstance, from the first commencement of the Board of Agriculture to its final dissolution, to encourage me in expecting a wish so rational to be gratified ! A PracticaL and EXperRiMEN‘ral. FARMER. LXXXVIII. Answers to * Questions addressed to Naturalists.” By Mr. Gavin IncGuts. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — Ix your Magazine for September last, you have quoted from a German paper certain Questions addressed to Naturalists. “The analysis of the earth (we are told) shows that it consists of the five following kinds: Ist, Calcareous: 2d, Quartz: 3d, Clay: 4th, Magnesia: Sth, Vegetable mould.” It is then stated, that “ it is affirmed that repeated experiments have proved that the first four, as well alone as intermixt, are absolutely un- fruitful. If this be true, many thousand plants which now thrive only in vegetable mould could not grow on our earth some thou- sand years ago. Must we adopt the opinion that plants and ve- getables have risen gradually? In East Friesland, if earths are dug u> on the sea coast, &c. from a depth of ten or twelve feet, plants then grow which are not otherwise to be met with in those parts of the country. Did those plants exist in the an- cient world? Have their seeds retained the germinating power for some thousand years? Can that power be retained so long? Or, Whence do these plants come ?” Philosophical experiments, of whatsoever nature they Le, should have one object in view, and only one—the discovery or elucidation of truth; and the experimenter should be pos essed 312 of 436 Answers lo of the requisite knowledge and information, or arrange his proofs under the guidance of one more thoroughly conversant with the. subject than himself. Had these experiments been skilfully con- ducted, no such conclusion could have been drawn. It would have been found that magnesian earth alone is inimical to vege- tation, and that it detracts from the fertility of even the most fertile soils in proportion as its quantity bears to the mixture. Hence the comparative inferiority of all magnesian lime as a manure. Many parlour experiments are undertaken, more with a view to give a gossamer support to some favourite hypothesis, than by a diligent investigation to prove the instability of a visionary theory. The mere theorizing philosopher is not the individual to conduct so interesting and delicate an inquiry: his ignorance of vegetable ceconomy may give false results, from which he may draw the most erroneous conclusions. He who undertakes to elucidate this department of natural science, ought to be a prac- tical horticulturist, a botanical amateur, thoroughly acquainted with the habits, ceconomy, and habitat of every plant. If such an individual had been the conductor of these experiments, he would have proved that, although these earths supposed ‘* abso- lutely unfruitful,” either per se or mixed in any proportions, were not sufficiently fertile to give birth to plants that would flourish in garden soil, still they were capable of giving life to some more humble and har dy race, and that there was no rea- son for pronouncing such a doom. Before coming to such a conclusion, an intelligent mind has ouly to cast a thought over the globe, to be satisfied that every zone, as well as every soil, has plants exclusively its own. As well may a theorizing philosopher, or parlour experimenter, look for the Lapland Lichen on the Libyan shores, or the great Aloe.under the frozen snows of NovaZembla, as expect that am the natives of rich and fertile soi!s should ever show their germs in earths they scorn as beneath the pride of their families’ luxu- riance. How would the West Indian smile at the grave tale of such experimenters, when viewing the now productive cultivated fields that but a few years before presented nothing to his forefathers’ eye, but the hard unsubdued surface of a porous, calcareous rock? Eyen this as yet unpulverized calcareous earth was found under a skilful experimenter not absolutely unfruitful. But did the cultivator of this hitherto barren petrifaction ever think of planting on its obdurate surface his plantain, his corn, or his cane? No! Why? Because to these this rock would have been found *¢ absolutely unfruitful.”” But into the pores of the rock this scientific cultrvator insinuates the seeds of the Guinea grass. The * Questions addressed to Naturalists.” 437 The first rain that falls, fills the pores: the seeds drink up the moisture. They germ, and put forth their tender piles to receive strength and vigour from the solar rays, and prepare themselves to sip the dews of the evening, or drink deep of the next suc- ceeding shower ; while the roots indent deeper, and draw nourish- ment from the surface dust of this calcareous mass. The Guinea grass in time acquires strength and body sufficient for the planter’s object. He then sets fire to the field and burns it down, reduces the whole dry foliage to ashes, which not only creates a quantity of vegetable earth, but at the same time produces a quantity of stimulating and fertilizing manure; while the fire calcines the exposed parts of the calcareous fragments, which pulverized by succeeding damps, and mixing with the ashes of the grass, adds to the accumulation of this uewly created field. This operation is continued, and the burning repeated by the planter, till he has acquired a sufficient depth of soil for more profitable cropping. Iirlike manner does the hardy Norwegian select patches to raise a little corn for his scanty pittance of bread. When nature has shed over the shelves and flats of his bleak inhospitable rocks, a quantity of the leaves or needles of the fir, sufficiently thick to retain moisture for the germination of seeds that fall in promis- cuous profusion, the young firs spring forth thick as the matted turf. When these have attained a few years growth, in the autumn, preceding the corn crop, they are burnt down. © The winter snows prepare the ashes for receiving the seed: on the first return of spring, the corn grows up, is cut down when ready, and the patch left for a succeeding crop of young firs, and again burnt, in regular rotation, To be satisfied that quartz is not absolutely unfruitful, we have only to take a view of the sands along the sea-beaten shore, raised originally from the depths of the ocean and dashed on the beach by the surging waves, blown by stormy winds till imbanked beyond the rise of the highest tides. These sands are scarcely dried in the sun and washed by the vernal rains, when a race of vegetables peculiar to themselves bud forth and flourish, from seeds that may also have come from the ocean, These plants, by producing seed, propagate their species, and die. Their re- mains produce the first germs of vegetable mould, which in process of time accumulate, and may then be enriched by plants of a more luxuriant kind, and the soil become too effeminate for the coarse-grained aboriginal, whose existence may not now be raced, but whose seed lies safely imbedded and gone to rest. Disdaining the soil of the effeminate and voluptuous, they claim their primitive sand as 4 dormitory, ready to assume new life the moment they are left to the enjoyment of their native beans n 435 Answers to In this manner soils gradually accumulate, and new vegetables appear, not by creation, nor the spontaneous effects of any ad- mixture of the primitive earths, hut from seeds the produce of former vegetable life; and to whatever depth this sand or soil may be buried, either by augmented accumulation or alluvial deposites, the seeds reposing in their native strata will remain for ever sound, and'fit for bursting into new existence, when dug up from any depth, at any future period of the world, however remote. Accumulating soils may be stored with new plants in a variety of ways, without having recourse to any supernatural production. The seeds of many plants are furnished with wings, and may be blown to a great distance. Birds may carry those that are de- stitute of the means of fying, and many a variety may be trans- lated from one soil to another by the wanderings of cattle. Many of the winged tribes brought originally from the continent of America to enrich the botanical gardens of France, are now domiciled and scattered over and beyond the confines of Europe. When rivers are swoln with deluging floods, break in upon their banks, and carry to the sea the deposites of former times, the seeds of a very remote period may be thrown by the tempestuous dashing of the raging billows high upon the banks of a verdant shore, and give new “life to a race of plants whose identity may have been extinct for many revolving ages. Even after the sur- face has acquired, by accumulation or otherwise, a fertility and richness of soil, such as to produce a covering of verdure suffi- ciently matted and interwoven to deny the intrusion of an a€rial wandering variety, the mole comes in for his share of the ge- neral arrangement, and, by heaving up his mouldering heaps, in- terposes his aid in preparing a receptacle for the air- borne exotic, whose birth might be claimed by soine very distant clime. Here a plant of another region bursts upon our noti¢e—from whence, we know not till the scrutiny of the botanist retrace its flight to the land of its nativity. Land gained from the waters of either the lake or the ocean, the deposite of rivers or of seas; the verge of gulfs, bays, or inlets, are the likeliest places in the world for the rise of strange plants, or the occurrence of such wonders as seem to astonish the natives of East Friesland. There is no country, however remote from — the sea, or however elevated above its level, but communicates’ by its streams with the mighty waters of the ocean. There is no plant, however towering its situation, even those cresting the highest and most distant mountains, but whose seed may be blown or washed into some neighbouring stream, and carried un- injured along with its descending waters to the main, and wafted by “¢ Questions addressed to Naturalists.” 439 by the waves in a state of perfect preservation, to some very di- stant shore, and there find a root-bed and flourish, and in its turn shed its seed over the surrounding country; or find a pre- serving dormitory deep in the watery sediment, and remain in reserve for the incidental occurrences of revolving time. This sediment has been accumulating for ages on all the coasts of the Low Countries, and what was shore and surface some thousand "years ago, may now be deep in the earth and far inland. This, . however, does not prevent these former surfaces being dug up; and when dug up, nothing in nature can be more natural than the evolution of the native plants of the various strata, and even plants of very different and distant regions, whose seed may have been floated on the waters, or borue through the air on the wings of the storm. Vegetable productions of the West Indies and America have been floated across the expanded Atlantic, and thrown ashore on the beach of the Hebrides, the Orkneys, and Shetland: and very probably some of these may have found their way to the more southern shores of Europe, not excepting the coast of East Friesland. The natural period of human existence is so very limited, as to preclude the possibility of watching the slow progressive opera- tions of nature: the incident of to-day, may have had its embryo deep laid in nature a thousand years before its development. Our scanty knowledge of natural phenomena can only be gleaned from the few authenticated facts that are fortunately on record, and by calling to our aid the analogical reasonings that may be drawn from the wide field of material existence. In this con- templation, we soon perceive the perishable insignificance of the higher classes of animated nature, that a few revolving years lay prostrate in their kindred dust. But in the lower links of the animated chain, to the productions of the ovum, the duration and preservation of latent life are beyond the powers of our li- mited comprehension to calculate. The germs of vegetable exist- ence | believe to be imperishable when bedded in their native strata, however deep. To the higher classes of the creation, to all who are endued with intelligence and power to protect and continue the existence of their kind, the principle and power of laying aside and resuming life -+has been denied ;—while to the inferior orders, to the fly and to the reptile, either in the egg, the chrysalis, or the perfect animal, when bedded in earth beyond the influence of light, or iticlosed in the solid rock, the revolution of a thousand years must be as one day, and one day as a thou- © sand years; and when again called into new life, they are as ca- pable of producing and propagating their kind, as when first laid to rest in their millesian dormitory. However 440 Answers to However excentric, I am of opinion that the ocean has been, is, and will be the grand emporium and conservator of insect, reptile, and vegetable life. The rivers are daily running into the sea loaded with the spoils of the earth, carrying along with them the egg and chrysalis of the insect, the spawn of the rep- tile, with many of the reptiles themselves. These get imbedded in the calcareous and siliceous deposites of the waters. As this settles down, the animal keeps turning and moving; aud as the soft substance begins to press upon its inmate, the creature, by pressure against the sides of the still impressive mass, bakesa bed, and keeps open sufficient space for itself, where it is destined to remain for time inconceivable. In the progressive revolu- tions of matter this mass consolidates, and petrifies around its prisoner, and in this state have the banished reptiles been found alive in the stratifications and formations of a former world. Here, the duration of latent life is beyond the extent of human knowledge. The seeds of every plant of every region of the earth may be carried by the mountain torrents to the sea. Seed from the highest pinnacle of the mountains that verge the western shores of Southern America may be carried down the Amazonia, Rio Plata, &c., and meet those of other tribes from the interior of Africa, on or in the South Atlantic; while the expanse of the North may be furnished by the river St. Lawrence, &c. Seeds from the mountains and shores of the Volga, the Danube, the Po and the Rhone, &c. may fill the Black Sea, the Archipelago, and the - Northern Mediterranean, while the Nile fills up the African shores. The Western European rivers plenish the North and the German Oceans; the Ganges, &c. the Indian Seas: and there these seeds remain, in store and in entire preservation for the incidents of futurity. Many proofs have been adduced of that portion of the globe which we inhabit, having at one period been the bottom of the ocean : if so, vice versd, what was then inhabited and clothed in all the verdure of botanical glory, must now lie at the bottom of the mighty waters. In this case, kad seeds of vegetables or eggs of vermes been perishable, all nature must have died, and the present world would have presented nothing but the bare surface of the water-worn rock and the noxious sludge and pu- trid deposites of by-gone ages, where food for neither man nor beast could have been found : ‘nothing but one dreary waste of fearful extent would have covered the globe. Every maturized seed is an egg of the plant that produced it, and, like the animal ovum, contains within itself all the requisite powers and princi- » ples of evolving into life, of assuming the same organized sym- metry *¢ Questions addressed to Naturalists.” 441 metry of its parent plant, and of reproducing its kind. In no- thing does the protecting hand of Providence show solicitude more conspicuously than in the formation of the seeds and preservation of vegetable life; every seed is covered with a shell—a coat of mail to shield it from external injury; and as the vegetable egg is left without the fostering care of a watchful parent, its shell has the power of absorbing and giving out moisture, of dilating and contracting as the state of its charge may require; and al- though originally a mere vegetable pulp, yet its constituent prin- ciples are furnished with powers of defence, capable of resisting, uninjured, the utmost effects of animal digestion, even of those animals whose gastric energies are sufficient to dissolve the hardest bones. In proof of this, 1 may state two instances that must be familiar to every one. Pease fully ripened, and allowed to harden in the pod, if swallowed whole, will defy the strongest digestive powers, pass through the intestines, and grow. Let the hardened pease be boiled till the farina is reduced to pulp, still the shell of the pea will remain undissolved ; and although taken into the stomach, with all this previous preparation of boiling, the shell will yet resist the utmost efforts of animal diges- tion, and pass through the intestines unaltered. Thin as the bran of wheat may be, that shell is sufficient to defend the grain against the digestive powers of the horse. Whew taken unbruised into the stomach of that noble animal, the grain passes through his entrails, not only uninjured and fit for vegetation, but will be found to have absorbed a fertilizing principle, and to produce more luxuriant foliage, and better grain, than when sown in its natural state. If seeds resist animal digestion, the natives of East Fries- land and the Querists may cease to wonder at their dormancy for any length of time. Not to repeat any of my notes (see Phil. Mag. for December 1818), I may be allowed to state another instance of seeds retaining their germinating principle, that has since occurred. On clearing out the Monk barns of an old religious establish- ment in the North, and subjecting the site to the operations of the plough, several varieties of oats sprung up the succeeding spring, that have long been unknown in the country, whose seed must have been carried by mice or rats, &c. deep into their burrows as winter store. The collectors of this latent repository may have perished by the eats, the weasels, or the ¢raps of the Holy Fathers, and their little store remained unconsumed. These oats must have retained their vegetating powers (since the days of John o’ the Girnal*) at least for some hundred vears. If for hun- dreds, why not for thousands? and if for thousands, why not for ever?! ! * See The Antiquary. Vol, 58. No, 284, Dec. 1821, 3K Many 442 On Mr. South's Catalogue of Double Stars. Many ‘of my observations and ideas may appear prolix and trifling, yet I cannot resist bringing forward whatever may assist in elucidating a subject I consider so very interesting. Well may we say with the Spectator, ‘* that to enjoy the world is to know it; and to have just conceptions of our Almighty Creator and Preserver, is to trace the infinite greatness and wisdom of creative power, and the unbounded intelligence and design so conspicuously displayed in protecting and preserving the work of his grace.”’ Nov. 12, 1821. GaAvVIN INGLIs,. LXXXIX. On Mr. Soutn’s Catalogue of Double Stars. By A CorRESPONDENT. To Dr. Tilloch. Sir, — if AM a man fond of science, but, having received only a plain education, have been obliged to work my way by my own exertions, and such helps as I have been fortunate enough to meet with. I shail ever remember with gratitude the obligations I am un- der to your and other periodical works, by whose kind assistance I have been enabled to ask, and have generallyreceived, such infor- mation as | at times stood in need of, and without which I never could have surmounted the many difficulties which opposed my progress. Believe me, it is only persons like me, who have been obliged to fight their way through the difficult paths that lead to mathematical knowledge,—it is only such, I say,—-that can ap- preciate the utility of such publications. But, my gratitude is leading me from my object, which, as aforetime, is, to ask as- sistance. Chance, some time ago, threw in my way a Catalogue of Double Stars, presented by J. South, Esq. to the Astronomical Society. Their places, as the learned author informs us, are taken from -Bode’s Catalogue, but reduced by him from the year 1801 to that of 1821. I was acquainted (at least I thought so) with the method of making these reductions ; but as I had never at- tempted it, 1 thought it a good opportunity to put my know- ledge to the test, by trying the reduction of a few of these stars, and, was much pleased to find the declinations, with which I first began, to coincide with the numbers in the table before me :—but judge my astonishment, when I found scarce a single right ascension to agree. I looked over my calculation again and again ; I re-perused Dr. Maskelyne’s rule, re-calculated the an- nual variations ; and, to be certain that I had made no mistake, I set my son, a clever little fellow of ten years of age, to work the calculations, as an arithmetical exercise, explaining to him, as On Mr. South's Catalogue of Double Stars, 443 as well as I could, the object to be obtained. All this he per- fectly well understood, except the reducing the seconds of a de- gree into seconds and tenths of time (the right ascension being given in space by Bode, but in time by Mr. South). ‘This I told him he must leave for me, as it required some little knowledge of decimals, which he had not yet learned. My boy was much flattered in being thought worthy to attempt what he bad seen his father so long puzzling at in vain; but I can never forget his exultation and triumph, when he put into my hand his caleula- tions, all agreeing with Mr. South’s Catalogue. ‘‘ Why how,” I exclaimed, ‘have jvou done it?” ‘* Done it!’ he replied: *¢ Why, those plaguing seconds of a degree which I could make nothing of, and which I believe no one else can make anything of, I kicked out ; and then going on with the calculation as you told me, it all came right, and I have no doubt this is the way the gentleman does it.” . I endeavoured to repress his un- founded exultation, by informing him that this Catalogue was the production of a gentleman of great mathematical abilities, a member of our most learned Societies, and the author of many papers on mathematical subjects of the most profound -nature ; that in these calculations I had observed he had had regard to even hundredths of a second; and therefore, to say that such a gentleman would disregard twenty or thirty seconds of a degree, or would find any difficulty in reducing them into time, was talking nonsense, or rather like a child as-he was, who knew.no- thing about the matter. My boy, however, has a will of his own, and insists upon maintaining that his method is right, unless [ can show him any other that will solve the difficulty. This I own J cannot do; and, to be serious, shall be much obliged to the learned author, or any other of your correspondents, if they can inform me how these right ascensions were calculated, or whether any improvement has recently been made in the rule given by Dr. Maskelyne for the reduction of stars from one epoch to an- other. Excuse this garrulous epistle from an old man, and extend the like indulgence to the son of his old age, whom with the par- tiality of a fond father he has taken the liberty to introduce; a liberty which he would not have presumed upon, but to show how, by a fortuitous circumstance almost beyond credit, the em- pirical reasoning of a child should lead to the same results as the profound calculations of a learned mathematician. I am, sir, Your very obedient and obliged servant, Z. 3K 2 XC. No- { 444 ] XC. Notices respecting New Books. Recent Publications. Tus Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Lon- don for 1821, Part II. are just published, and the following are their contents: XIV. An Account of Experiments to determine the Times of Vibration of the Pendulum in different Latitudes. By Captain Edward Sabine, of the Roval Reg. of Artillery, F.R.S. and F.L.S. —XV. Some Observations and Experiments on the Papyri found in the Ruins of Herculaneum. By Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. P.R.S.—XVI. Observations on Naphthaline, a peculiar Sub- stance resembling a concrete essential Oil, which is apparently produced during the Decomposition of Coal Tar by Exposure toared Heat. By J. Kidd, M.D. Professor of Chemistry, Ox- ford. Communicated by W. H. Wollaston, M.D. V.P. R.S.— XVII. On the Aberrations of compound Lenses and Object- Glasses. By J. F.W. Herschel, Esq. F.R.S. —XVIII. An Ac- count of the Skeletons of the Dugong, two-horned Rhinoceros, and Tapir of Sumatra, sent to England by Sir Thomas Stam- ford Raffles, Governor of Bencoolen. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. V.P.R.S.—XIX. On the mean Density of the Earth. By Dr. Charles Hutton, F.R.S.—XX. On the Separation of Iron from other Metals. By J. F. W. Herschel, Esq. F.R S. — XXI. On the Re-establishment of a Canal in the Place of a Por- tion of the Urethra which had been destroyed... By Henry Earle, Esq. Surgeon to the Foundling, and Assistant Surgeon to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Communicated by the President.— XXII. Calculations of some Observations of the Solar Eclipse on the 7th of September 1820. By Mr. Charles Rumker. Com- municated by Thomas Young, M.D. For. Sec. R.S.—XXIII. An Account of the Re-measurement of the Cube, Cylinder, and Sphere, used by the late Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn, in his Inquiries respecting a Standard of Weights and Measures. By Captain Henry Kater, F.R.S.—XXIV. An Account of Observa- tions made with the Eight-feet Astronomical Circle, at the Ob- servatory of Trinity College, Dublin, since the Beginning of the Year 1818, for investigating the Effects of Parallax and Aberra- tion on the Places of certain fixed Stars; also the Comparison of these with former Observations for determining the Effects of Lunar Nutation. By the Rev. John Brinkley, D.D. F.R.S. and M.R.I.A. Andrews Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin.—XXV. On the Effects produced in the Rates of Chro- nometers by the Proximity of Masses of Iron. By Peter Te ow Philosophical Transactions. 445 low, Esq. of the Royal Military Academy. Communicated by John Barrow, Esq. F.R.S.—XXVI. On the Peculiarities that distinguish the Manatee of the West Indies from the Dugong of the East Indian Seas. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. V.P.R.S.— XXVII. On a new Compound of Chlorine and Carbon. By Richard Phillips, F.R.S.E. F.L.S., and Michael Faraday, Che- mical Assistant in the Royal lustitutioi. Communicated by the President —XXVIII. On the Nerves; giving an Account of some Experiments on their Structure and Functions, which lead to a new Arrangement of the System. By Charles Bell, Esq. Communicated by the President—XXIX. Further Researches on the magnetic Phenomena produced by Electricity; with some new Experiments on the Properties of electrified Bodies in their Relations to conducting Powers and Temperature. . By Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. P.R.S. A Voyage to Africa, including a Narrative of an Embassy to one of the interior Kingdoms, in 1820; with Remarks on the Course and Termination of the Niger, &c. By Wm. Hutton, Esq. late Acting Consul for Ashantee. Illustrated with Maps and Plates. Svo. pp. 488. A practical Treatise on the Sliding Rule; in Two Parts.— Part the First, being ai Introduction to the Use of the Rule ge- nerally, as adapted for Calculations that usually occur to Per- sons in Trade.—Part the Second, containing Formule for the Use of Surveyors, Architects, Civil Engineers, Scientific Gentle- men, and for Schools in general. By B. Bevan, Civil Engineer and Architect. 1 vol. Svo. 65. Amusing Experiments for Young People. No. 1. Price Is. to be completed in six, with numerous Engravings. Upwards of Five Hundred New and Amusing Experiments for Young People; with Observations on the Substances employed, and their Ap- plication to useful Purposes. By George G. Carey, Lecturer on Chemistry and Experimental Philosophy. Part 1. of Views of the Colosseum ; engraved, by W. B. Cooke and J. C. Allen, from Drawings of Major Cockburn. In this Work will be displayed the stupendous Proportions and picturesque Beauties of the Colosseum, that interesting Orna- ment of Ancient Rome. It will be completed in 5 Parts, con- taining 15 Line Engravings, together with Plans, Sections, and Elevations, and a descriptive History of the Building. Super- royal folio, 1d. 1s. each Part, Proofs 12. 10s. A System of Pathological and Operative Surgery, founded on Anatomy, illustrated by Drawings of diseased Structure, and Pians of Operation. By Robert Allan, F.R.S. &e. 8vo. Vols. I. and II, 12s. 6d. each, bds. A Com- 446 Notices respecting New Books. A Compendious Treatise on the Theory and Solution of Cu- bic and Biquadratic Equations, and of Equations of the higher Order. By the Rev. B. Bridge, B.D. F.R.S. 8vo. 6s. bds. Twelve Essays on the proximate Causes of the material Phe- nomena of the Universe, with illustrative Notes. By Sir Richard Phillips. J vol. 12mo. ; Just published, An Epitome of Pharmaceutical Chemistry 5 whereby the Art of prescribing scientifically may be facilitated, and those Decompositions avoided, which, resulting from Com- binations of incompatible Substances, often frustrate the Views of the Practitioner in their Medical Effects ; arranged according to the London Pharmacopeeia. By Rees Price, M.D. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons in London ; Honorary Mem- ber of the Medical and Physical Society of Guy’s Hospital, &c. 12mo. 33.3 or, on a Chart adapted for framing, 2s. 6d. Just imported, (dedicated by Permission to the Most Noble the Marquis of Hastings,) a Grammar of the Sunscrit Language, on a New Plan. By the Rev. William Yates. 1 vol. Demy Svo. 21. 10s. Royal, 4/. Preparing for Publication. Two Voyages to New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land, by Thomas Reid, Surgeon in the Royal Navy, 1 vol. Svo., will appear with the New Year. The Encyclopedia Metropolitana, the publication of which had been suspended, having become the right of new Proprietors, will soon be resumed, and carried on with spirit. History of Cultivated Vegetables, comprising their Botanical, Medicinal, Edible and Chemical Qualities, Natural History, and Relation to Art, Science, and Commerce.. By Henry Phillips, Author of Pomarium Britannicum ; or, A History of Fruits known in Great Britain. The Work to be printed in 2 vols. royal octavo, price to Subscribers 1/. 11s. 6d. bds. Travels through Africa, from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope. By Mr. Waldeck, a German, who has recently arrived in England from India. This journey is, it seems, no fiction. It appears that at the foot of the Mountains of the Moon he found an in- scribed pillar erected by a Roman Consul about the period of the reign of Vespasian. He found a level on the top of those mountains nearly 400 miles broad, on which he discovered a Temple of the highest antiquity, and in fine preservation, and still used for religious purposes by the inhabitants. South of the level, he passed a descent of fifty-two days journey; and when advanced about nine days, he found the skeleton of a man with a telescope slung on his shoulder marked with the name -of Harris, and also a chronometer ‘made by Marchand. There were _ ese _ Royal Society. 447 were two other skeletons, and it was supposed the owners perished for want of water. The manuscript is preparing, and the work will speedily appear in London, accompanied by en- gravings. Mr. Waldeck was accompanied by four European companions, only one of whom survived the hardships of the journey, and now resides in Paris. The Second Volume of Sir R. K, Porter’s Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Ancient Babylonia, &c. &c. It will be illustrated with numerous Engravings of Portraits, Costumes, Antiquities, &c. An interesting Volume of Travels will appear shortly by W. J. Burchell, Esq. whose Researches in the Interior of Southern Africa, during a five Years’ Residence in that Country, comprise a Variety of Discoveries and Observations which have never yet been laid before the Public. Numerous Engravings, from the Author’s own Drawings, and an entirely new Map, will illustrate the Work. Mr. A. T. Thomson, F.L.S. &c. &c. has in the Press. Lee- tures on the Elements of Botany. Part I. containing the Ana- tomy and Physiology of those Organs on which the Growth and Preservation of the Plant depend; with Explanations of the Ter- minology connected with these Parts: Svo. illustrated by mar- ginal Cuts and Copper Plates. Shortly will be published, Practical Observations on Paraly- tic Affections, St. Vitus’s Dance, Distortions of the Spine, and Deformities of the Chest and Limbs, arising from Chronic Rheu- matism, Rickets, Gout, &c. illustrative of the beneficial Effects of Muscular Action : with Cases: by W. Tilleard Ward, F.L.S. In a few weeks will be published, An Appendix to Professor Orfila’s General 8ystem of ‘Toxicology, or Treatise on Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Poisons, containing all the additional Matter relating to that Science, published by the Author in his last Work entitled ‘* Lectures on Medical Jurisprudence,” and thus rendering complete the former Treatise on Poisons; to which will be added Twenty-two coloured Engravings of poi- sonous Plants, Insects, &c. XCI. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ROYAL SOCIETY. Nov. 8. Ti E Royal Socicty commenced its sittings, the Presi- dent Sir H. Davy, Bart., in the chair. The Croonian Lecture on the Structure of the Eye, by Sir Everard Home, Bart., was read. 15. The Bakerian Lecture on the Variation of the Com- pass, by Captain Sabine, R.A,, was begun, Nov. 448 Royal Society. Nov. 22. Read a Paper on some Alvine Concretions ; by J. G. Children, Esq. —— 30. This being St. Andrew’s day, the Anniversary of the Royal Society, the President announced that the Council had awarded the two Copley Medals ; one to John Fred. Her- schel, Esq., for his mathematical and optical Papers published in the Transactions ; the other to Captain E. Sabine, R.A., for his Experiments on the Pendulum, and on Magnetism, made during two Expeditions of 1818 and 1819 to the Arctic Regions. In his discourse, the learned President said, he was sure the Society would regard this decision of their Council with peculiar pleasure, as the labours for which the medals were awarded be- longed to members of their own body, who were still actively engaged in the pursuit of science. In speaking of the pa- pers of Mr. Herschel, Sir Humphry said, that he had not only distinguished himself by profound mathematical investigations, but had likewise made applications of the science of Quantity to physical researches of considerable extent and importance, prov- ing himself as an analyst worthy to be associated with a Brink- ley, an Ivory, a Woodhouse, and a Young, who in late times have redeemed the character of British Mathematics; entering those ncble paths of investigation opened by the genius of New- ton, and too long travelled in almost exclusively by illustrious foreigners. In Physical inquiry, he had, by his optical papers, added to the obligations already owing to the name of Herschel, in every thing connected with modern astronomy and the know- ledge of the celestial spaces. ‘The President then proceeded to point out at considerable length the object and nature of his re- searches, and gave an analysis of his papers. In delivering the medal to Mr. Herschel, the President begged him to receive it as a mark of respect of the Royal Society, and to preserve it as a pledge of future labours in their cause and that of science. He exhorted Mr.Herschel to employ his various talents with the same industry and zeal in the progress, as he had shown in the com- mencement of his career; and to recollect, that no pursuits were more useful, more ies paca: and more honourable, at é!1 periods of life. Of this he had a striking example in his illustrious father, who, full of years and of glory, must, he said, view his exertions with infinite delight, and, looking forward to “the time when his own imperishable name would be recorded in the same annals of philosophy with that of his son, must evjoy as it were by anti- cipation a double immortality. In discussing Captain Sabine’s labours, the President paid many compliments to the manner in which the Arctic expeditions had been planned and conducted. Active courage, he said, was so innate in the British character, that it hardly required praise: but there was a fortitude in meeting Royal Society. ALY meeting danger and difficulty, and a steadiness and patience in bearing privations, which demanded the highest commendation, These had been shown in a remarkable manner by Capt. Sabine, who in the Polar ice, and almost in darkness, had conducted his observations with as much precision as if he had enjoyed the re- pose and conveniences of the happiest climate and situation. Sir Humphry entered into a historical view of the progress of experiments made upon the pendulum ; and did ample justice to the accuracy and beauty of Captain Kater’s invention, which Captain Sabine employed in his experiments: these seem to have been conducted with equal address and industry, and give a compression of about 5+, for the polar diameter of the earth. “* Captain Sabine (Sir Humphry said) is not here to receive the mark of your approbation; for, after braving the long night and almost perpetual winter of the Pole, he is now gone, with the same laudable object, to expose himself to the burning sunshine and perpetual summer of the equator.”’ After expressing his warm hopes that he would return from these new and dangerous ex- peditions, after having accomplished all his objects, Sir Humphry presented the medal to Mr. Sabine, assuring him of the deep interest taken by the Royal Society in his brother’s pursuits and success. The President dwelt in glowing terms on his disinter- estedness and genuine love of science, which he said made him consider the good opinion of the Royal Society as the highest reward he could receive for his scientific labours. He had no doubt, he said, that if it pleased Providence to grant him health and a safe return, he would not only establish fresh claims to their admiration, but likewise to that of all his countrymen who were lovers either of useful science or of bold and hardy enter- prise. The Society then proceeded to the Election of a Council and Officers for the ensuing year ; when, on examining the lists, it appeared that the following gentlemen were elected: Of the Old Council.—Sir Humpiry Davy, Bart., W. T. Brande, Esq., the Lord Bishop of Carlisle, Taylor Combe, Esq., Davies Gilbert, Esq., Charles Hatchett, Esy., J. F. W. Herschel, Esq., Sir Everard Home, Bart., John Pond, Esq., Wm. Hyde Wollaston, M.D., Thomas Young, M.D. Of the New Council. —The Earl of Aberdeen, Matthew Baillie, M.D, John"Barrow, Esq., B. C. Brodie, Esq., Wm. Hamilton, Esq., James Ivory, Esq., The Marquess of Lansdown, Alexander Marcet, M.D., Thos. Murdock, Esq., Sir Robt. Seppings, Knt. And the Officers—President, Sir Humphry Davy, Bart, LL.D. Treasurer—Davies Gilbert, Esq. Secretaries—Wm. Thos, Brande and Taylor Combe, E:qrs. Vol. 58, No, 284, Dec, 1821. 8L ASTRO- 450 Astronomical Society. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. Dec. 14. A Letter was read from Captain Basil Hall, dated Valparaiso, May 19, 1821, giving an account of a comet which had recently appeared in that quarter; and communicating a number of observations of the same: whence its orbit may be deduced when they are published. At the conclusion of his let- ter, Captain Hall mentions a fact which either is not generally known, or dees not appear to have been sufficiently attended to: which is, that occultations of the stars by the moon are eusily discernible at sea; and that he himself has made several obser- vations of this kind, and regrets that they are not announced in any ephemeris. As this mode of determining the longitude is much preferable to that by the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, there will be no occasion for marine chairs, or any other con- trivance for observing them. A Letter was communicated, by the American Minister, from Mr. Lambert, of Washington, containing some tables for deter- mining the moon’s semidiameter in time, or the interval of pas- sage from either limb to the centre, when passing the meridian. The author conceives this mode of determining the longitude to possess many advantages. A Letter was also received from the Rev. M. Ward, relative to an opinion he had formed, that the western cavities of the moon would reflect sufficient light to produce a phosphoric ap- pearance, similar to what he had before observed in May last. He was confirmed in his opinion by an observation of the spot Manilius, for the space of five minutes, on November 20th ; and by a faint appearance, precisely in the situation of Menelaus. Mr. Ward conceives that each spot has not only a particular month, but also a particular day in each lunatiou, on which it is most favourably situated for such observations. The next meeting of the Society will be on January 11, 1822. XCII. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles. TO OUR KEADERS. Wirn the present Number is given a portrait of the Eprror. It is but proper that he should state that the plate was not en- graved at his own expense. Mr. Henry Fisher, the spirited proprietor of the Caxton Press, some time ago requested to have the loan of a portrait, painted by Mr. Frazer, for the purpose of having it engraved for the Imperial Magazine; and in return for what Population of France.— Antiquities. 451 what he was pleased to call the favour, Mr. Fisher, unsolicited and unexpected, sent the Editor a number of impressions suffi- cient for the Philosophical Magazine. Under such circum- stances, he thought he would not withhold them from the nume- rous friends who have for so many years (now almost a quarter of a century) patronized this publication. POPULATION OF FRANCE. In the year 1820, the population of the eighty-six departments of which the kingdom of France, according tc the treaties of 1814 avd 1815, now consists, was $0,407,907 individuals. In the year 1819 there were 990,023 births, and 786,338 deaths ; making an excess of births amounting to 23,688. ANTIQUITIES OF NUBIA. M, Jomard, of the French Institute, has just received a letter from M. Caillaud, dated the 5th of May, from Assour, a village about a day’s journey from Chendy, in Nubia, in the kingdom of Sennaar, in which that traveller communicates his latest disco- veries. At a short distance to the south of the confluence of the Atbara *, the ancient Astaboras, aud four days’ journey from Barbas, he found the ruins of a great town, with a temple and 40 pyramids still standing, and 40 others in ruins. The bases of the largest of these pyramids are about 62 feet, and their height 77, and on one of the sides of each is a small temple ornamented inside and outside with hieroglyphic characters ; two of those temples are arched, and the arches are decorated with hierogly- phic emblems, and with key-stones and ribs like ours. This traveller has ascertained that those temples are of the same age as the Pyramids. All the materials are of freestone, like the rock on which they are built, Ismail Pasha, who commands the mi- litary expedition into Abyssinia, permitted M. Cailliaud to open one of these Pyramids ; some Greek letters were found in another of them. The site of the temple and the ruined town is about a league and a half from the Nile, and most of the pyramids are a league further, the same as at Memphis. Bruce must have passed two leagues only to the east, without suspecting their existence. An avenue of Sphinxes, in the shape of rams, 262 feet long, leads to the temple, and the wall which incloses it is 426 feet round, The island of Curgos, mentioned by Bruce, is to the south of Assour, and contains no monuments. M. Jomard is of opinion that the great ruins near Assour are those of Meroe; their lati- tude, about 16 degrees 50 minutes, agrees with that of Meroe, * The Antiquities of Mount Barkal, near a place called Merawe, are about 70 leagues below, and very far from the confluence of the Atbara, which formed the Isle of Meroe. 3L2 as 452 Sierra Leone Negotiation.— Australasia. as given by Strabo and Eratosthenes. The positions laid down by Bruce, in his map, are tolerably accurate, but he has traced the limits of the ruins too much to the south. M. Cailliaud proposed to remain during the rainy season at Sennaar, with the expedition, to take up his residence in the Fazuelo, and to proceed afterwards up the Bahr-el-Albiad, or the White River, which he will ascend to a certain distance, in order to pro- cure information respecting the course of the Niger. The ther- mometer was constantly during the month of April as high as 45 degrees and upwards, and even as high as 48 degrees (43 de- grees of Reaumur, exposed no doubt to the sun), M. Cailliaud could not discover any remains of the tradition of Queen Can- dace, whose dynasty, according to Bruce, were in his time still on the throne of Chendy. For a long time our traveller has not taken the meridian altitudes of the sun, which is too close to the zenith, and he can only determine the latitudes of places by means of the moon and stars. SIERRA LEONE NEGOTIATION. Mr. O’Byrne, sent from Sierra Leone to establish a commer- cial intercourse with certain African Chiefs of the interior, has entered the country of Limba, by Laiah,’a city distant about se- ven leagues from the river which forms the boundary of the coun- try of Timmani. His reception was very favourable with all the chiefs, one of whom, of Port Logo, accompanied him to Woulla, and sent his brother with him to Koukouna. From this last place he advanced to the frontiers of Foulah, the chiefs of which agreed, in a palaver, to open a commercial correspondence with Sierra Leone. It appears that Dacho, King of Sego, was send- ing a party to the Governor of Sierra Leone to invite the Whites to visit and trade in his kingdom, and had recommended to the King of Timbo to provide for the security of such strangers as should proceed to Bambarra through the country of Foulah Yal- lon. This rendered unnecessary the further advance of Mr. O’Byrne. ——- AUSTRALASIA. Accounts have been received here by the ship Dick, lately arri- ved from India, from His Majesty’s brig Bathurst, Capt. King, employed in examining the unexplored Coast of Australasia, dated off Goulburn Island, on the North Coast of New Holland, the 6th of July last ; the ship Dick and brig St. Antonio then in company, which the Bathurst had piloted from Port Jackson on their way to India, through a most intricate and dangerous navi- gation, in which the latter lost two anchors. At the date of the letter they had been out six weeks from Port Jackson ; three weeks whereof they had been sailing among coral reefs of fright- ful New South Wales. 453 ful appearance, and were obliged to anchor every night wherever they could find shelter, not daring to proceed after sunset, having had many narrow escapes even in the day-light, but were at the period before mentioned eutirely clear of that dreadful coast. They lost their two anchors and cables under Cairneross Island at II p.m. on the 30th of June, and nothing but the tide, which fortunately set to windward, kept them clear of the dangers which surrounded them on every side ; and the weather being so exceedingly bad at the time, their escape was a miracle. Mr. Perceval Baskerville, a midshipman of the Bathurst, and a native of Plymouth, was sent on shore with a party on the east- ernmost island of Flinders’s Group, for the purpose of picking up any part of the wreck of the ship Frederick, which had been lost there; when they were encountered by a large party of the na- tives, who commenced a horrible shout, which proved the signal to engage, and they commenced by throwing a shower of spears with great agility, by which two of the party were wounded. The Bathurst’s people, being unarmed, could make no other re- sistance than by detending themselves with stones, while a party of them were immediately dispatched in the boat, in order to procure fire-arms from the ship. The natives, seeing the trans- action, took the opportunity, while the boat was absent, to at- tack those left on shore more violently, and Mr. Baskerville and his little party were surrounded and made prisoners. How- ever, no attempt was made to take their lives after the capture ; and on the return of the boat, through artifice, they again joined their comrades. But shortly afterwards the natives came down in great numbers, and again attacked the party, who, being now armed, gave them a volley that occasioned them to scamper off in all diteetions, leaving two on the ground wounded; but the soon after got up-and escaped, and no others appeared while the Bathurst remained there.— Plymouth Telegraph. NEW SOUTH WALES. Letters are in town from Port Jackson, to the middle of June, by the Skelton, at which period the prospects of the territory continued to bear the same favourable aspect they have long as- sumed. Mr. Throsby had returned on the 20th of April from an ex- eursion into the country to the southward of Lake George, The persevering efforts of this gentleman iu exploring the interior of this territory have often attracted the public attention ; and have contributed in a very eminent degree to open to the colonists a large tract of land, that now affords abundant pasturage toa con- siderable number of cattle and sheep, and bas much relieved the exhausted and overstocked grazing-grounds in the early-settled parts 454 Natural History. parts of the colony. In his late journey, Mr. Throsby fell in with three very considerable rivers, or streams of water, apparently originating in the high lands at the back of Jarvis and Bate- man’s Bay, and taking a westerly course. ‘The country was of various description, but containing a good quantity of open fo- rests and plains, very abundant in water, and affording good pas- turage. Limestone was found in great plenty, and specimens had been brought in. In Mr. Throsby’s letter, detailing the tour, he says, ‘¢ I admit the great extent of country through which these rivers appear to run, places it far beyond my power to determine their termina- tion ; yet I still hope they will be ultimately found to communi- cate with the sea, but most certainly not on the eastern coast. ‘¢] am happy to report, that the country in general is supe- rior to that which we passed through when with His Excelleney the Governor in November last. It is perfectly sound, well wa- tered, with extensive meadows of rich land on either side of the rivers 3 contains very fine limestone in quantities perfectly inex- haustible, slate, sand stone, and granite fit for building, with suf- ficient timber for every useful purpose ; and, from the appear- ance of the country, an unbounded extent to the westward. “© The approach from Lake George is in no part more difficult than the track the Governor’s carriage and carts passed between Lake Bathurst and Lake George on his late tour; nor do the very high mountains to the south-east present that prospect of extreme barrenness which the mountains bounding this part of the colony do; the whole being thinly timbered, with a pleasant appearance of verdure between the trees.” NATURAL HISTORY. Whales.—The Aleutians count seven species of whales, the most of which are probably unknown to natural bistory. One of these species is a rapacious animal, which is well known not to be the case with other whales, as they have no teeth. It de- vours every thing it can catch, and often pursues the Aleutians, whose little baydaus, if it is able to overtake them, it upsets with one blow of its tail. It is said that a baydan, with 24 oars and 30 men, was lately destroyed by the blow of such a monster, near Oonalashka. The Russians and Aleutians relate, that ifa piece of the blubber of this animal is swallowed, it has the pro- perty of immediately passing through the body undigested. Sea Serpent.—M. Kriukof’s description of a sea-animal which. pursued him at Behring’s Island, where he had gone for the purpose of hunting, is very remarkable, Several Aleutians affirm they have often seen this animal. It is of the shape of the red serpent, and immensely long; the head resembles that of the Fossils.—Superb Mummy. 455 the sea-lion, and two disproportionately large eyes give it a frightful appearance. “It was very fortunate for us,” said Kriukof, ‘‘ that we were so near land, or else the monster would have swallowed us: it stretched its jiead far above the water, looked about for prey, and vanished. ‘Ihe head soon appeared again, and that considerably nearer: we rowed with all our might, and were very happy to have reached the shore before the serpent. ‘The sea-lions were so terrified at the sight, that some rushed into the water, and others hid themselves on the shore. The sea often throws up pieces of flesh, which, accord- ing to opinion, is that of this serpent, which no animal, not ven the raven, will touch. Some Aleutians, who had once _asted some of it suddenly died. If a sea-serpent really has been seen on the coast of North America, it may have been one of this frightful species. Gigantic Polypus.—The Aleutians also relate stories of a gi- gantic polypus. It has happened, that a polypus has thrown its long arms, which are twice as thick asa strong man’s arm, round the baydau of an Aleutian, and would have carried it into the abyss, if the Aleutian had not had the presence of mind to cut through with his knife the fleshy arm of the polypus, which was furnished with large suckers. The polypus remains with his body fast at the bottom of the sea, and generally chooses a place from which it can reach the surface with its arms. The last accident happened in the passage which is found by the southern point of the island of Oemnack, and the little is!and lying near it.— Kot- zebue’s Voyage, ii. 188. A Female Shark.—The ship Brailsford, on her passage from Bombay to England, in latitude 29. 26. S. long, 40. 2. E. caught a large blue female shark 12 feet long, on opening which there were found no less than 77 young ones alive, each about a foot long, and weighing from one half to three quarters of a pound. FOSSILS. In the beginning of November, Mr. Mantell discovered in the chalk near Lewes, three vertebra of the celebrated fossil animal of Maestricht. This is the first instance of the remains of that ovi- parous quadruped being found in this country, or in any part of the Continent, except in St. Peter’s Mountain near Maestricht. SUPER MUMMY. A Danish family, desirous of purchasing a beautiful mummy for one of the museunis in Copenhagen, wrote to M. Dumrecher, Danish Consul at Alexandria ;_ who, assisted by M. Tedenat, the French Consul, procured an intelligent man to set out for Upper Egypt, with a firman from the Pasha, to search the tombs of the ancient 456 Meteoric Stones. ancient kings. For the greater dispatch, they employed two different parties of the natives, from Longsor and from Karnack, The former were the most fortunate, discovering a tomb that had never been opened, aud where they found, on the third day, a mummy with five cases ; they asked for this 6000 piastres of Egypt (133/.), which was paid them. ‘The fellahs of Karnack, thus disappointed, and kaving had three days toil for nothing, had warm disputes with those of Lougsor ; and mischievous con- sequences might have ensued, as their villagers took a part in the quarrel, if the possessor of the mummy had not given 1000 pi- astres (221. ) extra to the Arabs of Karnack, to whom also some participation was made by those of Longsor. This mummy is the most superb and beautiful of all that have hitherto been dis- covered. To judge of it from the ornaments in relief, which decorate the cases, and especially one whereon gold has been la- vished, from the rich style of the amulets, from the largeness of the papyrus, and all the hieroglyphical embellishments about the body, it must have been that of some Egyptian king or prince. This conjecture is coroborated by the number of cases, as the mummies of the greatest persons in general have only three. METEORIC STONES. M. Fleurian de Bellevue, in a paper read last year before the Academy of Sciences, on meteoric stones, and particularly on those which fell near Jonzac, in the department of Charente, draws the following conclusions respecting these bodies : 1. The appearances presented by the crust of meteorolites seem to prove that their surface has been fused whilst rapidly traversing the flame of the meteor, and rapidly solidified into a vitreous state on leaving that flame. 2, They prove that in the first moments, the movement of the meteorolites was simple; that is, that they did not turn round on their own axis whilst those two effects took place. 3. That the impulse each meteorolite has received has almost always been perpendicular to its largest face. 4, That the largest face is almost always more or less convex. 5. Our meteorolites (those of Jonzac) offer new proofs of the pre-existeuce of a solid nucleus to bolides or meteors. 6. This nucleus could not contain the combustible matter which produces the inflammation of the meteor. 7. It cannot have suffered fusion during the appearance of the phenomena. 8. The gaseous matter which surrounds this nucleus is dissi- pated without producing any solid residuum. No trace of this matter appears ever to exist in the crust of the meteorolites. 9. Meteorolites are fragments of those nuclei which have not been 2 ee Meteor.— Shower of Snails. | 457 been altered in their nature, but simply vitrified at their sur- faces. 10. Many of the irregular forms which these fragments pre- sent may be referred to determined geometric forms. 11. These latter forms are the consequence of the rapid ac- tion of a violent fire, according to a law of the movement of heat in solid bodies, discovered by M. Emer.— Quarterly Journal, METEOR. \! A most beautiful meteorological phenomenon was witnessed at Brighton late on Sunday night, the 2d of December. It was a swift shooting luminous ball, which continued perfect a few se- conds, and then assuming the appearance of a fine large sky rocket, became gradually dissolved amidst a wide-spreading shower of splendid sparkling fire. _ THE SHOWER OF SNAILS. To Dr. Tilloch. fa Bristol, Nov. 19, 1821. Sirn,—There appeared two extracts from the Bristol and Gloucester Newspapers in your October Number, respecting a shower of snails said to have fallen at Tockington near Bristol. Having heard such a report at the time, I was anxious to ex- amine into the truth of it, particularly as it was represented to have had some sort of connexion with the curious azure-blue appearance of the sun: accordingly I went over to Tockington with two friends, expecting to find an immense quantity of peri- winkles deposited there by a water spout—two or three inches deep at least— as it was stated that the farmers had carried them away by waggon loads to manure their land with. You may imagine our astonishment, when upon asking our guide how much further we had to go, he told us we were on the spot. Upon an attentive examination, I could perceive there were many small snails there; but [ do not believe that I could in any part of the field have covered more than a dozen with one of my hands; almost as many appeared in a field on the opposite side of the turnpike road, Jut not one upon the road itself. 1 inquired whether many had been seen there in former years, and heard that almost as many were there last year. I shall not trouble you with the answers to every question asked, but it turned out very similar to the well known story of the three black crows, A man had walked over the field in the morning, and observed nothing particular ; but on returning in the evening was struck (not with a snail) but with the appearance of a great number of snails, and jocosely observed ‘* a body would think it had rained snails.” This being repeated with a little addition to an old Vol, 58, No, 284, Dec, 1821, 3M granny 458 Earthquakes.—Ezxtraordinary Shipwreck. granny in the village, she remarked she did not doubt it; indeed she thought she “ felt something fall on her umbrella as she went over the field in the evening before.” On the arrival of this story in Bristol, only eight miles, it amounted to this: A dread- ful storm had happened which drove every person from a fair held there ; and that when the morning came they found twenty- eight acres of land covered six or seven inches deep with snails, which had fallen with such foree as to beat holes in people’s umbrellas!!! Some of them were brought here, and sold on the Exchange at a halfpenny each, and I am given to under- stand that a respectable tradesman in Bristol had some of them boiled, and ate them as shell-fish. If you think it necessary that such a statement should be cor- rected, and that this answers the purpose, you are welcome to print it. Iam, sir, yours, &c. Witiram HERapatH. EARTHQUAKES. On Monday the 15th of October, at an early hour in the morn- ing, an earthquake was felt over the island of Bute. At Rothsay and in its vicinity, a tremulous motion was experienced, which lasted a few seconds, and is said by some to have been accom- panied by a sound similar to that of the distant rolling of carriage wheels. It was also felt at Greenock, though so slightly as not to excite speculation till corrobrated by the above information from Bute. Hes On Tuesday the 23rd of October, at 3 Pp. M., a shock of an earthquake, more severe and alarming than any previously ex- perienced in that quarter, was felt at Comrie. The noise which accompanied the shock was sensibly felt by many persons at the distance of nearly 20 miles in a southerly direction. A gentle- man of Stirling, who had been walking that day along the Teath with some friends, says that it took place about three o’clock in the afternoon. The noise, which was accompanied with a slight tremulous motion, is described as like the rolling of distant thun - der, but was at the same time so distinct, and sensibly felt by all of them, that each instantly declared it to be the effect of an earth- quake. The spot on which they were then standing is only about three miles north-west of Stirling: Similar effects were felt at Blacktord and neighbourhood, EXTRAORDINARY SHIPWRECK. On the 19th. of November, 1820, in lat. 47° S., long. 118° W. the American South Sea whaler Essex, of 250 tons, G. Poilard master, from Nantucket, met with the following singular acci- dent. On that day the vessel was among whales, and tliree boats were lowered down: the mate’s boat got stove, and had returned to ¢ E Extraordinary Shipwreck. 459 to the ship to be repaired. Shortly after a whale of the largest class struck the ship, and knocked part of the false keel off just abreast of the main channels. The animal then remained for some time along-side, endeavouring, but in vain, to clasp the ship with her jaws: she then returned, went round the stern, came on the other side, and went away a-head about a quar- ter of a mile, when suddenly turning, she came at the ship with tremendous velocity, head on. ‘The vessel was going at the rate of five knots ; but such was the force when she struck the ship, which was under the cat-head, that the vessel had stern-way at the rate of three or four knots ; in consequence of which, the sea rushed into the cabin windows, every man on deck was knocked down, and the bows being stove completely in, the vessel filled, and went on her beam ends. By cutting away the masts, the vessel righted ; the upper deck was then scuttled ; and some water and bread were procured for the two boats, in which the captain and crew, in expectation of falling in with some vessel, remained three days by the wreck, but were compelled at length to abandon it. On the 20th December they made Ducie’s Island at which place the boats remained one week ; but the island affording hardly any nourishment, they resolved on venturing for the continent, leaving behind three men. The two boats, soon after leaving the island, parted. One of them, containing only three men, was picked up by an American whaler about 60 days after the wreck. The other, in which the captain was, was fallen in with by another whaler 90 days from the time of their leaving the island. Only two of her crew then survived, and their account of their sufferings was dreadful in the extreme. From hunger, they had been reduced to the painful necessity of killing and de- vouring each other. Eight times lots had been drawn, and eight human beings had been sacrificed to afford sustenance to those that remained; and on the day the ship encountered them the captain and the boy had also drawn lots, and it had been thus determined that the poor boy should die! But providentially the whaler hove in sight and took them in, and they were restored to existence. Captain Raine of the Surrey, having learnt this me- lancholy tale at Valparaiso, whence he was about to sail for New South Wales, resolved to make Ducie’s Island on his way, to re- scue the three men left there, if still in existence. On nearing the island a gun was discharged, and shortly after the three poor men were seen to issue forth from the woods. The boats were presently lowered, and the men with considerable difficulty, owing to a heavy surf, were got on board. 3M 2 SOUTH 460 South American Botany.—Potatoe. SOUTH AMERICAN BOTANY. It was some time ago stated in the accounts received from New Granada, that the whole, or the greatest part, of the results of the botanical researches of the celebrated Mutis, carried on at the expense of the Spanish Government for more than forty years, in one of the finest regions of South America, had been recently destroyed amidst the conflicts of contending armies, and considerable regret was excited in the breasts of scientific men on account of so irreparable a loss. We have, however, the sa- tisfaction to announce, that the whole, with the exception of a few indices and partial descriptive catalogues, have arrived safe at Madrid, and are now deposited at the Botanical Garden, in charge of Professor Gasca, who very kindly showed the series of drawings to a gentleman lately arrived from Spain. They were executed in the most beautiful style, on the spot, chiefly by South Americans, who, it is acknowledged, have a peculiar taste for design and painting, and they exceed 4000. The specimens were collected in wide and secluded districts, in a tropical clime, and all copied the moment each plant was gathered. This gives to the drawings a brilliancy and nature almost unequalled, and among them are some hundreds of plants never before known in Europe. ‘The history of the Cinchona, or febrifuge bark, in a long series of drawings, embracing the genera and extensive va- rieties, is peculiarly fine. This valuable treasure fell into the hands of General Morillo when he entered Santa Fe, and he had the whole packed up and sent down to a shipping port, where the packages were embarked for Spain, The descriptive pieces were at the time left in the eountry, and consequently they are not lost. Owing to the distressed state of the finances in Spain, it may be many years before this collection, which no doubt stands unrivalled, can be laid before the public. We therefore take the liberty to suggest, that General Bolivar,and the Government over which he presides, in whatever arrangements they may here- after make with the Ministers of Spain, respecting the acknow- ledgement of their independence, ought to stipulate for some plan for the publication of Mutis’s labours. This is due to science in general, as well as to the memory of that distinguished bo- tanist and his worthy coadjutors, some of whom, particularly the lamented Caldas, fell victims in that very contest which is now so near its close. —— SOUTH AMERICAN POTATOE. Some time last year, Mr.. Thomas Lorimer, residing near Rockhall, the seat of Sir Robert Grierson, Bart., received from an acquaintance, a single potatoe which had been brought from Spanish Spade and Plough Husbandry.—Animal Sagacity. 461 Spanish Town, South America. This potatoehe kept till spring, when cutting it in two, he planted the pieces at a trifling distance from one another, in a corner of his garden. These plants, or slips, speedily sprung up, and in due time put forth blooms and apples like any other potatoe; and there was nothing either in the colour or luxuriance of the shaws that excited particular no- tice ; but on raising the said exotics, Mr. Lorimer found to his surprise, that they had produced no fewer than 41 potatoes ; 30 of which are of an uncommon size. Two of the largest of these were brought to this office a few days ago, one of which weighed alb. 20z., and the other Ilb. 140z. while both measured nearly 18 inches in circumference. From the size and appearance of the thumping roots, we were inclined to set them down as a spe- cies of the yam: but on this point Mr. L. completely undeceived us, by declaring that the residue of the produce, which cannot weigh much less than 30lbs., is rather of a round shape, and in other respects bears a pretty close resemblance to the common potatoe.—Dumfries Courier. SPADE AND PLOUGH HUSBANDRY. In the neighbourhood of Hamilton an experiment was made this year to try the difference between the spade and the plough. A field was taken, which was in beans last year, and oats the year before ; two ridges were dug and two ploughed alternately, and the whole was sown on the same day; a part both on the ploughed and dug being drilled with the garden hoe ; the whole was reaped the same day ; and being thrashed out, the result was, that the dug sown broadcast was to the ploughed sown broad- cast as 55 to 42. The dug and drilled was as 20} to 12}, upon the ploughed and drilled. The additional grain is not the only beneficial result gained by digging, as in this instance there was also a great deal more straw. The land is free of weeds, and will be more easily fallowed next year. ANIMAL SAGACITY. We do not think the records of instinct ever contained a more extraordinary instance than we are now about to relate, and for the truth whereof we pledge ourselves. A few days since, Mr. Joseph Lane; of Fascombe, in the parish of Ashelworth, in this county, on his return home, turned his horse into a field in which it had been accustomed to graze. A few days before this, the horse had been shod all-fours, but unluckily bad been pinched in the shoeing of one foot. In the morning, Mr. Lane missed the horse, and caused an active search to be made in the vicinity, when the following singular circumstance transpired :—The ani- mal, 462 Magnetism.—Letter from Mr. Ivory. mal, as it may be supposed, feeling iame, made his way out of the field by unhanging the gate with his mouth, and went straight to the same farrier’s shop, a distance of a mile and a half. The farrjer had no sooner opened his shed, than the horse, which had been evidently standing there some time, advanced to the forge, and held up his ailing foot. The farrier instantly began to ex- amine the hoof, discovered the injury, took off the shoe, and re- placed it more carefully ; on which the horse immediately turned: about, and set off at a merry pace for his well-known pasture. Whilst Mr. Lane’s servants were on the search, they chanced to pass by the forge ; and on mentioning their supposed loss, the’ farrier replied, ‘‘ Oh! he has been here and shod and gone home again ;” which on their return they found to be actually the case. —Cheltenham Chronicle. MAGNETISM. The Prussian StateGazette mentions a highly important dis- covery, which Dr. Seebeck had communicated to the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, in three different sittings. It was on the magnetic properties inherent in all metals and many earths, (and notin iron only as was supposed,) according to the difference of the degrees of heat. This discovery, it is added, opens an entirely new field in this department of natural philosophy, which may lead to interesting results with respect to hot springs, connected with the observations made by the Inspector of Mines (M. Von Trebra) and others, relative tothe progressive increase of warmth in mines in proportion to their depths. According to M. Von Trebra’s observations, the heat at the depth of 150 feet below the surface of the earth is one degree ; at 300 feet deep, two degrees ; at 600 feet four degrees, &c. LETTER FROM MR, IVORY TO THE EDITOR, Srr,—I find in your last Number, a letter from my late an- tagonist, which would not have required any immediate notice from me, if he had not said that his veracity was called in ques- tion. Now I am not conscious that I used any words or mode of expression that can be so interpreted; at least, I certainly never intended to insinuate any thing of the kind. He also says that he was attacked upon his own ground ; which is somewhat strange; for, on the other hand, J always thought that I was defending myself from an attack made upon me without any ground at all. I am, sir, Your obedient servant, Dec. 20, 1821. James Ivory. List of Patents for New Inventions. 463 LIST OF PATENTS FOR NEW INVENTIONS. To Thomas Parkin, of Skinner-street, Bishopsgate-street, London, merchant, for his improvements in printing.—Dated the 24th November 1821.—6 months allowed to enrol specifica- tion. To William Baylis, junior, of Painswick, Gloucestershire, clothier, for his machine for washing and cleaning cloths. — 27th November.—2 months. To Thomas Motley, of the Strand, Middlesex, patent letter- maker, and brass founder, for his improvements in the construc- tion of candlesticks or lamps, and in candles to be burnt therein. —27th November.—6 months. To Robert Bell, of Newman-street, parish of St. Mary-le-bone, Middlesex, esq., for his improvement in the construction of cer- tain descriptions of boats and barges.—5th December.—6 mo. To Charles Broderip, of London, esq., now residing in Glas~ gow, for his various improvements in the construction of steam- engines.—5th December.—6 months. To Henry Ricketts, of the Phoenix Glass- Works, Bristol, Somer- setshire, glass-manufacturer, for his improvement in the art or method of making or manufacturing glass bottles; such as are used for wine, porter, beer or cyder.—5th December.—2 mo. To William Warcup, of Dartford, Kent, engineer, for his improvements upon a machine for washing linen cloths, cotton cloths, or woollen cloths, whether in the shape of piece goods, or of any article made up of linen cloth, cotton cloth, or woollen cloth. —10th December.—2 months. To William Horrocks, of Portwood within Binnington, Ches- ter, cotton manufacturer, for his improvement in the construction of looms for the weaving of cotton or linen cloth, by power com- monly called Power looms.—14th December.—2 months. To James Winter, of Stoke-under-Hamdom, Somerset, gen- tleman, for his improvements in a machiae for sewing and point- ing leather gloves with neatness much superior to that which is effected by manual labour.—19th December.—2 months. - To Samuel Brierley, of Salford, in the parish of Manchester, Lancaster, dyer, for his improved method of preparing raw silk and cleansing the same for the purpose of dyeing and manufac- turing. —19th December.—2 months. To John Gladstone, engineer, and millwright, of Castle Douglas, in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, county of Galloway, North Britain, for his improvements in the construction of steain vessels by the application of steam or other power.—20th De- cember,—6 months. BARO- 464 Barometric Oliservations. BAROMETRIC OBSERVATIONS. Crumpsall, Lancashire, Dec. 12, 1821. S1r,—The following observations were taken on the 12th of November and the 10th of December. Your obedient servant, To Dr. Tilloch. Joun BLACKWALL. CRUMPSALL. Bar i ae Wind. Weather. 1821. A.M. eee Nov. 12th 84. |29-380} 47° | 45°5 |S.W. brisk. |Foggy. [sunsh. 9 129.400} 48 46:3 |S.W. do. Foggy, with faint 10 |29.410) 48 48 |S.W. do. Sunshine through 11 {29.430} 50°5 | 50:5 |S.W. high. |Do. [clouds. 12 |29.445} 51 51 |S.W. do. = |Do. P.M. 1 [29-457 | 52:2 | 52:3 | W. do. (|Do. 29-500 | 53 53:5 | S. boisterous./Cloudy. 9 [29-500 | 53 53°5 |S. do. Do. 10 {29-500 | 53 54 S. do. A little rain. ' 11 {29-480} 53 54:5 | S. do. Cloudy, with faint 12 |29-460} 53:5 | 55 S. do. Do. {sunsh. P.M. 1 |29:440}] 53:5 | 55 S. do. A little rain. MANCHESTER, _ | Ther. | Ther. 3 1821. A.M. Bar. att. det. Wind. Weather. | ee 8". 129.600} 54° 45° |S.E. brisk. |Foggy. 9 129.620} 54 46 |S.E. do. Fine. 10 {29.640} 54 47:5 \S.E. do. Do. 11 29.6451 55 | 49:5 |S.W. high. |Do. 12. 129.650] 55 51-5 |S.W. brisk. |Do. P.M. 1 j29-660| 56-5 | 53) |S.W. do. Do. Noy. 12th, 8 29-700) 55 54 |S.W. do. Do. 9 |29-680] 55:5 | 54-5 |S.W. do. Do. 10 29-680] 56 56 |S.S.E. high. |Cloudy. ll |29-675} 56:5 | 57 = |S.S.E. do. Do. 12 {29-660 | 57 57°5 |S.S.E. do. Do. P.M. 1 |29-600| 58 58 S. do. Do. Pocklington, Yorkshire, Nov. 17, 1821. Str,—The following observations I made at this place on the 12th of this month, at the hours given below. I am, sir, yours truly, Wii1aM RoGERson, jun. Clock. Barometric Observations. 465 Thermom. Clock. |p oyom.| in ; out | Wind. Weather. A.M. doors doors 85)29-563 | 51-5 | 44-0|S.W. byS./Calm: clear in the west and zenith. 9 |29-597 | 50:4 | 43-7 |S.E. by S.|Gentle breezes: clear, except a few thin high clouds. 10 [29-599 | 50:3 | 45°8 8. |Ditto. 1] |29-616 | 50:7 49 0| S. by W.|Strong breezes: fine and clear bright sunshine. 12 |29:648 | 51.2 | 50-0] S. by W.JA brisk wind at intervals: clear, ex- cept a few clouds. P.M.1 |29:653 | 51-6 | 5-13)S.W.by S./Rather windy: sky almost covered over with clouds. Observations by Dr. Burney, of Gosport; the basin of his Barometer being 50 feet above low-water mark. Hour. Barom. phen Bp Wind. State of the Weather. a2) a )S | porter Gy: ade aily 1821. A.M. |Inches.| o 0 CBartions of nimbi sailing to the Dec. 10. 85 | 30-12 |52 53189 Ss. northward with a fresh breeze, ens an overcast sky. Do. Do. with a mix- Te of clouds to the southward, followed by a light shower of rain. The lower stratum of cloud break- ing away, above which lofty beds of cirrostratus appeared. : § Gleams of sunshine through the IT | 30-10 |64)55)85) | 8. t apertures of the passing dinate; 5 Sunshine with lofty cirrocumulus, 84) S. and the lower clouds dispersing, Q by a brisk wind. 83 § The clouds to the southward in- | U creasing. Gosport, Dec. 19, 1821. Sir,—lI herewith send you descriptions of an Anthelion, a Me- teor, and small Halos, or rings of colours around candles, that I have recently seen here. Anthelion. An Anthelion of several colours appeared in the forenoon of the 26th ultimo, for two minutes only, in a narrow cirrocumulative cloud that was passing slowly to the eastward, It was about 125° distant from, opposite to, and of the same altitude as the real Sun, and 2-3rds of a degree in diameter. It certainly was different, both in colour and distance, from any I have hitherto seen; as it had much the appearance of a beau- tifully coloured parhelion rather irregular in shape, the prismatic colours not having exhibited a circular form. The anthelia that I have formerly seen have been formed on the surfaces of dense cumuli and cumulostrati, and appeared like the Sun’s disc Vol. 58. No, 284, Dec. 1821. 3.N through 9 | 30°13 |53)54/88) S. 10 | 30-12 |53)55)86 wn 12 | 30:09 |54/56 1 | 30:08 |55/55 Se 466 Barometric Observations. through an attenuated cloud, thus forming an image of him at various distances, according to the height and distance of the clouds in which they have appeared. A large Meteor.—On the evening of the 11th instant, at 20 minutes before 10 o’clock (mean time) I observed a luminous Meteor, apparently 6 or 7 inches in diameter, descend from an altitude of about 15° between the Dragon and Bootes. It ap- peared quite circular, of a silvery colour, and to a considerable distance around spread out alight far brighter than that reflected from the Moon, notwithstanding she then shone brilliantly in a cloudless space. Its motion was slow, compared to that of mid- dle-sized meteors, and its inclination to the horizon formed an angle of about 10°, inclining tothe N.W.: and in that direction a fresh breeze prevailed, which probably had had some power over its course in altering it from a perpendicular descent. On looking at the state of the clouds at the time, I observed the sky was interspersed with small cumuli that were brought up by a warm current from the S.E. ; and attenuated cirrostrati of an electrical appearance, particularly in the quarter whence the meteor fell. As it did not appear to be many miles distant, and it being a fine night, probably some of your correspondents may have seen it: if so, I trust they will not fail to describe what they saw of it, in your very useful and interesting Magazine and Philosophical Journal. Small prismatically coloured Halos around lighted Candles.— So humid has the atmospheric air been in rooms without fire on several evenings this month, that well-defined Halos have been formed around lighted candles, with three rings of colours in the following order from the light: viz. first a yellow discus halo 6 inches in diameter, with a contiguous ring of green 2 inches broad and 10 inches in diameter, surrounded by a ring of red 1 inch broad and i2 inches in diameter to the outside of the co- lours, at a distance of 2 yards from the observers. The halos around the candles in the rooms with fire did not appear above half the diameter of those above described ; but they exhibited similar colours. Coloured halos like these, we frequently see around the Moon from 37° to 7° in diameter in a hazy atmosphere, accompanied by a high wind. These proportions, &c. do not furnish suffi- cient data for a mathematical solution of the large solar and lu- nar halos that we often see with their rings of colours; but from their formation around candles in a damp air, we may easily com- prehend the manner in which the large ones are formed by the refractions and reflections of solar and lunar light in lofty vapours. Yours respectfully, To Dr. Tilloch. Wittiam Burney. Pock- Barometric Observations. 467 ‘Pocklington, Yorkshire, Dec. 19, 1821. Sir,—The following observations 1 made here, on Monday the 10th of December. Clock Thermo. c in | cut r Weather. A.M. Barom. doors|doors Wind. 8/29-745|48-4|48-8| S.E. (Rather windy: sky covered with thin grayclouds running from S.W. by S. and some others below more dense 9 |29-740| 48-6 | 49-8 |S.E. by S.|Do. [from the S. 10 |29-737| 49-3510} S.E. |Do. 11 |29-724} 49 12 |29-713) 50 P.M.1 | 29-690} 51: 3 8151-4) S.E. |Very dull and cloudy. 7151-9} SE. |Do. 5 52:6 |S.E. by 8.|Windy and cloudy. lam, sir, yours, &c. To Dr. Tilloch. Wiiu1aM RocErson, jun. Leighton, Dec. 19, 1821. Dear Sir,—The following observations of the Barometer complete the course for the present year. ' LEIGHTON. ’ Ther. |Ther. ! 1821. deszuinh att. | det. | Wind. Peon Weather. Dec. 10. 8" |29-748 | 46 | 51 | S.S.W. | fresh. |Cloudy. : 9 |29:748 | 46 | 513) S.S.W.| do. |Do. ~ 10 (29-747 | 474) 52: |S.W.byS,) do. |Do. 11 |29-732 | 48 | 52 |S.S.W. | do. |Do. 12 |29-712 | 483] 52 |S.W.byS.| do. |Do. 1 |29-702 | 484] 53 S. do. |Do. BusHEY. 1821. Barom. ye ¥ a Wind. Denom. Weather. Dec. 10. 8829-551) 48:71 50 | S.S.W. | fresh. | Cloudy. 9 |29°551!149° | 50 | S.S.W. | do. Do. 10 29-551) 49°5 51 S.S.W,..| do. Do. 11 |29°528| 50:3] 51 | S. by W.} do. Do. 412 (29-520) 50:6) 51 S.S.W. | do. Do. 1 |29:510) 50-6} 51 S.S.W. | do. Do. 3N2 Before 468 Barometric Observations. Before a proper comparison can be made between the various results obtainable from the observations made by your corre- spondents, it should be known what peculiar kind of barometér has been used at each place; because all the portable instru- ments known by the name of Sir H. Englefield’s barometers re- quire a correction for the tube, in consequence of having no re- gulating float in the basin. The key to this correction is generally marked wish a diamond on the tube in the shape of a fraction, indicating the proportion between the areas of the tube and cistern. Asswming that the heights of the mercury published i in your Magazine have already been corrected for the size of the tube, the following results have been calculated by my son. Arundel below Leighton. Camden Town above Leighton. 1821. April .. .. 266 feet.1821. February .. 71 JUNG ee J <5 Ge Mareh.. .. 284 July .. .. 248 — August.. .. 269 Mean .. 177 September .. 200 October .. 209 Crumpsall above Leighton. Mean .. 200 Jae’ scieos2eir a July A Vos vee bee Blackwater below Leighton. August... .. 178 1821. January .. .. 79 September .. 157 October oo Vee Bristol below Leighton. a yes 1821. February .. 72 feet. Mean .. 135 ‘ tear’ = bee ee Bushey Heath above Leighton, June“ da GO 1821. January BAR op July~... .+),30 February .. 223 Mean .. 68 March... .. 190 Api) ce, ne see Epping below Leighton. ree se) SP We February .. 110 Ghee her. 98] Maren’ | 80) eptember .. | + eae October .. 211 BP iG! lea tie June - 140 November .. 209 December .. 188 July .. +. 108 Mean ., 219 — Mean .. 1038 Lynn Barometric Observations. 469 Lynn below Leighton. Manchester below Leighton. June .. .. 284 fat) ae ae pag JUNG; sse-- Sane Hafod &@ Mold above Leighton. DRY ses." poor ian February .. 235 August... .. 23 September .. 36 London, Mr. Cary. October oj 35/40 January 23 200 Mean .. 45 April .. .. 260 July .. «235 Pocklington below Leighton. August.. .. 252 February .. 186 September .. 254 Aptihigtal mom. oae October .. 248 FUNC» «5 00 one November .. 252 TU coleot ermal cmt hee August... .. 50 Mean .. 255 Mean .. 102 A remark of Dr. Burney in your November Mag., p. 397, ap- pears to call for some explanation. In the first place, it may not be improper to advise the Doctor to re-peruse the page he has quoted, and perhaps he will not discover any thing men- tioned about the suspended thermometers near the middle of the tube being Jower than the inclosed thermometer—the dif- ference only being mentioned, as being four or five degrees ; and if the Doctor will have the goodness to refer to your Magazine for August, p. 158, he will there find which way the dzfference was observed, and that the suspended thermometers were 3° higher than the inclosed thermometer. In the Magazine for Sep- tember, p. 238, he many also find the same statement: in addi- tion to which I can add, that on all the subsequent days of re- gistering the instruments a similar difference has been no- ticed. It should be observed, that my remarks on this subject did not refer to any barometers except those of the better kind having a thermometer inclosed within the basin of mercury. I am, dear sir, yours truly, B. Bevan. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr.MaskEtyne’s 36 Stars Sor every Day in the Year 1822, at the Time of passing the Meridian of Greenwich. By the Rev. J. Groosy. The mean Right Ascensions are taken from Mr.Pond’s Catalogue in the Nautical Almanac for 1823, and the Corrections from the Tables of M. Bessel. On those days where an asterisk is prefixed the Star passes twice, the AX there given is that at the first passage. 1822. s) Le 10 |ZO o | St vo cv 09 8 LE zo. }€o j9L {92 st of S JZ 10-1S | €P 8g 9b | 29 ~ VRE €o — }F0.. -pLZ. 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METBOROLOGICAL JOURNAL KEPT AT BOSTON, LINCOLNSHIRE, BY MR. SAMUEL VEALL. —a— |The time of observation, unless otherwise stated, is at 1 P.M.} ———— Age of 182i. | the |Thermo-| Baro- |State of the Weather and Modification Moon.| meter. | meter. of the Clouds. DAYS Nov.15| 20 | 58°5 | 29°35 |Cloudy—heavy rain at night. 16} 21 | 53°5 | 29°05 |Ditto 17| 22 | 53° 4 29°30 |Ditto 18} 23 | 48° 29°78 |Fine—rain A.M. 19] 24 | 49°5_ | 29°65 |Cloudy 20| 25 | 51° 29°55 |Ditto 21| 26 | 45° 29°50 |Ditto—rain A.M. 29| 27 | 52: 29°10 |Ditto—rain A.M. 23| 28 | 47° 29°60 |Fine 24\ new] 50° 29°30 |Ditto—brisk wind. 25| 1 | 43°5 | 29°55 |Ditto—ditto, storm at night. 26| 2 | 57° 28°90 |Rain—ditto. 27| 3 | 43° 29°33 |Fine 28) 4 | 48: 29°26 |Cloudy 29| 5 | 46:5 | 29°60 |Fine—brisk wind. 30| 6 | 46:5 | 29°60 |Fine—rain at night. Dec. 1} 7 | 46° 29°33 |Stormy—violent storm A.M. 2| 8 | 43°5 | 29°63 |Fine 3| 9.|.43° 29°39 |Rain 4| 10 | 44*5 | 29°50 |Fine—rain at night. 5| 11 | 48° 29°45 |Ditto 6} 12 | 39°5 | 30°08 |Ditto 7| 13 | 40°5S | 29°77 ‘Cloudy—brisk wind. 8} 14 | 49° 29°80 |Ditto g| full} 52° 29°85 |Fine 10| 16 | 53° | 29°68 |Cloudy 11| 17 | 44. 30:10 |Fine 12! 18 | 42°5 | 30°04 |Cloudy 13; 19 | 46° 29°65 |Ditto 14| 20 | 46°5 | 29°70 \Rain METEORO- Meteorology. 473 METEOROLOGICAL TABLE, . By Mr. Cary, or THE STRAND. Se) SUSE $4 0 wo * (Oe aa ee aa VThermometer. — aes ~ S s 8 = | Height of S=| 8 a the Barom. Weather. 1821. 5 7 ~ 5 Taoches. oe oe SS ee - Nov. 27 | 43 | 45 | 37 | 29°63 Fair 28 | 42/50] 50} -70 Cloudy 29 | 50} 53 | 48 “75 Fair 30 | 46 | 48 | 55 “92 Fair Dec. 1 | 43 | 43} 42 “78 Showery 2 44 | 49} 40 "92 Fair 3 449] 43] 35 ‘60 Rain 4 } 38 | 46} 44 *84 Fair 5 | 47} 50} 39 *76 Fair. Thunder in 6 | 37 | 43 | 37 | 30°25 Fair [the Evening 7 | 40 | 44] 50 | 29:95 Cloudy 8 49 | 50 | 50 | 30°09 Fair 9 } 50] 51 | 50 "12 Showery 'O | 52 | 53 | 50 03 Fair tl | 42 | 46 | 38 26 Fair 12 | 42 | 47 | 47 *25 Cloudy 13 47 | 52 | 42 | 29-93 Fair 14 | 44 | 52 | 50 “99 Cloudy 15 48 | 52 | 50 *98 Fair 16 50 | 54 | 50 *76 Fair 17. | 51 | 51 } 50 *54 Very stormy 18 | 46 | 521} 50 "15 Stormy 19 | 46 | 46 | 44 "26 Showery 20 | 40 | 46 | 47 “40 Cloudy 21 | 47 | 50] 43 “16 Cloudy 22 | 42] 48 | 46 “40 Stormy 23 | 42 | 46} 40 "14 Fair 24 | 46 | 47 | 46 | 28°75 Stormy 25 42 | 43 | 37 "44 Fair 26 37 | 42 | 37 "48 Rain N.B, The Barometer’s height is taken at one o'clock. i Observations for Correspondent who observed the 10th Dec, 8 o’Clock M. Barom. $0084 Ther. attached 54° Detached 52 _ — —_—— — — 084 — — — F4 — om §2 wee ha NS OSG ae a 6S et ee 8S Vol. 58, No, 284, Dec. 1821. 30 INDEX INDEX to VOL. LVUI. ‘ a A po. Observatory at, 220 produced by electricity, 48, 406; Aerostation. Green’s ascent, 68 On papyri of Herculaneum, 421 Africa. New Expedition to, 219 Davy (Dr. T.) on Ceylon, 297 African Geography. Correction of, $94 Deuchar on compressibility of water, 201 Animal sagacity, 461 Diamond. On the, 386 Antique Glass. Cabinet for, 226 Dogs. Madness of, confined to males, Antiquities, Egyptian, 147, 223; 224, $93; Druidical, 150; Indian, 226; of Nubia, 451 Apple Trees. To promote early puberty of, 136 Arctic Land Expedition, 888 Asiatic Society, 303 Astronomical Society, $85, 450 Astronomical Tables, Atkinson on Latitude, Atmospherical Refraction. On calcula- ting, 161, 341 Australasia, coast of, explored, 452 Banks, Sir J. Statue to the memory of, Ny | 75, 154, 237, 315, 397, 464 Benwell on Progressional Series, 265 Berzelius on constituents of water, 203 Blow-pipe, Tofft’s. Appendage to, 401 Blue vegetable colours, with metallic salts, ; 273 Books, New, 60, 141, 209, 296, 382, 444 Botany, 221; South American, 468 Brookes’s gas blow-pipe. Substitute for, 401 Brugnatelli’s new salifiable base, 308 Burney on meteors, &c. 22, 127, 198,465 Barometric observations, Busby’s hydraulic orrery, 415 Calculous diseases. On, 386 Cameron’s crucibles, to make, 247 Campbell on Unicorn, 148 Capillary action. Ons 864 Cartridges for sportsmen, 107, 283 Cary’s Meteorological Tables, 80, 160, 240, 320, 400, 472 Chameleon. On the, 227 Charcoal and Hydrogen. On aériform compounds of, 90, 169 Coat gas. Wenry on, , 90, 169 Cohesion. On, 364 Crucibles. New method of making, 247 Crystals. On structure of, 150 Dalton on analysing waters, 291 Davy, (E.) on testing milk, 241 Davy (Sir H.) on magnetic phenomena 311. This a mistake, 386 Double stars. On catalogue of, 442 Drawing instrument. New, 151 Druidical antiquities, 150 Dulong on constituents of water, 203 Dupin’s work on Great Britain, 209 Earth. On mean density of the, 3 Earthquakes, 221, 458 Eclipse annular of sin in 1836. On, 34 Edinburgh School of Art& 148 Egyptian antiquities, 147, 223, 224, 225, 393 Electricity. Magnetic phenomena of, 43, 406; History of, 137 Farey on trigonometrica]l survey, 54; on shooting stars, 183 Fire shield. Description of, 228 Fish flour. On, 236 Flame under water. To maintain, 307 Flying. An apparatus for, 268 Forster on Funguses, 213 Fossil elk found in Isle of Man, 150 Fossils, 455 France, population of, 451 French Asiatic Society, 143 Fruits. On chemical changes while ripening, 227 Funguses. Forster on, 213 Gas blow-pipe. . Brookes’s, 401 Gases. Henry on, 90, 169 Glow-worm. Rogerson on, 53 Grooby’s right ascension of 36 stars, 50, 111, 195, 268, 469 Green’s aérial voyage, 68 Harvest. On conducting, 57 Heat. Graduation of, in atmosphere, 24 Henry on gases, 90, 169 Herapath’s theory refuted, 190, 260 Herculaneum. On papyri of, 421 Herpin on wines, 254 Herschel, (J. ¥.) Copley medal to, 448 Home on rete mucosum of the Negro, 31 Horizontorium, a philosophical toy, 151 Husbandry, spade and plough, 461 Hutton on mean density of the earth, 3; bust of, 305 Hydraulic orrery, Busby’s, 415 INDEX. Hydrostatic balance, Coates’s, 109 Imperial almanac. Account of, 882 Inglis’s answer to Questions to Natura - lists, 435 Innes on solar eclipse in 1836, 34; On eclipse of 1820, 274 Ivory on atmospheric heat, 24; On nautical astronomy, 81; On calcu- lating atmospherical refraction, 161 ; On Napier’srules, 235; On Le Gen- dre’s theorem, 270; Concessions to, $64; Reply to Concessions, 462; On rolling Pendulum, 417 Jericho. On the rose of, 360 Kater on volcano in the moon, 113; On standards of measure, 280, 335 Kilmaleady bog. On the moving, 70 Lactometer. Davy’s, 244 Lake Superior. On native copper of, 348 Lantern horn. Substitute for, 307 Laplace on meridian of France, —-133 Latitude. On Riddle’s method of de- termining, 40, 200; On finding, 81 Learned Societies, 60, 64, 142, 217, 302, 385, 447 Leeson’s appendage to blow-pipe, 401 Le Gendre’s theorem. On, 270 Light. Ure on, 13 Linear measure. On standards of, 280, 335 Lithography. On, | & 235 Lizard imbedded in stone, 149 Lunar distances. New method of redu- cing, 178 Macdonald on N. W. magnetic pole, 99 Magnet employed to effect decomposi- tions, 380, 387 Magnetic phenomena produced by elec- tricity. On, 43, 406 Magnetic pole. On, 99 Magnetism, 462 Maize. On cultivation of, as a green crop, 483 Manganese discovered near Newcastle, 67 Manuscripts, ancient, 150 Maskelyne’s 36 stars. Right ascension of, 50, 111, 195, 263, 469 Mausoleums in India, 226 Mayer's formula for Refraction. On, 341 Measuve. On standards of, 280, 335 Medico-chirurgical Sociely of Edinburgh, 217 Meikle on reducing lunar distances, 178 Meridians of Greenwich and Paris. On, 135, 394 Metallic salts. Decomposition of, by the magnet, 380 Meteors, 457. Burney ou, 22, 127, 198, 465 Meteorology, 75, 78, 127, 159 Mextcan Flora, 144 Milk. Means of testing, 241 475 Miliar on rose of Jericho, 360 Mineral waters. On analysing, 291 Moon. Volcano in the, 113 Moving bog. Report on, 70 Mummy, superb, 455 Murray on change of colour in blue vegetable colours by metallic salts, 273; On apparatus for restoring re- spiration, 276; On shower bath, 306; On decomposing salts by the magnet, 880; On rabies canina, 386; On cal- culous diseases, 386; On thediamond, 386; On phosphorized ether, 387; On heating by stoves, 387 ; On blow- ipe, 405 Napier’s (Lord) rules of the circular parts, 235 Native copper of Lake Superior, 348 Natural history, 53, 105, 107, 148, 227, 229, 231, 299, 311; 360, 454 Naturalists. Queries to, 225; Answer to questions put to, 435 Nautical astronomy. On present state of, 821; Ivory on, 81 Negro. On rete mucosum of, 31, 140 New Shetland. On, 144, 220 New South Wales, excursion into the country of, 453 Nonagesimal Tables. Utting’s, 188 Northern Expedition, 73 Mubia, antiquities of, 451 Obituary, $12 Oil gas. Tenry on, 90, 169 Ophthalmic Hospital. Report on, 61 Orrery, hydraulic, Busby’s, 415 Papyri of Herculaneum. On, 491 Parlelia, &c. On, 22, 127, 188, 198 Patents. New, 74, 152, 236, 313, 395, 462 Pear trees. To promote early puberty of, 136 Pease. Vegetate after passing through an animal, 441 Pelican. On the, 231 endulum, the rolling. On, 417 Perkins. On conclusions of, respecting compressibility of water, 201 Phenomena, singular, 234, $14 Phosphorized ether. On, 387 Phrenology. On, 187 Picture writing. On Indian, 229 Polar Expedition. The sevond, 887 Polypus, gigantic, 455 Population of France, 451 Potatoe, South American, 468 Prize question, S10 Progressional series. On summation of, 268 Quagga, Mule from, 105 Rabies canina. On, $11, 886 Reade on Refraction, 249; Stark’s re- marks on, 4 476 Refraction. Reade on, 249; Ivory on, 341; Stark on, 431 Respiration. Apparatus for restoring, 276 Rete mucosum of the Negro. On, 31, 140 Riddle’s method of determining latitude. On, 40, 103, 200; On nautical as- tronomy, $21 Rogerson on: glow-worm, 53 Rolling pendulum. On, 417 Rose of Jericho. On, 860 Royal Institution, Cornwall, 302 Royal Society, 60, 142, 447 Royal Society of Literature, 64 Sabine, (E.) Copley medal to, 448 Sagacity, animal, 461 Sulifiable base. A new one, 303 Salt to contaminate, 310 Schoolcraft on native copper, 348 Sea serpent. A terrific one, 454 Seeds. Vegetating power of, 441 Shark, female, 455 Shipwreck, extraordinary, 458 Shirt trees, 395 Sierra Leone negotiation, 452 Silver, to separate from copper, 235 Shooting stars. Burney on, 22, 127, 198; Farey on, 183 Shower bath. Murray’s, 806 Snails. On shower of, 810, 457 Solar eclipses, 34, 274 South’s catalogue of stars. On, 442 Sow. Cross breed from, 107 Spade and plough husbandry, 461 Standards of measure. On, 280, $35 INDE X. Stark on Refraction, 431 Stars. Catalogue of, 114, 867 Stars, double. On catalogue of, 442 Steevens on cartridges for sportsmen, 288 Stoves. Improvement in heating by, $87 Submerged mountain, 220 Submerged village, 145 Tanning. Improvement in, 812 Tides. Extraordinary, 221 Tofft’s blow-pipe. Appendage to, 401 Tredgold’s refutation of Herepath’s theory, 130, 260 Trigonometrical survey. On, 54 Unicorn found in Africa, 148 Ure on light, 13 Utting’s nonagesimal tables, 188 Vaccination, 222 Veail’s Meteorological Tables, 79, 159, 239, 319, 399, 472 Volcano in the moon, 113; in the Isle of Bourbon, 222 War poison. Humboldt on, 231 Waiter. On compressibility of, 201 ; constituents of, 233 Weather. On prognostics of, 22, 127, 198 Whales. A rapacious one, 454 Wheat. Vegetating power of, 441] Wild ass. On the, ; 229 Williams on apple and pear trees, 136 Wines.. On managing, 254 Young’s method of calculating atmosphe- rical Refraction. On, 161 Zodiacal stars, 114, 367 END OF THE FIFTY-EIGHTH VOLUME. = a RE Printed by R, and A. Vaylor, Shoe Lanes ENGRAVINGS. Vol. LI. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Capex Lorrr’s Paper. on-the Probability of Meteorolites being projected from the Moon,—Two _ Plates: one, of Mr. H, Trirron*s-Improved Apparatus for Distillation ; _ and another, of the Figures in Brapiry’s Gardening illustrative of the Ar- » ticle on the Karemoscore.—A Plate illustrative of Mrs, Isperson’s Pa- " peron the Anatomy of Vegetables; and Mr. Trrrcgoxp’s on Revetements. | Vol, LI. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Urincron’s Electrical In- ereaser forthe unerring Manifestation of small Portions of the Electric ' Fluid.—A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Issetson’s Paper on the Fructifica- “tion of Plants. —A Plate illustrative of the Rev. Joun Micusxu’s Theory | of the Formation of the Earth.—A, Plate illustrative of Capt. Karer’s | Article on the Pendulum ; and New Apparatus for impregnating Liquids » with Gases.—A Plate illustrative of Sir H. Davy’s Apparatus for Vola- _tilization of Phosphorus, and Mr. Smiru’s Essay on the Structure of the _ poisonous Fangs of Serpents. ea eorne ee ~ Vol. LIII. A Plate illustrative of Dr. Ure’s Experiments on Caloric, © Mr. Lucxcocx’s Paper on the Atomic Philosophy, and Mr. Bouton’s © | on the Purification of Coal Gas.—A Plate representing Mr. Renwie’s | Apparatus employed in his Experiments on the Strength of Materials; | and the Marquis Ripotrui’s Improvement on the Gas Blow-pipe.——A | Plate illustrative of Mr. Merxie’s Paper on Calorific Radiation; Mr, ) Lowe’s on the Purification of Coal Gas; and Mr, Hucues’s. on ascer- ti taining Distances. — A Plate illustrative of Dr. Orinruus Grecory’s |) Paper on the different Rates of Pennincton’s Astronomical Clock at the | Island of Balta, and at Woolwich Common, Mosk aren | Vol.LIV. A Plate illustrative of the Mewar Bripce.—A Plate illus: trative of Mr. T.owe’s Description of a Mercurial Pendulum.—A. Plate illustrative of Mr. Hart’s Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Instrument.—A ) Plate illustrative of Captain Sanine’s Paper on Irregularities observed in _the Direction of the Compass Needles of thé Isabella and Alexander in » the late Voyage of Discovery ; and Mr. Scoressy’s Anomaly in the Va- “riation of the Magnetic Needle as observed on Ship-board. “_ » Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. _—A Plate illustrative of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun on the 7th of _ September next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for gathering Fruit; Mr. Younc’s Mode of preparing Opium from. the - Papaver somniferum; and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in _ Light which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.—A Plate de- scriptive of Mr. Curusert’s improved Hydrc-pneumatic Apparatus, &c, —A Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- tidn, and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr. Cuartes Bonnycastie’s Communicasion respecting the Influence of Masses of [ron on the Mari- “ner’s Compass, ; 3 | Vol, LVI. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Ipperson’s Paper on the Phy- siology of Botany.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Hauv’s Percussion Gun- Lock; of Dr. Kircuiner’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parx’s _ Mooring Blocks. —A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c. of Mr. Mavam’s im- ‘proved Gas-Meter.—A Plate exhibiting the Discoveries made by Capt. ; ena% in the Polar'Sea, °(.06 1, : _ Vor. LVII, A Plate illustrative of Mess. CExsrep and Ampere’s | Electro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on the Com- -pressibility of Water.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamizson’s Marine ‘Thermometer Case, and’ Mr. Jennincs’s Mereurial Log-Glass.—A Plate illustrative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatus,—A PY gent’s Canal, by Mr. R. H. Gower ; and a Modification of Electro-Mag- netic Apparatus, by Mr, Tatum, eh Tees) Plate representing a Double Canal Lock, aa proposed for the Res Tibi Conmnyrs ¢ ‘OF Nomper 279. ‘ "Page Toe I. On the Mean Density of the Earth. By Dr. Cannes. Pe | te Huron, F.R.S, i Mi hy If. On Light. By Neputy EW eT M. D. Protests of the ae -Andersonian Institution, Glasgow. - oe | - III, Answers by Dr. Wm. Burney to. the: ‘Queries pro- posed by Joun Farry, Esq. Sen., in Phil. Mag. eee June, ty respecting Shooting Stars and Meteors, ~ - ARSE IV. Remarks on the Gradation of Heat i in ‘the Atmo- Be sphere. By James Ivory, M.A. F.R.S._ « - . V. On the black Rete mucosum of the Negro being m8 “vg } fence against the scorching Effect of the Sun’ 's Rays, | By og Sir Eyerarp Homa, Bart. F. R. Buns CV VI. On the annular Eclipse of the Sua shies sil hapbet: A eh ~ on the 15th of May. 1836; being the pr incipal Results of cal- S Sulating for Greenwich and Edinbur By ee Mr, Grorce- (\) INNES - oe - - , y VII. Remarks on Mr. Rie S Cl aim to the Invention of a new Method of determining the Latitude, Sanka? 3 VIII. On the magnetic Phenomena produced by Elec- rie tricity; in’a Letter from’ Sir ‘i. Davy, Bart. F.R, Sito, 1 W.-H. Wortasron, M.D. P.R.S. = yasen TX. True apparent Right Ascension of Dr. ‘Masne- % LYNE’s 36 Stars for every Day i in the Year 1821. ahh the ‘ ui: \ & Rev. J GRooBy. ot) , “ ~ XX. On the Glow-worm, By ‘Mr. Ww. ‘Woe mnoae ‘Jah SA). XI. Remarks and Suggestions, as to the State and Pro- ~ y gress of the Government Trigonometrical Survey, with 1 re- pees, a: ‘i, gard to the Dimensions, Figure and Str aod of it Earth, Sky a By Mr. Joun Farry, Sen. - ae’ ss XII. Hints for the approaching ea ae XHI. Notiées respecting New ‘Books, - > XIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. ie g XV.. Intelligence and Miscellaneous Articles.: Midas #s nese.—Aéronautic Ascension of Mr. Green in Honour o “His Majesty’s. Coronation. Report relative to ‘the moving AN Bog of Kilmaleady, in King’s County, ‘made by Order of © a \ the’ Royal Dublin Society.— The Northern Expedition, — BT af List of Patents for New Inyentions.—Barometric Ore it oid , tions tea cant Rae ; 67-80 : ‘ i aay RIGHARD AND ARTHUR TAYLOR, PRINTERS, SHOE LANL, ! PiaM Dat % he ep RIG Pop 5 oa _ “ENGRAVINGS. VolLi. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Urincfon’s Electrical In- -ereaser for the unerring Manifestation of small Portions of the Electric Fluid.—A Plate ‘Illustrative of Mrs. Inperson’s Paper onthe Fructifiea- stion of Plants.—A Plate illustrative of the Rev, Joun Micuenw’s Theory ‘of the Formation of the Earth.—A Plate illustrative of Capt. Katerr’s ‘Article on the Pendulum ; and New Apparatus for impreenating Liquids with Gases,—A Plate illustrative of Sir H. Davy’s Apparatus for Vola- ization of Phosphorus, and Mr. Smitn’s Essay on the Structure of the poisonous Fangs ot Serpents.» ‘ © Vol. LIII. A Plate illustrative of Dr. Urt’s Experiments on Caloric, “Mr. Lucxcocx’s Paper on the Atomic Philosophy, and’ Mr, Bouron’s oa the Purification of Coal Gas.—A Plate representing Mr. Rennie’s - Apparatus employed in his Experiments on the Strength of Materials; vand the Marquis Ripotpui’s Improvement on the Gas Blow-pipe—-A *Plate illustrative of Mr. Meixis’s Paper on Calorific Radiation; Mr, ie owe’s on the Purification of Coal Gas; and Mr. Hueues’s on ascer- ‘taining Distances. — A Plate illustrative of Dr. Ovinruus Grecory’s _ Paper on the different Rates of Penyincton’s Astronomical Clock at the ‘Jsland of Balta, andat Woolwich Common. ~ ; * Vol. LIV. A Plate illustrative of the Mznar Betpce,—A Plate illus. ‘trative of Mr. Lowe’s Description of a Mercurial Pendulum.—A Plate “illustrative of Mr. Hare’s Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Instrument.—A - Plate illustrative of Captain Sasink’s Paper on Irregularities observed in. the Direction of the Compass Needles of the Isabella and Alexander in the late Voyage af Discovery ; and Mr. Scoresny’s Anomaly in the Va- riation of the Magnetic Needle as observed on Ship-board. ,_ ~ Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Puth of July 1819. =A Plate illustrative of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun onthe 7th of ) September’ next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for |) gathering Fruit; Mr. Younc’s Mode of preparing Opium from the | Papaver somniferum; and-of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in _ Light which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.—A Plate de- tiveof Mr. Curnsert’s improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c. /—A Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- ‘tion, and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr. Cuarres Bonnycastir’s ~ Communication respecting the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Mari-. -ner’s Compass. ayo LVI. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Innerson’s Paper on the Phy- siology of Botany.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Hatw’s Percussion Gun- — Lock; of Dr. Kircutner’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parx’s Mooring Blocks.—-A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c. of Mr. Matam’s im- proved Gas-Meter.—A Plate exhibiting the Discoveries made by Capt. Parry in the Polar Sea. ; Vv yt. LVI. A Plate illustrative of Mess. CExsrep and Amprrr’s Electro-magnetic Experiments, ‘and Mr. Perkins’s Paper on the Com. pressibiliry of Water.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamreson’s Marine Lhermometer Case, and Mr. Jennincs’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—A Plate lustrative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatus,—A Plate representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re- pent’s Canal, by Mr. R. H. Gower ; and a Modification of Electro-Ma g- netic Apparatus, by Mr. Tarum, » Vol. LVILI. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Gro, Innes’s Calculations of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen-on the1di of May 886 | ; Vou, 58. Philosophical oe Soule | Aucust 182 Conrrx TS OF Nivareead 280. S88 XVI. On the Problemin Nautical Astronomy for finding fi | the Latitude by Means of two Observations of the Sun’s Al-- titude and the Time elapsed between them. By deisel se Ivory, A.M. F.R.S.. - sae f° XVII. On the acriform Cortipounds of Charcoal sf ie Se? drogen ;: with an Account of some additional Pa peeneies 4 \on the real from. Oil and from Coal. ay, Wn » Henry, | 4M.D. F.R.S. x - - = 90 gi egy «= xX VIII. Onthe [Sicedeeny. ie a Nor th-w est magnetic Polke by Om 1 S& By Colonel Macponaxp. 99 Bx . “XIX. Answer to « Renierke: on Mr. Riddle’ 5 Sat to fl ASS the Invention of anew Method of determining the Latitude.” Ses By Mr. Epwarp Ripocs. a ~~ 103 SX J XX. A Communication of a singular Fact i in Natural e::; | History. By the Right Honourable the Earl of Morton. 105 @ XXI.. Particulars of a Fact meant similar to that related i ss by Gord Morton. - 1064 XXIT. On the Use of s! ot Cartridges. By A naecy oe eM $PONDENT in India. = 2 - 107 BESS Pass XXilf. Report of a Committee of the Neadinly of Na- © fr i} tural Sciences of Philadelphia, on a new jupaee er Ba- J lance invented by Isaran Luxens. -1 aA \ XKIV.: Description of a Hydrostatic ialina sek i which ee) Bae Specific Gravities of Minerals may be ascertained with- Cx if out Calculation. By Beny. H. Coates,M.D.. -- *- 109 Si a 3 XXV. Truex apparent Right Ascension of Dr. Masxe- a s S LYNE’s 36 Stars for every Day i in the Year 1821. - 1104 Me XXVI. Notice respecting a Volcanic Appearance in the | IE én) Moon. By CaptainHenry Kater, F.R.S. = - - 113 5 Pu » XXVil. The first Portion of a Catalogue of 1800 zodia- zs, ig Sg cal Stars, for the Epoch of January 1, 1800; from the Works a of Piazz1, Bone, and others, with fiiiereseane Notes. - *s Se? . XXVIII. On the Appearance of Meteors:as Prognostien A of Wind and Rain. By Dr. W. Burney. | = 127 M XXIX, A Refutation of Mr, Herapatn’ » Mathenaiaaed | es ies Be Inquiry into the Causes, Laws, &c. of Heat, Gases, Gravi- ; is oat . tation, &c. By Mr. Tuomas TRrEDGOLD. - Wo TO te XXX. Application of the Calculation of Probabilities to” AS \\ the geodesic Operations of the Meridian of France. By. . Count De Larcace. — = 133 2 XXXi. On promoting the Sadie Petraes of Apple-and’ ‘ . geig aee, Pear Trees when raised from Seed. By J. Wittiams, Esq. 136 Gs ie -XXX11. Contribution to pane TES of auacanke aang SSS 4 CorresronpenT. - _ - 137 XXXIJSI. Observations on Sir Eyes ann Home’s Paper - on the black Rete mucosum of the Negro. — - = 140 & XXXIV..Notices respecting New Books. - .- + 141% XXXV. Proceedings of Learned Societies. = = 142 {73 XXXVI. Intelligence and Bebe uate Articles, U4 RICHARD AND ARTHUR TAYLOR, PRINTERS, SHOE ‘LANE, LONDON ALL ta os of NOT. : a - Two Blanks to. a Prize. Lor TERY BEGINS DRAWING BOC This Month, OCTOBER. | THE SCHEME CONTAINS | | ae! 000 ‘THIRTY OTHER CAPITALS, _ -4LL MONEY. _ TICKETS and SHARES are sai by THE RD & | a 9%, pied Baclanges 26, Cornhill; & 324, Oaford- Street ; 5 a cane Sold, in the Last Lottery, | a 16. OR os - Prize of - - - £21,000! ae — 6,054 5 ares Se seta -- ome £15 000 ! ‘ Besides other Capitals; and ina former Lottery, . ~All the Prizes of £30,000! ‘Vou. ae | Philosophical Magazine. | pert. 1g Cowkegrs: or. Nom pee 281. XX XVII. On the new Method proposed by Dr. Youne Ay BS for calculating the Atmospherieal Refraction. By James manly Ivory, M.A. F.R.S. (2! « Set oo 5 ss. X XXVIII. On the aér form Boniidinds, rs Charcoal ahd 6 Hydrogen ; ¢ with an Account of some additional Experi. ‘fments on the Gases from Oil and from Coal. By Wituiam BAN Hever, MD.FRS. 0. ee XXXII: On Mr. Carnor’s new ; System 6k Defence ce) a x if we Piaces by what he calls Vertical” Firing. russ. en XL. On a new graphical Method of. Redacing the Li BS nar Distances. _ By Mr. Henry Meixre. XLI. On Sroorine Stars, and Meteors. “abich. ‘threwe7n Ny down Meteorouites, as distinguished from fiery, Appear- . & {7 ances low in the Atmosphere, which have been supposed to i we proceed from terrestrial Exhalations, ‘and to prognosticate Kiet Wind and Rain, &c.; with Directions for observing | Shoot” a NSS ing ‘Stars. By Mr. J on ix-Farey, sen. -_ es e nagesimal Degree of the Ecliptic. By Mr. Jas. Urtrne. 1888 sll “XLIL An Address: to a Phrenologist. By A Conse sa. /SPONDENT. XLIIL, Tate of the Liohgitnde and Altignde of the Ne XLV. Trueapparent Right Ascension. of Dr. Masxe- GN cyne’s $6 Stars for every Dax inthe Year 1821. By the 4 i) Bee: J. Groosy. , - “XLV. On the “Appear aap Meters: Paslielia, sid Paw. e i -raselenz, as Fropnasaesift generakol Wind and Rain. neck Nay Dr. W. Burney. = ©. = 198 Aus S XLVI. On Mr. Rivoue’ °s Claint: to cae tase ofanew WS SY Method of determining the Latitude. By Mr. H. Atxrsos. | XLVIL. On Mr. Perxins’s Conclusions with rega hs the Compressibility of Water, drawn from the Results of one : A} Fe rh Ne empty Bottles sunk to different. Depths in the Ocean. By S Mr. Jouy: Deucuar, M.W.S., ‘Lecturerion Chemistry and me Wd 3 ie Materia Medica and ‘Pharmacy | in Edinburgh =~ 201 NX XLVIII. New Determination of the’ Proportions of the i 7 ‘Constituents of Water ; and the Density of certain Elastic ee | 1 ‘Fluids, | By MM. Berzeuius and Dutonc. Sg \oL, Proceedings of Leamed Societies. XLIX. Notices respecting New Books, « . 5M Intelligence and Miscellaneous Astidles ee ue the Memory of the late Sir Joseph Bayks— New Expedit 5. to Africa—Disappearance: of a. Mountain—Observatory : ; KS Abo—New Shetland—Earthquake—Pheiomenon - in the : S Tides—Batany—Vaccination—Voleano i in the Isle of Bour- \\ bon—Egypt—Questions addressed to Naturalists— Antique _ ih) Glass—Vestiges revived ~The Chameleon—Maturation | of i " Eroils—Pateny “es Shield—Picture Writingy re zn tS ‘ ws 3 , , : Se : 2 ae, 4 Red a in x ‘e ql : * ENGRAVINGS. ‘ ® Vol. LI. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Upincron’s Electrical In- easer for the unerring Manifestation of small Portions of the Electric uid.—A Plate :llustrative of Mrs. Isserson’s Paper onthe Fructificae Mion of Plants.—A Plate illustrative of the Rev. Joun Micuetv’s Theory ff the Formation of the Earth—A Plate illustrative of Capt. Kater’s tticle on the Pendulum ; and New Apparatus for impregnating Liquids ith Gases,—A Plate illustrative of Sir H. Davy’s Apparatus for Volae iilization of Phosphorus, and Mr. Smitu’s Essay on the Structure of the yissnous Fangs of Serpents. - ‘i Peat Wol..LIII. A Plate illustrative of Dr. Ure’s Experiments on Caloric, fr. Lucxcocx’s Paper on the Atomic Philosophy, and Mr. Botton’s athe Purification of Coal Gas.—A Plate representing Mr. Renwnin’s Apparatus employed in his, Experiments.on the Strength of Materials; gimd the Marquis Ripovexi’s Improvement on the Gas Blow-pipe—A late illustrative of Mr. Mrixxe’s Paper on Calorific Radiation; Mr. owe’s on the Purification of Coal Gas; and Mr. Hucues’s on ascer- ining Distances. — A Plate illustrative of Dr. OLinrHus Grecory’s per on the different Rates of Penyincton’s Astronomical Clock at the land of Balta, andat Woolwich Common, : Vol. LIV. A Plate illustrative of the Menar Baipce.—A Pilate illus- ative of Mr. Lowi’s Description of a Mercurial Péndulum.—A Plate uustrative of Mr. Hare’s Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Instrument,—A te illustrative of Captain Sasine’s Paper on Irregularities observed.in @ Direction of the Compass Needles of the Isabella and Alexander in * Tate Voyage of Discovery; and Mr. Scoressy’s Anomaly in the Va- tion of the Magnetic Needle as observed on Ship-board. Vol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. A Plate illustrative of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun on the 7th of- mber next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for ring Fruit; Mr. Younc’s Mode of. preparing Opium from the er somniferum; and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in ght which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.—A Plate de- iptive of Mr. Curuzerr’s improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c. A Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- a, and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr. Crarves Boxnycastie’s mmunicacion respecting the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Mari- *s Compass. 2 #3 ; , , Jol. LVI. A Pilate illustrative of Mrs. Ieserson’s Paper on the Phy- logy of Botany.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Havt’s Percussion Gun- ck; of Dr. Kircuiner’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parw’s poring Blocks. —A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c. of Mr. Mavam’s im- wed Gas-Meter.—A Plate exhibiting the Discoveries made by Capt. gry in the Polar Sea, ‘ You. LVII. A Plate illustrative of Mess. GExstep and Amrere’s ctro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on the Com. ssibility of Water.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamirson’s Marine mometer Case, and Mr. Jennincs’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—A Plate strative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatus,—-A te representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re+ at's Canal, by Mr. R. H, Gower; and a Modification of Electro-Mag- tic Apparatus, by Mr. Tatum. ; ! Vol. LVIII. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Geo, Innrs’s Calculations of > Annular Eclipse oftthe Sun, which will happen on thel 5th of Nay 1836.—A Plate descriptive. of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isaran xens and Dr, Coates.—A Plate illustrative of “ An Introduction to Knowledge of Funguses.” . Conia OF Nuwaee 289, ‘LIL. Some Experiments made with a view to” the pee AW tection and Prevention of Frauds in the Sale of skimmed ~ mee Milk; together with an Account of a simple Lactometer — Nae for effecting that Purpose.. By Epmunp Davy, Esq. Pro- + & fessor of Chemistr y and pak etary to the Royal Cork Insti-+ © tution. 4 Page 24 ! “LUT Tectnict on of a new Method of forming Cruciz- f bles. By Mr. Cuartes Cameron, Glasgow. eee y o47 TARE On Refraction. By J. Reapt, M-D. - ey Pe LV. Process for preventing and correcting an Imperfec. ee tion in Wi ines know by the Name of Ropiness. By M.. ) HIERPIN. | LVI, On Nasi: s Rules of the Circular Parts, By : 25 © Jamns Ivory, M.A. F.R. ae S LVII. A Refutation of Mr. Herapatn’s. s Makhemumeal | Inquiry into the oo Laws, &c. of Heat, Gases, ao a \ N tion, &c. - es OU §) LVIII. True =ppavent Rives Ascension of Dr. Mash KE- a tyne’s 36 Stars for ey Day-i in the Year 1821. By the: % S Rev. J. Groony. > - eo ee BEBE P LIX. Theorems for the Sunimation of Bae ar Se. aS ries. By Mr. James Benwetu. — 265. : LX. Proposal for an Apparatus for Flying by means of 26 y Motion only. By A CorresPonpenr. . ee LXI. A Demonstration cf Le Geypre’s Theorem for solving such spherical Triangles as have their Sides very © & small in proportion to the Radius of the Sphere. are Ji AMES Ivory, M.A. F.R.S.. = LXiI. On the Change of Colour in Blae vegetable Co oe 5 . 3 z lours by-metallic Salts. - By Mr. J. Murray. fe LS LXIff.; On the Solar Eclipse of the 7th September 1820; being a Com: parison | of restate with some of the i By. Mr. Gunns INNES, Y Sai LXIV. Account of a gene oe for restorin; 2 = 4 th 9 * Action of the Lungs. By Mr. Joun Mueray. = LXV. An Account of the Comparison of various British Standards of linear Measure. By Capt. Henry Karer, YELRS.&e. - “280 gh by Ry LXVI. On Shot Cireidebss By Mr. Josera Sreevens. 2 LXVII. Remarks tending’ to facilitate the Analysis of » Spring and Mineral Waters. By Mr. Jonn Darton, “ LXVilI. Notices respecting New Books. LTS, Pr oceedings of Learned Societies. ‘ LXX, ce eee and ipa ne Articles, RICHARD ‘AND Z ARTHUR TAYLOR, PRINTERS, SHOE Lane, LONDON, © i460 OP ENGRAVINGS. *. ; 4 Jol. LILI. A Plate illustrative of Dr. Ure's Experiments on Galoric, . Lucxcocx’s Paper on the Atomic Philosophy, and Mr. Botron’s the Purification of Coal Gas.—A Plate representing Mr. Renwnie’s d the Marquis Rip6trxi’s Improvement on. the Gas Blow-pipe—A ate illustrative of Mr. Merxxe’s Paper on Calorific Radiation; Mr, We’s on the Purification of Coal Gas; and Mr. Hucues’s on ascer- Mming Distances. — A Plate illustrative of Dr. Orinruus Grecory’s Maper on the different Rates of Pennincton’s Astronomical Clock at the ind of Balta, and at Woolwich Common, : : fol. LIV. A Plate illustrative of the Mena: Baipce.—A Plate illus- tive of Mr. Lowe’s Description of a Mercurial Pendulum.—A Plate trative of Mr. Hare’s Calorimotor,a new Galvanic Instrument.—A ite illustrative of Captain Sasine’s Paper on Irregularities observed in Me late Voyage of Discovery; and Mr. Scorgssy’s Anomaly in the Va- ion of the Magnetic Needle as observed on Ship-board. Jol. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819, A Plate illustrative of the Annular Eclipse of the Sun onthe 7th of tember next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lanx’s Instrument for ering Fruit; Mr. Younc’s Mode oi preparing Opium from the baver somniferum; and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in rht which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers,—A Plate de- iptive of Mr, CuruBert’s improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c, i Plate illustrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- , and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr. Cuarirs Bonnycastue’s Ps Compass, logy of Botany»—A. Plate illustrative of Mr. Haxu’s Percussion Gun- ock; of Dr. Kircuiner’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parx’s doring Blocks.—A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c.of Mr, Maram’s im- bved Gas-Meter.— URRY in the Polar Sea. . Vor. LVII. A Plate illustrative of Mess. CExsrep and Ampere’s essibility of Water.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamizson’s Marine ermometer Case, and Mr. Jenninas’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—A Plate ustrative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatus.—A ate representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed for the Re- ent’s Canal, by Mr. R. H. Gower; and a Modification of Electro-Mag- fic Apparatus, by Mr. Tatum. : Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on the 15th of May 36.—A. Plate descriptive of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isa1au yxens and Dr. Coates.,—A Plate illustrative of “ An Introduction to \ t actometer, and of Mr, Joun Murgay’s portable Apparatus for restore g the Action of the Lungs =, % - v - > ~~ * —- - pay 2h RS 0 SR ey a gre. me ‘ 4 Vol. LVIII. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Geo. Inyrs’s Calculations of aratus employed in his Experiments on the Strength of Materials; — @ Direction of the Compass Needles of the Isabella and Alexander in - oa Mmunicacion respecting the Influence of Masses of Iron on the Marie _ Vol. LYT. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Isserson’s Paper on the Phy. | A Plate exhibiting the Discoveries made by Capt. . ctro-magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on the Com, — Knowledge of Funguses.””—A Plate illustrative of Professor Davy's. V OL. - 58. Pilsopical eaeaee “ie Contents or. Reisen BES. 9 bs: _ LXXk Observations on, the present State of Nautical . y Astronomy ; ; with Remarks on the Expediency of promot. 4 ing a more general Acquaintance with the modern Improve- .. $ ments in the Science among the Seamen in the British Mer- | SW chant Service. By Epwarp Rippts, late Master of the \ Trinity-House School, Newcastle; now Master of the Up- _ per School, Royal Naval Asylum, Greenwich. | _ Page 321 | Hat = LYXIT. An Account of the Comparison. ae various Bri- ‘}§% tish Standgrds. of linear. Senet By Caphe Heney Kae y| uy TER, F.R. S. &c,, 2 'e - Sad ates Bere de: s LXXIII., On Maver’s Forviutla: ee the astronomical Daily Refraction. By James Ivory, M.A. F.R.S.. S41 ® LXXIV. Account of the Native ‘Copjledioks Sha: ‘Southert i tIE & Shore of Lake Superior, with historical Citations and mis- “| ( @ cellaneous Remarks, ina Report to the bain oh of War, * Mr. Henry R. Sctotuckart/: yeu! ole <5 - 4s) El) LXXV. Observations and Experiments _ on the Rose of sa | Her Favidhos with brief Notices of its History. By James Mr. ee t@ var, M. D., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians and. | © Lecturer on Natural History and Chemistry, Edinburgh. » » 860 ). LXXVI. Pancessions to Mr. Ivory. In a Letter to the: ali. ae ate - Be oe Reus | 23 LXXVIIy The. eke Portion of a Catdlogne. of. aa 7 @ zodiacal Stars, for the Epoch of January 1, 1800; from the : " { : Neate Works of Herscuer, P1azzi, Bone, and. others, with illus. i BSN trative Notes. Selected and arranged by a Member of the — On POM Astronomical Society of London. - - ; 5674 ss LXXVIIL. Onthe Decomposition of Metallic Sa s by, ae) Ni lite the Magnet. By Mr. J. Murrave y's a pie S80 . LXXIX. Notices respecting | New Books. i oi 7 Be te ae | LXXX. Proceedings of Learned Societies. = + ey XXX L ‘Yutelligence and Miscellaneous Keath: — | 2% Rabies canina—Calculous Diseases, © &e.—The Diamond 4? —Phospherus - in Ether—Magnetism—Steam Drying — _ @NS\ Rooms—Polar Expedition—Arctic Land “Eapeatione 2 2 ON Alabaster. Sarcophag.us—Obelisk ofred Granite—Meridians ~ me of Greenwich and Paris—A frican, Geography—Shirt Trees. - q i} eB Patents—Barometrieal Observations vand Meteorological _ Np Tables. Ah a cee eee Sing whore igi aotmy cial a : tes 2) es ** fa a for thi s Work, received by th ditor ; ic os Schioe te ae will meet with ride attention., at ENGRAVINGS. - : Vol. LI. A Plate illustrative of Dr. Ure’s Experiments on Caloric, irs Luvexcock’s Paper on the Atomic Philosophy, and Mr. Botton’s he Purification of Coal Gas.—A Plate representing Mr. Renwir’s. atus employed in his Experiments on the Strength of Materials; the Marquis Ripoupxi’s Improvement on the Gas Blow-pipe.—-A illustrative of Mr. Meixxe’s. Paper on Calorific Radiation; Mr. ’s on the Purification of Coal Gas; and Mr. Hucues’s on ascer- g Distances. — A Plate illustrative of Dr. OLinruus Grecory’s on the different Rates of Pennincton’s Astronomical Clock at the d of Balta, and at Woolwich Common. LIV. A Plate illustrative of the Menai Brincr.—A Plate ilins- e of Mr. Lowe’s Description of a Mercurial Pendulum.—A Plate ative of Mr. Hare’s Calorimotor, a new Galvanic Instrument. —A. illustrative of Captain Sasrne’s Paper on Irregularities observed in Jirection of the Compass Needles of the Isabella and Alexander in te Voyage of Discovery; and Mr. Scoressy’s Anomaly in the Va. on of the Magnetic Needle as observed on Ship-board, ia I. LV. A Plate exhibiting Sketch of the Comet’s Path of July 1819. Plate illustrative of the Annular-Eclipse of the Sun on the 7th of mber next.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Lane’s Instrument for ering Fruit; Mr. Younc’s Mode of preparing Opinm from the er somniferum; and of Captain Forman’s Essay on a Property in which hitherto has been unobserved by Philosophers.-A Plate de- mptive of Mr. Curnsert’s improved Hydro-pneumatic Apparatus, &c. “A Plate illnstrative of Capt. Forman’s Essay on the Reflection, Refrac- in, and Inflection of Light, &c.; and Mr. Cuarizs Bonnycastie’s munication respecting the Influence of Masses of [ron on the Mari- Compass. ‘ ; waite ie Vol. LVI. A Plate illustrative of Mrs. Ienerson’s Paper on the Phy- logy of Botany.—A Plate iliustrative of Mr. Hatv’s Percussion Gun= of Dr. Kircuiner’s Pancratic Eye-Tube; and of Mr. Parx’s g Blocks.—-A Plate exhibiting Sections, &c. of Mr. Maram’s im- - Gas-Meter.—A Piate exhibiting the Discoveries made by Capt. in the Polar Sea; o eee. ¥y- LVII. A Plate illustrative of Mess. Gixstep and Amprre’s -magnetic Experiments, and Mr. Perxins’s Paper on the Cor. ity of Water.—A Plate illustrative of Mr. Jamreson’s Marine lermometer Case, and Mr. Jennincs’s Mercurial Log-Glass.—A Plate istrative of Dr. Hare’s new Modification of Galvanic Apparatus —A te representing a Double Canal Lock, originally proposed forthe Re- nt’s Canal, by Mr. R. H. Gower; and a Modification of Electro-Miig- tic Apparatus, by Mr. Tarum, ~ ; . LVIIL. A Plate illustrative of Mr. Gro. Innrs’s Calculations of - : Annular Eclipse of the Sun, which will happen on the 15ch of May .—A. Plate descriptive of the Hydrostatic Balances of Isatan kens and Dr, Coares,—A Plate illustrative of An Introduction to | Knowledge of Funguses,”’—A Plate illustrative of Professor Davy's. ctometer, and of Mr, Joun Murray's portable Apparatus for restor- y the Action of the Lungs.—A Plate by Porren, illustrative of Mr. cHootcrarr’s Account of the Native Copper on the Southern Shore of ake Superior; and of Dr. Miziar’s Observations and Experiments on Rose of Jericho. ee ee eee Mee NR Maes (t+; ; 4 * We see “Sete! s * 2-Fie. 7 See) ’ ed 4 Dees % LXXXV.— Baw Gusee oe Tcpenineane 9 Papyri found in the Ruins of Herculaneum.» By PHRY Davy, Bart. P. BASS. atv ee -— } LXXXVI. Remarks’on ‘Dr. Reape’? s Bi pes tion. “By. Mr. CHaRLEs Srarx, of Portsmouth, #3 LXXXVIL “Thoughts on the Cultivation of Matze as a RW creen Crop, to come in late in the Summer and Autuma. 4 A Practicar and ExreriMENTAL Farmer. |. 433 “LXXXVII. “Answers to Questions addressed to Na- turalists.” By Mr. Gavin Incuis. ie 2 LXXXIX. On Mr. South’ $ inses of Dole tars Wi A CorresPOWDENT. Soe sea N respecting New Books. _ tg me nals tal