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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. | |

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ELEMENTARY BOTANY

FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

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‘THOMAS H. MACBRIDE |

STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA

Boston
PeuyN, AND BACON
1896

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COPYRIGHT, 1895, BY

THOMAS H. MACBRIDE.

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C. J. PETERS & SON, TYPOGRAPHERS.

BERWICK & SMITH, PRINTERS. ;

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XLV.
mV I.
ALY It.
XALVIII.
XLIX.

LIV.

CONTENTS.

RYE. STEM AND LEAF

RYE— Continued. FLOWER AND FRUIT
THE GROUND IvY AND THE MINTS
THE BLUE GRASS

FERNS

FERNS — Continued

MossEs

RELATIVES OF MOSSES

THE FUNGI

THE Funci— Continued

AN OUTLINE OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B

APPENDIx C

APPENDIx D

Xl

PAGE
167
170
174
180_
183
186
199 ¥*
194
197
200
204
209
220
299
204

ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

RBS SON TT.
Buds and Their Arrangement.

Materials required : Twigs of various trees or shrubs,
as many sorts as possible, such as Box Elder, Soft Maple,
Elm, Willow, Birch, Oak, Apple, Cherry, Locust, Osage-
orange, Horse-chestnut, Lilac.

I. Compare all the twigs. Note how very unlike
they are. This unlikeness is due to various peculiar-
ities, such as the character of the bark, the buds, the
development or suppression of branches. Note that
trees may be distinguished by their branches even,
without leaves or flowers or fruit.

Il. Take a single twig, the Box ELpsr, and note : —

a. The leaf-scars, uniting to form peculiar ring-like
markings, occurring at quite regular intervals, more dis-
tinct toward the tip.

In the formation of each ring how many leaf-scars
unite? By the aid of your lens determine their limits
and describe.

Each leaf-scar, of course, marks the place of one of
last year’s leaves. The particular part of the stem
which bears the leaf or leaves (two in this case, some-

1

2. ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

times more or fewer) is called the node, and the part of
the stem ineluded between two successive nodes is
called the internode.

b. The buds, each one just above a leaf-scar: oppo-
site each other, therefore, in pairs up and down the
stem.

c. Hold the stem so that any bud is directly towards
you: call the side of the twig next you the front of
the twig. Notice that the buds on the front are in
line and alternate with buds to right and left on each
side. The pairs of buds lie then alternately in dif-
ferent vertical planes. Buds or other organs so ar-
ranged are said to be decussate, decussately arranged.

d. Holding the twig as before, notice that the
planes just referred to intersect each other at right
angles and in the centre of the twig. The line of in-
tersection of these planes, or of any planes so deter-
mined, is the avs of the twig or stem; lies in the
direction of its principal development. In a wider
sense the twig or stem itself is called the axis, because
about it buds, leaves, or other lateral organs may be
disposed.

e. Draw a diagram to illustrate a cross-section of
the twig to show the position of the planes just re-
ferred to.

f. Notice that towards the tip of the twig the inter-
nodes become shorter, the last one shortest of all, so
that the last two pairs of buds are brought very close
together. Seen from the end of the twig these four
buds occupy the entire circumference of the stem, as

BUDS AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT. y

would any other adjoining pairs if they could be looked
at in the same way. Complete your diagram (e) by
indicating upon it the position of the four buds just ob-
served near the tip of the twig. What portion of the
circle may be assigned to each bud ?

Supposing the leaves still in position, how much of
the whole space around the axis would fall naturally
to each leaf, considering two nodes at a time? We
shall see this illustrated presently when leafy stems can
be procured.

g. Note that the twig (if uninjured) terminates in
-abud. This is the terminal bud, distinguished thus
from all the others, which together are called axillary
buds.?

h. Draw a portion of the twig to show the leaf-scars
and at least two succeeding pairs of lateral buds.

III. Compare now the twig of the Soft Maple : —

a. In a young, simple shoot the buds are disposed
exactly as in the Box Elder twig, though perhaps smaller,
and the leaf-scars are less conspicuous, the terminal bud
perhaps larger.

6b. Some of the twigs brought in may be of a preced-
ing year, or may be farther developed, so that instead of
buds there may be found, at some of the nodes at least,
short branchlets. Note that these branchlets are decus-
sately arranged; they may supplant all the buds on the
lower portion of the twig or they may seem irregularly
scattered, but in any case close examination will show

1 Axillary, from axil. The axil is the angular space included
on the upper side between the leaf and its stem.

4 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

that where there occurs a branchlet there is no bud, but
the branchlet occupies exactly the place in which a bud
was to be expected.

c. We may thus conclude that bud and branchlet are
the same thing, differing chiefly in size and age; a
branchlet being a developed bud, and a bud an undeveloped
branch. Our future observations will serve to confirm
this conclusion. (See Lesson IX.)

d. On such twigs as those considered in (6) and (e),
not only will be observed branchlets, but on the branch-
lets will be found again buds of considerable size and in ~
oreat numbers, crowded around the tips. These are ac-
cessory buds, and will claim our attention in a subsequent
lesson. Crowded and heaped as these buds seem to be,
we may yet discover their orderly arrangement, espe-
cially if we first consider the simpler clusters. On the
younger portion of the budded stem we may find the lat-
eral buds in place, but each flanked by single accessory
buds. Farther down three buds may be found around
the lateral bud. Apply this now to the branchlet, re- ©
membering that the terminal bud is to be expected on
the branchlet as on the twig, and describe what you can
make out.

BUDS AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT. o

hao ON EF.
Buds and Their Arrangement — Continued.

Materials required: The same as in the preceding
lesson.

| I. Again compare all the twigs collected, this time
especially in respect to the arrangement of their buds.
Select for the sake of simplicity twigs that are free
- from branchlets and accessory buds, and note : —

a. That all the twigs may be divided into two groups
according to bud-arrangement: those in which the buds
are opposite, two at each node — this group includes the
Maple and Box Elder; and those in which the buds are
alternate, one at each node; the latter group includes
probably all the rest of the twigs at hand.

Il. ALTERNATE Bups — THE ELM.

a. Take an Elm twig and hold it in its natural posi-
tion; it drooped probably at the tip and is accordingly
curved, the upper side convex, the lower concave. With
your lens examine the leaf-scars; the bark is swollen
just below so as to form a sort of shelf on which the
leaf last year could rest and over which the axillary bud
remains. ‘The leaf-scar inclines toward the upper side
of the twig and the bud toward the lower. This distor-
tion results from the fact that in the Elm the leaves
often expand in a plane nearly parallel to the axis, their
edges towards the stem. As the leaves assume this
position, the buds are crowded downwards.

6 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

hb. Note now more closely the bud-arrangement.

How many buds at a node? ‘Taking any bud as
the first, where on the stem is the next one above (or
below) to be found? the next? What is the position
of the third with respect to the first ?

The distance measured in degrees around the stem
from a line, parallel to the axis, drawn through one bud
to a line similarly drawn through the next bud above
or below on the stem is called the angular divergence of
the buds. This angular divergence of the buds, and of
course leaves, in the case of the Elm is 180°. How —
much is it in the Box Elder ?

c. Recurring to the Elm twig, note that the buds
form vertical rows, but that of these there are but two.
We have here accordingly the two-ranked arrangement
of buds and leaves. Its best example is perhaps the
Elm; although the grasses, as we shall see, exhibit the
same arrangement. The same thing is true of the Lin-
den. In the two-ranked arrangement, then, the angular
divergence is one-half a circle, 180° more or less.

d. Suppose a thread fixed at one bud to pass around
the stem through the next bud above to the third, such
a thread will describe a spiral, passing once around the
stem. In performing this experiment, when we come to
the third bud, 1.e., the one immediately above that with
which we started, we complete a spire or cycle. The
third (last) bud of any spire is counted the first of the
spire next following above.

e. If. Birch twigs are available, select slender, straight
shoots of the last season, and note the arrangement of

P7

BUDS AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT. (

the buds. Here the fourth bud is over the first, three
occupy the entire angular space around the stem, the
angular divergence is 1 of 360°— 120°, and the arrange-
ment is described as the } cycle. If Alder twigs are
obtainable, compare.

f. Compare now the Apple twig. What bud in order
is directly above the first? Note that you must pass
twice around the stem to reach it. What, then, is the
angular divergence ?

g- In allthese cases note that the symmetry is not
quite complete. We must use select branches. We
must also attend carefully to trace the spiral, and the
vertical rows are not as straight as we might expect.
These irregularities are due to inequalities of growth,
and these in turn are brought about by a variety of
causes. For the axillary buds we have been examining,
the position is determined by the place of the leaves, a
bud for a leaf, and the leaves are disposed about the
axis so as to be as little as possible in each other’s way.
We shall see this better when we have leafy twigs in
hand, and we shall be able to trace clearly some of the
causes which effect the lack of symmetry we have ob-
served.

h. Compare the Locust twigs. The buds very small,
or in some cases already developed as branches. The
leaf-scar flanked on each side by a sharp thorn. Its
presence here will be explained in a later lesson. The
arrangement the same as the last. The number of rows,
five; the number of turns in making the spiral, two; the
angular divergence two-fifths of a circle. We may call

8 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

this the 2 arrangement or cycle. If the bark of such a
twig as that of Willow, Apple, or Locust could be peeled
off in one piece for some distance and spread out flat, the
outer side up, it would be observed that the buds occur
in certain diagonal as well as vertical rows. The verti-
cal rows have been already noted; the diagonal repre-

io it.
The 2 arrangement of buds, leaves, etc., seen from the side, projected
on a flat surface.

sent spirals (Fig. 1). Notice that in the fraction
expressive of this arrangement the numerator, two,
expresses the number of times we go round the stem in
following one spiral from the first bud to the sixth; the
denominator gives the number of vertical rows.

BUDS AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT. 7)

i. Study in the same way the twig of an Osage-
orange. Note the leaf-scar, bud, and thorn at each node.

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Diagrams to illustrate the spiral arrangement of buds, leaves, etc.

Fig. 2, the 4 arrangement; Fig. 3, the 1; Fig. 4, the 2; Fig. 5, the 3. After
von Kerner. The positions of the successive leaves are indicated by
shading.

The thorn represents probably a modified branch de-
veloped from an accessory bud. Draw a diagram like

10 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Fig. 1 to show the arrangement of buds, thorns, leaves,
in Osage-orange.

Further study of buds and their relation to branches
may occupy our attention in subsequent lessons, when
the buds may be had more fully developed.

Less Nees
Stems; Their Structure.

Material required: The same twigs as before, omit-
ting Locust and Osage as inconvenient to handle, but
adding, if possible, Elder stems of the last season, Bass-
wood, with twigs of Pine or Spruce.

Instruments: a sharp penknife and a good Codding-
ton lens.

I. Tat Woopy Twies.

Cut each twig squarely and smoothly off, preferably
in its thinner portion, and examine with the lens each
in turn. The structure comes out a little better if the
cut surface be slightly wet. Note: —

a. That each stem exhibits a threefold structure, —
the bark or cortex, the wood, and the pith, sometimes
called the medulla.

b. That these occupy always a definite relation to each
other as regards position; what is this relation? and
what is the form of each component part of the stem ?

c. Draw a diagram to indicate the structure of such
a woody stem as the Elder or Maple seen in cross-

STEMS; THEIR STRUCTURE. ae

section. The Elder is rather best to study because the
parts are large.

d. Note the peculiar appearance of the white pith as
if made up of small bubbles, minute sacs; these are the
component cel/s, here large enough to be plainly seen
with the Coddington. In the other portions of the
stem, the cells are too small and crowded for present
observation.

e. Supposing that we have an Elder shoot in hand;
cut off a small piece an inch or two in length. With
the point of the knife slit the bark down one side.
With care, the outer, corky layer of the bark may be
removed entire, exposing a softer green layer, which we
may term the middle bark. Gently scraping away the
ereen layer, we expose the inner or fibrous bark. This
innermost layer, generally called also the liber or simply
bast, is, as we see, tough and fibrous ; compare the bark
of the Willow, the Linden, or Basswood (Bastwood) ;
any other twigs. Upon what depends the color of the
annual twig in any case? Compare the Maple, the
Willow.

f. lf Pine, Spruce, or Balsam twigs have been brought
in or can be obtained, cut the stems smoothly and com-
pare. Pith probably small, woody ring large, bark as
before. Note, however, minute drops of resin oozing
from the cut surface. From which part of the bark
does the resin proceed ? From the wood as well? Note
the minute tubules, resin ducts. These are character-
istic of “‘ Evergreens”’ generally, though not discoverable
in all. Compare, for instance, the twigs of Red Cedar.

g. Draw adiagram to show the place of the resin ducts.

12 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

be SSsOm iN:
Stems; Their Structure — Continued.

THE BARK.

THE primitive arrangement of the bark and its lay-
ers, as noted in Lesson IIL. persists usually but a short
time; in some cases, however, much longer than in
others. If the corky layer is to endure, it must be re-
newed from within. Such renewal is effected in much
the same way in which the whole bark is renewed, and
will be better understood after Lesson VI. In most trees
the inner bark at length contains masses of hardened
cells, thick-walled; as the stem grows older and larger

the outer bark-layers split up and disappear while the

inner bark remains, becomes cracked, and by exposure

to the weather, blackened and otherwise modified.
Let the pupils go to the field and examine all acces-

sible woody stems, and prepare a report, noting : —

a. The varying duration of the several layers which
at first make up the bark, as observed in different cases.

This is best done by comparing the bark on the twigs
and younger branches with that on the principal
stems.

b. The different ways in which the bark breaks up
and falls off, as exhibited in the case of different stems.
Is it possible to recognize stems by their bark ?

Compare such stems as the following: Elder, Cur-
rant, Grape, Apple, Cherry, Oak, Hickory, Elm, Hack-

A —_—

STEMS ; THEIR STRUCTURE. 13

berry, Maple, Cottonwood, Willow, Pine, Larch, Cedar,
Birch, Sycamore, etc.

Such investigation and report may well occupy the
time of more than one lesson.

cro OM V.
Stems; Their Structure — Continued.

THE WOOD.

Material required: Pieces of Cornstalk preserved
in aleohol; pieces of dry Cornstalks from the fields;
Elder shoots as before, especially such as show slender
tips; herbaceous stems of accessible house-plants.

I. Tue CorRNSTALEK.

a. The general structure; nodes; internodes; leaf-
arrangement, perhaps still discernible; grooves in which
axillary buds may lhe.

6. In a cross-section of the stem, between the nodes,
note the structure; the pith predominant; the bark
entirely lacking; the wood represented by numerous
fibres, scattered through the pith, more numerous toward
the outside.

c. In the pith note the cells, large, very thin-walled
but plainly identifiable, all very much alike; they to-
gether build up a vegetable tissue, when dry, as here,
very light, very spongy. Such a tissue is called paren-
chyma. It is the tissue of piths and the soft parts of
plants generally.

14 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

d. Examine now one of the fibres; it can be easily
dissected out. Note its length, probably from node to
node; its strength. If the end has been cut smoothly,
note, under the lens, the large openings, about four;
these represent tubes, vessels they are called; whence
the fibre is called vascular. The fibres make up the
fibro-vascular tissue of the plant, and each is called
a fibro-vascular bundle.

e. Towards the margin of the section, the outside of
the stem, not only are the bundles more numerous, but
they are smaller and more and more packed together,
yet maintaining pretty well their identity. This is best
seen in an alcoholic specimen which has been cut off
smoothly with a razor.

f. On the outside of the stem, closely associated
with the outer bundles, find a thin layer of hard, smooth
tissue, —the epidermis. Note that the entire arrange-
ment of bundles and epidermis serves to give to the
stalk its strength. Compare as to stiffness a pasteboard
tube with an unrolled piece of the same material.

g. Draw a neat diagram to show the arrangement of
all these structures as they appear on the cross-section
of the cornstalk.

Il. Tae E.prerR Twiae.

Select twigs in which the youngest nodes are still
preserved; cut the youngest internode (less than an
eight of an inch in diameter) smoothly across, and wet-
ting slightly the surface so exposed, examine with your
lens, noting : —

STEMS ; THEIR STRUCTURE. 1D

a. The same threefold structure observed in the
older twigs before, but—the woody cylinder observed
before (Lesson III. I. a) is here represented by little
masses, oval in section, arranged in a ring around the
white pith. The number of these is not so great but
that the larger at least may easily be counted.

6b. Make a longitudinal section of the twig, and note
that the oval sections just counted represent here as in
the cornstalk, strands or fibres; these, then, are the
fibro-vascular bundles of the Elder.

The component elements are so small that with a
hand-lens we cannot discern the vessels as in the corn-
stalk, but we may presently under higher magnification
see the whole structure very clearly. Meanwhile we
may observe : —

ce. The arrangement of the bundles, especially as com-
pared with those of the cornstalk. There is in the
pith of the Elder not so much as one; all are arranged
with perfect regularity in a definite ring around the
pith. |

d. The bundles are separated at quite uniform inter-
vals by portions of the pith which extend between them.
These parts of the pith between the bundles are the
rays, the medullary rdys, parts of the medulla.

e. Draw a diagram to illustrate the arrangement of
pith, bundles, rays, etc., in the young Elder shoot, and
compare Fig. 8.

jf. Compare cross-sections of the younger stems of
available house-plants, — Begonia, Geranium, Petunia,
Calla, Lily, etc. In some note how beautifully the com-

16 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

ponent cells come out, as in Geranium, in pith and bark.
In Geranium and others note the thin epidermis covered
with small white hairs.

In all we find but two types of structure, — the corn-
stalk type in which the bundles are scattered, and the
Elder type in which the bundles are plainly arranged in
form of a distinct ring around the pith.

LES =O No ois
Stems; Their Structure. — Continued.
THE CAMBIUM.

THE BUNDLES, OPEN AND CLOSED.

Materials required: Cornstalk, Pumpkin-vine, Maple
twigs, etc., — short pieces of alcohol-hardened material ;
fresh twigs of various accessible trees; cuttings from
house-plants, as heretofore.

Il. THek PUMPKIN-STEM.

Take a short piece of a well-hardened stem, cut one
end smoothly across; examine with lens in good light,
and note : —

a. The absence of the central pith. The stem is
naturally hollow.

6. The fibro-vascular bundles, some large, some
small, few in number; count them. The figure of the
section is a pentagon, and the arrangement of large bun-
dles, at least, corresponds with this form. Draw an

STEMS ; THEIR STRUCTURE. 17

outline of the section, and mark with an x the ‘place of
each bundle.

ce. Examine one of the large bundles with the lens;
note the mouths of tubes, vessels, near the middle of the
bundle. These vessels mark the woody portion of the
bundle. Toward the outside is a portion plainly dif-
ferent, showing no large openings; this is the cortical or

a ete ae ey

Fig. 6. Cross-section of a bundle of the Pumpkin-stem, diagram.

a. Cortical portion (repeated below). 6. The wood with large vessels.
c. The cambium layer. An open bundle.

bark portion of the bundle. Between these two parts, —
bark and wood,— in favorable specimens the cambiwm
can be seen as a white band passing across the bundle.
This sometimes shows better in thin slices cut with a
razor, held toward the light, and examined with a lens.
Under a microscope of moderate power the structure
comes out perfectly, and at least one section should be
examined at this juncture in this way. Such a bundle

18 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

as this where the cambium persists 1s called an open
bundle. We shall see the effect of this presently.

Il. THe CorRNSTALK.

Cut a thin section of the cornstalk hardened in
alcohol, hold to the light, and note : —

a. The beautiful lace-work formed by the cedls of
the pith.

Fig. 7. Cross-section of the Cornstalk bundle, diagram.

a. Cortical portion, poorly developed. 6. One of the large vessels of
the wood. No cambium ; a closed bundle.

6. The bundles, rather small, but showing : —

(1) Large vessels forming the woody part, as in the
Pumpkin-vine section; and

(2) A much smaller part, destitute of large vessels,

the cortical portion of the bundle. There is
no cambium.

STEMS; THEIR STRUCTURE. 19

e. Put a section under the microscope, and the ab-
sence of cambium will be very apparent. Such a bundle
as this of the cornstalk is called a closed bundle. (See
Fig. 7.)

Ill. Tue Tree Twiae.

Take a Willow twig about } inch in diameter. Cut
the end smoothly across with a sharp knife or razor, and
note : —

a. The white pith, rather small, proportionately, in
amount. ;

6. The wood, a cylinder quite well developed. In
the section the medullary rays are seen as slender lines
radiating in all directions from the pith.

e. The bark, separate from the wood by a fairly plain
line of demarcation. This line (a faint ring, of course,
on the end section) marks the place of the cambium of
the twig or stem.

d. The bundles here are so numerous and crowded
that we can scarcely distinguish them. We recall, how-
ever, that in younger twigs the medullary rays separate
bundles (Lesson V. II. d), so that we may here consider
as a bundle that part of the cylinder, in any case, limited
on each side by rays. Compare a section of alcohol-
hardened Maple shoot (Fig. 8).

e. In the twigs, then, the bundles with the cambi-
um are like those of the Pumpkin-vine; 1.e., opén, but
crowded so close together that the cambium from one
bundle to the next becomes continuous, and so forms a
sheath around the twig or stem, between the bark and
wood, and having a common relation to both.

20 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

f. This cambium sheath, as seen in any thin section
of a living twig, is made up of very delicate cells, hke
those of the pith, but much smaller, and even more thin-
walled. Because of their minuteness and delicacy we
cannot see them with the Coddington. It is the remark-
able property of these cambium cells that they are com-
petent to grow, so as to make, in one direction, — that
is, outwardly, — bark, in the other, wood. This. they
do in the growing season. In fact, these cambium cells

Fig. 8. Cross-section of eee shoot, diagram.

a. cortical part of bundle. ec. cambium.

b. epidermis. w. woody part of bundle.
in the growing season do three things: they split up in
planes parallel to the surface of the twig, and so increase
their own number; some of them on the outside become
changed into bark-cells, and so form a new layer on the
inside of the bark; some next the wood become changed
into wood-cells, and so add a layer of wood to that already

in position. What the ultimate effect of this arrange- —

ment is will appear more clearly in the next lesson.

g. Cut all the twigs available, and find if possible the
cambium line.

STEMS; THEIR STRUCTURE. 21

fee iO. VET .
Stems; Their Structure — Concluded.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF STEMS.

Materials required: Seedlings of various sorts, —
Beans, Corn, Wheat, etc.; sections of various stems, as
Raspberry, Elder, Box Elder, Oak, Pine, Locust, etc. ; sec-
tion of a Palm stem if obtainable.

J. From our last two lessons we may now draw two
or three well-defined conclusions : — ie

a. Note that the arrangement of the woody matter,
the bundles, in stems is correlated with the structure of
the bundle itself. Thus, when the bundles of a stem
are scattered they turn out to be closed bundles ; when —
arranged in a ring around the pith they are open. Ex-
perience will show us that this is the general rule; at
least, the exceptions are so few that we need not heed
them here. .

6. Stems with scattered bundles have, when the
bundles are mature, no cambium ; stems whose bundles
form a ring have cambiwm. It follows, if we remember
the nature of the cambium cells, what they are compe-
tent to do (see Lesson VI. III. f), that only those stems
whose bundles are arranged to form a ring are likely to

- increase in thickness.

e. Stems which increase in thickness by the activ-
ity of the cambium grow by an addition (successive
additions) to the outside of the woody cylinder. Such

22. ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

stems were long ago called Hxogens, outside-growers ;
while stems with scattered bundles were called EHndo-
gens, inside-growers, because it was mistakenly thought
that such stems could increase in thickness by the
erowth or addition of new bundles inside the stem.

II. Compare now growing seedlings of the Corn,
Bean, Wheat. Find still another correlation. Note
that the Corn in germinating sends up first but a single
leaf ; the Bean, on the other hand, starts with two oppo-
site leaves, the thick halves of the seed. The plumule,

or bud for the unfolding of subsequent leaves, lies be-

tween; “but we may disregard that for the present.
These primary seed-leaves are called cotyledons. Now,
the stem of the Bean has its bundles arranged in a
circle around the pith, and we may conclude that plants
having the bundles scattered, as the Corn, have one
cotyledon ; plants having the bundles in a ring have
(at least) two cotyledons. This is a general rule, and
our further experience will abundantly confirm it.
Plants which, as the Corn, Wheat, etg., have but one
cotyledon, are said to be monocotyledonous; plants
which have two seed-leaves, or cotyledons, are dicoty-
ledonous.

III. These correlations may be placed in tabular
form, thus : —

SEED-
BUNDLES. STEMS. PLANTS.

LEAVES.

Scattered, Closed. Endogenous. One. Monocotyledonous.
In a Ring, Open. Exogenous. Two.! Dicotyledonous. |

1 In conifers the cotyledons are mostly several; more than two.

STEMS; THEIR STRUCTURE. 23

IV. We may now compare stems in still another
important particular; viz., as to duration.

a. Make a list of all the plants you can recall, such
as grow in yard and garden, and place the names in two
series, according to stem-duration. Some plants, many
plants, on the approach of winter die completely ; others,
as for instance Horse-radish, Rhubarb, die only to the
eround ; while still others persist, retain their stems at
all seasons and from year to year. Stems which die
down before the frost are called herbaceous ; persistent
stems are, by way of contrast, denominated woody. In
our northern latitudes the woody-stemmed plants are
all, except one or two, exogens; only in southern lands
where there is almost perpetual summer do any of the
endogens show persistent stems. Of these, Palm-trees
offer the most notable example.

6. Compare now with each other several of the per-
sistent stems: Rose, Raspberry, Blackberry, [lder, Box
Elder, Cherry, Oak, Pine, etc. These, though woody,
vary in duration. Which persist only one year? Which
indefinitely ?

ce. Since exogens grow by external additions only,
as described (Lesson VI. III. f), and since our climate
offers alternate periods of growth and rest, it follows that
each persistent exogen may in its structure keep a record
of its years. Cut smoothly the ends of sticks of Pine,
Oak, etc., and find the concentric lines of erowth.
Count the rings, and in this way estimate the age of the
larger pieces. Try the same experiment with any stump
. or log to be found in the neighborhood and report.

24 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

d. This method is accurate except for the first year
or two of development. Some stems (compare shoots of
Box Elder) make two or three rings the first year, though
uniformly only one per year thereafter.

e. In the mountains of California great trees have
been cut down. On the stump of one as many as eigh-
teen hundred rings are said to have been counted. How
old was such a tree ?

f. Notice that in any case only the outside of the
stem lives. Hollow trees live and flourish as those that
are solid. In some of the stems cut across note the two —
kinds of wood, distinguished by color, — sap-wood, white,
and heart-wood, some shade of brown or yellow. Only
the white sap-wood in general contains living tissue.
The heart-wood, shut up inside the tree, ceases to live,
but does not perish unless injured from without.

LES OWN VL:
Stems; Different Kinds; Special Forms.

Materials required: Dried specimens of Grape-vine
attached by tendrils to its support; Virginia Creeper
attached by disks; Morning-glory vine coiled around
a string or pole; Cucumber or Pumpkin vine ;. Straw-
berry “runner,” showing successive individual plants;
in alcohol, root-stocks of Solomon’s-seal, Trillium, Ivis,
May Apple, etc.; Potatoes, Tulip and Onion bulbs; a
Cactus plant if convenient, etc.

STEMS; SPECIAL FORMS. 25

So far our discussion of stems has concerned chiefly
those which stand erect, and which agree pretty closely
in structure with those we have used as types. Many
stems, just as truly stems as any we have handled, yet
differ very decidedly both in attitude, posture, or, as we
generally say, habit, and in the form assumed conse-
quent upon the discharge of some special function, or in
obedience to peculiar circumstances.

I. As to HABIT, stems are : —

a. Erect. This is the common posture of our famil-
jar plants. Let the student write a lst of all the plants
known to him which have erect stems.

b. Climbing. Many plants which apparently lack
requisite strength in themselves yet manage to rise
sometimes pretty high in the world by climbing. This
is effected in various ways. Let the student make out a
lst of climbing plants of his acquaintance, and classify
according to the means by which the ascent is accom-
plished. The Grape and the Morning-glory may be
taken as two types. Later in the season the class may
be made a committee to find out how the young Morn-
ing-glory plant, or seedling, manages to start and con-
tinue its spiral ascent around pole or twine. Stems
which ascend by coiling, as the Morning-glory, are some-
times called twining stems.

ce. Prostrate. Many stems run along the ground;
and while the tip always or often may show a tendency
to rise, nevertheless, the habit is prostrate, flat. The

1 Read ‘‘ Climbing Plants,”’ by Chas. Darwin, especially chapter i.

26 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Pumpkin-vine may be taken as an example. Let the
student enumerate others.

d. Repent. -Repent means creeping. Repent stems
are prostrate, but attach themselves at intervals to the
ground by more or less abundant rootlets. The Straw-
berry offers a familiar example. Others may be sug-
gested. How about White Clover ?

II. Stems assume SPECIAL FORMS for special rea-
SONS.

A. Many plants have subterranean stems : —

a. The simplest subterranean forms differ but little

from repent stems above ground. Such are the stems
of some grasses, for example, as Blue Grass, Quickset.
In such case the stem is still stem-like in appearance,
and simply pushes along under ground, sometimes just
below the surface, sometimes deeper, sending up at
intervals branches and leaves. Such a subterranean
stem is called a rhizoma or rhizome. It may be either
long or short. Compare the subterranean stems of Rasp-
berry, Blue-flag, Bracken Fern, Solomon’s Seal, Trillium.
In what do these differ? Note that such plants also
are perennial. Cf. Lesson VII. (1V.).

b. If the rhizome is greatly shortened, and very
greatly modified in form, we have a tuber. <A good
iUlustration of such modification is the common potato.

c. Take a common potato and examine it carefully.

What evidence do you find that this is a stem at all? ©

What are the “eyes” ? Note their arrangement. Com-
pare potatoes that have sprouted in the cellar or in a
damp, warm box. Look the specimen over with your

=
‘ . ,
4 eee ee

STEMS; SPECIAL FORMS. - Ps

lens; note the surface cells. Over each bud observe a
delicate, projecting scale. Observe at which end the
potato was attached to the parent plant, and state the
direction in which lie the scales. ee the po-
tato as a stem, which end is the top ?

d. Split the potato through the middle lengthwise ;
find the ordinary parts of the stem; the pith, very mise:
_ the wood, a faint line around the margin of the section ;
the bark, rather thick, like the pith; the epidermis,
seen plainly as the thin outer covering. Examine the
section with the lens. Note the cells again; the woody
line; the epidermis. Where the section passes through
an eye, the woody line bends out to meet it. Touch with
a weak solution of iodine the cut surface. What hap-
pens ? What makes up the mass of the potato ?

' e. If you have a microscope, make with a razor a
thin shee of the potato, and put the slice under the
lens. Note the cells filled with minute granules. Try
iodine again on the microscope slide. In what form,
then, does starch in the potato occur ?

f. Can any one tell what becomes of the potato when
the sprouts grow, as when the potatoes are planted ?
Whence comes the material to make the sprouts ? What,
then, is the purpose of this strange modification of the
stem that gives us the tuber ?

g. Draw an outline of the potato-section to show

diagrammatically the various structural peculiarities
observed. —

h. Compare, if convenient, a sweet potato. This is
a root, not a stem. Are there here “eyes”? buds?

28 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Perhaps .rregularly scattered buds occur near the top.
Buds that come out irregularly on different parts of a
plant are called adventitious buds. We shall meet with
such again.

7. Compare an onion. Cut it vertically in two; find
the very short stem, bearing roots below, and abundant,
swollen, thick scales around. The scales here, as may
be seen by their tops, are leaf-bases. Such a struc-
ture, where the stem is very short and surrounded by
such leaf-bases, is called a bu/b. Compare, if convenient,
a tulip-bulb.

j. In all the cases mentioned, and many others like
them, the stem (in the bulb aided by the leaf-bases) dis-
charges a special function, hence the extreme variation
in form. What is the function ?

B. Stems sometimes are peculiar in that they bear.
no leaves; a Cactus, for example. It is the business of
leaves to be green, for what reason we shall see later on.
We have already found that on young stems there is a
green layer in the bark; in the Cactus and such stems,
the place of the leaves is supplied by this green cortex.

That such a form as the Cactus is really a stem is
proved, not by inner structure only, which might be
shown to be dicotyledonous, but by the mode of growth
as well; by the branching; by the flowers the Cactus
bears, for, as will be shown, flowers also are branches
of a special kind. Perhaps a blooming Cactus may be
shown by some member of the class.

BUDS; THEIR DEVELOPMENT. 29

BESSON. EX.
Buds Once More; Their Development.

Materials required: Young branches from trees,
shoots a year or two old of the following species:
Locust, Cherry, Lilac, Cottonwood, Hickory, Horse-
chestnut, etc.; of the same species, as many as may
be convenient, twigs that have been caused to grow
in water in-doors (See Appendix B).

J. Note on different twigs the variations the buds
exhibit as to size. Contrast the Locust and the Lilac,
. Hickory, Horse-chestnut. Note the difference as to size
on the same twig.

fe] fae finac Twice.

a. Study the large buds near the tip. Review their
arrangement. What was the order of the leaves ?

6. A single bud. Note its shape. Cut it across
with a sharp knife, and see the decussating pairs of
bud-scales and undeveloped leaves. Examine with your
Coddington, and draw in diagram. With the point of
a needle dissect away, first on this side, then on that,
the bud-scales. Note that only the outer are brown
and hard, really to be called scales. ‘The inner are soft
and leaf-like. At lastonly a little short stem, or core,
remains.

Make a vertical section through the middle and
through opposing angles of a large bud. Examine with
a lens. Note the pairs of young leaves arranged oppo-

30 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

sitely on the sides of the little stem. Draw another
diagram to show what you can make out under the
lens.

ce. Compare now a bud that has been growing a few
days. In what does growth consist ? . Note how even
the outer scales stretch up and become green at length
at base. What becomes of the core, or stem? In some
cases developed as a young twig or branch, bearing the
new leaves in order; in other cases, especially in the
buds near the tip of last year’s growth, expanded as a

cluster of young flowers. Notice that flower-clusters —

and branches have the same origin, and stand related in
the same way to buds and leaves. In the flower-clusters

observe the branchlets. What arrangement do they -

show? In each flower how many parts are seen? All
this is very suggestive. Note the dead flower-cluster of
last year, probably yet hanging opposite a living (bloom-
ing) branch. The branch in this case that unfolds as
a flower-cluster has no further function or history.

Ill. CHERRY—BUDS.

Make a vertical section through several buds on the
Cherry twig, and compare. The lateral buds, perhaps
all of them, contain each one or more tiny green buds in
the centre, — flower-buds. Compare a twig on which the
buds have begun to unfold. Note that the bud-scales
are much less leaf-like than in the Lilac.

The terminal bud contains no flower-bud (as a rule).
These terminal buds in the Cherry are leaf-buds, and
the transition stages from scale to leaf can again be
seen.

:
:
|

BUDS; THEIR DEVELOPMENT. 31

LTV. CorTronwoopb—BuDS.

Compare as before lateral with terminal buds. Study
the terminal bud; its form; outer scales, scarcely to be
separated at all unless, in the process of growth, they
have begun to separate of their own accord. Make a
vertical section through the bud. Is it resinous through-
out ? Note the balsamic odor.

VY. Compare in similar fashion the Soft Maple buds;
Hickory, Horse-chestnut, if you have them. Note the
velvety fuzziness of the scales in many cases, especially
in the Hickory. What can be the use of such woolly or
velvety structures? What of the resin in the Cotton-
wood-buds ?

VI. Note that in all these cases the bud-scales
proper loosen as the bud develops, and fall off, are decid-
uous. Whena leaf falls, it leaves behind a scar; how is
it with the bud-scale? Remembering that the unfold-
ing of the termirfal bud extends the twig, increases its
length, follow back a little way, say on the Cottonwood ©
twig, and find the position of the terminal bud a year
ago. How many signs, indications, can you find that
you have selected the right place? Compare in this
way other twigs. How many years can you count back ?
Does the age in years determined by counting back the
annual nodes on the twig correspond with the number
of rings seen in a section taken across the twig just
below the last (oldest) node counted ? |

VII. This peculiarity of the bud, by which it contin-
ues unvaryingly the branch or stem to which it belongs,
admits of several practical applications. Thus, to recur

ae ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

to the potato-tuber,— how are potatoes propagated in
our gardens? By seed? When potatoes are cut in
pieces for planting, why is care always taken to have on
each piece an “eye”? What is Grafting? Budding?
How does the gardener propagate house-plants? What
are the little black bodies produced in the azils of the
leaves of the tiger-lily ? What are onion-sets ?

LESSOmr

Roots.

Materials required: Sweet. Potatoes, Beets, Turnips,
Carrots, Parsnips, and such vegetables; with these, for
comparison, a few common Potatoes; seedlings of vari-
ous ages of the same species, Turnips, Beets, Corn,
Wheat, Beans, Pumpkin, Melon, etc. # cuttings (rooted)
of house-plants, such as Geraniums; a Cornstalk from
the field, to show lateral roots at the base; a piece of
the stem of Poison-ivy, preserved in alcohol, if con-
venient; dry stems of weeds affected by Dodder, ete.

I. Root AND STEM.

It is a familiar fact that the plants about us consist,
at least when growing, of three more or less distinct
parts,— the stem, the roots, the leaves. Thus far we
have been considering stems chiefly; let us now turn
our attention for a little while to the roots of common
plants, and try to discover their distinguishing features
and characteristics.

ROOTS. ao

a. Direction. We expect, of course, to find roots in
the ground, and we know that their general direction is
downwards; but let us compare various seeds, Corn,
Beans, etc., that have been caused to germinate in vari-
ous postures as directed (Appendix B). Notice that
whatever may have been the position of the seed, the
root always starts downwards into the darkness, the
leaves and stem upwards towards the light. If the seed
— grain of corn — has been wrong side up when planted,
then the root turns as it grows, and finally takes its
appropriate direction. For this reason the stem is
sometimes called the ascending axis, the root the de-
scending axis, of the plant. Sometimes the first root
which leaves the seed, the primary root, continues to
grow downwards, large and strong during the whole life
of the plant, becomes a tap-root. Such a root has the
Bean, the Beet, the Dandelion, many weeds, and in a
more striking sense the Oak and the Walnut.

Compare now seedlings that are somewhat older, and
note —for instance, in the Corn —the development of
numerous Other roots succeeding the first,— secondary
roots. What has in this case become of the primary
root? Such clustered slender roots as we have before us
now are called fibrous roots. Such roots are charac-
teristic of monocotyledonous plants; but compare the
roots of the seedling Pumpkin or Melon. Draw a ger-
minating grain of corn to show the opposite tendencies
of root and stem.

b. Asto Buds. All the stems studied in the lessons

hitherto are characterized by abundant buds; how is it
with roots ?

34 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Compare the Potato again with the Sweet-potato.
The same tests which prove the Potato-tuber a stem
(Lesson VIII. II. A, /) are sufficient, of course, to show
that the Sweet-potato is not one. The adventitious
buds of the Sweet-potato appear in spring all over it,
and give rise to new plants. The roots of very many
plants produce, especially if injured, adventitious buds.
Compare what may be learned concerning the root-
sprouting of the common Locust, the Cherry, the Silver
Poplar, the Osage-orange. Nevertheless, it is the pecu-

liar characteristic of the stem to bear buds for leaves |

and branches; and the root, if it have buds at all, bears
adventitious buds only.

II. MorpHotocy or Roots: te., a Comparative
Study of Their Forms.

a. Take up seedling Beets, Carrots, Turnips, wash
the roots free from sand, and compare as to shape with
the plants offered as vegetables. Manifestly the pri-
mary root has in this case assumed special form. Where
is the stem? Examine the crown of a full-grown Beet,
for instance, and find the terminal bud. We may con-
sider the stem in this case extremely short, its inter-
nodes not lengthened, but consolidated with the upper
part of the root. When such a plant blooms, the stem
generally stretches up, and the flowers are high in air.

Perhaps some pupil has seen the garden Rhubarb in ~

bloom. It may be examined later in the year.

b. Examine the base of a cornstalk that has attained
maturity. Note the circle of roots sent out from the
node nearest the ground. These are adventitious roots.

eee ee ae ee ee se ee ——

ROOTS. 35

It is curious to notice that in this case the roots, as may
be shown by several stalks cut at different ages, start
in the air, aerial roots, and only at last are firmly 1m-
bedded in the earth. The Banyan-tree offers a famous
example of aerial rooting (cf. any good cyclopedia), and
the Screw Pine another. The most common example is
afforded by the Poison-ivy (Rhus toxicodendron L.), a
plant unsafe to handle, but perfectly manageable by
sample in a museum jar.

Further examples of adventitious roots are shown
in summer in every garden where Tomato-plants, for
instance, left to themselves, take root where the stem
happens to lie pressed to the ground. With suitable
care almost any plant may be made thus to put forth
roots from any part of the stem. What are cuttings ?
What happens when the end of a cutting is kept for
a while in moist earth? Willow switches do very
well for experiment. Does it matter which end goes
down ?

ce. Study pieces of herbaceous stems, either dry or
preserved in alcohol, affected by Dodder stems. Note
how tightly the coils embrace the larger stems. Try to
loosen them. ‘The grip is made secure by rootlets that
enter the tissues of the larger stem. The Dodder is a
parasite ; it has no connection (direct) with the ground,
but steals its living from the larger plant, the so-called
host-plant, into which the roots are sent.

lil. Functions or Roots.

Considering all the cases we have examined, what
may we conclude as to the functions of roots? Let the

36 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

pupil find three functions which roots perform, state
them, and give reasons for his statement in each case:

1. For the first, the aerial roots of the Cornstalk |
may furnish a clew.

bo

. For the second, Turnips, Dahlia-roots, Sweet-
potatoes. |

3. For the third, the Dodder.

The function suggested by the Dodder rootlets is, we
readily see, the most important of all. It is of advan-
tage that the plant be held fast to the earth; it is also.
convenient to have such a place as the root in which,
as in a cellar, to store that which may serve a future
need; but first of alla growing plant must be nowrished,
and for terrestrial plants generally, as for the Dodder,
nourishment enters the plant largely through the roots.
It is a familiar fact that plants cut from their roots die.
It is also a familiar fact that plants thrive only as they
are supplied with water. Water enters the plant chiefly
through its roots. Compare seedlings that have grown
in moist soil with those grown in soil that has been
allowed to dry. Furthermore, we must believe that
plants derive from the soil much else besides water.
Compare, for example, seedlings grown in damp soil
with those grown in damp, clean sand, or in sawdust.
Here the water supply is the same. What about the
results? This difference also appears in our fields
between plants growing in rich soil and those in sand
or clay; which are finer? In general, we may say that
the important function of roots 1s to supply the plant
with water, and with such elements of its food-supply as
are soluble in water.

THE LEAF. 31

Peer oo ON, XT.
The Leaf.

DURATION, ARRANGEMENT, PARTS, STRUCTURE.

Materials required: Twigs of the Maple or Box
Elder, Pine or Spruce, Hickory, Lilac, Catalpa, Oak, ete. ;
pressed branches with leaves of the Larch, Gooseberry,
Galium (Goose-grass or Cleavers), or Carpet-weed ; fresh
leaves and branches of cultivated Geranium ; leaves of
Amaryllis or Narcissus, and fresh or pressed branches
of the cultivated “Smilax”; fresh or pressed leaves
of other plants; a house-plant which has been in the
dark for several days; seeds of the Bean, Pea, Corn, ete.

I. DuRATION.

Compare the branches of the Maple and the Pine.

a. Note that the leaves of the Maple are wanting,
scars only remaining to mark their position. Maple
leaves are deciduous.

6. In the Pine the leaves remain on the branches all
winter, and are persistent.

e. Compare the general aspect of Oaks and Maples
with that of Pines and Spruces in winter. When do the
Oaks and Maples lose their foliage ? Do all the leaves
die? How long do the leaves of the Pine and Spruce
persist; i.e., on twigs of how many years’ growth may
leaves be found ? Do the leaves finally fall, or do all
that the tree produces persist ?

38 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

II. ARRANGEMENT.

Note the position of the leaves or leaf-scars on the
several branches.

a. In the Oak how many leaves were developed at
each node ? Such leaves are alternate.

6. How many leaves were developed at each node in
the Maple or Box Elder? What position with refer-
ence to each other do they occupy ? Such leaves are
opposite.

c. How many leaves are there at each node of the
Galium, or Goose-grass ?

When each node bears more than two leaves they
are whorled.

d. Notice that in the Larch and Gooseberry the
leaves are crowded in a close cluster, hence are fas-
cicled.

e. Draw two or three nodes of each kind, to show
the position of the leaves.

De eee ARTS.

Take a fresh leaf of the Geranium, one still attache.
to a branch, and note : —

a. The long, slender stalk, or petzole.

6. The thin, expanded portion of the leaf, the blade.

c. The green leaf-like appendages attached, one on
each side, to the base of the petiole, —the stipules.

d. With the Geranium leaf compare the leaves of
the Maple, Amaryllis, or Narcissus, the cultivated Smi-

THE LEAF. 39

lax (Myrsiphyllum), etc. Is the petiole always present ?
The stipules ? The blade ?

In the Smilax note that the green leaf-like body is
deyeloped from the axil of a scale-like leaf, and is really
a modified branch, or clado phyllum.

LV. STRUCTURE.

Study a large, fresh leaf of the Geranium.

a. With forceps strip off a portion of the outer
covering of the blade. This is a thin, transparent
membrane, — the epidermis.

6. Under the epidermis note the green pulpy leaf-
parenchyma filled with chlorophyl grains which give to
the leaf its green color. Compare the epidermis from
the lower surface ‘of an Amaryllis leaf, and under a
Coddington notice the rows of minute openings, the
stomata. Their function will be referred to presently.

c. Observe that the leaf-parenchyma is supported by
a network of structures whose primary branches pass
from the end of the petiole, and which are more prom-
inent on the lower surface of the leaf. These are the
veins, and their arrangement in the leaf constitutes the
venation of the leaf. The largest veins, which are
branches of the petiole, are called ribs.

d. Make a cross-section of the petiole, and with a
lens note : —

1. The thin outer coat, or epidermis, appearing
merely as a line, and better shown when
stripped from the petiole with forceps.

40 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

2. The green, pulpy layer next to the epidermis,
consisting of parenchyma-cells filled with chlo-
rophyl grains.

3. In the centre a lighter-colored, pithy portion, in
which may be seen a number of still lighter
colored spots, fibro-vascular bundles in section.

4. Note that the largest one of these fbro-vascular
bundles is found near the centre of the section,
while the smaller ones form a circle near the
outer part of the pithy portion of the petiole.
Count the smaller bundles, and compare the
number with that of the principal ribs in the
blade.

e. Carefully cut away, with a sharp razor, a portion
of the petiole and blade at their juncture, preferably
from the upper surface (i.e., make a _ longitudinal
section), in such a way that the central fibro-vascular
bundles of each rib, and that of the petiole, shall be
exposed. Note: —

1. That the central fibro-vascular bundle of the pet-
iole branches, one branch passing into each of
the ribs in the blade.

2. That one of the smaller fibro-vascular bundles of
the petiole also enters each rib, accompanying
the branch noted in 1.

f. If the leaf is freshly broken from the stem, the
ends of the broken fibro-vascular bundles may be seen
arranged in a crescent or semicircle on the surface of
the base of the petiole, and likewise on the fractured
surface of the stem; the fibro-vascular bundles pass from

THE LEAF. 41

the stem into the leaf, a fact which may be otherwise
demonstrated by making a careful longitudinal section of
a Geranium branch and the petiole of an attached leaf.
The veins of a leaf are simply continuations of the
woody or fibro-vascular systems of the stem.

g. Examine the leaf-scars on twigs of the Hickory,
Catalpa, Buckeye, Lilac, etc., and notice in the scar
points representing the ends of the broken fibro-vascular
bundles. |

V. FuNcrtTIONS.
a. Assimilation.

1. Place a living plant in the dark for some days.
What changes take place in the color of the
leaves ? |

What changes take place in the color of
a leaf which has been frozen? Of one which
has been dried ?

Compare a plant which has been kept in the dark
with one which has been exposed to the light during
the same time. Which has grown more? Does the
first show any additional growth? Recall the. changes
which take place in the foliage of the Oak, Elm, etc.,
in the fall and winter. Does any growth take place
after the leaves have changed and fallen ?

These observations show that the chlorophyl bodies,
which, as we have seen, make the leaves green, are
developed and are active only in the presence of sun-
hght and a proper amount of heat and moisture. Under
such conditions the work of assimilation is carried on
by them; that is, the inorganic matters, chiefly water,

42 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

carbon-dioxide, and ammonia, taken into the plant (in
solution by the roots, and in a gaseous state by the
leaves), are, in the leaves acting in sunlight, made over
into organic plant-substance.

Only green plants can use as food, assimilate, inor-
ganic or mineral matters. This distinguishes them at
once from animals.

2. If the foregoing statement is true, why do the
Maple, Apple, Plum, etc., produce flowers (i.e.
grow) long before their leaves appear ? (See
Lesson X XI.) |

Can a potato grow in the dark? (See
Lesson VIII. Il. A.)

Will a seed sprout and: grow underground,
hence in the dark? Will the plantlet devel-
oped from the seed continue to grow if kept
in the dark?

Test with Iodine various seeds, such as
those of the Pea, Bean, Corn, ete.

In all the foregoing cases, and in all cases where
erowth takes place before the appearance of green leaves
or other structures containing chlorophyl, growth is
possible because starch or other food-substance had
been stored up in some part of the plant for just such
use.

Such food substances were prepared by the plant
during the preceding season by the aid of green
leaves, and they are already organic substances which
may readily be used by the plant without the aid of
chlorophyl. |

THE LEAF. 43

b. Transpiration.

1. Expose a fresh leaf or detached branch to the air
of a warm room for a few hours. What is the
result ?

2. Compare a similar branch which has been placed
in a tumbler of water. What does the differ-
ence between these branches indicate ?

3. What is the difference between plants which have
been abundantly watered, and those which are
grown in dry soil?

4. Place a fresh leafy branch.of any house-plant
under a bell-glass, or in a glass jar which can
be closed. In the course of an hour or more
what has collected on the wall of the jar or
bell-glass ? Whence does it come ?

These experiments indicate that a plant takes up,
and again gives off, large quantities of water. Most of
this water acts merely as a solvent and carrier of the
inorganic substances used by the plant for food. When
this food has been assimilated the surplus water again
passes from the plant in the form of vapor.

This exhalation of the surplus water in the form of
vapor takes place through the stomata already men-
tioned, and is called transpiration.

e. The principal functions, then, of ordinary green

foliage-leaves are those of assimilation and
transpiration.

For special forms of leaves which serve as store-

houses of food, for protection, as tendrils, floral-organs,

ete., see Lesson XV. VI., and the lessons on the flower.

44 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

EER ooON ArT.

The Leaf.— Continued.

VENATION.

Materials required: Herbarium or fresh specimens of
the leaves of the following plants: Flowering Fern, Elm,
Hazel, Apple; cultivated Geranium, Maple; Amaryllis
or Narcissus, Day Lily; Canna.

I. Examine the lower side of a fragment of the
frond of the Flowering Fern. Note: —

a. Kach one of the smallest divisions of the frond
has a distinct vein running through the middle, the
mid-rib. ,

6. From: each mid-rib pass out numerous smaller
veins or veinlets. Do these form a network? Do
any or allof them fork? Do the branches again divide ?
Into how many branches does a vein divide at any
given point of branching ?

Such forking venation is called furcate, and is char-
acteristic of ferns.

ce. Draw a bit of the frond showing venation in detail
II. Examine the lower side of an Elm leaf. Note: —

a. The prominent central vein, a continuation of the
petiole, the mid-rib.

6b. The smaller veins, or secondary ribs, running
obliquely from the mid-rib, arranged like the barbs of a

THE LEAF. 45

feather; hence the leaf is pinnately-veined, or feather-
veined.

How many secondary ribs are there? Where do
they terminate ?

ce. The small veinlets forming a network between
the secondary ribs; hence the Elm leaf is netted-veined,
and being pinnate, it is said to be pinnately netted-
veined.

d. Draw the outline of the leaf, and show the vena-
tion in detail.

e. Compare the leaves of the Hazel and Apple with
that of the Elm. Is the general arrangement of the
larger veins the same ? Do the veinlets form a net-
work? Is the general plan of venation the same? Is
there any difference in the details of venation ?

Ill. Examine the lower surface of a Geranium leaf.
Note : —

a. The seven nearly equally prominent ribs, diver-
ging from the end of the petiole like fingers from the
palm of the hand; hence the leaf is digitately or palm-
ately veined. How and where do the ribs terminate ?

b. The smaller veins and veinlets, uniting to form a
more or less distinct network; hence again netted-
veined, but now palmately netted-veined.

e. Draw an outline of the leaf, and a portion of the
venation in detail.

d. Compare the leaf of the Maple. Is the general

plan of venation the same? How many ribs does the
Maple leaf have? Compare the details of venation.

46 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

IV. Examine the leaf of Amaryllis (or Narcissus).
Note : —
a. The very prominent central mid-rib.

b. The numerous smaller veins, sometimes called
nerves, Which extend from the base of the leaf to the
apex. Do any of these veins unite? Are there smaller
veinlets crossing between the veins? _

Since the veins are approximately parallel, and do
not form a network, the leaf is said to be parallel-veined ;
and as they diverge from the base it is again digitately
or palmately veined: hence the leaf is palmately parat-
lel-veined.

c. Draw an outline of the leaf and a portion of the
venation in detail.

' d. Compare the leaf of the Day Lily. Is the gen-
eral plan of venation the same? Note the difference in
the number and size of the veins.

V. Examine a Canna leaf. Note : —

a. The prominent mid-rib.

6b. The veins running out obliquely from the mid-rib.
Where do they terminate ? Do they unite, either directly
or by cross-veinlets, to form a network ?

Note again the feather-like arrangement of the veins ;
hence the leaf is again pinnately-veined, but now pin-
nately parallel-veined.

c. Draw the leaf and a portion of the venation in
detail.

VI. Have various leaves of house-plants brought in,
and compare the venation with the foregoing types. .

THE LEAF. AT

[Pls Si Te Ry a i ee
The Leaf. — Continued.

Materials required: Fresh or herbarium specimens
of the leaves of the following species: Carnation, Fuch-
sia, Common Locust, Black Willow, Purslane, culti-
vated Nasturtium, Morning-glory, Red Clover, Ground
Ivy, Calla, Shepherd’s-purse (the whole plant), Pine,
Red Currant, Verbena, White Elm, Common Thistle,
Bellwort, Honeysuckle, and such other forms as may
be conveniently obtained.

lL. Form.

a. Make a general comparison of the leaves. Notice
the great variation in the dimensions of the several
forms, the series ranging from those which are long
and very narrow, to those which are almost circular
in outline.

Three general groups of forms may be recognized : —

1. Those which are widest near the base, and taper
toward the apex.

The terms lanceolate, ovate, cordate, sagittate,

and reniform describe the most common forms.!

2. Those which are widest near the apex, and taper
more gradually toward the base. The terms
spatulate, cuneate, oblanceolate, obovate, and

1 For explanation of these terms, and all others used in this les-
son, see Glossary, Appendix D.

48 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

obcordate describe the most common forms, the
last three being respectively like the lanceolate,
ovate, and cordate forms reversed. |

Select specimens from the series of leaves to
which these terms may properly be applied.
Make an outline sketch of each.

3. Those which are widest at the middle, and taper
equally toward base and apex. - The terms
linear, needle-shaped, oblong, elliptical, and oval
describe the most common forms.

Select forms represented by these terms from
the material in hand, and draw each.

Notice that the general outline of some of the leaves
cannot be satisfactorily described by any of the terms
in the preceding groups, the forms being intermediate
between the members of one group, or even of different
groups. |

In such cases combinations similar to the following
must be employed: ovate-lanceolate, linear-lanceolate,
-oblong-ovate, etc.

6b. Compare the several leaves, and notice the relation
which general outline and venation bear to each other.

II. Base.

a. Compare the bases of the several leaves, and notice
that in many cases the form of the base does not appre-
clably modify the general outline of the leaf, and also
that leaves of different forms may have bases of essen-
tially the same kind. The bases vary from those which
are narrow and tapering in form to those in which the
margin at the base forms a re-entrant angle, the outer
angle, or sinus, being acute or obtuse,

THE LEAF. 49

The following are the most common terms applicable
in describing the bases of leaves: cuneate, acute, obtuse,
truncate, cordate, reniform, sagittate, auriculate, peltate,
perfoliate, connate-perfoliate, decurrent.

It will be observed that some of these terms are the
same as those applied to the general outline; but they
are here used in a restricted sense, applying to the base
only.

6. Select forms from the series of leaves to which
the above terms may be ey, and make an outline
sketch of each base.

Hit. Arex.

a. Compare the apices of the several leaves, and note
that the general outline of the leaf is affected even less
by the form of the apex than by that of the base.

The most common forms of the apex are the fol-
lowing: obcordate, emarginate, obtuse, truncate, cuspidate,
acute, acuminate, mucronate.

b. Apply these terms as far as possible to the speci-
mens under observation, and make sketches to illustrate
the various forms of apices.

Prepare an outline of all the terms in this entire
lesson which can be illustrated by the material in hand,
and illustrate each term by a small outline drawing made
from the specimen. Such a classified illustrated out-
line of terms will be very convenient for reference in
describing plants.

50 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Les oo WN ew
The Leaf. — Continued.

MARGIN, DIVISION OF BLADE; COMPOUND LEAVES.

Materials required: The leaves mentioned in the
preceding lesson; fresh and herbarium specimens of
the leaves of the following additional species: Cherry,
Common Violet, cultivated Geranium, Burdock, Haw-
thorn, White Oak, Maple, Peppergrass (entire young
plants), Golden Currant; also Rose, Pea, Honey Locust,
Red Clover, Sweet Clover,. Rue-anemone, Barberry,
Orange, and any other available species.

Examine the entire series of leaves, and notice that
they may be separated into three series or groups:
1. Those in which the blade of the leaf is not at all, or
but shghtly, cut at the margin, the incisions, or sinzses,
if any, extending much less than half-way to the mid-
rib, or end of the petiole. 2. Those in which the blade
is more deeply cut, the incisions extending quite half-
way, or more, toward the mid-rib, or base of the leaf.
3. Those in which the blade is divided into several sepa-
rate divisions.

I DiAarern:

a. Compare the leaves of Carnation, Cherry, White
Elm, Common Violet, Geranium, Burdock, Hawthorn,
ete.

Notice the varied character of the margin, which,
however, is in no case deeply cut, the extremes in this

THE .LEAF. at

series being represented by the entive margin of the Car-
nation leaf and the rather deeply incised margin of the
Hawthorn leaf. The various forms of the margin are
described by the following terms: entire, serrate, dentate,
crenate, undulate, sinuate, repand, incised."

In some cases the marginal teeth, of whatever form,
are very small; and for these the following terms are
used: serrulate, denticulate, crenulate, according as the
margin is finely serrate, dentate, or crenate. Sometimes,
as in the Elm leaf, the margin is coarsely serrate, and
the serrations, or teeth, are again serrate, the margin
then being dowbly-serrate. Similarly, the margin may be
doubly-crenate or doubly-dentate.

6b. Apply the terms as far as possible to the leaves
before you, and make an outline sketch of a portion of
the margin of each leaf studied.

II. Division oF THE BLADE.

a. Compare the leaves of White Oak, Maple, Pepper-
erass, Golden Currant, Thistle, etc.

Notice that the depth of the sinus varies, but in all
these leaves it extends more than half-way to the mid-
rib, or the base of the leaf. To express the difference
in the depth and character of the cutting of the blade,
the following terms are employed: Jobed, cleft, parted,
divided.

b. Notice also that the mode or plan of division is
of two kinds, pinnate and palmate, conforming to the
kind of venation. (See Lesson XII.) Hence the leaves

1 See Glossary.

52 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

are pinnately lobed, cleft, parted, or divided ; or palmately

lobed, cleft, parted, or divided.

Pinnate leaves may also be pinnatifid, or runcinate.

c. Apply the preceding terms to the specimens before
you, and from the latter make outline sketches to il-
lustrate the several forms.

III. Compounp LEAvVEs. |

a. Compare the leaves of the Rose, Pea, Honey Lo-
cust, Red Clover, Sweet Clover, Rue-anemone, ete., with
those studied in the preceding groups. Note that the

latter all have the blade in one more or less continuous

piece, being therefore simple, while the former ail have
the blade divided into separate divisions, or leaféets.
Most of the leaflets have distinct stalks, or secondary
petioles, called petiolules, which are ,more or less dis-
tinctly joined to the mid-rib, or end of the petiole. The
last character, together with the complete division of
the blade into leaflets, characterizes compound leaves, and
constitutes the difference between many divided and
nearly all compound leaves, though the characters are
by no means always clear.

6. Compare the leaf of the Barberry. If the leaf
has been carefully removed from the branch, it will be
noticed that the leaf-stalk is distinctly Jointed near the
base. How much of the leaf-stalk is petiole? How
much petiolule? How many divisions of the blade, or
leaflets, in this leaf ?

The Barberry leaf is a compound leaf with one leaf-
let. Compare the leaf of the Orange if available.

c. Examine the several leaves again. Why is not

——_ ~~ Oe ee ee ve. —

‘

THE LEAF. ao

each one of the leaflets considered a leaf? Are there

buds in the axils of the leaflets? Of the whole leaf ?

(See Lesson I.)

d. In this series of leaves notice the variation in the
number of leaflets, and also in the manner of division,
the leaflets in some being arranged in the pinnate order,
such leaves being pinnately-compound, and in others pal-
mately, such leaves being palmately-compound.

e. In the pinnate leaves notice the difference in the
arrangement of the leaflets, one or two leaflets, or a

tendril, terminating the leaf. The leaves are therefore

odd-pinnate, even-pinnate, or cirrhosely-pinnate.

J. Notice, also, that both the palmate and pinnate
leaves may be more than once compound; i.e., they may
be twice or thrice pinnately or palmately compound, or
they may be pinnately or palmately decompound.

Prepare an illustrated outline of the terms employed
in this lesson, making the outline sketches from the
specimens studied.

BeoDSON XV.
The Leaf.— Concluded.
COLOR, SURFACE, TEXTURE; VERNATION; SPECIAL FORMS.
Materials required: See list under each sub-head.

i: CoLor.

Examine the fresh leaves of cultivated Geranium
(both green and variegated forms), Carnation, Oleander,

54 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Amaryllis, Fuchsia, Begonia, etc.; also herbarium speci-
mens of Painted Cup.

a. Notice that some of the leaves are much deeper
green on one side than on the other, such leaves having
a distinct upper and lower (or dorsal) face, while those
which are of nearly the same color on both sides are
usually erect, or stand with both faces about equally
exposed to the light. (See Lesson XI. IV.)

6. Compare the colors of the several leaves. Notice
that the chlorophyl-green of some of them is more or
less obscured or modified by other colors, some of which
belong to the body of the leaf, while others are produced
by surface appendages, such as hairs, scales, ete.

Describe the colors of the various leaves.

c. In the Painted Cup notice that the bright-colored
red leaves are clustered at the end of the stem, near the
flowers. These perform the functions of showy floral
parts (see Lesson XVII.), and are called petaloid

leaves.

Il. SuRFACE.

Examine the surfaces of the leaves of the plants
mentioned in the preceding group; also fresh leaves of
Petunia, and herbarium specimens of leaves of the
Sunflower, Hazel, Mullein, Blackberry, Burdock, ete.
Notice that some are entirely smooth, 1.e., free from sur-
face appendages, while others are variously clothed with
minute waxy particles, glands, hairs, scales, or spines,
these differences giving rise to the use of the following
terms: glabrous, glaucous, scabrous, glandular, pubescent,
puberulent, woolly, tomentose, villose, floccose, spinose.

THE LEAF. aD

Apply these terms as far as possible to the specimens
before you.

fer, TEXTURE.

Leaves differ also as regards their thicxness and
texture. Compare the fresh leaves already mentioned,
and also fresh leaves of English Ivy, Ice-plant, etc., and
notice that the terms membranous, herbaceous, coria-
ceous, succulent, etc., express the differences between
them in this respect.

LV. VERNATION.

The manner in which the blade of the leaf is folded in
the bud, or the vernation of the leaf, is also of interest.

a. Take fresh leaf-buds of Geranium and other
house-plants, and alcoholic specimens of leaf-buds of
Ground-ivy, Oak, Apple, Fern, Currant, Common Violet,
Yellow-dock, etc.,! all of which should be collected when
the leaves are beginning to unfold.

Pick the buds to pieces, observe the various ways in
which the leaves are folded in the bud, and apply the
following terms, expressing kinds of vernation: straight,
inflexed, conduplicate, convolute, circinate, plicate, invo-
lute, revolute.

6. Make diagrams or sketches from the specimens
to illustrate the kinds of vernation.

V. Tue PETIOLE AND STIPULES.

The leaf has thus far been considered with special
reference to the blade. The remaining parts of the leaf,
the petiole and stipules, also require attention.

1 The alcoholic specimens should be soaked in water for a few
hours before being used.

56 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

a. The Petiole. Compare the leaves of Geranium,
Willow, Carnation, Plantain, etc., using fresh or herba-
rium specimens. Notice the variation in the following
characters : —

1. Length,— the petiole being long or short, or
even absent, in which ease the leaf 1s sessile.

~

Form of cross-section, — being compressed, terete,
grooved, ete. |

3. Surface and color, — the variation in these char-

acters being the same as in the blade.

The Stipules : —

nee

Search for the stipules in the leaves of the Wil-
low, Clover, Greenbrier (Smilax), Common Lo-
eust (with branch), Smartweed, Rose, Maple,
etc. In herbarium specimens be sure that the
entire leaf is collected ; notice that the stipules
vary greatly in size and form, the form, mar-
gin, and apex assuming the forms exhibited by
the blade. Are the stipules always present ?

2. Notice that the stipules are often green and leaf-
like, or membranous; but they may be of spe-
cial forms, being sometimes changed to tendrils,
spines, or sheaths.

c. Make a full description of the stipules of the

leaves before you.

VI. SprecraAL Forms or LEAVES.

Materials required: Fresh branch of Lilac which has
been in water for days, so that the buds are somewhat
developed; herbarium specimens of leaves of the Pea;

THE LEAF. at

branches (including those of the season in which they
were collected) of Barberry and Gooseberry ; fresh speci-
mens of Onion, Potato, and alcoholic specimens of the
rootstock of Solomon’s-seal, or Mandrake. The leaves
heretofore considered nearly all serve the purpose of
ordinary foliage-leaves; i.e., they are chlorophyl-bear-
ing, assimilating organs of the plant. Many leaves,
however, serve other purposes than this, the more com-
mon and striking of these special forms being the
following : —

a. Bud-scales. That these are leaves is clearly
shown by the Lilac, in which there is a gradual transi-
tion from the outer brown bud-secales to green leaves.
(See Lesson LX. IL.)

b. Tendrils. The Pea exhibits a modification of a
part of the leaf into tendrils. Do these tendrils branch ?
Notice the arrangement of the branches. To what do
they correspond ?

c. Spines. Examine the branches of Barberry. Note
the spines, some single, others three-parted. Observe
the arrangement of these spines on the stem. Arethere
buds or branches (developed buds) in their axils? Jf so,
the spines are leaves.

On the young shoots, notice that some of the spines
have their three lobes connected by a web, the spines on
these shoots, in fact, showing a gradual transition from
the true leaf to the spinous state. To what part of the
leaf do the spines correspond ? Compare the spines of
the Gooseberry.

d. Bulb-scales.

58 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

1. Examine the bulb of an Onion, preferably one
that has sprouted. Notice that the outer coats
are membranous, each one bearing a fragment
of a dried leaf above. Remove these, and notice
that the inner coats are fleshy, each also bear-
ing a part of a leaf. Remove some of the
fleshy coats, and notice that on some of the
innermost coats the leaves are perfect. —

The scales, or coats, are fleshy “baseauae
leaves.

2. Make a longitudinal section of the bulb through
the centre, and apply the test given ine. Do
you find buds in the axils of the outer scales ?
Of the inner ones ?

3. Compare the scattered scales on other forms of
underground stems, such as the rootstocks of
Solomon’s-seal, or Mandrake, and apply the
same test. Are they leaves?

What is the minute scale on the lower side
of the “eye” of the Potato-tuber ?

e. Fly-traps and Pitchers. Weaves may be peculiarly
modified for the purpose of entrapping insects, as in the
case of Fly-traps and Pitcher-plants; and these should
be noticed if specimens for illustration are available.

f. Leaves modified into bracts, and into floral organs,
will be discussed in subsequent lessons.

Write a full discussion of the special forms of leaves,
stating in each case the reasons for the belef that they
are leaves.

INFLORESCENCE. 59

ees Che ee
Inflorescence.

Materials required: Herbarium specimens of flower-
clusters of the following plants: Larkspur, Mandrake,
Shepherd’s-purse (both young and old clusters), White
Ash, Lily-of-the-Valley, Wild Sarsaparilla, Carrot, Plan-
tain, Wheat, Poplar, Blue Grass, Grape, Phlox, Elder,
ete. (The fruit-clusters of many of the species, dried
without pressure, will be quite as useful). Also fresh
flower-clusters of Geranium and Calla.

I. Make a general comparison of the several flower-
clusters. Note the differences in the compactness of the
clusters, their form, size, and number, and arrangement
of the flowers in each.

These characters determine the mode of flowering
of the plant, its Anthotaxy, or Inflorescence.

Il. Parts or THE FLOWER—CLUSTER.

Examine the flower-cluster of the Larkspur. Note
that : —
a. The flowers are arranged along a central stem, or
floral axis. Observe : —
1. The part of the axis included im the flower-
cluster, —the rhachis.
2. If the naked stem be continued below the lowest
flower to form the stalk of the flower-cluster,
it forms a common peduncle.

60 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Sometimes the peduncle rises directly from
the ground,—a scape. (See Lesson XXIX.
IT. a.)

3. The individual flower attached to the rhachis by
a stalk, —the pedicel.

6. Each pedicel springs in the axil of a small, narrow
leaflet, the dract. When several bracts, or leaves, are set
to form a whorl beneath a flower or flower-cluster, they
constitute an involucre.

In the plants before us, notice that the bracts vary

in length, color, surface, general outline, margin, and

apex, much as leaves do.
What are bracts, as determined by their position,
and the form and structure of many of them ?

ce. Compare the several flower-clusters again. Is
the rhachis always distinct? The common peduncle ?
Are the pedicels always present? Flowers without
pedicels are said to be sessile.

May the flowers be without bracts and bractlets ?

Ill INDETERMINATE INFLORESCENCE.

Notice the position of the flowers in the Larkspur
and Shepherd’s-purse.

a. Are any of them terminal on the stem? Notice
that the lowest flowers in each cluster are the first to
open, the remaining ones opening successively upward.
Such order of inflorescence is said to be indeterminate,
or centripetal.

What is the origin of these terms ?

OO eS

INFLORESCENCE. 61

b. Select all the clusters of the indeterminate kind
from the series in hand, and compare them. Notice
that they may readily be divided into two classes:

1. Those in which the flowers have pedicels; 1.c.,

pedicellate.

2. Those in which the flowers are without pedicels;
1.e., sessale.

c. Among the pedicellate kinds the following forms

may be recognized : —

1. Flowers, several or many, on elongated rhachis ;
pedicels nearly equal, the flower-cluster being
a raceme.

2. Flowers as in 1, but the lower pedicels elongated
so that the lower flowers are brought up to
nearly the level of the uppermost ones. The
cluster is nearly flat-topped, and is called a
corymb.

3. Rhachis wanting, the pedicels all proceeding from
the end of the common peduncle, — an wmbel.

d. Of the clusters with sessile flowers the following
are the most common forms : —

1. Flowers closely arranged on an elongated axis,
the cluster being a spike.

2. Loose, usually drooping, forms of 1; flowers
mostly small, and with scale-like bracts, — the
cluster being a catkin.

3. Erect, rigid spikes enclosed in a leaflike or petal-
oid bract called a spathe. The flower-cluster
is a spadizx.

62 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

4. Like 1, but the floral axis very short, so that the
length of the cluster is scarcely greater than
its diameter. The cluster is a head. The en-
larged and short rhachis is called the common
receptacle. |

e. Many flower-clusters are branched or compound.

The following are.more common forms : —

1. Racemes may again be arranged in racemes, the
clusters being branched or compound, thus
producing compound racemes.

2. Similarly we may have compound corymbs, com-
pound umbels, and compound spikes.

3. A loosely, more or less irregularly compound
cluster is called a panicle.

4. A more compact cluster, in form and mode of diVis-
ion like a bunch of grapes, is called a thyrsus.

f. Apply these terms to the specimens in hand, and

make diagrammatic sketches to illustrate each kind.

LV. DETERMINATE INFLORESCENCE.

Examine a fresh flower-cluster of cultivated Gera-
nium in which some of the flowers are still in bud.

a. Notice that the innermost flowers, which cor-
respond to the wppermost or terminal flowers in an
elongated cluster, are the first to open. Hence the in-
florescence is determinate, or centrifugal. Why cen-
trifugal ?

b. Select all the determinate flower-clusters from the
specimens before you, and notice that these may also be
divided into two groups : —

INFLORESCENCE. 63

1. Those in which the flowers are pedicellate.
2. Those in which the flowers are sessile.

ce. Of the pedicellate forms the following are the
most common : —

1. The flowers in a loose cluster, more or less branch-
ing, but the terminal flower of each branch open-
ing before the lateral flowers. A cluster of this
kind, which may be of various shapes, is a cyme.

2. If the cyme is quite compact, and nearly flat-
topped, it is a fascicle.

3. A loose, much-branched cyme is a compound cyme.

d. The more frequent forms with sessile flowers are

the following : —

1. A compact, rounded cluster similar to the head, but
centrifugal in inflorescence, called a glomerule.

2. A series of glomerules arranged in whorls in an
interrupted, spike-like cluster called a verticzt-
laster.

e. Apply these terms to the specimens before you,
and make diagrammatic sketches of each kind.

V. SoxviTARY INFLORESCENCE.

Both indeterminate and determinate inflorescence
may be solitary, and the flowers may be pedicellate or
sessile. In the indeterminate kind the solitary flowers
are remote, axillary, while in the determinate kind they
terminate the main stem or branches.

If solitary flowers are pedicellate the stalk is called
a peduncle.

64 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

VI. Mixrep INFLORESCENCE.

The two kinds of inflorescence are more or less
mixed in the same compound flower-cluster, the order
of inflorescence being in part indeterminate, and in part
determinate.

Such inflorescence is mixed.

VII. Prepare an illustrated outline of all the terms
employed in this lesson.

LESS: OM) 2. ie

The Flower.

Materials required: Fresh specimens of the ee
Wake-robin (7rillium nivale Rid.)*, in flower.

1. THe PARts or tar FirowprR

Examine the flower, beginning with the outermost
parts. Notice : —

The outermost whorl of the floral envelope, the
calyx, consisting of three: green, leaf-like bodies, the
sepals.

6. The inner whorl of the floral envelope, the corolla,
consisting of three white parts, larger than the sepals,
called petals. ‘The calyx and corolla together constitute
the floral covering, or perianth.

1 This is one of the earliest flowers to appear in the spring, but if
this lesson is reached before fresh flowers can be collected, alcoholic

specimens may be used; or, still better, the lesson may be adapted te
the cultivated Geranium discussed in the following lesson.

THE FLOWER. 65

Remove one petal and the two adjacent sepals with-
out disturbing the remainder of the flower.
Observe : — ;

ce. A whorl of six stalked, narrow, yellow bodies,
called stamens, collectively forming the andraecium. Re-
move one stamen, and note that it consists of two parts.

1. The white, smooth stalk, or filament.

2. The yellow, two-lobed body on the filament, called
the anther.
Examine the anther carefully. If it is not too old,
note : —

1. The green extension of the filament lying along
one side of the anther, called the connective.

11. The two large yellow parallel lobes, or sacs, be-
tween which the connective lies, called the cells
of the anther, each itself slightly longitudi-
nally two-lobed.

ii. The anther-cells, filled with a yellow, more or -
less cohesive substance, — the pollen.
Under the microscope this is shown to consist
of nearly spherical, slightly roughened, minute
bodies called pollen-grains.

tv. In an older anther notice that the anther-cells
break, dehisce, longitudinally along the lines
separating the two lobes of each cell, thus
discharging the pollen.

d. Remove some of the stamens, and notice an
enlarged body in the centre of the flower, terminat-
ing above in three slender arms. This is the pisti/, or
gynecium. Make the following observations : —

66 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

1. Examine with a lens the upper (inner) surface of
each of the three arms. Notice the rough,
moist surface, the stigmatic surface, to which
some pollen-grains probably adhere. How far
down does this extend? ‘That part of each
arm bearing the stigmatic surface is a stigma.

2. Notice the green basal portions of the arms below
the stigmas. Lach is a style.

3. Notice the large green triangular basal portion of
the pistil, — the ovary.

This rests on the enlarged end of the pedun-
cle, called the receptacle, or torus, to which the
stamens, corolla, and calyx are also attached.

With a sharp knife make a transverse sec-
tion of the ovary near the middle. With a lens
examine the interior of the ovary, and notice : —

1. The three compartments, ced/s, or loculi, separated
by partitions, or walls.

11. In each one of the cells a number of small, round-
ish bodies, — the ovules. These are attached at
the inner angle of each cell, on a ridge, or area,
called the placenta.

The arrangement of the ovules in the cell, 1.e.,
their manner of attachment or distribution in
the ovary, is called placentation.

mi. Carefully examine a single ovule with a good
lens, or, still better, with a compound micro-
scope. Note that it consists of two parts:
the main body of the ovule, and a short stalk,
or funiculus, which is the free end of a much

THE FLOWER. 67

longer stalk which lies against the body of the
ovule, and is consolidated with it. (See Fig.
9 B 4.)

tv. Under favorable circumstances in sections spe-
cially prepared the following facts may be
observed :—

The outer part of the ovule consists of one
or two coats, perforated at the tip of the ovule
(here turned back so as to be near the base)
by a small opening, the micropyle (Fig. 9 B 5).

Within the walls, or coats, of the ovule les
the comparatively large embryo-sac (Fig. 9
B 2), in which is found, immediately under
the micropyle, a small nucleated cell called
the odsphere (Fig. 9 B 3), with which are
associated other cells, the discussion of which
eannot here be taken up to advantage.

Il. THe PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FLOWER.

For the proper comprehension of a flower, a study of
the functions, or uses, of the several parts is necessary.

For this purpose we may conveniently divide the ©
parts of the flower into two sets: a, the essential or-
gans, the androecium and gynceecium; and 6, the non-
essential parts, the calyx and corolla.

a. The Essential Organs.

1. As may easily be seen, the ovary is the part which
develops into the fruit, and the ovules develop
into seeds. But the ovules will not so develop
unless fertilized. 'This is accomplished by the
pollen in the following manner: —

68 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

The pollen must first be deposited upon
the moist stigmatic surface (Fig. 9 A 5), to
which it readily adheres.

Each pollen-grain is a cell, with distinct
cell-walls (Fig. 9 C 1), and a dense granular
nucleus (Fig. 9 C 2) imbedded in the general
cell-contents (Fig. 9 C 3).

o
Be :
-- 6
y ieee
= --2 C
B ---6
ica ee
SS) Ces Be 3
a

A
Fig. 9.

A. Longitudinal section of the ovary of Trillium nivale (magnified).

1, stigma; 2, style; 3, cell of the ovary; 4, ovule; 5, pollen-grain on the
stigmatic surface; 6, pollen-tube entering the micropyle of the ovule
below.

B. An ovule of same (magnified).

1, wall of the ovule; 2, embryo-sac; 3, odsphere with its nucleus; 4, funi-

culus; 5, micropyle; 6, pollen-tube entering the ovule; 7, nuclei.

C. Pollen-grain (magnified).

1, cell-wall; 2, nucleus ; 3, general cell-contents.

oe

THE FLOWER. 69

Shortly after the pollen-grain has been
deposited upon the stigmatic surface 1t germ1-
nates; i.e., the outer wall breaks, and the con-
tents, including the nucleus, are pushed out in
the form of a slender pollen-tube (Fig. 9 A 6).

This pollen-tube penetrates through the cen-
tral, hollow, or soft, loose-celled portion of the
style, into the cavity of the ovary, and enters
the micropyle of the ovule, where the large
special cell, the odsphere, awaits it (Fig. 9 A
and B). By this time the nucleus has divided
into several nuclei (Fig. 9 B 7); and when the
pollen-tube comes in contact with the odsphere
(Fig. 9 B 3), one of the nuclei unites with the
odsphere, and the latter 1s fertilized.

The fertilized odsphere, or odspore as it 1s
now called, then grows by cell-division, devel-
oping into the embryo plantlet, with its cotyle-
don, plumule, and sadicle, the embryonic stem
and root combined, while the seed matures
on the parent plant. In flowering plants the
length of the pollen-tube varies with the length
of the style; but in all of them the process of
fertilization must be accomplished essentially
as described above, or no seed will be produced.

will be noticed that in this, and other flowers,
the anthers are not usually in direct contact
with the stigmatic surface, hence some external
agency must carry the pollen from the anthers
to the stigmas. :
The agencies most frequently concerned in

70 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

this work are wind, water, and animals, notably
insects.

The transfer of pollen from the anther to
the stigma constitutes pollination, which in all
cases must precede fertilization.

The various adaptations of the parts of the
flower to pollination will be considered more
fully in subsequent lessons. -

b. The Non-essential Organs.
The calyx and corolla are not directly concerned in
the production of seed, hence are not essential to the

flower.
Their uses may be briefly stated as follows : —

1. They serve to protect the essential organs in the
bud. |

2. When fully developed they may, by their form,
size, and position, protect the essential organs
against .rain, wind, and undesirable insect
visitors.

3. By their bright colors they may serve to attract
the attention of insects which are useful in
the work of pollination; and their form, size,
and arrangement may be such that insects of
this kind will find a resting-place while at
work.

: The perianth, then, is chiefly of use in pol-
lination, and as a protection to the essential
organs.

THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER. T1

LESSON XVIII.

The Morphology of the Flower.

Materials required: Fresh flowers of Trillium nivale,
house Geranium, Fuchsia, Primrose, Pussy-willow,! and
other accessible forms. Some should be in bud. Also
afresh flower of Cactus, a few Roses, and a Peony if it

can be obtained.

Compare the flowers of Trillium, Geranium, Fuchsia,
_ and Primrose, and observe the variation in the several
sets of organs in the following order : —

tue CALvX.

Notice the variation in the following characters : —

a. Division. Note that the sepals of Trillium and
Geranium are distinct, the calyx being polysepalous,
while those of Fuchsia and Primrose are united, the
calyx being monosepalous, or gamosepalous.

b. Number, form, color, texture, and surface of the
sepals. Note that in these characters the sepals, or
lobes, vary much as do leaves, the same terms being
applicable to both.

Il. THe Corona.

Observe the following characters : —

1 Tf this is desired very early in the season, the flowers may be
___ foreed by putting twigs into water, and keeping them in a warm room.
fora few days. (See Appendix B.)

tT ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

a. Division. The corolla, like the calyx, varies as
to the separation of its parts, being polypetalous or
monopetalous (gamopetalous). Note also the tube and
limb in the corolla of the Primrose.

b. Number, form, color, texture, and surface of petals
or lobes. —Compare the several forms, and note that
in these characters the petals vary like sepals and
leaves. | |

c. Form of the Corolla. The variations in the form
of the corolla may be expressed by the following terms:
tubular, funnel-form, bell-shaped, labiate, salver-shaped,.
rotate, papilionaceous, ligulate, rosaceous, sac-shaped, ete.’
Name the forms of the corollas before you.

d. Position of the petals. Note that the petals of
Trillium are attached to the torus; such are hypogy-
nous: while those of Fuchsia are placed on the calyx,
and are perigynous. |

What is the position of the petals (or corolla) in the
remaining flowers before you ?

e. Length and position. Notice the relative length
and position of the parts of the calyx and corolla in each
flower. |

f. Aistivation. The manner in which the sepals
and petals are folded in bud is of interest, and is the
cestivation of the flower. It may be valvate, reduplicate,
involute, imbricate, plicate, or supervolute.

Observe the kinds of estivation in the buds before
you, and name each.

1 For these and other terms in this lesson, see Glossary, Appen-
dix D.

—

THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER. T3

Ill. THe ANpDRaciIuM. .

Compare the stamens in the several flowers. Observe
the variation in the following characters : —

a. Number and length of the stamens, and their posi-
tion with reference to the parts of the corolla; 1.e., oppo-
site or alternate.

b. The insertion of the stamens. They may be

_hypogynous, epipetalous, perigynous or epigynous. Ob-

serve this in your specimens.
c. The union of stamens. In some of the flowers

_ the stamens are free from each other, or distinct. In

Geranium they are united by their filaments, being mon-
adelphous. In other flowers they may be diadelphous,
triadelphous, etc.

When united by their anthers stamens are syngene-
sious.

d. Theanthers. Make the following observations : —

1. Compare their form, color, number of cells, and
dehiscence.
The dehiscence may be longitudinal, trans-
verse, valvate, or porous.

2. Notice the attachment to the filament, the anther
being innate, adnate, or versatile. When
adnate, it is either introrse or extrorse, accord-
ing as it faces inward or outward in dehis-
cence.

3. Compare the pollen of the several flowers with
special reference to its color and abundance.

e. The filaments. Compare the length, form, surface,

and color in the several forms.

74 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

IV. THe GyNcC&cIumM.

Compare the corresponding parts of the pistils of
the several flowers with each other as follows : —

a. Compare the stigmas and styles with special ref-
erence to number, form, color, surface, and division, using

_familiar terms such as were used for leaves, ete.

b. Compare the ovaries. Note: —

1. The number, size, form, and surface of the several
kinds.

2. The position of the ovary. When free from the
calyx it is superior; when wholly united with
the calyx, so that 1t seems to project below it,
it is inferior ; and when partially united it is
half-superior or half-inferior.

Find these forms among your specimens.

3. Make transverse sections of the ovaries, and note
the number of cells (/ocwlz) and placente, and
the number, form, and size of ovules in each.

The placentz are parietal, axile, or free-cen-
tral, accordingly as the ovules are attached to
the outer walls of the ovary, the inner angles
formed by partitions, or septa, in a several-
celled ovary, or on a central axis which is not
united by septa with the outer walls.

c. As to kind, or division, pistils are classed as fol-
lows : —

1. If there is but one cell, one placenta, one style,
and one stigma, the pistil consists of a single
carpel, or pistil-leaf, and 1s a simple pistil.

- THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER. 15

| 2. If there are two or more cells, placentz, styles,
or stigmas, the pistil is made up of more than
one carpel, and is compound.

VY. Tue Torus.

The torus varies more or less in size and form, usu-
ally being simply the somewhat enlarged end of the
pedicel or peduncle, but sometimes assuming other
forms which may always be described in familiar
terms.

; The ovary is sometimes separated from the torus
_ proper by a fleshy, usually variously lobed and colored
_ body called the disk.

Vi. Examine the flower of Trillium again.

a. Note that : —

1. It has both stamens and pistils, hence is perfect.

2. In addition to these, it also has both calyx and
corolla, and is complete.

3. The sepals are equal in form and size, and are
symmetrically placed around the centre of the
flower. The same is true of each of the other
sets of floral organs. Therefore the flower is
regular, or actinomorphie.

4. The flower has all its parts in sets of three, or
a multiple of three; there being three sepals,
three petals, six stamens, and three carpels in
the pistil. The arrangement of these parts is
alternate, the petals alternating with the sepals:
the outer set of three larger stamens with the
petals ; the smaller inner set of stamens with

: the outer set; and the three cells or angles of

T6 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

the ovary with the inner stamens. (See plan
of the flower, Fig. 10.)

A flower whose numerical plan is uniform
throughout, and whose parts are regularly
placed in alternating series, is said to be sym-
metrical,

A flower which is complete, regular, and symmetrical
may for purposes of illustration be considered a typical ©
jlower. The flower of Trillium is practically a typical
flower.

Fig. 10.
Plan of the flower of Trillium niva.

Showing the number and relative position of the parts of the calyx,
corolla, andreecium, and gynecium.

6. Compare the flowers of Geranium. They are irreg-
ular (zygomorphic ) and unsymmetrical. Why ?

c. Compare the flowers of the Pussy-willow. They
are imperfect and incomplete. Why ?

d. Draw plans of all the flowers before you.
VII. Tur FLlower a Brawncu.

The flower is a branch specially modified for repro-
ductive purposes. That it is a branch is shown by the
following facts : —

——

THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWER. re

a. The flower is developed from buds, which are at
first indistinguishable from leaf-buds, and which, like
leaf-buds, are axillary or terminal. (See Lesson I.)

b. The parts of the flower are modified leaves.

1. That the parts of the floral envelope are leaves
may often easily be seen.

In the Cactus-flower, for example, there is
usually a perfect gradation from the small,
fleshy leaves through sepals to petals.

Sepals and petals often resemble leaves in
form and venation, and the former also in
color and function, being often green chloro-
phyl-bearing organs.

2. The stamens and pistils, while usually very dis-
tinct from the perianth, are sometimes con-
nected with it by intermediate forms. Thus
in Roses, sometimes some of the stamens are
partly developed into petals, while in very
double ones all the stamens, and even some
or all of the pistils, become petals. Other
double flowers, such as the Peony, show the
same thing. The structure of a stamen is not
unlike that of a leaf. The filament corre-
sponds to the petiole, the connective to the
mid-rib, and the cells of the anther to the two
halves of the blade.

The structure of the pistil is also like that
of a leaf folded and united at the edges.
The style corresponds to the tapering apex,
the tip of which forms the stigma.

ail ae

78 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

The ovules are borne on the united edges
which form the placenta.

The leaves, or carpels, when more than one,
may be united in a variety of ways, as noticed
in Sec. IV. of this lesson.

In fruit the carpel often spreads out, and
assumes a leaf-like form.

3. All the parts of the flower sometimes revert to
true leaves. In such cases a tuft or rosette of
leaves appears instead of the flower. The
Windflower, Strawberry, and other species fur-
nish occasional illustrations.

4. In rare instances buds develop in the axils of
parts of the flower, leafy branches or flowers
growing out of the flower in such eases.

Flowers of the Jessamine and Rose some-
times furnish illustrations.’ |

LESSON xTxX

The Fruit and Seed.

Materials required : As noted under each subdivision
of the lesson. Notice: —

1. Flowers are produced for the purpose of developing

Sruit and seeds.

1 These special forms should be secured when obtainable, and
either pressed, or preserved in alcohol.

THE FRUIT AND SEED. T9

2. The matured ovary, with such other parts of the
flower as become consolidated with it during the
process of growth and ripening, forms the FRUIT.

3. The ripened, fertilized ovule is the SEED.

The Fruit.

Examine the following series of fruits: dried fruits
of Sunflower, Goosefoot, Corn, Maple, Hazel, Butternut,
Marsh-marigold, Milkweed, Pea, Tick-trefoil, Tobacco,
Jimson-weed, Lilac, Poppy, Purslane, Black Mustard,
Shepherd’s-purse; alcoholic specimens of fruits of
Cherry (both young and mature), Gooseberry, Black-
berry, Strawberry; Fresh fruits of Apple, Squash, and
Orange.

These fruits are each the product of one flower.

A. FRUITS DEVELOPED FROM ONE FLOWER.

Notice that in a general way the fruits which are
the product of one flower may be classed into two
groups: those which do not open or dehisce regularly to
discharge the seeds, called indehiscent fruits; those
which dehisce regularly, usually along definite lines,
‘called dehiscent fruits.

I. InpEentscentT Fruits.

Separate the indehiscent fruits from the others.
Notice that they vary much in form, size, ete.

Most of these indehiscent fruits are the product of
a single pistil, a few only (those of the Rose, Blackberry,
and Strawberry (See Lessons XXXIII. and XXXIV.)
being developed from several pistils in the same flower.
Note : —

80) ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

a. Simple Fruits,—the product of single pistils.
Of the indehiscent fruits produced from a single pistil,
whether simple or compound, two general forms will be
recognized: those in which the fruit dries in ripening;
and those in which some part, or all, of the fruit
becomes fleshy at maturity.

1. Dry Fruits. As a type of the dry fruits, take the

fruit of the Sunflower, the so-called seed : — —

1. Make longitudinal and transverse sections, and
notice that the fruit is one-celled and one-
seeded, the matured wall of the ovary, the
pericarp, being uniformly hard, and enclos-
ing the seed, from which it separates easily.
Such a fruit is an achenium.

11. Compare the wtricle, nut, grain, and samara?
with the achenium, selecting specimens of
each kind from the series of fruits.

2. Of the fruits which become fleshy at maturity,
two classes are recognized: (a) those which
contain a hard stone; and (6) those which
are fleshy throughout.

(a). Stone Fruits. Take the cherry asa type.

1. Notice that it is covered with an epidermis,
within which hes the pulpy, fleshy part of
the fruit, in which is imbedded the hard stone.
Break the stone. What does it contain ?

Make a section through the middle of a
young cherry. Notice that there is no hard

1 See Glossary, Appendix D, for these and other terms in this
lesson,

THE FRUIT AND SEED. 81

stone within, but, instead, a white fleshy
layer, which almost insensibly grades into
the pulpy part of the fruit. The epidermis
—the fleshy part of the fruit —and the wall
of the stone together form the pericarp, the

seed being within the stone.

Such a fruit is a drupe. -
mu. Compare the Butternut, a tryma, with the drupe.

(6). Fleshy Fruits, proper. Make a section both

ways through a Gooseberry.

1. Notice that the walls and septa of the ovary have
become fleshy, the seeds being imbedded in
the pulpymass. Such a fruit is called a berry.

11. Compare the orange, hesperidium ; the squash,
pepo; and the apple, pome, with the berry.

b. Aggregated Fruits. These are indehiscent fruits

produced by the consolidation of several pistils in one
flower. Such are the Blackberry, Strawberry, and
Rose-hip.

1. Study the Blackberry as a type. Notice that
each of the pistils (of which there are several
in one flower) has developed into a small
drupe. The fruit formed by the union of the
small drupes is sometimes called an eterio.

2. Compare the Strawberry and the hip of the Rose,
additional forms of aggregated fruits, with the
etzerio.

Il. Derniscentr Fruits.

These may be developed from simple or compound

pistils. Notice that thé dehiscence may take place in a
variety of ways : —

82, ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

a. In the fruits developed from simple pistils, as
illustrated by the Milkweed, Pea, and Tick-trefoil, the
dehiscence takes place either along one line, or suture,
only, the fruit being a follicle ; or along two opposite
sutures, thus dividing the pericarp into two parts, or
valves, the fruit being either a /egume (Pea), or a loment
(Tick-trefoil). Compare the two forms.

6b. For types of dehiscent fruits which are developed |
from compound pistils, and generally called capsules,
study the fruits of Tobacco, Jimson-weed, Lilac, Poppy,
Purslane, Black Mustard, and Shepherd’s-purse.

1. Notice that dehiscence takes place in one of the
following ways : — |
1. The capsule may split along the septa, each —
one being divided, the dehiscence being sep-

ticidal.

u. The capsule may split between the septa, each
valve so formed bearing at the middle a
septum when present. Such dehiscence is
loculicidal.

111. When in loculicidal dehiscence the valves in
addition fall away from the septa, which
usually remain united at the centre, the
dehiscence is septifragal.

tv. Dehiscence may also be porous and circumeis-
sie.
Find all of these types among the specimens before
you, and illustrate each kind by a diagram.

2. Examine the capsules, and notice the several
kinds : —

THE FRUIT AND SEED. 83

1. Take the fruits of Tobacco, Jimson-weed, Lilac,
and Poppy, as types of the true capsule.
Note the difference in the size, surface,
number of cells, and modes of dehiscence
of the several forms. The number of cells
in the fruit is not always the same as the
number of cells in the ovary.

11. Compare with the true capsules the fruits of
Black Mustard, Shepherd’s-purse, and Purs-
lane, types respectively of the silique,
silicle, and pyxis, which are special or
modified forms of the capsule.

B. MuttieLteE FRUITS.

Get alcoholic specimens of Mulberries, and fruits
of Pineapple and Pine. As a type of the group study
the Mulberry or Pineapple. The fruit really consists
of a large number of small fruits united with each.
other, each of them the product of one flower. Such a
fruit is called a sorosis. Compare with this the strodzvle,
or cone, of the Pine.

The Seed.

Examine the seeds of the Bean, Pea, Apple, Sun-
flower, Corn, etc., which have been soaked in water.
Make sections of the several seeds. Notice that : —

a. The seed is covered by one or two coats.?

The outer, or festa, is usually hard, and in some
seeds is variously ornamented on the surface, being

1 Jn the fruit of the Sunflower be careful not to mistake the peri-
carp for the seed-coats.

Sf ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

tuberculate, pitted, hairy, etc. ‘The inner coat, when
present, is usually thin and membranous.

The embryo consists of the cotyledons, plumule, and
radicle (see Lesson VII., iv.), and is contained within
the seed-coats, and either wholly occupies the space, or
is imbedded in various ways in a quantity of nourish-
ing matter which is called the albumen. Seeds like the
latter are albuminous, like the former ex-albuminous.

In ex-albuminous seeds the nourishing matter is
stored up in the fleshy cotyledons.

Dispersion of Fruits and Seeds.

In addition to the seeds and fruits already enume- |
rated procure the following: Fruits of Balloon-vine, This-
tle, Burdock, Spanish-needles; seeds of Catalpa.

In order that a young plant may properly develop,
it is necessary that the seed from which it is to grow
be removed some distance from the parent plant, which
otherwise would interfere with its growth. This is ac-
complished in several ways, and in all cases the seed
or fruit is modified in structure and form to aid in its
transportation.

Fruits and seeds may be dispersed as follows : —

a. By water. In such cases the seed is protected
by outer impervious and thickened light (porous) coats.
See how many of the seeds and fruits will sink in
water.

b. By wind. In such eases the seed or fruit is hght
and buoyant, either through inflation of the coats, or
because of appendages, such as wings and hairs.

- .
"THE WAKE-ROBIN AND THE LILIES. 85

ce. By animals. Animals transport seeds and fruits

in a variety of ways:

1. The outer part of the fruit may be fleshy and
palatable, as well as bright-colored and odor-
ous, to attract animals.

The seeds in such cases are either bitter or
otherwise unpalatable, or they are enclosed in
a hard shell or stone which makes them indi-
gestible. They therefore escape destruction.

2. Other fruits and seeds are variously provided
with hooks, spines, glands, etc., by which they
adhere to the bodies of animals, and are thus
carried about.

d. By hygroscopism. ‘This results from the warping
or unequal drying of fruits, which, when disturbed,
burst suddenly and scatter the seeds.

Divide the seeds and fruits before you into groups,
according to their manner of dispersion, and observe in
each kind the special modifications which aid in its
transportation.

LoD ON xX xX.

‘

The Wake-robin and the Lilies.

Materials required: Fresh specimens of the Early
Wake-robin ( Trillium nivale Rid.)* in flower and fruit.
‘Similar specimens of Bellwort, Lily-of-the-valley, False

| 1 Any other species of Trillium may be used, or the lesson may
be commenced with any of the other species listed.

86 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Solomon’s-seal, Solomon’s-seal, Asparagus, any true Lily
(Lilium), Tulip, Dog-tooth Violet, Onion, Hyacinth. |

A. Tur WAKE-ROBIN.

Examine the plant of the early Wake-robin in detail.
Notice : —
I. Tur PLANT As A WHOLE.

What can you say of its general appearance? Its
size ? Does it flower the first year? Note: —

a. The root and rootstock. The number, form, tex-
ture, and surface of the roots. Are they primary or
secondary ? Notice that they pass out from a short
horizontal rootstock. Examine this carefully. How do
you know that it is an underground stem? Describe
its form, size, surface, etc. Note particularly its older,
or posterior, extremity.

Observe that in older plants the rootstock often gives
off one or two small branches, which appear like lateral
buds.

b. The stem. Note its direction, texture, color, and
surface.

Make a transverse section of the stem. What is its
structure ? 7 |

c. The leaves. Note their number and arrangement.

Study the parts of the leaf,—the venation, form,
margin, apex, surface, etc.

If you have plants of a season, or rootstocks with the
bud-like branches (see a) bearing leaves, compare their
leaves with those of the ordinary flowering form of the
plant. |

-.

7

THE WAKE-ROBIN AND THE LILIES. 87

Il. Tuer INFLORESCENCE.

a. What is the position of the solitary flower? Is
the inflorescence determinate or indeterminate ? Note
the length and direction of the peduncle.

6b. Examine the flower. Is it perfect? Complete ?
Regular? Symmetrical ?.
Examine the parts in detail:

1. The calyx. Note the number, form, length, sur-
face, color, of the sepals, as ascertained from
the study of a number of flowers. Is there
much variation in these characters ?

2. The corolla. Describe the petals similarly. Note
the insertion of the petals.
Compare the length of petals and sepals.

3. The andrecium. Note the number of stamens,
their insertion, position with reference to other
parts of the flower, ete. Describe a single
stamen fully, noting the color, length, surface,
and form of the filament; and the color, length,
number of cells, dehiscence, attachment to fila-
ment, ete., of the anther. Also color and abun-
dance of pollen.

‘ A. The gynecium.

1. Review the characters of the pistil as deter-
mined in Lessons XVII. and XVIII.
Describe fully, noting, in addition to the
characters already noticed, the form, color,
surface, etc., of the parts of the pistil.

88 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

11. Examine the mature fruit. Note the num-
ber of cells and seeds; the character of
the pericarp. What kind of a fruit is
it? Describe the seeds, stating number,
form, color, surface, ete.

5. Pollination. Ina fully opened flower notice the
relative position of the anthers and stigmas. |
Is_ self-fertilization possible? What do the
white petals indicate with reference to the
method of pollination? Do you find honey-
glands? Is the flower odorous ? :

Consider also the meteorological conditions
which prevail at the season of the year when
this plant flowers; also the abundance of
flower-visiting insects. Observe the flowers in
the field on a bright day, and see if they are
visited by insects. If so, note carefully the
manner in which the insect enters the flower,
and the parts of the flower with which it
comes in contact. Examine the body of the
insect also, and record the result of the obser-
vations.

What is the result of the insect’s repeated
visits to different flowers ?

Ill. Haprrat AND DISTRIBUTION.

Note the general surroundings of the plants in their
native haunts, the kind of soil in which they grow, ete. ;
1e., their habitat.

This species is- distributed in the region from West-
ern Pennsylvania to Kentucky, thence west to Minnesota
and Iowa.

———

THE WAKE-ROBIN AND THE LILIES. 89

Write a complete description of the plant, including
pollination, habitat, and distribution, and make detail
drawings of a leaf and the parts of the flower.

B. RELATED SPECIES.

I. Compare the other species listed, giving special
attention to the following characters : —

a. The plant, —its duration.

6. The stem,—its texture; kind of underground
stem.

e. The leaves, — venation and margin.

d. The inflorescence, —are the ‘flowers regular and
symmetrical? What is the numerical plan of the
flower? The number of cells in the ovary, and its
position? Are the sepals and petals similar? Kinds
of fruit, and number of seeds.

Il. CLASSIFICATION.

a. The comparison shows that these species resemble
each other in the following characters : —

They are perennial herbs. The flowers are regular
and symmetrical, their parts being in threes. The fruit
is a few or many seeded capsule or berry.

The leaves are entire, and parallel-veined, and the
sepals and petals are alike.

The Wake-robin is unlike the remaining forms in
the last two characters, hence it is not a typical repre-
sentative of the group in which it is placed.

Plants possessing the enumerated characters are
grouped together in the

90) ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

OrDER LILIACEA.
The Lily Family. :

b. Notice that the plants compared differ from each
other chiefly in the arrangement and venation of the
leaves, the division of the styles, and the kind of fruit.
Minor differences in inflorescence and in the form, color,
etc., of parts may also be observed.

The more important differences necessitate a division
of the Order into groups, or Families, and each of these
again, because of minor differences, is divided into |
Genera. In the following outline the genera (their .
names appearing in parenthesis) are indicated only by
common examples. |

The following key will serve sufficiently for purposes
of recognition : —

ORDER LILIACEA.

Characters as given above.

A. Leaves parallel-veined ; sepals and petals similar.

Family I.— Liliacee.
Style one; fruit a capsule.
The following belong to this family :—
Lilies (Lilium), Tulip (Zulipa), Dog-tooth Violet
(Erythronium), Onion (Allium), Hyacinth (Hyaern-

thus).
Family II.— Convallarine2.

Style one; fruit a berry.
The following belong here : —
Lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria), Solomon’s-seal (Pol-

-

.

THE WAKE-ROBIN AND THE LILIES. 91

ygonatum), False Solomon’s-seal (Smilacina),’ Aspara-
gus (Asparagus).
FPamily III.— Uvulariee2.
Style three-cleft or three-parted; leaves broad, not grass-like.
The Bellwort (Uvularia) represents this family.

B. Leaves netted-veined ; sepals and petals not similar.

Family IV. — Trilliee.
Leaves whorled.
Represented by the Wake-robin (Zvrilliwm).
Our species is Trilliwm nivale Riddell.
Expand this outline, adding other characters, and
make a comparison of the types of genera in each
family.

IiJ. DistrrpuTion AND Economic IMPORTANCE.

The plants of the Order Lildiacee number about two
thousand species, and are found in all climates.

The order is of great importance, the plants of
economic interest being of three kinds:—

a. Food plants, —such as the Onion, Leek, Garlic,
and Asparagus.

b. Medicinal plants, — such as Aloe, yielding Aloes;
Scilla, yielding Squills ; and Hellebore (Veratrum).

ce. Ornamental plants, —such as Lily-of-the-valley
(Convallaria), Crown Imperial (Fritillaria), Day Lily
(Hemerocallis), Hyacinth (Hyacinthus), Lilies, many
species of the genus Lilium, Tuberose (Polianthes),

Tulip (Tulipa), several species of Yucca, ete.

Many of our finest cultivated plants belong to this

_ order. :

92 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

LESSON Xx
The Soft Maple.

ACER DASYCARPUM! EHRH.

Materials required: Maple twigs in ful! bloom, either
those caused to bloom in the house or from out-of-doors,
the latter greatly to be preferred; pieces of Soft Maple
wood convenient for examination; dry fruits of vari-
ous Maples, as many varieties as may be obtainable;
pressed leaves of several species. The pupils must also
have access to a grove of Soft Maple trees, native or
planted, or to a row along the street. Other species of
Maple, if in the vicinity, should be pointed out.

I. A report by the pupils of what may be observed
of the Soft Maple in early spring. Let each examine
the trees, and present a written report of his observa-
tions in reference to various particulars, as the follow-
ing : —

1. The tree; its height and diameter, its manner of
erowth related to its position and surround-
ings. Most trees about our homes have suf-
fered more or less from pruning; what has
resulted in the branching, for instance ?

2. The bark, on stem, branches, twigs; how cast off
from year to year?

3. The wood, its character, weight, color, ete. —

1 See note at the close of this Lesson.

THE SOFT MAPLE. 93

A. The economic value of the tree; for what pur-
poses used ? Where found growing naturally ?
If planted, for what purposes ? How far does
it serve the purpose for which it is planted ?
Advantages and disadvantages as a street tree.

Il. Tuer INFLORESCENCE.

Examine the supernumerary buds, noted before, and
see to what they have developed, either in the warm air
of the room or out-of-doors. Note: —

a. The abundant bloom-buds, their position on the
twigs; on the tree as a whole. Notice that the bloom
for the present season was all perfected last year; the
warm airs of spring do no more than cause the buds to
open. This was shown, though perhaps less strikingly,
in the Lilac and the Cherry. Notice that in the present
case the leaf-buds have not yet started. You will dis-
cover later that the inflorescence is all out of the way or
ever the leaves make any start at all.

6. Examine a single bud. Note that the axis has
lengthened a little, to set free the crowded structures
which it bears; the bud-scales, few in number, the
outer deciduous. The flowers, how many? How
arranged ?

' ¢. The flower. Study the make-up of a single
flower: the pedicel, long or short; the calyx, its lobes
or divisions; the petals — ?; the stamens, number, dif-
ferent development in different flowers. What seems
to be the condition of their perfect development? Does
the place of ‘the flowers on the tree have anything to
do with the matter ? In flowers where the stamens are

O4 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

most perfectly developed is there any trace of a pistil ?
Flowers which produce stamens only, or in which the
pistil, if present, remains undeveloped are designated —
how ? Find flowers in which the pistil has attained
complete development. Are the stamens present in
such flowers? Do they undergo development ?

Study the pistil; its surface and style-arms under
the lens.

Make with a sharp knife a transverse section. Find
two locuh. How many ovules in each? Make a vertical
section parallel to the plane of the style-arms. Notice
the disk ! on which the pistil rests, and from which the
anthers spring. This disk is small, it is true, but is
nevertheless interesting as distinguishing widely the
whole series of plants, natural order, to which the
Maple belongs.

Ill. PouuinatTion.

How does the pollen pass from the anthers to the

style-arms? Are there any peculiarities in the stamens
or in the pollen itself that favor transportation by the
wind? Are there in the style-arms any adaptations
that render these organs specially fitted to the reception
of wind-borne pollen? Do bees or similar insects visit
the blooming Maples ?

ay are Fee:

Note in dried specimens the two parts, the seed-case
proper and the wing; the first hairy, the second veined.
What purpose is subserved by the wing?

Compare several seeds. Notice that while some are

1 This disk is seen in perfection in the flowers of A. saccharinum.

a ee a

THE SOFT MAPLE. 95

complete in themselves, others show plainly on, one side
the surface by which they were at one time attached
to something else — another fruit? Perhaps such twin
fruit is to be seen in the collection. These double fruits
correspond to the two loculi of the pistil; and such a
winged dry fruit in general is called a sama’ra (pl., @).
To see how the pistil with two loculi and several ovules
passes into such a samara will require close watching
during several weeks.

V. Tue LEAVES.

| These follow in this species the inflorescence. We
may examine pressed specimens, comparing the venation
and the marginal indentations.

VI. CLASSIFICATION.

If a Sugar or Hard Maple can be visited conven-
iently, let the pupils compare it as to particulars speci-
fied in I. 1, 2. Compare in class the leaves and fruits
of the two Maples. Notice that both are Maples, have
the same general type of fruit and leaf, and yet differ
in the manner in which the idea of the fruit and leaf is
expressed; for instance, in the matter of size, surface,
texture, ete. These minor details mark different kinds,
species, Of Maple, Hard Maple and Soft Maple, we say.
Popular opinion long ago distinguished these; and when
science recognizes in the two trees two species, it does
but confirm popular judgment. The word species is
Latin. What is its original significance ?

For reasons good and sufficient the scientifié names
of plants are written in Latin form, and in two
parts; the first describing or designating the kind,

96 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

genus, the second the species, or special form of the kind.
The specific name expresses an adjective relation.
In the present case Maple is the name of the genus ;
Soft, the species; but in Latin we write, —

ACER DASYCARPUM EHRH.
and for the Hard Maple, —

ACER SACCHARINUM WANG.

After the specific name we write the initial or abbre-
viation of the name of the man who first apphed to the
plant the scientific name it bears; thus, Hhrh., Ehrhart
L., Linneus; Mx., Michaux, ete.

There are in the United States several other species
of Acer. Thus in the eastern part of the country we
have A. spicatum Lam., a small but handsome tree, ex-
tending as far west as Iowa, and A. pennsylvanicum L.
In the Mississippi Valley and eastward we have a tree,
A. rubrum I., much resembling the species we have so
carefully studied. In Utah and the West we have still
another shrubby Maple or two, while on the Pacific
coast we have a large-leafed large tree, A. macrophyl-
lum Pursh, like our Soft Maple again. The genus Acer,
accordingly, in the United States includes eight species,
which may be grouped as follows :—

Flowers appearing with the leaves,

A. saccharinum Wang.
a. Fruit smooth.
Flowers appearing before the leaves,

A. rubrum L.
1. Large Trees.
Flowers later than the leaves,

Fo ainlt const A. macrophyllum Pursh.

Flowers before the leaves,
A. dasycarpum Ebrh.

= THE SOFT MAPLE. 97

Flowers in dense upright racemes.

a. Flowers later A. spicatum Lam.
than leaves. F }

2. Small trees, Flowers in long drooping racemes,
shrubs, one A. pennsylvanicum L.
species even
P Leaves five- to seven-lobed,
prostrate.

6b. Flowers with A. circinatum Pursh.

the leaves.
e leaves Leaves three- to five-lobed,

A. glabrum Torr.

A. dasycarpum Ehrh., ranges from New Brunswick
to Kansas, from the Great Lakes to Northern Florida.

The genus Acer is also represented in all parts of
the Old World; south of the equator, however, in Java
only.

Note. —In North American Silva, vol. ii. p. 97 and p. 103,
the specific name A. barbatum Mx., is given for Hard Maple,
and A. saccharinum L., for the Soft Maple. It is probable that
under the ‘‘rules’’ some such nomenclature may at length be
adopted. Since the changes have not yet, however, found place
in our manuals, it has been thought best to retain the familiar
designations, even at the risk of being esteemed too conservative.

BESSON, X21 E.

The Soft Maple. — Reviewed.

ACER DASYCARPUM EHRH.

Written Exercise.

Arter working through the problem of so much of
the structure and history of the Soft Maple‘as the pre-
ceding lesson has brought to lght, let the pupil, by
way of review, write a somewhat full description of

98 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

the Maple, a description containing his field-notes, and
combining with these a discussion of facts brought out
in the class-room. Such topics as the following may
be discussed : —

I. The general character of the tree, its manner and
rapidity of growth, as shown by the largest tree of the
species to be found in the neighborhood.

II. The economic value of the tree. —

a. As furnishing wood, lumber. What is curly or
“ Bird’s-eye’’ Maple ?

b. As planted for a wind-break. Consider the case
of the farmers of the Mississippi valley.

c. As planted for shade,a street tree. Is it the
most useful? What is the effect of pruning? Proper
pruning ? :

Ill. The Inflorescence, its character and adaptation
to wind-fertilization. Draw diagrams to illustrate the
variety of flowers discovered, using as pattern the dia-
eram on p. 76, Fig. 10.1!

IV. The fruit, its adaptation to dispersal by the
wind. Why should it be dispersed at all? ? What-
position does the samara tend to assume in falling?
Within a few weeks you may find the seeds germinat-
ing in every direction; does it seem that in planting
the seeds of the Maple they should be covered deeply ?

1 In the diagram by dotted lines connect the united parts as in

this case, the sepals. Mark the place of absent organs by a X.
2 See Lesson XIX.

THE WILLOWS. 99

mess ON XA TIT:
The Willows.
SALIX — sp; sp.t

Materials required: The pupils must have access to
Willows of various species if possible. In addition,
there will be needed for comparison, wood-sections of as
many species as possible; pressed specimens of leaves ;
dry fruits; twigs in various stages of inflorescence,

Il. THe TREES OR SHRUBS.

The pupils may prepare, as before, a report upon the
various features of the Willows to be studied, as seen in
the field, noting size; mode of branching, branching as
affected by trimming, polling, etc,; the nature of the
twigs; the tough bark, the brittle wood.

Il. Tue INFLORESCENCE; “ Pussy-willow Buds.”

a, Its early appearance, in some species much ear-
lier than in others. Does the growth begin before the
frost is out of the ground ?

6. The form of the inflorescence, the catkins. Note
their position on the branches. In less advanced speci-
mens, note the bud-scales which cover the catkins. How
many are there? Note the gradual beautiful unfolding
of the spicate clusters.

1 The determination of species in the genus Saliz is a matter of
so much difficulty, that it is not thought best to be particular here.
Any species will answer. But see Section VI. following.

100 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

c. The staminate catkins. Note the position of the
flowers, their spirally whorled arrangement.

The individual flower: its position; its subtending
bract, the margin and soft, silky pubescence; the sta-
mens, their number, position, structure; the pollen,
compare with the pollen of Trillium, Acer, as to quan-
tity, dryness; the third body at the base of the fila-
ments, the nectar-gland. At the tip of the nectar-gland ~
find with the lens a minute droplet of nectar. Has it
taste? Have the Willow flowers odor? Draw a stam-
inate flower projected against its bract, all enlarged,
say four times. }

d. The pistillate catkin.

Note, as before, the arrangement of the flowers.

The individual flower: its pistil, its pedicel, surface ;
the style; the stigmatic lobes, their number and color;
the nectar-gland. Draw the pistillate flower projected
against its silky bract.

Note the number of loculi; in the mature fruit find
the seeds. How are these distributed ?

Ill. FERrtinizaAtion.

How is the pollen distributed ; borne from stamen
to stigma? What special adaptations leading to this
end? What is the purpose of the nectar-gland ? What
makes the flowers conspicuous in this case? Watch
the blooming Willows on a sunny day, and note what
Is going on.

LY Tapa: 7

In what localities do you find the Willows? In
what places do they flourish best ? How are they com-

Kiet,

THE WILLOWS. 101

monly planted? Try thrusting Willow twigs in spring
into the moist ground, in some place where they may
remain undisturbed. What happens ? Do they grow
if thrust in upside down. The Willow not only puts
forth very readily branches on occasion, as when
polled, from adventitious buds, but likewise puts out
abundant roots, 1f circumstances favor, from any part
of the stem.

VY. Economic IMPORTANCE.

For what are Willows useful in your neighborhood ?

Is the wood of any value ?

VI. DiIstTRIBUTION.

Willows are found in all parts of the Northern
Hemisphere. ‘There are perhaps one hundred and fifty
species in all. While common everywhere by lakes
and water-courses, they are yet by no means restricted
to such localities. They sometimes affect arid regions,
and make all altitudes theirown. Salix herbacea L.isa
tiny shrub. It clings to the rocks of the lofty Alps, is
found on the summits of our own White Mountains, and
extends its range far into the Arctic zone.

Perhaps the most common species in the Eastern
United States are the following, here grouped accord-
ing to the time of inflorescence : —

Salix humilis MARSH.

Flowers appearing before the leaves. Salix tristis AIT.

Salix discolor MUHL.

Salix cordata MUHL

Salix nigra MARSH.

SALIX ALBA var. VITELLINA L.
SALIX FRAGILIS L.

Flowers with or after the leaves.

102 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

The first two species are found in dry places,
hillsides, ete.; the last two are not rare in cultivation.
S. alba vitellina has yellow twigs in spring.

LESSON: XXIV
The Aspens.

POPULUS TREMULOIDES MX.
POPULUS GRANDIDENTATA MX.
POPULUS MONILIFERA AITON.
POPULUS ALBA LINN.

Materials required: The pupils are to have access: to
any or all the species named, Quaking Asp, Aspen, Cot-
tonwood, Silver-tree. Other materials, as heretofore, —
pressed leaves, wood-sections, dry fruits, twigs of any
or all the species in various phases of bloom. The trees
generally bloom in the order of the lst. ‘The process,
however, may in any case be hastened by keeping the
twigs a few days in the warm air of the school-room.

L. Tan TREgs:

Whatever the species, the tree is to be described,
compared, or contrasted in all particulars with Salix.
Note especially the nodulose branches, the leaf-scars,
the bud-seale scars. On old trees of some species of
Populus (P. monilifera) the bud-scale rings can be
counted back six or eight years. Observe that the
twigs, branchlets, are quite as deciduous sometimes
as are the leaves. Many of the round, seal-like scars
result from the abscission not of leaves, but of twigs,

THE ASPENS. 103

You may find branchlets ready for such separation, and
note the ease with which they are detached. How may
you in any case distinguish twig-scars from leaf-scars ?
In vigorous young trees of P. monilifera the twigs are
sometimes “winged; i.e., bear ridges of corky bark
running lengthwise. Compare the bark of any Populus
with that of Salix. Both contain a very bitter alkaloid,
salicin. ‘Taste the inner bark of any species.

Il. THe INFLORESCENCE.

a. Appears before the leaves in all the native

- species.

6. The general form of the inflorescence to be studied
as before. Note the bud-scales which cover the catkins ;

their number, shape, surface, viscid in some species (P.

monilifera). ‘The peculiar resin which varnishes some-
times leaf-buds as well as flower-buds has a pleasant
balsamic odor, which suggested for P. balsamifera its
popular designation, “Balm of Gilead ” tree. Of what
service may this resin be to the tree ?

e. The staminate catkin.

Compare in all particulars with the correspondent
structures in Salix species. Note especially the num-
ber of stamens, the light, dry pollen, and the absence
of nectar-glands. Sketch the staminate flower, as seen
in vertical radial section, to show the relative position
of bract and stamens. Draw a single bract as seen
from without.

d. The pistillate catkin.
Note the exposure of the stigmas by the slowly ex-

104 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

panding ament, so that the whole, with its flexible axis,
is like a single flower.

For the individual flower, find the subtending bract,
eatly deciduous; note its laciniate margin. Observe
the disk or receptacle which here half encloses the base
of the ovary, simulates a calyx; the lobate stigma.
Draw the pistillate flower.

Ill. FERTILIZATION.

How effected in Populus? Note the differences in
adaptation as compared with Salix species. Note the
differences in adaptation in trees or plants, all of which,
nevertheless, appeal to one and the same agency. ‘Thus,
compare Populus, Acer, Ulmus.

IV. CLASSIFICATION.

In what respects do Populus and Salix differ? In
what particulars agree ?

At least three native species of Populus are common
in the United States east of the Missouri River, and
these three are easily distinguished. ‘Thus : —

1. Bud-scales resinous; stigma-lobes broad; bracts glabrous;
bark rough, — P. monilifera AITON.

2. Bud-scales not viscid; stigma-lobes linear; bracts silky;
bark smoothish, —
a. Bud-scales smooth, shiny; bracts long, silky; bark whitish;
leaves finely crenate-dentate; tree less symmetrical, —
P. tremuloides Mx.

6. Bud-scales and bracts short, silky; bark greenish, or on
older trunks greenish-brown or yellowish; trees larger;
leaves coarsely crenate-dentate, —

P. grandidentata Mx.

THE AMERICAN ELM. 105

V. HABITAT.

Note the conditions under which your particular
Species grows, its surroundings, etc.

VI. Economic ImMporTANCE.

For what purpose is the wood of this species used ?
of other species? For what purposes are species of
Populus planted? Notice that the variety of lumber
known as poplar does not come from any species of
Populus. Poplar lumber is made from Liriodendron
tulipifera, a southern tree sometimes called poplar, but
better designated as the Tulip-tree.

ies S SO OUN | xx VV,
The American Elm.

ULMUS AMERICANA LINN.

Materials required : The pupils shall. have free ac-
cess to trees of the species. Besides this are required
a sufficient number of blooming twigs, pressed leaves
from the year preceding, several good wood-sections,
showing both transverse and vertical faces; dry fruit
in abundance.

I. Fretp Report.

1. The Tree.

Let the pupils present written reports of wkat
they have been able to observe concerning the tree as
it stands, — its habits of growth; mode of branching ;

106 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

shape as determined by surroundings; height; diameter ;
whatever can be ascertained as to age.

2. ne Bark.

Compare the bark on the main stem’; the branches ;
twigs; how cast off from the main stem? Exactly as
in the Soft Maple? Find twigs of successive years’
development, — one year old; two; three. About how
much does the tree add to its height year by year?

3. The Wood.

Note its character; weight, color, strength, rapidity
of growth. What is the average annual increase in
diameter? In which years is this increase greater,
earlier or later ?

4. The Economic Value of the Tree.

If found growing naturally, for what purpose is the
timber used? If planted, for what purpose? What
of the value of the Elm as a street tree? Has the
Elm any advantages here ?

Il. Tur INFLORESCENCE.

a. On a twig breaking into bloom, find two sorts of
buds, bloom-buds and leaf-buds. Which develop first ?
Note the direction assumed by the flower-bud as it un-
folds.

b. A single bud. Notice the bud-scales; their ar-
rangement. Compare the arrangement of the scales
with that of the buds, remembering how bud-scales
stand related to leaves, and these, in position, to buds.
Sketch a half-open bud to show the arrangement of the
scales.

THE AMERICAN ELM. 107

In each of the scales (nner) find two parts; that
developed last year; its color; the growing part below.
Push back the lightly adherent (deciduous) scales, and
expose : —

ce. The flower-clusters. Where are these produced ?
Note the minute brown bractlets. Some of these
doubtless represent the stipules, which belong to the
bud-scales (leaves). Note the scars left where the bud-
scales break off.

d. A single flower. Note the pedicel, its length,
the joint or node near the middle; the calyx, its color,
form, lobes. Sketch a flower as it appears under the
Coddington, to show pedicel and calyx.

The andrecium. Note the number of the stamens
and their attachment ; the filaments; anther-lobes. Find
out, if possible, how the pollen is discharged, and note
its character.

Do you find stamens and pistils in the same flower ?
Study the pistil, noting its form, color; the bifid
stigma; the beautiful white crest of cilia which sur-
mounts the style-arms. Draw the pistil as seen from
the side.

Make a cross-section of the ovary ; how many loculi
are there? How many ovules? Compare the mature
fruit, noting the changes that have occurred in passing
from flower to fruit. Draw a samara.

é. Pollination. By what agency is the pollen de-
posited on the style-arms? Are there any special
adaptations to pollination by the agency of the wind —
in the anthers? the pollen? the style-arms? In the

108 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

time of inflorescence ? Compare in all these particu-
lars what has been learned about the Maple.

f. The fruit.

Note the date of blooming of the Elm flowers, and
watch for the formation of the mature fruit. This will
presently come drifting abundantly to the ground, when

pupils may note whether or not the tree has as yet put

forth its leaves.

g. The foliage.

This may be studied later, when the tree is in full
leaf, or pressed leaves may be made the subject of criti-
cal examination. Note especially the form and venation
of the leaf as indicated. Study the obliquity of the leaf-
base as related to the position and direction the leaf
assumes upon the twig. Are there stipules? Draw a
single leaf, natural size.

h. Distribution.

Is the American Elm a common tree? It is purely
an American tree, and has a wide range extending from
Newfoundland to the Black Hills of South Dakota, and
south to Florida and Texas.

Lesson. save
The Slippery Elm.
ULMUS FULVA MX.

Materials required: Leaves, fruit, wood-sections of
Shppery Elm. Flowering twigs in various stages of
development. Slippery Elm bark from the druggist.

ee —

THE SLIPPERY ELM. 109

Let the pupils compare in all accessib.e particulars
with U. americana. If a Slippery Elm can be visited,
of course, so much the better.

_1. Compare the two trees in habit; mode of branch-
ing; bark; wood; flower-buds, their development, scales.

2. Let the pupil make out a lst of particulars in
which the species agree; in which they differ. Note
that the differences are mainly superficial, difference in
detail; in general plan of flowers and fruit and leaves
the trees are alike. If one is an Elm, so is the other.

They are simply different species of Elm. Notice that

science here again simply confirms popular judgment,
gives more exact definition to forms which all men per-
ceive. “Science is applied common-sense.”

3. Geographical Distribution.

Ulmus fulva is not uncommon in the Mississippi
Valley, but is by no means so familiar a tree as is
U. americana. It ranges almost over the entire wooded
region of eastern North America, from Maine to Da-
kota, south to northern Florida and Texas.

A. Economic Value.

For what purposes is the wood of the Slippery Elm
used? For what is the bark esteemed valuable ?

110 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

LE SSO) 22 yw ia:
The Elm Family and the Order of which it forms a Part.

Materials required : Herbarium specimens and pressed
leaves of :—

Ulmus americana UL. White Elm.

Ulmus fulva Mx. Slippery Elm.
Ulmus racemosa Thomas. Rock Elm.
Ulmus alata Mx. Winged Elm.
Celtis occidentalis L. Hackberry.
Cannabis sativa L. Hemp.
Humulus lupulus L. Hop-vine.

Maclura aurantiaca Nutt. Osage-orange.
Urtica dioica U.., or fe

de Stinging Nettle.
Laportea canadensis.

Pilea pumila Gray. Richweed.

Dry fruit of all these species so far as obtainable.

Wood-sections of all the arboreous species, to show
bark, wood, ete. |

We have already studied two species of Elm, —
U. americana and U. fulva. On comparing the leaves
and fruits of these two with the other leaves and fruits
before us, we can readily see that in our whole list we
have nothing else very much like the Elms. The Cedéjs
in foliage is perhaps nearest. Compare, however, es-
pecially the venation. Compare also the wood of the
Hackberry, and the bark with the same structures in
the Elms. 3

THE ELM FAMILY. 111

In Kentucky, and farther south, however, we find a
tree whose leaves, though small, are almost exactly like
those of the Elm. The fruit, too, is a simple akene like
the central part of the Elm fruit, the wing omitted.
This Southern tree is called Planer’s-tree, Planera
aquatica Gmelin. This tree, with the Elms in our lst,
all of which extend as far west as Iowa, make up the
Elm Family, the Ulmee. |

Now take up the fruit, wood, and leaves of Celtis.
In all our series we shall find nothing just lke Celtis.
The fruit is, however, like the other fruits; it is a one-
seeded nutlet or akene. Wherein does it differ from
the fruits of species of Ulmus? Is this an essential
difference? Can you see that in both trees, the Elm
and the Hackberry, the outside of the fruit, its covering
merely, is modified to the accomplishment of the same
general purpose? Compare carefully the wood and
bark of Celtis with other wood-sections. The differ-
ences you have discovered are deemed sufficient to sep-
arate Celtis not only from any one of the Elms, for
instance, but from all of them; and so we put Celtis in a
family by itself, —the Hackberry Family, Celtidee.

By similar comparisons we group the Hemp and the
Hop into the Family Cannabinee ; the Nettle and Rich-
weed into the Family Urticee ; while the Osage-orange,
with its milky juice, shining leaves, and aggregated
fruits, stands off by itself —rather, joins hands with
the Mulberry, Morus rubra, common in some parts of
the country — to make still another group or family, the
Moree.

We may now better appreciate all this if we arrange

1f?2 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

our knowledge in definite order. Write the families
one after the other by name. After each family name
place in order the names of the genera making up the
family as here represented, and after each genus enter
the species composing it. You will thus have a table
something like that on pages 96 and 97.

To the families already named we may add yet a
fifth, some of the members of which we know by name ~
at least, —the Family Artocarpee, which includes not
only the Breadfruit-tree, Artocarpus incisa, but all the
Fig-trees as well, and many of the India-rubber trees.
The dry fig with which we are familiar does not much
remind us of the fruits now before us, but we must note
that here also each single seed represents a single
flower ; the fleshy part of the fig is the enlarged recepta-
cle. Add, therefore, the Family Artocarpee to your list.

Now, all these families agree in certain general par-
ticulars: thus, they all have stipulate leaves ; they have
a regular calyx, free from the ovary, with stamens as
many as the lobes of the calyx, and opposite these ; in all
the fruit 1s one-seeded (a single seed), differing only in
the various modifications for insuring dispersal. All
these families are accordingly grouped together to form
the natural

ORDER URTICACEA;

named, strange as it may seem, from one of its most
insignificant members, Urtica, the Nettle.

So the Elm belongs to the Nettle order, and the
Hackberry, the Hemp plant, and the Hop-vine, the Mul-
berry and the Fig, to say nothing of the scores of less

THE BOX ELDER. 1 is*

significant plants represented by the Richweeds and Net-
tles. What a motley array! One would think at first
sight that the association of forms so diverse would be
irrational, the very reverse of system or classification ;
and yet we plainly see that all these various plants have
flowers alike, in all the fruit is just the same, what-
ever its disguise. Here, as elsewhere, the old law holds
good, “ Ye shall know them by their fruits.” Our plants
differ chiefly in what we may term habit. Some take a
longer, some a shorter, time in which to bring forth fruit ;
some are therefore annual, some perennial. Some stand

erect; others find access to better air and sunlight by

climbing upon stems of neighboring plants. Some pro-
duce fruit to be scattered by the passing winds; others
recognize the existence of hungry animals in the world,
and furnish fruit which these will bear about and scatter.

ae oeON xX XVITI

The Box Elder.

NEGUNDO ACEROIDES MCGNCH.!

Materias required: Flowering twigs of the Box
Elder; flowering twigs also of the Hard Maple, if obtain-

1 Linneus called the Box Elder, a Maple, and named it Acer
negundo. Later its generic distinction was recognized by Meench,
and the name changed to Negundo aceroides Moench. In Garden
and Forest, iv. 166, Mr. Sudworth gives reasons for retaining Meench’s
generic name, but returns to the specific name first applied by Lin-
nzus, and calls the tree Vegundo negundo (L.) Sudw.

114 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

able, for comparison. The pupils are, as usual, expected,
if not to procure the requisite material, at least to visit
and study the trees. Dry fruit is also desirable for com-
parison; wood-sections, herbarium specimens of foliage,
etc., as heretofore.

I. Let the pupil compare the Box Elder with any
species of Maple in the particulars following : —

1. In general appearance; mode of growth; branch-
ing; color of twigs; buds, their smoothness or pubes-
cence; the bark on the main stem. Can the Box Elder
be recognized at sight at any season of the year ? |

2. In Inflorescence.

In Negundo note the time of appearance of flow-
ers as compared with foliage. Compare especially with
A. dasycarpum and A. saccharinum. Note the style of the
inflorescence in the Box Elder, its origin and type. The
staminate flowers of Box Elder and of Hard Maple agree
in what particulars? How about the pistillate flowers
in the same plants? Note especially the arrangement
of the flowers in Negundo. In the same flowers observe
the incipient wings. The pistillate raceme terminates a
shoot ; the staminate flowers do not terminate the branch-
lets on which they rise. Compare twigs on which last
year’s fruit may still be hanging, and observe the effect
of fruit-bearing on the branchlet.

In the flowers of A. saccharinum, note the disk to
which reference has already been made (Lesson XXL,
p. 94). Sketch a single fertile flower of Negundo to
show the wings, and a flower of Acer saccharinum, if

a THE BOX ELDER. 115

obtainable, to show the disk. Each may be shown
magnified four or five times.

3. In adaptations for pollen-dispersal, compare es-
pecially Box Elder and Hard Maple.

4. In Foliage.

Are the leaves in the Box Elder and the Maple of
the same general type? Can you think of a Box Elder

leaf as in any way correspondent to a Maple leaf part

for part ?
5. In Economie Importance.
What is the chief economic importance of Negundo

_aceroides in the part of the country where you are study-

ing it? Do-.you know whether it is a tree of greater
value in other sections? What trees make habitable
the prairies of the western Mississippi valley ?

IJ. DistriBuTion.

The Box Elder has a remarkable distribution. It is
one of the most widely distributed trees of North Amer-
ica. It extends from Vermont to California, and ranges
from Winnipeg to Florida, Texas, and New Mexico.
The centre of distribution where the tree attains great-
est diameter and height is the eastern Mississippi valley.
Towards the West the tree varies by having the bud-
scales, and to less extent the leaves and fruit. more and
more pubescent, until in California the winter-buds are
fairly tomentose. Nevertheless, all the Box Elders of
North America are included in one species, since be-
tween the smoothest forms of the East, and the most to-
mentose of the West, every intervening gradation may
be shown. ‘There is, therefore, only one species of e-

116 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

gundo in the New World, and, strange to say, only one
other species in the whole world; this is in Japan!

Genus Vegundo \ N. aceroides Meench.
N. japonicum.

BESSON 2 x2Tse

The Bur Oak.

QUERCUS MACROCARPA MX.

Materials required: Herbarium specimens of leaves ;
acorns with their cups; flowering twigs ; wood-sections.
The pupils, as usual, to have access to trees of the spe-
cies studied; the fruit of other species of Oak, as large
a series as possible. Hazelnuts, Beechnuts, Chestnuts,
-Ironwood fruits, all with the husk, or involucre, are in-
dispensable for comparison. Wood-sections of other
species are also most desirable for the same purpose.

Tar Ver

a. Let the pupil present a written description of
the tree, with statement of all his observations in regard
to it.

b. Study the wood-sections. Note the heartwood ;
the white wood. Compare the hardness, strength, and
erain of this wood with that of the Maple, for example.
What is known of the uses to which Bur Oak wood is
applied ?

Il. THe Fouiace.

Describe the leaves; notice their peculiar outline,

sg

THE BUR OAK. 717

venation, surface above, below. Sketch a leaf to show
outline and venation. The venation of the oak leaf is
very characteristic. Notice the stipules, very deciduous.

Ill. Tuer INFLORESCENCE.

a. Note the time of its appearance as regards the
appearance of the leaves: diclinous ;-1.e., pistils and
stamens are in different flowers; monecious, on the
same tree, though separate. 3

6. The staminate flowers. Note the form of the
cluster, an ament ; note the point from which the stami-
nate cluster springs.

Notice the individual flower, its attachment, its en-
velopes, stamens; their number.

c. The pistillate flower, its position, structure, stig-
mas, style, ovary. Is there any trace of calyx? Make.
a smooth section of the pistillate flower, and note the
number of cells in the ovary, and of ovules in each cell.
Notice the numerous bractlets making up the involucre.
Draw the section enlarged about six or eight times. A
similar section of a pistillate flower should be examined

three or four weeks later.

1V¥. Tue Fruit.

a. Take the dry acorns; note the “ cup,’
made up of an indefinite number of bracts whose free
tips give to the organ its bur-like character. Measure
the extreme diameter of the largest bur you can find.

’ involucre,

b. The acorn. Note its form, surface, color, apex,
base. Sketch the acorn in its cup.

ce. The embryo. With a penknife remove the cover-

118 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

ing of the acorn, the ripened wall of the ovary. _How

many ovules do you find? Where are the others?
Perhaps near the base of the embryo you may find
rudiments representing undeveloped ovules. Of the
embryo, note the large, thick cotyledons, adhering at
one point only. Make a vertical longitudinal section
at right angles to the plane surface of the cotyledon.
At the point where the cotyledons are joined, find the —
plumule. Only the radicle perhaps can be made out
until after the seed has begun to grow.

d. Germination. |

The manner in which the acorn germinates is most
interesting. By searching under the blooming trees
plenty of sprouting acorns can usually be found. . Study
these if possible, and sketch some of the more striking
phases, illustrating the manner in which the plumule
reaches the light of day. Compare the germination
with that of the Bean. (Lesson VIL., rv.)

V. Any other oak can be studied instead of the Bur
Oak. Whatever be the species available, with it com-
pare other species, using as a basis of comparison
acorns and leaves. With a little practice many species —
can be distinguished by their acorns only.

VI. CLASSIFICATION.

a. Compare with the fruit of the Oak that of the
Chestnut, the Beech, the Hazel. Note the variety in
the character of the involucre. With the fruit of the
Hazel compare the nutlets of Carpinus (Water Beech)
and Ostrya (Ironwood), if these can be obtained.

b. If possible, compare the same plants in flower.

THE BUR OAK. 119

e. By such comparison we gain the idea of relation-
ship as in no other way. The plants referred to make
up the

ORDER CUPULIFERA,

the cup-bearers ; and the oak, with its acorn, a nut borne
in a cup-shaped involucre, is the type. In all cases this

single nut comes from a compound ovary; 1.e., from an

ovary having several cells, and several ovules in each
D 3

cell. All but one cell and one ovule are abortive, come
to nothing.’ In all cases the flowers are moncecious, and

the leaves alternate, stipulate, and straight-veined.

d. The Oaks hkely to be met with in the Eastern
United States are : —

(1. Quercus macrocarpa Mx Bur Oak.
Lg. Quercus alba IL. White Oak.
8. Quercus muhlenbergii ENceLM. Yellow Oak.
A. Quercus rubra I. Red Oak.
:. Quercus coccinea WANG. Scarlet Oak.
6. Quercus imbricaria Mx. - Laurel Oak.

The first two are White Oaks; the lobes of the
leaves rounded, never bristle-tipped.

The third has leaves almost like those of the Chest-
nut, —undivided, but sharply toothed.

The fourth and fifth are Black Oaks. The lobes of
the leaves are bristle-pointed, and the acorns take two
years to mature. YQ. imbricaria Mx. has entire leaves
and a globose acorn.

1 Did any one ever find a ‘‘ double”’ hazelnut ? What does that
mean ?

120 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

e. A week or two after the blooming of the Oaks,
the Hickories and Walnuts are available for study. To
the Oaks they are closely related; and it will be inter-
esting even at this point to compare their fruits, to
trace so far the relationship.

VIL. Economic VALUE.

a. Take the order Cupulifere throughout, and what
do you say as to its economic importance ? Let pupils |
write out a list of purposes for which oak-timber is
used; for which it is best. What is the duty of our
people in reference to the forests of Oak and Hickory
and Walnut that still form so large a part of the nat-
ural wealth of our country ? Is it wise to exterminate
the forest ?

b. Write a list of all the forest trees with which you
are acquainted, and pick out the six that are of greatest
value for lumber.

LESSON UA Xe
The Shepherd’s-purse.
CAPSELLA BURSA-PASTORIS MG@NCH.

Materials required: Fresh plants from the garden
or field. The plant is a most common weed. Speci-
mens may be brought in entire; the roots, carefully
lifted and thoroughly washed, must be kept moist until
studied.

I. Toe Puanr; GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
Note its wholly herbaceous character; almost every

THE SHEPHERD’ S—PURSE. LA:

part above ground is green, and to that extent plays the
part of foliage. Notice the quickness with which the
plant in spring reaches perfection and fruit. Compare
in this respect with plants already studied; Zridliwm,
for instance.

a. Note the central axis: ascending, the green
stem; descending, the white root. Each bears abun-

dant branches. Wherein, however, does the stem differ
from the root?

b6. Take a plant that has been taken from the

ground so carefully that its roots, even the -small-

est, are yet unbroken; float the roots out carefully in
water in a glass dish over some dark surface, and ex-
amine. —

Note the irregular, systemless branching, the uncer-
tain origin of the rootlets; they seem to spring as
occasion offers or requires from any place on the root-
axis. Observe the great length of some of the slender
rootlets, their swollen tips, near the tips minute root-
hairs like soft white cotton fibres. These root-hairs,
though seemingly insignificant, are really for the plant
most important organs; they absorb from the soil much
of the inorganic stuff which the plant uses continually
for the development of its tissues.

With sharp knife or razor cut the root-axis squarely
off, and note its structure under your lens: the hard
woody central cylinder; the softer spongy cortex, easily
stripped off; the indistinct epidermis; the woody cylin-
der of each secondary root continuous with that of the
central axis.

122 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

c. The Stem.

Notice its surface characters, longitudinal markings ;
its branches, of two sorts, — those bearing flowers, pedi-
cels, leafless; those which bear foliage, and repeat in all
particulars the characters of the central stem. Where
do the leafy branches take their rise? The pedicels ?
The fact that the pedicels here are without subtending
bracts or leaves is reckoned surprising, and is a peculi-
arity of Capsedla and its relatives.

Make a smooth cross-section of the stem, and with
the Coddington make out the exogenous structure, pith,
woody cylinder, epidermis.

Make a vertical section in the same way through a
branch-bearing node; note that the structures of branch
and stem are correspondent. Draw a diagram to ilus-
trate this fact.

ge: Thte: Wear:

Study the leaves of the Capsella in the various par-
ticulars already enumerated in Lessons XI.-XV. Note
the differences between the radical leaves and those
borne at the nodes of the ascending axis. ‘Try to de-
termine the spiral arrangement of the stem-leaves and
the fraction which expresses their angular divergence.

Note the more or less abundant plant-hairs, trichomes,
to be found on the leaves and various parts of the plant:
(1) simple, these more common about the flowers and
upper parts of the plant; (2) stellately branching, abun-
dant at the leaf-bases, ete. Sketch a few as they appear
under the lens. Sketch what you esteem a typical leaf,
showing the venation on one side at least, and the rela-
tion of the veins to the marginal indentations and teeth.

THE SHEPHERD’ S—PURSE. | DAY

II. THe INFLORESCENCE.

a. Note the type of the inflorescence ; the flowers
open in order from without, below, upward, toward the
centre, forming a corymbose, later a racemose, cluster.
(See Lesson XVI.) Find flowers and fruit, therefore,
of all ages on the same developing axis.

6. The individual flower.

Identify the successive sets of organs, and note the
number of each. Write a brief description of the flower
as outlined on p. 87. Notice that while the sepals are
four, the petals four, the stamens are six, and the car-

pels but two. Notice also that the stamens are in two

sets, of two sizes, two pairs long, and a pair of single
shorter ones. How are the stamens placed with refer-
ence to each other and to the glands alternating with
the stamen filaments ? How many such glands do you
find in one flower? Their function is not apparent.

Ill. Ferrinization.

Are these little flowers fertilized each by its own
pollen? Compare the height of the long stamens with
that of the pistil. Can pollen from the shorter stamens
reach the stigma without extraneous assistance? Has
any one observed insects visiting the flowers? Miller
found that flowers reared under cover in such way that
insects had no access to them were yet perfectly
fertile.?

IV. Tue Frutt.

a. Pluck off the floral envelopes carefully, and on
the receptacle with the lens find the minute green pistil.

1 See Miiller’s ‘‘ Fertilization of Flowers,’’ p. 100.

124 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Notice the median ridge down each flat face of the
latter. Notice the form of the young pistil, and com-
pare with the form of the same organ at the time when
the petals are most fully expanded ; when all the floral
organs except the pistil have fallen.

b. Sketch each extreme phase of the pistil, enlarged
sufficiently to show details.

c. We remember that a flower is a modification of a
branch with its appendages, the floral organs standing
in the place of leaves. In the flower before us, there-
fore, the fore-shortened branch bears the representatives
of sixteen leaves.

We may perhaps best understand the case by consid-
ering that the floral organs are arranged in whorls of
two.!

d. Make a smooth cross-section of the fruit, and
with the lens find the transverse partition separating
the carpels. If the fruit-pod be ripe enough, the two
carpels, valves, may be pulled apart, leaving the brown
seeds attached to the persisting partition.

e. Make now a diagram of the flower (See Fig. 10,
p. 76) to show the relative position of the various floral
organs at the time when the petals are fully expanded.

V. CLASSIFICATION.

The relatives of Capsella are numerous and com-
mon. Here belong: —

The Radish, Raphanus sativus Linn.

The Horseradish, Nasturtium armoracia Fries.

1 See Gray’s “ Structural Botany,” p. 206.

BUTTERCUPS AND WINDFLOWERS. 125

The Peppergrass, Lepidium virginicum Linn.
The Watercress, Nasturtium officinale R. Br.
The Turnip, Brassica rapa Linn.

The Cabbage, Brassica oleracea Linn.

Proceed to comparison among these as soon as
opportunity offers. It will be soon discovered that all
agree In many special particulars. For instance, all are
herbaceous plants, and all have that pungent sap which
we recognize in its sharpness in Horseradish. All
have four-parted flowers, almost exactly im. every case
hke those of Capsella, differing chiefly in size or color.
All have the same pod-like fruit, although showing
ereat variety in form. Plants having these general
characters as constant features make up the Natural

ORDER CRUCIFERA.

All the plants mentioned, and many more like them,
are Crucifers. What is the etymology and primary sig-
nificance of that name ? Is it here happily applied ?

LESSON: XXXL
. Buttercups and Windflowers.

Materials required: Specimens of the Creeping But-
tercup (Ranunculus repens L.)1 in flower and fruit.
Similar specimens of the Windflower, Wood-anemone,

1 R. septentrionalis Poir., or R. fascicularis Muhl., will answer
quite as well.

126 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Rue-anemone, Liver-leaf, Larkspur, Columbine, Marsh-
marigold, Isopyrum, Baneberry, ete.

A. THE CREEPING BUTTERCUP.

Study the Creeping Buttercup. Notice :—

L. Tas PLAng,

What can you say of its general appearance, habit of |
srowth, and duration? Observe : —

a. The root:

The number and mode of division or branching of
the roots. Are they primary or secondary ? Do they
proceed from an underground stem? What is their
texture ?

Ina rather old plant examine the centre of the clus-
ter of roots. Do you find any which seem to be dead,
nothing but the empty outer coat remaining? What is
the significance of this ?

b. The stem:

Notice the texture of the stem, and its structure as
shown in cross-section. Describe its form, branching,
surface, ete. Compare the stems of the earher plants
with those of older ones. What differences do you
observe ? |

G5 Lhe sear:

Notice the general structure of the leaf. Are all the
parts of a typical leaf present ? Note its venation,
division, form, margin, ete. Notice that some of the
leaves proceed from the root, are radical leaves, while
others are cauline. :

eo

—

BUTTERCUPS AND WINDFLOWERS. 127

Compare the two kinds of leaves.
Il. THe INFLORESCENCE.
Examine the flower-cluster.

a. Notice the distribution of the flowers on the stem.
What is the order of inflorescence? Are the flowers
solitary or clustered ?

6. Examine a single flower. Is it perfect? Com-
plete? Symmetrical? Regular? Examine the parts
of the flower in detail :

1. The calyx. Note the number, form, length, sur-
face, color, and other characters of the sepals. Are
these characters constant in all the flowers? Is the
position of the sepals the same in flowers of all ages ?

2. The corolla. Describe the petals similarly. How
are they placed with reference to the sepals? How do
they compare with the sepals in form and size? What
is their insertion ?

Examine a single petal. Note the httle scale at its
base. Carefully examine this. Note that it covers a
small pit, or pocket,—the honey-gland. Examine its
contents, tasting them if possible. Draw, to show this
scale, a single petal.

o. The andrecium. Note the number of stamens;
their insertion; their length and position with reference
to the remaining parts of the flower. Describe a single
stamen, noting the length, color, and surface of the fila-
ment, and the size, color, number of cells, and dehiscence
of the anther; also the color and abundance of the pol-
len. .

128 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

4. The gynecium.

1. Note the number of pistils. Is each one sim-
ple or compound ? Describe the parts fully,
noting the placentation, number of cells and
ovules in the ovary, and the form, color, sur-
face, etc., of all the parts.

11. Examine the fruit. What kind of fruit is it?
Do the pistils of the flower unite to form an
ageregated fruit ? How many cells and seeds
arethere? Is the fruit dehiscent ? Describe
the seeds, stating number, form, color, sur-
face, ete. |

ILL. PoLuInATIon.

Observe the relative position of the anthers and stig-
mas in’a fully opened flower. Is self-fertilization possi-
ble? What does the bright-colored corolla, with honey-
clands at base of petals, indicate? Are the flowers
odorous ? What is the character of the pollen? Is it
dry and powdery, or sticky ? If possible, examine flow-
ers in the field, and observe if they are visited by insects.
If so, describe in detail the manner in which the insect
alights on the flower, and its behavior while there.

IV. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

What is the habitat of this species? When does it
begin to flower ? and how long does it continue? How
soon after flowering does the fruit mature ?

B. RELATED SPECIES.

I. Compare the other species mentioned in the lst,
with special reference to the following characters : —

~ BUTTERCUPS AND WINDFLOWERS. 129

a. The plant, — its duration.
b. The stem, — its structure and its juice.

c. The leaves, — their division, venation, and presence
or absence of parts.

d. Individual flowers, — their numerical plan and
general structure; the presence or absence of parts; the
number of stamens or pistils. heli

e. The fruits, — kinds, and number of cells and
seeds in each.

Il. CLASSIFICATION.

a. Notice that all the species resemble each other in
the following characters: All (or nearly all) are herbs
with colorless juice. ‘The flowers in all are polypetal-
ous or apetalous, when apetalous the calyx being corolla-
like; their parts all hypogynous; the stamens and pis-
tils mostly numerous and distinct. The fruits are all
one-celled, and mostly one or few seeded, being akenes,
follicles, or berries. The leaves are usually more
or less cut, without stipules, and mostly alternate or
radical.

All plants possessing these characters belong to the

ORDER RANUNCULACEA.

The Crowfoot Family.

b. Observe the differences between the several plants.
Notice that the Virgin’s-bower (Clematis) differs
from all the other plants in having all leaves opposite,
and from most of the series by the tailed achenia (..e.,
with feathery styles persisting in fruit), and four sepals

\

130 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

and no petals. This plant belongs to the Tribe CLEMA-
TIDE, thus set off from its relatives.

The remaining forms may be grouped according
to the fruit into two additional tribes,’ those with
achenia like the Buttercups (Ranunculus), Windflower
(Anemone), Liver-leaf (Hepatica), Rue-anemone (Anem-
onella), Meadow-rue (Zhalictrwm), forming the Tribe

ANEMONE; and those in which the fruit is a follicle, |

or berry, forming the Tribe HeLLEBorEm. Those hav-
ing follicles are Marsh-marigold (Caltha), Isopyrum,
Columbine (Aquilegia), Larkspur (Delphinium), and
Peony (Peonia); while the Baneberry (Actca) pro-
duces berries.

Each of these tribes is again subdivided into groups,
or genera, differing from each other mostly in the char-
acter of the leaves, number of parts of the flower, and
inflorescence.

The following key will assist in recognizing the
genera : —

A. Fruits ACHENIA.

TRIBE I. CLEMATIDE. — Leaves all opposite. Achenia
many, tailed.

Genus 1. Clematis. — Mostly climbing by petioles.

TRIBE IJ. ANEMONE. — Herbs, not climbing. Leaves
mostly alternate.

a. Petals none.

Genus 2. Anemone.—Involucre of leaves remote from
flower; pistils very many; peduncles one-
flowered.

1 A greater number of tribes is usually recognized, but for prac-
tical purposes the subdivisions here recognized will be sufficient.

——

BUTTERCUPS AND WINDFLOWERS. 131

co

Genus Hepatica. —Involucre close to flower, calyx-
like; peduncles one-flowered.
Genus 4. Anemonella. — Peduncles umbellate, one-flow-
ered; achenia several, ribbed.
Genus 5. Thalictrum.— Flowers panicled, often dic-
cious; achenia few.
b. Petals and sepals both present.
Genus 6. Ranunculus. — Petals five, yellow or white,
each with a honey-gland.

B. FRUITS FOLLICLES OR BERRIES.
TRIBE III. HELLEBORE&. — Leaves alternate.

a. Fruits follicles.

Genus 7. Isopyrum. — Flowers apetalous, white; leaves

compound.
Genus 8. Caltha. — Flowers apetalous, yellow; leaves
simple.

Genus 9. Aquilegia.— Flowers complete; petals each
with spur; flowers regular.

Genus 10. Delphinium. — Flowers complete, irregular,
upper sepal spurred.

Genus 11. Pconia.— Flowers large, mostly double by
cultivation; pistils imbedded in fleshy disk.

b. Fruits berries.
Genus 12. Actwa. — Flowers in short racemes.

Expand this outline by adding other characters in which the
plants before you differ.

Ill. DistrisuTIon AND Economic IMPORTANCE.

This order contains about five hundred species of
plants, most of them in temperate and cold regions.

Most of the plants possess an acrid juice, which is
sometimes poisonous.

Many of the species were formerly used in medicine,

Ea
7)

tas ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

but Aconite and Hellebore are.the only important ones
now used by physicians.

Many ornamental plants commonly cultivated in
gardens belong to this order. Among these may be
mentioned the Columbines (Aquilegia), Virgin’s-bower
(Clematis), Larkspur (Delphinium), Love-in-a-mist (N7-
gella), Peony (Peonia), Globeflower (Trollius), ete.

LESson: [aes
The Dandelion.

TARAXACUM OFFICINALE WEBER.

Materials required: The pupils may furnish them-
selves with fresh plants in sufficient quantities. Care
must be taken to secure plants quite entire, roots and
all. If studied before the fruit has had time to ripen,
akenes from previous years may be shown. A micro-
scopic slide to show the milk-tubes is also helpful.

Il. Tue Form or THE PLANT.

a. Note the entire absence of tne usual stem ; the
leaves appear to spring directly from the root. The
fact seems to be that the internodes of the stem remain
undeveloped, so that root and stem are consolidated.
Such plants are described as acaulescent, stemless. Note
the abundant milky, bitter, resinous sap in all parts.

b. The foliage. Note the form of the leaves; their
origin below the surface of the ground, as if the root

THE DANDELION. toa

in its downward growth had pulled the leaves .after it.
Stretch the leaf out smooth, and sketch its outline, at
least on one side.

c. The root.

Note its length, its irregular branching, the numer-
ous rootlets. If the specimen has been hfted carefully
from the ground, the smaller rootlets will be found
elothed with root-hairs near the tips, just as in Capsella.
Notice that at each broken tip a drop of milk coagulates,
and closes the wound. The milk is probably also pro-
tective in other ways; taste 1t. Such milk in plants is
-ealled datex ; from such latex in Rubber-trees comes
India-rubber, caoutchouc.

Make a thin cross-section of a larger root, and note
the woody axis, the spongy cortex, the thin epidermis ;
the woody axis of each rootlet continuous with that
of the main root, as in Capsella.

Note the persistence of the root; perhaps you can
find out how long the plant endures. Is it annual, bien-
nial, or perennial ?

Il. THe INFLORESCENCE.

a. Note the succession of flower-buds. In a large
plant you may find them of all ages: the tomentum,
wool, by which the buds are always protected; the
scape, which by elongating carries the flowers aloft, —
erect in the morning, what position does it assume later
in the day? What position when the flowers have
wilted ? When the fruit matures ?

b. Study now the unfolded bud. It seems to be the
flower. Of what is it made up? Look with your lens,

134 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

and find seores of small flowers, florets, each with sta-
mens, pistil, and corolla at the least.

Cut the whole structure vertically through the centre,
and see that the florets all stand on the flat, widened end
of the scape, the disk. Such an arrangement of florets
upon a receptacle or disk constitutes a head. Note that
the florets are developed, come to perfection from the
centre outwardly; that is, the inflorescence of the head is —
centrifugal. Sometimes the process of inflorescence
(blooming) does not in one day pass from circumfer-
ence to centre of the. head. Mark in the field such a
head, and see whether it opens more than once to the
completion of the floral development.

c. What seems to be the flower of the Dandelion is
therefore not a flower at all, but a collection of flowers; -
and what seems to be the green calyx on the outside is
not a calyx, since it surrounds not a single flower, but a
flower-cluster. The seeming calyx is a circle of bracts
forming what is called the involucre. In some plants
which have such an involuecre as this of the Dandelion,
there is below the involucre a regular gradation to be
seen between the ordinary foliage-leaf and the bract
of the involucre. In the Dandelion the branch which
bears the flowers, the scape, bears no foliage-leaves.
The bracts of the involucre, scales,-are accordingly quite
distinct in form from any of the leaves, “ well differen-
tiated.”

Notice the transition from the outer bracts of the
involucre to colored corollas of the florets. Observe
that the scales of the involucre are in two rows. Are
there any scales upon the disk, amid the flowers ?

THE DANDELION. 135

d. The floret. .

Take from the disk a single floret, and, holding it on
a needle-point, examine it with your lens. The foliow-
ing organs can readily be made out : —

1. The calyx. Recognizable by its position, out-
side the other organs, adherent, blent with
the ovary below, and there indistinguishable ;
above, frayed into fine white silken hairs, the

Paeppus.

2. The corolla. Note its color; its form, a tube
below, monopetalous, extended above to form a
long, strap-shaped, petal-like organ. Note the
notches at the tip of each corolla.

3. The stamens. Note their number; their tips may
be counted in the unopened flowers at the centre
of the disk, their filaments in flowers further
developed; their coherence by their anthers,
so that these form a straight tube (syngene-
sious); their dehiscence; the nature of the
pollen.

4. The pistil; its simple ovary, long style, recurving
style-arms (or branches), which bear the stig-
matic surface on their inner faces. Note the
several positions occupied by the style at differ-
ent stages of the anthesis (blooming); at first
below the level of the anther-ring, then emer-
ging, showing the anthers as a collar, at length
with a cleft summit, the arms slowly recurving.
Sketch these three phases of the floret.

136 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

LESSON XXX 22

The Dandelion. — Continued.

TARAXACUM OFFICINALE WEBER.

Materials required: As in the preceding lesson. To ~
these add Hrigeron bellidifolium, Fleabane, if obtain-
able; pressed flowers of the Dahlia, Sunflower, Aster,
etc. The disk of alarge Sunflower from which the seeds
have fallen will be instructive. Flowers from any culti- -
vated species of the order Composite may afford further
material for comparison; fresh leaves of Lettuce, to
show milky juice, ete.

I. Pecularities in the Inflorescence of the Dande-
hon. Note :—

1. That the flower-cluster is indeterminate; that it
corresponds to a raceme in fact, and may be regarded
as a flower-cluster not different from that in Capsella,
except that all pedicels and internodes are left undevel-
oped, and all the flowers appear in and on one and the
same plane, the disk. | |

2. That the circumstances and conditions in which
the florets are developed, and under which they act,
explain many of their peculiarities.

a. The whole flower-cluster simulates a single flower.
So perfect is the ruse, that not insects only, but even
men, are deceived, to the great majority of whom the
cluster is a flower. The involucre plays the role of
calyx, and the rays make up the rest. The botanists

THE DANDELION. OL

early recognized the true state of the case, but unfortu-
nately called the head compound (composed of simple
flowers), and gave to the Dandelion order the name
Composira (compound). In many of the Composite
the resemblance of the head entire to the form of some
simple flower is rendered more striking still by reserv-
ing to only the marginal flowers the form of a ray (ray-
flowers), which then simulate petals, while the much
reduced central florets, disk flowers, make up often a
differently colored centre. The Sunflower, even a dry

specimen, shows this well. Compare, when convenient,
the Marigold, the Daisy, the Aster. The common Flea-

bane, Hrigeron bellidifoliwm, can perhaps be collected
in the fields, and will afford interesting comparisons in
color, shape, ete.

b. The place of the calyx, the usual protective en-
velop of the flower, being thus supplied by the involucre,
protective envelop once for all for all the flowers, the
function of the real calyxes is gone. The calyx of each
floret is left, therefore, either to disappear, unnecessary
and unnourished, or to remain on the condition of as-
suming some new function. Shut from exposure to the
light, it becomes white and thin; its margin, poorly
nourished, frays out into the delicate plumes of a para-
chute, and we have at last in the pappus a new organ
(made out of an old one), an organ for the dispersal of

_ the ripened seeds.

ce. Chaff among the florets.

By cutting a Dahlia or Sunflower directly through
the middle, vertically, it will be seen that associated with

138 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

the florets on the disk, there is still another set of or-
gans to which we should give heed. Behind (toward
the margin) each floret stands a simple bract, pale or
colorless as the calyx, and for the same reason. These
bracts constitute the so-called chaff of the disk. Each
represents the leaf in the axil of which the flower is
produced. We have seen that the flower is a modified

branch, the branch an expanded bud. The bud appears —

normally in the axil of a leaf; hence we expect that a
flower will be always backed or subtended by a bract or
fohar organ of some kind. In the Composite these
bracts are more or less suppressed, become mere rudi-
ments, or, as in the Dandelion, disappear altogether.

Il. Tur PoLLINATION OF THE DANDELION FLORETS.

The Dandelion is fertilized almost exclusively by the
aid of insects. Watch on any sunny day, and note the
bees and other insects crawling upon the flowers. How
does this effect pollination? What are the special
adaptations to prevent self-fertilization; i.e., to pre-
vent any particular floret from being fertilized by
its own pollen? What is the final position of the
style-arms? and what bearing does this have upon
the problem? ?

In the composite arrangement of flowers, is there
any economy (1) of energy on the part of the plant?
(2) of time on the part of the insect? Is the Dandelion
a bad weed ? Has it any advantages over other plants
in the struggle for place, existence, on the earth ?

1 See Gray’s ‘‘ Botanical Text Book,” Structural Botany, p. 222,
sec. 411.

THE DANDELION. 139

Ilft. RELATIVES OF THE DANDELION.

In most composites the flowers are differentiated, as
in the Sunflower. There are tubular disk-flowers and
strap-shaped marginal- or ray-flowers. A few, however,
like the Dandelion, have strap-shaped flowers only, and
constitute its nearest relatives. Among these are Let-
tuce (Lactuca sativa), Salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius
L.), Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) ; and, strange to say,
all these, and all of their group, have milky juice. Com-
posites of the Sunflower type are, however, far more
numerous. Indeed, in most parts of the country the
autumn flora is very largely made up of Sunflowers and
their kin, the Asters, Goldenrods, Thistles, Daisies,
Mayweeds, Ragweeds, Burdocks, ete., — the world is full
of them!

Our native Composite are accordingly divided for
convenience into two groups; thus : —

Florets, at least those of the disk, tubular, —
Tubuliflore.
Types the Sunflower, Daisy, Goldenrod, etc.
Florets all strap-shaped, juice milky, —
Ligulatiflore.

Type the Dandelion, etc.

For the identification of the species of the Com~pos-
ite, recourse must now be had to some convenient man-
ual; but in every case you may recognize a member of
the order by the conjunction of these two characters : —

1. Flowers gathered to form a head.
2. Anthers syngensious.

140 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

LESSON) 2 RAE

Apples, Plums, and Cherries.

PYRUS MALUS L., PRUNUS DOMESTICA L., AND PRUNUS
CERASUS lL.

Materials required: Apple, Plum, and Cherry branches
in full bloom; wood-sections of the same species; simi-
lar sections also of Thorn-apple, Crab, Wild Cherry;
seeds of Peach, Almond, Plum, Apricot, Nectarine;
Rose-hips; herbarium specimens of the Wild Rose. |

I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

a. Let the pupil bring in a written report of what
he is able to observe concerning the fruit-trees in bloom ;
their mode of branching; the bark, its thickness, sur-
face characters, and decadence; the vigor of the trees in
neighboring gardens and orchards.

b. Compare all the wood-sections available. Note
the differences in the grain of the wood; its rapidity of
srowth as indicated by the annual rings. Learn to rec-
ognize the different species by the appearance of the
wood or bark.

Il. Tur INFLORESCENCE.

a. Its abundance; time in reference to the appear-
ance of the leaves.

6. The individual flower.

Notice not the various sets of organs alone, their
numbers, colors, shapes, etc., but especially their peculi-

APPLES, PLUMS, AND CHERRIES. 141

arities, as of position or adhesion. Where are the
petals attached ? The numerous unequal stamens? Ob-
serve the position of the pistil or pistils, one in the
Cherry, five in the Apple; in both cases inserted in the
_disk, a hollow receptacle continuous with the branchlet,
and lining the calyx, consolidated with it. Notice that
in the Cherry or Plum the calyx remains distinct from
the ovary; in the Apple the calyx coheres with the sev-
eral pistils. This results in the formation of two widely
different types of fruit. Compare an Apple and a
Cherry.

Hil. Tae Force.

The arrangement of the leaves has already been dis-
cussed, Lesson IIL, 11., 7 Note here, in addition to
form, texture, surface, etc., the slender stipules, espe-
cially in the Apple, so slight as to be easily overlooked
and quickly deciduous. Look for stipules on the leaves
of the Rose-bush. Compare the venation of the leaves of
the Cherry and Apple; the lower surfaces of the same
leaves. ;

LY. Tuer PonuInaATION OF THE FLOWERS.

a. Here there is no doubt as to the agency by which
the pollen is carried. Let the pupil report what he
may observe, comparing all accessible fruit-trees on a
sunny day. Capture some of the bees from the trees,
and with a lens examine their legs and bodies.

6. What attractions are offered by the trees (Apple,
Plum, etc.) to induce insects to visit the flowers? Enu-
merate at least three.

142 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

V. CLASSIFICATION.

a. In what respects do all the species compared
agree ? Which agree more closely, — Plums and Apples,
or Plums and Cherries? Compare the seeds of Cher-
ries, Plums, Apricots, Nectarines, Almonds, and Peaches.
As compared with Apples, Service Berries, ‘etc., these
make a group or Tribe by themselves, — the PRUNEZ ;
while’ Apples, Thorn-apples, Crab-apples, ete., make up —
the PomEz. |

b. Now study the Rose-hips. Observe that these
also have essentially the same structure as the young
apple, except that the carpels do not coalesce with the
receptacle; otherwise we should have an apple with
many single-seeded carpels. If you can compare a
Wild Rose, you will discover that in the floral arrange-
ment the Wild Rose agrees in all particulars with the
Apple bloom. Still, the Rose-hip is not an Apple; so
we make it the type of stilla third group, —the RosEz.

c. Draw a diagram of the apple-blossom.

d. How the various tribes of rose-like plants are
united together to form a natural ORDER will appear in
our next lesson.

LE SSO. x ox Ve

The Strawberry.

FRAGARIA VIRGINIANA EHRH, or
FRAGARIA VESCA LINN.

Materials required: Plants of the wild or cultivated
Strawberry in flower; herbarium specimens (fresh speci-

*

THE STRAWBERRY. 143

mens are better) of Gewm album Gmelin, or Potentilla
canadensis L., Rosa blanda; a few Dandelion roots and
Negundo twigs.

Il. GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

a. Note the threefold structure, — roots, stem, and
leaves. The stem, subterranean. Make a smooth cross-
section of the stem, and compare with similar sections
of the Dandelion root, the Box Elder shoot, and see.
what evidence you can find from the standpoint of
structure that the Strawberry rhizoma is really a stem.
What other evidences of stem-nature does the rhizome
present ?

6b. Note the various sorts of roots presented by the
plant, —the long fibrous roots of last year, the new
roots of the season.

ce. The “runners,” branches. Observe their origin,
function. Draw a diagram to show how such branches
serve to reproduce the plant.

fe ban -WoLiAGE.

Compare the leaves of the Strawberry with those of
the Rose, part by part. In the Strawberry leaves, note
the pubescence of petioles, and the lower surface of the
leaflets; the venation in relation to marginal indenta-
tions,

Ill. INFLORESCENCE.

a. Its type. Which flower in the cluster blooms
first? How does the process of anthesis compare with
that of Capsella ?

144 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

6b. The individual flower.

With the lens look the flower full in the face, and
note its successive whorls, calyx, corolla, stamens, pis-
tils. Note the accessory bractlets behind the calyx.

Now with a razor make a vertical section of the
flower, and observe the insertion, attachment of the
several organs.

Compare in all these particulars with what has been ~
observed in the Apple, the Rose. Aside from the habit
of growth, the chief difference between the Strawberry
and the Rose les in the form of the disk: in the Straw-
berry the form of the disk is convex; and it becomes at
length the globose berry, over the surface of which we
find the scattered seeds, fruits (the ripened pistils).

LV. FERTILIZATION.

How is pollination effected? In some cultivated
Strawberries the flowers are dicecious, or at least monce-
cious; and provision must be made in the planting for
fertilization, or no fruit 1s produced. Confer with your
gardener on this point.

V. As TO CLASSIFICATION.

a. From our studies in Section IIL. it is plain, as
we knew before by experience, the Strawberry is not
a Rose, though very near it. In fact, it 1s the type of
a kind of Roses. Compare now specimens of Geum
album Gmel., or Potentilla canadensis L., both very
common white-flowered weeds, very like Strawberries,
though failing to ripen in the same way the disk.
These herbaceous rose-like plants make up the Straw-
berry group or family, the FRAGARIEA,

THE ROSES. 145

6. In a similar way we may study the Blackberry
(Rubus villosus), and the Raspberry (Rubus ideus),
when these come to bloom, and find their Rose charac-
ters and their common peculiarities as well. In the
Blackberry not only does the disk (receptacle) become
pulpy, but the outer carpel in each case as well, as in
the Cherry. In the Raspberry the outer part of the car-
pel only, while the torus (receptacle) remains unaltered.
The Blackberry and Raspberry, accordingly, with their
clustered drupaceous fruits, make still another section of
the Roses, —the RuBE®.

c. We may now bring together all these several
sroups, tribes, or families of Rose-like plants into one,
the

ORDER ROSACEZ,

of which the principal characters are : —

1. Flowers regular; stamens borne on the calyx; pis-
tils distinct, or in the Pomee united with the calyx-
tube.

2. Leaves alternate and stipulate.

ve So OuUN | xx Vf.
The Roses. — Review.
ROSACEA.

Let each pupil write an essay on the order Rosace#,
' dwelling especially on such particulars as the follow-
ing : —

146 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

a. The structural (morphological) pecularities which
distinguish all rosaceous plants, as illustrated by the
plants recently reviewed.

b. The economic importance of the order.

ce. What is the purpose of what is popularly called
fruit? For example, why does the Plum produce its
sweet, Juicy drupe, the Strawberry its luscious pulp, the
Rose its scarlet urns ?

d. Compare with the Wild Rose any of our culti-
vated forms. What is a double rose? What becomes
of stamens, etc., when the rose becomes very “double ” ?

Has any one seen a green rose? How is such a
flower to be explained ? Perhaps some one has found
among cultivated roses a branch which seemed to grow
through the flower, and bore leaves, possibly a second
rose beyond the first; what is the significance of such
a freak? Compare always the relation of a flower toa
bud, and a bud to a branch.

Reps OWN = xo Vee
The Wild Violet.
VIOLA PALMATA UL. VAR. CUCULLATA GRAY.

Materials required: A sufficient quantity of plants
of the species, roots and all, the roots clean-washed, and
all kept moist until used; Pansy flowers and plants in
sufficient numbers for comparison, if convenient ; her-
barium specimens of the species, with dry fruits and
seeds.

THE WILD VIOLET. 147

Il. GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

Compare with the plant last studied, Fragaria.
Notice the short rootstock, stem 3 the roots and rootlets ;
the leaves. °

Ty. Tae FouiAce.

Study the form of the leaf, — its mrolled base lends
the scientific, specific name; the parts of the leaf. Are
there any stipules as in the Roses? Sketch an ex-
panded leaf (flattened out), the blade wider than long.

TU. THe INFLORESCENCE.

a. Observe that flowers of two sorts are present, —
open, conspicuous blue flowers, and inconspicuous bud-
like flowers that, by their smallness, are apt to be over-
looked. Sometimes, too, they are developed somewhat
tardily, later in the season. These bud-hke blossoms
are called cleistogamous flowers.1. They may claim at-
tention later on.

6b. Note the origin of the flowers, borne singly on
scapes or branches. Does the scape itself bear any ev1-
dence of being a branch? Of course the branch is
here extremely specialized, and must not be expected
to wear too many ordinary branch-features. Note the
flexure of the scape above, so that the flower turns
entirely over backwards, becomes resupinate.

e. The individual flower of the ordinary open sort.

1. Notice its general form; the lack of radial sym-
metry. Does the flower possess symmetry at
all? Hold the flower facing you. Imagine it

1 See Gray’s “ Botanical Text Book,’’ Structural Botany, p. 241.

148 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

cleft by a vertical plane passing between the
‘two upper petals. The flower will be divided
throughout into two exactly similar parts.
Can you in the same ‘way pass other planes
through the flower to divide it into similar
parts? How would the case be with the Straw-

berry-bloom or the Apple-blossom? Flowers

which admit of symmetrical division by one
plane only are said to have bilateral symmetry,
are zygomorphic (literally, yoke-shaped) ; while
flowers which, like the Rose and the Apple-
blossom, have radial symmetry are called actz-
nomorphic (rayed).

2. Study the shape of the various parts: the sepals;
the paired petals; the odd petal; the stamens,
their coherence and dehiscence, on two of them
appendages extending backward into the spur,
or sac, of the odd petal. What happens when
these appendages are pressed from below?
The pistil; its general form, style, the open
stigma, its direction.

d. The cleistogamous flowers.

These are so small as to afford some difficulty in
investigation. They lie low down, and may be dis-
covered of all ages, from mere rudiments to ripened
pods. The entire absence of anything like petals will
be usually a sufficient criterion for identification. In
flowers of medium size the fact of fertilization can be
discovered by examining with the Coddington a vertical
section through the pod. The pollen-tubes can be seen

THE WILD VIOLET. 149

easily, like cobweb threads passing from the style down-
wards among the ovules.

LV. FERTILIZATION.

Consider the problem in the light of facts already
brought out. Do insects visit the colored flowers ?
Have any of the conspicuous flowers left pods, so far
as can be seen? As a means of subsequent identifica-
tion, tie yarn about the pedicels in some cases, and see
how the problem results.”

VY. Compare in all particulars the common Pansy if
obtainable. Any species other than that first studied
may be used for review.

VI. DiIstTRIBUTION:

Violets in one form or another occur over nearly the
whole world; even the genus Viola is nearly cosmopoli-
tan. Our species, var. cucullata Gray, seems to be com-
mon over the whole country, from Maine to California.
Other familiar species are : —

The Common Yellow Violet, V. pubescens Aiton.
The English Violet, V. odorata Linn.
The Pansy, V. tricolor Linn.

1 Read Darwin’s chapter on this subject, Forms of Flowers, p. 310.

2 In addition to references already given, see Miiller’s ‘‘ Fertiliza-
tion of Flowers,”’ pp. 117-121.

150 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

LESSON’ xX = sae

The Scotch Pine.
PINUS SYLVESTRIS LINN.

Materials required: The pupils are to have access to
one or more trees, which must be studied about the time —
of blooming.? |

For the laboratory provide short branch-tips, to show
foliage, buds, etc. ; wood-sections a few inches across, to
show bark and wood-structure, rate of increase in thick-
NESS, CLC.

Tas teens.

Let the pupils visit the tree, or trees, and report on
such particulars as the following : —

a. The tree itself; its size, form, mode of branching.
Compare in the latter particular the branching of trees
heretofore studied. Notice in the Pine the continued
indefinite upward extension of the central stem. Com-
pare other evergreens, as the Spruce. Study the arrange-
ment of the ‘buds, and find out how the stem maintains
its ascendancy among the branches. Could one deter-
mine approximately the tree’s age by the whorls of
branches ? Can you determine (approximately) the
annual increase in height ? Such a stem as this of the

1 The time of inflorescence varies with the seasons; in the lati-
tude of Iowa, not far from June 1. The time of inflorescence is
short. The tree must be watched, in order to observe its various
phases. The present lesson may be studied just before the tree
blooms. :

THE SCOTCH PINE. 151

Pine is called excurrent, as distinguished from the fash-
ion of the Elm, for example, which is described as deli-
quescent. These terms are of Latin origin; are they
appropriate ?

b. The bark.

Note the bark on the trunk of the oldest tree to which
you have access; follow up to the branches, noting the
transition from strong, rough scales to papery layers,
quickly deciduous ; the green bark under the latter, more
easily seen on branches, say, one inch in diameter: on
the twigs find with the lens regularly disposed scales
(scale-leayes).

ce. The twigs.

Note their extension in length; the terminal bud; the
bud-seales, scale-leaves, the latter of two parts ; bud-scale
scars of successive years; the method of branch-devel-
opment, (1) in a foliage branch, (2) a branch bearing sta-
mens, (3) in the branch which bears the cone of the
season; the very short twigs or branchlets that bear
the green folhage. Note that these fall off at length,
and leave what appear lke leaf-scars.

d. The foliage.

1. The green conspicuous portion, made up of ‘“ nee-
dles,’ each a leaf; how many needles in a
cluster? borne on the short branchlets only.
Examine a single needle; note the shape, color,
apex, margin; examine with a lens, and find
lines of minute openings, stomata. Note the
twist in the mature leaves; compare young
leaves on the branch of the season; note that

152 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

the leaves are all soft at base, the growing
part. Make a thin section; examine with the
lens, and find a white centre the only vein;
resin-ducts. Pull a pair of leaves apart, and
find (sometimes) a tiny bud between. Might
there be more leaves? Notice that the leaves -
face each other, and inc!ine to stand edgewise

to the stem. Notice the sheath about the base ~ i

of the leaves; the numerous papery bracts that
make it up. Draw a pair of leaves with their
sheath. Compare the bud-scales of the opens
bud. Draw a single scale.

e. The wood-section. |

Note on the end of the section the component parts,
the bark, the wood, the cambium; the heartwood, the
white wood; the lines of growth. How much has the
tree increased in diameter each year? What is the aver-
age annual increase? How long at this rate would be
required to furnish a pine log two feet in diameter ?

LESSON xX Sere
The Scotch Pine. — Continued.

Materials required: Flowering branches, staminate,
pistillate; cones of one year on the branches; cones of
two years, and mature cones from which the seed is
falling.

1 Tn pleasant weather this lesson can well be studied by as pupils
out-of-doors, in presence of the trees studied.

THE SCOTCH PINE. 153

Il. Tue INFLORESCENCE.
a. The staminate flowers.

Examine the cluster; note that it is hke a compound
spike; ie., a spike made up of spikes. Supposing each
spikelet a flower, of what parts does it consist ? Is there
ealyx or corolla? Notice the central axis and its attach-
ment to the main stem; are there any bracts? Scale-
leaves? To what, then, on the foliage branch does this
central axis correspond ?

Compare now a single stamen; examine with the
lens. Each is a scale-shaped body flattened above, next
the axis, and bears a pair of swollen sacs below. Some
of the stamens have probably begun to discharge the
contents of these sacs? How? How does the anther
open? Draw a single stamen as it appears under your
lens. —

Supposing the central axis of each flower to be
a branchlet, as we have seen it really is, each stamen
then would be what ? On which side of the leaf (dorsal
or ventral) are the pollen-sacs developed? Note the
abundant pollen. When convenient, examine the pol-
len, using a microscope of moderate magnifying power.
Find two inflated empty sacs (wings ), one on each side
of the pollen-grain proper.

6. Note the terminal bud on the ‘stamen-bearing
branch. It is probably developing, and will later bear
a few branchlets with leaves. Meantime, the staminate
flowers all fall, leaving a vacant ring, or collar, around
the twig. Look at last year’s twigs, and find the loca-
tion of last year’s staminate flowers. Here we have ad-

154 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

ditional evidence that our interpretation of the flower,
its morphology, is correct.

c. The pistillate flowers, the cones.

1. Find at the tips of some of the branches tiny
purple cones of the season; note their posture
on the tree; erect or pendent? Noteplace of
the young cone with reference to other buds
on the twig; does it come as a development of
the terminal bud? , |

Study now the structure of the little cone.
Examine with the lens; note its form;. its
central axis. Is it stalked or sessile? ‘The
bracts, of two sorts, the lower (outer) thin,
simple dracts ; the upper thicker, the carpellary
scales (serving the office of carpels).

Dissect off one of the scales; notice a ridge,
keel, along the middle; on which face of the
carpel-isit ? Find at the base of the seale two
little swellings, the ovules, one on each side
of the keel. Perhaps you can make out with
your lens a minute opening at the lowest ex--
tremity of each ovule. Supposing the bract
upon the axis as before to subtend a branchlet,
then where are the leaves ? |

Remember how the ordinary leaves stand fa-
cing each other. Imagine the two leaves grown
fast together by their posterior (next the axis)
edges, the anterior edges remaining free and
becoming divergent; the line of union would
form the keel of our little carpellary scale, and
the ovules, although next the axis now, are

THE SCOTCH PINE. 155

really developed on the back (lower outer,
rounded surface) of the leaves, just as the
pollen-sac is formed on the back of the leat
of which the stamen is the representative.

Draw a scale to show all that you can make
out under your lens.

2. Compare now a cone one year old. Note upon
the tree the posture of such a cone; erect or
pendent ? Note the changes that.a year has
brought in size, shape, color, texture. Split
such a cone through the middle, and find the
tapering axis; the bracts and carpellary scales
in section. Note the changed shape of the
latter, so that the space between their tips is
completely filled up; the cone is solid.

Find the white ovules at the bases of the
scales; probably not all scales have proved
fertile. Dissect out a fruiting-scale, and draw
to show at least the upper surface.

3. Compare a cone of two years, noting its position
on the tree as before compared with the cone
of one year. What changes can you observe ?
Compare a cone that has reached full maturity
on the tree, the scales all reflexed. Find the
black seeds, the fully developed ovules. Note
the broad transparent wing with which each
seed is furnished. Compare the samara of the
Maple. Draw a mature seed. Explain with
ref€rence to the development and dispersal of
its fruit; the several positions and phases of
the cone.

156 | ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Il. Tue FERTILIZATION.

By what agency is pine pollen transported ? What
adaptation in the pollen-grain? Such pollen from Pine
forests 1s sometimes carried hundreds of miles. In the
young cone what adaptation for the reception of the fly-
ing pollen? Notice that in the pistillate flower there is
no style; the pollen-grain rolls down the tiny seale,
and lodges directly against the micropyle. Fertilization
is then effected practically as in the Trilhum, though
much more slowly. |

The surprising thing about the cone is that its
ovules for fertilization he thus open to the world. For
this reason the great Scotch botanist Robert Brown
called such plants as the Pines, and the cone-bearers gen-
erally, Gymnosperms (Gk. gymnos, naked, and sperma, a
seed). Plants hke the Trillium, for instance, in which
the seeds are developed in a closed ovary, are called, by
way of distinction, Angiosperms (Gk. angeion, a vessel).

1 ep AO) Nee
The White Pine.

PINUS STROBUS UINN.

Materials required: Mature cones of the common
Pine; twigs bearing the fresh fohage. The pupils
should have access to trees which may be freely ex-
amined. ;

The Scotch Pine, as its common name would indi-
cate, is not native to North America. By Englishmen

THE WHITE PINE. 157

the tree is called the Scotch Pine; but it is, in fact, the
common Pine of all Northern Europe. Linné, when he
first proposed for the tree its scientific name, called it
therefore simply Pinus sylvestris, the Pine of the forest.

America, however, is especially the land of Pine-
trees. One of the most widespread species is that
known as White Pine. It ranges as far west as Iowa,
makes up what remains of the once splendid forests of
Wisconsin and Minnesota, and is commonly planted
throughout the whole country.

1. Let the student now carefully compare the White
Pine? with the Scotch Pine in the various particulars
enumerated in Lesson XXXIX., and bring in a written
report of his observations.

2. Let the student especially compare the cones of
the two Pines : —

a. In structure; relative size; size and shape of the
carpellary scales, pointing out the particulars
in which the cones of the two trees agree and
differ.

6 In the history of their development. How many
phases of the cone of the White Pine are found
at one time upon the tree ??

3. Let the student discuss the economic value of
both trees. For what purposes are both planted?
What is the source of the Pine lumber in common
use ?

1 If the White Pine be not accessible, some other may be se-
lected, as circumstances may dictate.

2 The White Pine is in bloom a little later with us than P.
sylvestris.

158 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

LES oat Sis.

More Relatives of the Scotch Pine.

Materials required: Cones and coniferous fruit of
every description; the greater the variety the better.
The following will probably be included ; cones of :—

Pinus strobus L., The White Pine.
Pinus sylvestris L., The Scotch Pine.
Pinus austriaca Hoss, Austrian Pine.
Picea excelsa Link, Norway Spruce.
Thuja occidentalis L., Arbor-vite.
Juniperus virginiana L., — Red Cedar.

Il. MorpHouoey.

1. First compare the cones of the Austrian with
those of the Scotch Pine and those of the White Pine.
Although all different, yet in some particulars they
all agree. As in our comparison of the Maples, these
particulars enter into a definition of the genus (kind)
Pinus.

2. Compare next the cones of the Spruce with those
of the Scotch Pine. Should the Spruce be put with
the Pines? Why not? Draw a single scale of the
Spruce cone, and compare with the drawing made of
the scales of the Scotch Pine cone. Compare the scales;
the seeds.

5. Compare the cones of the Arbor-vite with those
of P. sylvestris. Note the difference in the arrangement

RELATIVES OF THE SCOTCH 'PINE. 159

of the scales; but consult the arrangement of .the foll-
age leaves in the two forms compared.

4. Compare the cones (berries) of the Red Cedar.
These seem to be farthest away of all. These are
cones true enough; you may count the component coa-
lescent scales. We have here simply a specialization of
eone structure, adapting it to a new mode of fruit dis-
persal. How is the fruit (seeds) of the Pine scattered ?
What can be the meaning of this soft semi-edible fruit ?
What is the significance of edible fruit in general ?

Il. CLASSIFICATION.

All these plants are like the Scotch Pine, not only
that they are gymnospermous, but they are, as we see, all
cone-bearers as well; that is, they all belong to a large
group of the plants known as the

OrvER CONIFERA,

in which the typical fruit is a cone like that of the Pine;
but it may be greatly reduced in thé number of fruiting-
scales, even more so than in the Cedar. In our species
of Yew, for instance, obtainable in some localities, the
fruit is a one-seeded little red berry, representing, appar-
ently, a single scale.

The order Conifere, then, includes all the Pines, all
the Spruces, Larches, Firs, Cypresses, Cedars, Yews, of
the world. It is thus a magnificent order, and includes
many of the finest specimens of plant-life now on the
earth. For example, the Sugar Pines of California
(P. lambertiana) are much like our White Pine, but
reach a height of two hundred and fifty feet, and a

160 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

diameter of fifteen feet! The giant Redwoods (Sequoia
gigantea and S. sempervirens) of the Sierras and Coast
Range in California are larger still! Such trees are, of
course, of great age. The largest have stood on earth
from fifteen to twenty centuries, and well merit preser-
vation at the hands of enlightened governments, to say
nothing of enlightened private owners. |

Ill. Economic VALUE.

From what has been said and learned, it will appear
that the economic value of the order is simply incalcu-
lable. Nearly all the trees mentioned in the last para-—
graph are lumber-trees. Let the pupil endeavor to find
out the species of tree from which comes each of the
following products of the mill :—

Soft Pine lumber.
Hard Pine lumber.
Cypress lumber.
Redwood shingles.
Cedar shingles.
Hemlock lumber.
Spruce lumber.

LESSON hae
The Common Locust.
ROBINIA PSEUDACACIA LINN.

Materials required: Branches in full bloom; dry
fruit of previous years; wood-sections as usual; pods
of the Honey Locust and other leguminous plants, as

THE COMMON LOCUST. 161

the Peanut, the Pea, the Bean; young shoots a year or
two old; peas and beans softened by soaking in water.

I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

Let the pupil, as in case of trees previously studied,
give account as full as possible of what may be discoy-
ered by studying the species in the field.

a. Its habitat, habit of growth, resultant outline,
form; reproduction through sprouts from roots, running
sometimes for great distances in loose soil.

6b. The bark; on younger shoots and branches thin
and striped, later on larger stems black and rugose. The
thorns, their persistence. The wood (as seen In sections) ;
white wood, alburnum ; heartwood, duramen. Qualities
of the wood; its hardness, density, strength, suscepti-
bility to polish, economic value, uses, imperfection.

fe Tar Force.

a. The compound leaf borne on the conspicuous new
branchlets. Note the persistent bud-scales, velvet-lined ;
enumerate the parts of the leaves; in young leaves note
the manner of unfolding; the leaflet, its form, venation.
Notice the swollen base of the petiole; the pulvinus.}
The stipules which produce the thorns are tardy of
appearance. See Lesson II., 11., h, and XV., v., b 2.

6. Note the position assumed by the leaves at night-
fall; compare with the diurnal position. Is the Locust
a “sensitive plant” ? Many plants change the position
of their organs as external conditions change. Compare
_ the Oxalis at home, or the Clovers in the dooryard.

1 See Vine’s “‘ Physiology of Plants,” p. 532 et seq.

162 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

The Barberry-bush is notorious for the movements of
its stamens.

All these plants are sensitive, we say; but by appro-
priate means we may demonstrate the sensitiveness of
many others. All plants are sensitive, but most are
slow to respond. Such plants as the Barberry, the
Locust, the Mimosa (Sensitive-plant proper), are excep-
tional. Perhaps the slow peculiar collapse of the Lo-
cust leaves at evening is due to diminished heght and
warmth; but the Locust, as well as many other plants,
seems to have formed the habit of sleeping at night.
The activities of the plant are suspended at regular
intervals. The pulvinus is doubtless in the Locust the
organ by which change of position on the part of the
whole leaf is effected.?

IIL. Tue INFLORESCENCE.

a. Its general form, more or less perfect racemes
borne on the wood of the season. Note the odor, color,
and abundance of the flowers; the posture of the indi-
vidual flower on the drooping raceme.

b. The single flower ; zygomorphic or actinomorphie ?
Find a pair of bractlets (early caducous) at the base of
the pedicel.

1. The downy, spotted monosepalous calyx, its teeth
alternating with the petals within.

bo

. The petals; their peculiar forms and adaptation to
each other, lending to the flower its expression,
so to speak. The older botanists saw in such
a flower resemblance to a butterfly (Lat. pa-_

1 See Darwin, ‘‘ The Power of Movement in Plants,” p. 311.

THE COMMON LOCUST. 163

puio), and named such flowers papilionaceous.
The several parts of a papilionaceous flower
have likewise received special names. ‘Thus,
the broad upper petal is the vexillum, or stan-
dard ; the lateral petals are called wings ; while
the remaining two anterior, somewhat cohering,
taken together constitute the keel. Are these
names appropriately applied? Note in the
unopened flower the position of the petals;
which petal is outermost ?

3. But the peculiarities of the papilionaceous flower
do not stop with the petals. With a sharp
razor cut the flower vertically through the
middle, so as to split the keel, and expose a ver-
tical section of the whole flower. Observe the
position of stamens and pistil with reference to
the enclosing petals.

4. Notice the cohering filaments of the stamens; how
many of these are thus consolidated? Where
stamens are all united by their filaments they
are said to be monadelphous ; if united to form
two sets they are diadelphous, Which term is
applicable here ?

Strip off the petals, and notice the opening
on the posterior side at the base of the stamen-
tube.

5. The pistil; notice its form, pedicel in the cen-
tre of a nectar-bearing disk; the ovary, style,
stigma. With the lens find below the stigma
a collar of projecting bristles, probably covered

164 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

with pollen. Compare with the young pistil
the dry fruit, its two valves, single row of
seeds. Compare pea-pods, bean-pods, if obtain-
able. Notice the dehiscence by separation of
the valves along both sides. Such a fruit as
that of the Locust or the Bean is called a
lequme. |

6. Sketch a vertical section of the flower, to show
the details observed. Sketch the summit of
the style, to show the surrounding bristles.

7. Examine the seeds; the cotyledons. Compare
peas or beans that have been softened a little
while in water. Note that the cotyledons fill
up the entire seed, no “albumen;” i.e., the
seeds are exalbuminous.

LEoo ON, 2 ese
The Common Locust. — Continued.
ROBINIA PSEUDACACIA LINN.
Materials required: Locust branches in full bloom,
as in the preceding lesson. |

I. FERTILIZATION.

a, Study once more the form of the fully opened
flower; color, odor, nectar, plainly proclaim the flower
adapted to insect visitation. Let us note particularly
these general features : —

THE COMMON LOCUST. 165

1. The display of color emphasized here by the
shape and place of the banner; note the spot
in the middle. |

2. The odor, especially on sunny days, rich and far-
reaching, summoning, we may believe, from far
all winged creatures that have noses refined
and keen.

3. The nectar waiting inside the stamen-tube, at its
base, for the tongues of such creatures as can
find and reach it.

6. Hold now the flower in one hand, and with the
thumb and finger of the other push down gently the
wings, and see what happens. What would occur should
a bee impose his weight as you have applied the pres-
“sure of your fingers? The flower in respect to fertili-
zation possesses a certain mechanism; each part has its
appropriate office. The banner, by its size and position,
assumes the function of display; the wings afford a
landing-place; the keel encloses pistil and stamens in
most delicate adjustment. ven the style shows special
modification ; witness the bristly collar... What purpose
do the bristles serve ?

¢. Is self-fertilization possible in these flowers? Is
wind-fertilization possible ?
Il. Distripution.

The Common Locust has a wide distribution in the
Eastern United States, ranging from Pennsylvania to
Iowa, and southward. It is strictly an American tree,

1 Read Gray’s ‘‘ Structural Botany,” p- 225 e¢ seq.

166 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

although now planted commonly in the parks of the Old
World, and said to spring in some places spontaneously,
as if naturalized.

III. CLASSIFICATION.

Relatives of the Locust have already been named.
A very large series of plants, including the Lupines,
Brooms, Clovers, Wistarias, Peas, and Beans not only
all have papilionaceous flowers and leguminous fruits,
but, besides, have just that arrangement of petals which
we have seen in Robinia ; 1.e., the standard in the bud is
outermost. These make up the Pulse family proper,
the Papilionacee. Then, we have another somewhat
smaller group of plants, all of which have leguminous
fruit; but while some have papilionaceous flowers, others
have flowers which are almost, 1f not altogether, actino-
morphic. But even those in this case which have papil-
ionaceous flowers do not show the same estivation ; that
is, the petals in the bud are differently arranged, the
vexillum being included, tucked under the wings. Ex-
amples are seen in the beautiful Red-bud, Cercis cana-
densis, fortunately familiar in some parts of the country,
and showing its flowers all over the otherwise naked
branches, before the leaves; the Honey-locust, Gledit-
schia triacanthos, with beautifully pinnate leaves and
small greenish flowers; the Coffee-tree, Gymnocladus can-
adensis, a fine ornamental and forest tree with regular
flowers, and having about the same range as our Locust,
but far less known than it deserves to be. These three
trees are types of the family Cesalpinee.

Finally, there is a large series of plants, though

RYE. 167

poorly represented in the Eastern part of our: country,
which have as their type the real ‘“Sensitive-plant,”
Mimosa pudica. Such plants are not papilionaceous at
ali, but they have leguminous fruits and characteristic
compound foliage. This third set of plants make up
the family Mimoseew. All the families agree more or
less perfectly in fruit. Everywhere the type is a le-
oume. Hence the three families, with their hundreds of
species, are classed together in one of the most impor-
tant natural orders of the plant world, the ©

OrbER LEGUMINOSZ.

Let us recapitulate the characters of the order : —

compound,
1. Leaves ~ alternate,
ees abe

simple ;
cag jin fruit a legume.

3. Seeds, — exalbuminous.

Pees SON xX LIV.

Rye.— STEM AND LEAF.

SECALE CEREALE LINN.

Materials required: A few entire plants of Rye from
the field, the. roots carefully washed to show the root
system, the origin of the several stalks, etc.; numerous
single stalks, some ready to bloom, some in full flower,

168 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

some in later stages of development, if obtainable ; a dry
cornstalk.

I. GENERAL Description. Note: —

a. The several parts of the plant, — root, stem, leaves,
inflorescence. Distinguish from the roots the subterra-
nean part of the stem, observing the peculiar branching
by which each plant appears as a collection of stems con-
solidated at the base. Perhaps the original grain of rye
may still be found from which the entire cluster rises.
This pecular branching of grasses at or in the ground is
called tellering, or stooling. |

b. The roots ; their origin in successive sets, each set
a little higher up than the preceding, so that the young-
est are near the surface of the ground, or even above it!
Look at the hae aed and recall its “bracing roots ”
- (Lesson X.).

Note the structure of the root, a tough, fibrous, cen-
tral cylinder, the fibro-vascular part, and the softer,
thicker cortex, the latter thickly covered with root-hairs.
These can best be seen by laying the root in water over
some dark surface. They make the surface of the root
like velvet. They are, as before noted, the absorbent
organs of the plant, penetrating between smallest parti-
cles of earth, and are responsible for much of the difi-
culty experienced in washing the roots clean. The root-
hairs can even be seen in the dry ground when the plant
is first pulled up, extending like hundreds of fine cobweb
threads into the adhering earth. The importance of these
organs cannot be over-estimated; if they become dry the
plant dies. Why do transplanted trees so often fail to
crow ?

i RYE. 169

c. The stem. Notice the short white subterranean
part, the straight ascending stalks, each simple, erect,
terete (round), smooth, hollow, jointed. Such a stem is
called a culm. Is it hollow throughout? Smooth?

1. Observe the distinct nodes, long internodes, shorter
below. Make a vertical section through a node,
so as to include part of the internode above and
below, and draw, enlarged about three times, so
as to show the structure. In younger stems find
traces of pith. Compare the cornstalk.

2. With the lens notice the stripes on the surface of
the culm. Cut a smooth section just above one
of the lower nodes, and on the section find the
ends of the fibro-vascular bundles. The bun-
dles are closed, though here arranged in a ring
(Lesson VII.). We may consider the case
like that of the cornstalk with the central
bundles undeveloped. Is there any relation as
regards position between the bundles and the
surface stripes? Sketch a cross-section enlarged,
and mark the place of the bundles.

d. The foliage.

Note the leaves; their form, arrangement, : attach-
ment. Observe that the petiole takes the form of a
sheath, and contributes so far to make strong the stem
against the onset of the wind. (Compare Lesson V.)
The split in the sheath; does it extend all the way
down? At the point where the blade meets the stem,
find the ligule, a thin, papery structure, the upward ex-

Pa ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

tension of the sheath; observe its shape, margin ; prob-
ably takes the place of stipules.

Study the blade of the leaf; its edges, surface, vena-
tion. The veins are white; the green stripes are the
chlorophyl-bearing part, the mesophyl. Note the form
assumed by the leaf in drying.

LESS:0 SM *xXi ye

Rye. — Continued. — FLOWER AND FRUIT.

SECALEH CEREALE LINN.

Materials required: The same parts of the plant as
before; boxes of various grains, Rye, Wheat, Oats,
Corn, etc.; afew grains of each sort softened by soak-
ing a short time in water.

Il. Tue LNFLORESCENCE.
Examine the fresh spikes of Rye, and note: —

a. The general form of the entire inflorescence, flat-
tened-spicate; the axis, here called the rhachis, the
culm continued through the spike. Strip the rhachis
for a short distance below, and note its shape, “ zigzag,
jointed.” |

b. The primary divisions. Bend the spike against
its longer diameter; the whole inflorescence separates
into similar divisions, the spikelets. Isolate a single
spikelet, and observe its position; sessile at one of the
joints of the rhachis, alternate with others al pe
Compare the leaf arrangement.

RYE. 171

At the base of each spikelet find a pair of small,
slender bractlets, one on each side, to right and left,
the glumes. The spikelet is the unit of inflorescence
of the Rye; the wnit of inflorescence in all grasses, of
which the Rye is here taken as type. Whatever the
general form of the inflorescence, the glumes (generally
two, sometimes only one) limit for us the spikelet, and
determine its identity. Examine one of the glumes
carefully; note its parallel veins, their number; draw
enlarged. 7

ec. The flowers.

1. Between the glumes? find three flowers; two
large, conspicuous, the third a minute rudiment
between the other two, and likely to be over-
looked. Each flower consisting of stamens and
pistil is enclosed again by bracts, two of them ;
the outer, larger one here is called the “ flow-
ering glume ;” the inner, the palet.?

Study the flowering glume; note its sharply
serrulate, somewhat infolded margin. Is the
margin alike on both sides? Note the veins,
their number; the apex, continued into a long,
rough awn. Draw.

Compare in all particulars the palet. Note
especially its delicacy, its infolded margin.
Draw.

1 Sometimes designated ‘‘ empty glumes,’’ because there is noth-
ing in their axils.

2 Sometimes called ‘‘outer’’ and ‘‘inner”’ palets; i.e., glumes
enclose the spikelet, palets the flower: this is the usage of systematic
works.

bf2 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

ho

Study the stamens. Observe their number; the
thread-like filament; the large anther, its lobes
and dry, powdery pollen. Compare the stamen
in bud and bloom. In what does “ blooming ”
consist ? Sketch a stamen enlarged.

3. Study the pistil ; note its parts, — the sessile, silky
ovary, the branching style, and plumose stig-
mas, exquisitely delicate. Draw as they ap-
pear under the lens. |

4. At the base of the ovary notice the small white
papery scales, lodicules, organs which perhaps
stand for petals or sepals in this simple flower.

Il. Tur Frorr.

a. The dry grains. Compare Oats, Corn, Wheat, and
Rye. In what does the Oat differ from the rest ? Strip
off the chaff (flowering glume and palet), and then com-
pare. In the Rye-grain find the longitudinal groove, and
a scar or depression on the opposite side, at the base.
Find the same features in the other grains.

b. Take grains that have lain for some time in water ;
from the Rye-grain strip off the covering, the consoli-
dated wall of the ovary and seed-coats, and at the place
marked by the “scar” expose the new plantlet, the em-
bryo. It is small, but can be well seen, plumule up-
ward, radicle downward, toward the base of the grain.
The parts are larger in a grain of Corn, and we may ac-
cordingly transfer our investigations to that grain.

c. From the grain of Corn strip off the covering as
before; the embryo hes plain and white against the sur-

RYE. ea

rounding mass of the grain, the so-called albwmen.*
Draw the face of the grain enlarged about twice.

Lift out the embryo, and from the upper end, pro-
ceeding downwards, make a series of sections, and so
ascertain the place and form of the single cotyledon.
The embryo proper hes ensheathed in the largest, outer-
most leaf, the cotyledon.? This, in turn, les against the
albumen, is an absorptive organ, and never becomes func-
tional as a green leaf.

d. With the point of a penknife or scalpel dissect
away the cotyledon, and disclose the remaining parts of
the embryo.

e. With a sharp razor make a vertical section
through the embryo as it lies in the grain, and find : —

1. The plumule, made up of several leaflets, one
wrapped within the other.

2. The radicle, extending downwards, and forming
the end of the embryo opposite the plumule.
Clothing the tip of the radicle, the root-sheath
can be plainly seen. This is broken through
on germination. Underneath this, and capping
the tip only of the radicle, is the root-eap.
When the radicle grows, the root-cap protects
its advancing tip as it pushes through the
ground. The root erows at the tip, and the
root-cap is renewed from the inside, while its
outer layers wear away.

1 See Gray’s ‘‘ Structural Botany,”’ pp. 25, 26.
2 Called also the scutellum.

174 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

3. The caulicle. This is thesembryo-stem, and in-
cludes the short structure lying between plu-
mule and radicle. In favorable sections, from
the caulicle secondary roots can be seen emer-
ging as small, rounded swellings.

f. Draw a vertical section of the entire grain of Corn,
to show all the structures observed.

LESSON. XLV
The Ground Ivy and the Mints.

Materials required: Fresh specimens of Ground Ivy
(Nepeta glechoma Benth.) in flower and fruit. Similar
specimens of American Pennyroyal (Hedeoma), Skull-
cap (Scutellaria), Motherwort (Leonwrus), and any other
Mint obtainable.

A. THE GrRounp Ivy.

Study the Ground Ivy. Examine : —

Ey iam) Ae

What is its duration? Note its general appearance
and habit of growth. Also the odor of the herbage.

Examine the parts in detail : —

a. The root. Note the kind, form, color, etc., of
the roots. Notice the development of roots along the
stem. From what points do they arise ?

b. The stem. Note the texture, direction of growth,
length, structure, color, surface, and pa the
form of cross-section of the stem.

THE GROUND IVY AND THE MINTS. Lies:

ce. The leaves. Determine the kind of leaf. Note
also the venation, form (general outline, base, and
apex), margin, surface, texture, and the parts of the
leaf.

Examine the lower surface of the leaf with a lens,
and observe the scattered dots or glands. These se-
crete the volatile oil which gives the plant its charac-
teristic odor.

Are these glands found on the upper surface? On
the petioles and stem ?

Il. Tue INFLORESCENCE.

a. Study the arrangement of the flowers. What is
the order of inflorescence? Do the flowers form clus-
ters ? ‘Note the length of the pedicels.

b. The individual flower.
Is the flower complete ? Regular? Symmetrical ?
Examine the parts : —

1. The calyx. Note its form, color, and surface.
Also the number of vertical ribs or nerves.
Observe the number, form, surface, etc., of the
lobes. Are they equal ?

2. The corolla. Note the form, length (as com-
pared with calyx), color, and surface of the
corolla. Also the number, form, and size of
the lobes, and their arrangement. Compare
the length of the tube and lobes.

3d. The andrecium. Observe the number and inser-
tion of the stamens, and their length as com-
pared with the corolla.

176 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Are the stamens equal in length, and equally
inserted ? Notice that they are in pairs.
Compare these pairs as to length and position.

Describe a single stamen, noting the length,
surface, and color of the filament; the size,
color, number of cells, and dehiscence of the

anthers; the color and abundance of the pollen.

A. The gynecium.

1. Is the pistil simple or compound? Note the
division, number of cells, and number of
ovules in each cell of the ovary. Also its
position with reference to the calyx. Ob-
serve the size, form, number, surface, color,
ete., of the divisions of the pistil.

11. Study the fruit. How many distinct nutlets
are produced by each flower? Note the
form, size, color, and surface of the nutlets.

5. The torus. Note the presence of a fleshy disk.
Observe its color, size, form, ete.

III. Describe the whole plant, and make drawings
of characteristic parts.

LV. PoLuInATION.

a. Examine a fresh flower again. How is fertiliza-
tion accomplished ? Study in detail the adaptation of
form, color, odor, and surface of the flower, and the
relative position of the essential organs to cross-fertili-
zation. Note particularly the distribution and arrange-
ment of colors, and the zygomorphism of the flower.

Examine the base of the tube of the corolla. What
is the significance of the swollen portion ? |

ee Se ee ee

——

THE GROUND IVY AND THE MINTS. Il1TT

b. Observe the plant in the field. Do insects visit
it? If so, what kinds, and how do they enter ? ,

c. Make a drawing of the longitudinal section of the
flower, showing the position of the several parts, and
one of a front or face view of the flower.

Discuss all the adaptations to pollination in detail.

VY. Hapirat anv DIstTRIBUTION.

a. Note the kind of locality, or habitat, which this
species affects. Record also the date of flowering and
fruiting.

b. The species was introduced into this country from

Europe. It is now generally distributed throughout the
Eastern United States, extending westward to Nebraska.

B.. RELATED SPECIES.

I. Make a comparison of the species listed at the
head of this lesson, or others, noting particularly the fol-
lowing characters : —

a. The plant: its aromatic odor.

b. The stem: its texture, and form of cross-section.

c. The leaves: their position on the stem; the sur-
face, and parts. |

d. The calyx: its form and position, division, and
duration.

~e. The corolla: its form, division, and number and
arrangement of lobes.

f. The stamens: their number, position, and arrange-
ment.

178 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

g. The pistil: number of cells and division of the
ovary, and number of ovules in each cell; kind of fruit;
number and division of styles.

Il. CLASSIFICATION.

Observe that all the forms studied agree in the fol-
lowing characters : —

They are mostly aromatic herbs with four-angled —
stems ; opposite, glandular, ex-stipulate leaves; mono-
sepalous, tubular, inferior, persistent calyx; monopetal-
ous, labiate corolla, its upper lip two-lobed or entire, its
lower lip three-lobed ; didynamous or diandrous epipeta-
lous stamens ; a deeply four-lobed ovary, which in fruit
forms four distinct one-seeded nutlets; and a single
style, two-lobed at apex.

Plants possessing these characters form the

ORDER LABIATZ.

The Mint Order.

The plants of this order will be found to differ from
each other principally in the number and relative length
of the stamens; in the lobes of the corolla; and in the
number of lobes, length, form, and number of nerves of
the calyx.

Upon these characters especially 1s based the subdi-
vision of the order into tribes and genera. The Ground
Ivy belongs to the genus Nepeta, and its name is Nepeta
glechoma Bentham. Of the remaining species listed, the
Skulleaps belong to the genus Scutellaria ; the Ameri-
can Pennyroyal to the genus Hedeoma ; and the Mother-
wort to the genus Leonurus,

AE

- THE GROUND IVY AND THE MINTS. 179

Il]. DistrRispuTIoN AND EcoNomIc VALUE..

The Mint Family contains about two thousand five
hundred species, distributed principally in temperate and
warm regions. About two hundred species are natives
of North America.

A number of species yield valuable essential oils.
The best known are: Peppermint (Mentha piperita L.),

Lavender (Lavandula vera), and Pennyroyal (Hedeoma -

pulegioides Pers.).
Many other species are used as domestic remedies,
the most common being the following: Hyssop (Hysso-

pus officinalis L.), Balm (Melissa officonalis L.), Catnip

(Nepeta cataria L.), and others.

The American Pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides
Pers.) and White Hoarhound (Marrubium vulgare L.)
are still recognized as officinal.

Among common garden forms may be mentioned
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), Thyme (Thymus
vulgaris), Garden Sage (Salvia officinalis), Sweet Mar-
joram (Origanum marjorana), and Sweet Basil (Octmum
basilicum .). :

Several tropical species belonging to the genera Sal-
via, Coleus, and Perilla are cultivated for ornament,

180 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Lesson 2 iy ts
The Blue Grass.
POA PRATENSIS LINN.

Materials required: Plants of Blue Grass in full

bloom. If convenient, let the class study the plant in ~

the open field. The flowers are best expanded and in
best condition for study on sunny mornings. The parts
of the flower are very small, but in favorable light can
be easily seen under the Coddington.

I. Study all the characteristics of stems, leaves,
roots, as in the case of Rye, and record what you ob-
serve. Notice that the stooling is much more prolific in
the Blue Grass, and that the branches push often for
considerable distances below the surface of the ground,
and so form a sod. Very few grasses form such a com-
plete covering for the soil. Most grasses, especially in
the warmer parts of the world, grow in isolated tufts,
hike the Rye.

Il. Tue INFLORESCENCE.

a. Note the graceful form, an open panicle made up
of alternate clusters of branches. Observe the number
of branches at a node, and make a simple sketch to show
their arrangement.

b. The spikelet, sessile on the ultimate divisions of
the branches, each with its well-developed but unequal
glumes. How many flowers in a spikelet? the upper,
central, usually undeveloped.

:

ae

THE BLUE GRASS. 181

ce. With a needle push back the empty glume, and
study the flowering glume from without. In sunny
weather, nearly all details can be made out without dis-
section, the flowers being widely open. Notice the blue
color and its display. |

Break up the spikelet, and notice the mass of cob-
web-like hairs at the base of the flowering glumes.

d. Draw a spikelet enlarged, to show as many details
as possible.

Ill. FERTILIZATION.

How are the flowers fertilized ? and what are the

‘special provisions for the agency employed ?

IV. Economic VALUE.

What is the principal value of Blue Grass in this
country? Is its value great? In what other ways is
it valuable ?

VY. DISTRIBUTION.

A native of northern Europe, it is now found in
all the cooler parts of the United States and Canada.

At first imported and sown for pasturage, it is now

everywhere indigenous, rapidly displacing the original
vegetation, occupying meadows, woodlands, prairies,
roadsides, especially where the soil has been disturbed
by cultivation.

In a similar way study any of the following as they
come to bloom : —

Orchard Grass, Dactylis glomerata UL.
Wild Barley, Hordeum jubatum UL.
Oats, Avena sativa L.

182 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Timothy Grass, Phlewm pratense L.
Sand-bur, Cenchrus tribuloides I.

Later on the pupil should study for himself some
species of Panic Grass —as Panicum sanguinale L., and
especially Indian Corn, which is not only a beautiful
grass, but is wonderfully interesting, and worthy of
study In every way.

All grasses are members of a single natural order, —
the |

GRAMINEA.

Of this order the leading definitive characters may
be gathered from any of the types we have studied.
Thus :—

9 oe ( in structure, endogenous ;
(in form, culms.
in form, linear, - oie.
Leaves ~ with petioles sheathing;
hgule-bearing.

Lae simple; styles two;
ee \in fruit, a grain, caryopsis.
Of the importance of the order too much cannot be
said. Here belong the principal food-producing plants
of the world. Thus :—

Secale cereale L., Rye.
Triticum vulgare L., Wheat.
Avena sativa L., Oats.
Zea mays L., Oru
Oryza sata L., . Riee.

Hordewm vulgare U.., Barley.
Saccharum ofjicinarum L., Sugar-cane.

A LESSON ON FERNS. 1838

Sorghum vulgare gives us in one variety the Sorghum
or Sugar-cane of the Northern States, and in another,
Broom-corn.

Timothy, Orchard Grass, and Blue Grass furnish food

for our cattle. On the other hand, some of the grasses

are very troublesome weeds. Thus : —
Setaria glauca Beauv.
Setaria viridis Beauv.
are common Foxtails; some of the Panic Grasses, and in
sandy ground the Sand-burs, are no less troublesome.
But for a thorough investigation of grasses, as well

as of other flowering plants, and their identification, a

Manual is necessary. Several works of this kind are at
hand, and to these for his increase in knowledge. the
student is henceforth referred.

Reo SoON tx EV IT Ff:
A Lesson on Ferns.

OSUMUNDA CLAYTONIANA LINN.

Materials required: 1. Let the pupils, where prac-
ticable, visit the woods in May or early June, according
to the locality and the season, and find of as many Ferns
as possible the budding, unrolling fronds. The spe-
cies named will be most conspicuous, and probably most
common. A few tufts, rootstock and all, should be taken
to the classroom.

2. Herbarium specimens of O. claytoniana in fruit.

184 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Fresh specimens from the woods can be had a week or
two after the fronds appear.

I. THe VERNATION.

Study the rising but still rolled-up fronds of Os-
munda, and note : —

a. The brown tomentum, wool, with which the young

fronds are abundantly clothed. What function is sug- ©

gested ? (cf Lesson IX. V.). If the budding fronds
of other species are at hand, compare.

6. The habit of the fronds, their vernation, rolled or
circinate. Unroll one of the fronds. The process can
be continued but a little way because of the immaturity
of the parts rolled up. By watching, however, the pro-
cedure in the field, we shall discover that the same con-
dition of affairs is always present until the frond reaches
at last complete expansion; i.e., the frond unrolls as it
erows, grows in its outer, distal part long after the prox-
imal portion is mature. This is one of the peculiarities
of Ferns and their allies. Plants of this kind were for-
merly denominated Acrogens, tip-growers.1!

IJ. THe Fronp or Lear. Study first a sterile
frond.

a. Compare its form with that of some pinnate leaf,
as of Pedicularis. Note the several divisions. The
same terms are applicable in description as in describing
any leaf. However, the petiole is usually called the
stipe, and its continuation through the leaf the rhachis.
Note the directions assumed by the pinne in different
regions of the frond, their unequal size.

1 See Gray’s “Structural Botany,” p. 344.

i)”
~
a

A LESSON ON. FERNS. 185

b. The venation. With a lens study the venation in
one of the pinnules. Note its peculiar forked character.
Compare other pinnules. Is any other type of venation
to be found? Draw, twice natural size, a single pinnule,
to show the veining. How many veins on each side the
mid-vein? Is the number constant ?

Ill. THe Fruir. THe Fertite Fronp. Note: —

a. The absence of flowers. This Osmunda is called
the “Flowering Fern;” but the pupil will readily see
that of ordinary flowers there are none.

6b. The fruit. Observe that certain pinne are dif-
ferent from the others, and that these when shaken
release quantities of green powdery cells. Under the
microscope these are seen to be simply green chlorophyl-
bearing cells, like the cells of a leaf; but the cells are
all free, like the pollen-grains. These free cells are the
spores of the Fern. Each cell is capable of independent
growth. As it grows it produces, not the fern directly,
but a tiny, simple leaf-like structure, the prothallus, on
which appear special cells of two sorts; cells like the
odsphere in the Trillium flower (See Fig. 9, B, 3.),
and cells which are in function like the pollen-grains.
When the odsphere is fertilized, it grows to a fern, and
bears spores again. So we see that although the fern -
has no flowers, in our common sense of the word, it
has yet, in one of its phases, a fertilization.

c. Because the spores produce the fern indirectly,
that is, by the intervention of a prothallus to bear the
organs of fertilization, the fern is said to exhibit an
“alternation of generations,” or to present two phases :

186 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

the first generation or phase proceeding directly from
the spore, the prothallus, since it bears the odsphere is
called the odphytic phase; the second, resulting from the
fertilized odsphere, the spore-bearing frond, is the sporo-
phytic phase. Which phase have we in hand ?

d. The spore-cases, sporangia.

1. Study the fruiting pinne; what evidence have we .
that they are modifications of ordinary pinne
and their divisions ?

2. Examine with a lens a single sporangium. Notice
the stalk; the fissure opposite by which the
spores have, perchance, nearly all escaped; a
crown of small bright cells at the top of the
spore-case, the annulus, here not well developed.
The annulus is somewhat hygroscopic ; in dry-
ing, it induces such tension as causes the spor-
angium to split. |

3. Draw a single sporangium, enlarged sufficiently to
enable you to sketch conveniently all details —
that can be made out. |

LESSON) Ei. ;

Ferns. — Continued.

Materials required: 1. Herbarium specimens in suf-
ficient quantity, illustrating all the more easily managed
local species, as : —

A LESSON ON FERNS. 187

Adiantum pedatum Linn.
Asplenium filix-femina Bernh.
Pteris aquilina Linn.
Cystopteris bulbifera Bernh.
Aspidium acrostichoides Swz.*

2. Fresh or dry stems of Osmunda claytoniana L. ;
fresh or alcoholic specimens of the rootstocks of Pteris
aquilina L.?

I. Asplenium filix-femina Bernh.

a. Study the sterile frond of the fern, noting its
form, divisions; the venation, either simple or furcate,
as in Osmunda. Observe the veins that follow the sec-
ondary rhachis along each side. On the fertile frond —

f& a2he irait. On which side of the frond 1s it
Bome; 16. upper or lower? -Differs entirely from the
fruit of Osmunda. Distributed in minute clusters, the
fruit-dots, sora. Each fruit-dot is called a sorus. Study
the sorus with the lens; notice the delicate cover — the
indusium (pl. indusia): peering out from the indusium
edge are the brown sporangia. These are so small as to
require a microscope for satisfactory study. A few may
be mounted in water, and examined with a 3 objective.
Note the stalk; the annulus, here very important; the
spores.

ce. Note the position of the sorus, borne on the vein-

1 Tn the study of these species, refer to Gray’s Manual, or to Un-
derwood’s ‘‘ Our Native Ferns and Their Allies,’’ a most convenient
little book.

2 As heretofore, wherever practicable, pupils should be urged to
bring in the necessary material.

188 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

let oblique to the mid-vein of the pinnule, the indusium
opening outwardly. Draw a pinnule with fruit, en-
larged.

II. Compare fruiting fronds of other species, as Adi-
antum pedatum. Note: —

a. The venation in the pinnules; still a modification
of the furcate or dichotomous veining. Draw a pinnule
enlarged to show venation.

b. The fruit; note its position at the frond margin.
Examine with a lens, each sorus covered not by an indu-

slum in this case, but by the turned edge of the pinnule,

an involucre. If the fruit be sufficiently mature the in-
volucre may, by assistance of a needle, be turned back,
showing the sporangia attached to the involucre. Draw
a pinnule to show the fruit.

III. Compare in the same fashion fruiting fronds of
Pteris aquilina, or other species that may be at hand.
Use any convenient Manual, Gray or Underwood, to
determine the species of all Ferns compared.

TV. Stems or Ferns. Note :—

a. The stems of our native ferns are all subterranean ;
they are rootstocks, and differ greatly from each other.
Compare the rootstock of Osmunda with that of Pteris.
Wherein do they differ? In habit of growth? In con-
sequent structure? Notice that Ferns are perennial ;
that they make progress through the earth from year to
year.

b. Study the structure of the stem of Ptervis more
closely. Make a smooth section across it, and examine

A LESSON ON FERNS. ; 189

with your lens. Notice the hard, brown, outer layer,
the cortex ; the porous strands near the centre, the fibro-
vascular bundles; dissect out some of these. Notice the
bands of hard, strengthening tissue that run in the same
direction; the white parenchyma surrounding all. To
the last-named tissue apply the iodine test. What does
it show ?

c. Compare the fern-stem section with the cornstalk
section, the section of the Maple twig. Which does the
fern-section more nearly resemble ? Of the fern-section,
sketch a diagram about three times natural size. Make
end sections of the stipes of the various fern-fronds, and
compare.

V. FERN-—ALLIES.

a. Compare Ferns and flowering-plants. State all
the particulars in which you find them to agree. In
what particulars do they ditfer ?

b. Closely related to the Ferns, and sometimes called
Fern-allies, are the Scouring-rushes and Club-mosses.
These, too, have fibro-vascular bundles like those of the
- flowering-plants ; but, like the Ferns, they are reproduced
in a roundabout way by spores. The spores in Scour-
ing-rushes and Club-mosses are produced in spikes at
the tops of aerial stems or branches, not on the backs
of the leaves, as in true Ferns.

c. Compare herbarium specimens of Club-mosses and
Scouring-rushes.

190 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

LESSONS:

A Lesson on Mosses.

ATRICHUM UNDULATUM BEAUYV.

Materials required: A basketful of the moss fresh
from the field. If not in fruit, herbarium material must
be on hand sufficient to illustrate the spore-production.'
During examination of specimens every precaution
should be taken to keep the material fresh.

1. Pe eae
Note the cespitose tufted habit; isolate a single
plant, and observe : — |

a. The leafy, erect, unbranching stem, probably sup-
porting at the summit the long-stalked fruit. Are the
plants connected below ?

b. The leaves, abundant, decurrent, differing in form
and color on different parts of the stem. Under the lens
the lowest leaves are found short, scale-like; those at
the base of the fruit-stalk long and slender. Notice the
arrangement on the stem.

c. Roots? Root-hairs or rhizoids ? Wash the lower
end of the stem in clear water, and examine with the
lens. True roots are lacking; but rhizoids are abundant,
forming a brown felt around the lower part of the stem.

1 This species is common everywhere, on shady clay-banks with
a north exposure, in the woods, in damp ravines. It can always be
found fruiting in the fall, sometimes as early as June.

A LESSON ON MOSSES. 191

Il. Tue Lear. ,

Examine a perfectly fresh plant, using the Codding-
ton in good light, and note all discoverable particulars
concerning the leaf: —

a. The general form, color, attachment to the stem.

6. The margin, denticulate, furnished with minute
teeth, especially towards the tip; find rows of similar
teeth across the back of the leaf. Observe, also, that the
margin is wavy. Do the undulations of the leaf and
the lines of dorsal teeth correspond ?

c. The apex; terminates in one or more sharp points.

d. The “mid-rib.” Under the lens it may be seen
that the apparent mid-rib is due to the presence, on the
upper surface of the leaf, of several narrow, ribbon-like
vertical green plates, lamelle. Such lamelle are rare,
though on some moss-leaves even more abundant than
here. Draw a diagram illustrating the relation of these
lamellz tothe leaf. The lamelle serve at once the place
of a mid-rib, to stiffen the lttle leaves, and to increase
their area.

Tan PRovit.

Select fruit-bearing stems, and note the long-stalked
capsules which they carry. How many capsules on one
stem ?

a. If fruiting plants be heated for a minute or two in
a solution of potash, and then washed in water, the fruit-
stalk, the seta, may be easily pulled out of the tip of the
leafy stem, and will show a sharp-pointed base where it
was attached.

192 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

b. Notice now the little pod, or capsule, carried by the
stalk; its form, symmetry, color, surface. At its sum-
mit perching —

ce. The calyptra; a delicate-pointed hood, split down
one side. With forceps lift off the calyptra, and find : —

d. The operculum, or lid of the capsule. Notice the
long, curving, slightly eccentric beak, the rostruma Draw
the operculum enlarged.

e. In a mature specimen the operculum may be easi-
ly hfted from its place, opening the capsule, and expos-
ing —

mouth of the capsule. Notice their form, color, number.
The teeth of the peristome in Mosses is always some
multiple of four, as 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. If the teeth stand
up clearly, draw three or four together, to show their
form.

g. Holding the capsule between thumb and finger,
with a sharp razor split it through the middle, opercu-
lum and all, and study with a Coddington the smooth
section so formed. Find the columella, a slender axis
passing up the centre; the dark-green powdery spores in
mass around the columella, between it and the wall of
the capsule. These spores reproduce the Moss; hence it
is we call the capsule fruit. Draw the section as it ap-
pears under the lens.

IV. REPRODUCTION OF MOSSES.

a. The spore of the Moss on germination produces
first a long green filament, which branches freely, and
ultimately gives rise to tiny buds, which slowly unfold,

f. The peristome, a row of delicate teeth around the

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~~’

er A LESSON ON MOSSES. 193

and take the form of the leafy plant. On these leafy
stems, at their summits in the Moss before us, on the
sides in many species, appear organs of fertilization.
The examination of these transcends our present pur-
pose; but they consist of structures bearing, respec-
tively, odspheres and fertilizing-cells as before. The
fertilized odsphere gives rise to the stalked capsule we
have seen; and as it grows, its seta becomes attached to
the top (or side) of the leafy stem (inserted), whence, as
we have seen, it may easily be pulled out.’

6. The Moss thus, like the Fern, exhibits in its life-
history two distinct phases. It returns twice to the con-
dition of a single cell. The spore starts the leafy phase,
and the odsphere starts the capsule, which bears the
spore again. As in the Fern, these phases are denomi-
nated odphytic and sporophytic, respectively, according
to the nature of the spore-cell which each produces.

e. Draw a sketch of a Moss-plant entire in fruit; by
means of a horizontal line across the drawing indicate
the point where ends the odphytic and begins the sporo-
phytic phase.

1 For more complete description, consult the larger text-books,
Bessey’s “‘ Botany,’’ Goebel’s “‘ Outlines of Classification,”’ etc.

194 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

bE Ss S06 Wik
Some Relatives of the Mosses.
THE LIVERWORTS.1

Materials required: Fresh or alcoholic materials of
any of the larger Liverworts, especially species of Mar-
chantia, Conocephalus, Lunularia. Fresh materials are
always to be preferred, but alcoholic will do.

I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION.
Examine specimens of Marchantia, and note : —

a. The flattened, leaf-like stem; its apparent mid-rib,
dichotomous branching. If the material is fresh observe
the color, above, below. On the lower, ventral, surface
find the rhizoids by which the thalloid stem is attached
to the substratum ; these float out beautifully in water.
On the upper, dorsal, surface find a number of intersect-
ing grooves, marking off the areolation ; in Conocephalus
the areolation is manifest to the naked eye. In the cen-
tre of each areole, find a minute opening, the stoma.

1 The Liverworts called for here are flat, ribbon-like, green little
plants found commonly creeping over moist, cool rocks or soil in shady
places. Conocephalus conicus is the largest species, and is common
in wooded districts. It bears fruit in March or April. Marchantia
polymorpha is found in similar places, but is common in greenhouses
also, and may be found fruiting from June to August. Lunularia
cruciata occurs in this country in greenhouses only, where it may be
recognized by its pale-green color and crescent-shaped cupules. For
description of species, see Gray’s Manual ; for more thorough study
cf. ‘‘ Plant Dissection,’’ Arthur Barnes and Coulter, p. 58.

rn
— a ee ee. ee ee ee ‘ £4

SOME RELATIVES OF THE MOSSES. 195

These stomata are unusually large and well formed.
They can easily be seen on Marchantia, but on Cono-
cephalus better, are even visible to the unaided eye.
What, then, is the function of this flat stem of the Liv-
erwort ? Where do we find stomata in higher plants ?
(See Lesson XI. IV.)

6. Examine with the lens the lower surface of the
stem. Find along the middle, like slender brown la-
mellz, the /eaves divergent toward the anterior end of
the stem. Their presence lends the frond its only
“ mid-rib.”

ce. Draw the stem in outline, as seen from above.
Draw asmall part enlarged, as it appears under the lens,
to show the areolation and stomata.

Il. THe REPRODUCTION OF LIVERWORTS.

A. By Buds or Gemme.

a. On specimens of Lunularia and Marchantia tind
on the dorsal surface of the stems conspicuous shallow
cups, in which lie loosely small green bodies visible to
the naked eye. The cups are called cupules; their con-
tents, gmme. In Lunularia the cup is developed on
one side only, is crescentiform. (Cf the name Lunu-
laria.) In Marchantia the cupules are beautifully sym-
metrical, with ornamental border. Examine with a lens,
and draw. :

6. The gemme are simply buds. A drop of water
suffices to float them from the cupules. Once they find
lodgement on suitable soil, each one is capable of devel-
opment to form again a creeping frond or stem,

196 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

B. By Spores.

On some of the Marchantia material find erect
branches very different from the flat, prostrate forms : —

a. The antheridial branch, short, bearing aloft a
crenulate, discoid top. ‘The stalk is called the pedicel ;
the disk, receptacle, contains minute sacs, in which are
developed the fertilizing-cells. Make a vertical section
through the receptacle and stalk in a plane correspond- —
ing to the direction of the supporting flat stem. In the
section, by aid of the Coddington, you may easily see
the little sacs in which are formed the fertilizing-cells.
The latter are demonstrated under a good compound -°
microscope only. Draw the section.

b. The fertile branch, long-stalked, bearing a star-
shaped or radiate top. Count the rays. Notice that
two are paired, with a deeper notch between: these are
the posterior rays; a single ray extends in front, the
anterior. Under the rays find the sporangia in various
stages of development. In fresh mature specimens
some will surely be found discharging their contents, a
fluffy, yellow mass consisting of spores and elaters. The
elaters are delicate, thread-like organs which aid in
spore dispersal. They do not occur in Mosses. For
their investigation recourse must be had to a micro-
scope. The sporangium here, as in the Moss, results
from the development of a fertilized odsphere. A verti-
cal section through the fertile head will suffice to show
sporangia of all ages, surrounded by perichetial leaves. —
Draw the section.

c, In the Liverwort, then, the fertilizing-cells are

eS | ee

THE FUNGI. 197

produced on one specialized branch of the creeping stem,
the odsphere, followed by the sporangium, on another.
The spore gives rise to the thalloid plant, with its
branches, the odsphere to the sporangium, with its:
spores; so that the succession of phases is the same as
before.

Poe orn EF &
The Fungi.

BLACK MOULD,— MUCOR MUCEDO LINN.

Materials required : 1. Mouldy fruit of various kinds,
Blackberries, Raspberries. California Grapes when “too
old” are apt to show beautiful specimens of Black Mould.
Decaying Sweet-potatoes always show it.

2. Cultures of Black Mould under bell-jars.?
I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

a. The hyphe. Study sowings of Black Mould that
have been made on moist bread, and have been standing
in a warm, moist place for a day or two. The bread
will probably be found covered with an abundant white
fluffy growth, resembling so much wool or cotton. The
fine white filaments of which the growth consists can be
distinguished by the naked eye; can be much better
seen under the Coddington. These delicate filaments
constitute the essential elements in the make-up of
every fungus; they are called hyphae. A single thread

1 See Appendix B.

198 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

is called a hypha. Under the lenses of a microscope
these filaments are seen to be very long, straight tubes,
very rarely septate; 1.e., made up of cells very much
longer in one direction than others. If a microscope be
at hand, mount some in water, and examine them.

Note that in the specimens before us the filaments
are all free; in many fungi they are variously united to
form solid structures. This will appear presently.

6. The fruit. How is the mould reproduced?
There are no flowers. Examine some of the older
cultures. Find hyphal branches that bear minute black
spheres like tiny pin-heads. Now you may trace the
spheres through various tints, from white to black.
These tiny heads are sporangia ; 1.e., spore-cases, each
a transparent sac packed full of black spores. The
spores are simply free cells, lke pollen-grains, only
much smaller, and having, of course, a different fune-
tion. If practicable, examine the spores in water, under
a lens of pretty high magnifying power. Pass a piece
of paper over the black sporangia; a black stain re-
sults. The stain consists of spores.

Il. Tue Repepropuction oF Briack MouL.Lp.

a. Take a piece of moist bread again, and with a
clean needle touch the ripe sporangia, and then apply
the point of the needle to the bread. Repeat the exper-
iment several times, so as to make sure that some of the
spores have been carried over to the bread; place under
a bell-jar, and keep in a warm place. In a few days
may be expected a crop of mould just as before. That
is, the spores have reproduced the mould. In-nature

THE FUNGI. 199

the spores are drifted about by the wind. Each spore,
when it lights upon something that will nourish it, —
always some organic matter, — grows, produces a hypha
that feeds upon the nourishing basis, branches, and
flourishes vigorously, and produces at length the tufted
mass that we have seen. What, then, is a spore?

6. Study again under the lens the sporangia in their
various phases, from simple aerial branches, through
branches whose tips are clavate, on to the small trans-
parent spheres, then to those that are larger, becoming
more and more opaque until maturity is reached. The
sporangium, sac, is simply the terminal cell of an aerial
branch, in which the abundant spores are formed as free
cells in much the same way as pollen forms in the
anther sac. |

Tif. Record all the observations made, and draw en-
larged the various phases of the fruit.

IV. The Black Mould possesses, as we have said, the
characteristics of a true Fungus; it is made up of sim-
ple hyphe, and is dependent upon organic matter for its
food-supply. Im these respects the Black Mould is a
typical Fungus.

Why is it that such plants are thus dependent ?
What do they lack which would make them indepen-
dent? In this particular how do plants compare with
animals? Notice that the fruit, potato, bread, is con-
sumed by the mould. This is not so apparent by dimi-
nution in bulk as by chemical change revealed to us
through our sense of taste. The fruit yields up certain
compounds whose elements nourish the mould. In

200 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

canned fruit, for instance, if the process continue a long
time there is left little but dirty water.

Loo O Ne Pi:

The Fungi. — Continued.

THE AGARICS, TOADSTOOLS, AND MUSHROOMS.

Materials required: A. basket of fresh Agaries from
the field. Specimens may usually be found in abun-
dance after the rains of spring, near decaying stumps
and logs, in the woods, about manure-heaps, etc. In
the cities the edible mushroom may be obtained fresh
from gardeners. Many fungi are hard, durable struc-
tures, persisting through the year. Of such, gathered
from logs or stumps, a basketful may be brought in for
comparisons.

I]. THe AGARIe.

a. The spores. Supposing plants of the mushroom
type to be in hand, cut off the expanded part of one, and
place it right side up on a sheet of white paper, where
for an hour or two it may remain undisturbed. On the
paper presently will be found the spores; notice their
color and arrangement or dispersal. Under the micro-
scope these spores may be shown to be simple cells, just
as in the Black Mould.

b. Lhe: strictures, Nees
The parts of an Agaric, the stipe, or stem, supporting
an umbrella-shaped top, the cap, or pilews. The stipe

e

— _ rp

THE FUNGI. 201

may be solid or hollow, or furnished with a pith; stuffed ;
it may be fibrous or cartilaginous. The pileus bears on
the under surface the gills, or /amelle ; the surface of
the lamelle is called the hymeniwm. It is on the hyme-
nium that the spores are produced ; and from this, as free
cells, they fall. The pileus may be at first pressed close
down against the stipe, hike a closed umbrella, or may
have its margin inrolled against the stipe. In either
case the margin is often attached to the stipe by some-
thing like a web, a portion of which may adhere to the
stipe, and leave, when the pileus expands, a ring around

it, —the annulus.

ce. Description.

Write a description of the specimen in hand, describ-
ing the several parts, their form, surface color. Mention
the color of the spores, and give the size of the speci-
men; height and width when fully expanded.

d. Make of a good specimen a median, vertical sec-
tion, and draw natural size in outline, to show all details
of form and color observable.

Il. Spectat AGARICcS.

The Agarics flourish from May to November. Some
species occur in spring only; some are very abundant
only in the fall. The species are difficult of identifica-

tion, and require special literature. Two species may

suffice here as examples.

1. Agaricus sublateritius Scheeffer.

Pileus yellow, the disk reddish-brown, fleshy, convex,
then expanded, at first silky, then glabrous; lamelle
not broad, adnate, yellowish, olive-green, then purple or

202 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

purplish brown; stipe equal, sometimes silky or fibril-
lose, and brown at the base, hollow or stuffed. Height
two to six inches. Pileus two to five inches. Spores
purplish. Inedible.

This is one of our common species. It is more abun-
dant in fall, but may be found growing in crowded tufts
around old stumps every month in the year. It is a

very suitable species for study, although the annulus is

slight, and the veil reduced to a few cobwebby threads
hanging to the edge of the pileus.

2. Agaricus campestris Linn. |

Pileus white or dusky, fleshy, plano-convex, floccose-
silky or scurfy, the margin surpassing the lamelle ;
lamelle free, rounded, at first pink (very delicate), then
brown, at length almost black, watery; stipe stuffed,
smooth and white; annulus not large, about midway on
the stem. Height two to four inches; pileus the same.
Spores purplish black. Hdible.

This is the edible mushroom, the mushroom. It is
found not uncommon from June to November in rich
gardens, about manure-heaps, etc.; in hot-houses at all
seasons of the year. It may be recognized by the color
of the gills; at first, as the pileus expands, pink; then,
as the veil breaks and disappears, becoming brown ; at
last almost black.

This is also a very fine species for study, but is not
so common as many other species.

II. Oruer Common Funct.

a. Pupils are apt to bring in many of the more per-
sistent Fungi. Of these perhaps the most common will

eo:
ss ~

i i ih ea any ae een ee

THE FUNGL. 203

be species of the genus Polyporus, Polypores,. Bracket-
fungi, a genus distinguished in that the lower (fruiting)
surface is made up of pores instead of plates. In these
pores the spores are developed, and from them fall.
Make vertical sections, study, draw, and describe as
before. Some of these plants have hard tissues, but
nothing like fibro-vascular tissues.

b. Coprinit. All agaricine plants are very putresci-
ble; some are specially transient. These spring up in a
night, and perish by mid-day. They have black spores,
and distinguish themselves by dissolving sooner or later
into an inky fluid. Such belong to the genus Coprinus.
The larger forms are edible when fresh.

IV. Parasitic Funel.

We have seen that it is characteristic of Fungi to
live upon organic matter. Those we have been studying
are no exception. Upon what do the Agarics live ? the
Polypores? Can you judge by the localities in which
they are found? All such Fungi hving upon dead
organic matter are called saprophytes.

But all Fungi are not so considerate. There are
many that prey upon living organisms. Such are called
parasites. All rusts and blights belong here. Thus the
“Cedar Apples” are the fruit of a fungus parasitic on
the Cedar. Grain-rust makes havoc in our fields of
wheat and oats, as every farmer knows; while Lilac-
blight whitens the leaves of every lilac-bush in all
the country.

VY. In all these cases, whether the fungus be para-
sitic or saprophytic, it is distinguished, just as the Black

204 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

Mould, by simplicity of structure, no seeds, no leafy
stems, no vascular tissue, and by lack of chlorophyl and
the consequent absolute dependence in the matter of
food-supply. The conspicuous structures we have been
studying are in reality the fructifications only of the
several types. For Agarics, and such forms generally,
the efficient, absorbing, or nutritive part lies unobserved,
consists of myriads of hyphz permeating in every direc-
tion the substratum, above which the fructification rises.
By examining you may find some of these hyphe in the
locality whence your specimens come. If you have cul-
tivated Agarics, ask the gardener what he means by
“ spawn.”

LESSON. Giw.
An Outline of the Vegetable Kingdom.

Materials required: Flowering plants in variety,
Ferns, Mosses, Fungi; a vessel containing in water
forms of fresh-water Alge, Brook-silk, Ditch-moss,
Water-net, any species that may be obtainable.’

lL. THe Ateca: THe THALLOPHYTES.

These are not studied to advantage without the mi-
croscope and suitable equipment, but with our lenses we
may nevertheless form some conception of their nature.

1 Where marine Algz are obtainable they may be used in this
lesson instead of forms called for.

:

OUTLINE OF VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 205

a. Observe the plants as they float in the water.
Note their soft, flocculent structure ; their bright color.

b. Float a little of the material out on pieces of stiff
white paper, and examine with the Coddington. In the
simpler forms the individual threads can be easily dis-
tinguished ; in others, the filaments are seen to branch
in various ways; but in all we are impressed with the

extreme simplicity displayed in form and make-up.

Under the microscope the filaments resolve themselves
into rows of long, green cells. Mount in water, and
examine with a low power.

ce. Compare the structure of these plants with that
of the Black Mould. Fruit aside, how do Alge, as we
see them, and Moulds agree? In what are they strik-
ingly different? Remember that difference in color has
respect to difference in habit —a difference which agree-

_ ment of structure far outweighs.

The marine Algz, as far as organization goes, differ
from these simple fresh-water forms much as the larger
Fungi differ from the Mould; it is chiefly a matter of
form and size, not of structure.

d. We have before us, then, representatives of two
great groups of plants, which, with much diversity in
habit, color, and external particulars, agree substantially
in their simplicity of structure. They have no real
leaves or stems, no fibro-vascular tissues: they are sim-
ply masses of associated similar cells; and although
presenting great variety in their methods of spore-pro-
duction, these plants are yet all of them reproduced by
simple spores. /uwngi and Alge, in the widest sense of

206 ELEMENTARY BOTANY.

those terms, make up of the Vegetable Kingdom its first
ereat sub-division, the :—

SUB-KINGDOM THALLOPHYTA.

Il. THe BrRyvoruHytTes.

If, now, with these simple Thallophytes we compare
Mosses and Liverworts, the advance in structure offered —
by the latter plants is very marked. Mosses are repro-
duced still by spores, it is true; but they never fail to
show the sequence of phases which has been described,
while leaf and stem attain in many of them perfect dis-
tinctness, and the stem in particular cases approaches
the structure of the vascular stems of higher plants.

Spore-bearing plants which thus differentiate stem
and leaf, and show an alternation of generations, make
up the —

SUB-KINGDOM BRYOPHYTA.

Ill. PrerRIDOPHYTES.

When, now, Ferns and their allies, the Scouring-
rushes and Club-mosses, are compared with all the
plants so far considered, their special characteristics
come out prominently. In what particulars do Ferns
agree with Liverworts and Mosses? Wherein lies the
creat structural difference? Notice that the particulars
in which the Fern differs from the Bryophyte are those
in which the Fern most resembles the flowering plants.

Accordingly, we say that all plants reproduced by
spores, showing alternation of generations, and possess-

——

OUTLINE OF VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 207

ing, furthermore, fibro-vascular tissues, go together to
make the third great section of the Vegetable Kingdom,
the —

SuB-KINGDOM PTERIDOPHYTA.

IV. SPERMAPHYTES OR PHAREROGAMS.

In comparison with all the plants in this lesson con-
sidered, the “flowering plants ” seem distinct enough ;
‘these plants alone produce seeds. This distinction is
really somewhat superficial,’ but it is patent, and is asso-
ciated with many characteristic structural details ; as, for
instance, in the matters of venation and vernation, the
type of the fibro-vascular bundle, etc. But into the
merits of the discussion we cannot now enter. We con-
tent ourselves with the statement that all seed-bearing
plants unite to form the fourth and last grand division
of the plant world, the —

SUB-KINGDOM SPERMAPHYTA.

VY. Prepare an outline of the Vegetable Kingdom,
writing in tabular form the names of the several princi-
pal sub-divisions, and placing opposite each the name of
some familiar plant which may be regarded as an illus-
trative type.

1 See Geebel’s ‘‘Outlines of Classification,’’ pp. 209-309; and
Vines’s ‘“‘ Text-book of Botany,’’ p. 431.

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APPENDIX A.

Directions for Collecting and Preserving Materials.

INASMUCH as it 1s necessary to collect and prepare
In advance a large part of the materials called for in
these lessons, the following brief directions are pre-
sented, in the hope that they may be of assistance to
_ the teacher.

The materials required ma be grouped into four
classes : —

I. Alcoholic materials.

ff... Dry es prepared without the application
of pressure.

Ill. Herbarium specimens dried under pressure.

LY. Fresh materials.

The months during which the materials may be col-
lected to the best advantage are in all cases indicated.

The lists hereinafter given will, of course, be en-
larged upon by the live teacher.

J. Atconotic MATERIALS.

The materials which are to be preserved in alcohol
should be collected, and, while fresh, dropped into 75
per cent alcohol.

All underground parts should be thoroughly washed
in water, and all large specimens cut into pieces of suit-
able size for study, before being placed in alcohol.

209

210 APPENDIX A.

The jars or bottles in which these specimens are
preserved must be tightly corked when not in use in
the class.

Alecohohe material will be found less brittle and
easier to handle in the class if placed in water for an
hour or more before being used.

In all cases where the pupil is to make a detailed
study of any species or part a sufficient number of
specimens should be collected to supply each member
of the class with at least one.

These materials may be grouped as follows : —

a. Stems.

Pieces of Cornstalk and Pumpkin-vine, — July, August.
Twigs of Maple, any species, — May.
Stems of Poison-ivy, with roots, — All the year.

b. Rootstocks:

Solomon’s-seal, Polygonatum — sp.

Trillium, any species.

Iris, any species.

May Apple, or Mandrake, Podophyllum peltatum L.
Bracken Fern, Pteris aquilina L.

These rootstocks may be collected from May until
September.

c, Leaf-buds.

The unfolding leaf-buds of the following species
should be collected in April and May : —

Apple or Crab, any species.

Common Violet, Viola palmata, var. cucullata Gray.
Currant, Ribes rubrum L.

Fern, any species.

Ground Ivy, Nepeta glechoma Benth.

Oak, any species.

Yellowdock, Rumez, any large species.

™ >
7, 7

APPENDIY A. 211

d. Flowers.

Flowers of Trillium if desired for very early study.
These should be collected in April of the preceding
year.

Double flowers of the Windflower, Anemonella thalic-
troides Spach; Strawberry; and any other species not
ordinarily producing double flowers.

Flowers developing within or from other flowers, if
obtainable. The Roses and Jessamine occasionally
produce such fiowers. )

e. Fruits.

Blackberry, any species.
Gooseberry, any species.
Strawberry, any species.
Mulberry, any species.

The mature fruits should be collected in June and
July.
Cherry, any cultivated species. Young specimens in

which the stone is not yet formed, and specimens
nearly mature, should be collected.

f. LInverworts.

Marchantia polymorpha L. Branches bearing fertile
and sterile receptacles should be collected in May
and June. The species occurs on damp, shaded
banks, in greenhouses, etc.

- Conocephalus conicus Dumort. Branches bearing the
short, cone-shaped receptacles should be collected in
October or November, and those with the fruiting
receptacles on elongated pedicels in April or early
May. Branches with sterile receptacles may be col-
lected in May or early June. ‘The species grows com-
monly on moist, shaded banks and bases of bluffs.

Li. Dry MATERIALS PREPARED WITHOUT PREs-
SURE.

Dry all materials of this kind rapidly, to prevent

vil bp APPENDIX A.

moulding, and store the more perishable kinds in boxes,
to prevent breakage. Place moth-balls (naphthalin) with
the specimens, to prevent attacks of insects.

The materials in this section may be grouped as
follows : —

a. Stems.

Of these one specimen of each will answer for the
entire class.

1. Specimens of the following stems need not exceed
a foot in length.

Corn, stem.

Corn, the base of stalk, showing roots.

Grape, attached to its support by tendrils.
Virginia Creeper, attached to its support by disks.
Stems attacked by Dodder.

Morning-glory twining around a string or stick.
Elder, Sambucus canadensis L.

2. Longer specimens of the following are desir-
able:

Pumpkin-vine.
Strawberry runner.

All the preceding specimens may be collected during

the summer.
3. Wood-sections of the following species are desir-

ables

Box Elder.

Oak, any species.

Pine, any species.

Cherry, any species.

Locust, Robinia pseudacacia L. |

Palm, any species, to be obtained by exchange or
purchase.

All trees studied in the lessons as types of orders.

APPENDIX A. 213

These may be collected at any season of the year,
but preferably in the fall or winter, and should be pre-
pared as follows : —

Collect stems not less than six inches in diameter,
and, after seasoning, cut them into uniform pieces six or
eight inches long, and then cut each piece longitudi-
nally through the centre, being careful not to injure the
bark. Plane or polish the cut ends and faces.

6. Fruits.

Collect the mature fruits of the species in the fol-
lowing list in sufficient quantity to supply each mem-
ber of the class with at least one specimen of each kind.
The fruits are here grouped according to the months
during which they should be collected.

?

1. June or early July : —

Spanish-needles,

Hazel,

Maple, Acer, any species.
Marsh-marigold, Caltha palustris L.
Pea, any cultivated form.
Poppy, any cultivated form.
Lilac, any cultivated form.

2. September and early October : —
Burdock, Arctium lappa L.
Butternut, Juglans cinerea L.
Corn, Zea mays L.
Goosefoot, Chenopodium album L.
Jimson-weed, Datura, either species.
Milkweed, Asclepias, any species.
Tick-trefoil, Desmodium, any species.
Sunflower, cuitivated or native forms.
Rose, cultivated or native forms.
Balloon-vine, Cardiospermum haliacabum L.
Thistle, Cnicus, any species.

Bidens, any species.
Corylus, either species.

214 APPENDIX A.

Tobacco, any cultivated form.
Pine, Pinus, any species. (This may also
be collected later in the year. )
3... Allsummerss—
Purslane, Portulaca oleracea L.
Black mustard, Brassica nigra Koch. |
Shepherd’s-purse, Capsella bursa-pastoris Mcench.

c. Seeds. |
Seeds of the bean, pea, and catalpa should also be
on hand. The last may be collected in September.

d. Mosses.

When it is desired to preserve specimens of mosses
for study they may be dried in mass by exposure to the
warm air of a room. When they are to be used they
may be revived by being placed in a moist chamber under
a bell-glass or other suitable dish or vessel, or simply by
being watered and covered with a wet cloth.

Mosses in fruit may be collected in May and June,
and also in September and October.

Ill. Hersparium SPECIMENS DrRiED UNDER PRES—
SURE.

For preparing herbarium specimens, use driers made
of ordinary carpet paper, cut into sheets twelve by
eighteen inches. Any other soft, porous paper will
answer.

Alternate one, two, or three driers with folders,
folded sheets of printers’ or other light paper (old
newspapers will answer), in which the plants to be
dried are placed.

Subject the whole to a pressure of fifty to one hun-
dred pounds, which may be conveniently applied by
placing on the package a board of the same size as

APPENDIX A. Pats

the driers, on which blocks of wood or stone,.or other
convenient weights, may be placed.

Replace the driers by other dry ones daily during
the first four or five days, and after that for a week
or two at longer intervals, until the specimens are thor-
oughly dried. After each change, spread the driers out
to dry.

Examine the specimens at the first change of driers,
and straighten out all folded parts, and thereafter sim-
ply shift the folders containing the specimens from one
set of driers to another.

Two sets of herbarium specimens should be _ pre-
pared, one containing the materials required for the
preliminary or general lessons, the other a complete
set of local plants, including cultivated ones, for com-
parison and reference in the subsequent lessons.

a. Materials for General Lessons.

Prepare the specimens to be used for this purpose
by the above described method, and fasten them securely
by narrow gummed strips to sheets of cardboard or
other stiff paper, each sheet containing specimens illus-
trating the variation in one character; as, for example,
one sheet of leaves illustrating different kinds of ve-
nation, another illustrating different kinds of forms,
another showing margins, ete.

The specimens may then be marked either with the
name of the species or by numbers referring to a list.

Prepare a full set of sheets of this kind for every
two pupils in the class, as more than two cannot con-
veniently work with one sheet. |

When not in use these sheets may be kept in boxes
or packages, with a liberal supply of naphthalin.

216 APPENDIY A.

These specimens may also be left unmounted, and
kept in packets; but they are then more likely to be —

broken.

The materials in this section may be conveniently

grouped as follows : —

1. Stems or Branches with Leaves.
These may be collected in May and June : —

Larch,
Gooseberry,

Painted-cup,
Barberry,

Locust,
Shepherd’s-purse,
Pepperegrass, |
Smilax,

Goose-grass,
Carpetweed,

2. Leaves:

Larix, either species.

any species. Both branches with
tufted leaves and those with spines
should be collected.

Castilleia coccinea Spreng.

Berberis vulgaris IL. Young
branches.

Robinia pseudacacia L. Young
branches with spines.

Capsella bursa-pastoris Moench. The
whole plant.
Lepidium virginicum L. Entire
young plants, before flowering.
Myrsiphylluin—sp. (These can be
obtained at any time in any hot-
house. )

Galium, any species.

Mollugo verticillata L.

Do not break off the petiole and stipules when
these are present. Leaves may be collected
from May to September.

Collect and prepare as many of the following
forms as possible : —

Apple,
Barberry,
Bellwort,
Blackberry,

Pyrus matus.

Berberis vulgaris L.
Uvularia, either species.
Rubus villosus Ait.

APPENDIX A. Q17

Black Willow,
Burdock,
Calla,

Canna,
Cherry,

Day Lily,
Elm,

Flowering Fern,
Golden Currant,

Ground Ivy,
Hawthorn,
Hazel,

Honey Locust,
Honeysuckle,

Locust,
Maple,
Morning-glory,
Mullein,
Nasturtium,
Pea,

Plantain,
Purslane,

Red Clover,
Red Currant,
Rose,

Rue Anemone,
Smartweed,

Sunflower,
Sweet Clover,
Thistle,
Violet,
White Oak,

Salix nigra Marsh.

Arctium lappa L.

Richardia africana Kunth.

Canna, any species.

Prunus cerasus L.

Hemerocallis, either species

Ulmus, any species.

Osmunda claytoniana L.

Ribes aureum Pursh.

Nepeta glechoma Benth.

Crategus, any species.

Corylus americana Walt.

Gleditschia triacanthos L.

Lonicera sempervirens Ait., or sulli-
vantii Gray.

Robinia pseudacacia L.

Acer, any species.

Ipomeea purpurea Lam.
Zerbascum thapsus L.

Tropeolum majus L.

any cultivated form.

Plantago major L.

Portulaca oleracea L.

Trifolium pratense L

Ribes rubrwn L.

any species.

Anemonella thalictroides Spach.

Polygonum, any species. Collect
with stem.

Helianthus, any species.

Melilotus alba Lam.

Chicus, any species.

Viola palmata, var. cucullata Gray.

Quercus alba L.

3. Flower Clusters.

For practical purposes the fruit-clusters will answer
quite as well.

Collect the specimens in the spring or early summer.

218 APPENDIX A.

The following will be found useful : —

Blue Grass, Poa pratensis L.

Carrot, Daucus carota L.

Elder, Sambucus canadensis L.

Grape, Vitis, any species.

Larkspur, Delphinium, any species.
Lily-of-the-valley, Convallaria majalis L.

Mandrake, Podophyllum peltatum L.

Phlox, any species with flat-toped cluster.
Plantain, Plantago major L.

Poplar, Populus, any species.

Shepherd’s-purse, Capsella bursa-pastoris Moench.
Young and old flower clusters.

Wheat, Triticum vulgare.

White Ash, Fraxinus americana L.

Wild Sarsaparilla, <Aralia nudicaulis L.

a. Materials for a Herbarium.

A herbarium of local plants should be prepared for
use in every school. Press the specimens as heretofore,
using now the entire plant, including root, where practi-
cable.

When the roots are thick they should be trimmed
down, and they should always be washed before being
placed in press.

Of large specimens take branches with leaves and
flowers, and, where practicable, fruits.

When the specimens are properly pressed they should
be mounted on sheets of rather stiff white paper by
strips of gummed paper.

For this purpose sheets measuring eleven by sixteen
inches are convenient.

A label bearing the name, habitat, place, and date of °
collecting, should then be placed in the lower right-hand
corner.

efi APPENDIYX A. 219 ~

The species of one genus, or even order, may then
be placed together into a sheet of manilla or other
heavy paper, with the name of the genus or order writ-
ten on the outside, or they may all be bound together in
a portfolio. :

When not in use, the specimens should be kept in a
box or case with naphthalin.

A herbarium of this kind is valuable for reference,
and comparison with unclassified material.

Pupils will find it an interesting task to prepare a
herbarium for the school.

TV. Freso MATERIALS.

The various fresh materials required, such as twigs,
leaves, flowers, fruits, roots, leaf-buds, etc., should be
located and observed beforehand, so that they can be
collected promptly when needed.

House-plants will be found very useful here.

This work may be largely subdivided among the
pupuls.

APPENDIX B.

For Lussons VIL, IX., X., and XL, in which special _
materials are. required, a few general directions may be
helpful.

1. As To SEED-—SOWING.

Seeds of nearly all sorts germinate sufficiently well
for our purpose in what is everywhere familiarly called
a hot-bed, a simple box of moist sand or earth coy-
ered by glass. The soil should be kept moist, but not
wet. By baking in the oven once or twice prior to use
the soil is less liable to be affected with weeds. After
planting the seeds of whatever varieties in marked rows,
place the box in the hght in some part of the schoolroom
where it is not likely to be disturbed, and where the
temperature is pretty constant. The whole matter may
sometimes be safely intrusted to an intelligent janitor.
It is, however, essential to let the pupils watch as much
as possible all the stages of the cultivation.

Seeds should be sown in materials in different boxes ;
some in rich soil, some in clean sand as free from soil
as possible, some in sawdust; this to illustrate the var-
ous modes of germination and the function performed
by roots (Lesson X.). The supply in all cases should
be sufficient to furnish a liberal amount of material for
experiments illustrating the function of green foliage
(Lesson XI.). Seeds should also be planted in different

220

APPENDIX B. py |

positions, right side up, wrong side up, etc., to illustrate
Lesson X.

For the study of Black Mould (Lesson LIV.) mate-
rial may always be maintained by placing a little stable-
manure (fresh) under a bell-jar on a plate containing
the sufficient water to insure a moist atmosphere. Once
mould fruits, cultures can be established on moist bread,
boiled potatoes, or other convenient material.

The following common seedg germinated and appeared
above ground in the time specified for each. ‘The sowing
was in common garden earth. The temperature varied
from 70° Fahrenheit by day to 50° during the night, all
the time under glass: —

~

HOURS. HOURS.

ft. > Sg a eee Sasa et. one LOS
Wuewmber. ) 7"). ° 140 Sweer Cora 'p.c0 Va 78
Meteor. (2:7 2. 8 Sweeh Hea) hs 5. 27. /7 802
Meumee.;. i.» i>. 60 LOMMALD .c bj aa ed } ed
bl. 2a eee, MRERID sry ce: Ps ir ae
mein, .°. .; .. 144 Watermelon: . %. .. 124

The time will vary somewhat with circumstances of
temperature, depth of planting, etc. From four to ten
days may be counted upon as necessary in all cases.

2. BuppING BRANCHES.

After midwinter, branches of various trees will bud
in the schoolroom at its ordinary temperature (unless too
low at night, of course) if the branches be smoothly cut
off, and the cut ends be immersed in clean water. It is
better, also, to occasionally change the water. Lilac,
Cherry, and Maple do well to start with. These three
will come out in full bloom in January. All do better
if the air about them be not too dry.

APPENDIX C.

BOOKS OF REFERENCE.
1. For Classification and Description.

GRAY’S Manual. Sixth Edition.

GRAY’S School and Field Book. latest Edition.

Woon’s Botanist and Florist.

APGAR’S Trees of North America.

Forest Trees of North America. Report of the Tenth Census of
the U.S.) vols 1x.

UNDERWOOD, Our Native Ferns and Their Allies,

EATON’S Ferns of North America.

GOEBEL, Outlines of Classification.

VinEs, The Student’s Textbook of Botany. 2 vols.

LESQUEREUX AND JAMES, Mosses of North America.

BARNES, Keys to Genera and Species of Mosses.

(Chas. R. Barnes, Madison, Wis.)

2. For Structure and Function.

BrEssEY’sS Botany.

ARTHUR BARNES AND COULTER, Plant Dissection.
GRAY’s Structural Botany.

GooDALE’sS Physiological Botany.

LURBBOCK’S Flowers, Fruits, and Leaves.

MULLER’Ss Fertilization of Flowers.

DARWIN, Cross and Self-Fertilization of Plants.
DARWIN, Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants.
DARWIN, Insectivorous Plants.

KERNER, Flowers and Their Unbidden Guests,

222

APPENDIX C. ys

3. General Botany.

GEDDES, Chapters in Modern Botany.

MARSHAL WARD, The Oak.

MARSHAL WARD, Timber, and Some of Its Diseases.
KERNER’S Plant Life. 2 vols.

4. Journals.

Botanical Gazette, Madison, Wis.

Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club, Columbia College, New York.
Garden and Forest, New York.

Science, New York.

APPENDIX. PD.

GLOSSARY AND INDEX.

[| The numbers refer to the pages, except where otherwise stated. |

Acaulescent, 132.

Accessory buds, 4.

Achenium, 80.

Acrogens, 184.

Actinomorphic, 75, 148.

Acuminate. Tapering into a long
point; 49.

Acute. Forming or ending in an

- acute angle; 49.

Adnate. A term applicable to an
anther when attached along
its whole length to the fila-
ment; 73. To the lamelle
of an Agaric when grown
fast to the stipe; 201.

Adventitious buds, 28, 35.

Aerial roots, 35.

ZEstivation, 72.

Agaricine. Like a toadstool or
mushroom; 203.

Aggregated fruits, 81.

Akene, see achenium.

Albumen, 84, 164, 173.

Albuminous seeds, 84.

Alburnum, 161.

Alcoholic materials, 209.

Alternation of generations, 185.

Ament. A catkin; 117.

Andrecium, 65, 73.

Angiosperms, 156.

Annulus, 186, 187, 201.

Anther, 65, 73.

Antheridial branch, 196.

Anthesis, 135.

Anthotaxy, 59.

Apetalous. Without petals.

Areolation, 194.

Areole, 194.

Ascending axis.

Assimilation, 41.

Auriculate. With ear-shaped ap-
pendages at base; 49.

Axile placenta, 74.

The stem; 33.

Bark, 10, 12, 20; inner bark, 11;
middle bark, 11; outer bark,
it:

Bast, f1.

Bifid. Cleft into two parts; 107.

Blade of leaf, 38.

Blight. Mildew; a term applied
to several forms of Fungi par-
asitic on the growing parts of
flowering plants; 203. ~

APPENDIX OD.

Books of reference, 222, 223.

Bracts, 58, 60.

Buds, arrangement of, 2, e¢ seq. ;
axillary, 3; development of,
29, et seq.; lateral, same as
axillary, 30, 31; on roots, 33,
34; structure, 29, et seq.;
terminal, 3, 30, 31.

Bud-scales, 57.

Bulb, 28.

Bulb-scales, 28, 57.

Caducous. Falling off very early ;
162.

Calyptra, 192.

Calyx, 64, 71.

Cambium, 16, 17, 21.

Capsule, of flowering-plants, 82,
83; of liverwort, 195; of
moss, 191, 192.

Carpel, 74, 78.

Carpellary. Pertaining to a car-
Pee re

Caryopsis, see grain.

Catkin, 61.

Caulicle, 174.

Cells, 11, 20; of anther, 65; of
ovary, 66, 74. ©

Cespitose. In tufts.

Chaff, 138.

Chlorophyl-grains, 39.

Cilia. Delicate, hair-like struc-
tures; marginal hairs; 107.

Circinate. Spirally coiled ; 55,184.

Circumcissile. Breaking by a
transverse suture; 82.

Cirrhose, or cirrhous.
a tendril; 53.

Cladophyllum, 39.

Cleft. Sharply cut about half-
Way, with acute sinuses; 51.

Ending in.

225

Pinnately cleft, 52;
ately cleft, 52.
Cleistogamous flowers, 147, 148.

palm-

Compressed. Flattened later-
ally; 56.

Conduplicate. Folded lengthwise
along the midrib; 55. 3

Cone, 83, 154, 155, 158, 159.

Connate-perfoliate. Having the
bases -of opposite leaves

grown together around the
stem; 49.

Connective, 65.

Convolute. Rolled up from. one
edge; 55.

Cordate. Heart-shaped; 47, 49.

Coriaceous. Leathery; 55.

Cork, I.

Corolla, 64, 71.

Cortex,.10,. 17, Wie. 6 2515, His. 7
20, Fig. 8; 189.

Cortical. Pertaining to the cor-
tex; £7, 18, 20.

Corymb, 61.

Corymbose. Corymb-like, or a
corymb; 123.

Cotyledons, 22, 84.

Crenate. With rounded teeth
which are directed toward
the tip; 50.

Crenate-dentate. With rounded
teeth which are directed out-

wardly; 104.

Crenulate. Finely crenate; 51,
196.

Crescentiform. Shaped like a
crescent; 195.

Cryptogams. Plants which do

not produce flowers with
stamens and pistils.
Culm, 169.

Cuneate.
49.

Cuspidate. With a short, abrupt
tooth at the apex; 49.

Wedge-shaped; 47,

Deciduous, leaves, 37; bud-scales,

ol.
Decompound. Said of leaves
when irregularly several

times compound; 53.

Decurrent. Said of the blade of
a leaf when it extends down
on the stem, forming wings;
49,

Decussate, 2.

Dehisce. To break open along
definite lines; 65, 79.

Dehiscence, in fruits, 82; in sta-
mens, 73.

Deliquescent, 151.

Dentate. With sharp teeth whose
points are directed outward ;
51.

Denticulate. Finely dentate; 51,
foie

Descending axis. The root; 33.

Determinate inflorescence, 62.

Diadelphous, 73, 163.

Diandrous. With two stamens;
178.

Dichotomous veining, 188.

Diclinous, 117.

Dicotyledonous, 22.

Didynamous. The stamens in
two pairs, one pair longer;
178.

Digitately-veined, 45.

Diecious. With staminate and
pistillate flowers on different
plants; 131.

Discoid. Disk-like; 196.

APPEN DEX 2D.

Disk, 75, 114; in composite flow-
ers, 134.

Disk-flower, 137. .

Dispersion, of fruits and seeds,
84

Distinct. Applied tostamens and
other floral organs, when the
parts of the set under con-
sideration are not united
with each other; 73.

Divided. Said of leaves, etc.,
when cut almost to the mid-
rib or base, 51; palmately di-
vided, 52; pinnately divided,
52.

Dorsal. Pertaining to the back ;
in the leaf, the lower sur-
face.

Doubly crenate. Coarsely cre-
nate, and the large crena-
tions again crenate; 51.

Doubly dentate. Coarsely den-
tate, and* the large teeth
again dentate; 51.

Doubly serrate. Coarsely serrate,
and the large teeth again
serrate; 51.

Drupe. A_ stone-fruit; 81;
also fruit of cherry, 141.

Dry materials, lists, 211, 214.

Duramen, 161.

see

Elaters, 196.

Elliptical. Shaped like an el-
lipse ; much longer than wide
and with rounded ends, 48.

Emarginate. Indented by a shal-
low, rounded sinus; 49. :

Embryo, 84.

Embryo-sac, 67.

Endogens, 22.

bo
bo
—I

-APPENDIX D.

Free-central placenta, 74.
Frond. The leaf of a fern; 183,
184.

Entire. Without indentation or
division; the margin even,
whole; 51.

Epidermis, 14, 27, 39, 50. Fructification. Fruit.

Epigynous. Placed upon the pis- | Fruit, 67, 78, 79; aggregated, 81;

til; 73. dehiscent, 79, 81; dry, 80;

fleshy, 81; indehiscent, 79;
multiple, 85; simple, 80;
| stone, 80.

Epipetalous. Placed upon or ad-
nate to the corolla; 73.
Essential organs, 67.

Etzrio, 81. Funiculus, 66.
_ Even-pinnate. Ending in two | Furcate. Dichotomously fork-
leaflets; 53. ing; 4.

Ex-albuminous, 84, 164.
Excurrent, 151. Gamopetalous, 72.
"Exogenous stem, 20, Fig. 8; 23. Gamosepalous, 71.
Exogens, 22, 23. Genus (pl. genera), 90, 96, 1350.
Ex-stipulate. Without stipules. Gemma, 195.
Extrorse. Turned outward, as | Gills (lamelle), 201.
an anther whose dehiscing | Glabrous. Smooth, without hairs

side faces outward. or scales; 54.
Glandular. Covered with glands,
Family, 90. or gland-like; 54.
Fascicle, 63. Glaucous. Covered with a white
Fascicled, 38. bloom; 54.
Feather-veined, 45. Glomerule, 63.
Fertile. Bearing fruit; 196. Glumes, 171.
Fertilization, process of, 67. Grain. A dry, one-seeded fruit,
Fibrillose. Covered with delicate packed with ‘‘albumen”’ in
fibrils; 202. _ which the seed is imbedded ;
Fibro-vascular bundles, in leaves, caryopsis, 80.
40; in stems, 14. Gymnosperms, 156.
Fibro-vascular tissues, 14, 207. Gynecium, 65, 74.
Filament, 65, 75.
Fleshy fruits, 81. Habitat, 88.
Floccose. In fleecy tufts, cot- | Hairy. Covered with rather
tony; 54, 202. coarse, rigid hairs; 84.
Floral organs, 58. Half-inferior, 74.
Floret, 134. Half-superior, 74.
Flower, 64; morphology, 71; | Head, 62; in composite flowers,
_ parts, 64; physiology, 67. 134.
Follicle, 82. Herbaceous, 23, 55.

/

wages.-

298

ft oe

Hesperidium, 81.

Hip. The aggregated fruit of the
Rose, formed by the recepta-
cle and calyx closing over the
numerous akenes.

Honey-gland, or nectar-gland, 100,
127.

Host-plant, 35.

Hygroscopic. Possessing the
property of hygroscopism ;
186.

Hygroscopism, 85.

Hymenium, 201.

Hypha (pl. hyphe), 197, 198.

Hypogynous. Placed on the re-
ceptacle; 72, 73.

Imbricated. Said of sepals, and
also petals, when so placed in
the bud that they overlap,
some being wholly outside,
others wholly inside, and
still others partly in- and
partly outside; 72.

Imperfect flowers. Such as lack
either stamens or pistils, or
both; 76.

Incised. Irregular, and sharply
cut, less than half way to
mid-rib or base; 51.

Indehiscent fruits, 79.

Indusium (p]l. indusia), 187.

Inferior ovary, 74.

Inflexed. Bent inward, as leaves
transversely folded so that
the apex lies near the base;
55.

Inflorescence, 5; centrifugal, 62;
centripetal, 60; determinate,
62 ; indeterminate, 60; mixed,
64; solitary, 63,

APPENDIX D.

Innate. Borne upon. Said of the
anther when attached by one
end to the end of the fila
ment; 73.

Internode, 2.

Introrse. Turned inward, as when
an adnate anther faces in-
ward; 13.

Involucre, 60, 130, 134; in ferns,
188.

Involute. Rolled inward ; applied
to both estivation and ver-
nation when the parts are
longitudinally rolled inward
from both edgesin the bud;
55, 72.

Irregular flowers, 76.

Keel, 163.

Labiate. Two-lipped; 72.

Laciniate. Cut into a fringe;
104.

Lamelle, 191, 201.

Lanceolate, or lance-shaped. A
term applied to leaves, etc.,
in which the length is much >
greater than the width, the
widest part being near the
base; 47.

Lateral buds, or axillary buds,
30, 37.

Latex, 133.

Leaf, 37, ef seqg.; apex, 49; ar=
rangement, 38; base, 48;
color, 53; compound, 52; di-
vision of blade, 51; duration,
o7; form, or general outline,
47; functions, 41; margin,
50; / parts, 38; simple,: 525
special forms, 56; structure,

39; surface, 54; texture, 55;
venation, 44; vernation, 55.

Leaflets, 52.

Leaf-parenchyma, 39.

Legume, 82, 164.

Liber, 11.

Ligulate. Strap-shaped, like the
rays of a sunflower; 72.

Ligule, 169.

Limb. Border; thespreading por-
tion of salver-shaped, or fun-
nel-formed calyx or corolla;
72.

Linear. Narrow; applied to
leaves, etc., which are very
narrow, and of nearly uni-
form width throughout; 48.

Linear-lanceolate. Narrowly
lanceolate; 48.

Lobed. Divided into lobes; ap-
plied to a leaf, etc., which
is cut about half-way, the
sinus being obtuse; 51. Pal-
mately lobed, 52; pinnately
lobed, 52.

Loculicidal, 82.

Loculus (pl. leculi), 66, 74.

Lodicules, 172.

Loment. A legume which is
notched so that it readily
breaks into one-seeded seg-
ments; 82.

Medulla, 10.

Medullary rays, 15, 19.

Mesophyl. The pulpy middle
part of the blade of a leaf;
170.

Micropyle, 67; 68, Fig. 9; 156.

Mid-rib, 44, 191, 195.

Monadelphous, 73, 163.

APPENDIY D. 229

Monocotyledonous, 22.

Monecious, 117.

Monopetalous, 72.

Monosepalous, 71.

Morphology of the flower, 71; of
the root, 34.

Mucronate. Tipped with a pro-
jection of the mid-rib; 49.

Multiple fruits, 83.

Nectar-gland, or honey-gland, 100,
127.

Needle-shaped. Slender and rigid,
as the leaves of the Pine;
48.

Nerves, on calyx, 175; in leaves,
46.

Node, 2.

Nodulose, 102.

Non-essential organs, 67, 70.

Nucleus, 68, Fig. 9.

Wut. A one-celled, one-seeded
fruit with a hardened peri-
carp, and a cup-like involu-
cre; 80.

Obcordatee Inversely heart-
shaped; 48. Applied also to
the apex when shaped like
the base of a cordate leaf ; 49.

Oblanceolate. Inversely lanceo-
late; 47.

Oblong. Longer than broad; ap-
plied to leaves, etc., which
are widest at the middle,
have rounded ends, and are
more than twice as long as
their greatest width; 48.

Oblong-ovate. Like the ovate
form, but widest at the mid-
dle; 48.

230 APPENDIY D.

Obovate. Inversely ovate; 47.

Odd-pinnate. Applied to pin-
nately compound leaves
which end with one leaflet;
53.

Oophytic, 186, 193.

Oosphere, 67; 68, Fig. 9; 185, 193,
197.

Oodspore, 69.

Opposite, buds, 5; leaves, 38.
Applied also to the parts of
the flower when those of one
set are in the same radial line
with those of the adjacent
sets; 73.

Operculum, 192.

Order, 90.

Oval. Broadly elliptical, the
length less than twice the
greatest width; 48.

Ovate. Nearly the same asoval;
applied to leaves, etc., which
have the length not more
than two-and-one-half times
the greatest width, and
which are widest near the
base; 47.

Ovate-lanceolate. A term de-
scriptive of forms interme-
diate between ovate and lan-
ceolate; 48.

Ovary, 66; 68, Fig. 9; 74.

Ovules, 66; 68, Fig. 9.

Palets, 171.

Panicle, 62.

Panicled. Arranged in a panicle.
Papilionaceous, 72, 163,

Pappus, 135.

Parasites, 35, 203.

Parenchyma, 13, 40.

Parted. As applied to leaves,
etc., cut more than half-way
to the base or mid-rib, but not
so deeply as to be divided;
51. Palmately, 52; pinnate-
ly, 52.

Pedicel, 60, 196.

Pedicellate. Having a pedicel;
61, 63.

Peduncle, 65.

Peltate. Shieid-shaped; applied —
toa leaf which has the petiole
attached near the centre of
the blade, or at least above
the basal margin; 49.

Pepo. A fleshy fruit with a hard
rind; 81.

Perennial. Enduring; lasting
year after year; 26.

Perfect flowers, 75.

Perfoliate. Passing through the
leaf; a term applied toa leaf
when its base is united
around the stem, the latter
appearing to pass through
the leaf; 49.

Perianth, 64.

Pericarp, 80, 81.

Perigynous, 72, 73.

Peristome, 192.

Petaloid. In color and appear-
ance like a petal.

Petals, 64, 72.

Petiole, 38, 56.

Petiolules, 52.

Pileus, 200.

Pinna (pl. pinne). One of the
first, or main, divisions of a
frond; 184.

Pinnatifid. Deeply and irregu-
larly pinnately cleft; 52.

APPENDIX D.

Pinnule. One of the divisions of
a pinna; 185.

Pistil, 65, 74;
simple, 74.

Pistillate flower. One having
pistils, but no stamens; 154.

Pitted. Covered with minute
depressions; 84.

Placenta (pl. placentz), 66, 74.

Placentation, 66.

Plan of flower, 76, Fig. 10.

Plant-hairs, 122.

Plicate. Plaited like a fan; esti-
vation, 72; vernation, 55.

Plumule, 22, 84, 173.

Pollen, 65, 73.

Pollination, 70.

Polypetalous, 72.

Polysepalous, 71.

Pome, 81; see fruit of apple, 141.

Prothallus, 185.

Puberulent. Covered with mi-
nute down; 54.

Pubescent. Downy with
hairs; 54.

Pulvinus, 161.

Pyxis. A capsule opening by a
lid; 83.

res
compound, 75;

soft

Raceme, 61.

Racemose. Arranged in a ra-
ceme; 123.

Radicle, 22, 69, 84, 173.

Ray-flower, 137.

Receptacle, 66, 196.

Reduplicate. Turned backward,
as When the edges of the

leaves are turned outward in.

the bud; 72.
Regular flower, 75.
Reniform. Kidney-shaped ; 47, 49.

/

231

Repand. Wavy, like the margin
of an open umbrella; 49.

Resin-ducts, 11.

Resupinate, 147.

Revolute. Having the margins
rolled baykward; 55.

Rhachis, 59, 170.

Rhizoids. Root-hairs; 190, 194.

Rhizoma, or rhizome, 26.

Root-cap, 173.

Root-hairs, 121, 168, 190, 194.

Roots, 32; compared with stems,
32; functions, 35, 36; mor-
phology, 34; primary, 33;
secondary, 33.

Rosaceous. Arranged like the
petals of a normal Rose, like
the flowers of the Cherry,

ete.; 72.
Rostrum, 192.
Rotate. Wheel-shaped; the bor-

der, as of a corolla, spreading
abruptly, and the tube short
or wanting; 72.

Runcinate. Lobed or cleft, with
the points of the divisions
directed backward; 52.

Runners, 147.

Rust. The common name of cer-
tain Fungi parasitic on the
leaves of Grasses, etc.; 203.

Sagittate. Arrow-shaped, 47, 49.

Salver-shaped. In the form of a
salver; a term applied to
corollas, etc., with narrow
tube and abruptly spreading,
flat limb; 72.

Samara, 80, 95.

Saprophytic, 203.

Scabrous. Rough; 54.

232

Scales, bud, 29; bulb, 28; in com-
posite flowers, 134.

Scape, 60.
Scurfy. Covered with epidermal
scales; 202.

Scutellum, 1753.
Seed, 67, 79, 83.
Seed-sowing, 220.
Sepals, 64, 71.

Septa, 74.

Septate. With partitions or
septa; 198.

Serrate. With sharp teeth di-

rected toward the apex; 51.
Serrulate. Finely serrate; 51.
Sessile, flowers, 61, 63; leaves,

60.

Seta, 191.

Silicle. A short silique; 83.

Silique. An elongated pod, with
two valves which at maturity
break away from a middle
false partition, as in Black
Mustard; 85.

Sinuate. Wavy; 51.

Sinus, 48, 50.

Sorosis. A fleshy multiple fruit,
as the Mulberry, Osage-or-
ange, etc.; 83.

Sorus (pl. sori), 187.

Spadix, 61.

Spathe, 61.

Spatulate. Shaped like a spat-
ula; with a broad, rounded
tip tapering to the base;
47.

Species, 95, 96.

Spicate. Arranged in spikes;
170.

Spike, 61.

Spikelet, 170.

APPENDIX D.

Sporangia, 186, 198.

Spores, 185, 192, 193, 197, 198.

Sporophytic, 186, 193.

Stamens, 65, 73; insertion, 73;
union, 73.

Staminate flower. One haying
stamens but no pistil. ~

Standard, 163.

Starch, 27.

Stellate. Radiating, star-shaped.

Stems, 10, ef seg.; compared
With roots, 32; cross-section,
20; habit, 25; kinds, 21, 24;
structure, 12, et seq.

Sterile. Not bearing fruit.

Stigma, 66; 68, Fig. 9; 74.

Stigmatic surface, 66; 68, Fig.
9.

Stipe, 184, 200.

Stipules, 38, 56.

Stoma (pl. stomata), 39, 43, 151,
194. |

Strap-shaped, see ligulate, 139.

Strobile, see cone, 83.

Style, 66; 68, Fig. 9; 74.

Style-arm. One of the stigmatic
branches in composite flow-

ers; 135.
Succulent. Fleshy, juicy; 54.
Superior ovary, 74.
Supervolute. Descriptive of a

corolla that is plaited, and
then convolute in the bud;
72.

Suture, 82.

Symmetrical flower, 76.

Syngynesious, 73, 135.

Tendrils, 56, 57.
Terete. Cylindrical, or nearly
so; 56.

APPENDIX D.

Testa, 83.

Thalloid. Thallus-like, not show-
ing a distinct differentiation
into stem and leaves; 194.

Thyrsus, 62.

Tomentose. Woolly; 54.

Tomentum. Wool; 133, 184.

Torus, 66, 75.

Transpiration, 43.
Triadelphous. United into three
sets by the filaments; 73.

Tribes, 130, 142.

Trichomes, 122.

Truncate. Blunt; as if cut off
abruptly; 49.

Tryma, 81.

Tuber, 26.

Typical flower, 76.

Umbel, 61.
Undulate. Wavy; 51.
Unsymmetrical flower, 76.
Utricle. A one-seeded dry fruit,
much like the grain, but en-
- elosed in a membranous sac
or covering; 80.

233°

Valvate. A term descriptive of
a form of zestivation when the
sepals or petals in bud come
together only at their edges,
and do not overlap; 72.

Valves, 82.

Veil. A film or covering which in
many Agarics at first unites
the edge of the pileus with
the stipe; 202.

Venation, 39; kinds, 44.

Vernation, 55, 184.

Versatile. Free to turn; a term
applied to the anther when
attached at its middle to the
end of the filament; 73.

Verticillaster, 63.

Verticillate. Whorled.

Vexillum, 163.

Villose. Covered with long, weak
hairs; 54.

Viscid. Sticky; 104.

Whorled, 38.

Zygomorphic. Irregular; 76, 148.

4 ENGLISH.

Studies in English Composition

By HARRIET C. KEELER, High School, Cleveland, Ohio, and Emma
C. Davis, Cleveland, Ohio.. 12mo, cloth, 210 pages. Price, 80 cents.

HIS book is the outgrowth of experience in teaching compo-
sition, and the lessons which it contains have all borne the
actual test of the class-room. Intended to meet the wants of
those schools which have composition as a weekly exercise in
their course of study, it contains an orderly succession of topics
adapted to the age and development of high schoo! pupils, to-
gether with such lessons in language and rhetoric as are of con-
stant application in class exercises.

The authors believe that too much attention cannot be given
to supplying young writers with good models, which not only |
indicate what is expected, and serve as an ideal toward which
to work, but stimulate and encourage the learner in his first
efforts. For this reason numerous examples of good writing
have been given, and many more have been suggested.

The primal idea of the book is that the pupil learns to write
by writing; and therefore that it is of more importance to get
him to write than to prevent his making mistakes in writing.
Consequently, the pupil is set to writing at the very outset; the
idea of producing something is kept constantly uppermost, and
the function of criticism is reserved until after something has
been done which may be criticised.

J. W. Stearns, Professor of Pedagogy, University of Wisconsin, It strikes
me that the author of your “Studies in English Composition” touches
the gravest defect in schoo! composition work when she writes in her pref-
ace: “‘One may as well grasp a sea-anemone, and expect it to show its
beauty, as ask a child to write from his own experience when he expects
every sentence to be dislocated in order to be improved.” In order to
improve the beauty of the body, we drive out the soul in our extreme for-
mal criticisms of school compositions. She has made a book which
teaches children to write by getting them to write often and freely ; and if

used with the spirit which has presided over the making of it, it will prove
a most effective instrument for the reform of school composition work.

Albert G. Owen, SuZerintendent, Afton, Iowa: It is an excellent text. I
am highly pleased with it. The best of the kind I have yet seen.

= ENGLISH. 13

A Drill Book in English

Compiled by GEORGE E. GAy, Principal of High School, Malden, Mass.
12mo, boards. Price, 45 cents.

oa book is designed for the use of such pupils as have pre-
viously learned the substance of the rules which it contains.
It does not aim to give all the principles of the language, but
emphasizes those which are most frequently violated. It will be
warmly welcomed by those teachers who are endeavoring in a
practical way to teach their pupils the use of correct English.
Such teachers recognize the fact that pupils use many incorrect
forms of expression, both in speaking and in writing, and they
have learned by experience that the way to make the vices of a
language hateful is to place them side by side with their con-
trasting virtues. It contains, in brief form, rules for spelling,
punctuation, capitalization, and the more important principles
of grammar and rhetoric. Abundant exercises for practice are
given; and these are arranged on pages with wide margin, so
that the work of correction can be done with the least expendi-
ture of time and labor. 7

A separate edition, which serves as a key to the exercises, is
published for the use of teachers.

J. G. Croswell, Principal of the Brearley School, New York City: 1 have
' examined Gay’s Drill Book in English, and have ordered it at once. It is
a very valuable addition to the apparatus of the teacher.

Edwin H. Cutler, Classical School, Newton, Mass.: There is great occasion
in our schools for a book of this kind; and I am satisfied from an exam-
ination of the work that it wili prove highly serviceable.

William E. Frost, Prizcifal of Westford Academy,Westford, Mass.: 1 like
it very much, for it supplies material with which a practical teacher can
really drill classes effectually in the niceties of English expression.

‘Daniel E. Owen, Thornton Academy, Saco, Me.: It is the best thing in its
line that I have ever seen.

J. P. Marston, Prizcipal of High School, Biddeford, Me.: Its plan is ad-
mirable for obtaining good results in teaching English language. The
principles are stated in such a form that pupils will forever hold them.

A. F. Bechdolt, State University, Grand Forks, N. D.: 1 like it very much;
its examples are well selected, and there is an abundance of them.

48 SCIENCE.

The Elements of Physics

By Professor HENRY 5. CARHART, University of Michigan, and H. N.
CHuTE, Ann Arbor High School. 12mo, cloth, 392 pages. Price, $1.20.

HIS is the freshest, clearest, and most practical manual on
the subject. Facts have been presented before theories.
The experiments are simple, requiring inexpensive apparatus,
and are such as will be easily understood and remembered.
Every experiment, definition, and statement is the result of
practical experience in teaching classes of various grades. |
The illustrations are numerous, and for the most part new,
many having been photographed from the actual apparatus set
up for the purpose.
Simple problems have been freely introduced, in the belief
that in this way a pupil best grasps the application of a principle.
The basis of the whole book is the introductory statement
that physics is the science of matter and energy, and that noth-
ing can be learned of the physical world save by observation and
experience, or by mathematical deductions from data so obtained. |
The authors do not believe that immature students can profitably
be set to rediscover the laws of Nature at the beginning of their
study of physics, but that they must first have a clearly defined idea
of what they are doing, an outfit of principles and data to guide
them, and a good degree of skill in conducting an investigation.
William H. Runyon, Armour Institute, Chicago: Carhart and Chute’s text-
book in Physics has been used in the Scientific Academy of Armour
Institute during the past year, and will be retained next year. It has

been found concise and scientific. We believe it to be the best book on
the market for elementary work in the class-room.

Professor M. A. Brannon, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks: 1
am glad to express the opinion, based on the use of this work in Elemen-
tary Physics last year, at Fort Wayne, Ind., that it is the most logical and
clear presentation of the subject with which I am acquainted. The prob-
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periments serve the dual purpose of leading the scholar to reason, and
put into practice the previous clearly and concisely stated principies of
Elementary Physics. It is a book that will greatly elevate the standard
of scholarship wherever used.

SCIENCE. 49 *

Professor H. N. Allen, Uziversity of Nebraska, Lincoln: Carhart and
Chute’s Physics is not used in the University, but it is reeommended by
us for use in high schools. I believe it to be one of the best books of
its class published.

Professor Arthur M. Goodspeed, University of Pennsylvania. I have not
had time to read it in course, but have examined it in parts quite care-
fully, and do not hesitate in saying that, for a book of its size and grade,
I deem it the best one that has been brought to my attention.

Professor John W. Johnson, Unzversity of Mississippi: I have examined
Elements of Physics by Carhart and Chute, and I believe it combines the
theoretical and practical in just the right proportion to make it a most
efficient and valuable text-book.

G. W. Krall, Wanual Training School, St. Louis, Mo.: | have used Carhart
and Chute’s Physics during the past year with entire satisfaction to teacher
and pupils. The book is fresh in presentation, omits the worn-out matter
of ordinary text-books, and is clear and exact in statement. The problems
are excellent and new; and the book breathes the spirit of new methods.
It is by far the best book published for secondary schools. We shall con-
tinue its use the coming year.

Dwight M. Miner, High School, Taunton, Mass.: After examining care-
fully a number of books, I decided to adopt Carhart and Chute’s Elements
of Physics. After using it twenty-five weeks, I can say that it has fully
come up to my expectations. I find the experiments well chosen, the
explanations clearly put, and the arrangement logical. I am especially

_ pleased with the chapter on Electricity. I shall continue to use the book.

William F. Langworthy, Colgate Academy, Hamilton, N.Y.: After using
Carhart and Chute’s Physics for the past year, I can say that it is the very
best text-book I have seen. It is almost perfectly adapted to our needs.

We shail continue to use it.

W. C. Peckham, Adelphi Academy, Brooklyn, N.Y.: Your Carhart and
Chute’s Physics on the whole impresses me as the best book out for a
beginner to use in getting his first view of the general principles of the
whole subject.

C.F. Adams, High School, Detroit, Mich.: The Carhart and Chute’s Phys-
ics, which has been in use in my classes since last September, has given
excellent satisfaction. The book is thoroughly scientific, and is abreast
with modern thought and developments. Before using the book I was
somewhat doubtful as to the ability of my pupils to grasp those subjects
as prese»ted in this book, but the results have been a pleasant surprise
to me. |

54 MATHEMATICS.

An Academic Algebra

By Professor J. M. TAYLOR, Colgate University, Hamilton, N.Y. 16mo,
cloth, 348 pages. Price, $1.00.

HIS book is adapted to beginners of any age, and covers
sufficient ground for admission to any American college or
university. In it the fundamental laws of number, the literal
notation, and the method of solving and using the simpler
forms of equations, are made familiar before the idea of alge-
braic number is introduced. The theory of equivalent equa-
tions and systems of equations is fully and clearly presented.
Factoring is made fundamental in the study and solution of
equations. Fractions, ratios, and exponents are concisely and
scientifically treated, and the theory of limits is briefly and
clearly presented.

Professor C. H. Judson, Furman University, Greenville, S.C.: I take great
pleasure in acknowledging the receipt of Taylor’s Academic Algebra. I
regard this and his college treatise as among the very best books on the
subject, and shall take pleasure in commending the Academic Algebra to
the schools of this State.

Professor E. P. Thompson, Miami University, Oxford, O.: I find the claims
made in your notice of publication well sustained, and that the book is
compact, well printed, presenting just the subjects needed in preparation
for college, and in just about the right proportion, and simply presented.
I like the treatment of the theory of limits, and think the student should
be introduced early to it. I am more pleased with the book the more
I examine it.

W.A. Ingalls, Principal, Marathon, N.Y.: 1 have waited some time before
acknowledging the receipt of Taylor’s Academic Algebra, in order to speak
more understandingly of its merits. After measuring it by means of
others which I have used in the class-room, I think it admirably suited for
our regents’ schools. More than this, it contains much that is valuable
that is within the comprehension of the average student which is not found
in other books of like grade. It is a scholarly book.

Charles Henry Douglas, Principal of High School, Hartford, Conn.: The
book is a good one, and contains more algebra than any other book of its
size on the market. It is shorn of much of the “ padding ” that creeps into
text-books on every subject. and deals with the essentials in a clear, vigor-
ous, and progressive way. The treatment of factoring, and the emphasis
put upon the importance of the equation, are particularly excellent.

a MATHEMATICS. 55

Professor Geo. A. Harter, Delaware College, Newark, Del.: I have read it
with much pleasure. Its whole plan and execution are so good I shall not
attempt to particularize in my praise. I shall recommend it unhesitat-
ingly whenever I have an opportunity. The typography and mechanical
make-up are in keeping with the excellent contents. Indeed, author and
publishers have produced a little gem of a text-book, and I am not sure
but the publishers have contributed as much to the attractiveness and value
of the book as Dr, Taylor by putting it in such a model dress.

L. P. Jocelyn, High School, Ann Arbor, Mich,: | examined it quite thor-
oughly, and like it better than any of the many books I have examined.

Professor W. B. Smith, 7u/ane University, New Orleans, La.: The gen-
eral air of this Algebra is very business-like. The author wastes few words
in preliminaries, but closes quickly and earnestly with matters as they
come to hand. The problems are exceedingly numerous and apparently
well-chosen ; and on the whole the book would seem to be eminently teach-
able. The author has strengthened the common presentation by calling
particular attention to the doctrine of equivalent systems of equations, and
has briefly sketched the Theory of Limits, making one extremely impor-
tant application of it to the doctrine of Incommensurables, for which he
will receive thanks from teachers of algebra... .

Professor Taylor’s book is a hopeful sign of the times, and teachers that use
it — of whom may there be many — will almost certainly be pleased.

Robert M. King, High School, Indianapelis, Ind.: 1 am much pleased with
it. It is clear, concise, free from unnecessary material, and its treatment
of factoring quadratics, and of other subjects, is very fine.

E. P. Sisson, Colgate Academy, Hamilton, N.Y.: The book is conspicuously
meritorious : first, in the clear distinction made between arithmetical and
algebraic number, which lies at the foundation of a clear and comprehen-
sive understanding of the science of algebra; second, the introduction at
the very first of the equation as an instrument of mathematical investiga-
tion; third, . . . Dr. Taylor’s presentation of the doctrine of equivalency
is clear and rigid; . . . fourth, the treatment of the subject of factoring
is concise, comprehensive, and logical.... I am using the book with
satisfaction in my own classes.

T. F. Kane, Superintendent of Schools, Naugatuck, Conn.: The book bears
evidence of being prepared by a careful teacher. The fact that algebra is
the science of the equation is emphasized throughout. No other text-book
on the subject with which I am acquainted meets my ideal as nearly as this
one does. The book is all the author claims.

George A. Knapp, Professor of Mathematics, Olivet College, Olivet, Mich. :
Professor Taylor’s Algebra is clear and simple, yet thoroughly mathemati-
cal. It is well adapted to the purpose that elementary algebra subserves, —
laying the foundations for mathematical ability.

56 SCIENGE:

Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene

A Manual for the Use of Colleges, Schools, and General Readers. By
JEROME WALKER, M.D. 12m0, cloth, 427 pages. Price, $1.20.

HIS book was prepared with special reference to the require-
ments of high ana normal schools, academies, and colleges,
and is believed to be a fair exponent of the present condition of
the science. Throughout its pages lessons of moderation are
taught in connection with the use of each part of the body.
The subjects of food, and of the relations of the skin to the
various parts of the body and to health, are more thoroughly
treated than is ordinarily the case. All the important facts are
so fully explained, illustrated, and logically connected, that they
can be easily understood and remembered. Dry statements are .
avoided, and the mind is not overloaded with a mass of technical!
material of little value to the ordinary student.

The size of type and the color of paper have been adopted in
accordance with the advice of Dr. C. R. Agnew, the well-known
oculist. Other eminent specialists have carefully reviewed the
chapters on the Nervous System, Sight, Hearing, the Voice, and
Emergencies, so that it may justly be claimed that these impor-
tant subjects are more adequately treated than in any other school
Physiology.

The treatment of the subject of alcohol and narcotics is in
conformity with the views of the leading physicians and physiol-
ogists of to-day.

The Nation, Vew York: Dr. Jerome Walker’s Anatomy, Physiology, and
Hygiene appears an almost faultless treatise for colleges, schools, and
general readers. Careful study has not revealed a serious blemish; its
tone is good, its style is pleasant, and its statements are unimpeachable.

We cordially commend it as a trustworthy book to all seeking information
about the body, and how to preserve its integrity.

Journal of the American Medical Association: For the purposes for
which it is written, it is the most interesting and fairest exponent of
present physiological and hygienic knowledge that has ever appeared.
It should be used in every school, and should be a member of every family,
—more especially of those in which there are young people. It is a
pleasure to read and review such an excellent book,

SCIENCE. 57

Professor J. C. Richardson, M.D., Late of the University of Pennsylvania:
I cordially congratulate you upon the clear, accurate,and attractive way in
which you have set forth the great facts of our human anatomy and physi-
ology, and founded upon them the laws of hygiene. I hope and believe
your excellent work will do much to instruct the rising generation in the
priceless knowledge of how to preserve health, and attain long life for
themselves and for their children after them.

Charles S. Moore, Prixcipal of High School, New Bedford, Mass.: I can
speak in terms of the highest commendation of Walker’s Physiology as a
text-book. An experience cf two years with it enables me to say that I
consider it the best text-book on physiology that is published.

John W. Wyatt, Principal of High School, Lynchburg, Va.: The ore is
indeed a treatise of rare excellence.

Jas. A. Merrill, State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo.: The books are
entirely satisfactory, and are all that could be desired.

E. H. Russell, Principal of State Normal School, Worcester, Mass.:
Walker’s Physiology is used in our classes more than any other text-book
on that subject, and gives good satisfaction to teachers and students. It
is clear, comprehensive, and conveniently arranged for practical use.

Geo. H. Tracy, Principal of High School, Waterbury, Conn.: As to
Walker, I am glad to say that I know the book, and have tested its merit
by work in the class. I consider it decidedly the best work I know of
for high schools and academies.

W. K. Hill, Carthage, ///.: It was a positive pleasure to me to examine
Walker’s Physiology, as it always is to find something good and progres-
sive in scientific text-books.

W. J. Wolverton, Lock Haven, Pa.: It is the best work on physiology and
Hygiene published so far as I have seen,

Warren Craig, Principal of High Schocl, Warren, O..: It is a fascinating
book for the general reader, and at the same time, by its accuracy, com-
mends itself to the scientific man. In it there is no need of the notes and
explanations used to complete or illustrate similar books. But the work
deserves higher praise than to be compared with many physiologies used in
our high schools and academies. Its language is plain, clear, and always
intelligible. The author has secured the two requisites of an ideal text-
book, — breadth of scope without being superficial, and conciseness of ex-
planation without being technical.

O. W. Collins, M.D., Superintendent of Schools, Framingham, Mass.:
We have used Walker’s Physiology for the past four years. Every one
acquainted with the science, after giving this book a thorough trial, will
admit it to be the very best published for high school use,

58 SCIENCE.

Herbarium and Plant Descriptions

Designed by Professor EDWARD T. NELSON, Ohio Wesleyan University.
Portfolio, 7% X 10 inches. Price, 75 cents. Adapted to any Botany.

HIS is an herbarium and plant record combined, enabling
the student to preserve the specimens together with a
record of their characteristics.

A sheet of four pages is devoted to each specimen. The first
page contains a blank form, with ample space for a fuil descrip-
tion of the plant, and for notes of the circumstances under
which it was collected. The pressed specimen is te be mounted
on the third page, and the entire sheet then serves as a species-
cover. Each portfolio contains fifty sheets, which are separate,
so as to permit of scientific rearrangement after mounting the
specimens.

The preliminary matter gives full directions for collecting,
pressing, and mounting plants, as well as a synopsis of botani-
cal terms. 7

The portfolio is strong, durable, and attractive in appearance.

In the class-room.and in the field this work has been. found
helpful and stimulating. It encourages observation and research,
and leads to an exact knowledge of classification.

Professor D. P. Penhallow, McGill University, Montreal, Can.: The idea
is a good one, and well carried out. I am sure it will prove most useful in

the botanical work of schools and academies, for which I would strongly
recommend it.

Professor G. H. Perkins, Uxiversity of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.: It is the
best thing of the sort I have seen; very attractive and very helpful to
beginners in calling attention to points that would be overlooked.

Professor B. P. Colton, Wormal University, I/l.: \t is a very ingenious ar-
rangement, and neatly gotten up. It speaks well for the publishers, as
well as the designer. It is the neatest scheme of the kind I have seen.

0. D. Robinson, Principal of High School, Albany, N.Y.: It appears to me
to be a very complete arrangement, admirable in every respect, and very
moderate in price.

F. S. Hotaling, Formerly Principal of High School, Framingham, Mass. :
Last year’s work in botany was made so much more interesting and valua-
ble by the use of the Herbarium that we find it now a necessity. -

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