AGRIC. LIBRARY

LIBRARY

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

OF

Class

SYDNtY : W. A. GULLICK, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

1. List of Plants found Growing Wild within 30 miles

of Amherst.
51 pages— in Atlas of Hampshire County, Mass., 1887.

2. List of Plants.

Separate edition, S. E. Bridgeman & Co., North-
hampton, Mass., 1887.

3. Beitrage zur Anatomic und Ontogonie der Nema-

toden.

36 pages, with 32 original illustrations 01 3 litho-
graphic plates Jenaischen Zeitschrift flir Natur-
wissenschaft, XXIII Bd., N.F. XVI, 1888.

4 Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangen der Dok-

torwurde
Gustav Fischer, Jena, 1888. Same as the above.

5. The Differentiator.

Sydney, 1889. Eeprint in American Naturalist, Phila-
delphia, 1889.

6. Report on Occupation of the Table of the British

Association at the Naples Zoological Station.
Report of the British Association, London, 1889.

7. Neue parasitische Nematoden.

3 pages, with 9 original illustrations on one plate.
Archiv fur Naturgeschichte, Berlin, 1889.

8. Two new Instruments for Biologists.

11 pages, with 5 original figures on one lithographic
plate. Proceed ings of the Linnsean Society of New
South Wales, Sydney, 1890.

9. Oxyuris larvae hatched in the human stomach

under normal conditions.

18 pages, with 5 original figures on one lithographic
plate. Proceedings of the Linnsean Society of
New South Wales, Sydney, 1890.

10. A Nematode Formula.

5 pages, with description of Oncholaimus index.
Agricultural Gazette, 1890.

11. Reprint of the above.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney, 1890.

12. Contributions to an Economic Knowledge of the

Australian Rusts (Uredinese).

In course of publication. So far issued, 154 pages,
with 303 original illustrations in the text, and 1
plate. Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1890-94.

13. Arabian Nematodes.

20 pages. Proceedings of the Linnsean Society of
New South Wales, Sydney, 1890.

14. Tylenchus and Root-gall.

30 pages, with 21 original illustrations in the text, and
1 plate with 9 illustrations after Neal.
Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1890.

15. Anticoma : A genus of free-living nematodes.

10 pages, with 12 original illustrations in the text.
Proceedings of the Linnsean Society of Now South
Wales, Sydney, 1890.

16 Notes on Diseases of Plants.

3 pages. Diseases of the vine, pear tree, strawberry
plant, and hollyhock. Agricultural Gazette, Sydney,
1891.

17. Pathological Notes.

2 pages, with 4 original illustrations in the text.
Disease of lucerne. Agricultural Gazette, Sydney,
1891.

18. Rust in Wheat : Report to Sydney Conference on.

7 pages. In " Rust in Wheat " (Report of Conference
on), Legislative Assembly, New South Wales, 2nd
Session, 1891.

19. Dialogue concerning the manner in which a

poisonous spray does its work in preventing
or checking blight.

8 pages, with 8 original illustrations in the text.
Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1891.

20. Reprint of the same.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney, 1891.

21. Notes on the Diseases of Plants.

Diseases of apple, strawberry, and wheat.
Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1891.

22. Onyx and Dipeltis: New nematode genera, with

a note on Dorylaimus.

16 pages, with 17 original illustrations in the text.
Proceedings of the Linnsean Society of New South
Wales, Sydney, 1891.

23. Maize for the table

11 pages. Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1891.

24. Notes on the Diseases of Plants.

Diseases of the apple and vine. Agricultural Gazette,
Sydney, 1891.

25. Smut.

6 pages, with 9 original illustrations in the text.
Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1891.

26. Smuts.

Separate and enlarged with more illustrations.
Department Agriculture, Sydney, 1891.

27. Hair-worm.

2 pages. Agricultural Gazette, 1891.

28. Notes on Diseases of Plants.

Diseases of horse-radish and apples. Agricultural
Gazette, Sydney, 1891.

29. Insect-larva eating Rust on Wheat and Flax.

4 pages, with 4 original illustrations in the text.
Conjoint paper. Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1891.

30. The same.

Reprint in The Annals and Magazine of Natural History ,
London, 1891.

31. Pathological Notes.

Diseases of maize and the apple. Agricultural Gazette,
Sydney, 1891.

32. Notes on the Diseases of Plants.

Diseases of the apple, pear, peach, and flax.
Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1891.

33. Strawberry Bunch.

11 pages, with 4 original illustrations in the text and 1
plate with 9 illustrations, after Rizema Bos.
A disease of the strawberry plant. Agricultural
Gazette, Sydney, 1891.

34. Reprint of the same.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney, 1891.

35. Parasites in the stomach of a cow.

2 pages, with 2 original illustrations in the text.
Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1891.

36. Notes on the Diseases of Plants.

9 pages, with 8 illustrations (mostly original) in the
text, and one plate with 2 illustrations. Diseases
of the potato, onion, tobacco. ^Igriculttival Gazette,
Sydney, 1891.

37. Reprint of the above.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney, 1891.

38. Devastating Eel-worm.

5 pages, with 7 original illustrations in the text.
Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1891.

39. Devastating Eel-worm.

The above with 2 additional illustrations.
Department of Agriculture, Sydney, 1891.

40. Plant Diseases, and How to Prevent them.

28 pages, with 30 original figures in the text, and 7
figures on 4 plates. Diseases of the apple, pear,
apricot, grape, rose, strawberry, pumpkin, cabbage,
and turnip. Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1892.

41. Miscellaneous Publication, No. 12,
Department of Agriculture, Sydney, 1893, is a reprint

of the above.

42. Notes on the Diseases of Plants.

2 pages. Disease of the or-ange. Agricultural Gazette,
Sydney, 1892.

43. Plant Diseases, and How to Prevent them.

14 pages, with 25 original illustrations in the text, and
2 original illustrations on one plate. The diseases
" Take-all," and " Dry Blight." Agricultural Gazette,
Sydney, 1892.

44. Reprint of the same.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney, 1893.

45. Cold, storage of Apples, from the Vegetable

Pathologist's point of view.
5 pages. Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1892.

46. Reprint of the above.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney, 1892.

47. Rust in Wheat : Report to Adelaide Conference on.
7 pages, with 21 original illustrations in the text.

C. E. Bristow, Adelaide, 1892.

48. Plant Diseases, and How to Prevent them.

4 pages, and 5 illustrations, mostly original, in the
text. Diseases of the vine-root, beau, and apple-
tree. Agricultural Gazette, Sydney, 1892.

49. Reprint of the above.

Department of Agriculture, Sydney, 1892.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

SYDNEY, NEW SOUTH WALES.

Miscellaneous Publication, No. 666.

LETTERS

ON THE

DISEASES OF PLANTS:

BY

N. A. COBB.

SECOND SEIRIIES-

Published by Authority of
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

SYDNEY: WILLIAM APPLEGATE GULLICK, GOVERNMENT PRINTER

1904
'36567 [2*.]

o

\>

ANTHRACNOSE OF THE

RIPE -ROT.

DISEASES OF PLANTS.

564

PROM AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE OF N. S. WALES.

[Wifh addition* and emendation*.}

Letters on the Diseases of Plants.

SECOND SERIES, WITH OVER 150 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS ; SEVEN ORIGINAL COLOURED
PLATES ; AND FOUR PLATES COPIED FROM VARIOI

N. A. COBB.

Introductory Note.

BY placing the following pages under the title "Letters" on the
•diseases of plants, I mean to indicate that they are made up of
•extracts from letters written in reply to requests for information on
that subject or some special branch of it, or from notes made
•during investigations undertaken in response to such requests.
For various reasons the whole of such notes may not have been
transmitted in the letters, the principal reasons being the technical
nature of the information and the fact that it could not be well con-
veyed without the aid of drawings, and these could not be prepared in

Fig. 1.— Keference is often made in the following pagts to the use of
the magnifying glass. It is a very common thing to see this useful
little instrument used in a fashion that does not give the best
results— namely, held at a distance from the eye. The best way to
use such a lens is shown in this illustration. The lens is first
placed near the eye, and the object to be viewed is brought into
focus by placing the left hand against the right and pressing both
against the cheek. This brings all three factors in the problem
into harmonious connection— such that the line of sight can be
readily adjusted and maintained, and what is equally important,
the object can be brought very accurately into focus and held there
steadily. This is by no means so small a matter as it may seem to
ihose who do not realise how important an instrument a good
pocket magnifier is. If every farmer carried, and frequently used,
one of these instruments, it would result in the discovery of many
pests in their early stages, when they might be easily put down.
The incipient stages of many pests, while quite invisible to the
unaided eye, are easily visible under a good magnifying glasp. The
importance of discovering these pests at the earliest moment does
not need to be argued.

time to accompany letters calling for a prompt reply on account
of. the money loss that might be involved in delay. Often the
wording is taken verbatim from the correspondence, but more often
it has been changed and incorporated with that of other letters on
the same malady, and the two have been used to amplify and explain
the subsequent notes and drawings. The drawings have been prepared
with unusual care under my personal supervision, each drawing having
passed through several critical revisions before appearing in its
present form; they may therefore be relied upon as picturing with
great fidelity the objects from which they were made.

It is a pleasure to note the highly intelligent care bestowed on our
illustrations by Messrs. E.M.Grosse, H. S. Burton, an dW.E. Chambers.
The public probably do not realise how often one of their most insig-
nificant looking drawings is the result of long and patient study.
36567 A

RIPE ROT.

[See Coloured Plate, Frontispiece. ]

IN December, 1891, and January, 1892, I conducted a number of
experiments with the common ripe rot of the apple, then generally
known among mycologists as Gloeosporium fructigenum* '. In comment-
ing on this disease in the April number of this Gazette for that year, I
said : — " A sterilised needle bearing a few bitter-rot spores is thrust
through the skin of a peach, plum, nectarine, pear, cherry, grape, or
mango, and after five days, from the invisible puncture thus made, a
diseased spot appears which passes through all the stages just
described in the case of apple. I have observed the disease occurring
naturally on the peach, grape, pear, and mango."

In the same year Dr. Halsted, of New Jersey, U.S.A., carried out
a similar set of experiments with the same general results. Dr. Halsted
made a larger number of cross inoculations than I, and his results were
even more suggestive than mine. I give some of his results in his
own words : —

" The work, so far as it has gone, and it is far from being completed, may be
represented graphically by a diagram (Fig. 2), in which the several fruits.

Fig. 2.— Diagram showing inoculations.

1, Apple ; 2, Peach ; 3, Banana ; 4, Pepper ; 5, Bean ; 6, Persimmon ; 7, Lemon ; 8, Watermelon -
9 Quince; 10, Citron; 11, Grapes; 12, Tomato ; 13, Egg-plant ; 14, Pear ; 15, Squash.

treated are arranged in an oval, and the successful inoculations are shown by
lines drawn from the fruit yielding the rot naturally to the ones which are
susceptible under the conditions of inoculation.

" There are two sorts of lines, — the dotted ones, representing the Gloeos-
poriums, or light-coloured fungi, and the solid ones, the Colletotrickums, which
are usually dark, as above stated, because of the stiff, black bristles. The
arrow shows the direction in which the inoculation has gone.

* Now more correctly called Glomerella rufomaculans (Berk.), Spaulding and Von Schreiik..

' It is quite natural to start with the apple in the consideration, and with
the light-coloured anthracnose, known as the Ripe Rot (Gloeosporium fructi-
genum, Berk.). Up to this time the only other fruit upon which this fungus
was known to grow is the grape, the Division of Pathology of the Department
of Agriculture having recently established this fact. It was an easy matter
to verify this work, but of more interest to find that when the virus was
transferred to the flesh of the peach it quickly developed in a vigorous way,
and produced a similar patch 'of decay not identical in appearance because of a
difference in texture of the host, but the spore masses and spores were the same.

" In like manner it was taken to the pear and the quince, so that the same
ripe rot fungus produces its destructive work upon the three sorts of fruit of
the apple class.

" Turning now to the tomato group, the chart shows that the dotted lines
run to each of these — namely, the pepper, egg-plant, and the tomato. Noting
the arrows in this connection, it will be seen that the native Gloeosporium of
the pepper and of the tomato, supposed to be different species and distinct
from the one upon the apple, were cultivated upon the latter fruit, where
each produced the ripe rot of the apple. Following the oval around to the
right, beginning with the apple, it will be seen that, besides those fruits
already mentioned, the arrows point to the banana, bean, and lemon, all fruits
representing widely different groups of plants.

" No attempts were made to cultivate any of the peach fungi upon the other
fruits. The banana has received three besides the one from the apple, two of
which are pink — namely, from pepper and tomato ; and a black one, repre-
sented by the solid line, from the pear. Much work is now under way with
the banana.

" The pepper has given its pink anthracnose to six — namely, the banana,
pear, persimmon, apple, grape, and bean. The dark species has been received
from the egg-plant and the bean.

" In connection with the bean, the dark lines are most abundant, showing
that here the genus Colletotrichum is quite at home. It sends this to pepper,
pear, egg-plant, citron, and persimmon, and receives the same from the egg?
plant only — in this case an even exchange. The pink cotnes from pepper,
apple, and tomato.

" The persimmon has only been used as a recipient, and not experimented
with largely. The apple and pepper Gloeosporium thrives upon it, and the
bean Colletotrichum. Only a little work has been finished with the lemon, it
having received thus far from only apple and the pear, but the two fungi are
not in the same genus.

" The watermelon has not been inoculated with anything, but its*
anthracnose has been carried to the squash and the citron.

" Upon the quince the apple and grape Gloeosporium has been grown — in.
other words, the ripe-rot is doubly proved to thrive upon the quince. The
citron has only dark lines coming from the bean, melon, and pear, and sends
out its own to the squash.

" From the grape has given out light lines to quince and egg-plant, and
similar lines run to it from apple, pepper, and tomato. One solid line runs
to it — namely, from the pear.

" The tomato exchanges the pink-rot with the apple, sends it also to banana,
bean, grape, egg-plant, and pear. It receives the dark lines from the pear.

" From the egg-plant goes out dark rot to pepper, and an exchange is made
to the bean. It also receives the pink rot from apple, grape, and tomato.

* See Plate opposite p. 26.

The pear sends its C olletotrichum to banana, lemon, citron, grape, and pepper,
and receives the same group from the bean. The pink rot comes from the
apple, pepper, and tomato. No attempt has been made to send anything out
from the squash, and it has received the dark decay from the melon and
citron. It is, perhaps, too early in the work to draw conclusions, and the
facts in themselves may warrant their being stated without further remark."

C 1. Pear

2. Egg-plant

3. Tomato

4. Pepper

5. Grape

6. Quince

7. Lemon

8 Persimmon
9. Bean
10. Banana

Ripe rot or
Gloeosporium

of Apple
will grow on —

Ripe rot or

Gloeosporium

of Pear

rl. Tomato
I 2. Grape
I 3. Citron
j 4. Lemon

will grow on — j 5. Bean

L6. Banana.

-

111. Peach.

Ripe rot or
Gloeosporium

of Tomato
will grow on —

(1. Apple

Ripe rot or j 2. Pear

Gloeosporium \ 3. Bean

of Pepper j 4. Grape

will grow on — ] 5. Banana

16. Persimmon.

1 . Egg-plant

2. Pear

3. Apple

4. Quince

5. Banana

6. Bean

I 7. Grape.

On glancing at the above table one is immediately struck with the
great variety of orders represented by the possible hosts of any given
form of Gloeosporium. In a similar manner the forms of Colletotri-
chum, a so-called genus related to Gloeosporium, were found to be
more or less indifferent to the botanical order of their host plant.

( Citron
i Pepper

Colletotrichum of Bean* -j Egg-plant
| Persimmon
I Pear.

Colletotrichum of Egg-plant j gg|

Colletotrichum of Citron

Squash.

Colletotrichum of Melon* Squash.

The following table may stand as a striking example of the great
variety of fruits that a single species of this genus may infest. It is
a compilation from various authoritative sources, those marked with
an asterisk having been proved or verified by the author : —

LIST of fruits on which it has been experimentally proved that the ripe-rot fungus of

the apple will thrive : —

fl. *Quince 10. *Tomato

2. *Pear 11. Egg-plant

3. * Peach 12. *Pepper

4. *Plum 13. Persimmon

5. *Nectarine 14. Bean

6. *Cherry 15. *Banana.

7. *Grape 16. *Hawthorne.

8. *Mango 17. *Guava
.9. Lemon

From time to time for a number of years past I have continued to
experimentally test the powers of the ripe-rot fungi of a number
of fruits to produce rot in other kinds of fruit and other kinds of
vegetation. Before proceeding to examine some extracts from notes
on these experiments, it may be well to pause a moment to consider
certain general observations.

Gloeosporium of

the apple will

thrive on —

* See Plate opposite p. 26.

Fig. 3.— Apple attacked by
ripe rot. A section has
been removed so as to show
how the rot penetrates.
The concentric arrangement
of the pustules is shown.

Concentric Arrangement of the Pustules. (See Fig. 3.)

I am not aware that the concentric arrangement of the pustules of
the Gloeosporium has received an explanation. I formerly ventured
to propound the query whether this arrangement was not the result
of diurnal variations in the growth. Observation in connection with
the following series of inoculations has con-
vinced me that there is nothing in that idea.
I am more inclined to think that the concentric
arrangement is due to successive waves of
growth. In the formation of this theory the
chief idea is that when a series of pustules
has become ripe, i.e., arrived at the spore-
producing stage, perhaps some of the spores
germinate, or some of the peripheral mycelia
rejuvenate, and having perforce to grow out-
wards in search of food, create as it were a
new spore bed, which in turn gives rise to a
new set of pustules, and so on indefinitely.
Under this theory each ring of pustules rep-
resents a new " generation" of spores, or a
fresh wave of growth, and there will be as many rings of pustules as
there are " generations" or waves. This theory seems to accord closely
with the known facts.

Whenever in the course of these observations terms such as Guava
Gloeosporium and Banana Gloeosporium are used, nothing more is
meant than that the form mentioned was found growing naturally on
the guava or on the banana as the case might be. It should not be
inferred that the terms mean more than this unless there is a
definite statement to that effect. Thus when the term Banana
Gloeosporium is used it must not be thought
this term is synonymous with Gloeosporium
musarum. It may be or it may not. Some
basic principle had to be adopted, and it
seemed best to use the occurrence in nature
as the foundation of the system of reference.
At an early stage of the inoculations it seemed
certain that the hitherto accepted nomenclature
was inadequate, and I was forced to fall back
upon the above plan as the next best thing.

It was most interesting to watch the pro-
gress of the diseased spot that arose from an
inoculation. According to the fruit experi-
mented with, according even to the variety used, so would there arise
certain peculiarities in the growth of the fungus. The growth on the
pear was somewhat different from that on the apple, and on the latter
again differed from that on the quince. The different varieties of
apple presented their peculiarities in the inception and progress of the
disease ; nay, even the stage of ripeness at the time of inoculation
exerted a marked influence.

Fig. 4.— Ripe-rot pustule
from an Apple, magnified.

6

Sometimes, and this seemed especially true when the fruit
experimented upon was a little unripe, the initial stages would be
tardy, and for some time the diseased area would increase but slowly
in size, assuming a darkish colour. On such occasions the pustules
would be slow in appearing, and would be few and scattered, the
first appearance of each being marked by a minute jet-black shiny
point. If, after some days,
this black body was re-
moved, it was found to be a
well-formed perithecium,
lens-shaped, and having a
dark wall. These particular
fruits of the fungus growth
were usually slow in ripen-
ing spores, and not infre-
quently they were out-
stripped by the spore-
producing portions more
remote from the point of inoculation.

Fig. 5.— Section of a ripe-rot pustule of Apple.

Thus after a time the progress

of the disease seemed to become swifter, the invaded tissue appearing
to become more watery and the pustules larger and very much nearer
together and lighter in colour. The black
pustules were ofttimes wholly absent from these
later stages.

As it has been the custom in the past to regard
as separate forms worthy of distinct names — so-
called specific names — G-loeosporia that varied
from each other in certain features of form,
size, and colour, it is well worth while, now that
we* know what a wide range of substratum is
suitable for the growth of these fungi, to inquire
to what extent the same form may vary when
grown on a variety of hosts.

The discussion may best turn largely on
the spores, because it is largely upon these

relied for
species of

have
their

X700'

that naturalists in the past
data in the establishment of
Gloeosporium.

As to form, it has become very evident in the
course of these experiments that it is quite
variable, and that the variations are due to a
considerable extent to the resistance the fungus
meets in breaking through the epidermis of the
host. In all cases where the skin of the host
plant offered decided resistance to rupture, as

evidenced, for instance, by tardiness in the appearance of loose spores,
there was a marked irregularity of form. The spores would be bent
instead of straight, clavate instead of uniform in diameter from end
to end, or perhaps somewhat dumb-bell-shaped instead of cylindroid.
In addition to this, the various spores would vary from each other in

Fig. 6.— Ripe-rot spores
on hyphae.

size more than was the case where they found an easy exit. In
some instances I observed that pustules which at first showed these
traits of irregularity would, after the rupture of the epidermis, assume
greater regularity as a result of this release of pressure.

The colour and internal structure of the spores were less variable
than the form, but even these were subject to decided variations.
Thus in the case of the Gloeosporium of the guava, a form with large
and loose internal granulation, it was evident that when grown on the
pomaceous fruits its granulation became finer, and in the same
connection the vacuole became more definite in form. The variations
in colour, however, seemed comparatively slight.

I must add that it is not entirely to mechanical causes that I
attribute the resistance of the skin in certain cases to the action of the
fungus. I feel it all the more necessary to mention this because my
conclusions in another somewhat
similar case appear to me to have
been misunderstood. It may be
true, and I think probably is
true, that fungi at the time of

their outbreak exert a chemical 7._Ripe.rot spores geminating.

effect upon the epidermal tissues

of the host, — perhaps a solvent effect. But whatever means may be
utilised by the fungus to effect its release, it seems to me the effect
on the parasite of an enforced delay in the outbreak will be much the
same. It will go on increasing in size, and this growth will result
in the pressure which has been mentioned above.

It would not be unreasonable to suppose that there would be
connected with a mechanical toughness of the cuticle an internal
resistance to the attacks of the fungus due to a correlated toughness
of parenchymatous tissues. There is evidence of such correlation in
a number of fruits.

Description of Various Inoculation Experiments.

I have now to add to the cross inoculations already mentioned the
following more recently made by me in connection with the occurrence
of the ripe-rot on the passion-fruit and other fruits.

2. PASSION-FRUIT inoculated from Guava
Gloeosporium.— After eighteen days there
was no tangible result.

1. PASSION-FRUIT inoculated from the
Gloeosporium of the Banana. — The inocula-
tion point became the centre of a dis-
coloured area, which in the course of
three weeks became nearly an inch in
diameter. No pustules appeared. It re-
mained undetermined whether the exciting
cause was Gloeosporium or not ; but I am
inclined to think it was the Gloeosporium.
There is a Gloeosporium occurring in nature
on the passion-fruit, the fnrm of whose

rres it is impossible to distinguish from
se of tne species known as Gloeosporium
fructigemim, although I failed on taking
these spores and testing them by inocula-
tion to prove that they would infect other
fruit. Only one series of trials was made.

3. LEMON inoculated from Gloeosporium
of the Banana. — In a week there was
definite proof of disease in the shape of a
discoloured area concentric with the inocu-
lation spot. This area continued to increase
slowly in size for six weeks, the lemon
meanwhile becoming dry and hard. It
seemed as if the skin of the lemon became
too tough to allow of the fungus forming
pustules. It remained undetermined whe-
ther the fungus resulting from inoculation
was really a Gloeosporium, but I am inclined
to think it was, and that in all probability

8

it would have fruited if the skin had not
dried up.

Dr. Halsted reports having been suc-
cessful in inoculating the lemon with G.
fructigenum.

4. BANANA inoculated from Gloeosporium
of the Banana. — The Gloeosporium began
to fructify on the seventh day, before any
of the other fruits that were inoculated at
the same time with the same material had
begun to show signs of growth. This may
tend to show that a Gloeosporium which
has been produced on a given fruit acts
more promptly on that fruit than on others

Fig. 8. — Spores from an old
pustule of the Gloeosporium
found growing naturally on
the banana.

X 400

of a different kind. Or it may be that the
difference in the time of germination in this
case was due to the fact that the fungus
having just completed a cycle in the banana
found itself again on ground of precisely
the same stage of ripeness. In other

Fig. 9. — Gloeosporium spores,
obtained by inoculating a
banana from a banana.

words, the slower growth on the other
fruits soon to be mentioned may have been
an effect not of the change in the host, but
in the condition of the host.

On the twelfth day the banana was
thoroughly infested. (Figs. 8 and 9. )

5. BANANA inoculated with the Gloeo-
sporium of the Banana after the fungus
had been passed through the Quince.
Several bananas were inoculated. All
promptly showed signs of having taken,
and all became infested.

6. GRAPE inoculated from Gloeosporium
of the Banana. — At the end of thirteen
days the grape showed traces of one or

Fig. 10.— Spores of the Gloeos-
porium, obtained by inocu-
lating a grape with spores
of the Gloeosporium found
growing naturally on the

two dark unruptured pustules of con-
siderable size. The result on the grape,
which was of the large white firm-fleshed
long-keeping type, was in striking contrast
with the considerable number of other

inoculations made from the same source.
The pustules were few and dark, and the-
growth was slow. There was a con-
centric and dark appearance reminiscent
of the Black Spot or Anthracnose of the
Grape.

On the fourteenth day pustules were
removed from under the skin of the grape-
and examined. The mycelium resembled
that of a Gloeosporium, and spores measur-
ing 5-7 x 7-14/i were found, coloured as in
the banana. Thus it was shown that these-
spores were smaller and rounder than on
the banana, though some of them reached
the size 6 x 14]u. (See Fig 10.) The
colour and structure were identical with
those of the original spores. I never saw
any of the pustules on the grape burst
open promptly and emit spores freely as
was usually the case on other fruits. It
was always necessary at this stage, in
order to secure spores for examination, in
the case at any rate of this particular
variety of grape, to dig beneath the skin
and remove the lenticular- shaped spore-
beds.

On the twenty-third day the pustules
burst, and it was interesting to note that
the spores were of a little brighter green
colour than other spores resulting on other
fruits in the same series of inoculations,
and that they had, perhaps, a little coarser
granulation. There were also some irregu-
larities in the form, some spores being more
pointed at one end than the other.

7. PEAR inoculated from Gloeosporium
of the Banana.— At the end of the-
twelfth day the pear gave slight evidence
of infestation.

At the end of sixteen days great numbers;
of pustules were to be seen on the pear,
but none of them had broken through the
epidermis. Most of them were dark-
coloured, a feature of these pustules in-
certain states and varieties of the pear.

On the twenty-first day it was found that
the dark-coloured pustules which were still
under the skin of the pear bore ellipsoidal, but
not yet mature, spores. The dark colour of
the pustules was due for the most part to the
colour of the fungus elements themselves,
and not to the pigment of the skin of the
pear. No doubt there was a discolouration
of the skin of the pear through the action
of the fungus, but this was not the main
element in the dark colour of the pustules.

There is a most decided difference in the
appearance of the fructification of Gloeo-
sporium in pears of different varieties.
According as the pear has been evolved for
earliness or lateness, for immediate con-
sumption or for long keeping, for sweetness-
or for acidity, for mildness or for astrin-
gency, there have been produced in the
fruit properties having, it appears, a
decided influence on the history of its
Gloeosporium parasite.

9

8. PASSION-FRUIT inoculated from the
Banana Gloeosporium. — The inoculation
took, but after a month no pustules had
formed. Concentric with the inoculation
point was an area about an inch in diameter,
which had taken on a reddish-purple colour.
This was the evidence upon which the
Gloeosporium was believed to have taken.
It is known that a species of Gloeosporium
occurs in nature on the passion-fruit, so
similar in its spore characteristics to the
Gloeosporium of the pomaceous fruits that
it is difficult to point out any difference.
I have myself seen and carefully examined
this Gloeosporium of the passion-fruit.

9. DATE-PLUM inoculated from Banana
(see Figs. 11 and 12). — After twelve days
the date-plum showed slight evidences
of being diseased at the point of inocu-
lation. On the next day pustules were

Fig- 11.— Spores of the Gloeo-
sporium obtained by inocu-
lating the date-plum with
spores of the Gloeosporium
found growing naturally on
the banana. Compare with
Fig. 12.

noted under the skin of the date-plum.
They appeared to be finer and closer
together than on the other fruits inocu-
lated from the same source. It seemed
as if the fructification met some resist-
ance from the skin of the date-plum, which
is known to be long resistant to decay.
Probably the skin of this fruit, notwith-
standing its thinness, is rather more re-
sistant than that of other fruits. I think
the keeping qualities of the date-plum bear
out this theory. If they are not knocked
about these fruits keep for a long time
without decaying, although the pulp may
meanwhile become remarkably soft and of
such a nature that it would most readily
decay if once yeast fungi or bacteria should
gain entrance. It may also be that the
astringent property of the date-plum has

Fig. 12.— Spores from inocula-
tion on date-plum, secured
by inoculating with spores
from the Gloeosporium
found growing naturally on
the banana. These spores
are from an old pustule,
and should be compared
with those from a mature
but younger pustule, shown
in Fig. 11.

X400

something to do with the difference in
the appearance of the Gloeosporium pustules
on this fruit. ' On the fourteenth day pus-
tules were removed from under the skin
and spores were found to exist in them in
abundance, and they were identical in form,
size, and colour with those of the banana
and quince of the same series of inocula-
tions. The spores measured 5-6 x 12- 14/u.

Still, for a long time afterwards the
pustules remained sub-epidermal and the
spores continued to show irregularities due
to resistance of the skin to rupture.

From the somewhat exceptional action
of the Banana Gloeosporium on the date-
plum it might be thought that the con-
ditions were uncongenial. Thus the pus-
tules were smaller than usual in other
members of this series of inoculations, and
the spores were tardy in their outbreak, as
has been already mentioned.

Nevertheless, when spores derived from
this date-plum were used to inoculate the
banana once more, they produced the cha-
racteristic disease with promptitude. In a
week's time diseased areas had developed
bearing scores of well-grown pustules, whose
spores were of the form, size, and colour
characteristic of the Banana Gloeosporium,
in spite of the fact that the " seed " taken
from the date-plum were undersized and
distorted.

10. PEAR inoculated from Gloeosporium
of the Banana.— After twenty-three days

(ff^) |p Fig. 13.— Spores of the Gloeo-
sporium from inoculation
O^ on pear from spores found
pi) growing naturally on th&
ml banana.

* 400

the rotten area on the pear was 1£ inches'
across, and bore hundreds of pustules, from
some of which spores were being emitted1
in " tendrils."

11. QUINCE inoculated from Gloeosporium
of the Banana.— Not successful. The in-
oculation seemed to take in a partial
manner. After twenty-three days the spot
was only £ inch across, and was but little
sunken. It was mottled brown in colour
and dry looking, with no indications of
pustules. It seemed as if the quince was
not in the right condition for receiving the
fungus — perhaps too green.

12. QUINCE inoculated from Gloeosporium
of the Banana.— At the end of twelve days
the rotten area was upwards of half an
inch across, and bore fruiting pustules,
often dark coloured, from which salmon-
coloured spores were oozing. There was
an appearance of the concentric rings-

Fig. 14.— Spores of Gloeospor-
ium, obtained by inoculating
the quince with spores found
growing naturally on tbe-
banana.

characteristic of the ripe rot of the apple.
This is the quince from which spores were
used to reinoculate a banana (No. 5) ; the

10

inoculation on the banana was entirely
successful.

On the thirteenth day the spores from
this quince were compared with those from
a banana that had been inoculated from the
same source, namely, a banana on which
the Oloeosporium was found growing in
nature. The spores on the quince were
12-18 x 6/j., and were of practically the
same dimensions as those of the inoculated
banana, 11-14 x 6-7/*, but they had a
•coarser internal granulation and more of a
tendency to be pointed at one end. The
colouration in the two sets of spores was
identical.

13. APPLE inoculated from Gloeosporium
•of the Banana. — No resulting disease.
The apple was a tough -looking Russet.
This experiment was afterward repeated
with the result of verifying the records of
others that the disease can be easily trans-

X 400

Fig. 15.— Spores of Gloeosporium, grown on the
apple from an inoculation from banana Gloeos-
porium. These spores are somewhat unripe,
i.e., were taken from pustules of slow growth,
and not yet burst.

ferred to the apple. The nature of the
apple utilised in the first trial explains the
failure of the inoculation, and emphasises
the fact of specific resistance.

14. PEACH inoculated from Gloeosporium
of the Banana. — For a long time it appeared
as if this inoculation was a failure, but
ultimately a virulent outbreak of spores
occurred. On the seventeenth day the
peach was examined for the first time in

Fig. 16. — Gloeosppnuin spores,
obtained by inoculating a
peach with spores from the
Gloeosporium found grow-
ing naturally on the banana.

X400

several days, and it was found to be almost
literally covered with deliquescent spore
masses of a salmon colour (Fig. 16).

The skin of the peach is such that the
early stages of the growth are not very
apparent

The spores measured 6-7 x 20-25/i, these
being the largest secured on any fruit in
this particular series of inoculations (in-
oculations from banana on to nine different
fruits belonging to various orders).

Spores taken from this peach reproduced
the disease on the banana. It was found
to be impossible to measure the size of the
pustules on the peach. Clavate spores of
somewhat greater length were seen, — 27 /u.

15. QUINCE inoculated from Gloeosporium
of the Guava. — Took readily, the fungus
coming into fruit after five days, and con-
tinuing to fruit abundantly thereafter.
The spores (see Fig. 17) showed a varia-
tion from the original form as found on the
guava, the variation being in the direction
of the form found on the pomaceous fruits.

Fig. 17.— Gloeosporium spores,
obtained from an inocula-
tion on quince with spores
from the Gloeospomim
found growing raturally on
the guava.

x 4oo

Spores from this culture were used to
inoculate a guava, and with success. (See
Inoculation 19.)

16. HAWTHORNE BERRIES were inoculated
with the Gloeosporium of the Guava after
it had been passed through the apple. —
The berries were of Crataegus oxyacantha,
and were gathered in June near Sydney,
being fully ripe at the time of gathering.
After nine days, pustules had formed and
burst open, though the spores of the

Fig. 18.— Spores of the Gloeo-
sporium found growing
naturally on the fruit of the
guava.

X400

Gloeosporium had not yet formed. The
spore beds of mycelium were fully formed,
and, as usual, consisted of closely-packed
septate threads, at the summits of which,
however, there was, as yet, no indication
of the formation of spores.

On the eleventh day well-formed spores
were secured and drawn. In form $nd
size (4'2-5'6 x 9-21/t, and averaging
14 x 4'8/x) they resembled closely the
original spores as found growing in nature
on the guava. (See Fig. 18.)

16a. APPLE inoculated from Gloeosporium
of the Guava. — Took rather slowly, the first

Fig. 19. — Spores of the Gloeos-
porium, produced on apple
b.T inoculating it with Gloeos-
porium spores found growing
naturally on he guava.

X 400

spores being obtained after ten days.
There was a manifest difference between

11

the spores obtained and those sown. The
difference is shown in the illustrations.
The spores as originally found on the guava
were loosely granular and the vacuole was
not very conspicuous. The generation on
the apple was more finely granular, and
the vacuole was more clearly to be seen.
My notes, made at the time, say that the
spores had varied in the direction of the
form of the Gloeosporium spores as
ordinarily found on the apple in nature.
After sixteen days the rotten area was three-
fourths of an inch across, and some of the
pustules had begun to emit " tendrils."

17. PEAR inoculated from the Gloeo-
sporium of the Guava. — In eleven days the
pear was half rotten, but without any

^spsw^i1 Fig. 20. — Spores of the Gloeo-
sporium, obtained from
inoculating a pear with
spores of the Gloeosporium
found growing naturally on
the guava.

x4oo

definite outbreak of pustules. The rot
seemed too soft for ripe rot. No pustules
or spores could be found, but a coarse dark
and very granular mycelium was seen. A
repetition of the inoculation was successful.
18. BANANA inoculated with Guava
Gloeosporium. — Took rather slowly. On

Fig. 21.— Gloeosporium spores,
obtained by inoculating a
banana with Gloeosporium
spores found growing natur-
ally on the guava.

X 4-00

the eleventh day the spot was 4 milli-
metres' across, and bore a single pustule,

that the vacuole was more distinct. Two
days later other pustules began to appear.
On the sixteenth day there were some
half dozen well-developed cushion-like
pustules, and on the eighteenth day these
had increased to a score. The spores were
drawn, and appear at Fig. 21.

19. GUAVA of the large yellow sort was
inoculated from a quince that had received
its seed from a Gloeosporium found growing
naturally on the small red variety of
guava. The object of the inoculation was
to see if the change of form noted on the
quince would be retained on the guava, or
wrhether there would be a reversion to the
form as it originally occurred on the guava.

The disease took slowly, but twenty-four
days later there were well-developed pus-
tules for a distance of five millimetres from
the point of inoculation. The pustules were
of rank growth, and were in all respects like
those from which the seed had been taken
on the original small red guava. The yellow
guava was ultimately completely destroyed
by Penicillium, and this may account for the
somewhat slow growth of the Gloeosporium,
but it is to be remarked that this yellow
guava was a hard specimen and far from
ripe to begin with. The spores, on being
compared with the drawings made from the
original "seed " as found growing in nature
on the small red guava, proved to be
identical in size, structure, and colour.

20. APPLE inoculated in two places with
Gloeosporium growing naturally on quince.
After twelve days this apple was com-
pletely brown, soft and rotten, and
numerous blackish pustules had appeared
and were evidently concentric in arrange-
ment with the two inoculated spots. The
pustules were not, however, in rings. A
few had already sent out "tendrils" of
spores. These were mounted and examined,
and were found to be rather more spindle-
shaped than is common in Gloeosporium,
of a greenish colour, rather more finely and
densely granular than is usual in the genus,

Fig. 22.— Gloeosporium growing natur-
ally on the quince. Compare these
original spores with their progeny,
shown in the two following illustra-
tions. It will be seen that on the
apple the spores have become more
slender and more pointed. The
difference is less marked than in
similar cases on pages 16 and 17.

X400

Fig. 23. — Spores of the
Gloeosporium, ob-
tained from an inocu-
lation on apple from
the spores of a Gloeo-
sporium found grow-
ing naturally on the
quince, and shown in
Fig. 22.

which, on examination, proved to be an
immature Gloeosporium pustule. The only
spore seen was curved, but otherwise had
the appearance of the spores sown except

X400

Fig. 24.— Spores of the Gloeo-
sporium, obtained by inocu-
lating an apple with spores of
a Gloeosporium found growing
naturally on the quince, and
shown in Fig. 22. Theee spores
are from the same inoculation
as Fig. 23, but at an earlier si aare.
It will be noted that at a later
stage the spores became much
more elongated.

and with no central
Figs. 23 and 24.)

clear space. (See

12

These spores germinated readily ; usually
from one end only, sometimes from both,
seldom from the side.

When a coil of these spores is placed
under a cover glass in water culture, only
the outer spores of the coil germinate — as
if the presence together of a large number
of spores prevented germination.

21. PEAR inoculated from Gloeosporium
found growing naturally on the leaves of

X400

Fig. 26.— Gloeosporium
spores, obtained by in-
oculating a pear with
spores found growing
naturally on the leaves
of the passion- vine.

passion-vine. Twenty-four hours later
there were no indications of the fungus
having " taken " except that the sur-
rounding area was a trifle sunken.

X400

Fig. 25.— Gloeosporium
from tbe leaves of the
passion- vine.

Twenty-four days later a few pustules
were found, having well- developed spores.
These are shown in Fig. 26.

22. Plum inoculated with the Gloeo-
sporium of the apple. After five days the
plum was well infested.

23. Spores from the foregoing inoculation
were used to inoculate a tomato of the
yellow variety. After ten days the tomato
was well infested. The pustules were

X 400 pi

Fig, 27. — Spores of a Gloeosporium
found growing naturally on the tomato.

small and close together, and the outbreak
of the spores seemed to be considerably
delayed by the nature of the skin of the
tomato.

24. An apple was inoculated with the
Gloeosporium found growing naturally on
the pepper. After fourteen days the apple
was well infested.

Ripe-rot Fungi found growing naturally on various kinds
of Vegetation.

Ripe-rot fungus on the Banana. (See Fig. 45.)

The following facts were noted with reference to a specimen bunch of
bananas sent from Byron Bay, and said to be failing to set and ripen.
As soon as the fruits reached a length of about three inches, and
sometimes earlier, they began to change colour and to shrivel, passing
through greenish-yellow, yellow, brown, or French grey, to almost
black. At the brown stage the colour became pruinose, and the final
blackening was accompanied by a pink eruption of Gloeosporium spores.

The spores occured on all parts of the fruit, but in the specimens
figured they were most abundant on the basal half, being particularly
abundant at the very base of the stem. (See Fig. 45.)

The disease extended to the entire bunch, which in consequence was
rendered worthless.

No other disease-producing organism was to be seen on the speci-
mens sent, which included most of the middle part of a bunch.

The sender wrote that he felt certain that cold weather had nothing
to do with the matter. It was apparent that the disease had attacked
the fruit at an early stage of its existence.

Later the fungus fruited freely on the main stem of the bunch of
bananas. The facts observed seemed to establish the ability of the
fungus to completely prevent the fructification of the banana.

Ripe-rot fungus on Hawthorne. (See Figs. 28, 29, 30.)

The Gloeosporium of the hawthorne was found growing naturally
on the fruits of Crataegus oxyacantha in the middle of the month of
June, near Sydney.

'The pustules, which often covered the entire fruit, were about one-
tenth of a millimetre in diameter, and gave to the surface of the fruit

13

a punctate appearance. The number of spores in each pustule was
not great, but the spores were of large size, measuring 6- 5-8 x 18-32/x.
In form they were, for the most part, elongated,
but in some instances they were somewhat
fusiform (Fig. 28). The colour was nearly that
of the Gloeosporium of the guava, but it was a
trifle less brilliant, the iridescence being a little
less marked. The vacuole characteristic of most
spores of Gloeosporium was not plainly to be
seen> the ?ne granulation being such as to
obscure it, if it existed at all.
It will be seen that the spores of this form are larger than any
others examined in the course of these experiments.

Although the spores when freshly removed from the pustules appeared
to be one-celled, after twenty-four hours in water they were multi-
cellular, some two-celled, some three-celled, some four-celled, the
latter being more constricted at the middle division. After the

Fig. 29. — Spores of the Gloeosporium, <3§H3& /& Fig. 30. — Gloeosporium, found

found growing naturally on the growing on the fruit of

berries of the Hawthorne. These <J^^> M Hawthorne (Crataegiis) ,

are shown in the first stages of June, 1902, at Killara,

germination. It is not often that New South Wales,

the spores become four-parted in x 4Q_ r
this manner before throwing out
a definite mycelial thread.

formation of these septa the vacuoles in the various cells appeared a
trifle more discernible (see Fig. 29). The cells germinated vigorously,
sending forth a mycelium that at the end of twenty-four hours was
many times as long as the spore, and considerably branched, but
with no tendency to produce conidia.

Ripe-rot fungus on leaves of Passion-vine. (Fig. 31.)

The Gloeosporium found on the leaves of the passion- vine was used
to inoculate a pear, a banana, two apples, and a'passion-fruit. After
thirty days, the pear, which had become slowly infected from the first,
was found overrun with Penicillium, in the midst of which, at least
on the borders of the outbreak, pustules of Gloeosporium were to be
found. These gave spores somewhat smaller than those of the pustules
on the passion-vine leaves from which they were inoculated. The
measurements are given herewith.

It will be seen that the average dimensions are 6'2/* x

13-6 x 6-e£ 13'4> the limits being 5~9 x 12-15/a.
12-6 x 5-2M As many of the spores had germinated, it is not

?.7 x ?!«M possible to give these measurements the weight they

13 '3 X O°2U

15 -3 x 7-0M

11 '9 x 8'7U ( [ ^Ms* 31.— Gloeosporium of the leaves of the

passion-vine, germinating and producing

secondary spores.

13-4x6-2^

would otherwise have. The spores that had not
germinated seemed to me to be dwarf spores, and those that had

14

germinated were difficult to measure properly, especially in width,
it being impossible to allow for the amount of collapse due to ger-
mination.

It should also be remarked that the growth was very slow and not
very decisive; in fact, I felt convinced for a long time that no
Gloeosporium was present, and that the disease was an accidental
growth of Penicillium, and nothing else. An earlier microscopic
examination would have been better.

I succeeded in infecting another pear with spores of this fungus.

Ripe-rot fungus on Passion-fruit. (Fig. 32.)

On the 22nd March, 1901, I received some passion-fruit suffering
from a ripe rot, caused by a species of Gloeosporium not distinguish-
able in form from Gloeosporium fructigenum. The diseased spots also
showed the concentric markings so characteristic of the ripe rot of

Fig. 32. — Spores of the Gloeosporium, found growing naturally
on the fruit of the passion-vine. a, freshly removed
spores; b, germinating spores, one of which has already
produced a secondary spore.

— spa
X400 T&

the apple and other fruits, presenting more or less of a buff colour
with rings of a darker shade. The infested areas were usually of a
circular shape, and sunken. As the disease progressed the spots
collapsed, and the shell of the fruit became dry and brittle. The
spore-producing pustules were less numerous than is usual on other
fruits, but were of the usual size. The spores are shown in Fig. 32.

The diseased spots were at first small and green, but at this stage
were not sunken as they, were at a later stage. As the disease
progressed the spots enlarged, and, while gradually sinking inward,
assumed the above-mentioned buff colour with concentric markings.

The disease was said to be causing a great deal of damage.

On being cultivated, the spores germinated in precisely the same
manner as those of the ripe rot of the apple, producing secondary
spores in about fifteen hours. These are shown in the illustration
referred to above. Prior to the germination, or pari passu, the
spores became two-celled. Perhaps the prominence of the " nucleus/'
as ordinarily seen on removal of a spore from its pustule, is due to
the condition in which the spore then exists — a condition preliminary
to division.

The secondary spores are smaller than the primary, and are darker
in colour, as well as more coarsely granular. In form they are some-
what spherical. (See Fig. 32, b.)

Apples, pears, grapes, guavas, peaches, bananas, and date-plums
were inoculated from the spores of the ripe rot of the passion-fruit on
March 23rd, 1901. A few days later pineapples, tomatoes, quinces, and
peppers were inoculated.

None of these appeared to take except the tomatoes, which on
April 9th showed three pustules on one small spot, as yet unripe, and
not bearing spores. These appeared to be true G-loeosporium

15

pustules, however. This growth was so slow that, even supposing it
to have been a good case of transmission, I doubted if the fungus was
on congenial ground. At a later date, however, when making a
series of successful inoculations with the ripe rot from another source,
I obtained a similar result on the grape. From this it may be inferred
that certain inoculations though successful result in less robust growth.

Ripe Rots and their Names.

Whoever reads the literature of G-loeosporium will, I think, be-
willing to admit that there has been considerable readiness to describe
and name as specifically distinct a number of forms, mainly upon the
ground of their host-plant being one upon which species of Gloeosporium.
had not been previously seen. If, in addition to the novelty of the
host-plant, some small distinction in the size and form of the spores,
could be made out, there has apparently been very little hesitation in
doing what is commonly called " establishing a new species/'

In the course of observations made upon a considerable variety of'
Gloeosporium inoculations I have often had occasion to observe the
diversity of form, size, colour, and structure that may be exhibited by-

i

X400

Fig. 33.— Spores from
an old pustule of the
Gloeosporium, fouud
growing naturally 011
the banana. Compare
these with their pro-
geny. (See Figs. 34-
39.)

t

5

Fig. 34.— Spores of the
Gloeosporium, ob-
tained by inoculating
the date-plum with
spores of the Gloeos-
porium found growing
naturally on the

Fig. 35.— Spores of the
Gloeosporium, ob-
tained by inoculating
a grape with spores
of the Gloeosporium
found growing natur-
ally on the banana.

Fig. 36.— Gloeosporiunu
spores, obtained by
inoculating a banana,
from a banana. These
are very much like-
the parent spores.

the spores of a single species. With a change in the nature or
condition of the host-plant comes a corresponding change in the
resulting spores. Mature spores from young growths differ from those

Fig1. 37. — Spores from in-
oculation on date-plum,
secured by inoculating
with spores from the
Gloeosporium found
growing naturally on the
banana.

Fig. 38. — Gloeosporium spores
obtained by inoculating a
peach with spores from the
Gloeosporium, found growing
naturally on the banana.

X400

produced by the same growths at a later date, not only in size and
form and structure but also somewhat in colour. I observed that these
differences were not infrequently greater than those upon which various .
authors had founded new species.

16

Thus it appears that the granulation of the spores is coarser when
young than when more mature. In the case of the spores of the guava
Gloeosporium cultivated on the apple,, the earlier spores from the first
pustules that appeared were removed and examined before the pustules
had burst, yet at a time when the spores were readily obtainable in
large numbers. Several days later, when more pustules had appeared,
spores were taken from a pustule that had begun to emit the spores
in " tendrils." Comparison with the spores taken at an earlier date
showed that these later spores were more regular in form and more
finely granular, and had a more distinct vacuole than those of an
earlier date.

Similarly in another case when spores were removed from a young
pustule of the Gloeosporium of the banana inoculated on to the apple,

' Fig. 40.— Spores of the Gloeo-
sporium produced on apple
by inoculating- it with Gloeo-
"Fig. 39. — Spores of Gloeosporium grown on .$ sporiuin !spores found grow-

the apple from an inoculation from banana ^vr^, l:: ing naturally on the guava.

Gloeosporium. These spores are some-
what unripe, i.e., were taken from pustules
of slow growth and not yet burst. * 400

•the spores were found to be very coarsely granular and without a
vacuole, the normal form of these spores on pomaceous fruits being
finely granular. (See Fig. 39.)

It has been necessary to bear these facts constantly in mind while
carrying on the experiments recorded in these pages. If, for
instance, the earlier spores resulting from an inoculation on to a new
fruit were compared with a mature spore from the original, the results of
the comparison would be of less value than if 'the spores were mature
on both occasions. No rule can be laid down for guidance in such
comparisons because, on account of the varying composition of different
fruits, the appearances of the ripe pustules vary considerably. It
would seem that a pustule that is actively " spouting" spores might
be safely taken as beyond question mature, and in the comparisons
here made, as far as possible, spores for comparison were derived
from "spouting" pustules.

Unfortunately, however, the varying nature of the epidermis of the
various fruits is a factor difficult to allow for in making comparisons.
To illustrate the nature of the comparisons made, and the obstacles
encountered, and the results that may be obtained if the difficulties are
not too great, let us return to the cultures of the Gloeosporium of the
guava. We find that the spores of this form, as they occur on the
guava, are rather more elongated than usual, coarsely granular,
provided with a rather indistinct vacuole, and characterised by a
peculiar colouration. When viewed in optical section the spore walls
appear to be colourless and the granules nearly so, but with a
delicate shade of green. If the lens be next raised a trifle, the spore
wall takes on a pinkish tint, the change reminding one of the change
of tint noticed in those substances, such as eosin, that in one light

17

appear red and in another green. Similar appearances may be seen
in other forms of G-loeosporium, but they are not usually so marked
as in the Gloeosporium of the guava.

If, now, other fruits be inoculated with these spores, as grown on the
guava, strong growths will be secured that present certain variations.
In most instances (banana, apple, quince, pear) the spores contain

X400

Fig. 41.— Spores of the
Gloeosporium found
growing naturally on
the fruit of the guava.
Compare these origi-
nal spores with their
progeny shown in
Figs. 40, 42, 43, and
44.

X400

Fig. 42.— Spores of the
Gloeosporium obtain-
ed from inoculating a
pear with spores of
the Gloeosporium
found growing natur-
ally on the guava.
Compare this with
adjacent figures.

X 400

Fie. 43.— Gloeosporium
spores obtained from
an inoculation on
quince with spores
from the Gloeospor-
ium found growing
naturally on the
guava. Compare this
with adjacent figures.

X400

Fig. 44.— Gloeosporium
spores obtained by
inoculating a banana
with Gloeosporium
spores found growing
naturally on the
guava. Compare these
with Figs. 40-43.

finer granules and a more distinct vacuole. This is distinctly noticeable
on the pomaceous fruits (see Figs. 40 to 44). Now, as the Gloeosporium
ordinarily found on pomaceous fruits is more finely granular than the
form seen by me on the guava and used in these observations, we may
safely suspect that the guava Gloeosporium, when grown on the
pomaceous fruits, varies in the direction of the form characteristic of
those fruits. It is needless to point out that this is what we should
expect if one of these Gloeosporia is a derivative of the other, and too
closely related to be regarded as specifically distinct.

As to the variations in the size and form of the spores of fungi, we
see in the measurements resulting from the inoculations already
recorded what large variations may occur as the result of varying
environment, such as is afforded by the various fruits employed. We
may have spores varying in size from 5 x 7/u. to 6 x 18/u,., and in form from
nearly round through ellipsoidal and elongated to clavate. If any
attempt had been made to secure extremes, it would have been easily
possible to have exceeded the limits of size and form here set down.

A thoughtful review of the various colours displayed by the diseased
spots resulting from the attacks of a given form of Gloeosporium on
a variety of fruits will, I think, result in the opinion that these colours
are in harmony with the physiological functions of the host, and I am
sure that to a less extent the same is true of the colour and form of
the pustules and spores. Thus the colour of the fruit itself enters
to some extent into that of the diseased area, and the chemical
reactions of the fruit's constituents have a decided influence on the
colour of the rot. Some varieties of pears have a tendency to blacken
the pustules of the fungus. Turning to the form of the spores,
nothing could be plainer than that the peculiar epidermis of certain
fruits, through its extra resistance to rupture, gives a peculiar irregu-

36567 B

18

larity to the form of the spores — spores that under other conditions
would be symmetrical, becoming bent and clavate. With regard to
the colour of the spores, I am not so certain; but I have seen quite
perceptible changes of colour due, apparently, to the change of
host-plant in the course of a series of inoculations. For example,
I observed that the somewhat brightly-coloured spores of the Gloeo-
sporium of the guava became less brilliant after two or three genera-
tions on pomaceous fruits.

All these various properties of the fungus should be considered to be
to a considerable extent a function of the host-plant, just as the size,
form, and colour of Phaenogamous plants are to a certain extent
functions of the soil and climate in which they are produced.

If these ideas are correct, and my observations leave me no doubt
that they are at least approximately correct, they must cause us to
consider the size, form, and colour of spores in the light of their
origin, and not refer to them indiscriminately as characteristics of the
fungus, and make them the basis of descriptions of " species."

Consider for a moment the colours called forth on these same host-
plants by other fungus diseases than the ripe-rot fungi. It is quite
evident from such an examination that each species of fruit has certain
ranges of colour in its rots, regardless to some extent of the exciting
cause. These colours are due to certain chemical changes in the
tissues of the fruit, and these changes are at bottom similar for quite
a range of injuries. Here again we see that the resulting compounds
and their colours are to a certain degree a function of the object
attacked, and we cannot logically refer them indiscriminately to the
attacking agency.

While these statements may not be capable of being set down as
hard and fast laws, they embody too much truth to be so generally
ignored as they have been in the past, particularly by systematists.

The facts strongly suggest that a considerable number of the
various so-called species of Gloeosporium, showing as they do when
grown on different fruits no greater variations than we expect to see
in various plants when grown on a variety of soils, are in reality too
closely related to require distinct names — are in reality one and the
same form or species.

Other recent observers have arrived at similar conclusions as the
result of more or less extensive experiment.

The fact that the ripe-rot fungus of a given fruit can be grown on a
great variety of other fruits, and that it actually occurs in nature on a
great variety of other fruits, may appear capable of another inter-
pretation than that suggested by the foregoing paragraphs. It may
be argued that in spite of the close resemblances among the various
forms, there are as many species as there are kinds of fruit; that the
mere fact of each such form growing on other fruits is no proof that
it is not in itself a true species ; that there are other important
factors besides form, colour, size, and structure that enter into the
idea of a species, namely physiological adaptation to environment,
chemical composition, &c., and that these do not find expression in any
visible manner.

Pig. 45.— Middle portion of a bunch of bananas, attacked by ripe rot or Gloeooporium. The three lower " hands "

nave been already killed by the disease, and the upper one is badly smitten The fructification of the fungus

seen most clearly at the stem end of each banana, and appears in the form of numerous salmon-coloured

les. A collection of these pustules is also to be seen on the main stem of the bunch. Entire bunches

were killed in the manner shown.

20

The burden of proof that such is the case rests with those who hold
such views, and until satisfactory proof of the existence of these
elusive characteristics is brought forward, one may be pardoned for
looking upon such views as too indefinite to be utilised in systematic
work. We must fall back upon what we can readily test with our
senses.

From an economic point of view it makes no difference that I can
see, in the matter of the ripe rots of fruit, whether there is only one
species capable of living on all sorts of fruit, or whether there are as
many species as there are kinds of fruit, each so like the others that it
is hardly possible to make a distinction, and each moreover able to
effect an entrance into all other kinds of fruit and produce rot. The
economic precautions required are the same in either case. From a
scientific point of view, however, the question is an important one, and
it is this fact that has led to this rather lengthy discussion.

One is almost tempted to declare that species-making sometimes
becomes a kind of mania, — that altogether flimsy and whimsical, not
to say unreasonable, differences have been seized upon as excuses for
adding unnecessary descriptive matter to scientific literature. If we
find that a particular kind of oats growing on sterile and sandy soil
exhibits a dwarf growth and a yellowish colour, we do not immediately
regard it as a new form, not forgetting to name it and announce the
discovery. Let us congratulate ourselves ! For it is not always thus
among our scientific friends. Is a fungus species newly found on a
peach ? Call it new and name it pruni. Same genus on the grape ?
Call it new, name it ampelinum. On the apple ? New, call it mali.
On banana ? Christen it musae.

What next ? Sparrow in a pear-tree, Passer pyri ?

The question may be less trivial than it seems. The different shades
he may assume in the green shadow of pear leaves, his different
attitudes due to the steepness of the pear twigs, the shape of his nest
consequent on the angle of the forks-: — these are matters in the case
of the sparrow somewhat on a par with the characteristics to be noted
in the growth of a fungus merely as a consequence of happening to
alight on a pear.

A reasonable allowance for the influence of environment would
prevent much confusion. It is not as if we were still in ignorance of
methods of cultivating fungi, and were obliged to rely upon specimens
as ordinarily found in nature.

. Our criminal courts have learned some valuable lessons in identifi-
cation, and they long ago gave up trying to identify a criminal
by his name, knowing full well that the next time he comes before
them it will very likely be under a new "alias." The " rogue's

fallery" is a safer source of information than any criminal list. " What
oes he look like ?", not " What is his name ?", is the question of the
expert. Measurements, photographs, indelible marks, these are the
reliable data.

If this is so in the face of all our legally enforced registration of
names, it is certainly calculated to make us pause before putting too
much reliance on a mere name.

21

Our predicament is not improved when these names are loosely
bandied about and lightly given. The rule sometimes seems to be, if
a thing is found in a new place, give it a new name, especially if it is
a shade darker or a trifle larger.

We have gone to great lengths in this manner in the case of »
number of our common fungus genera. The sooner we devote some
of this linguistic and glory-hunting energy to the creation of a first-
class " rogue's gallery/' the better.

Measure, observe the behaviour, photograph, and above all, draw.
I know some learned societies have tried to lay disabilities on drawings.
That, however, is only an admission that a great number of the
members cannot yet appreciate a drawing. In effect they say that the
one who makes a drawing cannot be relied on to know anything about
what he draws. My experience is quite the contrary.

It must be admitted that a knowledge of the name of anything too
often passes for a knowledge of the thing itself. He who can promptly
give the common and scientific name of a plant, animal, or other
natural object, has a passport to the confidence of his fellows that
one cannot help wishing may always be justified by a fuller knowledge
to follow ; while it may be admitted that this wish is satisfied in the
majority of cases, there remains no small ground for thinking that
much of our current knowledge stops short at the point that enables
the possessor of it to " give it a name."

This, of course, is only another way of saying that the object of too
much of our study is to the end of classifying, and to that end alone.

Such study, however necessary, cannot escape the criticism of being
superficial. Moreover, it leads to an inordinate love of routine, and a
contentment with knowing a little about a large number of objects,
that prevents us, paradoxical as it may seem, from knowing much
about this same series of objects ; for in any series of related natural
objects one is in reality very much like another in all essential features,
and a knowledge of one member of the series is in many respects
equivalent to a knowledge of the others. But our method of skimming
over the surface, of giving superficial attention to so many objects,
prevents us from getting below the surface and reaching those general
phenomena which would furnish such data of a general nature as
would lead to nearly all the results we now achieve and very much
more beside.

It would be a splendid resolution, if carried into effect, for each
of us who devotes attention to species-describing, to decide to
periodically give a deep look into one of the organisms he is in the
habit of studying, making it as exhaustive as his resources permit.

Remedies for Ripe Rot.

Care in Handling. — The observations recorded in the foregoing
pages, and similar observations made elsewhere, teach no lesson more
forcibly than that concerning the care which should be exercised in
the handling of all fruit destined for lengthy storage.

22

In a state of nature, one of the primary objects of the skin of a
fruit is to protect the inner tissues from injury until such time as
they may aid in securing that disposal of the fruit that will be useful
to its species; and of all the agencies likely to upset this result few
are more potent than parasitic fungi.

A careful review of the species of fungi that attack ripe fruit shows
that very few of them have the power to penetrate the sound skin of
fruit. It appears that for the most part it is only after some injury
has made an opening for them that these fungi can gain an entrance.

It follows that the orchardist should give close attention to the
various agencies that may injure the skin of his products be it ever so
slightly. An injury so small as to be quite invisible to the eye is
an ample gateway for these injurious rots.

It is almost an axiom of the best fruit-growers, in the regions where
fruit-growing is most successful, that fruit should be handled like
eggs, and for precisely the same reason. The cracking of an egg-
shell is not more fatal to the keeping qualities of an egg than is a
similar accident to the skin of fruit.

Beyond question the people of California are the greatest masters of
the art of plucking, caring for, and marketing fruit; and it is in
California that one observes the highest degree of attention given to
preserving the skin of fruit in a perfectly uninjured condition. This
is a matter to which I have given much observation in the half-dozen
different fruit-growing regions of the United States, and in nearly a
dozen other countries, in the course of tours devoted specially to the
purpose of seeing with my own eyes the methods employed in the
handling of produce. So far as such evidence goes, there can be no
doubt that the most successful fruit-growers, from the commercial
standpoint, are those that handle the fruit with the greatest care ; and
let it be understood that this care is usually exercised in the full know-
ledge that it is the rot fungi that constitute the danger. All their
precautions, such as utmost care in picking and sorting and grading,
careful wrapping, special vehicles to provide against jarring and
bruising, the use of ice in warm weather, — are precautions based
firmly on a knowledge that the smallest break in the skin of a single
piece of fruit may mean the loss of an entire shipment. The fungi
that cause the rotting of fruit, of which the Gloeosporium is a
prominent example, are almost omnipresent, and stand ever ready to
take full advantage of the smallest opening. If they gain access to
one orange or one apple or one cherry, in a case, it is not long before
the entire case is doomed ; for the rotting of one piece creates
chemicals capable of so injuring the other pieces as to render them
accessible to the rot fungi.

In the Orchard. — A number of conclusions applicable to orchard
work are derivable from the foregoing pages.

In the first place, it is evident that if the fungi responsible for the
occurrence and spread of the ripe rots are so indifferent to the nature
of their host, we must give attention to other matters than the condi-
tion of the fruits that are being raised for profit in the orchard. If,
for instance, we have a fruit that is subject to ripe rot and there is

23

growing in the vicinity a hawthorn hedge, it will be necessary to
attend to the condition of the hedge as well as to that of the fruit being
cultivated for profit. Again, suppose a surplus crop of fruit of another
sort is found unsaleable, something that not infrequently happens I am
sorry to say, and this surplus be allowed to lie where it falls and to go
its own road to decay ? A considerable portion of it will become
infested with ripe-rot fungi, and this will be a menace to all fruit in
the vicinity, some of which may be valuable. In the same category
as surplus unsaleable fruit must be placed left-over crops of certain
vegetables. Rotting tomatoes may be a menace to ripening fruit on
trees near by. So may rotting surplus cucumbers, pumpkins, and
other cucurbits. Rotting fruit of any sort is a danger to ripening fruit
of almost any other sort. The danger is not always confined to rotting
fruits, as it has been shown that the ripe-rot fungi find a congenial
breeding ground on the branches and foliage of a number of plants.
It is quite probable that these fungi breed in non-living matter of
certain kinds, for they may easily be cultivated on artificial media.

Special pains should be taken to ensure the destruction of all rotting
vegetable matter in the vicinity of an orchard, and especially of any
rotten fruit or rotting vegetables.

When applying sprays for the prevention of fungi, it would be well
to have an eye to adjacent vegetation, with a view to the possibility
that it may be the source of ripe-rot fungi. Often it will cost little
more while spraying the orchard to spray these other plants that may
be in or near it. If, for instance, there be a hawthorn hedge on the
border of the orchard, it may prove a paying investment to spray the
hedge also.

The same principles that apply in the orchard apply also in the storage
of fruit. It is useless to expect to keep fruit successfully in cases that
have recently held rotten fruit, and the variety of fruit makes little
difference. A box or other receptacle that has held ripe-rotten plums
is just as unsuitable for the storage of apples or peaches as for plums.

The means for combating the ripe-rots in stores and shops are, of
course, of a different nature from those suitable to the orchard. For
disinfecting cases and boxes boiling water is cheap and efficient in
many instances. Formalin is an eminently suitable fungicide for use
in stores and shops devoted to the fruit industry ; in fact, I am sure
that if shopkeepers and merchants realised more fully the efficiency
of this substance and the ease with which it can be applied, it would
come into wide use for these purposes.

For disinfecting bins, whitewash is cheap and efficient. Though
usually applied with a brush, it may be applied with a spraying
machine, with the advantage that the whitewash is driven into cracks
that could not be reached readily with a brush.

The precautions that are to be taken against the ripe-rot fungi are
not by any means confined to the period after the fruit is plucked. In
the orchard, long before ripening time, there are plenty of influences
that open up breaches in the fruit through which the rot fungi may
gain an entrance. This is notably the case with early varieties. To a
large extent these early varieties owe their earl mess to selection and

24

breeding directed toward rapid growth, this rapidity being accelerated
by the application of stimulating manures. Now all this means weak
tissues, for nature cannot be hurried and yet do her work with the
same thoroughness that would characterise her normally slower process.
Beside being smaller, early fruit has poorer keeping qualities than
later fruit, and this must always continue to be so ; we cannot tf eat
our cake and keep it too." Early fruit must from the very nature
of things remain peculiarly susceptible to the attacks of Gloeosporium
and similar fungi. Hence it follows, as before remarked, that in the
orchard we must give especial attention to the agencies which open
up the way for the entrance of these enemies. As far as it will prove
profitable, we must attend to the action on our crop, of wind, rain,
hail, sun, insects, birds — always bearing in mind that the minutest
wound inflicted by any of these agencies is liable to be as injurious as
though it were large enough to be visible.

In order to be more specific, it may be well to mention some of
the necessary precautions more in detail.

Drainage should be attended to, because it sometimes happens that
after a period of dry weather a succession of rain storms gives to the
crop such an excess of water that, the skin of the fruit having
acquired a certain inaptitude to further expansion, the sudden pressure
causes it to burst. Good drainage will tend to avert this loss by
taking away all excess of water as fast as possible.

The sun is responsible for damage where the pruning is such
as to admit too strong a light, and too much heat, to the fruit.
This results in " sun-scald/' It should be borne in mind that this
injury is not so common as it is believed to be by some. There is an
infallible test with regard to injury caused by the sun that is often
overlooked. The sun injures only one side of the fruit, — the side it
shines on. This seems so self-evident as to require an apology for
referring to it, and certainly no reference would be made here were
it not for the fact that the author not infrequently receives fruit
injured on all sides, and yet accompanied by the suggestion that the
injury is " sun-scald."

, The wind is responsible for more injury to delicate-skinned early
fruit than would appear at first sight. We must remember that at
the time of ripening the skin of early fruits is particularly liable to
injury. Falling twigs and bits of bark, flying debris carried by a
gust of wind, are quite competent at this time to puncture the delicate
skin of many kinds of fruit.

The continued chafing of one part of a fruit tree against another,
the knocking of the fruit against twigs and leaves are things to be
taken into account at the time of pruning. The provision of proper
wind breaks in situations liable to windy weather is a feature of orchard
.work that leads to less loss from fungi as well as from wind-falls.

Improper spraying is occasionally the source of some little trouble
in connection with ripe-rot fungi. It sometimes happens that the
apray is applied at the wrong time ; that is to say, at a time followed
immediately by strong and hot sunlight. Such light acting through
the droplets of spray is concentrated as it would be by passing

25

through a lens, and the result is that the tissues of the leaves and
fruit immediately under the droplet are heated so much as to lead in
conjunction with the chemical action of the fungicide, to weak or
broken skin, and after that to an attack of Gloeosporium.

While on this subject I would like to again emphasise the importance
of a fine spray quickly applied. This is a matter upon which I have
insisted for a long time without, as it appears to me, the result being
what it ought to be. I have just alluded to the danger attendant
upon the application of a spray at a time followed by strong hot sun-
light ; but such danger would be comparatively little if the spray were
as fine as it ought to be. If the droplets of spray are so fine as to be
almost invisible, their effect in conjunction with the hot sun would be
trifling for two reasons. In the first place they would be so small
that they could not collect enough heat to be injurious, and in the
second place they would evaporate so quickly that they would be gone
before they had time to collect sufficient heat to do any damage.

On other occasions I have given the strongest reasons why a spray
should be applied in a very fine state of subdivision, namely, that
under such circumstances the spots of poison are greater in number
and the distances separating them are less, and in -consequence of this
the germinating spores of fungi are more likely to run against the
poison spots and thus be killed. Of course, it would be useless to
have the spray fine if the plants are " drowned " with fungicide.
The idea seems to prevail with some users of fungicides that the object
of applying a spray is to wash the disease off the plants. Nothing could
be farther from the truth. The object of spraying is to place upon the
leaves and other parts of the plant small spots of poison, and to place
them so close together that any germinating fungi will soon come into
contact with one of the spots and, absorbing some of the poison, be killed.
A few simple observations will convince anyone that in a certain sense,
that is to say after a certain point in the spraying is reached, the more
spray applied the less good is done. Any orchardist that has not
already done so should try the following simple experiment.

Spray a few leaves with Bordeaux mixture for a few seconds with
as fine a spray as possible, using a well-made mixture and a high
pressure. Simply pass the nozzle of the sprayer over the leaves once.
Allow the leaves to dry, and meanwhile spray another similar lot of
leaves for a longer time, observing how after the first few seconds the
droplets of the spray collect together into larger and larger drops,
until at last they roll off the leaves on to the ground. This latter
kind of spraying is of little value, for if the leaves sprayed in this
manner be allowed to dry, and then be compared with those sprayed
as at first directed, it will be found that the leaves sprayed with a
small dose have retained the larger amount of the fungicide, and are
therefore better armed against the germinating spores of fungi.

I even go so far as to advocate a double application of fungicides
in the following manner, and I would like to add that my opinion in
this matter is formed after careful laboratory tests, followed up by
corroborative field tests : — Go over the work rapidly, never allowing
the nozzle of the sprayer to play for more than a second or two upon

26

any one part, or perhaps only for the fraction of a second. Go over
the whole plantation in this manner. After completing one round
repeat the operation at once, making sure that the first spray is dry
before the application of the second. This need not occupy more time
than would be given to the spraying in the ordinary way. Simply
decide how much time is to be given to the job, and devote to the
first dose one half of the time, and to the second dose the other half.
In the end no more time will have been consumed, and not much
more labour and no more material, but the result, I can assure the
reader, will be a decided improvement. The poison will be found to be
placed on the leaves in smaller and more numerous patches, and in
consequence it will be much more effective.

Varying Resistance. — The fact that the numerous varieties display
a varying susceptibility to the attacks of Gloeosporium suggests an
explanation of the varying results of spraying with fungicides.
Different experimenters, after carefully-conducted experiments, have
secured varying success in the application of fungicides for the pre-
vention of this disease. Among the causes for these varying results
we must reckon the varying susceptibility of varieties. A very
susceptible variety will naturally receive less benefit from a given
series of applications of, say, Bordeaux mixture, than a less susceptible
variety. It is noticeable that little attention has been given to this
point in reports on experiments for the prevention of ripe rots.
Often no note is taken of the variety sprayed, and never, so far as
my reading goes, has allowance been made for varying degrees of
susceptibility.

According to my experience, it is the early and non-keeping varieties
of fruit that are most susceptible to the attacks of G-loeosporium, and
of these two qualities, which, of course, often go together, and are so
intimately associated that it is impossible to separate them, it is the
fugitive quality that seems to exert the most important influence. If,
for instance, an early sort is also a fair keeper, it will be found that it
is at all times more resistant to the rot than the equally early sorts
that do not keep so well. Apples with a russet skin are usually
resistant to Gloeosporium, and the summer varieties with russet skin
are examples of early, yet somewhat resistant, varieties.

Birds and insects are connected with the rot fungi in an indirect
way. The peckings of birds, and the bites, stings, and scratches of
insects are, of course, to be guarded against if immunity from fungi
is desired. Insects, apart from the direct injury they do, are a
source of loss in that they open up the road for the ripe-rot fungi.
There seems to me to be some ground for believing that the ^aphides
and, perhaps, the scale insects disinfect their punctures. At any rate
it is difficult on any other ground to account for the fact that their
punctures do so little harm in proportion to their number. But this
is at present only a hypothesis. With many other insects the case
lies otherwise, for it can be shown that various rots follow on their
attacks.

I have often observed, in connection with my experiments, that no
sooner do well-developed pustules of the rot fungi appear, than I

DISEASES OF PLANTS.

27

am troubled by the presence of certain mites or Acarinse which
apparently feed upon the fungi. It has occurred to me that these
may be instrumental in spreading the fungi, although I have accumu-
lated no evidence that such is the case. I mention the matter in the
hope that it will lead others to make observations that may possibly
lead to more definite results. Such mites must be abundant in
orchards ; in fact, it is established by observations already made
that they are so, but it appears that there is yet much to learn
concerning their economic importance.

BANANA SCAB.

THIS is a disease I have several times had occasion to notice in an
official capacity, and one that does a considerable amount of damage ;
it is, therefore, worthy of attention in the pages of this journal.

Scab occurs on bananas from our Northern Rivers, from Queensland,
and from Fiji. I recollect having observed a similar disease on
bananas in the Sandwich and Samoan Islands and in the United
States of America, the fruit in the latter case being imported, in all

Pig. 46. — Secondary stage of banana scab. In this case the disease has attacked the half of
the fruit next the stem. The discolouration and cracks are well developed.

probability, from the West Indies. From this it appears that the
disease is a wide-spread one, a fact that renders it all the more
important from an economic point of view.

Banana scab is well known to fruit-vendors, though not under any
particular name. It seems to be looked upon by them as a more or
less normal feature of the fruit, and they account for it in a variety of
ways. " It is where the fruit rubs against the 'tree' " ; " It is due to
frost"; " It is due to too much sap"; " It is due to lack of sap"; "It is
sun-scald;" "It is caused by impoverishment of the soil"; "It's
nothing ! You'll find it on all bananas "; — these are among the
numerous explanations offered by retailers.

Whatever the cause may be, and we shall endeavour to state its
nature in the following pages, the disease is very common, the

28

majority of bunches showing more or less of it. He must be an
unobservant buyer who has not rejected scabby bananas, and an
uncommonly honest or clumsy dealer who has failed to slip in a few
such along with their better fellows.

The reader will easily recall bananas that under an unpromisingly
dry and scabby skin yielded a hard, brown, and, it may be, somewhat
astringent pulp. That was the occasion on which the banana scab,
having been bundled along from planter to shipper, and from shipper
to wholesaler, and from wholesaler to retailer, at last found itself,
along with the rest of the sins and shortcomings of the world, loaded
on to the back of the consumer. This long-suffering individual
is so used to repeating all day long, " Oh, well, it is a small
matter, let it go," that we hear no more about it. It is, however, the
province of the specialist to sum up these small individual losses, see
what they amount to, and, if they are of sufficient consequence, to
trace them to their source, in order to ascertain whether any remedy
is to be had.

There will be little difficulty in convincing all who enjoy a good
banana that the aggregate of inferiority arising through the presence
of one or more scabby bananas in every few dozen sold must amount
to something very considerable — quite enough to justify some small
effort to find a remedy. At the same time, one feels the effort should
be proportionate to the importance of the subject, which certainly, in
this State, cannot claim to be very great.

At the present time more scab is coming to our shores from the
neighbouring state of Queensland than from any other source. Not
that this is discreditable to Queensland. The explanation is suggested
by the well-known pseudo-conundrum, " Why do white sheep eat
more than black sheep ?" and its answer, " Because there are so many
more of them." The Queensland banana plantations may yield more
scab than those of our Northern Rivers for the &ame excellent reason.

Fig. 47. — A. banana, showing the initial stage of scab. The disease has made a beginning opposite
a, where the skin is seen to be opening in small cracks. A stage later is shown in Fig. 48.

We will begin then by describing Banana Scab as it occurs on
bananas imported into Sydney from the northern ports of Queensland.

The specimens from which the description is prepared came from
Cairns, Queensland, and consisted of nearly full-grown bananas, the

.
29

disease not having reached a climax in time to arrest their growth.
Inasmuch as the smallest specimens were those worst affected, it would
seem probable that the disease occurs on young fruit, and in that case
dwarfs it, or it may be, destroys its value altogether. This inference
is sustained by other observations.

Fig. 48. — Secondary stage of banana scab. The discolouration and the cracks now cover
most of one side of the fruit The later stages are shown in Figs. 49 and 50.

The earliest stages, as they occur on fairly well grown, but still
green, bananas, such as would be cut for shipment, are as follows :—
A reddish-brown colour appears on the green skin in the form of
minute transverse markings. These markings soon merge into a
uniform brown area, often of considerable extent, some parts of which
may become black. In the midst of this dark-coloured area numerous
shallow longitudinal cracks make their appearance. Following upon
the appearance of the cracks, the skin begins to dry up and take on a
greyish brown colour, the cracks meanwhile assuming larger dimen-
sions, though never becoming more than a millimetre wide, and seldom
more than half a millimetre wide, The cracks finally run together
more or less, so that the surface of the skin of the fruit reminds one
of the appearance of crackled glassware. (See Figs. 48 and 49.)

In the early stages of the disease the inner layers of the skin or peel
appear to remain intact, but as soon as the crackling sets in the skin
begins io dry up and its inner layers to lose their green colour and succu-
lency, so that the skin decreases in thickness on the diseased area, and
so far fails to function that ultimately even the flesh of the fruit is
affected. When such bananas are " ripened " in storage, preparatory to
sale, the " ripe " fruit presents dry grey patches, from which the skin
cannot, perhaps, be readily removed. Under such patches the pulp
is often grey or brown, hard, dry, astringent and inedible. The flavour
of the rest of the banana is also inferior. (See Figs. 49 and 50.)

It is unlikely that the reddish colouration noted in connection with
the early stages of the disease is a uniform and reliable characteristic,
for it will be remembered by all who are familiar with the behaviour
of this fruit in commerce, that such discolourations may be produced
by a variety of causes. The fact seems to be that as soon as the skin

30

of the banana is injured sufficiently to allow the access of air to the-
broken cells beneath the epidermis an oxidation sets in that has the
effect of producing reddish and brownish colouration.

The different species of banana, however, act somewhat differently
in this respect, and this may account for the fact that this reddish
colouration is less common and less marked on bananas from the
northern districts of New South Wales than on those from Queensland.

The general appearance of the disease is that of one due to the
attacks of some vegetable parasite.

In some cases it seemed as if the disease had started at a point on
the fruit where the latter had been chafed by rubbing against other
fruit in the same bunch ; still, in many cases the disease occurred in
places that bore no traces of chafing, and the only conclusion I could
arrive at from this part of the examination was the provisional one that

Fig. 49. — Advanced stage of the banana scab. The skin of the fruit is completely diseased, and
the pulp is worthless. The skin is everywhere grey, dry, and crackled.

the malady was caused by a fungus having the power of attacking and
penetrating healthy epidermis. This conclusion cannot be accepted
without reserve until the disease has been produced on sound tissue
through contact with germinating spores.

Sometimes the scab covers the greater portion of the surface of the
fruit. In such instances it is out of the question that friction could
injured so much of the surface. These cases add weight to the
evidence already accumulated in favour of some fungus being able to
work its own way into the skin of the sound banana.

Some difficulties arise in searching for traces of the fungus causing
the disease. Pustules may be found scattered over the green or reddish
parts of the skin in the form of minute raised points. They are to be
found only on those parts manifestly suffering from the disease.
These pustules have nearly the same general colour as the area on
which they occur. Just previous to, or at the time of, rupture they
measure three to four hundred micromillimetres in diameter, some-
times even six hundred micromillimetres.

If a recently ruptured pustule be cut away in such a manner that
little else is removed, and be then smashed in a very small amount of
water, spores will usually be found, though not in great numbers

31

according to my experience, and it may be, in rare cases, none will be
seen. The spores are not easy to make out at the first glance, because
the broken remains of the banana tissue are often of about the same
size as the spores, as are also the fragments of needle-shaped calcium
oxalate crystals that may appear in some preparations. After an
hour or so in water the spores are more easily seen. Still more readily
are they to be seen after germination takes place. Thus, as a rule,
after about twenty-four hours in an infusion of banana-peel the spores
are readily made out. The most useful and positive results are
obtained by this method, so far as relates to identifying the organism
in the pustules.

7 -0 x 3 '

Measurements in

f™e pustule.

6-0 x 2-5/O

5 '7 x 3'2fi i Measurements in

4*0 x 2.5ju 1 micromillimetres

5-4 x 2-9/t
7'6 x 4-0/i

4 U A T V/yU, |

5-7 x 2-9MJ

of six spores from
a second pustule.

Fig. 50. — Final stage of banana scab. The skin is entirely dry, grey, and cracked, and the

pulp is worthless.

The foregoing are the measurements of two sets of the colourless
spores taken from pustules that precede the cracks on scabby bananas.
Upon examining the diseased bananas with a magnifying glass, it appears
that each crack is probably preceded by a minute pustular outbreak.
Upon removing a pustule with the point of a needle, taking care to
select a pustule that is recently ruptured or is just about to rupture,
one easily secures spores measuring 4' 7 to 7* x 1* to 3*5 micromillimetres,
as shown by the above measurements, and averaging 5* to 6* x 3*
micromillimetres. These spores are ellipsoidal, or sometimes elongated,
colourless, and without any definite and regular internal markings
except an uncertain granulation. From the manner of their growth
on minute basidia, these appear to be the spores of some Phoma-
like form. (See Figs. 51, 52, and 53.)

An examination of several carefully selected pustules that had not
yet been ruptured revealed but few spores of any sort, but those seen
were all of the character already described. These were allowed to lie
for some time sealed up in an aerated water infusion of banana peel.
Only elongated spores were revealed by this germination test.

In these examinations, care was taken to clean the tops of the
pustules before removal from the diseased fruit.

32

Fig. 51.— Spores
from the minute

pustules found on
scabby bananas
from Cairns,

Queensland. An
infusion culture at
the end of twelve
hours.

X 400

A number of experiments and observations of a similar nature led
to the conclusion that the sole organism in the pustules is the fungus

producing the elongated ellipsoidal spores,
and to the conclusion that this fungus is
probably the cause of the disease Banana
Scab.

The above-mentioned spores on being
subjected to water culture, or rather to
growth in water impregnated with the juices
of the banana peel, germinated promptly
from one or both ends. (Fig. 51 .) After the
lapse of twelve hours the mycelial thread
from the spore may reach the length of
75 micromillimetres. The mycelium at
this stage is colourless, for the most part unbranched and without
septa, nearly straight, and of about the same diameter as the spore
from which it originated. Soon after reaching this size the mycelium
begins to branch. Some spores in one of the cultures, spores
apparently in other respects identical with those just described, gave
rise to conidia by a species of division. (Fig. 53.) In one or two
cases the mycelium, after reaching a length of 50 to 75 micro-
millimetres, appeared to be forming conidia at the end.

While it was at most times difficult to discern any trace of mycelium
among the cells of a section cut from a pustule, it was always the case
that after a few hours mycelium could be seen sprouting from the
section in such a manner as to preclude doubt that it originated from

mycelium hidden away
among the mazes of the
cellular tissue of the
banana. These branches
of the mycelium of the
disease-producing fungus
often grew so vigorously
as to pass entirely outside
the tissue of the section
and thus came into good
view. The size of these
mycelial threads was such as to lead to the belief that the mycelium,
as it occurs normally in the tissues of the banana, is a very attenuated
one, often measuring no more than one to two micromillimetres in
diameter. A weft composed of mycelium of this calibre hidden away
among dark tissues of a varying structure is necessarily difficult to
make out, and I think this accounts for the failure to secure what may
be regarded as altogether satisfactory data with reference to the
internal structure of normal pustules.

The behaviour of the sections of the perithecium, when allowed to
remain in an infusion of banana-peel for twenty-four hours to forty-
eight hours, furnished data of a much more satisfactory nature.

It not infrequently happened that on examining a carefully-
prepared section very few spores were found. When this was the

f. 52. — Cross section of a pustule of the banana-scab
fungus, a, epidermis of banana ; b, columnar alteration
in tissue : c, wall of perithecium ; d, spores borne on
basidia.

33

case it was only necessary to allow the section, just as it came from
the dissecting stage, to lie sealed in water for twenty-four hours or
thereabouts to obtain spores in a state of germination. The spores,
under such conditions, were either produced anew by the mycelium or
were loosened so as to float out into view. (Fig. 52.)

The mycelium of the fungus, when freshly torn away and floated out
where it could be seen, was often very fine, not much exceeding
n micromillimetre in diameter.

If pustules are sectioned and placed in a sealed water-culture, the
neighbourhood of the cut perithecium, after about forty-eight hours,
is sometimes the scene of an active production
of sporules. These originate at first from Oft 0 t) 0

that portion of the fungus inside the pustule; 0 0 0Q

and then, getting free, increase outside by x4oo

division. In one instance I observed that pig. 53.— secondary growth of
this growth took place in a slightly gelatinous *Xu!efrf°ound "$?*£$
substance which was clearly concentric with fc*b> water-culture after

mi -i-ii forty-eight hours. These

the CUt perithecium. The Spores produced by spores were enveloped ia

this process are illustrated in Fig. 53. After

forty-eight hours, this growth of sporules begins to show signs of
failure ; the later spores produced by division are much smaller, and
are more attenuated. Adjoining are some measurements of spores
arising in the manner just described.

Before being ruptured, the cavity of
£ ii-Ox3-OH Average, 9- x 2*8^ the perithecium is capped by tissue

3. 8-0x3% I (disregarding Nos. that in cross-section appears nearly

4. 7-Ox2-5Aif 5 and 6, which black : so also the bottom of the cavity
6 ™ x o'^ \ W6re kte gr°WthS)" when viewed in cross-section is dark

D. oOXU^M^ Till mi ii«

red or nearly black. I he whole is

underlaid by a stratum of somewhat columnar cells which have ap-
parently originated through an attempt on the part of the plant to
counteract the parasite. Such columnar tissue is not to be seen else-
where in the section — that is to say, in the more or less normal
tissue beyond the borders of the pustule. (See Fig. 32.)

When material is scraped from the cracks present in well-developed
scab, and the pulverulent matter thus obtained is placed in water
under the microscope, it is easy to find in it X(VOO

the same spores that are characteristic of the
pustules. They are usually found in such
considerable numbers that the conclusion sug-
gested is that the reproduction of the fungUS Fig. 54.— Spores obtained under

takes place quite as vigorously in the fully- ^™bd£*!SHW^
formed scab as in the pustules which precede Sbelfc'the text*™* de"
it. (Fig 54.)

At the same time one finds among the material derived from scab
in this manner large numbers of yeast cells, and these show up with
such regularity as to constitute a marked microscopic feature of this
phase of the disease. Especially abundant are these yeast cells in
cultures inoculated from loose scabby material.

36567 c

34

I cannot feel sure that this yeast is not a contributory cause of the
scabbiness, through its action on the tissues first opened up by the
attacks of the scab-fungus. The form of this yeast as procured from
cultures in infusion of banana-peel are shown in Fig. 55.

Owing to the possibility that this yeast is a contributory factor in
the disease, a few words with regard to it are not out of place.

When first removed, and therefore the result of what may be
termed dry growth, in contradistinction to the culture growth
soon to be mentioned, the cells of the yeast
|) QS> are usually very small and nearly spherical.

The cells are seldom obtained in a budding
condition under these circumstances. While

Fig. 55.-Yea*t cultivated from a vacuole ^ sometimes be seen it is not a
banana scab. prominent feature. After a few hours culti-

vation in an infusion of banana-peel the cells

appear larger, and often present a very distinct and bright vacuole
near the side or end of the cell.

On being allowed to remain in the infusion for twenty-four hours
this yeast buds vigorously, giving rise to such forms as are shown
in Fig. 55. The longest chain seen consisted of seven spores ; but
such chains were very rare. After the growth had proceeded for a
while in the infusion, the vacuoles assumed a more central position,
and became less conspicuous.

These yeast cells are never found in the interior of unbroken
pustules, although they are often to be found in those that have only
recently burst.

From this it follows that this yeast must be regarded as one that
lives on the surface of the banana, and on the sweetish and gelatinous
exudations originating in the ruptures produced by the fungus
causing the pustules. It may be that this is the race of yeast utilised
in the production of banana wine.

It will be seen that a marked feature of the disease as here
described is the fewness of the spores to be found in the cavity of the
perithecium, and the fineness of the mycelium. The preparations have,
however, shown in a satisfactory manner that such spores are produced
in the perithecium from minute basidia, after the manner of those
fungi referred to the genera or " collections," Phoma, Myxosporium^
&c., and there can be little hesitation in assuming that the broad
relationships of the fungus are thus made out.

A number of fungi of this nature, inhabiting the banana plantr
have been described from different parts of the world ; but seldom
with sufficient completeness to give the descriptions much value, and
when one has spent valuable time in hunting up such literature, it
may occur to him to doubt the advisability of encumbering the
nomenclature with a further addition, even if it be as the result of
extended investigation, especially in view of the established
uncertainty of the general relationships of many of the allied forms.

" A rose by any other name would smell as sweet"; doubtless thi&
fungus, fitted with a Latin name, would spoil just as many bananas.

35

I am, therefore, quite content for the present to leave this little
pest outside the statistical fold, believing that when in the fulness of
time those investigations are made which will lead to a real knowledge
of the full life-history of such forms, there will be no difficulty in
assigning to its proper place this scab-producing fungus of the banana.

The Scabby Banana in Cojnmerce.

Several questions arise in connection with the handling and sale
of scabby bananas. Should anything be done to check or prevent
the importation of such fruit ? Can anything be done to check the
progress of the disease after the bunches are cut and forwarded ?

I think the answer to both these questions must be negative. The
time that elapses between the cutting of the bunches and the con-
sumption of the fruit is not more than a few weeks, and the progress
of the disease during that time is not very great, and is of such a
nature as to be beyond control except in so far as new infection may
occur. I know no reason to suppose that such fresh infection does
not occur, but there is good reason to believe that if it does occur it
does very little harm. The greatest harm done by the disease is on
young fruit ; its effect when it attacks partially-grown fruit is not so
serious. The progress of the scab is so slow in comparison with that
of the growth of the fruit that the latter reaches a marketable size if
the attack of the disease is delayed until it is half-grown.

Nor does a study of the disease lead to the conclusion that the
importation of bananas suffering from it is in any way prejudicial to
the fruit industry of any regions, except such as may be devoted to
the cultivation of the banana itself. Leaving these latter out of con-
sideration for the present, we will consider the importation into Sydney
and the shipping inland by rail. Here we have the case of a tropical
fruit whose diseases are for the most part likely to be of a nature
different from those characteristic of the regions into which it is
imported, especially when we consider that the fruit itself belongs to
an order of plants widely different from those the possibility of whose
infection we have in mind. These general considerations are borne out
by all the observations set down in the previous pages. I do not know
of a single disease of our temperate fruits that bears a sufficiently close
resemblance to the banana scab to raise any suspicion that the two-
may be identical.

It is, however, possible to be too optimistic in such matters. There
is another disease of bananas that, in spite of these plausible reasonings,,
is found to be capable of infecting all sorts of temperate fruit ; I refer
to the Gloeosporium or ripe-rot of the banana. (See pp. 7—9.)

Nor does it seem probable, so far as our importations are concerned,
that any precaution as to the destruction of scabby bananas and their
cast-off skins would pay for the trouble. We have on another page
pointed out that greater care in respect to decayed fruit would lead to
beneficial results in our fruit stores and shops,* and in case the pre-
caution is being taken for other reasons, it would be practically nc-
additional trouble to include banana-scab in the same measures.

* Page 23.

36

It must not be forgotten that there is some loss from the fact that
scabby bananas, if full grown, will not keep as well as sound ones.
This may be easily verified by a few observations at any fruit-shop
where scabby bananas are on sale, or by buying a few scabby and
sound bananas from the same bunch and allowing them to go to decay.

The poor quality of scabby bananas is well-known to fruiterers,
who as a rule are only too glad to get them off their hands.

Remedies.

Inasmuch as the spores of banana scab are prevented from
growing by the salts of copper and lime that are used as fungicides,
there can be no hesitation in recommending their trial for the pre-
vention of banana scab. Care should be exercised in their application
because it is not yet known to what extent the banana plant in its
different varieties will stand the application of these compounds. It
would be best to begin with the Bordeaux mixture in its weaker
forms. These are not likely to injure even the most tender foliage.
As the result of examinations and experiments I think the banana
will not suffer from these applications, though opportunity has failed
me for trials in those tropical regions where the banana is mainly
grown.

The prevalence of showery weather is a drawback to the application
of fungicides, and it is likely that some difficulties will arise in this
connection. The spraying of banana plants is a comparatively easy
matter so far as their form is concerned.

The applications will be most likely to be successful if made in the
evening.

On the Plantation.

When disease appears in unusual force on a plantation, it is wise to
give careful attention to the cultivation, and to the supply of plant-food
in the form of manures. It is a well-known fact that disease is more
destructive to plants that are poorly nourished than to those that are
well fed and robust. All plants are endowed with an instinct that
causes them to make an effort to ward off the attacks of their natural
enemies, and a plant that is weak will be less effective in its defence
than a plant that is robust.

The above fact has led sometimes to the expression of opinions that
will not stand examination. I have heard people, supposedly well
informed, say that all that is required in the matter of crop pests is to
practice good culture and use the right manures, when everything else
will take care of itself. Unfortunately this is not so. We have so
changed the original nature of our cultivated varieties that in many
instances they have become very susceptible to their natural enemies, so
susceptible that unless we give especial attention to these latter the
crops almost invariably suffer more or less, and not infrequently fail
altogether. This is because we have by selection brought the plant
to a pitch of unnatural productiveness or earliness that leaves it

37

insufficient means to provide against the attacks of fungus and insect
enemies, to which it succumbs readily if no care is exercised in it&
protection.

It is, therefore, the best policy to take advantage of every well-tried
and successful means of dealing with these pests.

Among the various precautions suggested by the nature of the
present disease is the destruction on the plantation of all scabby
bananas, and the refuse from the same, as well as the destruction of
all other parts of the plants harbouring the fungus. Care in this
respect will be well repaid.

In the formation of new plantations care should be taken to secure
sets free from the disease. While this precaution cannot be relied upon
to keep the new plantation free from disease indefinitely, it will do
something towards that end, inasmuch as the disease will be compelled
to make its way to the new plantation by the aid of its spores borne
on the wind or other carrying agency. The arrival of the pest by these
means will not be such as to attract immediate attention, since it will
be by degrees. A watch should therefore be kept, and measures
adopted accordingly.

Where there are a number of plantations very near together it is to
the advantage of each to have the neighbouring plantations as clear of
disease as possible. The seeds of disease are for the most part easily
carried between neighbouring plantations by wind and other agencies.
It will be an impossibility to keep a plantation absolutely free from
disease if there are diseased plantations adjacent. This fact should
lead to more co-operative effort among neighbouring fruit-growers than
usually exists.

Scab on Fiji Bananas.

The external appearance of this scab is the same as of that from
Queensland, but on examination with a magnifying glass it was not
always possible to find the pustules seen on the Queensland bananas.
In one instance the examination of the fresh material did not show
any spores among the debris from the cracks in the scab.

It appeared sometimes as if the scab started as depressions in the
skin, as if from an insect puncture. Then, again, small scabs would be
found that had no appearance of ever having been a depression. In
this instance also the scab occurred on all sides of the fruit, a fact
that precluded the idea that it originated from chafing.

Of samples sent in by Mr. Inspector Martin, part were of the
ordinary form of gray scab, showing, after twenty-four hours' water
culture, both mycelium and the elongated spores, of which measure-
ments are given below. In contrast with the scabby bananas from
Cairns, these did not yield an abundance of yeast cells in the water
cultures. In the dry scab it was not easy to find the elongated spores,
but occasionally they could be seen.

38

9;0.x 3-6,

9-0 x 3'2 ,

11-0 x 2-9,

11-0 x 3-6,

,

11-5 x 3-6 ,
8-3 x 2-9 ,
5-4 x 2'9 ,

Av.
3-1x8-5

7'2 x 2-9 ,

7-2 x 2-9 ,

5-0 x 2-5 ,

5-8 x 2-9 ,

9-0 x 2-9 ,

X400

Jig. 56.— Species of Dinema-
sp&rium found on banana
from Fiji.

11-0 x 3-6 M > ' • • In the accompanying measurements it is pro-

bable that an excess of the larger spores ;was
measured. The average of the measurements of
the spores as taken is 3'1 x 8*5 p, which is probably
a little large. From this it appears that these
spores are to all intents and purposes of the same
form and size as those of the Queensland scab.
Their general appearance was in all respects the
same. There was this important difference, that
generally no pustules could be seen, the Fiji spores
being derived from the cracks in the scab. '
Other spore-forms were seen on the Fiji bananas. In particular,
mention should be made of some spores of Dinemasporium. These
were drawn and measured, but no pustules were seen, and in fact the
spores occurred in only a single preparation. (See Fig. 56.)

Two of these bananas from Fiji presented a red scab which had such
striking peculiarities as to lead me to more than suspect it to be of a
different character. It occurred in both specimens on the incurved
side of the fruit, and this side was almost com-
pletely covered with a brick-red scab cracked
in the characteristic manner. If this one side
of the fruit had been carefully painted it
could hardly have looked more artificial. The
margins of the terra-cotta colour were precisely
coincident with the angles of the fruit. If there was any part of the
coloured area that differed from the rest it was the lower part. Here
it seemed as if the disease had not yet reached its full intensity, the
original green of the skin being not yet completely covered.

The most careful search discovered no fungus pustules on this
red area ; only near the stem, where the red colour had been succeeded
by a brown, were there traces of fungus spores. These have not yet
yielded satisfactory data for an opinion as to their connection with the
disease.

STIGMONOSE.

[See Coloured Plate opposite.]

A NUMBER of maladies of obscure origin have from time to time been
brought into notice by correspondents who as
a rule have forwarded samples in the shape of
fruit and foliage. It is a peculiarity of these
cases that they hail from all parts of the
Commonwealth. Nor are they confined to any
one class of crop, though they are usually
either the fruit or the foliage and branches of
fruit-trees. Apples, pears, and quinces may
be said to be most frequently sent.

One of the first instances of this sort was
the disease reported upon under the heading
11 An Obscure Disease of the Apple." Next
came a disease to which I applied the name
" Bitter Pit," a name that has been widely

PEACH-LEAF CURL
ON NECTARINE.

8TIGM ONO8 £

DISEASE OF THE APPLE AND NECTARINE.

Fig. 58.— Apples suffering from a kind of Stigmonose. All these apples were infested with Woolly
i Aphis, the insects being found in the core and the passage leading to the core.

accepted and definitely applied. These were followed by a variety of
other distorted growths, mostly among fruits. All these cases have

40

some features in common, the most prominent of which is the stoppage
of normal growth and the substitution for it of various abortions and
distortions without the appearance of that rot and rapid dissolution
which are wont to follow on the attacks of numerous disease-pro-
ducing fungi and of some insects.

I find these various maladies gradually ranging themselves in my
notes under the heading of Stigmonose.

These various diseases bear another resemblance to one another in this
respect, that in most cases no definite organism can yet be pointed out
as positively the cause. All present tissue that has failed in its normal
functions, and, as before remarked, apparently without the interference
of a micro-organism such as we ordinarily find associated with such
appearances, say a fungus or a microbe.

Dr. Woods, of Washington, seems to me to have done very good
service to pathological science in showing that the exciting causes in
one such case are the punctures of aphides. I refer to the well-known
disease of Carnations, which at one time was supposed to be of bacterial
origin. He has called this disease " Stigmonose," and the term might
be general in its application, as, I believe, he suggests.

There are a number of small creatures that make minute punc-
tures in plants in the process of securing their food, not only aphides,
but also mosquitoes, scale-insects, small bugs, red spiders, and others,
not forgetting the free-living nematodes. The point seems to be that
the proboscides of these animals are so small and probably so well
sterilised by natural secretions that the wound made by their punctures
is not entered by any micro-organism, and yet either the irritation or
the chemical action of the injected animal secretions subsequently so
interferes with the normal growth of the tissues as to give rise to marked
disease, that is, to " Stigmonose."

It is, of course, possible that these puncturing creatures in some
instances produce disease after the manner of the cattle-tick, i.e., by
the introduction of some micro-parasite, but thus far there is no
reliable evidence that this is the case.

What is wanted is careful and expert observation of all small punc-
turing creatures, especially during the early growth of various fruits,
remembering that the presence of comparatively small numbers of
them may account for considerable damage if they are given the
necessary time. It is the habit of a number of these creatures to
puncture, suck, then pass on and repeat the operation. A single
individual acting in this manner would, if each puncture were
sufficiently irritating, produce an appreciable effect.

It seems probable that these organisms are supplied with the means
of more or less sterilising the wounds they make (otherwise the result
might be disastrous to their food supply), and it may be that this
accounts for the absence of parasites in the subsequent malformations.
Observation is gradually assigning each of these separate maladies,
or varieties of Stigmonose, to its specific puncturing cause, but the
progress is rather slow. Among the puncturing species that are under
suspicion are Thrips, various Aphides, small Arachnids, and Nematodes.
Among the Aphides, one species has been proved by Dr. Woods to be

41

the cause of a disease in carnations. In the same connection some
mites are laid under suspicion, also
species of Thrips. I have shown
the presence in the cores of apples
of the woolly aphis at the same
time that the apples were suffer-
ing from distortion and a checked
growth. I have also called atten-
tion to the presence of Nematodes
between the leaf stalks of celery,
and the probability that they there
cause damage, and possibly this may
also come under the heading of
Stigmonose.

In these latter years the Acarine
species known as the Red Spider
has often come under the gravest
suspicion as the cause of a wide-
spread and common disease of the
pomaceous fruits, namely, the apple,
the pear, and the quince. In order
to bring the matter pictorially
before the reader, I have inserted
good illustrations of some of the-
cases. The plate on page 39 con-
tains photographs of some apples
that were attacked by woolly aphis.
Every apple contained living insects,
and these were accompanied by so
many cast-off skins as to prove that
the insects had been inhabiting them
for some time. Figs. 59 and 60 show the effects of a disease common in
all the Australian states on apples,
pears, and quinces, though less com-
mon on the latter. Such appear-
ances are almost invariably accom-
panied by traces of what is known
as red spider, in fact it is very rarely
indeed that eggs, or some other
signs of these, may not be seen in
the eyes or elsewhere on such speci-
mens.

On one occasion the apple varieties
Winter Pearmain, Granny Smith,
Winter Magetin, Kadwell's Non-
pareil, and Fanny ; the pear varieties
Beure Bosc and Butter ; the quince
variety Mammoth ; were examined
with the following results : —

All the apple varieties were found

,

Fig. 59.— Pear suffering from Stigmonose. The
fruit is much' deformed and one-sided.
From end to end the peculiar malforma-
tions are to be seen, though they are most
numerous at the blossom end.

lig. 60.— Section through an apple that is
suffering from Stigmonose. The irregularity
of the surface of the apple is indicated by
the irregularity of the contour line of the
section. A short distance under the skin
there appears a layer of spongy brown
tissue characteristic of this disease as it
appears in full-grown apples. This is
represented in the figure, especially on the
left-hand side.

42

to be infested with red spider. Eggs of the mite were found in
abundance at the eyes of most of the specimens. Very few living
mites were seen.

The Beure Bosc pear was manifestly infested with the spider, but
not so many eggs were to be found as on the apples. On the Butter
pear no traces of the mites were to be seen, although the deformities
were the same as in the case of the other varieties.

So also with regard to the quince. The deformities were identical
in form, but on the few specimens sent no definite traces of mites were
seen.

All the above specimens came from the same orchard. The
number of eggs in the eye of an apple reached two to three score in
the worst cases. They were present in every apple examined.

Shot-hole Stigmonose.

The so-called shot-hole disease is one of the few serious diseases of
the apricot. This fruit tree is for the most part very vigorous with
us, if only it can be kept free from shot-hole. Not infrequently, how-
ever, this disease makes sad havoc with the crop. Every season
specimens are forwarded to me representing badly diseased crops that
have been a total or partial failure. The disease is almost universally
present in a mild form, and only awaits the right conditions to make
itself felt in the shape of obvious money loss.

For some time I have felt that . our theory of this disease did not
account for all the facts.

The disease is commonly set down as of fungus origin, and remedies
have been proposed on this basis, and these remedies have been more
or less successful.

There can be no doubt that certain fungi do cause the so-called shot-
holes to appear in the leaves of the apricot and other stone-fruit trees.
The fungus Phyllosticta circumcissa is that to which shot-hole used to
be referred. 1 have described another form that is sometimes seen
on the margin of shot-holes and of scabs on the fruit. Professor
McAlpine has recently described quite a number of other shot-hole
fungi.

I have seen numerous cases of this kind, however, that yielded,
after the most careful examination, no traces of a vegetable parasite
of any kind.

In April, 1901, I began a systematic examination of the shot-holes
of certain apricot trees, with the result of proving that on mature leaves
the disease was generally stationary. Week after week the holes
remained the same in size, and new holes did not appear. The obser-
vations extended over several weeks. No traces of a vegetable parasite
were seen. The opening of the following spring was awaited with much
interest, as this would give an opportunity to extend the observations.

A continuance of similar observations proved that the shot-holes
appeared on very young leaves, leaves that were still in the early stages
of growth, and that they were preceded by very minute decoloured
areas, in which, however, no vegetable parasite could be discovered.
The holes in the young leaves increased in size with the growth of the

43

leaf, and this appeared to be a mechanical result of growth. No
parasite appeared at any subsequent stage, notwithstanding the
increase in the size of the holes.

As the disease was traced farther and farther into the opening bud
of the growing shoots, it was felt that an adequate cause for the
disease must present itself, and suspicion fell upon a microscopic
insect larva belonging to the Thripsidse. In the course of the investi-
gations several species of Thrips have been seen in apricot buds (and
also in those of the peach), and these may also be injurious, but not
to any such extent as the larval form first mentioned, which may
belong to another genus of the Thripsidse.

This latter was uniformly present in apricot buds on trees showing
shot-hole, one or more inhabiting each bud. This was found to be the
case in numerous orchards in Cumberland county.

I had not been long studying the various holes to be found in the
leaves of the apricot before I had come to the conclusion that the holes

Fig. 61. — Young apricot leaf at the time
it was pricked with an exceedingly
fine-pointed needle which had been
wiped on the surface of an ant. The
resulting shot-holes are shown in
Fig. 62.

Fig. 62.— Mature apricot leaf showing row of
five shot-holes, produced by very slightly
puncturing the young leaf with an exceed-
ingly fine-pointed needle. This is the leaf
shown in Fig. 61.

were due to a variety of causes, and that they might arise as the result
of mechanical injury and be in no way connected with parasites of any
kind. Soon afterwards I was pleased to learn that other observers
had already come to the same conclusion. The apricot leaf illustrated
on this page, and showing five holes nearly in a line, was the result of
one of my trials to see what effect mechanical irritation, in this case a
series of minute punctures, would have in producing holes. Other
experiments and observations proved that merely whipping the leaves
about when they were young would cause holes to appear at a later
stage of their growth, and that wind storms are in this way a cause of
shot-holes. In a similar manner certain gnawing insects were observed
to cause shot-holes. These were accustomed to gnaw away the tissue
on the under surface of the leaves in small spots. These spots
ultimately became " shot-holes."

44

After I had become fairly well satisfied that certain very small
insects, working in the opening bud, were instrumental in causing
shot-holes, I _ began a series of observations on such buds and their
unfolding leaves. An account of some of these observations will now
be presented.

Notes on successive sizes and conditions of Apricot Shot-holes on mature
leaves, March-April, 1901.

Initial Condition and Size.

After 15 days.

Final Condition and Size.

Mm.

Young leaf, hole, -8mm.
Nearly mature, hole, -9mm.
Same leaf, hole, 2 • mm.
Mature leaf, hole, T7 mm
Nearly mature, hole, 1'3 mm.
Mature leaf, hole, 2'1 mm
Mature leaf, hole, "33 mm. ...
Mature leaf, hole, '6 mm.
Mature leaf, hole, '3 mm.
Mature leaf, hole, "6 mm.
Mature leaf, hole, 1 -2 mm

•8
•9
2-
1-7
1-3
2-1
'33
•7
lost
'7
1-2

"

It will be seen that most of
the leaves were mature,
and that the holes showed
little, if any, signs of in-
crease. No marginal signs
of fungus growth were dis-
coverable with a powerful
hand magnifier used under
good conditions at the be-
ginning of the experiment.

It was concluded that at that season of the year (March 9 to April 27) this particular
series of shot-holes were in a stationary condition.

Notes on successive sizes and conditions of Apricot Shot-holes on very-
young leaves, October-November, 1902.

No. 1. This leaf measured 36 x 18 millimetres on October 24th, and at that time bore
two " shot-holes" and a mechanical injury of another kind. Before the second measure-
ment a storm had interfered and one of the two original holes had been torn off with the
portion of the leaf in which it had been located.

Initial Size measured in millimetres.

After 10 days.

Final Condition.

1 -6 x -8 . .

Missing
1-2x2-
11-2x5-7
•3x -3
3-6 x 1-6
•2x -2
•7x1-

fThe third hole measuring 3'7 x
1'4 is that mentioned as a
-{ mechanical injury due to some
other cause than the usual cause
L of these shot-holes.

•7 x -4

3-7x1-4..

No hole

"

"

Another leaf on the same branch contained three holes, '6, 1", and 1 "5 millimetres long,
and these became larger in the course of ten days, as is indicated by the following
measurements given in the same order as above : T4 x 8', 3'7 x 2', and 5'4 x 2. The
amount of increase shown by the figures 1 "4 x 8, is deceptive, inasmuch as the great
increase in length is due to the addition of two adjacent spots. The branch was broken
by accident on the tenth day.

No. 2. This leaf was 19 x 10 millimetres at the beginning of the experiment, and had
attained at the close of the experiment the dimensions 88 x 75 millimetres. Whenever
examined the branch on which it grew was found to be free from aphides and ants, but
some Thrips insects were seen. At the outset there was a single hole, and upwards of

ten minute points at which it was evident that some sort of injury had been inflicted,
the most prominent evidence being a more or less marked discolouration.

Initial Condition.

After 10 days.

After 28 days.

Final Condition.

Uound patch about to fall out . . .
No hole

mm.
3' x 3-2
•2x -2

mm.
4-7 x 4-5
•5 x -3

^ This leaf was so situated
that it was difficult to

•7 x -7

•6x1-

imagine how any me-

2-7 x 2-

3-9 x 3-1

chanical injury could

1- x '9

1 -3 x 1-4

have happened to it

1- x -5
1 • x 1 -3

6- x 1-2
1-6 x 1-8

|* i.e., such injury as
would arise from sway-

6- x 2-1

8- x 3-3

ing in the wind or being

•7x -7
•1 x -3

•9x -7
•5x1-0

hit by any small wind-
blown object such as a

•4 x -7

•6x1-

J grain of sand

Fig. 64. — Apricot leaf
at the end of the
experiment. Com-
pare with Fig. 63.

Fig. 63.— Apricot leaf at the
beginning of an experiment.
Compare with Fig. 64, which
represents the same leaf at a
later date.

No. 3. This leaf measured 27 x 21 millimetres on 24th October, 49 x 50 on 4th of
November, and 60 x 60 on the 20th November, thus showing an increase of three to four
fold during the experiment. It was a young and rapidly growing leaf.

Initial Size of Hole.

After 10 days.

After 28 days.

Final Condition.

mm.

mm.

3-5x1-3 mm. ... •
A mere crack
Blanched area
Small blanched area

Whole "... "... ;;; !"

7-4x2-5

Mere crack.
•8x -5
1- x 1-
37x2-9
No hole.

8-6 x 4-0
Mere crack
•95 x -6
1-7 x 1-4
4-7 x 3-9
•4x -3
•1 x -1

So far as could be seen this
leaf received no mechan-
ical injury during the ex-
periment. There were,
however, on the branch
that bore it a consider-

•8 x -1

able number of aphides

1' X 1"

and their attendant

!• x !•

ants.

Nearly all the later holes of this series, and probably all, were visible at the com-
mencement of the experiment in the shape of very small blanched areas.

No traces of fungi were seen with the strong magnifier that was used in making the
measurements. The injuries appeared to have started while the leaf was still in the
opening bud.

No. 4. The following observations were made on a young and growing leaf of the
apricot, measuring, at the commencement of the experiment, 50 millimetres in length and
43 millimetres in width, and at the conclusion of the experiment 80 millimetres in length
and 77 millimetres in width, from which it will be seen that it more than doubled in size
, during the course of the observations.

At the beginning there were two small holes, while at the end there were several additional
holes. The observations were continued for nearly one month, namely, from 24th
October to 21st November. The following are the details of the measurements : —

Initial Size.

After 10 days.

After 28 days.

Final Condition.

•6 x '6 mm.

mm.
1-1 x 1-J

mm.
1-6 x 1-4

!• x '5 mm.
No hole

2-8 x 1-4
•6x 1-4
•6x 1-2
1- x2'
1- x2-
1- x2-

6'7 x 1-9
•7x1-4
•8x 1-8
1- x2-
1- x2-5
24x 7'1

No hole.

22-8 x 2-

Mechanical injury.

It will be seen that in nearly every instance there was a marked increase in the size of
the hole. The holes began as spots, mostly of whitish colour. No fungus elements were
seen, though searched for with the aid of the microscope. Cultures at the end gave no
result.

No. 5. This leaf had two holes at the outset, and some trifling signs of the beginnings
of several others. The leaf was under observation for four weeks, but during that time
only one new hole appeared. The original ones increased considerably in size, as did
also the leaf itself.

Initial Condition.

After 10 days.

After 28 days.

Final Condition.

1-4x2-7
2' x2-0
No hole at first

1-9x32.
2-5 x 2-9.

Almost a hole.

1-9x3-4.
2-5 x 2-9.

No. 6. Very young and apparently perfect leaf.

Initial Condition.

After 10 days.

After 28 days.

Final Condition.

Unnoticed ...

'5 x "5 mm.
Unnoticed.
3" x '7 mm

"5 x '5 mm.

"3 x '7 mm.

The elongated hole 3' x '7 appeared to be of a different origin from the others, as if
the leaf had been whipped against some sharp point and thus given a scratch that
resulted in an elongated hole.

No. 7. The following measurements were made on shot-holes in a leaf that, at the
beginning of the experiment, was 17 x 25 millimetres and at the close of the experiment
was 62 x 73 millimetres, thus showing a tenfold increase in area : —

Initial Condition.

After 10 days.

After 28 days.

Final Condition.

1* x 1*6 mm.
1* x 1'6 mm.
Mere pinhole

2-6 x 4-5 mm.
2-7 x4-8 mm.
'7x1' mm.

2'7 x 5-8 mm.
3'8 x 5 '6 mm.
•8 x 1'4 mm.

47

No: 8. Another leaf on the fame V»ranch pave the following results : -

Initial Condition.

After 10 days.

After 28 days.

Final Condition.

5-8 x T3 mm
3pot ...

Whitish spot...
Jnnoticed

8- \3-
•5 x '5 .. .
•5x -5
Still a spot..
Unnoticed..

9-8x4-9 ..
•7 x -9 ...
1-2 x -4 ...
1-3 x -8 ...
•Ix -1 ...

j This leaf had a good many whitish
and reddish spots, and among
these some that were not at first
marked became holes afterwards.

No. 9. A third leaf on the same branch gave results as follows : —

Initial Condition.

After 10 days.

After 28 days.

Final Condition.

Except for two marginal
notches, this leaf ap-
peared perfect.

mm.
•5 x '5
•5x -5
Unnoticed
4'4x 1-5

mm.
•8x -o
•7x '4
1-7x2-8
6-3x1-9

It will be noted that these measurements prove the growth of these
shot-holes to have been concomitant with the growth of the leaves.
In hardly any of the cases cited did the shot-holes appear as the result of
a piece of the leaf falling away as is often the case when the holes result
from the attacks of fungi. As the most careful examination failed
to reveal any trace of fungus growth in the tissues at the margin of
these holes, and as cultures made from these tissues failed to show
any adequate cause for their appearance, I concluded that my suspicion
as to their cause, namely, the small form belonging to the Thripsidse,
was fully justified. I am quite familiar with the production of shot-
holes through the agency of various species of fungi, but careful
search continued for a long time among the leaves of the trees
experimented on did not result in finding more than a very few cases
of holes due to this cause.

We are driven to the conclusion that the " shot-hole " is a function
of the apricot leaf (no doubt the phenomenon is found in other genera)
and not of any particular disease. When irritated mechanically, or
attacked by a fungus disease, the tissues of the leaf act in this way,
no doubt in self defence. Though the leaf yield readily at the point
of attack it immediately sets up another line of defence, and this
consists of a new growth of tissue on all sides of the attacked part,
with the result that a hole is formed.

The observations on the shot-holes of the apricot having been
interrupted in 1901, an attempt was made to continue them in 1902.
The season proved, however, to be different from the previous one,
and there was no reappearance of the larval form noted in connection
with shot-hole the previous season, and in conformity with this there
was very much less shot-hole on the trees that had harboured these
insects the previous season. After careful search at various times
during the spring had failed to bring these particular forms to light,
it was determined to transfer other species of Thripsidse to apricot buds
in order to see whether they would consent to remain there, the

48

object being, of course, to observe the subsequent effect on the leaves.
The commonest of the thrips found on roses was the form principally
experimented upon, and the following is an account of the operations
and their results.

On 5th October several dozen thrips were taken from roses and
transferred to the unfolding bud at the end of an apricot shoot.
I found it the best way to shake the rose over a smooth surface,
and then to pick up the insects with a No. 1 sable brush, keeping the
brush constantly wet with water or saliva, the latter having just the
right degree of adhesiveness to prevent the thrips from springing off.
The transfer has to be quickly made or the insects escape by throw-
ing themselves loose from the brush. At first I used a magnifying
glass, but soon discarded it. The insects were " fenced " in with a
ring of cotton-wool tied round the apricot shoot. The shoots must be
handled with the utmost care to avoid injury. They are very sensitive.
The older insects displayed a tendency to wander about, and ultimately
many of these got lost in the cotton wool or flew away. The younger
ones soon ensconced themselves amongst the youngest leaves of the
bud that were sufficiently spread to allow of their entrance, and they
remained in that position. From time to time I looked at the bud
with a magnifier, and satisfied myself that they were still there and
alive, and to all appearances, well and happy. Whether they tried
to feed I could not see. Twenty-four hours later they were all right.
Accordingly, another bud was infested in a similar manner. A third
hud was infested from the flowers of the white snapdragon. White's
universal movement clamp was serviceable in this work, as it enabled
me to place an 8 x 10 plate of glass in a horizontal position near
whatever bud was to be infested, so that the insects could be shaken
out on to a smooth clean surface, whence they could be easily and
quickly transferred to their new quarters.

Forty-eight hours afterwards all these insects appeared to have left
the buds, though it was impossible to be sure of this, as some might
be hidden among the recesses of the bud. It would seem that some
of them died, as I found one dead body. Starvation or poison might
account for this ; there would be nothing surprising in such a result,
considering the differences between roses and apricot buds, and
especially the presence in the latter of a larger proportion of cyanogen
compounds. The single death noted proves nothing, however, as
it is quite possible that some of the insects were injured during the
transfer. There were dark remains as of excrement in both the
transfers from roses.

On 10th October one of these apricot buds had at least one small
light-coloured thrips in it, possibly one that had been overlooked in
the previous examination on the 7th. Or it might possibly have
hatched out since that date.

The leaves from the buds handled in this manner did not do well.
They did not grow to full size, and they were not well formed. They
did not develop shot-holes. If any conclusion can be drawn from the
experiment it is that the common rose thrips refuses to inhabit the
apricot bud.

49

The apricot trees upon which the shot-holes were produced by
thrips in 1901 also harboured aphides, and it naturally suggested itself
that they might be responsible for some of the holes in the leaves.
A colony of several score were established at the end of an apricot
branch, and were isolated by means of a cotton-wool barrier tied round
the branch. The bud was examined to make sure that there were no
thrips in it. Ants were kept away by the cotton wool barrier — at
least for the most part ; for in spite of the obstacle a few ants, with a
persistency worthy of a great cause, and after an arduous struggle, did
make their way to the aphides. This happened so seldom that it
may be said that this particular twig, at least in the part beyond
the cotton -wool, was inhabited by aphides alone. The aphides
located themselves principally on the stem and petioles and veins of
the larger leaves. They never made their way into the narrow
recesses of the inmost bud. The branch suffered severely from the
infestation, and it may be here added died the next season, no
doubt from this cause alone. Its leaves did not develop shot-holes.

On another occasion I infested a growing apricot bud with aphides
taken from a peach tree, this being the same species of aphis as that
mentioned above. The bud was colonised with fifteen aphides,
including all sizes, up to and including the winged form.

In an hour's time they had all left the bud and settled on the stalk.
I did not succeed in producing shot-hole in the leaves resulting from
the bud thus colonised.

These slight experiments only go to confirm the induction that
aphides have little or nothing to do with shot-holes. These insects
are very common in trees, both apricot and peach, without necessarily
being accompanied by shot-hole.

On numerous occasions during these experiments I found opportunity
to examine with care the tissues at the edges of the " shot-holes," in
order to see whether or not they were infested with fungus filaments.
The results were so uniformly negative that I feel no hesitation, as
will have been already remarked, in attributing the holes in the
present instance almost entirely to other agencies, though I do not
mean by this that such holes are not frequently produced by fungi.
In all probability they are so produced in the majority of instances,
but I know for a certainty that all the appearances of the disease on
the apricot, as it has been hitherto known, can be produced without
any such fungus or microbe cause being present as would appear to
be in any manner adequate to the damage done.

The method I have most frequently adopted is that of making serial
sections through the tissues at the edges of holes and through the
tissues at the location of prospective holes. These sections have been
cut about twenty micromillimetres thick, and have been examined in
various ways, with and without the intervention of stains and chemical
tests.

Sections prepared in this way have been placed in cultures and
studied in that manner, both as to bacterial growths and fungus
growths, but especially the latter.
36567 -n

50

The shot-holes associated with Thripsidas* are markedly different
under these tests from those of the cases where the holes are the result
of attacks of fungi. In the latter cases it is a matter of comparative
ease to demonstrate the. presence of the fungus causing the disease.

* NOTE. — In order to leave no doubt as to the species under observation, the following ana-
tomical notes are added. Other species were occasionally seen in stone-fruit buds, usually
mature insects such as the commonest rose thrips, but this occurrence was only occasional,
and not to be wondered at, for the season was marked by the abundance of thripsidae on the
rose and a number of other plants, and, in consequence, stray insects of this sort were to be
found in almost any situation. For example, one day in the middle of the city of Sydney,
at a distance of nearly 150 feet from the ground, namely, at the top of one of the tallest
buildings, it was possible to see these little insects at nearly every instant by keeping a
sharp look-out against any dark object or shadow. The bright motes to be seen in such
abundance, moving through the sunshine, were full-yrown thrips of both sexes, and, of
course, they alighted, and were to be found, in all sorts of odd situations.

The largest specimens of the larva found inhabiting stone-fruit buds as described in the
preceding pages were about one millimetre long on the 1st of November, and presented
anatomical features as follows : —

The head, about as long as wide, was not set off by a very distinct constriction. The
small, but prominent, red eyes consisted of some half dozen facets each, a much smaller
number than in most species of Thrips.

The antenna were of about the same length and average diameter as the front legs, and
though apparently consisting of only four joints, were really made up of more than that
number. The first joint, destitute of bristles, was the widest and shortest of the four
prominent sections. The oblong second joint was a little narrower than the first, and
one and a half times as long, and bore one row of bristles. The spindle-shaped third
joint, bearing one row of bristles, was as long as the first and second taken together, and
appeared denticulate in optical section. The mobility of the antenna is largely deter-
mined by the structure of this section, which is attached by a narrow and exceedingly
short stem. The fourth joint was manifestly compound, ver}^ likely four-fold, and was
lanceolate in contour and denticulate in optical section. It was blunt at the apex, as
wide as the third, and nearly as long as the first three joints taken together. Taken
altogether, it bore several ro\vs of bristles on the distal half.

The conical nozzle was ordinarily so held as to terminate between the first pair of
coxae. Of the two pairs of palpi, one was composed of three cylindrical joints disposed
like those of a short open three-fold sliding telescope, the whole being about as long as
the front leg was wide, while the second pair of palpi were apparently two-jointed.

The thorax was two-thirds as long as the abdomen. The only prominent pair of
spiracles was on the mesothorax, and appeared as a papilla half-way between the front
and middle legs. The prothorax was smaller than the other two divisions, and was set
off from them by a slight constriction. In form and size the mesothorax was much like
the prothorax. The metathorax was much like the other two divisions, especially the
middle division ; it was seen to bear a pair of inconspicuous spiracles.

The oblate coxae of the front legs were half as wide as the head, and were darker than
the other joints. Each trochanter was half as long as the corresponding coxa. The
femur and tibia were much alike in form, though the tibia was the smaller and more
tapering ; each was about as long as the terminal compound section of the antenna.
Both tibia and femur bore scattered hairs, the former having a circlet of them near the
middle and at the distal extremity. The tarsvis was composed of two very short, almost
naked joints, supplied with a clawless terminal pad. The middle legs, though a little
smaller than the front ones, were in most respects like them. The coxas were half as
large as those of the front legs, and it was difficult to make out the nature of the
trochanter, which was perhaps consolidated with the coxa. The hind legs were a trifle
larger than the middle legs, but otherwise were very much like them.

The thirteen-segmented abdomen was denticulate in contour, and bore twelve hairs
on each segment, the hairs increasing rather regularly in length from front to back, being
very short on the anterior segments ; but the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth segments
bore particularly long hairs. Beyond the features mentioned in connection with the
thorax, nothing was observed of the tracheal system.

Habitat. — Found in the growing points of the apricot and peach in October and
November in the vicinity of Sydney, N.S.W. From one to six individuals were found
in each bud, were they lived at the expense of the young growth, determining the
appearance at a later date of so-called " shot-holes " in the leaves. These larvae are
rather active in their movements, but less so than most species of Thrips.

51

MOULDY CORE OF THE APPLE.

IN 1892 attention was called in this magazine to a feature of the
apple that has much to do with its keeping qualities, namely, the
presence or absence of a channel leading from the eye of the fruit to
the core chambers. An apple having such a channel was figured, and
pointed attention was called to the desirability of excluding from our
export apples, and other supposedly good-keeping sorts, all varieties
that* presented this feature in such a pronounced manner as to endanger
the keeping qualities. I am sorry to record my opinion that we have
made little progress in this direction in the last ten years. So far as
1 can see matters stand about where they formerly stood, and yet |;he
point is one of much importance to the apple industry.

The facts of the case are as follows : — This open channel leading to
the core cavities is nothing more or less
than a cordial invitation to diseases to enter
and make themselves at home. It is a
royal road for the codlin moth larva, as well
.as for other small insect pests such as the
woolly aphis. It affords fine protection for
the red spider, and it is the regular road
for the attacks of various fungi.

The fungi making use of this weak point
in the structure of the apple are of several
rsorts, such as the common bread moulds, pig. 65.— Mouldy core. -section of an
Penicillium and Mucor, and doubtless some fs^S

Other leSS Common moulds. The Species Of core. cavities, from which a dark

, n . . pi i rot 1S spreading outwards towards

mould is not so important, tor the result is the skin.
the same in either case, namely, the destruc-
tion of the apple by the disease to which I originally gave the name
of Mouldy Core.

This is a diseased condition brought about by the presence of common
mould in the core of certain varieties of apple. Outwardly such
apples often appear to be quite sound ; but on cutting them in halves
the cores are found to be in a mouldy or half-rotten state. This,
however, is only the beginning of the trouble, for sooner or later the
whole apple becomes rotten and worthless. The rot arising from this
cause has an appearance different from that of ripe rot, inasmuch
as there are no concentrically arranged pustules ; and, furthermore,
this rot works from the centre of the apple outward, instead of
beginning as a spot on the surface and working inward.

The way in which the mould gains an entrance to the core of the
apple will be seen at once if one of the diseased apples be split into
halves with a sharp knife. It will be found that the blossom end is
open so as to form a passage leading to the core. Ordinarily, only
the varieties with open blossom ends are subject to this disease. The
course of the disease is as follows : — The spores of common mould
coming in contact with the surface of an apple with an open blossom
end, first adhere, then germinate, and send their threads into the

52

aperture in the blossom end, and thence into the core-chambers of the
apple. Here the threads grow and fructify until they finally attack
the pulp of the apple, which they usually do at some point between
the core-chamber and the blossom end. The attack on the pulp is
accompanied by a brownish rot. A knowledge of this simple fact
should prove of value to the apple-growers of the State. They are
now endeavouring to place saleable apples on the English and other
northern markets. Apples for that purpose must possess good keeping
qualities. It is, therefore, a good thing to know that varieties with
large open channels leading to the core-cavities are not likely to prove
good keepers.

There is an apple of the pippin sort (I have heard it called the
New York pippin), quite common in the Sydney market in the late
autumn, that is very subject to mouldy-core. It is of medium size
and fine flavour, and a nice-looking apple for the table ; nevertheless
it gives great dissatisfaction, because so many on opening turn out to
be worthless, or nearly so. Many Sydney hotelkeepers, caterers, and
housewives will bear me out in these statements. The sooner such
apples are put out of date the better, for there are equally good sorts
not subject to mouldy-core, which can be grown in their stead. They
will soon be discarded if both growers and buyers will bear in mind
that there is an easily and readily applied test that will at once detect
them.

Place the apple stem downward and cut it in halves exactly through
the middle ; if an open passage leading to the core-chambers is found,
then the apple must be regarded with suspicion; if the core contains
the slightest trace of mould, then it is certain that before long the
apple would have rotted. If among the first two or three apples of a
case tried in this way one is found defective, it is certain that all will
soon rot.

Recently I have given this matter further attention for the reason
that it has come often under my notice as a cause of loss to the fruit
industry, a loss which it seemed to me might well be prevented to a
considerable extent by the application of selection, and of other
measures that could be easily brought into action, if only the way were
made plain.

Through the liberality of various prominent apple growers in the
State, I have been enabled to examine a series of specimens of various
kinds with the object of making a preliminary survey of the
subject. My object has been to see to what extent the various kinds
of apple differ one from another in respect to the presence and nature
of the passage mentioned above as leading from the eye to the core
cavities, and especially to see whether the different specimens of a.
given variety varied in this respect. If, for instance, it could be shown
that some particular tree of a given variety was better in this respect
than any other, a way would be opened, by means of grafts from this
tree, to improve the variety.

With this idea in view, the various orchardists were invited to mark
their specimens in such a manner as to permit afterwards of referring

53

back to particular trees if necessary. The season has not been a
favourable one, and the specimens have left much to be desired in a
number of respects, and this through no fault of those who have
contributed specimens for examination. In a number of instances,
however," the presence of Codlin Moth has prevented the examination
from being satisfactory. Where there is a tendency to an open
channel it is almost invariably made use of by the larva of this pest
to find its way to a protected place with the least expenditure of
energy, a place also where a supply of food is at hand. This brings
prominently into notice the well-known fact, and it is an important
fact, that this passage is the usual road for the attack of this insect,
particularly when an open channel exists ; but it at the same time
prevented me from making measurements and comparisons for the
reason that the channel was too much altered by the attacks of the
insect to allow of reliable measurements.

In giving an account of these examinations I have omitted the
name of the orchardist, merely giving the locality. All are skilful
growers, and the names attached to the specimens could, I have no
doubt, be relied upon. The names were verified as far as possible by
comparison with specimens sent from the Government orchards under
the charge of Mr. Allen, Fruit Expert to the Department, to whom
I am indebted for aid in securing specimens. The notes made are
intended to show whether a passage existed from the eye inwards,
and, if so, the diameter and length of the passage, and whether it led
directly into the core chambers, or whether it was blocked or closed
at the bottom. By the bottom of the channel is meant that part of
the channel which would be the bottom if the apple were placed on a
table with the eye uppermost.

Nature and size of the channel leading from the blossom end to the core

cavity in the apple :—

Seven varieties were sent from Goulburn, and were examined with the following
results : —

HAWTHORNDEN, 10 samples. — In five to the core cavity, varying in width from

cases the passage was closed, so that there one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch. The

was a quarter of an inch of tissue between channel was often conical or funnel shaped,

the bottom of the blossom cavity and the and nearly closed at length. Two speci-

core. Two had a channel to the core mens were attacked by codlin moth through

cavities, but this was due to the codlin the channel. One had an abnormal cavity

moth present. One had a narrow channel at the bottom of the channel just above

nearly to the core cavity. The remainder the core, due to the attack of some disease,

were intermediate between the last and One was blackened and mouldy in the core

the best. The sample especially marked cavities. In nearly all cases there was an

" H " was among the best. open and easy passage right to the core

cavities.

ANNE ELIZABETH, lOspecimens.— All had

the channel closed, the distance from the MAMMOTH. — In all cases there was an

bottom of the channel to the core cavities open channel, about one-eighth of an inch

being one-fourth to five-eighths of an inch. in diameter, leading to the core cavities.

That specially marked "A" was inter- Several of the apples were already attacked

mediate in this respect. internally by some fungus disease, and

were ripening off prematurely in a punky

FIVE-CROWN PIPPIN. — All but one of the manner. Very likely the disease was due

ten specimens had an open channel leading to Penicillium or Miicor.

CLAYGATE PEARMAIN.— All the speci-
mens, ten in number, had a channel leading
to the top of the core cavity, but not into
it. In some instances the channel was
three -sixteenths of an inch wide ; generally
it was an eighth of an inch at the blossom
end and narrow at the bottom, — about one
thirty-second of an inch. It was very
noticeable in this variety that the speci-
mens that were ripening had the widest
channel, and this led to the belief that the
channel widens in the process of ripening.
Similar evidence was obtained from other

varieties. Specimen specially marked "C""
was average.

SUMMER PEARMAIN.— Open channel in-
only one of the ten specimens. The pas-
sage was never more than one-sixteenth of
an inch near the entrance, * and soon
narrowed so as to leave some distance
entirely closed. Two were nearly open.

WINTER PEARMAIN. — All the ten speci-
mens presented a narrow passage that led
into the core cavity. Some specimens had
already begun to mould.

The following samples were forwarded from Wagga : —

WHITE WINTER PEARMAIN, 10 speci-
mens.—In all but two cases a channel, one-
eighth to one -sixteenth of an inch wide, led
directly to the core cavities. In two cases
the channel was closed at the bottom.
Six of the specimens were already some-
what mouldy at the core.

CAPPER'S PEARMAIN, 10 specimens. — In
one case the channel was obsolete. In all
the other cases there was a short channel,
one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch in
diameter, leading to the core cavities. In
eight cases the core was mouldy.

LAXTON'S SCHOOLMASTER, 6 specimens. —
Two specimens only presented a passage,
of which one was mouldy at the core. In
the other four cases the channel was
obsolete.

MISSOURI PIPPIN, 7 specimens. —From
the deep eye of each specimen a very
narrow channel led to the top of the core
cavity, where it was closed. None were
mouldy.

ANNE ELIZABETH, 10 specimens. — All
presented a channel, one-sixteenth to-
three-thirty-seconds of an inch wide, opening
into the core cavities. Half the specimens
were becoming mouldy at the core.

STONK PIPPINS, 9 specimens. — Mostly
with a narrow channel leading to the core.
Two specimens somewhat mouldy.
Channel, one-thirty-second of an inch.

NORTHERN GREENING. — All these speci-
mens were suffering from Red Spider, and
some with Bitter Pit. Six specimens. Two
presented an open passage leading to the
core, and were " going," as was one other
that had a closed passage.

REINETTE FRANCHE, 2 specimens. —Both
with a closed channel.

CORNISH AROMATIC, 9 specimens. —
Narrow channel to near the core. One
core was mouldy.

ROME BEAUTY, 2 specimens. — Both with
a very narrow channel, closed at the
bottom.

The following specimens were received from Bathurst : —

1 specimen. — Channel
inch wide, closed at

1 specimen. — Channel
1 specimen. — Channel

GRANNY SMITH,
one-eighth of an
bottom.

STONE PIPPIN,
closed.

ROME BEAUTY,
closed.

CLEOPATRA, 2 specimens.— In both an
open channel, one-sixteenth of an inch
wide, led into the core cavities, and one of
the specimens was already mouldy.

PERFECTION, 1 specimen. — Channel, one-
sixteenth of an inch wide, closed at bottom.

LATE WINE, 1 specimen. — A narrow
closed channel.

JOHNSTON, 1 specimen. — No channel, i.e.,
obsolete.

JONATHAN, 1 specimen. — Channel, one-
sixteenth of an inch wide, leading to the
core, which had already begun to mould.

KENTUCKY REDSTREAK, 1 specimen. —
Channel, one-sixteenth of an inch wide,
closed for one- eighth of an inch at bottom,
apparently sufficient to secure the core
from invasion.

BLENHEIM, 1 specimen. — Narrow channel
closed at bottom.

CLAYGATE PEARMAIN, 1 specimen.— No
channel.

STURMER PIPPIN, 1 specimen. — Channel
obsolete.

MUNROE'S FAVOURITE, 1 specimen. —
Channel, one-sixteen of an inch wide, to
near the top of the core cavities.

GRANNY SMITH, second specimen. —
Channel closed at bottom for a quarter of
an inch.

The following specimens were sent from Pambula. Other specimens were also sent,
but they became so mixed and stale in transit that I did not venture to examine them :—

WINTER PEACH, 5 specimens.— Three
presented a closed channel. Two pre-
sented an open channel to the core
cavities, and of these one was already
Tnoiildv.

ROME BEAUTY, 14 specimens. — Three of
these presented an open channel, and were
a little mouldy at the core. The remainder
showed very little signs of a channel, with
one exception. This one had a closed
channel one-eighth of an inch wide.

55

Specimens from Orange : —

CLAYUATE PEARMAIN.- All attacked by inch of the core chambers, where it became
codlin moth through the eye, so as to be entirely closed.

- of *™ CROWN P--Y 10 Tcimens

which had been rendered unfit for this Three attacked by codlm moth through

examination bv attacks of codlin moth. ^eeye One had only a narrow passage

The other six "had each a narrow passage lfdm% to the. C°r*' . AU .thj otlfrf h*d a

leading from the eye to the core. fa™el one-eighth of an inch wide leading

<;RA!SXY SMiTH.-Except those that to the core chambers and of these, two had

were attacked by codlin moth, all the already become mouldy.

specimens had a narrow channel (one- CRESS'S SEEDLING. — All that were free

thirty-second to one-sixteenth of an inch) from codlin moth had a very narrow

leading to within about one-eighth of an channel that was closed at the bottom.

Miscellaneous : —

ROME BEAUTY, several specimens. — Had RIMER, several specimens. — A very

a conical channel, the outer diameter being narrow channel led to the core cavities.
three-sixteenths of an inch across. For

three-sixteenths of an inch above the core WINTER PEARMAIN.— Channel nearly

cavities this channel was closed. closed. The specimens, however, were

FIVE CROWN PIPPIN, few specimens. — green.
Channel, one-fourth of an inch wide, lead-

ing to the already mouldy core cavities. MAJETING. — Channel nearly closed.

The foregoing observations are hardly sufficient as a basis for much
reasoning, but they serve to make plain the fact that there are
considerable variations in apples of a given variety in respect to the
channel at the blossom end. It is also clear that the channel varies
in the same apple in the process of ripening, becoming wider as the
apple ripens.

The number of samples examined is insufficient to throw much light
on the question of how to proceed to select in order to combat the
occurrence of this channel. It is hoped that the observations may
be continued another year on a larger series of specimens. The subject
is certainly one of importance in connection with the keeping qualities
of apples, and it is, therefore, one that touches a fundamental problem
of the apple industry.

QUINCE ROTS.

IT is not often that the quince comes under the consideration of the
experts of this department for the reason that it cuts a comparatively
small figure in the fruit industry of the State, and also, no doubt,
because the quince is eminently able to look after itself, being an
exceedingly hardy shrub.

Now and then a fruit-grower is found making something of a
specialty of this fruit, owing to the market demand for a fruit to mix
with others of less piquancy. For the same reason nearly every private
fruit garden contains its " quince bush."

From such sources I have from time to time collected or received
specimens that give me some idea of the diseases that are most

56

commonly to be found affecting the quince in this State, and among
them I find two to be far more prominent than all others — namely,
the ripe rot of the quince and a fungus disease caused by a species of
Alternaria.

Some information of a technical character will be found on pages
8-11 in the account of the ripe rots of: the various fruits. Here it need
only be said that this disease has much the same appearance on the

Fig. 66. -Water-culture
spores from the Alter-
naria, of the quince.

Fig. 67. — Interesting secondary spores formed on
the mycelium from Alternaria(or Pleospora?)
spore from the fruit of the quince. Almost
immediately on issuing from the original spore
found growing naturally on the quince, the
mycelium began the fonnation of chains of
spores.

Fig. 68-— Spores of Gloeo-
sporium found growing
naturally on the quince.

quince as on the apple, where it is a much more common sight. The rot
caused by the fungus is at first a surface rot which extends in a
circular manner, at the same time penetrating farther and farther into

the fruit until it is completely

destroyed. The rotten spot

is almost invariably circular

and of a dark brown colour,

the colouration being, as in

the case of the ripe rot of the

apple, arranged in concentric

rings of alternating lighter

and darker shades of brown.

By the time the rotten area

on the surface of the fruit becomes half an inch in
diameter there may usually be seen on its surface
minute pustules of a darker colour, sometimes
almost or even quite black, and these, becoming
slightly raised after a few days, begin to emit a
a tortuous light-coloured fibril which, upon being
placed in water, completely " dissolves. " Upon
examination with a magnifying glass, or better
with a microscope, it will be found that the fibril
was composed of thousands of spores of the form
shown in the adjacent illustration. If some of
these spores be prodded into another quince with
a small pointed instrument, the inoculation will
result in a rotten spot at the end of a week or two, the time depending
on the state of ripeness of the quince. This simple experiment is the
key to the remedies it is possible to apply.

Fig. 69. — Alternaria of
the quince. Water-
culture growth of
spores in chains.

57

Remedies.

The skin of the quince is so tough and so well protected by its
velvety covering of hairs that I am of opinion it is rarely, if ever, that
the spores of the ripe-rot fungus make their entrance unaided. It is
necessary for them to have some entrance prepared for them. The
skin must be broken by a bruise or by the bite of some insect or animal.
Now, the quince has a habit of growth conducive to bruises from the
effect of winds. I refer to its slender branches upon which its heavy
fruit is often hung somewhat after the manner of a weight at the end
of a pendulum. If the bush be struck by a wind the et pendulum " is
set swinging to and fro until finally the fruit is knocked against some
sharp point, with the result of injuring it in precisely the manner most
favourable to the entrance of the ripe-rot fungus. From this habit
of the quince we may learn two lessons, the application of which to
practice will lessen the losses from the ravages of the ripe-rot fungus.
First, set the quince in a place free from winds. This is usually an easy
matter. The tree is so small that some sheltered place can easily be
found for it, either in some corner protected by buildings or among
taller growths that afford a similar protection. Second, prune the
quince with a view to this tendency to produce fruit at the ends of
slender branches, or if it be thought best to allow the tree to take its
own course to a larger extent, pass a few cords through the tree when
the fruit begins to attain the dangerous size, tying the pendulous
branches in such a way as to minimise the bad effects of their swaying
in the wind.

The application of Bordeaux mixture to the quince is effective in
checking the ripe rot. The applications must be made before the rot
has made its appearance, and they may be made without fear that the
trees will be injured. Full strength
mixture may be applied two months
before ripening and again a month later.
It is doubtful whether this measure will
pay for the trouble and expense unless
other trees are being sprayed at the same
time.

As the quince is a large fruit and, as
a rule, is plucked in a hard condition, it
may be sprayed right up to the time of
harvesting, it being an easy matter to
remove the Bordeaux mixture from the
fruit. This is a fact it is well to bear in
mind, because most of the diseases of

,T , T .,, .-, Fig. 70.— Fungus (Pleospora ?) found as-

the quince are connected with the ripe 8ociated with the Aitemaria of the

fruit. quince.

All infested quinces should be de-
stroyed, and it should be remembered that the ripe rots of other fruits
are a source of danger to the quince. This matter has been dealt with
under the head of " Ripe Rots." (Pp. 7-11, 18, 23.)

58

Black Rot or Alternaria of the Quince.

The second disease of the quince to which attention will be directed
has at a distance some resemblance to that just described. It is-
characterised by the presence on the fruit of rotten spots of a dark
colour. In the present instance, however, the spots are very dark,
being of a greenish velvety black. This dark green velvety growth
may extend over the whole surface, involving the entire fruit in a kind of
dry rot. The velvety surface growth is composed of multitudes of
spores borne on short pedicels so crowded together as to closely resemble
the pile of velvet. The spores are of the form shown on this page and
are large enough to be seen with the aid of a good magnifying glass,.
appearing when placed on white paper as minute elongated specks.
The remedies that may be adopted in opposing this disease are the

same as those for ripe rot. I will only add
that although in this case I have very good
reasons for thinking that several different
classes of vegetation are subject more or
less indifferently to the attacks of the same
fungi, my experiments are not yet of suf-
ficient completeness and importance to war-
rant their publication. They seem to be
of such weight, however, that I now make
them the basis of recommendations similar
to those relating to ripe rot. In particular,

Fiff. 71. — Alternaria of the quince. T -1-1 11 S. \»» xi -j. £

Spores found growing naturally I would call attention to the necessity or
on the fruit of the quince. x4oo. destroying all growths of this dark velvety

nature even where they occur on such

remotely classed vegetation as, for instance, the cucumber tribe. It
not seldom happens that consumption fails to keep up with the growth
of the cucumber patch or with that of the tomato bed, and that the
ripened fruit or even the foliage of these vegetables bears fungi that
may be inimical to fruit trees in the vicinity.

It is not always that the fungi referred to confine themselves to the
overripe fruit of these vegetables, as they are found also, as in the
case of squashes, on the young fruit and even the blossoms and, as
before remarked, on the foliage. I have already called attention in
the pages of this Gazette to a disease of young squashes that has
as its cause one of these fungi, characterised by a velvety surface
growth. As a slight further contribution in the same direction the
illustrations on this page and those immediately preceding are
inserted.

STRAWBERRY LEAF BLIGHT.

With the increase in the number of strawberries grown, there has
been an increase of the area over which this disease is known. It is
a blight in which prevention is more than usually practicable. It is
the only conspicuous disease of the foliage of this plant that is at all
common, and hence its earliest stages are easily discovered by the
watchful grower. (See Plate, opposite p. 26.) The plucking and
destruction of the earliest traces of the disease is a measure that pays
well. Care should be exercised while picking the diseased leaves not

59

I believe

Fig. 73.— Canker fungus of
the bark of the pear.

Fig. 72.— Apple apparently suf-
fering from the attacks of
canker.

to contaminate the healthy ones. The hands become covered with the
invisible spores, which may be unwittingly sown on to sound foliage
unless such care is exercised. When the disease is bad, it is best to mow
the beds, let them dry, then cover them with combustible material
and set fire to it. The new growth following will be clean and can
then be kept so. One per cent, sulphuric acid will also kill the diseased
foliage if sprayed on thoroughly. Bordeaux is an effective remedy.

CANKER.

Under the name of canker I have been accustomed to include a
disease differing from that ordinarily so called in Europe. There the
disease is, I believe, usually attributed to the genus Nectria.

the most common bark-
destroying fungi on the

apple in some other parts

of the world are also, as

here, not Nectria. The

canker most commonly

referred to in the pages

of this Gazette is not caused by a fungus of

that genus.

The disease is not confined to the apple in
this State, but is found on the pear and quince as well. On another
page will be found a description of a disease of the Hawthorn, which
appears to be indentical with our canker of the apple.

The following are some incomplete notes on a peculiar case of
canker occurring on the pear : —

The branches had been pruned, and it appeared as if the disease
might have started from the cuts, having, perhaps, been the result of
inoculation by means of the pruning shears
themselves. The branches had a deformity in
the shape of long radial swellings. At a stage
when the perithecia of the fungus had not
yet produced spores the outer bark was peel-
ing off in thin flakes of considerable size.
The perithecia were numerous and crowded,
and gave to the naked limbs a sooty black
appearance. Branches of mycelium grew
out from the perithecia. The perithecia
measured 250/x in diameter and were jet black,
and for the most part situated on the surface,
mycelium was dark-brown.

In scars on the same branches were found spores of elliptical shape,
measuring 10-12 x 20-27/x, two-celled and dark brownish-green in
colour. It remained uncertain what was the origin of these spores,
and whether they were connected in any way with the perithecia.
These spores were borne on a dark mycelium which was in most parts
an aggregation of ellipsoidal cells, having a tendency to break up into
sporidia-like bodies. The spores were smooth on the surface. (See
Fig. 74.)

X 4OO

Fig. 74.— * • -ores from a case of
canker, -or so-called "sour
sap " of the pear.

The subjacent

60

Remedies. — Where branches are already badly scarred with canker
the best treatment is accomplished with the pruning knife or some
larger sharp tool. Cut out the scar as cleanly as possible. Cut
liberally. Remove wood until what is left has a perfectly sound

appearance. This is a vital matter, and
it is better to overstep the limit than to
cut too little. The disease often exists
in fairly sound-looking wood. Little
fear need be entertained as to the life
of the branch, so long as it is not actu-
ally girdled. This may be a rather
Pig 75 —sooty fungus growth on the strong statement, but it conveys the
SSSTtehSTSi S3? J$Z correct idea in the main. So long as a
fungus freshly removed from the f air connecting link of sound bark is lett

"bark ; b, same growing in water. .. , , .iR . , T « -. -.

culture. the branch will not perish. If breakage

is feared tie on a stiffener. After cutting

away the unsound wood and bark disinfect the cut surface with Bordeaux
mixture or with a solution of bluestone, and when dry give it a good
coat of first-class white lead paint. The wound will soon begin to
heal over, and in time will become entirely covered with a growth of
new healthy bark. The tree meanwhile should have good care.

PEACH CURL.

[See Coloured Plate opposite, and also Coloured Plate opposite p. 38.]
FOEMEELY, in writing of this disease, I recommended treatment
with Bordeaux mixture, and laid special stress upon winter treatment,
pointing out that summer treatments which have to be made with the
weaker forms of the mixture, were of very questionable value, except
in so far as they might lessen the disease the next season. But while
invariably giving this treatment a place among the measures for
combating the disease, I have not been sanguine of satisfactory
results. I am very glad that I can see reason for changing my
tone in this matter, for I am able now not only to make the recom-
mendation, insisting strongly, as before, on the value of the winter
treatment, but to express the opinion that if the spraying be made at
the proper time and with sufficient thoroughness, the result will be a
decided success. This is owing to further inquiries incited by the
results of some very complete and long-continued inquiries and trials
conducted under the direction of Professor Newton B. Pierce, of Santa
Ana, California. I wish to make this matter as clear as possible, and,
with a view to doing so, will repeat here the entire article written
for our fruit-growers twelve years ago and printed in the Agricultural
Gazette : —

LEAF-CURL OR CURL-LEAF OF THE PEACH AND OTHER STONE-FRUIT TREES

This is a disease that attacks the leaves and wood of stone-fruit trees, more
particularly the peach, to which it frequently does a great deal of damage.
The following remarks are intended to apply only to the disease as it occurs
on the peach-tree.

This disease is of fungus origin, and is readily recognised in its severe
form, but often escapes notice in its mild form. It generally becomes

FIG ANTHRACNOSE.

GROSSE. DEL.
H. ». BURTON, LIT

LEMON SCAB.

W.A.Gullrck Government Printer

DISEASES OF PLANTS.

61

noticeable as soon as the leaves appear in the spring. If severe, the
disease causes the young leaves to become enlarged, discoloured, thickened, and
distorted — in short, curled. The variety of colour displayed by the curled
leaves is great. They generally assume a livid or white look ; but sometimes-
they are red, sometimes purple, and sometimes mottled with various com-
binations of green and red and purple. The surface of the diseased leaves,.
instead of having the dull lustre characteristic of healthy peach-leaves, be-
comes shiny and brilliant. This feature combined with the brilliance of colour
makes the diseased leaves very striking objects. (See coloured plate.) As the-
disease advances, the amount of overgrowth and distortion increases, until
finally the leaves become bulged out
on the upper side to such an extent
that pockets half an inch to one inch
in depth are formed, into which one
can easily insert the end of the
thumb. About this time the purple
colour, which is more common in the
earlier stages of the disease, begins
to disappear, and the lustre also
becomes less brilliant. This is owing
to the fact that the fungus which is
the cause of the disease is now pre-
paring to fructify. When this opera-
tion is finished the diseased leaves
appear as if covered with frost, or
with an exceedingly fine white

j ^ - j.- -..r ii Fiff. 76.— Microscopic details of the fungus (Exoascus-

powder. On examination with the ljo.nimus) causing leaf.curl of the peach. The-

microscope this apparent powder is figure shows a small portion of a section through

found to be composed of very minute a diseased peach leaf ; a, the mycelium of the

Sacs packed together as close as ^ngus growing on the surface of the leaf, d; b, a

.r . -IT sac or ascus arising from the mycelium a, ana

possible in a Single layer On the SUr- containing eight spores ; c, an empty sac; e, e,.

face of the leaf. Each sac when ripe mycelium inside the leaf growing among the cells ;:

Contains eight egg-shaped Spores. f> $> h> '• •>• ascospores budding in water ; fc, the

These sacs and spores are of such a

size that, according to a calculation I have made, a single square inch of'
diseased leaf may bear no less than twenty million spores, a number so large
that it is not easy to comprehend. One comprehends it to a certain extent
on reflecting that if one spore was placed on each square inch of the surface-
of the soil, twenty million spores would suffice to cover an orchard more
than a mile square. But this number of spores frequently grows on a single-
diseased leaf, while on a single peach-tree thousands of such leaves may often
be seen. The imagination is stunned by the numbers that represent the-
prolificness of this fungus.

When the disease has culminated — that is, when the fungus has fruited —
the spore-sacs burst and the spores escape ; then the leaves, which have
thus far remained succulent, begin to dry up, turn brown, and fall. These-
leaves having fallen, they are succeeded by others which, as a rule, are
less severely attacked, and thus the disease goes on decreasing in severity
until in mid-summer the tree may have a crop of fairly healthy-looking
leaves, and may bear a partial crop of fruit. In the severest cases, however,
the fruit falls about three weeks after setting, and not a peach is left to ripen.
This occurs on trees in which the disease is chronic and severe. Such
trees are worthless, nay, worse than worthless ; they are a constant menace
to all the peach-trees in the neighbourhood. The sooner they are cut down.

62

and burned, and thus utterly destroyed, the better it will be for the peach
industry.

I have now described the disease in its worst form, a form in which it is
not uncommon. The milder forms of the disease are much more frequent.
Sometimes only part of the leaves on the tree are attacked, or the leaves are
only partially attacked and display the curl in one-half only, or at the end,
or elsewhere. These appearances, however, are so similar to those already
described that there can be no mistaking them. The curl is there ; the dis-
tortion, the discolouration, the thickening, the lividness, are all present and
unmistakable. There is, however, a masked form of the disease which
usually escapes notice even under the eye of the expert. It may be known
"by the leaves having a slight tendency to overgrowth and a slight tendency
to crimple. There is no deformity in this form of the disease ; the leaves
are well formed, only somewhat darker green than usual and slightly over-
grown. Trees attacked thus often bear fairly well, and it may therefore be
asked whether this form is worth notice. I think it is worth notice for this
reason : Leaf-curl is a disease that varies from season to season ; some seasons it
is almost absent except on trees in which it is chronic and severe, and other
seasons it is very common, widespread, and injurious. In seasons when
the diseass is very prevalent those trees which in ordinary seasons show
the disease only in its masked form break out badly and bear little or no
fruit.

The description of this disease would be very incomplete without making
plain mention of the fact that the fungus described above as occurring on the
leaves may be traced from the leaves back to the wood. That is an impor-
tant fact, because it leads to the conclusion that the disease is one that
-cannot be got completely rid of by any treatment of the leaves by spraying
with fungicides. The fungus will winter in the wood, and be ready to
make the most of its opportunities in the spring.

Remedies and Preventives.

1. Foremost in rank among the various methods of treatment which I
^advise is care in grafting and budding. This disease can exist in the wood
even when the leaves show only slight traces of it. As already described,
the diseased leaves of early spring are usually followed by fairly healthy-
looking summer leaves, so that except for a dearth of fruit (and even that
may not be great) the tree may look quite fit to take scions from. Along
•comes the nurseryman or orchardist, bent on increasing his stock of trees,
takes a look at this tree, and seeing nothing much the matter, proceeds
to remove scions and graft them wholesale on fresh stocks. There can be
'but one result — diseased trees. I am confident that this is the manner in
which the disease is commonly spread from one place to another at a distance.
Orchardists, therefore, who have an eye to the future, and nurserymen who

•care anything for their reputation, will refrain from grafting or budding from
trees that have this disease. Grafting and budding should be done only
from peach-trees that have either never shown the slightest traces of curl, or
.from such as have been entirely free from it for at least two seasons.

2. Almost equal in importance with the foregoing is the selection of curl-
resistant varieties. It is a well-established fact that some varieties of peach
resist the leaf -curl, and are but slightly injured by it, while others seem to
be quite proof against it. I am sorry to say that no list of the resistant
varieties has been obtained for Australia, so that we are completely in the

63

dark. To make such a list is a matter of time and patience, and I am glad
to say that Mr. Benson, fruit expert to the Department of Agriculture in
New South Wales, has undertaken to give this matter attention. He has
prepared a leaflet, which is to be sent to peach-growers, and they are requested
to reply and give the names of varieties of peach which they find to be always
free from curl, and of those they find to be very subject to it. When all the
replies are received they will be collected and compared and the result made
known so as to benefit all alike.

3. The destruction of diseased leaves is advisable. The reader who has had
the patience to follow the description of the disease, must have been struck
by the enormous number of spores produced by the fungus that causes curl.
The spores, it is almost needless to say, are the seeds of the fungus. The
chance of the fungus spreading is diminished by the destruction of its spores.
There is only one method of doing this, namely, destroying diseased leaves.
This can be done by pruning, by hand-picking, or by raking up the leaves
that are dead and fallen owing to the disease. The material gathered in
this way is, of course, to be burned. In a large orchard, badly diseased,
none of these ways would pay. But they are one and all applicable to the
small garden where the owner does not begrudge a little extra labour
in order to supply the family with perfectly fresh and luscious fruit ;
also in the nursery where young peach-trees are being reared, attention
of this sort will be well bestowed, and, in the case of large orchards, where
the disease has not yet appeared in force, this method is one highly to be
recommended. I have never yet been able to express myself forcibly enough
with regard to nipping these things in the bud. A little prevention is worth
more than all the cures in the world. There are very few pests indeed which
come with a rush — there are such, but they are rare. In nearly every case
the pest has a small beginning, and it is only after considerable time that it
grows to be a nuisance. There is a time in the history of nearly all these
pests when the agriculturist could crush them with his thumb and forefinger.
How important it is, then, for him to make himself acquainted with these
pests beforehand, so as to be ready to seize upon them while they are yet
within his power ! I am sure there ara few things that will pay him better
than the knowledge which will enable him to guard his crops from invasion
by these insidious robbers of which the leaf-curl of the peach is an example.
Now-a-days useful pamphlets and books treating of these subjects are easily
obtainable, and an evening with them is often well spent. Specimens sent
to Departments of Agriculture in almost any part of the world receive
attention, and reliable information is returned by mail. The peach-grower
should make use of all these agencies in preventing curl.

4. Peach-trees suffering from curl should receive especial attention — for
the matter of that, so should all diseased orchard-trees. The orchardist
should make up his mind to one of two things — either to dig the tree out and
destroy it root and branch, or to give it the best of care. Prune well,
removing especially the diseased parts ; cultivate well and apply manure
liberally. This treatment will often ensure a crop from trees that would
otherwise be useless ; but, of course, the margin of profit is less, and to
avoid loss it is well to count the cost carefully before entering on this
treatment.

5. I would call attention to an observation of mine that when peach-trees
suffering from curl are severely cut back, they often shoot from adventitious
buds, that is, buds formed under the bark, and that such shoots from the side
of large limbs are often free from curl. I think this severe cutting back in
the winter may yet prove of use in curing badly affected trees.

64

6. Finally, there is the application of fungicides, such as Bordeaux mixture,
Eau Celeste, and Ammonio-carbonate of copper. None of these have yet been
shown to be effective against curl, but I am of opinion that none of them
have yet been tried with sufficient care. The ordinary formulae given for
these mixtures are too strong for the peach, being found to kill the foliage.
If they are tried, they should be used at half strength or even weaker,
unless they be applied in the winter, when the full strength will do no harm.
I would advise anyone experimenting in this line to rely upon winter treat-
ment, and treatment at the time when the leaves begin to appear. It does
not seem to me likely that later treatments will do much good, unless,
indeed, they diminish the force of the disease so as to lessen the damage
the following season. The action of these fungicides is much less marked
in a wet season, because they are washed off by the rain ; in any case where
a spraying is followed immediately by rain, little good can result unless the
spraying be repeated as soon as the rain has dried off. A winter spray of
sulphate of iron may be found useful, using one to two ounces of the crystals
dissolved in a gallon of water. These treatments are of doubtful value, as
far as curl is concerned, and were it not that they are useful in other ways
I would not mention them.

Curl should not be confounded with peach-aphis. Seen at a distance the
effect of the aphis is similar to that of curl, but on close examination the
difference is apparent at once. In the case of curl, pure and simple, no
insects of any kind will be found, while in examining peach leaves attacked
by aphis the distorted leaves will be found swarming with small green and
brown insects. The two diseases may, however, occur together ; but even
then there is little difficulty in distinguishing the distortions of curl from
those caused by aphides, as those of the latter lack the livid thickening and
bulging so characteristic of curl. The treatment for peach-aphis is entirely
different from that recommended for curl."

This closes the quotation from my original article, and I wish to call
especial attention to the second sentence in the sixth section of it : —

"None of these (copper compounds) have yet been shown to be
effective against curl, but I am of opinion that none of them have
yet been tried with sufficient care."

When I wrote thus, I did not know that several years earlier curl
had been successfully treated in California with fungicides. Such,
however, was the case, and from this beginning a method of treatment
has been worked out which applies well to the conditions in this State,
and which is a most profitable one in those regions where the losses
from the disease are large and constant. The main points in the
treatment are winter spraying, or rather early-spring spraying, with
full-strength Bordeaux mixture, and care in the application of the
spray. Fully approving them, from observations made on the disease
in this State, I give here the main conclusions arrived at by Professor
Pierce : —

SUMMARY.

(1.) Peach leaf-curl has a world-wide distribution, occurring in every
region in which the peach is grown. In humid localities it is a leading
hindrance to peach culture, and in portions of the Pacific coast States it has
greatly limited the extent of the industry.

65

(2.) The orchard losses from peach leaf-curl vary from a small amount of
fruit to the entire crop, while in many instances young trees are killed. The
national losses from this disease will amount to $3,000,000 annually.

(3.) Curl is caused by a parasitic fungus known as Exoascus deformans,
the ravages of which are largely dependent upon the atmospheric conditions
prevailing while the trees are leafing out. Rains and cold weather at that
time tend to increase the severity of the trouble by favouring the growth of
the parasite and interfering with the proper functions of the host. For these
reasons orchards near large bodies of water and in low or damp situations are
aiore subject to curl than those in dry regions or in elevated situations.

(4.) Most of the spring infections of peach leaves are due to the spores of
the fungus and not to a perennial mycelium, as formerly held, hence the
efficacy of sprays.

(5.) Curl was first successfully treated in California during the period from
1880 to 1885, the success depending upon the application of fungicides to the
dormant trees. The disease was not successfully treated in Europe for ten
years after its prevention in the United States.

(6.) The copper sprays are now found to be more effective than the sulphur
or other sprays first used. Of the various sprays experimented with, Bordeaux
mixture, in the proportion of 5 pounds copper sulphate, 5 pounds lime, and
45 gallons of water, gave the best results, the equal weights of the copper
sulphate and lime being most effective when the mixture is applied shortly
before the opening of the blossom buds. When it is desired to increase the
durability of a spray by increasing the proportion of lime, the application
should be made earlier or equal proportions of copper and lime should be
maintained. l"he total saving of foliage increases with the increase of copper
sulphate when the amount of lime remains constant, but the average saving
per pound of copper sulphate decreases with the increase of copper used.

(7.) In the treatment of peach leaf-curl, from 95 to 98 per cent, of the
spring foliage was saved by spraying. A net gain of 600 per cent, in foliage
over that retained by adjoining unsprayed trees resulted in the case of several
different sprays. Bordeaux mixture when applied to the dormant tree
increased the weight and starch-producing power of the leaves, and the
sprayed trees showed a great gain over the unsprayed in the number and
quality of the fruit buds they produced for che following year, the gain in the
number of spur buds being over 100 per cent, in some cases. The lower
'limbs of sprayed trees showed a marked gain over those of unsprayed trees
.as compared with the upper limbs in both the number of fruit btids and
lateral shoots they produced.

(8.) The average value of the fruit per tree in rows treated with the most
•effective Bordeaux mixture ranged as high as $6.20 above that per tree in
.adjoining untreated rows, or the equivalent of a net gain of $427.80 per acre
where trees are planted 25 by 25 feet. Over 1,000 per cent, net gain in the
,fruit set has resulted in the use of some of the more effective sprays.

(9.) The trees should be sprayed each season, as the experiments proved
•that treatment one season will not prevent the disease the following year.
Spraying should also be done even though the trees may not be expected to
bear, as the loss of the crop of leaves is shown to result in as great a drain
upon the trees as does the maturing of one-half to two-thirds of a crop of fruit.

(10.) The work demonstrates that peach leaf -curl may be cheaply and
•easily prevented in California, in western Oregon and Washington, and along
'the east shore of Lake Michigan, where curl causes great loss, as well as in
:all other peach-growing sections of the United States.

36567 E

66

(11.) The copper and lime sprays are less injurious to the trees than those
composed of sulphur and lime. The use of lime in winter sprays has proven
an advantage in enabling the workmen to see their work and complete it
with greater thoroughness than would otherwise be possible. A proportional
increase of both lime and copper sulphate is recommended for wet regions,
and for very wet localities a second winter spraying is advised.

(12.) Cyclone nozzles with lateral or diagonal discharge are best adapted
to the work.

(13.) The proper time for winter spraying and the number of applications
depend to some extent on the locality, season, etc., but active sprays are
likely to do most good if applied from one to three weeks before the opening
of the blossoms in spring. The proper time to apply sprays for the preven-
tion of curl is in dry, calm weather, and during the middle of the day, in
order to avoid dew or frost upon the limbs as much as possible,

(14.) Of nearly 200 peach and nectarine varieties considered with a view
of determining their comparative susceptibility to curl, it was found that
very few were wholly free from the disease and that some were very subject
to it. Some of the choicest varieties, as the Elberta and Lovell, are seriously
affected, but it has been demonstrated that a single winter treatment will
prevent the disease upon even these varieties. It may be thus fairly claimed
that the spraying methods recommended will save to the peach industry some
of its finest varieties, as well as result in the saving of foliage and crops-
already indicated.

ALTERNARIA or THE CITRUS TRIBE.

[See Coloured Plate opposite p. 60.]

UNDEE this general appellation I shall include a large number of cases
that have come under my notice during a series of years reaching back
as far as 1890. The cases are numerous, and sometimes they have been

a source of loss to orchardists,
though they were more often
the cause of anxiety lest they
should turn into something
more serious. While I cannot

*400 A JA /fPlk be certain that the cause in all

these instances is the same-

fun"us' {i is ceYt?™> ™.™y

opinion, that no reliable differ-

i. of the fruit < ence Q£ f Qrm ^ ^Q pointed Out

among the various specimens,,
in spite of the fact that they occur on various parts of various citrus
species, and hail from various parts of the country. I shall there-
fore speak of "the disease" caused by this "fungus," although
I wish to imply thereby only my suspicion that all are but form&
of one and the same thing. This will, I think, lead orchardists into
no difficulty, as the treatment for all such cases must be practically the
same until some proof is forthcoming thai the various cases are
different in nature.

Briefly, the disease is due to attacks of an Alternaria, the symptoms
being displayed as spots on the foliage, young branches, and fruit of
the orange, mandarin, and lemon.

67

Though the spots bear some resemblance to each other in all these
various situations, they vary more than does the form of the fungus
which produces them. This fungus is of a dark colour, somewhat
greenish-black, and appears in larger or smaller tufts on the dis-
coloured surface of the plant. Frequently these tufts are of micro-
scopic size, appearing to the unaided eye merely as minute specks on
the surface. Sometimes the tufts are run together in larger areas,
but this is not often the case. When run together in this rare manner
the entire growth presents a somewhat velvety appearance. The
elements of which these tufts are composed are represented in the
illustration on the previous page.

A considerable number of fungi of this kind have been described as
growing on citrous hosts. They have been assigned to the genus
Macrosporium and the genus Alternaria, though it seems to me
probable that most, if not all, of them are of the form usually assigned
to the genus Alternaria,
and that when they have
been assigned to the genus
Macrosporium, it has been
without the knowledge that
the spores, which, upon
casual observation, appear
to be borne singly, are in
reality borne in chains.
Observation, unless care-
fully made, would often
lead one to the erroneous
conclusion that the spores
are borne singly, so easily
are they shaken apart, and
so almost invariably are
they washed apart in the
water in which they are,
as a matter of course, ordinarily examined. One is almost tempted to
think that some observers have never seen these spores growing upon
their stalks in a natural position, for they are frequently figured
upside-down — a position in which they would naturally be arranged
by one who did not know their method of growth. It is my experience
that these fungi almost never fail to give rise to spores in chains in the
perfectly still atmosphere of the cultivation chamber. 1 cannot pre-
tend to anything like a complete knowledge of these large and almost
universally distributed form-genera, but certainly so far as my ob-
servation does extend, it points towards a more complete synonomy of
Macrosporium and Alternaria.

I find that, according to their situation, these fungi vary much in
the size and form of their spores, and I think this fact has led to a
needless multiplication of specific names. Very small variations in
the form and size of the spores, especially if associated with a new or
different host or different part of the world, have been considered
sufficient to warrant the application of new names. Of course, by

Fig. 78.— Typical growth of
Alternaria. Spores of the
Altei-naria of the tomato
as found growing on the
fruit ; a, an aerial hypha,
at the top of which a
spore is just beginning to
form; 6, a young spore
before it has begun to
divide in the niurifonn
manner ; c, a young two-
celled spore; d, a young
four-celled spore; e, a
spore approaching ma-
turity; /, two spores borne
tandem ; g, h, i, three
spores borne tandem ;
.?, mycelium from which
the spore-bearing hyphae
spring.

68

small variations I mean comparatively small ; it will be seen by the
measurements given on this and succeeding pages what interpretation
must be put upon this expression, for it can be there seen what is the
actual variation among spores derived from the same mycelium.

The earlier stages of this disease, as it occurs on the leaves of the
orange, are characterised by irregular roundish or elongated yellow
patches of considerable extent. These patches are from five to twenty-
five millimetres or more across. A striking feature of the spots is the
early appearance of reddish blotches on the yellow background. These
reddish blotches make their first appearance on the primary yellow of
the discolouration in the form of small reddish dots, which eventually
run together in the middle of the diseased spot, though they may
continue to appear as isolated dots near the margins. In consequence
of this a diseased area in its secondary stage has the following
appearance : — A reddish central part bordered by small reddish spots
arranged on a yellow background.

In the final stages of the attack the reddish central patch of the
secondary stage becomes ash-coloured, and bears the Alternaria, the
fructification of which assumes the form of minute tufts of dark green,
or almost black, aerial mycelium, consisting of unbranched hyphae,
bearing spores in chains.

Around the central ash-coloured spore-bearing area is a brown
margin which pales through yellow to the normal green of the plant.
None of these growths cause any material thickening or swelling
of the leaf, which throughout the progress of the disease remains
normal in thickness.

The adjacent measurements
show the range of size of the
Alternaria spores. The long-
est are 15 to 20 celled, while
the smallest are 2 to 4 or 5
celled. The adjoining wood-
cut shows some of the spores
from which these measure-
ments were made. The spores are invari-
ably smooth-walled. It may therefore be
said that the full-grown spores are 15-20
celled, and measure 12-18 x 60-70 /x.

Small one- and two-celled spinous or
warty spores of the form referred to
Cladosporium, were occasionally seen
among the typical Alternaria spores, but
it was impossible to more than conjecture
the part played by them. Only a few were seen, not more than three
or four among many hundreds of the Alternaria spores.

When pieces of infested orange leaf were placed in water-culture,
the mycelium of the Alternaria grew from the leaf tissue out into the
water and air, and these new growths produced spores after the
manner of Alternaria, i.e., in chains, and the spores produced under
these conditions did not differ very materially from those produced in

70
62
40
25
22
18
20
25

12

18,

15,

12,

10,

10,

12,

10,

Fig. 79.— Spores of an Altemaria
found growing on the leaves of
the orange.

69

the normal manner on the leaves. They had less colour, and were
somewhat smaller. It was in part upon this evidence that the fungus
was assigned to the group Alternaria.

As an example of the occurrence of the disease on citrus fruit, it
may be mentioned that on one occasion three mandarins of the variety
"Emperor" were examined, each with a single well-marked spot,
at which the fungus had injured the skin and caused an unsightly
blotch.

The mandarins were green, but would soon have ripened. The
location of the diseased areas was marked by a premature <( ripening,"
the diseased spots being surrounded by a yellow area, which shaded
off into the normal green of the fruit. At the centre of the spot the
tissues had been almost completely destroyed nearly down to the pulp.
The original succulency of the tissues was completely gone. The tissue
of cells composing the rind had been used up by the parasite, and in
their place was a cracked and dried-up mass largely composed of the
mycelium and spores of the fungus.

With a knife-blade it was easy to break away the brittle mass of
diseased material, which might, therefore, perhaps be called scabby in
its nature, though the growth was somewhat sunken, not raised.
This scabby material was lig-ht gray or ash-coloured, except at the
surface, where, owing to the presence of the fungi, the colour was
darker — dark-green or nearly black. The diseased spots measured
about five millimetres across — that is to say, not far from a quarter of
an inch. Two fungus forms were found on and in the diseased
tissue, an Alternaria and a Phoma.

11

x

7 p. 2-celled, not

muriform.

The

Ai

ternana was in all respects

36

X

11

4-celled, not

muriform.

of the

same form as that iust described

22
18

36

X
X

X

11

7
18

3-celled, not
4-celled, not
6 to 7 celled,

muriform.
muriform.
muriform.

shown

in

leaves of the orange, and
Fig. 79. This is partially

47

Go

X
X

14
22

10 to 12 celled,
18 to 20 celled,

muriform.
muriform.

shown

•mpnt «

by

the neighbouring measure-

An exceptionally wide cell gave 58 x 21 /x. It may be said that the
mature spores having six to twenty cells measured 14—22 x 36— 65/x.
Taking the complete range of spores in the two cases, i.e., the orange
leaf and the mandarin fruit, we have the following comparison :—

On Orange Leaf, 10-18 x 15-75,
On Mandarins, 7-22 x 11-65,

in which we see a practical identity. The form, colour, and structure
were as nearly as possible identical in the two cases. In the case of
the mandarin, however, the spores were not seen growing tandem.
That method is assumed on the ground of complete general resemblance.
The curved or crooked pedicels on which the spores were borne were
two to five celled, and measured 44-90 /u, x 4'7-5'6 ^. The locations of
the septa were indicated by slight irregularities in the exterior of the
hypha. These pedicels grew in tufts of five to ten, and were readily
to be seen with a good hand lens. Both the pedicels and their spores
were of a greenish- brown colour, except the terminal cell of the spore,
which was nearly colourless.

70

When we consider the close resemblance between the fungi in the
two cases under consideration, the case of the orange leaves and the
case of the green fruits of the mandarin, and the close resemblance
between the results to the tissues attacked, it is difficult to escape the
conclusion that the two diseases are identical, so far as we have now
proceeded.

It is, however, necessary to next take notice of the occurrence in the

diseased tissues of the mandarin skin of a P/ioma-like form. The

5-8 x 3-6 dark-brown, nearly spherical perithecia of this form

8-0 x 4-3 ,, were 72-90 /A in diameter, and from within a paren-

7-2 x 4-3,, chyrnatos shell yielded "colourless spores 3'6-4'3 x

11 -Ox 4-3" 5-8-1 1 /A. The perithecia were numerous in some

, " cases, and it was impossible to avoid the conclusion

Range, that they had much to do with the disease. Ad-

Avera Vs^x^cT jacent are some measurements of the spores of the
Phoma.

Both forms of the spores found in connection with this mandarin
disease were submitted to culture in a sealed infusion of mandarin
peel.

In a few minutes the Alternaria spores started to throw out four
to five colourless septate threads, which in twenty-four hours became
four to forty times as long as the spores themselves, beginning to
branch somewhat after they had reached a length several times as
great as that of the spores.

The spores of the Phoma, after twenty-four hours, began to
germinate in a partial manner. In no instance was the new mycelium
longer than the spore itself. In some cases buds were formed at one
or both ends of these spores.

I have already remarked on the similarity of these cases. The
resemblance is so great that I do not consider them specifically distinct;
they are one and the same thing in my opinion, though of course this
opinion is based on form, not on complete culture experiments.

MELANOSE (?) ON ORANGES.

THE following notes may be worthy of attention in connection with
the cause of the disease I formerly described in this journal under
the title " Melanose (?) " :—

1. The disease starts at the stomata. This fact points in the
direction of the cause being a vegetable parasite ; we know of a
number of fungi that effect an entrance by this door, and these fungi
belong to widely different groups. On the other hand, is there a
single animal parasite that enters by way of the stomata ? Is there
one well known to choose the stomata as the scene of its operations of
any kind ? Any small insect, to take a supposable example, that
wished to utilise its beak for sucking the juices of the plant, would
hardly find it convenient to utilise the stomata, for it is precisely here
that the tissues sought as food are least accessible, on account of
the subjacent air-space and loose parenchyma.

71

2. The disease is exceedingly common on trees that have yielded no
apparent insect cause. Where the fruit, leaves, &c., are so thoroughly
infested, it is hardly even conceivable that an insect cause could have
been overlooked by competent observers.

3. The disease yields to treatment with Bordeaux mixture. This
points distinctly to the cause being a vegetable parasite.

4. Fungus elements are found associated with the disease. Cultures
may be necessary for the satisfactory verification of this statement.

All these items are in the nature of inferences, it is true, and no single
one of them can be taken, in the form stated above, as a proof of the
vegetable origin of the disease ; but taken together they seem to me
to form an almost overwhelming argument in favour of vegetable
origin.

The following cultures were made in infusion of orange peel : —

1. Water culture of healthy epidermis of an orange attacked by
Melanose (?). After twenty-four hours there were only two growths.
These were from spores resembling those of Coniothecium and mani-
festly lying on the surface of the peel. The epidermis was shaved off
very thin at a place where there were no traces of the disease to be
seen. All the stomata, on examination with the microscope, proved
to be entirely free from discolouration.

2. Water cultures were made from stomata just beginning to show
traces of the disease. These stomata were barely yellowed or decidedly
brown. In no case could any satisfactory traces of a parasite be seen
after twenty- four hours. If a vegetable parasite is present it must be in
a very attenuated form. Of interest in this connection is the fact
that in cultures of the well-developed scab the yeast-like conidia,
as they go on dividing, decrease in size until they are very small indeed.
Is it not possible that there is a generation of exceedingly minute
size ? Will this account for the difficulty in making out the parasite
at the time of the beginning of the attack ?

3. Cultures of well-developed scab have yielded the results already
described and figured in this Gazette. The scab of orange gave very
little of the Coniothecium form, but the production of conidia was so
like that of the culture of the lemon scab that I could see no difference
in the two forms of conidia, except the more constant occurrence in
the latter of vacuoles. The same diminution in size occurred in each.

MELANOSE (?) ON LEMONS.

FKOM the same orchard that furnished the oranges upon which the
foregoing observations were made, some lemons were forwarded as
suffering from the same complaint as the oranges.

In the case of the lemons it was not possible to show that the spots
originated at the stomata. Fungus elements were found among the
tissues of some of the scabs of the lemon corresponding with the Conoi-
thecium scabrum of McAlpine. The form found in the tissues as taken
from the dry scab and examined at once in water, consisted almost

72

entirely of loosely aggregated dark-coloured, sub-spherical cells.
These occurred in groups of from four to several scores.

On being subjected to water culture in an infusion of lemon-peel,
these cells gave rise to a vast multitude of yeast-like conidia, which
fell off and continued to bud and separate like yeast, yet without the
formation of chains and with a rapid diminution in size. Each of
these conidia had one or two vacuoles. The phenomena closely
paralleled those recounted by me for the similar fungus found con-
nected with the scab of lemon bark (Vol. VI, p. 865, Agricultural
Gazette) .

Beside producing these yeast-like conidia, the cells of the Conior
thecium gave rise to colourless mycelial threads, divided by septa into
cells two to six or eight times as long as broad.

BLACK SPOT OF THE CITRUS ERUITS.

IT is not at all unfrequent to hear it said that this disease spreads from
one fruit to another, and that it develops and spreads in the cases
of fruit after they are placed in storage. Some observations and
experiments lead me to the conclusion tliat there may be gome miscon-
ception about this.

The spores of this- disease do not readily germinate under the
laboratory conditions ordinarily brought to bear in tlieir examination,
and in this respect they differ from most spores found in connection
with prevalent fungus diseases. The following observations, though
they are inconclusive, are inserted here out of regard to the rarity with
which I have observed these spores to germinate :—

Spores of this fungus were ringed in, with a small supply, of water
and numerous air bubbles. The spores, which were entirely like those

figured in " Letters on the Diseases of
Plants/' Agric, Gaz., vol. V^II, p. 230, after
twenty-four hours had failed to germinate in
tnose Parts wnere tney were completely -sur-

in water-culture, rounded by water. Spores located1 -at5 '-'the

giving rise to a remarkably fine -. „ i r7 , , , , f . -, . ,r,

mycelium. edges of air bubbles where on one side they

had access to air, each sent out into the air

a single very fine unbranched mycelial thread about 6ne micromillimetre
wide, though slightly wider at the free end. The mycelium was colour-
less, and so fine as, under the circumstances, to preclude observation
as to septa ; none were seen. At the end of twenty-four hours the
length of these hyphae averaged several times the length of the
spores.

As to the spread of the Black Spot disease a'mong citrus fruit in
store, the following observation may be of interest :—

A ripe lemon that presented a pronounced case of this disease was
utilised to test its communic ability. Spores were removed from a
well-developed pustule and inoculated into a healthy portion of the
Tind of the same lemon. It was thought if the disease spread on fruit
in store, as sometimes claimed, this inoculation ought to give a
positive result. Two inoculations were made, but neither gave any

73

signs of activity. The lemon was kept under observation for
one month, but during this time the inoculations gave no sign of
developing into diseased spots. At the end of a month it was with
difficulty that the places of inoculation could have been located had they
not been previously marked.

This would tend to show that this disease, if it does develop in
cases of fruit in store, does so from spots that are already started but
invisible. If this is so, and if it is also true that the disease is not
spread from one fruit to another in storage, the fact may be of
use in instances where it is claimed that fruit has contracted the
disease in storage. Further tests in this direction are desirable.

Associated with the ordinary fructification of this disease I have
noticed, on at least one occasion, those of another sort ; the perithecia
are of about the same size but ascophorous.

LEMONS DECAYING WHILE ON THE MAHKET.

AT times one finds in the market lemons which are light in weight
but to all external appearances quite sound. On being opened they are
found filled partially with air, the pulp being a trifle dirty and showing
small whitish spots. Kept a few days in a warm room, these lemons
show a brown discolouration at the stem end,
and as this spreads toward the tip or other
end of the lemon a grayish-green fungus ap-
pears, generally near the stem. This resembles
Penicillium in appearance, and bears spores : %

such as are pictured on this page. The rind of

the lemon in the vicinity of the outward spore- Fig. ^f.^^/j^. by a
bearing portion of the fungus is permeated by
copious 'mycelium, and this mycelium extends

beyond the brown colouration. For example, where the brown
colouration extended one-fourth of 'an inch to half an inch from the
stem, the mycelium was found in the more Wealthy-looking tissue an
inch away. Sealed in under a ctover with water, sections of the lemon
peel containing mycelium gave conidia and new growth of mycelium
as shown in Figs. 82 and 83.

The lemons that were most carefully ex>
amined in this connection were imported from
Italy, but I have no -doubt the rot is one
found in connection with Australian-grown
lemons. The disease would appear to have
been introduced at the stem end of the fruit at'
harvest. time or during storage. ..'.,.. germinate m

One of the most useful hints that can be
given for guidance in connection with thisi rot is the fact that the fruit
is often of light weight. This is due to the fact that the attack of the rot
results in evaporation of the water of the fruit, its place being taken by
air. This lightness comes about while the fruit ia still to all outward

-Mycelium and spores from the rind of

74

^appearances sound and saleable. I have known worthless lemons of
this character to pass along in the trade from hand to hand until
they at last found their way into, — well, we will call it consumption.
At any rate the consumer paid the bill. Beware of light-weight
lemons that appear to be fresh and juicy in the skin, for they are most
likely of this worthless sort, and so will become mouldy, and besides
are already past using. Their acidity is tainted with a bitterness that
makes them unfit for culinary purposes.

In calling attention to the lightness of the smitten lemons there is
no failure to remember that good lemons sometimes become light in
weight. Good lemons becoming light in weight become so by drying
up, and are therefore easily distinguished from those that are light
from rot, since the latter have a juicy skin. Lemons that are merely

dry in the skin often contain ex-
cellent acid.

As the disease enters at the stem
end we might expect that any
fungicide or disinfectant applied at
the stem-scar would be effective in
preventing the entrance of the

f UngUS, and this IS actually the Case.

This operation may be accomplished

ose shown at 6 ; d, spore germinating. most effectually at the time the

lemons are being packed for storage
•or for along journey. The operation should not be delayed long after
plucking.

Care in the harvesting of the lemons will do much to leave the scar
unbroken, and this care should always be exercised if the lemons are
to be kept for a long time, as when exported or placed in storage.

The ordinary fungi that attack bruised fruit are much more common
at some seasons than at others, and when they are prevalent special
•care should be exercised in harvesting and handling the fruit. Damp
weather, especially if continued through several days of moderate
temperature, is very conducive to the growth of these fungi, and it
is during such weather that special care should be exercised. The
weather that causes old boots, bread, and cheese to mould is the sort
of weather in question.

DISEASES OE THE PASSION- VINE.

[See Coloured Plate opposite.]

SINCE writing on a former occasion on the " Woodiness of the
. Passion-Fruit " I have kept the diseases of this crop more or less in
view, with the result that it is now possible to give a much more
complete sketch of the fungus diseases to which it is subject. These
turn out to be quite numerous, and they present a considerable
variety. Besides the woodiness, which still remains more or less of a
mystery, there is a ripe rot of the fruit which appears to be found also
on the foliage, a shot-hole or leaf-corroding fungus, a Macrosporium
disease, and one or two others.

DISEASES OF THE PASSION-FRUIT.

1, RIPE-ROT OF THE PAS8.ON-FRU.T. 2, a, 4, AND 6, STAGES OF THE WOOO.NES8 OF THE PA8S.ON-FRU.T.

75

Woodiness of the Passion-Fruit.

Fig. 7, p. 411 Agricultural Gazette, 1901, illustrates green passion-
fruit beginning to be woody and cracked, whose further history is as
follows : —

The portions of the surface which crack — generally the lower parts
as the fruit hangs on the vine — turn to a dirty white or very light russet
colour, and the surface cracks off in thin layers, leaving a rougher and
more russety surface ; — that is to say, a dry corrosion takes place.
Before the dirty-white area cracks away its margin is sometimes
separated from the green and intact parts of the fruit by a green area
where the cells seem to have collapsed without losing their green
colour. If a fruit showing the foregoing appearances is plucked it
will, after 48 hours, begin to " crinkle " on the green parts, but will
remain unchanged in the woody parts — remain quite hard, dry and
" woody."

Macrosporium of the Passion-Vine.

The following are details of a Macrosporium found on the leaves of
the Passion- vine : —

The outward
growths are ar-
ranged either
singly or in
groups of three
to ten spores
on hyphae much
shorter than the
spores.

As seen through the microscope the spores are of a light brownish
colour. The size varies, as shown in the adjoining table of measure-
ment of ten spores, from 24-30 x 126-178 //.. The twelve to seventeen
cells of the spore are arranged in a murif orm manner.

The distal ends of the spores are more slender than usual, and it is
seldom that one sees at this end of the spore the slightest indication
that it has been connected with others of its kind. In no case were
the spores seen growing in chains, although spores in situ were
examined to a considerable extent. It thus seems as if we may here
have a species entitled to be classed among the forms assembled
under the name Macrosporium. The germination of these spores
is very prompt and vigorous. The above wood-cut gives additional
details.

The spores were borne on four to five-celled basidia of somewhat
irregular diameter swollen between the septa and especially at the
base, and of the same colour as the spores. They were nearly straight
and measured 6 x 60/A.

As has just been noted, a so-called species of Altemaria or Macro-
sporium, probably the latter, is sometimes present on the leaves
of the Passion-vine, and this species is identical with that to be found

178 x 30
136 x 29
156 x 25
140 x 25
140 x 27
142 x 24
131 x 25
146 x 30
177 x 28
126 x 25

Fig. 84.— Macrosporium from the leaves of
the passion-vine.

J

76

in connection with a certain well-known disease of the ripe and half-
ripe fruit, the main characteristics of the disease on the fruit being*
as follows : —

Spots which at first are greenish on the purple background of the
fruit, later turn brownish or buff, and show a somewhat concentric
arrangement of slightly varying colours. Ultimately the skin or shell
of the fruit becomes very thin and brittle at the diseased spot and
caves in of its own accord or as the result of some slight accident.

As before remarked, a fungus (the Macrosporium) occurs on this
diseased area, and its presence is denoted by the appearance of tiny
tufts of a dark fur-like growth of small dimensions.

Notes were made on a large lot of passion-vine fruit and leaves
collected in July.

Undoubtedly by far the most common fungus was the Macrosporium ,
which on these specimens I was able to prove to be such by examination
in situ with the aid of reflected light. The spores could be plainly
seen to be borne singly on the stalk.

I should say that nine out of every ten spots on the fruit examined
were infested with Macrosporium, and in no case would I care to say
that this fungus was entirely absent.

Not infrequently there were found associated with the Macrosporium
dark pustules, and upon examination it was found that these pustules
were an immature form with stalks growing from near their bases >
they contained no ripe spores. These were oblate, and dark in colour.

Some spots that showed the Macrosporium also showed deliquescent
pustules of Gloeosporium of a dirty transparent colour. There were
spots that were composed almost altogether of Gloeosporium pustules,.
but I could not be sure that there was no Macrosporium in connection
with these spots.

On the leaves the main fungus feature was the Macrosporium, though,
in most cases, the fungus had not yet broken out. In a few cases the
dark-coloured perithecia occurred, the same as those mentioned above
as being unripe. No Gloeosporium was seen. These specimens were
from a plantation where there had been considerable loss from disease.

Pleospora on Passion-Vines.

This Pleospora was first found on the rind of diseased ripening fruit
in the form of perithecia, most of which in the month of July were not
yet ripe. The perithecia were more than half submerged and of a
dark colour, but not necessarily black. Round the bases and in the
vicinity of the perithecia there were hyphae that bore, on short stalks,
minutely echinulate 8-10 celled yellowish spores more than half as wide
as long, and measuring about 25 x 17 micromillimetres. These spores
germinated in water, and in doing so sometimes produced at the ends of
hyphae not much longer than the spores themselves secondary spores of
a similar nature to the primary spores, but of a lighter colour. (Fig. 85.)

Returning now to the perithecia, it may be said .that the few ripe
ones contained asci bearing eight yellowish spores, each averaging

77

27 x 13 micromillimetres and varying as follows: 11-14 x 22-31
micromillimetres. These somewhat elongated, but occasionally ellip-

X400

Fig. 85. — Germination of the aerial spore-forms
found in connection with the Fleospora of
the fruit of the passion-vine, a, spore that
has fallen from an aerial hypha such as that
shown at the right; b, a secondary spore
produced in a water culture.

Fig. 86.— Sketch of Pleospora from the rind of a
passion-fruit. The spores shown, magnified
400 diameters, are just beginning to germi-
nate, the end cells starting first.

soidal, spores were crenate in contour, and were transversely divided
about seven times, the middle four to five parts being muriformly
sub-divided. The polar cells were undivided. Sometimes there were
two cells in succession at the pole undivided. Their greenish yellow
transparency allowed the observer to see that the contents of the cells
were only slightly granular.

The asci were about six times as long as broad, and the contained
spores were arranged in a spiral manner in two rows. Between the
asci were transparent colourless septate sterile hypha3 one third as
wide as the ascospores.

On escaping into water the ascospores
seemed to be at first surrounded by a layer
of transparent and almost invisible gelatine.
These thin-walled ascospores were quick to
germinate in water, and it was the polar cells
that were the first to throw out hyphae,
though sometimes the other cells were quick
to follow suit.

The perithecia were about seventy micromillimetres in diameter,
but it may be that this measurement is deceptive, as only one or
two ripe specimens were seen. The measurements were from ripe
perithecia.

Faulty Leaves on the Passion-Vine.

The leaves of the Passion-vine are sometimes imperfect in shape, the
imperfection being manifested in a torn appearance, more especially at
the edges. Occasionally there are holes, as in the shot-hole disease of
the apricot. Such leaves are also somewhat distorted, but not so
much so as in the disease I -have named " Woodiness." The diseased
leaves look as if pieces had been torn out of them.
< If the apparently torn edges are examined with a magnifying glass,
it will be found that instead of being torn they are eaten away by a
fungus, the fungus itself, or at least the fruiting part of it, being visible
when looked at against a strong light. On certain parts of the

Fig. 87.— Fusanum of the
passion-vine stock.

78

corroded edge an almost imperceptible fringe can be thus made out
by careful examination.

Under a magnification of one hundred diameters this fringe is seen
to be composed of the aerial fruiting filaments of a fungus, very
much resembling that figured in the Agricultural Gazette, vol. Ill,
p. 289, as associated with a shot-hole disease of the apricot.

This fungus appears to gain its entrance to the leaf at the points of
the marginal teeth. Every stage of its progress can easily be traced,
and the whole matter is most interesting. From the corroded tooth-point
to the gap whence half a lobe has disappeared, not a stage is wanting.
A water culture of this fungus was made as follows : — A small piece
from the edge of a diseased leaf was cut away and placed under a
cover-glass, with just enough water to moisten it. The water applied
for this purpose, of course, as usual, washed away the spores from the
projecting hyphae, and they were left bare. These loosened spores
were sketched and resembled those shown in Fig. 89. The cover-
glass was then sealed on, and the fungus left to develop in the moist
chamber thus provided.

After fifteen hours the edge of the piece of leaf presented a vastly
different appearance. Aerial hyphse had shot up and produced a
copious crop of spores, as represented in Fig. 89. These spores were

borne only on hyphse growing in air. My-
celium in contact with the glass, and there-
fore in contact with water by means of
capillary attraction, did not produce these
spores. After twenty-four hours, jarring
the moist chamber would cause these aerial
spores to fall off, sometimes in clusters.
This gives us the time required for these spores to develop and ripen ;
and the speed with which it is done explains
clearly the ability of the fungus to corrode and
completely destroy a large fraction of a passion-
vine leaf in a few weeks.

The spores spoken of as falling away on the
application of water were kept under observa-
tion, and were found to germinate in two differ-
ent ways, according as they were in water or
air. Those in water grew,
as shown in Fig. 90, while
those in the air produced a
crop of spores, as shown in
Fig. 88. Both these latter
sketches were made when
the growth was twenty-
four hours old. As will be

seen from the adjacent measurements, the spores
of this fungus, which bears the closest resemb-
lance to that found and recorded by me on the
edges of shot-holes of the almond and the apricot, range in size from
4-6 x 9-16/x., and average 5'7 x 12'6/x.

X400

Fig. 88.-Germi-
nation in air of
a spore of the
oospora-like fun-
gus connected
with the faulty
leaves of the
passion-vine.

15-8 x 6'3 n *)
13-0 x 6-3
9-1 x 4-2
12-6 x 6-3
13-3 x 4-9
12-6 x 5-6
11-2 x 5-3
12-6 x 5-3
12-3 x 67
10-9 x 6-3
14-0 x 5-6
14-0 x 5-3

i Average,

i f;«r

Fig. 89. — Oospora-like fun-
gus connected with the
faulty leaves of the
passion- vine.

79

They are of a smoky or slightly greenish colour, and present a raised!
scar at each end at the places where they were formerly articulated
together.

It remains uncertain on what part of the leaves these tested spores-
grew, but there can be very little doubt that it was at the margins of
erosions. Nothing was seen that contradicted this. The spores were-
seen only in slide preparations of the spots from the leaves. The
spores were the main feature of the preparations as they came
originally to the microscope.

The spores of this Oospora-like fungus on germinating become in.
many instances two-celled. Sometimes they are
two-celled on removal, but this is exceptional.
On being cultivated in water-infusion of passion-
vine leaves a large proportion of the spores
become two-celled, and in this condition still
possess many of the features of the spores as
they fall from the aerial chains in which they
grow. On becoming two-celled the spores send
out from either end, and sometimes also from
the sides, of the component cells, colourless
mycelium composed of cells, having somewhat
the form of the component cells of the spore.
In other words the septa of the mycelium are
separated from each other by a distance from
one and a half to two times as great as the width
of the mycelial thread itself.

It appeared to me that the mycelium pro-
duced conidia, which were at first ellipsoidal, but
which, through a process of budding, decreased
in size, and became nearly spherical while continuing the process of
budding. In one case I saw growing side by side from the end of a.
spore four such ellipsoidal conidia. In other cases I saw the same
conidia growing from the side of well-developed mycelium that had
grown within twenty-four hours from one of the original spores.
(Pig. 90.)

Comparisons.

The edges of the holes in apricot and almond leaves are often
fringed in the manner described in the case of the corroding fungus of
the Passion-vine. A comparison of the spores in the two cases-
discloses no essential difference. They are borne in the same way>
and are of the same shape, colour, and size.

Examination of the edge of an apricot shot-hole for all the kinds of
spores discoverable gave on one occasion the following results : —

1. The above-mentioned spores in proportion of ten to one of any*

other kind.

2. Quite a number of Alternaria spores.

3. Few spores resembling those of Cladosporium, but possibly-

belonging to Alternaria.

4. One each of three other kinds of spores, manifestly erratic.

X400

Fig. 90. — Germination in-
water of the spores of the-
Oospora-like fungus con--
nected with the faulty
leaves of the passion-vine.

80

Phyllosticta was abundant on the patch that had been removed from
this hole. The question, therefore,, naturally arises, are these fungi
new growths taking up the destruction where the Phyllosticta leaves
off, or are they spore-forms of the Phyllosticta ? In this connection

X4-00

Fig. 91. — Alternaria spores connected with
shot-holes in apricot leaves.

Fig. 92. — Oospora-like
fungus connected
with shot-holes of
the apricot and
almond.

X900

a fact worth noting is that the Phyllosticta is a sub-cuticular form,
while the later forms are aerial in their fructification. It seems possible
that the new conditions, brought about by the falling away of the circle
•of dead tissue, cause the mycelium to produce new spore-forms. It is
probably incorrect to attribute all the damage to the Phyllosticta form.
On being cultivated in a moist chamber the Oospora-like fungus,
found on the margins of the shot-hole of the apricot, grows in precisely
^the same manner as the fungus found corroding the margins of the
leaves of the Passion-vine. A careful comparison shows absolutely no
-difference in form, and, moreover, the rate of growth, &c., are the same.

A Ripe-rot Fungus on Passion-vines.

A Gloeosporiumj or Ripe-rot fungus, was observed growing on
Passion-vine leaves. Passion-vine leaves that
showed at the time of gathering only Macro-
sporium and accompanying pustules already
described., were placed on moist blotting paper
in a moist chamber. In five days Gloeosporium
pustules were so well developed that the spores
were being " spouted " forth. The Gloeo-
sporium appeared separate from the other fungi
on the leaves, the spots being scattered over the
tlamina of the leaf and on the veins. The pustules had the same ap-
pearance as the Gloeosporium of the apple, the mass of spores being
salmon-coloured or brownish, and the pustules being of the same size.
The measurement of ten spores taken at random are given above,
the average falling at 6*4 x 16'2/u,, and the range in size being repre-
sented by the figures 5-6-7' x 12'6-17'5/x.

The elongated, slightly greenish, straight or somewhat curved spores
had a clearly defined vacuole near the centre ; if the spore was lying
-,so as' to appear curved the vacuole often had a lateral position on the
dncurved-side on the spore. The granulation of the spores was coarse,

1.7-5 x 6-3 /
16-5 x 6-7
15-4 x 7-
16-1 x 6-3
17-5 x 6-3
15-8 x 6-
15-4 x 6'3
17'0 x 6'3
'17-2 x 6-7
14-0 x 6-6

Average,
"6 -4x16-2^.

1 .

81

so coarse that four to five granules side by side would occupy the
width of the spore. The smallest spores seen measured 5*6 x 12'6/x,
but such were not common, and were not taken into account in the
above measurements.

On being placed in water culture these spores germinated in the
same manner as those of the Gloeosporium of the apple and those of
the Colletotrichum of the Bean. There were two distinct methods of
germination :

1. The spore became two-celled, and from one of the halves a

short unicellular mycelium bore a dark-coloured secondary
spore of an ellipsoidal or sub-spherical form, with coarsely
granulated contents.

2. The spore either without or with a primary division into two

cells threw an unbranched mycelium, colourless, and composed
of cells eight to ten times as long as broad.

Sometimes the same spore showed both sorts of germination, and
there were various intermediate stages. The secondary spore some-
times germinated soon after its formation.

The granulation of spores of Gloeosporium presents a variety
of appearances according to the species to be sure, but also and

X400

Tig. 93.— Spores of the ripe-rot of the Fig. 94.— Ripe-rot spores of the passion-vine

leaves of the passion- vine. leaves germinating and producing

secondary spores.

in particular according to the state of the spore itself. Some-
times the granulation is coarse and distinct, and sometimes it is
indistinct, and all these phases may be exhibited by the same species
in the course of a few hours, showing how uncertain a feature this is

;and how misleading it may be to the systematist unless he is careful
to include in his characterisation all the various phases. The matter

-composing the granules seems to disperse and collect according to the
vicissitudes of growth. At one time the granules may appear very

•distinct like the grains of rice in a pot of water about to be boiled,
and not long after they may appear indistinct and run together in
almost the same manner that the grains of rice might run together

•on being boiled.

DISEASES OF THE WALNUT.

HITHERTO the walnut has been grown in this State only on a small scale,
;and its diseases have consequently had comparatively little attention.
•Occasionally the diseases have received some little notice and I will
.record here the few scattered notes I have made upon their nature.
36567 F

82

One of the worst diseases known to this tree is of bacterial origin.
In other countries it sometimes carries off the bulk of the crop. It
attacks especially the fruit and leaves, and the chief characteristic
of the disease is the appearance on these parts, often early in the season,
when the disease is likely to do the most damage, of soft black spots,
which affect particularly the new growths and frequently kill the
young nuts. Nuts attacked later in the season, when the shells have
partly formed, do not suffer so severely, but their husks are attacked,
and their proper ripening is prevented. These statements are taken
from the writings of foreign observers. I will only add that I have
good reasons for thinking, as the result of examinations, that this
disease exists in this State.

No satisfactory treatment is known, but it is stated that a winter treat-
ment with full strength Bordeaux mixture appears to have done good.
The greatest hope seems to be that resistant varieties may be developed.
As the disease winters in the husks it is advisable to give them special
attention, not allowing them to accumulate and rot under the trees.
It is comparatively easy to adopt methods of culture, harvesting, and
curing that will allow of the burning of husks and foliage, and, in my
opinion, this should be done.

A species of Phoma and an ascomycetous fungus have come under
my notice as growing on the nuts of the walnut tree in New South
Wales. I am not aware that they do very much damage.

Penicillium glaucum, one of the commonest of the household moulds,
is frequently to be found on the husks of the walnuts in the orchards,,
and it appears to be common in the marketed nuts. Beyond doubt
there is an interesting field for work in connection with the fungi so
commonly associated with musty nuts, and I have often longed for
time to go into the matter, but have never been able to find it. I
think it most probable that these fungi make their entrance at the
orchard, or during caring, and that very likely something could be
easily and cheaply done to minimise their evil effects, if only we had
some clue as to their methods of access and action. When the nuts
are bleached for market by the use of chlorine they are less likely to
go musty, if the process is skilfully carried out. It has always seemed
to me that a germicidal temperature might be brought into play in
curing walnuts if proper chambers were utilised.

LEAF-CURL OF THE POTATO.

THIS blight of the potato is known, I believe, wherever potatoes are
grown. It is a common disease in America, Europe, and Australia.
It is caused by a fungus of the Macrosporium tribe, and is characterised
by the appearance of a curl in the leaves of the potato plant at a time
wten there is little external evidence of ?any fungus growth. Later
the fungus appears on the leaves and stems in the form of dark green

83

velvety growths composed of spores of the form shown in the illustra-
tion below.

Though originally described as a distinct form from that found on
the tomato and other related plants,
more recent observers begin to doubt
whether it should be so regarded, but the
careful study necessary to settle the point
has not yet been made. In form the
fungus is certainly so much like the
similar fungus found on other solanace-
ous plants that it is difficult to point out
a real difference, provided the data are
derived from a good range of specimens
taken at various times of the year, and
from various parts of the host plants.
This will be partially evident from an ex-

P • j 1 • f • J. T

animation ot the various, torms pictured
in these pages.

Potatoes Suffering from this blight Fig. 95— Spores of the Macrosporium of
, -. !«'••• .1 •. «i thepotato, the cause of the Leaf -wilt

have come under notice in this btate or Leaf -curl of the potato,

with considerable regularity for some

years past, so that it seems to be a fair inference that the disease is not
uncommon ; still the grower's complaint is seldom great, and the
malady must be ranked among those of secondary importance, partly,
I doubt not, on account of the general dryness of the climate.

In every instance it has been brought under notice at a date too
late for the profitable application of fungicides. The early application
of Bordeaux mixture will hold the disease in check. This has been
proved to be the case in other countries. Hence, if any grower suffers
regularly from this easily-recognisable disease, he may feel sure that
if he assumes from the time of planting that the disease will appear,
and sprays in anticipation of the attack, he will be adopting one of
the best known methods.

Combined with this measure should be the careful destruction of all
infected material, not only of diseased potato plants, but also of
tomatoes, chillies, and, in fact, in my opinion, of any plants or parts
of plants known to suffer much from fungi of this class.

The disease seems to start from the ground, or, at any rate, to enter
the base of the stalks first. This accounts for the peculiar curl of the
leaves, which results in part at least from poor functioning of the stalk.
This means, of course, that the fungus is already inside the plant, and
hence already beyond the reach of fungicides. The course of the
disease therefore indicates that care should be given to the ground as
the source of infection, and as it is a fair inference in the present state
of our knowledge that the disease arises from spores similar to those
produced on the leaves, we should pay particular heed to what becomes
of all such spores. They should be carefully destroyed, the best means
to this end being the destruction of all diseased plants, as recom-
mended above.

X 300

Fiff. 96.— Spores of the black rot of the fruit of
Chilli.

DISEASE OP CHILLIES.

VERY closely related to and perhaps identical with the black rot of
the tomato is the present rot of the Chilli. The fungus, whose spores

are shown in Fig. 96, occurs on the
fruit, often in its eye. In this
respect as well as in the form of the
spores it resembles the similar rot
of the tomato.

I have met this disease but once,
and have no experience as to the
effect of fungicides on it, nor do I
recollect any writings on the sub-
ject of diseases of the Chilli. The
best suggestion seems to be that remedies found useful for the black
rot of the tomato may be expected to act favourably on this very
similar disease of the Chilli.

ONION DISEASE.'

THE following appearances were noted on some imported onions, and

gave rise to inquiry
as to whether there
was any danger to the
crops of the State from
the importation of
such bulbs.

Most of the bulbs
composing the ship-
ment were perfectly
sound. Yellowish
holes through the
outer scales appeared
on some of the speci-
mens. These holes
were six to ten milli-
metres across. The
sunken and diseased
tissue contained a strong growth of colourless mycelium, in the midst
of which dark, spherical, smooth or warty spores were found which
measured 4-5 micromillimetres in diameter. There was no positive
evidence that the spores were connected with the mycelium beyond
that of juxtaposition. The examination was conducted for the
guidance of inspectors under the vegetation diseases act. The
evidence was not considered of sufficient definiteness and importance
to warrant any definite action.

ANTHRACNOSE OF THE PIG.

With us the foliage of the fig does not suffer much from fungus
disease ; but there is an anthracnose not uncommon, which sometimes
does considerable damage. The appearances produced by this disease
are shown in the plate opposite. As a result of the disease, the fruit

Fig. 93.— Mycelium of the dis-
ease of the onion bulb.

Fig. 97. — Mycelium of the dis-
ease of the Onion bulb.

X400

Fig. 99. — Spores from a fungus
disease of some stored onion
bulbs.

ANTHRACNOSE OF THE FIG.

85

falls prematurely ; and even if it remains on the tree and attempts
to ripen, the colour is pale and unnatural and the taste rather insipid.
The destruction of such foliage is advisable, and this is not a very
expensive matter in the case of this large-leaved tree, especially
if the trees are not too large. The application of Bordeaux mixture
may be proceeded with without fear of injury to the foliage, the full
strength mixture being used. The effects of this treatment are beneficial.

ROOT ROTS AND TIMBER ROTS.

FROM time to time I have collected or had submitted for examination
a considerable variety of specimens suggestive of a class of diseases
which fortunately seem not to be so destructive in this State as they
are well known to be in some other countries. I refer to those root-
rots and timber-rots caused by fungi of the toadstool and puff-ball
order. These innocent looking fungi are by no means so local in their
growth and effects as we are wont assume, in fact if all other matter
in the vicinity of one of these fungi could be removed so as to give
us an unobstructed view of all of the ramifications of the " toadstool "
or "puff-ball/' as we call it, our astonishment would be great.
Minute thread-like " roots " pass from the bottom of the fungus, as
we see it perched on the surface of the ground, downward and out-
ward for long distances, and, in the case of certain species, do not end
except in some source of food such as the roots of some plant or tree.
There in the roots of the plant or the trunk of the tree is elaborated
the material used in producing the " toadstool." We see the tree-
trunk gradually going to decay, little realising that its substance high
up in the air is being secretly taken away through the microscopic
roots of the toadstool, carried down into the soil, and there elaborated
and stored in readiness for some spell of wet weather when it suddenly
comes to light as a bunch of " toadstools." Sometimes these fungi are
not quite so secret in their operations, and then we see them fructi-
fying on the very surface of the tree-trunk in the form of bracket fungi.

Not only do standing tree growths suffer in this manner but also cut
timber lying on the surface of the ground, or in any other damp
situation. Fence posts and vineyard posts suffer in the same manner.
I have in the vicinity of my residence a number of posts that every
now and then, during some spell of wet weather, send up near their
bases whole battalions of " toadstools." I know well the source of
their growth and have kept them under observation for the purpose
of learning more of their habits, but I would not advise any pro-
fessional orchardist or gardener to act similarly, or at any rate would
warn him that he does so at the expense of his property.

Although this field has been as yet but very imperfectly explored,
it seems probable that these fungi are mostly unable to fight their way
into living and growing tissues so long as these are free from injury,
and this fact gives a clue to remedial and preventive measures, as we
shall presently see.

As already remarked these diseases seem to be less common in
Australia than in other countries. Possibly our droughts have some-
thing to do with this, for it should not be forgotten that our severe
droughts undoubtedly kill off many pests as well as many crops. Still,

86

in a matter like this, it is unwise to assume on such negative evidence
that we are well off, for it is quite possible that these diseases are
doing more damage than appears, simply because they work in such an
obscure, hidden and ill-understood manner. I propose therefore to
recount the particulars of some of the instances that have come under
my notice in the hope that greater watchfulness may be exercised.

On a later page, under the head of a " Disease of Larkspur," will be
found the particulars of a definite case of the kind we are considering.
Here the plants were killed outright, dying suddenly when full grown
from the effects of a sort of root rot or collar rot. Plants of other
sorts, such as Gladiolus, in the same gardens were also affected in a
like manner.

Some years ago Mr. Scobie of Maitland called attention to a disease
occurring in his vineyard which presented some features that led me
to the conclusion not only that vines are subject to attacks of this kind,
which would be merely a confirmation of a former article on Pourridie,
but that it is to be feared especially in the vineyards in the moister
districts of the State. The case was not a very clearly defined one,
for there appeared to be several causes at work, and it was impossible
to unravel all the tangled threads of evidence. Several fungi that
would account for some damage were found on the leaves of the vines,
but in other instances the roots were found to be in an unhealthy
condition.

The affected vines shed their leaves before ripening their fruit and
in consequence the fruit ripened in an abnormal manner. It appears
that this was not in all cases an evil, as Mr. Scobie related that one
year he netted more from the diseased vines than from the sound ones.
Instead of being black as they should have been, the berries were
amber coloured, and had a fair flavour. The disease appeared
to skip about from year to year, and to be of a not very, serious
nature.

From this it will be seen that the evidence was not very clear.

Suspecting the disease might be the beginnings of the so-called
Californian Disease, Mr. Scobie sent specimens to Prof. Pierce of
Santa Ana, for an authoritative decision and received the comforting
reply that the disease was not the one passing under that name in the
United States.

A search on the leaves that had been shed by the vines in the
premature manner described showed that two fungi were present, the
Tufted Leaf Blight of the vine, already described in this Gazette as a
pest of the vine, and an AUernaria of precisely the form described in
connection with Take-all of wheat, a fungus that is not at all uncommon
on decaying vegetation.

It was plain however that these would not account for all the
damage done, even if they did account for some of it, and moreover it
was difficult to see why healthy vines should exist alongside diseased
ones if these fungi were the prime cause of the disease in such cases.
When diseases are spread by means of spores borne on the wind it is
customary to see plants attacked in a rather uniform manner unless
there are marked variations in the adjacent plants, such as variation
in variety and hence in susceptibility.

87

There were found on the roots of some of these vines what appeared
to be broken puff balls. Only the filaments and spores of these parasites
were seen. They are carefully illus-
trated in Fig. 100. Their nature is
such as to leave little doubt as to their
origin, and to the suspicion that we

i i f P • -I 1 ' 1 £

have before us fairly good evidence of
the attacks of a root rot such as we

Fig. 100.— Fungus elements from a disease
have Set OUt tO elucidate. of the roots of a grape-vine.

Not infrequently Galls, so called

f 'Crown Galls/' have come under notice from vineyards, not only from
the rnoister parts of the State but from the drier districts such as
the vine regions of the Riverina district. No definite fructification
is as yet known in connection with these "Galls " , and their origin
is still obscure, but they are commonly supposed to be of fungus
origin. Experience has proved that these particular galls may be
successfully fought by methods presently to be described.

Remedies.

I. Whenever trees, vines or plants are seen to die or fail without
apparent reason such as the appearance of some insect or fungus
pest, the soil should be examined for traces of fungus growth and
attention should be given to the appearance in the neighbourhood
of any puff-balls or toadstools. If soft, fragile, white or light coloured
threads are found in the soil they should be examined to see whether
they are ordinary rootlets or the soft spongy growths of underground
mycelium. If such mycelium is found in the vicinity of dead or
dying plants it is presumptive evidence that they are suffering from
the attacks of one of the root-rotting or timber-rotting fungi. These
threads are likely to be most numerous in the vicinity of the roots of
the attacked plants, and often concentrate at some obvious injury on
one of the roots.

Of course anything that can be done to prevent the spread of these
threads in the soil will be beneficial, and one of the first precautions
that suggests itself is the application of some chemical disinfectant,
and for that reason we will deal with this phase of the question
first, though such measures are not the most important that can be
adopted.

Without going into the matter minutely it may be said that one of
the best substances for this purpose is quicklime, applied at the rate
of one, two or more tons to the acre. It should be worked in to a
considerable depth, the sooner after application the better. Nearly
all injurious soil-inhabiting fungi are checked by this treatment, which
has the advantage that it is often advisable for other reasons con-
nected with the fertility of the soil. Fresh wood ashes may be used
in the same manner.

Another substance that may be used in somewhat the same way is
sulphate of iron. It may be applied in the form of pulverised crystals,
or as a solution. If applied in the form of crystals these should be fine
and be very evenly and thinly distributed and worked in immediately,

88

the deeper the better, within economic limits. If the solution be used,
it should be sprinkled on, and it may be best to work it in somewhat.
This sulphate may be applied at the rate. of 2 cwt. per acre. This
substance also has some manurial value. Except in cases of very
definite and marked local infestation of the soil the application of
sulphate of iron is not recommended.

The ordinary disinfecting solution of Formalin may be used in the
same manner in a small way, as for instance in a flower garden.

2. Whenever a tree, vine or post is attacked by a timber-rotting
fungus, and there is other valuable vegetation in the neighborhood, it is
well to isolate the diseased area by means of a trench all round, dug deep
enough to cut off the thread-like underground growth of mycelium.
The depth to which the trench should be carried can be easily judged
in some cases, but not so easily in others. Before commencing on the
trench dig down where the fungus filaments are most abundant in the
soil, and observe to what depth they penetrate. After measuring the
maximum depth to which the filaments penetrate dig the trench to
this depth and a little more. The location of the trench should
receive careful attention, after the same manner ; put the spade down
at various distances from the centre of the infestation and turn up the
soil and examine it for threads of the fungus. When their limit has
been found locate the trench well beyond that limit, for it is usual for
these growths to taper off, and thus their exact limit is usually
considerably beyond the apparent limit. This measure is one that is of
considerable practical value, especially in those cases where the trenches
can be made to serve at the same time to secure better drainage.

3. The timber-rotting fungi are more common in soils that are
poorly drained than in those that are well drained, though lands that
are soaked constantly may not be very subject to their attacks. Good
drainage is therefore to be recommended as a means of minimising
the bad effects of these pests.

4. It is a paying precaution to treat the bottoms of fence and vine-
yard posts in a manner known to hinder decay, and this is especially
the case with posts composed in any degree of decayed wood. It
goes without saying that posts with signs of decay should, if possible,
be avoided. Charring or covering with tar are highly to be recom-
mended as representing money and labour well invested on the under-
ground portions of posts.

5. The presence in the soil of any insects gnawing the roots of
plants renders the plants more liable to attack, for as before pointed
out, there is good reason to suppose these root-rotting fungi are
mostly unable to make their way into plants except through some
injury in the bark. In like manner in an orchard or vineyard where
there is reason to fear the attacks of these fungi special care should
be exercised not to injure the roots when cultivating.

6. Of course all infested posts, tree-trunks, and infested stalks
should be removed and destroyed, preferably by fire. Roots of
infested trees and vines should be dug out and destroyed.

7. Turning now to the ' ' galls " found on roots of vines and fruit
trees the best remedy is the removal of the galls. Plants suspected

89

of attack should have their roots uncovered and all galls removed and
destroyed, usually best by fire. They should be pruned away with a
sharp tool, when it will often be found possible to leave half or more
of the root intact. It is best to cut liberally, as the disease is likely
to extend beyond its apparent limits. The cut should be covered
with some antiseptic and water-proof substance such as is used in
pruning and grafting. If a root has to be severed the cut off part
should be removed and destroyed. A little digging will soon reveal
the maximum depth to which it is necessary to dig for the galls, this
depth being: seldom more than one foot. It is quite as important to-
remove the small galls as the larger ones. The smaller ones are more
easily seen if the root is washed with the aid of a smart hose, or even-
with a brush and water, an operation that is easily performed if the
earth be removed in a manner to allow for it. Where a tree or vine-
is manifestly on the road to ruin it is much better to remove it and
destroy it than to allow it to take its own course.

DISEASE IN SEED POTATOES.

" ABE these seed potatoes sound?" is a question that arises con-
tinually. If this fact is due to the repeated warnings published with
regard to the great danger of spreading Root Gall through the
medium of seed potatoes, we have some cause to feel gratified. For

Fig. 101. — The sprouting of a potato suffering
from the initial stages of wet rot.

*K&^£5^JiS^<Si Fi,g> 102--The sproutiig <>f a healthy potat<>*

there is no doubt that scrupulous care should be exercised to prevent
this pest from spreading as it has been allowed to do in the past. It
is equally certain that it is largely through the medium of seed
potatoes that it has become so widely spread.

The present note, however, does not relate to the Gall Worm, but
to another common pest of the potato, namely Wet Rot. The drawings
on this page point a moral. They represent two potatoes from the
same lot, some of which, however, sprouted much better than others, —
and no wonder ! From the outside all the potatoes looked about
equally good, yet a large part of them were diseased. The sketches
show the manner in which the diseased seed differed from the sound.
Though in this case no cultures were made to verify the assumption,
there can be no doubt that the diseased seed was suffering from the

90

initial stages of the common Wet Rot. When planted the diseased
seed did not sprout well and the plants were of small promise.

Potatoes derived from a crop that suffered from Wet Rot should
not be used as seed. The principal point here made is that by cutting,
as shown in the illustrations,, it is possible to detect the initial stages
of the disease, and so provide in a measure against its attacks.
Although the sketches give a fairly good idea of the appearances that
should be regarded with suspicion, it would be best to educate the eye
to the appearances by cutting and examining some unquestionably
sound seed of the kind being planted. The appearances are quite
striking once the eye has become accustomed to them.

BEAN RUST.

[See Coloured Plate, Frontispiece.]

WHILE this is not a common disease in this State, it is one that can at
times do considerable damage, as witness the coloured figure in the
frontispiece, which was drawn from a typical specimen taken from a
crop of considerable size. Such cases are not common.

No words of mine could give a better idea of the general appearance
of the disease than that conveyed by the excellent coloured drawing
from which the lithograph has been faithfully produced. It will be
seen that the leaves and pods were thoroughly infested. Though the
crop was not destroyed it was much diminished.

The disease is of such a nature that it is very difficult to combat.
The rust fungi are so prolific that in the case of thorough infestation
the spores are practically omnipresent, and any spray applied as a
means of relief must, to be effective, cover practically the entire surface
of the plants to be protected. It is impossible to so cover the surface
of a crop of beans, and moreover such an application of any efficient
fungicide would be of doubtful utility because of its injurious effects
on the crop.

We are driven to one of two other measures, either to destroy the
entire crop by mowing and burning, or to ploughing in the crop.
Probably the former is to be preferred. It may be that the crop will
bear well enough to pay for harvesting, and in that case it may be
wise to consider whether it may pay to let the pods ripen and then,
after the harvest, burn off. This course is the less to be feared as the
disease is not a common one, and appears only under exceptional circum-
stances, and hence may give little further trouble, no matter what
course is adopted.

CABBAGES ATTACKED BY PERONOSPORA.

PLANTS suffering from this disease are easily distinguished from their
healthy neighbours. The leaves are covered, more especially on the
under side, with a frost-like growth consisting of erect threads bearing
a snow-white crop of spores. All these appearances occur while the
infested leaves are still green and before they droop and wither away.
The individual spores are large enough to be seen with the aid of a
powerful magnifying glass. The drawing placed on this page shows
the microscopic appearance of the growth.

Fig. 103. — Peronospora of the cabbage. The larger
part of the spores have fallen, disclosing the
curved terminal branches upon which they
were borne.

This is a fungus disease related to the Potato Murrain, and acting
in the same manner. Peronospora
parasitica is the parasite, and it is
found mostly on young cruciferous
plants growing in damp shady
places. It is not found on full-
grown plants except under unusual
circumstances.

Remedies. — 1. Secure good drain-
age, especially for seedlings in
beds, and look out in general that
the place is not too moist and shady.

2. Destroy at once all affected
plants, otherwise the disease is
likely to spread from them to other
young plants, not only to cabbages,
but also to turnips, radishes, and
other crucifers.

3. I know of no experiments with fungicides made upon this parti-
cular fungus, but the use of Bordeaux mixture is effective with the
potato blight or murrain, and some others of a similar character. I
therefore have no doubt that the Bordeaux mixture could be applied
with good effect. Cabbages will stand the application of the mixture.
It should not be applied in the middle of warm sunny days, but in the
morning or evening, or on cloudy days. One or

two applications, I think, would be sufficient.
The first two measures should suffice unless con-
siderable money is at stake.

If a bed has to be destroyed on account of the
disease it would be best to disinfect it with boil-
ing hot water or by sprinkling thoroughly with
concentrated solution of sulphate of iron. Facts
that should be remembered are that the disease
is very likely to spread down hill, and in the
direction of the prevailing wind.

Fig. 104.— Final ramifications
of the mycilium of Cab-

bage Peronospora as grown
in water culture ; showing
the peculiar dichotomous
branching mentioned in
the text.

BLACK SPOT OR FUSICLADRJM OF THE LOQUAT.

[See Coloured Plate, Frontispiece.]

THERE is a disease of the Loquat — very common some seasons, much
less so others — that deserves mention, though it is among the pests of
minor importance, unless indeed the disease proves to be dangerous
to other vegetation. I refer to the " Black Spot" of the fruit of this
tree. Though most apparent on the fruit, it occurs also on the foliage,
in this respect resembling the Fusicladium fungus of the black spot of
the apple and pear, to which it is very closely related, to say the least.
The specific differences among these various fungi seem to me to be
open to question, but I am not yet prepared to publish evidence such
as that given on previous pages in connection with the ripe rot fungi.
The chief object of this note is to call attention to the precise
appearance of the disease, and to the fact that it may be combated in

92

a manner similar to that employed for the black spot of the apple and
pear. The foliage of the loquat will stand the application of the Bor-
deaux mixture, and so will the fruit. The spores of the disease are killed
by the fungicide. The value of the crop can alone determine whether it
will pay to spray. In most cases the loss from the disease is slight, and
I am inclined to think that unless spray is in use for other purposes
the operation will not be a paying one, except in the few cases where
orchards contain a considerable number of trees. From observations
made I would recommend that spraying be commenced in July or
early August, and as the foliage does not wet very easily the spray
should be as fine as possible and be applied quickly and the operation
repeated as soon as the first application is dry, as explained elsewhere.
If apples and pears are grown to any extent in the same garden or
orchard and suffer from black spot, I should regard this as an additional
reason for giving attention to this disease of the loquat. Otherwise
than this I should not be inclined to spend time and money in
spraying loquats.

According to my observations the disease is much more common on
neglected trees than on those well taken care of ; in fact, except in damp
situations the disease is rather uncommon on thrifty trees, from which
it may be inferred that cultivation and care will, as a rule, be rewarded
with clean crops.

DISEASES or THE FLOWER GARDEN.

DISEASE, like his offspring death, is no respecter of persons — or
species. High and low, plain and fair, wither under his dread touch.
Most of our favourite garden flowers, however, are such because of
their hardiness as well as their beauty. Now and then a species has
tempted specialists into productions that are delicate, but the rule
holds good that hardiness is an essential quality in a favourite flower.
It must thrive under ill-treatment ; under all sorts of discouragements
it must raise its head and smile forth in blossoms. Such sturdy
qualities bode ill to would-be parasites, and it is not often that we have
to give attention to the diseases of the ordinary flower garden. Its
roses, dahlias, daisies, cosmias, and all the rest of the cheering host,
hold their positions largely by virtue of their resistance to disease.

Notes on a Disease of Cosmia.

The specimens consisted of half-a-dozen pieces of the stalk of
Cosmia, about five-eighths of an inch in diameter. The fungus growth
consisted of an olive green "fur/' nearly a quarter-inch deep in the
denser parts, where it completely obscured the stalk of the Cosmia. This
growth was composed of sparsely branched mycelium, ending in the
usual Botrytis spore-formation. These aerial hyphae were several times
branched. Elsewhere the growth seemed more recent, and had a more
" frosty " look, and was shorter, and appeared as in Fig. 105, the hyphse
being unbranched until near the apex where the spores were clustered
in snowy masses that completely hid the ramifications of the hyphae.

93

On one of the branches of the Cosmia numerous peritheca were found,
black and flattish, about 400/x across, often elongated with the drying
of the tissue in which they were imbedded. These bore strongly bi-
locularly marked spores T8-2*9 x 5*2-7*4^, and averaging about 3 x
6/ot, being rather rod-shaped with rounded ends
and sometimes not quite straight.

All the stems were covered with the growth of
Botrytis, probably B. vulgaris.

A number of species of Botrytis are known to
be associated with diseased conditions of various
useful plants, and are believed in some of the
cases to be the actual cause of the disease. In
other cases it is uncertain whether they are
cause or merely accompaniment. No previous
case is known to me of Botrytis on Cosmia in this
country, and it is not possible for me to say from
the specimens sent whether this fungus is the
cause of the plants dying off as described.
There was no doubt that the stems examined
were thoroughly infested, but whether or not
the fungus was the prime cause the material at
hand did not permit me to say.

Fig. 106. — Terminal portion of
one of the branches of the
fungus shown in Fig. 105,
more highly magnified.

X400

Fig. 105.— Botrytis found
growing on stems of
Cosmia. The specimen
shown was one of the
smaller growths men-
tioned in the text.

Outbreaks of Botrytis are usually found only
on rank growths in damp places, and the fungus

appears only after the plants are beyond recovery, so that in the past
it has been the custom to describe the species of this genus as growing

on " dead and decaying matter." This
may, however, have been a mistake,
in fact certainly was a mistake in
some cases.

Remedies. — Examine the plants and
ascertain what are the first symptoms
of the disease ; then pull up and des-
troy all plants that show any such
symptoms. Unless this is done it is
probable that the disease will spread
to other Cosmia plants, and to plants
of other varieties. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture has been shown
to be effective against some species of Botrytis, and may be tried with
hope of success in this case.

Fig. 107.— Terminal por-
tion of the aerial hypha
of the Botrytis shown
in Fig. 105, with the
spores removed ;
showing the recep-
tacles on which the
spores are clustered.

A Disease of Hollyhocks.

The hardy hollyhock has few enemies, yet there is one, the mallow
rust, to which it occasionally falls an easy prey. This is a malady
common to a number of related species, among which the hollyhocks
are the worst sufferers. When in its grip, with leaves drooping and
yellow, putting forth blossoms in a half-hearted manner or not at all,
they are no longer —

" Queen Hollyhocks, .
With butterflies for crowns" ;

their tall and ragged forms, no longer courted by insects, become
reminiscent rather of the other end of the social scale. Covered with

pustules, they fail, and are
cut down, leaving blank
the air that was formerly
alive with their high aspira-
tions.

The cause of this catas-
trophe is a fungus whose
attacks are more easily
located than is often the case.
The diseased spots form
very striking objects on
the leaves and stems of the
plants. Dark-brown warts
of considerable size are to
be seen in hundreds. Even
the greener parts of the

in or near most flower gardens. The dark raised warts disease Spreads with great
or pustules are the most obvious signs of the disease. They .,. ,\. , ,, ' -,

occur on the leaves, stalks, and fruits. rapidity it the weather and

location are favourable, and

an apparently sound plant may succumb in a few days' time. As the
warts increase in size, and begin to take on their final dark-brown
colour, the leaves of the Hollyhock lose their normal greenness, and
assume various shades of yellow and brown. Later they dry up com-
pletely in the worst cases.

If we examine the full-grown warts we find them composed of
immense numbers of spores of the form shown on the following
page. These when they germinate, which they readily do in
water in our cultures, or in dew on the surface of plants, or in any
moist situation, appear as in Fig. 110, the small dark and pear-shaped
sporules being those that are capable of again infecting the hollyhock
or any one of a number of its congeners, such as the common door-
yard weed, the Wild Mallow.

As a leaf of the hollyhock often bears several hundred warts, and
each wart contains several hundred spores, each of which, if it secures
a proper chance, will produce ten or twelve sporules, we need not
wonder that this disease sometimes becomes quite a scourge.

95

Prevention. — The preventive measures that may be taken have been
foreshadowed in the description of the disease. First of all destroy
all the wild mallow in the vicinity. This may be
done with " elbow grease/* which, when properly
applied, is very effective. I have noticed that

where the disease is ram-

Fiff. 109.— Spores of the Mallow Rust, TT n i i M. •

Puccinia, ,,talvaceanim. These pant On JbLOllynOCKS it IS-
spores, which are elongated or almost invariably to be

found on wild mallows

somewhat fusiform and have a

slight constriction at the middle,

are massed together in scattered, . .

round, and raised compact brown in tne Vicinity, and L am

sure that the disease in

son, which, however, are elon-
gated on the stalks and petioles.
These sori have a habit of falling
away and leaving scars or holes,
in which case the ground under-
neath the plant becomes a breed- ,-, »
ing-place for the disease. The tnrOUgn the agency OI
smooth yellowish-brown spores, j.\\ i« WPPP! anrl if fhp
measuring 15-25 x 35-75^, are M> i
borne on pedicels once to twice

this State is carried over
from season to season*

as long as themselves,
are no paraphyses.

There

weed be kept down the
Hollyhocks will be bene-
fited. In my opinion it

is a good plan to keep the Hollyhocks from seeding too freely. If a

considerable number of the seed pods are cut as soon as the blossoms.

are past — i.e., of course, supposing the

blossoms are allowed to remain on the plant

as garden ornaments, a use to which they

are so eminently adapted, — the result will

be a good growth of foliage. This will

mean a good supply of food stored up in the

roots for next season, with the result that the

plants will start vigorously the next spring.
The plants are such rank growers that it

is best to give them a good supply of food.

Any stinting in the growth is sure to lead

to greater liability to disease. It will be

noted that the smaller and weaker plants

are the first and the worst sufferers from

the disease.

When the summer's growth is over, des-

troy all the old foliage and the stalks.
The symptoms of the disease are pro-

minent ones, i.e., the growth of the above-

mentioned warts, and this leads to a measure

that may be of use in some cases, namely,

the plucking of the leaves of the Hollyhock Fi&- HO.-Teleuto spore of the hollyhock
Pr r. -i rust> germinating and producing

as last as they become SOUrceS Or danger. secondary or promycelial spores. The

Do not allow any of the warts to assume a

brown colour. Up to the time the warts

begin to turn brown they are not spread-

ing the disease, and the leaf is still of use

to the plant. Soon after they become brown

they are capable of spreading the disease, and they should be

removed by plucking the leaf they are on.

spores most active in spreading the-
disease. They sometimes appear in
such numbers as to give the surface
of the rust pustules a frosted appear-
ance.

96

Where the disease has once occurred, it is probable that the ground
near the diseased plants is covered with germinating spores. Hence
it is advisable to disinfect this ground with some such substance as
lime, applied in a liberal manner. Wood ashes applied copiously may
be used, and will act as a manure. Failing these, some disinfectant
may be applied with a sprinkler. For this purpose a concentrated
•solution of sulphate of iron is useful, but the ground should not be
saturated with it, as that might injure the plants. Solution of
formalin may be used. Merely digging over the earth will do good.

Bordeaux mixture is known to be an efficient remedy for this disease,
but it is rather out of place in a flower-garden, as the appearance of the
sprayed plants is far from attractive. Ammonio carbonate of copper
.and Eau Celeste are less objectionable, but they are not so effective.

Where Hollyhocks have suffered severely it is well to start a new
bed at a distance from the old one. Eoot out the old bed and destroy
the stalks and roots, and then dig the ground well over and disinfect it.

Diseases of the Rose.

Black Spot.
[See Coloured Plate, Frontispiece.]

There are at least two distinct diseases of the rose characterised by the
.appearance of blackish spots on the leaves. Of the two, the present,
to which the name " Black Spot " will be applied, is probably the more
• common and destructive. Under the climatic conditions of the greater
part of this State it appears at all seasons, and is characterised by the
appearance on the leaflets of dark spots varying in size but seldom
more than a quarter of an inch across, except by the amalgamation of
several that have originated near each other. The normal form of the
spots is circular, and the first indication of their presence is the loss of
ihe normal green colour of the leaflet at the place where the future
" Black Spot" will appear. Though very inconspicuous, this symptom
is the most positive indication that the disease has secured a hold that
nothing can shake loose, for such a beginning must lead inevitably
to the formation of a typical diseased spot in spite of any remedy at
present known. The only preventive is to destroy the infected leaflet.

From this small beginning the spot increases in size until it reaches
the dimensions described above, changing colour meanwhile through
dark brown or purple to almost black. Not infrequently a single leaf-
let bears scores of these spots, which most people would describe as
unsightly. Nevertheless, I must not forget to mention that I know
more than one person of artistic temperament that, on making up a
bouquet of roses, seeks out one or two of these diseased leaves for their
effect in the composition of the bouquet. I am compelled to admit that
the colouration of the diseased leaves is sometimes of an agreeable
nature, and that a leaf or two with picturesquely arranged spots, or
leaves that have taken on a bright yellow colour preparatory to final
dissolution, when skilfully disposed in a bouquet do give an added
charm, perhaps by way of contrast with the perfection of the roses
that droop above ; though I am almost afraid to admit such heretical
.statements into the literature of pathology.

97

At last these dark spots turn white, or at least ash-coloured, at the
centre, and this is an indication that the fungus, which is causing
the disease, is about to fructify or produce spores. The spores are
formed in very minute pustules that can be seen only with the aid of
a good magnifying glass, and yet so fertile are they that a single spot
of the disease may give rise to many thousands of spores, each capable
under proper circumstances of producing a fresh infection.

The disease runs its full course in a few
weeks time, as may be readily ascertained
by examining the youngest leaves that
display full-grown spots. It is usually
the lower leaves on the plant that suffer
most severely ,f or the reason that through
the action of dews and rains an abundance
of spores are washed on to them from
above. Nevertheless, the highest leaves
are often found infested, a proof that the m>._Spore7of PhyllMa Rogarum
wind also plays an important part in the Pass., the cause of the Black spot of the

-i • , .-I .. £ ,-i Rose. The simple, smooth, colourless,

distribution OI the Spores. ellipsoidal spores, measuring 5'-7'2 x

The differentvarietiesof rose Yarycon- JttJZSS&Sn&S

Slderably in their susceptibility to the pentheeia, about 100? in diameter,

disease, and different plants of the same SeSlSSSSJffttfiTS

SOrt Show Variations according to locality, midst of more or less circular spots found

-, p,t -XT i on the upper surface of the attacked

age, and SO forth. New gardens leaves, and characterised by a distinctly

started from carefully selected cuttings,
and at a little distance from other roses,
may remain free from the disease for
some time. Some varieties appear almost never to suffer from the
disease, and these are particularly the small-leaved and climbing sorts.
The rank growing sorts, producing large and succulent leaves, are the
worst sufferers. This disease is readily distinguished from the other
common spot-producing disease of the rose by the fact that the diseased
areas are in the present instance never radiate or star-shaped. Moreover,
the spots of the " Star-shaped Leaf Spot" are very seldom so dark as
those of the present disease, though they are often much larger. (See
coloured Plate opposite p. 26.)

Remedies. — 1 . Foremost among the remedies must be placed hand
picking, which, if carried out watchfully, will in most cases be
sufficient. It is not sufficient to remove simply those leaves that show
black spots. The eye must be trained to see the beginnings of the
disease, and so become able to indicate what other leaves should be
destroyed. Where a few roses are grown as a recreation or for
ornament this is the method that will most commend itself. The
labour is not great, and will not be grudgingly bestowed where it is
being expended for love rather than for profit.

2. Pruning is a more severe measure that may be resorted to in those
cases where the plants are much infested, and where it is desired to
reduce the disease at one stroke. As in the case of the plucking of the
leaves the parts removed had better be destroyed.
36567 G

98

3. Spraying seems rather out of place in an ornamental garden, and
will probably be resorted to only as an extreme measure, as when it
becomes necessary to revive a neglected garden that has become
overrun with pests. Most roses will stand Bordeaux Mixture of full
strength, and all will stand it in its weaker forms, and in either
strength it is a valuable agent with which to combat either this disease
or the Star-shaped Leaf Spot. In those parts of the State where the
leaves fall in winter some form of winter treatment may be recom-
mended, as that is the time of the year at which the greatest good can
be accomplished with the least expenditure of energy. If the plants
be pruned in winter and sprayed well right down to the roots, and the
ground round about be dug up slightly, and some of the spraying
mixture be applied to it also, the results will be very beneficial. Strong
Bordeaux Mixture may be used for this purpose. Whitewash will be
found fairly efficient on leafless plants ; lime, sulphur and salt mixture
even more so.

4. There can be no doubt that the rose plant has the power when in
the best of health to resist somewhat the attacks of the disease, in fact,
this is one of the most important features of the whole matter, and it
points to the advisability of securing well-drained soil containing a
good quantity of the right kind of plant food. As to the soil it may
be said that, with the exception of a very loose and sandy soil, almost
any kind will answer. If, therefore, the growth of the rose-bush is

not vigorous, thought should be given
first to the surrounding conditions with
the idea of finding out whether they can
be so improved as to give a more vigorous
growth. Above all the rose is a lover of
a1d'Sra!™Vaet onac"ed plenty of air and sunlight and will not
it win be noted that these spores are (Jo its best where there is a lack ot either.

smaller than those produced in a m, .-, , -. -. , -j-i -i. t£ •

water-culture shown in Fig. m. The ideal rosebush stands by itself in a

sunny and airy place. Though no ground

is too poor to produce some sort of growth in a rose, it is useless to
expect perfection except plenty of good food be present in the soil.
If it becomes necessary to supply manure it should be dug in in a
shallow manner and be of a suitable kind. With reference to disease,
it may be said that nitrogenous manures tend to cause a softer and
more susceptible growth than other manures. Manures characterised
by potash, lime, and phosphorus, rather than by nitrogen, are those
that should be applied to roses suffering from leaf-spot.

Diseases of Larkspur.

Plants of Larkspur or Delphinium have been submitted to me that
had died suddenly — in twenty-four hours it was said. The plants
were full grown and in blossom. A number of seedlings had been
lost in the same manner. Other gardens were affected at the same
time, February.

The soil attached to the base of the plant contained threads of white
mycelium, after the manner of soil harbouring certain timber-rotting
fungi of the toadstool family, and the base of the plant was decayed

99

Fig. 113. — Fungus elements found
about the roots of larkspur suffer-
ing from a fatal disease of the
roots.

just where it left the ground and below that point, so that the tissues
were easily poked apart with the finger, and the interior of the base of
the stalk was seen to be affected with a similar looking fungus growth.
The threads in the soil and the mycelium inside the tissues of the stalk
were composed of similar elements, as
shown by the sketches.

Although the stalk for an inch or two
above ground appeared to be discoloured,
it was not soft and rotten as was the por-
tion below ground, nor on examination
could any fungus elements be found in
the tissues. The hollow of the stalk,
which appeared to be a likely place to look
for signs of the disease, showed no traces.

It appears that the manner of attack
is to destroy the bark and subjacent
parenchyna near the surface of the ground.
In other words, the disease produces a kind
of girdling or collar rot, or root rot.

Lime at the rate of at least one ton per
acre is recommended for such attacks.
Trenching off the diseased area so as to isolate it was also suggested.
The details of these remedies are given on page 983, October number
of this Gazette.

Leaf Disease of the Chrysanthemum.

This is a disease of the Chrysanthemum that attacks the leaves
principally, the plants sometimes dying from the effects of the attack.
The lower leaves succumb first, and thence the disease travels upward .,

The principal symptoms are seen on the leaf blades, which turn
yellow and then brown, either in spots or all over. The colours change
from the normal green, first to Naples yellow, then gradually through
light brown to dark brown.

The fungus causing the disease is a species of Septoria, produced in
perithecia so small that even with a magnifying glass it is not easy to
see them. On leaves where the spores were
so numerous as to be found in great numbers
in every water preparation made from pieces
of leaf five millimetres square, the pustules,
which must have been very numerous,
were to be seen only with difficulty. _

Remedies. — I have had no opportunity to t$e ehrysanthe

test the effects of fungicides on this pest.
It is known that a similar disease of the
tomato can be easily controlled by the
thorough use of Bordeaux Mixture. I have
seen only one case of this disease, and in
that case the plants were killed. The
disease seems uncommon, but it must be remembered that
florists do not make such frequent calls upon the resources of the

oria of
emum.

X400

100

Department as do fruit-growers and gardeners,, and as such calls
would be in this particular instance one of the main sources of my
information, it may be that the disease is more common than I
think.

The specimens showing the above symptoms had numerous red mites
on them, and the symptoms may have been complicated by this fact,
but that seems doubtful. Probably the diseased appearances were
due to the fungus alone. The mites may have been feeding on the
spores of the Septoria.

Rust of the Carnation.

I believe the carnation, even in a state of nature, suffers considerably
from this disease, but under cultivation it suffers much more severely,
especially in some of the more rank and tender of the florist's creations.
The disease is not very common in this country, but I have occasionally
seen severe cases. The attack is marked by the appearance on the
foliage and stalks of streaks of a dark brown .colour and a powdery

nature breaking through the epidermis.
The brown or reddish powder becomes
loose, and through its agency the disease
is spread from one plant to another.
The rust fungus causing the disease, of
which the abovementioned powder con-
stitutes the spores, is enormously pro-
ductive, and under favourable conditions
the disease spreads rapidly, and does much
damage. Plants in greenhouses are quite
as subiect to attack as those in the open.

Fig. 115.— The rust of the carnation, Uro- J f

myces caryophylorum. Two ellip- 1 here IS more than OU6 TUSt that

soidal teleuto spores and one nearly ,, -\ .r j. • r 4. J.T, j.

spherical uredo spore. The uredo attaCKS the Carnation, DUt that Seen

JSS^Xtffi&.SS'ESi by ™* ™ $»* country is Uromyce*

each a single terminal germ-pore. CO/ryophylorum, the Spores of which are

shown in the accompanying illustration.

The disease may be treated with some success with Bordeaux
Mixture if the spraying be well done. Such mixtures do not cling
well to carnation plants, and, unless care is used in the application,
little good will be done. If the plants are sponged with Condy's
Fluid, that treatment will mitigate the disease.

Diseased material should be destroyed. The disease also attacks a
variety of other plants of the pink family. This fact should lead to
a consideration of whether there are any other plants in the vicinity
that may harbour the disease. If any such exist they should receive
attention.

If it is desired to save plants already attacked, it is well to move
them to new surroundings, taking special precautions that no diseased
portions or untreated plants are removed. Patiently and carefully
removing and destroying all diseased material should be the main
reliance in most cases, though the application of fungicides will be a
paying operation in the larger plantations of the florist.

101

The Hawthorn Hedge.

I am of opinion that the Hawthorn hedge is a mistake in fruit-
growing districts unless it receives the same care as the orchards
themselves.

The Hawthorn is closely related to the apple, pear, quince, and
some other common fruits, and in consequence the various pests of
these species find a convenient refuge in Hawthorn hedges. This
opinion is not based on a mere surmise ; I have frequently, as others
have done, seen the pests actually in the possession of the hedges. It
is said that the codlin moth can live in the Hawthorn berry, with what
truth I do not know from actual observation, never having seen such
a case myself. There are other insect pests injurious to the pomaceous
fruits that thrive on the Hawthorn and find a lurking place there.

As to fungus pests, I have found several destructive pests of the
orchard to be common on the Hawthorn. Ripe-rot and canker fungi
are both very common on it. I believe it would be almost impossible
to find a Hawthorn hedge without these diseases.

The edges of the leaves are frequently eaten away after the manner
of the pear-leaves examined and reported upon some years ago in this
journal. Among the debris to be scraped away from the edges of
such leaves may be found minute spores, which
appear to have originated from very small peri-
thecia. After lying for an hour in water the
spores appear in masses supported in a gelatinous
transparent substance, as if they had been forced
out from a hidden receptacle where they had been
previously packed away. The time of their
appearance is too soon after the preparation is made to admit of the
supposition that they have grown from a single spore or a few spores,
or from mycelium.

The bark of the Hawthorn is often eaten away by a canker fungus.
The external and microscopic appearances are the same as on apple-
trees. The bark is destroyed down to the wood.

A species of G-loeosporium was found on the Hawthorn, a descrip-
tion of which will be found in the notes on Ripe-rot.

in?

Fig. 116.— Canker fungus of
the bark of hawthorn.

X400

Fig. 117. — Spores of
Gloeosporium of the
hawthorn.

Fig. 118. — Spores of the Gloeosporium
found growing naturally on th
berries of the hawthorn. These ar
shown in the first stages of germina-
tion. It is not often that the spores
become four-parted in this manner
before throwing out a definite my-
celia thread.

X 400

I
!

Fig. 119.— Gloeosporium,
found growing on the
fruit of hawthorn (Cra-
taegus). June, 1902, at
Killara, New South
Wales.

The berries are often found covered with a blackish growth, and
upon removal this is found to be composed of spherical dark-coloured

102

elements, 7*2 — 1 I/A in diameter, and variously grouped and grown
together. The appearance of the fungus is similar to that found in
the lemon scab.

In a water culture after twenty-four hours the above mycelium gives
rise to colourless septate hyphsD, which in turn produce conidia that
bud after the manner of yeast.

What seems beyond doubt the same fungus occurs on the leaves,
but the spherical elements are grouped into larger communities.
While on the fruit the rule is two to six or eight together, on the
leaves the groups are composed of twelve to twenty elements. The
aggregations on the leaves are also of a darker colour.

Another difference noted was the occurrence on the leaves of a
mycelium of the ordinary form, composed of cells one to one and
one-half times as long as wide. This mycelium was of about the same
colour as the spherical elements of the Coniothecium. Very little of
such mycelium was to be seen on the berries. Whencesoever
derived, this mycelium had the property in water cultures of proli-
ferating in the form of colourless threads, septate, and composed of
cells one and a half to two times as long as wide. This mycelium,
as well as the elements of the Coniothecium form, has the power to
produce conidia that bud after the manner of yeast.

The spherical elements in the growth on the leaves are somewhat
smaller than indicated by the measurements given above (7*2 x 1.1/n).
The differences are shown in the illustrations.

X400

Fig. 120. — Cultivations of the fungus found
growing on the leaves of Crataegus,
forming there a kind of black incrusta-
tion ; a, dark mycelium made up of some-
what elongated cells ; 6, transparent
colourless mycelium, appearing in the
water-culture ; c, yeast-like cells de-
tached from b, and growing by a budding
process ; d, a piece somewhat similar to
a ; e, detached mycelium resembling 6,
which is not yet detached ; /, mycelium
composed of sub-spherical nearly black
cells, and comprising much of the sooty
growth on the Cratsegus or Hawthorn
leaves.

It will be noticed that the Hawthorn-hedge pests enumerated as
having come under notice are either identical with those known to
infest the apple, pear, and other pomes, or are very similar to them.
This is a sufficient proof that an infested hedge is a source of danger
to orchards. Under the circumstances it would seem to be a wise
precaution to spray such hedges when spraying the orchard. This
will at the same time improve the hedge. If the hedge underwent the
winter treatment with lime, sulphur, and salt, that would also be a
benefit.

This matter is mentioned here on account of the author's knowledge
of the existence of a number of infested hedges near orchards.

103

Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture.

It is unnecessary to say that the proper preparation of the Bordeaux
mixture is an important matter. I am convinced that a very large
amount of improperly prepared mixture is annually used. I do not
think that trees are often injured by such imperfect mixtures, but 1
am sure that money is wasted in their use, and that some discourage-
ments to growers follow, together with disparaging remarks with
reference to spraying in general. I am naturally proud, as one of
those mainly responsible for the introduction into this country of
modern spraying on a commercial scale, of the rapid progress the
method has made ; but at the same time I am sorry to know that at
this late date there are still orchards minus a spraying outfit, and
orchardists that neglect this method of easily adding to their profits.
This I attribute in some degree to the use of improperly prepared
mixtures. Bordeaux mixture is one of the most important of the
mixtures applied in the form of a spray, and a word about this
important matter is hardly ever out of place.

The materials should be pure. They are easily procured in a state
of purity. In particular the lime should be quite fresh and " quick."
It should be quite free from what is called air-slacking, i.e., it should
have been so kept in tight receptacles that it has not absorbed and
combined with moisture from the air.

Fig. 121. — Three glass cylinders containing Bordeaux mixture made in different ways and
allowed to settle for one hour. It will be seen that mixture A, on the left, is the best, 'having
settled least. A, dilute lime and dilute bluestone, poured evenly into a third vessel ; B, dilute
lime poured into dilute bluestone ; c, strong lime poured into strong bluestone.

In making the milk of lime the aim should be, of course, to have it
as smooth as possible. To secure this result water should be added

104

sparingly until the lime is completely slacked. The lime should not be
deluged with water. Hot water maybe used, of ten with advantage, espe-
cially at the outset. If too little water is added the lime will become over-
heated, and this is an objection. Water should be added fast enough
to prevent this overheating. The aim should be to produce a very
thick and smooth paste, which when it is afterwards diluted with water
will be perfectly free from lumps or granulation. A good plan for
the novice is to try a small portion of lime at first, and from the lesson
thus learned to go on to the larger matter of preparing his mixture.
The thick paste should be watered gradually, and not all at once. As
most lime contains lumps that will not slack, it is necessary to strain
the milk of lime after it is prepared and before it is added to the
sulphate of copper solution.

It is far better to mix the two solutions in a dilute form than to
mix them in a concentrated form and afterwards dilute them. The
milk of lime should be run very gradually into the copper sulphate
solution, and the two liquors as they are mixed should be constantly
agitated. This results in a superior mixture.

This superiority has been well illustrated in an article by Professor
McAlpine of Victoria, and I have secured from the Department of
Agriculture, through the courtesy of the Minister, the use of the
blocks so forcibly illustrating the non-settling properties of the
properly made mixture.

It will be seen on examining the illustrations that the Mixture was
prepared in three different ways, and each of the three resulting
mixtures was placed in a cylinder and allowed to subside. The mixture
that stays in suspension longest is, of course, the best, the reason
being that it is in the finest state of division, and hence will work
through the spray nozzle most freely and act most efficiently after it is
applied to the plants.

The two most technical parts of the process of making Bordeaux
mixture are the preparation of a smooth fine-quality milk of lime or
whitewash, and the mixing of the same with a proper amount of
copper sulphate solution.

Anyone who feels uncertain about the former operation should
remember that there are numerous skilful preparers of whitewash
and that the chance to witness the operation as performed by an
expert is easily secured.

Adulteration of Sulphur.

It appears probable that sulphur is sometimes adulterated with cheap
forms of starch, such as unsalable flour. Samples submitted to me
for examination showed among the grains of sulphur much starch.
Sulphur mixed with starch it is almost needless to say is less effective
as a fungicide than pure sulphur, and when applied dry in combating
disease, such as the Oidium of the vine, such adulterated material
might lead to poor results.

In one instance grapes showing the after effects of Oidium were
submitted to me for examination. I did not ascertain whether the

105

starch had been added by the person treating the disease or by a
dealer unbeknown to the buyer, but think it best to call attention to
the matter for the reason that the adulteration of sulphur with starch
could be easily accomplished and not easily detected, except by
microscopic examination.

I should not mention this matter if it were not for the fact that the
disease in the above-mentioned case appeared to be Oidium, and that
a proper treatment had apparently failed to ward off the bad effects
of the disease as it should have done.

If any grower is interested by these remarks, and wishes the sulphur
he uses to be examined, that could be done if he would forward to the
Department of Agriculture a sample of the sulphur in the form in
which he proposes to use it.

Fungi grow from Cuttings.

The spores of fungi are so often mentioned as their organs of
propagation that it might seem to a non-expert that they were the
only means of propagation. This is far from being the case. Just as
in the higher plant species may be propagated by cuttings and by
layering and by grafting, so among fungi there are ways of multiplying
quite apart from the spores, though these latter are the more usual
propagating forms.

An illustration of this feature of fungus life is presented in the
illustration, in which we behold a " cutting" from a fungus in the act of
throwing out " roots/' a method of some importance in the life history
of some fungi. Here we have the stalks of a species of Alt&rnaria
" germinating " much as if they were spores. If these stalks, which

Fig. 122.— Growth in water cul-
ture of mycelium from the
old aerial hyphae of the
Alternaria of the quince,
showing that these, as well
as the spores, may spread the
disease.

are produced in enormous numbers on the surface of some diseased
plants, are torn loose, and transferred to a favourable place, they have
the power to grow and continue the life of the pest in a vigorous
manner.

106

THE BROWN-ROT OF FRUIT.

THIS is a rot of fruit caused by the fungus Monilia fructigena — a rot
most prevalent under moist conditions and confined to no particular
kind of fruit, though it does most damage on cherries, peaches, and
plums. It will attack a great variety of ripe and ripening fruit, and
will even attack tender foliage under encouraging conditions.

The Brown-rot has come under notice in this State from time to time
for a number of years, but it seems that it is only during our moist
seasons, or in our moist districts, that it is to be feared. The disease
appears with us to be quite as common on the cherry as on any other
fruit, and the damage done is sometimes considerable, though I have
never known of any such severe losses as have been reported in other
countries, — where the destruction has sometimes reached enormous
proportions. Cases are on record where the losses from this disease
were variously estimated at from £50,000 to £100,000 in a single fruit-
raising district, and very serious losses on a smaller scale have been of
frequent occurrence. It appears that this fungus is one to be reckoned
with seriously if it should become an established pest in our orchard
districts. The portions of the State where it is most likely to do
damage are those having an abundant rainfall during the spring and
summer, and possessing the orchards necessary for its nourishment, —
for we have no indigenous fruits upon which it is likely to flourish.
Those parts of the State best adapted to cherry growing are the parts
referred to.

The appearance of the fungus causing the Brown-rot of fruit should
be well known to all observant fruit-growers. The softened fruit
becomes covered with a grayish growth of spores, in some respects
resembling the familiar green mould of bread, which is also frequently
to be seen on fruit. The grayish growth just mentioned is made up
largely of the spores of the fungus and it is these spores that are the
principal means of spreading the fungus, which, so far as its injurious-
ness to fruit is concerned, has a simple history. The spores from one
fruit are transferred to another and there set up the disease, which in
the course of a few days' time has so far advanced as to be able to
pass on to fresh victims.

In another part of these letters, reference has been made to the Ripe-
rot, a rot that also attacks a great variety of fruits. In the case of
Eipe-rot it is necessary for the fungus to have a way prepared for its
entrance to the fruit. The Brown-rot is frequently aided in the same
manner to gain an entrance to the fruit, but it is not entirely dependent
on such obvious accidents. It is able to penetrate apparently sound
fruit if the atmospheric conditions are of the right kind, — that is, if the
air is continuously laden with moisture for a day or two and the tempera-
ture at the same time remains uniformly high, say at 80 to 90 degrees
Fahrenheit. Under these conditions, apparently sound fruit may be
attacked by this fungus with fearful rapidity, so that fruit in a ripen-
ing condition is swept off in a wholesale manner, — rotting on the tree
or falling off. It not infrequently happens that the rotten fruit dries
up and hangs on the tree, if undisturbed, for a long time. The
appearance of the pulp of the fruit when in the grip of the disease is

107

rather characteristic. The colour is a uniform brown, changing from
a light shade to a darker with the progress of the disease. The
diseased flesh has a watery appearance and a disagreeable look, though
the taste is not very disagreeable. Advantage is sometimes taken of
this latter fact to use up at canneries fruit that is in the first stages of the
attack. The practice is not to be commended, as such fruit, though it
may not be actually injurious to health, is certainly inferior in quality.

The injury to the foliage is of a more obscure nature, and is often
overlooked, or mistaken in character and referred to some other cause.
It is usual in this State for the orchardists sending in samples of fruit
attacked by Monilia to say that the foliage is not attacked at all. As
a matter of fact, I have never seen the characteristic spores of the
disease growing on the foliage or branches of fruit trees, and I do
not recall at the moment any record of this character in the
writings of other observers; but there can be no doubt that the
disease enters the bark of tender tissues in the vicinity of diseased
fruit, and numerous instances of this are on record. There is
nothing remarkable in this, as the same is known to be true of a number
of other fungi attacking fruit and foliage of orchard trees. The fact
is one of importance in its bearing on possible remedial measures.
For this reason it is well, wherever this disease appears in the fruit, to
give careful attention to the appearance of the foliage and new
growths, both at the time of the attack on the fruit, and at later
dates, in order to determine whether they have suffered from disease.
If they have done so, the evidence will be found in the blighting of the
twigs, the appearances not infrequently resembling " fire blight/' or
insect girdling.

Remedies. — The principal feature in the fight against this disease
is the careful destruction of the diseased fruit ; and where there are a
number of orchards near each other, the same measures must be
adopted in all, if much good is to follow. It is of little avail that one
grower destroys his infected fruit, if his near neighbour, attacked in
a similar manner, fails to do so. The spores of the disease are so
abundant, and are so easily transported by various agencies, that
neighbourly co-operation is very essential to good results.

The diseased fruit should not be allowed to accumulate on the
ground, nor should the dried-up fruit on the trees be allowed to-
remain there. Either of these is liable to cause a continuance of the
pest — in fact, there is at present, I believe, no other known source
of infection, so that the problem is much simplified so far as concerns
a knowledge of what ought to be done. The destruction of this-
infected fruit must be carried on systematically. Spasmodic efforts are
not likely to be rewarded with a full measure of success. It should
be borne in mind that this disease may exist on many different sorts
of fruit, and though it does serious damage in this State to only a-
limited number of kinds, those other fruits upon which it finds but a
bare subsistence may nevertheless be the means of its passing over
from season to season.

The absolute destruction of the diseased fruit is what should be
aimed at, although it must be admitted that this will sometimes
involve considerable expense. Fruit attacked at or near maturity can

108

be profitably fed to pigs in some instances, but it should first be boiled.
Burying should be deep if it is resorted to at all. Burning is to be
recommended.

The application of chemicals to infested fruit has this disadvantage,
that the chemicals seldom penetrate far enough to kill all the mycelium,
and hence at a later date the uninjured mycelium may revive and again
produce spores, even after it has lain dormant all winter.

From what I know of this fungus, I fully agree with all who have
attempted to suggest remedial measures in the direction of fungicides
applied to the fruit and foliage. There seems little hope that much
can be done in this manner if the weather is favourable to the disease.
The disease does comparatively little harm with us unless the weather
is very warm and moist, and it is in such weather that treatment with
fungicides is least successful. Everthing should be done that is
economically possible to keep down the number of the spores of the
disease, and of course it would be useless to deny that any treatment
of the trees that reduced the number of the spores when they were

Fig. 122a.— Three plums destroyed by the same fungus as that attacking the cherry-fruit,
shown in Fig. 123 on the opposite page.

few would be valuable if at a later date the weather conditions should
become more favourable. Among the treatments that may be recom-
mended on this score are various winter treatments, such as that with
lime, sulphur, and salt. As this winter treatment has a value for
many other purposes, its application to the present disease constitutes
for it a further recommendation. The same may be said with con-
siderable force with regard to all the different fungicides. If they are
being applied for any other disease they will have some effect also on
the Brown-rot. But too much weight must not be attached to these
statements with regard to the use of fungicides for this disease, for,
as before remarked, the disease is unlikely to do serious damage in
this State unless the weather conditions are favourable to it; and it
is precisely the weather conditions favourable to it that are most
unfavourable to the usefulness of fungicides. It seems absolutely

109

impossible to fight the disease with the aid of fungicides alone-
The other main reliance must be care in the destruction of all diseased
fruit.

I should be sorry if the foregoing remarks left the impression that
the disease is found in our orchards only in wet seasons. That is not
the case. It is to be found at all times, probably, but in limited
quantity, a quantity safely to be neglected if it was the only disease-
in existence. If, however, the proper conditions arrive, it has a
peculiar faculty of reviving with suddenness and destroying a large
quantity of fruit. During and after such a season it is best to be
specially careful, as there is greater probability than ever that spores of
the disease will be left over to give the pest a fresh start the following
year.

A CHERRY BLIGHT NEW TO THE STATE.

THE cherries are attacked at blossoming time, and the effects become
visible at that time or soon after. The young fruit, as soon as the petals
have dropped, and while it has still the elongated form characteristic^

Fig. 123.— Two different blights
of the cherry, one on the
fruit and the other on the
leaves. That on the fruit,
due to a fungus variously
classified, is shown at a,
6, c, d. a, a fruit attacked
at blossoming time and
killed at an early stage of
growth, the pedicel being
also attacked and withered
up : b, young fruit with its
pedicel killed at a slightly
later stage than a ; c, fruit
half grown attacked on one
side and showing an out-
break of spores at the light-
coloured areas on the dark-
ened and shrunken flesh ;
d, half grown fruit attacked
near the stem end and having
its stem also attacked. The
upper and largest cherry is
free from the disease, and
shows the stage to which
all the fruits should have
advanced but for the
disease The spots and holes
on the leaves in the case illus-
trated are due to a second
disease, although the fungus
here shown on the fruit does
sometimes attack the foli-
age. The microscopic
characteristics of the
fungus are shown in the
next illustration. See also
Fig. 122& on opposite page.

ihe earliest stages, looses its normal green colour and becomes brown*
and shrivelled, sometimes almost black. In such cases the stem of the
young fruit is also attacked, the indications being a brown colouration^
and a shrivelling and drying up in a curled and distorted fashion.
The fruits attacked at a little later stage also assume an unnatural
colour, but they do not dry up so readily or so completely. They
are more likely to present some portion of the surface where the
disease is most intense, this portion being marked by a slightly darker
colour at first and by a nearly black colour at last. If the fruit reaches
the ripening stage, the ripening is characterised by unnatural colours..

110

Instead of a rich transparent creaminess, we behold a leprous appear-
ance in the early stages, and when at last the reds and purples appear
they are not pure and transparent but have a dullness somewhat
like that of raw meat.

The actual outbreak of the spores of the fungus causing the trouble
occurs on the darker areas just mentioned, and these outbreaks may
occasionally be seen on even quite small and immature fruit ; and I
think it quite possible that they may occur on the stems of such
young fruit, though I have not observed this. I have seen on the
stems areas that had precisely the same appearances as those on
the young fruit except that they bore no spores.

The naked eye characteristics of this disease are very well shown in
Fig. 123, which is a life-size illustration of the disease as it appears on
growing fruit of the cherry. The fungus shown in the same illustra-
tion as producing holes in the leaves is altogether different and has
no connection with this disease of the fruit. On the smallest of the
cherries shown, the disease has already completely destroyed the fruit,
.and it has become brown and shrivelled ; the pedicel of the fruit has
been also attacked and it has shrivelled and curved into the form of a
letter S. The fruit a must have been attacked at the blossom stage.
The fruit b was also attacked early, and the disease is seen on one
;side of the fruit near the top and on the stem. Similarly with the
fruit d. At c a fruit is shown on which the fungus has produced spores
in the manner described above, and this outbreak of spores is shown on
some parts of the diseased area in the form of a whitish incrustation.
The uppermost cherry has escaped the disease, and shows the
stage to which all the fruits should have advanced if they had not
been blighted. Attention is again called to the fact that the holes
represented in the leaves are caused by a quite distinct disease.

Most of the damage is done before the cherries are half ripe, and
the entire crop may be destroyed. The fruit that reaches a market-
able size has a more or less unfavourable colour, and the flavour is
decidedly flat if the fruit actually contains the fungus, as it may do,
.and yet reach a marketable size.

The dead fruit hangs on for some time, but finally drops off. The
foilage does not appear to suffer much, but does to a certain extent
suffer in the same manner as the stems of the young fruits.

The comparatively wet season of 1903 brought to light a consider-
able amount of this disease in some of the best cherry districts of the
State — Tenterfield, Armidale, and Goulburn. A number of young
orchards were badly attacked, and the losses must have totalled
several hundred pounds.

At the time of the outbreak of the spores, which may be at any
time after the fruit has set, though it seems to occur most frequently
at the time the fruit is quarter grown, and from that time on, the
spore-bearing areas become darker than the surrounding tissues and
apparently more watery, as is indicated by an increased transparency
in spite of the darker colour. The spores are collected on exceedingly
short hyphae, grouped in minute cushion-like clusters, which at first
in some cases are snow white, but which kter on become light brown.

Ill

The spore-clusters are quite distinct at first, but may run together
after a short time, and the entire surface appear to be covered with
an incrustation of spores if the air be dry, or with a somewhat
gelatinous covering if the air be moist.

Fie. 124. — Stromaof the Dematium-l&e fungus causing 0

the blight of cherries shown in Fig. 123. It will be ^ o

seen that the hyphee forming the stroma are for «

the most part without spores, this being due c

to the process of sectioning and mounting. At

a, however, fresh spores are starting; b, hypha

with five spores that have remained attached ; c,

tissue of the cherry that has become brown owing

to the attack of the fungus ; d, surface of the

cherry. A newer or younger stroina than that

shown may be sectioned so that a much larger

proportion of the spores will remain attached to

the hyphae. Several of the escaped spores are

shown above the stroma. X 200

7-5

19-

20-

10-6

11-8
2'5
87

10-4
8-3
6-5

3-7

5-

3-3

4-5

2-8

1-5

25

2-8

3-

2-7

Av. 10 5 x 3-2

As to the spores themselves, the measurements of ten spores, taken
at random, are given in the margin, and it will be seen
that the average is 10'5 x 3*2 /x., the range being 2'5-20
x l'5-5 /x. This range in the size of the spores is far
greater than is usual among fungus species. When
these spores are placed in water they have not, with me,
so far, shown a tendency to sprout and form a mycelium.
When placed in an infusion of cherries, however, I
have noted that they bud copiously after the manner
of yeast, and from this cause the number of spores
increases, while their size decreases. The spores, when
undergoing this process of budding, often show vacuoles,
while the original spores, as obtained from the surface of cherries,
were often without vacuoles and with very little internal differentiation.

Sections across the areas where the snow-white cushion-shaped
spore masses have been pushed forth, show slightly-raised beds from
which the spores are produced. In the sections mounted in water
these beds are destitute of spores, except of the very smallest size, all
the others having been washed away. The hyphae upon which the
spores are borne are of a larger diameter than the spores themselves.
On some occasions it is possible to see these small spores growing on
the ends of the hyphae of the stroma, and it is then apparent that the
spores are borne in numbers on each hypha. In sections made from
fresh material, while the hyphae are 9-13 /x in diameter the spores are
1*5-5 /x in diameter. The spores are ellipsoidal or elongated in form,
being very seldom of exactly the same form at the two ends. The
broader hyphae on which they are borne are several times as long as
the spores themselves, and are unbranched and packed close together
in the stroma, which is only slightly raised above the surface of the
diseased area. All these appearances can be seen only with the aid
of medium or high powers of the microscope. The smallest stroma
seen was not more than four to five times as wide as the spore-
bearing hyphae — that is to say, measured 40 /x. The larger spore
beds measure 180 /u, and upwards. (See Fig. 124.)

The septate mycelium seen in the diseased cherries was colourless,
and varied in diameter from 3 to 9 micromillimetres, one of its

112

striking characteristics being sudden changes from the minimum
diameter to the maximum. None of the clamp joints, such as are

X 400

Pig. 125. — Spores of the fungus causing the blight figured in illustration No. 123. The spores
vary greatly in size, some being hundreds of times larger than others. As the spores are
born on the hyphse of the strorna they do not differ so much in size, but by a process of
budding they often increase much in number, at the same time diminishing much in size.
The illustration attempts to show the range of size due to this budding process.

characteristic of the mycelium of the Basidiomycetes were seen. It
will be observed that the mycelium gathers together to form a distinct
stroma for the bearing of the spores. However, there were some of
these spore-beds so small that they must have been composed of
comparatively few hyphae.

I have inoculated green hedge-plums, green nectarines, and ripe
cherries, loquats, apples, and bananas, from cultures of the spores, but,
so far, with negative results.

"Take-all,"— a Disease of Cereals.

Some years ago there appeared in the pages of this journal a report
on the series of diseases usually treated of under the name of " Take-
all." Since that time further observations have been made, and the
results of these observations appear worthy of abstraction from the
letters on the subject and arrangement in a connected form. The
most important result is the discovery of what seems to be a reliable
method of treatment.

It is plain that the disease is one connected with a moist condition
of the soil. We have heard little of it during the drought, but during
the present season, 1903 — a moist season — numerous cases have been
observed, and the losses have been considerable. The appearances
are the same as those formerly reported, and the species of fungi are
the same, giving rise, as before remarked, to the opinion that the term
" Take-all" is one that must be understood to include a number of
different diseases which further study may isolate and prove to be
physiologically more or less related.

The disease, or the diseases, may be combated by the application of
lime, used at the rate of not less than one ton to the acre.

I have seen cases of " Take-all " that were connected in the most
manifest manner with certain slightly depressed areas where storm
waters stood for some time in puddles and finally sank into the soil.
If the storm occurred at a stage when the cereal growth was still soft
and tender and therefore susceptible, the plants went off with typical
"Take-aft.^

Of course, in the last analysis, all the foregoing points to lack of
efficient drainage as one of the prime causes of these diseases, and
anything that can be done to improve the drainage will be beneficial.
Even an extra deep tillage of the right sort will do good, as it often
happens that the damage is done in a short time by standing water, the
damage being apparently due to the lack of air about the roots of the

113

plants, the same being excluded by the water. Such instances would be
less common if the soil were rendered more porous by deep culture, the
small improvement secured in this way being sufficient to permit the
waters of small storms to sink in rapidly enough to allow the plants to
escape " drowning." These slight depressions in the paddock may in
some cases be gradually filled in by the right method of ploughing,
which constantly turns the soil from their margins towards the centre of
the depression. I have seen extensive areas subject to " Take-all "
that could be dealt with in this manner and cured in the course of a
few years, but of course such a combination of circumstances is
not common.

Since dealing with the matter in 1893 I have found that the follow-
ing treatment is almost invariably followed by good results. At a
time when the disease is showing, which it always does in patches of
greater or less extent, mark the patches with stakes, and after harvest
and before the following ploughing apply lime, or wood ashes known to
have a large proportion of lime, at the rate of at least one ton to the
acre, better more. Of course only the diseased areas need be so treated.

This treatment is based on a general knowledge of the causes of
the trouble and the fact that the disease continues from year to year
in the same place. It is possible that if one year is very favourable
to the disease and it is followed by a year that is very unfavourable
to the disease the patch will not persist, but this is exceptional and
does not upset the rule. If the season is very favourable to the
disease or there is a succession of such seasons, the disease may appear
so as to cover large areas. It appears that such was the case in 1903
in some districts.

While on the subject of " Take-all '' it may be well to mention that
Sorghum has been known to suffer from the attacks of Cladosporium
in the same way as wheat and other cereals. The appearances of the
cases examined by me are much the same as those formerly described in
connection with wheat and oats. I have seen Sorghum dead and dying
in patches with no other signs of parasitic growth than the abundant
growth of Cladosporium, so that it seems a fair inference that this
grass is also subject to " Take-all."

VARIOUS BUSTS.

MORE interesting than destructive is the rust of the White Clover.
Though not uncommon, it is never, so far as I have observed, so
prevalent as to do very much damage. Not infrequently it happens to

Fig. 126— Aecidium of the rust of the common White Clover (Tn/olium
repens). Magnified 10 diameters.

Aecidio-spores. — The nearly colourless, closely verrucose, polygonal
or rounded secidio-spores measure 16 to 18 by 20 to 25 /j, and are borne
in cup-shaped pseudoperidia, having everted whitish dentate edges.
The diseased spots are about two millimetres across.

attract the attention of some observant person, who, influenced by its
general resemblance to other more destructive rusts, makes inquiry as
36567 H

114

to whether it is not the same as wheat rust or some other dreaded rust.
Fortunately this rust is not the same as wheat rust, however much it
may to the ordinary observer appear to resemble it. Confined as it is
in its attacks to the white clover, it does little harm. In other
countries it attacks red clover, but I believe there is no record of such
a case in this country.

It is unnecessary to enter upon any discussion of remedies, as the
disease is of no serious consequence. It would not receive attention
here but for the fact that it is sometimes forwarded by needlessly

Fig. 127. — Uredo-spore and teleuto-spore of the rust-fungus, Vromyces tnfolii
(Alb. and Schw.), of the Common White Clover.

Uredo-spores. — The scattered cinnamon brown sori bear roundish or ellipsoidal
pale brown echinulate spores, measuring 25-35 x 15-18 ^ each possessed of two
opposite equatorial germ pores.

Teleuto-spores. — The sori are darker than those of the uredo-spore stage and
bear more nearly spherical smooth dark-brown spores of a diameter varying
between 20 and 35 A*> and each having a large germ pore at the thickened apex,
where there is often one or more papillae.

alarmed correspondents. No uneasiness need be caused by the
appearance of rust on white clover.

Oat Rust.

On one occasion my inquiries on this subject covered a considerable
area devoted to dairying on the Tweed and Eichmond Eivers, for the
most part consisting of lands similar to that in the vicinity of the
town of Alstonville. A score or more of paddocks in a dozen or more
localities were examined both as to the amount of rust and the
nature of the rust. I found that the paddocks in the vicinity of the
settlements were, as a rule, more severely smitten with rust than
paddocks elsewhere. Thus I found considerable rust in paddocks
in the vicinity of Lismore, Murwillumbah and Alstonville. In
general the amount of rust seen was not such as to cause surprise or
even concern. As a rule, I found the oat crops comparatively free
from this disease. No doubt the larger amount to be seen in certain
paddocks near the towns was accounted for by the continuous growth
of oats in those paddocks or near by. Under such circumstances the
disease is bound to accumulate. The continuous growth of any crop for
a long series of years on the same land always has this result. Though
at first the diseases of the crop may be light their intensity increases
year by year. A little thought will show that this is only what must
be expected, not only with crops of oats, but with any crop, or any
class of stock. Thus the comparative freedom of new clearings from
rust is in accordance with this law. It does not of course follow that
a new paddock may not be severely smitten with rust. Such a thing
may occur, but in the natural course of events this will be less common
than a similar visitation on an old paddock that has borne oats for a
succession of years. In the course of my inquiries I had my attention

115

Called to the fact that the oats had spots of rust on the leaves as soon
as the first two leaves had appeared. There is nothing uncommon in
this. In seasons when rust is prevalent it often appears on the crops
soon after they show above ground. The fact that this observation
can be made in any particular season only shows that the season is one
rather favourable to rust and that the disease is present ready to take
advantage of the fact. It is very uncommon to see a crop of oats that
is entirely free from rust in a climate such as that characteristic of our
northern rivers.

Considering the severity of which this disease is capable I do not
consider that there is much occasion for alarm, though it is beyond
question wise to give close attention to the progress of the disease in
various districts.

The amount of loss is what must govern any action taken. It is
-evident that oats are considered as one of the best of winter feeds in
.some districts and that anything that threatened this crop would at
present be regarded as a serious danger. From what I saw I think
we may without fear continue the growth of this crop for that purpose
for some time to come, but I fear that the continuous growth of this
*crop year after year on the same land for a long time will compel us
in the long run to abandon its growth, especially if meanwhile nothing
is done to minimise the disease. In the course of this report I intend
•to suggest some lines of action that will enable dairymen, if they so
desire, to continue the growth of this crop for winter feed. At the
rsame time I would advise that attention should be given to some other
; sources of winter feed suitable for dairy cattle.

At a meeting held for the discussion of this question I had the
honour to call attention in a pointed manner to the exact nature of
the rust disease, I showed with the aid of the microscope that rust
is a microscopic plant that propagates in a manner similar to that
followed by oats, with this important difference that the " seeds," or
.-spores, of the rust are so minute that they can be easily carried on the
for long distances. The number of the spores, as I showed,

Fig. 128.— Teleutospores of the common Australian rust of the oat.
These occur in linear, black, more or less confluent sori, that remain
for a loner time completely covered by the cuticle. As the figure
shows, the brow-a cylindroid to conoid spores are borne on very
short pedicels, measure 40-60 x 12-20^, and are characterised

by bearing at the truncate distal end 6-7 blunt irregularly finger-
shaped processes.
The orange-yellow spheroidal to ellipsoidal faintly echinulate, ure-

despores are borne in very pulverulent, elongated, often confluent sori.

Size, 15-20 x 20-28^.

X400

-is so great as to be almost beyond calculation. The number of spores

-on a single leaf of rusty oats might reach millions. It is no wonder then

that the disease is widespread, especially when we remember that it runs

its course in a few days' time. Already the rust is so common in some

-districts that the spores are to be found almost universally distributed.

J found them. on the fences, high up in trees, and in the dust of the

jhotel rooms in all parts where the rust was particularly prevalent.

116

There is however nothing unusual in this. It is a common feature of
this rust disease, and only shows how likely an outbreak of the disease
is, once the conditions are favourable to it.

The rust found upon oat crops is one that is well known so far
as I am able to say at present, in fact it would be remarkable if this
were not so. I hope to examine specimens later in the season that
will set at rest all doubts upon this head. From an examination of the
uredospores the species appears to be Puccinia coronata.*

The conditions that favour the spread of the rust disease are warmth
and moisture. As these factors vary from season to season it is easy
to understand why the disease varies in intensity in different years.
It is sometimes said that rust has ' ' suddenly appeared " in a district.
Such a statement is rarely true, the fact being that it has been all the
time present. What is meant is that it has suddenly increased in in-
tensity. This is due to favourable weather conditions. It is very
necessary to bear this in mind in reasoning about the disease, other-
wise there is danger of arriving at wrong conclusions.

The species of rust that attack the various cereal crops though
similar to one another are not always the same. The tendency of
recent research is toward the belief that each species of rust is very
particular about its host plant, and that although two rusts may
resemble each other very closely they are often found each to be
associated with a single crop or a very limited number of related crops.
From this it follows that we should be careful about confounding
rusts found on various crops. The rust of wheat is a different rust for
instance from that most common on oats. Yet if a crop of wheat
were found growing alongside oats and both were found to be rusty it
would be natural to think that both crops were suffering from the same
disease, if we did not allow for the abovementioned fact. Nevertheless
the chances are that the two crops would be suffering from different
diseases derived from quite different sources, having no connection
with each other. These facts are mentioned to put farmers on their
guard in reasoning about the occurrence and prevalence of rust.

The principal interest centres in what can be done to minimise the
losses due to the disease. What one will do depends entirely on how
much he is losing and how much he fears he will lose. As before
remarked, the amount of oat rust at present is not such as in my
opinion to cause great alarm. But it is enough to justify making
inquiries and experiments as to how the losses can be minimised.
Those experiments could be most profitably carried out on private
farms and at the Experiment Farms located in various districts. I
would advise farmers to beware of experiments and opinions derived
from districts other than their own, unless it is quite certain that such
districts are similar in all respects to their own district.

The experiments that in my opinion would be advisable relate to
trials of various varieties of oats, to the use of other sorts of winter
feed, and to the trial of ensilage.

* This determination has since been confirmed.

117

Varieties of Oats.

It is a well-established fact that the various varieties of oats vary in
their resistance to rust. The rank-growing varieties as a rule suffer
most. Of course it may be that the varieties that are the most
resistant are not the best for fodder. But analogy would lead to the
conclusion that resistant sorts can be found that will be entirely suit-
able fodder for milking cows. As I said before, only experiments in
various districts can determine what varieties are the best, and
if such experiments have not been already made, it would be
advisable, in my opinion, that they should be made without delay
if this crop is to continue to be a main dependence for winter feed
as at present. Such trials, however, will be useless unless, when
completed, farmers can make sure of securing seed of the best varieties.
It would therefore be best to so conduct any trials that the source of
the seed is quite well-known and is such that the seed can be reliably
supplied from year to year. This, of course, involves arrangements
with some reliable seedsmen and growers. It ought to be possible to
make such arrangements.

Other Fodder Crops.

There appears at present to be very little else than oats grown on the
Northern Eivers for winter feed, doubtless because that crop has shown
itself well adapted to local conditions. There is good reason, however,
to doubt whether it will always continue to be as suitable as it is at
present ; in fact the present inquiry is a hint in that direction. The
reason for this doubt has been already indicated, namely, the tendency
when a single crop is grown continuously on the same land, for the
diseases of that crop to accumulate until the crop is no longer profit-
able. It would be advisable, in my opinion, that steps should be taken
to provide against the possible arrival of a time when oats will
not do so well as they have in the past. The eggs are now all in one
basket. A severe rusty season would do great injury under the
present system.

Apart from this, it is well-known that the too exclusive use of one
fodder may lead to poor results. A variety of fodder is the natural
ration of most ruminants, and appears to be essential to high and
continuous milk production. It is hardly necessary for me to specify
what crops may be experimented upon. Sorghums, wheat and other
cereals, millets, rape (though the latter may not be suitable for milking
cows), and many other things could be tried with some hope of
success.

Ensilage appears to have been but little tried in the Northern Eiver
districts. I heard of three small lots, though I did not see a single stack
or pit. I was assured, on good authority, that good ensilage had been
prepared ; and if there is no natural climatic reason why ensilage
cannot be prepared and kept, it seems as if it should receive a fair
trial, although it cannot be expected to be so profitable as in more
severe climates where the growth of winter feeds is impossible.

118

Treatment of Seed Oats for Rust.

There is no reason to think that any treatment of seed oats will be
beneficial in preventing rust. This question has arisen more than
once. The question has been very carefully studied, and the best
authorities agree that no treatment of the seed has ever been shown
to be beneficial in preventing rust, though it is different with smut —
another disease of oats.

Rusty Oats as Fodder.

Rusty oat plants, so long as they are still alive and fairly green,.,
may be used as fodder with comparative impunity. The nutritive
value of rusty oats is less than that of non-rusty oats, and that
is about all that can be said. After the tissues are killed, as the
result of rust, the fermenting dead and dying parts are unsuitable
for fodder, and will not be chosen by stock if succulent food is at
hand. Any doubt on this point may be inexpensively settled through
a co-operative experiment by feeding a healthy animal upon rusty
oats.

Sunflower Rust.
Puccinia Helianthi, Schw.

The Sunflower also suffers from the attacks of a rust. The disease
is rather common in this State and the attacks are sometimes of a
serious character, the yield of seed being much diminished. As,.
however, the crop is one of minor importance it has never been
possible among the numerous calls of a more important character to-
give any detailed attention to this disease. The present paragraph
is merely the outcome of the slight accumulation of data I find on hand
as the result of semi-occasional specimens and inquiries.

The appearance of the disease, as manifested on the Sunflower
is unmistakable, and needs little description. In all well-marked cases
the leaves become covered with a rust-coloured powder composed
entirely of the spores of the rust fungus. There
^/7~^ is no other disease of the Sunflower that is at all

likely to be confounded with it. The disease
may occur on the stalks and parts of the flower,
but the main attack is on the leaves. These
soon loose their normal green colour and droop •
and die. In the worst cases the plant may die,,
though this is not often the case. The yield is--
much diminished, and the quality of the seed
is reduced.

The disease also attacks the varieties cultivated
for their flowers alone, and it is just as destruc-*
tive to them as to other varieties.

The remedies that may be adopted are not-
such as have been sufficiently tested. They are
derived from what is known to be true in other-

Fie1 129 — Spores of the rust , , . ml / 1 \ j. i

of the sunflower. somewhat analogous instances. Iney are, ( 1) tne

application of Bordeaux mixture, (2) the pluck-
ing of all infected leaves as soon as they appear to be a source of
danger to the healthy parts of the plants, (3) thinning out the

119

plantation so as to admit plenty of sunlight, (4) good culture and
the application of suitable manure as a top-dressing. The manure
should not be of a highly nitrogenous nature.

With regard to the application of Bordeaux mixture it may
be said that it will certainly prevent the germination of all the spores
with which it comes in contact, but it will be necessary to make the
applications frequent if the result is to be beneficial, for the spores
are produced in abundance and with rapidity, so that two days after
an application there may be another crop of spores ready to produce
further infection. The weaker form Bordeaux mixture will not injure
the Sunflower plants, and if the mixture be properly made an almost
unlimited quantity of it may be applied. The suggestion is to apply
the mixture every two to three days, the best time of day being
evening or early morning. *

From time to time for a number of years inquiries have reached the
writer, showing that more complete information on the various genera
of Rust-fungi would be acceptable to a considerable number of readers
of this Gazette. There is no Australian work dealing comprehensively
with this subject. The insertion in these letters of copies of a number
of classical illustrations from the works of Tulasne, de Bary and
Plowright may do some little service in this direction. The originals
are for the most part in comparatively inaccessible scientific publi-
cations. All the most important genera of the Uredinese, or Rust-
fungi, are illustrated and explained, the explanation of each plate
being placed opposite. (See final plates.)

Smut of the Prairie Grass.

The season of 1903, following on a succession of droughty years,
and being itself rather a moist season, gave rise to some unusual
fungus developments. One of these was the
appearance of smut on Prairie Grass. The
species of smut found on this grass is already
known in this State, though not previously
seen on this species of grass. It is a species
of smut reported from various parts of the
world on grasses of the genus Bromus. It Fig. 130 —Spores of the smut
is not generally supposed to do much harm. ^^SSTaS1"1 Us

It has appeared in one instance in this State

as a marked attack on Prairie Grass self-sown on a paddock formerly
remarkable for its crops of smutty maize, and the question arose
whether the two had any connection. As the two smuts, I hat. of
maize and that of the Brome grasses, are different species, the
occurrence in the same paddock in successive years, can be looked
upon only in the light of a coincidence. It may well be that the
particular paddock is one in which the conditions are very suitable
for the growth of smut fungi. It may be safely assumed that the
conditions, other than the host-plant condition, required by two smuts
so like each other as the smuts of maize and Brome grass, would be
similar, and no doubt if maize had been grown in 1903 in this
paddock the smut proper to it would have made its appearance.

120

When the Brome grass is attacked by this smut the inflorescence is
completely filled with a sooty collection of spores. Such diseased

Fig. 131.— Spore of the smut of Prairie Grass more highly magnified thaii
in the preceding illustration, showing the irregularities on the surface
of the spore.

r
X 10(30

plants are unsuitable for fodder, though I do not know that they are
actually poisonous, as they have sometimes been reported to be.

Disease in the Fruit of the Banana.

Two green half-grown bananas sent in by Mr. Martin, fruit
inspector, from cargo received at Sydney, gave rise to the following
notes : —

The fruits, two in number, appeared hollow and discoloured in
cross-section. The pulp had partly disappeared, a "pipe" having
appeared throughout the length of the fruit. The pulp around the
pipe had taken on a brown or purplish brown or even a purple colour,
the interior of the fruit having thus acquired quite a lurid appearance.
The cross-section of the rind presented an unusually yellow and viscid
appearance, reminding one somewhat of the appearance of recently
cut gummy cane. In case of one of the two specimens sent, a hole,
as of an insect, was discovered at the distal end of the fruit, but no
insect was to be seen, nor were there any definite traces of an insect
having occupied the cavity of the fruit.

MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCES. — There was no trace of a fungus — no
mycelium or spores. There were microbes in some parts, and the
appearances gave rise to a suspicion that possibly there might be a
definite disease present, due to this cause. The stems of both
specimens were black, dry, dead and corroded. It is not impossible
that the appearances were due to injuries to these parts of the fruit,
but there was no evidence of a wrench or twist of any sort.

Tomato Rosette.

The following notes by a correspondent are of interest in connection
with Tomato Rosette which has now apparently disappeared : — "In the
April number of the Gazette appear particulars of a tomato disease —
' Rosette/ I have about thirty vines growing here on virgin soil.
Tomatoes have not been grown within miles of these vines, this being
the heart of what was a sheep station. The seed was obtained from
three sources, viz., Yates, Anderson's, and from fruit bought at a local
fruit store, yet this disease has shown itself. At first only two vines
were affected, but as the dry weather became more severe more vines
fell victims to the disease, until more than half the vines are badly
affected. Where a few vines were, constantly watered no signs of the
disease occurred. This led me to the conclusion that the disease is
altogether due to the drought, as we did not receive in all an inch of
rain from the end of November, to the end of March, and it was only
by constant cultivation that the vines were kept alive/'

121

Bark and Wood Diseases Spread by the Pruning1 Shears.

I am inclined to think that the method of pruning may have had
much to do with the diseased condition of occasional specimens sub-
mitted to me. It not unfrequently happens that diseases of the bark
and wood are unwittingly spread through pruning with infected shears
or other tools. To give an illustration, suppose that at the first cut
the shears pass through a pustule of some disease, such as is to be
occasionally found on almost any tree, in connection with the dead or
weakened branches that need cutting away. The shears thus become
smeared with the spores of the disease, and at the next cut these
spores are transferred to another part of the tree, where they may have
a good chance to establish themselves so as to do much harm. The
operation just described constitutes an almost ideal method of spread-
ing the disease by inoculation, and there can be little doubt that in the
case of certain diseases, especially of the bark, this is one of the most
common methods by which the disease is spread. The obvious remedy
is to disinfect the shear cuts, and this can be done by the application
of any one of several substances, such as good white lead paint, white-
wash, thick Bordeaux mixture, or even hot grafting wax.

Of course, after the disease has got a good hold at an old pruning
mark it is not easy to eradicate it. The best way to proceed is to
scrub or scrape down the trunk and larger branches so as to remove
all the old bark possible. These scrapings should be burned. After-
wards apply the lime, sulphur and salt mixture, or thick Bordeaux
mixture to the trunk and branches, preferably in the winter. If it
appears on the preliminary examination that the old marks of pruning
present rotten and soft wood, and there are no signs of the wound
healing over properly, it would be well to give these special attention
by cutting away until the wood looks fresh and healthy. If these new
€uts are treated with paint as mentioned above nothing further can be
done for them. In the case of roses and some other plants, if the tree
has become much weakened, it would be well to keep it well pruned so
as to encourage it to throw new shoots from below. These, if the roots
are still good, will in time in certain instances replace the old trunk.

TECHNICAL NOTES ON CITRUS DISEASES.

Notes on the Gray Scab of the Orange.

THESE notes have reference to the scab on the fruit of the orange
that afterwards becomes cracked, and which ultimately scales off, and
leaves a smooth depressed scar, often of an elongated shape. A few
weeks after its formation the scab contains minute black perithecia,
•carrying oval unicellular spores.

As soon as the scab is well formed, it will be found possible to
remove it in a cleanly manner by working patiently with a small
scraper. The scab comes away rather easily, except at certain points
which are concentric with a darker colour, as if the new skin were
attempting to form new oil glands. Even these parts can be
removed by patient scraping, leaving the new skin quite whole and
with a good natural-looking surface.

122

Microscopic examination of this new surface does not show any
stomata, and there are no oil glands. The mycelium of the fungus

appears to be confined to the scab, and
it would appear that in the struggle for
mastery the tissues of the orange come
off best, so that the scab is shed.

The reason for the difficulty in the re-
moval at the small points mentioned is
that at these points the scab seems to be
sunk deeper into the skin, for when it is
removed there is left a small depression.
Fig. 132 shows a cross-section through
one of the depressions where the scab
: > has its firmest attachment.

Fig. 132— Depressed portion of the gray In addition to the fungus filaments
SLS'tSUh^eltShS^ and the comdia which they bear, there
the scab and a portion of the rind of mav be found in the scabbv matter

the orange: — a, the attachment point ,J • •,•,-, • -,1 !• .• , • i

of the fungus ; b, the surface of the spherical penthecia with a distinct ostiole.

The perithecia measure 100/x, and the

ostiole 15/x. On the leaves of trees bearing scabby fruit of this sort are
sometimes to be found smallish spots which eventually become gray
and papery, and this papery part at last falls out, leaving a " shot
hole." The perithecia to be found in these papery tissues are of the
same size, form and structure, as those in the gray scab. The spores
derived from the perithecia on the leaves measure 7 x 2*6/x.

Cladosporium of the Orange-

Specimens of fruit and foliage of the orange have been received,
somewhat attacked by a fungus belonging to the genus Cladosporium.
I could not be certain whether this fungus disease was causing much
damage. My doubt was increased in this case by the presence of a
considerable number of scale insects on the specimens examined.

I am not aware that this particular species of Cladosporium found on
the citrus trees has ever been specially treated with fungicides, and it is
therefore impossible to say with absolute certainty what the results of
treatment will be. There is, however, no reason to doubt that the
application of Bordeaux mixture as for AJelanose (?) will be entirely
successful. The Cladosporium of the citrus tribe is so much like that of
the peach and other stone fruits, as to make me believe that what will
answer for one will answer for the other. It is known that Bordeaux
mixture is efficient for the Peach Freckle, Cladosporium carpophilum*

DISEASES EITHER CAUSED BY OR ASSOCIATED WITH BACTERIA.

IT is now coming to be an accepted fact that bacteria are responsible
for a number of diseases of plants. A dozen years ago there was hardly
a single authenticated and well-known instance of such a disease, and
even to-day the dispute continues in some quarters as to the trust-
worthiness of the evidence on this matter. Most of the instances-
mentioned below belong to the more authentic class of bacterial diseases
of crops, though some are still in need of further investigation.
Those who doubt the possibility of microbes being the cause of

123

disease in plants have as one of their final defences the assertion that
microbes are not the primary causes in the cases held up as examples
among plants of diseases of that nature. " A way has to be pre-
pared for these microbes," it is said. Without at all admitting the
truth of this assertion, one may ask to what extent can it be proved
that the bacteria admitted to be the cause of various diseases of
animals do not have to *' have a way prepared for them " ? Who-
knows the road by which bacteria enter the animal system sufficiently
well to assert that no way is prepared ? Possibly some of the remarkable
instances of immunity are simply cases where no way has been prepared.
Who can say ? Is the freedom of adults from diseases peculiar to-
infancy because a way is no longer open ? It seems to me that the-
proof of the ability, or otherwise, of a microbe to force its way
unaided into the tissues is too remote a possibility at present to make
it the universal main test of causation.

Gumming of the Sugar Cane.

This disease, though it continues to exist in the State, no longer-
causes uneasiness. During the last two years, not a single case of
this disease has been referred to the Department of Agriculture. This
appears to indicate that this disease, once so prevalent in certain
parts of our cane districts, no longer attracts much attention.

A Mulberry Disease.

Occasionally the foliage of the mulberry is attacked by a peculiar-
disease. One of the symptoms is the appearance of microbic-nodules
on the leaves. The mulberry is such a minor crop in this State that
no attempt has been made to investigate the relation of this microbe-

to the disease. -, /. , , m

Gummosis of the Tomato.

The Solanaceous plants suffer from an infestation of microbes, and
occasionally samples of this disease are met with in this State; most
frequently, I think, in tomatoes. The symptoms of the disease are
of such a nature that growers would do well to trust to expert exam-
ination before resorting to combative measures. The attacked plants
should be destroyed, and no attempt should be made to grow tomatoes,
potatoes, or other solanaceous plants in the same ground for some time
to come. In small, highly-valued gardens trenching, together with
an attempt at disinfection, may be advisable in some instances.

The following are notes of a peculiar disease in tomatoes in which
microbes were suspected to be the cause of the trouble. It was im-
possible to follow the matter further, for lack of suitable material.
Some accurate coloured drawings of the diseased fruits were secured,
and it is hoped that further progress may be made if further instances
of the disease appear. On examination, the only micro-organism seen*
was in the form of bacteria in some of the stems. It remained unde-
terminable whether these had originated during transit, but it seemed
probable that they had not so originated. In form, the bacteria closely
resembled B. termo. The blossoms and fruit were the parts that seemed
more particularly diseased. The blossoms seemed to be off colour, and
the stamens appeared as if mouldy, but without yielding any satisfactory

124

data. The hard, green fruit had a pronounced mottling of ivory white.
In some cases the half-grown fruit appeared more white than green,
and the white tended to occupy the blossom end, while the green tended
to occupy the stem end of the fruit. As the fruit ripened the white
parts became yellow while the green parts became red, and as the
yellow parts appeared somewhat watery the outward appearance of
the "ripened" fruit reminded one somewhat of a water-cored apple.
The taste of the ripened fruit was insipid, or somewhat offensive and
slimy. No microbes were seen in the fruit. The plant was said to
have been grown in a dry season, and to have been sufficiently watered.
The fruit was smooth and bright, with no other appearances of
external disease. The only conclusion reached was that the disease
might be of bacterial origin. The season was very dry.

Black Spot or Fus;cladium of the Apple and Pear.

The fact that a number of diseases of the apple and pear cause dark-
coloured spots renders the name Black Spot unfortunate for any one
of them, but in spite of the mistakes resulting from this nomenclature,
some of them costly, it seems useless to protest against it. Any grower
who feels himself at all uncertain about the appearance of this disease
may save himself trouble and needless expense if he will submit speci-
mens to an expert before expending much money on combative measures.
Some varieties of apple and pear are so very much more susceptible
than others to Fusicladium that treatment with fungicides is not
likely to be profitable in a season favourable to the disease, like that
of 1903, unless the treatment is very thorough. The fungicides must
be well made and well applied. Both these features of the case have
been previously mentioned in these letters, but the importance of the
subject justifies repeated reference to it. The double method of spraying
described on a previous page (p. 650, July, 1903) might be developed
into a triple or even multiple method with advantage in extreme cases.

For reasons that are quite beyond our present knowledge, crop
diseases vary much in their intensity from season to season, and it is
quite probable in some orchards where treatment for these diseases is
the rule rather than the exception, that in some instances treatments
are made that are not a paying investment if considered apart from
the general average of loss. If having insured my property I am
blessed with freedom from loss by fire, and then complain that my
insurance money has been wasted, I take up an unsound business
position. Knowing this, I am not disturbed by my careless neighbour,
who carries no insurance, even if he should twit me on my vanished
premium while flaunting his own cash in hand "saved" by ignoring the
precaution of insuring. In a somewhat analogous manner an orchardist
need give himself no serious concern if, in some seasons, he sees his
neighbour, who does not spray, harvest just as good crop as his own.
Of course, if we could know beforehand the exact nature of the
coming season, we might sometimes with advantage dispense with
some of our treatments, just as if we could know beforehand that no
fire would occur on our property we could dispense with insurance.
The difficulty is that we cannot know these things beforehand.

FUSICLADiUM OR BLACK-SPOT ON THE
FRUIT AND FOLIAGE OF PEAR.

'

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

1. Spermatia ofAecidium ranunculi repentis, after 48 hours in sugar and water ; x 865.

2. Same as taken from the spermogonium ; x 865.

3. Two capitate hyaline paraphyses of the uredo-spores ofPuccinia anthoxanthi ; x 1 70.

4. A basipetal series of aecidiospores of Chrysomyxa rhododendri, showing alternate

abortive cells. After De Bary ; x 510.

5. Spermatia ofAecidium ranunculi repentis, after 12 hours in sugar and -water; x 865.

6. Spermatia of Aecidium bellidis ; x 865.

7. Teleutospore ofTriphragmium ulmariae, germinating; x 410.

8. Spermatia ofAecidium bellidis on 6th day in honey and water; x 865.

9. Abnormal germination of one of the uredospores of Puccinia graminis ; x 410.
10- Teleutospore of Uromycesfabcs, germinating; x 170.

1 1. Spermatia ofAecidium bellidis, after 12 hours in honey and water, germinating; x 865.

12. Spermatia of Aecidium punctatum, budding; x 865.

13. Spermatia ofAecidium bellidis, after 12 hours in honey and water, germinating; x 865.

14. Promycelial spores of Puccinia phalaridis piercing by their germ tubes the cuticle of

Arum macula turn; x410.

15. Three teleutospores of Coleosporium senecionis, the upper cells of which have germinated

and produced each one promycelial spore; x 260.

16. Spermatia of Puccinia adoxa; x 865.

1 7. Aecidispore of Puccinia poarum, after 12 hours germination, showing circumnutation

of germ-tube; x4IO.

18. See No. 5.

19. Spermatia of Aecidium berberMis; x 865.

20. Aecidiospore of Gymnosporangium clavariceforme, with 6 germ pores; endochrome

migrated to end of germ-tube ; x 4 1 0. •

21. Aecidiospores of Puccinia poarum; germ-tubes entering the stomata of Poatrivialis;

x410.

22. Teleutospore of Puccinia coronata, germinating ; x 180.

23. Germ-tubes of the uredospore of Puccinia graminis entering stomata of wheat; 410.

UREDINE/E; ILLUSTRATIONS COPIED FROM TULASNE,
DE BARY, AND PLOWRIGHT.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

(Altered from Tulasne. )

7. Spores of Phragmidium incrassatum, Link, from the leaf of cultivated Rosa centi folia.

2. Spore of the same treated "with sulphuric acid, and showing minute verrucosities : x 460.

3. Spore of Phragmidium obtusum, Schm. and Kze. ; x 370-

4 and 5. Spores of the same fungus germinating and producing promycelial spores.

6. Spore of Uredo suaveolens, Pers., showing 3 germ-pores ; x 460-

7. Promycelial spore of Phragmidium bulbosum, Schmidt and Kze., which has germinated

and produced a secondary spore.

8. Spores of Phragmidium bulbosum, two cells of the larger of which have germinated.

9. Germinating spore of Uredo suaveolens, Pers. ; x460.
10- Uredo suaveolens, Pers., in Cirsium arvense ; x 430.

7 7. Teleutospore of Puccinia compositarum, SchL, from leaves of Cirsium arvense ; x 460.

12. Teleutospores of Uromyces appendiculatus (Faba), Lk., which have germinated and pro-

duced promycelial spores ; x 430.

13. Podisomajunipericommunis, Fr.

14- Longitudinal section through one of the growths shown in 13 ; the right side of the -figure
shows the surface of the fungus and the manner of producing promycelial spores.

12

14

UREDINE/E; ILLUSTRATIONS COPIED FROM TULASNE.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

7. Part of a section through a sorus of Coleospori urn sonchi, Lev., from Sonchus oleraceus, L-
—b, multicellular spores ; f, promycelial hyphcB issuing from the germinating spores ;
s, promycelial spores.

2 and 3. Promycelial spores of Coleosporium tussilaginis, Pers., germinating.

4. Germinating promycelial spore of Coleosporium sonchi, Lev., -which has produced a

secondary promycelial spore; x 460.

5. Section through a sorus of Melampsora solid na, Lev.—u, uredospores; p, m, teleuto-

spores ; x 240.

6. Four spores from a sorus of Coleosporium tussilaginis, Lev. One of the two that have

germinated has produced promycelial spores at the ends of the promycelial hypha ;
x320.

7. Promycelial spore that has germinated and produced a secondary promycelial spore ;

x340.

8. Uredospores and paraphyses of Melampsora betulina, Desm., from Betula alba, L.;

x330.

9. Uredospore of Melampsora salicina, Lev., germinating.
70. The same as 9.

11. Uredospore of Melampsora populina, Lev., germinating.

72. Promycelial spore of Coleosporium tussilaginis, Lev., germinating; x 330.

73. Part of a section through a sorus of Melampsora betulina, Desm., from Betula alba.

r, hyphae; b, teleutospores ; s, promycelial spores ; e, stomatum; p, parenchyma.

74. Promycelial spores of the same fungus beginning to germinate ; x 460.

cr

UF

UREDINE/E; ILLUSTRATIONS COPIED FROM TULASNE.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

1 to 5. Germinating uredospores of Cronartium asclepiadeum, Fr. ; x 330, except Fig. 3,
which = x 370.

6 and 7. Base of the ligules accompanying the uredospores.

8. Transverse section through a ligule, showing the same to be solid, not tubular.

9. A ligule in process of germination.

10, 11, and 12, show more precisely the manner of producing the promycelial spores.

13. Promycelial spores germinating.

14. The uredo sorus of Cronartium asclepiadeum, showing the uredospores escaping through

an aperture in the peridium.

15. Section through a more advanced uredo sorus after the appearance of the ligule ; the

peridium is thrown back, and shows the manner of growth of the uredospores ; x 230.

16. Section of the same, taken longitudinally through the axis of the ligule.

UREDINE/C; ILLUSTRATIONS COPIED FROM TULASNE.

INDEX.

Where a subject is illustrated the page number is starred.

PAGK.

Acarin species and Stigmonose . . . . . . 41
ecidium bellidi (see final plates).

Aecidium Berberidis (see final plates).

of White Clover *113

punctatum (see final plates),
ranunculi rcpentis (see final plates).

Agricultural experiments should be in the district

they are intended to benefit . . . . . . 116

Alternaria of the Citrus tribe *66

losses from . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

of the Passion Vine *75, 76

of the Quince *56, *58

of the Vine 86

on Citrus plants, comparison of . . . . . . 69

reproducing from bits of mycelium . . . . *105

See Macrosporium.

spores on the Apricot . . . . . . . . 79

Ammonio-carbonate of copper for Hollyhock rust . . 96

for Peach Curl 64

Anne Elizabeth apple 53, 54

Anthracnose of the Grape, No. 6 . . . . . . *8

of the Fig 84

of the Loquat, coloured figure of . . . . Frontispiece
of the Rose, coloured figure of . . . . Frontispiece

Aphides and Apricot buds . . . . . . . . 49

as the cause of Stigmonose of Carnations . . 40

Apple affected with Ripe-rot, coloured illustration

of . . . . . . . . . . . . Frontispiece

and Mucor as a cause of Mouldy Core in . . 51

and Penicilium as a cause of Mouldy Core in . . 51

and Ripe-rot *2, *4

and Ripe-rot of Passion Fruit . . . . . . 14

and the size and nature of the channel leading

from the eyes to the core cavities . . 52, 53, 54, 55

attacked by Stigmonose . . . . . . . . *41

Black Spot of 124

Canker . . *59

disease of obscure origin . . . . . . . *38

diseases and Hawthorne hedges . . . . . 101

diseases of, mode of entrance . . . . 51

Gloeosporium, complete list of the hosts of 4

on plum, No. 22 .. 12

through Plum to Tomato, No. 23 . . 12

inoculated with Banana Gloeosporium, No. 13 . . *10

with Gloeosporium of Quince, No. 20 . . *11

with Guava Gloeosporium, No. 16A . . . . *10

with Pepper Gloeosporium, No. 24 .. . . 12

Mouldy Core in *51

A] iples, pears, and quinces suffering from Stigmonose *38

sound looking, suffering from Mouldy Core . . 51

to test for Mouldy Core 52

variety, attacked by Red Spider 41

Application of a spray, best method .... . . 25

Apricot buds colonised with Thrips . . . . . 48

harbouring Alternaria . . . . . . . . 79

harbouring Cladospprium . . . . . . . . 79

harbouring Phyllosticta . . . . . . . . 80

leaves, sensitiveness of the young . . . . 48

leaves or buds and Aphides . . . . . . 47

Shot-hole 42

Shot-hole associated with Thripsidae . . . . 43

Arachnids and Stigmonose .. .. .. .. 40

Artificial Shot-holes *43

Aureobasidium (Dematium, Exobasidium) . . . . *109

"Dacteria as the cause of plant diseases .. .. 122

JDacterial disease of the Walnut 82

disease of the Tomato . . . . . . . . 123

122

PAGE

Banana and Ripe-rot 2, 3, 12, *19, 35.

and Ripe-rot of the Passion Fruit 14

fruit disease . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Gloeosporium inoculated on to Grape, No. 6 . . *8

on Apple, No. 13 *10

on Banana, No 4 . . . . . . . . *8

on Date Plum, No. 9 . *9

on Lemon, No. 3 . . . . . . . .. 7;

on Passion Fruit, No. 1 .. . . ... 7

on the Passion Fruit, No. 8 9.

on Peach, No. 14 *liO

on the Pear, No. 7 . . . . . . . 8

on Pear, No. 10 *9»

on Quince, Nos. 11 and 12 *9

passed through Quince to Banana, No. 5 . . 8

spores grown on Apple, No. 13 . . . . *10

inoculated with Gloeosporium of Guava, No. 18 *11

2, 3, 12, *19, 35

Ripe-rot of

Bananas attacked by Dinemasporium . .
Banana Scab

advanced stage of, illustrated

affects the keeping qualities of Bananas

alleged causes of

and co-operative effort at eradication

and the formation of new plantations

can it be checked after the bunches are cut and
forwarded ? . .

described

destruction of

final stage, illustrated

from Fiji

from Queensland

from the Northern rivers of New South Wales . .

fungicides for

fungus associated with

fungus left unnamed, because unsufficiently
known . . . .

fungus pustules associated with . .

fungus spores in the cracks of

how it spreads

in shops and stores

in commerce

losses from . .

pustule, illustrated

measurement of spores associated with

mycelium associated with

not prejudicial to temperate crops

on the plantation

primary stage of, illustrated

secondary growth of spores from . .

secondary stage pt, illustrated

travels on the wind

yeast associated with
Bananas, diseased, from Byron Bay
Bark-destroying fungus of the Orange
Bark diseases aa related to pruning . .

remedies for

Bathurst, Apples from, investigated . .

Bean and Ripe-rot

Bean Rust

coloured illustration of
Beans, ploughing in of
Betula alba, rust of (see final plates.).
Birch, rust of (see final plates).
Birds and Ripe-rot . . . :

Bites of insects and Ripe-rot ..
Bitter Lemons

Bitter Pit

Bitter Rot (see Ripe-rot).
Black pustules of Ripe-rot

*27.

27"
37
37

35-
29-
37

*31
37

*28
28
36

*32

*33
3V
35
35
28-

*32
31

*32
35-
36

*28

*33

37

. . 33, *34
. . 12, *19.
.. *60
. . 121

60

54
.. 2,3

90
Frontispiece-

26, 2
26

74

126

INDEX.

PAGE.

Black Rot of the Chilli *84

of the Quince *58

Black Spot and seasons 124

of the Citrus fruit, germination of the spores of *72

of Grape, No. 6 *8

of the Lemon, attempted inoculation of . . . . 72

of the Loquat 91

of the Orange, spread of 72

of the Rose (*ee also Frontispiece) . . . . *96

on Oranges . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

on the Apple and Pear 124

on the foliage of the Citrus tribe 66

Black Spotted Citrus fruit in store 73

Blenheim Apple . . . . . . 54

Bluestone for bark diseases 60

Boiling water as a disinfectant for fruit cases . . 23

Bordeaux Mixture and bark diseases 60

Botrytis fungus 93

Cabbage Peronospora 91

Carnation Rust 100

Chrysanthemum disease 99

"Cladosporium of the Orange . . . . . . 122

Leaf-spots of the Rose 97

Melanose . . . . 71

Peach Curl 60, 64, 65

poor results from improperly prepared . . . . 103, 104

Potato Macrosporium 83

preparation of .. .. .. .. .. .. 103

pruning wounds . . . . . . . . . . 121

recommended for Banana Scab . . . . . . 36

;Sunflower Rust 118, 119

the bacterial disease of the Walnut .. .. 82

the foliage of the Loquat . . . . . . 92

the time of day to apply
the weather
wet regions

wet seasons . . . . 64

IBotrytis on Cosmia . . 92

Botrytis vulgaris . . , / *93

Brome-grass Smut .. .. . . *119

Brown-rot and th • weather 107

losses due to . . . . 106

of fruit 106

Brown-rotted fruit for sale and for canning . . . . 107

Budding as a preventive of Leaf Curl of the Peach . . 62

Byron Bay, diseased Bananas from . . . . . . 12, *19

Cabbage, Peronospora of *90

abbage Peronospora, remedies for 91

•Cairns, Queensland, Banana Scab from . . . . *28

•Canker *59

fungi and Hawthorne hedges *101

fungus illustrated *59

of the Pear *59

on Hawthorne 59

Capper's Pearmain apple 54

•Care exercised in California and other advanced fruit

countries in handling fruit 22

Care in handling fruit 21

•Carnation Rust *100

Carnations suffering from Stigmonose . . . . 40

•Cases, fruit, disinfection of 23

•Causes of Shot-hole 43

Californian disease of the Vine 86

Cereal disease 112, 113

•Cereal rusts *115, 116

Channel from ej'e to core chambers of the Apple

widens in ripening 53

Channel from the eye of the Apple to the core

chambers, study of . . 53

Chemical treatment of rotted fruit 108

Cherry and Plum, blight of the fruit *109

•Chillies, disease of *84

'Chrysanthemum, disease of . . *99

Chrj'somyxa rhododendri (see final plates).
•Cirsium arvense, rust of (see final plates).

Citron and Ripe-rot . . . . , 2

Citrus alternaria, comparison of 69

losses from 66

€itrus fruit, attacked by Black-spot 72

Black-spot of, spread of . . 72

Citrus diseases

trees and the Macrosporium fungus

tribe and its Alternaria fungi
Cladosporium as connected with Take-all . .

connected with Orange disease

of the Orange

of the Peach

on the Apricot
Claygate Pearmain apple

Cleopatra apple . . . . . .

Climate as related to Rust

related to Timber-rots . .

related to Potato Macrosporium
Codlin moth and the channel leading to the core

cavities of the Apple

Coleosporium senecionis (see final plates).

sonchi (see final plates).

tussilaginis (see final plates).
Colletotrichum

of the Bean

inoculations with

Colour of, Gloeosporium spores. .

Ripe-rot a partial function of the host

Ripe-rot as related to the host

the spores of Ripe-rot
Comparisons among the spores of various samples

of Gloeosporium

Commercial success in fruit industry dependent
largely on care in handling

Commerce, Scabby Bananas in

Condy's Fluid and Carnation Rust

Coniothecium and Hawthorne . .

found on Oranges

scabrum on Lemons . .

Co-operation in the destruction of Brown-rotted

fruit

Copper mixtures for Peach Leaf-curl

Copper sprays for Peach-curl

Core cavities of apple

Cornish Aromatic apple . .

Cosmia, disease of

Crataegus arid various fungi

suffering from Ripe-rot

Cress's Seedling apple . . . .

Cronartium asclepiadeum (see final plates).
Cropping continuously as related to Rust

Crown Gall

Cruciferous plants and Peronospora

Cucumbers, rotting, and Ripe-rot

Culture of fungus associated with Banana Scab

Curl-leaf and winter treatment

Curl-leaf of the Peach

and nurserymen

and winter treatments . .

time to spray for

Cyclone nozzles

Date-plum, and Ripe-rot of Passion Fruit. .
ate-plum, inoculated with Gloeosporium of the
Banana, No. 9

peculiar properties of the skin of, No. 9. .

Delphinium, disease of

Dematium inoculated unsuccessfully on green fruits

of the stone fruit and other fruit

Diagram of Ripe-rot inoculations

Dinemasporium spores on Bananas from Fiji
Disease and good culture

and manures

and selection

Diseased material, importance of the destruction of
Disease of the fruit of the Banana

plants endowed with an instinct to ward off
Diseases of, the Flower Garden

the Walnut

the Apple, mode of entrance

the Quince

the Rose

Diseases, various, coloured plates of ...

I'AGK.

121
*67
*66
113

68
122
122

79
53,54,55

54
115

85

53

3

81

•>

16

17
18
.7, 18

21
35
100

*102
71
71

107
66
65
53
54

*92

*101

12

55

115
87
91
23

•82
64
60
62
64

14

*9
9

*98
112
109

Diseases, various (nee Host Plant).

Double spraying

Drainage and Take-all
Drainage as related to Ripe-rot. .
Drawings and their authors
Dry weather as related to Ripe-rot

*38
36
36
36
83
120
36
92
81
51

.. *55

.. *96

. Frontispiece,

38, 60, 74, 124

25

. . 112
24
21
24

INDEX.

127

Early stagi-s of disease, importance of recognising
ad v varieties and Ripe-rot

Earliness and susceptibility to Ripe-rot

Eau Celeste and Peach -curl

for Hollyhock Rust

*><•• plant and Ripe-rot

Emperor Mandarin suffering from the attacks of

Alternaria fungus . . .._.•••

Environment, to be allowed for in species making

among fungi

Epidermis as related to Ripe-rot

Excess of water as related to Ripe-rot

Exoascus deformans on the Peach

perennial mycelium of . . . . . .

Exobasidium (Aureobasidium, Dematium) . .
Export of Apples, and diseases of Apples

I'AliK.

63
24
26
64
96
2, 3

20

16

24

*61

65

*109

51

Failure of the present system of nomenclature of
Gloeosporium . . • • • • • • • •

Fence-posts going to decay through the attacks o
toadstools •• •-

treatment of the underground part for timber-
rot

Fiji, Banana Scab in

First experiments in Ripe-rot, 1891

Five Crown Pippin apple

Flight of Thrips

Flower Garden, diseases of

Fodder value of rusty oats . . . . • - • •
Foliage, destruction of as a remedy for Leaf Curl of
Peach

of the Orange when attacked by Alternaria . .

of the Passion Vine with Ripe-rot fungus
Formalin as a disinfectant for fruit-cases

for root-rots
Form of the spores of Ripe-rot as related to the skin

of the host
Fruit and vegetables inoculated with Ripe-rot

cases, disinfection of

in shops and stores, care of

protected from Ripe-rot by its skin
Fungi and their nomenclature »>,

and the stomata of plants . .

Fungicide, double application of

and Bean crops

and rain

and wet seasons

best method of application

for Banana Scab

27

2

53,55

50

92
118

Fungi causing shot-hole .-.
described (,

aescnued (see Index— Parasites).

related to that associated with Banana Scab . .

reproduced from other parts than spores . .
Fungus gaining entrance at the tooth points of the
Passion Leaf

of Banana scab from Fiji

spores and the effect of a spray on the same . .

Fusarium of the Passion Vine

Fusicladium of the Pear and Apple

18
2

23
35
22

21,67
70
25
90
64
64
25
36
42

34
*105

78

*38

25

*77

91

Galls on roots, treatment of
_ "alls on the roots of Vines and trees

Gasteromycetous fungus of the Vine •

Germination of fungus spores on sprayed foliage and

fruit

of masses of spores of Gloeosporium
of the spores of the Passion Fruit Ripe-rot
Genera of the Uridineae, illustrated (see final plates).
Gladiolus attacked at the roots by subterranean
fungus . . ....

Gloeosporia and early varieties

and Hawthorne

and their names

as related to early varieties

Gloeosporium causing serious disease of Bananas at

Byron Bay

colour of the pustules . .

fructigenum, Berk

germination of . . '13,

growing naturally on the Tomato

growing naturally on various vegetation
inability of to penetrate the sound skin of fruit

I'AGK.

Gloeosporium, indifference to host

of the Apple, coloured illustration of . * rontispiece
of the Apple, complete list of the hosts of . . 4
of Apple passed through Plum to Tomato, No. 23
of Banana, No. 4
illustration

on Apple, No. 13

on Date Plum, No. 9

on Grape, No. 6 . .

on Lemon, No. 3 . . . .

on the Passion Fruit, No. 8

on Passion Fruit, No. 1 . .

on Peach, No. 14

on the Pear, No. 7

on Pear, No. 10

on Quince, Nos. 11 and 12
spores of, on Peach, No. 14

of the foliage of the Passion Vine

of the fruit of Passion Vine, resemblance to that

of Pomes

of the Guava 4»

of the Guava, colour of the spores
on the Apple, No. 17
on Banana, No. 18. .
on Hawthorne berries, No. 16 ..

on Passion Fruit, No. 2

on Pear, No. 17

on Quince, No. 15 ..

passed through Quince back to Guava, No. 19
of leaves of Passion Vine
of Passion Vine foliage on Pear, No. 21 ..
of Passion Vine leaves, No. 21
of Pepper on Apple
of Plum on Apple, No. 22 ..

of Tomato

on branches and foliage

on Crataegus

on Hawthorne

on Pears of different varieties, No. 7

on the Passion Fruit

on the Hawthorne

on the stems of Bananas

ripening promptly on its own host fruit. No. 4. .
species making in the genus
spores becoming two-celled before germination
germinating and producing secondary spores
germinating in masses
spores, granulation of
omnipresence of . .
on the Grape, No. 6
variation in. Figs. 22-24
variously resisted by various varieties
Glomerella rufomaculans
Good culture and disease

87
*87

25
12
*14

23, 101
15

24

12

17

3

14, *81
12
12

12

*8, *35
*8
*10

7
9
7

*10

8

*9

*9

*10

*13

10, 11
7, *10

10

7

*11
*10

11
*12

*12, 14
12,80

12

12

12

23
*l-2
*12
8

*14
*101
12, *19

*8

18
*13
*13

12
*16

22

*8
*11

26

Goulburn, apples from, investigated
Grafting and budding a

TUtll) llivcoi>ift<*u«?«. • •

t ing as a preventive of Leaf Curl of

'the Peach

Grafting-wax for pruning wounds 121

Granny Smith apple •• & 4,55

Granulation of Gloeosporium spores 7, *16, *1<

Grape and Ripe-rot ' V,

of Passion Fruit

Grape inoculated with Banana Gloeosporium, No. 6

Gray Scab of the Orange

Guava Gloeosporium on Apple, No. 16A

on Banana, No. 18

on Hawthorne berries, No. 16

on Quince, No. 15

on Passion Fruit, No. 2

on Pear, No. 17 ^T ••

passed through Quince and back to Guava, No. 19

spores from Quince, No. 15 ..

Gumming of the Sugarcane

Mulberry disease

Gummosis of the Tomato

Gymnosporangium clavariaeforme (see final plates).

121

10, *11
*11
*10
*10

11

no

123
123
123

Halsted on Ripe-rot ••
andling fruit with care as a precaution against

Ripe-rot

Hand-picking of leaves

Hand-picking of the leaves of roses

Ha wthornden apple and its channel

128

INDEX.

PAGE.

*10

*59

*102

12, *13

101

23

23, 102

12, *13

24

101

*94

17

84

Hawthorne berries inoculated with Guava Gloeo-
sporium, No. 16 .. . . .....

Canker ..............

Coniothecium on . . . . ......

Gloeosporium . . . . . . . . . . .

hedges ..............

and Ripe-rot ..........

spraying- of ............

Ripe-rot fungus ..........

Heat as related to Ripe-rot ........

Hedges of Ha wthorne ..........

Hollyhock Rust .............

Host fruit as related to the colour of the Ripe-rot. .
Host Plant—

Allium cepa (Onion) ........ . .

Althea rosea ............ 94, 95

Ananas sativa (Pineapple) . . . . . . . . 14

Andropogon sorghum, var. (Sorghum) . . . . 113

Apple . . . . 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 12, 14, 38, 41, 51-55

Apricot ............ 42, 79, 80

Asclepias (see final plates). (Milkweed.)

Avena sativa (Oat) . . . . . . . 114-117

Banana .......... 12, *19, *27, *37, 38

Bean .......... Frontispiece, 90

Betula alba (see final plates). (Birch.)

Birch (see final plates).

Brassica campestris (Turnip)

Brassica oleracea (Cabbage) . . . .

Bromus (Prairie Grass)

Cabbage

Capsicum fastigiatum (Pepper) . . . .

Chilli ...... .

Chrysanthemum . . . . . . . .

Cirsmm arvense (see final plates). (Thistle.)

Citron

Citiullus vulgaris (Watermelon)

Citrus aurantium (Orange). .

91

90

119

90

84
84
99

2
. . . . . . 2, 3

60, 66, 69, 70, 121, 122

Citrus Limomun (Lemon) . . 2, 3, 7, 66, 71, 72, 73, 74
Citrus medica (Citron) . . . . . . . . 2

Clover .............. 113 •

Cosmia .............. 92

Crataegus Oxyacantha (Hawthorne) 10, 12, 23, 59, 101, 102
Cucumber ...... . . . . . . 23

Cucumis sativus (Cucumber) ...... 23

Cucurbita maxima (Squash) . . . . . . 58

Pepo .............. 23

Cydonia vulgaris (Quince) 2, 3, 9, 11, 12, 14, 38, 41, 55-58, 101
Date Plum ........... 9, 14

Delphinium (Larkspur) ........ 98

Diospyros (Date-plum) ........ 9, 14

Egg Plant ............ 2, 3

Eriobotrya Japonica (Loquat) . . Frontispiece, 91
Fig .............. 84

Fragaria (Strawberry) . . . . . . . . 58

Gladiolus ............ 86

Guava ............ 7, 10, 11, 17

Hawthorne ...... 10, 12, 23, 59, 101, 102

Helian thus annuus (Sunflower) .. .. .. 118

Hollyhock ............ 94

Juglans regia (Walnut) ........ 81,82

Larkspur ............ 98

Lemon ........ 2, 3, 7, 66, 71, 72, 73, 74

Loquat . . . . ...... Frontispiece, 91

Maize .............. 119

Malva rotundifolia (Mallow)

Mandarin

Mango

Milkweed (see final plates).

Musa (Banana)

Oat

Onion . .

Orange

Passiflora (Passion Vine) .

Passion Vine

Peach

Pear

Pepper ..

Persimmon

Phaseolus (Bean)

Pineapple

Plum

94,95
3, 69, 70

. . 12, *19, 27, *37, 38
114-117

84

60, 66, 69, 70, 71, 121, 122
7, 13, 14, 74, 75, 76, 77, 80
7, 13, 14, 74, 75, 76, 77, 80
. . 2, 10, 14, 47, 49, 60, 63-66
2, 3, 8, 9, 11, IL>. 14, 38, 41, 101, 124

84

9, 14

Frontispiece, 90

14

12, *108, 109

Poa trivialis (Goose Grass). (See final plates.)

Potato 82, 83, *89, 90

Prairie Grass 119

Prunus Armeniaca (Apricot) . . . . 42, 79, 80

domestica (Plum) .. 12, *108, 109

Host Plant—

Prunus Persica (Peach)

Psidium Guaiava (Guava)

Pumpkin

Pyrus cydonia (Quince)

, 3, 9, 11,

2, 10, 14, 47, 49, 60, 63-66
. . 7, 10, 11, 17

23

. 2, 3, 9, 11, 12, 14, 38, 41,
55, 56-58, 101
12, 14, 38, 41, 55, 56-58, 101

90, 91

90, 91

Frontispiece, 48, 96-98
Frontispiece, 48, 96-98

.. 123
4, 67, 120, 123

Quince

Radish ..

Raphanus sativus (Radish).

Rosa ssp.

Rose

Saccharum officinarum (Sugarcane)
Solanum Lycopersicum (Tomato)

Melongena (Egg Plant)

tuberosum (Potato) . . . . 82, 83, 89, 90

Sorghum 113

Squash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Strawberry 58

Sunflower 118

Sugarcane - . . 123

Tomato 4, 67, 120, 123

Trifolium repens (White Clover) 113

Triticum sativum (Wheat) 115, 116

Turnip . . . . . . . . 91

Vine . . . 8, 85, 86

Vitis vinifera (Vine) 8, 85, 86

Walnut . . . . 81, 82

Watermelon . . 2, 3

Wheat . . . . 115, 116

White Clover . . 113

Wild Mallow 94, 95

Zea Mais (Maize) . 119

Host Plants of Ripe-rot . 4

of the Apple Gloeosporium. . .. .. .. 4

of the Bean Colletotrichum 4

of the Citron Colletotrichum .. .. .. 4

of the Egg Plant Colletotrichum 4

of the Gloeosporium of the Apple, complete list . . 4

of the Grape Gloeosporium . . 4

of the Melon Colletotrichum 4

of the Pear Gloeosporium . . . . . . . . 4

of the Pepper Gloeosporium 4

of the Tomato Gloeosporium . . . . . . 4

Ice, use of, as related to Ripe-rot . . . . . . 22
mmature spores differing from those of mature

growth 15

Importation of scabby Bananas . . . . . . 35

Inoculations, diagram of, Ripe-rot . . . . . . *2

Insects and Ripe-rot . . . . . . . . . . 26

and Shot-hole 43

and the Stomata of plants . . ' . . . . . . 70

related to Ripe-rot 26

Introductory note . . . . . . 1

Irregular spores due to pressure of tough cuticle . . 6

Irritation and Shot-hole 47

Italian Lemons, diseased . . . . 73

Tarring in carriage of fruit, as related to Ripe-rot 22

tl ohnston apple . . . . 54

Jonathan apple . . . . 54

54

K

entucky Blucstreak apple

Larkspur attacked by root-rotting fungus
arkspur, disease of

Late Wine apple . . . .

Laxton's Schoolmaster apple

Leaf-curl and winter treatment

of stone fruits, fecundity of

of the Peach and nurserymen

of the Peach, time to spray for

of the Peach, and winter treatments

of the Potato

Leaf-disease of the Chrysanthemum

Lemon, Alternaria disease of

and Ripe-rot

bark attacked by a fungus disease

inoculated with Gloeosporium of the Banana . .
Lemons, bitter

decaying while on the market

imported, disease of . .

harvesting of

of light weight

suffering from Melanose

*98
*98

54

54

64
*61

62

66

64

82
*99

66
2, 3, 7

72
7

*74
*73
*73

74
*73

71

INDEX.

PAGK.

Light-weight Lemons . . . . *73

I. hue, as a remedy for Take-all .. .. .. 113

for root disease of Larkspur . . . . . . 99

to slack properly 104

Lime, sulphur, and salt after priming 121

for Brown-rot of fruit 108

fur Kose disease .. .. 98

Loquat anthracnose, coloured illustration . . Frontispiece
l',l ark Spot of 91

Losses from Peach Curl 65

Macrosporium. (St>c also Alternaria.)
acrosporium and Alternaria, more complete

svnoiiomy of .. .. .. .. •• •• 67

of the Citrus tribe *66

of the Passion Vine 74, *75

of Potato, Tomato, and Chillies *83

of the Potato 82

Magnifying glass . . . . . . *l

.Mandarin, Alternaria disease of .. .. .. *66

and Orange Alternaria, comparison of . . . . 69

fruit attacked by Alternaria 69

Mandarins attacked by a Phoma-like form . . . . 70
premature ripening1 of, through attacks of

disease 69

Maize smut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Majeting apple . . . . . . 55

Mammoth apple . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Manure and disease 36, 119

and Peach-curl . . . . 63

for sickly Roses 98

Mature spores differing from those of younger

growth . . . . . . 15

Maturity of pustules, criterion for 16

McAlpine on Shot-hole 42

Mechanical causes of variation in the form of spores 7
Mechanical (?) resistance of the skin of the host to

the outbreak of spores . . . . . . . . 9

Melampsora betulina (see final plates),
populina see final plates),
salicina (see final plates).

Melanose (?) and Bordeaux mixture . . . . . . 71

cause of . . . , . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71

on Lemons . . . . . . . . . . . .• 71

on Oranges . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Method of applying a spray 25

Milkweed Rust (see final plates).

Missouri Pippin apple . . . . . . . . . . 54

Mites and Ripe-rot . . 26, 27

and Stigmonose . . . . . . . . . . 41

on Chrysanthemum . . . . . . . . . . 100

Monilia fructigena 106

Mouldy Core, and Apple exportation 52

apparent outward soundness of Apples suffering

from *51

of Apple . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

of the Apple and Mucor *51

of the Apple and Penicillium 51

test for 52

Mucor and Mouldy Core in Mammoth apple . . 53

of the Apple 51

Mun roe's Favourite apple 54

Myxosporium— like fungus associated with Banana

Scab 34

Names and culprits . . . . . . . . . . 20
ature and size of the channel leading from the

eye of the apple to the core-chambers . . 53

Nectria as a cause of Canker . . . . . . . . 59

Nematodes and Stigmonose . . . . . . . . 40

New South Wales, Banana Scab in 27

New York Pippin and Mouldy Core 52

Nomenclature of fungi . . 20, 67

Nomenclature of Ripe-rots . . . . . . . . 15

Northern Greening ap) ile .. .. ». .. 54

Northern rivers of New South Wales, Rust of Oats on 114

Nurserymen and Peach Curl . . 62

Oat Rust .. .. *114
ats, continuous growth of, on the same land . . 117

Oats, treatment of the seed for Rust 118

varieties of, as related to Rust 116, 117

Object of spraying. 25

I

Oi'dium of the Vine and adulterated sulphur . . 104

Onion, disease of *84

Oospora-like fungus on the leaves of the Passion Vine *78, 80

Orange, Alternaria disease of 66

Orange and Mandarin Alternaria, comparison of .. 69

Orange and Melanose (?) 70

Orange, town of, apples from, investigated . . . . 54

bark-destroying fungus on . . . . . . . . *60

Cladosporium of 122

Gray Scab of 121

bearing Coniothecium . . . . . . . . 71

Orchard work in connection with Ripe-rot . . . . 22

T)aint for bark disease . . . . 60

-L arasites mentioned—

Aecidium bellidi (see final plates),
berberidis (see final plates),
punctatum (see final plates),
ranunculi repentis (see final plates).

trifolii *113,114

White Clover 113, 114

Alternaria —

Apricot 79

Citrus 66, 67, *68, 69, 70

Passion Vine *75, 76

Quince *56, *58

Vine 86

Arachnids 40, 100

Aureobasidium (Dematium) . . * . . *109, *111

Bacteria 82,122,123

Botrytis vulgaris . . . . *92

Chrysomyxa rhododendri (see final plates).
Cladosporium —

Apricot 79

Orange 68

Peach 122

Take-all 113

Coleosporium senecionis (see final plates),
sonchi (see final plates),
tussilaginis (see final plates).
Colletotrichum Lindemuthianum . . . . . . 81

Coniothecium of Hawthorne *102

of Orange . . . . . . 71

scab rum, on Lemons . . 71

Cronartium asclepiadeum (see final plates).

Dematium (Exobasidium, Aureobasidium) *109, *111

Dinemasporium of Banana . . *38

Exoascus deformans . . . . . . . . . . *61

Exobasidium (Dematium, Aureobasidium) *109, *111

Fusarium of the Passion Vine *77

Fusicladium dendriticum . . 91

pyrinum 91

Gasteromycetous fungus . . . . . . . . *87

Gloeosporium —

Apple Frontispiece, 2, 4, 12

Banana 7, *8, *9, *10, 12

Crataegus 12, *13, 101

fructigenum .. 3, et sea.

Grape *8

Guava 4, 7, *10, *11

Hawthorne *10, 12, *13, 23, 101

Musarum 5

Pear 8

Passion Vine (foliage) *13

Passion Vine (fruit) 9, 13, *14, *80

Plum 12

Quince 2, 3, 56-58

Tomato 1, *12

Gymnosporangium clavariaeforme (see final

plates).
Macrosporium -

Chilli *84

Citrus *67

Passion Vine *74

Potato *83

Tomato 12, 67, *84

Melampsora betulina (*ee final plates),
populina (see final plates),
salicina (see final plates).

Monilia fructigena 106

Mucor mucedo . . . . 51, 53

Myxosporium 34

Oidium Tuckeri . . . . 104

Oospora *78, *80

Penioillium 51 ,53

130

INDEX

Parasites mentioned —

Peronospora parasitica

Phoma 31, *32, *33, 34,

Phragmidium bulbosum (see final plates).

incrassatum (see final plates).

obtusum (see final plates).
Phyllosticta—

Apricot . . . . . .

rosarum

Shot-hole

Pleospora of Quince

Podisoma juniperi (see final plates).
Puccinia —

adoxae (see final plates).

anthoxanthi (see final plates).

compositarum (see final plates).

coronata

graminis (see final plates).

malvacearum

phalaridis (see final plates).

poarum (see final plates).

Sclerotinia f ructigena

Septoria

Sonchus oleraceus (see final plates).

Sphaerella fragariae

Thrips .. '

Triphragmium ulmariae (see final plates).
Uromyces appendiculatus (see final plates).

fabae (see final plates).

caryophyllorum

Ustilago bromivora

Passion Fruit, inoculated with Gloeosporium

Banana, No. 8

inoculated with Guava Gloeosporium

inoculated with Ripe-rot of Banana

Ripe-rot of, on Apples, Pears, Grapes, Peaches,

Bananas, Date-plums, Pineapples, Tomatoes,

quinces, and peppers

with Ripe-rot . .

woodiness of . .
Passion Vine, Alternaria of

of

foliage of, with Ripe-rot fungus

faulty leaves on . . . .

Fusarium of . . . .

leaf Gloeosporium of, inoculated on Pear, No. 24

leaves of, with Ob'spora-like fungus

Macrosporium of

Pleospora of

Ripe-rot of . . . . :

Peach, and Ripe-rot

and Ripe-rot of the Passion Fruit

aphis and Apricot buds and leaves . . ...

aphis and Peach Leaf -curl l . .

aphis not responsible for Shot-hole

Cladosporium

inoculated with Banana Gloeosporium, No. 14. .

leaf-curl of

Peach Leaf-curl, affecting some of the choicest
varieties

aphis, relation to . .

Bordeaux mixture for

cold weather as related to . .

climate as related to . . . .

cause of . .

distribution of, in the world

foliage, destruction of, as a remedy for

from season to season

fungicides for

humid localities worse for

infections in spring . .

losses from

manure for

nurserymen spread it

off seasons, effect of

orchards in damp situations more liable to

orchards near water or in damp situations

prevented cheaply

perennial mycelium of

profitable treatment of

pruning as a remedy for

remedies for

severe cutting back a remedy for . .

sulphate of iron for

time to spray for

treatment, early, successful on

91

70,82

42,97

42
*56

*115

*94

106

26-58
40-50

*100
*119

14

14

*75

75, *76
74

*13

77
*77

12
*78
*75

76, *77
80, *81

2

14

49

64

49
122
*10

64
64
65
64

*61, 65
64
63
65
64
64
65

64,65
63
62
65

fAGE.

Peach Leaf-curl, variation on varieties of Peach . . 66

weather as related to 65, 66

wet seasons, action on 64

winter treatment for . . . . 64

Peach Shot-hole and Thripsidae . . . . . . 43

Peach-skin, in connection with Gloeosporium, No. 14 10

Pear and Ripe-rot 2, 3

and Ripe-rot of Passion Fruit 14

Pear attacked by Stigmonose illustrated . . . . *41

Black Spot of 124

Canker *59

diseases of, and Hawthorne hedges . . . . 101
infected with the Gloeosporium of Passion Vine

foliage 14

inoculated with Gloeosporium of Banana, No. 7 8

inoculated with Gloeosporium of Banana, No. 10 *9
inoculated with Gloeosporium of the Guava,

No. 17 *11

inoculated with Gloeosporium of Passion Vine

leaves, No. 21 *12

Pears, Apples, and Quinces suffering from Stigmonose *38

Penicillium and Mouldy Core in Mammoth apple . . 53

and Mouldy Core of the Apple 51

glaucum and the Walnut 82

Pepper and Ripe-rot, No. 24 2, 3, 12

and Ripe-rot of Passion Fruit 14

Gloeosporium on Apple 12

Perfection apple . . . . . . 54

Perithecium of Banana Scab, illustrated . . . . *32

Perithecia of Gloeosporium, black 6

Peronospora and the location as to moisture . . 91

of the Cabbage 90

parasitica . . . . . . *91

Persimmon and Ripe-rot 2, 3

Phoma in connection with disease of Mandarins . . 69
Phoma-like form of fungus associated with Banana

Scab 31

on Mandarins . . . . 70

associated with Banana Scab *34

on the Walnut 82

Phragmidium bulbosum, (see final plates),
incrassatum (see final plates),
obtusum (see final plates).

Phyllosticta as the cause of Shot-hole . . . . . . 42

on Apricob 80

rosarum . . *97

Pineapple and Ripe-rot of Passion Fruit . . . . 14

Pleospora of the Passion Vine . . 76, *77

Pleospora (?) of the Quince *57

Plum and Cherry Blight, of the fruit *109

Plum, inoculated with Gloeosporium of Apple,

No. 22 12

Poa trivialis, rust of (see final plates)

Podisoma juniperi communis (see final plates).

Posts, charring and tarring the underground part of 88

Potato, Leaf-curl of 82

Macrosporium and climate . . 83

Macrosporium, losses from . . . . . . . . 83

Macrosporium of . . . . *82

Macrosporium, treatment for 83

murrain 90

Wet-rot of *89

Prairie-Grass Smut *119

Prevention of disease by knowledge of the appear-
ance of early stages . . 63

Preventives of Leaf -curl of the Peach . . . . 62

Promycelial spores of Puccinia malvacearum . . *95

Pruning and Peach Curl . . 63

as a means of spreading bark and wood diseases 121

as related to Ripe-rot 24

for Rose diseases . . . . 97

Prunus Leaf and Shot-hole 47

Puccinia adoxae (see final plates),
anthoxanthi (see final plates),
compositarum (see final plates).

coronata *H5

coronata (see final plates),
graminis (see final plates)

Helianthi *H8

malvacearum *95

phalaridis (see final plates),
poarum (see final plates).

Puff-balls and the Vine *87

and Timber-rots 85

Pumpkins and Ripe-rot . . . . 23

INDEX.

131

Punctures in the skin of ripening fruit, cause of

Ripe-rot ..

Pustule of Gloeosporium, cross section of . .
Pustules of Gloeosporiuni, black

of Gloeosporiuni of a dark colour, No. 7

of Gloeosporiuni, peculiar form of, in certa n

cases, No. 9
of Ripe-rot, arrangement of

/~\ueensland, Banana Scab in . .
\c£uick-lime for Root-rots
Quince, Alternaria of
" and Red Spider

and Ripe-rot

and Ripe-rot of Passion Fruit

Black-rot of

diseases, and Hawthorne hedgea . .

PAGK.
24

Gloeosporium on Apple, No. 20

inoculated with Banana Gloeosporiuni, No. 11, 12
inoculated with Guava Gloeosiporium, No. 19 . .
inoculated with Guava Gloeosporium, No. 15 . .

Pleospora (?) of

Ripe-rot of

Ripe-rot of, and remedies for

Rots

Apples and Pears suffering from Stigmonose . .

T> adishes and Peronospora

XVain and Fungicides

Rain as related to Ripe-rot

Red Scab on Bananas from Fiji
Red Spider and Stigmonose

Reinette Franche apple

Remedies for, Leaf -curl of the Peach

Ripe-rot . .

Ripe-rot of the Quince

bark diseases . .

Resistance to Gloeosporium varies with variety

varying, to Ripe-rot

Resistant varieties and Leaf -curl of the Peach

Rimer apple

Ripe-rot as related to early varieties

birds, relation to

certain mites related to

coloured illustration of

compared with Brown-rot

differs from rot of Mouldy Core in Apple

growing naturally on various sorts of vegetation

inability of to penetrate sound skin of fruit

indifference to host

insects as related to

inoculations of

in the orchard

of Apple

of the Banana .

of Banana, plate of . .

of branches and foliage

of Crataegus

of foliage of Passion Vine

of Hawthorne

of the Passion Fruit . .

of the Passion Vine . .

of the Pepper

of the Quince

of Quince, Bordeaux mixture a remedy for

of stems of Bananas

progress of the disease

. pustules, concentric arrangement of

pustule of, in cross section

remedies for

and nomenclature

skin of the host, relations to

species, distinguishing among

spores becoming two-celled before germination

spores, granulation of

spores of, on hyphae

spores, omnipresence of

transmission in cases of fruit

variation in colour of, due to variation of host. .

variations in the form of

27

87
"56, *58

41
2,3

14
*58
101

55
*11

*9

11
*10
*56

57

57
*58

38

62
55

. . 24-26
26
27
Frontispiece

.. 107
51
12

2

22

. . Frontispiece, 2, *4
7, *8, *9, *10, 12, *19, 35

19

23

12, *13, 23, *101

*13

12, *13, 23, *101

*14

74,80

12

2, 3, 11, 56-58

57
12, *19

6
*5
*6
21

15,20
6,8,9

18
*13
*16
*6

17

PAGE.

Ripe-rot, variation in the spores of 6

variously resisted by varieties . . . . . . 26

wind, rain, heat, sun, insects, birds, relations

among . . . . . . . . . . 24

Rogue's gallery for Fungi 20

Rome Beauty apple . . . . 54, 55

Root-disease of Larkspur *98

Root-gall and seed potatoes . . 89

Root-rots 85

of the Vine 86

remedies for 87

trenching for . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Roots, care of 88

Rose anthracnose, coloured figure of . . . . Frontispiece

diseases . ., 96

healthy surroundings for 98

location of . . . . . . 98

star-shaped Leaf-spot of 97

Rose-thrips and Apricot buds 40

Rosette of the Tomato 120

Rot of Mouldy Core differs from that of Ripe-rot of

Apple . . . . . . 51

Rots of the roots, remedies for 87

of the Quince " . . . . 56

Rots of timber and roots 85

of various vegetables, possible related to fruit

rots 58

Rotted fruit, chemical treatment of 108

Rotting fruit in the orchard on the ground, as related

to Ripe-rot 23

Rotting vegetables and Ripe-rot 23

Running together of spray after application . . . . 25

Rust of Carnation *100

Hollyhocks *94

Oats *114

Sonchus oleraceus (see final plates).

the Bean 90

coloured illustration of Frontispiece

the Rose (see final plates).

the Sunflower *118

Trifolium repens . . . . *113

various cereals . . . . 116

White Clover *113

comparative harmlessness of 114

Rust on young oat plants . . 115

relation to 115

similarity of really different species . . . . 116

sudden appearance of . . . . . . . . 116

treatment of the seed for 118

varying susceptibility to, by various varieties. . 117

Rusts 113

various, illustrations of (see final plates).

Rusty oats as fodder . . . . 118

Samoan Islands, Banana Scab in
andwich Islands, Banana Scab in . .
Scabby Bananas, destruction of

formation of new plantations

importation of . .

in commerce

keeping qualities of

Sclerotinia fructigena (Monilia)

Seasons and the spraying for Black-spot of the Apple
Secondary spores of the Gloeosporium of the Passion

of the Gloeosporium of the Passion Vine Foliage
Seed potatoes, disease in

Wet-rot in

Seed, treatment for Rust

Selection and disease
Septoria of the Chrysanthemum
Series of inoculations illustrated
Shops and stores, use of Formalin in . .

Shops, care of fruit in . . •

Shot-hole, absence of vegetable parasite in some

Apricot

artificially produced

caused by fungi

disease of the Cherry, illustrated . .
due to mechanical causes
function of the Prunus leaf
function of the stone-fruit leaf

27

27

37

37

35

35

36

106

124

*14
*13
89
*89
118

*16, *17
23
35

42

79

*43

49

*109
43
47
43

132

INDEX.

PAGE.

Shot-hole, growth of, illustrated ...... 43-44

fungus of the Passion Vine ........ *79

mechanical irritation as a cause of . . . . 47

Peach .............. 43

Peach Aphis, relation to ....... 48, 49

produced without the intervention of fungi . 49

Thripsidse, relation to ...... . 43, 47

sectioned with the microtome . . . . . 49

stationary in growth late in the season . . . 42

Stigmonose, a form of ...... . 42

stone-fruit trees ........ . 79

successive condition of, at successive dates . *44-47

tested for fungus parasites ...... . 49

theory of ........... 42

variation in size with growth of the leaves . 44-47

without fungi .......... . 46

Skin of fruit as related to Ripe-rot ..... 6,16,22

ripening fruit, punctures in, cause of . 24

Smut of Brome grass ...... . . . *119

of Maize compared with that of Prairie Grass . . 119

on Prairie Grass .......... *119

Soil as related to Take-all ........ 112

chemical treatment of, for root-rot . . . . 87

for Take-all .......... 113

Solanaceous plants and Macrosporium . . . . *83

Solvent effect of fungi on tissues ...... 7

Sonchus oleraceus, rust of (see final plates).

Sorghum attacked by Take-all ........ 113

Species making ............ 20, 21

among Gloeosporia .......... 15

among Ripe-rots . . . . ...... 18

Species of Gloeosporia, too many ...... 18

Species of Ripe-rot from an economic point of view . . 19, 20
Spores, growth of, as related to the skin of the host,

No. 9 .. .......... 9

of Banana Gloeosporium as grown on Date-plum,

No.9 ............ *9

of fungus, associated with Banana Scab. . . . *32, 33

of Gloeosporium germinating in masses. . . . 12

of plant diseases, illustration of the abundance 61, 115

of Ripe-rot, colour of ........ 7

granulation of .......... 7

of the Ripe-rot of the Passion Fruit . . . . *14

of Ripe-rot, omnipresence of . . . . . . 22

variation in form on same fruit, Figs. 11 and 12 9

and the wind ............ 91

" Spouting " pustules .......... 16

Spray, distribution of a fine ........ 25

effect of, on a fungus disease ...... 25

Spraying, for Ripe-rot .......... 23

Hawthorne hedges .......... 102

in an improper manner as related to Ripe-rot . . 24

in off seasons ............ 65

in hot sunlight .......... 25

object of ............ 25

of the Quince ............ 67

proper time of day for ........ 24, 64

rapidly .............. 25

veather, as related to ........ 66

with whitewash .......... 23

Spray, how to cause foliage to retain ...... 25

should be fine ............ 25

too much an objection ........ 25

Spread of Ripe-rot through the agency of mites . . 27

Squash and Ripe-rot ...... . . . . 2, 3

diseases of ............ 58

Stage of ripeness and variation of the Gloeosporium 5
Starch as an adulterant of Sulphur as used for

O'idium of the Vine ........ 104

Star-shaped Leaf Spot of the Rose ...... 97

Stigmonose .............. 38

abortions and distortions connected with

as Shot-hole

causes of

deformities on Pear and Quince

on Apples, illustrated

obscurity of cause

observers wanted

on Carnations

possibility of a micro-parasite connected with.

widespread

Stings of insects and Ripe-rot
Stomata and fungi

and insects ..... , ,. ., ,

*40

42

40

*41, 42
38, 39

40

40

40

40

38

25

70

70

Stone-fruit Shot-hole, a function of the leaves

trees, Leaf-curl of
Stone Pippin apple
Storage as related to Ripe-rot
Stores and shops, use of Formalin in
Strawberry leaf -blight . . .
Sturmer Pippin apple
Sulphate of Iron, and Cabbage Peronospora. .

and Peach-curl

as a disinfectant of the soil

for Root-rots
Sulphur, adulteration of
Sulphur and Lime for Peach Curl . .
Summer Pearmain apple . . . .

Sun as related to Ripe-rot . . . .

Sun-scald as related to Ripe-rot . .
Sunflower disease ........

Sunlight, strong, as related to spraying
Surplus fruit and Ripe-rot . . . .

Susceptibility of various varieties o Curl-leaf

to Ripe-rot
Systematic study of fungi . . . . . .

PAGE.

43

*60
54, 55

23

23
*26, 58

54

91

64

96

87
104
65, 66

54

24

24
*118
24, 25

23

66

25

21

Sorghum 113

ake-all of cereals 112

Tardy growth of the Gloeosporium due to unripeness

of the host 5

Tar for the underground parts of fence-posts . . 88

Teleutospores of Puccinia coronata *115

of Puccinia malvacearum *95

of the rust of the White Clover *114

of the Sunflower rust *118

"Tendrils" of spores of Gloeosporium 16

Terminology adopted in the case of the Ripe-rots . . 5

Testing Shot-holes for fungus parasites . . . 49

Thrips and Stigmonose . . . 40

Thrips colonised in Apricot buds . . . . . 48

flight of . 50

in odd situations . . 50

of Rose in Apricot leaves . . . . . . . 48

Thripsidae and Shot-hole 43, 47

larval form associated with Shot-hole, descrip-
tion of . . 50

Timber-rots 85

Toadstools and root disease of Larkspur . . . . 98

and rot of timber and roots 85

attacking fence-posts 85

Tomato, and Ripe-rot 2, 3, *12, 14

and Ripe-rot of Passion Fruit 14

inoculated with Gloeosporium of Apple that had

passed through Plum No. 23 12

Macrosporium *67

Rosette 120

and drought 120

Tomatoes, rotting, a menace to fruit 23

Toughness of internal tissues as related to form of

spores, &c. 7

of the skin of fruit as related to Ripe-rot . . 6
Treatment of Peach Curl from season to season . 65
Trees going to decay through the attacks of toad-
stools 85

Trenching for root disease of Larkspur . . . . 99

for root-rots 88

Trifolium, rust of *113

Triphragmium ulmariae (see final plates).

Tufted Leaf-blight of the Vine 86

Turnips and Peronospora 91

TTnited States, Banana Scab in 27

U redineae, illustrations of (see final plates).
Uredospore of the Sunflower rust *118

of Puccinia coronata *115

of the rust of White Clover *114

Uredo suaveolens (see final plates).
Uromyces appendiculatus (see final plates).

caryophyllorum *100

fabae (see final plates).

trifolii *114

Ustilagq brpmivora .. ,, *U9

INDEX.

133

I'AOK.

"TTariability of the spores of Ripe-rot . . . . 6

V ariation among Gloeosporia 15

among Ripe-rots . . . . 15

of colour of spores in connection with change

of host, No. 6 8

in spores of Gloeosporium, Figs. 22, 23, and 24 .. 11

in the form of spores of Gloeosporium, No. 6 . . 8
in the size of spores of Gloeosporium due to

variety of host . . . . . . . . . . 17

of Gloeosporium . . . . 5

of Gloeosporium spores . . 16

of the form of Ripe-rot spores, due to mechanical

causes 7

Varieties of Apple and variation of the Gloeosporium 5

of Peach and their relation to Peach Curl . . 66

resistant to Leaf Curl 62

Varying resistance of varieties to Ripe-rot . . . . 26

susceptibility of Roses 97

Vegetables, rotting, as related to Ripe-rot . . . . 23

Vehicles, special, use in connection with Ripe-rot . . 22

Vine and Root-rot 86

Vine harbouring Alternaria . . . . . . . . 86

Vineyard posts attacked by toadstool fungi . . . . 85

"yTT agga, Apples from, investigated . .
VY alnut attacked by Penicillium

bacterial disease of . .

disease of

Phoma on . . . .

Watermelon and Ripe-rot

Weather and Brown-rot of fruit

and the Peach Leaf Curl

as related to Ripe-rot

West Indies, Banana Scab in

Wet regions and Bordeaux Mixture

rot

seasons and fungicides

White lead for disease of the bark

paint for pruning wounds
Whitewash for fruit bins..

for pruning wounds

for Rose disease

White Winter Pearmain apple

Wild Mallow, rust on, menace to Hollyhocks
Wind and the spread of spores

as a cause of Shot-hole

as related to Ripe-rot
Winter Peach apple

Pearmain

spraying of Roses

treatments for Peach Curl . .

PAGE.
54
82
82
81
82

. 2,3
.. 107
62, 64, 65
24
27
66
89
64
60
121
23
121
98
54
94
91
43
24
54
54.55

98
60,64

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BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

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