*5 \'i.

LETTERS AND PAPERS

O N

Agriculture^ Planting, &c.

ADDRESSED TO THE

ISath and JVeft of England Society ,

rOK THE XNCOVRAGEMKNT OF

Agriculture, Arts, Manufadhires, and Commerce.

VOL. V.

£M,

LETTERS AND PAPERS

O N

Agriculture^ Planting, &c.

SEKBCTED FROM

THE CORRESPONDENCE

OP THE

Bath and JVeJi of England Society

FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF

AGRICULTURE, It MANUFACTURES,

ARTS, And COMMERCE.

VOL. V.
THE SECOND EDITION.

BATH, PRINTED, BY ORDER OF THE SOCIETY,

BY R. CRUTTWELL;

AND SOLD BY C. DILLY, rOVLTKY, LONDON,

ANB BY THX BOOKSELLZRS Ot BATH, BRISTOL, SALISBVKTt

CLOCESTKR, EXZTKR, &C. &C.

M DCC XCIII.

<m'&^

^

CONT,ENTS

OF

VOLUME V.
Introduction — — — ix

On the Improvements in Agriculture that hare been fuc-
ccfsfully introduced into this Kingdom within the laft
Fifty Years. By Mr, Wimpey , I

Scaionl. Oflmprovements in the Art of Tillage — z

— II. Of the Invention of new Implements of Huf-

bandry, or Improvements in the old — 7

— III. Of the Quantity of Seed moft proper to be

fown, and on the regular diftribution of the

fame, both as to diftance and depth 9

'mmmmm fV. Of fuiting thc Crop to the Nature and Condi-
tion of the Soil ■ — * *
— — V. Of the Rotation or moft beneficial Succeffion

of Crops ' _^ 13

— — VI. Oflmprovements by Means of Manures both

natural and artificial _— 14.

- — ^ VII. Of the fuccefsful Introduction of many new

Articles into Field Culture ■■ 1 7

— — VIII. Of the Advantages accruing from the Intro-
duftion of new Articles into Field Cul-
ture, in applying them to the rearing and
fettcning of Cattle ■- 24

On the Culture of Potatoes by the eafieft and moft cecono-

mical Means. By the fame 27

An Enquiry concerning a fure and certain Method of

Improving fmall Arable Farms. By the fame 43

Refleftions on Drill-Machines, particularly fuggefted by
an Account of one invented by Mr. Bames. Bytbefamt 57

C vi ]

PAGJt

Hints rcfpedling Potatoes, a Machine for bruifing Furze,
and a Plan for improving the Wool of this Country.

By Dr. J. Andcrfott '• . 64

On the Management of the Dairy, particularly with re-

fpeCl to the making and curing of Butter. By the fame 6y

Of the Scotch Fir as a Food for Cattle. By the fame 1 22

Of raifmg Potatoes from the Seed. By the fame — 127

Of Furze or Whins as a Food for Horfes and Cattle, De-

fcription of a Machine for bruifing them, and Hints for

rearing that Plant ceconomically as a Crop. By the fame 1 34.

On the Root of Scarcity. By the fame 146

Hints tending to point out the moft pradicable Means of

improving the quality of Britiih Wool .■ 1 5 1

On the Improvement of Meadow Land ; — with a IhOrt

Hiftory of a part of Somerfetfhire. By Mr. Locke 1 80
On the Ufe of Plaifter of Paris as a Manure. By Mr.

Kir kpat rick « 225

Account of an Experiment made to difcover whether
whole Potatoes or Cuttings are to be preferred in plant-
ing. By Mr. Wimpey ^ — 230

On the Rotation of Crops, the Advantage of Carrots as

a Food for Cattle, &c. By the Re<v. Mr. Onley — 237

An Enquiry concerning the Smut in Wheat ■ 244

Of River Weeds as a Manure. By Mr, Wagstaffe — 257

On planting Trees on barren Heights. By the fame 260
Hints for fowing various kinds of Grain, from certain

Phoenomena of Nature. By the fame ■ 265

Remarks on Smutty Wheat. By the fame 270

Improved Method of planting Afh for Hurdles, Hoops, &c. 273

On the Advantage of Hoeing. By Mr. Hazard — 278
Account of the Guinea and Scotch GrafTes, and the manner

of cultivating them in the Weft-Indies By Mr. Spooner 282

Experiments on Drilling. By Sir J . Jnjlruther — 288

On Watering and Management of Flax. By Mr, Gray 297

On Mangel- Wurzel. By the Rev* Mr, Brom'wicb 308

[ vii ]

PACK

An Account of an Experiment made in the year 1788,

in raifmg the Mangel- Wurzel. By J. Bernard, efq, 316
On Bees. T^y Mr. John Keys — — __ 31^
On Cyder- Wine, made from the Juice of Apples taken
from the Prefs and boiled, according to a Recipe of
Dr. Rufh. By Robert Stenjens, e/q, __ 329
Experiments and Obfervations on Cyder-Wine, with Re-
marks on Fruit Liquors, and Hints for their Improve-
ment. By Dr. A. F other gill — 332

On the Poifon of Lead, with Cautions to the Heads of

Families concerning the various unfufpefted Means by

which that infidious Enemy may find Admiflion into

the Human Body. By the fame — . 351

On the Poifon of Copper, By the fame ' 387

On the Mangel- Wurzel, and a new Drill- Roller. By Sir

Thomas Bee^or > \ 41 7~

On the Turnip-rooted Cabbage, Roota-Baga, and Po-
tatoes. By the fame — 1 42 1
On Ploughs, and particularly the Rev. Mr. Cooke's new

Swing-Plough. By James Adam, efq, — 428

On various Subjefls — —_ 433

On Timber Trees — — . , , ^. 4^^

On the Turnip Cabbage. By the Rev. Mr, Br ought on 453

On the Roota-Baga, Potatoes, and Turnip-rooted Cab-
bage. By Sir Thomas Beeuor — ■■■ 4^7
On the Utility of the Leith Cart. By Dr. J. Anderfon 460
On the Vegetation of Old Grain. By S. Smith, efq, 464
On rearing Calves without Milk. By Mr. Crook — 465
On the Rev. Mr. Cooke's newly improved Drill-Machine 467
On Mr. Murrell*s new Waihing-Machine _ 469
Report refpe^ng a Trial of Ploughs in April 1790 471

DIRECTIONS

[ vui ]

DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES.

Plate I. Plan of a Dairy, &c. ■

Plate II. Drill-Roller, Improved Drill-Plough, and Mr.

Murrell's Wafliing Machine ■

Plate III. Rev. Mr. Cooke's Drill-Machine

TACE

417
467

INTRO-

INTRODUCTION.

AFTER a lapfe of two years from the
printing of the fourth, the Bath So-
ciety prefents the Publick with the fifth vo-
lume of its memoirs. The very favourable'
reception with which the former volumes
have been honoured both at home and abroad,
has been flattering to the moft aftive Mem-
bers of the Society 5 and the Committee of
Papers particularly has felt a proportionate
folicitude that the prefent publication may
be found of equal importance.

In the feleftion now made from the gene-
ral mafs of correfpondencc, regard has been
principally paid to fubjefts of acknowledged
moment, and it is prefumed that the ftyle
and manner of the following pieces will be
b found

[ X ]

found in fome inftances mafterly ; in all clear
and peifpicuous. To the principal authors,
the Society feels itfelf bound to return thanks
for an obliging continuation of former cor-
refpondence, and to exprefs a fuitable fenfe
of obligation to others.

As the finances of the Society, by an ex-
tended patronage, are deemed in a flourifliing
ftate, notwithftanding the increafed expences
which have accrued, the Publick may reafon-
ably expeft to hear of the increafing ftability
and ufefulnefs of this inftitution. And as the
Society has much to hope from the prefent
general difpofition to promote improvements
in the department of agriculture, that greateft
of all national objefts, the further commu-
nications of praftical Gentlemen and intel-
ligent Farmers are warmly folicited.

Should it happen that fuch communica-
tions may not all be deemed of equal value
for the publick eye, and fome writers may

not

not be gratified with feeing their pieces in
the printed lift, they may neverthelefs be
affured that their intentions are well received,
and that their hints and experiments are pre-
ferved for the infpeftion and advantage of
the members. A confiderable number of
pieces, which have lately been received, are
lying over for future confideration, — and the
Committee will not fail to bring them duly
forward,' with a view to their being approved,
and publifhed in a fucceeding volume.

Bath, May "^it iy<)0.

LETTERS

#

i LETTERS

TO THE

BATH AGRICULTURE SOCIETY.

Article I.

On the Improvements in Agriculture that have
been fuccefsfully introduced into this Kingdom
within the lajl Fifty Tears.

BY improvements in agriculture, I underftand
fuch an artificial management in the culture
of land, as may increafe the value of its produce
more than in proportion to the expence which has
been incurred in procuring fuch increafe; or, in
other words, Improvements confift of, and are efti-
mated by, the increafe of nett profits or gain, ac-
quired by means of art and fuperior management
ufcd in the cultivation of land.

The means of fuch improvements, I conceive,
may be fitly clafled or arranged under the following
general heads, viz.

Vol. V. B i. Improve-

[ 2 ] ii.,#. •

1. Improvements in the art of tillage.

2. In the invention of new implements, or im-
provements of thofe in ufe before.

3. In the quantity of feed mod proper to be
fown, and in the regular diftribution of the fame
both as to diftance and depth.

4. In fuiting the crop to the nature and condi-
tion of the foil.

5. In the rotation, or mod beneficial fuccefllon
of crops.

6. In manures, natural and artificial,

7. In the fuccefsful introduction of many new
articles into field culture.

8. In the advantages of applying them to rearing
and fattening cattle, &c. &c.

Sect. I. Of Improvements in the Art of Tillage,

Tillage confifts in breaking, crumbling, and pul-
verizing the foil; which in the early ages of agri-
culture was performed in a very imperfect manner 5
but from experience it was found that the more
perfedlly this was performed, and the cleaner from
weeds the foil was kept, the larger, the cleaner, and
confequently of the more value was the produce.

Improve-

t 3 ]

Improvements in tillage, however, it feems, went
on very flowly, till Mr. Tull, of very refpcdtable
memory, taught the vaft advantages, indeed the
ncceflity, of a more pcrfeft tillage, in order to" a'
more fuccefsful and more profitable return.

«

Improvements which have been made in tillage

are of very great importance, as it may truly be
faid to have been the bafis or real foundation on
which the fuccefsful introdudlion of all the new
articles of field culture depend, as will clearly ap-
pear hereafter, when we treat particularly of thofe
articles. When the ground is well tilled, it is in
the moft perfe*6l condition for receiving the fertili-
zing principles of the atmofphere. Rain, fnow,
hail, dews, and hoar froft, &c. convey the nutriment
of vegetation, which floats in the air, moft plenti-
fully into the bofom of the earth, as deep as it has
been broken, and well pulverized; which it im-
bibes very freely, and incorporates thoroughly
therewith. It is the only effedlual means of de-
ftroying weeds, fo neceffary to the beneficial growth
of all crops, and fhould be repeated tilt they are in
a great meafure deftroyed ; which, by being con-
tinually expofed to the fun and wind, will be much
fooner than can be effefted by any other means.
The roots and fibres of weeds are the ligaments and
braces which in a great meafure knit and bind the
B 2 clods

[ 4 ]

clods together, which in a manner are perfeftly in-
diflbluble, till by being expofed to the viciffitudes of
the air, the roots within rot and decay, and the clods,
almoft by their own gravity, with little or no exter-
nal preffure, expand of thennfelves into fmall criinfi-
bles, and are reduced to a perfedl (late of pulveriza-
tion, which is as far as tillage can go.

The deftroying of weeds, however, is not the only
immediate benefit accruing from a due ftate of til-
lage; grubs, beetles, worms, and maaggots of many
different kinds, which abound in many fields, may
be greatly diminifhed, if not entirely extirpated and
deftroyed, by the well-timed ufe of the plough, and
its auxiliary inftruments necefTary to the reduction
and due pulverization of the foil. Nothing fo ef-
fectually prevents the ravages of the feveral tribes
of fubterraneous infeds, as the frequent ftirring and
crumbling the ground; I have had large patches of
feveral poles fquare in a field of beans deftroyed by
the grub of the cock-chaffer; and many hundreds of
cabbage plants by a kind of grey grub of lefs fize.
'Both thefe execute their mifchief under ground.
The firfl: eat the roots of the beans even when in
kid, when they wither, fall, and die; the latter bites
off the ftem of the plant juft under he furface, and
does infinite mifchiefs; but I have always found
tillage, duly performed, deftroy the whole race.

The

[ 5 ]

The improvement the foil acquires by means of
frequent and well-timed tillage, is gradual and pro-
grefTive, and the longer it is kept in tillage, if duly
performed, the more fertile it becomes.

One ploughing in the beginning of winter, and a
fccond in the winter, or early in the fpring, will be
more efFedtual in pulverizing and fertilizing the foil
than half a dozen at any other time of the year. I
have at this time a piece of eight acres, which bore
wheat laft year. It was ploughed in Odtober, and
lay till the end of February, when I had it dragged.
It is now in fine condition, and the ploughman, who
has ploughed it many years, fays he never faw it
in fuch fine tilth before. It is a ftrong piece of
ground, and rather damp. I have another piece of
fix acres adjoining to the latter, exadlly of the fame
texture and temper; this, by reafonof the long hard
froft, we could not plough till February; it is now
fo lumpy and obdurate, that I think all the plough-
ing, rolling, dragging, and harrowing, that can be
given to it, will not bring it into proper tilth to
plant this feaibn. Such is the mighty difrerence V/'
between ploughing for a fpring crop in Odlober and
February,

This improvement in tillage is fo very clear and

certain, that it furprizes one much that it is not

B 3 xiniverfally

[ 6 ]

viniverfally pradifed. But in this country, and I
believe in many others, the farmers are led aftray
by a falfc policy which obtains among them. Many
of them at Michaelmas take in (lieep to winter at
4S. 6d. a head, and keep them till the firft week in
April, fo that they are obliged to keep their flubble
ground and eddiftoes'^ for the fupport of thefe fheep;
and by that means, when their land fhould be in
fine tilth for fowing, they have fcarcely a field
ploughed; by which means they commonly lofe
three or four times as much in their fpring crops
as they receive for the keep of their fheep. It is
true, as they obferve> it helps them to a little ready
money at a time they (land in need of it. But
furely it is extreme bad policy to take 4s. 6d. to
pay 10s. 15s. or 2cs. in eight months after j or lofe
fo much in the nett crop, which is exadlly the fame
thing. It will require at lead two acres for the
keep of each fheep, fo that the farmer receives at
mofl no more than 2s. 3d. per acre, whereas a win-
ter's fallow, if the ground be well prepared, is of
more real value than 20s. worth of dung laid on
the fame. From all which this corollary may be
fairly drawn, that the land intended for the crop the
following fpring, can be put to no ufe, the advan-
tages of which in general can by any means equal
a winter's fallow.

• Grafs that comes after mowing.

Sect.

t 7 ]

Sect. II. Of the Invention of new Implements of
HuJJjandryy or Improvements in the old.

This article comprehends ploughs of every de-
nomination, drags, harrows, horfe and hand hoes,
machines and implements which have been in-
vented to perform the fcveral operations of huf-
bandry in a more perfedl manner, and with lefs
trouble and expcnce.

In former times ploughs were very ill-confl:ru6ledj
fome little more than fcratched the ground, others
were made fo heavy and clumfy as to require great
ftrength to work them. Lefs than four horfes could
do nothing with them. There are now feveral in
ufe which perform much better, viz. the Rotheram
or patent plough y the one-wheeled plough , and the Nor-
folk plough, which I believe is the laft, and, it is faid,
by much the beft in ufe 5 as it will plough up ftrong
land with two horfes only, a man, and no driver ;
fo that it does as much work and quite as well as
the ftrong heavy two-wheeled plough, which requires
four horfes, a man, and driver j being double the
expence of the Norfolk-plough for the fame quan-
tity of work. A very great improvement indeed !

But there is another plough in ufe, which it is faid
does twice the work of this in the fame time, at a

little

[ 8 ]

little more cxpencc; that is, the Double Plough y
which ploughs two furrows in the fame time any
other does one. This plough requires only three
horfes and a man, but no driver. I have feen it at
work in a large field, and go perfedlly (Iraight from
one end to the other, without the ploughman's ever
putting a hand to it. 1 believe thefe two laft ploughs
are the lateft and greateft improvements which have
been made in this inflrument for general ufe.

There are others of a more modern invention
ufed for particular purpofes, of which that with two
mould-boards is a valuable invention. With this
plough I make the open furrows for planting po-
tatoes, and then compleatly cover the fets by fplit-
ting the ridges. When they have been horfe-hoed,
it again fplits the ridges in the intervals, and earths
up the plants. It efFedually anfwers the fame pur-
pofe in all broad drilled crops where the horfe-hoe
is ufed, and with half the labour performs the fame
work as could be done with the common plough,
and in half the time.

There are other ploughs of lefs general ufe, fuch
as the trenching-plough, which fometimes goes to
the depth of eighteen inches; draining-ploughs,
and ploughs for denfhiring and felling i and laftly,
I fhall mention a fmall light plough for ploughing

thq

[ 9 ]

the intervals of drilled crops, which may either be
in the form of the Rotherham plough, or the one-
wheeled plough, either of which would anfwer the
purpofe as cffedually as any horfe-hoe whatever.

Sect. III. Of the ^antity of Seed mcfl proper to
befowriy and on the regular diftribution df thefame^
both as to diftance and depths

The improvement made by the great faving of i
feed in modern praflice is very great. It is very -
certain from experiments, mod fatisfadorily authen-
ticated, that about one-third of the feed which was
formerly ufed, and indeed is ftill in mod places, is
fully fufficient. In general it produces a better crop .
than the whole quantity. In the old husbandry or
broad-caft method of fowing, it' is ufual to allow
from two to three bufhels of feed-wheat, as the
ieafon happens, to a ftatute acre -, but in drilling or
fetting, as pradifed in the Eaflern counties, it is
found that from three to five pecks is quite fuffi-
cient; fo that the difference between the two modes
of planting amounts, at leafl, to a faving of .one
bufhel and a half per acre. If then thefe new modes
of planting all forts of grain were equally adopted,
the faving, I conceive, would be an addition to the
year's produce, a tenth or twelfth of its whole
amount. The farmer, therefore, who in any one
year might plant one hundred acres of wheat in

the

[ 10 ]

the new method, would fave at leaft one hundred
and fifty bufhels of feed. Jf the favings of feed
then on one hundred acres would be one hu,ndred
and fifty bufhels, how aniazing would be the amount
of the' quantity faved on all the tillage lands of
Great-Britain ! !

This is a very interefting object to individuals,
and in a national view one of exceeding great im-
portance. It would therefore be very patriotick to
ufe every means to promote and extend the practice.

This improvement in planting has all the pre-
judice of the common farmer to contend with.
He has been ufed, perhaps, almofl half a century,
to fow his land with wheat at the rate of two
bufhels and a half per acre/ and at harvefl too fre-
quently has obferved he has not half a crop j from
which he haflily concludes, that if he had fown but
half the quantity, fmall as his crop was, it would
have been but half as great. His land is frequently
in very imperfe6b tilth, very rough, and full of large
lumps; however, the feedfman fcatters tne feed on
the furface, and in harrowing, a part is covered fo
deep as never to appear, another is never covered
at all, but is picked up by the birds ; fo that it fre-
quently happens that not one-third of the feed ever
vegetates and arrives at maturity. But in planting

by

[ II ]

by hand, every com is placed at the intended depth
and diftance, and not one in a thoufand mifcarnes.
This nnode of planting has now been in ufe fcveral
years in Norfolk, Suffolk, &c. and is annually ex-
tending itfelf, and doubtlefs will continue to do fo,
as in general it produces confiderably better crops
with fo great a faving in the feed. The only ob-
jedion which can be made to it is the expence of
fetting it, and the great number of hands it requires ;
more indeed than can at any rate in many places be
procured. In anfwer to the firft objedlion, it is faid
the price of planting by hand is now only about 5s.
an acre, which is very little in proportion to the in-
crcafe of produce, and the value of the feed faved.
The fecond objedion is entirely obviated by the
many inftruments lately invented for fowing the feed
very regularly at any required depth and diftance,
either in clofe drilling to be hand-hoed, or in open
drilling with intervals of a proper width for horfe-
hoeing. It is true thefe have not been fo generally
ufed as might have been reafonably expedled ; the
reafon of which, I am fully convinced, is the high
price the ingenious inventors have fet upon them.
Farmers in general are prejudiced againft the prac-
tice, and a priori cannot conceive the poffibility of
the new mode being any way equal, either in the
quantity of produce, or in point of profit, to the old
methods therefore will never run the rifque of lay-
ing

[ 12 ]

ing out fixteen or eighteen guineas to naake trial of
an inftrument, which they are fo fully perfuaded they
(hould never make the lead beneficial ufe of. If
ever the pradlice of drilling, either cloje or widey be-
comes general, it muft be by the example of men
in eafy circumftances and fuperior condition, who
are not afraid of expending a few pounds with a view
to promote the public good, in which their own is
conlpicuoufly included.

Sect. IV. Of Juiting the Crop to the Nature and
Condition of the Soil,

In former times the farmer was governed more
by the price a commodity would yield at market,
than by the confideration of what the nature and
quaHty of his land was beft adapted to produce.
But experience, and the introdu6lion of many new
articles into field culture, have given him a much
larger field to range inj and now a fenfible farmer
regulates his pradice by the confideration of what
his land is fuited to produce a large and profitable
crop of, without too great trouble and expence.
For example: Wheat is the great ftaple article, the
prime objedt of a farmer's care and attention i yet
there is much land that is totally unfit to bear that
grain, that is applicable to the growth of many other
articles which are attended with great advantage.
The fame obfervation will hold good in refped to

almoft

E 13 ]

almoft every article in culture. Improvements in
this article then confift in making art fubfervient to
nature, in reafonably aflifting her in her mode of
adling, for fhe feldom can be diverted from her
own bias, but at an expence that will be far from
proving profitable.

Sect. V. Of the Rotation or moft beneficial Succeffwn
of Crops*

This head comprehends improvements of great
magnitude and extent. The articles of culture arc
commonly divided into two clafles, viz. One con-
fifts of crops that are faid to exhauftand impoverifh
the land they grow on ; the other to ameliorate and
improve it. This mud be underftood in a compara-
tive fenfe; for properly fpeaking there are few if any
vegetables that are carried off the land they grow on
to be confumed elfc where, but in fome meafure ex-
hauft and impoverifh the foil, and render it lefs fertile.

The firft clafs, viz. thofe which are fuppofed to
cxhauft the land moft, are fibrous-rooted plants, as.
wheat, barley, rye, oats, &c. The ameliorating in-
cludes all the legumenous and tap-rooted plants, as
beans, peafe, vetches, turnips, parfnips, carrots,
clover, &c. Modern improvements are much in-
creafed by a judicious fucceflion of interchanges
among thofe articles. An ameliorating following

an

[ 14 ]

an exhaufting cpp, prepares the land for another
cxhaufting crop, and efpecially if it be a hoeing
crop ; for by judicious management the land may
be conftantly cropped for many years in fucceflion,
without the intervention of a fallow every third or
fourth year, as was heretofore the pra6lice.

Sect. VI. Of Improvements by Means of Manures
both Natural and Artificial.

By a manure we underftand any fubftance which
being added to, or laid on land, increafes its ferti-
lity. This we conceive may be effedled by means
which operate very differently, therefore we fhall
treat of them under two diftincl heads :

iji, Thofe that ad mechanically.

Q.dly. Thofe that ad chemically.

The fubftances which increafe the fertility of land
by mechanical means, are all thofe which by mere
addition and intimate commixion improve its tex-
ture. Thus ftrong, wet, heavy clay, by the mere
addition of iharp fand, or fine gravel, may be opened,
rendered more light and porous, and confequently
much more fertile. And light fandy and gravelly
foils, whofe open, loofe, incoherent texture fufFers
the rain, dews, &c. fuddenly to pafs through them,
are much improved by the addition of flrong bind-

ing

[ »5 1

ing loams or clay, which render its texture more
coherent and produdlive of vegetable nourifhment.
Among thefe may be reckoned marks of all kinds,
chalk, Ihells, and indeed every kind of fubftance,
which, merely by its texture, has the property of
rendering foils that are too adhefive, clofe, and heavy,
more light, open, and porous ; and thofe that are too
loofe and incoherent, more dcnfe, confident, and re-
tentive of whatever is added to it intentionally by
way of improvement, or liappens adventitioufly in
the courfe of nature. But marles, chalk, fhells, &c.
properly fpeaking, are improvers of the foil, not
merely as they correal and amend the texture, but
alfo by their chemical powers, which produce an in-
creafe of vegetable nourifhment, and give fertility to
the ground. So that they a6t in a double capacity,
that is to fay, both mechanically and chemically.

It is perhaps of little ufe to enquire, whether the
above fubftances effentially contain any real vege-
table nourifhment, or only a6l minifterially in the
procurement and diftribution of the fame. All ab-
forbent fubflances are powerful attradlers of water,
oil, &c. and probably to the power of attradlion all
their virtue is owing. The humid vapours of the
air, which abound with putrid exhalations, are copi-
oufly imbibed by thofe abforbent earths, and from
thence are inhaled by the roots and fibred of plants.

The

[ 16 ]

The atmofphere is the grand magazine, the great
receptacle of putrid vapours, which are conftantly
exhaled and flying off from the furface of the earth,
and from the whole race of vegetables and animals
which fubfift upon it. Thefe putrid exhalations con-
ftitute the true genuine vegetable pabulum^ or food
of plants j therefore v/hatever fubftance of an abfor-
bent nature attracts thofe principles more power-:
fully than the foil it is laid on, will, to fuch land,
be a manure, and infallibly improve the fame.

Thofe fubftances which are of a calcarious na-
ture, and can be burnt into lime, have their powers
as manures greatly improved thereby; provided
they are ufed fo as to impregnate the foil before
their virtue is diminilhed or impaired by being
expofed to the air. I^ime, of whatever fubftance
it is made, whether of ftone, chalk, or fhells, by
being expofed to air for a few days, expands and
falls into a fine powder, and thereby lofes its a(^ive
principles caufed by the fire, and becomes totally
effete and dead, poflefled precifely of the fame
virtues as the ftone, chalk, or fliells, of which it
was burnt, and no more. The difcovery therefore
of the true method of ufing lime, fo as to impreg-
nate the foil with its a6live principles, is a -very
great improvement in pradtical agriculture; for
before this was known, large fums of money were

expended

[ «7 3

expended in laying lime on the furface of land, where
it foon became effete and dead, and a6bed only by
its mechanical properties in the fame manner the
fubftances of which it was burnt would have done
had they never been burnt i fo that the whole expence
and trouble of burning was fo much thrown away.

Sect. VII. Of the fuccefsful Inirodu5iion of many

new Articles into Field Culture.

If in the idea of new articles be included thofe
which have been transferred from the garden to the
field, the number will be far from being inconfider-
able. Turnips, potatoes, cabbage of different kinds;^
carrots, parfnips, &c. were cultivated for domeftick
ufes, long before the time propofedj but the field
culture of thefe articles for the feed of cattle in any
confiderable degree, is quite a modern pradice;
The fuccefs which hath attended the ufe of thefe
articles, hath inconteftibly eftablillied their great
value and importance j but unfortunately their cul-
ture hath hitherto been much confined, and is vejy
far from being generally pradifed.

\ Many kinds of graffes have likewife been ftrongly
recommended as valuable improvements, which>
having anfwered the finifter views of fome of the
rccommenders, in felling their feeds at a great price.
Vol. V. C and

t i8 ]

and upon trial being found greatly inferior to the
fpontaneous growths of this country, have very de-
fervedly fallen into general difufe, and are no more
thought of. There are two articles, however, com-
monly reckoned among the grafTes, which muft
ever be difl:ingui{hed and feparated from thofe that
have been found ufelefs, that is to fay. Sainfoin and
Lucerne -, thefe merit more attention and care than
have been ufually beftowed upon them, and would
well repay the farmer for all his expence and trouble,
if bellowed with difcretion and judgment, for they
certainly might be made improvements of the moft
valuable kind.

Sainfoin has been fown pretty extenfively in fome
parts, but not fo generally by far as it deferves.
It generally fucceeds well upon chalk, from whence
it has been very erroneaufly cpncluded, that it will
not thrive in a deep foil. It is fuppofed a hard
fubftratum of chalk prevents the deep penetration
of the roots, which is the natural bias of the plant,
for it is not known to what depth it would defcend
in a friable foil that would yield to the perpendicular
defcent of its root. From hence it is ftrangely
concluded, that the plant in fuch foil is exhaufted
of its vigour by the luxuriance of its own roots ;
and that the produce of the herbage on the furface

is

[ 19 ]

IS fmall in pfoportion as that of the roots is large.
This notion, repugnant as it certainly is to common
fenfe and reafon, as well as to experience and ob-
fervation, is firmly believed and maintained by men
of very good abilities ; fo invincible are prejudices
early imbibed, and fupported by local cuftoms, and
habits of practice long eftablifhed.

The writer is clearly of opinion, that there are
few arable farms in the kingdom which are not
capable of great improvement by planting of fain-
foin, more efpecially thofe which are but poorly
provided with good pafture and meadow land.
The pooreft fields of fuch farms might by proper
management be brought to produce good crops of
fainfoin 5 and land, the natural intrinfick value of
which is not more than from 2s. 6d. to 5s. an acre
per annum, might certainly, at a very moderate
•expence, be made worth from 20s. to 40s. This
would prove an unfpeakable advantage to the
occupier as well as to the owner of a farm that is
almoft wholly arable, as it would enable him to
keep a much larger number of milch-cows, and
hogs in proportion, and by thefe means greatly in-
creafe the quantity of manure for the improvement
of his corn-fields.

C a Oih^

[ 20 ]

The greateft enemies fainfoin has to encounter,
are f^rafs and weeds: thefe, in land that is tolerably
good, foon overcome and deftroy it, unlefs the far-
mer will take the trouble, and be at the expence of
keeping it clean. But this is by no means fo for-
midable an undertaking as hath been generally
thought, provided the land be very well cleaned
and duly pulverised before the feed be fown, and
provided alfo it be fown in rows from fifteen to
eighteen inches diftant, which is as near as it ought
to be fown, if intended for a lading 'plantation.
At thofe diftances, the intervals between the rows
may be kept perfe6lly clean with a fmall plough and
a narrow drag of about twelve inches wide. With
thefe inftruments feveral acres may be cleaned in a
day, and fuppofing this to be done three times in
a fummer, the expence would amount but to a trifle.
My drag is twelve inches wide, and proves extremely
ufeful in drilled crops of every kind, as alfo in thofe
of what nature foever that are planted in rows.

Lucerne, under a fimilar management, would be
a very great improvement on arable farms. In-
deed an opinion generally prevails, that it requires
a much better foil than is commonly found. Crops
of all kinds are more abundant on a good than on
a bad foil, if they arc kept clean -, but it is a very

erroneous

t 2. ]

erroneous opinion, that lucerne will thrive only on
rich land. It may be raifcd to great advantage on
land of a very indifferent quality, by the fame means
as above recommended for fainfoin, and the fame
care to keep it free from grafs and weeds. I have
cut five good crops off fuch land in one fummer,
after having been planted five years, without a grain
of manure of any kind, except a fmall fprinkling of
turf a(hes the fecond year after fowing the feed. A
few acres of either, or both thefe graffes, with a few
more of potatoes, cabbage, or turnips, would enable
the occupier of an arable farm to keep from eight
to twelve, or even twenty milch-cows, according to
the fize of his farm, though he fliould not have an
acre of meadow or paflure belonging to the fame.

Of articles which are truly ufeful and entirely
new, we know of few that have been Introduced
within the time mentioned. The turnip-rooted
cabbage is a truly valuable root, which was acci^
dentally difcovered about twenty years ago, and has
been cultivated with great fuccefs by feveral gen-
tlemen, and ilrongly recommended by them to the
attention of the farmer. Both -its roots and greens
are exceeding good food for cattle, but what con-
ftitutes its principal excellence is its extreme hardi-
nefs, for it refills the violence of the mod rigorous

C 3 fcafons

V

[ " 3

feafons and fevered frofls. When the common tur-
nip and haiuieft cabbage have been entirely cut off
and deftroyed, this has continued its fine verdure,
and fupplied die kitchen with greens, and the cattle
with fweet and wholcfome roots, even till the middle
of May.

Another new article which has been very lately
introduced is the Mangel Wurzely or Scarcity Plant.
From the fuccefs fome few gentlemen have had in
its cultivation, it feems to promife to be of the
greateft utility for the feed of cattle. However, it is
very little known as yet, it being fuppofed that not
one farmer of a thoufand has fo much as ever heard
of the name. It is generally agreed to be a fpecies
of the beet, of which there are many. The feeds of
both have exadly the fame appearance, and the
leaves and roots differ only in colour and fize, for
the manner of their growth is exactly the fame; but
the leafage of the new fort is faid to be much more
luxuriant and abundant, and the roots vaftly larger.

In order to difcover the mod advantageous mode
of raifing this plant, I fowed, or rather fet, a quantity
of the feed in fevefal different ways in April laft.
The beginning of July the outfide leaves had ob-
tained their full growth, fome of which I broke ofF
and offered to the horfes and cows, who ate them

very

[ 23 ]

very freely; but when offered to the pigs, they
feized them with great eagernefs, and devoured ra-
ther than eat them. The pigs are dill fed with
them daily, and conftantly prefer them to every kind
of green food or root that can be given them.
Breaking off the leaves takes up much time, and is
very troublefomc; therefore, when the outfide leaves
arc fully come to maturity, I cut the whole clean
off about an inch and a half above the ground, from
whence frelh leaves fhoot up very freely. My ex-
perience is yet too fmall to fpeak with confidence;
but it feems to me that an acre of this plant, if it
takes well, would be fufficient to keep twenty pigs
very well for five or fix months, fay from July to
November or December inclufive.

Another article of food for catde has been lately
recommended as the fweeteft and beft in the world,
fold under the title of Carolina Grafs Seed, I lowed
a very fmall quantity of the feed in my garden in
April laftj it came up well, and is now in a very
flourifhing ftate. Time will difcover if it is in any
degree fuperior to many of the fpontaneous pro-
ductions of our own climate. No quantity, I be-
Ucve, has been hitherto obtained that is adequate to
that purpofe. From the fmall trial I have made, it
feems no way difficult to propagate, if the foil be
well pulverized and clean before it is fowed.

Sect.

[ 24 ]

Sect. VI 1 1. Of the Advantages accruing from thj^
L introdu^ion of the New Articles above fpecified into

Field Culture, in applying them to the rearing and

fattening of Cattle,

The improvements made by cultivating turnips
for the feed of fheep and fattening of cattle, is fo
generally known, and extenfively pradifed, that it
feems urjnecelTary to fay any thing on that head.
I will, hovyeyer, beg leave to obferve here, that the
opinion generally maintained, that turnips are an
improper food for milch-cows, as it fpoils the cream
and butter by impregnating the milk with the ftrong
flavour of the turnip, appears to me, by repeated
experiments, to be ill-founc' !d. The two laft winr
ters and fprings my milch-cows lived chiefly on
turnips, and their butter was found not only as
good as my neighbours, whofe cows ate none, but
was evert preferred to it. They fay their opinion
is grounded on experience as well as mine. The
difficulty, I apprehend, lies here: My turnips are
pulled, brought home, and given to the cows in the
yard; their cows have been ufed to be J:urned in
upon them, where they pick up the charlock and
other weeds which abound among them, for they
are never hoed ; and to this, and not the turnips,
I am perfuaded, thedifagreeable flavour of the miilk
is owing. It muft be obferved that the turnips

fliould

[ 25 )

lliould be ^iven to the cows while thev are frefli and
firm, for all 'food when grown potrid and corrupted
is iinwholfome, and doubtlefs would affcdl the juices
of the animals that cat it.

Of all the articles we have mentioned, or that is
yet known, perhaps very few can equal, and none
jcxcel the Potatge, The ineftimable value of this
root is hardly to be conceived. It is not only an
almoft conftant difh in great and opulent families,
but in times of fcarcity and dearnefs, the poor are
almoft wholly fubfiftcd by it. There are many
poor families in this neighbourhood, who the laft
winter ate them three times a day With a little fait,
without a morfelof meat or bread with them. It is
true they have been long in ufe for the food of man,
but it is of late date that they have been extenfively
cultivated for the feed of cattle; and even now, I am
pretty clearly of opinion, that if they were much more
generally cultivated than they have hitherto been,
the farmer would find his account in it, efpecially
where a fubftitute is much wanted in the winter and
fpring feafbns for the fupport of his cattle.

Hogs- are immoderately fond of potatoes, and will
live entirely upon them till they are fit to put up a
fattening for pork or bacon; and then, boiled and
^nixcd with barley or peafe meal, they fat them

fpeedily

[ 26 ]

fpeedlly and make fine meat. Another ufe I have
put them to, which has been Httle pradtifed, or
thought of; that is, for the feed of milch-cows.
Three gallons a day, half at night and half in the
morning is quite fufEcient to keep a large cow in full
milk, and the milk as fweet and as good as in the
fummer months. Nothing excels them for the feed
of cows which are fatting their calves for the but-
cher. I fatted four laft fpring, which were fold for
from 35s. to above 40s. a calf, which was double
what I ever fold any for at this place before. Laft
year, after taking them up, feveral calves, about fix
or feven months old, were turned into the potatoe
ground with the cows; they fed upon them as kindly
as fo many pigs, and preferred them to every thing
elfe they could meet with.

I have had no experience of their ufe as food for
horfes ; but I have been aiTured by a gentleman
who refided fome years in Ireland, that he kept his
hunter, a ftone-horfe, entirely upon them inftead of
corn. He ate nothing elfe, excepting hay between
his feeds of potatoes, as other horfes ; yet he was as
fat, as healthy, as ftrong, and as full of fpirits, as if
he had given him all the corn he could eat.

On

C ^7 ]

Article II.

On the Culture of Potatoes by the eajiejl and
mojl ceconomical Means,

[By Mr. Joseph Wimpey, to the Secretary.]

SIR,

SINCE the potatoe has been in univerfal demand
for the food of cattle, as well as of families,
their culture hath become an objed of general at-
tention and regard. Men of every clafs, from the
princely owner of a palace to the meanefl cottager,
have exerted their (kill in attempting to improve
it both in quantity of produce and in goodnefs.
As to quantity, fome have fuccceded beyond all
expedation.

In examining fome of thofe accounts, the writer
hath been much furprized to Hnd their culture hath
been attended with fuch enormous expences, even
as far, if he remembers right, as 14I. or 15I. per
acre. This put him upon confidering if a lefs
operofe and more ceconomical method might not
be pra6licable, by which, though the quantity of
produce might be confiderably inferior, yet the nett
profit might be fuperior, and that in no fmafl de-
gree, all things confidered.

In

\

[ as ]

In purfuit ofthefe ideas, the writer, the two lafl
years, adopted the following nnethod, which fully an-
fwered his expedlation. A particular of which, con-
taining an exadt account of the expences, quantity of
produce, amount of the crop at a certain price per
bufhel, and laftly, the nett profit of two ftatute acres
of land fo cultivated in the year 1788, is as below.

In Dec. 1787, two ftatute acres were ploughed up
and lay rough through the winter. The February
following, the ground was well dragged, forty cart
loads of long dung were then equally fpread upon
the fame, and immediately ploughed in. The be-
ginning of April, furrows were drawn the length-
way of the field with a double- breafted plough, at
about two feet eight inches diftance one from the
other, in which the potatoe fets were dropped by
handi at the diftance of from 12 to 14 or 15 inches,
which were covered by fplitting the ridges with the
fame double-breafted plough, throwing one half of
the mould to the right hand, tlje other half to the
left, and by that means forming a ridge over each
rank of fets, and leaving a deep furrow in each in-
terval. In this fituation they continued till the fets
had ftiot five or fix inches.

By that time the weeds began to appear in great
a})undance. A fmall common one-wheel plough

was

[ 19 ]'•

was then fet to work, as near each fide of each
rank of potatoes as could be without damage to the
plants. This operation raifcd high ridges in the
intervals between the rows.

In this flate it continued till the weeds began
to advance again in their growth. The double-
breaded plough was then fct to work again, going
up the middle of one row, and down another, by
which operation each fide of the plants were com-
pkatly earthed up; and before frefh weeds could
vegetate, the luxuriance of the greens was fuch as
to completely cover the intervals j fo that the whole
lurface of the field had one uniform appearance.

In this fituation they continued till about the 20th
of Odlober, when the greens being mofl:ly decayed,
and the weather very fine, they were begun to be
taken up in the following manner: A ftrong plough
was fet deep enough to work below the bed of the
roots, with which the ploughman goes up one row
and down another, turning the roots up to the fur-
face. Women, boys, and girls, follow the plough, and
pick them up in baflcets as fall as they are turned out.
A pair of drags with long tines are drawn over the
ground after it has been picked, by which many are
brought up to the furface, which had efcaped the
pickers. When the whole field has been gone over

in

[ 30 ]

in this manner, we then give it a clean ploughing and
harrowing, by which nneans very few roots efcape.
Thus the whole operation is connpletely gone
through, and the land left in the moft perfedl condi-
tion for the inamediate reception of a crop of wheat.

An exad account of the produce, expence, and
nett profit of two ftatute acres planted with potatoes
in manner aforefaid. Produce 750 bufhelsj tithe
paid in kind deduded, fay 75 bufhels, leaves 675 j
which at is. per bulhcl, or three fhillings per fack,

£^33 15 o

amounts to

EXPENCE S.
A clean ploughing in winter — — 012 o

Dragging in February — 030

40 loads of long dung, and carriage -400
Spurling ditto — ^ — — _ 020
Ploughing in the dung — — — — 012 o
Striking fiirrows with double-plough 060
Planting and cutting potatoes — o 6 o
Covering them with double-plough -060
Sets 1 5 facks at 3s. — ■ 250

Ploughing intervals from the rows — 060
Earthing up the plants — , 060

Taking them up, ploughing up, draw- 1

ing home, flacking, &c. 3 horfes, >i 10 O

man, and boy, 5 days — J

One man, one woman, 5 days — 076

Boys and girls — 059

A year's rent — — 2

o o

13 7 3

Nett profit on 2 acres — ^f .20 7 9

or lol. 35. ic|d. per acre.

[ 31 ]

But to do juftice to the experiment, the fqcceed-
ing crop of wheat fhould be charged with at lead 4!,
anci chat fum added to the nett profit would amount
then to 12I. js. iO|d. per acre, for it would have
coft fo much at lead to have brought the barley
ftubble into fo perfcdl a tilth and fertile condition
as the potatoes left it in.

It may be very proper to obferve, however, that
the culture of potatoes for fale, probably, cannot be
extended much farther, in many places at lead, the
markets being already ovcrftocked, and the price
fallen, feemingly more in proportion than the in*
creafe in quantity. Three or four years fince, the
current price of potatoes in this neighbourhood was
6s. per fack, and often more ; fometimes as high as
I2S. Laft year I foLd fome for as. 6d. none for
above ^s. and at prefent I have little profped of
difpofing of what I (hall have to fpare of the above
quantity, even at thofe low prices.

Hence it becomes a queftion of very confiderable
importance, what is the real and intrinfick value of
this root to the grower when applied to feeding of
his own dock, from the time of taking it up to the
time of planting, fay from Odlober to May follow-
ing, that is, feven months out of the twelve. If this
fhould be found to anfwer in any defirable degree,

the

[ 32 ]

the farmer might with fafety cultivate as many as lie
could confume with advantage, without depending
upon a foreign market, which, by means of an ex-
ceedingly extended cultivation, is become very pre-
carious. Add to this, the potatoe in itfelf is a pe-
rifhable commodity, and when ever fo well kept
muft be difpofcd of in about eight months, or be-
come totally ufelefs.

But as the above queftion involves a great deal of
f radical knowledge, which is attainable only by real
experiment, and as I am now feeding of different
kinds of flock on potatoes, 1 hope therefore to be able
to write on this fubjed with greater prccifion, and
will beg leave to lay an account of this matter before
your refpeclable Society in fome future paper.*

.On examining the account of the above experi-
ment, I fee little reafon for making any alteration
in the mode of culture there pradlifed. After the
firft ploughing in the winter, I think if it were to be
followed by a fecond acrofs the firft, and the land
thrown up into fiiarp narrow ridges by one 'bout of
the plough, .or by the double-breafted plough, the
land would be much more effectually expofed to
the influence of the atmofphere, and the improve-
jfient much greater in proportion, than a half

• Such account will be received with pleafure^

ploughing

[ 33 1

ploughing would amount to, being only an addition
of 6s. to the expence; the winter being the feafon
when the fertilizing principles defcend moft copi-
oufly to impregnate the earth.

I fhould obferve, in ploughing up the potatoes,
we always take out the coulter, which would cut
and damage a great many of them; but in this way
the bufinefs is performed without the lead injury;
as a proof of which, I did not fee one root that was
at all hurt by the plough.

My principal obje6l in adopting this method of
cultivation was not the obtaining the largcfl: quan- .
tity of produce poflible, but rather the largcfl that
could be got confidently with cleaning, ameliora:>.
ting, and improving the foil. This was my firft
and principal objed, and perhaps a more efFc6lual
method is not eafy to be found. Had the largeft
quantity of produce been the only thing aimed at,
the number of rows might have been doubled, and
inftead of 32 inches, 16 only might have been taken.
The produce in that cafe, doubtlefs, would have
been much more confiderable, but then the land
would have loft all the benefit of horfe-hoeing.

Since writing the above, I have had the pleafure

of reading the learned Dr. AnderJon\ very valuable

Vol. V. D treatifc

C 34 ]

tcatife on this article. The great accuracy and
precifion with which his experiments are condu6led,
arc very fingular and curious, and his fubfcquent
obfervations and conclufions not Icfs inftrudlive and
ufeful than they are ingenious and entertaining.
His difcovery, that the acrcable produce is in a
great meafure in proportion to the quantity (weight)
of fets or bulbs planted, (contrary to what obtains
in many other articles) is, perhaps, one of the tnoft
important difcoveries of the prefent age. And I
mufl add, I have the fatisfadion of feeing it in a
good meafure confirmed by my own practice in the
foregoing account.

By that account it appears that I planted fifteen
facks of fets in two (latute acres of land j about a
third more tlian I ever allowed before, and I believe
than is commonly ufed. The increafe of produce
was not only in proportion to the increafed quan-
tity of feed by meafure, but alfo in the fize and fair
appearance of the bulbs, which indeed were fo
much improved, that I could not help hefitating for
a good while, if fome miftake had not been com-
mitted in the forts planted, which I could by no
means account for.

Two of the forts I planted were produced by a
friend in London two years before, and were faid

to

t 35 ]

to be the forts mofl in demand in that market*
One of them was the kidney fort defcribed by the
Do6lor, and I think one of the bcfl kinds yet known
for the table. The other was a round, white^ fair
potatoe, the name of which I never learnt, biit it
was a very good one. The firft year of planting,
the produce exadtly correfpondcd with the fcts, but
the fecond, that abovementioned was fo much im-
proved as quite to confound my judgment. This
pleafing amendment can be imputed to nothing
elfe but the weight and fize of the fets planted. In
this I was rather particular, fufFering in general
none to be planted lefs than a large pullet's egg ;
the larger fizes were cut into two, and the largeft
into four pieces.

For fome three or four years pad, I have alfo
made fome trials of raifing potatoes from feed. The
events of my trials differ confiderably from thofe of
the ingenious Dodlor. The firft year I had fome
bulbs as large as a pullet*s egg, but I did not then
remark any variety of forts. The largeft of thefe
were preferved, and planted the following April.
The Odlober following they were carefully dug up,
and were as large in general as thofe produced from
old bulbs ', many of them from half a pound to a
pound and upwards. Among thefe, very contrary
to what happened to the Dodor in his experiments,
D 2 there

[ 3^ ]

there were not lefs than five or £\yL dIfFerent fpecles,
mod of them totally different, not only from the pa-
rent flocks, from which the feeds were obtained, but
alfo from every other fpecies I had ever feen, or
have to this hour. They were of different colours,
figures, and texture. Some a fmooth yellowifh
white, fome a dufky brown, fome a reddifh brown,
fome had a rough fkin, fome fmooth, fome diflinft
fingle bulbs of a regular fhape, others a congeries of
bulbs from 6 to lo or 12, connected together by a
kind of neck, compofing a mafs, fometimes nearly
as big as a half-peck meafure. But there was one
fpecies which far exceeded all the refl in beauty;
many of them were as big as a goofe*s egg, a fine
clear fmooth fkin of a yellowifh white, finely pounced
with fmall crimfon fpots, the complexion beautiful,
and the fubflance as good as I ever tafled.

The bulbs, which produced the feeds of which
thefe varieties were obtained, were of two very dif-
ferent fpecies, but no more than two. One was an
oblong white potatoe of no very common fhape.
Many of them were gibbous at each end, conne6led
by a part much fmaller in the middle, a good fa-
mily potatoe. The other was of a brownifh red
colour, finely marbled on the infide with a crimfon
purple ; a very fine juicy potatoe, much in ufe in
this country for feeding hogs, but little valued for

family

t 37 ]

family ufe. Thefc two fpecies are all I hadat that
timei from which the apples which produced the
feeds were promifcuoufly gathered in the fame field,
and fown together in the fame fpot.

The Dodor feems to doubt if the fexual fyftem
of Linnaeus takes place in the propagation of new
varieties in this ufeful plantj but it feems very cer-
tain from the above account, that varieties of them
are attainable from feed, and that mod probably by
the bloffoms of fome plants being impregnated with
the male dull of others, fimilar to what happens to
the whole tribe of cabbages, carrots, and parfnips,
beets, 6cc. If this be not admitted, we muft have
recourfe for a folution to feminal variations in the
primitive fenfe of the phrafe^ which is not only in-
finitely more improbable, but perhaps totally inad-
miffible and irreconcilable to the principles of found
philofophy. Nothing can be more certain, than
that the moft minute variation muft have had a
pre-exifting caufe competent to its produdbion;
otherwife it unavoidably follows that an efl^edb may
be produced and exift without any caufe at all,
which is abfurd and impoflible.

That the pea tribe continue invariably the fame,

though they (hould be reared in the moft promifcu-

ous manner, the Dodor feems fully convinced, and

D 3 1 have

[ 38 ]

I have nothing to offer againft it; but he fays alfo,
" all the kinds of beans poflefs the fame property."
With all due fubmiffion to the Do6lor*s fuperior
judgment, I muft think in this he is certainly
miftaken. In 1787, I planted a field chiefly with
garden beans of moft of the forts known j they
were planted in rows about a yard afunder, in the
following order : Mazagan, White- bloflbm, Long-
podded, Sandwich, Toker, and laftly, Windfor.
The Mazagan and White-bloffom were threfhed
firft, when to my great furpife I found I had quite
a new fpecies, or rather feveral. The Mazagan,
inftead of their being of their natural colour, were
mottled black and white; the White-bloffom, in-
flead of their natural jetty (hining black, were
brown, black, and yellow, blended together, and
both much larger than ufual. The Long-podded
were alfo very much of the fame colour. Here
then is an undeniable proof that beans, of fome
forts at leaft, are as fubjed to feminal variations as
any clafs of plants whatfoever. I affert this with
great confidence, as the experiment was not made
on a fmall trifling fcale, for I had eight or ten facks
of thefe beans which I had agreed with a feedfman
for at 58. a bulhel. When they were threfhed, I
wrote him word what happened, and difpofed of
them among my hogs and horfes.

It

[ 39 1

It may be of fome ufe to obferve here, that I
fuffered no lofs by this unexpefted accident, as at
firfl was apprehended, for they turned to better
account than they would have done if fold at the
price abovennentioned. I have fince found, by re-
peated experience, that beans are a much more
hearty and profitable food for horfes than oats.
Being out of old oats the two laft fprings, I fubfti-
tuted horfe- beans in their (lead. In the room of
a fack of oats with chafF, I ordered them a bulhel
of beans with chaff to ferve the fame time. It very
foon appeared the beans were fuperior to the oats,
from the life, fpirir, and fleeknefs of the horfes.
Valuing the beans at 40s. per quarter, and the oats
at 20s. the keep of the horfes with oats would coft
juft double what it did in beans, and not fo well
kept neither.

What the Do6lor has advanced 01^ the diftemper
called the curl in potatoes, I think very juft. That
it is generally occafioned by diftempered feed, I have
not the lead doubt. How the feed becomes vitiated
and corrupt is another queftion, which perhaps ad-
jnits of no fatisfadlory folytion. There are many
other ways, I apprehend, by which both animals and
vegetables, that are robuft and health); during one
part of their exiftence, become diftempered, and even

their

[ 40 ]'

t\it\v ftamina vitiated, the remainderj befides here-
ditary defcents, or what they may acquire by juxta
fofuion.

The fmut in wheat, I have long been of opinion,
is generated by a very wet feafon happening during
the time of its being in bloflom. This I efteem
the caufe and origin of the difeafe^ but I am well
afiured it may be, and often is, propagated and
continued by ufing the corn thus vitiated for feed.
Laft year 1 made fome experiments on fmutty
wheat, hoping to obtain fome information I might
rely on. I fowed part of a ridge in drills about
twelve inches apart with good found feed^ another
part, immediately adjoining, with feed taken from
very fmutty corn. It had been previoufly wafhed
in two feveral waters i what fwam at top was care-
fully fkimmed dff, and the wafhing continued till no
blacknefs remained. Another portion of the fame
ridge, adjoining the former, was drilled with part
of the fame fmutty wheat unwafhed, juft as it came
from the ear, without any preparation whatever j
the refult was as follows :

The crop from the found feed was perfe6bly free
from fmut, clean, and good. That from the fecond
had many fmutty ears among it, perhaps one in
twenty. The third and laft was miferably fmutty

indeedi

[ 41 ]

indecdi I believe half of the ears at lead: were in-
feded. As all three parcels of feed were fown in the
fame land, at the fame time, in the fame manner, and
managed the fame in every ftage of its growth, it
feems clearly to follow, that good clfan found feed
in a favourable feafon will produce good found corn;
that feed infedted with the fmut, though well wafhed
in water, will retain a part of the infe(flion, and pro-
duce a fmutty crop; and that fmutty' feed, fown
without any wafhing at all, will produce a crop fo
fmutty as to be of very little value.

In like manner, I apprehend, the potatoe, and
perhaps every other kind of vegetable, though ori-
ginally of them6ft firhi and perfe6l (lamina, may,
by an intemperate air, confuming blights, or a com-
bination of unfufpedled caufes co-operating toge-
ther, vitiate the original (lamina, and induce imbeci-
lity and a diftempered conftitution, which may be
propagated through all fucceeding generations.

The pured and bed means of guarding againft
and preventing this evil, is to follow the advice given
by the >jcry intelligent Dodlor, which is to feleft for
feed the larged, faired, founded, and bed com-
plexioned bulbs; by which means you will mod
probably avoid thofc that may be infected with this

dedrudivc

[ 42 ]

deftru<flivc malady. The Dodor hath truly ob-
fervcd, that the curled are always of an inferior fize j
to which I will add, they are alfo of fo unpleafant an
afpedb, that an eye of modern difcernment will eafily
diftinguifh them from thofe that are found.

Let the feed be judicioufly chofen, and planted
in the moft proper feafon, there will then be very
little reafon to fear a profitable crop of good found
potatoes, of a defirable fize, if managed according
to the diredions in the former part of this paper,

Imprefled with gratitude for the many marks of
approbation conferred on me by your very refped-
able fociety, I beg leave to recommend this paper
to their confideration.

And am. Sir,
With great refpe(5t and efteem.

Your obliged humble fervant.

JOSEPH WIMPEY,

}7ortb'Bockhamptony
Nov. 10, 1788,

Articls

[ 43 1

Article III.

An Enquiry concerning a Jure and certain Me*
thod of improving fmall Arable Farms.

[By the fame, to the Secretary.]
Sir,

TT is generally thought, and on very good grounds,
**• that fmall arable farms do not afford the occu-
pier fo good a maintenance as dairy farms of the
fame annual value. That the latter will do well
and fave money, while the former, with a vaft deal
more labour and trouble, is ftarving himfelf and
family. THis matter has been fully inveftigated
in a former paper, and the true reafon afllgnedj
but a fure and certain remedy, which would enable
the farmer to live and pay his rent punctually, is
greatly to be wilhed, and would be of univerfal
convenience. An attempt to efFed which is the
intended ufe of this paper.

The advantage and propriety of applying land
to the growth of fuch articles to which nature has
moft fitly fuited it, has been fhewn at large, and
alfo that all land which is naturally and properly
arable, can by no means be converted into meadow,
or valuable pafture of any duration. Such as, from
a wild ftate of nature, overrun with furze, fern,

bulhesj

[ 44 ]

buflies, and brambles, has been rendered fertile by
means of the plough, muft be k^pt in that im-
proved ftate by its frequent ufe, otherwife it would
foon revert to that wild barren (late which was Tts
original condition.

A farm, therefore, which confifbs wholly, or al-
moft fo, of land that is properly arable, muft ever
continue arable j for it is not pra6licable to render
it in any degree fertile, but by means of the plough ;
or to keep it long fo, even when it is made fo.
But though arable land cannot be converted into
meadow or pafture proper for a dairy, it may be
planted with articles which, it is well known now,
will anfwer the purpofe of feeding horned cattle,
efpecially milch-cows, as effedlually as good mea-
dow or pafture, producing as much milk, and alto-
gether as rich, as fweet, and as good.

But the great interefting queftion is. Whether
thofe articles which can be procured only by the
heavy expences of ploughing, harrowing, feed, and
other operations which neccflarily attend their cul-
ture and harvefting, will afford as much fuftenance
in proportion to the expence, as meadow or pafture
which is liable to little or none, excepting what is
made into hay, the cattle gathering it for themfelves

as they confume it?

Tq

[ 45 ]

To afcertain this fadl, we muft enquire, what may
be the average expence of keeping a milch-cow on
a dairy-farm for any given time ? It is faid, upon
very good authority, that the expence generally is
from 3I. to 3I. los. per annum. Two acres and a V
halfof pafture fit for this ufe is fufficient to keep a
cow the whole year through, and fuch land is valued
at from 25s. to 30s. per acre. At 25s. fuppofe, the
keeping of each cow would amount to 3I. 2s. 6d,
per annum, A dairy farm, therefore, confiding of
forty-eight acres at 25s. per annum, would amount
to 60I. rent per annum ; and the number of cows
that might.be kept upon fuch a farm, allowing two
acres and a half to each cow, would be nineteen
and a fradlion, therefore we will fay twenty.

In the next place, let us enquire, what would be
the average expence of keeping a cow upon food
raifed in arable land as a fuccedaneum to grafs,. &c.
rent and every neceflary expence included ?

We are aflured, by unqueftionable authority, that
a bulhel of potatoes, given half at night and half in
the morning, with a fmall allowance of hay, is fuffi-
cient to keep three cows a day. On that allowance
their milk will be as rich and as good, and tfie quan-
tity as great, as in the fummer months when the
cows are in good pa(\ure.

In

[ 46 3

In a former paper we have fhewn, that an acre of
land, properly cultivated with potatoes, will produce
337 bulhels, and the total expence of cultivating an
acre, rent and tithe included, was 61. 13s. yfd. If
three cows eat feven bufhels per week, then they
would eat 365 bufhels in a year; and twenty cows
would confume 2433 bufhels. The queftion then
is. If 20 cows require 2433 bufhels to keep them a
year, and as above an acre of land properly culti-
vated will produce 337 bufhels nett, how many
acres will be required to produce 2433 bufhels, or
the quantity necefTary to feed 20 cows to keep them
in full milk the year round ? The anfwer is. Seven
acres and a quarter nearly.

If then an acre of land can be cultivated with
potatoes, as above, for 61, 13s. 7^d. the cultivation
of feven acres and a quarter will amount to 48I, 8s.
$id. We have feen, as above, that the rent of a
dairy farm, capable of maintaining 20 milch-cows,
is upon a medium 60I. but it clearly appears that
the fame number of cows may be kept equally well
on a very fmall part of an arable farm planted with
potatoes for ill. i is. 2id. lefs than that fum, which
is fo much in favour of the arable farm^ or in other
words, feven or eight acres of arable land, under this
mode of management, are as much fuperior to forty-
eight acres of meadow or paiturc, as the difference

of

t 47 1

ofthetwofums mentioned; the arable farmer re*
ceiving as great a fum for the expenditure of 48I. 8s.
9 id. as the dairy farmer doth for his bare rent of 60L
without reckoning a penny for incidental expences.

It muft be obferved, that in this ftatement no
allowance is made for the fmall quantity of hay
given to the cows with the potatoes. It muft be
noted alfo, that the account of cultivation is charged
with 40s. an acre for manure, and fome expence of
ploughing, which of right is chargeable to the crop
of wheat that is to follow. Now if we dedudl 40s.
an acre from the expence of Cultivating the pota-
toes, it reduces the fum to 4L 13s. 7 id. and the
whole expence then upon feven acres and a quarter
is only 33I. i8s. 9+d. and confequently the keep of
20 cows is little more than half to the occupier of
the arable farm, what it is to the occupier of the
grazing farm. If this conclufion be fairly drawn,
. and the calculation free from errors, as I hope and
believe, it is matter of the greateft importance, efpe-
cially to the little arable farmer. It plainly raifes
him from a ftate of acknowledged great inferiority,
to one altogether as fuperior.

It may be faid, this calculation refpefts potatoes
only J how will this mode of culture anfwer when

applied

applied to the growth of other articles of food ufed
as a fuccedaneum to herbage ? Let us try.

By an experiment made on a pretty large fcale,
lately, by Mr. Vagg, it feems to appear, that cab-
bage on arable land is much about as fuperior to na-
tural pafture as potatoes. His experiment was

made on twelve acres of land, which was very far
from being the mod fuitable for a crop of cabbage.
The average value about 30s. per acre, and the.
whole expence of the culture, carting off included,
ll. 14s. id. per acre. The rent and expences of cul-
tivating the twelve acres then amounted tojSl. 9s.
He fays the (lock he fed with it was forty-five oxen,
and upwards of fixty fheep; that it fed them three
months, and that he is very well affured that they
proved as fad upon it as they do in the prime months
of the feafon, May, June, and July. Now if, in-
flead of fixty fheep, we reckon fifteen oxen, or that
four fheep are about equal to one ox, in which we
cannot err much; then fixty oxen were kept well for
three months, or, which is the fame thing, fifteen
oxen for a whole year, for 3 81. 9s. and confequently
twenty would cod 51I. 5s. 4d. which is not quite 3I.
more than the keep of 20 cows coft in potatoes.

. It is fomewhat extraordinary that two experi-
ments, made on articles fo very different in their

nature.

C 49 ]

nature, fliould fo nearly coincide in their e/Fcds
when applied to the fame purpofe. Turnips, tur-
nip-rooted cabbage, carrots, parfnips, and fomc
other articles, by many experiments often repeated,
have been found quite adequate to the fame valu-
able purpofes, at lead fo far as to be more lucrative
than meadow or pafture. I omit clover and rye-
grafs, becaufe they have been long in general prac-
tice; but are in common very fhort of the advan-
tages which may be derived from the cultivation of
the other articles recommended.

There is one other article, however, which is par-
ticularly worthy of the arable farmer's utmoft care
and attention, which he may rely on with greaf con-
fidence, if he will be at the pains of thoroughly
cleaning his land, and of keeping it fo for two or
three years after it is planted. The article I mean is
Sainfoin. From the miferable appearance it often
makes the firft year, I long doubted if its fuccefs in
poor land was not very precarious; but I have now
the fulled convidlion, that it will grow and produce
a very good crop in poor land, provided the foil be
dry, and proper care be taken to keep it clean till it
be fully eftablifhed in the ground.

Small arable farms, which in a manner are quite

deftitute of herbage, cannot well be fupplied with

Vol. V. E any

t so ]

any fubftitute that is by any means its equal. In-
deed one acre of good fainfoin is of more value than
two acrcs of middling meadow or pafture. And as
it will thrive fo well on a very poor foil, the arable
farmer, who either keeps no cows for want of herb-
age, or keeping them is pinched for food for them,
is perfe6lly ignorant of the advantages attending the
culture of this plant, or miferably indolent and in-
cxcufable in not better attending to his interefl.

Whatever crop precedes the planting fainfoin,
the ground Ihould be ploughed in the winter, and
laid up in fharp deep ridges by one bout of the
plough, to continue till the beginning of ApriU
Then it fliould be dragged and harrowed level:
and if the land be very poor, it Ihould have fomc
light drefling of aflies, foot, or a compoft of lime,
earth, and rotten dung, well incorporated together.
A fmall quantity of either of thefe would greatly
encourage the plants in their infant ftate. The
beginning or middle of April, as the feafon may
prove, the feed fhould be fown, and there would be
little danger of its fucceeding to one's wifh.

Perhaps there cannot be a better nor a furer
means of cultivating this very ufeful plant to the
grcatcil advantage, than by lowing ii after potatoes.

The

[ 51 1

The horfe and hand-hoeing them during their
growth, and the ploughing, dragging, and harrow-
ing the ground to clean it of the potatoes, fo tho-
roughly deflroy the weeds, and pulverize the foil,
that it is made in the mod perfedl condition for a
crop of fainfoin ; and though the land may in \ti
nature be very .poor, the manuring properly for a
crop of potatoes,' and that being grown perfedlly
rotten, the foil is become fufHciently fertile.

Befides tlie above, perhaps there are very few ar-
ticles in ufe as fubllitutes for pafture, that are equally
profitable with carrots and parfnips, when the foil is
fuitable to their manner of growth and culture. The
foil they delight and flourifh mod in is a deep, light,
free foil, which is eafily penetrated, and moderately
fertile. In fuch a foil, if properly hoed and fet out
at due diftances, they will arrive at a great magni-
tude, and the acreable produce be very furprifing.
Another advantage is, their being fo very acceptable
to the farmer's flock of every kind. Horfcs, cows,
fheep, and hogs, eat them feemingly with the fame
appetite, and are equally improved by them. Unfor-
tunately the quantity of fuch land bears but a fmali
proportion to what is totally unfuitable to them.
Hard, llifF, obdurate land, and fuch as ftrongly co-
heres, is quite unnatural to them, and never anfwers
E 2 the

[ J2 ]

the expenceand trouble; what grows in fuch land
being very Ihort, generally forked, and of fmall
value. Potatoes, cultivated as above diredled,
would, I think, be as good a preparation for thofe
roots as can well be invented. If the foil be well
manured for the potatoes, it will be fufficiently fer-
tile for carrots and parfnips, and, lying through the
winter in fallow, will be in excellent order for fowing
the feeds of thefe roots the March following.

Upon the whole of this account, it feems clearly
to follow, that an arable farnn of 50I. or 60I. per
annum, though it has not an acre of meadow or
pafture land belonging to it, may by fl<:ill and proper
management be made to produce as much and as
good butter and cheefe, as a dairy farm of the fame
value, and have a large proportion of land left for
the growth of corn and other purpofes.

For inftance ; twenty acres of the fixty, I conceive,
would be competent to the maintenance of the flock
abovementioned, and they might be fitly divided as
follows: viz. Six acres of potatoes, two or four of
cabbages, two of turnip-rooted cabbage, and two
of turnips, making together twelve or fourteen acres;
the remainder to be fainfoin; in all twenty acres.
The proportion to be varied, and fome articles ex-
changed for others, as the nature of the foil and

particular

[ 53 ]

particular circumftances might require, and as the
farmer might think fit and proper. On twenty
acres thus planted, I reckon, befides twenty milch-
cows, fix or eight young cattle, and pigs in pro-
portion, might be well kept on the offal.

It may be a(ked, (hould this plan be generally
adopted by the farmer, for whofe ufe it is princi-
pally intended, if it would not be running out of
one extreme into another? If fo confiderable an in-
creafe of milk, butter, and cheefe, would not lower
the prices of thofe articles too much, and raife the
price of wheat in a greater proportion ? That it
would lower the prices of thefe articles is very cer-
tain, and it is a very defirable circumftance that it
fhould. At this time, and for fix weeks pad, butter
has been fold in this neighbourhood for nine-pence
a pound, and will moft probably be fold for ten-
pence very foon; whereas, I fhould hope, the ave-
rage price might, by the propofed improvement,
be reduced to feven-pence.

There is little danger, however, of the price of
wheat being advanced by the appropriation of about
twelve acres of land annually to the cultivation of
the above articles} for the land would be fo much
improved by the extra tillage given to the foil in-
;e^nded for thofe articles, and alfo during their
E 3 growth,

[ 54 ]

growth, that I am raiher of opinioa they would
produce more corn than if conftantly planted in the
ufual very imperfed manner.

The grcatcft obftacleto this mode of managing a
fmall farm (fay from 2cl. to 6ol. per annum) is,
the confined or narrow circumflances of the occu-
piers of fuch farms. In general their capitals are
ipuch too fmall to carry on their bufinefs to any
advantage in the prefent mode of management ^ but
the mode recommended would require an increafe
of capital to the tune of 200I. or 300I. Lefs than
400I. would not ftock a farm in this way of 60I. per
annum at any rate^ but a capital of 500I. would be
vaftly more convenient, and indeed much more to
the farmer's advantage.

If the improvements propofed are fo interefiing
,^ to the individuals immediately concerned, how very
important are its effeds in a political view, as it re-
" fpeds the community at large ! If eight acres of
land, by Ikill and management, can be rendered as
productive and as profitable as forty-eight acres,
whofe natural produce is of a medium value, it is
virtually increafing the extent of territory in a fix-
fold proportion i for if every acre of land could by
art and induftry be made to yield i\x times the
quantity of produce it does at prefent, the whole

might

I 55 3

niight be rendered capable of fupporting fix times
the number of the prefent inhabitants.

But this is far from being the whole of the ad-
vantage that will accrue from it. It will not only
jncreafe the quantity of provifions as aforefaid, but
it will alfo find abundance of employment for the
poor labourer and his family. In this refpefl dairy
farms are in a manner of no ufc; they afford little
or no employment at all for the poor labourers.
Within a few miles of me lives a dairy- man, who
milks conftantly between twenty and thirty cows.
He has no wife, keeps only one maid-fervant, has
neither man nor boy to aflifl him, and only hires ^
woman in the neighbourhood to affift in milking
night and morning, for which he pays her ifd. or
i6d. per week. This is his whole expence in the
management of his dairy 5 fcarce a tenth part of his
rent J whereas every arable acre, cultivated with
potatoes, &c. as above, will coft fowr or f}vie tirpes
as much as the rent of the land they grow on.
What an amazing difference doth this make to the
poor of a populous country, and alfo to thofe who
muft either find them employment, or maintain
^em without any !

I have often employed a poor fa^pily in planting
potatoes, and alfo in following the plough and

picking

[ 56 ]

picking them up when harvefteds a man, his wife,
and two children, about 12 or 13 years of age.
The man I paid 6s. a week, the woman 3s. and the
two children 3s, together 1 2s. A very pretty in-
come for a poor family! At thefe times they ufually
got them a few clothes; at other times, when I had
no employment for them, they have been often
obliged to feek relief from the parifh.

It is certainly a matter of great importance to all
men in bufinefs, to do ail in their power to promote
the beneficial employment of the poor; it not only
fcrves to alleviate a burthen, which in many places
is become intolerable; but is alfo the fureft means
of keeping the poor honelt. Many of them, I hope,
would never have thought of being otherwife, if
they had not been firft impelled by neceflity; who
from petty pilferings to get a penny, go on to
greatef thefts, till they too often go to the gallows 5
whereas, had they been conftantly employed, they
would have been neither neceflitous nor idle — the
two grand fources of all the evils they fuffer, and
the injuries they do to fociety I

I am. Sir,

Your moll obedient fervant,

North^Bockhampton, JOSEPH WIMPEY.

-Mx/. 25, 1788.

Articlb

[ 57 ]

Article IV.

RefeSIions on Drill-Machines, particularly
fiiggejled by an Account of one invented by
Mr. Barnes.

[By the fame, to the Secretary.]

SIR,

T Congratulate the publick on Mr. Barnes's in-
^ vention of a new Drill -Machine. In Art. xliv.
of your 4th volume, he fays, " Whenever it (hall
« be fully before the publick, I flatter myfclf, it will
*' be found to poflefs, at the price of ten guineas,
^^ at lead more than all the valuable properties con-
** tained in other machines of a much higher price."
If fo, I will venture to add, it has at leaft twice their
merit, as being more compleat, and but little above
half their price.

The benefit accruing to the publick from im-
provements in agriculture, by means of new inven-
tions to facilitate its operations and reduce its ex-
pences, muft ever be in proportion to the extenfivc
ufe that is made of them \ and thefe again will ever
much depend upon the eafe and moderate expcncc
0t which they may be acquired.

Were

[ 58 J

Were I the inventor of any machine or imple-
ment in hufbandry, which I had reafon to think
would be acceptable to the publick, I would fet it
at a price fo moderate as could be no impediment
to the fale of it. It may be a queftion, what would
in this cafe be a moderate profit ? The profits in
trade, when the returns are not very large, we may
fuppofe to run from lo to 15 percent. But in this
cafe, where ingenuity is as necelTary as diligence,
we will fuppofe twice that fum, or fay from 20 to
30 per cent, would not be generally thought immo-
derate. On thefe terms, therefore, I fliould hope,
every one who had beflowed his time and pains
with a view to ferve the publick, would, in the large
demands he might have for his inftruments, find a
full and fatisfa6lory recompence for his ingenuity, ex-
pence, and trouble, efpecially if, in the conftru6tion,
his principal object was ceconomy, as far as could be
made to confift with convenience and utility.

Had I the pleafure of Mr. Barnes's acquaint-
ance, I would beg leave to recommend thefe obfer-
vations to his confideration, being fully perfuaded,
he would find the demand for his machine in pro-
portion to the price; the lower in reafon he makes
it to the publick, the higher his intereft would rife
in proportion thereto, I am of opinion, where a

maa

t 59 ]

nuan fells one machine for fifteen guineas, he might
fell fifty for fivt guineas each. It is eafy for every
inventor, on this fuppofition, to calculate which
would be mod for his intereft.

The excelleace of all inventions is meafured by
the quantity of good they afibrd the publick. Every
inftrument or machine, therefore, be it ever fo ia-
genioufly c6nftru6led, and competent to its intended
ufe, becomes almoft ufclefs, and of very litde value
to the publick, if the price be fo high as almoft to-
tally to obftrudt and prevent the fale of it. It is a
kind of filo deje^ and may be fitly compared to a
law which permits the importation of certain arti-
cles of commerce, upon the payment of cuftoms io
immoderate as to all intents and purpofes to amount
to an efFedual prohibition, by which no one is a
gainer but the illicit trader.

Here then the ingenious inventor miftakes his
intereft egregiouflyj he facrifices the virtue of the
patriot, not to the real but to the imaginary intereft
of the individual, and fuffers at once both in his
intereft and his credit. The fureft and moft du-
rable patent is moderation of price ; thofe that are
purchafed confine and reftrain the fale, but reafon-
able prices encourage and promote it, whatever be
the commodity at market.

Immoderate

[ 6o ]

' Immoderate taxes are ever unfriendly to trade,
and heavy charges and ekorbitant expences are not
Ipfs fo to fcience and the arts. Ingenuity, even
mere prctenfions to ingenuity, are often taxed as
high as any article of commerce. Subfcriptions
for thoufands and tens of thoufands are propofed
and tendered to the publick, with as much eafe, un-
concern, and firmnefs of features now, a*- the moft
hardy veteran would have dared to have offered for-
merly for fives and for fifties. But this is an age in
which credulity is become epidemical, and the al-
chemy and empirifm of Ben Johnson^s days are faft
gaining ground under another denomination, and in
a different form. Should a comick genius arife of
equal humour and parts, he might now find as ample
a field of impoflure to range in as ever difgraced that
poet*s times. The furefl and mofl effedlual means
of promoting and extending knowledge for the ge-
neral benefit of the publick, is to render it attainable
on the eafieft and leafl expenfive means pofTible.

I hope no proprietor of any machine now in ufe
will conceive, that any thing is here meant inimical
to his intereft. It is the writer's fincere wifh, that
matters might be fo ordered, as to render the inte-
reft of the proprietors compatible with that of the
publick in general. Should the drill hufbandry b^

generally

[ 6. ]

generally extended, as there feems to be good reafbrt
to exped, I will venture to fay, new inventions of
.macl>ines for drilling will mod probably foon appear,
of a very fimple conftrudlion, and at a price fo mo-
derate as will rarely be an impediment to their ufe,
even among the lowed clafs of farmers.

I have been for fome years pad a qonfiderable
fpeculator in this bufinefs, and have'ufed many in-
ventions for performing this mode of planting,
hoping to find the eafied, cheaped, and mod oeco-
nomical manner poflible. However, I am not able
to determine the precife manner of planting, fo as
to produce the mod beneficial crops for any feries
of years in fucceflion. I call that the mod bene-
ficial crop, which produces the greatcd nett gain
upon any given quantity of land, for any given
term of years.

For this purpofe I have fowed this feafon ieveral
fields of wheat in drills of very different didances,
and in different modes. Some were fown in rows
of 18 inches didance with a hand-machine, with
iwhich at this didance a day-labourer fowed from
four to fix acres a day, which was completely co-
vered with one tine of the harrows. This fimple
machine was made by a country carpenter under my
diredlions, and cod only half 3 guinea. Other fields

I have

[ 62 ]

I have planted In a very different manner, which
indeed, for the three laft years, has been my iifiial
cuftom. The land being well ploughed, I throw it
into fmall ridges with three bouts of the plough.
The diftance then from the middle of one furrow
to that of the next is about four feet fix inches.
The top of the ridge about a yard wide, and the
breadth oPthe furrow i8 inches. On the tops of
the ridges I plant three rows of corn, at the diftance
of ten inches from each other. This is performed
with a machine which makes the channels, drops
the corn, and completely covers it, at one operation.
This machine was made by the fame workman as
the former, and did not coft me more than about
30s. This inftrument performs extremely well, the
the corn is come up very regularly, the rows per-
fed, and the partitions clean. The firft machine
will fow fingle rows at any diftance, and any feed
from a horfe-bean to a turnip-feed.

The other inftrument will fow one, two, three,
or five rows on each ridge, and any fort you pleafe.
This laft, however, is capable of innprovement, and
when made as complete as can be defired, I think
cannot exceed two guineas and a half. Thefe are
the fafls on which I ground my predidion; that
the time will come when the price of inftruments

for

C 63 ]

for this mode of planting will be no impediment
to the general ufe of them, if that mode of practice
fhould ever prevail. But I poftpone any alteration
till I am better fatisfied of the moft profitable me-
thod of planting.

I am. Sir,
Your moft obedient fervant,

North.Bockhampm, JOSEPH WIMPEY.

Feb, 14, 1789.

[Mr. Wimpey's refledlionson Drill-Machines contain
much important truth — and as fuch, the Committee could
have no induccmentto withhold them from the publick.
On the contrary, they are inferted as a frefh proof of the
cftimation in which his correfpondence on experimental
hufbandry is held : but while the Committee agree with
Mr. WiMPEY on the inventing fmall, fimple, and cheap
machines for fmall farmers, they are of opinion, that the
expence of large and mafterly pieces of mechanifm, is a
fmall object in comparifon with the advantages of greater
expedition on a large fcale of farming.]

1V7-

^

Article

C 64 1

Article V.

Prefatory Remarks '^ Hints refpe5ting Potatoes^
a Machine for bruijing Furze ^ and a Plan for
improving the Wool of this Country.

[By Dr. J. Anderson, to the Secretary.]
Sir,

SOME time ago I did myfelf the honour to write
to you, acknowledging the receipt of the letter
and parcel you were fo kind to fend to me, and
giving fome anfwer to Mr. Anstie's queries re-
ipeding Wool, which 1 hope you received.

Along with this you will receive fome obferva-
tions on the management of the dairy, particularly
with regard to the making of butter, which are the
refult of experience \ and I fhall be happy if the
members of your fociety will accept of this as a
teftimony of my gratitude, and a proof of my de-
fire to forward, as far as in me lies, the beneficent
views of your inftitution,

I have a few more experiments on potatoes, that
are nearly ready for being communicated; among
other difcoveries, the refult of thefe experiments is
a method of rearing potatoes fo as to have them at

any

[ 65 ]

any feafon that may be wanted, at a very fmall
expence. I had potatoes lad feafon wichout any
fort of cover, as large as to weigh from two to three
ounces each, by the firft of May. If you think the
communication of this procefs will be agreeable to
the fociety, I fhall fend an account of it. It never
has been yet defcribed in any publication that I
have yet heard of.

I obferve, among the premiums for laft year, one
is offered for a model of a machine for bruifing
whins [furze] as food for cattle; I have made ufe
of a machine of that fort, on a farm I have in Aber-
deenfhire, for many years paft, which anfwers the
purpofe very well. By the help of an old horfe of
little value, it can be made to bruife enough for forty
head of full-grown beads, were they to eat nothing
clfe. I meant to have lent a model of it, but as it is
probable you may already have got one, I deferred
executing it, till 1 fhould hear from you whether you
had got one or not. I have alfo cultivated furze
as food for horfes and cattle with great profit.

In revolving Mr. Anstie*s queries in my mind,
and frequently thinking of the benefits this country
might in time derive from being pofTeffed of a very
fine kind of wool of her own produce; and the
convenience (he in certain refpeds pofleffes above

Vol. V- F all

[ 66 ]

all other nations of improving the quality of her
wool to a degree that never yet has been known in
Europe J I have often ^iflied it were pofTible to find
a few gentlemen who were willing to aflbciatc them-
felves into a fociety, for the exprefs purpofe of im-
proving the quality of Britifh wool. I would pro-
pofe that it fliould be done fomewhat on the plan of
your Society, or the Society of Arts in London,
where a fmall annual fubfcription only is required
from each member, with liberty to withdraw it when
they may think proper. The bufinefs to be ma-
naged by a committee, chofen out of their ov/n
number. Should Mr. Anstie, or any other public-
fpirited gentleman in your neighbourhood, think it
probable, that fuch a thing, if propofed, would be
likely to take place, I Ihould explain the principles
on v^hich it might be conduced, and demonftrate
the pradicability of it. I could be confident (with-
out having communicated this plan to his Grace)
that the Duke of Argyle, whofe concurrence would
be of great ufe for perfecting the plan, would not only
countenance, but liberally forward the undertaking.

I am. Sir,

Your mofl obedient fervant,

Cotfield.near EVinhurgh, JAMES ANDERSON.
Ffb. 4, 1789*

ARXrCLE

Plate. I.

Plan

A Leith Cart.

Fig. ^^.i^ecfion ofaMi/^Ifo?/^e ^Iroug/^ ^*^ /^7ie, a . b .

f'^'tO

IK Li

i

S

lti^l.Pla?i ot' a Mii/c-louse fvitoits nec^pary avvurlfna?ic€^ ,

J/,/-/yrr^. /U/A

[ 67 ]

Article VL

On the Management of the Dairy, particularh
with refpeB to the making and curi?ig of
Butter.

[By J. Anderson, LL.D. F.R.S. and F.S.A.S.]

WHEN a dairy is cftablifhed, the undertaker
may fomctimes think it his intereft to ob-
tain the greatefl poflible quantity of produce, fome-
times it may be more beneficial for him to have it
of the ffiejl qualify, and at other times it may be
neceffary to have both thefe objedlis in view, the one
or the other in a greater or Jefs pi-oportion ; it is
therefore of importance he fhould know how he may
accomplifh the one or the other of thefe purpofes,
in the eafieft and mod dircdl manner.

To be able to convert his milk to the higheft
pofDble profit in every cafe, he ought to be fully
acquainted with every circumftance refpe^ling the
manufacture both of butter and of cheefe ; as it
may in fome cafes happen that a certain portion of
that milk may be more advantageoufiy converted
into butter than into cheefe, while another portion
of it would return more profit if made into cheefe.
It is not, however, intended in the prefent cflay to
F a enter

E 68 ]

enter into this wide difcufnon. Here, it is only
propofed to treat of the manufadlnre of butter,
leaving the fubje(5l of cheefe-making to fome other
perfon to treat of, who is more converfant in that
department than the author of this efTay.

4

The firft thing to be adverted to in an underta-
king of this nature is, to choofe cows of a proper
fort. Among this clafs of animals, it is found by
experience, that fome kinds give milk of a much
thicker confidence, and richer quality than others;
nor is this richnefs of quality necefiarily connected
with the fmallnefs of the quantity yielded by cows of
nearly an equal fize; it therefore behoves the owner
of a dairy to be peculiarly attentive to this circum-
ftance. In judging of the value of a cow, it ought
rather to be the quantity and the quality of the
cream produced from the milk of a cow in a given
time, than the quantity of the milk itfelf. This is
a circumftance that will be fliewn in the future to
be of more importance than is generally imagined.
The fmall cows of the Alderney breed afford the
richeft milk hitherto known j but individual cows
in every country may be found, by a careful felec-
tion, that afford much thicker milk than others j
thefe therefore ought to be fearched for with care,
and their breed reared with attention, as being pe-
culiarly valuable.

Few

[ 69 ]

Few perfons who have had any experience at all
in the dairy way can be ignorant, however, that in
comparing the milk of two cows, to judge of their
refpedlive qualities, particular attention muft be
paid to the time that has efapftd fince their calving;
for the milk of the fame cow is always thinner
foon after calving, than it is afterwards; as it gra-
dually becomes thicker, though generally Icfs in
quantity, in proportion to the time the cow has
calved. The colour of the milk, however, foon
after calving is richer than it afterwards becomes j
but this, efpecially for the firft two weeks, is a
faulty colour that ought not to be coveted.

To make the cows give abundance of milk, and
of a good quality, they muft at all times have plenty
of food. Grafs is the beft food yet known for this
purpofe, and that kind of grals which fprings up
fpontaneoufly on rich dry foils is the beft of all,*
V 3 If

• So little attention has hitherto been beftowed on this fubjedl, that I
do not know of any fet of experiments that have ever yet been made,
with a view to afcertain the effects of any of the natural gralTes that
fpontaneoufly fpring up in abundance on our fields, cither on the
quantity or the quality of the milk of cows, and few that have been
attempted even with regard to thofe plants that have been cultivated by
art as green forage for them; though it be well known that fome par-
ticular kinds of plants ftrongly affedl the tafte, and alter the quality of
particular produdls of milk. It is inde«d, in all cafes, confidently

aflcrtcd,

[ 70 ]

If the temperature of the climate be fach as to per-
mit the cows to graze at eafe throughout the day,
they fhould be fufFered. to range on fuch paftures
at freedom -, but if the cows are fo much incom-
moded by tne heat as to be prevented from eating
through the day, they ought in that cafe to be taken
into cool fhadcs for protedtion, where, after allowing
them a proper time to ruminate, they ihould be
fupplied with abundance of green food frefli cut for
the purpofe, and given to them by hand frequently
in frtiall quantities frelh and frefh, fo as to induce
them to eat it with pleafure.* When the heat of

aJOTerted, that old paftures alone can ever be made to afford rich butter
or cheefe. This, however, I know from my own repeated experience
to be a popular > error, as I have frequently feen muth richer butter
made by one perfon from cows that were fed in the houfe chiefly with
cut clover and rye-grafs, than that which was made by others, where
the cows were fed on very rich old paftures. Mankind are in general
difpofed to throw the blame of every failure upon fome circumftance
that does not reflect on themfelves as bad managers. Hence it is that
the grafs of a farm is often blamed for the want of richnefs of the butter
produced upon it; when, if the circumftances were fully inveftigated,
it would be found to be occafioned by the unlkilfuhiefs of the dairy-
maid, or the want of attention in the choice of proper cows.

* In very warm climates, where the heat is extremely oppreflive to
cows, and the flies are exceedingly troublefome, flieds open on one
fide, the roof being only fupported there by pillars, would not afford
them fuch efK<5lual (belter as they would require. In thefe cafes, the
feeds ihould be walled up on both fides, and be left open only at the
two ends, which, if properly placed, would produce a continued ftream,
of air throughout the whole buiJjding, that would prove highly ialutary
to the cattle.

the

[ 21 1

the day is over, and they can remain abroad with
eafe, they may be again turned into the pafture,
where they (hould be allowed to range with freedom
all night during the mild wcathef of fummer.

Cows, if abundantly fed, fhould be milked three
times a day during the whole of the fummer fca-
fonj"*^ in the morning early, at noon, and in the
evening, juft before night-fall. In the choice of
perfons for milking the cows, great caution fhould
be employed; for if that operation be not carefully
and properly performed, not only the quantity of
the produce of the dairy will be greatly diminifhed,
but its quality alfo will be very much debafed -, for
if all the milk be not thoroughly drawn from a cow
when fhe is milked, that portion of milk which is
left in the udder feems to be gradually abforbed
into the fyftem, and nature generates no more than
to fupply the wafte of what has been taken away.

• If cows be milked only tw'ice in the day [24 hours] while they,
have abundance of fucculent food, they will yield a much fmallcr quan-
tity of milk in the fame time than if they be milked three times. Some
attentive obfervers I have met with think a cow in thcfe circumftances
will give nearly as much milk at eacb time, if milked three times, as
if Ihe were milked only twice. This fa<St, however, has not,, that I
know of, beenrafcertained by experiment. There can be no doubt but
they give more, how much is not afcertained; nor whether it would
be advantageous in any cafe to milk them four times, or oftener ; or
wh2it effedl frequent milking produces on the qualitj of the milk.

[ 72 ]

If this leffened quantity be not again thoroughly
drawn off, it occafions a yet farther diminution of
the quantity of milk generated; and fo on, it may
be made to proceed in perpetual progreflion from
little to lefs, till none at all is produced. In fhort,
this is the pradtice in all cafes followed, when it is
meant to allow a cow's milk to dry up entirely with-
out doing her hurt. In this manner, therefore, the
profits of a dairy might be wonderfully diminifhed;
fo that it much behoves the owner of it to be ex-
tremely attentive to this circumftance, if he wilhes
to avoid ruin. It ought to be a rule without an
exception, never to allow this important department
to be entrufted, without controul, to the manage-
ment of hired fervants.* Its importance will be
(till more manifell from what follows :

In the management of a dairy, the following pe-
culiarities refpedling milk ought to be very particu-
larly adverted to j fome of them are, no doubt,

* Cows fhould always be treated with great gentlenefs, and foothed
by mild ufage, efpecially when young and ticklifh, or when the paps
are tender; in which laft cafe, the udder ought to be fomented with
warm water before milking, and touched with the greateft gentlenefs,
otherwife the cow will be in danger of contrad^ing bad habits, be-
coming ftubborn and unruly, and retaining her milk ever after. A
cow npver lets down her milk pleafantly to the perfon Ihe dreads or
diflikes. The udder and paps fhould always be walhed with clean
water before milking ; but care fhould be taken that none of that
'^^'atcr be admitted into the milking pail.

known

[ 73 ]

known in part to attentive houfewives, but they
never yet, I have reafon to believe, have been ad-
verted to as their innportance deferves ; and by
many have never been thought of at all. I put
them down in the form of aphorifms, that they may
be the more adverted to, and the eafier retained.

Aphorism I.

Of the Milk that is drawn from any cow at one time^
that which comes off at the firfl is always thinner ^
and of a much worfe quality , than that which comes
afterwards y and the richnefs goes on continually in-
creafing to the very laft drop that can be drawn from
the udder at that time.

Few perfons are ignorant, that milk which is
taken from the cow laft of all at milking, which in
this country is called flroakingSy is richer than the
reft of the milk— but fewer ftill are aware of the
greatnefs of the dilproportion between the quality
of the firft and the laft drawn milk from the fame
cow at one milking. The following fa6ts relpedling
this circumftance were afcertained by me many
years ago, and have been confirmed by many fubfe-
quent experiments and obfervations.

Having taken feveral large tea-cups exadly of the
fame fize ajid ftiape, one of thcfe tea-cups was filled

at

[ 74 ]

at the beginning of the cow milking, and the others
at regular intervals till the laft, which was filled with
the dregs of the ftroakings. Thefe were each
weighed, the weight of each cup being fettled fo as
to afcertain that the quaiitity of milk in each was
precifely the fame; and from a great number of
experiments, frequently repeated with many diffe-
rent cows, the refult was in all cafes thus :

The quantity of cream obtained from the firft
drawn cup was, in every cafe, much fmaller than
from that which was laft drawn ; and thofe between
afforded lefs or more, as they were nearer the be-
ginning or the end. It is unneceffary here to fpe-
cify thefe intermediate proportions j but it is proper
the reader fhould be informed, that the quantity of
cream obtained from the laft-drawn cup, from fome
cows, exceeded that from the firft in the proportion
oi Sixteen to one. In other cows, however, and in
particular circumftances, the difproportion was not
quite fo great ; but in no cafe did I find it fall Ihort
of the rate of eight to one. Probably, upon an ave-
rage of a great many cows, it might be found to run
as ten or twelve to one.

*xdly. The difference in the quality of the cream,
however, obtained from thefe two cups, was much
greater than the difference in the quantity. In the

firft

[ IS ]

firft cup the cream was a thin tough fUm, thinner
and perhaps whiter than the paper on which I
write ; in the laft, the cream was of a thick buty^
rous confiftence, and of a glowing richnefs of co-
lour, that no other kind of cream is ever found
to poflefs.

^dly. The difference in the quality of the milk
that remained after the cream was feparated, was
perhaps ftill greater than either in refpe6t to the
quantity or the quality of the cream. The milk in
the firft cup was a thin bluifh liquid, like as if a
very large proportion of water had been mixed with
ordinary milkj that in the laft cup was of a thick
confiftence and yellow colour, more refembling
cream than milk, both in tafte and appearance.

From this important experiment it appears, that
the perfon who, by bad milking of his cows, lofes
but half a pint of his milk, lofes in fadl about as
much cream as would be afforded by fix or eight
pints at the beginning, and lofes befides that part
of the cream which alone can give richnefs and
high flavour to his butter. Many other ufcful co-
rollaries may be drawn from it, which 1 do not at
prefent ftop to enumerate. Some of them will
occur in the fequeL

APHORISAf

[ 76 ]

Aphorism II,

If milk he put up in a dijhy and allowed to ft and till it
throws up cream, that portion of cream which rifes
jirft to thefurface is richer in quality y and greater in
quantity y than what rifes in afecond equal portion of
time J and the cream that rifes in thefecond interval
cf time is greater in quantity and richer in quality
than that which rifes in a third equal fpace of time ;
and that of the third than the four thy andfo on, the
cream that rifes decreafes in quantity y and declines in
quality continually y as long as any rfes to thefurface.

My experiments not having been in this cafe
made with fo much accuracy as in the former, I
have not been enabled to afcertain the difference in
the proportion that takes place in equal portions of
time i but they have been fo often repeated as not
to leave any room to doubt the fad y and it will be
allowed to be a fa6l of no fmall importance in the
management of the dairy. It is not certain, how-
ever, but that a greater quantity of cream may upon
the whole be obtained from the milk by taking it
away at different times, but the procefs is fo trou-
blefome as not to be counterbalanced by the in-
creafed quantity obtained, if 'indeed an additional
quantity be thus obtained, which is not as yet

fully certain.

Aphorism

[ 77 ]

Aphorism III. ♦

Thick milk always throws up ajmaller proportion of
the cream it aBually contains to thejurface^ than milk
that is thinner y hut that cream is of a richer quality \
and if water he added to that thick milky it will afford
a confiderahly greater quantity of cream than it would
have done if allowed to remain pure ; hut its quality
is at the fame time greatly dehqfed.

This is a fadt that every perfon attentive to a
dairy mud have remarked; but I have never heard
of any experiment that could afcertain either the
precife amount of the increafed quantity of cream
that might thus be obtained, or of the ratio in the
decreafe of its quality^ but it afcertains the effeds
at leaft of mixing water with the milk m a dairy;
arid the knowledge of this fadt will enable attentive
perfons to follow that pradlice which they think will
bed promote their own intereft.

Aphorism IV.

Milk which is put into a hucket or other proper vejfely
and carried in it to any ccnftderahle diftance, fo as to
he much agitated and in part cooled hefore it he put
into the milk-pans to fettle for cream, never throws
upfo much nor fo rich cream y as if the fame milk
had heen put into the milk -pans dire^ly after it
' was milked.

In

In this cafe, it is believed the lofs of cream will
be nearly in proportion to the time that has elapfed,
and the agitation it has fuftained after being drawn
from the cow. But I am not as yet in polTefTion of
any experiments that fufficiently afcertain how
much is to be afcribed to the time, and the agita-
tion, taken feparately. On every branch of agri-
culture we find experiments wanting at each flep
we advance in our enquiries. The labours of no
one man can complete the whole ; but it is the duty
of every enquirer to point out as he goes along
where they are wanted.

From the above fadls the following corollaries
feem to be clearly deducible :

ift. It is of importance that the cows fliould be
always milked as near the dairy as poffible, to pre-
vent the neceflity (5f carrying and cooling the milk
before it be put into the dillies; and as cows are
much hurt by far-driving, it mull be a great ad-
vantage in a dairy farm to have the principal grafs
fields as near the dairy, or homefted, as poflible. .^

idly. The pradtice of putting the milk of all the
cows of a large dairy into one veficl, as it is milked,
there to remain till the whole milking be finiihed be-
fore any part of it is put into the milk pans, feems
to be highly injudicious, not only on account of the

lofs

[ 79 ]

lofs that is fuftained by agitation and cooling, but
alfo, more efpecially, becaufe it prevents the owner
of the dairy from dlftinguifhing the good from the
bad cow's milk, fo as to feparate thefe from each
other, where it is neceflfary. He may thus have the
whole of his dairy produ6l greatly debafed by the
milk of one bad cow, for years together, without
being able to difcover it.* A better pra6lice there-
fore would be, to have the milk drawn from each
cow feparately put into the creaming pans as foon as
it is milked, without being ever mixed with any
other. Thus would the careful ^/2/f be able on all
occafions to obferve the particular quality of each
individual cow*s milk, as well as its quantity, and to
know with precifion which of his cows it was his
intereft to difpofe of, and which of them he ought to
keep and breed from.

• I once faw a cow that gave milk wliich could never beriade t©
jield any butter at all, though it had the appearance of being very rich
milk. The perfou who fold tliat cow had had her feve1*al years, along
with a good many others, without having fo much as had any fufpi-
cion of this peculiarity. It was only difcovered when (he came into
the poircflion of a pcrfon who had but one cow. ■.

•f I beg leave here to adopt a provincial word, wliich is ftrongly ex-
prcflive, and much wanted in the Englifli language. Daiy or JW, in
Aberdecnfhire, denotes the perfon who has the fuperiiitcndance of a
dairy, whether that perfon be male or female. In. that fcnfe it is here
employed. Dairy-tnaids which is the only Englilh word nearly equi-
valent to it, denotes a perfon of an inferior ftation,.who, under the fu-
pcrintcndance of the former, executes the menial offices of the dairy.

[ 80 ]

. 2^ly. If It be intended to make butter cf a very
fine quality^ it will be advifeable in all cafes to keep
the milk that is firfl drawn feparate from that which
comes lafti as it is obvious that, if this be not done,
the quality of the butter will be greatly debafed,
without much augmenting its quantity. It is alfo
obvious, that the quality of the butter will be im-
proved in proportion to the fmallnefs of the pro-
portion of the lafl-drawn milk that is retained, fo
that thofe who wifh to be Angularly nice in this re-
fpe6b, will do well to retain only a very fmall pro-
portion of the laft-drawn milk.

To thofe owners of dairies who have profit only
in view^, it muft ever be a matter of trial and
calculation, how far it is expedient for them to
carry the improving of the quality of their butter,
at the expence of diminifhing its quantity. In dif-
ferent fituations, prudence will point out different
kinds of pradtice as moil eligible; and all perfons
muft be left, after making accurate trials, to deter-
mine for themfelves. It is likewife a confideration
of no fmall importance, to determine in what way
the inferior milk that is thus to be fet apart, where
fine butter is wanted, can be employed with the
greateft profit. In the Highlands of Scotland they
have adopted, without thinking of the improve-
ment of their butter, a very fimplc and oeconomical

practice

t 8i ]

praftlce in this refpedl. • As the rearing of calves
is there a principal objedl with the farmer, every
cow is allowed to fiickle her own calf with a portion
of her milk, the remainder only being employed in
the dairy. To give the calf its proportion regu-
larly, it is feparated from the cow, and kept in an
inclofure along with all the other calves belonging
to the fame farm. At regular times the cows are
driven to the door of the calves' inclofure, where the
young ones fail not to meet them. Each calf is
then feparately let out, and runs direftly to its mo-
ther, where it fucks till the dairy-maid judges it has
had enough, when Ihe orders it to be driven away,
having previoufly (hackled the hinder legs of the mo-
ther, by a very fimple contrivance, to oblige her to
(land itill. Boys drive away the calf with fwitches,
and return it to the inclofure, while the dairy-maid
milks off what was left by the calf. Thus they pro-
ceed till the whole of the cows are milked, and thus
do they obtain a fmall quantity of milk, it is true,
but that milk of an exceeding rich quality ; which,
in the hands of fuch of the inhabitants as know how
to manage it, is manufadlured into the richeft mar-
rowy butter that can be any where met with. This
richnefs of the Highland butter is univcrfally afcribed
to the old grafe the cows feed upon in their remote
glens, but it is in fad chietiy to be attributed to the
Vol. V, G ' pradice

C 82 ]

pfacftice here dcfcribed, which has long prevailed in
thefe regions.* Vv hether a fimilar pra6lice could be
oeconomically adopted elfewherej I do not take upon
me to fay, but doubtlefs other fecondary ufes might
be found for the milk of inferior quality; on fome
occafions it might be converted into butter of an
inferior quality; on others it might be fold fweet,
•where the fituation of the farm is within reach of
a market-town; On other occafions it might be
converted into cheefes, which, by being made of
fweet milk, would be of a very fine quality if care-
fully madejf and ftilL other ufes might be devifed

for

* And perhaps in fome meafure to the nature of the beaft.

f The making of cheefe has never yet been reduced to fcientifical
principles, and confequently the reafoning relating to it is very incon-
clufive. It is in general fuppofed that the goodnefs of cheefe depends
almoft entirely upon its richnefs, by which is meant the proportion of
oily matter, whether natural or extraneous, it contains ; nothing how-
ever is more certain, than that this opinion is erroneous. Sometimes
a very lean cheefe is much better tafted than one that is much fatter ;
and, which will appear to moll perfons ftill more extraordinary, it fre-
quently happens that a cheefe that taftes feft and fat, is much leaner
than one that is hard, diy , and fticky. The mode of manufaduring
it occafions this, and not the quantity of cream it contains. It is very
pofiible, by art, to make poor Ikim-milk cheefe affume the foft buttery
tafte and appearance, even of cream-cheefes. This fubjed, therefore,
deferves highly to be more particularly elucidated than it hitherto
has been.

Co'nne(5led as it is with the obje<a difculTcd In the text, I beg leave
to fuggell the following particulars, as a proper obje(5l of examination
aod experiment, viz. Is the quantity of cafeous matter afforded by

milk

[ 83 ]

for its application, which I cannot now (lop to
enumerate.*

G 2 4fbfy. If

milk neceflTarlly conne(fled with the proportion of cream that milk con-
tains, or does it depend upon fome other principle not hitherto invcf«
tigatcd ? Without prctendijig to decide on this queftion, I feel myfelf
ftrongly inclined to believe it does not depend upon the quantity of
cream. It is well known that cow's milk, which always throws up
more cream, and that of a much richer quality than ewe milk, does in
no cafe afford above one half the proportion of cheefe that ewe milk
docs. Nor can this fingular tendency of ewe milk, to yield a great
proportion of curd, be attributed to its fuperior thicknefs ; for cow
milk can be often had that is thicker and richer than ewe milk, but it
always affords a much fmaller proportion of curd. From thefe confi-
dcrations, it is not impoffible, but it might be found upon a careful in-
veftigation, that the refufe milk, which ought to be feparated from the
other in making the beft butter, might be equally proper, or very nearly
fo, for making cheefes, as if no fuch feparation had been made. I
therefore recommend this as a proper obje<5k of experimental enquiry.

• I fliall here mention one mode of managing mi^c, by means of
which the inferior kinds of it might, on many occafions, efpecially
vrithin reach of towns, be difpofed of to great advantage. Take com-
mon (kimmed milk when it has begun to turn four, put it into an up-
right Hand chum, or a barrel with one of its ends out, or any other
convenient veffel. Heat fome water, and pour it into a tub that is
large enough to contain with eafe the veffel in which the milk was put.
Set the veffel containing the milk into the hot water, and let it remain
there for the fpace of one night. In the morning it will be found that
the milk hath feparated into two parts, a thick cream-like fubftance
which occupies the upper part of the veffel, and a thin l^rous watery
part, that remains in the bottom; draw off the thin part (called here
nvigg ) by opening a ilop-cock placed for that purpofe clofe above the
bottom, and refcrve the cream for ufe. Not much lefs than the half
of the milk is thus converted into a fort of cream, which, when wril
made, feems to be as rich and fat as real cream itfelf, and is only
diftinguifhable from that by its foumefs. It is eaten with fugar, and

cftccmed

[ 84 ]

d^hly. If the quality of the butter be the chief ob-
ject attended to, it will be necelTary not only to fe-
parate the find from the laft drawn milk, but alfo to
take nothing but the cream that is firft feparated
from the bcft milk, as it is this firft rifing cream alone
that is of the prime quality. The remainder of
the milk, which will be ftill fweet, may be either
employed for the purpofe of making fweet milk
cheefes, or it may be allowed to ftand to throw up
cream for making butter of an inferior quality, as
circumftances may dire6t.

^thly. From the above fads, we are enabled to
perceive that butter of the very beft poiTible quality
Can only be obtained from a dairy of confiderable
extent, when judicioufly managed ; for when only a
very fmall portion of each cow*s milk can be fet
apart for throwing up cream, and when only a very
fmall proportion of that cream can be referved as
of the prime quality, it follows, that, unlefs the
quantity of milk were upon the whole very confi-
derable, the quantity of prime cream produced
would be fo fmall as to be fcarcely worth the v/hile
for manufadluring feparately.

cfteemed a great delicacy, and ufually fells at double the price of frefh
unfkimmed milk. It requires pratJlice, however, to be able to make
this nicely; the degree of the heat of the water, and many other cir-
cumftances, greatly affcdling the operation. Thefe things pra<5tice beft
difcovers.

6thly. Fron>

[ 85 ]

6thly, From thefe premifcs we are alfo led to
draw another conclufion, extremely different from
the opinion that is commonly entertained on this
fubjedt; viz. That it feems probable that the very
bed butter could only be with oeconomy made in
thofe dairies where the manufacture of cheefe is the
principal (5bje6l. The reafons are obvious: — If
only a fmall portion of the milkfhould be fet apart
for butter, all the reft may be made into cheefe
while it is yet warm from the cow and perfedlly
fweetj and if only that portion of cream which rifes
during the firft three or four hours after milking is
to be referved for butter, the rich milk which is left
after that cream is feparated, being ftill perfectly
fvVeet, may be converted into cheefe with as great
advantage nearly as the newly-milked milk itfelf.

But as it is not probable that many perfons could
be found, who would be willing to purchafe the very
finefl butter made in the manner above pointed out,
at the price that would be fufficient to indemnify the
farmer for his trouble in making itj thefe hints are
thrown out merely to fatisfy the curious in what
way butter poffeffing this fuperior degree of excel-
lence may be obtained, if they choofe to be at the
expence; but for an ordinary market, I am fatisfied,
from experience and attentive obfcrvation^ that if
G 3 ift

[ 86 ]

in general about the firft drawn ^^^ of the milk be
feparated at each milking, and the remainder only
be fet up for producing cream, and if that milk be
allowed to (land to throw up the whole of its cream,
even till it begins fenfibly to tafte fouriQi, and if
that cream be afterwards carefully managed, the
butter thus obtained will be of a quahty greatly fu-
perior to what can ufually be obtained at market,
and its quantity not confiderably lefs, than if the
whole of the milk had been treated alike.* This,
therefore, is the pradlice that I fhould think moft
likely to fuit the frugal farmer, as his butter, though
of a fuperior quality, could be afforded at a price
that would always infure it a rapid fale,

• Among other reafons that induced me to feparate about the half of
the milk, the following may be ftated. Whilft I was employed in
making the experiments on milk abovemcntioned, it chanced tliat
among my cows there was one which had mifled having a calf that fea-
fon, and ftill continued to give milk, (a cow in tliefe circumftances we
here call 2l farrow or farra cow.) Her milk, as is not uncommon in
thefe circurnflances, tailed fenfibly fait. On trying the different par-
cels of that milk, however, it was perceived that the firft-drawn milk
was extremely fait to the tafte, and that the laft was perfe(Slly fweet.
On an after trial made with a view to afcertain what proportion of the
milk v/as fait, it was found that the faltnefs decreafed gradually from
the beginning, and was entirely gone when nearly one half of the milk
was drawn off, fo that all the laft-drawn half of the milk was quite
fweet. I intended to have tried if other naufeous taftes that fometimes
affe<5l milk, fuch as that from turnips, cabbages, &c. were peculiarly
confined to the firfl-drawn milk or not ; but other avocations prevented
xnc ifrpm afcertaining thi.e fa(il.

Fron>

[ 87 ]

From thefe general obfervations on miJk, it is
neceflary we fhould proceed to particulars. No
dairy can be managed with profit, gnlcfs a place
properly adapted for keeping the milk, and for
carrying on the different operations of the dairy, be
firft provided. The neceflary requifites of a good
milk-houfe are, that it be cool in fummer, and warm
in winter, fo as to preferve a temperature nearly the
fame throughout the whole year; and that it be di-y,
fo as to admit of being kept clean and fweet at all
times. As it is on mod occafions difficult to con-
trive a place within the dwelling-houfe that can
poflefs all thefe requifites, I would advife that a fe-
parate building fhould be always eredled, which,
upon the plan I (hall now defcribe, may in every
fituation be* reared at a very fmall expence, and
will anfwer the purpofe much better than any of
thofe expenfive ftrudlures I have feen, that were
built by noblemen or gentlemen for this ufe.

This (Iruclure ought, if pofllble, to be ere<5led
near to a cool fpring, or running water, where eafy
accefs can be had to it by the cows, and where it is
not liable to be incommoded by.ftagnant water. It
fhould confift of a range of narrow buildings as in the
plan J* that divifion in the middle, marked A, being
the milk-houfe properly fo called. The walls of this

t Sec the plate a^ocxqd,

building

C 88 1

building Ihould be reared of brick, or of ftone and
lime, all round the infide -, this wall need not exceed
in thicknefs one brick in length, or if of ftone, about
one foot thick; beyond that, the wall which is full
fix feet in thicknefs, fhould be made of fod on the
outfide, and earth rammed firm within that. The
infide wall of this building may be feven or eight
feet high in the fides, on which may be placed the
couples to fupport the roof, and the walls at the ga-
bels carried up to the height of the couples. Upon
thefe (hould be laid a roof of reeds, or thatch, that
Ihould not be lefs than three feet in thicknefs, which
ihould be produced downward till it covers the
whole of the walls on each fide; but here, if thatch
or reeds be not in fuch plenty as could be wifhed,
there is nooccafion for laying it quite fo thick. In
the roof, exa6l:ly above the middle of the building,
Ihould be placed a wooden pipe of a fufficient length
to rife a foot or two above the roof, to ferve occa-
fionally as a ventilator. The top of this funnel
Ihould be covered, to prevent rain from getting
through it, and a valve fitted to it, that by means of
a ftring could be opened or fhut at pleafure. A
window alfo fiiould be made upon one fide for giv-
ing light, the fl:rudure of which will be beft under-
ftood from the fedlion of this part Of the building,
Vfhich is reprefented at Fig. 2. F. G. It is necef-

fary

t 89 1

fary to fpecify, however, that this aperture fliould
be clofcd by means of two glazcjJ frames, one on
the outfide at G, and the other on the infide at F,
I prefume it is hardly neceflary to inform the reader^
that the ufe of this double fafh, as well as the great
thicknefs of the wall, and of the thatch upon the
roof, as alfo of the buildings at the end of it, are to
render the temperature of this apartment as equal
as poflible at all feafons of the year, by efFe^lually
cutting it off from having any direft communica-*
tion wich the external air.

The apartment marked B, is intended to fervej

as a repofitory for the utenfils of the dairy, and a

place in which they may be cleaned, and put ia

order, to be ready when they are wanted. For this

purpofe ranges of (helves may be placed all round

the walls, and tables and other conveniences placed

where neceflary. Here the walls are thinner than

the other, and may be built wholly of brick or

ftone ; nor is there a neceffity for having the thatch

here fo thick laid on as in the middle diviQon. In

one corner at H, is placed a cauldron of a conve*

nient fize proportioned to the dairy, for warming

water to fcald the vefic Is, over a clofe furnace, th^

flue of which terminates in a chimney carried flant-i

ing over the door in the gabel, above which it rifet

VPright^ and there emits the fmoke.

ThQ

t 90 ]

The other apartment, C, may be employed as a
kind of (lore-room, in which the cured butter, and
other products of the dairy, and fpare utenfils, may
be locked up, till it becomes convenient to tranf-
port them elfewhere,*

[If

• If the dairy be fituate fo near a town as that Ice could be difpofed
of with profit in fummer, it might be ver)' ufeful to convert this apart-^
ment into an ice-houfe, which would be on many occafions a very con-
venient appendage of the dairy. All that would be neceflary in this
€afe, would be to build the -walls in the fame manner, and make them
of the fame thicknefs, with thofe of the apartment A, as marked by the
dotted lines i, k, 1, m. The thatch being alfo laid on to the fame
thicknefs. If this were intended, firm polls of wood ought to be
placed in the floor, as marked in the plan, n, o, p, q, fo as to form an
inner fquare, with an open walk all round of two feet in breadth.
Within thefe pofts Ihould be placed hurdles of a convenient fliape,
formed of wicker work. The wands of which they are made havhig
been all peeled, and previoufly dipped in warm coal tar, to preferve
them from rotting. Within this fquare is the receptaple for the ice.
The ice-houfe to be filled by opening the double doors at K.L. which
^ould then be clofed, not to be opened till it was again to be filled,
and the aperture between them to be filled with ftraw rammed firm,
to prevent the admiflion of air by that means. The ice to be taken
put occafioijallv, as it ^lay be wanted, through the milk-houfe.

Many would be the conveniences the dairy would derive from this
accommodation, and fmall the cxpence. By means of it, the produces
of the dairy could be always cooled to the degree in fummer that Ihculd
be found to give them their greatefl perfcifllon. Other advantages
might occafionally be derived by the attentive farmer from this eafily
obtained accommodation; one of which I Ihafl here mention;

Bees in this climate are found to be a very precarious kind of ftock,
though, where they do thrive, they r.re extremely profitable. The clr-
cumftance that chiefly occafions their failure here, is the variablencfs of
cur climate. In winter we have often mild warm days, little inferior

t 9' ]

[If cheefe were the objcdl of the dairy, another
additional building, very differently conflru6lcd,
would be wantecl> which I do not here fpecify.]

- The fmaller apartments, R and S, are merely
cavities formed in the thicknefs of the partition
wall, that may be employed for any ufe that fhall
be found convenient, the double doors on thefc
paflages being intended merely to cut off more
cffedlually all communication between the external
air and the milk-houfe, when either the great heat

to that we experience in fummer; and m the fpring efpecially, it Fre*
quently happens that a warm morning is fuddenly changed to a nipping
froft, or (leety rain. During thefe mild intervals in winter, the bees
are roufed from their fleepy Hate, and being unable to get any food
abroad, they are under the neceflity of confuming the ftores they had
provided for themfelves, which being foon exhaufted they then perilh
for want. In the fpring alfo, when they are invited abroad by the
warmth of the weather, they in vain fearch for flowers from which
they might derive nourifhment, and are frequently chilled by the cold,
before they can return to the hive. No mode that can be conceived
is fo efTedual to prevent thefe accidents, as that of putting them into
an ice-boufe in the beginning of winter, where they might be kept till
the fpring was fo far advanced as that little danger was to be appre-
hended from bad weather. During all this time they would remain in
a ftate of torpor, fo as to have no need of food, and would be ready to
begin their labours with vigour in the fpring, when the mild weather
invited them abroad. Some will think that the cold of an ice-houfe
would make them perifli entirely ; but bees often experience in Ruflia
ai^d Poland a degree of cold that is fufficient to freeze cvin qiiick-
filver, without being killed, which is fo much beyond any cold that
ever takes place in a Britllh ice-houfe, as leaves no room for aojdcty
op that hcad^

or

t 92 1

or great cold of that may render it neceflary. The
thatch above thele fmall apartments ought to come
one foot lower within than in the milk-houfe, the
more efFe(5lually to bar all communication of air
from the outer apartments, at the place where the
couples are placed. When the air is temperate,
the door at T. may in general be left open to fa-
cilitate the entry to and from the milk-houfe on
ordinary occafions. AH the doors open as m.arked
by the dotted lines.

Through each of thefe doors, as well as the outer
doors of the apartments B and C, ought to be made
an aperture of about a foot fquare, having a fmall
door exaflly fitted to it, that can be opened and
fhut at pleafure. Over the infide of each of thefe
apertures fhould be ftretched a piece of fine gauze
covered with a fine netting of wire, fothat when the
air was temperate, and the wind blowing in a proper
diredion, by opening thefe litde doors, a draught
of air would be carried through the whole of thefe
buildings that would keep them fweet and dry, with-
out admitting flies or other vermin.

The whole of thefe apartments fhould be neady
plaiftered with Hme on the infide of the walls and
ciellng. The apartment A at leaft fhould alfo be
payed \^\ih flat ftones, that fhould be raifed fij^

inches

i 93 1

irtches higher than the furface of the ground with*
out, having flanting gutters readily to convey water
or any other liquid that might be accidentally fpilt
there, (but it is a flovenly dairy-maid who flabbers
her floor.) The walls all round fliould be lined
with (helves of a convenient breadth in ranges one
above the other, on which the difhes may be placed;
and in the middle (hould (land a large table, marked
by the dotted lines on the plan, which if made of
ftone will be found to be more cleanly and conve-
nient than any other material. Beneath it a piece
of the pavement, about a foot in breadth, fhould
be raifed fix inches higher all round than the level
of the floor, fp as to form a trough within it for
holding water, the ufes of which will be afterwards
fpecified. This bafon may be emptied entirely at
pleafure, by opening a hole that allows the water to
run into the common gutters.

The intention of all thefe contrivances, it will
eafily appear, is merely to enable the attentive
owner of a dairy to keep his milk in a proper de-
gree of temperature, both during the fummer and
the winter feafon, without much trouble or ex-
pence to himfelf J as any confiderable variation in
the degree of heat tends greatly to derange his
operations, and to diminifli the value of the pro-
dufts of the dairy. If the heat be too great, the

milk

[ 94 ]

inilk fuddenly coagulates, without admitting of any
reparation of the cream, and it is fo fuddenly ren-
dered four as greatly to marr every operation ; if,
on the other hand, the milk be kept in too cold a
temperature, the cream feparates from it flowly and
with difficulty, it acquires a bitter and difagreeablc
tafte, the butter can fcarcely be made to come at
all, and when it is obtained is fo pale in the colour,
fo fmall in quantity, fo- poor to the tafte, hard and
brittle of confidence, and of fo little value in every
refped, as to bring a very low price at the market,
compared to what it would have produced had it
been preferved in a proper degree of warmth. To
avoid, therefore, as much as pofTible, both thefe
extremes, the milk-houfe, properly fo called, is
here placed in the centre of the building, into which
there is no accefs diredlly from the open air; nor
even from the porch, but through a double door,
one of which ought always to be (but before the
other be opened, when either the heat or the cold of
the weather is exceffive, though at other times this
precaution may be omitted. The walls of this part
of the building are made of earth fo thick, and the
roof of thatch fo thick alfo, as diredcd, becaufe it
is found thefe fubflances tranfmit heat or cold with
lefs facility than any others that can eafily be had,
fo that a very long continuance either of hot or cold

w^atherj

•t 95 1

weather, would have no fcnfible effeft in altering
the temperature of this channber; and if it fhouldat
any time acquire a fmall degree of heat or cold
more than was dcfirable, and this were correded by
artificial means, it would retain that artificial tem-
perature for a long time. Thefe are the advan-
tages propofed to be derived from this fimple mode
of conftrudion.

Experiments have not yet been made to afcertain
what is the precife degree of heat that is the moft
favourable for the different operations of the dairy.
From the trials I haVe made myfelf, I have reafon
to believe, that when the heat is from 50 to 55 de-
grees on Fahrenheit's thermometer, the feparation
of the cream from milk, which is the moft impor-
tant operation of the dairy, goes forward with the
greateft regularity. I am therefore inclined to
think, that this will be found to be the temperature
that ought to be aimed at in the dairy j but I do
not here pretend to decide with a dogmatick pre-
cifion i 2l confiderable degree of latitude in this re-
fpe6l may perhaps be allowable i but from the beft
obfervations I have been able to make, it feems to
me highly probable, that when the heat exceeds 60
degrees, the operations become difficult and dange-
rous, and when it falls below the 40th degree, they
can fcarcely be carried forward with any degree of

ceconomy

I 96 -i

ceconomy or propriety. Till farther experiments^
therefore, (ball afcertain this point, we may take it
as a fafe rule, that the heat fhould be kept up, if.
poiTible, between the 50th and 55th degree; and
to afcertain this point, a thermometer, graduated by
Fahrenheit's fcale, fhould be hung up perpetually in
the milk-houfe, to give notice to the owner of any
alterations in the temperature that might afFedl his
intereft. Luckily it happens that this is very nearly
about the average temperature that a building, fo
well fecured as this is from the external air, would
naturally bear at all feafons of the year in this cli-
mate, were it not to be affedled by external obje6ls.
But as the heat of the milk, if it were in confiderable
quantities, would tend in fummer to afFed the tem-
perature of the air, there is no impoflibility but it
might thus be raifed on fome occafions to a higher
degree than was proper. It was to have at all times
at hand an eafy cure for this diforder that I wiihed
to call in the afliftance of the ice-houfe, as a fmall
quantity of ice, brought into the milk-houfe at any
time, would quickly moderate the heat to a proper
degree. In the two fmall chambers adjoining to the
ice-houfe too, or in the paffages around the ice-
houfe, the butter would be kept even cooler than
in the milk-houfe itfelf. Other advantages that
would arife from thi§ fmall additional building will
appear obvious. . ^

t 97 3

tn winter, Ihould the cold ever become too great,
it might be occafionally difpelled, either by placing
a barrel full of hot water, clofe bunged up, upon the
table, where it might be allowed to remain till it
cooled — or fome hot bricks might be employed for
the purpofe. This I fhould prefer to any kind of
chaffing -difli, with burning embers in it, as the va-
pour from the coals (which very foon affeds the
tafte of the milk)* would thus be avoided.

The next objeft that demands attention is, the
utenfils of the dairy, Thefe in general muft, from
the nature of the bufinefs, be made of wood. But
of late many perfons, who afFeft a fuperior degree
of elegance and neatnefs, have employed veflcls
made of lead, or of common earthen-ware, for va-
rious purpofes in the dairy. But, as the acid of
milk very readily difTolves lead, brafs, or copper, and
with thefe forms a compound of a poifonoiis nature;
fuch veflels muft be accounted highly pernicious in
the dairy, and therefore ought to be banifhed from
it. The fame may be faid of veflels of any of the
common kinds of earthen ware, which being glazed
with lead, and the glazing foluble in acid, are equally

• Where a houfe is not well, accommodated with cellars, it is fuffi-
ciently obvious that they mif ht be built upon the fame plan, and thus
at a fmall expence might be reared, cellars that would be, in every rc-
fpc<fl, as good as the beft vaults funk deep under ground.

Vol. V. H improper.

t 98 ]

improper. Mr» Hayes has recommended caft-iron
as a proper fubftitute for thefe; but this metal alfo
is foluble in acids; and though the fokition be not
poifonous like the others, yet, as it may affedl the
tafte of the produds of the dairy, and render their
medical qualities different from what they would
naturally have been, the ufe of thefe alfo fhould be
laid afide. In fhort, excepting vefTels of true por-
celain, or glafs, which are greatly too expenfive,
1 know of none that could be with propriety fubfti-
tuted for wooden veflels, in the dairy. China or
glafs veflels, however, for obvious reafons, can
never come into general ufe in the dairy; nor will
the fenfible hufbandman ever think of any other
than wooden difhes for his milk; as thefe, if pro-
perly managed, can be kept as fweet and pure as
the imagination can conceive. This fa61: is fo ge-
nerally known as to render wooden dairy utenfils
common in moft parts of the country, fo as that
they can be readily procured every where of a pro-
per quality, and form of conftrudion, and therefore
nothing more on this fubje6t need be here faid.

The creaming difhes (fo I call the veflfels in which
the milk is placed for throwing up cream) when
properly cleaned, fweet, and cooly are to be filled
with the milk as foon after it is drawn from the

cow

t 99 3

cow as poffible, having been firft drained carefully
through a clofe drainer, formed of a large wooden
bowl with a hole at the bottom covered with a very
clofe fievc of fine wire, (filver wire is beft) or hair
web woven for that purpofe; or thin cloth of any
kind, (1 (hould always prefer the wire, as mod du-
rable and cleanly) fo as to keep back hairs, &c. that
may accidentally fall from the cow. Thefe difhes
Ihould never exceed three inches in depth, whatever
be their other dimenfions; and if the plan recom-
mended above of feparating the milk into two
parts, and of keeping each cow*s milk by itfelf,
fliall be followed, it would be convenient to have
them made of fuch dimenfions as tQ contain about
one and a half or two gallons Englifli. As foon as
they are filled they are to be placed on the fhelves
in the milk-houfe, where they fliould be allowed to
remain perfectly undifturbcd till it be judged expe-
dient to feparate the cream from them.

The length of time that fliould elapfe before the
cream be fcparated, will depend upon the degree
of heat at the time, and the particular views of the
owner of the dairy. In a moderately warm tempe-
rature of the air, if very fine butter be intended, it
fliould not be allowed to fl:and more than fix or
eight hours. For ordinary good butter it may fafely
be let ftand twelve hours, or more; but where the
H 2 dairy

[ lOo 1

dairy 1$ fo lajtgc as to afford a fufficient quantity of
cr<e^rp, and where the very belt butter is intended,
(the milk being to be converted to fome other ufe
ivhile yet Iweet) it may be feparated after (landing
paly two, three, or four hours.

" When the cream is to be feparated, the milk-pan
Ihould be taken from the fhelf, and placed on the
table. The cream is then to be feparated from the
edges of the vefTel, to which it firmly adheres, by
means of a knife with a blunt edge provided for
that purpofe, (the blade formed either of pure filver
or of fine ivory) which fliould be made to run
round the edges of the whole. The Cream is then
to be carefully drawn towards one fide by means of
a fidmming-difh, and then lifted up with great
nicety fo as to take the whole without any of the
milk, if pofTible. This requires a dexterity of ma-
nipulation* that can be acquired by pra6lice alone j
but it is of great importance to the fuccefs of the
dairy that it be well done, for if any part of the
cream be left, the quantity of butter will be dimi-
nifhed, and if any part of the milk be taken, its
quality will be debafed. The wooden fkimming-
difhes commonly employed, feem not to be fo

' f This may be accounted a cramp word, but it exprefles the klea ir^-
tendcd fo much better than operation or procefs, or any other word in
common ufe, that I could not think of rejecfting it; and hope it will
loon come to be as generally ufed as any other v/ord in the language.

handy

[: lOl ]

liandy for this purpofe as could be wiHicd. Ati
improvement on this apparatus-might be ll/g^cfted,'
but this I decline at prefent to enlarge' upon.

When the cream is thus obtained, it ought to be7
immediately put into a veflcl by itfelf, there to be,,
kept till a proper quantity be colledled for being,
made into butter; and no veflcl can be better
adapted for that purpofe than a firm neat-made
wooden barrel, in fize proportioned to the extent of
the dairy, open at one end, with a lid exadly fitted
to clofe it. In the under part of this veflel, clofe to
the bottom, Ihould be placed a cock or fpigot, for
drawing off from time to time a.hy thin ferous part
of the milk that may chance to be there generated; :
for fhould this be allowed to remain, it acts upon
the cream in a powerful manner, and greatly di-
miniflies the richnefs of the quality of the butter,-
The infide of the opening of the barrel fhould be
covered with a bit of clofe. fine wire (filver) gauze
netting to keep back the cream, while the ferum->
is allowed to pafs; and the barrel on its fland fhould:
be inclined a little forward in the top to allbw the:
whole to run offi

Many perfons who have had little experience in

the dairy believe, that no butter can be of the fineft

quality, except that which has been made from

H 3 crean\

[ 102 ]

cream that has not been kept above one day; but
this is a very great miftake. So far indeed is this
opinion frona being well founded, that it is in very
few cafes that even tolerably good butter can be ob-
tained from cream that is not more than one day
old. The feparation of butter from cream only
takes place after the cream has attained a certain de-
gree of acidity. If it be agitated before that acidity
has begun to take place, no butter can be obtained,
and the agitation mud be continued till the tim&
that that fournefs is produced, after which the butter
begins to form. In fummer, while the climature
is warm, the beating may be, without very much
difficulty, continued until the acidity be produced,
fo that butter may be got 3 but in this cafe the
procefs is long and tedious, and the butter is, for
the moft part, of a foft confidence, and tough and
gluey to the touch. If this procefs be attempted
during the cold weather in winter, butter can fcarcely
be in any way obtained, unlefs by the application
of fome great degree of heat, which fometimes alTiils
in producing a very inferior kind of butter, that is
white, hard and brittle, with very little tafte, and
almoft unfit for any culinary purpofe whatever.

The judicious farmer, therefore, will not attempt
XQ imitate this praftice, but will allow his cream to

remain

remain In the veflel appropriated for keeping it, until
it has acquired that proper degree of acidity that fits
it for being made into butter with great eafe, by a
very moderate degree of agitation, and by which
procefs only very fine butter ever can be obtained.

How long cream ought to be kept before it at-
tains the precife degree of acidity that is neceffary to
form the very beft butter, and how long it may be
kept after that period before its quality be fenfibly
diminifhed, has never yet, I prefume, been afcer-
tained by any experiments that can be relied on.
So little nicety has been obferved in this refped by
pra6lical farmers, even thofe who have a high re-
putation for making good butter, that few of them
ever think of obferving any precife rule in this re-
fped with regard to the different portions of their
cream, feeing they in general make into butter all
the cream they have colle(5led fincc the former
churning, fo that the new and the old is all beaten
up together; and I can find nothing like a uniform
rule eflablifhed among them as to the time that
fhould intervene between one churning and another,
that being ufually determined by local or accidental
circumflances. I am, myfelf, inclined to believe,
that if the cream be carefully kept, and no ferous
matter allowed to lodge about it, a very great lati^,

- tude

[ I04 ]

tude may fafely be admitted in this refped. How *
long cream may be thus kept in our climate, with-
out rendering the butter made from it of a bad
quality, 1 cannot fayj but I can fay with certainty,
that it may be kept good for a much longer time
than is in general fufpedled, even a great many
weeks. It is however certain, that cream, which
has been kept three or four days in fummer, is in
excellent condition for being made into butter; and
I am inclined to believe, that from three days to
feven may be found in general to be the beft time
for keeping cream before churning; though, if cir-.
cumftances make it neceffary, a confiderable lati-
tude in this refped: may be allowed.

If, however, it (hould chance that any farmer
has fuch a quantity of cream as might be worth hia
while to churn once every day, there is nothing ta
prevent him from doing it. He has only to pro-
vide a feparate veflTel for holding the cream for
€fach day he means it fhpuld (land before churning;
if three days,, three veflels;^ if four days, four vefTels;
and fo on. Thus hq might churn, every day creara
of three days old, or of four, or any other number
of days old, that he might incline. In the fame
manner, if it were found that the cream of two, of
three, or of a greater number of d^ys gatheringj^
was rec^uired to nriake a proper churning, it mighc

be cafy fo to contrive it as to churn every day, as
will be obvious to any one who (hall think upon the
fubjedl. In this way the operations of a dairy may
be kept perfedly regular and cafy.*

The vefTcl in which butter is nnade, ufually called
at cburn, admits, in the form of it, a confidcrablo
diverfity. The fimpleft that I have feen I fhoukl.
prefer as the befl:, merely becaufe it admits of being
better cleaned, and of having the butter more eafily
fcparated from the milk, than any of the others ; this
i$ the old-fafhioned upright churn, having a long
handle with a foot to it perforated with holes, for
the purpofe of beating the cream, by being moved
upward and downward by hand. But though, for
the reafons afligned, I fhould prefer that form of a,
churn, other perfons may choofe that which they
like befl, as all the forts, under fkilful management,
^ill perform the bufinefs perfectly welk Indeed, if
the cream be prepared as above direfbcd, the pro-,
ccfs of churning will be fo eafy, as to render thofe
litenfils in general the mod connmodious which* Caa
be moft eafily filled and emptied, '

• Some pcrfon§ choofe to chum the whole of the milk without rc%^
parating any part of the cream. In this way they obtain a greater
quantity of butter, though of an inferior quality. By careful m:inagc-
l|Kat, however,, cfpeciaHy if a portion of the firft-diawn milk be
fcparated, very good butter may be obtained ; but I think the prac*
i)ce, on many account^ is not to'be'recommeadcd.

In

[ io6 ]

In the procefs of churning much greater nicety
is required than nnoft perfons feem to be aware of.
A few hafty irregular ftrokes may render the whole
of the butter of fcarcely any value, that, but for this
circumftance, would have been of the fineft quality.
The owner of an extenfive dairy, therefore, Ihould
be extremely attentive to this circumftance, and
fhould be at great pains to procure a proper perfon
for managing this branch of bufinefs. This perfon
ought to be of a cool phlegmatick temper, fedate
difpofition and charadler, and ought never to allow
another perfon, efpecially thofe who are young, to
touch the churn, without the greateft caution and
circumfpefbion. Thofe who have been ufed to fee
cream churned that has not been properly prepared,
will think, perhaps, that this would be fevere labour
in a large dairy for one perfon -, but nothing is more
eafy, as to the bodily labour it requires, than the
procefs of butter-making, where the cream has been
duly prepared.

The butter when made muft be immediately fe-
parated from the milk, and being put into a clean
di(h, (themoft convenient fhape is that of a (hallow
bowl) the infide of which, if of wood, (hould be well
rubbed with common fait, to prevent the butter
from adhering to it 5 the butter fliould be pre (Ted
and worked with a flat wooden ladle, or ikimming

di(h^

[ 107 ]

difli, having a fhort handle, fo as to force out all
the milk that was lodged in the cavities of the mafi.
A confiderable degree of ftrength, as well as of dex-
terity, is required in this manipulation. The thing
wanted is to force out the milk entirely, with as
little tawing of the butter as poffible; for if the
milk be not entirely taken away, the butter will in-
fallibly fpoil in a (hort time, and if it be much
worked, the butter will become tough and gluey,
which greatly debafes its quality. This butter is
in fome places beaten up by the hand, which I con-
fider as an indelicate and barbarous pradtice^

Some perfons employ cold water in this opera-
tion, which they pour upon the butter, and thus, as
they fay, wafh it; but this pra6lice is not only ufeleCi,
as the butter can be perfedlly cleared of the milk
without it, but alfo pernicious, becaufe the quality
of the butter is thus debafed in an aftonifliing degree.
Nothing is fo hurtful in a dairy as water improperly
ufed, which, if mixed in any way with either milk or
butter, tends greatly to debafe the quality of the laft.

When the butter is entirely freed from the milk,
if it is to be fold fweet, it may be made up into
any form that is mod generally liked at the market
where it is to be fold. If the heat fhould be fo
great as to render it too fofc to receive the impreflioa

of

[ 'o8 1

bf the mould, it may be put into fmall veflels, which
may be allowed to fwim in the trough of cold water
under the table, but without allowing any of that
water to touch the butter i* there it will in a fhort
time acquire the neceflary degree of firmnefs, (efpe-
dally if a little bit of ice (hall have been put into
the bafon) after which it may be taken out and
moulded into proper form. It fhould then be put
down, in proper difhes, upon the (lone boi*der that
furrounds the trough, where it may be kept cool
and firm till it be packed up to go to market.

In every part of the foregoing procefs it is of
the utmoft importance that the vefTels, and every
thing elfe about the dairy, be kept perfectly clean
and fweet, for without this precaution there neither
can be pleafure nor profit derived from it. This is*
a circumftance fo univerfally admitted, that it may
feem fuperfluous to take notice of it in this place.
Yet though this be generally known and admitted,
and though every perfon who attempts to manage a
dairy of any fort may intend to have things clean

♦ The praflice that prevails in many private families of keeping the
fweet butter among water in a cryftal veflel, and thus ferving it up to
table, is for the fame reafon much to be cenfured. If coohiefs only is
-wanted, it were better to put the butter in a dry glafs, and put that
into a larger one amojig water. If it were taken out of that imme-
diately before it were put upon the table, it would always have firm^
jjtfs enough in" our climate,

and

t J09 1

and proper, they may nevcrthelcfs be, in fome cafesj
at a lofs for the proper way of efFedling their inten-
tions, or of guarding againll certain evils, which, if
once allowed to take place in the dairy, will not be
eafily removed. Some hints, therefore, are fubjoined
in a note that may be of fervice to thofe who arc not
well acquainted with this department of bufinefs.*

On

* As foon as the cream is fcparated from the milk, the difhes (hould
be carried out of the milk-houfe, and immediately emptied, and the
flcimmed milk applied to the ufes that the owner of the dairy judges to
be moil advantageous to him. As foon after the difhes are emptied as
poflible, they muft be well waflied with fcaldlng hot water, which
/hould be kept in readinefs for that purpofe ; and as the naked hand
cannot be put among the fcalding water, a fcrubbing-brulh of a proper
conftrti(5lion muft be kept in readinefs for that ufe. This may be
made of a bunch of wircy firmly bound up with flrong packthread,
\vhere other materials cannot be had ; but the ftumps of an old heath-
befom, after the fmall twigs have been worn ofT, firmly bound toge-
ther, are found to anfwer this purpofe remarkably well, nor ought any
thing elfe to be fought for where that can be had, for this is both firm
and tough, fo as to fland the work extremsly well.

After the difhes have been thus perfectly fcalded, and thoroughly
fcrubbed in every part, they muft be carefully rinfed -with blood-warm
water, and well fcoured by hand with a coarfe linen cloth. They arc
then to be turned down one by one afe they are finifhed bottom upwards,
upon a clean (helving board to drip. When the whole are gone over
in this way, the dairy-maid returns to the firft done, and with a dry
cloth wipes them one by one as clean as poffiblc* They arc then placed
in ranges, fo as to be expofed fully to the adion of the fun and air oa
the infide, that the whole of the moifturc may be dried up as quickly
as may be; for nothing tends fo foon to deflroy the fweetncfs that is fo
defirable in dairy vefTels as for the moifturc to be allowed to remain
fong about them. Therefore, in dull foggy weather, when this cannot

be

[ no 1

On fome occafions a part, or the whole, of the
butter may, perhaps, be difpofed of freflij but iri

general

be quickly dried up by the external air, it is necefTary to do It by the
aid of fire in the houfc. As foon as the diflies are thoroughly dried,
they muft be carried into the (hade, and placed in order on fhelves to
cool, to be in readinefs for ufe when they fliall be again wanted*

But fhould the milk have been fuffered at any time to remain fo long
in the difh as- to become four, the wood inftantly becomes tainted with
that acidity, fo as to a(Sl as a Icavcn upon any milk that fhall be after-
wards put into it, which never fails to coagulate without feparating
any cream, and can neither be employed in making butter nor cheefe,
and is confequently loft in the dairy. The fcalding above defcribed
is by no means fufficient to remove this dcftru(ftive taint ; and as the
difiies are totally ufelefs till that be removed, the following more efii-
cacious procefs muft be adopted :

I'm the vefTeT with water fcalding hot, and Into that put a confider-
able quantity of hot alhes, and fmall red embers from the fire. Stir it
about frequently, fcrubbing it well in every part with the fcrubber.
Let this remain a confidcrable time ; then empty the dilh, fcrub it as
ufual with fcalding hot water, rinfing it well with hot, and then with
cold water. Then fill It to the brim with cold water, better if that
water can be made to run into it In a continued ftream, and flow over
the brim; let it ftand in this ftate ten or twelve hours or more, after
which wipe and dry it, and if the taint has not been very ftrong, it
vrill tlien be fit for ufe.

If the afhes of your fire Ihould chance to contain very little fait, this
operation may perhaps not prove cffecSlual. In that cafe add a fmall
proportion of pota(hes along with the embers, &c. or quick-lime may
be employed along with the potafhes, which greatly adds to their
cleanfing power. But in all cafes where recourfe is had to this procefs,
take great care that the difhes be well cleaned by the rubber at each
time; and that cold water be allowed to Hand a confiderable time in

them»

[ II. ]

general it muft be falted before It can be carried to
market. And as this part of the procefs requires as
great nicety as any other, a few remarks on the fub-
jcd fhall be added.

Wooden veflfels are, upon the whole, moft proper
to be employed for containing falted butter. Thefe
fliould be made of cooper work, very firm, and
tightly joined with ftrong zvooden hoops. It will be
advifeable to make them very ftrong where cir-
cumftanccs permit them to be returned to the dairy;
for as it is a matter of confiderable difficulty to fea-
fon new veflels fo well as that they fhall not affed:
the tafte of the butter, it is always advifeable to
employ the old veflels rather than make new ones,
as long as they continue firm and found. Oak is
the beft wood for the bottom, and ftaves and broad
Dutch fplit hoops are to be preferred to all others,
where they can be had. Iron hoops fhould be re-
je6led, as the ruft from them will in time fink-
through the wood, though it be very thick, and

them, which (hould be frequently changed, that the whole of the laltt
may be cxtra<Sled by it before they be ufed again.

The diihet for holding the cream, and the churn, require to be
fcalded, fcrubbed, rinfed, and dried, after each time they are ufcd, ia
the fame manner as the milk diihes ; but, as a four taint is not here fb
prejudicial, it it not neceflary to guard fo carefully agaiuit it as in the
milk difhes. But if ever this taint Ihould become too ftrong, it may
be dimiuilhcU by the procef* above defcribed.

injure

injure the colour of the butter: <5he iron hoop>
however, fhould be put at the top, and another
below beyond the bottom, the projetlion below the
bottom being made deep for this purpofe. No
form is more convenient than that of a barrel, un-
lefs, perhaps, it be that of a truncated cone, with
tlie apex uppermoft; as in this cafe the butter never
can rife from the bottom, and float upon the brine,
which it will fometimes do in the under part of a
barrel when brine is necefllary. But this inconve-
nience may be cafily obviated, by driving a wooden
peg with any kind of a head into the bottom before
it be filled, as the butter clofely embracing that head
all round, will be kept perfectly firm in its place.

An old vellel may be prepared for again receiv-
ing butter, by the ordinary procefs of fcalding, rin-
fing, and drying ; but to feafon a new vefTel requires
greater care. This is to be done by filling it fre-
quently with fcalding water, allowing it to remain
till it flowly cools. If hay, or other fweet vege-
tables, are put into it along with the water, it is
fometimes thought to facilitate the procefs. But
in all cafes frequent afi\ifions of hot water are very
neceflary, and a confiderable time is required before
they can be rendered fit for ufe. The careful dai
ought to be particularly guarded with refped to

this

C "3 1

this particular, or he may foon lofe his charafter
at market.

After the butter has been beaten up and cleared
from the milk, as before direded, it is ready for
being faked. Let the veflel into which it is to be
put, after being rendered as clean and fweet as
poflible, be rubbed all over in the infide with com-
mon fait, and let a little melted butter be run into
the cavity between the bottom and the fides at their
joining all round, fo as to fill it and make it every
where flulh with the bottom and fides. It is then
fit to receive the butten

Common fait is almoft the only fubftance that
has been hitherto employed for the purpofe of pre-
ferving butter; but I have found, by experience^
that the following compofition is, in many refpedts,
preferable to it, as it not only prefervcs the butter
more effedlually from any taint of rancidity, but
makes it alfo look better, and tafte fweeter, richer,
and more marrowy, than if the fame butter had
been cured with common fait alone. I have fre-
quently made comparative trials with the fame
butter, and always found the difference much greater
than could be well conceived. The compofition is
as follows:

Voi.V, I Take

t ti4 X

^* Take of fiigar one part, of nitre one part, ancf
of the bell Spanifli great fait, (or of Dodor
Swediaur*s bed fait,* which is ftill better than
the former, being cleaner) two parts. Beat
the whole into a fine powder, mix them well
together, and put them by for ufe.

Of this compofition one ounce fhould be put
to every fixteen ounces of butter^f mix this fait

thoroughly

* Dr. SNtcdiaiir qarrieson a manufadure of Talt at Preftonpans neat-
Edinburgh, after the Dutch method j this the Dutch fell by the name
of fait upon fait ; it is equally ftrong with the beft Spanifh fait, and
much freer from impurities of every fort, and the Docflor fells it at a
moderate price. Were this fait fufficiently known to be brought into
general ufe for curing fiih, butter, beef, pork, bacon, hams, tongues,
and other articles of provifion, it would much promote the profperity
bf this country, as thefe could be as well cured by it as with foreign
fait, and at a much fmaller expence.

■ f It is of great confequence that even' procefs, which requires much
thought or nicety, Ihould be baniihed, if poffible, from all branches
of manufadlure. On this principle, as fome difficulty might arife in.
proportioning the quantity of fait to unequal weights of buttei', I
fhould advife that every perfon who means to adopt this pra<5^ice at
large fhould begin M'ith providing hirafclf with a fteelyard fo con-
flruifkd as that fixteen ounces in the one fcale is exa(ftly balanced by one
m the other. And that he may be at no lofs to provide himfelf with
this fimple apparatus, the following dire<f^ion3 may be attended to:

Let him provide two fcales of equal weight ; one of them fhould be
of wood, and fiat for the butter, no matter what form or materiais
the other is of j let him then take a flip of deal two inches broad, half

a»

I "5 3

thoroughly with the butter as foon as it has been
freed from the milk, and put it without lofs of time
down into the veflfcl prepared to receive it, preffing
•it fo clofe as to leave no air-holes, or any kind of
Cavities within it. Smooth the furface, and if yoa
^xpe6t that it will be above a day or two before
you can add more, cover it clofe up with a piece of
clean linen, and above that a piece of wetted parch-^
ment, or for want of that, fine linen that has been

m^ inch thick, and two feet long. Near to ttch end, and at about
half an inch from the fame fide at each end, make a hole through the
board, to- which the fcales may be failened by means of a loop of
wire; obferve, that thefe two holes fhould be placed exad\ly at the
fame dillance from the edge. Let him then load the two fcales, one
•f them with one ounce, and the other with fixteen, and having^
drawn a line parallel to what will now appear to be the upper fide of
the beam, at half an inch from the top all along on each fide, let hita
be provided with two fharp-pointed inftruments, fuch as a fhoemaker't
awl : Let him then try to find a point in the new-made line on each
fide of the beam, where, when the beam is allowed to vibrate on his
awls placed dire<flly oppofite to each other, the two weights balance
each other. This point he will foon difcover to be much nearer one
of the ends of the beam than the other. Through this point let him.
pierce a hole by meians of a round hot iron. Through this hole put
a piece of thick iron wire, which if fupported at each end willferveas
a pevot. The apparatus is now compleat*

And whenever it is afterwards wanted, nothing more is neceflary
than to place the butter, whatever be its weight, into the butter-fcalc,
'and then put as much of the compofition into the oppofite fcale as
brings the beam to a balance: and this will in all cafes be the due
proportion of fait for the butter, whatever the weight of that butter
may be.

la dipped

[ "6 ]

dipped in melted butter, that is exaftly fitted to the
edges of the veflel all round, fo as to exclude the
air as much as pofTible, without the affiftance of
any watery brine ; when more butter is to be added,
thefe coverings are to be taken off, and the butter
applied clofe above the former, prefTing it down
and Imoothing it as before, and fo on till the veflel
be full. When it is quite full, let the two covers
be fpread over it with the greateft care, and let a
litde melted butter be poured all round the edges,
fo as to fill up every cranny, and efFedlually exclude
the air. A little fait may be then flrewed over the
whole, and the cover be firmly fixed down to re-
main clofe fhut till it be opened for ufe. If all this
be carefully done, the butter may be kept perfe6tly
found in this climate for many years. How many
years I cannot tell; but I have feen it two years
old, and in every refped as fweet and found as,
when it was only a month old.

It deferves to be remarked, that butter cured in
this manner does not tafle well till it has flood at
leafl a fortnight after being faltedj but after that
period is elapfed, it eats with a rich marrowy tafle,
'that no other butter ever acquires; and it tafles fo
little fait, that a perfon who had been accuflomed
to eat butter cured with common fait only, would

not

[ "7 ]

not imagine it had got one fourth part of the fait
that would be neceflary to preferve it.*

Butter thus cured would bear to be carried to the
Eaft or the. Weft-Indies, and would keep fweet
during the longeft voyages, if it were fo packed as
not to allow the butter to be fo far melted as tq
occafion the falts to feparate from it. But as none
ofthefe falts admit of any chemical union with the
butter, it muft happen, that if ever the butter be
fo far melted as to become of a fluid coniiftence, the

• But after this butter has been cured in the moft perfcdl manner,
it may chance to be much dcbafed in its quality by being improperly
treated during the time it is ufmg. Therefore, obferve, that, when it
is broken up for ufe, a fmall portion Ihould be pared from the furfacc
all over, efpecially near the edges, in cafe the air Ihould not have been
fo entirely excluded as it ought to have been. If it be to be quickly
confumed, it may be then fpooned up as it is wanted, without any
other precaution than that of keeping it carefully covered up fo as to
exclude dull, &,<:» from haying accefs to it. But if it be to be ufed
very flowly, and if the perfon to be employed in fpooning it up be
not very careful, or fo indolent as not to be at the trouble of clofing
it up at each time with th^ covers, it may happen that the part which
is thus long expofed to the air may contra<fl a fmall degree of ranci«
dity. To guard againft this evil, in theft circumftances, when the
veflcl is opened, let a ftrong brine of common fait be prepared that will
fwim an egg, and poured, when cold, upon the furface of the butter;
this will cover that furface effedually, even though the operator fliould
be a little carelefs, and will thus guard againfl the inconvenience com«
plained of: for though the quality of the butter M'ill thus be injured in
forae degree, in confequence of the water a<fling upon it, yet that is an
evil of far lefs material moment than the flighted degree of rancidity
would occafion.

I J falti

filts drop to the bottom, and the butter, deprived
of their antifeptick powers, quickly becomes rancid.
It would be a great improvement in the culinary
art, if any antifeptick fubftance could be found that
poflefled any agreeable taftc and flavour, which was
capable of being diflblved in oily fubftances. This
might afford a proper fubjeft for a premium by the
Bath Society. In the mean time the following hints

on this fubje61: may be of fome ufe.

/'

Butter, in its natural (late, contains a confiderable
proportion of mucous matter, which is more highly
putrefcible than the pure oily parts of the butter.
Where it is, therefore, intended that butter fhoulc}
be expofed to the heat of warm climates, it ought
to be freed from that mucilage before it be cured
and packed for keeping. To prepare butter for a
'diftant voyage, therefore, in warm climates, let it
be put into a veffel of a proper fliape, which Ihould
be immerfed into another containing water. \xx.
the water be gradually heated till the butter be
thoroughly melted; let it continue in that ttate for
fome time, and allow it to fettle ; the mucous par^
will fall entirely to the bottom, and the pure oil will
fwim. at top, perfedly tranfparent while hot, but
when it cools it becomes opaque, afiumes a colour
fomewhat paler than the original butter before it
was m^lt^d^ and a firmer confidence, more nearly re-
' I "« / fembling

i "9 1 ^

fembling that of tallow, and confequently it will better
refifl: the heat of a warm climate than butter itfelf.
When this refined butter is become a little (lift^
and while it ftill is fomewhat foft, the pure part
fhould be feparated from the dregs, and then faked,
and packed up in the fame way as is diredcd for
butter. This would retain the fait longer, and keep
much longer fweet in hot climates, than if it had
been cured in its original ftate.

This refined butter may be preferved in yet an-
other way, which I have fometimes feen pra^lifed
here by way of medical l^onrie bouche (comfit.) After
the butter is purified, add to it a certain proportion
pf firm honey, mix it well, it will incorporate tho-
roughly with the butter, and when cold it eats very
pleafantly fpread on bread like butter ^ and may b^
given to old people, if they rehfh it, inftead of mar-
row, and to others, as being ufeful for coughs and
colds. Thefe were the ufes to which I have feen
this, fubftance applied, and on thefe occafions the
proportion of honey employed was confiderable,
I have feen it kept for years, without manifefting
the fmallelt tendency to rancidity, fo that there can
he no doubt but that butter might thus be preferved
in long voyages without fpoiling. The only point
that remains to be afcertained is> what is the fmalleft
proportion of honey that woyld be fufficient tq

prefcrvc

[ 120 ]

prcferve the butter. Sugar is known to be a much
more powerful antifeptic than common fait, and
probably honey may be in that refpedl nearly on a
■par with fugar. If fo, it would be reafonable to
fuppofe that one ounce of honey might be fufHcient
to preferve fixteen ounces of butter. In that cafe
the tafte of the honey would not be extremely per-
ceptible, fo that the butter, even to thofe who might
not relifh the fweet compofition above-mentioned,
might prove very agreeable, efpecially if a little
fait were mixed with it when about to be ufed. A
few experiments would be fufficient to afcertaia
this particular.

From the circumftance of the honey incorpora*
ting with the butter, and not feparating from it
while in a fluid ftate, it would promife nearly to
accomplifh the purpofe wanted above. Whether,
when it became very fluid, and was long continued
in that ftate, any feparation would take place j or
whether the honey in thefe circumftances would be
in danger of fermenting -, are queftions that experi-*
ence alone can determine. Sugar, though it would
preferve the butter equally well while it continued
in a folid ftate, would doubtlefs feparate from it
when it became fluid. Whether melaflTes would do
fo, or what efFeds they would in this cafe produce,
I cannot tell; but a few experiments would afcer^

ma

r "I ]

tain thefe points. Should any method of prelbrvlng
butter in warm climates be difcovered, it would be
produdive of fo many benefits to individuals, and
to the nation at large, by giving an opening for a
new branch of commerce and manufadlure, that it
is much to be wifhed the few experiments wanted to
afcertain thefe points were made with fuch care,
under the diredion of perfons who would faithfully
report the refult to the public, as fhould be fufE-
cicnt to remove all doubts upon this head,

P. S, The greatefl: part of the obfervations con-
tained in the foregoing pages were derived from a
Lady, who is now beyond the reach of being af-
fedlcd by any thing in this fublunary world. Her
beneficence of difpofition induced her never to
overlook any fa6l or circumflance that fell within
the fphere of her obfervation, which promifcd to be
in any refpedt beneficial to her fellow-creatures.
To her gentle influence the publick are indebted, if
they be indeed indebted at all, for whatever ufeful
hints may at any time have dropt from my pen,
A being, fhe thought, who muft depend fo much as
man does, on the afliftance of others, owes as a
debt to his fellow- creatures the communication of
the littk ufeful knowledge that chance may have
thrown in his way. Such has been my conllant

aim:

£ 122 -J

^im: iiich were the views of the wife of my bo*
ibm — the friend of my heart, who fupported and
affifted me in all my purfuits. I now feel a melan-
choly fatisfadion in contemplating thofe objeds flic
pnce delighted to elucidate.

Article V,
Of the Scotch Fir^ as a Food for Cattle,

[By the Same.]

TT is not in general known that any of our ever-
^ green fhrubs or trees, except the whins^ [furze]
can be employed as a provender for cattle; but pro-
bably many more of thefe could be fuccfefsfully em-
ployed for that purpofe than is in general fufpedled.

Cattle and flieep are known to crop the tops of
fir-trees when they can get accefs to them while
young; and thus many plantations of young trees,
when not fufficiently fenced, have been entirely de-
ftroyed; but whether that kind of food was whole-
fom.e or pernicious to the cattle, has not in general
been enquired into.

We have indeed heard long ago, that in Norway
the cattle are often fed in winter upon the tender

twigs

t ^23 ]

tjwgs of young fir-trees 5 but as we are at the fame
time told that for want of other food, they arc forpe-
times forced to fubfift: upon dried fifh- bones beat
fmall, this had the appearance of being the confc-
qucnce of extreme neccflTity alone. It has beei»
found, however, on fome trials that have been made
in the North of Scotland, that the tender twigs of
the Scotch fir afford a wholcfome food for cattle,
that may be occafionally employed for that pur-
pofe without danger, in cafe of a fcargity of other
provender.

The firfl: notice I had of this particular was in a
letter from the bailifFof a gentleman of confiderablc

eminence in fhire, dated the 25th of Odober,

1782, which runs thus; " I was fo pinched laft
*^ fpring for provender to cattle, that I had not a
** ftone of ftraw, or a ilone of hay, from the middle
*^ of March; nothing but whins and oats for horfes,
** and fir-tops (that is, tender Ihoots of firs) for
^* tattle 5 and 1 had 430 horned cattle, and about
♦* 1 20 horfes fmall and great, of which I loft but
*' few (four or five, I cannot tell which) cattle, but
** there were numbers of cattle that died in this
'* country for want. Some tenants loft the one-
^^ half of their cattle, and fome almoft t;lie whole."

[ «24 i

^ Itdeferves to be noted, that the fpring of 1784
was fo backward, that in the country here alluded
to, it was near the middle of June before the grafs
was fuiEciently up to fupport the cattle, fo that they
had been kept near three months entirely upon this
kind of food, — a fufficient trial of its wholefome-
nefs. It deferves further to be remarked, that in
Highland countries, where great numbers of young
Cattle are reared, there never is a winter that fome
of them do not die, however plentiful the provender
is. In the prefent cafe, it is probable, the death of
the few that were loft might be occafioned by the
weaknefs of the young beafts, produced by pinching
them of food before the provender was done, ra-
ther than to the influence of the new food they were
put upon,

I was afterwards told, upon enquiry, that in this
eafe the cattle were kept in the houfe, and the twigs
of the trees carried to them and given them in their
flails i but I afterwards learnt that the fame feafon,
another gentleman, who knew nothing of this expe-
riment, adopted a method that feemed to me to be
more fimple and oeconomical, and eafier carried
into practice on a larger fcale than the above.

Having forefeen that he Ihould be fcarce of pro-
vender, he turned out all his ftock of two years old

cattle

[ "5 1

cattle into a young fir wood that was near his houfe,
in the beginning of winter, and allowed thenn to pick
up what little grafs they could there find, till he faw
it was all confumed.- He then fent a man into the
wood every morning to cut down from the trees as
many branches as would fubfift them for that day*
Thcfe were allowed to fall among the trees at ran-
dom. The cattle foon became accuftomed to this
food, and ran to the place where the man was, as
foon as they heard the noife. They ate not only
the leaves and fmallell twigs, but they even fome-
times gnawed down the (lumps till they came to be
nearly the bignefs of the thumb. In this way they
continued all winter, in perfed health.

From thefe fa6ls, and others of a fimilar kind that
have fince then come to my knowledge, there can-
be no doubt but that the twigs of firs may, in timef
of fcarcity of fodder, be employed with fuccefs in
preferving cattle from the danger of perifhing from
want. It is not, at prefent, by any perfon fufpedled
that this feeding would fatten any of them j it is
only recommended as being fufficient to preferve
them alive, and in good health, when other food
fails. To perfons who live in a corn country,
where provender is always plenty, and the (lock of
cattle fmall, this will appear a matter of trivial im-
portance: but in hilly breeding countries, where

grain

t 126 5

grain is fcarce, and the (lock of cattle very greafi
it will be viewed as of the higheft importance, as
will appear from the letter above quoted. There
is no country, efpecially of the barren fort, in which
a plantation of fir-trees may not be eafily reared;
and in this cafe it would always be a ready fource of
plenty, to which recourfe need not be had until a
general fcarcity Iliould make it nceceffary*

It is alfo well known that (heep eat this food very
greedily, and that it never hurts them -, and as thefe
valuable little animals are frequently prevented from
reaching the grafs by reafon of fnow, and the ilock
of hay provided for them fometimes fails fo entirely
as to occafion the total lofs of many thoufands at
once, in extenfive fheep countries, which might be
altogether prevented by having a fmall plantation of
firs on each farm, to be kept as a referve of accef-
fible food, to be ufed only when other refources
-failed; I cannot think any fenfible man, in thefe
circumflances, fhould delay one moment to fet about
forming this neceflary inclofure upon every farm,
I (late fadls; and leave thofe who have occafion for
it to make the proper ufe of them.

4||3»

Article

t i^7 i

Article VIII.

Ofraifing Potatoes from the Seed 4
[By the Same.]

SINCE the paper on potatoes, which is printed
in your former volume, was written, I have
made feveral other experiments on the culture of
that plant ; but I only mean at preient to corred
one erroneous opinion I had adopted from the refult
of thcftngU experiment I had then made with regard
to the raifing potatoes from feed. I at that time
thought it probable that no new varieties could be
thus obtained, and doubted whether a mongrel
breed could thus be produced, like that which may-
be obtained at pleafure from different varieties of
turnips, cabbages, &c. I am now, however, con-
vinced, from an experiment that was condudled
•with greater care, that there are plants which do
produce varieties from feeds, greatly different from
the parent (lock; that thele varieties are not of the
nature of mongrels, but are altogether din:in6l frorfi
any forts that may have been knownj and that the
potatoe belongs 'to this clafs of plants.

\ Withti view to afcertain thefe particulars, I made
choice of a kind of potatoe that I had got from

Ireland,

Ireland, which was, in many of its mod obvioits
charadlerifticks, extremely different from any that
was cultivated in this neighbourhood. In particu-
lar its colour was remarkable, being a dark dirty
purple; its fh ape a round irregular bulb; its ftem
tall and upright. This kind of potatoe was planted
by itfelf, at as great a diftance as I could place it
from any other fort; but all the varieties that were
around it were of the white fort, none of any other
colour being cultivated in this neighbourhood.

The feeds of this fort, carefully feparated from
all others, were fown by themfelves, and the feed-
lings planted out at a convenient diftance from
each other, when they had attained a proper fize for
being tranfplanted. It was foon, however, obvious,
from the appearance of the ftems, that they were
not all of one fort ; and on taking them up in au-
tumn, I then difcovered that the variety was almoft
infinite, and fuch as could not be accounted for on
the principles of a mongrel adulteration. The di-
verfities refpeded colour, fhape, Sec. a few of which
particulars are fpecified below.

Colour. Dark purple, bright red pink, dark
pink, other varieties of red, bright white, dun,
yellow, black, dark greenifb, fpotted, and many
other varieties.

Shapi.

¥

[ 129 ]

Shape. Round bumps, oblong, very long, kid-
ney-fliaped, irregularly knobbed, and many other
forts.

Time of Ripening. Very early, fo as to have
the flalks quite decayed in Auguft j very late, fo as
to have the bulbs only beginning to be formed in
the middle of 06tober, and an infinite diverfity
between them.

Stems. Tall and robuft, weak and dwarfifh,
branching at the top, branching greatly from the
root, quite upright, and naked as a ftaff, &c. &c.

Manner of Growth. T)ie bulbs adhering
quite clofe to the ftem in a clufter like a bunch of
grapes ; others rambling to a great diftance from
the (Icm, adhering to long fibres running wide in
every diredlion, and intermediate diverfities of
many forts.

Size of Bulbs. Some large as a hen's egg,
others very fmall, not much bigger than peafe, and
intermediate varieties.

Prolificacy. Some producing an ifnmcnfe
number, as high as 140 at one (lem, others afford-
ing few, as low as two or three only.

Vol. V. K Skin.

[ ^30 ]

Skin. Some fmooth as filk, others rough like
fhagreen ; fome whole and uniform, others cracked
in a variety of diredbions.

Leaf. Some broad and obtufe, others narrow,
fharp and fpur- (haped ; fome fmooth, others rough;
fome comparatively gloffy and fhining, others un-
even and much wrinkled, &c.

It would beendlefs to trace out all the other di-
\-erfities. In fhort, the variety was greater than I
could have conceived to be pofilble ; and there was
not perhaps two plants precifely of the fame fort.

It is probable there will be found to be as great
a diverfity in the tafte and other qualities, as in thofe
particulars already remarked ; but this I could not
fo readily afcertain,

From the above enumerations, it appears to me
inconteflibly evident, that the varieties can be in no
fort afcribed to the influence of different varieties
producing a compound between them, as in the
mongrel breeds. There were many red, bright
red, kinds of potatoes, though there was not one of
that colour grew in the neighbourhood j and no
mixture of white and dark purple could ever pro-
duce a bright red, or a dark bottle-green; not to

mention

[ '31 3

rncntion the diverfitics in other rcfpefbs: ^ereforc
it cannot, I think, be denied that this cxperimcnr
affords a clear dcmonllration, that there are pl^n:^
which do not produce others of the fame fort with
thcmfelves when reared from feeds, but varieties o
the fame clafs of plants, which may be diverfified
without end, the nature of which diverfitics cannot
be foreknown.

Allow me, therefore, to add one more to the two
clafles of plants that were diftinguifhed in my foiv
mer paper; and we (hall now have the following
three clafles of plants, viz.

ift. Invariable, viz. Thofe tnat always produce
the fame kind in every refped, with that of the
feed fown; fuch as peafe, beans, &:c.

2d. Permanent. By which I mean thofe planr^
that may be propagated from feeds without change,
as long as they are reared at a great di (lance from
other varieties of the lame plant, but which will b^:
altered if fuffered to grow near others of the fame
fort, producing with certainty an intermediate moK-
grel kind, participating of the nature of the forts
that grew near to each other, and nodiing elfc:
viz. Cabbages, turnips, beets, &c.

K a 3d. Sport hi-^,

[ 132 ]

3d. Sfortingy or thofe which always produce va-
rieties from feeds without any known or apparent
caufe; as the potatoe, and many other plants.

There are probably other clafTes of plants that
have not yet been obferved or thought of.

It was to be obferved, however, that though the
variety of forts was very great, yet the parent breed
feems to have /o;;/.? influence on the progeny j as
there were a greater number that in feme fort re-
fembled the parent flock than could be found of
any other individual fort.

I fhall not take up the time of the Society, by
making many remarks on this experiment. It Is
enough that the fa6t be afcertained. Varieties may
be obvioufly obtained from feeds; and fome of thefe
varieties may be found that fhall pofTefs valuable
qualities that have not yet been found united in any
fingle fort, though it is probable that for one truly-
valuable fort, many may be found which will not
be nearly fo well worth cultivating as thofe we al-
ready poflefs. Thefe confiderations, while it ought
to induce thofe who have good opportunities for
doing it, thus to raife new varieties each year,
fhould alfo induce them to be particularly attentive
to afccrtain the qualities of each fort refpedlively,

with

t ^'33 ]

with the mod rigorous and cautions attention, fo as
not to allow themfclves to be impofed on cither by
prejudice or prepoflcfTions of any fort; for it is thus
alone that ufeful forts can be really obtained.

By attending to the facls above dated, it will alfo
appear, that, in order to make a proper difcrinnina-
tion, the produce of each individual feedling plant
ought to be cultivated entirely by itfelf, till its qua-
lities be fully afcertainedj and that none of the
others be mixed with it, however much they may
refemblc it in appearance ; as the qualities of thefe
may be very different.

It would feem to me probable, that gentlemen,
"who have hitherto been in the practice of rearing
feedling potatoes, have not been fo flridtly atten-
tive to this lad rule as fcems to be necefTary, and it
is probably owing to this circumftance that we
fometimes meet with particular (lems of potatoes in
a field, which, although refembling others in ap-
pearance, are extremely different from them in re-
fped of prolificacy, and fome other lefs obvious,
though as important qualities. From this circum-
ftance too, may have arifcn many variations in the
refulc of particular experiments on the culture of
this plant, which feem to be altogether irrecon-
cileable to each other.

K 3 Since

[ '34 ]

Since thofe who conduft experiments of this
^)rt, are thus lb liable to be mifled by unobfervcd
particulars, fo as to mark conclufions fo different
to each other -, how cautious fhould they be not
1 afnly to impeach the veracity of each other !
."^hould tv/o men, for example, take live potatoes
from the fame heap, feemingly alike in every re-
rpefl:, we fee that their experiments, though con-
duced with equal care and accuracy, might give
very different refults.

Article IX.

Qf Furze or .Whi?iSy [Ulex Uropaeus, Linn.]
as a Food for Horfes and Cattle, Defcriptiofi
of a Machine for bruifng them, and Hints for
rearing that Plant ceconomicallj as a Crop.

[By the Same]

T SHALL fend for -the Society a model of a ma-
^ chine for bruifing furzcy or as we ufually call
rhat plant in this countr}^, whins, to render them
,i proper food for horfes and cattle. This is an ex-
ad model of a macjiine I have employed for many
;-ears pad, and have found to anfwer the purpofe
^erfeftly well. By the help of this machine, if the

whins

t *3S 1

whins are good, one man, with an old horfe not
worth rr.ore than twenty or thirty fhillings, may
bruife as many whins as would keep forty head of
beads conftantly eating that were fed on nothing
elfe. This is independent of cutting and bringing
home the whins, which in many cafes will coft more
upon the whole than the bruifing.

Xhc machine is fo fimple in all its parts, as to be
readily underftood by infpe6tion only. It confifts
of a large circular ftone fet on its edge (the weightier
and bigger the better) with a wooden axis pafTing
through its centre. One end of this axis is fixed
upon a pivot placed in the centre of a circular area,
and to the other end of it is fixed a yoke, to which
the horfe that is to move it is attached. The ftonc
being placed on its edge, when the horfe moves,
it revolves round its axis in a circular groove, or
ftone trough, (this trough fliould be made of hewn
ftone) exadly in the fame manner as a fugar-
baker's or a tanner's mill. The whins being placed
in this trough are bruifcd by the weight of the
ftone as it pafTes over them, and being railed up
by a three-pronged fork by the attendant, after they
have been well flatted down, they rife in a (brt of
matted cake, which, being fet in fbme meafurc
upon its edge, is again fmalhed down by the
wheel as it revolves around. In this way the ope-

ratioa

C '36 ]

ration is continued, by fuccefTively prefenting new
furfaces to the adion of the wheel, till the whole is
f educed to a loft pulpy mafs, that can cafily be eaten
by the animals to which it is to be prefcnted.

During the continuance of this procefs, it is ne-
cefTary to pour plenty of water upon the whins, at
different times, without the help of which, they can
fcarcely be reduced to a pulp foft enough. On this
account it will be proper to make choice of a place
for the machine, where plenty of water can be ob-
tained with little labour. It follows alfo, that as
rain can never be prejudicial to this operation, ic
may properly be placed in the open air.

As this operation is greatly facilitated by a judi-
cious way of raifing or turning the whins, during
the operation, which a little experience will enable
any attentive perfon to attain, but which cannot be
taught by words only; I would therefore advifc
any perfon who fhould think of ereding an appa-
ratus of this fort, to put one of his mod fagacious
fervants to conduct this operation at the beginning,
as fucK a perfon will more quickly difcover the cir-
cumftances that facilitate the procefs, than one of
a flower compreheilfion would do. After he has
become expert at the bufinefs, he will be able to
indrudb an inferior perfon, who may then be em-
ployed

[ '37 ]

ployed for the purpofc. But in whatever way it
ihall be condudled, the perfon who begins this ma-
nufadure muft lay his account with performing
very little work for fome time at the firft, in com-
parifon of what he will be able to execute afterwards
with eafe.

If the whins that are to be employed for this
purpofe grow naturally in the foil in irregular buihes,
it is a troublefome work to cut and gather them.
To underftand the proper mode of managing this
bufinefs in all its departments, it is neceflary to
advert to feveral particulars in the natural ceconomy
of this Angular plant. Inftead of leaves, the whin is
furnifhcd with an innumerable quantity of prickles.
Thefe fpring out from every part of the young ftem,
and are, at the firft, like the ftem itfelf to which
they adhere, fucculent, foft, and inoffenfive; but like
the (lems alfo, they become gradually harder, as the
fcafon advances, and feem, indeed, to a cafual ob-
ferver, to form a part of that ftem, though they arc
as different from it as the leaves of other trees arc
from the branches which produce them.

Thefe prickles do not, like the leaves of moft
deciduous trees, fall off at the approach of winter,
but like evergreens, they remain upon the branches
all winter, and retain during tfeat time their full

fucculencc

[ 138 ]

fucculence and verdure. Early in the fpring, in-
numerable bloflbms fpring out around thefe prickles
adhering to them, and not to the ftem. The blof-
foms are fucceeded by pods containing the feeds,
which gradually ripen; a little after Midfummer
the feeds harden, and the pods flowly become dry
and wither, the prickles to which they adhere be-
coming dry and withered at the fame time, and
gradually loofen from the flalk, which dill continues
frefh, though it has now attained a woody confid-
ence. Thefe prickles having now performed all
the funftions that nature had defigned them, fall off
in part, at firft from the ftalk, and in part adhere
to it for fome time, till they are gradually (liaken
off by the agitation of the wind, or other caufes.
Hence it happens that it is only t\iz Jurface or top
twigs of a whin bufh that are green, foft, and fuc-
culent, the fiems below being dry and woody, and
frequently covered with dry prickles, that are not
only not ufeful as food for cattle, but rather hurtful
to them, on accoupt of the hardnefs of their con-
fidence, and diarpnefs of their prickles.

In gathering whins, therefore, for food for cattle,
it is only the tender top Ihoots that are wanted, and
the eafied method of gathering them that our prac-
tice has yet difcovered, is to take a forked dick in
the left hand (the -readied thing is the branch of a

tree

[ 139 ]

tree of a proper fize) and a fickle in the right hand,
(both hands, but more efpecially the right, fhould
be armed with ftrong gloves) then thrufting the
fickle among the young (hoots, and pulling it back-
ward, the forked ilick when oppofcd to them keeps
the branches fleady enough to produce a refiftanc©
fufficient to make the fickle cut themj and as the
tops of the whins are intermixed with each other,
they flick to the prongs of the fork, which, after it is
as full as it can hold, is taken to a fide, and cleared
by prefTing the whins to the ground and pulling the
fork backwards, Thcfe little heaps are afterwards
forked to a cart, and prefled down by a man walking
upon them, having his legs covered with large ftrong
boots made on purpofe, and thus are carried home.

If the whins have grown upon a good foil, and
have made very vigorous Ihoots, they may be thus
reaped pretty expeditioufly^ but if the foil has been
poor, and the fhoots fliort, the expence of this ope-
ration is very confiderablci and as thefe fhort whins
arc, in other refpedls, of a very inferior quality to the
others as food for bcafts, it is only at times when
fodder is fcarce and dear, that they can be oecono-
mically applied to this ufe.

To abridge this labour, and to obtain the full be-
nefit of this valuable winter food, I tried myfclf to

cultivate

t MO ]

cultivate whins artificially, and iiave {i^^n otherr, rear
them in feveral different ways, among which I found
the two following modes of culture to prove the
mod fuccefsful :

In a field of a good dry loamy foil I fowed, along
with a crop of barley, the feeds of the whin in the
fame way as clover is ufually fown, allowing at the
rate of from 15 to 30 pounds of feed to the acre.
The feeds, if harrowed in and rolled with the barley,
quickly fpring up and advance under the fhelter of
the barley during the fummer, and keep alive during
the winter. Next feafon, if the field has not a great
tendency to run to grafs fo as to choak them, they
advance rapidly after Midfummer, fo as to produce
a pretty full crop before winter. This you may
begin to cut wiib thefcythe immediately after your
clover fails, and continue to cut it as it is wanted
during the whole of the winter; but it is fuppofed
that after the month of February the tafte of this
plant alters, as it is in general believed, that after
that time horfes and cattle are no longer fond of it.
I muft however obferve, that never having had my-
lelfa fufRciency of whins to ferve longer than till
towards the middle of February, or beginning of
March, I cannot aflfert the above fa6l from my own
experience. I have frequently fcen horfes beating
the whins with their hoofs fo as to bruife the prickles,

and

[ «4I ]

and then cat them, even in the months of April and
May; and fheep which have been iifed to this food
certainly pick off the blofToms and young pods at
that feafon, and probably the prickles alfo ; fo that
it is pofTible this opinion may only be a vulgar error.

Circumftances, which I need not here fpecify,
have prevented me from afcertaining what is the
weight of the crop that may be thus attained; but
I think I may fafdy venture to fay, that it is at lead
equal to that of a crop of green clover; and if it
be confidered that this affords a green fucculent
food during winter, on which cattle can be fatted
as well as on cut grafs in fummer, it will 1 think be
admitted, that it mufb be accounted even a more
valuable crop than clover. After being cut it fprings
lip the following feafon with greater vigour than
before ; and, in this fituation, acquires a degree of
health and fucculence very different from what it is
ever obferved to poflefs in its natural flate.* The
prickles too are fo foft, and the Hems fo tender,
that very little bruifing is neccflary ; indeed horfes,
who have been accu domed to this food, would eat
it without any bruifing at all: but cattle, whofe
mouths feem to be more tender, always require it
to be well bruifed.

• J have fccn ihooU of one feafon near (bur feet in length.

How

t H2 ]

How long this crop might c!:ontinuc to be annually
cut over, without wearing out, I cannot fay; I be-
lieve a long while, in favourable circumftances; but
I muft now take notice of a peculiarity, that unlefs
guarded againll, will very foon extirpate it, as I my-
felf experienced.

The natural progrefs of this plant has been de-
fcribed above with tolerable accuracy, but one par-
ticular was omitted. During the beginning of the
feafon, nature feems to be folely employed about
the great work of frudification only, and it is not till
near Midfummer that the whin begins to pufh forth
its wood-bearing branches, which advance with
great luxuriance only during the latter part of the
feafon. Hence it happens, that if care be not
taken to have the grafs that fprings up on the field
before the whin begins to fend out its fhoots eaten
clofe down, that grafs will acquire fuch a luxuri-
ance before the young branches of the whin begin
to advance, as to overtop them, and choak them
entirely. Whoever therefore has a field under this
particular crop, mud be careful to advert to this
circumftance, or, if the field be in good heart, he
will infallibly lofe it. The field therefore fliould be
kept, as a pafture, bare as pofilble during the be-
ginning of the feafoT), and the cattle fhould only be
taken from it when the Ihoots of the whin are dif-

covered

[ '43 3

covered to begin to advance with vigour. Under
this nianagement I prefumc it may be kept for many
years, and yield full crops : but iinlefs the mowers
Ihall be particularly attentive, at the beginnings to cut
it as low as pofTible, it will very foon become im-
pofTible to cut the field with a fcythe, as the (lumps
will foon acquire fo much ftrength as to break the
fcythe when it happens to touch them.

This is the befl: way I know of rearing whins as
a crop for a winter food for cattle or horfes. For
fheep, who take to this food very kindly when they
have once been accuilomed to it, lefs nicety is re-
quired; for if the feeds be fimply fown broad-cafl
very thin (about a pound of feed per acre) upon the
pooreft foils, after they come up the fheep of them-
felves will crop the plants, and foon bring them into
round clofe bufhes, as this animal nibbles off the
prickles one by one very quickly, fo as not to be
hurt by them. Sheep, however, who have not been
ufed to this mode of browfing, do not know how
to proceed, and often will not tafte them; but a few
that have been ufed to this food, will foon teach all
the reft how to ufe it.

Another very ceconomical way of rearing whins
that I have feen pracftifed at large by another, rather
than experienced it myfclf, is as follows :

Let

[ H4 ]

Let a farm be inclofed by means of a ditch all
round, with a bank thrown up upon one fidej and
ifftones can be had, let the face of that bank be
lined widi the ftones from bottom to near the top j
this lining to flope backward with an angle of about
fixty or feventy degrees from the horizon. Any
kind of ftones, even round bullets gathered from
the land, will anfwer the purpofe very well : upon
the top of the bank fow whin feeds pretty thick,
and throw -a few of them along the face of the bank.
Young plants will quickly appear. ' Let them grow
for two years, and then cut them down by means of
a hedge-bill, ftripping down by the face of the bank.
This mode of cutting is very eafyj and as the feeds
foon infinuate themfelves among the crannies of the
ftones, the whole face of the bank becomes a clofc
hedge, whofe (hoots fpring up with great luxuriance.
If another ditch be made on the other fide of the
bank, and if this be managed in the fame way,
and if the hedge be cut down only once every fe-
cond year, (and in this way it affords very good food
for beafts) and the inOde and the outfide be cut
down alternately, the fence will always continue
good, as the hedge at the top will at all times be
compleat. This mode of rearing whins is both
convenient and (Economical. But where ftones
cannot be obtained for making the facing, the bank

very

[ '45 ]

very foon moulders down, and becomes unfit for
a fence.

1 know few plants that dcferve the attention of
the farmer more than the whin. Horfes are pecu-
liarly fond of it. Some perfons think they may be
made to perform hard work upon it, without any
feeding of grain; but I think it tends more to fatten
a horfe than to fit him for hard labour, and that
therefore fome grain fhould be given with it where
the work is fevere. Cattle cat it perfe6lly well when
thoroughly bruifed, and grow fat upon it as upon
turnips; but unlefs it be very well bruifed for them
they will not eat it freely, and the farmer will be
difappointed in his expedtations. Cows that are
fed upon it yield nearly as much milk as while upon
grafs, which is free from any bad taftej and the beft
winter-made butter I ever faw was obtained from
the milk of a cow that was fed upon whins.

[We take this opportunity of publickly exprefling our
obligations to Dr. Anderfon for the model mentioned in the
preceding eflay, and which appears to be better adapted for
the purpofe than the damping implements commonly ufed
in Wales, and other parts. We have, from a motive of
great refpe£l to the opinion of our intelligent and worthy
correfpondent, inferted the efTay at length, being confident
that his practice of feeding cattle, &c. with young furze, fo
bruifed, has not been adopted and continued without judg-
ment. But we muft at the fame time beg his permifllon to

Vol. V, L cxprefs

[ h6 ]

exprefs our doubts, whether it can be advantageoufly intro-
'duced on fo general a fcale as he may apprehend. The foil,
in which it fhould feem from experiment that the beft crops
of mowing furze are procured, we conceive may more ad-
vantageoufly be employed for the raifmg of corn ; than which,
and the intervening crops of green food that may be pro-
cured, particularly cabbages, we prefume to think nothing
can be of fo fubflantial a value. Local fituations and pecu-
liarities may, however, furniih occafional exceptions to this
general rule; and efpecially where land is comparatively
cheap, and the article of fuel very dear, it may be of confi-
derable advantage for the publick to be fully apprized of the
beft method of raifmg a crop, capable of being applied, as
occafion may happen to render convenient, to either of two
wfeful purpofes — food or firing.

Article X. ^
Of the Ro9t of Scarcity^
[By the Same.]

'l ^HE feeds I had from a common feed-ibop,
'^ therefore it is po(ftble they were not of the true
fortj but the plants were fo much like thofe of the
true fort that have been defcribed by others, that
I ihink it is extremely prcbahle they were genuine.

It is plainly a variety of the beet. The roots
were of varijus colours, white, yellow^ and redi

the

[ H7 ]

the difference in the intenfity of each of thefe tints
was very great. The root is thick and fleiliy, more
refennbling the beetrave, or red beet, than the com-
mon beet; the leaves large and fuciculent, alfo more
rcfembling thofe of the green beet than the beetrave.
The ribs of the leaves are always of the fame tint
with the root. The flefh of the root is coloured the
fame as the fkin. Its tafte a mawkilh fweet, that is
relilhed by very few of the perfons who eat of it.

I fowed part of the feed on a light fandy foil, and
part on a rich light loam. The plants on the laft
profpered much better than the other; it feemed to
me that the fand was too poor a foil- to rear this
plant to its full fize, though carrots, turnips, cab-
bages, and potatoes, were all reared upon it at the
fame time in the higheft pcrfedion. The feeds
were fown about the beginning of April. This
feemed to be too early, as many of the plants ran
up to flower during the fummer, which greatly di-
minifhed the crop, as they had been properly
thinned before they began to run. Part of them
were fown where they were to remain, and part of
them were tranfplanted. Thofe that were not
tranfplanted profpered the bed.

During the fummer the leaves wpre tolerably
abundant, but nothing like fo luxuriant as I had

L 2 been

[ H8 ]

been made to expe61:. I caufed fome of the blades
to be gathered, but this fcemed rather to retard the
growth of the root. Indeed the quantity that could
be procured, did not feem to be, at that Jeajon of
//??^j^^r, worth the trouble of gathering. A much
greater quantity of jfcful blades I think could be
obtained from an equal extent of ground in cab-
l?ages*^ I am alfo inclined to think, that on the
fame foil, with an equal care in the culture, as great
a weight of carrots or parfnips m.ay be obtained;
and I think there can be little doubt but a greater*
weight of turnips maybe got; and that this laft
could be reared on many foils to great perfedlion
where the root of fcarcity could hardly be made to
grow at all. I did not obferve the fmallefl mark of
any pun6lure from infeds on its leaves, during the
whole period of its growth. In this refpc6l itfeems
to refemble the mulberry. Has Mifs Rhodes tried
if her filk-worms will eat it ?*

It feems to be rather more hardy during the
winter than moft kinds of turnips, particularly its
leaves, though they do not perfe6tly refill our win-
ters: I even obferved, that feveral of my plants were
killed by the froft during this winter. Upon a
careful examination of thtm, however, 1 think I

* This queftion being fent to the lady, fhe very obligingly made
the experiment, but without fuccefs.

can

[ H9 ]

can obferve that all thofe that have been killed, dif-
covcred feme tendency to be about to fliooc up into
flower- flems towards the end of autumn,

I was anxious to know whether it continued late
in the feafon before it began to run to feed in the
fpring, as 1 was in hopes that if it (hould be fo, it
would have fome chance of proving a valuable ad-
dition to our catalogue of ufeful plants; but here
alfo I have been difappointed. The feafon has been
backward, and our turnips are only now (March
23d) beginning to (hew their flower-ftems. The
root of fcarcity is alfo fad advai#cing to the fame
ftage of its growth, fo that it will probably fail about
the fame time with the turnip crop.

The root is relifhed very well by cattle, and my

horfes eat it \* but I fhould fear it was of a nature

L 3 rather

* I find fome perfons who have offered this root to horfes, which
refufedioeat it, entertain doubts if horfes could ever be brought to
eat it; 1)Ut no one ought in a cafe of this kind to be deterred by* fingle
trial. It often happens that a particular animal, or indeed many indi*
viduals, will rcfufc to eat a particular food they have not been accuf-
tomcd to, which is well known to be both wholefome and palatable to
that clafs of animals in general. I have feen many cattle that were,
with great difficulty, brought to cat turnips, and fome that never would
take to that feeding kindly, fo as to fatten upon it. 1 have alfo been
informed, upon authority I could not doubt, that fome (heep h?vc
a«5^ually died before they could be brought to tafte that root. By a
little attention, however, cattle may m general be brought to relifh

any

[ ISO ]

rather too fucculent to be a very proper food for
horfes. I have no doubt but that cattle would
thrive upon it very well, though the quantity I had
. was too fmall to enable me to fpeak experimentally
to that point.

On the whole, though it is perhaps poffihle^ that
in certain circumftances this plant may be cultivated
with profit i yet I fhould fufpedt, that if my feeds
were of the genuine fort> it will not be found to be
in general of equal value to the farmer as feveral
plants with which we have been long acquainted.
Ind^pendant of every other confideration, it appeared
to me that the expence of taking up and cleaning
this root, fo as to make it fiit to be given to the
cattle, would be fuch as for ever to prevent it from
coming into general ufe^ for the fibres that fpring
out from it are fo numerous and ftrong, as to en-
tangle a great deal of earth arnong them, from
which, if the earth has the fmalleft tendency to ad«
hefivenefs, it is a matter of great difficulty to dif-
engage it. During wet weather in winter I do not

any fucculent root of the nature of this in queftion, and horfes alfo.
My horfes that are employed in taking turnips from the field in gene-
ral learn in time of themfelves to eat turnips, though horfes in general
do not take to this food at firft. I faw a letter laft year from a gen-
tleman who had been at pains to train his horfes to eat turnips, and he
found it put them into good condition, and gave them a fine coat.
He therefore thinks that young horfes might be reared upon this root
with advantage.

fee

t,l5» }

fee how it would be pofTible to get this root taken
up and made fit fopd for cattle at any thing like
a bearable cxpence, efpecially that which has been
trapfplanted.

Article XI.

Hints fending to point out the mofl pradlicahle
Means of improving the quality (j/' British
Wool.

** Mr. D*Au BENTON, forefeeing that In procefs of time the
** Spaniard might become wife enough to keep his fine wool at
" home and manufadlure it himfelf, took his precautions to
** prevent the injury that this might occafion to the French
** woollen-drapers. He engaged government to import fuc-
" ceflively a great number of rams and ewes from Roufillon,
** Flanders, England, Morocco, Spain, and even Tibet;
" and he affcmbled all thefe fathers and mothers of future flocks
" in his fold near Montbard, kept them for a whole year in the
" open air, night and day, and coupled them together by ex-
" perimental and well-contrived marriages. — Thus he ameli-
•' orated confiderably this branch of rural oeconomy, and fu*
•* perfine cloths were made of wool of French growth."

Monthly Re'vit'w, Dec, 1787. Mem. R, Acad»
of Paris, Anno 1784.

TT is in general admitted, that no fpecies of ma-

nufa6tures can be with fo much certainty relied

on, as a fource of wealth and natipnal profperity, as

thofe

[ ija ]

thofe which are employed in working up the na-
tural productions of the country where the manu-
facture is placed : hence it follows, that every wife
ftate ought to beftow a particular attention to the
improvement of fuch of its natural produ6lions
as are capable of being employed in working up
manufactures of general utility, and for which an
extenfive demand may, at all times, be expedted to
take place.

It was probably on thefe principles our anceftors
beftowed fo much attention to improving the quality
of Britifli wool: and they fo happily fucceeded in
this attelnpt as to rear wool in this ifland of a finer
quality than could be found in any other European
nation. This was the means of eftablifhing thofe
extenfive woollen fabricks that have long been
deemed the peculiar ftaple manufacture of this
nation, which ferved as a firm bafis for an extenfive
foreign trade.

Unfortunately, however, an idea began at length
to prevail, that that pre-eminence which had been
obtained in confequence of long- continued exer-
tions oiinduftry^ was only a neceflary confequence
of phyfical caufes. The peculiar finenefs of our
native wool was attributed entirely to the peculiarity
pf our climate, and delicacy of our pafturesi and

it

t 153 1

it was concluded, thatfo long as that climate (l\ould
remain unchanged, and thefe paftures continue un-
deterioratcd, our wool, without farther care, would
continue to poflcfs its wonted fuperiority. This
idea was To warmly cherifhed as to influence, at
leitgth, the legiflature itfelf. Meafures were adopted
that turned the attention of the farmer from the im-
provement of his wool. The confequence has been
that, by flow degrees, and imperceptible changes,
the quality of our wool has been greatly debafed,
and, from being the very/r/? in Europe, it is now
confefl^edly allowed to hold, at befl:, no more than
the fecond place -, as all our manufa6lurers concur in
admitting that not a yard of fuperfine cloth can be
made of any thing elfe than Spanifli wool. It fol-
lows of courfe, that we muft: now depend upon a
foreign country for the raw materials of the fincft
branch of our favourite fl:aple manufacture. Thus
have we unneceflTarily fubjeded ourfelves to all the
inconveniences that mufl: ever refult from a depen-
dant fituation.

On the other hand, France, which, ever fince the
beginning of the adminift:ration of Mr. Colbert,
hath made the mod vigorous efforts to rival us in
this important branch of manufadbure, being now
on an ^^«^/ footing at lead with ourfelves in refpeft
to the trade in Spanifli wool, has fo far fucceeded

as

t '54 ]

9S entirely to ruin our once flourifhing traffick in
fine cloths to the Levant; and bids fair for rivalling
xjs in that article in other markets. But not con-
tented with that fingle advantage, that politick na-
tion, by having turned their attention for many
years paft towards the improving the quality of the
wool of their own native produce, have at laft, as
appears by the authority referred to in the motto to
thi3 paper, under the aufpices of the indefatigable
Mr. D*Aubenton, been able to make fuperfine cloth
entirely of their own wool, which was equal in
beauty to that made of the bed Spanifh wool, and
>vhich, upon trial, was found to be fuperior to it ii^
ihe wear.* Thefe are fads which cannot be con-
troverted, and they clearly prove, that if our fuper-
gne cloths are at prefent better than thofe of France,
this fuperiority cannot be afcribed to the greater
finenefs of our own wool: they likewife fliew, that
if, in confequence of the abfurd prepofleflion we
have fo long entertained concerning the magical
qualities of Britifh wool, we fhall continue to neg-
lefl to attend to its improvement, while the French
exert themfelves in improving theirs; the time may
at length arrive, when, in confequence of the gra-
dual improvement in the quality of French wools,
and the imperceptible decline of ours, the wool of

• Sec Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences, ami. 1784 & 1785,

France

[ 155 ]

France may come to be not only equal in quality
to that of Britain, but may even become as much
fuperior to it, as Britifli wool in former times ex-
ceeded that of France, To guard againft this evil,
I beg now to call the attention of my countrymen
to this important objed, and hope I (hall be able to
(hew, in a very fatisfadtory manner, that if ever this
revolution (hall be permitted to take place, it muft
be owing to our own negligence alone; becaufe, al-
though it may not be impoflible to improve the
quality of French wool, yet it would be fo much
more eafy to improve the quality of Britifh wool,
that if equal pains (hall be taken in both countries,
we cannot fail to leave them at an infinite diftance
behind. I fhall farther, I hope, be able to prove,
that by a very moderate effort, we could not only
fucceed in bringing Britifh wool to regain once
more its former fuperiority over that of Spain, but
that it could be eafily brought to a greater degree
of finenefs and excellence of quality than any wo(j4
that ever could be purchafed for the purpofe of ma-
nufadlures in Europe: and that all this could be
done, becaufe of certain peculiarities refpefling the
nature of this ifland, which no other rival nation
can boaft of.

That the foil and climate of this ifland are na-
turally adapted to the produ(5lion of fine wool, will

fcarcely

C 156 ]

ifputed; the well-known fafl: that it
'ce the fineft wool in Europe being a
of this circumflances but that foil
.iiinate alone are not fufEcient to overrule the
influence of all other circumftances, our own ex-
perience alfo too clearly proves. To be able to
judge how far nature afTifts us in this enterprize, and
in what refpedls it becomes neceflary to call in the
afTiftance of art^ the two following fadts ought to
be very particularly adverted to,

I ft. Every filament of wool is greatly altered by the
heat or the cold that the animal producing that wool
is Jubje£fed to during the period of its growth y that
part of the wool being always coarfejl which is produced
in warm weather y and fineft in cold weather,'^ Hence
it neceflarily follows, that as wool continues to grow
at every feafon of the year, that part of the fila-
ment which grows during the funnmer muft be
coarfer than what grows during the winter feafon.
If, therefore, the difference between the heat of
fummer and the cold of winter be very great in any
place, it will be impofTible there to rear good wool
of a fine quality, becaufe, however fine that part of
it naay be, which grows in winter, that part of it
which is produced in fummer muft be very coarfe.

• For proofs of this fa<ft, fee Obfervatlons on the means of exciting
a Spirit of National Induftrjr, Letter VI.

And

[ '57 ]

And as it is impofTible, by forting, in this cafe, to
leparate the coarfe from the fine, the general ftaple
of the wool can never be of the fined quality: but
if the heat of fummer, in the place where (beep
are kept, does not greatly exceed the cold in winter,
the wool produced in that climate will be nearly of
an equal degree of finenefs throughout the whole
length of the filament, and therefore it will be,
upon the whole, of a much finer quality than if the
fame wool had grown in a climate where the heat
at one feafon'wus very great. But, it is well known,
that on account of the infular ficuation of Britain,
though our winters be not intenfely cold, we never
experience fuch a degree of heat in fummer as takes
place in France and other continental countries.
In this refpe<5l, and in this refpedt alone, is Britain
favoured by nature beyond other countries, in what
regards the rearing of fine wool, Juppofing they were
equally in pojfejfton of the fame breed of fheep. And,
when we advert, that, in fome of the northern parts
of this ifland efpecially, the winters are fo moderate
as feldom to deprive the flocks from reaching their
food on account of fnow ; and the heat in fummer
fo moderate as to be no more than fufficient to pro-
duce grafs in abundance, without danger of parch-
ing it up; we fhall be forced to acknowledge that
this is a great and ineftimable blefling with reipefl

to

C '58 ]

to the rearing this kind of (lock. And we fhall
fbon fee that nature has not been lefs liberal in pro-
viding the means for improving the quality of the
-^Qoly fuppofing it was not originally Jo fine as we wiped
it to be. To underlland this laft particular fully,
the following fad muft be efpecially adverted to:

It is a fa6l well known, and confirmed by daily
experience, that every diftin^ breed ofjheep^ whatever
qualities it may fojfefsy continues to propagate its own
kind without any permanent variation as long as it is
kept from inter copulating with other breeds ofjheep:
But if different breeds be Juffered to inter copulate^ a
mongrel breed is produced^ which participates of the
nature of both the parent s^ without poffeffing in full per -
fe^ion the qualities of either, 'This mongrel breed may
be in like manner again farther altered^ by being mixed
with other breeds -y and Jo on in infinitum.*

adly. By attending to this fadt we fliall be able
to perceive in what refp'e(fl human induftry requires
to be exerted in improving the quality of the wool
of any particular diftridt, and be made fenfible that
if this be negledled, whatever the nature of the cli^
mate may bCy it is fcarcely poffible but that the qua-
lity of the wool produced there, if it has been fine

• See this fadl alfo proved, in oppofition to the do<5lrine of M.
Buffoa on this fubjetSl. Obfervations on National Induftry, Let. VII.

to

t 159 1

to an uncommon degree, muft be in time confider-
ably deteriorated.

The different breeds of fheep are diverfified al-
moft without endj and they are fo much inter-
mixed in every country in Europe, that if the befl:
breeds are not carefully attended to by their owners,
and kept in flocks of one common kind covering
a large extent of country, they will be conftantly
intermixing with others, and thus be greatly de-
bafed. The influence of climate can extend no
farther in correding this diforder than has been
already fpecified. In the fame climate may be
found two breeds of fheep, one of which carries
wool like coarfe hair, and the other fine wool, foft
as filk. This lafl: breed, if perfectly fecluded from
the other, may be preferved without degenerating
for ages; but unlefs this feclufion, at the proper
feafon, be perfcdl, it will be every year more and
more debafed. It is, however, a fad well known
to every fheep rearer, that fheep at the rutting fea-
fon acquire a fort oi furor of fex, if that exprefllon
will be admitted, which renders them at that time
reftlefs and adtive beyond meafure, fo that no. fence,
that can be made at a moderate expence for the
purpofes of hufbandry, can then keep them con-
fined : hence it becomes a matter of very great dif-
ficulty to prefcrve a diftindt breed without adultera-
tion.

t i6o ]

tion, in any country where more than one indivi-
dual breed is to be found; and it is next to im-
pofTible to preferve a Jmall number of fheep of a
particular breed uncontaminated, for any length of
time, in a country where other fheep abound.*
Indeed, the intermixture in this cafe is fo unavoid-
able, and fo frequent, that it feldom happens but
the very appearance and diflinguifhing peculiari-
ties of the new breed are, in a few generations,
entirely loft among the fuperior prevalence of the
greater number. f From this circumftance it muft

ever

* The following fad relating to this fubje6l fhews not only the ar-
dour, but the vigour of this little animal at the rutting feafon. A
patriotic nobleman in Scotland had obtained a particular breed of
deep that he wifhed to preferve uncontaminated. With this view he
put them at the rutting feafon into a deer park that was furrounded by
a very high wall, which it was fuppofed no Iheep could overleap ; but
in fpite of this, and every other precaution that could be adopted, the
careful fhepherd difcovered one morning a ram of the fort common in
that neighbourhood, that had got among his fine ewes. This occa-
fioned great uneafmefs. The ram was immediately taken up, and
though it was known that he could mot have been longer than one
night among the ewes, my informant afTured me he had the bell au-
thority for faying, that at the yeaning time it was difcovered that no
fewer than eighty ewes had been tupped by that ram ; the lambs of that
breed being dillinguifliable at the firft glance from the others.

•j- It will be eafily perceived, that from this event always taking place,
mankind, who feldom are very accurate in their obfervations, may, in
general, be readily difpofed to look upon this very fa<5l as a proof of
the influence of climate in altering the wool. As the ftrange breed of
ihcep foon acquires, in tliis cafe, the fame qualities with the original

breed,

[ '6i J

ever be an enterprize of very great difficulty for
the inhabitants of nnoft countries where Ihecp car-
rying wool of a coarfe quality much abound, fb to
prefer ve a ftrange breed of fine-wooled flieep, as
that their defcendants fhall continue to carry as fine
wool as that of the parent (lock; tor as the fineff
breeds of fheep, wherever they arc to be found in
foreign countries, muft be purchafed at a confi*
derable price, and tranfported at a great expence,
the original flock of fuch fine breeds of fheep that
can thus be obtained, will generally be very few in
number, and, by confequence, they will be very
quickly debafed.

breed, the climate is, with forae appearance of reafon, thought to fa»
vour that breed more than the other, and thus to produce the change.
They do not advert that this change is only obferved to take place
among the young which have been there produced, and that the ori-
ginal ftock, as long as they continue in life, always retain their origi-
nal peculiarities as diftln<5t as at the beginning. This proves that it is
from a mixture of blood, and not from the influence of climate, that
the gradual aflimilation is produced.

Thofe who have not much adverted to this fubje<fl will think they
fee a fort of contraditSlion between what I here fay of the permanency
of the breed, and what I faid of the influence of the climate in altering
the finenefs of the filament of wool; but a little attention will remove
this difficulty. The climate produces no durable change of the nature
of the animal, but merely a tentporarj variation wliich immediately
<eafes when the caufe that produced it is removed. The change by
intermixture of blood is on the contrary a permanent change, that iy
equally obfervablc ii» every variation of climate.

Vol. VI, M From

I 162 1

From thefe confiderations we clearly perceiy^^
that when France attempts to obtain a particular
breed of flieep from Britain, or elfewhere, for the
purpofe of improving her wool, fhe has to ftrnggle
with obftrudions that naiure has thrown in her
way, that are infinitely more difficult to be removed
than the feeble bars that human laws have fome-
times attempted to rear^ bars which by an enter-
prifing fpirit might, in all cafes, be eafily fur-
mounted. But to Britain^ indulgent nature has
been in this refpedt peculiarly kind, by having of
herfelf, and without any effort on our part, effec-
tually removed this otherwife unfurmountable diffi-
culty, and thus has put it in our power to propa-
gate any particular breed of quadrupeds we may
incline, by enabling us to keep it, as long as we
fhall think neceffary, perfectly ifolated from every
6ther breed, without fubje6ling us to the fmallefl:
c^^pence to effeduate that feclufion.

The intelligent reader will readily perceive that
I here allude to thofe numerous iflands, iflets, and
holms, that are thick fcatt^ied along the weflern
and northern coafts of this ifland. The climate
of thefe fmall iflands is temperate and equable be-
yond that of perhaps any other part of Europe;
and the grafs in many of them is peculiarly adapted
to the rearing of flieep. There, the flocks would

he

t '63 1

be in little danger of fuffering for want of food in
tvinter ftorms, as fnow is rarely feen to lie there for
two or three days together during the feafon. Thefe
i^ands are alfo of fiich various dimenfions, that they
may be found from kfs than one acre to more
than a thoufand, or even ten thoufand acres in ex-
tent} and they are all fo thoroughly fenced, that
unlcfs a flieep were to fly through the air, or fwim
over a large arm of the fea, any particular breed
t^iat may be placed there would not run the fmallefl
rifk of being contaminated.

Thefe are advantages which France can never
hope to poflefs, and they give to Britain a decided
fuperiorky above rival nations in this important
branch of rural oeconomics: for here, without
trouble or expence, fhould we be able to obtain
even no more than one male and one female of a p^r^
ticular breed, we cap rear them with a certainty that
the breed fliall not be adulterated until it fhall have
increafed fo much as to admit of fending off colo-
nies fufficiently numerous not to be eafily debafed.
Here alfo the parent (lock could be preferved for
ages, and improved ; from whence the colonies could
be fupplied with unadulterated rams, and frefh drafts
of ewes, to keep up the breed, which without this
precaution woyld, in more expofed fituations,
greatly degenerate. We have it thus in our power,
M 2 without

E J64 ]

)yitho.ut trouble or expence, to make whatever ex^
peril nents, w? may incline in improving the breeds
of domeftiek animals^ either upon a large or a Imall
fcale, as circumftances Ihall require. This peculi-.
arity, duly aitended to and properly improved,
would, in a fhort time, give to Britain the full, and
in a. great meafure the exclufive poflcffion of wool,
finer in quality than that not only of any other pare
of Europe, but even fuperior to any that can now
be obtained in fufEcient quantity for manufadures
in any part of the globe. Thus would our woollen
fabricks become fuperior in quality, and inferior in
price, to thofe that could come into a competition
with them in any part of the univerfe. Nor are
thefe idle theoretical conjectures, but undeniable
fadls, founded on the fure bails of experience and
found reafoning. Let us nor, therefore, longer neg-
le6b to avail ourfelves of thefe fingular advantages
that heaven ha:h fo bountifully conferred upon us!
The means are eafy, as the end is great.

To elfecluate thefe defirable purpofes, I beg leave
to propofe, that a fociety fbould be inftituted under
the name odi'he Society for improving the quality of
Britijh Wool This fociety to be conftituted on the
fame general plan with that of the Society of Arts
in London 3 to confift of an indefinite number of
fnernbers, each of whom (hould contribute One

Guinea

t «65 ]

Guinea a year, (this payment to be continued only
during pleafure) the money, Under the dire6lion of
a committee to be chofen annually by the members,
to be applied — for promoting the improvement of
Britilh wool, by offering premiums, or by any other
mode that fhall be judged more advifeable for fe-
ledling the bed and fineft wooled (heep that could
be found in this iflandj — for procuring the befl
breeds from foreign parts that could be difcovered,
and for rearing each of thele di(lin<5l breeds apart>
a-nd increafing the number of each, till their refpcc^
tive qualities could be diftin6lly afcertained, and
their value accurately appreciated. To give fome
idea of what might be done by this fociety, 1 fhall
beg leave to fuggefl a few more hints that have
occurred to me in refle(5ling on this fubjedl:.

There exids in this ifland at prefent the remains
of at leail three diilindl breeds of fheep, that are pe-
culiarly valuable on account of the quality of the
wool produced when uncontaminated by foreign
mixtures, but which, in the prefenc ftate of this
country, run a great rifk of being entirely loft in a
few years, if no efFe(5lual method f]:all be now taken
to recover and preferve them. The firft care of
fuch a fociety fliould naturally be directed towards
the recovery and prefervation of thefc valuable-
breeds of our native (heep,

M3 The

[ i66 ]

The firft of thefe kinds I fhall mentioir, as being
perhaps the mod nearly loft, and as carrying the
fineft wool that has been known in this ifland, may
be diftinguiflied by the name of the Highlarjd breeds
This breed of flieep was formerly to be met with
in the higher parts of Aberdeenlhire, and in all the
counties of Scotland to the northward of that^ but
now the breed is there fo much adulterated by in-
termixture with other forts, as to give no room to
hope that any of the genuine breed could be found '
in thofe parts. In the Weftern iflands, though for
many years paft little attention has been paid to
fheep, the original breed has not been quite fo
much debafed as on the main land -, and fome of
them might there be picked up with care tolerably
good. The fame fore of flieep, I have alfo been
told, are found in the Orkney iflands; but it is be-
lieved the pureft of this breed that at prefent exifts
is in the Zetland ifles. This is a fmall, hardy,
though delicate looking animal. Its wool is re-
markably fine in ftaple; but its moft diftinguifliing
peculiarities are, a filky glofs to the eye, and a pe-
culiar foftnefs to the touch, that no other wool I
ever faw polTefTes. It is not frizzled up like Spanifli
wool, but in its native ftate is gently waved, and
is rather longer in the ftaple. When compared
with the beft Spaniih wool that could be bought

in

t 167 ]

In the London market, it was found, Upon a fair
Comparative trial, to be finer than the Spanifh, in
the proportion of nearly feven to foilr. Stockings
have been made of it in Aberdeen that were fold for
five and fix guineas a pair; and at this prefent time
many pair of (lockings are m^de of it each year in
Zetland, which, though not delicately manufactured
nor properly drefifed, but merely on account of the
finenefs and peculiar/^»^ of the materials, fell in
the Ihops at fifteen and fixteen fliillings a pair. The
fheep of this breed are for the moft part entirely
white, but fome of the fame fort are of a dun, or
fawn colour, fome black, but a greater proportion
of a beautiful filver grey, with a fine glofify luftre.
Many of them have been much debafed by an in-
termixture with a very coarfe wooled fort of (heep,
which carries a great quantity of dry brittle hairs
among the wool. This kind of hair, I am told, is
in fome places of England called hemp.

It will perhaps be a difficult matter to recover a
pure unadulterated breed of this kind of fheep;
yet I (hould not think it altogether impofTible. In
fome of the fmall iflands they may perhaps be found
very pure ; for in thofe parts the natives have fo
entirely negledled their fheep as not to have unin-
tentionally debafed their breed, under the idea of
improving it. Perhaps the eafieft way of recovering

that

I i68 ]

that breed of fheep would be to offer a kt of pre-
miums for the beft ewes, and the beft rams of this
kind, to be diftributed at a place that fliould be
judged the mod convenient in Zetland, at the moft
proper feafon of the year. Thefe premiums might
be, for the beft ewe (or rather perhaps ewe lamb)
carrying the clofeft and fineft fleece, fay five guineas!
for the fecond-beft, four guineas; for the third,
fourth, and fifth, three, two, and one guinea re-
Ipedtively. In like manner, for the beft ram, five
guineas; and for the fecond, third, fourth, and fifths
four, three, two, and one guinea fuccefiively. It
being a condition, that thofe for which the pre-
miums are given {hall remain the property of the
fociety, if the owner does not rather incline to keep
the fheep, and forego the premium. The price of
flieep is fo low in thefe countries, that this fet of
premiums would probably bring together a great
concourfe of the beft of this breed, which are at pre-
fent widely fcattered through thofe lonely ifles, and
would afford an excellent opportunity of picking up
a great number of them at a moderate price, befides
thofe for which premiums were given.

It would be proper in this, and in all other cafes
of the fame fort, for the judges to have along with
them an expert woolftapler, for the purpofe of

enabling

[ 169 ]

enabling them to determine with facility and accu-
racy which was the fined wool.

Another fct of premiums exactly fimilar to thefc
might be offered in the Ifle of Skye, which is the
moft centrical place for the Weftern iflands. Whe-
ther it would be proper to have another fet for the
Orkneys I cannot tell, being as yet but imperfedly
informed as to the nature of the breed of fheep in
thofe parts.

The other two valuable breeds of flieep, natives
of this ifland, are thofe that carry the long wool
fit for combing, of the fined quality, and that kind
which carries the beft fhort clothing wool. Both
thefe breeds are natives of England and Wales :
but in what places the fined of cither breed are to
be found, and what would be the readied way of
obtaining the bed of either fort, other gentlemen of
the Society would be much better judges than I can
pretend to be.

Spanidi wool is now in fuch high edimation for
manufactures, that ip would doubtlefs be one of the
fird enterprizcs of this Society to obtain a parcel of
this breed of Iheep : and though the penalty for
tranfporting diecp out of Spain be nothing lefs
than death by law, yet it will be no difficult matter

to

to get any number of ilicep from tlience that inaf
h" wanted, by a procedure it is not ncceflary for
mc here to explain. The only real difficulty will
be to find a perfon who is capable of choofing
the bed fort, to pick them out there, who would
not be liable to fufpicioh : but this diffictiky may
be overcome.

It would perhaps be advifeable to obtain frofti
thence a^ thejirft, not lefs than fifty or fixty ewes,
and ten or twelve rams. By obtaining fuch a
number at once, the breed would not only be the
more quickly increaied in Britain, but a chance
would alfo be given to corre6l any error that might
be made in choofing them; as it is not probable,
that among fuch a number there would not be
fome individuals of the fined fort, that might be fe-
parated from the reft to keep up the piirefi breed.
The fupernumerary rams too, might be put to the
pick of our own ewes, to improve their wool by
the crofs breed. As the firft coft of thcfe flieep in
Spain would not be great, and as the expence of
tranfporting them hither would not be confiderable,
it v/ould perhaps be right to obtain a ftill greater
number, if the fociety*s funds were adequate to it;
as the nation would thus the i^mQV derive a benefit
from this improvementr

The

[ >7i 3

- The Spahiih flieep not only afford i {\t\C Wool,
but, as they are a large, (lately, full-bodied aniaial>
they would, if well chofcn, be valuable on accotmt
of their carcafe as well as their fleece.

Another breed of ftatcly, wdl-bodied fheep, tha^
likewife carry fine wool, are to be met with in Bar-
bary, and would, no doubt, claim the early notice
of the fociety.

It is not to be expe<5led that the Tarentine ^n^Qp
will now, after fo many ages of neglcdt, carry as
fine wool as in the time of the ancient Romans,
when it was fo highly celebrated : but we are aflbred
by modern travellers, that thefe flieep are ftill diflin-
guilhed above all others in thofe regions for the
finenefs of their fleece. It would therefore.be pro-
per to try to obtain a few of the befl: of this breed :
and though the wool that they produce in their
riativc country fhould perhaps be found to be
coarfer than fome of the finefl: of our own, this
ought not to bar the trial, as there can be little
room to doubt that it would be confiderably im-
proved by rearing thefe fheep in our colder climate.
This obfervation will alfo apply to the fheep of
Barbary, and all others that eome fiOna warmer
regions than our own.

The

[ '72 ]

The only other breed of European fhctp I have'
heard of, that promifes to anfwer our prefent pur-
pofe, is one that has been lately difcovered in the
Crimea, which carries a fleece of a grey colour,
and very fine quality: but it is not yet enough
known to enable us to fpeak of it with any decree
of certainty. It is, however, well worth enquiring
after, on account of the warmth of the climate, as
it would probably be greatly ameliorated by being
tranfported hither.

The fined wools, however, that are brought to
European markets are the produdlion of Afia.
Perjtay CaJJjemirey and Thibety are the countries from
whence they come^ and it would be an objedt of
great importance, and highly worthy of fuch a fo-
ciety, to obtain fome of the beft breed of the iheep
of each of thefe countries. This muft, indeed, be
t. work of time, and will be attended with diffi-
cukies and expence j but thefe difficulties are nor
of fuch a nature as to be unfurmountable. The.
fheep is an animal that, when young, can be eafily
tamed, and can become fo entirely domefticated
as to follow man like a dog, partake wich him in
any kind of vegetable food, and lie in his chamber.
To fheep fo trained, a journey either by land or
by fea, is not a matter of great hardfhip; and in
this , way they may be brought hither. Some of

the

[ »73 )

the Thibet fheep have already found their way into
Bengal, where they never can be of any ufe; but
none of them have yet been imported from thence
into this country. Travellers mention an animal
of that country of the goat kind, called Touz^
which carries a fleece much finer than the wool of
their fheep. Enquiries fhould be made if fuch an
animal exifts, and if it does, fome of them, if pof-
fible, (hould be brought to this country^ as there
is little reafon to doubt but they would here prof-
per abundantly.

The Paco and Vicuna of South- America, com-
monly called Peruvian Jheepy though they be, ftri(5lly
fpeaking, of the camel tribe i yet as they carry wool
of the nature of that of Ihecp, only finer in quality,
Ihould alfo be attended to by the fociety. Could
a few of thefe animals be obtained here, there is
great reafon tq believe they would thrive very well
in Britain, as they naturally delight to dwell only
in the cold regions of the Andes, and have been
found to do very well at Aranguez in Spain, where
a few of them have been kept for feveral years paft
merely as a curiofity. Could we produce a fufH-
cient quantity of this kind of wool, at a moderate
price, it would give many of our Jinefl mamifd(5lures
a prodigious advantage over thofe of our rivals, as
is fuHiciently obvioust

Thg

[ '74 ]

The only other animal that occurs to me, as car-
lying a fleece ufeful in our manufadlure, is the
Angora goat.* This kind of goat has been reared
.in France and in Sweden; in both which places it
thrives as well as in its native country, and carries
tJie fame kind of longfilky fleece. There cannot
therefore be a doubt but it would thrive here alfo :
and it could be kept from intermixing with other
breeds of goats in the fame way as the fheep. It is
probable the moft rocky and inacceflible iflands,
if fl:ocked with this clafs of animals, would return a
much greater profit than they could be made to
yiel^ in any other way, were the fleece fold even
at pnly Jialf the price it now yields in Britain.
This ammal therefore feems to be highly deferving
the attention of the fociety.

To be prepared for receiving and propagating
tliefe different breeds of animals when they can be
obtained, it will be n^ceflary for the fociety, im-
mediately after its inftitution, to provide a proper
theatre for thefe experiments. Many places might
be pointed out as being well adapted for the pur-

• I liopc no apology will 1 e thought neceflary for taking notice of
iljpfe animals, which are not rri<5lly ol the fheep race. In a difqui-
fition of this kind It Is the natrre of ^lie material, not the clafs of ani-
mals which p:oducej it, that ought to b. cl.iefly adverted to. A
thefe material are iufficiently aunlogous to be, without impropriety,
admitted luthis ellav.

he

t >75 ]

pofc here wanted ; but thofe which, upon the whole,
appear to me the bed, are the iflands on the weft
coaft of Mull, in Argylefhire. Thefe iflands are
numerous, many of them fmall, and yield excel-
lent pafturc. On thefe the parent breeds might be
placed, perfectly fecure from all danger: and as
other larger iflands of various dimenfions lie near
them, the ftock might eafily be removed to thefe,
when their increafe was fuch as to require it, and
would ftill continue to be under the eye of one
fuperintendant. As mofl: of thefe iflands belong to
the Duke of Argyle, who is at all times difpofed
to patronize and encourage every plan that promifes
to be beneficial to the country, there can be no
doubt but he would be ready to grant to the fo-
ciety every accommodation that could be reajonably
expecled from him. And though the fociety would
no doubt pay a rent for fuch land as they acquired,
yet if that rent were not greater than what is ufually
paid for fuch land in that country, they would find
no difficulty in getting fuch iflands as they had not
immediate occafion for, let, at the fame rent from
year to year, till they fhould find it neceflary to
occupy them themfelves. As for thofe iflands that
were ftocked by the new breeds of fheep, I do not
fuppofe the lofs by them, if any thing, could be
great) for rents there are low, and the wool, it is

to

[ 176 ]

to be fuppofed, would fell at very high prices com-
pared to what it brings there at prefent ; fo that if
this department were managed with an ordinary de-
gree of (kill and honefty, the expence incurred there
would probably be altogether,, or very nearly, re-
paid by the produce of the flocks. Under the ma-
nagement of an individual, for his own account, the
return would no doubt be much more^ and, after
the iheep Vv^ere once obtained, the breeding of them
might prove, to fuch individuals, a bufinefs highly
lucrative; but under the diredion of a publick fo-
ciety, this ought not to be looked for. Indivi-
duals, however, who pofTefs the iflands fcattered
around thefe, would have an early opportunity of
procuring the beft breeds, and would no doubt
quickly avail themfelves of the benefits that might
be derived from that fource. It would be no fmall
advantage to them to be able to fend their wool to
market along with that belonging to the fociety.

If ever this fociety Ihould be inftituted, it would
feem, for many very obvious reafons, that London
ought to be the place where it fliould be conftituted,
and where a fecretary ought pejpetually to refide,
who, under the direftion of the committee, fliould
tranfadl the bufinefs of the fociety ; fend the necef*
fary commifTions to foreign parts, and ifTue orders to
the domeftick overfeer for regulating his condu6l.

It

[ '77, 3

It will be unnecefTary to dwell upon the benefits
that would be derived to this country from an in-
ftitution of the nature here propofed, thcfe being
abundantly obvious. It feems indeed to be not a
little furprifing that a thing of this kind (hould not
have been thought of long ago. This can only have
been occafioned by the fatal prevalence of thofe
falfe notions, that have been fo long induflrioufly
propagated, concerning the fuperiority of Britifh
wool above all others; — an abfurd notion that has
been long eagerly cherifhed, though it is diredly
contradicted by our daily experience.* It is owing
to this caufe alone, I apprehend, that the fubjc6l
has. never hitherto properly attrafled the publick
attention. It is to be hoped, that when it does

• That Spanifli wool ha? been long an article of import into this
nntry every perfon knows, but few know exa<5^Iy the amount of that
lie, or the fums of money that are annually fent out cf this king-
dom lor that article, mod of which is confumed in clothing ourfelves.
By an account that was laid before Parliament lafl year it appears that,
on an average of feveral years paft, about three millions of pounds of
'panifli wool have been imported by us; but that the amount of this
)ortation is augmenting from year to year, and that in particular,
ilie year 1787, no lefs.than four millions one hundred and eighty- .
,ht thoufand two hundred and eighty pounds of Spanifli wool were
iportcdinto Britain; the value of which was upwards of ^jr hundred
;tfand pounds. An immenfe fum, to be needleply given by us for
purpofe of encouraging the agriculture of Spain, ,ihdt might b^
iinitely more beneficially employed in augmenting the produ<5ls o£
1 own fields, and promoting, by the cheapncfsof tlieraw materialn,
manufadlures and the commerce of this country !

Vol. V, N comp

k

[ 178 ]

come to be properly adverted to, men of liberal
minds in every rank of life, perceiving its great
importance, and obferving at the fame time the
trifling effort that is required to confer the mofl
folid advantages on their country, will emuloufly
prefs forward to obtain an honourable place among
that lift of patriots, whofe names will doubtlefs be
preferved to future ages by a grateful people, who,
while they enjoy the benefits this aflbciation has
conferred upon them, will with focial ]oy celebrate
their praifes. And though there can be no doubt
but the efforts of individuals would be altogether fuf-
ficient eafily to effedt thefe falutary purpofes, with-
out any public aid, or royal affiftance^ yet it would
be highly unbecoming of thofe who fhould plan
fuch a laudable inftitution not to folicit the royal
patronage, and to put it in the power of the King,
or the Prince of Wales, to have the honour of being
the patron of an undertaking fo fuitable to the dif-
pofitions of thofe who glory in the titles of the fa-
ther and the friend of their people.

The effeds of the royal bounty^ in improving the
breed of another valuable clafs of animals, the horje^
are well known. By a fimilar bounty in the prefent
cafe, though much more limited in extent, effeds
fimilar in kind, but of infinitely greater national
importance, might be expelled to be produced.

May

[ '79 ]

May the happy time foon arrive, when the jheep
of Great-Britain fliall as much excel the (heep of
all other nations, in refpedl to the finenefs of their
wool, and other valuable qualities, as the horjes of
this ifland now confefledly exceed all others in
fwiftnefs and in bodily ftrength ! Nor have we room
to doubt, that with an equal degree of attention and
care, the former event could be much fooner efFeded
than the latter has been compleated, fince it has
been clearly demonftrated, that our climate is na-
turally fuited beyond mod others for the produc-
tion o{fine wool\ and our circumflances in other
refpedls uncommonly favourable for its improve-
ment. Though, with regard to horfes, this ifland
being able to boaft of no peculiar natural advan-
tages, the pre-eminence flie holds in this refpedt
muft be confefledly the refult of continued care, and
unceafing attention alone.

Article XII.

The two following papers^ furnijhed by a gentleman well known
and refpeSiedfor his abilities in the improvement of Grafs
Lands in the county of Somerfety we give in his ownjiyle and
manner. Thefirji of the tivo^ if examined with thejlri^l^
nefs of agricultural criticifm^ may be liable to fome animad*
verfton^ on account of the extraneous matter with which it
N 2 is

I 180 ]

is accompanied in the notes; but as they take up but little
room^ and mayferve to illujlrate the rujlick chara£ier of a
confidcrable part of the fubordinaic clajfes employed in the
hufbandry of the county^ they are admitted. The informatioii,
indeed^ is not to be confidered as of any great confequcnce to
the pra5l'ical farmer y but as in converfation^fo in readings
thofe anecdotes of pleafantry which happen to be excited by
local fubje£ls^ are not without their ufe in relieving the mind

from the uniformity offevererjludies. Some of our readers
will fmilc, not difagrecably to thernfelves ; and we trujl no one
will be offended at the peculiarity of a writer vjith whom many
may hope to be better acquainted. The communications of
Mr» Locke ^fo far as they refpeSi i?2iprov€?nents^ we are in- ■

for?ned, are the refult of praSlice founded on his own refeC"
tionsy unaided by the perufal of agricultural authors ; and
therefore they have the recommendation of the greater origi-
nality,— IVe Jhall be glad of his further correfpondence^ more
efpecially if his profejjional line Jhould furnijh him with ufeful
chfervations on the dif cafes and managejnent of cattle in low
marjhy countries^ as well as the lands on which they feed.

Oh the Improvement of Meadow Land-, — with a
Jloort Hijlory of a part of Somerfetjhire,

[By Mr. Locke, in a Letter to the Secretary.]

Sir, Burnhamy Feb, 2, 1789.

T Promiled in my laft letter to give you fome ac-
-*" count of the methods I have made ufe of for
thefe forty years pad towards the improvement of
Meadow Land; previous to which I think it necef-

fary

[ i8i ]

Tary to prefeYit you with a (hort hiftory of the flat
part of Somcrfetfhire, wherein I was born and have
always lived. Brent and BariweWs Marjhy as it is
called upon the old maps and records, but at prefenc
better known by the nannes of the North and South
Marjhy with {oxuft few pari (lies adjoining, connpre-
hcnd all the lands fituate between the Mendip and
Poledown hills, quite home to the Briftol Channel;
containing together 42 pariflies, compofed of the
hundreds of BempftGney Brent cum PFrington, Winter-
ftoke, Huntfpiil cum Puritan, and part of Whitley and
Glaflon 'Twelve Hides.

I have taken an adlual furvey by admeafuremcnt
of a great part of thefe lands; and, eftimating the
pariflies I have not furveyed in their due propor-
tion, I find the whole together will amount to about
3000 houfes, 20,000 inhabitants,* and 128,000

• I have counted tlic inhabitants of about twenty parifhesr, and-
elUraating the others after that rate, they may be divided as follows:

Hufbands — a,50O Wives — 2,525

Widowers — — 600 Widows «— 1,000

Batchclors — 700 Spinftcrs *— 300

Sons 4>500 Daughters — 3»500

Malc-fervants - 95c Female fervants - 1,025 -

Male apprentices 400 Female apprentices 400

Male lodgers — 850 Female lodgers - 800

Total males 10,500 Total females 9,500

rJ 3 acres.

[ 182 ]

acres, the wade land included. To the above add
the low lands watered by the Tone, Parret, Ivel,
Bru, Brent, A.x, and the Congre, all which rivers
difcharge themfelves into the Briftol Channel, and
we (hall have 1 28,000 acres more at the lead, A
confiderable part of thefe lands are included in
King YJr.^lmr's* grant to tlie abbey at Glaftonbury,
dated 21 May, 542, in addition to that Vv^hich King
Arviragus had given it before. Ina, eleventh king
of the Weft Saxons, anno 704, built the firft church
at Wells, where the cathedral now ftands, and from
his grant in Bugdale's Monafticon^ dated 725, it
appears that he gave great poireffions to the church
of Glafton; and Kenulfhus the fourth king after
him granted, anno 766, a trad of land containing

* King Arthur, fon of Uter Pendragon, who was the brother of
Aurelius Ambrofius, having fought a great number of battles, and
performed a variety of noble acfls, was himfelf flain at Camelford, in
Cornwall, by Mordred, fon of Gouran, King of the Scots, whom he
had by Anna, one of the aunts of Arthur. [See Ninius and Marianus
Scotuj.] His body, in the 36th of Henry II, anno 1189, was found
buried at Grlaftonbury, with Gunever his queen. Giraldus Cambrenfis,
the hiftorian, was an eye-witnefs to the finding thtfe remains. The
lead cover was prefer ved in the treafury of Glaftonbury till the fup-
preflion of its abbey by Henry VIII. on which was a Latin infcrip-
tion in rude letters, thus englifticd, " Here lieth King Arthur, buried
in the ifle of Avalonia." See Stoiv^s Jfmals.

I do not recolledl whetier the term Brent be in King Arthur's
grant ; but If lb, it contradi<51s the received opinion that Brent marfh
took its name from I>e Sire de Breant, a famous Knight Archer, who
came into England at the Conqueil. See Ho/Iingshcd*

tWQ

[ '83 ]

two large manors for the fupport ofha's church at
Wells. The old charter of endowment may be
fcen in Godwin's Bijhops,

The earldoms or counties of England muft have
been fubdivided before HonoriuSy the fifth archbifhop
of Canterbury, divided his fee into pariflies, anno
62^ ; and it is a doubt with me whether King Alfred^
who died in 901, did not improve, or rather com-
pleat, the plan of fome of his predecefTors in divi-
ding the kingdom of England into hundreds and
tithings; for I cannot conceive that the hundred of
Williton Free- Manor Sy which contain 31 pari flies,
and the hundred of Tauntoti-Deany which confifts of
30 pariflies, (and which was the refidence of King
Lia near a century and a half before Alfred's time)
had each fo few as one hundred houfes in it when
this fubdivifion took place. However this be, we
can, with the afTiftance of Domefday-book, old
Peerages, Dugdale, Tanner, Camden, Speed, and
fome other itineraries, trace mod of thofe manors
and parifhes that compofe tiiefe marfhy lands to,
and fome beyond, the Conquell. Amongfl thefe
are, M^edmorey where Alfred fometime refidedj
AuleTy where the Danifli King Gothrum met Alfred
to be baptized; Banwell and Congrejburyy which
King Edward the ConfelTor gave to Dudoco, the
fourteenth bifliop of Wells, as an addition to his

fee.

[ i84 ]

ice. I'^atton and Winjcomhe were added at the Con-
qiieft to pleafe Bifhop Gifo, from whom King
Harold had taken part of his lands, and gave them
to the monaftery of Gloucefter. Bifhop Jocehne,*
who founded xhe Prebends and Chapter of Wells,
added to his fee the pariflies of Chedder and Ax-
bridge^ the lad gives narne to the deanery, in which
the chief part of thefe marfh lands arefituated.

iVmongfl: other parlfhes of great antiquity is one
cal d Hleadon^ a corruption of Bloody-Down^ fo
ca'ied ^t<om the great Daughter of the Danes by
Ernulph, the fuppofed fon of Hun fecond earl of
Somerfet, anno 845. Indeed, if we, examine anti-
quity, we fhail find that in the names of all places
io tnd'Wigy don is only a corruption of the word
down, juft the fame as ton, at the end of other places,
is a corruption of the word town-, from whence we
may conclude, that the parifh of Lockfton was ori-
ginally the dwelling or town of Locke perhaps long
before the Conqueft. Lock/end (now corrupted to

• This Bilhop is faid to have given an eftate in Bath, called Saint
jfohn^s Farm, valued at 6ol. per annum, for the fupport of fix wi-
dower men,, fix widow women, and a purveyor; which farm I was
employed to furvey in the year 1774, and it was then fo much im-»
proved by buildings as to be worth little lefs than io,oool. per annum.
It is at prefcnt called xht Blue Alms Charity \ and notwithftanding
tTie marvellous increafe of rents, it is flill appropriated to the mainte-
j^nce of /y&ir^^tf^ people, only !

Locking:,

t 185 X

l/icking, as if a participle) was one end of the pof-
felTions of Locke^ as alfo Lock/end- tkady Lock's Weft^
^owtiy now called Wefton above the Jea^ and nnany
others of like innport. Adjoining Lock*s-Town
on the Eaft is a parifh lying between two hills
called Comb-^owTti which in all probability the pro-
prietor of Lock's-Town beftowed as a gift wpon
one of our ancierit Bifhops, being at.prefent called
Compon-Bijhopy and dignified with having a -(^e-
bend's flail in the cathedral church of Wells^^^l he
fame obfervations may be made on the l^iidi^ >ad-
joining called Winterton^ JVinter/combe^ W, uerb'ad^
JVinterbill^ &c* all which names feeim^rto jignify'to
us that the villages thus called were one time or
other the property of one V/intery unLefs we caa
fuppofe them to have been called thus from the
feafon pf the year.

It may be obferved, that nwft of thefe parifhes,
which have the appearance of antiquity, have a
fmall portion of land higher than the marfhy parts^
and the churches are built upon fuch places as were
not likely to be overflown bys.the fea. Indeed the
whole of thefe marfli lands, which comprehend
the quantity of acres contained in twenty miles
fquare, were one part conftantly, and the other fre-
quently, overflown either by the fea or land floods,
until the reign of Henry II. when banks were made

to

[ i86 ]

to keep back the tide; but it was not till the rei^n
of Queen Elizabeth, that the no lefs famous than
ijfeful dam called Highbridge was built, having three
l^rge arches fufHcient to drain the country, with
flood-gates of fuch ftrength as to keep back the
tidej fo that we frequently fee the water on the
Weft fide of the bridge lying againft the fea from
twenty to thirty feet higher than it is on the Eaft

or land fide.
^ . (

s this draining the land gave rife to fome
I ^ -.• n:esj their very names feem to indicate as
iniif^hj^i '.. Chad Seay i. e. the land late a fea, de-
dicated ici 6"/, Chadi Middle Sea, lying between
th(; parifh of AH Bry^ (now Audry or Othery) and
Wefi-town Sea and handy (now IVeJlonzoyland) Badge-"
war thy that is, the warth (or warf as anciently
fpelt) of Badge-, Hunt's Pill, that is, the Pill of Hunt^
^nd fo of others. It feems as though Lympjhamy
together with Burnhaniy BerroWy and Brean, whofe
churches fland within a few yards of high water-
mark, are ftill more new 3 nay, the two parifhes of
Biddes-ham and Aller-town were, long fincc the
Revoliition, adlually chapels of eafe to JVedmorei
and the flourilhing pariih whofe church is dedicated
to Saint Marky is a fpurious iffue of that ancient
place; for although it has 800 fouls in' it at this
time, the publick knows it by the name of Mark

only

[ '87 ]

only, without any furname; and it is left totally
unnoticed as a parifh in Bacon's new as well as every
other edition of E5lorC% Thefaurus.

I am the more convinced the flat country I am
dcfcribing was once overflown by the fea, from the
names given to certain places in it. Jofeph of
Arimathea and his followers, according to Treculas^
lib. ii. cap. 4, had as much land given him as could
be furrounded by twelve ox-hides cut intc fmall
thongs, which he at firft: called Ynijytriny but "''ter :
wards the Ifland oi Avalon-y at prefent it is callel
Glafton twelve Hides, The high hill called Brent-
knoll (on the top of which was a Roman garrifon*)
was ftiled by the monks of Glaftonbury, in an an-
cient grant of theirs, the Little IJland cf Frogs y\ and
became famous for giving birth to the noted Adam
de Marijco^ i. e. Adam of the Marjhy an author of
great piety and learning, who flouriflied in 1257,
Befides the above iflands, there are a great number
of villages, farms, and places, called IJlandsy IJle-portSy
Hills, Mounts, Batches, Warfs, Warths, and JVaths,
with the epithets great, little, long, floor t, high, low,

• The top of this hill contains about ten acres, having been furw
rounded by a thick wall, the traces of which are now vifible; and
within my own remembrance there was a l^ge quantity of Roman
coins found upon it, fo that I cannot doubt of its having been a
Roman ftation.

t Sec John Roufe.

hither^

[ i88 J

biihery yonder, over, under, Jupa,Juher, nether, eaji,
'weft, north, fouth, white, black, yellow, green, &c. all
of which contribute to prove this flat country to
have been once a fea. But. if we may in this cafe
rely upon tradition, for the digging up of fhip's an-
chors many feet under ground in the marfliy places,
there cannot remain any pofTibility of doubt.

I have feen fome grants of William I. and grants
of manors foon after the Conqueft, which I could
both read and underlland. They were not much
unlike the long narrow chyrographs of fines wrote
in Law-Latin Court-hand;* but I do not recoiled
to have feen in the leafes of tenements for lives un-
der thefe grants, any particular boundaries fet forth,
till fince the difTolution of monafteries at the Refor-
mation j and from hence I conclude that this flat
country was no otherwife bounded than by ancient
grants of manors, each of which was gelt at a cer-
tain number of hides,-]- and was under the feudal

tenure

• I have now in my pofleflion one of thefe Law-Latin Gourt-hand
chyrographs, acknowledged in Hil. term, 4th William IIL between
Francis Carfwett, Dodor in Divinity, and vicar of Bray in Berklhire,
(the turn-coat vicar of Bray) plaintiff, and John Friend, of Taunton
Saint Mary Magdalen, defendant.

f How fhall we reconcile the very great difference at prefent fub-
fifting between thofe authors who have laboured to afcertain the quan-
tum contained ia a hide of land? fome having fixed it to be fifty acres,

whilft

C »89 ]

tenure held In villenage* by the vafilils of the great
Lord, who for the moft part held under the Crown
by krtight's fees and war fcr vices.

To

w hilft others have a« confidently called It a hundred. Perhaps both of
tlicfc are right ; for if we look into DomeiUay-book, we Ihall find out
gentleman's manor gelt for twenty hides, which at prefent contain*
twenty hundred acres; and another gentleman's manor gelt at twenty
hides, that contains only ten hundred acres. The fa<fl is, a hide oF
land was juft fo much as could be tilled with one team, and fo was
more or lefs according to the induftry of the proprietor or proprietors;
for fometimes there were as many as fix valTals to one hide, each of
whom contributed his fingle ox, from whence the term ox-gang, or
ox-fhut, in certain inclofed pallures ; and hence it is too tliat we find
fuch a number of ancient tenements from ten to twenty acres each,
which was exadl one-fi>sth part of a hide of land. Great allowance
muft alfo be made in regard to the quantum contained in a hide, for
the lands which lay uncultivated at the Conqueft may at prefent be in
a high degree of culture; no wonder therefore that in tliis flat country
(a great part of which hath been new made fince the Conqueft) we
fometimes find the average hide of a manor to contain feveral hundred
acres. The price of a hide of land a little before the Conqueft was
fifty ihillings.

• One branch of this fervice, as it was introduced before and at the
Conqueft, in a few particular places in England, g;ive the Lord a pii»
vilege of fleeping with his tenant's daughter the firft night after mar-
riage; but the good Queen Margaret, grandaughter of Edmund
Ironfide, and mother-in-law to our Henry I. in confequence of her
marriage with Malcolm king of Scotland, did, for a round fum of\no-
ney, compound M-ith the great Lords of that kingdom to abolilh a pre-
poftcrous cuftom big with evil againft nature and civil liberty ; and
King Henry fo far folbwed his mother-in-law's example, as to dif-
countenance it in England, by wholly freeing fuch of his fubjeAs who
laboured under this heavy yoke, upon tlieir paying 6s. 8d. which was
indeed fuch a pitiful price for a woman's virginity, that the cuftom

very

I 190 ]

To every manor belonged a manfion with more
or lefs land in denaefne inclofed near it, always fuf-
ficient for the maintenance of the family, without
the lord's being under the necelTity of intercom-
moning with his tenants; and this is the only reafon
that can be adduced why the manor-houfes are at
this day precluded all intereft and advantage arifing
from the multiplicity of new inclofures under dif-
ferent adls of parliament for that purpofe. The
demefne feems to have been the only land iden-
tified, except the old aufier^ tenements and their

veiy foon became univerfally abollfiied. But this libidinous privilege
of the lords of fome manors had taken fuch deep root in the mind*
of fome of their vaflals, that they had their younger fons preferred
before the elder, — a borough Englifh practice that is ftill kept up in
many parts of England, particularly about thirty parilhes in Somer-
fetlhire, lying in the hundred of Taunton-Dean, the culloms of which
I fometime fince publiflied, price 2s.

• Aujler being a provincial term, not intelligible by gentlemen at
a diftance, it may not be amifs to acquaint them that it is peculiarly
applied to fome parts of this flat country. The term itfelf is differ-
ently fpelt in different grants ; whence the learned have given us many
different conje<Slures of its derivation, moft of whom believe it purely
Saxon ; but whether fo or not, its true original import fignified an
oven, for want' of which a hearth or fire-place, but of fuch a conftruc-
tion that it muft be capable of baking bread. All fuch villanes who in
early times would venture to live on thofe marfhy lands, and ered^ed a
cot of fuch confequence as to have a hearth or oven that would bake
their own bread, had a privilege of unlimited intercommoning, pro-
vided they poffeffed themfelves of one ox, and cultivated a fufficient
quantity of ground to find themfelves and families in corn.

homefteds,

t '9' ]

homeftcds, for the manor was generally divided
into three large inclofures, called a bam, a meadow^
and 2i field. In the ham all the tenants fed their
cattle in common during the fummer feafon, after
the fame manner as commons in grafs are fed at
prefent. For winter fodder, all the tenants, the
firft day after the Nativity of St. John the Baptift,
mowed promifcuoufly in the meadow land, com-
monly beginning at twelve o'clock at night, and
continued mowing where they pleafed according as
their judgment pointed them to the bed grafs;
but if a tenant furrounded more land than his
ftrength enabled him to mow in twenty-four hours,
any neighbouring tenant who had finillied mowing
the piece he had marked out in the morning, had
a prefcriptive right to break in upon fuch furrounded
land for the lad hour or two, more or lefs, and con-
tinue mowing till the twenty-four hours were fully
expired. The more wet or poor parts of the fame
mead might be mowed at any time, and by any
tenant who fuppofed his fingle day's mowing in-
fufEcient to fupport his cattle in the winter.

A full day's « mowing was emphatically called a
Mead, and when the tenements came to be iden-
tified and bound-ftones fet up, they were always
cftimated at five acres each, I have furveyed fome
hundreds, perhaps thoufands of thofe meads, and

find

[ 192 ]

find them to contain from three to three acres and a.
half each, ftatute meafure.

In fomewhat after the fame manner the farmer
tilled his arable land; for the chief villager, or
earlieft rifer, began to plow in the common field
■where he pleafed, drove on till his catde wanted
breath, and then turned about; which commonly
happened at the length of one-eighth part of a
mile, from hence called a furlong, fo the full day's
work of the team was at the clofe of the evening
called an acre.* Sometimes the plowman No. i,
owner of one ox, happened to be beat off by the rain
at the end of half a day, in which cafe the plowman
No. 2, who alfo owned another ox, began plowing at
the fame place, and fo reduced the bit of land No. i
to half an acre, nay fometimes to a fingle ridge or
dole, commonly called a yard or plot, it being an
indefinite term fignifying one quarter of an acre,
more or lefs. But the catching after land thus, as
fchool-boys do for nuts, was, foon after the diffo-
lution of monafteries, found inconvenient, which

* If the curious agriculturift will be pleafed to attend to this circum-
ftance, and recollect that we had no ftatute meafure except the yard,
-whofe length was determined by the length of the arm, he will readily
be able to account not only for the difference in fize of the acres in
almoft every country, but alfo for the ridiculous irregularity of fences
and intermixture of property, to the very great injury of the different
proprietors, and emolumeat of none but gentlemen of the long robe. .

caufed

[ 193 1

caufcd the great lords to abolifli, in a great meafure,
their old feudal tenures; and inftead of fo zealoufly
diftinguifhing themfelves by red and white rofes,
proceeded to inclofe and identify their lands, on
which they granted leafes by the particular defcrip-
tion of all thofe feveral pieces and parcels of arable
and meadow, which were at the time of granting
thofe leafes adlually in the occupation of the leflees,
which lefiees were not thereafter to be molefted by
any perfon whatever, together with an unlimited
common of pafture in the ham or moor for the fum-
mer feeding of cattle. Thefe old aufter tenements
were generally held for 99 years, determinable on
the death of three lives; and at firft under the eafy
annual rent of wheat, barley, oats, hay, cattle, geefe,
ducks, capons, wild fowl, cummin feed, &c. and on
the death of the oldeft life the beft beafl was gene-
rally advanced by way of ^nefor a life^ and from
thence called far lief y but long fmce compounded
for money, and at prefent called a heriot.

The great Lords thus inclofing and identifying
tlieir tenements, this flat country gave great offence
to the tenants, whofe privilege of picking and
chufing the befl land was now at an end; they
therefore fent a petition to Edward Seymour, the
great Duke of Somerfet and Prote6lor of England,
complaining of the Lords' incroachment upon their

Vol. V. O privileges.

[ 194 3

privileges. The Duke iflued out a proclamation
for the levelling theie inclofurcs, by a day therein-
named; which not being complied with by the
Lords, the tenants took the liberty of doing it
themfelves; and this brought on an infurredlion
In Somerfetftiire in the fecond year of the reign
of Edward VI. The mob behaved very much
after the fame manner as the Irifli white- boys did
a few years fince, from the fame motive; b,ut fome
of them having received exemplary punifhment,
the reft were pardoned, and returned to their alle-
giance. I never faw a feoffment or a grant in fee
of fmall tenements, or portions of land, identified
and bounded, prior to this asra -, but in the fucceed-
ing reign we have them in great abundance, from
which, with the afliftance of the publick*" furveys,
we may in a great meafure difcover the value of
money between that period and the prefent time.
If we examine the King's lii^er ijalorum^ as taken
for Somerfetfhire by Dr. John Clark bifhop of Bath
and Wells, Sir William Stourton, knight, Hugh
Powlett, William Portman, and Roger Kynfey,
eiquires, in the thirty-fifth year of Henry VIII.
we fhall find this flat part of Somerfetfhire (herein
before eftimated at 256,000 acres) to be valued at
about thirty thoufand pounds per annum, v.'hich is
almoft half-a- crown ^n acre upon an average. At

the

l ^9S ]

the Revolution we find the value of thefe fame lands
increafcd to about -fcventy-fix thoufand eight hun-
dred pounds, which is fix fliillings per acre upon an
average : at prefent I value this trad of country at
thirty fliillings an acre, one with another ; and from
the minutefl: and bed calculations I have been ena-
bled to make in the courfe of forty years experience
upon the fpot, ading in the three-fold capacity of a
confiderable farmer, a practical agriculturifl:, and a
land-furveyor, I adduce one general efi.imate, which
may be arranged as follows:

Pounds
Acres per annum.

20,000 acres of rich pafhire land in a high degree
of culture, ftatute meafure, exclufive of
fences worth 2I, los. per acre per annum 50,000

30,000 acres of uneven pafture land in large clofes,
formerly arable, laid out to grafs in ridges
20 feet wide, in other refpeds as rich as
tlie former, worth 2I. per acre - - - 60,000

60,000 acres of palhire land, which ought to be
made into clofes from 10 to 30 acres
each, and fo exchanged as to make farms
within ring fences, in which cafe, it might,
by good management, be made worth 2L
per acre in two years, worth at prefent
il. 10s. per acre - ------ 90,000

O 2

[ 196 ]

Pound*
Acres. per annum-

76,000 acres of meadow land conftantly mowed,
either under jointure, mortgage, ufes, or
remainders over unbarred, or belonging to
lefTees for lives, tenants for life by curtefy,
joint common, or in tail, or fome other
impediment, which will effe6lually prevent
the farms from being brought by ex-
changes within ring fences, and be thereby
improved, worth il. IDS. per acre - - 114,000

70,000 acres of negle6led land belonging to fome
charity, church, college, or dignitary, ly-
ing in fmall irregular pieces, being either
coarfe, wet, intermixed, undivided, ill-
fhaped, uneven, at a diftance from houfes,
with bad roads, moors, uninclofed, and
other uncultivated property, worth only
il. per acre -------- 70,000

256,000 acres. Total annual value ^^.384,000

I would not be underftood to include in this cal-
culation any ancient common field lands now in
tillage, or lands that lie above fpirit level higher
than high-water mark. The calculation is made
from neat ftatute acres, exclufive of fences and
uncultivated corners; and the land-owner is to
allow out of this eftimate every kind of agricul-
tural repair, and incumbrances of all forts, with

which

C ^97 ]

which the land, or occupier thereof, (lands charged
according to the cuftom of the country, fo that
the tenant has no payment whatever to make but
rent only.

If the above calculation be admitted as founded
on fadt, the proportion of money will be as one to
twelve from the Reftoration to the prefent time.
I know the clergy in their comments upon the va-
luation of the King*s liber valorum add a cypher
upon the right hand, which only makes the pro-
portion to be as one to tenj but this is merely
arbitrary, without calculation. In anfwer to which
I do not recolledl to have feen any grant whatever
in Queen Elizabeth's reign, where the premifes
conveyed are not worth at prefent as many thou-
fands as tjie confideration money was hundreds.
Indeed 'Pill' s- Mouth Farnty where I drew my firft
breath, worth at prefent icol. per annum, coft my
grandfather's father in the reign of Charles II. only
200I. in fee; which farm was purchafed of the
lord of the manor* in the reign of Queen Elizabeth
O 3 for

• The Popham family were lords of Burnham in the laft century,
id we have a tradition amongft us, that an anceftor of this family,
lien a young univerfity blood, in company with two jovial compa-
>ns, made too free with a gentleman's purfc upon the road. Soon
ter Popham repented, imdhis companions thought nothing Icfs than
^ difcovcry would follow, which in order to prevent they led him into

a wood I

[ 198 ]

for the fum of 25!. only. It is true it lies againft
the fea, and has been occafionally fubjed to inun-
dations by the overflowing of the tide, the laft of
which was anno 1737, and the next before that
anno 1703.*

Having

a wood, faftened his hands behind him, fixed one end of a halter
round his neck, the other end to a limb of a tree, and in this fituation
left him feated upon his horfe. Popham M'-as under dreadful appre-
henfions of his approaching fate, and fo much the m»re as the grafs
grew fhort on which the horfe had for a time very quietly fed ; but he
now began to ftretch the rope by extending his circuit, and Popham,
who had been humouring him with a jockey-whifUe, began to cry
out in great agony of foul, Ho! Ball! ho! Ball! but at the very in-
ftant he was about to fwing off, he was relieved by one of his com-
panions, who had divided from the other, and was returned back for
that purpofe. It happened that in a fcries of yeara Popham became a
Judge, before whom his companion who had faved his life was con-
vi(5\ed for a capital offence, and being afkedrwiiy judgment of death
fhould not pafs, he mimicked the Judge's former tone ef voice, and
cried out Ho! Bull! ho! Ball! The Judge, who now reeolleded his
face, told the Court that the prifoner appeared to be infane, and that
he would refpite fentence till next aflizes, before which he found meansi
to get the culprit pardoned and provided for.

* The nwnners of the inhabitants of this flat country cannot fo well
be judged of by a ftranger as a native ; they are civil or rough as the
traveller pleafes. Take an example founded on fadl : —

" ^ Hark yqu, fellow, which is my road to Frog-hole ? A, What's
call I fellow f<K? 1, 1,1, zed nothing to thee. ^ Well, my good
man, I would not liave you be offended, for I did not mean to affront
you, but pray do tell me the road. A. Whare didfl thou come from
than ? ^ Why, my hojoeft friend, can it make any difference to you
from whence I came? A. No fhour and Ihour, but then it can be no

odd$

[ »99 ]

Having run into length, I fhall only add at pre-
icnt> that I know fevcral hundred acres which I
remennber to have been rented at is. per acre'pcr

annum J

odds to I where tliou'ft go." And fo left the gentleman without tell-
ing him the road to Frog-hole, making a merit of his forbearance iu
not Honing him for a bailiff, an cxcircman,'of a fpy ; whereas, if the*
llrangcr had fatisfied the impertinent cuf iofity df H6dge with ruftick
good-humour, he would have carried him through the waters on Ki*
back, ifit hid b^en a mile, fbr flx-peilce.

The labouring people amongft us are exceedingly ignorant ; as a
ph)of, the minifter of Pawlet, at the time of the American war, chofe
fof his text thefe words: "Who will go up with me to Ramoath-Gilead
to battle?" After a fhort paufe, and no perfon anfwering, one of our
fifhcrmen who had been a failor ftood forward, and told the clergynun
though none c/f the reft would goi Vith him, yet he would go.

- A popular chara<J>er may (if proof againft the ague) live very com-
fortably and fafe from frce-booters in this country. The neceflkry
qualifications are, riches, ignorance, and good-humour: one of this
ftararp, lately deceafed, was more popular than any other, owing chiefly
to a very trifling incident. The clergyman and he having drunk
freely one fummcr evening at the public k-houfe, were returning home
about twelve o'clock at night, when the parfon had the misfortune to-
be fet faft in a bog j and as men drowning will catch at a reed, fo he
petitioned his companion, very pathetically, for afTillance. Our hero
knew he was unable to afiord his diftrelted friend any kind of relief,
and told him fo ; but being overcome with his rhetorick, told him thait
it Should never be faid he had deferted him, and fo coolly walked
into the bog, and fat down by his fide till morning, when they were
both found and relieved. This gentleman's poultry were fafe ever
after, and what is more remarkable, liis hedges efcaped unmolefled od
the fifth of November*

The method of feclttig a new paffon, as ufually phrafcd, is to call
^im up 9t twelve o'clock at night to baptize a child; if he goes

voluntarily

[ 200 ]

annum J I renrienaber the fame lands fold in fee at
20S. per acre; and I know them at prefent to be
worth 40s. per acre per annum. I know thoufands
of acres improved to double and treble their value,
and the inhabitants of Burnham alone are forty

voluntarily and with much feeming good-humour, his charatfler is
eftabliihed, and he is never more diflurbed: but if he fhould happen to
grumble, he is plagued into a compliance. However, the Rev. Mr.
Diaper, of Eaft-Brent, adlually refufed — ^the child died, not without
fufpicion of foul play — law enfued, and the parfon wrote a very feverc
and violent fatire, on Brent, printed, if I remember right, in the
London Magazine, about the year 1738 ; I believe it may be read,
with fome alterations, in Dr. Bowden's Poems. I could repeat the
verfes when a boy, and recoUedl one at prefent :

« The bleak knoll, and all the marlhes round,
« A fort of chaos and unfalhion'd ground ;
*' 'Twere made in winter we may fafely fwear,
<* For winter is the only feafon here,"

Mr. Diaper barely efcaped with the flcin of his teeth, but his Poem
tended greatly to' enrich the inhabitants of this country, by keeping
out all ftrangers, and keeping the price of land low. The judicious
have allowed this poem to be a perfuafive'to the lords for difmember-
ing their manors; — a lucky circumftance for the lelTees, who became
the- chief purchafers, and whofe defcendants now live comfortably
upon their own freeholds.

I could fay much about wrecks. The laft we had was on a Sunday,
in time of Divine fervice, when every living foul deferted the parfon,
exctpt myfelf and the clerk who had but one leg. However, if I
were to write the hiflory of this, or any other wreck, I might Hand a
good chance " to go to civreck'^ myfelf. It will therefore be moft ad-
- vifeable to be filent on a fubjedl that, if divulged, would give offenc^
to our neighbours.

thoufanc}

[ 20I ]

thoufand pounds richer than they were forty years
fince, which I ^attribute chiefly to the improve-
ments made on their lands. The pradlical method
of thefe improvements fliall be the fubjeA of an-
other letter. At prefent I have only to add, that
I am with much refped,

Your obliged ijnd cordial friend,

R. LOCKE.^,

AjlTICLE XIII.

On the Improvement of Meadow Land.

[By the Same.]

Burnhamy iGth Feb, 1789.
Dear Sir,

TPHE necefllty of keeping meadow in a good
degree of culture mufl appear exceedingly
obvious to farmers of every defcription, but more
particularly fo to all owners and occupiers of Dairy
farmsy with which the flat part of Somerfet I have
been treating of more efpecially abounds. One-
third part of thefe farms muft be mowed every year,
in order to fupply the cows with winter fodder;
this conftant mowing cannot but have a tendency

to

[ ao2 ]

to impovcrifh fuch lands> iinlefs fomc proper me-
thods are made ufe of to recruit its ftrength, ^nd
conftantly keep it in fuch a due and regular ftate as
to make the meadows produce the greateft quan-
tity of grafs they are capable of. Having ftudied
this fubjedt for thefe forty years pail, I fhall con-
fine myfelf within my own pradice, without paying
attention to others ^ hut herein I find great diffi-
culty, being unavoidably obliged to fpeak in the
firft perfon, a tafk very difagreeable to farmers of a
contraded education.

My grandfather died in 1748, when my father
entered upon a dairy farm of about 200I. per an-
num. Part of this farm was feven acres and a half
of meadow, then valued at 5I. per annum, having
round its borders very high banks,* which had
never been taken away from the time of its firft
being inclofed, and the middle of the field lay jqyy
low and wet. I advifed the banks fhould be re-
moved to the depth of fix inclies below the fiirface,
Hoping towards the ditches, and carried over the
land, fo as to make it entirely level, or, if any dif-
ference, higheft in the middle of the field, which
buried it in fome parts to the depth of eighteen

• Banks here, and in all other places of this letter, mean nuifancesji
is being compofcd of the earth and clay thrown up out of the rhines
and ditches which cmbound the fields and inclofure»of this flat country.

inches.

[ ^3 1

inches. It bore a good crop of horfc-bcans where
covered deep, and on the borders and fuch parts
as had very little earth thrown over it, blue marrow
peas were planted with good fuccefs, and plenty of
white clover feed fown all over the field. This fi-^
nifhed the bufinefs at the expence of twenty pounds,
exchifive of the furplus value of the corn exceeding
the 5I. for rent. The fecond year it bore a bad
crop of grafs, which was, however, worth more
than 5I. the old rent. The third year it was fome-
thing better J and by the fourth year it had a good
found turf, fo that the fifth year it was compleatly
guttered} and by fummer-feeding, in a few years,
it became rich pafture land, without the affiftance
of a fingle load of dung or compoft of any kind.
It gradually increafed in value till Ictt to a tenant
for 15I. per annum, and has continued at that rent
to the prcfcnt time.

One clofe of eight acres belonging to this farm
had been dug over in pits and pools, to repair the
fea-wall, and fo exceedingly bad and irregular that
it was thought incapable of improvement. It was
therefore let to a tenant for five years, at 4I. per
annum. At the end of this term, during which
20I. being expended with fuccefs about the former
clofe, operated as a powerful motive to attempt
doing fomething to thefe eight acres: forty pounds

were

[ 204 3

were accordingly laid out in draining and levelling,
by which (imple method of innprovennent it foon
became worth 15I. per annum, and was laft year
fold cheap by my filler's hufband for 360I.

Four acres of this land were let at 40s. per ann.
but being fo exceedingly poor the tenant refufed to
continue the pofleflTion, unlefs the rent was abated
to il. per annum. This was infulHcient to keep
fences and pay taxes, which amounted to more than
20s. a year upon an average for forty years toge-
ther. Here, then, was a clofe worth nothing, nay
worfe than nothing, for when it was left open to
the common it had ftill taxes to pay. I had in
early life travelled through Cornwall, and fome-
Avhere upon the fouthern coaft in my road to Pen-
zance obferved the people bufily employed in culti-
vating the land with fea fand.* This I recolledled,
and as the clofe lay within half a mile of the fea-
fhore, an experiment was tried fufficient to prove
that perfeverance would have been attended with
amazing fuccefs; but having fuch mountains of dry
fand upon the coaft to pafs over before we can

• Since I wrote the above I am Informed by a gentleman from
Cornwall, that the farmers of that county are fo well acquainted with
the good efieds of fea fand as a rioh manure, that it Is taken in barges
up the rivers as far as they are navig .ble, and afteinvards carried on
Jiorfeback ten or more miles before it is thrown over the land.

get"

t 205 ]

get upon the beach, it is morally impoffible, iri iti
prefent (late, to haul it up. However, I am fo fully
convinced of the excellency of fca fand as a manure
for clay lands, that had I but one acre adjoining
the fca, I would make a road through it, though it
fhould cofl: me one hundred pounds. By fea fand,
you will obferve I mean the iand upon our exten-
five Ihore* which is daily overflowed by the tide,

by

• The mouth of the river Parret is near a mile over, in which was
an ifland of about eighty acres, called in the old maps Dunbal Ifland,
having a large river on the weft, and a fmall river on the eaft, in each
of which the velTels pafled and repaiTed. It happened in the hard froJft
anno 1739, that the fmall river war filled with fuch vaft' quantities of
ice that it turned the current into the large river ; and before the ice
melted it was fo much covered with flub and flime as to prevent the
low water from pafling, and is at this time nearly level with the land,
infomuch that our youth pay very little regard to the tellimony of their
fathers, when informed by tliem that they have feen Ihips fail on the
fpot which is at prefent good pafture land.

Since my remembrance, another ifland is formed near a mile in
length, having at prefent much grafs upon it, and which I believe will
in a few years be united with the former. Not far from the north
end of this laft ifland the great river was feparated into three fmall
ones ; the firft divided Burnham and Berrow Strand from a large
track of fand called the Gore ; the fecond divided the Gore from a
lefs quantity of fand, called the Lark-fands ; and the third divided the
Lark-fands from the Start-Point. This laft is alraoft filled with fand
and flub: the fecond river is widened, and is now the only one in
which fliips pafs ; for the firft river is fo much ftopped up, that the
Gorc-fands are now united with Burnham and Berrow-Point, and
our fifliermen inform me, that, with the aififtance of their flime-carts,
they can go near ten miles ftrait weft into St. George's Channel at
dead low water, when the tide is run out the loweft pofiible.

Qucrv,

[ ao6 ]

by which means it is faturated with (Irong falts of
an alkaline nature, and fhould therefore be thrown
over the land immediately whilft wet; for if per-
mitte<J to dry, the faline particles with which this
fand is impregnated by the fea water, will evapo-
rate, and confequently the fand lofe the chief in-
gredient in its compofition. Being difappolnted
in the article of fea fand, the four acres of land
were levelled upon the former plan ; and foon after
about 150 load of 30 cwt. each of dry fand and
dung, well mixed and turned, were dfread over
it, and this made fuch an effedual improvement,
that it was very foon let to a tenant for tv/enty-
one years, at 5I. per annum, neat, clear of all dif-
burfements whatever. The term was expired three
years fince, and J have now let it at 61. per annum,
but it is worth more.

In the year 1753 one Mr. Mapflone, a gentleman
from London, waited on my father at Ifleport farm,
offering to fell him 1 20 acres of land in Burnham,
called the Henley Eftate. My father declijaed the

Query, Who is the philanthropic Captain, or rather Mailer, of one
of the Bridgewater or other traders, that will be prevailed upon to
publiih a full and true defcription of this Channel, in order to prevent
Itrangers from fuffering Ihipwreck on this large and extenfive tradt
of fiat fand, the dread fcourge of the unfortunate in the hands of
pillagers on an inhofpitable coaft !

propofal ;

t 507 ]

propoftl; I was not of age, but I pointed out to
my mother's brother the advantages that would
arife from clofing in with this offer, in fuch per-
fuafive terms, that after much deliberation he was
prevailed on to become a purchafer at i6ocl. The
cftate then let at 80L per annum, but did not clear
quite 50I. upon an average. Here was a large field
open for induftry, and my uncle profecuted it to
fuch good efFecl, according to examples I have
already laid down, that in a very few years this
farm was increafed to treble its value when pur-
chafed, and is at prefcnt worth, if it was to be fold,
upwards of 5000I.

In the year 1757 I purchafed a farm of Marlh
Dickenfon, efq; then Lord-Mayor of London^
which had for years been offered for fale, and which
every perfon was either unable or unwilling to buy«
Part of this land confided of fix acres in one clofe
fo exceeding poor that I was glad to let it by itfelf
at 40s. per annum. This however did not Jafl
long, for I added to my former method of hauling
the banks into the low parts to make it plain and
dry, feveral good drefiings with rotten dung and
good bank earth, mixed into a compoft by two
turnings, and this did the bufinefs ; for I imme-
diately let it to a tenant for a term of fourteen years,
at lol. per annum. The term hadi been expired

for

[ ao8 ]

for many years, and I have fi nee added it to a farmj
but it is worth at prefent 1 2I. per annum.

I have made other improvements and experi-
ments upon meadow land that have come very near
to, but none that have exceeded, thofe already re-
lated. One thing I think worth remarking, viz.
in the year 1759 ^ ^^'^^ folicited to purchafe fixty-
one acres of land in. Burnham at 200I.; and this
eftate hath fince been fo much improved, that I
would now be glad to contradt for the fee of it at
aoool. Indeed, fince this time, various eftates, to
the amount of a great many hundreds per annum,
have been purchafed of perfons at a diftance, by
the inhabitants of Burnham, who have improved
them much after the fame manner, and who at
prefent live very comfortably upon them.

As one great proof of the advantages arifing
from tlvs mode of improving eftates, the inha-
bitants of Burnham are at prefent owners of up-
wards of joool. per annum in other parifhes, al-
though I remember when no man in the parifh
(my grandfather excepted) was worth loool. —
There were then but five jurors and freeholders in
it, whereas at prefent we have fifteen returned to
the county feflions as gentlemen, thereby qualifying
them to krvc on the grand inqueft of Somerfet-

fliire i

[ 209 ]

fhircj and are worth from aoool. to io,ocoL a
man. We have, exclufive of the above, fourteen
other farmers with eftates fufficient to qualify them
as jurors to ferve upon Nifi-prius juries; and have in
the whole thirty-fix freeholders, befidcs fix widow
women farmers, worth loooL each upon an average.

You are not to fuppofe that no other parifh bc-
fides Burnham hath received benefit from this mode
of hufbandry, viz. firfl making the land entirely
plain and level ; and fecondly, keeping it perfectly
dry by guttering; for the whole flat country I de-
fcribed in my laft letter feels its good efFedls, more
orlefs; but judging from the new-acquired riches
of the inhabitants in general, I conclude no other
parifh hath, in the fame number of years, exceeded,
if equalled, the place of my nativity. However, I
will here take the opportunity of introducing a few
hundred acres lying in the parilli of Mere, a great
part of which I remember about forty years fince
was rented by a capital farmer and judicious grazier
called Efgar, at is. per acre; and fome other parts
were rented by fundry other farmers, from 2s. to
fs. per acre. Mr. Efgar purchafed a large trad of
this land in fee fimple, and, according to the report
of the day, at twenty Jhillings per acre. He imme-
diately began to exert himfelf in making this land

Vol. V. P lye

[ 2J0 ]

lye plain and dry, his neighbours followed his ex-
ample, and without the afliftance of any afhes,
dung, foil, or compoft of any kind whatever, part
of thefe lands have been fold at about 40I. per acre ;
and many hundreds per annum, the remainder, are
at prefent worth 40s. per acre per annum, and now
owned and occupied by Edward Brown and Arthur
Phippen, efqrs. and feveral others.

I have hitherto treated of the improvement of
meadow land, as it ought to be pra6lifed by the
owners; the expence of which, together with the
temporary lofs of the herbage, being too much to
be fufFered by the tenant. I fhall now proceed to
treat of the improvement of meadow land in the
way it might be performed by tenants at will, or
occupiers of land, independent of any expedlation of
ownerfhip, or certainty of continuing the pofTefTion,
fuppofing the landlord cannot be prevailed on to
contribute towards the expence. In fpeaking to
this part of my fubjc6t, I fhall beg leave to (late the
methods I have practifed myfelf in improving fuch
meadow lands as I have formerly rented.

Let, for example, the piece be two meads of
five acres each, without any divifion, having high
banks all round and lowed in the middle. I take
pofTefTion at Lady-Day ^ and immediately divide the

clofe

.[ 411 ]

clofe into four equal parts, by cutting two crofs gut-
ters quite through into the ditches. Let thefe gut-
ters be eighteen inches deep and only ten inches wide,
the wages is one penny per rope (of twenty feet) for
cutting, and one penny per rope for fpreading about
the earth, making it fine, and getting it into the
ground ; the whole, being fixty-three ropes, will
amount to half-a-guinea ^ and this is all the expence
the firll year, for I indulge my workmen or fome
other labourers (enough of whom are always to be
found) with the privilege of planting potatoes in fo
much of the bank in each quarter as I guefs will
amount to fifty put-loads, making in the whole two
hundred loads. Thefe potatoes I order to be taken
up about MichaelmaSy or fooner if I want to flock
the field; and that the potatoe labourer may dig
the bank quite to the bottom, and throw it round
together in a high narrow ridge, I give him one fhil-
ling a quarter, that is, four (hillings for the whole.
If I want to mow the field the fecond year, I then
carry out thefe four potatoe-banks in the froftj but if
I do not want to mow the field, I prefer the covering
it in the month of May to any other feafon of the
year. The bill for doing this will ftand thus:

£. s. d.
To hauling 200 loads of bank-earth, ten days,
at IS. 6d. per day - - - - ---0150

To the hire of a put and one horfe, ditto, at
23. 6d. per day --------150

P %

[ 212 ]

l.s. d.

To fpreading about the earth, and beating it

fmall, ten days, at is. 6d. - - - - - o 15 o

To hauling the earth-drag* over it twice, two

days' work ---------040

To the potatoe labourer for turning and me-

' Jiorating the bank -------040

;C-3 3 0

Let this ten acres be thus drefled every fecond
year till all the banks are carried over the field; and
whether it be fooner or later, we can but add in
the mean time one guinea and a half a year to the
rent \ and the only queftion for the tenant's confi-
deration will then be, whether the ten acres have

• Thefe drags ought to be made after the following manner :—
Take five pieces of elm, afh, or any other timber, feven feet long,
and fawed to fuch a fcantling that each end may alike form a fcalenum
'triangle, whofe longeft fide i€ nine inches, Ihortell fide five inches,
and middle fide feven inches. Let thefe five pieces be framed toge-
ther with five ftrong oak rails, each feven feet long, in the manner of
a harrow. This new Implement now becomes an earth-drag, feven
feet fquare, Jf the earth be mellow, haul that fide forward which has
the greateft bevel, and this fide will Aide the lighteft. If the clods be
large and rough, haul the fide forward that has the leafl: bevel. If the
earth be almoft fmall enough, turn the drag upfide down, and haul
the roundefi: edge forward; but if this drag be wanted to plain the
land for mowing, haul the keen edge forward, always remembering
to keep the wearing places well plated with flat hogfhead hoop iron.
It fhould be obferved, that a great farmer ought to have three of thefe
drags, one of fix feet fquare made light, one of feven feet fquare
above defcribed, and one of eight feet fquare made ftrong with pieces
of a larger fcantling.

produced

[ 2^3 ]

produced a ton of hay per annum extraordinary on
account of any one or ilnore of thofe dreflings; if
fo, the tenant is fully paidj but if it has not, there
muft be fome fault in performing the labour. —
However, if it fhould have produced from one
to ten tons a year, in addition to the ufual crop,
on account of thefe repeated dreflings, it will be an
ample profit for the tenant, abftraded from the
advantage arifing to the landlord in improving
the fee.

When all the bank-earth is compleatly finiflied
carrying about the land, I then, and not till then,
proceed to gutter this field all over, beginning ex-
a6lly thirty-three feet from the ftraiteft fide, and fo
let each gutter be thirty-three feet from the other,
till the whole is finifhed. I ufually have but one
draught gutter, and am always diredled in a wet
feafon by the height of the water where to fix it ;
but it very feldom makes any difference in this level
country, and in that cafe I prefer the middle of the
field. The reafon why I am fo particular with
regard to the exad diflance of thirty- three (ect,
is, becaufe it is half a chain, and is fully fufBcient
for a row or parcel of green hay ; befides, I can
form a judgment as to the quantity of labour per-
formed, according to the length of the field j for
if it be five chains long, the plot between the

P 3 gutters

[ "-H ]

gutters will be One rood; but if ten chains long,
then half an acre, and fo in proportion. Formerly
thefe gutters were dug twenty inches wide, and
but one foot deep j this was a bad method, for to
fay nothing of the great lofs of land, the cattle
were continually treading down the edge of the
gutter and filling it; whereas, if the gutter be
twenty inches deep and but ten inches wide^, the
land will fwell and prefs itfelf almoft together on
the top, fo that the cattle may eafily pafs over the
gutter, which will continue its breadth at the bot-
tom, and thereby (land many years, and anfwer the
purpofes for which it was intended.

By the time the whole of the old banks are car-
ried over the land, the digging of the ditches in a
ten-acre field will always produce a fufHcient bank
for dreffing, and if it fhould not, the digging up
the old gutters will fupply the deficiency. This ex-
ample will apply to all kmd of wet meadow lands,
with high banks ; but where there are no banks
about the fields, I have recourfe to the making of
compoft manure upon the corners of the commons
and lanes nearefl the land I intend to improve.

In a journey to London, anno 1758, I obferved
upon afign in the road thefe words: " Peat-afhes
fold here." The meaning of this I could not com-
prehend.

[ 2r5 ]

prehend, having always hitherto looked upon our
peat-alhes to be of no value: I therefore made
every neceflary enquiry, and foon after my return
home built a place to keep peat-alhes dry, and in
May or June I had them fown over feme poor
land, after the rate of four put-loads to an acre,
and I fuppofe in the courfe of a week it could be
difcovered to an inch how far they were fown: nay,
I have made one piece of three acres fo rich by
this method, that I will defy the moft fkilful agri-
culturifl to make it richer. Farmers who keep
large fires, and burn nothing but peat, (for there is
very little befide burnt in this country) will foon
have a quantity fufficient to try an experimeat.
With regard to a great variety of manures recom-
mended by writers on agriculture, however good in
theory, they cannot be of much utility in point of
pradice. Lime with us is 20s. a load, and of no
ufe to meadow land, unlefs mixed with fand or
peat-afhes. Soaper's afhes is a tried manure, but
we have no foap- boiler between Axbridge, Glafton-
bury, Bridge water and the fea, a circuit of fifty
miles. Wood afhes, however valuable as a manure,
is worth from is. to is. 6d. per bufhcl for another
ufe. Indeed, the mentioning of foot, fait, rags,
leather, faw^duft, mak-duft, fiQi-fliclls, bones pow-t
dered, and articles of like kind, as ufcful manure,

(excepc

[ a.6 ]

(except in large towns and cities) appears as an im-^
pofition on our underflanding. It is true, peat-
afhes kept dry is an excellent manure, yet although
I have turbary of my own fufficient to produce
twenty waggon-loads of turf in a year, I have never
been able to enrich more than fix acres of land with
this manure fince I have kept a farni.

I would not be underftood to mean, that meadow
land thus improved cannot be reduced to its orir
ginal ftate of poverty, for I know to the contrary,
having tried an experiment upon twelve acres of
meadow which have been in my occupation be-
tween thirty and forty years. The original rent
was 9I. per annum; and having a leafe upon it, I
improved it in the manner here ftated, till it pro-
duced me a ton and a halfi and fome years two tons
of hay an acre. The rent was then raifed to 18I.
per annum, when I immediately began to work it
backwards by mowing it every year (fometimes
very late) and hauling off the hay, letting the gutters
fill, and the banks and ant-hills increafe, fo that half
a ton an acre is not reckoned in its prefent ftate a
bad crop; the rent muft therefore, in a few years,
be abated to 9L a year as formerly.

I beg leave to fuggeft an obfervation in this place
that is worthy the attention of the agriculturift, as

applied

[ 217 3

applied to this country; it is to make ufe of every
proper method to get meadow land covered with
grafs as early as poflible in the fpring; for if fo,
the abundance of dews which fall at that feafon of
the year upon the leaves of the grafs, will be con-
veyed through the veflels to the roots, and the fun's
rays promoting the motion of the juices, will con-
tribute to make it vegetate, even if we fhould have
a fcarcity of rain ; whereas if the land be fed bare
in April and May, the increafing heat of the fun
will exhale the circulating juices from the roots of
the Ihort grafs upon barren land, fo as to dry them
up, and caufe them to (tagnate for want of moif-
turej from hence I conclude, that if the meadow
be covered ever in the froft, and the earth well
hufbanded fo as to nourifh the tender roots of the
grafs, it will caufe it to vegetate (o much the ear-
lier in the fpring, as to cover the ground before the
fun's rays can aft fo powerfully as to fcorch it up;
in which cafe it will in a dry fummer grow double
the quantity of hay it would have had on it without
fuch drefTing. However, landlords fhould drefs
their lands in the fummer as already recommended.

I do not in general like the rolling of meadow,
our heavy clay foil being clofe enough without it|
(jcfides, the roller will prefs the loofe clods of earth

into

[ 2i8 ]

into the land, where it will lie like a ftone j but if
it had been pernnitted to remain on the top of the
fvvard, the fun, wind, and rain, would have meli-
orated the lumps fo as to flait abroad like a lime-
ftonej and being thus divided into fmall particles,
it would of its own accord (at leaft alTifted by the
earth-drag) incorporate with the land, and promote
vegetation. However, if a clofe of meadow hath
been much trod by cattle, it certainly ought to be
rolled, (if but for the reafon of clofe mowing and
feeding) but it fhould be done at a particular point
of times for it is poflible in the morning it may be
fo wet as to clog the roller, and the land may
become prefled into pits ; yet a twelve-hours hard
dry March wind, affifled by a fcorching May fun,
will make the land fo fliff that it muft be a heavy
roller to make it fmooth.

When meadow land abounds with mofs, as is
fometimes the cafe, and the farmer hath no op-
portunity to tread it well with cattle by feeding
them upon it in the winter or fpring, I then recom-
mend the fpike- roller as the bed method of de-
flroying it next to fuch treading 5 but in this cafe
there ought to be fown fome white clover or other
graf^-feeds about the field; if in fmall rain, th^ better
it will be beaten into the pits made by the roller^

but

but whofoever will ufc the fpike-roUer fhould feed
all their houfe-cattle upon ftrong wires with drawers
underneath to catch the feeds, which fhould be
fown over the meadows againft rain, in preference
to clover or any other feed. I hav£ had fome
thoughts of watering the meadows thus rolled with
barton drain ings and thick water, by a water-cart
of a new conftrudlion, in fomewhat the fame manner
as the ftreets of London are watered; but having
let my farm to a tenant, I fhall not now make the
experiment.

Whoever will take the trouble to number the
different forts of plants and grafs growing in one
of our meadows, will find them to be from one
hundred to one hundred and fifty. I can find
names for, and inveftigate the properties of fome
of thcfe; but as I cannot of all, I am content to be
filent on that fubjed, lamenting that I have been
fo circumilanced in life as pever to have had an
opportunity to fit a month at the feet of Linnaeus,
or any other able botanid. However, I mean to
tranfplant thefe into fo many different pans filled
with the fame foil and buried in my garden, in
order to obfcrve, from time to time, the different
qualities of the different plants, in all the different
ftages of their growth,

I appre-

[ no 1

I apprehend that the mode of improving meadow
land, as here laid down, will equally apply to the
fens of Cambridgcfhire, the flat part of Lincoln-
fhire, and the low meadows bordering upon the
Thames, the Trent, and fome other great rivers.
I have travelled in thofe counties, and obferved
their method of hufbandry to differ gready from
what I have pradifed with good fuccefs, for in ge-
neral they dig their gutters crooked and without
any order. I have exprefled my fentiments very
freely to fome of the farmers in Lincolnfhire, Not-
tinghamfhire, Leicefterfhire, and fome other coun-
ties, who will not be perfuaded but their beft lands
exceed in richnefs thofe of the Northern and Wef-
tern parts of England ; yet I do not recoiled any
large farms in the Eaftern counties, which lie at a
diftance from market-towns, that exceed 30s. an
acre per annum upon an average^ whereas our
farmers can well afford to pay 40s. an acre, ftatute
meafure, for all thofe lands that are brought into the
higheft degree of culture; and feveral thoufand acres
in this county are now let at 50s. per acre, landlord
paying all difburfements.

Some years fince I let a farm to a poor man, who
defired an account of his profit and lofs might be
kept by his neighbour, Mr. John Adams, who,
about itvi^Ti o'clock in the evening of the 19th of

Auguft

[ ^21 ]

Auguft 1784, was robbed and murdered by two
footpads, being (hot through the body. The me-
morandum found amongft his papers is in fub-
ftance as follows:

" 25 March, 1771, Robert Hardwidge rented of
Mr. Locke, Goofcmore-farm, being fifty-fix acres,
at 91I. per annum. Tenant had t;wo cows of his
own, and rented fourteen cows of his landlord at
14I. per annum.

Cajh^ Debtor.

To rent of the farm - - - - 91 o o
To the liire of fourteen cows - - 14 o o
To ten pigs bought poor - - - 10 o o
To houfe-keeping for two, exclufive7

of the farm beverage ^800

To cafh in houfe ----- 40 00

Ter Contray Creditor.

By 56 cwt. of cheefe, at il. 12s. 6d.
By fixteen calves fold - - - -
By the whole year's butter - - -
By ten pigs fold fat ----- 26
By wintering forty ewes - -

^.163 o o

The tenant was twelve years upon this farm; the
firft five he acquired 250I. at the end of which he

became

.163

0

0

L^

s.

d.

91

0

0

16

0

0

16

0

0

26

0

0

14

0

0

[ 222 ]

became a convert to Mr. Madan's do6lrine of poly-
gamy, and fpent in fevcn years his whole property.

I lay it down as a rule, that a Dairy-farm of 200I.
per annum ought to keep thirty- two cows, four
heifer yearlings, four two-years-old heifers, two
carting brood mares with two fucking colts, two
yearling colts, two fat oxen, and fixty ewes, at winter.
I know a farm of this kind that adjoins a turnpike-
road, and confifts of a manfion, garden, and necef-
fary out buildings, with about an acre of orchard,
which commonly makes in good years twenty hogf-
heads of cyder, and one hundred acres, ftatute mea-
fure, of excellent rich land, laid out as follows:

40 Chains.

A 25

~

H

G

.3

F5

C

E

10

B25

20

D

10

Acres,

A. Higher Ham

Pafture - - 25

B. Lower Ham

Pafture - - 25

C. Long Mead - ao

D. Lower Mead - 10

E. Higher Mead - 10

F. Oxen Ham — 5

G. Calves Clofe - 3
PL Horfe Paddock - a

Landlord to pay all taxes, repair the buildings
and outbounds, and keep fenced the fir-trees and
hedges round the farm. Tenant to dig the in-
fences, pay the tithe, repair the highways, and keep

the farm in a good ftate of culture.

One

[ 223 ]

One year's account of the tenant upon this farm
is dated thus :

Cajh, Debtor,

£. s. d.
To one year's rent - - - . 200 o o
To houfe-kceping for fix, exclufive of the pro-
duce of the farm - - - - 20 o o
To wages to two men and two maid-fervants 20 o o
To two oxen, bought for the plow and grazing 18 o o
To fixteen pigs, bought poor - - - 16 o o
To wear and tear of dairy-uten/ils, and ex-

pences about ditto - - - 800

To ditto of goods and farming utenfils - 800

To tithes, at is. per acre - - - 500

To clothes, and other neceflaries - - 800

To cafh in houfe - - - - 100 o o

^^.400 o o

Per Contra^ Creditor.

By 112 cwt. cheefe (being 3 ^ cwt. each cow) ^. j. d,

at il. i6s. per cwt. - - - - 199 12 o

By the whole year's butter (kept by itfelf) 30 o o
By 28 calves fold ( 4 of the beft preferved to breed) 2800

By 8 pigs, fold fat (the other 8 killed in houfe) 24 o o

By bacon fold ----- 780

By 2 oxen, fold fat - - - - 26 o o

By 4 cows, fold fat (fucceeded by 4 heifers) 24 0^0
By 2 coaching colts, 2 years old (fucceeded by

2 yearlings) ----- 40 00

By wintering 60 ewes - - - - 2100

jf.400 o o
Turkeys, geefe, ducks, and other poultry,

in lieu of pin-money. As

[ ^24 ]

As this is a Dairy farm without- any tillage, the
tenant, with two able-bodied men fervants, are
quite fufficient to manage the bufinefs of it in all
its branches.

The only probable obje6tion that can be raifed
againft this account, will be founded on a doubt
whether 37 cwt. of cheefe at il. i6s. per cwt. may
not be too much for an average quantity per cow,
and price per cwt. In anfwer to which, if the Bath
Agriculture Society fliould think proper to offer any
trifling premium in order to difcover the fadt, I
could produce one Jacob Amefbury, a dairy farmer,
now living at Bleadon in the county of Somerfer,
who from twenty cows, fummer fed on twenty-five
acres of rich land, made 90 cwt. of cheefe the year
paft, which cheefe was fold to a Mr. Carter, fac-
tor, in Briftol, at 2I, 4s. per cwt. and one guinea
over, amounting together to the fum of 199L is.
which is near lol. per cow, upon an average, for
cheefe only.

I will very readily anfwer any queftions by way
of explaining any thing doubtful, eidier in this or
my former letter defcriptive of the flat part of
Somerfetfhire.

I am, dear Sir, your moft obedient

And obliged humble fervant,

R. LOCKE.

t a^5 1

Article XIV,
On the Ufe of Plaijler of Paris as a Manure.

[By J. KiRKPATRicK, cfqj to the Secretary.]

St. CrofSy JJle of Wight y Dec. 2, 1789.
Sir,

T Have not hid the pleafure to addrcfs myfelf to
^ you for fome time. It was my intention before
this (agreeably to the defirc of the Society) to have
collected fome particulars of the agriculture of this
ifland, but my ill ftate of health prevented me ;
and for which, being advifed to take a voyage at
fea, curiofity led me to vifit the United States of
America; great part of the Northern provinces,
and Canada, I have therefore travelled through this
fummer; and, among other objeds which engaged
my attention, agriculture was not forgotten. The
letter, of which you have a copy inclofed, I met
with at Philadelphia ; the fubjedl ftruck me at the
time of reading it as worthy of attention, and more
fo after I had feen fome land on which the plan re-
commended had been tried. The cheapnefs and
efficacy of the Plaifter of Paris makes it much ufed
in the States i and if, by the recommendation of the
Society, any experiments are made, and it is found
Vol. V, Q^ to

t 226 ]

to anfwer the account given of it, I fliall be happy
in having been the means of furnifhing the Society
with this account.

The only thing which makes me doubt its being
brought into general ufe, is the price, which in this
place is 8s. per bufhel, owing to the very high duty
on that imported from France. At Philadelphia it
is fold, ready prepared for fowing, at 5s. per bufhel,
their currency, which is 7s. 6d. per dollar.

I have been informed, that large quantities of
it are to be got in the neighbourhood of Liverpool,
which I fuppofe would be free of the duty, and
confequently come much cheaper.

Wifliing every pofllble fuccefs to the Society,
I am, your mod obedient fcrvant,

JOSEPH KIRKPATRICK.

Extras of a Letter from a Gentleman in Pennfylvaniay
to Joftph Kirkpatricky efq»

*' In anfwer to your queries refpedling Gypfom^
or Plaifter of Paris ^ I Ihall give as full information
as I can of the fuccefs of my own and my neigh-
bours' experiments,

"The

I 227 3

" The beft kind is imported from hills in the vi-
cinity of Paris: it is brought down the Seine, and
exported from Havre- de- Grace. I am informed
there arc large beds of it in the Bay of Fundy, fome
of which I have feen nearly as good as that from
France i neverthelefs, feveral cargoes brought from
thence to Philadelphia have been ufed without
efFedt, It is probable this was taken from the top
of the ground, and by the influence of the fun and
atmofphere difpofleffed of the qualities neceflary
for the purpofes of vegetation. The lumps, com*
poftd of flat fliining fpccula, are preferred to thofe
which arc formed of round particles like fandj
the fimplc method of finding out the quality is to
pulverize fome, and put it dry into an iron pot
over the fire, when that which is good will foon
boil, and great quantities of the fixed air efcape
by ebullition.

" It is pulverised by firft putting it in a ftamp-
ing-mill. The finer its pulverization the better, as
it will thereby be more generally diffufed.

*^ It is beft to fow it in a wet day. The moft ap-
proved quantity for grafs is Cik bufhels per acre.
No art is required in fowing it, more than making
the diftribution as equal as pofljble on the fward of
grafs. It operates altogether as a top manure, and
Q^a therefore

[ 228 J

therefore fliould not be put on in the fprlng, until
the principal frofts are over, and vegetation hath
begun. The general time for fowing with us is in
April, May, June, July, Augud, and even as late
as September. Its effeds will generally appear in
ten or fifteen days; after which the growth of the
grafs will be fo great as to produce a large burden
at the end of fix weeks after fowing.

" It mud be fown on dry land, not fubjedl to be
overflown. I have fown it on fand, loam and clay,
and it is difficult to fay on which it has beft an-
fwered, although the effedl is fooner vifible on fand.
It has been ufed as a manure in this State for up-
wards of twelve years. Its duration may, from the
beft information I can colle6l, be eftimated from
feven to twelve years ; for, like other manure, its
continuance very much depends on the nature of
the foil on which it is placed.

*^ One of my neighbours fowed fome of his grafs
ground fix years ago; another four years ago 3 a
great part of my own farm was fown in May 1788.
We regularly mow two crops, and paflure in au-
tumn; no appearance of failure, the prefent crop
being full as good as any preceding. I have this
feafon mowed fifty acres of red clover, timothy
grafs, white clover, &c. which was plaiftered laft

May,

[ 229 ]

May, July, and September; many who faw the
grafs eftimated the produce at two tons per acre,
but I calculate the two crops at three tons. Several
ftrips were left in the different fields without plaif-
ter; thcfe were in a meafure unproductive, being
fcarce worth mowing.

" In April 1788, I covered a piece of grafs land
upwards of two inches thick with barn manure; in
the fame worn-out field I fowed plaifter, to contraft
it with the dung. I mowed the dunged and plaif-
tered land twice laft year, and once this; in every
crop the plaifter has produced the moft.

" You will remember, in all experiments with
clover, to mix about one-third timothy grafs feedj
it is of great advantage in ferving as a fupport for
the clover; it very much facilitates the curing of
clover, and when cured is a fuperior fodder,

*' The plaifter operates equally as well on the
other grades as on clover. Its efFe<5l is faid to be
good on wheat, if fown in the fpring; but I cannot
fay this from experience. On Indian corn I know
its operation to be great ; we ufe it at the rate of
a table- fpoonful for a hill, put in immediately after
drc0ing,

Ct3 '' From

[ 230 ]

«' From fome accurate experiments, laft year,
made and reported to our Agricultural Society,
it appears that nine bufliels of additional corn
per acre were produced by this method of ufing
plaifler.

*^ As the ufe of this cheap and extraordinary
manure has now become very general in this State,
and many accurate and judicious farmers are now
making experiments therewith, I doubt not^ but Its
ufes, at the clofe of the feafon, will be better known
and further expended j when I fhall be happy to
make a communication thereof to you.

" I am, &:c. See."

Article XV.

yf« Account of an E^perme7it aBually made U
difcover whether whole Potatoes or Cuttings
are to be preferred in plantings G?c.

[By Mr. Joseph WimpeyJ

TJ^ ARLY in the fpring of this year I had a large
"^^ quantity of potatoes, out of which I fele6ted
forty-eight bufhels of the faired for fets. The

ground

[ ^31 ]

ground intended for them, the funnnner before, had
borne oats and vetches, which were mowed green,
and given to the horfes in the liable j after which
it was depaftured till January. It was then clean
ploughed, and lay till the end of March. Twenty-
four cart-loads of long dung, forty bufhels to the
load, were then fprcad over it equally. Furrows
were then drawn the length way of the field, at a
yard diftance from each other. In eleven of thefe
furrows, containing fixty perch or pole, were dropped
fourteen bufliels of whole or uncut potatoes, the
fize generally from a large pullet's egg to that of a
goofe. The remainder of the ground, being 265
poles, making in the whole 325 pole, or two ftatute
acres and five pole, was planted with thirty-four
bufhels of cut potatoes, being the remainder of the
forty-eight bufhels. Thefe were cut moftly out
of large potatoes, in pieces about the fize of a large
pullet's egg. The largeft were cut into fix or
eight pieces, the lefler into four; being careful to
preferve a proper number of eyes or buds in each
cutting. The fets of both cut and uncut were
planted about fourteen inches afunder, in the rows.
The furrows were turned out with a plough having
a double mould-board, which, when planted, were
compleatly covered by running the fame plough up
the middle of each interval, which threw the mould

half

[ ^3^ ]

half one way and half the other, and is the fpeediefl,
eaficft, and cheapeft nnethod of planting I ani ac-
quainted with. The groimd was planted the 14th
and 15th days of April laft.

In June they were horfe-hoed with a fmall one-
wheel plough, which I keep for horfe-hoeing; and
this was all the labour and expence beftowed upon
;hem during their growth*

The 30th of Odober the taking of them up wast
compleated. The whole produce was only 378
bufhels; — a very indifferent crop! little more than
half the acreable produce of laft year^ The ej^-
pence of ploughing them up, harrowing, dragging,
picking up, loading, carrying home about a quarter
q( a mile, unloading, and carrying into the barn,
$cc. was not quite 3d. a bag, or id. a bufhel. The
fl:ate of the account, in a comparative view, I make
out as follows:

The meafure of all the ground planted was 325
poles. The whole produce 378 bufhels. The
meafure of the ground planted with cut potatoes
was 265 poles; the produce 312 bufliels. The
ground planted with whole or micia fcts was 6q
pole, and the produce of the fame 66 buihels.

[ ^^33 ]

Now, If 325 poles, the whole meafure of the
ground planted, produced 378 bulhels, then 265
poles Ihould produce 308 bufhels, (I omit the frac-
tions) but this quantity of ground planted with cut
potatoes) produced four bufhels more nearly, that
is, 312 bulhels. Again, as 325 poles produced 378
bufhels, then 60 poles fhould have produced 69
bufhels and a fraftion; but it produced only 66
bufhels, which is upwards of three bufhels fhort of
its proportion. It is true the difference is too tri-
vial to be worthy of notice; but what it is, is in
favour of the cut potatoes. With refpedb to the
acreable produce, then, it is a matter of little im-
portance whether the ground be planted with cut
or uncut potatoes.

The acreable produce being nearly the fame,
whether planted with whole or cut potatoes, the
great and interefling comparative queflion remains,
viz. What is the difference of the expence in the
planting of cut or uncut potatoes? which is very
fatisfadorily afcertained as follows:

If 48 bufhels, the whole quantity of fets ufed,
produced 378 bufliels, then 34 bufhels, the quan-
tity cut, fhould produce 267 bufhels; but they
produced 312, which is 45 bufhels more than the
proportion. Again, If 48 bufhels produced 378

bufhels.

[ 234 I

bufhels, then 14 bufhels fhould have produced no
bufhels; but 14 bufhels of uncut produced only
66 bufliels, which is 44 bufhels lefs than the pro-
portion. A preference of 40 per cent, in favour of
cut potatoes, in comparifon with whole fcts !

By this ftatennent it clearly appears, that any
quantity of land planted with potatoes cut into
pieces of the fize above-mentioned, will, Cccteris
farihusj produce as great a crop as an equal quan-
tity of land planted with uncut potatoes, the weight
of which fhould be 40 per cent, more : for example.

To plant a flatute acre with potatoes as above,
would require of uncut 37 -j- bufhels; of cut only
20 a bufliels, the difference nearly 17 bufhels;
which at as. 4d. per bufhel, the price they fold at
in March and April laft, amounts to il. 19s. 8d.
an object much too confiderable to be neglected by
the planter of many acres, even when the price
may be as low as 3s, a fack.

N. B. Potatoes in this county are ufually fold by
the bag. By a bag is underftood a fack which will
hold four bufhels of corn, 9-gallon meafure, which ,
they fill as full as they can to admit of its being
tied ; and the ufual weight is 1 2 fcore or 2401b.
This fack holds 3 bufliels of potatoes heaped.

The

[ «35 ]

The foregoing experiment was condiufled with
all imaginable care and precifion, the fads are truly
ftatcd, and the writer hopes the calculations are jufl:,

P. S. In clafs 3, article 4, a premium is offered
to the inventor of the beft new-conftruded plough
for ploughing up potatoe-crops, by which the work
may be done with the lead lofs or damage to the
crop. As my method of taking up potatoe-crops
is not attended with the lead Tofs or damage, and
is, I conceive, as expeditious and as little expenfive
as can be defired, I rcqueft leave to lay it before
the Society.

As obferved before, I plant my potatoes in rows
with intervals of about three feet, for the conve-»
niqnce of horfe-hocing them. When the haulm is
decayed, I proceed to take them up in the follow-
ing manner: — With a common foot or one-wheel
plough, much ufed in this part of Hants, and in
Wilts; the ploughman having /r/? taken cut the
coulter^ and adjufted the wheel fo as that the point
of the fhare may be deep enough to pafs under the
bed of potatoes, he begins at one end juft under the
middle of a row, and with one furrow turns them
out on the furface of the ground. Two or three
boys or girls follow the plough, and pick them up
as they appear i fo that the ground of one row is

cleared

[ 236 ]

cleared before the ploughman has finilhed another,
and thus they proceed without the leaft hindrance
or interruption to each other.

When the whole is ploughed and picked in this
manner, a pair of drags is run over the whole,
which feparates and expofes the potatoes that may
happen to adhere to the clods of earth, which are
then alfo picked up and the grounds nearly cleared.
The feafon being now come for fowing wheat, the
ground is clean ploughed, and the few potatoes that
may pofTibly remain fully expofed to view, which
being alfo picked, the ground is rendered very clean.
^— In this way the whole expence of harvefling the
crop is little more than picking and carrying home;
for die expence of ploughing, &:c. is little, if any,
more than would have been incurred in tilling the
ground equally well for the wheat crop.

Now I think it impofTible, by any invention or
device whatever, to take up a potatoe-crop with
lefs lofs or damage. The crop of the above expe-
riment was taken up under my own eye, and I with
great truth and confidence aver, that there were not
fo many as a fingle gallon bruifed, cut, or damaged
In the leaft degree whatever.

Ncrth'Scckhampton^

^789.

Article

[ 237 ]

Article XVI.

On the Rotation of Crops-, — the Advantage of
Carrots as a Food for Cattle , &c.

Stifted'Hally near Braintree,
Sir, Nov. 25, 1788.

T Should be happy, by fome agricultural commu-
nication, to acknowledge the honour of your
application to me from the Bath Society: but,
on fo fmall a fcale of arable land as mine, kept
more for family convenience than amufement,
where a regular courfe is followed, not an expe-
riment tried, nor an improved inftrument ufed;
fcarcely any thing but tirefome repetition can be
fent, or what is known by general experience, ufe-
lefsly confirmed. I have twice gone over on my
four arable fields in the following rotation of crops,
with only one plowing for each crop: — Oats, with
rye-grafs, the grafs fprinkled with dung and earth
mixed in the winter, and conftantly fed till the fuc-
ceeding autumn ; then wheats next, l\\Q fmall fov^
ward Spanifh bean, planted in two rows, on four
furrows, and three times hand-hoed j after thefe
oats, &c. again. I am convinced with fuch hoeing^
manure, and feeding, this very fimple courfe of crops
may be followed as productive, for two rotations ;

at

[ 238 ]

at the third, a fallow to me feems effentialy in the
room of the beans j as no ^^//^-hoeing with us
keeps the foil in fufficient purity for any longer
term, without a coni'pleat year\ fallowing. On this
fallow, in the next year, barley, as more vahiable
than oats, fhould be fown, with rye or any other
grafs, clover, or trefoil } and then the old rotation,
with one ploughing, come forward again. I am fa-
tisfied any fallow might be avoided, though I doubt
whether with any equivalent advantage, if more
ploughings were afforded towards throwing the
wheat-ftubble into ridges of four furrows, planting
two rows of beans on each ridge, hand-hoeing thefc
three times, the hoer always 'walking in the furrow,
and drawing his weeds therey and then ploughing
thefe furrows up again to the ridge, with a double-
breafted plough and one horfe. The imperfedion
of our hoeing, expenfive as it is, (for three times
hoeing my beans come to 13s. per acre) arifes, in
fome degree, from the labourer following his hoe,
and at every flep treading in the weed it has re-
moved j which muft be the cafe in fiat work, whe-
ther, at only one ploughing) the land be thrown into
lletches, (beds) as with us, of eight, twelve, or fix-
teen furrows. But on the ridge o{ four furrows,
this notorious inconvenience is, as I have obferved,
avoided; the furrow is the path for the hoer and

the

[ 2J9 ]

the place for the weeds; from which they arc again
difplaced and prevented rooting at every hoeing, by
the double-brcafted plough.

A.bout an acre, in the above rotation, of my
bean-field, I have applied, as a winter vegetable, to
carrots. The produd, with fo little ploughing and
no manure, has been, orf an average, only about
400 bufliels per acre. I am however fenfible they
will amply repay every expence of thcfnejl culture^
and fhould, from their extenfive utility, on found,
deep, and friable land, be every where attempted.
Mine, in general, is far from being their proper foil.
I fow in March, or April j hoe three times; harrow
after each hoeing ; have fometimes left them in the
land till after Chriftmas, and taken them up as
wanted; but lately have taken them up inOdlober,
in dry days, put them di redly into fmali upright
cocks of ten bufliels each, entirely covered, with
the tops cut off; they thus appear to dry better than
in any other mode; and, with very little lofs, to bear
the weather. If, after being thus dried, they are
carried into any barn, or flied, it will be better, if ia
large quantities, through the hazard of heating, not
to pack them cloje^ but rather throw them promif-
cuouly into beaps^ with a little ftraw over them.
Some of my neighbours, who have been induced
by me to try them, on a rather larger Jcale^ with

finer

t 540 1

finer culture, Vindifrejher foil, have raifed from fix £0
nine hundred bufliels per acre, and applied them
more profitably, as well as more generally, than any
other winter herbage, to deer, fheep, bullocks, cows,
and horfes. At the lowed calculation they are,
from our little trials, efleemed to exceed turnips in
value one-third, as to quantity of feeds but are far
fuperior in what arifes from convenience. For the
ftable, where to tu they feem to be a perfed fubftltute
of corn for all horfes, at leaft not ufed in any quick
works and partially fo, with corn, for thofc that are.

The comparifon (tilths for each alike) betwixt
the produce and value of an acre of oats, and one
of carrots, one bufliel of the latter prefumed equal
to one peck of the former; and each eftimated at
fix-pence, will, I conjedlure, ftand thus:

One Acre of OatSy Dr^

£■ '■ J-

Seed, four bulhels - - -080

Mowing - - - -020

o 10 0

Per Contray Cr,

Five quarters of oats, at i6s. per quarter,

being 160 pecks, at 6d. per peck - 400

Dedu£l - o 10 o

Net profit -3100
One

t H' ]

One Aire of CarrotSy Dr,

£, s. d.

Seed, eight pounds - - - - 080

Hoeings thrice - - - - i 10 o

Harrowings - - - - - 030
Digging up, gathering, and cocking, at id.

per buflicl, 400 bu(hels - - i 13 4

L^l H 4
Fer Contra^ Cr.

£■ '■ d.
' 400 bufhels of carrots, at 6d. per bu(hel 10 00

Dedu(5t - 3 14 4

Net profit - 6 5 8 •
Net profit oats - 3 10 o

Exccfs on carrots ^,2 15 8

When pcrfcdly dry, no wafhing of the carrots is,
in general, neceflary for any cattle, except horfes
regularly kept in the ftable. . This is undoubtedly
a little additional trouble and expence. We fow in
March. Jf the weather continue dry, it will be
fome weeks before this plant appears, and fo very
delicatey as to make the fir ft hoeing, or rather weed-
ing, which muft be as early as their ftrength ad-
mits, extremely tedious and troublefome. In about
a fortnight their root will be fufficiently fixed to
bear harrowing, by which their growth will be pro-
moted, and the land cleaned; and the treading of
the horfes will not hurt the plants. In about a

Vol. V* R fortnight

r 242 ]

fortnight more the fecond hoeing, to fet them ont
at fix inches fquare, will follow, and a fecond har-
rowing; the third, if at all neceflary, juft as the
Hate of the foil and growth of weeds may require j
for as to the carrots, their nourifhment is drawn
from a bed fo much deeper than that of weeds, as
not to be at all injured in their progrefs, though
difgraced in their appearance, by fuch company.

Such are my trivial attempts, on a few acres in
agriculture: — To the adventurers in it, on a large
Jcaky I look up with fomewhat of veneration, as
the befl fubjeds of the ftate, and the firfl friends
of man; but which, in this kingdom, as the fource
of all permanent manufadlure, and fair commerce,
inftead of receiving every political encouragement,
is burthened with every opprelTion that the fpirit
of monopoly can devife, the cunning of trade de-
mand, and the interefl of corruption fupport; and
confequently the large capitals feduced into every
Ipeculation and purfuit, except that which pro-
mifes an ampler and furer, though flower return,
and far more congenial with that habit of patient
induftry, and exad ceconomy, to which alone
wealth yZ^ow/^ appertain, — theperfeoi cultivation of our
foil, — A fourth, probably, of this Ifland is nearly
wafte; wanting only an encouraged cultivation to
iSbrd employment and comfort to that numerous

poor,.

C H3 ]

poor, which the manufa6lurer rears for the land-
holder, under a rate of two millions per annum to
fuftain ; and which remains a mark of more barba-
rous folly in this refined age of arls^ manufa£luresy
and commerce^ than of tyranny in that grofs one,
when feudal dignity demanded fuch a range for its
favage chace. What does that kingdom merit,
that prefuming to take the lead in wifdom amongft
the nations of the earth, yet, for want of tlie mod
obvious exertions of benevolence, in the publick en-
couragement of rural induftry, fpurns at the very
means that Providence offers for its peaceable great-
ncfs — at home-, — and madly thinks of gaining power
and commerce, 2indpreferving its freedom ^ by fquan-
dering wealth and population in the acquirement
of dominion — abroad-, — thus placing itfelf in a (late
of conftant jealoufy and fear with one-half of the
world, and counterafting the very advantages of
that commerce it would thus violently enfure, by
the enormous burthens, effential at all times to
guard againft, and frequendy to fupport, the wars
refuhing neceffarily from fuch miftaken policy?

I am. Sir,

Your obedient fervant,

CHARLES ONLEY*
R a Articli

[ 244 ]

Article XVII.

An inquiry concerning the Smut in Wheats
I. Of its Caiife. 2. Of the Means of pre--
venting it. 3. Of its Remedy.

MA.NY are the nojlrums which are faid to be
infallible in preventing or remedying this
commoti evil j and many more are the pretenders
to choice fecrcts, which are efFedlual, certainly, to
the farne moll valuable purpofe. But every prac-
tical farmer of common obfervation knows, afTu-
redly, to his forrCw, that in unfavourable feafons
none of the boafted means he has ufed hath ever
efFedlually anfwered his purpofe.

The firft ftep towards the remedying any evil
either in the animal or vegetable kingdom, is the
true knowledge of its caufe; without it, all is
quackery, and too often the artifice of defigning
adventurers, who hope to m.ake a finifter advantage
of the weak and credulous, who are too apt to fwal-
low the hook which is covered with a gilded bait.
Every one embraces with pleafure what he is per-
fuaded will promote his intereft.

The previous queftion is, what is the ^^i^ which

generally produces the fmut in wheat?

To

t 245 ]

To this no pofitive or probable aniwer has been
given. It has been generally fuppofed, if one may
judge by the means commonly ufed to prevent it,
that it proceeds from the feed, whofe ftaminay by
fomc means or other, have been vitiated^ for all
the means of prevention I ever heard of, were
ufed in the preparation of the feed previous to its
being fowed.

The moft common method is brining and liming
the day before fovving, which , is done either virith
fea-water, the brine of meat, or of fea-falt difTolved
in water made ftrong enough to bear an egg. To
this, fome whimfical people have capricioufly
added feveral ingredients, which are much more
likely to deftroy the vegetative principle of the {t^d^^
than to remedy any evil the rudiments of which
might latently fubfifl: in it. To this purpofe, flour
of brimftone, aloes, copperas, and verdigreafe in
fine powder, afiafoetida, and even arfenick, have
been recommended to be infufcd in the pickle \ but
this is fo very al)furd, and even dangerous, that men
of fober common fenfe are both afraid and afliamed
of the praftice.

The pra(5lice of brining and fteeping was fug-

gefled by accident, cftablifhed by cullom, and

continued againft all reafonable convidlion of its

R 3 utilicyv

[ 246 ]

utility. In unfavourable feafons, every one knows,
that fmut generally prevails in fpite of every pre-
caution that has been hitherto taken. Brine,
pickling, liming, change of feed, and feed of one
year old and upwards, avail nothing. In cold wet;
fummers the fmut prevails, notwithftanding the
ufe of every means which invention hath urged, or
ingenuity praCtifed.

The circumftances that firft attradled my notice^
and engaged my attention to this fubje6l, were as
follow: — Some years fincc I fet a ridge with wheats
by way of experiment, in rows at various diftances|
in the courfc of the fpring it was hoed two or three
times, and was as healthy, vigorous, and fine, as ever
was feen. In general it was from four to five feet
and a half high, the ftraw uncommonly large and
ftrong, and the ears from four to five inches and a
half in length. No corn ever appeared more pro-
mifmg. Thus it continued till the bloom appeared,
about the middle of June. The weather then be-
came wet and cold, and frequently deprived the
corn of what is ufually called its blolToms. Before
the end of the month, the ears put on a fickly
look, and upon examination, it was found amazingly
fmutty; more fo, indeed, than I had ever ob-
ferved any before. In vain I examined the roots,
the draw, the joints, &c, all appeared found and

perfe<5b.

[ H7 ]

perfcdV, till I came to the ear; there the evil began,
but from what caiife, or by what means, not the
lead veftige could be found.

As the plants were vigorous, perfe(5lly healthy,
and found, till the bloom appeared, and then turned
fickly and diftempered, and at length immoderately
fmutty, it feemed yery clearly to follow, th^t it
could not be owing to any imperfe61:ion in the feed,
but entirely to the inclemency of the air, which
by fome means or other infeded the grain in its
embryo-ftate, and converted the milky fubftance,
which conftitutes the meal or flour of the corn,
into a black, foetid, unwholefome powder, known
by the name of fmut.

Strongly imprefled with this opinion, I deter-
mined to embrace every opportunity of gaining all
pofTible information on the fubjed. For fome two
or three years the feafons were favourable, and af-
forded no opportunity for obfervationj but 1787
was an unprofperous year, and gave us fmutty
wheat in abundance. Yet though I was very at-
tentive to its progrefs after it was difcovered, I
gained no additional intelligence refpedling the
caufe ; but a full confirmation of my former opi-
nion, that the fmut was generally, if not totally,
caufed by the inclement and vitiating principles of

the

[248 ]

the atmolphere which happened at the time of its
bloflbmingj for till then it was (vet from every
appearance of defed whatever. This, however,
did not relax my refolution of endeavouring, by
every means in my power, to inveftigate the true
caufe; whether it originated from any defedt or
imperfedion in the feed, or was principally owing
to a deftroying diftemperature or blighting prin-
ciple of the air.

The next year, 1788, was very favourable to the
growth and ripening of wheat. The fummer was
dry and healthy, and the corn found and good,
though the draw very fhort and fcanty. The feed
I fowed was of my own faving, of the fame year's
growth, and fowed on the fame land, without any
change whatever, yet I had no fmutty wheat that
year, and therefore no opportunity of making re-
marks. The next* feed time I had a mind to try
the white cone wheat, and therefore procured my
feed from a different county, and took all the ufual
precautions to guard againil the fmut. The feed
was perfedlly found and good, yet I had not a
ground that was perfectly free from it this year.

Mofc of my wheat this year was fown in drills at
various dillances, for the fake of experiments, and
was all horfe and hand -hoed. In the months of

April

[ ^9 ]

April and May it was amazingly fine, fo as to be
the admiration of all that faw it. The farmers in
fhc neighbourhood declared they had never feen
any thing equal to it before, for height, fize, vi-
gour, (trength of ftalk, and length of ear. In this
flourilhing flate it continued till above the middle
of June, About this time the weather grew cold
and ftormy, and continued fo till towards the end
of July, a few fine days intervening. The wheat
was now in full bloom, but frequently dripped of
it by the hafly fhowers that fell. Such, however,
is the wonderful ccconomy of nature, that if wheat
be flripped of its bloom by the intemperance of the
weather, a fine warm day reinftates it, and the
bloom becomes as fair and promifing as ever.
This I have obferved it to do feveral times in alter-
nate fuccedionj but there is a limit which the re-
turn of the bloflbms cannot furvive, and if it hap-
pen before the embryo is duly impregnated, then
the kerning or granulating fucceeds badly, and at
harveft the corn proves defe(5live and fmutty.

During the growth of the corn this year (1789)
1 was very attentive to it from the fir ft appearance
of the ear in the fide of the ftalk to the time of
its maturity. Soon after the Ihowery time above-
fnentioned, I obferved a great number of the ears

turned

[ 250 ]

^ned quite brown, as if they were ripe -, but upon
examination they proved to be abortive ears, with-
out any corn in them^ they handled as loofe and
loft as corn that had been threfhed. This cir-
cumftance furprized me very much. To fee corn,
which fo fhort a time before was fo very fine
and flourilliing, prove to be nothing more than
chaff, was exceedingly mortifying indeed ! I ima-
gined the roots had been deflroyed by fome in-
fed or reptile i but, upon examination, I found
them as found and perfed (as indeed was the
whole plant, the ear only excepted) as corn could
poflibly be,

5oon after this, I obferved the fouth fide of one
of the fined fields was grown very fmutty. It was
fufficiently difcouraging to fee corn five ket high,
with ears five or fix inches long, and as healthy
and vigorous as ever was feen, in a few days con-
verted into fmut. This unwelcome circumftance
furniflied opportunities, more than enough, to ex-
ercife the mod inquifitive mind in fearch of the
caufes of thofe evils, which blaft at once the hopes
and expedations of the mod fagacious and in-
dudrious hufi^andman. To invedigate the caufcj^
I began by examining the roots of the fmutty ears,
.then the dems or draw, the joints, and every part
\ip to the ear^j in any of which no defed whatever

was

was to be found. I had not proceeded far, how-
ever, before I obfervcd, that both fmutty and
found cars were frequently prciduced and nourifhcd
by the fame root, and confequentiy were both
produced from one and the fame individual feed.
This circumftance alone goes very far towards
proving, that the caufe of the fmut does not exift
originally in die feed ; for if \t%ftamma were vitiated
or corrupted, it is not poflible to conceive that it
fhould produce plants found, healthy, and vigorous,
for eight or nine months, and then fome ears full
of corn perfc(5lly found and good, and others no-
thing but fmut balls.

Not fully fatisfied with this, I purfued my in-
tention, and fpent much time in examining the
fmutty ears j I foon difcovered it was no very un-
common thing for the fame ear to contain both
found and fmutty corn.

In foiTie ears the tops were moftly fmutty, and

the bottoms found i in others the tops were found

and the bottoms fmutty ; but more generally, one

fide of the ear was all fmut, and the other moftly

found. One of the laft ears I examined contained

forty fmut-balls, twenty-one corns that were per-

fcdlly found and good, and five corns that had one

end fmutty and the other found.

From

[ 252 ]

From this (late of fads it is hardly poflible to
refift the convidion that the fmut is caufed by the
inclemency of the atmofphere, and that conftantly
and invariably in the feafon of its blowing.

To fum up the whole of this matter then, it
feems as certain, as demonftration can render it,
that the fmut is not owing to any defe6l or imper-
fedlion in the feed, but entirely to fome corrupt
vitiating principle of the atmofphere, in the blow-
ing fcafon, which blights and deftroys the grain in
fome fhape or another, according to the time it has
been blowing, when it is (truck with the blight.
Thofe ears which are totally deprived of their blow-
ings at the beginning of the feafon, before the corn
in its embryo flate is duly impregnated v/ith the
farina fecundansy or male, dud, become abortive,
and are abfolutely without any corn at all, Thofe
that are further advanced, and have the embryo
formed ready for impregnation, if in that ftate they
are deprived of the fecundating principle, either
wholly or in part, the milky matter, which confti-
tutes the fubftance of the grain, for want of the vi-
vifying principle, is wholly, or in a certain propor-
tional part, converted into a ball of black ftinking
powder, or fmut. Sometimes, even after the corn
is well formed and filled with the milky juice, fuf-
ficiently impregnated with the male principle, it is

ftruck;

C ^S3 1

ftruck with the blight, which, though it come too
hte to prevent the perfedtion of the vivifying prin-
ciple, and thereby render it unfit for feed, yet it is
little more than two rinds, it being in a manner
ftarved, the meally fubftance of which the fiour
confifts being alnwft entirely wanting.

From all this it very clearly appears, that all the
boaflcd deeps prepared for preventing the fmut are
chimerical, and void of all reafonable foundation
whatever. In warm dry healthy fummers the fmut
is feldom if ever found, though the land be fown
with feed that is fmutty, and without any prepara-
tion at all. I would however recommend wafhincr
the feed in fair water a day or two before fowing.
By this means the light imperfe6b corns, chafF, and
feed of weeds, if any, are feparated from the feed
corn, fwim at top, are eafily fkimmed off, and the

remainder rendered- much more clean and perfe6b.

, • .(;:ii-:u^ . /J :\ju'/'- ,:;.'.:'.^* ''■---•■■

The writer has now feveral experiments, in pro-
fecutiqn, by which the above obfervations may pro-
bably be fatisfaftorily confirmed, which he hopes to
have the honour of communicating in due time.
He does not prefume to claim the promifcd pre-
mium, being fenfible he has not performed the
literal conditions, which he apprehends no power is
by any means equal to but that only which ** rides

*'iii

C 254 ]

" in the whirlwind, and diredls the ftorm.'* The
Power which is competent to the prevention of the
fmut in wheat, is equally fo to the prefervation of
the bloom of the fruits of the orchard, the hop gar-
den, from the maggot in peas, the black dolphin in
beans, the fly in turnips, and the caterpillar in all
the cabbage tribes, whofe devaftation at this very
time has laid the whole country wafte. Inftead of
cabbages nothing is to be feen but the bare ribs of
the leaves, like mere fkeletons, the hearts, &c. being
entirely deflroyed.

However great the evil be which attends a crop of
very fmutty wheat, the found grain may be made
clean, fweet, and wholefome, with little trouble,
and a moderate expence, as appears by the follow-
ing account:

In the year 1787 I had a great deal of very
fmutty wheat, which would fell for little more than
one-half, or at mod two-thirds of the price of good
wheat, which put me upon making the following
experiment: — I took about a gallon of the wheat,
and put it into a pail of fair water, and ftirred it
about well for a minute or two with a ftubbed
broom. It made the water almoft as black as ink.
This water was then poured off, and a fecond added,
in which it was again very well ftirred, and then

poured

I 255 }

poured off as before. This cleared it entirely from
the fitiiit and all difcolouring matter. Then, when
k was well drained, it was put into a broad fhallow
pan and fct before the fire, when in a (hort time h
became drf enough to grind; for flaying fo (hort »
time in the water it imbibes very little of it, and
what adheres merely to the fupcrficies is foon ex-
haled by a moderate heat. When dry it was no
way diftinguifhable from the cleaned and foundefl:
wheat, but by the fuperior brightnefs of the colour.
It had a fairer and more delicate complexion than
unwafhed wheat, by which it was to be diftinguirtied
only, 6ven by thofe who had long dealt in the ar-
ticle and were in the fecret. Encouraged by the
fuccefs of this experiment, I had a load of it waflied,
fent it to a malt-houfe in the neighbourhood, and
had it kiln-dried by a very moderate fire. I fent a
fample of it to market by a neighbouring farmer,
of long experience, without taking any notice to
him of what had been done. He faid it was a very
bright pretty fample, but did not difcover it had
been fmutty or waflied, till he had fhewn It to a
miller of great bufinefs, who prefently knew what
muft have caufed its brightnefs ; at the fame time
he owned it was not a penny the worfe, as it was
i)ow clean and fwect, and perfectly dry. The wade
in wafliing and drying was about two buflicls ; ten

lhillin«js

[ 256 ]

/hillings I paid the makfter for drying, Sec, which
made the expence about a guinea, whereby at lead:
three or four were faved. From this account it
appears, that a fmutty crop is not an evil of fuch in-
plerable magnitude as hath been generally thought.

In the conditions of the premium, it feems, arc
involved, what is impradicable and impofllble. In
the above account the writer flatters himfelf, that he
has thrown as much light upon the fubjecl as is
difcoverabie by human means, and begs leave to
fubmit it to the candid confideration of the honour-
able Society, whether fuch an inveftigatioi) merits
their approbation and encouragement or not.

Premiums offered for preventing evils which ori-
ginate from intemperate feafons and deflroying
blights, may excite invention, artifice, cunning,
impofture, and deception, but can never extend the
boundary, or expand the circle of human know-
ledge, or human power. He, and He only, who
can repel the malignant blafts of the Eaft, fraught
with myriads of confuming infeds, which originate
from what and where none but Omnifcience knows,
and fubftitute the foft, healing, balmy zephyrs of
the Weft, can reward the labours of the induftrious
hufbandman with plenty and happinefs!

Article

[ ^57 ]

Article XVIII.
Of River JFeeds as a Manure.

[By Mr. John Wagstaff£.]
Gentlemen^
TN my communication to you, inferted in your
^ fourth volume, concerning the extradion of
river weeds with their roots, but more particularly
of the river conferva, as a manure, I propofed to
give you a recital of farther experiments then be-
gun, but of which the refult was uncertain.

In the courfe of my addrefs I had fpoken with
a degree of confidence of the expedled fuccefs of
a barley crop, in fucceffion to the turnips, of which
I gave you an account. I have now to add, that
my confidence had not betrayed me into a miftaken
eftimation of this new manure, as on lefs than one
acre and three roods, I had off feventy-feven Win-
chefter bufhels of malting barley, befides three
bufhels of a lighter quality. The quantity of this
produce may be afcribed to the general well ma-
nuring for turnips with common dung; but on
thofe fpaces wher.e none of that extended, a larger
produce was apparent; and even on the word part
of a field dibbled with wheat, and where, from its
quite oppofite quality to a gravelly height on which.

Vol. V, S the

[ 258 ]

the weed-manure was fpread, half fteril as this fpaCc
was, were prcduced ears clofer, larger, and with
fuller grain, than on a deeper foil extended on a
level round it, which had a natural advantage, and
a drefling of common manure.

On a part of that fpace which I have in the
former experiment mentioned, where this compoft
was almoft entire, and where favoy and turnip cab-
bage grew, in the fpring of this year I planted ten
whole potatoes, at about eighteen inches diftance
from each other, whole average weight was about
four ounces, and equidiflant; the parings of about
fourteen potatoes in nine divifions; the produce as
taken up the beginning of 06lober, was from the ten
whole ones twenty- nine pounds four ounces ; from
the nine divifions of parings twenty-nine pounds
twelve ounces. From among thefe latter (a cafe
of fome admiration to me) there arofe the largell
bulbs; two from thefe parings weighing thirty-
one ounces : the two largeft from the whole fcts,
twenty-five ounces: it may be requifite.to remark
that the parings were from larger roots than the
whole fets. Thefe, from being pared thick, might
have their grofs weight diminifhed about one fourth,
the other three-fourths anfwered their ufual pur-
pofes. It may not be an ufelefs intimation to

obfcrve.

[ 259 ]

obfervc that futh parings^ in every foil and fituation
adapted for the ufual feed, will prove an cfFedlual
fubftitute for the whole potatoe, and the farinaceous
fubilance of this mod edible root may be applied to
all its culinary purpofes.

I have extended this river-weed compoft, the
laft feafon, over a piece of land fown with turnips,
which appear with a fuperiority to others bordering
upon them. Another trad: of land fpread folely
with this compofl: was fown with turnip-rooted
cabbage, in the manner begun (I prefume) and
fuccefsfully purfued by Sir Thomas Beevor, as
publifhed in your third volume; thefe are in a
profperous ftate, and furpafTing in fize fome I had
on better land the preceding year, which were well
manured, but not with the river compoft.

In fine, upon a review of the paft and prefent
profperous appearance of every grain and foddering
root, that it hath unfailingly and efFedually fup-
ported, I cannot help being decided in my opinion,
that on all arable lands, fuch only excepted as are
fpringy, or liable to inundation, it may be more
fuccefsfully applied than the very common and
frequently repeated manure, by which foils are re-
newed in their ftrength.

S a The

[ 26o ]

The vaft quantities of rank weeds and plants
which abound on the banks of the numerous rivers
and flreams of this country, feafonably cut, and
fermented and incorporated with other articles,
for manure, according to the judgment and con-
venience of the farmer, might prove of no fmall
national benefit.

I am, Gentlemen, yours, &c.

INormch, J. WAGSTAFFE.

l^ov. %6, 1788.

Article XIX.

On planting T'rees on barren Heights,

[By the Same.}
• Gentlem£K,

ABOUT twelve years fince a field of elevated
land came into my poffeffion ; the height of
it had been left uncultivated for a courfe of yearSj
on account of its unproduflive quality. The afpedl
being open to the fouth, and its foil a deep fand,
except its fummit, which was gravel ; I with plea-'
fure embraced the opportunity of planting it, and
had in view different fpecies of American trees,"

raifed

raifcd from feeds about three years before, and
which had in general exceeded in length of bole^
for their age, any of the native trees of Britain thajC
I had known i aifed from feed. I therefore pro-,
mifed myfelf, in this heated afpeft, an advanugc
approachmg to that of their proper climate. At
the fame time I planted pines or firs of different
diftindions, and of every fpecies of foreft trees
frequent in our woodsy and in which were included
the three poplars, confidered as the aborigines of
our country.

The pines more generally died, (fave on the fum-
mit) unlefs I here except the larch, which, if it
lived, poorly throve ; the Americans lived without
jncreafe, perifhing in the winter as low in their
branches as their unvigorous fummer fhoots ex-
tended. The birch and the fycamore fucceeded
moderately on this fandy flope, but no other wor-
thy of notice, fave the white poplar and the afp,
(populus alba ^ iremula) the former fucceeded
with a fingle exception beyond any inftance of its
growth I ever faw. A rooted cutting, tranfplanted
here about five feet high, is now in height near
or full thirty feet, is in girt eighteen inches five
feet from the ground and thirteen feet up its trunks
I believe there are branches nine feet in ektent.
Yet this progrefs makes but a part of the obvious

S 3 value

[ Cl62 ]

value of this tree; from its roots extending in
every diredion through the porous foil, new trees
are annually rifing, vvhofe yearly flioot is frequently
more than equal to the ftature of the parent tree
when firft planted, and the two earlleft of the ofF-
fpring, which arofe about fix years fince, are from
thirteen to fourteen feet high. I don't know that
I am able to number the progeny of this fingle tree,
a little copfe having fprung in an area of thirty-
five feet diameter; many of the young ones are
tranfplanted elfewhere. The populus tremuky which
I have introduced with this, has the fame facihty
of throwing out its lateral fhoots, but their growth
is not equally vigorous with the alha^ nor is their
wood in a ftate of miaturity held to be of equal
value. In fine, the motive to this recital is to
carry an information of the experienced ufe that
may refult from planting fuitably lofty ground, of
fuch foil and expofure^ whereby it may be com-
pelled by the adaptation of a few proper trees to
become an ornamental and beneficial wood, after a
few years growth; yet while their growth may fu-
perfede the neceflity of planting other trees, their
clpfe and broad foliage, by excluding the fun, pre-
pares the fhaded ground for the reception of other
trees, that would otherwife have perifhed beneath
his beams, I have in the laft four years replaced

with.

[ 263 1

with fuccefs many feminal plants, where a more ge-
neral failure of their fpecies was known before.

I can hardly quit the lingular and ufcful progrefs
of the Arbele, without mentioning its profpedlive
appearance when planted on a lofty fcite; the filvery
nether furface of its leaves, lifted by the gales, ex-
hibits a fcenick beauty peculiar to itfclf.

But fcenery was not my objedl, notwithftanding
the frequent intimate union betwixt ufe and beauty;
1 meant only to illuftrate by fa6ls, that ground cir-
cumflanced as the aforementioned may, by a judi-
cious planting of thefe trees, be covered in a few
years with a felf-propagating wood. A fall of the
early matured timbers leaves room for the augmen-
tation of their natural fucceflbrs, already coming
forward, while their roots are extending to fupply
the fpaces of thofe which are in fucceflion to be
taken away; fo that in point of profit alfo, the ob-
je6l fully recommends itfelf.

I had an Intention of connecting with this the
means purfued for corredling and planting a foil
and fituation, in the greatefl: extreme different from
the foregoing, (boggy and moralTy ground), but
having mifplaced fome minutes refpedling it, I
purpofe to take an early opportunity of recovering

them.

[ 264 ]

them, and to tranAnit their purport to you; and amj>
with much regard,

^ Your refpeftful friend,

Norwich, JOHN WAGSTAFFE,

Dec. 5, 1788.

P.S, In your lafl publication is given an invita-
tion to counties remote from your own to fend
fcions from known and valuable fruits within their
diftridlis; I therefore wilh to inform you, that the
longeft undecaying apple that I know of, well
known here by the name of Beefin,* and which
anfwers every culinary purpofe, is frequent in the
orchards of our farmers, arid has fometimes been
planted in hedge-rows, where they retain their prif-
tine quality. Indeed, the prejudice of the country
makes this apple to degenerate in any other county;
but as this prejudice has no known fupport, I wifh
it to be difrcgarded, and the growth of the tree ex-
tended. It may pofTibly degenerate fader than fome
others, by its proximity to other fpecies of apples;
but this poflible inconvenience may be guarded
againft in the plantation. I therefore hold myfelf
ready, at your time, if requefted through your Se-
cretary, to tranfmit fcions of this fruit.

• Named, 1 have no doubt, from its ri^^exadtly refembling that
of the flefh of tjie bceve.

Article

[ a65 ]

Article XX.

Hints for /owing various Kinds of Grain ^ from
certain Pbcenomena of Nature.

[By the Same.]
Gentlemen,

TTAVING often been imprefled with the idea
**• ^ that a better rule might be obtained for the
fowing the various fpecies of grain, than what
could be regulated by the calendar, I at length de-
termined to make minutes of my own periods of
fowing, as they were in coincidence with the blof-
foming of well-known trees; or on the return of
various birds of paflagej together with either the
carliefl: voice or fong of either thefe, or thofe whip h
are (lationary to , our climate ; with other eafily
obferved adjundls, which might have a tendency to
diredl this material bufinefs in agriculture. Not
confining myfelf to my own experiments, I made
frequent remarks on divers of my neighbours, and
endeavoured to ascertain the fullnefs or thinnefs of
their crops, as they might be at various times fown,
in correfponderice with the voice or appearance of
many of the well-known fubjeds of nature. Thele
remarks have been continued through feveral years,
i>y which I conceive I have often difcovcred whea

the

[ 266 ]

the fowing was too early in one year, which in a
fubfcquent one might be too late, though on the
return of the fanne days of the month ; yet from the
latter circumftance more crops appeared to be
leflened by a protradlion i^eyond the beneath-recited
periods, than fowing with the earlieft coincidence
with them; to inftance the prefent appearance for
the greateft produd of barley, is from the feed
fown on the earlieft found of the cuckoo, and while
the buds of the black-thorn were yet turgid, than
what was delayed to the frequent note of the former,
and the cj^panfioo of bloom in the latter.

It is pofTible that the following hints may lead
fome pradical farmers to be diretfled by certain
phoenomena of nature, that more generally occur
within their obfervacion, as it is well known that
there are local fubjeds in the vegetable and animal
kingdoms, that are not diffufed through the nation;
yet as thofe I have governed my obfervations upon
are more general, I fhall therfore fubjoin thofe
whofe appearance has been apparently moft propi-
tious, when adapted to the fowing of the following
.grain, pulfe, and roots;

Peas and Sprwg Vetches, As early as the lark
arifes to fing, and partridges are paired.

Oats.

[ 267 ]

Oats, When rooks begin to build, and the male
bloflbms (catkins) of the hazel expand and fhed
their faring.

Barley, At the earlieft difcovery of the cuckoo,
and the white-fwoln buds of the blackthorn.

Cahbagiy and lurnip-rooted Cahhage. At the ap-
pearance of the hyacinth, (blue-bell) and when the
ring-dove (wood-pigeon) begins to coo:

Potatoes, When the wilding or crab apple is in
bloom; and perhaps the due period of taking them
up is at the dropping of its fruit.

Bucky or Brank, When the hawthorn's bloom is
going off with a purple hue, and the young rooki
are perceived out of their nefts,

turnips. When the elder flowers, and the early
cherry ripens.

Wheat. At the fall of the afhen leaf, or whe»
the grey or Royfton crows return; but thefe being
only local vifitants, mod of the inhabitants in fe-
veral counties not being acquainted with them,
their return is in correfpondence with the lateft
falj of the acorn and the variegated appearance of

the

[ ^68 ]

the woods. . On the appearance of the fieldfare the
due period is pad.

I think I am not deceived in my obfervation,
that wheat thus timed is not winter-proud, and is
lead hurt by its poflible feverity, tillering more
freely in the early fpring, and confequently becom-
ing more produ6tive.

This theory of fowing has been fuggefted, and
if I remember right recommended by two diftin-
guifhed naturaliftss viz. Doctor Stillingfleet, in his
Calendar of Flora, and Dodor Goldfmith, in his
Hiflory of Animated Nature; nor was it unthought
of in earlier periods of Englilh hufbandry : I have
heard a provincial adage from the mouth of an
jincient farmer, viz.

'' When the floe-bufh Is as white as a fheet,

" 'Tis time to fow your barley, dry or weet." [wet.]

Indeed the principle, I conceive, is felf-evident,
" If the ftork knows his time, and the fwallow his
feafon of coming;" and as it is a fad that the birds
of pafTage are not always periodical to a day, to a
week, perhaps to a month; it will almoft be ne-
cefTarily educed, that their fubfiftence is not pre-
pared, that nature hath not undergone a change
proper for their return, and in courfe fhe is not

ready

[ 269 I

1-eady for a produdlion that their appearance might
denote the period for,

I am not infenfible that an objedion to this in-
dicative fowing may arife, from the obfervation
that the embloflbmed tree is often blafted, and the
cxpcdation of fruit defeated; that nature herfel^
not being uniform in her promife of plenty, it
evinces fhe can rear no certain ftandard to deter--
mine the procefs of art. There is fome weight ia
the objedlion j but as the cafual poverty of an in*
duftrious ceconomift fubverts not the general fuc-
cefs of oeconomy; and as there is fcarcely a general
rule without exception, the objedion is much
weakened.

I am, with refpedtful regard, &cc.

JOHN WAGSTAFFE.

Norwicby Seft. 9, 1789.

C^lr It is with fomc diffidence that we can allow Mr,
WagftafFe's opinions to appear in this queftionable fhape;
but fince he delivers them as the refult of continued obfer^
vation, we are willing to give him credit for care in his me-
morandums.— And the fubjc6l is worthy the confideration,
at leaft, of the practical farmer.

Article

[ ayo ]

Article XXI.
Remarks on Smutty Wheat *

[By the Same.]

Gentlemen,

TT has been an eftabliHied opinion with moft
■*' farmers, that fmutty wheat, or that in which
the black or fmutty balls are frequent, if fown, will
afluredly be produdtive of a foul crop. And it is
queftionable with many, if any cleanfing with water,
or fteep in any lixivium, will thoroughly purge its
foul quality, fo that no pollution be conveyed to
the future produce.

I therefore beg leave to recite an experiment
which hath had a notable effed in obviating, as
far as it has been carried, the fettled prepoflefllon
againft fowing any wheat apparently cleanfed of
this contaminated quality. And what I hold of a
fupcrior ufe, a drain of wheat has been procured,
(by what operation of nature I do not profefs to
have difcovered) which hath obtained the reputa-
ration of one of the beft varieties known in the dif-
trid: in which it is grown.

A neighbour of mine at Baburgh, a ipeculative
and pradtical farmer^ walked into a fmall piece of

wheat

t ^71 ]

tvheat which I had fown with blended but common
(trains of wheat, and in his walk he gathered fomc
ears of fmutty corn j in the examination of which
he detected in four of them eight or nine found
grains} which grains he referved, and at the com-
mon feed-time drenched with brine, which he
ufually prepared for his feed, and planted them in
his garden in the year 1783. Thefe grains pro-
duced many ears in 1784, which were generally
clofer fet, and more numeroufly produdive of
grain than the frequent drains of wheat. He fe-
ledled the clofer fet wheat, and dibbled in their
grain, feparate from any other; the produce of
which was about a quarter of a peck. In 1785
thofe dibbled in the fame manner, that feafon, pro-
duced in the following autumn about half a bufhel,
which produced by the fame mode about nine
bufhels in 1787, which he principally retained, and
had dibbled on feveraJ acres; the general produce
of which, where he preferved his wheat unblended,
was uniformly of the quality of the referved ori-
ginal ears of 1784. In 1788 he diftributed for
ft:ed (above his own referve) to his relations and
friends. I had four bufliels of this unmixed qua-
lity, which preferved its fpecifick appearance, and
attracted the notice of many farmers, one of whom
has Iblicitcd and obtained from me twenty-four

burticlsi

t ^7^ ]

btilliels ; dnd feveral bufhels befide are in referVtf^
or already committed to the ground.*

I found it difficult to be lefs circumftantial, if I
would be explicit; and as a reference to what has
been experienced, fpeaks more ftrongly than mere
defcription, you will excufe a poflible redundance j
yet I may add, that this peculiarly acquired wheat
continues perfedl in its quality, and largely pro-
du6tive of quantity. In the laft iriftance none of
its- feveral promoters, but are ready and have de*
clared, that their cajl has been from four to eight
buihels per acre more than their ordinary produce
on land equally tempered, and under a fimilar mode
of propagation. I cannot yet fpeak to my own ab-
folute produce, as nearly half remains unthrefhed j
but I believe it will be more than in proportion to
the largeft quantity mentioned by my neighbours
to have grown on the land before. I may farther
addi from different reprefentations I have received,
that it is perfedtly devoid, through the feveral trials
it has undergone, of the polluted flrain from which
it originated. I repeatedly walked down the fur-
rows where nf>ine grew, without detedling any ap-
proach to fmut; nor has any difcovery of this

* Its ufc, I conceive is- extending; at this time the clerk of tlie
cotinty (P. French, efq;) is fetting about five acres of the feed withia
a par^^chial dillri<5l of this city.

pernicious

[ ^73 ]

pernicious fubftance been made in what has been
prepared for the ground, I therefore cannot but
repeat, and conclude, that a variety as profitable,
and a ftrain as pure, has arifcn from this experi-
ment as could have rcfulted from a more elaborate
procefs ; and with a certainty that it has hitherto
liiited all the land on which it has been tried.

I am, your refpeftful friend,

Norwich, JOHN WAGSTAFFE.

0^. 21, 1789.

Article XXIL

Improved Method of planting AJh for Hurdles y
Hoops^ Latbsy Fencings and what is termed
Pofi and Billet for Collieries.

[In a Letter to the Secretary.]
Sir,

BEING lately on a vifit to a friend in Warwick-
fhire, who lives under EdgehiU, I was greatly
furprized to fee fome parts of the declivity covered
with fine regular plantations of A fli, whilft the re-
mainder was either overrun with fhort furze and
rufhes, or drenched with ftagnated water. On
Vol. V. T enquiry

C 274 ]

enquiry I found that the improvement had been
begun by my friend's father about twenty years be-
fore, and has from time to time been extended
both by father and fon : — That the average price
of each acre, when cut at fourteen years' growth,
was 70L though the boggy part, before this mode
of cultivation, was not worth a farthing. From
the ftocks or (lumps when cut, a larger crop ac-
crues the next fourteen years, and fo on perhaps
for more than a century. After each cutting it h
proper to cover, or rather to earth up, the old
flocks with the mould that may have fallen from
the fides of the beds Into the ditches. The ufual
price of planting and fencing with quickfets is not
more than 8 or 9I. per acre. The plantation was
thus begun: — As the hill was to be drained, a line
in the dire6lion of the hill was drawn from the top
to the bottom of the ground intended to be planted;
the afh-plants of three years old, having their tops
and roots fo cut as not to exceed eight or nine
inches in length, were laid horizontally on the
ground at the diftance of three feet and a half, the
top part of each plant projeding about half an inch
beyond the line : then the labourer, beginning at the
lower end of the plantation, that the water, may drain
off as he goes on, and {landing with his back to
the hill, with his fpade digs the earth from the

line

[ 275 ]

line on his right to the diftance of twenty-one
inches, on his left to the depth of twelve or four-
teen inches, or what he may think fufEcient to carry
off the water, And efFe(5lually to cover the roots of
the plants: he then removes the line in a parallel
diredlion three feet and a half from its former place,
lays the plants in the fame order as before, and
digs out the remaining twenty-one inches to the
fame depth as before, and throws it on the left
hand bed ; — thus a ditch of three feet and a half
wide is effected: — and as each plant is three feet
and a half afunder in the beds, and the ditch is of
the fame width, each plant has a fpace exadtly
three feet and a half fquare to extend itfelf in.
Then the line is again removed three feet and a
half further to the left, when the fame procefs again
takes place; care however fhould be taken that
the plants fhould never be laid immediately oppo-
fite to each other, but one oppofite the opening be-
tween two others, thus, ***»*»*^|*

In this mode of cultivation, not only the land is
cfledlually drained, but the plants have alfo a double
portion of vegetable earth, and are thereby enabled
to force their horizontal roots rapidly through the
bed. Inexperience may perhaps objed, that the
plants being laid horizontally will not make per-
pendicular (boots, but nature gives them a perpen*
T 9 dicular

[ ayfi ]

dicular dire<rtion, lay your plants in what mannci*
you pleafe. After planting, no further attention is
required, but to cut ofF any crooked or draggling
fhoots, and to hoe the plants for the firft four yearsj
— the fences alfo mud be well fecured. Timber-
trees may be planted to advantage in the middle of
the beds, in Iquares of fifty or fixty feet, and if oak,
may probably arrive at maturity by the time the
flocks begin to fail.

The method of raifing quickfet hedges alfo in that
part of the kingdom is a very improved one ; which
is to mark out the ground intended for the fence
with a line, on which lay your quickfet plants, cut
in the fame manner as the alh, at the didance of
eight inches from each others then cut a turf clofe
by the edge of the line eight inches thick, lay it
when inverted upon the plants, and fo on till the
whole didance is compleated; then lay another
row of plants at the fame didance on this turf, one
in the opening of that below, which cover with
another turf dug on the outfide of the other, taking
care that they are both laid on an inclined plane
from the ditch, which mud now be made by throw-
ing up the earth dug under the turfs, to the depth
of eighteen inches, to form the bank, and afford
nouridiment for the roots of the plants. The hedge
mud then be fenced with hurdles or pods and rails,

otherwife

[ 277 ]

otherwifc the cattle will foon deftroy it. In four
or five years the hedge will be out of danger, if in
the mean time it has been well weeded at lead twice
a year. The quickfets fhould not be tranfplantcd
into the hedges till they are three or four years old,
or about the fize of a large goofe-quill, and have
been regularly cut down to the ground every year
fmce they firft made their appearance in the nurfery;
—this procefs will increafe their fhoots more than
double. Any of the large roots, which are cut ofF
on tranfplanting, will form new plants, if immedi-
ately put into the ground about three inches diftant
in the rows, and ten or twelve between the rows, to
enable the hoe to pafs between them j — the tops
fhould be about half an inch above ground. Thus
two years are gained in raifing new plants, inftead
of adopting the old mode from feed.

Should thefe obfervations be deemed worthy the
attention of the Society, and calculated to promote
the objed of it, the diJTemination of ufcful know-»
ledge, they are much at their fervice, from

Sir, your very faithful friend.

And obedient humble fervant,

W.B.B.

. T 3 AaTici.5

C ^78 ]

. ^ Article XXIII.

On the Advantage of Hoeing,
[In a letter to the Secretary,]
Sir,
nP'HE Bath Society frequently beftows premiums

"*■ on perfons who raife the heavieft and cleaned
crops of turnips, that have been twice or more
times hoed. Might it not be right to extend thefe *
premiums to every fpecies of corn and pulfe, as
none can doubt but thofe would receive equal be-
nefit from the ufe of the hoe? The farmer who
may be tempted to introduce the hand or horfe-hoe
through every part of his arable land, would find
very little occafion to make ufe of manure, and
might totally extinguilli both winter and fummer
fallows. If he doubt the truth of this afTertion,
let him try the hoe upon one half, or a lefs part of
his ploughed land, without any manure, for ^wt
fucceflive years, and cultivate the other part of his
farm agreeably to his ufual mode, for the fame
term of years, and I pledge myfelf, that double
the crop will be obtained from the land whereon
the hoe has been effe6lually ufed, to that which
can poflibly be raifed upon any lands that are ma-
nured and fallowed, or cultivated ija the pld or
common way.

The

I «79 I

The following account, it is prcfumed, may in-
duce gentlemen and unprejudiced farnriers to try
the experiment: —

A near relation of mine cultivated a field for up-
wards of twelve years as follows, and had every
year uncommonly large crops. The firft year peafe
were fown in drills, two feet (ix inches apart, which
were twice hand- hoed, and afterwards earthed.
They were gathered green, and fent to market, and
the draw or haulm was cut and ufed as fodder for
horles. The whole crop was' cleared by the 15th
of July. The ground was immediately ploughed
and fowed with turnips broad- cad, which at the
proper feafon were twice hoed, and were fold for
5I. per acre to a cow-keeper, who cleared them
from the land the beginning of February in the
fecond year. Another ploughing then took place,
and after the earth was well pulverized it was fown
with fpring wheat, broad-cafl, which was never
hoed or weeded, nor did it require it. When this
crop was cleared in the autumn of the fecond year,
the ground was ploughed without delay, and fpin-
age was fown in four-feet drills; this flood the win-
teri and midway between thefe drills garden beans
were planted the following January, or the third
yearj both crops were hoed. The fpinage was
part fent to market, and part given to cows, and

was

[ a8o ]

Was cleared by the middle of May. The ground
then received another hoeing, and on the fame
drills where the fpinage grew, cabbages (that had
been previoufly raifcd in a feed plot) were planted.
The beans (lood for feed, and were fold for 8s. per
bulhel to a London feedfman. The cabbages were
carried from the land, and given to milking cows
about the month of February^ nor was it thought
right to fufFer any crops to be fed off this land,
fearing the beafts might injure it with their feet,^
and that the water might (land in the holes their
hoofs had made; none but the lighted foils Ihould
be trod with cattle. The ploughing commence^
for the fourth year immediately after the cabbages
were removed; and after the ground was well pul-
verized, peafe werefown in drills three feet afunderj;
thefe were gathered and fent to market in the pod,
and after the haulm was removed, coleworts (whict\
had previoufly been raifed in a feed plot) were
planted about twelve inches diftant from each
other ; thefe were a good crop, and were fold to
the cow-keepers. Thus were eight profitable crops
obtained in four years, more than twice fufEcient
to pay for the fee of the land. — So far fays the
journal.

I was an eye-witnefs to the crops which werq
raifed upon the fame land the eight fucceeding

years,

[ a8i ]

years, and knew them to excel all in that neigh-*
bourhood. The mode of cultivation was nearly
the fame, except that barley was fown one fourth
year, inflead of the fpring wheat ; oats were fown
once in like manner; and potatoes were once
planted between the drills of feed beans; and the
hoeing was always attended to and well performed,
except when the land was fown with corn. The
foil was a light loamy clay of a diifky hue, under
which was gravel, at the depth of about thirteen
inches. The real value of the land was not more
than 2QS, per acrej it has been lately laid down
with grafs, and is come to a good fward, without
having any manure laid upon it for more than fix-
teen years, twelve of which it was cultivated as be-
fore related.

Surely this proof may encourage farmers to try
(he hoe upon a large fcale and on different foils,

I am, the Society's moft obedient fervant^

JOSIAH HAZARD.

floU.Deci i8, 1788.

Article

[ .82 ]

Article XXIV.

\4n Account of the Guinea and Scotch Grajfes^
and the Manner of cultivating them in the
Weft-Indies.

[By J. Spooner, efq; to tlie Secretary.]

Sir,

T^HE Guinea and Scotch grafles, produced in
-*■ the Weft-Indies, and of which you defired
an account, are of fuch great utility, that the pre-
fervation of the ftock there frequently depends
upon them.

The Guinea grafs appears capable of thriving in
any fituation, in refpecl to clinnate and foil, and
can bear the efFefts of dry or wet weather in a moft
remarkable manner.

In wet weather it grows fo faft, that it may be
cut once in a fortnight, and fometimes oftener,
when the land which yields it is new or fertile.-<^ln
dry, it is a long time before it withers, and, when
reduced thereby to fuch a ftate as to feem totally
deftroyed, will revive with a flight fhower in a
very few hours ; and when rain falls, though in fo
(paring a degree as to be of little or no fervice to

common

C 383 ]

common paftures, it will occafion this to vegetate,
end to be fit for ufe in a few weeks : nay, in fome
fituations, not too much expofed to the heat of the
fun, it is known to flourilh, and derive ample fup-
port, from occafional dews only. It has, farther,
fo peculiar a quality of (locking, that, with very
little care in its infancy, it will overcome all other
grafs and weeds ; and in ground full of (tones and
rocks, though planted at very great diftances, at
random, as the appearance of foil admits, wiU
fpiead itfelf about them, in a few months, and at
laft cover them entirely. This grafs, when ready
to feed, is from fix to eight feet high; but it is ge-
nerally fed upon, or cut, when only three or four.

It agrees with all kinds of (lock; and hor(e8,
mules, and cattle, when turned out to feed upon
it, will fatten fo fall, that the two former will be in
good condition in a couple of months, or lefs; and
the latter will become fit for the butcher in the
courfe of three months.

The cultivation of this grafs is very eafy, and
attended but with little care, cxpence, or trouble.
It is not immediately produced from the feed, but
is previoufly planted. The land intended for it is
generally made perfeftly bare by hoeing, and holes
are then dug thereon, from three to five feet dif-

tant|

[ 284 ]

tant, varying in this refpedl according to the qua-
lity of the foili that is, if it 'be rich, the holes arc
to be made at a greater, and if poor, at a lefs dif-
tance. Thefe holes fhould be large, and deep
enough to admit, and bury a good depth, a few
roots of the grafs. The roots to be planted are
dug up from a neighbouring field, or nurferyj and
the grafs arifing from them being topped, within
three or four inches, they are put into each hole, and
well covered with earth, prefTed down by the foot.
Care is taken to keep the plants free from weeds
by repeated hoeings. The months moft approved
of for planting, are April and May, as the grafs
will then feed in September and Odlober, at which
periods it is found to feed by far the moft abun-
dantly. It is neceffary to be careful that the
ground is quite clean when the feed is ready to
drops and if the fpaces between the roots are then
ftirred up with the hoe, it will be found very
t)eneficial.

When the feed is all fallen, flock is turned in
to tread it into the ground, and feed upon the
grafs. In very rich and new land, the grafs at firfl
will grow fo rank as to produce very thick ftalks,
which, by running up the nofes of the flock,
will prevent them from eating it fo clofe as they
otherwife would. When, however, it is eaten as

near

[ 28s ]

near the ground as pofTible, the remaining grafs,
with the roots which were planted, are dug up with
the hoe and burnt off. The grafs after this, if
favourable rains attend, will grow from the feed,
and by covering the ground in thp month of May
following, will be perfeftly eftablifhed for feveral
years, according to the quality of the land, fo as to
be cut for ufe, or become a pafture.

Whenever the grafs grows thin, holes may be
opened in fuch places as may occafionally appear
fo, and roots again planted to fupply it; and, by
this attention beftowed upon it, a field will fcarcely
ever be fo totally worn out as to require the la-
bour of being at any one time replanted.

The blades of this grafs, when flourifliing, ap-
pear not unlike thofe of wheat, only rather broader
^nd longer; and the flalks, during the firft growth,
are alfo much like thofe of it, but they get weaker
and lefs, the oftener the grafs is fed upon or cut, till
at laft it becomes a fine, rich, and entire fwarth.

The mode of cultivation already mentioned is
the one generally approved of, but Guinea grafs
-may alfo be brought to perfe(5lion by other means.
The flalks being buried a few inches deep, each
joint thereof will take root, and grow luxuriantly ;

or

t 286 ]

01* It may be produced dire^lly from fowing the
feed, die ground being previoufly prepared for that
purpofe. This laft mode is not preferred, on ac-
count of the feed lying many months in the ground
before it makes its appearance. Some planters do
riot flock up the roots which are planted, as before
related, when, the grafs has feeded j and fome de-
pend upon what they afford, by continually feeding
upon, or cutting the grafs when at a certain height,
without ever allowing it to feed. But, in compa-
rifon with the firft, all thefe modes of management
are to be efteemed as inferior.

The Scotch grafs is chiefly produced in low,
marfhy lands, that have a running ftream or river
through them, and can be eafily overflowed when
dry weather would affe6l it. It is generally cut for
life, and given to the fliock ; and in good feafons>
that is, if light fliowers now and then aflTifl:, will ad-
mit of cutting once a week or oftener.

The blades of this grafs are longer, broader,
thicker, and of a darker green, than the Guinea
grafs 5 and the ftalks much larger, and more juicy
and pithy. It is an excellent food for horfes,
mules, and cattle ; but is not made ufe ofj and
perhaps is not fo well calculated for fheep, or id

fatten

[ 287 ]

fatten cattle, as the Guinea grafs. In general it ia
merely appropriated to the liable j and the quantity
which the ground yields, and the quicknefs of its
growth, render it very ufcful and valuable, parti-
cularly near towns in the Weft-Indies, which afford
a market for it.

This grafs is alfo cultivated by being planted,
which is thus accomplilhed: — The land is freed
from all weeds, fedges, and rubbifh, by their being
clean hoed, and burnt off, and requires to be laid
out fo as to admit of being overflowed 5 and alfo
to be fo well drained, that no water can lodge to
ftagnate, and deftroy the grafs. The grafs to be
planted is cut into junks, every joint thereof, which
is from five to ten inches long, being a junk, or
plant. A fingle one is ftuck in the ground with
the joint downwards, and in this manner they are
diftributed at random, fo as to be about fix or
eight inches apart. In a few hours thefe joints
begin to ihoot, and take root; and in the courfe
of three weeks, or a month, the grafs will grovr
fufficiendy high to be cut, which is when it is about
fix feet. As the grafs grows, weeds and all extra
produ6lion$ are freed from it, by being pulled up
as they appear, and put into heaps to be dried and
burnt off. Care is taken when it is cut, alfo to ,
weed at the fame time; with which management,

and

t a88 ]

and attention that the drains be kept open, that it
may be- overflowed when dry weather hurts it, and
fupplied in all places as they appear thin, by flick-
ing junks in, as before defcribed, the land is per-
petually eftabliflied with the grafs, and yields it in a
mod extraordinary abundance.

I

Article XXV.

Experiments on Drilling*
[By Sir John Anstruther, to the Secretary.]

Sir,

Send you fome fnnall experiments I made on my
crop of 1787. The produce of part of it being
late in the feafon before it was threflied, it was late
in the year before I received the account of it.

I am forry to obferve an error in the publication
of the lail experiment I fent to the Society, of
crop 1786.

Page 262, line 3. " With partitions of fourteen
inches, two intervals three feet four inches.*'

I cannot imagine how I could have overlooked
fuch a blunder in the copy.

There

[ 289 ] -

%

There could not be two intervals, and had the
ridges been of equal breadth, the interval would
have been nearly four feet eight inches. But as
the blunder is fo plain, every one ,muft pbferve it
to be fo. I am. Sir,

Your moft humble fervant,

Loridorj, J. ANSTRUTHER.

fFimpok'^reet, March 17, 1789.

The following Experiments were made in 1787,

One acre, (latute meafure, was drilled with white
wheat, after the plough, fowing by hand the firft
furrow, and another plough following and covering
the feed J and the feedfman fowed the third furrow
as the firft, fo that the rows were at 18 inches.
This field was drilled beans the former crop, and
drilled in the fame manner.

The wheat was drilled upon one ploughing;
upon this was fown i buftjel and 4-5thsofagallon,.
The produce was 27 buftiels and 3 pecks.

The ears upon fpur yards were counted. One
yard produced 82 ears, one 87, one 98, and one 88.
The average is 88 ears per yard.

Vol. V. U Three

[290]

Three acres and three roods were fown next to
it hroadcaft with the fame wheat.

B. P. G. B. P. d

Upon this was fown 10 3 i which is per acre 30 i^
The produce was 30 2 o| per acre.

Again:

The fame meafure of one acre was drilled with

red wheat, in the fame manner after the plough.

B. P.
The feed fown upon it was i i per acre.
The produce was - 27 0 ditto.

Four acres next to it were fown broadcaft with
the fame wheat.

B. P. G.

The feed fown was 2 2 o| per acre.
The produce was 24 2 o ditto.

Recapitulation.

/"hite Wheat drilled

Broadcafl,

B.

P. G.

B.

P.

G.

Produce

- 27

3 0

30

2

Of

Dedudt feed

I

c of Ded

ua feed

3

0

n

26

2 li

27

I

V

C(

DMPARISON.

Broad
Drilled .

27 1
26 2

iH 0 0
\\\ 0 0

26^ S

after

one,

0 2

ij Broadcafl

[ fuperior

•

Thefe

[ 291 1

Thefe crops were twice horfe-hocd between the
rows with a plough.

Red Wheat drilled.

B. P. G.
Produce - 27 o o
Seed - - I I 0

Seed

20,% 7
8/^ i

Broadcaft.

B. P.G.

24 2 0
2 2 o|

Drilled -
Broadcaft

25 3 0

Comparison.
25 3 0 7 -

21 3 nl -

21 3 li

after one.

3 3 oi Drilled fuperion

The next field to this was only feparated by a
hedge, and of equal quality. It was in wheat
drilled, and planted the lall year. As the former
ridges of the drilled were of unequal breadth, and
that on which the tranfplanted grew was very hard.
It was all crofs-'ploughcd, harrowed, and ridged
anew. The half acre for horfe-hoeing was ridged
into twenty ridges four feet eight inches, and two
half ridges, in place of feventecn lall year. This
the ploughman did very accurately.

The other half acre was made in ridges twelve

feet broad, which made each the fixteenth of an

acre. Upon this half acre was drilled (the 28 th

U 2 of

[ 292 ]

of 06lober) two pecks and a half of red wheat; it
was five times horfe-hoed, and twice hand -hoed in
the partitions. The produce was ten biifhels and
two pecks, which is at the rate of twenty-one
buftiels per acre. From which dedud the feed,
2 pecks I gallon, there will remain 20 bulliels, i
peck, and i gallon, which is i6,V after one.

The half acre horfe-hoed was hoed with a Ro-
therham plough.

In the rows of this were feveral empty fpaccs
of above one foot, and it was much hurt by the
birds, having a hedge on one fide, and a hedge at
one end of the ridges. And as the ridges were
drilled where the furrows were lad year, ,by this
there was only a fingle row on each fide of the
field upon the half ridges. This fingle row pro-
duced but few ears, as it was horfe-hoed only on
one fide, and moil of thefe ears were deflroyed
by birds.

The ears in a yard of four double rows were
counted at different places of the field, two at the
top, and two at the bottom of the field; in all,
eight fingle rows.

I yard

[ ^-93 ]

Ears.

1 yard produced 103

2 - - - - 1 15

3 - - - - 1^3

4 . - . - 85

Ears.

5 yards produced 130

6 - - - - 119

7 - - - - 128

8 - - - . 116

Average 113 ears.

Thefe ears were much larger thAn the ears of
the equally diftant rows.

To fee the proportion of the produce between
thefe and the equally diftant rows. As the latter
are at 18 inches, and the breadth of an acre is
22 yards, this makes 44 rows in breadth, which,
exclufive of head ridges, (fuppofe 6 yards for the
two) makes 9416 yards drilled.

In the drilled and horfe-hoed with two rows upon
4 feet 8 inch ridges. As there are fourteen in the
breadth of an acre, or 28 rov/s, and 220 yards in
length of an acre, exclufive of head ridges, of 6
yards for the two, making 168, there remain to be
drilled 5992 yards; which are 3424 yards of rows
lefs than the equally diftant, or above one-third,
or as 3 6-ioths to 6 4-ioths.

The equally diftant rows produced 25 buftiels

and 3 pecks. And the horfe-hoed produced 20

. U 3 bufliels.

[ ^94 ]

bufiiels, I peck, and i gallon, which is 5 bufliels,
I peck, and i gallon, lefs tiian the equally diftant, or
nearly one-fifth lefs: but the proportion of yards
was one-third. If the produce of the horfe-hoed
had been the fame as the equally diftant rows, in
proportion to the meafure, it Ibould have been
x6 bufhels I peck; but as it produced 20 bufhels,
I peck, and i gallon, this is 4 bufhels and i gallon
more than the fame length of the equally diftant
rows, or one-fourth more, notwithftanding the two
fingle rows were almoft totally deftroyed.

And the 25 bufhels 3 pecks, the equally diftant
rows produced, at 60 pounds per bufhel, multi-
plied by ounces and divided by the yards of the
rows, will be 2 ounces 7-ioths per yard of fingle
rows.

r

By the fame calculation, the horfe-hoed pro-
ducing 20 buftiels, I peck, and i gallon, will be
3 ounces 3- loths per yard, or 6 ounces 6-ioths per
double row.

By counting the ears per yard, it is alfo iliewn
there were more ears per yard. As the equally
diftant rows produced only 88 ears per yard, but
ti3| in the Tullian, the average ounces of the
jborfe-hoed is 3 3-ioths,

But

[ ^9S ]

But from the number of ears counted per yard,
being 113, if we allow 40 grains per ear, and 800
per ounce, (allowing them fmall) the yard of fingle
rows would produce 5 ounces 6-ioths, or at the
rate of 35 bufhels per acre, were the field all
equally good.

Nov. ill. Two ridges, or i-8th of an acre, was
planted with wheat from feed fown in the garden
the 15 th of July J each plant was at nine inches
diflance every way. The produce was 3 bufliels,
2 pecks, and i gallon, which is at the rate of 29
bufhels per acre.

Nov. 2d. One ridge the fame breadth, the i6th
of an acre, was dibbled with wheat at nine inches
diftance every way, and the grains dropped by hand,
in different quantities, from 3 grains per hole to 1 5.
The produce was i bulhel, 2 pecks, and half a
gallon, or at the rate of 26 bufhels per acre.

Nov. 3d. One ridge, the i6th of an acre, was
drilled by hand j the furrows were made by hand
with an hoe, at 1 2 inches diftance, and the feed was
covered with a rake. The feed fown was the
fourth of a peck, or half a gallon, and at the rate of
I bufhel per acre. The produce was i bufhel, 3
pecks, and at the rate of 28 bufhels per acre, or
J 8 after one,

March

[ 296 ]

March T2th. One ridge, the i6th of an ?.cre,
was. planted With plants from the garden, the fanme
as were tranfplanted on the other two ridges on the
ill of November, and ahb at nine inches diftance
every way. The produce was one buihei, 2 pecks,
or ac the rate of 24 bulhel^ per acre.

All the others were reaped the 8th and 9th of
September 17873 but thofe tranfplanted on the
1 2th of March were not fit to cut until the 2d of
Odober.

All thefe were frequently hand-hoed and cleaned
in the rows.

Abstract.

Two ridges, 8tli of an acre, tranfplanted "I

Nov, ift, J 2

One ditto, dibbled -wnth grain Nov. 2d,
One ditto, drilled by hand (feed h gallon)
One ditto, tranfplaritedJNlafcli 12th,

Thefe fmall experiments might have produced
more, if they had been executed by thofe accuf-
tomed to that culture, and more accurately hoed;
but as they were executed by common ploughmen,
not accuftomed to drilling, or accuracy in hoeing,
(as was the cafe laft year in forming the ridges, by

making

Produce*

Part of Bujhels

B.P.G.

an acre, per acre.

1

'3 2 I

i-8th 29

121

i-i6th 26

I 3 0

i-i6th 28

120

i-i6th 24

[ 297 ]

making feventeen indcad of twenty-one) it cannot
be expe<5led to be well executed. But thefe expe-
rinnents, done by thofe nnen, fhew the fydem^in
a fairer , and prove what maybe done by

any farmer to more advantage, by his attending t6
the execution.

I have made experiments of drilling for a great
many years, and have never found any di/Ticulty in
getting it executed >yith tolerable accuracy by com-
mon ploughmen, either in marking out the ridges
at firft flraight, and of the proper breadth, or in
drilling or horfe-hoeing.

Article XXVL

On the Waterin^^ and Management of Flaxi
addreffed to Sir John Miller^ Bart, a Vice-
Prejident oj this Society.

[[jy John Gray, Efq.]
Dear Sir,

THE inclofed is the paper I mentioned to you
lad year, and which, from my negitd, was
afterwards omitted to be communicated to you.

The

[ 298 ]

The rcfledions contained In it occurred to me fe-
veral years ago, from obferving, when I was laft in
Scotland, what appeared to me great milmanage-
ment in the watering of flax. Mr. Curtis, two
years ago, aflced my leave to publifh them in his
Flora Lqjidmenfts, article Flax ; but as that elegant
and expenfive work is not in every perfon's hands,
I laft year got them inferted in the Gentleman's
Magazine for June, and in the Public Advertifer^
'in confequence of which, experiments were made
in Ireland and in Scotland, with fuccefs, according
to the reports. However, if the improvement pro-
pofed be a really efTential one, which a variety of
experiments can alone evince, the reflections will
bear being decies repetit^i and on that account I
propofe publifliing them again this year, and have
fent you this copy, to be communicated, if you think
proper, to the Bath Agricultural Society.

I have the honour to be.
Dear Sir,
Your moft obedient,

and moft humble fervant,

JOHN GRAY,

To Sir John Miller^ bart.

Extras

[ ^99 ]

ExtraH from one of the 'Dublin News-Papers,
for Augufi 1787.

*^ It is conjectured, and with a great degree of
plaufibility, that flax might be inftantaneoufly pre-
pared for the purpofe of fkutching, and all the
tinne and labour of the prefent procefs faved by
imnrierfing it in boiling, inftead of cold water. So
far as fpeculation may be allowed, and an analogy
with the efFedls of cold and boiling water will hold
good, there is every reafon to think the experiment
would be crowned with fuccefs. On a fmaller
fcale we have the authority of a gentleman to aflert,
that the above mode has been pradlifed with fuc-
cefs. One of his undertenants had occafion to
bring fome yarn to market, but had no flax pre-
pared,'and but one day intervened with the mar-
ket: flie pulled fome green flax, and merely for
experiment boiled it in a large iron pot for fome
time, when it fo fully anfwered her expe6lation,
that flie was enabled to put the flax through all its
operations, and bring it to market next day in yarn.
S^en eft tropy fen double,

** I have not yet received the particulars of the
experiment in Scotland 3 but Sir John Sinclair, to
whom I fent a copy of my refledlions, tells me that
^ clergyman of Caithnefs of his acquaintance tried

the

E 300 ]

the new method fucceisfully, and gave him fomc
flax prepared by that method, which he put into the
hands of Mr. Arbuthnot, fecretary to the truftecs
for fiilieries and manufaiftures at Edinburgh."

Reflexions relative to the lyatemig of Flax hy a new
Method^ Jo as to jhorten labour y frolahly ico add to
the ftrengfh of the FlaXy and give it a much finer
colour y which would render the of er alien of bleach-
ing Jafer and lefs tedious.

Though the .following reflexions have for their
objed an improvement in the very elTentidl article
of watering of flax, yet I muft advertife my reader,
that they are only theory, and muft depend entirely
for their truth and juftiflcation upon future ex-
periments to be fkilfuUy and judicioufly made.
Should repeated trials prove the advantage of the
new method propofed, we may venture to affirm,
that it would be an improvement that would in-
creafe the national income in the agricultural branch
many thoufand pounds annually; v/ould add greatly
to the perfedion of the linen manufa6lure; and
over and above, would fupprefs a very difag^eeable
nuifance, which the prefent method of watering flax
occafions during fome part of the fummer in every

flax-growing country.

The

The intention of watering flax is, in my opinion,
to nnake the boon more brittle or friable, and by
foaking to diflblve that gluey kind of fap that
makes the bark of plants anS trees adhere in a
fmall degree to the woody part. The bark of flax
is called the bark-, znd when feparated from the
ufelefs woody part the boofi, this harU itfclf is called
flax. To c&cd: this reparation eafily, the practice
has long prevailed of foaking the flax in water, to
a certain degree of fermentation, and afterwards
drying it. For this foakirtg fome prefer rivulets
that have a fmall current, and others ilagnant
water in ponds and' lakes. In bgth methods the
water adts as in all other cafes of infufion and ma-
ceration j after two or three weeks it extracts a great
many juices of a very ftrong quality, which in ponds
give the water an inky tinge, and oftenfive fmell;
and in rivulets mix in the dream, and kill the fi(h.
Nay, if this maceration be too long continued, the
extraded and fermented fap will compleatly kiU
the flax itfelf. For if, inftcad of two or three weeks,
the new flax were to lie foaking in the water four or
five months, I prefume it would be good for no-
thing but to be thrown upon the dunghill ; both
harle and boon would in that time be compleatly
rotted; yet the harle or flax, when entirely freed
from this fap, and manufadlured into linen, or into
ropes, might lay many months under water without

being

[ 302 ]

being much damaged; as linen, it may be wafhed
and deeped in fcalding water twenty times without
lofing much of its ftrength; and as paper, it ac-
quires a kind of incorruptibility.

It appears then eflential to the right management
of new flax, to get rid of this pernicious vegetative
fap, and to macerate the boon; but from the com-
plaints made againft both the methods of watering
now in ufe, there is reafon to think that there is
Itill great room for improvement in that article.
In rivulets, the vegetative fap, as it is diflblved, is
carried oflF by the current, to the deftrudlion of the
fifh. This prevents the flax from being fliaineds
but the operation is tedious, and I have been told,
often not compleat, from the uncertainty of knowing
when it is jufl: enough, and not too much, or per-
haps from negle6t. In ponds, the inky tinge of the
water often feryes as a kind of dye to the flax,
which imbibes it fo fl:rongly, that double the labour
in bleaching will hardly bring the linen made of
fuch flax to an equality in whitenefs with linen
made of flax untinged. This feems to be equally
unwife, as though we were to dye cotton black fiift,
in order to whiten it afterwards. Thcfe ponds be-
fides become a great nnifance to the neighbourhood;
the impregnated water is often of fuch a pernicious
quality, that cattle, however thirfty, will not drink

of

[303 ]

of it ; and the effluvia of it may perhaps be nearly
as infcdious as it is offcnfive. If this effluvia be
really attended with any contagious efFeds in our
cold climates, a thing worth the enquiring into,
how much more pernicious muft its efFeds have
been in the hot climate of Egypt, a country early
noted for its great cultivation of flax.

I have often thought that the procefs of watering
might be greatly improved and Ihortened by plun*.
ging the new flax, after it is rippled, into fcalding
water, which, in regard to extrading the vegeta-
tive fap, would do in five minutes more than cold
water would do in a fortnight; or perhaps more
than cold water could do at all, in refped to the
clearing the plant of that fap. Rough almonds,
when thrown into fcalding water, are blanched in
an infl:ant; but perhaps a fortnight's macerating
thofe almonds in cold water would not make them
part fo eafily with their flcins, which are the fame
to them, as the harle is to the flax. Were tea-
leaves to be infufed in cold water a fortnight, per-
haps the tea produced by that infufion would not
be fo good to the tafte, nor fo fl:rongly tinged to
the eye, as what is effected by fcalding water in
five minutes. By the fame analogy, I think flax,
or any fmall twig, would be made to part with its
bark much eafier and quicker by being dipped in

boiling

[ 304 ]

boiling water, than by being deeped in cold watcn
— This refltdlion opens a door for a great variety
of new experiments in regard to flax. 1 would
therefore recommend to gentlemen cultivators and
farmers, to make repeated trials upon this new fyf-
tem, which would f )on afcertain, whether it ought
to be adopted in pradice or rejedted. One thing,
I think, we may be certain of, that if the Egyp-
tians watered their flax in our common manner,
they undoubtedly watered it in very warm watery
from the great heat of their clihnate, which would
probably make them negle6b to think of water
heated by any other means than that of the fun.
A good general pra6lice can only be eftablifhed
upon repeated trials. Though one experiment may
fail, another with a little variation may fucceed ;
and the importance of the objedl defired to be ob-
tained will juflify a good degree of perfeverance in
the profccution of the means. In this view, as the
Chinefe thread .is faid to be very ftrong, it would
be woith while to be acquainted with the practice
of that diilant nation, in regard to the rearing and
manufadluiing of flax, as well as with the methods
uljcd by the Flemings and the Dutch.

Boiling water, perhaps, might at once clear the
nev flax fiom many impurities, which, when not re-
moved till it be fpun into yarn, are then removed

with

t 305 3

with difficulty, and with lofs of fubftance to the
yarn. Why fhould not the longitudinal fibres of
the flax, before they are fpun into yarn, be made
not only as fine, but as clean as pofTible? Upoa
the new fyftenn propofed, the a6l of bleaching
would begin imnnediately after the ripling of the
flax; and a little done then might, perhaps, fave
much of what is generally done after the fpinning
and weaving. To fpin dirty flax with a view of
cleaning it afterwards, appears to be the fame
impropriety as though we were to referve part of
the drefling given to leather till after it is made
into a glave.

Should the plunging the flax into the boiling
water not fuffice to make the boon brittle enough,
as I am inclined to think it would not, tben the
common watering might be added; but in thaC
cafe, probably, half the time ufually given to this
watering would fuffice, and the flax might then be
laid in clear rivulets without any apprehenfion of
its infe6bing the water and poiioning the fifh, or of
being difcoloured itfclf ; for the boiling water into
w-hich it had been previoufly put, would have, ex-
tracted all the poifonous vegetative fap, which I
prefume is what chiefly difcolours the flax, and
kills the fiflik

Vol. V. X Oi^

E 306 1

On the fiippofition that the ufe of boiling wafcf
in the picpaiation of{]ix may be found to be ad-r
vantageous and profitable, I can recoUedb ar j. re-
fent but one (A/jeflion agf ind its bcing generally
adopted. Every flax-g.ovver, it may be faid, could
not be expc(5lecl to have convtnicnces for boiHrig
water fu/Bcient for the purpofe; the confuniption
of water would be great j and fome additional cx-
pence would be incurred. In anfwer to this 1 lliail
only obferve, that I prefume any additional ex-
pence would be more than reimburfed by the better
marketable price of the flax i for othcrwife any
new improvement, if it will not quit cod, mull be
dropped, were it even the fcarching after gold.
In a large cauldron a great deal of flax might be
dipped in the fame water, and the confumption per-
haps would not be more than a quart to each flieaf;
even a large houfliold pot would be capable of con-
taining one flieaf after another; and I believe the
whole objection would be obviated, were the prac-
tice to prevail with us as in Flanders and Holland,
that the flax-grower and the flax-drefler fhould be
two difl:ind: profefllons.

I fliall conclude with recommending to thofe
who are inclined to make experiments, not to be-
difcouraged by the failure of one or two trials.
Perhaps the flax, infl:ead of being jufl: plunged into

the

[ 307 ]

the fcalding water, ought to be kept in it five mi-
nutes, perhaps a quarter of an hour, perhaps a whole
hour. Should five minutes, or a quarter oT an
hour, or an hour, not be fufficient to make the
boon and harle eafily feparate, it might perhaps be
found expedient to boil the flax for more than an
hour, and fuch boiling when in this^ftate might in
return fave fcveral hours boiling in the article of
bleaching. It is not, I think, at all probable, that
the boiling of the flax with the boon in it would
prejudice the harle ; for in the courfe of its future
exiftence it is made to be expofed twenty or forty
times to this boiling trial ; and if not detrimental
in the one cafe, it is to be prefumed it would not
be detrimental in the other. Peihaps after the
boiling, it would be proper to pile up the flax in
one heap for a whole day, or half a day, to occaficn
fome fermentation, or perhaps immediately after
the boiling it might be proper to wafli it with cold
water. The great objedt when the flax is pulled,
is to get the harle from the boon with as little lofs
and damage as pofliblc; and if this be accomplifhed
in a more compleat manner than ufual, confiderable
labour and cxpence will be favcd in the future ma-
nufacturing of the flax. On this account, 1 think,
much more would be gained than loft, were the
two or three laft inches of the roots of the ftems to

X 2 be

[ 30S ]

be chopped or clipped off previous to the flax
being ?ith^r vyatered or boiled. When the flax i$
•watered, car^ Ihould be taken not to fpread it out
to dry, when there is a hazard of its be^ng ej^ppfcd
in its wet fta^c to frolt

Article XXVIL

On Mangel-JFurzcL

gBy tjlie R^y. JMi;. Bromwich, to the Secretary.]

Sir,

T^ESIROUS to try the fuccefs of the Mangel
'^~^^ Wurzcl in our climate, and whether, with us,
it might merit thofe high encomiums it has met
with abroad, I was induced to make the following
cxperiirent to afcertain its value. If you think the
obfervarions I have been hitherto able to make will
be of the lead utility in promoting the cultivation of
fo beneficial a plant, 1 fhall be happy in having
communicated them to you.

I am. Sir,

Your, mod; obedient humble feryant^

BRYAN J*ANSON BROMWICH.

Cli^rHQuJ^e^near^Rridgmrthj Dec. i, 1788,

Ohfervations

[ 309 ]

bhfervdflohs en the Cultivaiion of the Mangel Wurzel

In the beginning of lad April I prepared about
a quarter of an acre of light ground, by forking it
over, it having been left exceedingly foul and im-
poverifhed by a fornner tenant. 1 mention this, as
it will, together with the dry feafon, in fome mea-
fure account for the fmallnefs of the roots; the
largeft not having exceeded fix pounds in weight.

As fbon as the land was cleaned, as well as fb
early a feafon would admit of, I divided it into two
equal parts; on? half to be fet with young plants
from a feed bed, and the other part with feeds at
half a yard diflance from each other, inoid(*r to af-
certain the bed of thefe two methods of planting.
The laft: I find is much to be preferred, as rhe plants
that were never tranfplanted, though lace fown,
foon outgrew the others that were.

March loth, the firfl: feeds were fown in the
feed-bed, and tranfj)lanted -into the field the icth
of May following;' the roots having attained the
thickncfs of a goofe quili.

April 15th, one half of the ground in the field

\fras fown witli feeds, being dropped at half a yard

diftance from each orher, the fnne in which they

#crc to reii^ain, ai.d put about ^\ inwh' deep into

X J the

E 310 }

the foil. Every feed commonly produces more
than one plant, fometimes three or four, fo that it
is necefifaiy to draw up the fmalled, about ten days
after they appear above the ground, when fown in
this manner. ,

May 26th, the firfl crop of leaves was gathered,
being then at their full growth, and more than a
foot long, many meafuring eighteen inches. A
frefh crop of leaves was conftantly colle6Led after-
wards, every ten days or a fortnight, during the
fummer and autumn, until frofts fomewhat re-
tarded their vegetation. The laft crop of leaves is
not yet gathered.

The land, being very full of weeds and couch
grafs, was obliged to be hoed three times during the
fumrher, notwithftanding the amazing luxuriancy
of the plants, which covered all the ground; this
foulnefs of the ground, together with the drynefs of
the firft part of the feafon, prevented the roots from
gaining their ufual magnitude ; none of mine having
exceeded fix pounds in weight.

The firft attempt, in difpofing of the leaves^
was to offer them to fome milch cows, which fee}
iJpon them with great avidity, and even preferred
them to clover, or any thing elfe that could be

giveft

[ 3-1 ]

given them. Young calves were alfo very fond of
the leaves, and would hardly tou;:h any other food
aftt-r they had eaten of them, except milk. Pigs
I believe, prefer them to any other vegetable that
they are commonly fed with, and feed fafler with
them than with potatoes. I do not find that horfei
are fond either of the leaf or root} after repeated
trials they will fometimes eat a few leaves, but foon
leave them for other food.

I have chiefly appropriated my crop of leaves to
the feeding of pigs; and perhaps the following ac-
count of the adual profits I have made, will place
the utility of thi^ plant in a more obvious point of
view, than by any other mode in whxh I could
pofllbly exprefs myfclf.

Two cows were fed four weeks entirely with
mangel-wurzel leaves, and two calves eight weeks,

Sept. 1 8th, Sold four pigs at il. each, fed en-
tirely with the leaves from the time they were eight
\vccks old.

Nov. 1 6th, Sold four pigs for 5I. 5s. fed with the
leaves from the time they were weaned,

Befides the above, upwards of twenty pigs, of
9H fi^e^, have been conftantly fed with thefc leaves,

fincc

[ ;ji2 ]

fipce the a6th of May till the prcfent time. More*
pver, in a quarter of an acre of ground, there are
about 2400, plants -, the average, therefore, at 41b.
per root, makes 9600 pounds weight of root for

winter provifion.

CALCULATION.

Debtor.
To forking the land . - -
To hoeing - -
To gathering the leaves - - -
To coft of 8 pigs, at 8s. each

0
0

I
3

J.
14

4
0

4

d.
0

0
0
0

£•5

2

0

Creditor,
By keep of a cows four weeks, at is. each
By ditto, 2 calves 8 weeks, at 6d. each
By fale of 4 pigs - - - -
By ditto of ditto - - -. -
By 20 pigs, kept 28 weeks, at 4d. each
By 96001b. of roots for ftore, at 6d. per '
loolb. - - ' ^ ^i

£'

0

■ 0
4
5
9

2

s.
8
8
0

6
8

d.
0

0

0
8

0

21
5

15
2

0

Profit ;r.i6 13 8

I hope the rates of feeding tht different kinds of
ftock will at leall be deemed fufficiently low : they
are much too low for thefe parts.

However

C 313 ]

However confiderable the profit from the above
calculation may appear, I am very certain the pro-
duce of the roots will be far above what I have
cxprefltrd: I am convinced that the root will fatten
any animal, that will eat it, much quicker than the
root of the potatoe i but which 1 have eftimatcd far
below the value of that root by weight. If there-
fore the produce of the crop, fo poor as mine,
where the average would hardly admit of four
pounds per root; the advantage of a good one,
where they run from ten to twenty pounds weight,
mufl be far fuperior to any other vegetable 1 have
the lead idea of.

I am happy to find that this plant, as the bene-
volent Doctor Lettfom fuggefts, may prove parti-
cularly ufeful to poor people j for, befrdes the ad-
vantage arifing from it, for culinary purpofes, a
very fmall bit of land will enabie them to keep a
cow, or at lead a pig all the fummer, which now
few can do without being at more expence thaa
the animal profits them.

'-^

Articus

t 3T4 3

Article XXVIII.

Turther Experiments on Manuel TFurzcL

[By the Same]

Giff'Houfey near Bridgncrth^
Sir, May 25, 17S9.

AS, from my former remarks on the culture
and produce of the Mangtl Wuizd, you
wilhed to be informed of my fuccefs in regard to
the roots; I have to mention, that they remained
in the ground fo late as the r6th of* DecembtT,
when one part was taken up, and after having the
leaves cut off, the roots were piled up in a building,
and covered with draw, to preferve them from the
froft. A part was left in the g ound, in order to
fee if they would endure the feveiity of our winters
equally with the turnip ; but as the frod was fo very
intenfe, fubfequent to the i6th, it was impoffible to
^fcert;ain that point, as both equally peiifhed.

The greater part of the roots, v\hcn cut in pieces,
was given to milch cows j and the butter at tha^
time was efteemed equal to the bed, when pro-
duced from grafs. From this trifling experiment
I could eafily perceive two advantages this root has
over the turnip; it feeds cattle much quicker, and

communicatee

[ 315 1

communicates no offenfive taftc to the milk. Th«
remainder of the roots were given to pigsj two
Vrere entirely fatted by them, and weighed about
a6olb. each when killed.

I have this year fowed more, and fhould any
thing occur in regard to the cuJturc and manage-
ment worth mentioning, 1 ihall be happy to com-
municate it,

I am. Sir, your obedient fcrvant,

BRYAN J'ANSON BROMWICH,

(^ The feverity of the froft in the winter of 1 788 was
uncommonly great, and therefore it cannot be furprizing
that the roots of this luxuriant vegetable (hould peri(h ia
common with the turnip ; but from other accounts which
we have received, we may conceive a hope that the Mangel
Wurzel, in a dry and healthy foil, is capable of refiiling the
influence of common degrees of froft, and that though the
accounts of its excellence, as food for cattle in general, are
not numerous, it will yet be found valuable for that pur-
pofe in many fituations. We efteem ourfclves much obliged
to Mr. Bromwich for his account of experiments condu(Sled
with fo much care and precifion : and if the plant in quef-
tion (hall be found but half as profitable in general for feed-
ing pigs, as it appears to have been to him, it will ultimately
t^iDk among crops of confequencc to the former. J

Articib

[ 316 ]

Article XXIX.

An AcGCunt of an Experiment made in the Tear
1788, in raijing of the Mangel-WurzeL

[By James Bernard, efqi of Crcwcombe.]

YN the beginning of the year 1788, Dr. Lettfom,
"^ through the intervention of a friend, gave me
67 feeds of the Mangel-Wurzel, which 1 fowed in
the hot-bed the latter end of March 1788, and
they all came up in about eight 6r nine days. On
the 14th of May fixty-fix of the plants were tranf-
flanted into a common bed in rtny kitchen garden;
the bed was C13 feet long and 5 feet wide, the plants
were placed about 17 inches apart every way from
<fach other, the outer plants being placed near the
ddge of the bed. On the 13th or 14th of June, in
the midft of that remarkably dry and' hot weather,
they were all well hoed and cleared of all weeds 5
the plants grew vigoroufly, and upon the firft rain
fhot out their leaves {o flrong as entirely to cover
the ground, and prevented any weeds from grow-
ing afterwards.

Xn the beginning of Auguft I took up one of the
plams of about 3; lb. weight, by way of tafte and
trial, and had the leaves and root boiled. The
tafte of the leaves was 10 much like fpinach \

QQUW

[ 3^7 I

^ould fcarccly have known it from that vegetable ;
the rooc had a fweet and rather earthy tafVe, fomc-
what like the beet, but not fo earthy ; it was irjore
like a turnip boiled with fugar, and was far fioni*
being a plcafant food to iny palate, though cer-
tainly very eatable. From its fwcetnefs 1 fhould
fuppolc a faccharine juice might be produced, from
whence by didillation a fpirit nilgljt be extracted,
and pofTibly fupcrior to what has been drawn from
potatoes.

The plants were afrerwards fuffl-red to remain
till the i8:h of November 1788, when the remain-
ing fixty-fiye plants were taken up, in order to be
carefully putafidc to be replanted again next fpring
for {ct^d, 1 had them weighed, the leaves by
themfclves and the roots by themfelves, and the
weight of the whole crop was as follows :

Pounds.
The leaves and tops of the 65 plants weighed - 202
The roots weighed ----- 340I

Total weight 5421

The comer plant, which had more fpace to extend
its roots and branches in, was fo large that I was
induced to weigh it by itfelf, and I found the
leaves weij;hed - - * -^ 6f

The root - • - - - 15 J

Total - 22

This

t 3'3 ]

This circumftance convinces me that I planted
them too near each other, otherwife nny crop would
have been much larger; but as it is, furely it is
no inconfiderable produce from fo fmall a piece
of ground.

Whether this plant will be a pleafant and nutri-
tive food for cattle I cannot at prefent fay, having
yet made no fair trial of it. I gave fome of the
leaves of it to my cows, but they declined eating
it; it was hardly a fair trial, as the cows were juft
brought home to be milked, out of a very fine rich
meadow, where there was plenty of grafs and very
fweet herbage, and their bellies were full. The
pigs ate it voracioufly.

On the 19th of January 1789, I weighed the
roots again, and then they weighed only 29Slb.
having loft 4'2{lb. fince they were taken out of the
ground; but this lofs of weight is not fo very ex-
traordinary, when we confider the juicinefs and
fucculency of the roots when taken up, and the
dry and frofty weather we have had ever fince, and
that they were kept in a dry chamber, covered with
ftraw to preferve them from the inclemency of the
weather. They were apparently much drier, but
were found and in good prefervation, and no ways
injured by the froft.

lalfo

[ 3^9 1

I alfo planted one other plant (the fixty-feventh)
by itfclf in ihc garden, by way of trial how it would
ftand the winter; 1 left it entirely uncovered and
unprotcded from all the fcvere weather we have
lately experienced, and 1 do not find that, in (pite
of the fevered trial it can well be fuppofed ever to
have in this country, it is the Itaft hurt, the nrlain
Ihoot and crown of the plant look vigorous and
healthy: many of the leaves, indeed, are dropped
down, but not much more than fpinach or other
common greens are. What this plant weighs I
cannot tell, it having never beeo taken up, but in
appearance it feems to be almofl: as big as the
laigclt of the plants that grew in the bed.

Article XXX.
On Bees.
[In a Letter to the Society.]

GENTLfMEN,

OOME time fince, feeing your advertifement of
^^ propofed premiums fur encouraging the im-
provement of bees, a few hints from an old cxpe-
riirrenter on thcfc ufeful infcds may, perhaps, con*
tribute to tlie furtherance of your laudable dcfign.

Premiums

t 320 ]

Premiums for the greateft number of flocks
feem very liable to caufe impofitions. 1 know the
London Society fufFcred fuch. It is very ealy for
defigning perfons to purchafe or procure the loan
of flocks, frop a diflance, and therewith to augment
their own apiaries, previous to the time of infpec-
tron; nor will it often happen, that the figncrs of
their certificates will trouble themfelves to make
the neceffary invefllgation. Be that as it may, the
excitement will influence but few candidates, and
not produce fuch a general emulation among the
apiarian farmers, 6^c. as might be wilhed. Befide,
England is not defedive in the produ(5tion of
fwarms: Our docks in general emit too many,
which make a great (hew in number, but yield a
very inadequate proportion, of honey and wax, or
of flocks fit to fland' through the winter and fpring*
It is certain we have more farina to nourifh the
broods, than honey to feed tliem when bred : con-
fequcntly there are but f^w apiaries but what may
be overcharged. At this place eight flocks is the
mod we can keep with propriety. At Chefhunt in
Hertford {Lire, (miy late refidence) 12 or 14 were the
utmofl. l{ none but firfl good fwarms were pre-
fer ved, and the calls or after -fwarms returned back
to the liocks, the increafe of honey would be many
fold greater than in the ufual pradice of the pea-

fantry.

t 3" ]

fantry. An incorporated flock will gather more
honey than three or four fingle ones, for reafons
obvious to intelligent apiators.

Hives of bees of half a bufhel meafure, intended
to (land, ought at leaji to weigh "twenty pounds;
larger hives in proportion. Nor ought they to be
above two years old. Probably, if the number of
flocks in one perfon's pofTcfTion in January or Fe-
bruary were to intitle to the premium, a deception
might be more difficult.

To take the honey without deftroying the bees,
cannot be done by any of the prefent methods,
without trouble, and other inftruments than are yet
publickly known or in ufe among the commonalityj
confequently the peafantry (from whom we muft
look for a general increafe) have neither attempted,
nor will attempt a change, where an additional ex-
pence is certain, againft an uncertain advantage: a
few perfons of higher flation may make a point of
pride or intercfl in benefiting by the piva^ium,
whilft the generality v;ill flili remain ignorant and
incapable. It is with concern I fee numbers of
fober, honed, and induftrious cottagers, with fa^
milies, to whom a (lock of bees would be a little
eftate, but who out of their fmall pittance of wages
(as here 4s. a week) can never fparc enough to

Vol. V. Y purchafe

[ 3^2 ]

purchafe fo defirable a refoiirce. A prefent of a
ilock to perjons ofjucb chara5lcrsy under injunctions
of managing them agreeably to the bed known
mediods, might often prove very ferviceable, greatly
tend to the increafe of the article, and would be a
fpecies of benevolence and patriotifm worthy of
opulent individuals and publick focieties.

It is much to bq lamented as a national lofs, that
great part of the prime fwarms are fuffered to
efcape, from an erroneous opinion about figns and
hours of fwarming; whereas nothing lefs than a
conftant watching, from feven to four, can prevent
this lofs ; but which the peafantry will not comply
with. For unlefs we can find a rnore fafe, eafy,
cheap, and effectual method of fwarming bees ar-
tificially, the old pradlice will prevail. I have
been experimenting on bees near thirty years, but
cannot fully accomplifli thefe grand points j the
fuperior genius of thefe diminutive artizans baffle
the moft laboured fchemes of an old veteran.
However, as they flill continue my principal
amufement, I fhall perfevere until I accomplifh my
defign, or the imbecilides of advanced age render
me incapable.

A few years fince Earl Marchmont honoured me
with a prefent of the celebrated Schirach\ Treatife

on

i 3^3 1

on Bees, which produced fo much altercation annong
the naturalirts, and apiarian focieties in Germany,
I have likewife been favoured by T. Diiks, efq; and
Lord Torrington, with the principal Memoirs on
Bees of the Bruxelles Academy, &c. From thefe
I hoped to have drawn great advantage^ but after
feveral years reiterated experiments thereon, to the
deftruflion of many bees, I find them futile, and
without cne Jingle rejult confonant to, or in favour of^
their new dodrines. They may amufe the curious,
but are of no advantage to publick pra(5tice.

As honey is difagreeable, nay hurtful to many
conftitutions, perhaps it might be worth a trial to
procure fome honey to be refined as fugar. Me-
lafies are the grofs oily parts of fugar, and being
extradled therefrom, it is rendered more wholefome
and palatable J if therefore an experiment were made
on honey, by a fuitable procefs, it might probably
improve both its dietetic and medicinal qualities,
adapting it more to general ufe.

I am, Gentlen^en,

Your mod humble fervant,

Near Pembroke, JOHN KEY3.

June 1788.

Y 2 Article

[ 3H ]

Article XXXI,

On Bees.

[By the Same, to the Secretar}%]

Sir,

T N confequence of your favourable reception^ and
-^ polite anfwer, to the letter I ventured to addrefs
to the Society laft year, I am led to ofFer the an-
nexed Caution^ to be inferted in the next volunne of
the Society's papers, if deemed worthy of fuch dif-
tindlion. That it will be conducive to the general
benefit of bee-keepers, I am fully and pradlically
perfuaded, and I fubmit to tl;ie confideration of the
Society, the previous fteps of caufing it to be in-
ferted, und,er their fandion, in the country news-
papers. If the Bath Society fhall incline to give
my fentiments their fandlion, it will give a weight
and; dignity to the fubjed, far fuperior to the influ-
ence of an obfcure individual, whofe recommenda-
tion would be but (lightly regarded.

The beft time to infert fuch an advertifement,
will be about the middle of March; as then the bees
begin to work brifldy, and thereby the notice of
their owners would be engaged.

The

[ 325 ]

The lofs of the prime fwarms,- which is fof com-
mon, is in my o()inic/n of greater confcquehce In the
culture of bees, than even that imf)oHtic prafticeof
fufFocation, which I have lately found reafon to think
not fo very detrimental to the publick intereft, as
has been imagined.

If the Society Ihould adopt any of my hints, I fhall
be thankful for a line of communication, or from
any member, or experimenter in the apiarian art.

From a treatife which I mentioned in nSy fbrrfief
letter, Schirach on tke ^een Bee,* I hoped to have
derived rfiijch' infoTiViation, as feeming to promifc
the mod eflfential fervice ; unhappily I h^ve beeh
totally difappointed, He affirms, that ail the w6rk-
ing bees of a hive are females in difguifej and that
every one of thcfe bees, in an early (lat^ of their
cxiftcnce, was capable of becoming a queen: from
a knowledge of which, fwarms may artificially be
obtained from the early months of fpring, and in
any fucceeding month, even to November. His
experiments have been very numerous; and to ob-
viate every doubt and objecfcion, he performed the
operation upon one^ and the fame ftocky every four
days, for at leaft^^ ox fixty times; all which pro-^

• Paftor of Klcin-Bautzcn, in Uppcr-Lufatia, and Sccretan' to a
Society of Naturalilts there.

y z duced

[ 326 ]

duced young queens, from mere fragments of the
combs, &c. &c. This novel and wonderful doc-
trine excited no little contention and counter-expe-
rimenting among naturalifts on the continent, with-
out being decided even by the great Bonnet. For
eight years have I alfo, with great attention and
minutenefs, endeavoured to fucceed, by Schirachian
rules ; but in the many effays and variations, I never
once found fuch a refult as Schirach defcribes. He
ajferts^ (which is indeed the grand proof) that the
praSlke of this art has already extended itfelf
through Upper Lufatia, the Palatinate, Bohemia,
Bavaria, Silefia, and fevcral other parts of Ger-
many, and even of Poland. And yet, furprizing
as it may feem, in Britain we have made no fuch
fimilar improvement, at lead, that has come under
my notice.

I would not ceafe purfuing the experiment, were
I certain of the above fa6t, and that thereby a
larger quantity of honey and wax has been obtained
than by the ufual methods before pra6tifed in thofe
countries: for a greater number of ftocks only will
not be conclufive. It is the real profit, and not the
fliew, that we look for.

My humble requeft, therefore, to the Society is,
that if they have formed, or can form a corre-

fpondencc

[ 3^7 J

fpondcnce in thofe parts, to obtain a fatlsfadlory
invcftigation of the above points, and will commu-
nicate them to me, it will be efteemed as high a fa-
vour, and gratefully acknowledged^ and, I hopc^
be converted to the publick benefit.

I am^ Sir«

Your very humble fervant,

JOHN KEYS.
Near Pembroke ^ Feb, 6, 1790.

A Caution to the Owners of Bees.

It is a prevailing and general opinion, that bees
never /warm without firjl fhewing fome previous
figns or tokens; and that they feldorti fwarm until
about the middle of the day. Thofe who keep
bees in the duplicate manner, by fetting one hive or
box over another, are mifled by the writers on bees
to believe, that by fuch kind of contrivance, they
arc prevented from fwarming at all. Both which
opinions are aflliredly ill-founded. I take upon m^
to aflfert, thlt one third of the prime ox fir ft Jw arms
efcape unperceived; and that, generally, without the
leaft indication of their dcfign.

The feafons and hours of fwarming are alio
much miftakcn: they fomctimes fwarm in March,

frequently

C 3*8 1

frequently in April, and from feven In the morning
till four in the evening j many rife fo early and fo
late. Nor will a tranfient viewing of them now
and then fufEce^ one minute fhall. prefent no ap-
pearance of fwarming, and in the next they fhall
fuddenly IfTue, and fly quite away. Thofe that are
duplicated are equally as prone as thofe in fingle
flraw hivesj for all will equally purfue great Na-
ture's law, to Jwarm, Without, therefore, a bee-
herd, or perfon appointed for conftant watching^ not
cafually, but without intermiffion, from feven till
four, the proprietor will have his expedlations, in a
great meafure, difappointed. A child or aged per-
fon may be hired for the purpofe, at the eafy charge
of 2d. or 3d. a day, whereby, if only one fwarm be
preferved, it will prove an adequate compenfation
for the expencej befides being fure of lofing none
of the reft, and the preventing a great deal of anxi-
ety, and often a very fruitlefs trouble to thofe who
keep four flocks, or more.

From many years afliduous obfervation, and
riumberlefs experiments, I may fafely ftake my
credit upon the truth of my aflertions.

Feh,(>, 1790. JOHN KEYS.

Article

[ 3^9 1

Article XXXII.
On Cyder-Wine^ made from the Juice of Apples ^
, taken from the Prefs and boiled^ according to
a Recipe of Dr* Riijh.

[By Robert Stevens, efq; to the Secretary.]

Ansford near Caftle-Cary^
Sir, Aug. ii, 1789.

T 71 TITH the greatcfl readinefs I comply with
^ ^ the rcqueft of your Committee, and fhall
fend, next Saturday, a two-gallon calk of Cyder-
Wine, drawn from a hogfhead I had made under
my own infpedion, as a trial of the liquor recom-
mended In the Bath Chronicle. I am forry to ob-
ferve the direflions there given were too fcanty, as
very little more was faid, than that two hogflieads
of cyder from the prefs fhould be boiled down to
one, and kept till fit for ufe, and that in three or
four years, according to Dodlor Rufh's opinion, it
would become a pleafant liquor, not unlike RheniQi.
The boiling the juice of the apple I conceived
could not be all that was neceflary to make a vinous
liquid — fermentation mud fomehow be procured,
and obfervation and experience muft determine
how far that fermentation fliould be carried* I am
certain there is yet much to learn in that particular,
and upon that principally the goodnefs of the liquor

muit

[ 330 ]

mud depend. As I have very little doubt, iTioiild
the analyfis intended correfpond with the few expe-
riments I have made, but a very wholefome and
palatable liquor, approaching to wine, may be ob-
tained from the apple; I fubmit it to the confide-
ration of your Society how far it may be neceflary
to offer a fmall honorary premium, or a pecuniary
reward, for the greateft number of experiments to
afcertain the bed manner of making this wine, and
for the beft wine produced to a Committee, in a
given time. The extraordinary confumption of fpi-
rituous liquors, every friend to mankind muft la-
ment ; and it is a melancholy ohfervation, that the
increafe of the national revenue is purchafed at the
expence of the health of fo great a part of the com-
munity. This evil, I am afraid^ can never be to-
tally removed ; but I conceive it may be melio-
rated by the introdudlion of other cheap and miore
healthful liquor j at lead it may be expe6led the
middling clafs of people, and thofe capable of re-
fieftion, may be thereby induced to reiinquifh the
ufe of flow, yet certain poifon.

It may not be unnecefTary to mention, that in
the making I took particular care as to the clean-
nefs of the copper the apple-juice was boiled in>
and which I had immediately from the prefs. — As
foon as this juice was reduced to fomewhat lefs

than

[ 33^ 1

than one hogniead, the liquor was imnfiediately
taken out of the copper, and cooled in wooden
coolers. When it retained that degree of heat
only, in which beer is ufually worked, fuch aquan-
tity of ycaft was put in as I imagined would biing
on a tolerably briik fermentation — it fermented
pretty ftrongly during the night following, and the
next morning a thick yeafty froth covered the top
of the mafh-tub in which it was put — the fermen-
tation fubfided towards the evening, and, if I rc-
colle6V, was rather in a negative (late the whole day.
I think, had the fermentation continued longer, I
Ihould have made a more wine-like liquor, that
would not have retained fo much of the baked appk~
fie tajley which you will perceive it has, and which
it will require fome years keeping (if it will bear it)
to get rid of.

This year, if I have apples fufficient, I fhall
make fome frelh trials, and (hall endeavour at a
more perfrft fermentation. — Should I have any
fuccefs, or imagine any thing I may then have
done can be ferviceable to others, I fhall do my-
felf the pleafure to communicate to your Society all
the information I am capable of giving.

I am. Sir, your moft obedient fervant,

ROBERT STEVENS.
[For

C 23^ ]

[For the larudable endeavours of Mr. Stevens to afcertain
the important point which had excited his attention, and '
for his polite manner of addreffing the Bath Society, the
thanks of a General Meeting were voted to him.— Several
Members of the Society were requeued to take famples of
the Uquor fent— make experiments upon it, and report their
opinion of its wholefomencfs — as alfo on the Nature and
EfFcfls of Cyder, as commonly made and ufed. — The fol-
lowing paper being prefented to the Society, in confequence,
by Dr. Anthony Pother gill^ is here inferted.]

Article XXXIII.

'Experiments and Obfervations on Cyder-WinCy
with Remarks on Fruit Liquors^ and Hints
for their Improvement.

[By A. FoTHERGiLL, M. D. F.R.S. Bath.]

Vinum tot veneficiis placere cogitur;

Et mirainur noxium efle.

Plin. lib. 14.

PURSUANT to the Society's requell, I have
^ examined the cyder-wine prepared after the
method communicated by Dr. Rufh, as pradifed
in America, viz. by evaporating in a brewing coppr
the frelh apple-juice till half of it be confiimed.
The remainder is then immediately conveyed into a
wooden cooler, and afterwards is put into a proper

cafk.

I 3:^3 1

cafk, with an addition of ycaft, and fermented in
t^\e ordinary way. The procefs is evidently bor-
rowed from what has long been pradtifed on the re-
tent juice of the grape, under the term of vin cuU,
or boiled winei not only in Italy, butalfoin the
iflands of the Archipelago, from time immemorial.

It has lately become an objed of imitation ia
the cyder countries, and particularly in the Weft of
England, where it is reported many hundred hogf-
heads of this wine have already been made ; and
^ it is faid to betray no fign of an impregnation
of copper by the ufual chemical tefts, it is confi-
dered as perfe(5lly wholefome, and is accordingly
drunk without apprehenfion by the common people;
others, however, fufpeibi its innocence. It there-
fore becomes an objedl of no fmall moment to de-
termine, in fo doubtful a matter, whether the liquor
Requires any noxious quality from the copper in
which it is boiled, or not.

The wine fent for my examination was of a red
colour, fomewhat turbid, and of a fweetifh empy-
reumatic tafte, refembling that of a roafted pippin
— properties by no means defirable in a vinous li-
quor, but which doubtlefe may be confiderably
meliorated by keeping to a proper age.

EXPE*

[ 334 ]

EXPERIMENTS.

Exp. I. Volatile Alcalt. Into a fmall glafs
of cyder-wine were dropped fifteen drops of volatile
fpirit of fal ammoniac. — A flight precipitation en-
fued, the liquor became darker coloured, and on
ftanding, a thick cloud of a greenijh caft fettled on
the furface. The volatile alcali, whether mild or
caujlicy exhibited the/ame appearance.

Exp. 2. Phlogisticated Alcali. The like
proportion of the phlogifticated alcali gave a more
vifible green tinge to the liquor, and on ftanding
produced a variegated //»2 on the furface, refledling
t})e prifmatic colours, fimilar to what is obferved in
chalybeate waters expofed to the air. At the hi-
torn were fonqe particles of a brown caft,

Exp. j. Solution of Orpiment. This liquor
which is prepared by chemifts under the term of
Liquor vini probatorius^ or wine iejl, when dropped
into the cyder-wine, occafioned a flight doudinefsy
followed by a precipitation of brownijh particles*

Exp. 4. A frelh portion of cyder-wine being
.diluted with three times its quantity of fair water,
was afterwards tried with the above-mentioned li-
quors, and then exhibited the different phoenomena
more diftinclly.

Exp. 5,

[ 335 ]

Exp. 5. A bottle of my own cyder, fent me from
a friend in Devonfhire as genuine, was now fub-
jedlcd to the above chemical teds, that the refult
might be compared. It however underwent no
material change, except from the phlogifticated al-
cali, which gave a faint grcenifh tinge, but no vi-
fible precipitation.

Exp. 6. Polished Iron. A knife-blade being
immerfed a few hours in a glafs of cyder-wine,
when dried exhibited a blackijh brown mark, inter-
fpeiTcd with fhades of a copper colour. The wine
at the fame time afiumcd a darker hue, from a
flight impregnation of the iron.

Exp. 7. Solution of Vitriol of Copper — be-
ing dropped on the polifhed part of the blade, when
dried gave a fimilar mark, but of a brighter brown.

Exp. 8. Residuum. A pint of cyder-wine being
evaporated in a tin veflel to a thick extradl, was
next placed in a crucible, and, with an addition of
tallow, was calcined to a black powder. This re^
Jiduum was examined, and as no metallic particles
appeared, a pint of fpring water was poured upon
it, and after it had flood all night to fubfide, it was
decanted into three fcparate glaffcs.

Into

[ 33^ ]

\ Into the firft was dropped fome volatile alcali;
into the fecond fhlogijlicated alkali; and into the
third the wine teji.

Slight marks of precipitation were barely per-
ceptible in all the glafles, but the dark turbid ap-
pearance of the mixture concealed the changes of
colour, as it did in fome meafure in two of the
preceding experiments, fo as to render the refult
rather equivocal, though they were repeated more
than once.

Being curious to know whether the fame phceno-
mena would ftrike other obfervers in a fimilar way,
I fcnt a bottle of the cyder-wine to my ingenious
friend Dr. Johnftone of Worcefler, for his examina*
tion. His fon foon after favoured me with the
following letter, containing the refult of his expe-
riments, which I have the fatisfa6lion to find agree
very nearly with my own.

" Sir, JVorceJleVy Sept, 23, ..

*^ I am defired by my father to acquaint you

with the refuk of fome experiments which I have

made on the cyder-wine. By them it appears to

t>e canfiderably impregnated with copper,

" I have the honour to be. Sir,

*' Your obedient humble fervant,

" JOHN JOHNSTONE."

t 337 J

Experiments,

** I. A fteel pin put into the cydcr-winc became
of a brown colour, which left on the tongue the
ilaufeous aftringent tafte o( coppery at the fame time
the wine became of a darker colour, from fome
portion of iron diflblved in it.

*' 2. Sal volatile mixed with the cyder-wine
made it of a dark turbid colour; it occafioned in
white-wine a kind of cloud fimilar to that fome-
times obfervcd in urine.

" 3. Phlogifticated alkali precipitated a dark
brown cloud very copioufly; it had no effe^b on
common white- wine ; a clear proof of the prefence
of copper in the cyder-wine.

" 4. A fteel pin put into cyder- wine in which a
precipitation had been made by fal volatile, was
not at all incrufted, nor was its colour in the leaft
changed, though it remained in the wine more
than twelve hours.'*

Thus far my correfpondent. .

OBSERVATIONS.

Though a fingle grain of copper diflblved in

upwards of twenty gaUons of clear water may be

Vol. V. Z detcdcd

[ 338 ] .

deteded by a vlfible blue tinge appearing on tlie
addition of a few drops of volatile akali, yet this is*
by no means the cafe in turbid high-coloured
liquors, which intercept the rays of light, and often
occafion a confiderable deception in the appearances.
Hence the nccefTity of diluting fuch liquors in va-
rying the experiments. In no inflance did the blue
tinge appear with the alcalies, even after the wine
was dilutedj and yet its ablcnce does not prove the
liquor to be abfoiutely/rftf from an impregnation
of copper. For I afterwards found that it required
from three to five drops of a folution of vitriol cf
copper to give a vifible blue tinge to a glafs of the
^liqudi*. The akali^s gave agreenilh tinge to the
wine} and copper, in form of vcrdegris, afTumes
indifferently a green or blue colour, according to
circumftances.

If the mark on pollfhed iron was darker than
that which is produced by vitriol of copper, it was
evidently owing to a fmall portion of the iron dif-
folved at the fame time, and which always imparts
a hlackijh tinge to polifhed metals.

If the liquor was free from any metallick impreg-

^nationj why did it yield ^ precipitation? — a 'y^rzV-

gatcd Jih}2i'—'2L broum Jediment? And why did it

afford

[ 339 ]

afford fuch a ftriking contrad, when compared with
genuine cyder, or white-wine?

When the metallick principle was precipitated by
an alcali, the wine m longer gave the brown coppery
tinge to the fteel pin, and that for an obvious reafon.
Copper unites with an alcali rather than with iron.

On the whole, if we may rely on the above expe-
riments, does not the general refult afford a ftrong
prefumption, if not a proof, that the cyder-wine
contains a minute impregnation of copper ? Not fo
conftderabUy nor yet fo very palpable y (it is to be
hoped) as my ingenious correfpondent feems to
imagine, but yet fufficient to put the publick on
their guard concerning a liquor that comes in fo
very ^ quejlionable a Jhape.*

It is a curious chemical fa6^, if it be really true,
that acid liquors? while kept boiling in copper vef-
fels, acquire little or m impregnation from the metal,
but prcfently begin to a6l upon it when left to
ftand in the cold. Can this be owing to the agita-
tion occafioned by boiling, or the cxpulfion of the
aerial acid ? Atmofphcrick air powerfully corrodes
copper, probably through the intervention of the
aerial, or rather nitrous acid, for both are now ac-
knowledged to be prefcnt in the atmofphere. But
Z 2 the

[ 340 ]

the latter is doubtlefs a much llronger menftruum
of copper than the former.

In the prefent procefs, the liquor is properly di-
re6ted to be pafled into a wooden cooler y as foon as
the boiling is completed. But as all acids, and
even common water, acquire an impregnation, and
unpleafant tafte, from (landing in copper vefTels in
the cold, why may not the acid juice of apples a6t
in fome degree on the copper before the boiling
commences? Add to this, that brewing coppers,
without far more care and attention than is gene-
rally beftowed on them in keeping them clean, are
extremely apt to contrafl: verdegris, (a rank poifon)
as appears from the blue or green ftreaks very vi-
fible when thefe veflels are minutely examined.
Should the unfermented juice be thought incapable
of adting on the copper, either in a cold or boiling
flate, yet no one will venture to deny its power of
wafhing off, or diffolving verdegris already formed
on the internal fuiface ofiht velTel. Suppofe only
one-eighth part of a grain of verdegris to be con-
tained in a bottle of this wine, a quantity that
may elude the ordinary tefts, (for reafons already
afligned) and that a bottle fhould be drunk daily
by a perfon without producing any violent fymp«
torn, or internal uneafinefs, yet what perfon in his
fenfes would knowingly chufe to hazard the expe-
riment

[ 341 1

riment of determining how long he could continue
even this quantity of a flow poifon in his daily be-
verage, with impunity? And yet it is to be feared
the experiment is but too often unthinkingly made,
not only with cyder-wine, but alfo with many of
the foreign wines prepared by a fimilar procefs.
For the grape juice, when evaporated in a copper
veflel, under the denomination of vino cottOy or
boiled wine, cannot but acquire an equal, if not yet
ftronger impregnation of the metal than the juice
of apples, feeing that verdegris itfelf is manufac-
tured merely by the application of the acid hulks
of grapes to plates of copper.

Independent of the danger of any metallick im-
pregnation, it may be juftly qucftioned how far the
procefs of preparing boiled wines is necefjary, or
reconcileable to reafon, or ceconomy.

The evaporation of the muft by long boiling not
only occafions an unneceflary wafte of both liquor
and fuel, but alfo difTipates certain effential princi-
' pies, without which the liquor can never undergo a
complete fermentation, and without a complete fer-
mentation there can be no perfect wine. Hence
the boiled wines are generally crude, heavy and
flat, liable to produce indigeflion, flatulency, and
diarrhoea. If the evaporation be performed baftily^
Zi the

[ 342 ]

the liquor contrads^a burnt empyreumatick tafte,
as in the prefent inftance j x^Jkwly^ the greater is
the danger of a mctallick impregnation. For the
procefs may be prefumed to be generally performed
in a veird of brafs, or copper, as few families pof-
fefs any other that is fufficiently capacious. Nor
can a veffel of caft-iron, though perfedlly fafe, be
properly recommended for this purpofe, as it would
probably communicate a chalybeate tafte, and dark
colour to the liquor. At all events brafs and copper
veflels ought to be entirely banilhed from this and
every other culinary procefs. The mifchievous
confequences refulting from metallick poifons, and
particularly of lead and copper, are, I am convinced,
more numerous and extenfive than is commonly
imagined. The evil has long been loudly com-
plained of, and yet the people of this country con-,
tinue to facrifice their health, and lives, to the moft
unpardonable negligence and fupinenefs, even
when the remedy is at hand. But I iliall referve
my ftridures on this fubjedl for a future paper.

Remarks on Cyder and P?R?iy.

Before I conclude^ it may not be improper to
add a few obiervations on the prefent ftate of /ruit
liqirv^rs in our cyder counties, the improvement of
which is an object of great importance to the pub-
lick,

[■ 343 ]

lick, but pai ticularly fo to the inhabitants of thofe
diftrids where thefe liquors conftitute their common
beverage. Cyder and perry, when genuine, and in
high perfcdlion, are excellent vinous liquors, and arc
certainly far more wholefon^c than many others
which at prefent are in much higher eftimation.

When the mujl is prepared from the choiceft
fruit, and undergoes the exa5i degree of vinous fer-
mentation requifitc to its peifcdlion, the acid and
the fweet are fo admirably blended with the aqueous,
oily, and fpirituous principles, and the whole
imbued with the grateful flavour of the rinds, and
the agreeable aromatick bitter of the kernels, it
aflumes a new character; grows lively, fparkling,
and exhilarating; and when compleatly mellowed
by time, the liquor becomes at once highly de-
licious to the palate, and congenial to the confti-
tution. Superior in every rcfpedl to mod other
Engliih wines, and perhaps not inferior to many of
the bed foreign wines.

Such I can venture to affirm would it be pro-
nounced by all competent judges, were it not for
the popular prejudice annexed to it as a cheap,
home-brewed liquor, and confequently within the
reach of the vulgar. To compare fuch a liquor

with

[ 344 ]

with the foreign fiery, fophiRicated mixtures, often
imported under the name of wines, would be to
degrade its for it certainly furpalTes them in fla-
vour and pleafantnefs, as much as it excels them in
wholefomenefs and cheapnefs. But rarely do we
meet with perry or cyder of this fuperior quality.
For what is generally fold by dealers and inn-
keepers is a poor, meagre, vapid liquor, prone to
the acetous fermentation, and of courfe very inju-
rious to the conftitution. Is it not very mortifying,
after the experience of fo many centuries, that the
art of preparing thefe ancient Britifh liquors fhould
flill be fo imperfe^fly underftood as yet to feem to
be in its very infancy ; — that throughout the prin-
cipal cyder diftrids, the praclice fhould ftill reft on
the moft vague, indeterminate principles, and that
the excellence of the liquor fhould depend rather
on a lucky random hit, than on good management?
Yet fuch appears to be really the cafe even among
the moft experienced cyder-makers of Hereford-
fhirc and Gloucefterfhire !

Mr. Marfliall, that nice obferver of rural affairs,
in his late Tour through thofe counties* (exprefsly
undertaken for the purpofe of inquiry on this
fubjed) informs us, that fcarcely two of thefe pro-
feflional artifts are agreed as to the management

t Marihairs Rural OSconomy of Gloucefl^Ihire, ii. 308 & feq.

of

[ 345 ]

of fome of the moft eflcntial parts of the procefs.
That palpable errors are committed as to the time
and manner of gathering the fruit — in laying it up
«^in neglcfting to feparate the unfound — and to
grind properly the rinds and kernels, &c. That
the method of condu6ling the vinous fermentation,
the mod critical part of the operation, and which
ftamps the future value of the liquor, is by no
means afcertaincd. While fome promote the fer-
mentation in a fpacious open vat, others reprefs it
by inclofing the liquor in a hoglhead, or drive to
prevent it altogether. That no determinate point
of temperature is regarded, and that the ufe of the
thermometer is unknown, or negledted. — That they
are as little confident as to the time of racking off,
and whether this ought to be done only once, or
five or fix times repeated. And that for fining
down the liquor, many have recourfe to that odious
article, bullock's blood, when the intention might
be much better anfwered by whites of eggs, or
ifinglafs. And finally, that the capricious tadc of
particular cudomers is generally confulted, rather
than the real excellence of the fruit wine, and con«
fequently that a very imperfedl liquor is often
vended, which tends to reduce the price, to dif-
grace the vender, and to bring the ufe of cyder and
perry into difrcpuc^.

The

[ 346 ]

• The art of making vinous liquors is a curious
chemical procefs, and it^ fuccefs chiefly depends on
a dexterous management of the vinous fermentation,
befides a clofe attention to fundry minute circum-
ftances, the theory of which is perhaps not yet
fully underftood by the ablefi; chemifts. Can we
longer wonder then that fo many errors fhould be
committed by illiterate cyder-makers, totally un-
verfed in the firft principles of the chemical art ?
Some few indeed, more enlightened than their
brethren, and lefs bigoted to their own opinions, by
dint of obfervation, ftrike out improvements, and
produce, every now and then, a liquor of fuperior
quality, though perhaps far fliort of excellence ; yet
Hill fufficient to ihew what might poflibly be ac-
compliflied by a feries of new experiments con-
ducted on philofophical principles.

This might lead to fucceflive improvements, till
at length our Englilli fruit liquors might be carried
to a pitch of perfeftion hitherto unknown, by which
the demand, both at home and abroad, would foon
be enlarged, the prices augmented according to
the quality, the value of eftates increafcd, and the
health and profperity of thefe counties proportion-
j^bly advanced,

This

[ 292 ]

This might alfo help to point out a method of
correding the imperfections of thefe liquors j wd
of meliorating thofc of a weak, meagre quality, hy
fafer and more cftcdtual means than are now prac*
tifcd: and though nothing can fully compenfate the
defedt of fun-(hine in maturing the faccharinc
juices, in unfavourable fcafons, yet probably fuch
liquor might, without the dangerous and expenfiv^
method of boiling in a copper vefleli admit of con-
fiderable improvement by the addition of barm or
other fuitable ferment, as yet unknown in the prac-
tice of the cyder diftridsj or perhaps rather by a
portion of rich mujl, or fome wholefome fweet, as
honey, fugar- candy, or even melaffes, added in due
proportion, previous to the fermentation,*

Now, fhould this Society intereft themfelves in
the prefent inquiry, in which this and the adjacent
counties are materially concerned, might it not be
advifeable to offer a fuitable premium to ftimulatc
the cyder-makers to undertake fuch a courfe of
experiments as may feem proper towards the im-

* Since the rf>we was written, I Icani from a recoit publication,
that the Gtrmaiw ire known to meliorate their thin harfh wines by an
addition of concentrated Muft, not by -evaporation, but hy /riming,
3y this fimjJc proQefs th«7 arc wade to ^qwilate good French wines^
» pradlicc worthy imitation, efpccially in the Northern climates.

^ee Hop son's Ci^cmiftry.

provcmeni;

[ 348 ]

provement of perry and cyder, and alfo for corre(5l^
ing, or meliorating thefe liquors when prepared
from an unripe or inferior fruit ?

It is greatly to be regretted that the capital old
fruits, which raifed the fame of the liquors of this
country, are now chiefly loft, or fo far on the de-
cline, as to be deemed irrecoverable.

Mr. Marfhall, in his late furvey of the orchards
in Herefordlhire, aflures us that the redjlreak is
given up: the celebrated //r^ apple is going off;
and the f^uajb pear, which has probably furnifhed
this country with more Champaign than was ever
imported into it, can no longer be got to flourifhi
the ftocks canker and decay.

In Yorkfhire feveral fine old fruits, which were
produdive within his own recolledlion, are loft ;
the ftocks cankered, and the trees barren.

The famous Hagloe crab, which yields a cyder
that for richnefs, flavour, and price on the fpot,
furpaflfes perhaps every other fruit liquor, having
been valued at fixty guineas the hogftiead, is con-
fined to a fmall diftridt near Rofs in Herefordfhire^*

t Rural Occonomy of Gloc^fterfhlre, Herefordihirct &c^
vol. ii. page j^j^,

and

[ 349 ]

and will probably in a few years be extinft. Is ic
not furprizing that the cultivation of fuch excel-
lent varieties of fruit-trees fhould be thus limited
to a few particular counties, and fo much negleded
even in thefe; when probably, by due attention to
foil, afped, and other leading circumftances, they
might be fuccefsfully raifcd, and propagated in
almoft any quarter of the kingdom ?

That fruit liquors, when of a good quality, and
drunk with moderation, afford an uncommonly
wholefome and cheap beverage, is allowed on all
hands, and confirmed by long experience.

Nor can any arguments againftits utility be fairly
drawn from its abufe, or from the evils that necef-
farily enfue from the enormous quantities of bad
cyder confumed by day-labourers.

In the vale of Glocefter, fays Mr. Marfliall, fix
quarts a day is the common allowance; fometimes
nine or ten quarts; or an unlimited quantity! In a
plentiful fruit year cyder is of very litde value: men
and mailers are equally adepts in the art of drink-
ing; and the tales that are told of them appear fo
incredible, it is to be hoped they are not (Iridly
true. Drinking a gallon-bottle-full at a draught,
is faid (on good authority) to be no uncommon

feat:

[ 2SO ]

feat: — a mere wanton trick that will not bear to
be bragged of. But to drain a two-gallon bottle
without taking it from the Irps, as did a certain la-
bourer, is fpoken of as an exploit worthy an inha-
bitant of the Vale of Gloucefter! — Another man of
the Vale, however, undertook for a trifling wager
to drink, twenty pints of cyder, one immediately
after another. He got down nineteen, (as the ftory
is gravely told) but thefe filling the calk to the
bung, the twentieth could not of courfe get admit-
tance: fo that a Severn-man's ftomach holds ex-
a6tly two gallons three pints! — But the quantity
drunk in this extemporaneous way by the men is tri-
fling, compared with that which their mailers will
fwaliow at a fitting. Four well-leafoned yeomen
(well known in the Vale) having raifed their cou-
rage with the nefarious juice of the apple, refolved
to have a fefli hogdiead tapped; then fetting foot
to foot, they entirely emptied it at one fitting !*

Concerning the effedls of fuch extravao;ant feats
performed by thofe mad topers, our author is filent;
butiffimilar debauches are frequently committed
with impunity (which feems fcarcely credible), they
afford a (Ir iking example of the falubrity of cyder,
perhaps not to ht paralleled by any other vinous
or fermented liquor. At all events fuch wantpn

• Occonomy of Gloucefterlhirc, vol. i. p. 53»

exceffes

C 351 ]

cxceflcs ought by every pofTible mean^ to be dif-
couraged. But to the difgrace of our police, the
law which inflids penalties on drunkennefs, inftead
of being flridlly executed, is generally fufFered to
rennain a dead letter. Meanwhile, I fear it will be
in vain to admonifh thefe thorough-paced foakers—
ot attempt to deter thofe brutes in human fhape
from purfuing the high road to ruin ! In vain fliall
wc drive to convince them that a habit of drinking
learnt in youth, is not eafily abandoned in riper
years, and that a continued abufe of evert the mod
innocent fermented liquor, will, in the long run,
infallibly prove a flow, but fatal poifon!

Article XXXIV.

On the Poifon of Leady with Cautions to the Heads of
Families concerning the various unfufpe5fed Means
by which that irftdious enemy may find Admiffion
into the Human Body,

[By the Same.]

nine dira tormina! — HInc genae pendube, tremulaequc manus!

Plim.

T^O call forth latent abilities, and to promote a

-*• generous emulation amongtt our hufl^and-

mcn, manufadurers, and artizans, is the profefled

obje(fl of the Bath Society, But while we thus

endeavour

t 3P ]

endeavour to enlighten the minds, and to kindle
the zeal of the connmon people, ought we not to
inftrudt them moreover in the necefTary means of
preferving their health ? Without this, how fhall
we enable them to encounter with alacrity their la-,
borious purfuits? Without health the daily taflc
cannot be performed. The plough and the team
lie ufelefs — the bufy loom becomes filent — and all
the oeconomical arts languifh! Till confined to the
bed of ficknefs, this ufeful clafs of people arc of all
others the mod inattentive to their health. It is
not till then that they begin to be truly fenfible of
its value, and then with heartfelt fighs they deplore
its abfence ! Each rural fcene that lately delighted
the fenfes, has on a fudden loft all its charms, and
the gay face of nature is now beheld with an eye of
indifference, or even difguft.

For what are fields, or flow'rs, or ftreams to me,
Ah! taftelefs all, if notenjoy'd with Thee,
O Health!

It is always much eafier to prevent difeafes than
to cure them. Therefore to imprefs the common
people with a due fenfe of the importance of their
health, and to put them on their guard againft one
of the moft frequent, though unfufpeded caufes of
many of their chronick difeafes, is the bufinefs of
this elTay.

the

[ 3S3 1

The mifchicfs arifing from culinary poifons pre-
fent a wide field for difcuflion ; but I fhall^ confine
myfelf at this time, io the potfon of Lead. Is it not
a moving fpe6lacle to fee poor induftrious tradef-
men, particularly the manufadlurers of red and
white lead, daily expofed to the noxious fumes of
this pernicious metal? Unhappy men, whofe hard
lot it is to earn, by the fweat of their brow, a fcanty
maintenance, breathing all the while a tainted air,
and inhaling a flow poifon at every pore, in order
to prolong a wretched exiftence ! Thefe furely have
a peculiar claim to our compaflionate regards, and
I fhould think myfelf happy if I could awaken the
attention of this Society towards the alleviation of
their fufi^erings.

The London Society have not been inattentive to
this great objedt, as appears from their late pre-
miums, particularly concerning a fubftitute for white
lead, or a method of divefting it of its deleterious
quality; — an objed highly worthy your confidera-
tion, as this noxious fubftance conllitutes the bafis
of all our common paint, the injurious efFeds of
which are univerfally complained of.

The exten five ufc of lead in various forms,
enables itto aflail all the avenues of life. Some-
times it atucks the human frame by an open

Vol. V. A a affaulr.

t 354 ]

aflanlt, but more frequently it makes inroads into
the conftitution as a fecret unfufpeded enemy*
Various caufes confpire to favour its introdu6lion
into the fyftem. The arts of chcmiftry, of medi-
cine, and even of cookery, have all iucceffively lent
their aids infomuch that no perfon of whatever
rank or ftation, from the prince to the peafant, can
at all times pronounce himfelf perfectly fecure
againil its filent depredations. Devoutly therefore,
not ludicroufly, may we now exclaim with Sir John

FalftafF,

'* Heavens, keep lead out of us !"

The jovial knight, like a hon-vivant of the pre-
fent day, not dreaming of its admiffion into his
body by any mode but one, viz. that of a leaden-
ball, continued to quaff his fack in feeming fe-
curity, while each draught probably contained a
portion of the detefled metal which he fo pioufly
deprecated. For our anceftors in thofe days were
no novices in the myft9ry of refining liquors with
lead^ though by no means fuch able adepts as their
fuccefTors, who (to do them juftice) appear to have
carried the art to its ne plus ultra.

But to be ferious: — Though the above appre-
henfions to fome may feem imaginary, or at leaft
exaggerated, yet whoever attentively confiders the
well-authenticated fa(^s adduced by Sir George

Baker,

[ 3S5 ]

Baker, Dr. Percival, and other eminent authors,
concerning this poifon, will foon be convinced that
they are but too well founded, and confcquendy
that thefe caudons are not altogether fuperfluous.
Seldom do the common people err through excels
of caution, but often through the want of it. Few
of them indeed have Icifure or inclination to trace
this fubje6t through a variety of medical volumes,
who neverthelefs perufe, with eagernefs, the Society's
papers, or other Ihort eflays in which they confider
themfelves to be materially interefted. The fol-
lowing admonitions, therefore, are not addrefled to
the medical faculty, but to the heads of families,
whofe duty it is to watch over the health of thofe
who are committed to their charge.

GENERAL EFFECTS

OF THE

POISON OF LEAD.

Lead in every form is unfriendly to animal and
vegetable life. The miners who dig the ore, the
fmelters who reduce it to a metallic (late, manu-
fadlurers of white lead, painters, plumbers, in a
word, all who are much expofed to its effluvia,
bear teftimony to its pernicious eSefls. Its fumes
Aa2 are

[ 356 i

are found no lefs deftruftivc to domeflick animals,
fuch as dogs, cats, fowls, &c. nay, even vegetables
in its neighbourhood foon lofe their verdure;
nor can plants thrive in pots compofed of this
metal., Its various preparations, as litharge, red
and white lead, are all poifonous, and their activity
is increafed by their union with acids. Lead un-
fortunately being thus liable to be corroded, or
even diflfolved, by almoft every fpecies of acid, the
dangerous confequences are proportionably in-
creafed. For it not only unites with the ftronger
mineral acids, but alfo with thofe of the weaker
vegetable kind, as that of wine, beer, cyder, vinegar,
verjuice, &c. to which it imparts a manifefl fweet-
nefs, forming a fait termed fugar of lead. Hence
the foundation of that mod dangerous abufe of
corre6ling acid wines and cyder with litharge, or
other preparations of this metal. Lead alfo unites
with exprefTed oils, and other unduous bodies, as
butter, fuet, lard, &c.

Hence in Holland it has been cuftomary to
correal the more offenfive exprefTed oils, fo as to
fubftitute them for oil of olives, or almonds, by
impregnating them with lead. — Another horrible
abufe, and which merits the moft exemplary pu-
nifhmentl Deliberately thus to adulterate the com-
mon articles of life with a flow poifon, and wantonly

to

[ 357 ]

to facrifice the lives of innocent perfons to unfeeling
avarice, fcems a refinement in villainy at which
human nature revolts, and which could hardly be
credited in a Chriftian country! The favage tribes
of the mod barbarous nations, who attack tlieir de-
clared enemies with poifoncd arrows, are never
known to difcharge them at their unoffending
neighbours and countrymen.

To fuch an alarming pitch had the dangerous
art of adulterating liquors with lead arrived in
France, that at length it became neceflfary to make
it a capital offence. I am unwilling to believe
that any man would prefume to pradtife this in-
human fraud, were he fully apprized of the poifon-
ous nature of the ingredient. That none of my
readers may plead ignorance, I fhall briefly mention
its principal effedls.

This metallick poifon then is powerfully flyptick,
and highly injurious to the nerves, hence it fup-
preffes the natural inteftinal difcharges, producing
obftinate coftivenefs, and a peculiar fpecies of colick
terminating in palfy of the extremities, which ge-
nerally deprives them of motion, without deftroying
their fenfation. Thefe fymptoms, being the genuine
effects of lead, feem to mark its fpecifick power,
and to diftinguiih it from every other poifon.

Aa3 It

[ 358 ]

It moreover occafions a pale fallow countenance,
contra6lion and wafting of the mufcles, numbnefs,
trennors, languors, convulfions, epilepfy, and death.
— Thefe fymptoms vary according to the quantity
of the poifon, the ftate of the body, the irritability
of the fyftem, and other circumftances. Some-
times, without producing fpafms or other violent
fymptoms, it only occafions a flow lingering indif-
pofition, which, however, lafts fome years, and at
length generally eludes the power of medicine. This
well accords with what has been tranfmitted to us
concerning the flow poifons of the ancients, and
feems to confirm the fufpicion that their bafis was no
otljer than a fecret calx of lead. — May this fatal calx
long reft in oblivion, and never more be revived !

Various ways in which it is admitted into the Body,

This poifon may be received into the body in
diet, and in medicine.

I. Diet, — Water, which conftitutes fo large a
proportion of diet in every nation, is generally
conveyed through leaden pipes, or cylinders of
pumps, and is often left to ftand in leaden cifterns.
As thefe have fometimes been found corroded in
certain places, by Newman and other chemical

writers.

C 359 1

writers, it has been fufpeded, and not without
reafon, that the water nnight thus receive a flight
impregnation from the metal. — Galen and Viiruvius
loudly condemn leaden pipes for th^ purpofc of
conveying water, becaufe their internal furface con-
trails a covering of white lead. Dr. Heherden
kept water in which lead had been immerfed twelve
years: the water exhibited a whitifli powder at the
bottom, and gave a brown tinge to a folution of
orpiment, and volatile tin6lure of fulphur — proofs
of the prefence of lead. Sir George Bakery how-
ever, repeated the experiment by keeping water in
a leaden tube, but at the end of two months the
water discovered no fcnfible impregnation by the
above tefts. He relates however, on the teftimony
of Br, fVally that a family in Worcefter fuffered a
long tedious indifpofition, with fome fymptoms of
this fpoifon, in confequence of daily ufing a hard
aluminous water. On examining the pump, the
leaden cylinder was found corroded, and even per-
forated by the water, although it had been repaired
only three years before. On removing to another
houfe fupplied with better water, the family at
length recovered their wonted health. From thefe
fa(5ls it would appear, that water, under certain cir-
cumftances, is capable of corroding lead, fo as to
prove injurious to health. Some authors afiirm>

others

[ 360 ]

Others pofitively deny this conclufion. Pure water,
it is true, is no menftruum for lead, but rarely do
we meet with water that is pure. Pump or fpring
water is generally impregnated with a fmall portion
of vitriolick or^ marine fait, but lead is hardly ca-
pable of detaching thefe acids from an%alkaline or
earthy bafis, and therefore cannot communicate any
poifonous quality to the water: hence this metal,
though immerfed in a folution of alum, remains
unchanged. Nor can the aerial acid enable water
to ad upon lead. But fhould the water contain any
mineral or vegetable acid, iincombincd with earth,
a circumftance which rarely occurs, it may then,
though in a very dilute ftate, corrode the metal
fufficiently to produce mifchievous effeds. This
feems aftually to have been the cafe at Worcefter.
For it certainly muft have been an acid, not alum,

that corroded the lead. This may fuggefl to us

the following cautions:

I ft. That whenever water betrays any fenfible
mark of acidity, by an aluminous tafle, or by
changing fyrup of violets red, fuch water, if meant
for internal ufe, ought never' to come in contact
with lead.

adly. Water conveyed from the leaden gutters of
houfes, or ftanding long in leaden citterns expofed

to

[ 36i ]

to falling leaves, from which it may acquire an acid
quality, is alike exceptionable. To this caufe, M.
^ronchin attributed the epidemick colick which
fome years ago prevailed at Amfterdam.

Wines. — It is worthy obfervation, that the cn-
demial colick, which formerly was wont to infeft the
inhabitants of Poitou, fo as to become proverbial,
is now no longer known, fince the pradice of adul-
terating wines has been abolilhed from that diftrid.
In whatever country the liquors are impregnated
with lead, either by accident or defign, this difeafe
will be found to prevail, as will, I think, more
fully appear in the fequel. Hence the colick of
Poitou, and of Devonfhire, and the dry belly-ache
of the Weft-Indies, (whatever fome may aflfert to
the contrary) areevidendy one and the fame difeafe,
and may clearly be traced to the fame caufe, namely,
thepoifon of lead.

Notwithftanding the feverity of the laws, the
fatal abufe ftill prevails, particularly in many parts
of France and Germany, where their weaker wines,
being prone to acidity, are ftill, in defiance of all
laws, human and divine, corredlcd with litharge,
or fwcetened with fugar of lead ! Nor is this wholly
confined to the lower white-wines, fuch as the
Rhenifli, and the Mofelle, for in a late French

publicauon,

[ z^^ 3

publication, intitledLA Maison Rustic^e, a large
ball of lead is pioufly directed to be fufpcnded in
the cafk, in order to prevent the wines of Burgundy
From turning acid ! At Paris, the low meagre wines
commonly fold to the populace are made to run
through a leaden channel, and are diftributed to
the cuftomers in meafures compofed of tin, or bafe
pewter, containing a large portion of lead. Ac-
cordingly the colick of Poitou is ftill predominant
in Paris. Dr. Gadane computes the average num-
ber of inhabitants annually affli6led with this difeafe
to amount to five or fix hundred. M. Senacy late
phyfician to the King of France, adds his tefti-
mony concerning the frequency of the difeafe at
Verfailles. Br. Warren enumerates thirty inflances
among the fervants and domefticks of an Englilh
nobleman, during his refidence at Hanover, all
occafioned by the fame caufe. It has been ob-
ferved with furprize that, at Surinam, the Euro-
peans who drink French wines are extremely liable
to this difeafe, while the natives, who refrain from
this beverage, entirely efcape.

If we turn our attention to our Englifli made
wines, I fear they will by no means be found clear
offufpicion. In Graham's art of making Britifh
wines, are the following choice receipts ;

I. To

[ 363 3

I. To fofien Green IVlni.

Put in fomc vinegar wherein litharge has been well fteeped,
and put a quart of it into a tierce, and this will mend
it, in fummer efpecially.

2. To hinder Wtne from turning four.

Put a pound of melted lead in fair water into your calk
pretty warm, and flop it clofe.

From which it appears that William Graham
was deep in the myftery of vintners: and his book
having gone through no lefs than fix editions, may
be reafonably fuppofed to have revealed the dan-
gerous fccret of thofe adepts in iniquity, to at leaft
three thoufand innocent families, together with
their friends and connexions ! But to eftimate the
fum total of mifchief accruing from the numerous
receipt-books of this (lamp publifhed within thefe
fifty years paft, " highly neceflary (as the editors
gravely obferve) to all Families," entirely baffles
calculation ! For, according to the fage adyice of
thofe worthy authors, fcarcely any family is now
found without one or more of their " faithful guar-
dians of health, or trufty monitors In every thing
relating to food or phyfick 1"

To fupply the publick with an effe6tual antidote
to the various poifons conveyed in thefe books, and
difleminated far and wide amongft the people^ would

be

[ 364 ] \

be worthy the pen of the ableft chemifl:, and every
life thus refcued from their pernicious efFedls would
well intitle him to a civick crown.

Rum. — The dry belly-ache, or in other words,
the colick of Poitou, is a prevailing difeafe in the
Weft-Indies, particularly among thofe who drink
rum. Some attribute it to the newnefs of the
Ipirit, others to the acid juice of the limes which
generally accompanies its ufe. But the former,
when genuine, is inadequate to the efFedl: ; the latter,
inftead of producing the difeafe, is found rather to
be a remedy.

Dr. John Hunter^ in the year 178 1, being Ra-
tioned with the ,army at Spanifh-town in Jamaica,
finding this difeafe very prevalent amongft the
foldiers who drank new rum, while others who
abftained from it remained free, began to examine
clofely the liquor, and alfo the implements ufed in
the diftillery. The rum, in his experiments, gave
evident figns of an impregnation of lead. The
worm of the ftill, confifting of a large proportion
of lead, he found corroded. An acid refiduum
called dundeVy it feems, is added to the mixture
before diftillation, and partly rifes with the fpirit.
No wonder then that the lead was corroded by it.
The fpirit, in procefs of time, in a great meafure

depofits

t 3^5 3

dcpofits the lead, hence old rum is found much
lefs unwholefome than new. If rum be left to
evaporate in a glafs it leaves an acid remnant be-
hind. He further adds, that if a piece of lead be
immerfcd in pure proof fpirit the fpace often weeks,
the liquor is found to have acquired a flight im-
pregnation from the metal — A new and Angular
circumftancci but which, I believe, never can take
place where pure fpirit is employed.

The nitrous acid is fometimes clandeftinely ufed
to corred ill- flavoured rum, and fuch an adulte-
rated fpirit may be readily conceived capable of
adting on lead, though pure fpirit certainly cannot.
Hence it is eafy to fee how the above deception in
the Do6lor*s experiment might tend to miflead his
judgment. Difliilleries, and even breweries, with
afl their apparatus, ought to undergo a narrow in-
fpedlion, as acids, and even their effluvia, are ca-
pable of corroding lead. Therefore the leaden
worms, fpouts, gutters, in a word every utenfil
containing that metal, ought to be viewed with a
jealous eye. Nor ought the enquiry to be con-
fined to thefe places alone : for if we extend our
views to our wine and cyder-preflTes— dairies,
kitchens, and ftore-rooms, we fliall probably meet
with much to be complained of— much to be re-
formed. Whether the apothecary's fliop, or even

the

t 366 ]

the elaboratory of the chemift, will bear a very clofe
fcrutiny, may perhaps be juftly doubted. For be
it remembered, that not only lead and pewter, but
alfo the tinning of copper veflels, the folder con-
taining a mixture of lead, and the glazing of earthen
ware being a calx of lead, are all liable to be cor-
roded by acids, or even exprefled oils,

Cyd£r. — That acid wines or crude cyder may,
independent of any adulteration, produce bowel
complaints, attended with griping pains> and diar-
rhea, cannot be denied, but that they (hould occa-
fion a colick, complicated with coftivenefs, and
terminating in palfy, is highly improbable. On
the contrary, that this difeafe is the genuine pro-
duce of the poifon of lead feems to have been
proved by the mod fatisfaflory evidence. The
Endemial colick of Devonfhire, afcribed by Dr.
Huxbam and others, to the acidity of new cyder,
has at length been clearly traced to the above
poifon.

From the elaborate eflays of Sir George Baker on
this fubje6t, it appears, that, " in thofe diftridls
where the difeafe was moft prevalent, lead was
generally found in the preffes or utenfils employed
in making the cyder, and that on analyfing the fuf-
pe6ted liquor, he obtained from it a fmall portion

of

[ 36? ]

of real Iczd:* That fome of the farmers had been
known to buy fugar of lead to corred the acidity
of their cyder! That others, in order to preferve
their weak cyder for the ufe of their labourers,
were wont to have recourfe to the well-known fecret
of fufpcnding a leaden ball in the calk: That the
cyder is generally drawn into large glazed pitchers,
in which it often (lands many hours before it is
drunk by the labourers: And finally, that accord-
ing to the teftimony of the late Dr. Cbarltoriy moft
of the paralyticks recommended to the Bath Hof-
pital were fent from the cyder counties, except
Herefordfhire, where, on enquiry, it was afterwards
difcovered that lead was not employed in any part
of the cyder apparatus of that county."

Since the above was written, however, I am forry
to find, from Mr. Marjhall\ late furvey of the
Cyder-procefs in Herefordfhire, that lead is not

• This, I am not ignorant, has been ludicroufly attributed, by fome
of his Devonfhire antagonifts, to leaden (hot accidentally left in the
bottles before the cyder was bottled: By others, to a portion of lead
introduced by defign, in order to ralfe a laugh at the Do<S^or's expence..
But admitting fo accurate an obferver could fo eafily be impofed upon,
(which is highly improbable) yet the do<fbine refts not on this experi-
ment alone, but on a feries of fadls which will ftill remain unihaken ;
and which, perhaps, will not be found eafy to overturn. ■ ■■ For the
ctrcumflances have been communicated by difierent authors at different
periods, and without the flighted appearance of colluilon, and yet all
lead to the iame point.

whoUf

[ 368 ]

wholly difcarded, but a portion of the old leaven is
yet fufFered to remain. " The bed or floor of the
«* prefs, (fays he,) which is now generally compofed
"of wood or ftone, fornaerly was ufually covered
*• with lead, which, by being diflfolved in the acid
** of the liquor, has probably been the caufe of
** much mifchief. Neverthelefs, lead is flill fufFered
*^ to remain about fome cyder-preflfes. There is a
" publick mill at Newnham, whofe bed is entirely
" covered with leads and I have feen others whofe
*^ lips, or fpouts, and a rim round the outer edge,
" are of that dangerous metal!"*

A flriking inflance of ignorance, obftinacy, and
impolicy ! otherwife a pra61:ice fo injurious to health,
and detrimental to the credit of the liquor, would
not be thus abfurdly perfifled in, I know it is
pretended that the quick paflTage of the apple juice
through fuch fpouts or gutters does not afford time
for any impregnation. But this is a miftake, for
the leaden furface being often wetted, and alter-
nately dried by expofure to the air, contradbs minute
particles of cerufs, or ruft of lead, ready to be
wafhed off, and diffolved in the courfe of the pro-
cefs. Sometimes the juice is even fufFered to fer-
ment in vefTels lined with lead, which flill greatly

• Rural Oeconomy of Gloceftcrlhire, Herefordlhire, &c. p. 313.

increafes

I 3h ]

increafes the danger. An inftancc of this kind
lately occurred at Fronfie:—A family of three per-
fons drank freely of this liquor, and were at length
feized with the colick of Poitou. The mafter who
drank the greatcft quantity, fufFered mo(V, and his
difeafe terminated in a fatal palfyi — the wife and
maid-fervant, who drank lefs, underwent fimilar
fy mptoms, but efcaped with life.

It is high time that this, and the ftill more un-
pardonable abufe of wilfully adulterating cyder
with lead, fhould be wholly fupprcfledj — that an
enquiry fhould be fet on foot through all the cyder
diftridbs, that fuch pradlices may be deteded
wherever they exiftj and that the colick of Poitou
may no longer be emphatically ftiled the colick
©f Devon,

Milk and Cream.— The veffels of our modern
dairies confift chiefly of lead, or earthen- ware
glazed with a calx of that metal, both which are
liable to be corroded by weak acids, and oily fub-
ftanccs. Whether the milk and cream are fuf-
fered to remain in them long enough to acquire
an impregnation of the metal, has not been deter-
mined : but the acid odour which ftrikes the nof-
trils on entering certain dairies, efpecially in a warm
feafon, is at lead fufficient to excite fufpicion, and

Vol, V. B b to

[ 370 ]

to put the publick on their guard till the fafety of
thefe vefTels be more fully afcertained. My late
ingenious friend Mr, Hayes has already offered fome
judicious ftridbures on the abufe of thefe veffels in
dairies, and mentioned others as proper to be in-
troduced in their place.*

But if veflels of caft-iron, which he propofed to
fubftitute for leaden ones, fhould be found to im-
part an unpleafant colour or chalybeate tafte to the
milk, (as we have reafon to apprehend) it will prove
an infuperable objefcion to their ufe. After all;
the wifeft ftep would be to return to the ancient
wooden bowls of our anceflors, than which nothing
can be more perfectly fafe or free from fufpicion.

Vinegar, Pickles, acid Fruits, &c, — Thefe
adl powerfully upon lead and its preparation, and, it
is to be feared, often acquire an unfufpeded im-
pregnation of that metal in various culinary pro-
cefTes, Thus when vinegar is diftilled in a pewter
alembickj or pafles through the worm of a common
ftill, it carries with it a portion of the metal. The
procefs ought therefore always to be performed in
(tone or glafs veffels. — It is a very common, but
dangerous mrftake, to fuppofe that vinegar may be

♦ See the Bath Society's Papers, vol. iv. art. lo.

trufted

[ 371 ]

trufted to glazed earthen-ware with perfed fafety,
fince vegetable acids a6t more forcibly on the calces
of lead than on the metal itfelf; hence the feverc
colicks often brought on in time of harveft among
the poor labourers, from drinking cyder after (land-
ing but a few hours in glazed pitchers.f

Yet glazed earthen-ware, in a variety of forms,
conftitutes the veflels in which pickles are kept j
in which acid fruits are preferved; and in which va-
rious kinds of tarts are baked. It is moreover cu-
rious to obferve, that a marked preference is given
to them by moft frugal houfewives, who find by ex-
perience that fuch veflels occafion a material faving
in the article of fugar : — but they remain to be told,
that the increafed fweetnefs proceeds from the acid
of the fruit being blunted by its union with the
glazing of the veflel, which has a more pernicious
tendency than they feem to be aware of. For cer-
tainly thefe good ladies would not defignedly
fweeten our viands with fugar of lead !

Here it ought to be remarked, that there is a
material difference in the mode of glazing veflels.
The glazing q{ ftone ware and china, being a vitri-
fication of the clay, is indiflbluble in acids, therc-

t London Medical Inquiries, vol. y. p. 404*

B b 2 fore

[ 372 ]

fore fuch veflcls are pcrfedtly fafe ; while the glazing
of ordinary earthen-wzTQy confiding of a calx of
lead, is eafily adled upon by acids, and yields a
iioxious quality.

The fame remark is in fome meafure applicable
to vefTels lined with tin. l?ure block-tin, it is
true, gives no impregnation to vinegar or acid
juices, but the generality of tinned veflels contain
a confiderable alloy of lead, befides what is ufed
in the folder. This is very diftinguilhable even by
rubbing a finger over them, which will foon ac-
quire a blackifli hue from the lead; a circumfirance
worthy notice, as too much confidence is generally
placed on the fafety of tinned veflels. Not to
mention the danger of the tin lining foon wearing
ofi^, and leaving a copper furface expofed. Hence
the fatal accidents that have enfued from acid
iauces and gravy foups {landing too long in fuch
vefTels, and acquiring thereby an impregnation
doubly dangerous. For here the poifon of lead,
and verdigris, combine their united forces to un-
dermine the human frame 1

The Dutch have been accufed of corredling the
rancidity of oils, and even butter, by pouring melted
lead into them. If this be true, the ordinary prac-
tice of preferving faked- butter or hog's lard in glazed

earthen

[ 373 ]

earthen Veflftls for kitchen ufe, may indeed diminifh
their tendency to rancidity, but not without com-
municating a more dangerous quality.

But what fhall we fay to the ftill more hazardous
pradice of chemifts and apothecaries, who, till
very lately, have been fan6tioned by no Jefs autho-
rity than that of the College Difpenfatory to boil
their oxymels, compofed chiefly of honey and vi-
negar, in glazed earthen veflels, for fuch the words
^^ vaje Ji5fili vitreato'* plainly import! And it is
much to be feared the diredtion will continue to be
literally obeyed by thofe who are ftill ignorant
of its dangerous tendency. Such an over fight can-
not be fuppofed long to have efcapcd the notice
of that learned body; but is it not ftrange they
(hould fuflfer this, and fome other obvious ble-
mifhes, to difgrace one of the mod elegant Dif-
penfatories in Europe, from the year 1746 till the
new edition of 1788, wherein I am glad to find
them expunged, and that glafs veflels only are ex-
prefsly ordered for fuch purpofes in future ? The
old pewter funnels and meafures, however, ftill
continue to be found in almoft every ftiop. Into
thefe are poured, without hefitation, vinegar and
other acidsi and the veflfels fometimes, through
hurry, are fet by unwafhed. On expofure to the

air for fome time, a fine efflorefccncc of fugar of
Bbj lead

[ 374 ]

Jead is formed on the inner furface, ready to fweeten
the next draught or julep that happens to be poured
into them.

Tea is imported into this country in chefts
lined with (heet lead. — This, like other vegetables,
contains a weak acid, which quality is probably
heightened by a latent fermentation which tea un-
dergoes when damaged by moifture. May it not
in this ftate a6b on the metal? How far the tre-
mors, depreflion of fpirits, and other nervous fymp-
toms generally afcribed to this vegetable, or the
hot water in which it is infufed, may not, in fuch
inflances, with equal probability be attributed to
the lead in which it is inclofed, is left for future
obfervation.

Saturnine Medicines. — Lead, though a poi-
fon, yet in fkilful hands is capable of being rendered
an ufeful medicine, and therefore is flill properly
allowed to retain a place in the Difpenfatory. , As
a cooling fedative, it fuddenly allays pain and in-
flammation; as a ftrong flyptick, it powerfully
checks the bleeding of ruptured veflels, and other
profiife evacuations. Its mod adlive preparation
is fugar of lead; but every preparation of this
metal undoubtedly demands the utmoft circum-
fpediion, and particularly when it is adminiftered

internally.

[375 ]

internally. By combining it with opium, to coun-
tcradl its deleterious cfFedt on the bowels, I have
fometimes ventured to give it in certain defperatc
cafes, and that with very evident advantage.f As
lead enters the compofition of a variety of appli-
cations, defigned for external ufe, as lotions, eye-
waters, ointments, plaifters, &c. the untoward
fymptoms which fometimes fucceed, are totally
unlooked for, and therefore generally referred to
every caufc but the right one. Among the popular
applications of this clafs, Goulard's famous Extract
of Saturn, and his vegeto-mineral water, feem to
ftand at the head of the lift ; and though perhaps
inferior to an aqueous folution of the fugar of lead,
are neverthelefs far more fafhionable remedies.
Applications of this nature may, it is true, be ufed
with tolerable fafety where there is a whole fkin,
and its texture fufficiently entire to prevent abforp-
tion. But where it is foft and fpungy, or the fcarf
flcin ftripped off, or ulcerated, the poifon of courfe
will be more liable to be abforbed into the fyftem,

•f* Even thus guarded, the dofe ought to be cautloufly incrcafed, and
perhaps never exceed three or four grains a day. What are we to
think then of certain Englifli Difpenfatories and Coropendiuros of
Phyfick, (the daily companions of all our young pn^ftitioncrs) which
gravely recommend it to be given from fcven to nine, nay even to twelve
grains and upwards a day ! SeeQuincy'sDifpenfatory, Shaw's Prad\icc
of Phyfick, Ball's Pra<nice of PhyOck, Naval and Military Difpenlk*
tory-^in which laft twenty grai&s are ordered for a fingle dofel

and

[ 376 ]

and to produce its pernicious cffe6ls. Inftances of
this have been remarked by my friend Dr. Per aval,
and other accurate obfervers. To prevent the
tender fkin of infants from being excoriated, nurfes
feldom fail to fprinkle the parts plentifully with
white lead. Hence perhaps the fevere gripes and
fatal convulfions which fo often enfue, though ge-
nerally attributed to other caufes.

Children's Playthings are commonly painted
with a compofition of red or white lead; but how
often do we fee the fmiling innocents fuck within
their lips thofe pernicious toys, while the unfuf-
pedling parents look on with apparent fatisfa6tion !
The application of an ointment with litharge, or
white lead, to nurfes fore nipples, often proves
fatal to fucking infants: twelve inftances of this
fort are recorded by Sir George Baker to have
happened at Dartmouth. — Our common red wafers
receive their colour from red lead. When thefe
are accidentally picked up by tame birds, they foon
prove fatal, which ought to be a caution to thofe
inconfiderate perfons who are fond of not only
chewing, but fwallowing them.

Painters in Water-colours are equally re-
prehenfible for incautioufly moiftening their pencil
with their lips, and frequently holding it in their

mouths

[ 377 ]

mouths a confiderable time. Thus the faliva, re-
peatedly imbued with a flow poifon, is infcnfibly
fwallowcd from day to day, till at length the
health becomes vifibly impaired without the caufe
being fufpedcd, unkfs the colick or pally fliould
fupervene.f

CosMETicKS. — Were it perm.ittcd us to pene-
trate the fecret recelTes of the toilet, and to explore
at leifure the nature of the myfterious articles which
adminifter fo confpicuoufly to artificial beauty, we
fhould probably find that fome of the moft cele-
brated cofmeticks confiil of preparations of lead,
mercury, or bifmuth.

Carmine, or harmlefs rouge, (as the ladies arc
pleafcd to term it) is a preparation of cochineal in
nitrous acid, with fome other ingredient which is
kept a profound fecret. This favourite compo-
fition, v/hich gives the rofeate bloom to their coun-
tenance, being prepared with a ftrong mineral acid,
is not perhaps altogether fo very innocent as they
imagine: befides, its exceflive dearntfs renders it
anobje(5l of adulteration; and vermiilion, (a prepa-
ration of mercury) though an humble imitation,

•j* A difcovery wc owe to the fagacity of my late excellent friend
Pr. J. FothcrgiU.— Sec Loodoft Medical In<juirie«, vol. v. obf. 37.

affords

[ 378 ]

affords a cheap and inviting ingredient to mix with
it. To this, in its finnple or combined ftate, they
are generally beholden for their rofes, while a calx
of lead, or, what is equally pernicious, the magif-
tery of bifmuth, gives the laft polifh to the lily-
whitenefs which fo dazzles our eyes.* It is thus
our modern Hebes attempt to preferve a perpetual
bloom, and to hold wrinkles and old age at de-
fiance. But alas! thefe pernicious ingredients, like
mercury, though only ufed externally, are liable
to be imbibed at every pore, and thence convey a
flow poifon into the fyflem, highly injurious to
healthy and, what may appear ftill more formi-
dable, deftru(5live to beauty! For difmal to re-
late! the cold cream, the pomade divine, or what-
ever fpecious titles fuch compofitions may affume,
at laft betray their truftj and, inftead of beauty,
produce real deformity ! The artificial rofes foon
fade, the angelick whitenefs contrads a dingy brown,

♦ This poifonous compofition Is generally dignified by the pompous
title of pearl powder, and fold as perfedlly innocent. It has however
proved fatal to fome, and ruined the health of many others, without
being even fufpe<5ted. I am credibly informed, that thofe ladies who
are in the babit of enamelling their faces, necks, and bofoms, with
this white paint, generally fall early vi<flims to their own indifcretionj
but particularly fo if they happen to undergo the fmall-pox, evei;i by
inoculation. Nor is this to be wondered at ; the puftules being unable
to penetrate outwardly through the enamelled ikin, the virus recedes
ia\!^-^d]y, aiid preys on the vitai organs.

when

[ 379 ]

when the mafic falls off, and the (peAre (lands con-
feffedlf Strange that Britifli ladies, to whom nature
has been fo bountiful, fhould diftruft their native
charms, and have recourfe to fuch wretched fubfti-
tutcs of art ! Is it not truly mortifying that they .
ihould thus ftoop to adorn, or rather difguife their
perfons, at the expence of their health !

But to quit fo humiliating a fubje(5t. If what has
been offered be not fufficient to put them on their
guard, more would be ineffeftual. However, be-
fore I eonclude, there is one fimple cofmetick I can
venture with confidence to recommend to the ladies,
as a perfe6lly fafe, cheap, and efficacious fubftitute
for all the pernicious tribe above-mentioned, and
which may be freely ufed without any rifle of de-
tection,— a cofmetick which boafts the higheft an-
tiquity, and is perhaps the only true one acknow-
ledged by Nature. It is not only innocent, but
highly conducive to health. It clears the com-
plexion far beyond the milk of rofesj and when
accompanied with regular hours and briflc exer-
cife in the open air, diffufes over the countenance
a more animated bloom than the fined rouge. — It
is now needlefs to add, that this grand fecret is no
other than cold Spring Water !

t Particularly on expofurc to the fun, a hot fire, or fulphttreout
vapours.

Method

[ 38o ]

Method of deteEling Lead by Cheynical Tiefl.

To point out a certain method of detedling the
poifon of lead, in whatever form it may be found
lurking, next demands our confideration. This
happily is pradlicable^ but the principle on which
it depends cannot be clearly underftood but by
thofe who ape tolerably verfed in chemiftry. The
fact, however, is highly interefting to the publick,
and therefore ought to be univerfally known. In
whatever lubftance, then, this infidious enemy may
lie in ambufh, whether in wine, cyder, foods, me-
dicines, or cofmeticks, the following teft, like the
touch of IthurieVs fpear, inftantly brings the culprit
to light.

Take of yellow orpiment in powder i ounce,

of quick-lime frefti from the kiln.... 2 ounces,

« of diftilled water boiling hot 20 ounces.

Let the whole ftand twenty-four hours in a clofe veffel of
glafs or porcelain, ftirring the mixture with a wooden fpa-
tula. Then carefully decant the clear liquor, and ftrain it
into a bottle, which muft be well fecured and kept for ufe.
Frequent expofure to air, deflroys its tranfparency.

Remarks.

ift. Ifa few drops of this liquor be put into
a glafs of wine or other fufpedled liquor, and no

chang«

[ 38. ]

change of colour, or vifible • alteration enfue, ht
affured fuch liquor is free from lead, or metallick
adulteration.

adly. If the liquor contain the flightefl: impreg-
nation of lead, as litharge, or fugar of lead, (the
fubftances generally employed for the purpofes of
adulteration) on adding the teft a precipitation will
cnfue of a dujky brown /ediment.

3dly. If the fufpe6led liquor be high coloured,
it muft be previoufly diluted with treble its quantity
of diftilled water, or the change will not be fuf-
ficiently perceptible: and care muft be taken to
add deliberately from three to fix drops onlyy atten-
tively marking the alteration, A larger quantity
may re-diflblve the precipitate, and foon render
it invifible,

4thly. As iron and other metals may produce a
change of colour and precipitation, if any doubt
ihould arife concerning the nature of the precipi-
tate, let a quart of the fufpe<5ted liquor be evapo-
rated in a large crucible to an extract, and after-
wards cal':ined in a red heat. When it is cold
the metallick particles may be difcovercd in their
proper form in the aflies. — Or the precipitate may
be examined without a tedious evaporation, if it

be

[ 382 ]

be placed on charcoal, and the flame of a candle be
diredled upon it with a blow-pipe, by which it may
foon be reduced to its metallick ftate.

5thly. If to any medicine, perfume, or cofmetick
in form of powder, liquid, or ointment, a few drops
of this liquor be added, a brown colour will foon
appear, if any impregnation of lead be prefent in
the compofition.

" 6thly. The vitriolick acid and faccharine acid may
alfo be employed to precipitate lead from liquors,
but the above teft appears to me preferable to any
thing of the kind yet difcovered,

Prefervative Method,

Smelters, plumbers, painters, and manufafturers
of red and white lead, in carrying on their dangerous
operations, often perceive a fweetilh tafte, attended
with a flight naufea, or fenfe of faintnefs, evidently
proceeding from the fugar of lead. But this ap-
proach to difeafe is too commonly negledled till
health is completely ruined. Such perfons fliould,
previous to their going to work early in the morn-
ing, infl:ead of drinking a pernicious dram, take
a fpoonful of cafl:or oil, or oil ot olives, and ufe
fat oleaginous foods. For their further prote<5lion

they

t 383 ]

they ought to avail themfelves of a free ventilation
to carry off the noxious vapours, and alfo to breathe
through mufflers compofed of double cloth or
flannel well dipped in an alkaline ley, and alfo be
careful to throw off their dirty clothes the moment
their work is over. By thefe precautions they pro-
bably might be in a great meafure preferved from
the poifonous fumes that daily furround them.—
The like method of prevention is no lefs applicable
to thofe who are occupied in other pernicious mi-
nerals, as grinders of verdigris, gilders in water-
colours, workers in quickfilver, &c.

Method of Cure.

The treatment of the various ftubborn diforders
refulting from the poifon of lead belongs not to
the common people, but demands the early aid
and attention of a judicious and experienced phy-
fician, who perfedlly underftands the chemical and
medical properties of this mineral. Such a prac-
titioner, however, is not always at hand ; therefore
to prevent improper management, or lofs of time,
I fliall briefly flcetch out the principal oudines of
cure, which is all that can be attempted in the pre-
fent eflay. At firft the poifon generally exerts its
virulence on the inteftines under the form of colick,
attended with fevere pain, obftinatc coftivcnefs,

and

C 384 ]

and frequent retchings, which may be called the firft
ftage. Thefe fymptoms are generally fucceeded
by a paralytick affedion of the extremities, accom-
panied with numbnefs, lofs of motion, and frequent
pains through the limb aifedled. This may be
confidered as the fecond ftage.

In the firfl: ftage, the chief intention is to reftore
a free paflage through the bowela. But this is not
to be attempted by ftrong emeticks, or rough pur-
gatives, which, inftead of anfwering the intention,
ferve but to exafperate the fymptoms. The pain
muft firft be allayed, and the fpafm relaxed by a
liberal ufe of opium and the warm bath, before
purgatives can be retained, or adminiftered with
any profpedl of fuccefs. A truce, being thus ob-
tained, evacuants will then have their defired efFed.
And if mild lenient catharticks, fuch as caftor oil,
calcined magnefiai' ' Epfom fait, or phofphorated
•^oda, ftiould anfwer, it will be unneceflary to have
recourfe to the more draftick ftimulating kind.
, Their operation will be greatly aflifted by copious
' dilution with warm mutton broth, or new milk
• whey. As foon as the bowels are thoroughly emp-
tied by this preparative courfe, they muft be kept
in a foluble ftate by fuch remedies as are gently
laxative, and at the fame time have a direct ten-
dency to decompofe the poifon. Such a remedy is

liver

C 385 ]

liver of fulphur, which pofleflcs both thcfe qualities
in an eminent degree, and therefore promifes to
become one of the moft powerful antidotes againft
this, and perhaps other metallick poifons. It is,
however, too naufeous and unpalatable to be taken
for any length of time in its natural (late of hepar,
though either of the ingredients may be taken fepa-
rately without the lead difguft. Therefore fimple
flowers of fulphur may be taken in any agreeable
form i and if wafhed down with lime-water, or a
weak alkaline lixivium, the refult will be a hepar,
and the efJeft the fame.

When that remarkable tranfition of the difeafe
from the bowels to the extremities, which fo dif-
tindly marks out the fecond ftage, commences, the
colick is immediately transformed into a palfy.

The indication now is to fubduc the reliques of
the poifon which infeft the nerves of motion, and
alfo to reftore the energy of thofe mufcles whofe
aftion is impaired. Nothing bids fo fair to anfwer
this intention as warm mineral waters of the fulphu-
reous and chalybeate kind, efpecially when they
are ufed both internally and externally. Hence the
furprizing efficacy of the BATH WATERS,
which have long been found fupereminently ufeful
in this ftage of the difeafe.

Vol. V. C c To

t 58«S ]

To thofe falubrious fprings, as the dernier r<f-
Jourcey invalids of this clafs continually repair from
various parts of the globe, and particularly from
the cyder counties.

Here, after the difeafe has baffled a variety of
medicines, they often find a complete cure, and re-
turn home with joy and gratitude, leaving behind
them their crutches as votive tablets in teftimony of
the fuperior efficacy of the water.

Here the liver of fulphur, in the fubtilized form
of hepatick air, together with a portion of iron in
a highly attenuated ftate, are by nature admirably
combined with the aqueous fluid, conftituting a
medicated compound, at once pleafing to the pa-
late, congenial to the conftitution, and hitherto
inimitable by art.

Article

[ 387 ]

Article XXXV.
On the Poison ^/^ Copper.

[By the Same]

Unde fames homini vetitorum tanu ciborum?
Audetis vefci) genus 6 mortale ! quod oroy
Ne facite; & monitis aminos advertlte noflris !

Ovid. Metam. xv. 13S.

Properties of Copper, and its extenftve Union with
other Bodies.

/^OPPER, in confequence of its du6lility and
^^ fplendor, is well adapted to various purpofes
in metallurgy; but it is no lefs remarkable for its
folubility. It is liable to be adted upon by almoft
all faline and metallick. fubftances, and probably
for this reafon the ancient chemifts have given it
the whimfical name of Venusy confidering it as a
common proftitute to all other bodies. It readily
diflblves not only in every acid, but alfo in alkalies
both fixed and volatile, in neutral faline liquors,
and even in vegetable oils and animal fats, in con-
fequence of the latent acid which they contain.

Copper when rubbed with a warm hand yields

an unplcafant odour, and, when applied to the

tongue, a naufeous tafte, Expofcd to a moift air,

it contrails a grcenifti ruft; even pure water fufFcred

C c 2 to

t 388 ]

to (land long in copper veflels, contrafts a coppery
tafte, and unwholefome quality.

It is very remarkable, that water becomes more
ftrongly impregnated with the metal on {landing in
the cold, than if boiled in the vefTel for a much
longer fpace. ' The fame is faid to take place in re-
gard to vegetable acids. Hence the confedlioners
venture to prepare the acid fyrups even of orange
and lemon juice in copper veflels. Thefe acid pre-
parations, according to Dr. Lewis, acquire no ill
tafte from the metal while kept in a boiling heat,
whereas if kept cold in fuch veflels, they foon be-
come impregnated with the difagreeable tafte and
pernicious qualities of the copper. But the mere
tafte is by no means a fatisfadory teft, becaufe a
very flight impregnation of copper may be fo far
difguifed by the acid and fugar as to elude the tafte,
and yet prove injurious to the nervous fyftem.
Mineral acids are acknowledged to ad more power-
fully on this metal when aided by heatj and ad-
mitting that the adion of vegetable acids is on the
contrary weakened by heat, yet we have no proof
that it is thereby wholly deftroyed.

Preparations of Copper ufed in Medicine.

This metal with the vitriolick acid yields vitri-
olate copper, or blue vitriol i — with the vegetabl«

acid.

C 389 ]

acid, verdigris; — with volatile alkali, tinfhire of
copper; — with fal ammoniack, ammoniacal copper.
Thefe are the principal preparations of copper that
are now in ufe for medicinal purpofes: they ad as
powerful tonicks, fedatives, and aftringents, and
become ufcful remedies, or virulent poifons, ac-
cording as they are managed. Externally they are
employed as efcharoticks, for deterging foul ulcers,
and difpofing them to heal. Internally they are
fometimes given in the hyfterick, epileptic, inter-
mittent, and other nervous difeafes, but ought
never to be adminiftered without the utmoft caution.
Verdcgris, being the mod intradlable of the whole
clafs, has long been confined to external ufe, ex-
cept for the purpofe of expelling arfenick and other
fatal poifons. It is generally rejected the moment
it comes in contad with the ftomach, and is perhaps
one of the mod inftantaneous emeticks in nature i
but as it operates with great vehemence, it perhaps
ought not to be hazarded even in thefe cafes, efpe-
cially when the inflammation may be fuppofed to
have already made a confiderable progrefs.

In various Arts,

This and other preparations of copper are highly

efteemed in the arts, for the beautiful blues and vivid

greens which they communicate to various fub-

ftances, and are therefore frequently employed in

C c 3 painting

i 39^ 1

painting in oil and water-colours, in colouring glafs,
and in enamelling. Even the ores of this metal
exhibit a variety of exquifite colours, blue, red,
green, yellow, variegated like the rainbow, or pea-
cock's tail. The lapis lazuli, from which the pre-
cious blue pigment termed ultramariney is prepared,
is no other than an elegant ore of copper. To this
the jafper and the fapphire alfo owe their beautiful
tinge. Ores of this metal are found in mofl parts
of the world j but when they happen to be mixed
with iron, the copper cannot be feparated to advan-
tage by any method yet difcovered; hence fome rich
copper-mines, on this account, remain unworked.

Copper is fometimes, though very rardy, prefent
in waters under the form of vitriolated copper in fo-
Jution. Such is the celebrated water of Wicklow in
Ireland, which yields a confiderabie quantity of cop-
per, by a very fimple procefs. Iron bars are im--
mcrfed in the water, and after fome time are found
covered with a rich coat of copper.* This inftance

* A fpririg of this kind is alfo lately found near Berkeley in Somer-
fetfliire, which I lately had an opportunity of examining. The water
imparts to polifhed iron a coppery appearance, has a naufeous ftyptick
tafte, and is powerfully emetick. The family, finding it unfit for ufe,
have had recourfe to a neighbouring fpring, whiph, however, probably
partakes in fome degree of the fame quality. Be this as it may, feveral
of the family have at different times been attacked with fevere epilep-
tick fits, as they affured me on my vifit to one of the brothers then la-
bjauring under that difcafc,

of

[ 39> ]

of chemical attraftion has impofcd on fome perfons
fo far as to be confidcred as an adlual tranfmutation '>f
iron into copper, but is in fad a mere precipitation.

In Combination with other Metals.

Copper readily unites with other mctallick fub-
ftances, and affords various compound metals.

Thus copper with about i-4th part of zinc forms brafs.

with i-iothoftin — bell-metal

— — with i-8thofarfenick — white copper.

It is moreover the bafis of bronze, fpecula, Bath-
metal, Prince's -metal, and all the yellow compounds
prepared in imitation of gold. Even filver receives
an alloy from copper, before it can acquire a proper
degree of hardnefs for plate.

Brafs is lefs difpofed to contract ruft than copper,
and bell-metal than brafs; white copper lead of all;
but the arfenick in its compofition alone renders it
totally unfit for culinary ufe. If acid liquors are fuf-
fered to (land a few hours in any veflel containing
a mixture of copper, they acquire a bad tafte, and
confequently a flight impregnation of the metal.
Nor are filver veflels wholly exempt from this in-
convenience, efpecially fuch as arc confiderably
alloyed with topper.

Effe^s

[39^]'

Effe^ls ^Poison ^Copper,

When this poifon is accidentally received into
the body, unlefs it be immediately expelled, it pro«
duces the moft formidable fymptoms, as enormous
vomitings, profufe difcharges of bile both upwards
and downwards, inflammations and erofions of the
llomach and bowels, delirium, convulfions, fyncope,
and death. Nay, even the handling of this poifon
in the form of verdigris, or a compofition contain-
ing it, has in certain irritable habits been known to
occafion very difagreeable efFedts.* The manu-
faiSlurers of verdigris, and thofe who grind it for
paint, or ufe it in oil or water-colours, feldom fail
to experience its noxious influence on the organs pf
refpiration or digeftion.

** I have known," fays an eminent ProfefTor of
chemiftry, ^* vehement vomitings and convulfions
in children from the Ungusntum j^gyptiacumy (whofe
bafis is verdigris) injudicioufly applied to ulcers in
the mouth if likewife a perfon, who accidentally

* See the extraordinary cafe of Mr. Butler of Mofcow* as recorded
by Dr. Mounfey. Among other fymptoms, fevere Itching, and burn-
ing pungent pain daiting through the limbs like eledlricity.

Phil. Tranf. vol. 50, art, 2d. and Sequel, vol. 54, art^ ad,
I Newman's CJieaucal Works, vol. i,^. 98.

having

il 393 1

having fwallowcd a brafs flccvc button. Was feized
with violent fymptoms, and died in mifcry, no me-
dicines giving relief."

Ji^u/e of Copper VeJJels.

It is extremely unpleafant to refledl: on the dan-
gers to which we are fo often expofed by the ufe of
popper vefTels for preparing various foods. This
confideration has indeed induced fome difcreet
families to difcard this dangerous metal from all
culinary procefles. But though verdigris is one
of the moft violent poifons in nature, yet the greater
part of mankind, rather than abandon an old
cuftom, arc content to fwallow a portion of this
poifon every day! Accordingly veflels of copper,
brafs, or bell-metal, are ftill permitted to fupply
their refpedive quota of this deleterious fubftance
to imbue our feveral viands. Having, through
long ufage, obtained a quiet fettlement amongft
us, they now claim, as it were, a prefcriptive right
to afljft at all culinary operations — a claim which
we feem neither to have inclination or refolution to
difpute: for, notwithftanding every remonftrance
to the contrary, copper and its compounds con-
tinue to difgrace not only our kitchens, dairies,
and confedlionaries, but alfo the breweries, diftil-
Icrics, laboratories, and even fhops of the apothe-
caries.

I 394 J

caries. The very air of thefe places abounding
with acid, oleaginous, and faline particles, pene-
trates and difpofes them to diflblution, even before
they are ufed. The mildeft fluids, fuch as nnilk,
whey, or even plain water, left to fland in open
copper veflels, receive an impregnation of the
metal, difcoverable by the volatile alkali. But it
is remarkable that the corrofion always begins at
the furface, in contadl with the air, and is dif-
tinguifhable by leaving a greenifh ring. Such is
the power of the air in promoting the a6lion of
the menftruum. On this principle, perhaps, may
be explained why acid vapours a6t more powerfully
on lead and copper than the acids themfelves, con-
verting the former more fpeedily into cerufs, the
latter into verdegris.

'■ People generally imagine that the ill efFedls of
^copper are entirely prevented by its being tinned,
'''and therefore without hefitation commit to fuch
vefTels acid foups, vinegar, lemon-juice, apple-
fauce, greens, butter, and other articles equally
exceptionable, where they are fometimes fufFered to
remain a confiderable time without any fufpicion
of danger. But the tin which lines the copper is
fo extremely thin that it is foon abraded, or even
penetrated by the verdigris, which infinuates itfelf
through the pores of the nietal, and at length be-
trays

C 395 ]

trays itfelf by a green efflorefcence on the furface.
Add to this, the tin is generally alloyed with a con-
fiderable proportion of leady befides an additional
quantity contained in the folder.

Examples arc indeed too frequent of fatal confe-
quences from foods that had received a taint from
copper veflels, whether from the food being of an
acid nature fo as to corrode or diflblve a portion of
the metal, or from the veffel having contracted a
foluble ruft or verdigris, by expofure to the air,
or being badly tinned. The affeding incident of
this kind, which happened fome years ago to feve-
ral gendemen at an entertainment at Salt-Hiil, is
ftill within our remembrance. Though it was then
generally attiibuted to adulterated wine, it was at
length brought to light by the confefllon of the
cook, who acknowledge-d, juft before her death,
that it was wholly owing to the poifon of copper,
in confequence of her own careleflhcfs, and which,
through fear of punilhment, Ihe bad been induced
till then to conceaU

On dipping into fome of our bed fyftems of
modern cookery, which have undergone feveral
editions, I am forry to find, amidft the numerous
correftions and improvements, fo much room ftill
left for amendment, and fo much ferious caufc for

animadverQon.

C 396 ]

animadverfion. Nor is this to be wondered at.
The culinary art depends almofl entirely on che-
mical principles, and every profefled cook may in
fome meafure be confidered as a pra6lical chemift;
and the kitchen, the laboratory wherein are daily
performed various chemical procefles highly im-
portant to health. The principles of chemiftry
therefore ought to be well underflood by thofe who
pra6life cookery, and particularly by fuch as under-
take to inftrud others in the art. But where fhall
wc find cooks competent to the talk? or even a
j&ngle book on the fubjecSb that does not betray
the author's ignorance, not only of the chemical pro-
perties of the various fubflances, but alfo of the
veflels and apparatus employed. From this caufe
proceed many dangerous miftakes and inaccuracies.
Thefe from time to time are copied by fucceeding
writers, perhaps equally enlightened as their prede-
cefTors, and are thus tranfmitted through various
new impreflions. Hence wc every where meet with
error and inconfiftency, blended with inftrudlion ;
and thefe pervade all their works.

It is curious to remark, that in the introdudory
part of thefe complete Treatifes on Modern Cookery,
the reader is generally very gravely admonifhed
againft the ufe of veffels made of copper, brafs,
and other dangerous materials — that vinegar and

fait

[ 397 ]

fait penetrate common earthen-ware, and therefore
pickles ought to be kept in (lone, or glafs jars. But
when arrived at the receipts for pickling and pre-
ferring acid fruits, what mud be the gentle reader's
aftonifhment to find thofe very veffels exprcfsly
recommended which fo lately were abfolutely con-
demned! Thus, in the procefs for pickling ger-
kins, or young cucumbers, " the beft white-wine
vinegary in which they are to be pickled, is ordered
to be boiled in a hell-metal pot." In a fubfequent
receipt " cucumbers are diredled to be pickled in
pewter diflies with fait interpofed. Afterwards the
vinegar to be poured from them into a copper
faucepan with alitde fait." It is added " they will
then be fit to eat in two or three days!"

Lemon pickles are ordered to be done in aa
earthen dilh — golden pippins in 2l pewter difh, with
vinegary &c. — " To pickle famphire; put it into a
brafs faucepan, throw in a handful ofjalty and cover
it with good vinegary and fet it over a flow fire."

Others, with lefs referve, recommend copper coin
to be put into each vefTel in which thefe pickles are
kept, becaufe, fay they, " it preferves their colour,
and gives them a beautiful green."

From eating a quantity of fine pickled famphirc
thus imbued with copper, an amiable young lady

was

[ 398 ]

was prefently feized with dreadful convulfions, which
foon put a period to her life. This melancholy-
cafe has been already communicated to the publick
by my ingenious friend Dr, PercivaL*

If our pickles muft abfolutely look green to
pleafe the eye at the expence of health, or even
life, why (hould our fair authors, who prefide over
all culinary operations, and confcquently over our
health and lives, thus mince the matter? Why
not deep the pickles at once in a ftrong folution
of verdigris? This furely, on certain occafions,
would be a capital improvement, as it would fpee-
dily impart to them a more elegant green, together
with the entire virtue of the falutary ingredient.
By thus rendering them " fit to eat" in two or
three hours, inftead of as many days, it would
difpatch the bufmefs with more certainty and
greater expedition.

After pickles we are prefented with creams;
therefore, to crown the banquet, I fhall ferve up a
very curious one by way of defert.

Ratafia Cream,

Take fix large laurei-leaves, boil them In a quart of thick
cream, adding eggs, fugar, &c.

,* See Med. Tranf. of the Royal CoUeg^, vol. iii.

Whether

C 399 I:

Whether the fubtile poifon of the laurel, which
this choice receipt exhibits in a very ample dofe, is
rendered wholly inert by boiling, and by being in-
vifcated with the other ingredients, has not been
determined. Or whether it may not ftill, though
in a flight degree, exert a portion of its fpecifick
power, fimilar to that of the celebrated laurel water,
muft be left to future experience. It comes in fuch
a very doubtful form, that I can neither incline to
try it myfelf, nor fafely recommend the experiment
to others.

The famous clotted cream of Devonfhire being
commonly prepared in hrafs veflels, bears alfo a very
fufpicious caft. It has fometimes been obferved to
betray a flight metallick tafle, and to excite naufea
and vomiting.

If from the kitchen we fliould dive into the cel-
lar, we fliall find that acid vapours are predominant,
and that the brafs cocks through which our wine,
beer, cyder, and vinegar, are drawn, arc generally
difcoloured with verdigris.

In thefe fubterranean abodes, which are often
very damp, the green ruft is often fufFcred to accu-
mulate till it overfpreads the external furface of
the metallick cock, and would alfo vifibly pervade

the

i ^00 1 -

the internal orifice of the canal, were it not fUc-
ccfTively difTolved by the liquor, and waflied ofF
in the general current, as often as the cock is un-
turned.* That verdigris is foluble, in very con-
fiderable proportion, in all thefe liquors, and there-
fore capable of impregnating them with the poifon
of copper, is clearly proved by the following expe-
riments:

Grains,

1. Half a pint of rectified Spirit of Wine digefted
on half an ounce of Verdigris, (240 grains)
diflblved 80

2. Same quantity of Malt Spirit 90

3. ■ French Brandy 150

4, Water 100

jf, __ common Wine Vinegar 225

e. Diftilled Vinegar 23a

7. _,— .— .«...--^-. Wine, Beer, and Cyder,

difTolved more than Water or Spirit, but lefs
than either of the Vinegars.

Should we once more revifit the (hops, laborato-
ries, and repofitories of drugs, we fhould find that
in thefe places, it requires no lefs care and attention

• The brafs and copper cocks, now in ufe, being very unfafe, unlefs
kept perfecSlly clean,iwhlch is perhaps impra<flicable, ought to be wholly
difcarded. Might not a mixture of tin and bifmuth, a compofition
incapable of being aflecfled by vegetable acids, be properly fubflituted
in their place? or perhaps rather the improved wooden cocks, which
^ould entirely prevent danger, or even fuipicion?

to

t 401 1

to guard againft the poifon of copper, than that of
lead. Here all the powerful folvents of copper arc
aiTembled; acids> alkalies, neutrals, and oleaginous
bodies, (land in array, as it were, to attack this
metal, and to difleminate its poifon. Their very-
effluvia render all the copper veflels and utenfils
extremely prone to contradb ruft j hence medicines
of the moft innocent kind uncxpedledly acquire a
noxious quality. Thus in the diftillation of fimple
waters, in a ftill of this metal, the laft runnings,
which are evidently acid, have frequently proved
emetick. The fame effed has been obferved from
diftilled vinegar, which is indeed lefs to be won-
dered at; nor is it furprifing that oxymels and acid
fyrups, prepared in copper veflels, Ihould contradl a
fimilar quality. Various other acefcent medicines
being often evaporated in brafs pans, or copper
veflels badly tinned, are expofed to the like im-
pregnation, and therefore extremely liable to fufpi-
cion, fuch as the lenitive ele6luary, Caflia eledluary,
rob of elder, and moft of the vegetable extradls.

Even coral, burnt-hart(horn, crab's-claws, and
other infipid teftaceous bodies, however improbable
it may appear, are not always exempt from tliis poi-
fon i for it has lately been difcovered by the ingeni-
ous Mr. Blizard, that when thefe hard fubftanccs are
triturated in a bell-metal mortar, if the powder be

Vol. V. D d clofely

[ 402 ]

clofely examined, it will be found to contain parti-
cles of the metal feparated by abrafion, vifible to
the naked eye, and further diftinguilhable by expe-
riments with the volatile alkali.* Bell-metal con-
tains a confiderable portion of copper, therefore
thefe mortars are not only liable to abrafion, but
corrofion, by all the fubftances that are capable of
a6ling upon copper.

Hence various abforbent, faline, and faponaceous
bodies, whether reduced into the form of powders
or pills in thefe mortars, may eafily acquire an ac-
cidental impregnation of copper,

Brafs mortars and utenfils are equally fubjed to
the fame inconvenience.

Brafs and copper fcales fpeedily contrad verdi-
gris, from fait and groceries being weighed in them,
as appears from the green efflorefcence with which
we generally fee them difcoloured.

Copper Roofs.

Of late the Britifh copper mines have poured
forth the ore in fuch abundance, that this metal
begins to ufurp the place of lead, and to extend its

• See Experiments and Obfervations on Copper and Bell-metal,
1786.

dominion

[ 403 ]

dominion from the cellar and kitchen to the upper
(lories, and even to the roofs of our houfes; fheet
copper being now the fafhionable covering of va-
rious new buildings. Notwithftanding the light-
nefs, cheapnefs, and elegance of this new covering,
it has certain di fad vantages, which feem to have
been overlooked.

Being very liable to be corroded by air and
watery moiflure when thus expofed to the weather,
the rain-water defcending from fuch roofs and
gutters cannot be very wholefome or eligible for
internal ufe; yet where fprings are fcarce, the in-
habitants are obliged to have recourfe to rain-water
for all domeflick purpofes. Nor will the painted
coating, confifling of coal pitch, lately propofed for
obviating this inconvenience, be likely to fucceed,
but rather to increafe the evil, efpecially as it con-
tains a manifeft acid : and were white-lead paint to
be ufed in its (lead, the remedy dill would be worfe
than the difeafe.

Copper, ^moreover, being a powerful conductor of
eledricity, might not fuch a wide-extended furface
of infulated metal, aided by iron pallifadoes around
the parapets, tend to invite the lightning in a fcvere
thunder ftorm, and accumulate it, fo as to fhiver
the whole building to atoms?

D d 2 Breweries

[ 404 ]

Breweries and Diftilleries,

The immenfe coppers ufed in thefe and other
great publick undertakings, being generally un-
tinned, are peculiarly fubjedl to corrofion, and there-
fore demand uncommon attention to cleanlinefs.
In brewhoufes, if any portion of wort (be it ever
fo fmall) is left to (land in the copper when cold,
or longer than abiblutely neceflary, without being
well cleaned out, it not only difpofes the whole
quantity of the fubfequent liquor fpeedily to turn
four, but, what is worfe, impregnates it with the
poifon of copper, incapable of being corre<fled by
the fucceeding fermentation.

The evil is greatly increafed by a warm feafon;
hence the frequent complaints of dale beer, parti-
cularly in the fummer time, among many families.
Such liquor within two or three weeks becomes
acid, and unfit for ufe; and if the impregnation of
copper is confiderable, it proves emetick, and highly
pernicious to thofe who drink it as daily beverage.
On the other hand, thofe brewers who pay clofe
attention to their veflels, and reward their fervants
for doing the fame, prevent this unwholefome im-
pregnation altogether, and have the additional fatis-
faCtion to find that their beer, inftead of being re-
turned on their hands as unfound, remains fweei;
and entire even in the hotted fummers.

C 40s ]

Ddiries and Kitchens.

In dairies milk and whey are heated in large cop-
per or brafs cauldrons untinned j if thefe acefcent
fluids are left to (land long, a corrofion of the metal
muft neceflarily enfue, or if they are fct by without
being carefully cleaned from time to time, they will
certainly contrad verdigris, being more fubjed to
corrofion than lead.

Butter melted in copper fauce-pans, or thofe that
are badly tinned, is peculiarly liable to acquire the
fame noxious impregnation, as appears from the
naufeous tafte of the metal, and the retchings and
ficknefs which fometimes fucceed the ufe of fuch
pernicious fauce.

Efculent and acefcent vegetahleSy fuch as fpinage,
cabbage, brocoli, and green peafe, are generally
efteemed at mod tables in proportion to the degree
o( greennefs which they afllime. To heighten the
colour, experienced houfewives, not ignorant of the
efficacy of copper, generally give the preference to
fuch vefTels, and to make fure work of it, on cer-
tain occafions, even diredl that copper half-pence
alfo (hould be added ! Hence, perhaps, the auftere
metallick tafte and naufeating quality which we
fometimes, with regret and furprize, experience on
partaking of thefe dainty inviting vegetables.

D d 3 Tea.

[ 4o6 ]

The water in which tea is infufed is commonly
boiled in a copper kettle, and a remnant is often
left to fland till the day following, and if the tin
lining be worn off,* the water acquires an iin plea-
fan t tatle, which is foiretirnes afcribed to the bad-
nefs of the tea, when in fadt, it is wholly owing to
the veffel. After long ufe indeed, the kettle ac-
quires a thick ftony incruftation from the earthy
particles depofitcd by the water, which more effec-
tually guards the copper from corrofion^ hence an
old tea-kettle (ceteris paribus) is much fafer than a
new one. Tea, in its recent ftate, is faid to be
dried on hot plates of copper ^ hence, perhaps, its
emetick quality, which however goes off before it
arrives in this country. Whether the various ner-
vous fymptoms, generally attributed to that vege-
table, may not fometimes proceed from a metallick
impregnation, feems at leaft equivocal.

The abufe of copper veffels is by no means con-
fined to cities, towns, and villages, but extends to

* So extremely thin is the tin in general, that even in the better fort
of coating, it has been computed that half an ounce is made to cover
a54 fquare inches, being only one grain of tin to a fquare inch, and in
inferior forts confiderably lefs.

Watson's Chemiilry, vol. iv. p. i8i.

camps.

[ 407 ]

camps, fleets, and mercantile fliips, where fewer
accommodations, and lefs attention to cleanlinefs,
may be naturally expefted, Exclufive of this,
copper veflels at fca are peculiarly liable to contract
verdigris, from the marine acid with which the air
is impregnated, to fay nothing of the additional
caufes derived from the nature of the provifions,
fuch as fat pork, and other faked meats, which are

daily boiled in them. " I have myfelf known

(fays Mr. Travis) even a fmall (hip*s boiler, through
negled of cleaning, become one-eighth of an inch
thick of verdigris, which would fometimes feparatc
in large flakes, and mix with the food; when it was
no uncommon thing to have the whole crew fcized
with violent vomiting, &c. But the dofe not being
repeated long enough, they in general efcaped the
dreadful eflTedls which attend the ufe of coppers in
large men of war, where the fridion is fo great,
cfpecially in a rolling fea) that their coppers,
though built as ftrong as pofllble, arc obliged to be
new fet almoft after every cruife."

To this metallick poifon, chiefly, he endeavours
to trace that dreadful fcourge the Sea Scurvy. For,
adds he, " the number of Ihips we fend from Scar-
borough is about 200 fail, and the feamen about
3000. On board of thefe, iron pots are in general
ufe, and we have no inftance of any one having the

fymptoms

[ 4o8 ]

fymptoms called highly fcorbuticky except in fome
few of the larger Ihips, in which coppers are ufed,"*

I fhall not here (lop to enquire into the validity
of this new theory of the fcurvy, efpecially as other
caufes which prevail at fea are deemed fully ade-
quate to the efFedl, as the faltnefs of provifions, im-
pure air, together with bodily fatigue and watchings,
without having recourfe to this poifon, which in
general fhews its efFedls more fuddenly by attacking
the bowels and nervous fyftem.

However this may be, it is certain there have
been innumerable inftances of the pernicious con-
fequences of eating foods drefled in copper veffels
not fufficiently cleaned from this poifonous ruft.
Mr. Ramfayy and other navy furgeons, have ob-
ferved many extraordinary cafes of madnefs fud-
denly appearing among the crew, for which they
could afllgn no other caufe but the foulnefs of the
coppers; but upon their remedying that fault, the
difeafe prefently ftopped.-)-

The author of a tra6l, entitled " Serious Reflec^
lions on the Dangers attending the Ufe of Copper
Veffels," publifhed at London in 17.55, afferts ^^^^

* London Medical Inquiries, vol. ii. p. 13. f Ibid- p. 150.

" the

[409] ,

" the greater frequency of palfies, apoplexies, mad-
ncfs, and all the frightful train of nervous difeafes
which fuddcnly attack us without our being able to
account for the caufe, or which gradually weaken
our faculties, are the poifonous efFedls of this per-
nicious metal taken into the body infenfibly with
our vifbuals, and thereby intermixed with the ani-
mal juices/*

From the numerous examples of thefe alarming
maladies which have appeared fince the above pe-
riod, and particularly of late^ we may conclude rhat
the caufe (whatever it may be) ftili fubfifts without
the fmalleft diminution. If to the efFedbs of this
poifon we add thofe of lead, and trace back their
rcfpe(5live influence in cookery, pharmacy, and the
arts 5 and refledl how often they may thus gain filent
admifTion into our bodies in various foods, as well
as medicines, we fliall advance flill nearer to the
truths and perhaps find fufficient caufe for the
above conje6ture, ^f fo, we (hall fee but too much
reafon to exclaim with the fons of the Prophets,
(2 Kings iv. 40.)

« Death is in the Pot."

But even admitting the myftery to be thus folved,
and the real caufe difcovered, it flill rcfts with our-

fclv(

[ 4IO ]

fclves to apply the remedy. Moved by confiderr
ations of this fort, the Senate of Sweden, about
the year 1753, wifely prohibited copper veffels,
and exprefsly ordained that none but fuch as
were made of iron or tin Ihould be ufcd in their
fleets and armies — an example highly worthy the
imitation of the Britifh Senate 1 The Royal Col-
lege of London have at length done the fame, by
banifhing copper vefTels from all chemical and
pharmaceutical operations at lead, wherein their
danger was apparent.*

It therefore only remains to be determined whe-
ther we mean to follow fuch bright examples, or
to fufFer this pernicious metal fome time longer
to difgrace our kitchens, and mingle its ruft with
our viduals ; or in other words, whether we fhould
not rather exert our authority, and refolve at once
to extirpate the caufe of the evil, than thus tamely
fubmit to receive a daily portion of poifon from
our cooks.

Methods of deteBing this Poifon,

For the benefit of thofe perfons who know the
value of health, and wilh to avoid the dangers that
mud daily await them while copper vefTels continue
to be employed in all culinary procefTes, I fhall now

• See the new edition of their Pharmacopoeia, in the year 1788.

add

[ 4" ]

add a few additional remarks on the principal che-
mical tcfts mentioned in the firft eflay, by way of
illuitration.

ift. The moft exquifite ted of the prefence of
copper is the Volatile Alkali^ or Spirit of Sal Ammo-
mac. If ten or twelve drops of this fpirit be added
to any liquor impregnated with copper, it inftantly
exhibits a blue colour, in proportion to the quantity
contained. This elegant experiment has been car-
ried to an almoft inconceivable degree of minute-
nefs by the Honourable Mr. Boyky fo as to afford at
once, a ftriking exaipple of the excellence of the
teft, and the extrc:me divifibility of this metal.

2dly. Another method is by precipitation with
iron. Thus if a piece of polifhed iron be immerfed
fome time in any fluid wherein copper is held in fo-
lution by the intervention of an acid, the acid, having
a ftronger attra6tion to iron, lets go the copper to
unite with it, and the copper is afterwards found
adhering to its furface in its Ihinlng coppery form,
as has been already mentioned.

^dly. By evaporation of a large quantity of the li-
quor, and fubfequent calcination and reduSiion^ as
propofcd concerning lead.*

• Eflay ii. p. 381.

Thu&

C 41^ ]

Thus may acids, fermented liquors, and various
furpe(5led articles of diet, beeafily put to the telt.

Where clear pellucid liquors are to be examined,
the volatile alkali alone is quite fufficient ; but in all
turbid or coloured mixtures, it will be fometimes
requifite to have recourfe to the feveral methods
fucceffively, by which, it is prefumed, the poifon
cannot eafily efcape detedlion.

Indications of Cure.

Pra^lical authors, among whom M. Tijfoty Dr.
BuclMny and others, who have humanely conde-
fcended to inftrud the common people concerning
various difeafes to which they are incident, feem to
have been rather deficient concerning the treatment
of metallick poifons. After the ufe of an emetick,
they appear to lay the whole ftrefs on copious dilu-
tion with milk, oil, or fat broths, which, though by
no means improper, yet are too often found inade-
quate to the cure.

Milk, and oleaginous fluids, it mud be obferved,
dilTolve metallick falts with difficulty, and there-
fore are much inferior to tepid water, the common
menftruum of all faline bodies, and the bcft diluent
for wafliing them fpeedily out of the body. Olea-
ginous fubftanccs tend to mitigate the fymptoms,

it

[ 4t3 ]

it is true, partly by evacuating, and partly by invc-
loping the poifon, but having no fpecifick power,
entirely fail of fubduing the remainder, which often
lurks in ambufh annidll the various folds of the in-
terior coat of the ftomach or bowels, and tlierc
continues to exert its mifchievous efFeds.

As the confequences of mineral poifons are (b
fudden, and the fymptoms fo extremely rapid as
frequently not to admit of calling in a phyfician, or
even any other medical aid, I (hall here attempt, in
fome fort, to fupply the deficiency of thofe popular
and truly refpcdlable writers.

Firft Indication. Whenever this, or any other
metallick poifon has been inadvertently taken, the
firft indication is undoubtedly to expel it as Ipeedily
as poflible by an emetick of very quick yet fafe
operation. For this purpofe twenty grains o(fVhiu
Vitriol may be diflblved in half a pint of warm wa-
ter, and drank immediately, followed by^ very plen-
tiful dilution with fimple tepid water alone, till the
whole of the poifon is brought up, which may be
known by an entire ceflation of the fymptoms.

With refpe6l to the prefent poifon, as a fingle
grain of verdigris excites inftant vomiting, it fuper-
fedes the neceflity of other emeticks, and this pro-

penfity

[ 4H ]

pcnfity may be increafed as long as may be con-
venient, by mere dilution. But where an hour or
more has elapfed before the accident is difcovered,
a portion of the poifon has already entered the bow-
els, and cannot now be difcharged by vomiting,
but requires peculiar management; which brings
me to the fecond indication.

Second Indication, Which is, to corre6t the re-
maining poifon by proper antidotes, if any fuch be
known, or to difcharge it downwards as fpcedily as
pofTible. Fortunately this may be generally accom-
plifhed where the nature of the poifon is previoufly
known, and the remedy adminiftered before the in-
ternal parts are irreparably injured. This applies
indeed principally to the poifons of the metallick
clafs, which are much better underftood than thofc
of the vegetable kind, and of courfe more eafily
decompofed by chemical agents.

Thus if to a folution of verdigris, which is
known to confift of copper combined with an acid>
we prefent an alkali or abforbent earth, we know,
from the laws of chemical attradlion, that the acid
prefers either of thefe bodies to copper, and will
therefore depofit the metal in form of an inadlive
calx, now deftitute of the virulence it lately pof-
feffed from the acid. Therefore it may be very

advifeable>

[ 415 ]

advifeable, the moment this poifon has been taken,
to proceed as follows :

In about Cix quarts of tepid water diflblve half an
ounce of any alkaline fait, as Jalt of tartar , fait of
wormwoody or pearl-afh ; or if thefe be not at hand,
a folution of near double the quantity of common
wood-afhes when drained through linen, may anfwer
the end. Let a pint of this weak alkaline ley be
drank every half hour, with a tea-fpoonful o( cal-
cined magnefia^ till the fymptoms difappear. As a
confiderable part of the liquor will be rejected
by vomiting, this copious dilution mud be refo-
lutely purfued till nearly the whole is taken, and
the poifon entirely decompofed, and wafhed out of
the body.

A pint of the alkaline ley may alfo be admi-
niftered clyfterwife, efpecially if the pain fhould
continue ; and the magnefu muft be repeated till it
has operated brilkly, fo as to cleanfe the (lomach
and bowels very effedlually. For while the fmallcft
particle of the poifon remains unfubdued, the pa-
tient is not fafe.

The calcined magnefta here feems gready prefer-
able to mod other purgatives, particularly thofe of
the acrid kind, which would be alfo highly im-
proper.

C 416 ]

proper, on account of their heating quality, and that
for the following reafons :

T^. Becaufe magnefia being perfe61:ly mild and
infipid, it fits eafy on the ftomach, while the others
are conftantly rejcded.

idly. It operates in fo gentle a way as to dinninifli
the inflannmatory difpofition, which the others tend
only to exafperate.

2tdly. As an abforbent earth, it coirefls the acri-
mony of metallick poifons by decompofing them,
and is perhaps the only cathartick that poflefTes
this property.

After this treatment, fhould any relicks of the
poifon remain, which however is not very probable,
the liver of Julphury as recommended in the prece-
ding eflay, or a courfe o^ Bath Water Sy accompanied
by a milk and mucilaginous diet, will, it is pre-
fumed, feldom fail to compleat the cure.

It may not be improper to obferve that the above
method is not confined to verdigris^ or poifon of
coppery but is equally applicable to other mineral
poifons, as thofe of lead, glafs of antimony , corroftve
fublimate, cobalt^ and perhaps arfenick itfelf. This

laft.

Plate. 2.,

X>ril/ JRo//rr

4/iirrr//^ ZniV7Y4Y/ S iiig/e Drill .

%yffu7'recfS' J^atent Tt^a^om^ M^acvine .

/f:/'A'r^. 7in/^A.

t 417 ]

hft, however, is fo refractory a fubftance, and fo
intraClable to almoft every method of treatment,
that its corhponent principles retain a degree of vi-
rulence even after they are difunited, and the metal
decompofed. Hence it is matter of ferious con-
cern, that this mod formidable poifon begins to
be adminiftered as a medicine by almoft every
dabbler in phyfick !

It had long indeed been ufed as an empirical
application againft cancers, but of late it has beei^
alfo given indifcriminately in fome other difeafes,
nay even in common agues, wherein there could
certainly be no juft pretence for having rccourfe to
fo doubtful — fo dangerous — fo defperate a remedy !

Article XXXVI.

On the Mangel'Wurzely and a new Drill-Roller.

[By Sir Thomas Beevor, bart. to the Secretary.]

Sir,

T Have little to fay in anfwer to your inquiry re-
"*• fpedling the Mangel -Wurzel: the few plants of
it which I cultivated laft year afforded me no op-
portunity or ground whereby I could judge of their
Vol. V. E c cffcft

C 418 ]

cfFe6l upon the cattle which fed on them. I could
therefore only try whether they would be eaten or
rejedled by cows, bullocks, and fheepi and whe-
ther, in cafe they were left in the ground, they would
fo well endure the viciflitudes of frofl and thaw,
through the winter, as to furnifh the farmer with a
certain and plentiful fupply of food in the fpring.
With refpe(5l to the firft obje6l of my trials, the re-
port I have to make is, that I found all my cows,
bullocks, and fheep,- would, after two or three days,
feed as readily uprn them as on turnips or any
other food; but with regard to the latter objedt, I
cannot fay the refult was fo favourable as I could
have wifhed, and did expedl; for, notwithftanding
the mildnefs of the weather through the whole of
the laft winter, and the different means I ufed for
the prefervation of the roots, by covering fome of
them lightly with earth ; others with draw, and
leaving others in the ilate in which they had grown;
I did not find half of them found or fit for ufe in
the month of March. Now if this Ihould have
been the cafe with other crops, and they be not
found able to refifl: the power of the frofl, whilfl
ftanding yi the field, 1 apprehend they will never
anfwer the farmer's purpofe as a winter food for
cattle upon any large fcale, fince there could be
. very few men found who could fpare time to pull
up the producl of from twenty to one, two, or three

hundred

t 419 ]

hundred acres of thefe roots before winter; and
when pulled, I conceive there' would be ftill fewer
found who could contrive in what manner and place
they might be put, fo as to be fecurc from froft, and
convenient for daily ufe; but perhaps, the evil I
mention may not have generally exided, and may
have been owing to fume particular unheeded caufe
only f of ihis I wifh to be informed, and mean again
to attend to in this winter, as I hope other gentle-
men will alfo do.

As i know nothing more likely to promote and
produce a perfe6l agriculture than the knowledge
and employment of fuch implements in cultivation
as are well contrived, fimple, and either originally
or from their durability cheap, I have fent you the
Model of an Iron Roller, which feems to anfwer in
all thofe particulars. It has been lately invented,
and is coming faft into ulc in this neighbourhood j
it is contrived for the purpofe of diftributing the
grain in regular rows, and at a proper depth ; and
has been found effedually productive of the prin-
cipal benefits which have been derived from the
operation of drill-ploughs, or the pradice of dib-
bling and fetting the corn by hand, with the great
advantage of faving both time and expencej as, by
the ufe of this fimple machine, one man may fow
and cover five or fix acres of corn in one day, ufing
E c 2 for

[ 4^0 3

for the purpofe three horfes, as its weight is very
confiderable, and will require fo many. It has
been hitherto cniefly ufed on clover or other grafs
lays on the firft ploughing, but may be as properly
employed on land which has been three or four
times ploughed. The view of the model will, I
believe, give a full and clear idea of its operation,
^nd make it unnecefTary to add further to this ac-
count of it. Should the Gentlemen of the Society
think otherwife, and that the objedt is worthy their
attention, I fhall readily convey to them every ex-
planation they Ihall require.

I am. Sir, on this and every occafion, with much
regard and eileem,

Your's, &c.

Hethely THOMAS BEEVOR.

Dec. 22, 1788.

fin* The model above alluded to is delineated on a fmall
fcale, as per plate No. 2. The conftrudion of it is fo ob-
vious, that bare infpe£lion may fuffice to fhew its ufe. It
is contrived for three horfes to draw abreaft, driven by a man
elevated behind them. The length of the roller may be more
or lefs, according to the choice of the owner : and the ribs of
it may be alfo deep or (hallow, fo as to determine tliC depth
of the drills, and thedifiances of the rows, by the fame rule.

The

[ 4" 3

The common length is about eight feet; and if ciglu inch
diftances, for inAance, fhould be thought moft proper, then
the roller would have twelve ribs. The common diameter
IS about twelve inches. It is almoft unncceflary to remark,
that the foil on which this implement can be ufed to greateft
advantage muft be a light one, the furface even, and well
pulverized. The feed, after the roller has pafTcd and pre-
pared the drills, is to be fown broad-caft. It falls into the
drills, almod wholly by the fowing; but that defign is com-
pleted by a bufli harrow, which is ufed acrofs the drills to
finifli the bufmefs. After this the corn comes up in regular
rows, as though drilled by a machine. Two horfes may be
deemed fufficient, on fome foils.

Article XXXVII.

On the Turnip-rooted Cabbage^ Roota Baga^
and Potatoes.

[By the Same, to the Sccretar)'.]

Hetbel, Jan, 22, 1790.

Sir,

' I ^HE apprehenfion of increafing your trouble,
by a frivolous and ufelcfs corrcfpondencc, has
of late withheld me from writing to youj and
though I have now ventured to do it, I am not
without a fear, that the fmall morfels of ^experi-
E e 3 mental

I 422 ]

mental information I am able to fend you, will re-
quire your indulgence to accept of with any tole-
rable degree of complacency.

On the 30th of May 1788, I had four acres of
turnip-rooted cabbages fown in the random or
common method of turnip fowing, which, growing
very thriftily, were hoed out the firfl time on the
I ft of Auguft following, and again a fecond time on
the 1 6th. Thcfe plants endured the long and fe-r
vere froft of the fucceeding winter, without the leaft
injury, though three-fourths of all the common
turnips in this county were deftroyed by it.

On the 2ift of April 1789, I caufed (in order t6
afcertain tjie quantity) twenty feet fquare of them
to be taken up from three different parts of the
field, which being weighed, I found the average
produce to exceed, by fix pounds, twenty-four tons
and a half per acre i though at this time their tops
had not fprouted above three inches in heights for
thefe plants I was offered by fome neighbours ten
guineas per acre, but as my want of green food was
great, I would not accept of it, or indeed of any
greater fum for them.

If farmers v/ould obferve, they could not but

learn, from their repeated experience, the very little

• dependance

[ 423 1

dependance which can be had on the fupply of
food for their cattle in the fpring from a crop of
common turnips, cither after a fevcre and frofty
winter, or after a very mild and warm one, (which
laft conftanrly caufes fo early a growth of their tops
as to render both them and the roots of little or no
worth) and they would then, 1 conceive, rarely fail
to have fuch a proportion of the turnip- rooted cab-
bages growing on their lands, as would afford and
enfure them a full and excellent provifion for their
catde for about three or four weeks in the laft part
of the fpring. A greater quantity of them I do
not wilh to recommend, as the confumption of
them, particularly when drawn, and carried from
off the land, is certainly attended with rather more
trouble and expence than that of common turnips,
efpecially if the foil be wet and heavy ^ — the beft
for them, and that on which mine grew, was a dry,
found, mixed foil, worth i6s. per acre, at the dil-
tance of fcven miles from Norwich.

Though the very accurate, numerous, and valu-
able experiments of Dr. Anderjon on Potatoes, may
feem to have fo fully inftrufled the publick in every
particular ncceflary and ufeful refpeding the culture
of them, as to render any farther information or
communication on that head unneceflaryi yet as
frcfh and repeated experiments, carefully made,

and

[ 424 ]

and faithfully related, may chance to throw fomc
additional light upon the fubje6b, I have ventured
to fend you, in the annexed paper,* the refult of
one which was made here laft fummer ; however,
to avoid prolixity, I have left the corollaries to be
drawn from it, to thofc gentlemen who may con-
defcend to compare my account with the firll three
experiments related by the very able and ingenious
Dodor, and printed in the laft volume of the Soci-
ety's valuable Papers.

I hope you will, before the receipt of this, have
obtained from one or more of your numerous cor-
refpondents, fome account of the ufe, produce, and
value, of the mowing cabbages^ as well as of the
Roota Bagay of each of which I had laft fpring a
fmall parcel of feed fent me, which was fown, and
has produced feveral plants. Some of the mowing
cabbages were cut down three times, and grew into
head again fo fpeedily, that had I had leifure to have
attended to them, I doubt not but that the cuttings
might have been repeated j but as there is never on
my farm any want of frefti vegetable food for catde
in the fummer, unlefs I can find them condnue to
vegetate in like manner during the winter (which
mine have not done) or very early in the fpring, I
think they will not prgve to me, or any one under
the like circumftances, an objed of much value.

♦ See the Tabic zt the end of this arlitlc, p. 4i7«

t 43$ I

The appearance of the Roota Baga plants is modi
more pronr^ifing;, their growth was quick, and their
roots very much exceed in fize all thofe of the
turnip-rooted cabbages growing in the fame field,
and on precifely the fame foil. They arc firm,
fweet, and particularly grateful to all catdej unfor-
tunately, they have been fo much fo to hares*,
pheafants, and wood -pigeons, as to have obliged
mc, in order to preferve fome of the few plants I
have raifed, to tranfplant the chief of them into my
garden, whereby I might fecure a fufficiency of feed
from them to fow in the enfuing feafon. Several
of thofe in the field are very much eaten, whilft
neither a turnip-rooted cabbage, a mowing cab*
bage, a common turnip, or a Scotch cabbage, all
{landing in the fame field, are yet touched. They
are, when drefled for the table, in the manner of
other turnips, univerfally preferred to themj and
if they fliould be found to endure the feverity of the
winter, retain their goodnefs late in the fpring, and
not decay and rot where bitten by the hares, &c. I
fhall not hefitate to prefer the cultivation of them
to that of the turnip-rooted cabbage, or any other
vegetable of the kind I have yet met with,

I have lately read a letter from Baron Dim/dale
to that excellent farmer, and my mod efteemed
friend. Lord Adam Gordon^ giving him an account

i)f

C 426 ]

of a turnip called the Haftings Turnip, which he
fays a gentleman near Bath has cultivated in his
garden, and of which the account is very flattering.
If it be found to be fufficiently produ6tive to ferve
as a crop for cattle, hardy enough to refill froft, and
enduring late in the fpring, I (hall think myfelf
greatly obliged if you would procure and fend me
a few feeds of it ; and when the winter is pafled, I
will communicate to you what opinions I fhall have
formed of the value of the Roota Baga plants for
the purpofes of huft)andry.

I am. Sir, yours, &c.

THOMAS BEEVOR.

*^it* The Soqety has not yet received any very particular
or authenticated accounts of the value of the Mowing Cab-
bage % but for general information, as well as to gratify the
curioilty of their valued corrcfpondent Sir Thomas Beevor^
they v;ill be glad to receive from any quarter frefh accounts
of thofe who have fown it. The Roota- Baga is a plant
from wliich gre?t expectations are formed, both as a vege-
table for tiie table, (in which refpect Sir Thomas's opinion is
generally agreed in ) and as an article of food for cattle. Little
doubt can be formed of its being hardier than the turnip ; —
and its greater fweetnefs and folidity muft give it a preference
in the efteem of many perfons. We hope to be able in our
next volame to give a fuller account of it,

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[ 4^8 ]

Article XXXVIII.

On Ploughs y and particularly the Rev, Mr, Cookers
new Swing Plough,

[By James' Adam, efq; to tlic Secretary.]
Sir,
T WAS favoured with your circular letter of the
-*- nth of Auguft, and alfo with your very polite
and obliging anfwer to mine, acknowledging at the
fame time the receipt of my book. I am much
flattered to find from you, that it has met with the
approbation of thofe Members of your Society who
have done me the honour to perufe itj and as I have
therein treated pretty fully of the form and mecha-
nifm of ploughs, as a matter extremely interefting
to every agriculturift, I Ihall beg leave to trouble
you with fome of my lateft experience and remarks
on that fubjeft, which I hope may become ufeful in
leading towards farther improvement.

In the firft fedtionof my third efTay, when fpeak-
ing of ploughs, I have ventured to alledge, that,
though the mod common, they have ever appeared
to me the leaft perfe^l of all the inftruments of
husbandry ; and that I was of opinion, they were
not yet well underftood, either with refpecSt to their

conftruilion

C 4^9 1

conftruftion or mechanifm. I have likcwifc ob-
fcrvcd in the fame place, that the vaft variety of
ploughs over all Great-Britain and Ireland, was to
nic a convincing proof that none of them were
perfedcly good -, for if any one of them had a de-
cided fuperiority, it would have been pretty uni-
verfally adopted, on fimilar foils.

xjThis was the ftile of language I ufed frequendy
(Q hold with my friend, the Reverend Mr. Cooke,
the ingenious inventor of an inimitable drill-plough
and horfe-hoe. After many converfations of this
kind, Mr. Cooke was induced to turn this fubjedl in
his mind, and fome time after (hewed me a model,
which I have hinted at in the above-mentioned
fedion of my book, as promifing well. Since that
time Mr. Cooke has purfued his idea, and, in my
opinion, with great fuccefs. In fhort, he got fome
bodies of ploughs made of caft-iron, confifting of a
mould-board regularly twilled, with the land fide of
the plough, and a plug for fixing on the fliare, all
iw one piece. This combination of the parts,
which fo eflfentially afFed the operation of the
plough, prevents the poflfibility of their undergoing
any alteration from the unfkilfulnefs of country
ploughwrights, who have only to add the common
wood-work to thefe caft-iron bodies.

Mr.

[ 430 ]

-''Mr. Cooke had one of them fitted up at Londort
as a fwlng- plough, with a fhare of wrought iron, 3-
coulter, and the neceflary wood-work. This he
tried in a loamy foil, and it anfwered perfectly well,
but this did not fatisfy me ; 1 therefore requefted
him to come and fpend a few days with me in the
country, and take along with us two of his iron
cafts, in order to have them fitted up, and make
trial of them in fome of the fi:rongeft foil in Eng-
land, and in many places mixed with flints and
pebbles. This he cheerfully complied with ; — we
accordingly put our plan in execution, and for a
firft eflay, I think I may add, that we met with
mod extraordinary fuccefs. I was fo much pleafed
with my two fwing- ploughs of this new .form and
conftrudion, that I have ploughed with them ever
fince, and I will venture to fay it is the befl plough-
ing ever performed on fo ftrong a foil.

I believe. Sir, your Society will admit that this
plough has fome peculiar excellencies, when I tell
you that it requires but three horfes inftead of four,
which I have always ufed on this land, which is not
only ftrong but hilly j and I am confident two horfes
would be quite fufficient in this plough, were the
land level and loamy : and befides, that it turns a
clean and fquare furrow of feven or eight inches
deep ; that it lays it over completely, and that it
breaks and fhivers it in the adlion of turning.

t 43« ]

^Vhen we find fo many good qualities in a fwing-
plough, which is at the fame time fo fimple in its
conftruclion and tackle, would it not be abfurd
ever to employ a wheel-plough, with four horfos, to
do the work which can be done by the fwing with
two or three at moft ? and yet fo powerful is cuf-
tom, or fafoion, or prejudice, that I fee cvcrf
farmer round me dragging a heavy Hertfordlhirc
wheel -plough over his lands, which in many foils
does no more than fcratch them. I am fure I do
not exaggerate, when I fay that many farmers in
this neighbourhood do not turn a furrow of above
three inches deep. But befides this, our clumfy
wheel-ploughs are all made with ftraight mould-
boards, which do not turn the flag, unlels the
ploughman lays them over fo much on the land fide
edge, that the tail of the mould-board fweeps along
the under fide of the turning turf, and helps to lay
it over. This pofition of the plough is attended
with one very bad confequence, which is, that it
raifes the fin of the fhare out of the level; this
makes it cut the bottom of the furrow obliquely,
and the turf or flag thus raifed is not fquare or par-
rallel, but triangular, leaving the foil when ploughed
of unequal depths.

This I call a very great defedt in our wheel-
ploughs, but this is not the only one; for the moft

fkilful

t 432 ]

ikllful ploughman, in ufing that inrjplement, muft:
run it over a certain fpace before he can lay fuffi-
cicnt hold of the foil to turn up a tolerable furrow,
and at the further end of the ridge he repeats the
fame defedt, and a certain fpace is blinked, in gra-
dually raifing the (hare out of the foil ; and thus,
both ends of the ridges are worfe ploughed than
the reft of the land, wiiich I call another great de-
fe(5t. But what is worft of all> is, that in wettifh
or doughy land, the wheels of the plough are fo
clogged with the tough foil, that it is impofTible to
make them move round, and thus the ploughing is
(lopped, however prefllng the feafon.

Is it not then aftonifhing, that with all thefe ca-
pital defects, the wheel-plough fhould yet remain
the favourite implement in this and other counties,
where agriculture is fo well underftood; and that fo
light and fo efficient an implement as the fwing-
plough (hould be fo much negle6ted ! I will venture
to affert, that wherever there is a fair comparifon
made between the operation of the beft wheel-plough
and the fwing- plough invented by Mr. Cooke y that
the latter will be greatly preferred,

I do not however mean to alledge that the fwing-
plough is altogether fauklefs; there is no imple-
ment I ever fav/, v/ithout fome defeft, and that of

the

the fwing-plongit is; Itfe being liable to fee thrdWrt
OutroFitsr work by fonte large flint or pebbfe, .6r by
iflip of the ploughrhan^s foot, wftorkamng hrs
<^eigKt-drt the handled, Vaifes the ihare out of*
tlie ground 5 but this dtfcd is foon rernedied by.
drawing back the plough to where it Rrft began to
lofe its depth, and re-entering the furrow on its
former level.

On the other hahd, is not this defc(5l more than
compenfated by the lightnefs of the draught, the
fimplicity of the tackle, the immediate depth of
furrow, its being well turned over, clean, fquare and
deep, and its equality to the extremity of the ridge ?
'W hen • I mention a deep furrow, I mean one of
feven or eight inches in a flrong foil, which I have
never yet fcen done by any of our wheel-ploughs.

Froni whence the ridiculous prediledlion in favour
of thefe ploughs fhould arifc, I am at a lofs to de-
termine, unlefs it be, as before obferved, from
cuftom, or fafliion, or prejudice, or fome fuch rea-
fon as frivolous ^nd unfatisfaftory. I, who have
tried both, and have given to each a moft impar-
tial obfervation, mud fairly decide in favour of thd
fwing, except in very particular cafes, fuch as
breaking up an old ley or very ftrong foil, rendered
hard by a long continuance of drought, or for ftir-

Vol. V. F t ring

[ 434 ]

ring to fome uncommon depth, fuch as eighteen
inches, which Mr. Arkuthnot did with a wheel-
plough of his own conftrii6lion, defcribed in my
firft volume, page 214, where Lhave alfo given a
plate of it.

Before I conclude, I muft obferve, that the fin of
the fhare of Mr. Cooke' z fwing-plough is very nearly
as wide as the heel of the plough, by which means
the bottom of the furrow is as completely cut by it
as the land fide is by the coulter j thus nothing is
left to be done by the bread of the plough and
mould-board, but to raife the flag gradually, and
lay it over compleatly.

I think it likewife necelTary to mention, that the
Suffolk cat-head and copfe (as defcribed in the
above-quoted effay, where a plate is given of them)
are what I ufe for regulating the width and depth
of my furrow. A fmall alteration in the length of
the ridger over the thill-horfe alfo fets the plough
' more or lefs rank ; but it muft be obferved, that it
fliould never be taken up top ihort, for that creates
a very hurtful angle in the line of tradlion. Nei-
ther muft I omit to mention, that the rifing flag
fweeps along my caft-iron mould-board* fo glibly,

* A cafl-lron mould-board is not a correal exprelTion, but we fay^
as incorreiflly, a filver candlcftick, a glafs inkhorn, &c. prcferving the
names of the materials of which thefe utenfils were originally formed.

touching

[ 435 1

touching every part as it paffes, that it has polifhcd
it like bright ftceL

Some old farmers in this neighbourhood not
over-fond of novelties, and even the ploughwright
who works for me, confefs that they never faw fo
much execution done by fo fmall and fo light an
implements

I have been the more diffufe on this fubjeft, be-
caufc I fee from the fourth volume of your tranf-
adlions that the improvement of ploughs has been
an objed with your Society. I am not at all qua*
lifted to judge of the ploughs produced to the So-
ciety, having neither feen them nor the work they
performed j but I hope the Society will excufe my
making fome few remarks upon thofe trials as they
are there related. In the firft place, I fhould ima-
gine that the trials of wheel-ploughs and of fwing-
ploughs, in order to be corred, fhould be made
feparately, becaufe they are intended for very dif-
ferent purpofes, and therefore what is a taflc for
a wheel -plough, is not a taflc for a fwing, and
vice verfa.

In the fecond place, the taflc prefcribed by your

committee was a furrow of four inches deep only,

which does not feem tq me a fufficient trial of a real

F f 2 cfFeftivc

C 436 ]

effective implement, armed with two conkers, and
drawn by fix oxen. I confefs, I ihould have fiip-
pofed that no furrow under eight inches was ade-
quate to fiich a formidable apparatus, let the foil be
what it would. The execution of the work per-
formed by this plough was furely abundantly rapid,
2tnd I have no doubt bf its being well done, as it
'was approved of by the committee ^ but I mufl: ftill
contend that the tafk was not fuitable, or, in other
words, this plough was improperly employed upon
a" four-inch furrow. However, this plough, if tried,
would perhaps have performed its part equally well
on a much deeper furrOw, and therefore it would
be highly gratifying to all lovers of 'agriculture to
fee a plate and defcription* of it in your next pub-
lication ', and might I fo far prefume, I would point
out my method of defcribing Mr. Arhuthmf^ wheel-
plough (vol. i.) as being not only accurate, but be-
caufe it enables any perfon to have one made from
it^ all the dimenfions being marked.

With regard to Mr. Thomas's light fwing-plough,
it feems to me extremely fingular, that when drawn
by four fmall oxen it could not perform a taflc ap-
parendy fo eafy as a four-inch furrow, without the

• A defcription without a plate would be fomewhat difficult to ren-
der full and plain ; this plough is now pretty well known, but perhaps
in a future volume a plate of this and fome other forts may be given.

additional

[ 437 J

additional aid of a horfe. This would almon: lead
me to fufpedt fomc.-error \fi the mechanifm of big
plough.

The fingle wheel under the beam of farmer
Sul/y's plough, I fhould apprehend would deftroy its
utility as a fwing, without making it a good wheel-
plough.' The wheel, l^m«ftire, mud render this
plough very ufelefs on wet tough land, as • I have
before remarked, ^

I am, with great regard. Sir,
Your moft obedient humble fcrvant, -
JAMES 'KtyJiM.

Shfnley-Lodre^ Herts^
Nov, 13, 1789.

[The Society ^ much obliged to Mr. Adam for this
ktter, particularly as it defcribes a new plpugh which prpmifes
to becQine of publlck utility. With regard to Mr. Adam's
ftrlchires on the ploughs ufed at "the laiipublick trial fbr the
premiums of this Society^ it is prefumed that had he been
prefent, and a witnefs of the uncommon ftrength of the foil,
under an old ley, and rendered ftill harder by froft, he would
liave thought the ta(k no unequal one for fix oxen drawing a
double-coultered plodgh only on a four-inch furrow. Nor
will the difficulty with which a light fingle plough could be
^i*awn by four oxen, without the aid of a horfe, be confidcred
as a trivial argument in favour of the double plough.]

F f 3 Article

I 438 ]

Article XXXIX,

On various SuhjeBs,

[In a Letter to the Secretary.]

L , South'lVales^ Nov, 27, 1789.

Sir,

TAM favoured with yonr's, and fliall always be
"*• glad to promote the patrlotick views of your
Society, by communicating my obfervations on
Agriculture, but as I have not time to corred: what
I write, I beg that my name may not be made
publlck.*

I very much approve of fubftituting horfe-hoeing
crops, efpecially inftead of fummer fallows, which
are tedious and expenfive. Our ableft and bed far-
mers have for the laft fifty years been accuftomed
to lay on their fummer fallows for wheat from four

. • After fuch a requeJQ: the Committee cannot feel themfelves at li-
berty to publifli the name of this pra<flical and intelligent gentleman ;
but as the letter is not, anonymous in itfelf, and . the ftyle and good
ferfe of the compoCtion are ftriking, no apology to our readers can be
jieceflary, for departing from a general rule In i'upprefling a fignature,
"We wllh an increafcd number of fuch correfpondents on any terms,
and Agriculture many more fuch friends, ' ^ _

to

t 439 3

to five hundred bulhels of linrte per acre; which
with four or five ploughings and harrowing, and^
the rent, feed, and taxes, coft them from five to
feven pounds per acre ; and they were fubjed to
the like expence the ftcond fummer before they
obtained any benefit from their firft crops of wheat,
which diftreffed them, and delayed the payment of
their rents, as mod farmers are ambitious to rent
farms too large for their capitals. After wheat they
ufually fowed barley and clover; and then wheat,
and barley, and fometimes oats; which laft crop
did much harm to the land, and they were obliged
to let it reft five or Cix years to their lofs. Having
large eftates under my care, and farmed for fome
years, I am endeavouring to improve tliem by ad-
vice and example, as well as by reftri6live cove-
nants in their leafes; and I have the pleafure to
think that my endeavours, with thofc of fome other
gendcmen in this county, and the rewards offered
by our Society (the Glamorganfhire) produdivc of
much good.

As the principal obje<5t of fummer fallows is to
clean the land, I think turnips, rape, cale, &:c. in
winter i and potatoes, mangel-wurzel, beans, &c*
in fummer, will fully anfwer that end^ and keep the
land in good hearty with occafional djelTings.

I have

[ 440 3

I h2LVc{uocQf^^d\y followecj. the advice .of Sir
Thomas Bee v,or in raifing turnip-rooted cabb:ige;ia
drills, and horfc-hoeing the intervals, eating., thena
off with llieep after iny turnips^ .apd iixiuiediateiy
fowing buckwheat (hardly known before here); and
afterwards wheat.

In othef. fields I have 'pl^rrteH potatoes, well
ploughed the intervals, drawn thero with the plough
at Michaelmas, and immediately .fowri: wlie^t. 1'

Beans anfwer as a fallow crop in the fame way,
and I have no doubt but the mangel-wurzel will
anfwer the fame intention.

After fending fmall parcels of the feed you fent
me laft March, to as many of wir Members as have
farms, I fowed the reft very thin in drills two feet
afunder (which fhould have been three feet]) we had
very little rain in April, May, or June, and many
died; about Midfummer I thinned them to about a
foot afunder, and made other parallel rows in the
fame field, and when the rain came they grew ama-
zingly, arid I ploughed the intervals as I ufually do
to potatoes and beans. In Auguft I drew fome of
the collateral leaves for iny cattle and hogs,' but
the neceflary attention to the hay and corn harVeft
^which this year came very inconveniently together)

prevented

[ 441 1

prevented much attention to this crop, which I hav^
lately drawp ; a^d-,l>oufec], and I have fown yvheat
in the ground.-^Iany of ;I)e plants weighed frorn
fifteen to twenty pp,\v^ds j andif tJipy keep well ia
the houfe three or four months, and nourilh my
horfes, cattle^ flieej}^;and hogs. (W^any of. .than)
jvcll, I fhall efteem xhem very .highly, randtliiij^
themu v^ry. valuable acq^jifition in»agricpUur<;,;; X
pbferved no material difference b^v^cm thofe traoIrT
planted afid not.

My land is not deep, and light enough for carro.is
knd parfnips, which I think are not fp eafily culti-
vated as the mangel-wurzel, and will not produce
fuch heavy crops,

I fatted oxen with raw fliced potatoes and fiay
laft fpring, and I think it is much better for a far-
mer to plant them in his fallows, though he fhould
make but ten or twelve fhilHngs per ton in feeding
his horfes, cattle and hogs, in winter^ than to keep
his ijaked fallows often turned and cleaned from
weeds, and to let the whole expence falj on thd
wheat crop, which it will not always repay. Be-
fides, the potatoes will yield three tirnes as much
near great cities and towns; but I draw no general
principles from local advantages. In many fitxy^
ations it is very expenfive to carry corn to mill or

market.

[ 44^ 1

market, but if the farmer can raife crops that will
pay to feed his live flock at home, and increafe his
manure, thofe creatures will walk a long way to fair
or market at a very little expence.

I think it is clearly a good pradice to raife ra/-
mfirous and leguminous crops alternately, in this
county lime is fo cheap, that I occafionally ufe lime
for the former, and dung for the latter crops ; by
which the land may be kept clean and in good
heart many years, without the expence and lofs of
time in making fummer fallows. I find my fheep
more averfe to eat fliced potatoes than any of the
ether animals I have named.

Tythe in kind has cramped and will always ob-
ftruifl great improvements in agriculture; let fom^
fair commutation be fettled, and a cheaper way of
obtaining inclofing bills, and a more permanent
poflefTion fecured to the farmer, and I am convinced
the improvements in agriculture will in a few years
be very great.

I think it would be ufeful if your correfpondents
would fay how often, and upon how large a fcale,
they have pradifed what they recommend, and
with what fuccefs.

It

I 443 3

It is unrcafonable that the mod induftrious fzr^
mcr, who lays mod money out of his pocket to buy
lime and other manure for his land, fhaU, before
he is repaid his cxpences, render one- tenth of his
crop, which often turns the balance againft himj
whilft his idle neighbour, having but poor crops at
a very little expence, pays the church lefs than half
as much for a farm of equal value, I know that
the tenth of a good crop is often the whole of, and
fometimes more than the farmer's gain j therefore
tythe in kind prevents the cultivation of thoufands
of acres, to the great lofs of the community. The
arguments againft tythe in kind are fo many and fo
ftrong, as well on account of national and private
jnjury, as the antipathy and law-fuits created be-
tween the clergy and laity, that nothing but infatu-
ation can prevent a reform fo much wanted, and
wilhed for by all candid well-informed men. I
have beneficial tythe leafes, and therefore am writing
againft my own intereft. Moft people that have
written on this fubjed want patriotifm, candour, or
fufficient information. This mode of paying the
clergy might be the beft before the ufe of money,
but it certainly is the worft now.

Refpedling Mr. Vagg's method of night- rolling,
my men could not fee any flugs on the ground or
the roller after rolling two or three nights; and

when

[ 444 ]

when nrty turnips were four or five inches above the
ground, many of the leaves appeared ryellow, and
on e^annination, a fmalllong worm >vas found eat-
ing the root, which worm the roller would not; de-
ftnoy. I vvifh to know if m:iny farmers have fuc-
ceeded by night-rolling.

. J .generally drill my turnips, and fliall in future
provide rape, cale, or. other plants, ^o fill up the
rows where the turnips mifcarry, fo that the ground
may be full, and my fheep may not be difappointed.

Article XL,
On Himber Threes,
[In a Letter to the Secretary.]

nPHE wifli you exprefied that I would fend the
account of the growth of various kinds of
timber trees that have fallen under my notice,
planted at different periods and under different cir-
cumftances, has induced me to forward the follow-
ing fadls and obfervations ; and though I am fen-
fible they are not abftra6tedly of much value, yet
repeated accounts of a fimilar nature accurately
made, and properly compared together, would pro-
bably

C 445 1

bably exhibit the fubjedk in new lights, and enable
your Society to direct the future planter to thofe ex-
ertions that may prove eventually moft profitable to
his eftate, and moft beneficial to the publick, which
is the ultimate obje6l of your patriotick affociation.

No. I. Red or black poplars planted on mea-
dows near Norwich on a good warm moift foil, from
1746 to 1748, in ftands without roots, meafure at
this time (1790) at about five feet from the ground,
fix feet to fix feet and a half in circumference, and
are from forty to fifty feet high.

No. 2. The fame kind planted in the fame place
and manner, in 1765, 66^ and 67, meafure four feet
to five feet and an inch round, and are nearly equally
high as the foregoing.

No, 3. A peculiar kind of abele tree planted at
Seething in the year 1760, in ftands without roots
ten or eleven feet long, on a bank about thirteen feec
broad, with water on each fide, the bank firm land,
meafure, at about five feet from the ground, five
feet to five feet nine inches round, and are tall flou-
rilliing trees.

No. 4. Aflics planted out in 1758 and 59, eight
to nine feet high, on good meadow ground, are
now from three feet eight inches to four feet round.

No. 5.

[ 446 1

No. 5. Oaks tranfplanted three or four feet high
from a nurfery in 1764 into a good lightifh foil,
dug two fpades deep, well cleaned, the trees planted
pretty thick, are become very tall, and meafure at
this time from eighteen inches to two feet round, at
about five feet from the ground.

No. 6. Some of the fame oaks left in the original
nurfery, are from eighteen inches to two feet four
inches in circumference.

No. 7. Some of the fame, planted in an upland
pafture (the foil clay) in 1769, when ten or eleven
feet high, are now from eighteen inches to two
feet round.

No. 8. A particular timber oak meafured in
1768 — feven feet eight inches,
177 1 — eight feet.
1790 — ten feet three inches.

No. 9. I have a fmall piece of ground litdc
more than half an acre, and n worth about eight fhil-
lings a year planted in 1764 with various kinds of
firs, intermixed with young oaks. The firs have
been felled by degrees for rails, joifts, fpars, and
other ufes, to the value of twenty-five pounds, and
have left a grove of healthy and promifing oaks.

On

t 447 1

On thefc fads I fball take the liberty of making
% few obfervationa. With regard to the firft and
fecond articles, the poplars, the advantages attend-
ing their rapid growth require no comment: but I
may juft remark, the foil as already defer ibcd was
particularly adapted to them, and that thefe plants
are very apt to fail, where there arc cold fprings, or
the lower foil is gravel.

The third, the abelc tree, exhibits a remarkable
inftanceof rapid growth. An old tenant of mine
procured the original tree, I know not from whence,
under the name of Duub Beech j finding the cut-
tings flourifh uncommonly, I have planted them in
a variety of foil and fituation, and at prefent I have
not found any in which it does not exceed every
kind of tree in its firft ftages. I have one particu-
lar fpot where the foil is barren ooze, raifed by an
addition of the fame foil thrown out to form apiece
of water: I planted it with various kinds of trees;
they all died or remained without growth, except
ibme fmall cuttings of this kind, which being inter-
mixed, flouriihed as ufual, and promife to become
large trees.

I have planted it on ground where cold fprings
rife, and where the red or black poplar, after arri-
ving ai fome Cze, died 5 they flouriih there alfo with

great

C 448 ]

great vigour. • A- friend of mine has planted thdrri
6n high and dry ground, where they have alfo- ex-
ceeded every kind of tree planted with them; the
wood has all the apparent properties of this fpe-
eies, and promifes to be excellent for turners, and
other ufes. Its appearance is by far the moft beau-
tiful of any of the poplar, abele, or afpen kind, that
has fallen within my obfervation^ the bark is of a
greenifh yellow colour, delicately fmpoth, the
branches grow in a Very pleafing and compad formj.
the colour of the leaf in fpring is a beautiful fage
green, growing darker as the fummer approaches,
the under fide becomes then of a light colour, the
upper of a darkifh green, forming a medium be-
tween the afpen and populus alba, or abele tree.

I have been thus particular in my defcription of
this tree, not knowing but it may be found in other
places, and that fome of your correfpondents may
be induced to propagate it. Its beautiful appear^
anceand rapid growth point it out to thofe gentle-
men who plant for ornament j and as no tree that
I have feen is fo cheaply propagated, is lefs delicate
as to foil, or is fooner produdive, it is confequently
a primary objedl to the man who plants for profit.

On No. 5, 6, and 7, I have to remark, that the
tranfplanted oaks, though for a few years they

fufFered

C 449 ]

fufFcrcd in the removal, recovered themfelves by
degrees, and difcover now, after 20 to 24 years,
little difference from thofc left in their native foil :
— as to the tree in No. 6 meafuring 2 feet 4 inches,
it was always larger than the others, and therefore
no rule for the general average ; — even thofe tranf-
planted at 10 or 11 feet high, are fcarcc at all infe-
rior to the reft.

The growth of the oaks, by the fadls recited,
appear to bear no comparifon to that of other trees;
the firft remark that confequendy ftrikes every
obferver is, that this is the lead profitable tree that
can be planted; and, if a man looks for the pro-
duce of the firft 25 or 30 years only, this is un-
doubtedly the cafe. Firft impreflions are difficult
to eradicate, yet I wifti to fee as many fads as pof-
fible colleded upon this fubjedl, to afcertain the
point indubitably. I think it will appear that the
inftances I have ftated of the rapid growth of pop-
lars, abeles, and afhes, are as great as any that have
been produced ; neverthelefs, what I have recited,
taken altogether, tend to enforce upon my mind the
dodrine of the fupcriority of oak planting, in point
of profit; — its beauty and utility will be univerfally
allowed me.

The fads adduced prove, that for the firft 25 or

30 years, poplars, abeles, and afhes, exceed the oak

Vol. V. G g in

[ 450 ]

In growth in the proportion of at leaft two to one.
I wifh fome of your ingenious correfpondents could
furnifh a rcgifler for the fucceeding 40 to 60 years:
but as the durability of human life is too little for
fuch records, and the fpirit of obfervation is feldom
tranfmitced fronn father to fon through many gene-
rations, we mull be content with reafoning from

detached fads^ and this leads me to No. 8.

I found -in my father's papers the two firft admea-
furements of this tree, and 1 have within a few days
taken that of the prefent date; by this it will appear
it has increafed rapidly and uniformly; and I need
not remark that, as it continues to increafe at the
rate of fomewhatmore than i^ inch yearly, it adds
every year a greater and greater quantity of timber,
in geometrical progrefTion ; and admitting that in
1768 it contained no feet of timber, in 1790 it
contains 2CO feet. I do not know that I am accurate
as to the real contents, but the relative proportions
are correvSt, which is all that applies to the prefent
argument. The increafe, which is 90 feet of tim-
ber, is wonderful for 22 years, and not to be
equalled, as I conceive, by any of the other kinds,
at any period of their growth; the difference be-
tween the poplars of No. i and 2 in 20 years was,
in the fame mode of eftimating them, only 39 feet
of timber each. But if, as in fadl No. 9 in addition
to this advantage, a crop can be obtained that will

amply

[ 451 1

amply pay the rent and charges of the land for tht
lirft 2p or 30 years, and at the fame time tend to
rear and nurfe up the oaks intended for the future
grove, we mud confider our plantation as only then
commencing its career, and charge it with no ex-
penccs till that period arrives. We (hall then find,
that if the mind balanced upon the fubjefl, under
the head of the laft confideration, the prefent one
will preponderate the fcale in favour of our dodtrine:
and this reafoning applies to no other trees we have
mentioned, for poplars will not thrive on fuch foils ;
—the drip of allies is allowed to be injurious, and
thefe, as well as the abcles, would overtop and Ipoil
the firsi not to add, that as all thefe derive their
nourifliment from lateral roots, they would impede
if not prevent the growth of firs; whilfl in oaks,
experience fhews that their fupply is derived from
a deeper foil, or they are furnilhed with different
particles of nutrition j there fcems too fomething
congenial in their nature, and in their configuration
there is an adapdon to each other.

When I confider all the circumftances, I am in-
clined to draw this conclufion, that if a regifter for
100 to 150 years could be procured, of ground
applied to the growth of oak timber, and the like
quantity applied to the growth of any other kind>
the former would prove at leaft equally produdtivc
G g 2 in

[ 452 ]

in quantity, notwithftanding the fuperior increafc
of the fofc woods for the firft 20 or 30 years, with
this additional advantage, that the timber is of one-
third greater value.

My objedl in this memoir is not to decide dog-
matically, but to promote a more accurate enquiry
on the fubjedt. The planters of oak feem hitherto
to have exerted themfelves, as difcharging a kind
of duty to their country, in propagating this im-
portant and indeed neceflfary timber; but as intereft
is a motive more prevalent than patriotifm, if it
fliall be made appear, as I think it will, that it is
to the advantage of gentlemen to plant this kind
of tree in preference to all others, upon foils fuit-
able to it# we may hope to fee the pradice become
general, and thus the eftates of individuals bene-
ficed, as well as the national intereft in this very
important article fecured to pofterity.

([The foregoing ingenious and valuable article is the
communication of a Norfolk gentleman, well known and
univerfally refpefted; the infertion of whofe name would
have done honour to this Society : In compliance with his
particular wifhes and diffidence, that name is fuppreiTed.
But it remains with the Secretary, and may be known by
any gentleman who may have a motive for enquiry.J

Article

t 453 ]

Article XL.

On the Turnip Cabbage.

[To the Secretary.]
Sir,

T Send you herewith a plant of a fpecies of vegc-
-*• table, I believe, as yet but little known in Eng-
land. I received the feed lad year, under the nanie
of Turnip Cabbage, faid to be brought by Mr,
Haftings fronn the Cape of Good Hope. It is a
very hardy plant, enduring the winter at leaft as
well if not better than brocoli. I have found it a
moft valuable acquifition to the kitchen garden ;
and it might probably be introduced with advan-
tage by the farmer as an article of fodder for his
flock. I fliall take a future opportunity to fend
you a fmall parcel of feed, which I have faved from
a plant of laft year's fowing, and likewife fome par-
ticulars refpeding the mode and feafons of culti-
vating it.

I am, Sir,

Your humble iervant.

TWERTON,

Sffi.2^, 1788.

THO. BROUGHTON.

G g 3 Article

[ 454 ]

Article XLI.
On the Turnip-Cabbage,

[By the Same.]
Sir,

TN reply to your queries refpeding the turnip^
cabbage, I mud obferve, that as the moft efTen-
tial part of my experiments on that plant, viz, its
value in field culture, remains yet to be made^ and
as I purpofe ((hould it fucceed in that refpedt) to
give the publick a feparate and minute account of
it; I can at prefent ftate only a few general fads
refpeding itj and this I (hall do as nearly in the
order of your queries as poffible.

I have not been able to afcertain in what coun-
try it was firft produced, but, am informed that it
is very common in Holland, and at the Cape of
Good-Hope. It has certainly been known in Bri-
tain many years, though not generally. Miller
does not notice it, but it is particularly mentioned
in the lift of efculent plants at the end of the oclavo
edition of " Every Man his own Gardener,'* by
Mawe .2ind others, publifhed in 17763 and it is
there efpecially diftinguifhed from the turnip- rooted
cabbage, to which it bears little or no refemblance.
It bears a much greater refemblance to the cab-
bage

[ 4JS 1

bagc tribe than to the turnip, whereas the Roota-
Baga you mention (from the (light acquaintance I
have with it) appears to be more nearly allied to
the turnip.

The beft feafon for fowing for the garden, ap-
pears to me to be the end of May, or beginning of
June. Though fown ever fo early, I never faw one
run the fame fummer^ indeed I have fown in Au-
guft at the cauliflower feafon, and the greater part
have ftood over the following fummer, and not run
till the fccond fpring, which is certainly a very un-
common property.

With refpe(5l to the management of the plants^
they require nearly the fame treatme;it as brocoli,
in regard to tranfplanting, diftance, &c. They are
ufually mod efteemed when young, and about the
fizc of a moderate garden turnip j thofe fown in
June will continue good all the winter. The bulb
mull be ftripped very clean of its thick fibrous
rind; after which it may be treated as a turnip.
The fprout or crown is very good, but elpecially in
the fpring, when they begin to run. I ihould ima-
gine, from the remarkable fweetnefs of the bulb,
that it is more nutritious than the common turnip.
The largeft bulb I have mcafured .was twenty-three

inches in circumference.

I took

[ 456 ]

I took up a plant in February lad, which was
fown tlie Augull twelvemonth before; which, when
deprived of its fibrous root, weighed about twelve
pounds; the bulb was confiderably elongated, and
meafured nineteen inches in circumference, and
twelve from the bafe of the bulb to the top of it;
it had thrown out forty-fix lateral fprouts.

My plants ftood the winter of 1788, which was a
very fevere one, when all my turnips were deftroyed.
It has been fufpefted by farmers that the toughnefs
of the rind would form an infurmountable objedtion
to them, as fodder for fheep ; but I have this win-
ter had pofitive proof to the contrary. I have
given many of the toughed and oldeft to my fheep,
which not only penetrated through the coat, but
even devoured the greatefl part of it,

I do not know where the feed is to be procured
in any quantity. I propofe to fave a great deal
this fpring, if the feafon fhould be favourable.

I am. Sir,

Your very humble fervant,

THO. BROUGHTON.

TWERTON,
March 19, 1790,

Article

C 457 ]

Article XLII.

On the Roota-Baga^ the great value of Potatoes to the
Poor, and on Turnip-rooted Cabbage.

' [By Sir Thomas Beevor, Bart, to the Secretary.]
Sir, May 3, 1790.

THE plants of the Roota-Baga, which I have
preferved for feed, are now in great perfec-
tion; the roots are quite found, and as good as at
Chriftmas; the heads are by no means fo large and
bulhy as thofe of the turnip-rooted cabbage; they
grow up with one fingle ftem with fmall lateral
fhoots only, fo that whatever may be the comparative
value of the roots, the fprouts or heads will not pro-
duce near the fame quantity of food as the other.
Still they feem to me to be moft fufficiently invi-
ting to a very extenfive cultivation of them; but as
the laft winter was remarkably mild, their hardinefs
to endure and abide fcvere and repeated frofts and
thaws, is yet untried. Animals of every kind ap-
pear to be immoderately fond of them, leaving all
other food for them.

The feed I (hall fave from them this year will
not, I fear, become ripe fufficiently early to fow in
this next fcafon; but Lord Orford, who is the moft

cpmmuoicativc*

[ 4S8 ]

communicative, as well as the mod ingenious and
indefatigable experimental agriculturift in this
county, has promifed to fend me two quarts of
the feed, part of that which is ordered for his own
ufej fo that if the next winter Ihould prove a fe-
vere one, there will then have been a fufficient trial
of their merit, to determine whether they can be
cultivated with more advantage to the farmer than
any of the other winter efculents.

The few mowing cabbages which I have re-
ferved for feed, abound in the moft vigorous leaves,
which, if after having been eaten down by fheep or
cattle, they would fprout again as freely and fre-
quently as after they have been .mown down, would
certainly prove a moft profitable crop j but this, I
believe, is yet to be tried.

The great relief which the poor in this neigh-
bourhood have received, and continue to receive,
from the ufe of potatoes, during that price of corn
which has made it almoft beyond their ability to
purchafe, will not readily be forgotten by them -, the
applications I have received this laft feed or fetting
Xitne for thofe roots, is wonderful, and have ex-
baufted a ftore of about fourfcore facks, which I had
remaining, after having planted my own quantity.

In

[ 459 ]

In confcquencc of the very cold weather wc have
had here, the grafs is but juft fpringing, which, as
the turnips are wholly eaten up, occafions much
diftrefs amongft the farmers, for want of fome green
vegetable food for their fheep and cattle i whereas,
by the afliftance of my turnip-rooted cabbages, (at
which I have now two hundred fheep, and feventy
neat beads, bcfides many that are given to horfes
and pigs) I have an abundance of the belt and mod
nutritive food that can be found them i and which
will continue in perfedion for a week or two longer,
or more, if they (hould be wanted. — From the
conveniency and benefit thus derived from them, I
cannot but ftrongly recommend their culture for the
fupport of almoft all live flock for the lafl three
weeks in April, or the firfl in May, where the grafs
ftioots late ; many years experience has made me
confident of the value of them.

I am. Sir,

Your obedi^t fervant,

THOMAS BEEVOR,

Articli

[ 46o ]

Article XLIIL
On the Leith Carf.

[By Dr. J. Anderson, to the Secretary.]
Sir,
T USE the freedom to fend you a drawing of an
^ implement of labour, not as a new invention,
for it has been long ufed here, but as one of the
lighted, cheapeft, and handieft implements I ever
met with for its purpofes. It is the cart univer-
fally employed at Leith, for tranfporting goods of
all kinds from the fhipping to Edinburgh and that
neighbourhood. It confifls of a pair of fhafts made
of fir joined together by five bars of afh or elm,
with two deals laid upon them, and a fmall piece of
wood below the crofs bars, refting upon the axle,
for ftrengthening the bars^ all which are fufficiently
plain by infpeding the figure. (See plate L) The
whole of this is fo light that a man might take it
upon his fhoulder, and fo ftrong as to laft feveral
years in conftant employment. The firft c.oft is
from twelve to fifteen fhiliings, independent of the
axle and wheels.

This fimple carriage is fo contrived as to be
yoked or unyoked with the greateft eafe^ for that

purpofe

[ 46i 1

purpofe a pair of round rings are fixed by ftiort
chains to the collar of the horfe, which flip over the
end of the fhafts with the utmoft facility, and are
there fixed by a pin put into a hole. Breeching,
becaufe troublefome for yoking and unyoking, is
fcldom employed.

You will pleafe to obferve, that befides the parts
already defcribed, there is rcprefcnted on the
mounted cart (it is kept away from the other to
fhew the conftrudlion the better) a crofs bar that
rifes higher than the fhafts i through each end of
that bar pafTes an iron pin, which is received into
holes in the fhafts made on purpofe; thefe holes are
wide enough to let the pins be eafily drawn out, fo
that the wjiole bar, with the pins, can be lifted off
with eafe, and placed nearer or farther from the
axle, as the nature of the load may require.

The great beauty of this implement is the eafe
with which it can be loaded and unloaded; and the
men who are ufed to them manage this matter with
an adroitnefs and dexterity that has often excited
my admiration. Suppofe, for example, it is a pipe
of wine that is to be conveyed away; in that cafe,
the horfe is made to go up to where the wine lies, as
near as he can conveniently come, and is then un-
yoked. The cart in that cafe ftands in the pofition

here

t 462 ]

here drawn, and (the pins not being put in the fliafts
after unyoking) prefents an inclined plane, on which
the pipe of wine can eafily be rolled up by two men
till it comes above the axle, when, by a fudden twift,
it is inftantly placed Jength ways on the cart between
the two deals i the crofs bar is placed clofe behind
it, the horfe is put to the cart, and being bound
with ropes to keep it Heady, away they drive.

This is done by two men in a very fhort (pace
of time J but as there is danger if either of the men
Ihould accidentally flip his hold when rolling the
pipe up, a third hand is ufually called in on this
occafion, who taking the cart ropes, which are al-
ways at hand, flips a noofe at each end of the rope
over the projefting point at the end of the fliafts,
the rope is then pafTed over each end of the pipe,
and brought again to the third man, who tighten-
ing it as the others roll up the pipe, efFe6lually pre-
vents the danger of its flipping down. It is takea
from the cart by a fimilar operation.

Hogflieads of tobacco and fugar are put upon
the cart exadly in the fame manner, but as thefe are
not fo long as a pipe of wine, they are allowed to
lie acrofs the cart. Two of thefe are ufually put
upon a cart at once, the crofs-bar being placed be-
hind the laft to keep it from flipping back ; and

as

t 463 3

as the wheels are low, fo as to raifc the cart higher
before than behind, when in yoke they arc well
enough fecurcd by means of ropes.

When barrels of a fmaller fize, or large boxes, arc
to be loaded, inftead of taking the horfe away, they
make him (land ftill in his place, while the fhafts
arc lifted up fo high before as to allow the hinder
points to reach the ground, which gives a deeper
inclined plane than the former for the fame purpofe.
This is moll ufually done for Aiding up large boxes
of any forti bale goods and fmall boxes are put
upon the cart with the greateft cafe by hand, as it is
low, and not interrrupted by fides of any fort. For
grains, bags are made of a convenient length to lie
acrofs the cart, and are piled one above another with
great cafe, and bound with ropes. Every carter
ufually fupplies bags for himfelf.

It is aftonifhing to fee the quantity of work that
will be performed in a (hort time by thcfe carters
with this flight implement. The horfes arc in ge-
neral of very little value, few of them being worth
more than 5I. yet with one of thefe horfes it is ufual
to carry two hogfheads of fugar or of tobacco from
Leith to Edinburgh, which is all up hill, or other
loads in proportion. I am perfuaded one of our
carters with his horfe and cart would perform twice

as

[ 464 ]

as much work in a day as a London carter with his
three large elephants, and his cumberfome cart,
which is of itfelf more than a load for one horfe.

Your mod humble fervant,

JAMES ANDERSON.

Cotjield^ loth Sept, 1789.

Article XLIV.
On the Vegetation of Old Grain.

[By Samuel Smith, Efq; F. S. A.]
Gentlemen,

AS the afcertaining of ufeful fa6ts in agricul-
ture is the profefTed defign of your Society,
any thing that may tend to fhew how long feed
may retain its vegetative quality, cannot be unwor-
thy your attention*

In the year 1754, my brother, a member of the
Bath Society, was at Strafburgh, and feeing fome
Indian corn growing, he gathered an ear or cone, and
prefcrved it with the flag on it. It had lain by un-
regarded till lafl: year, when meeting with it, and
the date, place, and time of growth being on it, I
was induced to try if it would grow. The 28th of

Februar}'

I 465 1

February 1788, 1 took fix grains, foaked them In
water twenty-four hours, put them in earth in pots,
and then in a hot-houfe. In about twenty days they
began to appear, and four out of Cix grew to about
three feet highj two produced the ear complcatly
formed, a cone of which I fend. The pots were
taken out of the houfe the latter end of June, and the
ears gathered the beginning of Odober. Six other
grains were planted in the garden without foaking,
but did not produce even figns of vegetating.

From this experiment is afcertained a fadl that
feed kept dry hath vegetated at the diftance of
thirty-four years from the time of its being ga-
thered. I am. Gentlemen, &:c.

Clapbam, Dec. ay, 1789. SAMUEL SMITK,

Article XLV.

On rearing Calves without Milk.

(To the Secretary.]
Sir, Tytherton, Dec. 3, 1789.

THE following is as near a calculation of the
cxpences of rearing my calves without milk
as I can at prefent affert. In the year 1787 I
weaned feventecn calves, in 1788 twenty-three, and
Vol. V. H h in

[ 466 3

in 1789 fifteen ditto. I bought in 1787 three facks
of linfeedj I put one quart of the feed to fix quarts
of water, which by boiling ten minutes, became a
good jellyj this jelly is mixed with a fmall quantity
of the tea of the bell hay lleeped in boiling water.

. Having my calves drop at different times, I did
not make an exafl calculation of the expence of this
hay tea, but out of my three facks of feed I had
better than two bufhels left at laft. I gave them
the jelly and hay tea three times a day; to the boy
who looked after them 6d. per day ; the price of
the linfeed was 4s. 6d. per bulheli the whole three
years' feed 2I. 5s.

My calves are kept in a good growing ftate, and
are much better at this time than my neighbours*
that are reared by milk; they do not fall ofFfo
much when they come to grafs.

I am, your obedient fervant,

THOMAS CROOK.

[The foregoing is a fuccinft but ufeful account of a me-
thod of rearing Calves, which has often been fuggefled, and
deemed prafticable, but which the Society had never before
known fo fully proved. Mr. Crook (of whofe judgment
* in

Cooke's (^i^^U ^^UjTrLulunX^ tm/i^ioi/tl ^^^I^/ied

TMiihe del. JhJfU^heJ aj^ the Art cfirectr ifjan'ajfig.

J.Loif4fe xc.

C 467 1

in cattle the publick is well informed) undertook this bufmeft
with a zeal which does him credit ; and after a fmall tefti-
mony of approbation, by presenting him with a piece of plate,
the Society is happy in recommending a pra£lice the value
of which Mr. Crook has fo well afcertained.]

Article XLVI.

On the Rev. Mr. Cooke's newly-improved Patent
Brill Machine.

THE publick are already well acquainted with the name
of Mr. Cookg, and his laudable exertions for the pro-
motion of the drill hulbandry. His new Patent Machine,
confefledly a great improvement on his old one, and vended
at the reduced price of twelve guineas, (including the drill
hoes, and fcarificators) may be obvious from a comparative
infpe£lion of the plate annexed, and that given in vol. iii.
—But from a motive of refpe£l to Mr, Cooke^ as well as for
the further information of fome of our readers, we fubjoin
the following brief account.

The fuperior merits of the prefent improved machine^
compared with the old one, conHfl

ifl. In the wheels (B.B. fig. i.) being fo large, that tlie
machine can travel on any road without trouble, or danger
of breaking; alfo from the farm to the field, &c. witliout
taking to pieces; requiring only half the draught which the
old macliine requires.

H h a 2dl)\ I^

[ 468 ]

zdly. In the coulter beam (C.C.fig. i, with all the coul-
ters) moving with great eafe to the right or left, on a prin-
ciple of the pentagraph, by which means the drills may be
made ftrait; and where lands or ridges are made four feet
and a half, or nine feet and a half wide, the horfe may al-
ways go in the furrow, without fetting a foot on the land,
either in drilling or horfe-hoeing.

^dly. In the feed fupplying itfelf regularly, without any at-
tention, fioiu the upper to the lower boxes, as it is dillributed.

/^thly\ In lifting the pin M on the coulter beam to a hook L
on the axis of the wheels ; by which means the coulters are
kept out of the ground at the end of the land, without the leaft
labour or fatigue to the perfon who attends the machine.

^tJily» In going up or down fteep hills, the feed-box is ele-
vated or deprefled accordingly, fo as to render the dillribu-
tion of the feed regular; and the feed being covered by a
lid, is fcreened from wind or rain,

Thefe are fome of the advantages appertaining to the above
improved drill; which, though confiderable in the procefs of
drilling, are as nothing, compared with thofe which arife
from the ufe of the horfe-hoe; of which it may fuffice to
fay, that from eight to ten acres are commonly hoed in one
day, with one man, a boy, and a horfe, at the trifling expence
of fixpcnce or eightpence an acre, in a llile far fuperior to,
and more effeftual, than any hand-hoeing whatever; alfo per*
formed at times and feafons when it is impofTible for the
hand-hoe to be ufed at all.

From

C 469 3

From lall year's official proofs and extcnfive experiments
In horfe-hoeing, we are juftified in faying, »that by a proper
and fcafonable ufe of the above drill and horfe^hoe, the
largeft farm in this ifland may be kept as clean from weeds
(the bane of all arable lands) as any garden need be, with a
clear extra profit of more than the rent of land.

Article XLVIL
On a new Wajhing-Machine^ by Henry Murrell.

MANY have been the implements and machines con-
trived to expedite the common operation of wafhing,
and fome have even been vended by patent. From trials
which have been made of an improved machine introduced
to this Society by Mr. Murrell, it appears to be very ufeful,
and worthy of recommendation ; we therefore have given
an engraving of it, [plate 2.] and here fubjoin dire£lions
for its ufe.

The night before waQiing, the linen (hould be foaked in
cold watet mixed with fome foaper's lye. At the time of
walhing, have ready a quantity of boiling water, into which
has been (hred foap, in the proportion of two ounces to
twelve gallons, fo well ftirred as to be all diflblved, with a
mixture alfo of foaper's lye.

Tlien take out the linen and foap it, as is ufually done for
boiling; after which, put into the machine about twelve gal-
lons of the above-dire6led boiling water. Linen the leaft
foiled is firil to be put iiuo the machine. Not more than the

quantity

I 470 ]

quantity of fix or feven fhirts is to be put into each end oi
the machine at a time, left the prefTers being prevented from
opening, thehnen will be unable to turn, and of confequence
be only partially wafhed. Then faften down the doors of
the machine, and fet it to work ; at the end of ten minutes
take out the linen, and fupply a frefh quantity : the linen
taken out is then carefully to be overlooked, and any little
rerriaining ftains walhed out by hand. After two or three
fets of linen, according to the foulnefs of it, have been wafhed
in the fame waiei , let out fome of the foul water, in propor-
tion to its foulnefs, and fupply an equal quantity of that above
defciibed from the furnace. Having thus wafhed all your
linen through the firft water, repeat the operation with a frefh
fupply from the furnace, till the whole is finifhed, then wipe
out the machine dry, and leave the doors quite open.

It has been found by experience, that the foaking the linen
over night in cold water and foaper's lye, and foaping it alfo
before it is put into the boiling water in the machine, will
effetlually prevent the dirt from being fixed in the linen.

' The advantages of the machine are obvious. The faving
of foap, from the more copious ufe of foaper's lye, which
cannot be ufed in the common way, on account of the
waiher's hands; nor for the fame reafon can fo hot water be
ufed as in the machine. The faving alfo of fuel, at leaft one
third; of labour, two thirds ; lefs injury alfo to the linen than
in the common way ; and, above all, the haftening one of the

moft trouble fome parts of family ceconomy.- A flout lad

or man may perform the more laborious part of the procefs.

Article

[ 471 ]

Article XLVIII.

REPORT concerning the Publick Trial of Vlovohs
and Drills, which took place near Devizes^ on the
2 ijl and lid of Jpril, 1 7 90.

IN purfuance of the objefts propofed by this Society by
publick trials of Ploughs and Drills, the Committee of
Gentlemen-Farmers, to whom a choice of ground for thofc
purpofes was committed, leleftcd a piece for the former in
the parifli of Afhleton, and for the latter at Roundway. The
(pot for the trial of ploughs was a remarkably flrong foil, on
which wheat had been grown laft year, but the mofl full of
couch-grafs of any land that could be found. This fpot was
chofen the better to bring the double-coultered and the lighter
ploughs to a fevere trial. It was expefted that fix ploughs
of different defcriptions would have ftarted for the premiums
of the Society, but only four were found in the conteft ; one
or two havnng declined, on account of the difficulty of the
work, and a new fwing-plough, lately invented by the Rev.

James Cooke^ being delayed on the road by the carrier.

The four were as follows :

1. The double-coultered plough, belonging to Will I AM
Dyke, efq; ztSyren-Cot, drawn by four horfes two a-breaft.

2. The Norfolk wheel-plough, belonging to Mr. Pr it-
ch A RD, drawn by two horfes without a driver.

3. A light Carlifle fwing-plough, belonging to Mr.
Thomas, drawn by two horfes a-breail, and driven by a lad.

4. A common Wililhire plough, belonging to Mr. Jacob
GiDDINGS, drawn by two horfes, and driven by a lad.

The

C 472 ]

The refult of this trial we fubjoin in the written decifia
of five refpe£lable umpires, chofen for the occafion, viz,

" We, the Umpires chofen for determining the Premiums
given by the Bath Society for Ploughing this day, d»
adjudge the faid Premiums as follows:

ijl Premium^ To Mr. Dyke's two-furrow plough with
four horfes, as the befl and cheapeft plough for general ufe,
and do recommend the fame as a faving both of men and
horfes ; thougli, from a fault ill the conftruftion of the plough
produced to-day, the furrow was not laid fufficiently flat,

' 2.d Premium, To Mr. Tpi o m as's fingle-wheel plough with
two horfes ; and we do recommend the faid plough, as having
performed exceedingly well on a flifF heavy foil,

^d Premium, To Mr. Pritchard's plough with two
horfes without a driver, as being a plough better adapted for
ftiff heavy foil than the general ploughs of the country. — ^And
the ploughman of the other competitor, Mr. Giddings,
having done his beft with an aukward bad-conflrufted plough
of the county, we think proper to order him a gratuity of
five {hillings,

H. J. CLOSE.

STEPHEN NEATE,
WILLIAM SHORT.
THOMAS DAVIS,
THOMAS LEWIS."

JEND OF THE FIFTH VOLUME.