fj'.- :;■ t. / *■•- V / FOR THE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY LIFE-HISTORIES OF NORTHERN ANIMALS 1 ^ PLATE 1. SKETCH FOR UUGLING ELK. LIFE-HISTORIES OF NORTHERN ANIMALS AN ACCOUNT OF THE MAMMALS OF MANITOBA BY ERNEST THOMPSON SETON Naturalist to the Government of Manitoba Author of Art Anatomy of Animals Wild Animals I Have Known The Trail of the Sandhill Stag The Biography of a Grizzly The Lives of the Hunted Pictures of Wild Animals etc., etc., etc. -- - -^1^.-- — mm Volume I -Grass-eaters WITH 68 MAPS AND 560 DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR Published by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, New York City :: 1909 COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY ERNEST THOMPSON SETON Published October, 1909 QLllLS' Dedicated by Special Permission to HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES The First of the Royal Family to Enjoy in Person the Game-Fields of Manitoba The red lines show the author's travels in gathering the material for this book; the dots indicate his actual camps or dwelling places. PREFACE. This aims to be a book of popular Natural History on a strictly scientific basis. In it are treated some 60 quad- rupeds that I have known and studied for many years. Although I have limited the scope to the 60 species that are found in Manitoba, this takes in all the large land mammals of the United States, except about a dozen, in- cluding five of the big game. Having followed these 60 into all parts of their ranges, I have virtually included the Continent from Labrador to California. A glance at the map will show that I have had unusual opportunities for gathering material, having visited nearly every State in the Union, on trips to collect specimens or information. Thirty years of personal observations are herein set forth; every known fact bearing on the habits of these animals has, so far as possible, been presented, and everything in my power has been done to make this a serious, painstaking, loving attempt to penetrate the intimate side of the animals' lives— the side that has so long been overlooked, because until lately we have persistently re- VI Preface garded wild things as mere living targets, and have seen in them nothing but savage or timorous creatures, killing, or escaping being killed, quite forgetting that they have their homes, their mates, their problems and their sorrows — in short, a home-life that is their real life, and very often much larger and more important than that of which our hostile standpoint has given us such fleeting glimpses. The facts in these two volumes have, for the most part, long been known to me, and have formed a part of my equipment, yet I set them forth accredited to the men who first observed them. I have done this, even when they have been covered and more than covered by my own observations. Theoretically, I have treated each species under thirty divisional heads, but am shocked to find in how many cases the heading is missing, because there were no facts available for classification under it. No one knows better than I, then, how many gaps and imperfections are to be found herein, and in view of this I hope the critics will overlook the weak spots, and seek rather for the things that make for usefulness. As this is a book of Life-histories or habits, I have occupied myself as little as possible with anatomy, and have given only so much description of each animal as is necessary for identification. My theme is the living animal. No one who believes in Evolution can doubt that man's mind, as well as his body, had its origin in the animals below him. Preface vu Otherwise expressed, we may say that : Just as surely as we find among the wild animals the germs or beginnings of man's material make-up, so surely may we find there also the foundations and possibilities of what he has attained to in the world of mind. This thought lends new interest to the doings of animals in their home-life, and I have sought among these our lesser brethren for evidences of it— in the rudiments of speech, sign-language, musical sense, esthet- ics, amusements, home-making, social system, sanitation, wed-law, morals, personal and territorial property law, etc. As much as possible, I have kept my theories apart from my facts, in order that the reader may judge the former for himself. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. My thanks are due to the United States Biological Survey, Department of Agriculture, for electros of many cuts, made chiefly from my own drawings, ordered by the Department in years gone by ; to Dr. C. Hart Merriam for the identification of many specimens and much assistance; also to Mr. Edward A. Preble for a critical reading of parts of the text. To Messrs. Vernon Bailey, W. H. Osgood, H. W. Hen- shaw, T. S. Palmer, M.D., all of the United States Biological Survey, for assistance in many technical matters. To Dr. Robert Bell I am indebted for essential aid in preparing the geological sketch of Manitoba; to Professor John Macoun and Mr. James M. Macoun, for many notes and other assistance; also to Messrs. George M. Dawson, A. P. Low, Percy H. Selwyn, all of the Canadian Geological Survey. To Dr. J. A. Allen, of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, for help especially in preparing the chapter on Faunal Areas; to Mr. Frank M. Chapman for advice and for help in many identifications, and to the American Museum of Natural History for access to their collections and library, etc., while preparing the technical descriptions. To Dr. W. T. Hornaday, of the New York Zoological Society, for practical assistance in preparing parts of the text. To Mr. Miller Christy, of Chelmsford, England, for several notes and much literary assistance. To Mr. George O. Shields for assistance in securing several of my own drawings originally used in Recreation Magazine. X Acknowledgments To Mr. D. A. Boscowitz, of Victoria, B. C, for the official Reports on London Fur-sales. To the Right Honourable Lord Strathcona and Mont- royal, G.C.M.G., Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, for access to the Company's records covering the fur returns of the last fifteen years, with permission to use the same. To Mrs. Grace G. Seton for essential aid with the literary and press work. To Professor Robert M. Yerkes, of Harvard University. To Mr. William Brewster, of Cambridge, Mass. To Major E. A. Mearns, M.D., U.S.A., for revision of parts. To the Field Museum of Chicago for the loan of specimens. To the Zoological Society of London for free use of their superb library and its equipment. To Mr. Henry M. Ami, of the Geological Ottawa, for assistance with the French Canadian names of the animals. In collecting the Indian names, although I consulted many natives, the following were my principal informants: O/V^u/a.^Ah-nee-mee'-kong (Little Thunder), a full-blood whom I met at Lake of the Woods, Albert Chief, a half-breed of Kenora, acting as interpreter. Sauteaux. — Baptiste Nee'-pee-nak (Summer Bear), a full- blood at Winnipegosis, Mr. J. J. G. Rosser acting as inter- preter, besides giving additional information. Cree. — Mr. W. G. Tweddell, of Woonona, Manitoba, and, in part, Mr. Hector MacKenzie, of Winnipeg. Muskego. — Swampy or Wood Cree. Isadore Nee'-ah-poo, a full-blood living at Winnipegosis, Mr. J. J. G. Rosser acting as interpreter, and adding many items of information. Acknowledgments xi C hi pewyan. —Weeso (Louison d'Noire), a Fort Resolu- tion Chipewyan who went with me to the Barren Grounds in 1907. Tankton Sioux. — Mr. C. C. Chipman, Commissioner of the Hudson's Bay Company at Winnipeg. Ogallala Sioux. — Dr. James R.Walker, resident physician of the Pine Ridge Indian Agency, S. D. I am also in debt for valuable notes to the following residents of Winnipeg, Messrs.: E. W. Darbey, William R. Hine, J. P. Turner, Roderick McFarlane, H. Whellams, E. W. Wilson, Ashley Hine, Alexander Calder, J. McLean, J. Shaw Cottingham, J. K. MacDonald, S. J. Thompson, L.V.S., Gordon Bell, M.D., George Bryce, D.D., C. C. Chipman, H. B. Co. Commissioner. To The Honourable Senator J. Nesbitt Kirchhoffer, of Brandon, Man., and to Messrs.: A. S. Barton, Boissevain, Man., H. M. Speechly, M.D., Pilot Mound, Man., W. J. C. Tomalin, M.D., Deloraine, Man., H. C. Nead, Dauphin, Man., C. C. Helliwell, Brandon, Man., H. W. O. Boger, Brandon, Man., D. Nicholson, Morden, Man., John S. Charleson, MacDonald, Man. Other assistance is acknowledged in the context. E. T. S. CONTENTS. VOLUME I. PAGE TITLE PAGE 1 COPYRIGHT PAGE ii DEDICATION iii PREFACE V ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix CONTENTS xiii A LIST OF THE SPECIES HEREIN TREATED xv PLATES xxi FULL-PAGE AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS . xxiii MAPS xxix INTRODUCTION 3 A Sketch of the Physical Features of Mani- toba 3 The Faunal Areas and Life-zones of Canada ii The General Plan of Treatment for each Species 22 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE GRASS-EATERS . 35 xiii xiv Contents VOLUME IL PAGE TITLE PAGE . . . , o . . 1 COPYRIGHT PAGE ii PLATES V FULL-PAGE AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS vii MAPS xi LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE FLESH-EATERS 675 A LIST OF THE CHIEF WORKS CITED . I20I SYNOPTIC INDEX I22I A LIST OF THE SPECIES HEREIN TREATED. Class ^ajUjiaoa. (Comprising all backboned air-breathing creatures whose young are born alive (except the Australian Monotremes) and suck milk.) VOLUME I. i^oofeti Bea0t0— OrUer ^Ungulata. (Which includes all hoofed mammals; these are mostly of large size.) DEER FAMILY or Cervida— I. Wapiti or Canadian Elk, Cervus canadensis Erxleben. p. sj II. Northern Whitetailed Deer, Odocoileus virgin- ianus borealis Miller. p. 68 III. Blacktailed Mule-deer, Odocoileus hemionus (Rafinesque). p- 114 IV. Moose, Alces americanus Jardine. p. 144 V. Woodland Caribou, Rangifer caribou (Gmelin). p. 187 PRONGHORNED ANTELOPE FAMILY or Anti- locapridce — VI. Pronghorned Antelope, Antilocapra americana (Ord). P' 20Q xvi A List of the Species Herein Treated CATTLE FAMILY or Bovida— Vn. American Bison or Buffalo, Bison bison (Linnaeus). p. 247 laotients— Order dSlires. Nearly all the animals of this order are of small size. Their most obvious general character is in the teeth; they have no canines, and but two incisors in each jaw (except in the Rab- bits, which have four incisors in the upper jaw) ; these are chisel- edged, have persistent pulps, and are separated from the grinders by a wide, vacant space. SQUIRREL FAMILY or SciundcB— VIII. Common Red-squirrel, Sciurus hudsonicus Erxleben. p. 307 IX. Big or Eastern Chipmunk, Tamias striatus griseus Mearns. p. 337 X. Little Chipmunk, Eutamias quadnvtttatus neg- lectus (Allen). p. 364 XL Franklin Ground-squirrel, Citellus frankUni (Sabine). p. 372 XII. Richardson Ground-squirrel, Citellus richard- soni (Sabine). p. 380 XIII. Striped Ground-squirrel, Citellus tridecem- lineatus (Mitchill). p. 394 XIV. Canada "Woodchuck, Marmota monax cana- densis (Erxleben). p. 416 XV. Northern Flying- squirrel, Sciuropterus sa- brinus (Shaw). p. 437 BEAVER FAMILY or Castonda— XVI. Canadian Beaver, Castor canadensis Kuhl. P- 447 A List of the Species Herein Treated xvii MOUSE FAMILY or MundcB— XVII. Common House-mouse, Mus musculus Linn. p. 480 XVIII. Grasshopper-mouse, Onychomys leucogaster (Wied). p. ^83 XIX. Arctic Deermouse, Peromyscus maniculatus arc- ticus (Mearns). p. j.00 XlXa. Prairie Deermouse, Peromyscus maniculatus bairdi (Hoy and Kennicott). p. 499 XIX^. Nebraska Deermouse, Peromyscus maniculatus nehrascensis (IMearns). p. 505 XX. Canadian Red-backed Vole, Evotomys gap- pert (Vigors). p. 506 XXa. Prairie Red-backed Vole, Evotomys gapperi loringi Bailey. p. 513 XXI. Drummond Vole, Microtus pennsylvanicus drum- mondi (Audubon and Bachman). p. 515 XXII. Little Vole, Microtus minor (Merriam). p. 533 XXIII. Muskrat, Fiber zibethicus (Linnaeus). p. 538 XXIV. Bog-lemming, Synaptomys borealis (Richardson). P-558 GOPHER FAMILY or Geomyidce— XXV. Gray-gopher, Thomomys talpoides (Richardson). p. 561 JERBOA FAMILY or Dtpodidce— XXVI. Jumping-mouse, Zapus hudsonius (Zimmer- mann). p- 587 XXVIa. Prairie Jumping-mouse, Zapus hudsonius cam- pestris Preble. p. 604 PORCUPINE FAMILY or Erethizontidce— XXVII. Canada Porcupine, Erethizon dorsatum (Linnaeus). p- 605 xviii A List of the Species Herein Treated HARE FAMILY or Lepondcs— XXVIII. Snowshoe-rabbit or White-rabbit, Lepus americanus phcsonotus Allen. p. 621 XXVIIIa. Turtle Mountain Snowshoe-rabbit, Lepus americanus hishopi Allen. p. 653 XXIX. Prairie-hare, Lepus campestris Bachman. p. 654 VOLUME II. jFlesi) eaters^— €>rDer Carnitoora. Mostly large animals (except the Weasels) ; all (our spe- cies) have six small incisors in each jaw; four large canine teeth, and the premolars developed, not to grind, but to cut like shears. CAT FAMILY or Felidcs— XXX. Canada Lynx, Lynx canadensis Kerr. p. 677 DOG FAMILY or CamdcB— XXXI. KXt-io-x, ov S^ih^Vulpesvelox (Say). />. 700 XXXII. Royal Fox, Vulpes regalis Merriam. p. 706 XXXIII. Gray-wolf or Buffalo-wolf, Canis occidentalis Richardson. p. 749 XXXIV. Coyote or Prairie-wolf, Cams latrans Say. p. 789 WEASEL FAMILY or Mustelidce— XXXV. Canada Otter, Lutra canadensis (Schreber). XXXVI. Short-tailed Weasel, Putonus cicognanu (Bona- parte), p. 840 XXXVII. Least Weasel, Putorius rixosus Bangs, p. 858 A List of the Species Herein Treated xix XXXVIII. Long-tailed Weasel, Putonus longicauda (Bonaparte). p. 86^ XXXIX. Mink, Putorius vison (Schreber). p, 872 XL. Saskatchewan or Spruce Marten, Mustela americana ahieticola Preble. p. 001 XLI. Pekan or Fisher, Mustela pennanti Erxleben. p. 926 XLII. Wolverine, Gulo luscus (Linnaeus). p. 945 XLIII. Prairie Skunk, Mephitis hudsonica Richardson. p. 966 XLIV. Common Badger, Taxidea taxus (Schreber). P' 995 RACCOON FAMILY or Procyomda— XLV. Raccoon, Procyon lotor (Linnaeus). p. loio BEAR FAMILY or t/rjzW^— XLVI. Grizzly-bear, Ursus horrihiUs Ord. p. 1030 XLVII. Blackbear, Ursus americanus Pallas. p. 1052 10U5 eaters — €)rtjer 3nsecti\)ora. These (the Canadian species) are small mouse-like crea- tures, but usually seem to have neither eyes nor ears; their teeth are remarkably different from those of rodents, as they are sharp-pointed and close set without any vacant interspace, and most of them are tipped with dark brown. SHREW FAMILY or Soricidcs— XL VIII. Cooper Shrew, Sorex personatus I. Geoffrey St. Hilaire. p- 1091 XLIX. Richardson Shrew, Sorex richardsoni Bach- man. P- 1 106 L. Hoy Shrew, Microsorex hoyi (Baird). p. 1109 XX A List of the Species Herein Treated LI. Marsh-shrew, Neosorex palustns (Richardson). p. III2 LII. Mole-shrew, Blarina brevicauda (Say). p. Ill6 MOLE FAMILY or Talpidce— LIII. Star-nosed Mole, Condylura cristata (Linnaeus). 2l5at0— €)rtier Cljiroptera. Known at once by their skin or membranous wings and their power of flight. In character their teeth are be- tween those of Carnivora and Insectivora. WEB-TAILED BAT FAMILY or VesperttUomdcs— LIV. Little Brown-bat, Myotis lucifugus (Le Conte). p. 1 147 LV. Say Bat, Myotis subulatus (Say). p. 1163 LVI. Silver-haired Bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans (Le Conte). p. 1 1 66 LVII. House-bat or Big Brown-bat, Eptesicus fuscus (Beauvois). p. iijj LVIII. Red-bat, Lasiurus horealis (Mullet). p. 1183 LIX. Hoary-bat, Lfljzz/rw J c/n^r^wj (Beauvois). p. 1191 PLATES. PLATE Plate PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE PLATE Plate PLATE Plate Plate PLATE Plate Plate Plate Plate PLATE Plate Plate Plate I.— SKETCH FOR BUGLING ELK .... Frontispiece FACING PAGE II.— WAPITI GROUP, MALE AND TWO FEMALES ... 37 III.— ELK APPROACHING TO ATTACK (IN A PARK) ... 50 IV.— TRACKS OF Bull, Cow and Calf Elk in Snow . . 50 V. — WHITET AILED DEER 68 VI.— Mule-Deer fawn 114 VII.— Moose Family in Early Winter 144 VIIL— MOOSE GRAZING 178 IX.— Bull and cow Moose Tracks in about One Inch of Snow 178 X.— Woodland Caribou, Male and Female . . .187 XI.— Reindeer Half-Shed— Horns in Velvet . . .196 XII.— Sketches of a Maine Caribou 196 XIII. — SCATOLOGY OF THE DEER 2o6 XIV. — ANTELOPE SIGHTING DANGER 209 XV.— ANTELOPE IN NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK WITH DISCS CLOSED 225 XVI.— The Same Antelope with Discs Half Spread . . 225 XVII.— Sketch of a Young Antelope "Laying low" . . 225 XVIII.— LEAVING THE GREYHOUNDS BEHIND 232 XIX.— Young Antelope, from Life .241 XX.— ANTELOPE Approaching to attack 244 XXI.— HEADS OF YOUNG BUCKS 244 XXII.— A BUFFALO HERD IN THE EARLY FALL . . . 247 XXIII.— BUFFALO HERD , , . . 260 XXIV.— LEADING THE BUFFALO INTO THE POUND. . . . 271 XXV.— HEAD OF BUFFALO COW 271 xxi XXll Plates PLATE XXVI.— LIFE STUDIES ..... PLATE XXVII.— BUFFALO BULL TEARING UP THE GROUND PLATE XXVIII.— A VERY HiGH-HUMPED OLD BULL . PLATE XXIX.— THE OLD BULL'S LAST FIGHT PLATE XXX.— GOING TO WATER .... PLATE XXXI.— THROUGH THE MIST PLATE XXXII.— RED-SQUIRREL (ABOUT ^ LIFE SIZE) PLATE XXXIIL— Eastern chipmunk ( 561 XLI.— THE Lynx Making a Mistake 614 XLII.— Snowshoe-Rabbit in Summer Coat . .621 PLATE PLATE PLATE Plate Plate Plate XLIIL— Snowshoe-Rabbits 624 XLIV.— Photograph of Snowshoe-Rabbit (from New Hamp- shire) 628 XLV.— Scatology of Certain rodents 652 XLVL— Prairie-Hare 654 FULLPAGE AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. I.— Diagram showing the relationship of the Zones and Faunas of the Temperate Region Fig. 2. — The antlers of one Wapiti Fig. 3.— The A. L. TuUoch twenty-point Wapiti head Fig. 4. — The Wyoming Wapiti head . Fig. 5. — S. N. Leek — Eigh teen-point Wapiti head Fig. 6. — Montana Armory Wapiti head Fig. 7. — Fifteen-point Wapiti head Fig. 8. — Cow Elk with horns, in Jardin des Plantes Fig. 9. — Wapiti head — George A. Clark Fig. 10. — Wapiti head — Carter Collection Fig. II. — Three-horned Manitoba Wapiti head Fig. 12.— Wapiti head— Carter Collection Fig. 13. — Wapiti head — Colorado, 1900. W. McFadden Fig. 14. — The W. W. Hart twenty-eight point Wapiti head Fig. 15. — Left hind-legs of (i) Mule-deer, (2) Coast Deer and (3) Whitetail Fig. 16. — Typical antlers of (i) Whitetail and of (2) Mule-deer Fig. 17. — The tails and discs of various Deer Fig. 18. — Deer horn embedded in oak .... Fig. 19. — Antler of Virginia Deer embedded in tree trunk Fig. 20. — Whitetail Buck with remarkable palmations Fig. 21. — Antler gnawed by Porcupine Fig. 22. — Abnormal antlers of Whitetail Fig. 23. — Seventy-eight-point Whitetail killed in Texas Fig. 24. — Forty-two-point Adirondack buck . Fig. 25.— Thirty-five-point Whitetail from Minnesota . Fig. 26. — Three-horned Whitetail Fig. 27. — Quebec Whitetail Fig. 28. — Minnesota Whitetail Fig. 29.— Two Whitetail bucks with locked horns 21 57 57 57 57 59 59 59 61 61 61 61 61 61 69 69 70 79 79 79 79 79 81 81 81 8x 81 81 82 xxiv Full-Page and Other Illustrations Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38. 39 40 41, 42, 43. 44, 45. 46, 47. 48. 49. 50. 51- 52. 53. 54- 55. 56. 57- 58. 59. 60. 61, 62, 63. 64. 65. Alta. , — The snag ........ , — Sheep tracks, front and hind, different sized sheep , — Hind-foot of Whitetail buck at full speed. Track of right fore-foot . — Right feet of pig . — Doe track ...... —Tracks of Whitetail .... , — The Bonnechere head — Whitetail Deer . , — Typical Tails of Deer .... — A remarkable Wyoming Mule-deer head — Mule-deer freak antlers , — A thirty-two-point Mule-deer head , — British Columbia Mule-deer head . , — Mule-deer antlers collected by G. M. Fear at Banff — A three-antlered Mule-deer head . — Mule-deer antlers from Vernon, B. C. — A twenty-nine-pointer — Mule-deer head — Antler of emasculated buck . — Mule-deer head taken near Meeker, Colo., by John Marshall — Mule-deer head taken in Routt Co., Colo., by W. R. McFadden — Mule-deer head from Swan River, Man. .... — Mule-deer head taken at Banff, Alta., by T. Wilson . — Mule-deer head taken near Meeker, Colo. .... — A, The snag. B, The cap formed over the end by the ribs. C The Deer, showing course of snag — Blacktail track .... — Track of Mule Blacktail — Head of young buck — Earliest known drawing of a Moose — The 68J-inch New Brunswick Moose, taken by Dr. W. L. Munro — Freak head of Moose from Manitoba ..... — Abnormal antlers of three-year-old Moose shot at Lake Winnipeg — Moose antlers in the Museum of the Canadian Geological Survey Ottawa ..... — Moose antlers from the Upper Ottawa — Moose antlers from Manitoba .... — Moose antlers from Manitoba .... — Sixty-seven-inch Moose head from New Brunswick — Sixty-four-inch Moose head from St. Louis County, Minn. PAGE 93 95 95 95 95 95 102 116 120 121 122 122 122 122 122 122 123 123 123 123 123 123 138 139 139 142 148 155 156 156 156 156 156 156 157 157 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Full-Page and Other Illustrations 66. — Winnipeg Moose head .... 67. — Moose antlers, showing successive growths 68. — Spikes of a Maine Moose 69. — Ottawa Moose head .... 70. — Moose head from Manitoba. Prime of life 71.— Field Museum Moose head from Alaska 72.— Alaskan Moose antlers, 74^ inches (formerly 76 inches) 73-— A 73j-inch Moose head from Alaska .... 74. — Locked Moose antlers found in Algonkin Park, Ontario 75- — Unusual Moose bell, 18 inches long exclusive of hair . 76. — Cow Moose bell, 38 inches long 77-— Diagram of Moose bell, from old bull in about tenth year 78.— Cottontail Rabbit with bell Hke that of a Moose 79. — Why Moose horns are so seldom found 80. — Xanana Caribou head . , Ontario 81. — Horns of Mountain Caribou from the type specimen in Canadian Geological Survey Museum ...... 82. — Fifty-seven-point Caribou head from Kenai Peninsula. 83. — Thirty-nine-point Caribou head ...... 84. — Antlers of female Woodland Caribou from Lake Winnipeg . 85. — Antlers of female Caribou, each about ten inches long 86. — Caribou antlers— A remarkable set in the collection of W. F. White of Winnipeg, said to be from Lake Winnipeg . 87. — Antlers of Woodland Caribou (male) from Rat Portage, 88. — Right hind-foot of Newfoundland Caribou . 89. — Tracks of Woodland Caribou on Athabaska River 90. — Sketches of Norway Reindeer .... 91. — Sketches of Norway Reindeer .... 92. — Prehistoric drawing of Reindeer from Kesserloch Cave, Switzer- land ......... 93. — An Antelope pose ....... 94. — Antelope poses ....... 95. — Antelope poses ....... 96. — Tracks of large Antelope 97. — Diagram of buck Antelope's horns in his four successive 98. — Antelope with drooping horns .... 99. — Skin of crupper-discs ...... 100. — Earliest known picture of American Buffalo autumns XXV PAGE 157 159 160 160 160 161 161 161 162 162 163 163 164 168 194 194 194 195 195 195 195 195 199 200 204 206 208 211 211 211 211 222 224 226 252 xxvi Full-Page and Other Illustrations Fig. loi. — Series of Buffalo horns ..... Fig. I02. — Freak horn from Saskatchewan .... Fig. 103. — Freak Buffalo horn found on the Black Plateau Fig. 104. — Cattalo cow in herd of Buffalo Jones Fig. 105.— The big bull collected by Dr. W. T. Homaday . Fig. 106. — Cattalo yearling in herd of Buffalo Jones . Fig. 107. — A story of the plains ...... Fig. 108.— Right hind-paw, Red-squirrel .... Fig. 109. — Right fore-paw, Red-squirrel .... Fig. no. — Track of left hind-paw. Red-squirrel . Fig. III. — Showing the four nerve bristles on under side of Red-squirrel, with tufts of same on fore-legs, cheeks, etc. . Fig. 112. — Red-squirrel tracks in snow ..... Fig. 113. — Red-squirrels in life ....... Fig. 114. — Mushroom eaten by Red-squirrel, Bitter-root Mts., Idaho Fig. 115. — The Red-squirrel's playground, in a snowdrift . Fig. 116. — Opening of a Red-squirrel's snow-tunnel Fig. 117. — Poses, etc., of Common Chipmunk [T. ilrialu>' . Fig. 118. — Little Chipmunk Eulamias neglectui) .... Fig. 119. — Tracks of the Little Chipmunk ..... Fig. 120. — Burrow of Richardson Ground-squirrel, Whitewater, Manitoba (Plan) Fig. 121. — Runs of Richardson Ground-squirrel leading to a grain-field Carberry, Man. ....... Fig. 122. — Striped Spermophile's playground, Manitoba Fig. 123. — Burrow of Striped Ground-squirrel .... Fig. 124. — The larva of Cuterebra, secured at Carberry, Man. . Fig. 125. — Plans of Woodchuck burrows ..... Fig. 126. — Woodchuck — Tracks and paws. (M. monax canadensis) Fig. 127. — Diagrams of tails of the five races of Canadian Beaver Fig. 128. — Section of dam showing mud face up stream Fig. 129. — The Yancey Beaver Ponds, Yellowstone Park Fig. 130. — Views of the Yancey Beaver Ponds, Yellowstone Park Fig. 131. — Three remarkable Beaver canals. .... Fig. 132. — Plan of a Beaver burrow ...... Fig- 133- — Ground-plan of a bank-lodge Fig. 134. — Ground-plan of a more elaborate bank-lodge F>g- 135' — The largest chip I saw at the Yancey Ponds PAGE 275 275 282 282 283 303 319 319 319 319 319 324 327 329 330 349 365 366 386 389 399 400 410 422 432 448 454 456 459 461 463 462 462 464 Full-Page and Other Illustrations XXVll Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 36. — A 5-inch aspen just fallen 37. — Succession of attitudes in diving 38.— Feet of adult male Beaver (left side), taken near Fort Resolution M. T 39- — Life sketches of Beavers at work .... 40.— Left upper molars of genus Pewmyscus. Left upper molars of genus Mus. (Both greatly enlarged) 41- — The diseased Mouse and one of its parasites 42. — Skull and teeth of Onychomys leucogasler (Wied) . 43- — Tracks of Grasshopper-mouse, or Calling-mouse, going towards right, Yellowstone Park 44.— Left upper molars of genus Pewmyscus. Left upper molars of genus Mus. (Both greatly enlarged) .... 45- — Head of Deermouse showing the cheek pouches distended 46. — Tracks of Deermouse. (Running to left) .... 47. — Nest of Prairie Deermouse, Carberry, Man. 48. — Meadow-mouse Microlus pennsylvanicus (Ord.) 49. — Molar enamel-pattern of Microtus pennsylvanicus 50. — Right hind-foot of Driunmond Vole ..... 51. — Midden-heap of Microtus drummondi, with 2 back doors con tributory .......... 52. — Midden-heap of Microtus pennsylvanicus, with 6 back doors con tributory .......... S3. — Mastology of: Evotomys athabascae; Microtus drummondi; Peromyscus arcticus ......... 54. — Molar enamel-pattern of Microtus {Pedomys) austerus 55. — Log that was a favourite landing-place and news-depot of the Muskrats on a small stream 40 miles east of Kippewa, Que With illustrations of their scatology 56. — Sketch and plan of a Muskrat den at Cos Cob, Conn. 57. — Section of the simplest style of den made by Muskrat, Cos Conn. ......... 58. — A large rat-house sketched at Lake Winnipegosis. As seen above, and in plan ....... 59. — Tracks of Muskrat ....... 60. — Muskrat foot with the tiny hoofs .... 61. — Right fore-paw and hind-foot of T. fossor i{ 62. — Life studies of Thomomys lalpoides. .... 63. — Composite plant. (Food of Thomomys) Cob from PAGE 466 468 469 481 482 484 489 491 492 495 502 518 519 520 524 525 527 533 543 545 546 548 551 557 561 566 S68 xxviii Full-Page and Other Illustrations PAGE Fig. 164. — Pocket-gopher. Attitudes in burrowing; the same animal in different poses 569 Fig. 165. — Burrow of T. talpoides 57° Fig. 166. — Burrow of talpoides, Carberry, Man 573 Fig. 167. — Typical residential burrow of a Thomomys ..... 574 Fig. 168. — Prairie sections made at Carberry, Man., to illustrate the num- ber of Gopher burrows near the surface ..... 576 Fig. 169. — Snow-tunnels of Pocket-gopher 577 Fig. 170. — Work of monlkola, near Lake Tahoe, California .... 582 Fig. 171. — Gopher work in Colorado, on a space 24 feet square . . 583 Fig. 172. — Skull of Zapus hudsonius ........ 587 Fig. 173. — Quill from back of Porcupine magnified 14 diameters . 615 Fig. 174. — Feet of Hares, half life-size 626 Fig. 175. — Tracks of the Snowshoe-rabbit ....... 634 Fig. 176. — Snowshoe-rabbit — poses from life. ...... 638 Fig. 177. — Feet of Prairie-hare ......... 659 Fig. 178. — Life-studies of Prairie-hare, made chiefly in Wyndygoul Park . 662 Fig. 179. — Tracks of the Prairie-hare ........ 666 Fig. 180. — Lines to illustrate the actions of Whitetail and Blacktail Jack- rabbits running ......... 667 Fig. 181. — Prairie-hare with horns, each about 3 inches long . . . 671 Fig. 182. — Tail-pieces of four species 673 MAPS. __ „ PAGE MAP I.— Manitoba, showing forests and Prairies in 1905 . . 5 Map 2.— The Glacial Lake Agassiz •-..... 6 Map 3.— Faunal Areas of North America (exclusive of the Tropics) . 18 Map 4.— Distribution of Wapiti or Elk in 1500 and in 1900 . . 43 Map 5.— range of the north American Whitet ailed Deer . . 75 Map 6.— Primitive Range of the Mule Blackt ail and its Five Races. 119 Map 7. — Primitive Range of the moose igi Map 8.— Range of the Caribou 189 Map 9.— Range of the Pronghorned Antelope and Its Two Races . 213 Map 10. — Range of the American Buffalo 255 Map II.— Forest Plains and Prairies of North America (exclusive of mexico) 257 Map 12. — Buffalo Migration According to Professor hind's Record . 264 Map 13.— Range of the North American Red-Squirrels . . . 309 Map 14. — Distribution of the Eastern Chipmunk in Manitoba . . 339 Map 15. — Range of the common Chipmunk and Its Four Races . 340 Map 16.— Distribution of the little Chipmunk in Manitoba . . 367 Map 17.— Range of the Small Chipmunks Found in British North America 368 Map 18. — Distribution of the Franklin Ground-Souirrel in Mani- toba (PROVISIONAL) 373 Map 19.— Range of the Franklin and Richardson Ground-squirrels . 374 Map 20. — Distribution of the Richardson Ground-Squirrel in Mani- toba 381 Map 21.— Range of the Striped Ground-Squirrel and its Seven Races 395 Map 22.— Distribution of the Woodchuck in Manitoba, so far as Ascertained 418 Map 23.— Range of the Woodchucks of north America . .. . 419 xxix XXX Map 24. Map 25. Map 26. Map 27. Map 28. Map 29. Map 30. Map 31. Map 32. MAP 33. Map 34, MAP 35. Map 36. Map 37. Map 38. Maps -RANGE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN FLYING-SQUIRRELS -RANGE OF THE AMERICAN BEAVER WITH ITS FIVE RACES . -RANGE OF THE LARGE GRASSHOPPER-MlCE -RANGE OF THE NORTHERN DEERMOUSE AND ITS NORTHERN Races -Range of Red-Backed Voles of the Genus Evotomys -Range of the Large meadow-Mice -Range of the Little vole and Its Near kin -range of the muskrats -Range of the bog-Lemmings -range of the pocket-gophers .... -range of the pocket-gopher in manitoba . -Range of the American Jumping-Mice . -range of the north american porcupines . -Range of the Snowshoe-Rabbit and Its Races -RANGE OF the PRAIRIE-HARE AND ITS THREE RACES PAGE 439 449 487 493 507 523 535 539 559 563 564 589 607 625 656 LIFE-HISTORIES OF NORTHERN ANIMALS INTRODUCTION. A Sketch of the Physical Features of Manitoba. Manitoba lies between 49° and 52° 50' North Lati- tude; and between 95° 15' and nearly 191° 30' West Longitude. It is 47 Townships wide (=282 miles) by 44 Townships high (=264 miles), and has a total area of 74,448 square miles. Geology.* The Laurentian system, which constitutes the largest part of the Archaean or fundamental crystalline series, includes the oldest rocks of the earth's crust. They are divided into older and newer parts. The north-eastern quarter of North America, including Greenland and most of the larger islands in that direction, consists of the older or primitive gneiss series, of Lower Laurentian age; but the newer Laurentian is also represented in Baffin-land and in eastern Labrador. Most of this immense Laurentian area is not greatly elevated, the general surface constituting a pene-plain with a mammillated surface. In north-eastern Labrador and throughout the great island of Baffin-land, more than 1,000 miles in length, the same rocks form mountain ridges from 3,000 to 8,000 feet in height, the higher parts of which are not glaciated Hke the extensive Laurentian pene-plains just described. The Huronian system, consisting of older and newer divisions, constitute the upper portion of the Archaean rocks. This is the great metalliferous series of the Dominion. Be- tween it and the Laurentian, a volcanic group to which the name Kiwaitin ("Keewatin") has been given, is generally, but not always, found. ' For a revision of this chapter I am indebted to Dr. Robert Bell, of the Canadian Geological Survey. 3 4 Life-histories of Northern Animals In Manitoba the Laurentian area lies to the eastward of Lake Winnipeg and the prairies of the Red River Valley, and its rocks belong to the lower division, or that of the primitive gneiss. They extend eastward a long distance toward Hud- son Bay. In St. Martin's Lake some small islands consist of gneiss, and the same rock has been found, by boring, to underlie the horizontal sedimentary rocks to the southward of Lake Manitoba. The Archaean rocks probably underlie these strata throughout Manitoba, their depth from the surface increasing to the south and west. The Laurentian rocks of the province are immediately overlaid to the westward by unaltered and almost horizontal beds of the Ordivician or Cambro-Silurian system. Along the west side of Lake Winnipeg these consist of sandstones at the bottom, overlaid by impure magncsian limestones. Thick- bedded mottled yellowish-gray magnesian limestones of the same horizon are found at East and West Selkirk. At Stoney Mountain fossiliferous limestones occur which are somewhat higher in the series. Above the Ordivician rocks, the Devonian system is represented on both sides of Lakes Manitnha and W innipegosis by limestones which are much less magnesian than those of that series. Rocks belonging to nnc or the other of the two systems just mentioned are believed to underlie most of the Red River Valley in Manitoba. At Burnside a boring made by the Canadian Pacific Railway Company in 1874 showed the Devonian at that locality to be King directly upon Lauren- tian gneiss. On the second prairie lc\cl, that is, all the Assiniboine prairies west of the escarpment of Pembina, Riding, and Duck Mountain, the Devonian is overlaid by a series of Cretaceous shales that are exposed at many points along the river valleys, as well as on the eastern front of the above-named escarpment. On Turtle Mountain we find the Laramie limestones be- tween the Cretaceous shales and the surface deposits or drift. The drift is composed of boulder clay, overlaid in places with lake-bottom clay or sometimes delta sand. The clav and MAP I— MANITOBA, SHOWING FORESTS AND PRAIRIES IN 1905. Also the places mentioned in this work. 6 Life-histories of Northern Animals other surface materials have In most parts of our province been worked up by plant and animal agencies, into a layer of rich black mould. The important part played in this by the Pocket-gopher is duly set forth in the chapter devoted to that species. The Steppes of the Prairie. The first or lowest Prairie Steppe embraces all the Red River Valley proper. It slopes from 710 feet above the sea at Lake Winnipeg to nearly 1,000 feet in Minnesota. This is HUDSON THE GLACIAL LAKEAGASSIZ The Scjuare shows present Boundries of Manitoba." Map 2 — The Glacial Lake Agassiz. Redrawn from sketch in Dr. George Bryce's paper. See foot-note 2, opposite. really the floor of the old Lake Agassiz, whose waters, impris- oned by a great glacier to the northward, or by some other cause, flooded the region and overflowed southward into the Mississippi at Lake Traverse. Its western bank is the escarpment known as Pembina, Riding, Duck, and Porcupine Mountains. It receded by degrees owing to relative changes of elevation in the land; or, as some suppose, with the melting Introduction 7 of an ice-barrier. Records of the levels are found in at least seventeen different beaches. This lake was there so recently — 5,000 to 7,000 years ago, it is estimated^ — that the land it once covered is yet unfurrowed by erosion, and the rivers that cross its bed have not had time to scoop out valleys for themselves. Stoney Mountain, rising eighty feet above the plain, is a mass of Hudson River (Silurian) limestone that escaped part of the erosion of the glaciers, and stands in its original posi- tion a monument of former levels and formations. Bird's Hill, north-east of Winnipeg, an accumulation of gravel and sand, is now believed to be an **osar," that is, either a glacial river-delta or the slack-water dump where two glacial rivers joined. The long gravel ridges formed in various parts of the First Prairie Steppe are the ancient beaches of Lake Agassiz at its different levels. The highest of these is to be seen on the Pembina Mountain, between Morden and Thornhill. Each of these beaches has an upward slope to the northward of about one foot to the mile, showing a total elevation of about 300 feet at the outlet of Lake Winnipeg, as compared with the level of the ridges of the former Lake Agassiz opposite the southern part of Lake Manitoba. The Second Prairie Steppe finds its eastern border at the west shore line of Lake Agassiz. It includes the rest of the province on that side, except Turtle Mountain, and is bounded westerly by the Coteau du Missouri, or Third Prairie Steppe. This second prairie level had apparently two great lakes in early glacial times — one Lake Saskatchewan, the other Lake Souris. The level plains of the Souris country were the floor of the latter, and White-water Lake is its last remnant. At this time we believe Lake Saskatchewan was cut off by the land ice and the Pasquia Hills from Lake Agassiz, and the » Dr. George Bryce, Surface Geol. Red River. Trans. Hist, and Sci. Soc. Man., No. 41, 1891, p. I. 8 Life-histories of Northern Animals waters of both Saskatchewan rivers, discharging into it, found their overflow near the Elbow and went by way of the present Qu'Appelle Valley into Lake Souris. The sandhills extending west of Griswold are the delta sands of this old Saskatchewan. Lake Souris, receiving the waters of the Saskatchewan, Assiniboine, and Souris Rivers, found its overflow in a mighty flood that swept down through Lang's Valley, Rock Lake, Swan Lake, and Pembina Valley to discharge into Lake Agassiz, where it formed an extensive sandy delta, now represented by the sandhills where the Pembina River issues from Pembina Hills, in Dakota. But probably the receding of the supposed glacier allowed the overflow of Lake Souris to find a lower channel into Lake Agassiz, by way of the Grand Valley of the Assiniboine, at Brandon. The Carberry and adjoining sandhills are the delta deposits at the new mouth of the great river. The varied forms of these hills are due to the piling and sculpturing power of the wind. A further recession of the glacier lowered Lake Saskatche- wan to the level of Lake Agassiz, joining them together at the north of Pasquia Hills, as shown in the map. Thus Manitoba lost the Saskatchewan; for now that famous stream had dropped lower than the slight ridge that cuts it off^ from its ancient channel — the valley of Qu'Appelle — and following the low lands to the north it settled into the bed wherein we see it to-day. The average altitude of this Second Prairie Steppe is, according to Dr. George M. Dawson,' i,6oo feet above the sea, or about 800 feet above the first Prairie Steppe. The rise is well shown between Morden and Thornhill where there is a difference of over 300 feet in six miles. Dr. George Bryce considers' that the Tiger Hills, Brandon Hills, Arrow Hills, etc., are vast moraines, or dumps of drift material that was side-tracked from the glaciers. ' Geol. and Resour., 49th Parallel, B. N. A., Bound Comm., 1875, P- 5- * Surface Geol. Red River Trans. Hist, and Sci. Soc. Man., No. 41, 1891, p. 5. Introduction 9 The Third Prairie Steppe, or Coteau du Missouri, is far beyond our limits, except for the Turtle Mountain, which, rising some 500 feet above the plain to the east of it, is more than 2,000 feet above the sea, and is a sort of island or eastern outlier of the Third Prairie Steppe, which extends to the foot of the Rocky Mountains. Salt Springs. In Professor Macoun's book, "Manitoba and the Great Northwest,"^ I find the following: *' Numerous salt springs are found in connection with them [the Devonian Rocks]. "The subjoined list of those known to occur on Lakes Mani- toba and Winnipegosis may tend to excite interest in these extensive deposits: 1. Crane River, Lake Manitoba. 2. Waterhen River, Dickson's Landing. 3. Salt Point, east side of Lake Winnipegosis. 4. Salt Springs, Lake Winnipegosis. 5. Pine River, Lake Winnipegosis. 6. Rivers near Duck Bay. 7. Turtle River, Lake Dauphin. 8. Swan or Shoal River, two localities. 9. Salt River, flowing into Dawson Bay. 10. Numerous salt springs and bare, saturated tracts of many acres in extent on Red Deer River, which flows into the head of Dawson Bay, Lake Winnipegosis. For ten miles up this river, salt springs are quite frequent, and in former years excellent salt was collected in three places, where it formed a crust on the surface of the ground. Some springs were ex- amined where a respectable rivulet of strong brine issued from them, as clear as crystal, and evidently quite pure. All the springs and marshes seen were bordered with seaside plants, and one of them, which has never been found from the sea coast be- fore in America, was found in abundance. The plant referred * Manitoba and the Great Northwest, 1883, p. 400. 10 Life-histories of Northern Animals to is Sea-Side Plantain {Plantago marittma).'' To this Dr. Robert Bell adds: "In the country lying immediately to the south-west of Westbourne are several springs or water holes which are slightly saline." The following extracts from Professor H. Y. Hind's report" shows that this line of saliferous strata goes quite across our Province: "Near and west of Stoney Mountain many small barren areas occur, covered with a saline efflorescence; they may be traced to the Assiniboine, and beyond that river in a direction nearly due south to La Riviere Sale and the forty-ninth parallel. These saline deposits are important, as they in all probability serve, as will be shown hereafter, to denote the presence of salt- bearing rocks beneath them, similar to those from which the salt springs of Swan River, Manitoba Lake, and La Riviere Sale issue." Alkaline Lakes. In addition to the Salt springs and numerous fresh-water lakes, there are hundreds of alkaline lakes and ponds. These are mere drainage basins, depending solely on evaporation for the removal of their accumulated waters. They owe their alkaline impregnation, not to anything of the nature of salt- bearing strata, but to the continual influx and evaporation of surface water, very slightly impregnated with alkali, through running over the prairie soils derived from the Cretaceous marls which contain alkaline salts. These "dead waters" rarely have fish in them, but they are usually swarming with a species of amby- stoma, besides numerous kinds of leeches, frogs, aquatic insects, and larvae. They have, I believe, several peculiar sedges, and are frequented by certain birds that seem to avoid fresher waters ; of these the Baird sparrow and the avocet are examples. White-water, the relic of Lake Souris, is the largest of the strongly alkaline lakes. Shoal Lake is larger but is inter- mediate in character, its waters being but slightly alkaline and ^ Assin. and Sask. Expl. Exped., 1859, p. 40. Introduction 11 having an occasional overflow into Lake Manitoba; it abounds in jackfish and sticklebacks. A remarkable circumstance about these lakes is the fact that they grow larger and deeper, for a time, then gradually shrink. That is to say, the general level of water in the whole Province, rises and falls in a cycle of years. Just what the period of years is has not been determined. In 1882 at Car- berry the water was high, but falhng; in 1884 it was much lower; 1892 was a year of very low water; in 1904 it was very high. The explanation is unknown to me. Forests and Prairies. Four-fifths of Manitoba is in the forest region. The true Prairies are found only in the south-western quarter of our country; and this is so much varied by tracts of hills and wooded river-valleys, occupying fully one-quarter of the area, that the prairies themselves do not aggregate more than one- sixth of the entire province. The map showing the distribution of timber I compiled in 1890, from personal observations, assisted by Reports of the Dominion Geographical and Geological Survey, and the Reports of the United States Tenth Census. In 1905 I found that though much good timber had been cut, there was no very material change in the boundaries of the tracts formerly classed as wooded country. There can be no doubt that in past ages large areas were denuded of trees and turned into prairies, by wild-fire; but this agency has become inoperative. The true Plains were treeless from other causes. The Faunal Areas and Life Zones of Canada/ By far the most important factor in the distribution of life is temperature. The grand temperature point in nature, the one at which ' This is founded chiefly on Dr. J. A. Allen's Natural Provinces of the North American Temperate Region, 1871, his Geographical Distribution of the Mammals 12 Life-histories of Northern Animals all life conditions are changed suddenly, is the freezing point of water, and the two most important divisions of North Amer- ica are shown by lines drawn across the continent indicating: (a) The region in which water never freezes, and (b) The region in which water is always more or less frozen; Or in other words: (a) The south limit of frost, and (b) The south limit of perpetual frost in the ground that is exposed to the direct rays of the sun. These lines demark respectively the north edge of the Tropical and the south edge of the Arctic Realms; the region between is the Temperate Realm. Thus we have the primary division of the northern hemisphere, into Tropical, Temperate, and Arctic Realms, corresponding with the distribution of plants and animals, and that portion of each which belongs to North America is called a Region. I The Tropical Region If the earth were flat and without currents of air or water, the north boundary of the Tropical Realm would coincide exactly with the geographical Tropic of Cancer (N. Lat. 23 1°), which is the northernmost limit where at some time each year the sun is direct overhead. It is virtually this line modified by local influences, pushed northward by currents of warm water and southward by cool high uplands. This is the region where frost is unknown, where the summer is long and hot, and where there is no cold winter. It is the land of the palm-trees, the parrots and monkeys, the home of the black human races. (Bull. U. S. Gcol. and Geog. Survey Terr., 1878, Vol. IV, No. 2), his Geographical Distribution of North American Mammals (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Dec. 29, 1892, read Jan. 26, 1891), Dr. C. Hart Merriam's Geographical Distribution of Life in North America (Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., April 13, 1892), and Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States (Bull. No. 10, Biological Survey, 1898); with assistance in California from Joseph Grinnell's maps in Pacific Coast Avifauna, No. 3, 1902. I have taken Dr. Allen's nomenclature as a basis, adopted Dr. Merriam's main lines of division, and, for the region north of the northern boundary of the United States, have proposed some new names and subdivisions. Introduction 13 2 The Arctic Region. Similarly, the south boundary of the Arctic Region is virtually the Arctic Circle (N. Lat. 66i°), which is the south limit of day without night in mid-summer; and night without day in mid-winter, that is, the land of the midnight sun; and this would be the exact south boundary of the Arctic Region, but that in America the cold currents of Hudson's Bay, etc., and the warm currents of the Mackenzie and Yukon, etc., have bent the line southward and northward as indicated. This is the land of long, cold winters and short, mild sum- mers, the country where frost never leaves the soil. It is a region without trees, the home of the White Bear, the White Fox, the Polar White Hare, the White Lemming, white owl, and the snowbird. And whether considered in the far north, or on the moun- tain tops which form Arctic islands in the warmer regions, its south or lower boundary is the best-marked faunal line in America. 3 The Temperate Region. Lying between these two takes in the United States and the greater part of Canada. Its north line is the limit of trees, Its south line the limit of frost. This is the region of long, bright summer, and of short, cold winter that comes with frost and snow. This is the range of deciduous trees, as well as of pines and spruces, the land of corn and wine, the proper home of the agricultural white man. Canada is concerned only with the Arctic and Temper- ate Regions. Each of these regions is divisible into several Life-zones, which theoretically extend east and west across the continent. These also are bounded on the north and on the south chiefly by the lines of temperature. Concerning these limits Merriam says: "Investigations conducted by the Biological Survey have shown that the northern distribution of terrestrial animals and plants is governed by the sum of the positive temperatures for the entire season of growth and reproduction. 14 Life-histories of Northern Animals and that the southward distribution is governed by the mean tem- perature of a brief period during the hottest part of the year." * But other factors enter the problem of distribution. Of these humidity is probably most important. In North Amer- ica it makes divisional lines and cuts each of the temperate zones in two or three segments called Faunas. This is a theoretical limitation. As a matter of practice the boundaries of the Faunas were arrived at by actual observation, thus: When a great many of the well-marked life-forms called species agree in recognizing a common limit, the fact is ac- cepted as evidence that within that area is a set of conditions necessary to create a Fauna (or Flora). A Faunal area may be divided into several subfaunas. These are of course less pronounced. When a species is found ranging over several subfaunas it is usually represented in each by a geographical race. The Arctic Region is divided into five Faunas: Alaskan^ characterized by the Fur-seal, Northern Sea-lion, Banded-seal, Pacific Walrus, Grant Caribou, yellow wagtail, Emperor goose, Steller eider. Nelson gull. Barren-ground, characterized in its main area by Muskox, Parry Ground-squirrel, Lemmings, blue-goose, snow-goose, willow ptarmigan, etc. {Ungava and certain Polar Islands should probably be ranked as subfaunas of this.) Greenland, characterized by Greenland Caribou, Ward Muskox, Greenland redpoll linnets, Reinhardt ptarmigan, and various European species. Alpine, which is the top of each mountain that rises above timber line anywhere in North America, and characterized by white-tailed ptarmigan, pipit. Calling-hare, etc. Aleutian Fauna,^ comprising the Aleutian Peninsula and contiguous Islands, a treeless coast region characterized chiefly by peculiar species of Voles; also of birds, such as * Life Zones and Crop Zones, etc., 1898, p. 54. " In moving this from the Temperate to the Arctic Realm I follow Osgood, N. A. Fauna, No. 24, 1904, p. 24. Introduction 15 Alaska wren, gray-naped finch, gray song-sparrow, Nelson ptarmigan, Atken ptarmigan, etc. Some consider the Arctic to be of one fauna; if this view be accepted these five will be subfaunas. The Temperate Region is divided into the following: The Hudsonian Zone or Fauna comprises the northern or spruce belt of the great coniferous forest that stretches across the continent from Labrador to Alaska — and that runs south- ward along the uppe-r timbered slopes of the higher mountains of the United States and Mexico. It lies next the Barren- grounds of the north, and the Alpine of the high mountains, and in both is the region of stunted spruce, and the home of many characteristic birds and mammals. It is found in five subfaunas: (a) The Hudsonian Subfauna or true Hudsonian, whose south limit is about summer isotherm 55°. Characteristic species are: northern shrike, common red-poll, Harris sparrow, tree-sparrow, white-crowned sparrow, gray-cheeked thrush. (b) The Yukon Hudsonian Subfauna, the region of the White Sheep, the Alaskan Grizzly, several species of Brown bear, etc. (c) The Subalpine or Mountain Hudsonian Subfauna chiefly in Yukon and British Columbia, characterized by Mountain-goat, Black-sheep, Clark crow, etc. (d) The Labrador or Atlantic Hudsonian Subfauna, characterized chiefly by very dark races of species that are widely spread over several faunas. In this subfauna, at Hamilton Inlet, is an island of the Canadian fauna. (e) The Newfoundland Subfauna. This is the Hudsonian part of Newfoundland; owing to its isolation it is fairly well marked. Its species are many, for example, the Newfound- land or White Caribou, the Newfoundland Lynx, Newfound- land Red-fox, Welch ptarmigan, etc. The Canadian Fauna. — The Canadian Fauna is the southern part of the great transcontinental coniferous forest 16 Life-histories of Northern Animals and is prolonged southward, as shown, along elevated plateaus and mountains in irregular capes and islands as far as Mexico. Among the many characteristic mammals and birds of the Canadian Zone are the Porcupines, Woodland Caribou, Star-nosed, Brewer and Gibbs Moles, Water-shrews, Voles and Long-tailed Shrews of various species. Northern Jumping- mice. The north limit of this Fauna forms the northern limit of the large Skunks, the Star-nosed Moles, the Hoary-bat, the Woodchuck, etc. Its southern edge is also the southern limit of the Canada Lynx, the Wolverene, Pine-martens, Moose, Caribou, the Porcupines, and various species of Short-tailed Meadow-mice of the genus Phenacomys, etc. Characteristic birds are the white-throated sparrow, Blackburnian, yellow- rumped, and Audubon warblers, olive-backed thrush, hermit- thrush, three-toed woodpeckers, crossbills, and Canada jays. It is found in two subfaunas: (a) The Canadian subfauna, or Canadian proper, extend- ing in its main area from the Atlantic Ocean westward to the east slope of the Coast Range. This is a land of coniferous trees and aspens. Among its characteristic animals are Moose, Wood- land Caribou, Canada Porcupine, hermit-thrush, spruce grouse. (b) The Rocky Mountain subfauna, extending from South- ern British Columbia southward along the higher mountains into Mexico. The Mountain Caribou, Canadian Mountain- sheep, the Yellow-haired Porcupine, Yellow-bellied Marmot, Rhoads Marten, Baird Hare, etc., are characteristic of its main area. The Sitkan Fauna might be considered a west-coast division of the Canadian. It is characterized chiefly by ex- ceptional rainfall, dense forests, and heavy-coloured races of birds and mammals that have a wide distribution; but it has very few distinctive species of animals. The Pacific Coast Fauna, comprising the immediate coast from Queen Charlotte Islands down to middle California, characterized by mild winters, very heavy rainfall, forests of Introduction 17 enormous trees, and many peculiar animals, as Sewellel, Coast Deer, Pacific Raccoon, etc. (N. B. — Merriam combines the Arctic Realm with Hudsonian, Canadian, and Pacific faunas to form his Boreal Zone.) The Campestrian Fauna. — The region of the northern plains, where there is yet rain enough to banish aridity. In British America this appears as two subfaunas: (a) The Campestrian proper or Saskatchewan, of which characteristic species are: Richardson Ground-squirrel, Long- tailed Weasel, Northern Kit-fox, Northern Pocket-gopher, Prairie-hare, Richardson merlin, Columbia sharp-tailed grouse, white-winged blackbird. Its north limit is also the hmit of west- ern meadow-lark, McCown longspur, oriole. Cooper hawk, etc. (b) The Okanagan Subfauna in Southern British Colum- bia, a dry region in which we find: Okanagan Marmot, Douglas Pocket-gopher, Pocket-mice (Perognathus), Jack- rabbit, Badger, Whitetailed Deer, etc. The Alleghanian Fauna takes in part of the new Province of Saskatchewan, south-western Manitoba, most of southern Ontario and Nova Scotia. At its northern border the Alle- ghanian forms about the northern limit of the Panther, the Raccoon, the Mole-shrew, the bluebird, catbird, chewink, brown thrasher, and bobolink. Its north border is the south limit of Moose and Caribou. Its southern border forms about the southern limit of the Ermines, the Harbour Seal, the Com- mon Chipmunk, several species of Field-mice (genera Evotomys and Synaptomys), the Snowshoe-hare, etc. It appears in two subfaunas: , (a) The Western or Prairie Alleghanian subfauna w^est- ward of Lake Michigan. Characteristic species are: Gray Chipmunk, Loring Red-vole, Minnesota Red-squirrel, etc. (b) The Eastern or Woodland Alleghanian subfauna chiefly east of Lake Michigan. Characteristic species are: Ontario Gray-squirrel and Northern Cottontail. MAP 3— FAUNAL AREAS OF NORTH AMERICA EXCLUSIVE OF THE TROPICS. 18 Introduction 19 The Divisions on the Map opposite may be set forth thus: Arctic Region divided into: Faunas Greenland Alaskan Barrenground Alpine Aleutian Temperate Region divided into: Faunas Subalpine subfauna Yukon Hudsonian ( Hudsonian Labrador Newfoundland subfauna Canadian SiTKAN Pacific Coast Campestrian ^Canadian subfauna I Rocky Mt. subfauna Saskatchewan or True Campestrian subfauna Okanacan subfauna Alleghanian [Western or Prairie Alleghanian subf. '^r.astern or Woodland subfauna Boreal Zone Transition Carolinian (with Upper Sonoran)=Upper Austral T ^TT,o..»,x.., /The Gulf-strip and the \ Lower Louisianian -r o 1 = A I *■ Lower bonoran together > Austral Austral Zone Tropical Region: Shown here in broad outline only 19 20 Life-histories of Northern Animals (The Pacific, Campestrian and Alleghanian Faunas to- gether are Merriam's Transition Zone.) The Carolinian Fauna, touching the extreme of southern Ontario, that is, the lower region along the north shore of Lake Erie. The northern boundary of this Fauna forms, in a general way, the northern limit of the Gray-fox, the Northern Fox- squirrels, the Pine-mouse, the Opossum, and the Bats of the genus Isf ycticejus. (The Carolinian and Upper Sonoran Faunas together are Merriam's Upper Austral Zone.) Map 3 sets forth these main divisions, but cannot, of course, give the complex local details. As a matter of fact every high mountain must and does exhibit a succession of faunal areas from its base to its summit. So that all the great mountain ranges of western Canada should be spotted on the summits with islands of Arctic fauna around which are Hudsonian rings. Furthermore, the valleys that run east and west are always more boreal on the shady side than on the north side, where the slope gives them more directly the rays of the sun. Faunal Areas of Manitoba. We find that our Province falls within the limits of two of the subfaunas: The true Canadian and the Western Allegha- nian; and the dividing line between is drawn nearly straight from the south-eastern to the north-western angle of the Province. This coincides with the summer isotherm or 65°. North of it is: The Canadian Fauna. — The country embraced is one stretch of rugged, rocky hills, chiefly Laurentian, varied with numerous rivers and clear-water lakes, and covered with a continuous coniferous forest. The most characteristic trees of this forest are white spruce (Picea canadensis), black BOREAL ZONE TRAN- SITION ZONE vAUSTRAL ^ ZONE Fig. I — Diagram showing the reLitionship of the Zones and Faunas of the Temperate Region. A Zone usually comprises one or more faunas. Subfaunas are not entered. The shading is heavy in proportion to the rainfall. 22 Life-histories of Northern Animals spruce (P. mariana), jack pine {Pinus divaricata), tamarack {Larix laricina), and canoe birch {Betula papyri f era). Among the characteristic animals are: The Caribou, Porcupine, Moose, Marten, and Wolverene. The Hudsonian chickadee, Arctic three-toed woodpecker, Canada nuthatch, spruce grouse, and Canada jay are distinctive birds. Riding, Duck, and Porcupine Mountains may be con- sidered islands of this region lying far south of its proper limits and surrounded by Alleghanian conditions, but so elevated as to be Canadian in fauna and flora. Alleghanian Fauna. — South of this great diagonal line is the Alleghanian Fauna. In this we find our prairies and deciduous forests. The most abundant tree of these forests is the poplar or quaking aspen {Populus tremuloides). The elm {JJlmus americana) and mossy-cup oak {Quercus macrocarpa) are the most characteristic. We find also the mountain ash {Pyrus samhuci folia), box elder or ash-leaved maple {Acer negundo), black poplar {Populus halsamifera), and canoe birch {Betula papyrifera). The last two named occur likewise in the Canadian. This is the region of the Province where the Antelope and the Kit-fox were formerly abundant. Characteristic species found there to-day are Elk, White- tailed Deer, Mule-deer, Badger, Pocket-gopher, Yellow Ground- squirrel, and Coyote; among reptiles, the snapping turtle, painted turtle, red-bellied snake, and green-snake; and among birds, the wood-duck, the chestnut-sided warbler, the night heron. The General Plan of Treatment for Each Species. In order to cover the ground more fully and systematically I have considered each animal under some thirty different heads, asking of each in turn — What do we know of it in this department, or how far has it progressed along these fines? When nothing is said it means that nothing is known. In the light of this, then, we are struck by the number of blanks and CLA- TURE Introduction 23 are thus brought to a realization of how much there is to be done. In many cases we have got no further than giving the creature a name. The sections are briefly indicated below. Their order is varied whenever it has seemed best suited to the material. The accepted or acceptable English names are first nomen- recorded; second, the scientific names used by the leading American mammalogists, with the important references. The French-Canadian names have next place. Experience shows that a record of the Indian names may be of great service to travellers and historians; therefore I give them as fully as possible in the language of each of the tribes that touch Manitoba, or that I personally came in contact with. In my preliminary account of the "Mammals of Mani- toba" (1887) I gave only the Ojibwa and Cree names, and used a special alphabet that had been recommended by several Ethnologists; but I found it open to at least two objections: first, that the Ethnologists themselves were not agreed on it; and, second, that only the few who had the alphabet could use my list. The records were meant for the whole world of stu- dents, in and out of Manitoba. Therefore I have now adopted Sir John Richardson's plan, and have given the Indian names in the English alphabet; the letter "g" being hard always. The names of species treated in this book are capitalized capi- throughout. When a number is used in an exact or mathematical sense n'^^m- HERS I prefer to express it in figures; except for i and 2 figure di- visions of time, or where obscurity might result, or when the number begins a sentence, or when it is a very small number that stands isolated — in which cases it is spelled out. When dealing with the animal as a race or species I use the gen-der neuter gender as consistently as possible. When speaking of an individual I use the gender that seems fittest. 24 Life-histories of Northern Animals DEscRip- I have aimed to give only so much description of TION each animal as is necessary for identification, and even then have usually described each animal three times. Set- ting forth: (a) The impression it makes as one sees it alive at a short distance. (b) A sufficiently full description, assuming the specimen to be in hand. (c) The peculiar points that will distinguish it from its nearest allies. I set the family and generic characters in close context with those of the species, because when set elsewhere they are commonly overlooked by beginners. MEASURE- Three standard measurements are given: Total length. — This is the distance in a straight line from tip of nose to tip of bone in tail (ignoring the hair), when the creature is fairly stretched out. Tail. — Set the tail at right angles to the back, take the distance from the back to the tip of the bone in tail (ignoring the hair). This is the length of tail. Hind-foot. — This is the distance in a straight line from the end of the heel to the tip of the longest claw. The measurements, usually those of an adult male, are approximate. A lo per cent, variation over and under is under- stood. They are given in inches; in parentheses are their approximate equivalents in millimetres. In the Horned Ruminants — known as Big Game — I have devoted some space to the subject of horns and antlers, and aimed to show the record heads. If any have been overlooked I shall be glad to have the facts for future use. SPEED The speed of wild animals is usually exaggerated. I do not believe that there exists an)rwhere on earth a wild quad- ruped that on level ground, can outrun a good horse. These facts I set forth in the Antelope chapter; I have further gathered Introduction 25 all evidence I could, bearing on the gait, speed, and the climbing and swimming powers of the species treated. The tracks of each species are drawn and one or two tracks general principles pointed out. Predaceous animals com- monly set the hind-foot in the same track as the front-foot of that side; this correct register enables them to go more silently. Tree-climbing animals when running on the ground, bound, and commonly set the front-feet together in a line across the body; ground animals trot or if they bound set the front- feet in a line along the body. This corresponds with the hopping of tree-birds and the walking of ground-birds. The dung and signs are of great importance to the student scatol- as to the hunter. They offer much history of animals whose etc' presence might otherwise be unsuspected, and they are here recorded as far as my material made possible. After considering the visible animal the ground is clear to its discuss the real subject, the study of the little mind that pre- ' ceded and fathered the mind of man. The first aspect of this study is environment. VIROX- The environment is the creator of the animal, the mould ex in which each species was cast. Therefore no two can have ment exactly the same environment, otherwise they would be one and the same species. We look for important light in determin- ing exactly the environment that created each. The range of the animal is part of its environment, and range long ago I came to the conclusion that every creature is chang- ing its range. So the question becomes not "Is it changing ?" but **In what direction is it changing.?" Is it winning or losing territory ? In this connection it is noteworthy that the species with manyextra-limital records are usually the ones that are extending their ranges. It looks as though these wander- 26 Life-histories of Northern Animals ers were the advance guard or scouts in a region that ukimately their tribe is to possess. MAPS The Maps, begun for the most part ten years ago, aim to show the present distribution of the species, except when otherwise stated. They are fairly complete for the large game animals, but the material does not yet exist to make maps for all species. In some, like the Bats, I have spotted the actual records and added an outline that is probably the range of the species. In others, as the Squirrels, I have offered a provisional and diagrammatic map of the ranges. A spot with a ring around it stands for type locality. HOME- The home-range of each individual is next to be con- sidered. No wild animal roams at random over the country; each has a home-region, even if it has not an actual home. The size of this home-region corresponds somewhat with the size of the animal. Flesh-eaters as a class have a larger home- region than herb-eaters. The more evidence we get, the smaller the home-region of each animal appears. In the idea of a home-region is the germ of territorial rights. At every step it presents close and interesting parallels with the growth of territorial law in man. MIGRA- TIONS Some animals have two home-regions, and make a regular seasonal change from one to the other; such animals are said to be migratory. Extremes of the habit are illustrated by the Woodchuck, individuals of which make a short move from the summer-den in the open fields to a winter-den in the woods, and by the Barren-ground Caribou, which makes a very com- plete migration from the open Arctic plains that it frequents in summer to the woods of its winter range, 500 miles away. But there is another kind of migration, best illustrated by the Moose, though observed in many species. After dwelling for a number of years in a given region they move out in a body to some other and hitherto unoccupied region. The causes of this are not obvious. Introduction 27 An attempt is made whenever possible to estimate the num- actual number of each kind of animal. The data for the ^^^^ calculation are given so that the effort, if not satisfactory, at least affords a starting point for a better estimate. The numbers of each species seem to increase and de- crease in cycles varying from five to ten years. These periods, as far as possible, are recorded and note made of every point that seems to account for the variations; nevertheless, they are far from explained. The food of each species is carefully considered as far as food present light admits. Especially remembering that: Each is classed as the foe of all it feeds upon. And that: In the food question we find the beginning of all property rights, even those of range. PROP- ERTY The high development of the property instinct is remark- able in some of the lowest forms of mammalian life. Beginning with food or mates, it extends to nest and range, and, finally, to personal property that has nothing but an aesthetic claim to notice. The devices used as property-marks are most interesting. Some animals, as Bears, claw and gnaw the trees on their range — but most kinds use the scent produced by special glands. Of this class are Weasels and Wolves. The frugal habit of storine food is found in most of our stor- A,GE higher animals, probably in all except the Horned Ruminants, habit It is one of the most civilized instincts, and attains its maximum development in those animals which store not for themselves but for their communities — of this class are Mice and Beavers. The relation of the animal to light is an interesting rela- department of environment — as a general rule birds are diurnal, light beasts crepuscular. But there are few birds or beasts that 28 Life-histories of Northern Animals prefer the full glare of noon-day or the black gloom of a dark night. No animals can literally see in the absolute dark, they need some light, but not much. Coons and Skunks are night creatures, Squirrels are sun-seekers, but most others, even Bats, are lovers of twilight. Among savage nations there is a prejudice against sleeping in the moonlight. It is said to produce many kinds of trouble. I have sought for sound reasons in this or for parallels among the animals, so far without success. On the contrary, it would seem that some species, as certain Deer and Bats, will regulate their movements to take advantage of the light of the moon. sociA- Gregarious animals are not necessarily sociable. Bank swallows nest together, /. f., gregariously, but do not assist each other in any important way — so are not sociable. Ante- lope run in herds at a time, so are gregarious, but do not unite their efforts for a common purpose, so are scarcely sociable. On the other hand. Wolves do not den in colonies or continually move in bands, yet they unite their powers to help each other in tasks beyond the strength of one, so are eminently sociable. Sociability reaches its highest pitch in certain rodents, such as Voles, that have communal dwellings or villages under a crude law of common interest, or the Beaver, with its wonder- ful pond community — patriarchal rather than democratic. MEANS Communication must progress with sociability. Other MUNicA- things equal, we find animals profiting by each other's society; TION that is, truly sociable in proportion as they have advanced in methods of communicating one with another, and vice versa. While voice, gesture, and touch are widely used, the most surprising are the smell signals. These are highly developed in the Antelope and several other species, but are of less interest than the smelling-posts of Bears, dogs. Wolves, Foxes, etc. These I have examined and treated at length. SENSES Evidence as to the powers of touch, taste, sight, hearing, smell, and direction have been sought for. Introduction 29 But some cases, like those cited in the Coyote, are so extraordinary and so difficult of explanation by the operation of the ordinary senses that many field-naturalists have been led to believe in a special sense, called second-sight or telepathy. Modern psychologists, however, do not accept the telepathic theory, but suggest, rather, that hitherto we have failed to gauge accurately the sense-capacity of animals. The evolution of amusements is a fascinating theme. We amuse- find all stages among our animals. A high pitch is reached ' when many adults of a species will meet together under circum- stances divesting the meeting of any sex or food impulse and engage in some friendly contest for the joy of combat, without anger or danger. The highest stage is reached when there is a set place with special apparatus. This is seen in the Otter slide and the European Badger's gameof" King of the Castle." The marriage customs of animals are full of human mating interest and lessons. There can be no doubt that at first ani- mals were hermaphrodite; and that as soon as sex appeared, promiscuity was the order of the time. This, through ages of experiment, was displaced by polyandry and polygamy, and these in turn by pure monogamy in the highest animals. So that although all forms are represented to-day, monogamy is proving its superiority. Other things equal, a monogamous animal will beat a polygamous in the struggle for life. As a rule, the higher quad- rupeds in North America that hold their own against man are monogamous. The relation of the father to the family is important for observation here. As soon as he becomes a member of the family group an entirely new and much higher plane is reached. Home is the abiding place of the family. The home group home among all higher creatures is essentially a trinity of father, mother and young. Any other grouping with more factors or less is not successful; therefore, only the truly monog- so Life-histories of Northern Animals amous quadrupeds have a home. A study of the species herein treated shows this to be hterally true. In each case I have endeavoured to describe in detail the home-place of the species; including not only the nest itself with its linings and approaches, but the storage places, chambers, galleries and ventilators in connection, as well as the burrows and above ground runways, with their various signs and marks, to indicate their direction, use or owners. sANiTA- Co-incident with the founding of a home must appear the TION . r • • rudiments of sanitation. The more elaborate the home the higher the idea of keeping it clean. The many devices of animals show gradation between the communal midden-heaps of the Voles, the daily cleansing of the Wolves, and the wonder- ful dry-earth closets of the Pocket-gophers. I have sought to learn how far each species has progressed on this line. TRAIN- While the youno: of some low animals never see their ING OF ... THE parents at all, but begin life with nothing save an equipment of instincts, others are wholly dependent on their parents, and the higher they are the more dependent they are and the more they profit by parental training. It was notorious among falconers that a falcon trained by its mother was always superior to one trained by man. The same remark applies to the cheetah or hunting leopard of India. ^° Training is given chiefly by means of example; whether consciously or not, I do not know. I do not know what consciousness is; it may be that most human acts are not conscious, but that is another question, and it does not alter the fact of training. YOUNG LOVE OF Very few mammals show a love of the beautiful in sight or T'T-TF' BEAUTi- sound. The gift is much less developed than in birds, yet the faculty is not absent. It is, I believe, axiomatic that no creature can respond to music, much less produce it, without having pleasure in it. The readiness of the Coyote and the Gray-wolf to respond to certain sounds and their power to produce '" See Mam. of India, T. C. Jerdon, 1874, p. 117. Introduction 31 sounds, some of which are highly musical even to us, is evidence of their having progressed far in this direction, and the en- joyment of the Pack-rat in its pile of glittering baubles is founded, as I see it, on no other sense than the love of the beautiful. It is possible to show that five of the Ten Command- moral- ments are natural laws, namely, the ordinances against diso- ^^^ bedience, murder, impurity, theft, and falsification, the breach of which among animals entails severe punishment. These things I have set forth in detail elsewhere." Vice among animals affords an interesting field of enquiry. There is more of it than is generally known. Vice I assume to be the deflection of any natural part or vice power from its proper purpose, to one which works harm for the species. Thus we see self-mutilation among monkeys and parrots. We see hens devouring their own eggs, the loco-habit among range cattle and horses, rare cases of infidelity among pigeons, of stealing among pack-rats, and incest among geese, as well as unholy barren alliances between species wide apart. We have, indeed, recorded among animals nearly every kind of vice that was known among men and forbidden by Mosaic law. With few exceptions, however, these cases are among domesticated or captive animals; and the questions arise: Has all this evil been developed in the animals by their cap- tivity or has their captivity merely given us unusual opportuni- ties for observing it ? The latter seems more probable, though there is some truth also in the former explanation. In the way of animal crime nothing is better known than crime infanticide by father or mother. In most cases it arises from man's interference with the young. If we handle the new-born young of a rabbit the mother is likely to kill them; this I have " See Natural History of the Ten Commandments Charles Scribner's Sons, 1907. 32 Life-histories of Northern Animals seen many times. In menageries many little Bears are born and a large proportion killed by the mother. It may be objected that she killed them accidentally in her anxiety to carry them beyond the reach of man, but the detailed cases given in the Lynx and Otter chapters cannot be so explained. This generalization I draw, that when man tampers with the young it oftentimes so affects or obliterates the maternal instinct that the mother deliberately destroys her own offspring. Whether or not this occurs in a state of nature is another question. The hunters and trappers generally believe that it does. The male parent especially is charged with oc- casional infanticide. The evidence is conflicting. SUICIDE If suicide means realization of the fact that such and such an act means death and escape from certain unpleasant condi- tions, and that this full realization is followed by deliberate choice of death, then animal suicide is not proven and is not likely to be. If, on the other hand, we allow it to be suicide when the animal, driven frantic by grief, pain, anger, or despair, blindly turns its destructive powers against itself — that is, allows its destructive or defiant instincts to overpower its self-preserva- tive instincts with results disastrous and sometimes fatal — then is animal suicide of frequent occurrence. There are many degrees of this. An orang which I was watching in Philadelphia flew into a fit of jealous rage on seeing the keeper give some favourite food to its neighbour only, and dashed its own head against the floor violently and repeatedly. Wolves suffering the pains of poisoning often bite their own legs and flanks. A Blackbear observed by Richard Kearton was so in- furiated at its strong fellow-prisoner getting all the cakes thrown in, that it bit its own paws. In each of these cases we see a form of suicidal instinct, which needs only to be pushed a little further to be literally suicide. Introduction 33 The enemies of each species should be considered and enemies gauged with care. The struggle for life is at all times so bitter ease^^^' that each species is barely able to hold its own, has all the burdens it can bear (a thought that has its meed of comfort for us); a trifle more of destruction and down it goes, a trifle less and it spreads mightily. Parasites are sometimes to be enumerated as disease. The kinds and the modes of combating them are important. But all parasites are not enemies. The species of fly which pupates in the dung of the Grizzly-bear is as likely to be a friend as a foe. One of the most interesting and obscure traits ob- odd served in wild animals is their unexpected friendships. The ner- British Badger is known to share its den occasionally with ^"'^^ the Fox, and the Fox with the Rabbit. Instances are here given of a friendship between a Badger and a lost child, a Badger and a Coyote, also of a Red-squirrel and an Acadian owl. • Whatever the explanation, it is always gratifying to find that any animal has reached a plane above the purely carnal. Strange comradeships and parasitism are on opposite com- sides akin to commensalism. Of this nature is the habit seen salism in some Mice, of quartering themselves on the hoards of certain Ground-squirrels. Many cases not easily classed will come to mind. For example, the Water-shrew that lives in the Beaver house, the fly that pupates in the Bear's dung, the beetles that live in the filth at the bottom of a Red-squirrel's nest. Quadrupeds are supposed to live from four to five times age as long as the time they need to attain maturity. Their life is three parts, youth, prime and age. Many facts in line with this belief are adduced, as well as all available data fixing the normal life term of each species. 34 Life-histories of Northern Animals STRANGE Strange incidents not referable to any of the above consti- iNci- 1 , •' DENTS tute another chapter. RELA- Finally, space is devoted to a consideration of the animal MAN in its relation to man; either indirectly as a helper or hindrance to agriculture or as source of commercial products. REFER- References are in foot-notes with a brief identification of the work. Full details of the same will be found in the list at the end of the work. LIFE. HISTORIES OF THE GRASS-EATERS HOOFED BEASTS ORDER UNGULATA ■I a ■^•-^ I. The Wapiti, Canada Stag, American Red-deer or Round-horned Elk. Cervus canadensis Erxleben. (L. Cervus, a stag ; canadensis, of Canada.) Cervus elaphus canadensis Erxleben, 1777, Syst. Reg. An. I, p. 305- Cervus canadensis ScHREBER, 1 783, Saugth. V, pi. 246 a. Type Locality. — Eastern Canada, probably near Montreal. French Canadian, le C^r/(male); la Biche (female) le Wapiti. Cree, Mus-koose. Richardson gives* also as Cree names : Wawaskeeshoo^ Awaskees, and Moostoosh. OjiB. & Saut., Mush-koose. Yankton Sioux, Eh-kahg-tchick-kah. Ogallala Sioux, Hay-hah^-kah (male). The Deer Family, or Cervidce, are hoofed ruminant family mammals, with solid antlers that are grown and shed period- acters ically. They have 4 hoofs on each foot, the hinder pair much smaller than the front; no gall-bladder; mammae, 4; tear-pit below inner corner of eye, well developed. „ , ^ 0-0 i-i . SS leeth: Inc. ; can. ; or wantmg; prem. ; 4-4 0-0 3-3 mol. ^^-^ =32 to 34 3-3 The genus Cervus (Linnaeus, 1758), of which the Euro- pean Red-deer is the type, and to which the Wapiti belongs, is 'F. B. A., 1829, I, p. 251. 37 38 Life-histories of Northern Animals characterized by great size, many-tined antlers, of which the beam is behind; well-marked brow and bez-tines; spotted colouring of the fawns; short tail; naked, moist muzzle; maned neck; a tuft of hair on inside of hock, and within this a scent-gland (tarsal gland). 0-0 I— I 3—3 3—3 Teeth: Inc. ; can. ; prem. ; mol. =34 4-4 0-0 s-3 3-3 The *'Elk tusks" are the rudimentary canines; they are found in both sexes, but are very minute in the female. The Wapiti has all the characteristics of its family and genus. Its specific peculiarities of size, colour, etc., may be recognized by the following: SIZE A fine eight-year-old bull Elk, killed in the New York Zoological Park, October 3, 1903, was carefully measured by Dr. Hornaday,^ as follows: Length, 86| inches (2,205 mm.); height at shoulders, 565 inches (1,435 mm.); circumference of chest, 78 inches (1,982 mm.). Another, measured by Professor L. L. Dyche,^ was 97 inches (2,465 mm.) in length of body and head. A three-year-old bull that I measured in Wyoming was: In length, 102 inches (2,592 mm.); tail, 5I inches (140 mm.); hind-foot, 25 inches (635 mm.); height at withers, 47I inches (1,214 mm.). As extremes: Caton had a five-year-old bull Wapiti ovei 16 hands (or 64 inches) at the withers,^ and C. Phillipps- Wolley records^ a Colorado bull, measured by Andrew Wil- liamson, at 17 hands, or 5 feet 8 inches, at the shoulder, 9 feet long, and 6 feet 8 inches around the chest; that is, 2 feet longer and 20 inches higher than the three-year-old specimen above mentioned. An adult cow, which I measured on the Graybull, in Wyoming, October 12, 1898, was: In length, 88 inches (2,237 ^American Natural History, 1904, p. 124. ^Ibid. ^Antelope and Deer of America, 1877, p. 81. ° Big-Game Shooting, Vol. I, The Badminton Library, 1894, p. 406. Wapiti or Elk 39 mm.); tail, 4^ inches (114 mm.); hind-foot, 25 inches (636 mm.); height at withers, 56 inches (1,423 mm.). The three-year-old bull, whose dimensions are given weight above, weighed 550 pounds after bleeding; another three- year-old, taken at the same time and place, weighed 531^ pounds after bleeding. Judge Caton had a very large three- year-old that weighed 650 pounds, (^oc. cit.) He thought" 600 pounds would exceed the average live weight of a full-grown buck, although he believed that they sometimes reached 1,000 or 1,100 pounds. The bull measured by Hornaday, as above, was 706 pounds, live weight. M. P. Dunham states^ that he weighed an Elk at a little over 800 pounds after entrails were removed. This would give a live weight of about 1,000 pounds.^ We may safely affirm, then, that an average bull Wapiti at full growth stands nearly 5 feet at the withers, and weighs about 700 pounds. The cow, whose dimensions are given above, weighed 490J pounds after bleeding. Hornaday found ^ that a new-born fawn or calf weighed 3oi pounds. The body colour of a young bull Wapiti killed in Jack- colour son's Hole, Wyoming, September 10, is brownish gray, a little darker along the spine, and becoming dark chestnut or brown on head, neck, and legs, and reddish-brown or sienna colour on breast and belly. The inside and lower back part of ears, a patch around the eye, a spot on each side of the lower lip, and a spot under the jaw, are very pale brown or dull brownish white; the disk or rump patch is very large, of a pale, buffy white, and continued above the tail, which is of the same colour; bordering this patch in front, on each ham, is a brownish-black stripe •Loc. cit., p. 82. * Recreation Magazine, April, 1896, p. 193. •The rule for Deer is: Add a quarter to the dressed weight to find the live weight. •American Natural History, 1904, p. 122. 40 Life-histories of Northern Animals that nearly fades out toward the spine, where it joins its fellow. The peculiarities of the disk are diagnostic of the various species of Cervus. Some, like the Red-deer of Europe, have a dark mark crossing it from spine to tail, some have the tail of a different colour; the Wapiti has tail and disk of one even shade, or but slightly yellower above the tail. As this coat ages it fades greatly. In spring I have seen bulls so bleached that, at a distance, their bodies looked nearly white, thus justifying the name Wapiti (which is supposed to be from the Algonkin roots wah, white, and atik, deer) and the New England name of "Gray Moose." The summer coat, worn from May to September, is a little deeper in colour than the winter coat. The females, or cows, in summer coat resemble the males; but in fall and winter coat they are less intense in colour, and sometimes have a dark shade uniting the tail with the spine. The calf or fawn when born is dull yellowish, thickly dappled on body, neck, and thighs, with large spots of dull white. In late September, when the first winter coat appears, these spots are lost. Four forms of Wapiti are recognized : canadensis Erxl., the typical form. occidentalis H. Smith, the very dark Wapiti of the Olympics and West Coast. merriami Nelson, paler and more reddish than the typical form. lannodes Merriam, the very pale and dwarfed Wapiti of Southern California. They have also marked cranial differences. HISTORY In 1535 Jacques Cartier ascended the St. Lawrence as NAMES far as Hochelaga — now Montreal. On his return he re- ported*" "great stores of Stags, Deere, Beares, * * * other '"Hakluyt, Voyages, Vol. Ill, p. 225. Wapiti or Elk 41 such like sorts of Beasts.'* He saw, then, two kinds of Deer. We know that both Whitetail and Wapiti abounded in the country where he wintered. The Wapiti has always been the "Stag" in Canada, as well as the "Stag" 0/ Canada. So this we believe to be the first record of the Wapiti being seen by white men. There is just a possibility that Cartier was antedated by Nina de Guzman, who, according to Herrara," in 1532 explored the west coast of Mexico, near north latitude 28 degrees, and reported that "Many Cattle and many Deer of very large size were found on the banks of the Yaquimi." In 1605 Captain George Waymouth, in his "Voyage to Virginia," found, according to Rosier,'- "Deere, red and fal- low, Befares, etc. * * * Some like our other Beasts, the Sav- ages signe unto us with horns and broad ears, which we take to be Olkes or Loshes." This is the earliest-known printed use of the word "Olkes" or "Elk" with reference to the American animal. It appears in the latter form in 1650, when Virginia is credited not only with abundance of Deer, but also with "Elks bigger than oxen. '^ Champlain's map (1632)'* marks the region of Kingston, Ontario, as "Lieu ou il y a force cerfs," and with a portrait of a stag, certainly not that of either a Virginian Deer, a Moose, or a Caribou. In 1653-4'^ Father Lemoine, voyaging on the St. Law- rence a few leagues above Montreal, found great droves of creatures, which from his description must have been Wapiti. After this date the number of travellers increased in America, and their accounts frequently included descrip- "Herrara, Hist. Ind. Oc, 1728, Tom. Ill, p. 16 (cited in Allen's American Bison, p. 518). "Purchas, Vol. IV, p. 1667. "Force, Coll. Hist. Trav., Vol. Ill, No. 11, p. 11. "Champlain's Voyages, 1632. "Relation de la Nouv. France, 1653-4, p. 85. 42 Life-histories of Northern Animals tlons of the "Great Stag that was of the bigness of a Horse,'* and whose numbers were so great, in the high country, that their trails through the woods were convenient ways of travel. Thus Mark Catesby, in 1731, remarks" on "the Stag of America. * * >}; They usually accompany the Buffa- loes, with whom they range in droves in the upper and remote parts of Carolina, where, as well as in our other colonies, they are improperly called Elks. The French in America call this beast the Canada Stag. In New Eng- land it is known by the name of the Gray Moose, to dis- tinguish it from the preceding beast, which they call the Black Moose." In 1777 Erxleben recognized the Wapiti as a new animal and gave it the distinctive name of Canadensis. In March, 1806, Dr. B. S. Barton published^^ "An account of the Cervus Wapiti or Southern Elk of North America." He remarks: "As the Elk has not to my knowl- edge been described by any systematic writer on Zoology, I have assumed the liberty of giving it a specific name. I have called it Wapiti^ which is the name by which it is known among the Shawnese or Shawnees Indians. * * * This animal is generally known in Pennsylvania and in other parts of the United States by the name of Elk." {Loc. r/>., p. ^j.) This is the first use in print of the word "Wapiti," so far as known, and should settle several old disputes as to the origin and application of the name. Life-history. RANGE Map 4 sets forth sufficiently the range of the various forms of Wapiti. It is founded on the records of over three hundred travellers and historians, and compiled with assist- ance from the Biological Survey of the United States De- '* Catesby, Nat. Hist. Car., Flor. and Bah. Ids., 11, 1731-43, p. xAuii. "Phila. Med. and Phys. Journal, March, 1806, Art. VII, pp. 36-55. MAP 4-DISTRIBUTION OF WAPITI OR ELK IN 1500 AND IN 1900. The heavy outlines show the primitive range of each form. The shaded portion is the ranse in .000. logical Sun'^v'' '^ '^^'^ °" ""^ records and reports of several hundred ancient and modern traveUere. with some help from the U. S. Bio- The outlyinp records are marked with a cross. The four forms are : Cerous canadensis Erxl Cercu, nannoje, Merriam. i^ervus occidtnlalis H. Smith. Cervus merriami Nelson. Probably extinct. 43 44 Life-histories of Northern Animals partment of Agriculture. The outlying records (marked with X on the map) are as follows: In Mexico by Guzman, as already given. On the north-west by Lord, who says, in 1866:*^ "It is found along the entire coast range from California to Sitka." A single skull found in Nova Scotia^® seems to extend the range to that Province; an extension that one is fully prepared for, after a study of the faunal areas of the region. The Ottawa Valley was well known as Elk country until about one hundred years ago. According to W. P. Lett,^° Elk were quite numerous there in early days, and were seen as late as 18 14. Antlers are often found in the swamps of the region. H. Y. Hind says:" "Charles Tache enumerates the Elk and Ground-hog as common about the Saguenay previous to 1823. * * * The Moose also was very common." At the Sportsman's Show, New York, March 2, 1899, L. Z. Joncas, Superintendent of Fish and Game for the Province of Quebec, exhibited three Wapiti heads taken near Lake Victoria, at the sources of the Ottawa, in Pontiac country, about 1896. Several small bands of the primitive Elk, he was told, still exist in those wilds. He personally did not fol- low the matter up, and the record is very questionable. The great Basin between the Rockies and the coast range seems never to have been the home of the Wapiti, at least I can find no records covering the region. numbS '^^^ early accounts of travel in Eastern America during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries abound with descriptions of the "great stagge." Among these early writers we find frequent use of such terms as "immense bands," "great numbers," "great store," "covered with stags," etc., etc., describing the abundance of '^ J. K. Lord, Naturalist in Vancouver Id. and Br. Col., 1866, Vol. II, p. 182. »«W. Ogilby, P. Z. S., VII, 1839, pp. 93-94. ""Trans. Ottawa Nat. Field Club, 1884, No. 5, pp. 101-117. *' Expl. Labrador Penin., 1863, Vol. I, p. 224. Wapiti or Elk 45 the Wapiti. Dr. Barton, quoted above, says: "Within the memory of many persons now hving the droves of Elks w^hich used to frequent the saHnes west of the River Susquehanna, in Pennsylvania, were so great, that, for five or six miles leading to the 'licks,' the paths of these animals were as large as many of the great public roads of our country. " {Loc. cit.) But how are we to get an idea of their actual numbers in those days .? When I was living in Yellowstone Park, in 1897, I used all possible means to reach an estimate of the number of Wapiti it contained. The officials in charge agreed with me that there were fully 50,000 head. The actual park is 3,000 square miles, but the winter range of these herds includes Jackson's Hole and some other outside territory, which in- creases the total area to 5,000 square miles, or ten Wapiti to the square mile. In this region the species is described as "abundant." In early days the total range of this species was about 2,500,000 square miles, over half of which it was, by all ac- counts, very abundant. We are safe, therefore, in believing that in those days there may have been 10,000,000 head. The beginning of the nineteenth century saw the Wapiti dwi.v- perfectly described, catalogued, and started on the road to extermination. Thenceforth, travellers in Eastern America were obliged to record only the reminiscences of old settlers or the discovery of fossil horns and skulls. A glance at Map 4 (page 43) will show the original and the present range of the species. A melancholy shrinkage is set forth, a shrinkage which went on with tremendous and increasing rapidity until near the end of the century. In Manitoba the Wapiti was found throughout the south- in maxi- western half of the Province. From Henry's Journal" we " A. Henr)''s Journal, 1897, p. 224, et seq. 46 Life-histories of Northern Animals learn that it was particularly abundant along the Upper Red River and in the Pembina or Hair Hills. In 1857, when Professor Hind went through from Winnipeg to Fort Ellice, he saw but one Wapiti. It was in the sand-hills near the present town of Carberry, and its appearance put his half- breed guides in a state of excitement.^^ In 1882, when first I visited the Province, there were plenty of old antlers on the Carberry Sandhills. In the three years which followed I saw tracks three times, but once only did I see a Wapiti. This was a bull that was killed and brought to Carberry by some Indians in 1884. The head now hangs in the Western Hotel of that town. At that time the Wapiti was practically exterminated, except in the Pembina Hills and the Duck and Riding Mountains. The dwindling process went on everywhere till about 1895. That was the low-ebb year in many parts of America for many kinds of game, but it was also the year of the great awakening. The lesson of the vanished BuiTalo had sunk deep in men's minds. Thinking people everywhere recog- nized that unless the methods then practised were stopped all our fine game animals would go the way of the Bufi^alo. They saw, too, that there was nothing to gain by extermina- tion, and much to lose. Game protective societies, founded in various parts of America by men who viewed with hate the approaching desolation of the wilds, have now secured sound legislation for the protection of harmless wild animals, and public sentiment has secured a rigorous enforcement of these new laws. Thus in many regions the process of extermination has been stopped. And not only has an end been put to extirpatory hunting, but the awakening has found its logical chmax in serious eff^orts to re-stock many of the deserted ranges. Several areas whence the species had long disappeared have been re-peopled with Wapiti. Noteworthy among these are the Algonquin Park and the Adirondack Mountains Park. The former is in charge of " Assin. and Sask. Expl. Exped., 1859, p. 41. Wapiti or Elk 47 Government officials, but the latter has been re-stocked chiefly through the efforts of a private "Society for Restoration of the Moose, the Wapiti, and the Beaver to the Adirondacks." The energetic Secretary, Harry V. Radford, has sent me the following particulars: "The first liberations occurred in June, 1901, when 22 Wapiti, donated to the State by the late William C. Whitney — a vice-president of the Restoring Association — were released on State land near Raquette Lake. Whitney donated addi- tional Wapiti in 1902 and 1903, his total gifts to the State reaching nearly 90. The Park Commissioners of the City of Binghamton, N. Y., contributed 5 Wapiti in 1903, and this spring (March, 1906) we obtained from Austin Corbin 26 Wapiti, which were successfully released under the super- vision of State officials. "The latest estimate of the Commission (September, 1905) placed the number of wild Wapiti in the Adirondacks at 250. Add to this number Corbin's donation and the natural increase since, and the number of Adirondack Wapiti at the present time, February 11, 1907, is close upon 400, and rapidly increasing. These are widely distributed, and seem to thrive even better than the native Deer. Additional dona- tions are expected, and a few more years ought to complete the restoration of the Wapiti.'* In Manitoba there are to-day, I believe, more Wapiti pri:sext than at any time since 1850. From Charles Barber, Chief ' Game Warden, I learn that In 1906 about 445, and in 1907 365 Wapiti were legally killed in the Province. But the number killed by Indians and white hunters, and not recorded, must raise the annual total at least to 1,000. To stand this drain and still Increase as they do, the numbers must be fully five times as great, or, say, 5,000. I offer this as a conservative estimate of the numbers of Wapiti In Manitoba to-day (1907). Unfortunately, these extensions of range have been more than offset by the shrinkage elsewhere. 48 Life-histories of Northern Animals The present numbers may be thus estimated:" Yellowstone Park 20,000 Wyoming, outside the Park 5,000 Manitoba 5,000 Idaho 5,000 Montana 4,000 Vancouver Island 2,000 Washington 1,500 Alberta 1,000 Saskatchewan 500 Oregon 200 California 200 British Columbia 200 Minnesota 50 In various Zoos, Parks, etc 1,000 Total in 1907 45,650 During the past ten years the number in Wyoming has decreased. On the other hand, in all regions where ade- quate protection has been accorded the number has in- creased; and there can be no doubt that, with a system of permanent safe havens, proper limitation of bags, and an absolute prohibition of repeating rifles and of the sale of game, we may keep these fine animals with us as long as we have wild land for them to range on — that is, forever. SIGNS As is usually the case with big game, one may be in a land abounding with Wapiti and see nothing of them for long, but the hunter cannot fail to see, on every hand, the little telltale "signs." During my hunting trip in the Shoshones, in October, 1898, I saw many Wapiti, or Elk, as they are there called, and got none at all. But I got what I went for — a lot of ^* In making this I have been assisted by Stanley H. Hopper, C. Phillipps-Wolley, W. T. Homaday, E. W. Darbey, George B. Grinnell, General S. B. M. Young, and the United States Biological Survey. Wapiti or Elk 49 t-TuceT' "' "''' ''' ^'"^'^^^ ""' "«'- -h-h are fron. the middle below out at the top ,Sr™ Vr^lf track Its size and general character, together with the plac show tt to be that of a bull Elk. He was travelling towa d ' because m spue of us dimness, we can see a fainf sharpness a one s.de of the track and a suggestion of squareness i^^ th other, showing the toe and heel marks, respectively, and also because on the bank, at the bottom, H, the tracks are short- ened, showmg that he was coming up. In case of doubt, one can sometimes determine the direc- non of a doubtful track by lightly brushing away the snow. The wet ground below may have a clearer impression, or a ball ot hard snow may remain to tell the tale. The track .s stale; but how stale .? Yesterday the wind came from the pomt he IS headed for, and last night came the fresh snow- therefore he IS twenty-four hours ahead, and though unalarmed -witness his easy stride and trailing toes-it might take several hours to come up with the maker of that track But the three we are following are quite fresh. A is the track of a big bull, because the hoof-mark is 5 inches long (4 inches would be middle-sized). His hoofs might be over- grown, but the tracks are wide apart, showing the thick body and he has fine antlers, because the cow went through a four-foot opening, which he avoided for a wider door. Also, the snow IS knocked off the lower branches where he passed, and a spike-horn rarely touches a branch with his antlers. That he is not alarmed is shown by his short steps and the lazy dragging of his toes, as well as by his hMng (K) to drop, an important hunter's sign. The track is fresh, because It was made since last night's snow, but it is at least an hour old because the sign at K is no longer hot; is sprinkled, in- deed, with hoar-frost. Here, at B, the bull "bedded." He was there for an hour at least, because the snow under him is melted. 50 Life-histories of Northern Animals The trail C is that of a full-grown cow; a cow, because at L the creature had stopped and straddled (told by the hoof- marks LH, LH) to leave the liquid sign; and full-grown, because the hoof-mark is 4 inches long. Her trail shows no sign of alarm. At D she lay down, but rose up after she had been long enough to melt the snow — perhaps an hour; looked about with the usual watchfulness of a cow, and lay down again in the same place for nearly as long, as shown by the second mark, not quite tallying with the first. The trail E is that of a calf of the year, born late in May, and not yet (October) quite weaned. He lay down by his mother. But see, each bed is still wet with melted snow, and the tracks that were a couple of hours old are now quite fresh. We have jumped the three Elk. They sprang up when they heard us coming through the woods. See the long strides of the bull as he trotted off, no longer trailing his toes; see how all three fell into line! But what is this sign at J ? That animal stayed to do something that all Deer do every few hours in cold weather, and nearly always on rising. She was not greatly alarmed (less so than the bull), or she would not have stayed, for the small quantity shows that she was not greatly pressed, therefore we may yet see them, for the Elk will swing round, probably to the left, as that is uphill, till they either see us or get our wind. Quick, now — a rapid advance — keeping a sharp lookout — here we are at the edge of an open glade, and there across it, gazing toward us, are the Elk. For a moment they stand, then up go their noses, and away they trot at speed, with the cow, as usual, in advance. SPRING- The great haven of the Rocky Mountain Elk is the Yellowstone Park. Thither, as the snow melts, the Elk bands wend their way from the lower winter range along the Snake River, and other Park-born streams. YOUNG Xhe cows remain in the rich upper valleys, but the bulls go on and form another social circle still higher up. The PLATE III.— ELK APPROACHING TO ATTACK (iN A park) Photograph by E. T. Seton. ^mf- 6 V. PLATE IV.— TRACKS OF BULL, COW AND CALF ELK IN SNOW. Wapiti or Elk 51 cows have important duties ere long. Some time in May or very early in June the portlier ones wander severally from the herd into some quiet hollow, where are born the fawns or calves, usually i to each mother, but sometimes 2, and rarely 3. For a few days (one or two according to Caton)" they are left concealed in the bushes after the manner of Deer, though for a shorter time than with most other kinds. The mother lurks in the neighbourhood and comes to suckle them at times, no doubt as the pressure of milk gives notice, and this is adjusted to the needs of the young. None can see them now without marvelling at their stillness. They feign to be logs, lumps, dead things, but all their pretty and lawful deceit is belied by the bright, unblinking eyes, which take in every movement of whoever happens to find them. The white spots, so far from making the croucher conspicuous under the leaves, look like the dappling spots of sunlight glancing through foliage on a log or ground below. They are, indeed, a valuable piece of protective colouration. For some days the calf is thus hidden; and even after it is old enough to follow the mother she will hide it on the appearance of danger. How it is made to understand the danger — whether by signal from the mother or by sighting the menace — I have not been able to determine. Late in June, on the Yellowstone, I saw the cow Elks in bands and the calves running with the mothers. I once saw a fawn that was born so late that on October 15 he was still in his full spots. He was, in fact, not yet running with his mother, and must have been, therefore, less than a week old. I saw her come to feed him. After he had sucked as much as she thought proper, he teased her so much that she ran away. He persisted in following, but she took refuge in a water-hole, standing where it was nearly three feet deep. He circled all round the edge, but did not dare to wet his feet. In September the spots on most of the calves are much faded, and, when their new coats come, with October, the " Antelope and Deer of America, 1877, p. 294. 52 Life-histories of Northern Animals spots usually disappear. Now the young are able to forage for themselves. The drain on the mother becomes less, and gradually ceases; and as the pasturage is now rich and abun- dant, all become sleeker and fatter with every week, September finding them in perfect condition. WALLOWS In many parts of Colorado and Wyoming during fall I have seen earth wallows made by Wapiti. These are accred- ited to the bull. He is known, indeed, to wallow in them like a hog, whether as an amusement or as an instinctive sanitary measure is not ascertained. On September 8, 1898, I was witness of a most in- teresting social function attended by a number of Wapiti. It was at a small upland lake in Jackson's Hole, when, about 4 p. M., a band of Elk, nine in all, came trotting from the woods, led by a cow, but with a bull bringing up the rear. They plunged into the water and played there for some time, rolling, wallowing, splashing, and chasing each other. The scene was somewhat like a social bathing at a fashionable watering-place. At last their game was ended by the dis- covery of my presence. DANCE But the grand curious amusement of the Elk, one which several hunters have witnessed, may be called their ** circle dance." H. W. Skinner, of Chicago, sends me his observa- tions on this performance: "About four o'clock one afternoon, late in August, 1890, 1 was riding north-east up a small stream flowing into one of the tributaries of the Green River, near its source in north-western Wyoming. The intense heat was relieved only by an occa- sional faint breath of breeze from the north. My attention was attracted by a column of fine dark-brown dust rising ahead of me and on the opposite side of the creek (I was on the south side). The column of dust looked almost as if caused by a whirlwind. On reaching a point as close to it as I could get without crossing the creek — I was perhaps 100 yards from it — I found that it was caused by a band of Elk, numbering from twelve to twenty, who seemed to be trotting Wapiti or Elk 53 quite rapidly, with occasional awkward galloping plunges, in a circle perhaps thirty feet in diameter. They were going in the same direction as the hands of a watch, in the edge of a little belt of second-growth timber — mainly, I think, quaking asp. They were moving, not with heads up, but with noses only a foot or two from the ground. My impression is that they were all bulls. Owing to the dense clouds of dust which occasional light puffs of wind blew almost toward me, I could not see very clearly. It seemed to me that they were running about as "milling" cattle do, except that I never knew of cattle to "mill" in such a small bunch. I have related this incident several times to hunters and trappers, who could offer no explanation of it. There were large numbers of Elk in that country at the time, in bands of various sizes." This remarkable exercise differs from the preceding in that it has obvious relation either to the sexual instinct or to hygiene. The natural history of monogamy is an interesting sub- matlvg ject that is receiving some attention. In a recent number of the Contemporary Review, Dr. Woods Hutchinson claims^" that in the long run a monogamous race will triumph over a polygamous one. He might have gone further, and pointed out the facts that among birds the Pigeons as a family, and among quadrupeds the CanidcB, are considered among the most successful, that is, families which are spreading, and can hold their own against all rivals, including man, and that these two are strictly monogamous. Theoretically, polygamy should be better for the race, since only the very finest males leave progeny. Judge Caton has recorded" a curious case that sheds light on this. Referring to Sultan, the great bull Wapiti, that was monarch of the herd in his park for a longer time than any other, he says: "At first his progeny were reasonably numerous, but during the last few years of his life they gradually diminished ** Animal Marriage, Contemporary Review, London, October, 1904, pp. 485-96. " Antelope and Deer of America, 1877, pp. 294-5. 54 Life-histories of Northern Animals from a dozen to a single fawn in 1875, with about twenty-five females, more than half of which had previously produced fawns." Though able to hold the harem by force, he was removed and replaced by a younger buck. The result was twelve fawns the next season, including one pair of twins. As the Elk is the most polygamous of all Deer (in America, probably in the world), it is interesting to note that it is the first of the family to disappear before civilization. This may be due in part to its large size, but it is further remarkable that the most successful of all our Deer (the common White- tail) is the least polygamous. In this connection we may consider the question of leadership, that is, the rudiments of government. There is a widespread idea that the big bull is, as a matter of course, the leader of the Wapiti herd. This is not the case. It is well to remember how the animals get their leader. They certainly do not have any formal election, but they have instead a sort of natural election or process of elimination. This is the process: The individual in that band who can impress on the others that he is the wise one — the safe one to follow — eventually becomes the leader, and if there are any members of the band who do not wish to follow him, they have an obvious alternative — to go the other way. Thus the herd reaches unanimity. Numberless observations show that this wise one is not the big bull, but almost invariably an elderly female. The big bull might drive them, but not lead them. She is the one that has impressed the others with the idea that she is safe to follow — that she will lead into no fool-traps; that she knows the best pastures and the best ways to them; that she has learned the salt-licks, and the watering-places that are safe and open all around; that her eyes and ears are keen; and that she will take good care of herself and incidentally of the band. This female leadership is common to most, if not all, horned ruminants. One may ask, therefore, if it be not also a corollary of polygamy. Wapiti or Elk 55 The crowning glory of the stag is his antlers, and the antlers Wapiti, the finest stag in the world, has antlers befitting his size and dignity. While the cows among the mountain valleys devote all summer to the calves, the bulls at a much higher elevation, above the torment of heat and flies, have consecrated their entire energies to the growing of new antlers. If it were not like arguing in an egg-and-chicken circle, we might claim that the production of these antlers is the whole end and aim of the Wapiti's existence. Their growth is one of the miracles of nature that we never cease to consider a miracle. About the end of the winter — that is, in mid-March — the antlers of the year before break off flush with their horny base an inch or more above the skull. Frequently they are found lying close together, showing that they fall nearly at the same time. At first the place of each antler is a broad raw spot. A few days later it shows a thick rounded pad of blood-gorged skin. This swells rapidly and, in a fortnight, the great, bulbous, fuzzy young antler-beginning has shot up to a height of several inches. At exactly the right time and place, and in just the right direction, a bump comes forth to be the foundation of the brow tine. In a few days the bez-tine is projected by the invisible architect. In a month the structure is nearly a foot high and all enveloped in a turgid mass of feverish, throbbing blood-vessels — the scaffolding and workmen of this wonderful structure. Night and day the work is pushed with astounding speed, and in four months this "skyscraper" is finished. A marvel, indeed; an edifice that, according to ordinary rules, would have taken a lifetime, and yet it has been rushed through in a single summer. August sees the building done, but it is still cluttered with scaffolding. The supplies of blood at the base are now reduced. But the antler is still in vital touch with the animal; it begins to die when the process of peeling is begun. The sensitiveness leaves each part, the velvet covering soon dries, cracks, and peels, and the stag assists the process of clearing 56 Life-histories of Northern Animals off the skin by scraping his new antlers on the brushwood. September sees him fully armed in his bony spears, strong in body, glorying in his weapons and his strength, and ready to battle with all comers. Those who have studied the Washington Monument will remember the dark weather-mark which came when the Civil War stopped the growth of the structure for a time. They will recognize the signs of slow growth at the massive base, the stones contributed by the various States, when their reverent patriotism was roused, and the less eventful ending as the point was reached. In the same way the stag's antlers are a record of the life that grew them, brought them forth in fever heat, produced with a rush at enormous cost, drain- ing all the bodily resources for a time. The faintest slacking of the supplies, an excess of antler material in the food, the slightest weakening of the heart that is backing the enterprise, an injury to the sexual organs that inspired it, or any hurt on the growing antler, a cold, an attack of indigestion — is re- flected at once in the structure that is a-building. The most vigorous constitution produces the finest antlers. A stag too young or too old produces antlers which are below standard. All antlers are a reflex of the owner's vicissitudes while he was growing them. What wonder, then, that no two antlers are alike! The thousand different haps have produced a thousand different types. Most of these must be accepted as strange instances due to unexplained causes; "freak horns," the hunters call them. They are beyond our present com- prehension. Through the kindness of his Grace the Duke of Bedford I am enabled to show a series of antlers, the successive growths of one bull Wapiti that lived in the Park at Woburn Abbey. (Fig. 2.) The second of the spikes grown in his first year was never found, but it was very small. The two switches (No. 8 in the series) were grown in a year of sickness. The stag was weak and ill without known cause, and shed not only his horns, but the two large hoofs of each foot, going sore-footed for Fig. 2— The antlers of one Wapiti Beginning at the ..^r/I^h^'T'" '"''''''''' ''^ ''"^"" '''"=""''<= "f Bedford. kept in the park at Woburn Abbey. ^ ^'^'^ "'^ '''"«''• This individual was 67 \ // 58 Life-histories of Northern Animals weeks. The small hind hoofs, however, were not shed. In his tenth year the stag was evidently on the decline, so he was killed for the museum. Some freak antlers are shown on page 6i. (Figs. 9-14.) One of the most remarkable cases is the finding of three ant- lers on one head. Occasionally does (or "cows," as they are called) are found with rudimentary antlers. In the Jardin des Plantes is a doe that grows two antlers each year, on one side of her head. (Fig. 8.) Stags of the European Red-deer are sometimes found permanently hornless. I have not heard of any such among the Wapiti, but expect that they will be discovered. The highly developed antler, however, is the most in- teresting. The typical form is shown in Plate I. Keeping this general symmetry, additional points are scored for ad- ditional size, aggregate length of beams and tines, number of points, weight, beading, and colour. The antlers are second-class if they are under 55 inches in length of main beam, following the curves. S^^^o° The largest Rocky Mountain head of which I can find HEADS ... record is in possession of the Montana Armory. It is known as the 2i-point head. I have not seen it, but the beams are said to be 66J and 64I inches long, respectively, and the spread 52 inches. (Fig. 6.) The largest antlers that I have measured are in the pos- session of Messrs. Schoverling, Daly & Gales, of New York, the right beam being 64 inches long, the left 6ot. (Fig. 4.) A 61-inch pair shot in Wyoming by Lewis S. Thompson, of Redbank, N. J., is near the first place in size, as well as in symmetry. (Fig. 7.) A fine i8-point head is shown in Fig. 5. I saw it in the pos- session of S. N. Leek, of Jackson's Hole, Wyoming, where it was killed in 1896. But most judges give the palm for beauty to a superb 20-point head shown by A. L. Tulloch at the American Trophy Exhibition at London, 1898. (Fig. 3.) Its size and points have been exceeded, but its massive beams, perfect symmetry, and m Fig. 8— Cow Elk with horns, in Jardin des Plantes. AUTUMN 60 Life-histories of Northern Animals wonderful pearling are so far unrivalled. The animal was killed in Montana in 1883. What becomes of these wonderful growths ? Why is not the forest littered with them, since they are dropped and re- newed each year ? First, the forest is littered with them to some extent in districts where the Elk abound. In several parts of the West I have seen small garden fences made of the cast-off antlers, and I am told that in California it was common to see a rotted survey stake replaced by a pile of Elk horns, which were the handiest and most abundant substitute. But still their num- bers are nothing compared with what one might expect. If they were as durable as stones they would be as plentiful as stones in an ordinary Montana valley. The explanation is that they are easily destroyed by the elements and are habit- ually preyed on by Mice and other rodents. In all the thou- sands of shed Elk horns that I have picked up or seen in the West, I do not think I ever saw one that was not more or less gnawed by Mice, Rats, Gophers, or Porcupines. The skull of the Elk may resist the weather for twenty years, the horns may crumble in half that time. As Caton long ago showed,-* while bone is one-third animal matter or gelatine, the antler substance is "about 39 parts animal matter and 61 parts earthy matter of the same kind and pro- portions as is found in common bone"; besides which the inner structure of the antler is exceedingly porous or cellular. " Soon ripe, soon rotten," is a North-of-England proverb that has a bearing on this case. If the antler is the life-aim of the bull Wapiti and the sole end of the antler is the battle, then is the autumn in his years of perfect prime the crowning epoch of the great stag's life. Then from the mountain, whither he retired last spring, he descends to the level of the cows. Fat and well-favoured is he become. A new blue coat *® Antelope and Deer of America, 1877, p. 169. Fig. 9— George A. Clark, Colorado. 1895. Fig. 12— Carter Collection, Colorado. Kjjeria Park, 1894. FiGv 10 — Carter Collection, Colorado. Egeria Park, 1877. Fig. 13 — Colorado, 1900. W. McFadden. Fig. II — Three-horned Manitoba head. F. W. Stobart. January, 1887. Fig. 14 — The W. W. Hart twenty-eight-point head. The record lilk for potats. 61 62 Life-histories of Northern Animals has replaced the rusty brown; his beard is not so long as in late winter, but it is full, dark, and trim; his neck is swollen; his muscles are tense; he is tingling with life and vigour; and, above all, his antlers are perfect, new grown, clean, and sharp — heavier now than they will be later. A new feeling comes over both sexes — first in the bull, with overwhelming power; next in the cow, with lesser force. THE WAR Filled with courage and desire, proud of his horns, and CRY • • • r» conscious of his strength, this greatest bull of the valley, gets up on some commanding ridge, fills his lungs, and raising his muzzle, he pours forth a tremendous guttural roaring that rises in pitch to trumpet tones, higher and higher, till it breaks into a shrill screaming whistle, then fades and drops again to the guttural, concluding with a few savage grunts. This is the world-famed bugling of the Elk. I have heard it likened to the braying of a jackass, but among those who know it in its native mountains, there is only one opinion — that it is the most inspiring music in nature. Here is this magnificent creature, nearly half a ton in weight, strong as a bull, fierce as a lion, in all the glory of his new antlers, proud of them, sur- rounded already by a band of his cows. He is challenging all the world to a fight; he is prepared to stake his all on the issue. *' I am out to fight," he roars, in tones that tell of his huge round chest, "my horns are clean and sharp, I am big and strong, I fear no living thing. On this fight I will stake my range, my family, my social position, my limbs, my life." The martial clamour borne over hill and valley can scarcely fail to reach others of the same kind and in the same mood. Soon the distant woods give forth reply — the bugled answer of some other knight — maybe one like himself, with many possessions in the form of wives, to stake — maybe a youngster, just com- ing into his strength, with nothing to risk but life and limb, with all his fortunes yet to make, and glad to get his chance. But the deep bugle-notes are characteristic of the prime bull. Younger bulls are often called "squealers," and, being more numerous, they are responsible for the bugling being sometimes called "whistling." Wapiti or Elk 63 J. A. Ricker, of Denver, related to me an incident that he witnessed on two different occasions. One day, November i, 1899, while hunting in Routt County, Colorado, he heard a bull Elk whistle. He got off his horse and, sneaking over a ridge, saw the bull in a hollow with three cows. Suddenly a reply to the challenge came from a distant bull that had a splendid bugle-note, winding up with three separate toots. The bull near at hand no sooner heard this than he dashed at the nearest cow, prodding her severely with his horns, then at the others, driving them as fast as he could away from the direction of the other bull. Evidently he was afraid to risk a fight with the owner of that voice. It is rarely that a wild Elk will go out of its way to attack plg- a man, but this has happened more than once. Charles H. '""'^^^^^ Stonebridge, of New York, vouches for the following: About two years ago John Legg, one of the ranchers in the Valley of the Stinking Water, Wyoming, had been up in the mountains hunting and was returning with his trophies on a pack-horse. The trail from the Continental Divide runs along the bank of the river and is very dangerous in a great many places. After coming down about forty miles, Legg came to a particularly bad part of the trail; nothing more, in fact, than a shelf about two feet wide on the side of a cliff and extending for about three hundred feet. On one side there was a sheer wall of rock, on the other a sheer fall to the canon below. A single misstep meant instant death. Legg had been over this trail many times with the horses he was then using, and, without hesitation, drove his pack animal before him. When about half-way across he was suddenly confronted by a large bull Elk, coming from the other direction. The Elk seemed to consider that he had right of way, as without a moment's hesitation he lowered his head, dashed at the pack- horse and hurled it over the cliff into the caiion below, where it was instantly killed. Having got rid of the pack- horse, the bull now turned on the saddle-beast, and Legg was in imminent peril. It was impossible for him to get off his BATTLE 64 Life-histories of Northern Animals horse on either side, or turn around, and the least misstep of his horse would have thrown both over the cliff. The horse, however, remained perfectly quiet. The rider drew his revol- ver, as the Elk charged, and by one shot sent him crashing down the canon below almost on top of his victim. Legg crossed to the other side and worked his way to the bottom of the caiion. Here he found his pack-horse terribly smashed and the stuff he carried more or less injured. He secured the blankets and other things not broken and, loading them on his saddle-horse, returned to his ranch on foot. THE We all love to see a fight when not personally in danger. I have tried many times to see a real Wapiti duel. I have heard them in the woods more than once, but never actually saw one. In October, 1900, I was witness of a curious incident in a trifling Wapiti skirmish near Richmond, Va. A fine big bull Elk was bugling in the woods of the Elk Park. A smaller bull, a 4-pointer, replied with a whistle, then came on in slow and stately march. They locked horns rather deliberately, but the second bull was too light. Again and again he was forced backward, and broke away to save himself. After resting each time some fifty yards off, he would shake his head, squeal and try again, with no better success. At length, the big bull put a little more fife into his attack and drove the young one afar. As he returned, a cow Elk came out of the woods and, at the same time, from under a few sprigs of brush on the much-trampled battle-ground, there rose a spotted fawn, which had been crouching there during the lively fight which was all around him. Whether the bulls were careful not to crush him, or whether he escaped injury by accident, I do not know, but I suspect the latter. W. A. Baillie-Grohman, the well-known sportsman, was witness of a tremendous fight. His description is well worth reproducing:^^ The author was camped in the mountains of western Wyoming, and one moonlight night in "bugling time" ^^ Sport and Life in British Columbia, 1900, pp. 80-81. Wapiti or Elk 05 went forth afoot, when the woods were astir with Wapiti. After seeing a large bull scatter a band of small ones he saw a second prime fellow come bugling into the lists, and once they had clashed together Baillie-Grohman came up within thirty yards, knowing, says he, from former experience, that "probably I might have walked close to the stags without interrupting the tussle; but I was afraid that one or the other, or both, might turn against me, as I knew our European Red- deer do during the rutting season, and an Express [rifle] is but a poor weapon at night time. So I kept at a respectful distance, some twenty or thirty yards from cover, and from there I watched the fight for quite half an hour. For several minutes at a time the antlers appeared inextricably locked together, and as one of the stags seemed the stronger, though not the more agile of the two, superior weight would in those moments enable the heavier animal to fling his adversary from side to side, without, however, being able to free his own horns wherewith to do grievous injury to his foe. Before long, one was on his knees, pressed down, apparently by main force; then the other, staggering back, would for a brief moment halt before rushing with deadly intent at his adversary; but by the time he had regained his breath and was ready for the on- slaught the foe was on his legs again and antler crashed against antler with a force that seemed irresistible. The heavier of the two stags appeared to be well aware of the one advantage his superiority in weight gave him, for the tactics just described were repeatedly tried by him, only to be foiled by his agile ad- versary, who invariably managed to regain his feet and receive the charge with lowered head and antlers en garde. The com- batants had moved about the meadow, much as expert boxers would, though after a quarter of an hour's fighting weight had told its tale, and the smaller stag had to retreat more frequently than ever, and the adversaries were fast approaching the edge of the forest at the latter's back. Here a last stand was made by the defeated one, and a ten-minutes' tussle ended by bring- ing both onto their knees; and here, too, the repulsed one received his death wound, though I failed to see exactly how it FINISH 66 Life-histories of Northern Animals was inflicted, the movements being so rapid and the light too indistinct. It appeared to me, however, that the weaker stag, on regaining his feet first, made a dash at his foe, but from some cause or other his lunge missed its aim and, while the impetus carried him past his still kneeling adversary, his whole flank was exposed to the thrust of the latter's horns. The next second he was down, too, but this time with a heavy thud, stretched out at full length, just out of reach of the kneel- ing victor, who, too exhausted to rise, kept butting at the body which he could not reach. A minute later they were both up again, but the battle was decided, and the wounded hart fled into the forest, where I found him next morning dead, with a ghastly slash two feet in length that had ripped open his side and penetrated his vitals." THE There may be another finish to the combat — a finish that is even more final. The knights have clashed together, the strong and springy antlers have yielded a little under shock of onset, but sprung together locked — locked so firmly that now there is no fencing, nothing but pushing and wrestling. It is as if each held the sword-wrist of his foe in a riveted clutch, and when at length one of the wrestlers would spring back to avoid defeat or for a better thrust, he finds himself absolutely bound to his foe, with antlers intertwined. Try as he may, he cannot wrench them free. Strong and weak alike are now face to face with a lingering death. Many a time have two carcasses been seen thus antler-bound. Several times White- tailed Deer have been found thus — one still alive, the other dead a day or two, the stronger just able to drag his fallen foe enough so he could gather a little food, that could but prolong his misery. More than once the first to die has been partly eaten by Wolves, which the other feebly struggled to avoid. A score of times I have seen the remains of this among the smaller Deer, but only once have I found it among the Wapiti. It is years ago now, at the Palette Ranch, on the head- waters of the Greybull, where choicest elk-lands sloped to buffalo-plains, in a little valley where it all befell, I saw the Wapiti or Elk 67 records and the proofs. Here was the harrowed earth where the fight took place, here, on the battle-ground, the lankened forms of the knights, big and of even might. The Wolves had picked their frames, but the peeling skulls were there, with the two great pairs of branching gear inextricably locked and gripped and interlocked. In fancy's eye I saw the tragic end- while with the living eye I saw, not far away, a skurrying herd of cows with the lesser bull that had inherited what his betters had battled for in vain. II. The Northern Whitetail, Northern Whitetailed Deer, or Northern Virginian Deer. Odocoileus virginianus borealis Miller. (Gr. Odous, a tooth, and koilos, a hollow or cave, badly Latinized by Rafinesque into Odocoileus, should have been Odontocoelus ; probably given because the type tooth was found in a cave; L. virginianus, of Virginia; L. borealis, of the north.) ■ Cervus virginianus BoDD., 1 784, Elen. Ani., I, p. 136. Odocoileus virginianus Merriam, 1 898, Proc. Biol. See. Wash., April 30, XII, p. 100. Type Locality. — Virginia. Odocoileus americanus borealis Miller, 1900, Key to Land Mammals N. E. Am., Bull. N. Y. State Mus., p. 83. Odocoileus virginianus borealis G. M. Allen, 1901, Am. Nat., June, 1901, p. 450. Type Locality. — Bucksport, Maine. French Canadian, le Dain fauve a queue blanche; le Chevreuil; le Cerf de Firginie. Cree & OjiB., Wab-ai-ush' (Whitetail). Yankton Sioux, Tah-chah Tseen-tay-skah. Ogallala Sioux, T ah-heen-cha' -lah (Deer). The genus Odocoileus (Rafinesque, 1832) has, in addition to all the family characteristics: Antlers in the male only; no brow or bez-tines, but an upright snag near the base inside; a metatarsal or mid-leg gland on outer side; tail, long; no canine teeth; the distal or lower ends of the metacarpals or outer front toes, remaining; young, spotted. Teeth as in Cervus^ but canines rarely present. GENERAL Thc Virgiuiau Deer is easily distinguished from the Mule- CHARAC- J c^ TERs deer and Coast Deer group by the form of its antlers (Fig. 16), which have one main beam, bending forward and bearing the tines behind, also by the metatarsal or mid-leg gland on the outer side of the hind shank (Fig. 1 5), which is about i inch long in the 68 '^S, ^.. ^ . -■-^■. ^4-^ ■ ■* ^ ■■1_- \' ^^^-•«^. '»J->- Whitetailed Deer 69 Fig. 15 — Left hind leg of Mule-deer (i), Coast Deer (2), and Whitetail (3), to show the size of the metatarsal glands, respectively, 5, z, and i inch long. Virginian Deer, 2 inches in the Coast Deer, and about 5 in the Mule-deer. The tails also are very distinctive, as will be seen on reference to Fig. 17. The Northern White- tail is much larger than the typical form from Virginia, being nearly double the weight of the latter; the Whitetail group present, in- deed, a complete gradation of size from the pygmy Aca- pulco Deer found in Mexico, or the Florida Deer a little larger, to the giant form of Maine and Manitoba. Caton considered the Acapulco Deer the smallest of the North American species. None of the specimens he had weighed over thirty or forty pounds.' Bucks of the Florida Deer are commonly said to be about eighty pounds or ninety pounds, and, ac- cording to Cory,^ not often over no pounds. The does are proportion- ately less in weight. A fine adult male of the Northern form (No. 1 04891 U. S. N. M.), killed November 15, 1900, near Floodwood on the St. Louis River, sixty miles west of Duluth, Minn., I measured in the flesh, as follows: Length, 6 feet 5I inches (1,970 mm.); tail, ii§ inches 'Antelope and Deer of America, 1877, p. 121. 'C. B. Cory, Hunting and Fishing in Florida, 1896, p. 63. Fig. 16 — Typical antlers of Whitetail (i) and of Mule-deer (2). SIZE 70 Life-histories of Northern Animals (292 mm.); hind-foot, 2o| inches (520 mm.); height at shoulders, 3 feet 5 inches (1,042 mm.); body, ischium to manubrium, 4 feet 2 inches (1,271 mm.); depth at chest, 16 WJWJ* First Annual Report, 1896, N. Y. S. Com. F. G. & F., p. 192. "American Natural Histor)-, 1904, p. 131. "' New English Canaan, 1632. 78 Life-histories of Northern Animals plentiful that lo to the square mile would have been a very- low estimate indeed, and 20 would be a safe rate for the region. The guides claimed that in favourite localities there were as many as 200 Deer to the square mile. But the accounts of the hunters put the Whitetail, in point of numbers, far in advance of all other small Deer. Therefore, I feel satisfied that in primitive times 10 to the square mile is a safe estimate of Whitetailed population in its most favourable region — the immediate Mississippi Valley and the country to the east of it. This area was roughly 2,000,000 square miles. That is to say, it was the home of not less than 20,000,000 Whitetailed Deer. Although the map of to-day shows a wide distribution, the distribution is on a very different basis from that of two hundred years ago. The Adirondacks, northern New Eng- land, northern Michigan, north-eastern Texas, and the dry parts of Florida (aggregating 100,000 square miles) may yet show an average of 3 Deer to the square mile. But we must consider the species as practically absent now from Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Kentucky, the northern half of Missouri, and the southern halves of Minne- sota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, and Ontario, a total area of about 600,000 square miles of their best country. Moreover, the rest of the region shown as inhabited by White- tail in present times is so sparsely supplied that i Deer to 5 square miles would be a liberal estimate. These figures would make the entire Whitetail population north of the Rio Grande somewhere about 500,000. The State of Maine, therefore, has now one-fifth of the Deer in the country. This is because she has learned that they are worth preserving. ANTLERS In the genus Odocoileus there are two well-marked types of antlers, as shown in Fig. 16. These represent average horns of full-grown bucks. In general style the Coast Deer antlers resemble those of the Mule-deer, but are more Fig. i8 — Deer horn embedded in oak. Specimen in New York State Museum. Drawn from pliotoj^raph supplied bv the Director of the Museum. Inscribed : " This portion of an oak tree with a Deer's heatl and horns was taken from a forest in the State of Michi^jan. It is believed that the tree was between 40 and 50 years old. Presented to the M use- um by the Hon. William Kelley, of Rhinebeck, Nov. 24, 1859." Fig. 20 — Whitetail Buck with remarkable palmations. Killed at North Lake Reservoir, town of Wilmurt, Herkimer County, .N. Y., fall of 1891. Drawn from photographs by Egbert Bagg, of Utica, N. Y. Fig. 19 — .\ntler