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I

THE LIFE-HISTORY OF
BRITISH LIZARDS

UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME.

. L

THE LIFE-HISTORY

OF

BRITISH SERPENTS.

BY

GERALD R. LEIGHTON,
M.D., F.R.S.E.

With Fifty Illustrations. Crown Svo, p. net.

WM. BLACKWOOD & SONS,
Edinburgh and London.

C5 (J)

O '^

> ?<

?: Co

'v.

THE LIFE-HISTORY OF

BRITISH LIZARDS

JND THEIR LOCAL DISTRIBUTION IN
THE BRITISH ISLES

BY

GERALD R. LEIGHTON, M.D., F.R.S.E,

AUTHOR OF "BRITISH SERPENTS"

EDITOR OF "the FIELD NATURALIST'S QUARTERLY" ETC. ETC.

INTERIM PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY, ROYAL (dICK) VETERINARY COLLEGE,

EDINBURGH

¥

EDINBURGH:
GEORGE A. MORTON, 42 George Street

LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. LTD.

1903

TO THE

FIELD NATURALISTS

OF THE

BRITISH ISLES

PREFACE

Two years ago, in 1901, when I published my book
on British Serpents, a kindly critic was good enough to
say that the only fault he had to find with that book
was that it did not deal with the lizards as well.
I am only too conscious that there were many other
faults in that book, but I have in this present work
endeavoured to remove the one indicated. This book
is intended as a companion volume to the first ; the
two together completing the account of all the British
reptiles, snakes and lizards, from the point of view of
the field naturalist.

The plan adopted here is much the same as that in
the former book. For the reports on the distribution
of lizards in special districts that are given I am in-
debted to those workers whose names are given under
each district.

In writing this book I have tried to keep in mind
that the field naturalist should, in his study of a
special group of animals, become well acquainted with
their relationships to the animals most nearly con-

vii

viii PREFACE

iiected to them, and also should have a clear idea of
all that is involved in the study of one group, whether
he intends to study all aspects or not. I have there-
fore included, in a modified form, the Introduction
which I wrote for the series of articles on " British
Field Zoology " now appearing in The Field NoMiralisfs
Quarterly. It forms the first chapter of this book.
For the same reason the special subjects towards the
end of Part I. of the volume are dealt with, as it
seemed to me that any description of our lizards
would be incomplete without them. One or two
matters, such as Hibernation and Sloughing, which
were fully described in my book on the snakes, are
now touched upon more briefly.

The great majority of the illustrations are by Mr.
Douglas English, taken from living lizards by the
" control method." One or two are from photographs
of my own ; and that of the female slow-woi^m and
her young is by Eev. Cornish Watkins. This latter
appeared in The Field Naturalist's Quarterly for August
1902. The diagrams I am personally responsible for.
The outline drawings of the heads of the various
species have been drawn for this work by Dr. 0.
Charnock Bradley, F.RS.R, to whom I am much
indebted. I have also to thank G. A. Boulenger,
F.Pi.S., for his ever-ready advice and much valuable
assistance.

The chapter on the anatomy of a lizard is based
upon the description given in Professor Parker's

PREFACE IX

Zootomy, to which readers who wish greater detail are
referred. For many other facts I am indebted to
Dr. Hans Gadow's Amphibia and Reptiles, a work which
all reptile students should possess.

Lastly, I have to thank numerous field-naturalist
correspondents in various parts of the country for
their assistance and information.

(4ERALD LEIGHTON.

17 Haktingtox Place, Edinburgh,
November 1903.

CONTENTS

PART I

CHAP.

I. INTRODUCTORY

II. THE ORDER LACERTILIA

III. THE ANATOMY OF THE LIZARDS .

IV. THE SLOW-WORM, Aiujuis frayiUs .
V. THE SLOW -WORM — couH'imed

VI. THE COMMON LIZARD, Lacerta mviimra
VII. THE SAND LIZARD, Lacsrta agilis .

YIII. THE GREEN LIZARD, LaCCHa VlQ'idis

IX. THE WALL LIZARD, LaceHa muralis

X. THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LIZARDS

XI. THE FRAGILITY OF THE TAIL IN LIZARDS

XII. COLOUR VARIATION IN LIZARDS .

XIII. THE LIMBS OF LIZARDS

PAG 8
1

8

14

24

37

45

55

68

76

81

102

115

128

PART II

COUNTY AND VICE-COUNTY DIVISIONS OF THE BRITISH

ISLES . . . . . . .145

XIV. COUNTY AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION . . .149

XV. PENINSULA PROVINCE. CHANNEL PROVINCE . . 158

XVI. THAMES PROVINCE. OUSE PROVINCE. SEVERN PROVINCE . 169

xi

Xll

CONTENTS

ClIAP. PAGK
XVII. SOUTH WALES, NORTH WALES, TRENT, MERSEY, HTJMBER,

TYNE, AND LAKES PROVINCES . . . 176

XVIII. SCOTLAND ....... 186

XIX. IRELAND ....... 193

XX. SUMMARY OF LOCAL DLSTRIEUTION . . . 195

APPENDIX ....... 205

INDEX ....... 209

ILLUSTRATIONS

SLOW-WORM ....

1. SLOW-WORM ....

2. SLOW-WORM ....

3. BLUXT-TAILED SLOW-WORM .

4. FEMALE SLOW-WORM WITH YOUNG ONES

5. FEMALE COMMON LIZARD
t). MALE AND FEMALE COMMON LIZARDS

7. COMMON LIZARD (GRAVID FEMALE) .

8. MALE AND FEMALE SAND LIZARDS .

9. SAND LIZARD (MALE)

10. SAND LIZARD (GRAYID FEMALE)

11. GREEN LIZARD

12. GREEN LIZARD (VENTRAL SURFACE)

13. WALL LIZARD

14. WALL LIZARD (MALE)

15. ATTITUDES OF WALL LIZARDS

16. WALL LIZARD SHOWING FIGHT

17. TYPICAL lizard's HEAD (DORSAL ASPECT)

18. TYPICAL lizard's HEAD (LATERAL ASPECT)

19. TYPICAL lizard's HEAD (VENTRAL ASPECT)

20. HEAD OF INDIAN SLOW-WORM (sCALING)

21. HEAD SCALES OF COMMON LIZARD .

22. HEAD SCALES OF SAND LIZARD

23. LATERAL ASPECT OF SAND LIZARD .

24. VENTRAL SCALING OF GREEN LIZARD

xiii

Frontispiece

Tofi

ICC 2). 28
30
32

38

46
49
52
56
60
62
72
74
76
77
78
80
86
88
89
90
92
93
94
95

XIV ILLUSTRATIONS

25. HEAD OF GREEN LIZAED (DORSAL ASPECT) . . To fciCC p. 97

26. WALL LIZARD . . . . . ,, 98

27. TAIL OF SLOW-WORM IX PROCESS OF FRACTURE . ,, 106

28. DISSECTIONS OF FRACTURED TAIL IN LIZARDS . ,, 108

DIAGRAMS.

FIG. 1. ARRANGEMENT OF TAIL MUSCLES . . .110

,, 2. RELATION OF CAUDAL SCALES TO FRACTURE . .111

5, 3, SECTION OF TAIL . . . . .112

BEITISH LIZAEDS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

HOW TO DESCRIBE AN ANIMAL DISTRIBUTION

MORPHOLOGY PHYSIOLOGY REPRODUCTION

EMBRYOLOGY PALEONTOLOGY SPECIFIC CHAR-
ACTERS EVOLUTION.

Before entering upon the detailed account of the
lizards found in the British Isles it will be well to
indicate what would be necessary in order to give a
complete picture of these reptiles. That is to say, we
should have a very clear idea of what is involved in
the full description of any animal, because such a
description does not come within the province of the
field naturalist for whom this book is specially in-
tended. There are but few people who realise how
many various aspects of animal life must be taken
into consideration in order to see that life as a whole.

2 BRITISH LIZARDS

Most of us who study animals at all confine our
attention to one or two of those aspects to the neglect
of others. This is indeed a necessity in these days
of specialisation, when we have realised that it is
more than the work of a lifetime for any one man
to thoroughly work out the life-history of a single
species from every point of view. But it is im-
portant that the field naturalist should accurately
appreciate the particular aspects which are open to
his investigation, and it is no less important that he
should realise the existence of other points of view,
the investigation of which must fall to the lot of
others. That does not imply that his knoivledge of an
animal must be limited to those aspects which he
himself can inquire into, but it does imply the re-
cognition of the fact that there are other aspects of
animals than those which can be observed out of
doors. Therefore we say that the very first thing the
field naturalist should know about the animal kingdom
is what the description of an animal involves. That
is by no means such a simple matter as might appear.
It may be explained by an illustration. Suppose for
a moment that the observer discovers an animal
which, as far as he is able to ascertain, is something
which has not been described before, a new species.
He is anxious to draw up a description of it to
present to a meeting of some society, so that his
hearers may get a complete idea of his discovery.
He will probably find that the task of fully describing

INTRODUCTORY 3

one animal is quite beyond his powers, and he would
find this out as he went on. He would begin, per-
haps, by stating the locality in which he found the
specimen, the only locality in which it was at the time
known to occur. This statement is the Geographical
Distribution or Zoogeography of the animal, and is one
aspect of animal description. It is, in other words,
its distribution in Space as far as is known. He
would then probably proceed to describe the general
form and appearance of the animal — its shape, colour,
possession of limbs, wings, fins, and other obvious
external structures, or the absence of these. If
minute in size, he would examine it under the
microscope ; if large, he would examine its internal
structure by dissection. This is a second aspect of
the animal, that of its structure or Morphology. This
includes both naked-eye and microscopic structures.
By this study he would determine on what plan the
animal is built up, and as the result of the knowledge
thus gained he would be able to say whether the
animal was a bird, fish, insect, and so on. This is the
aspect of animals which is most studied in zoological
laboratories, but which the field naturalist usually
does not spend much time over. He is much more
interested in recording and observing how the animal
lives its life, and adapts itself to its surroundings.
The functions performed by all the structures of the
body interest him more than the method on which
those structures are built up. In describing his dis-

4 BRITISH LIZARDS

covery from this third point of view he is describing
the Physiology of the animal, or the manner in which
the functions are performed during hfe. This is,
again, an immense subject, and he will soon find that
he is quite unable to account for all that he sees.
But he will also perceive that all the functions which
the animal is capable of performing are one of three
kinds. They are either concerned with {a) Nutrition,

(b) Beproduction, or if neither of these, they are

(c) directed to hringii ^ the animal into Relation ivith
the ivorld around it. Every function is one of these
three kinds. Breathing by gills, lungs, or the surface
of the body is a matter of keeping the body nourished ;
so are the various methods adopted by animals to
excrete waste products ; so is the circulation of blood ;
so is digestion, — all are functions of Nutrition.

The special means adopted to reproduce offspring
constitute the Bep^oductive functions, whether these be
simply growing buds, or more complicated methods.
Everything that is not either a nutritive or a re-
productive function belongs to the third group of
functions, those by which the animal comes into
contact with its surroundings. Sight, hearing, touch,
smell, taste, consciousness, memory, thought, ideation,
and so forth, are all functions of Belation. One cannot
conceive of any physiological function which is not
directed to one of these three ends. So that our
naturalist has now described his animal from three
distinct aspects, and, although that has involved much

INTRODUCTORY 5

labour, it by no means exhausts the matter. A
further investigation may lead him to find out that
his new discovery, though now so rare, was at one
period of the world's history a much more common
animal. There may be many fossil examples of a
similar creature. ' He must therefore describe its dis-
tribution in Time, or its Paloeontology, as well as its
distribution in present space. The past and present
distribution of the same forms of life present some
most interesting problems, and the two do not by any
means necessarily coincide. Thus he has completed a
fourth aspect. But then there is another. What is it
that makes this animal different from all others, and
justifies its being regarded as a new form to science ?
What characters has it which are peculiar to itself ?
Some of its structures are common to many animals,
but some there are which no other animal possesses,
and on account of these the discovery is recognised as
a new species. This is the aspect of Specific characters.
Then there is an aspect which is really a combination
of the morphological and the physiological, but which
is such a large subject that it is regarded as a separate
aspect — namely, the stud}^ of the various changes in
form and function through which an organism passes
before it reaches bhe stage of maturity. This is
the emhryological aspect, or the study of Emhryology.
Lastly, there is the j^^^Hosojjhical aspect of animal life,
that which studies the connection of one kind of
animal with another, their relationships, their origin,

6 BRITISH LIZARDS

their future, their association. This is the aspect
of Evolution, which includes the study of the most
fascinating portion of biology, and is largely a theo-
retical study as well as a practical one. It does not
refer to an individual, but to a group of individuals.
We do not speak of the evolution of a horse, but that
of the horse regarded as a species of animal.

Thus we see that there are more aspects of an
animal that must be taken up in order to get a
complete description of it than we might suppose at
first sight. It is practically impossible for any one
man to make himself familiar with all that is known
of all these aspects even for a very few animals.
Each aspect is a study so far-reaching in itself that
one is more than most of us can manage to learn
thoroughly. But it is of the greatest importance to
remember that in describing an animal all these points
of view must be considered before a complete descrip-
tion has been given.

For outdoor work the Physiological, the Geograiohical,
and the Specific characters are the most important
aspects. Structure must not be lost sight of, for on
that alone do naturalists classify animals, but it is
studied here more in its relation to function than for
its own sake. The main questions the field naturalist
has to study are : — What animals live in a given
region ? What characters make them the species they
are ? How are they related to other living or extinct
forms ? How do they live their life ?

INTRODUCTORY 7

If my readers have appreciated the foregoing re-
marks, it will be quite evident that some aspects
of animal life are adapted for the field naturalist's
method of work, and can, indeed, be done by no one
else, whilst other aspects have to be studied in the
laboratory. There is no question of the relative value
of these methods, it is simply that they are distinct
aspects, and it seldom happens that the same in-
dividual is able to devote himself to both lines of
investigation. But the object of a book should be to
give the field worker just sufficient information from
those points of view which he himself does not work
which will enable him more thoroughly to understand
the phenomena which come under his observation out
of doors. Therefore we shall first of all discuss very
simply and briefly the place of British lizards in the
animal kingdom, their structure, and methods of repro-
duction, and then conclude our sketch of the subject
with the description of those aspects of the life of
these creatures which are open to every field naturalist
to see for himself.

CHAPTER II

THE ORDER LACERTILIA

DEFINITION OF LIZARD CLASSIFICATION GENERAL

FACTS.

Although one can arrive at a definition of an order
of animals only after minute consideration of their
structure and relationships, it will be simpler for
our present purpose to define what we mean by a
lizard at once, and then see how that definition is
arrived at.

Definition. — Lizards are Saurians which have the
right and left halves of the lower jaws connected by
a bony suture.

Such a definition indicates at once that structural
characters alone are to be relied upon for classifica-
tion. It also indicates that we cannot understand the
definition of any one order of animals unless we also
understand the definitions of other groups. In this
particular case it becomes necessary to know wliat
Saurians are before we understand what is meant by
a lizard. It will be sufficient, perhaps, for our

8

THE ORDER LACERTILIA 9

present purpose if we state that the Sauria are the
most recently developed reptiles, and include both
the Ophidia or Serpents and the Lacertilia or Lizards.
Looking now at the definition above it becomes
apparent that lizards are distinguished from serpents
by the fact that in the former the two halves of the
lower jaw are firmly united together by a bony
suture or joint which allows of no distension. In
the serpents, on the other hand, these two halves of
the lower jaw are connected by an elastic ligament
which allows of immense distension, an anatomical
difference which we shall find has its functional
counterpart in the different kinds of food swallowed.
It is only necessary, further, to have a clear idea of
what constitutes a Eeptile. Briefly, Eeptiles may be
described as the only vertebrate animals which are
cold-blooded, which breathe by lungs throughout life,
and which have the skull joined on to the vertebral
column by a single median condyle or articulating
surface. These few characters mark them off dis-
tinctly from the other vertebrate animals — the
Amphibians, the Fishes, the Birds, and the Mammals.
So that the definition of a lizard, which at first
sight, perhaps, seemed somewhat formidable, is
easily reduced to simple everyday language. The
important thing, of course, is to clearly distinguish
between a lizard and any other reptile which is not
a lizard — a snake for instance ; and when we consider
how very like a snake the common slow-worm appears,

10 BRITISH LIZARDS

it is at once evident that accurate classification must
be founded upon a basis of structure.

It is no part of this work to enter upon the
structural characters of all the orders of Eeptiles ; it
will be sufficient now if we indicate in tabular form
what those orders are (as far as living reptiles are
concerned, and omitting the extinct forms), when the
position of the lizards will be more clearly apparent.

/'Order Chelonia (turtles and tortoises).

Class Keptilia.^

Order Crocodilia (crocodiles, etc.).

Order Squamata or Sauria.

Suborder Ophidia (serpents).
Suborder Lacertiha (lizards).

We see, then, from the above classification that
we have to deal with one suborder of the class of
Eeptiles, namely, the Lacertilia. We have already
defined this group, and seen how the definition is
arrived at. The next thing is to look at the group
as a whole, w^hich will enable us to appreciate the
position which is occupied by the British members
of it.

The Lacertilia or Lizards. — Included in this great
suborder of lizards there are some 1800 species, only
five of which come into the limits of this book.
Four of these are found to belong to the family
Lacertidte, the remaining one, the slow-worm, to the
family Anguidse. With the other numerous families
of lizards we have at present nothing to do, as we can

THE ORDER LACERTILIA 11

obtain all the information required for our purpose
from these two families.

Most lizards are found on examination to possess
two pairs of limbs, an anterior pair and a posterior
pair, all these limbs being built up on the typical
vertebral type, such as is commonly studied in the
frog, and known as the pentadactyloid type. Some
species, however, show no indication of any external
limbs at all, giving them a snake-like appearance to
the eye, an example of which is to be seen in the
slow-worm. The great majority have eyelids, which
are movable, a feature which distinguishes these
members from snakes which have no movable eye-
lids. The external covering in most is in the form
of scales. The great interest of the group is their
immense variation. " They exhibit a great, almost
endless, variety in shape, size, and structure, in
adaptation to their surroundings. Most of these
modifications are restricted to the external organs,
or rather to those which come into direct contact
with the outer world, namely, the skin, the limbs,
the tail, or the tongue. The majority are terrestrial,
but there are also semi-aquatic forms. There are
climbing, swiftly running, and even flying forms,
whilst others lead a subterranean life like earthworms.
Most of them live on animal food, varying from tiny
insects and worms to birds and mammals, while
others live on vegetable diet. According to this
diet, the teeth and the whole digestive tract are

12 BRITISH LIZARDS

modified. The intestine is relatively short in the
carnivorous, long in the herbivorous species. But
swiftness, the apparatus necessary for climbing, run-
ning, and digging, the mechanism of the tongue, the
armament and muscles of the jaws, stand also in
correlation with the kind of food and with the way
in which it has to be procured." ^

In colouring the lizards present again immense
variation, according to their habitat. Those which
are dwellers in deserts approximate to the colour of
the sandy surroundings, being brownish or yellowish
red. Many which live amongst luxurious vegetation
are brilliantly coloured, and a large number have the
power of more or less changing their hue, a character-
istic particularly associated with the Chameleon family.
A curious property of many lizards is the readiness
with which a portion of the tail breaks off, and the
capacity for reproducing more or less perfectly the
lost portion, the regenerated part differing, however,
in some details from the original tail. Like the
snakes, lizards cast their slough periodically, some-
times whole, sometimes in pieces. Taking the
Lacertilia as a whole, the majority reproduce their
young by depositing eggs, that is, they are oviparous,
the " shell " being either hard (as in the green lizard
and the sand lizard) or more membraneous. These
latter eggs increase in size after being deposited, from
the taking in of moisture. Other species lay their

' Dr. GadoAv, AmjihiMa and Reptiles, p. 492.

THE ORDER LACERTILIA 13

eggs just as the embryos are at full time, that is,
they are ovo-viviparous ; while still others bring forth
their young alive, that is, are viviparous.

As regards their distribution the Lacertilia are
almost universally found, or at least some of them.
The Lacertidse, to which most of the British species
belong, are confined to the old world, but are absent
from Madagascar. The Anguidse, the family of the
slow- worm, occur " in North and South America, in
Europe and the Mediterranean parts of North Africa,
and in Trans-Gangetic India." The detailed dis-
tribution of the several British species will be referred
to later.

With this brief description we must leave the
Lacertilia as a whole, and consider the structure of
one of them in some detail.

CHAPTER III

THE ANATOMY OF THE LIZARDS

THE SKELETON, EXO-SKELETON AND ENDO-SKELETON — •

NOSTRILS EYES AUDITORY APERTURE CLOACAL

APERTURE ALIMENTARY TRACT LIVER HEART

PANCREAS SPLEEN TESTES OVARIES BLADDER

BRAIN.

In this chapter it is intended to give a short description
of the more prominent anatomical characters of a
lizard, so that the field naturalist may be able to
understand any dissections which he may have access
to in museums, and may be able to recognise the
various parts in a dissection which he may do for
himself. We select the green lizard for subject of
description, because it is larger than the other British
species, and also because those who wish to study the
structure for themselves can always obtain this species
from dealers in animals at a small cost. Moreover,
since four of the five species we have to consider
belong to this same family, it is obviously more useful
to take this as our type, leaving the anatomical pecul-

14

THE ANATOMY OF THE LIZARDS 15

iarities of the slow-worm to be mentioned separately.
More minute details of structure would be beyond the
province of this work, and the student is referred for
these to the text-books of zoology.

Skeleton. — The exo-skeleton, or body-covering, con-
sists of scales which overlap each other. (The specific
arrangement of head scales will be dealt with later.)
The scales are derived from the epidermis. They vary
in size, character, and arrangement in different parts
of the body : those on the dorsal aspect of the body
being small and hexagonal and slightly keeled ; those
on the ventral or belly surface are much larger and
arranged in longitudinal series ; whilst those on the
tail are of the same nature all round the circumfer-
ence, and are longer than broad, keeled and arranged
in transverse series. This causes the annulated appear-
ance of the tail.

Where the neck joins the trunk there is a fold
of skin, in front of which the neck scales are larger
than those more anterior still. The head scales are
large. The anterior margin of the anal orifice or
cloacal opening is formed by a large scale or plate,
the pre-anal plate. A little careful study of these
points in a lizard will enable the field naturalist
to determine the part of the body to which a
portion of a slough belongs, and if that slough
is from the body or head the species may also be
known.

The endo-skeleton, or bony-skeleton, may be pre-

16 BRITISH LIZARDS

pared for examination by allowing the bones which
have been partially stripped of muscles, to soak in
water for some time. The soft parts which are left
will soon decay, and can then readily be stripped off,
leaving the bones clean. A quicker method is to boil
the specimen for a quarter of an hour, which renders
the soft parts easily detachable.

Having, in one or other way, prepared a clean
skeleton, observe first the vertebral column. Eight
vertebrae are found in the cervical or neck region,
then follow twenty-two in the trunk region ; behind
these, two vertebrae in the sacral region to which the
pelvis is joined ; and, lastly, a number of vertebrae
in the tail, the number of which vary in different
specimens.

The ribs arise in pairs from the vertebrae, but not
from all. They are largest in the front part of the
chest, where they are joined to the sternum or breast-
bone, smaller in front of this, and become gradually
smaller as we trace them backwards from the chest to
the sacral region.

Note particularly the shape of the large vertebrae.
They are concave in front, convex behind, the type of
vertebrae called procoelous. They thus form a series
of cup-and-ball joints, which are admirably adapted
for flexibility and general ease of motion. Five ribs
will be found to articulate with the sternum, the
hinder ribs of the thorax do not reach it. In the
neck region ribs will be found arising from the last

THE ANATOMY OF THE LIZARDS 17

five vertebrae, in this case also not being attached to
the sternum.

A single protuberance from the occipital bone, the
condyle, joins the skull to the first cervical vertebra
or atlas.

The bones of the fore -limb are those usually found
in vertebrate limbs, namely, humerus, radius (smaller
than the) ulna, carpal or wrist bones, and five clawed
fingers or digits.

Similarly, in the hind limb are found, the femur or
thigh bone, tibia (larger than the) fibula, tarsal or
ankle bones, and five toes or digits.

An external examination of a lizard shows that
the animal may be divided into — a head, which is
somewhat flat ; a neck, separated from the trunk by
a slightly narrowed part ; the trunk, ending abruptly
at the tail, which is round and gradually tapers to
a fine point. The tail, if it be intact, is longer than
all the rest of the lizard. The sides of the trunk are
not convex, but rather flattened, and from their lower
borders the fore and hind limbs spring. On both
hand and foot the first digit is the shortest ; on the
hand the second and third digits are the longest ; on
the foot the fourth is the longest.

The openings on the external surface are eight in
number. They consist of the large wide mouth ; the
two anterior nostrils, one on each side of the front
of the snout ; the two eyes, about half-way between
the nostrils and the auditory opening ; the auditory

18 BRITISH LIZARDS

aperture just behind the posterior angle of the mouth
(with the delicate tympanic membrane covering) ; and,
lastly, the anal or cloacal opening at the root of the
tail — a transverse slit.

Coming now to the internal structure of the lizard,
we note first the alimentary tract. On the floor of
the mouth is the long narrow tongue, bifid in front,
but not so deeply divided as in a snake. The teeth
are small and conical, and there are, of course, no
fangs. The gullet or oesophagus leads to the stomach,
which lies under the liver. The stomach is a strong
muscular tube which is continued as the small in-
testine, this in its turn ending in the large intestine
and rectum. The rectum is of greater dimensions
transversely, and gives off a small pouch, the
caecum.

The liver is a large brown organ in the middle
of the body with a duct to the gall-bladder, the latter
being usually recognisable by its green colour from the
bile within it. The pancreas is a narrow whitish
structure between the stomach and intestine, and the
small reddish spleen is near the posterior end of the
stomach. In the male, the two oval white testes will
be seen, the right one being placed farther forwards
than the left. In the female, the two ovaries are
situated rather more posteriorly than the testes in
the male, and show rounded elevations, due to the
eggs within. The urinary bladder is a thin sac.
There are two kidneys, dark brown in colour, each

THE ANATOMY OF THE LIZARDS 19

consisting of two lobes. The ducts from these urino-
genital organs open into the cloaca.

The three- chambered heart consists of a single
ventricle and two auricles, right and left. Three
main arteries come from the base of the ventricle,
namely, the pulmonary artery carrying blood to the
lungs, and the right and left aortse. These two vessels
after arching to either side, bend round the gullet,
and unite to form one vessel, the dorsal aorta, which
distributes the blood, by means of its branches, to the
posterior part of the body. The great veins which
bring the blood to the heart, empty into a venous
sinus, or directly into the right auricle.

The respiratory system consists of a windpipe or
trachea, which divides into two bronchi, and each of
these communicates with the corresponding lung. Each
lung is a very thin sac, the posterior part being the
thinner, the walls of w^hich are made up of a network
of ridges, which support the vessels through which the
exchange of oxygen and impure products takes place.

If the brain be exposed by removing the roof of the
skull, we note from before backwards the olfactory
lobes, cerebral hemispheres, the pineal body, optic
lobes, small cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata,
this last being continuous with the spinal cord.
Various cranial nerves will be seen emerging.

The foregoing are the principal points which the
field naturalist will be concerned with. Those who
wish to examine in greater detail the anatomy of a

20 BRITISH LIZARDS

lizard are recommended to study the description
given in Professor T. J. Parker's practical book on
Zootomy, on which the above brief sketch is based.

The anatomical arrangements in lizards which are
of most interest to field naturalists, and which come
within the scope of this work, are those in connection
with the process of feeding. The reason for this, of
course, is that the lizards offer a striking comparison
and contrast with the snakes in the matter of dealing
with their prey, and in the structural adaptations of
the jaws and skull for mastication. The subject has
recently been worked out by Dr. Charnock Bradley
(Professor of Anatomy in the Eoyal Veterinary
College, Edinburgh) ; and his paper, which is in course
of publication in the Zoologische Jahrhucker} is one
which all students of reptilian morphology should
read. Dr. Bradley has been kind enough to send me
the manuscript of his paper, from which what follows
on this subject is quoted. The paper is " an en-
deavour to throw some light on the peculiarities of the
jaw movements of lizards. . . . On account of the con-
veniently large size, Varanus bivittatus was examined
in the first instance, and it was found that this animal
formed a very excellent type with which to compare
the muscles of the smaller lizards. In addition to
Varanus, Lacerta agilis and viridis . . . have also
been examined. The process of mastication was

^ "The Muscles of Mastication and the Movements of the Skull,
Lacertilia," vol. xviii. p. 475.

THE ANATOMY OF THE LIZARDS 21

watched in the living L. agilis and viridis, and in
these animals also the fresh skull was examined in
order to discover the possibilities of movement between
the various parts."

It was long ago pointed out that the movements
of the jaws in lizards did not consist merely in the
depression and elevation of the lower jaw, but that
there was along with this a corresponding elevation
and depression of the upper jaw. This movement of
the upper jaw was supposed to take place along two
lines — first, between the frontal and parietal bones ; and
second, between the parietal bones and the occipital.
Dr. Bradley comes to a different conclusion. " It
may be stated at once that the anterior line of
movement, as described by Nitzsch, does not exist.
The joint between the frontal and parietal bones is
not movable. Certainly, in the skull of a lizard, such
as Z. viridis, a certain bending can be produced,
but it is dependent upon the thinness of the bones,
and not upon any peculiarity in the line of fusion of
frontal and parietal bones. In the larger lizards, and
in those with thicker cranial bones, such a bending is
not possible unless extreme force is used." ..." The
two halves of the mandible are very loosely joined
together at the symphysis. It appears not unreason-
able to expect that in the living animal there is some
degree of rotation of each half of the mandible about
its own long axis. Such rotation, at any rate, can
be very readily produced in a fresh skull."

22 BRITISH LIZARDS

After describing in detail the movements of the
different segments of the skull, Dr. Bradley sums
up the effect of these movements thus : " Least
movement occurs in the neighbourhood of the ends of
the projecting lateral occipitals, in which region, it
may be remarked, are the upper ends of the quadrate
bones. There is elevation of the frontal segment at
the same time as the mandible is depressed, and
at the same time there is a narrowing of the mouth,
which narrowing is greatest posteriorly. When the
mouth is closed, the parts are restored to the condition
of rest, i.e. there is depression of the frontal segment,
and abduction of the pterygo-palatine arch, lower end
of the quadrate and posterior part of the mandible.
This results in an increase in the transverse diameter
of the mouth, the increase being greatest posteriorly.
If the frontal segment be more forcibly depressed, the
basipterygoid processes of the sphenoid exert their
wedge-like action upon the pterygoid, so producing
further abduction. Therefore, when the frontal segment
is depressed, the transverse diameter of the mouth is
increased.

" The advantage of the abduction and adduction of
the jaws is obvious when we remember the nature and
condition of the food of lizards. Their prey is always
living, and therefore we may presume desirous of
escape. Supposing the victim to be a worm, the fol-
lowing is apparently the manner in which the lizard
succeeds in swallowing it. From its conformation the

THE ANATOMY OF THE LIZARDS 23

worm must be seized by one end. This having been
done, in order that deglutition may be accomplished,
the lizard must again open its mouth to the end that
a further hold may be obtained upon the elongated
prey. The mouth being open, were there no provision
to prevent it, the squirming worm might regain its
freedom. This accident, however, is prevented by the
adduction of the previously abducted jaws, which firmly
grip that portion of the worm which is contained in the
mouth. This process is repeated until the whole of
the worm has passed into the oesophagus. The grip
by the pterygoid bones is rendered more secure by the
pterygoidean teeth when such structures are present."

Dr. Bradley's most instructive paper is illustrated
by a series of original drawings of the muscles
and articulations concerned in the movements dis-
cussed.

Apart from the jaws, the lizards — or some of them
— exhibit some striking anatomical contrasts among
each other in the matter of limbs, and in the function
of locomotion. This subject is dealt with later in
a separate chapter in connection with the limbless
slow-worm.

CHAPTEE IV

THE SLOW-WORM, ANGUIS FRAGILIS

INTRODUCTORY DISTRIBUTION HAUNTS HABITS

COLOUR FOOD REPRODUCTION SPECIFIC CHAR-
ACTERS.

Having taken a brief survey of the lizards as a
whole, and of the structure of a typical lizard, we
are in a position to consider in detail the several
British species. It is doubtless true that to many
people lizards are only one degree less repulsive than
snakes, in spite of the fact that lizards are absolutely
innocuous reptiles. But it is equally certain that they
have an ever-increasing number of friends, who have
found out what delightful and interesting pets they are
in vivaria. It is a sad reflection, however, — notwith-
standing the vast increase in the number of books
on natural history, and therefore, presumably, in the
spread of knowledge about animals, — that they are
still remorselessly slaughtered by the majority of
those who encounter them. More particularly is this
the case of the slow-worm or blind-worm, concerning

24

THE SLOW-WORM, ANGUIS FRAGILIS 25

which species an astonishing amount of ignorance
still prevails. The fact that this unfortunate lizard
is devoid of external limbs is quite sufficient to assure
its being regarded as a " poisonous snake " in the
minds of rustics and others, and accordingly it is
pitilessly persecuted wherever it is at all common.
Happily it is so protectively coloured as to frequently
escape observation, and its habit of lying perfectly
still — hence the term slow-worm — also assists it to
elude notice. Were it not that nature thus comes
to the rescue, this and other species of perfectly
harmless and beautiful reptiles would soon become
extinct. Whatever excuse there may be for this
mental attitude in the uneducated classes, there is
certainly none for its prevalence amongst those who
regard themselves as lovers of animals ; and yet it is
astonishing how some people can detest lizards, who
are fond of many other species of animals. I know
a naturalist who handles wasps and other creatures
which sometimes behave in anything but a friendly
way, but who would not handle a slow-worm under
any consideration whatever. Even field naturalists,
or perhaps one should say, members of field clubs,
occasionally exhibit extraordinary lack of knowledge
about the slow-worm ; in proof of which I may men-
tion that on no less than ten occasions since 1899 I
have had reports of the occurrence of the rare British
snake, the smooth snake {Coronella mtstriaca), every
one of which turned out upon investigation to be

26 BRITISH LIZARDS

nothing more nor less than so many captures of slow-
worms ! I do not mean to insinuate that such ignor-
ance is common amongst those who work at outdoor
natural history, but one is driven to the conclusion
that there is room for improvement. Such a mistake
as this makes it necessary to point out the distinction
between a limbless lizard Hke the slow-worm, and a
snake of any species. It may be admitted at once
that the general form of this lizard is snakelike, that
is, it is possessed of a long, slender body without any
obvious indications of limbs, and no very marked
separation of the tail from the body. The same
remark practically applies to an eel, which means, of
course, that such a superficial description of a creature
is of no value whatever as a means of classification.
Three simple structural points, all of which can be
seen without any dissection, are amply sufficient to
identify the slow-worm as a lizard, and to separate it
from the snakes, at any rate as far as British reptiles
are concerned, which is all we need consider here.
First of all, the most casual observer could hardly
fail to notice that the slow-worm has eyelids ; the
snakes have no eyelids. How this creature came by
its other popular name of blind-worm, considering
the brilliancy of its eyes, is difficult to understand,
unless it was from seeing it with the eyes closed
during hibernation. Secondly, if the belly scales be
examined, it will be seen that they are made up of
a numl^er of rows in the slow- worm (as in other

THE SLOW-WOKM, AN GUIS FRAGILIS 27

lizards) ; while in the snakes a single large broad scale
extends from one side of the belly to the other.
Thirdly, the tail in the slow -worm is as long as the
body ; in the snakes it is shorter than the body. On
dissection, other differences would become apparent,
and it may be convenient here to sum these dis-
tinctions up in tabular form for reference.

Lacertilia or Lizards.

Limbs present or rudiments.
Eyelids present.
Belly scales in several rows.
Jaws firmly united.
Teeth conical (as a rule).
Tongue notched.
All are innocuous.
Sternum present.
Urinary bladder present.

Ophidia or Snakes.

Limbs absent.

Eyelids absent.

Belly scales in one row.

Jaws widely distensible.

Teeth recurved.

Tongue deeply bifid.

One British species venomous.

Sternum absent.

Urinary bladder absent.

It is the rudimentary limbs that have caused the
blind-w^orm to be regarded as a snake by the ignorant.
No sign of these appears externally, but a careful
dissection reveals the x^i'^sence of the rudimentary
pelvic girdle which, in the limbed forms, articulates
with the hind limbs. This lizard is from this point
of view, therefore, intermediate between the snakes
and lizards with limbs, — one of the many connecting
links found in nature indicating the gradual evolu-
tion of creatures from generalised to specialised
types.

Distribution. — The slow-worm, or blind-worm, is

28 BRITISH LIZARDS

found, in more or less abundance, universally in
Europe, with the exception of the extreme northern
portions of the Continent, where the cold is too severe
for reptile life to flourish. In the British Isles it is
common — in England, Scotland, and Wales, but does
not occur in Ireland. It seems to occur in all the
counties, but is much more numerous in some localities
than in others. In my own experience I have found
it more abundantly in the south-western counties of
England than in the eastern or northern counties, and
in Wales it is found in great numbers in the southern
parts. I have been much struck with its rarity in
some counties, where the snakes were common, and
where the viviparous common lizard was plentiful.
Such a case is found in the Broadland district of
Norfolk, where one may capture a dozen adders in a
day and never see a slow-worm in the same time.
In Dorset, on the other hand, where both adders and
ring-snakes are common, the slow-worm is also plenti-
ful. Most counties, however, contain some suitable
spots where search will be rewarded.

Description. — The general appearance of this lizard
is too familiar to need detailed description, and a
glance at the illustrations in this book will give an
excellent idea of its postures and attitudes. Great
variety is seen in size and colour. As the result of a
large series of measurements of specimens taken from
different parts of the country, we may state the aver-
age size of a full-grown specimen to be between

00

<

o
>

o

THE SLOW-WORM, ANGUIS FRAGILIS 29

12 and 15 inches. In making such a measure-
ment the observer should carefully examine the
tail, to be certain it is all there. Very many speci-
mens have lost a portion of the tail, and this can be
recognised by the unusually blunt ending of the organ
in those cases. If the tail measures less than half
the total length, it has almost certainly been mutilated
at some time or other. In the females about half
the total length is tail, in males rather more than
half the total length, which reminds us that in snakes
also the tail is longer in males than in females. The
spot where the tail begins can be readily recognised
by noting the large anal scale, which is the most
posterior scale on the ventral aspect of the belly.

There is no lateral fold in this lizard, nor any fold
in the neck region, and, as we have said, no indica-
tion at all of external limbs. The whole creature is
covered with very smooth shining scales, which are
rounded, not hexagonal. Those on the head are larger
than those elsewhere. In this species the teeth
" are curved backwards, fang-shaped, and have a faint
longitudinal groove on their anterior surface." ^ The
position of the ear is difficult to determine, as it has
the opening partially hidden from view by the scales
in that region. The eyes are small but very bright
and noticeable, in spite of the popular misnomer
of blind-worm. A marked characteristic is the great
smoothness of the skin ; in fact, it would be hard to

^ Gadow, A mphibia and Reptiles, p. 539.

THE SLOW- WORM, AN GUIS FRAGILIS 31

middle line of the back. The lateral line is dis-
tinctly seen in the illustration.

Hahits. — It is no easy task to gain a clear idea
of the habits of lizards in nature, as they are not
creatures which obtrude themselves upon the notice.
Still, continuous searching for these reptiles will con-
vince the naturalist that they live a simple and quiet
life without much variety in it. He will come to this
conclusion from finding the great majority of his
specimens under very similar circumstances. If the
temperature be cool, the slow-worm remains under the
covering protection of vegetation or under stones,
particularly flat tombstones in country churchyards.
Hence, in obedience to that love of warmth and sun-
shine which is inherent in reptiles, they emerge to
sun themselves on grassy banks on country roadsides
or secluded footpaths. Lying perfectly still amongst
the grass on such a bank, it is by no means easy to
see the animal even when it is straight in front of
the observer. If approached quietly, the slow-worm
usually remains motionless ; and I remember once
standing within four feet of one sunning itself in this
way and endeavouring to indicate its position to a
companion who was with me, but in vain. He simply
could not see it, although his eyes roamed over every
blade of grass in the spot I described. Very carefully
and slowly I brought my hand down on to the slow-
worm, which made no attempt to move though watch-
ing me all the time, and not until I actually touched

32 BRITISH LIZARDS

it could he make out the animal. I mention this
because there is no doubt that it is the reason why
these lizards are so seldom seen by some people who
are not in the habit of observing them. Their pro-
tective colouring and habitual immobility render them
difficult to find.

Once grasped in the hand there is grave danger of a
catastrophe to the tail, unless care is taken to allow
the creature to entwine itself amongst the fingers,
which slow-worms are very fond of doing. If they
are held up by the neck, firmly gripped by the thumb
and finger as if they were something which might
have to be dropped very suddenly — as many hold
them, — they will probably lash themselves wildly from
side to side and at the same time stiffen the muscles
of the tail. It is an energetic protest against the
method of handling. In such a case a part of the tail
is very apt to be broken off, due to the great fragility
possessed by this organ, hence the specific name
fragilis. No danger of this accident need be appre-
hended if the captor will allow the slow-worm to rest
on the whole of the palm of the hand and insert its
coils between the fingers. The cause of this easy
separation of a part of the tail has recently been in-
vestigated, and is dealt with in a subsequent chapter.
It is a phenomenon seen in many species of lizards,
and is of use to them in assisting evasion of their
enemies. Other reptiles feed upon slow-worms, and if
the pursuer catches the slow-worm by the tail, and the

SLOW-WOR.M : BLUNT TAIL.

{Facing/). 32,

THE SLOW- WORM, ANGUIS FRAGILIS 33

slow-worm drops the terminal few inches, both parties
attain their end. The slow-worm saves its life at the
expense of a little tail, the enemy gets its food, and is
probably also satisfied.

The movement of a slow-worm upon the ground is
a wonderful thing to watch. It is almost uncanny, —
this smooth, even, gliding amongst the grass without
the slightest appearance of the putting forth of any
effort. Very rapid it is, too, at times, though often
slow and always quiet. The term slow-worm is
probably due to the fact that the reptile is slow to
move when observed. It cannot be accurately given
to describe individual movements, many of which are
extremely rapid. Very often, if the creature be en-
countered as it is moving along, it will stop and
become motionless, a habit which may also have had
its place in the origin of this term, and one which is
too often the immediate cause of the cruel persecution
meted out to it.

Colour Variation. — As in most reptiles, a great
range of colour variation is found The different
appearances are due mainly to the influence of the
two factors of age and sex, the former having the
most obvious influence. When first born the young
slow-worms are silvery white above, with very black
bellies, the dark line down the middle of the back
being prominent. They are extremely attractive at
this stage, very active and brilliant. As they grow
older the colours change a good deal and vary much.
3

34 BRITISH LIZARDS

The black belly gives place to a mottled grey colour.
The body may be grey or brownish, or the bright
polished copper colour already mentioned. The old
specimens will be found sometimes mottled with blue.
No hard - and - fast rules can be laid down, as the
individuals vary so much.

Food. — Despite the various diets ascribed to the
slow-worm, I have no hesitation in saying that the
favourite and staple food consists of slugs, the common
small grey garden slug for choice. The fact that the
lizard has a non-distensible jaw of course precludes its
swallowing large articles of diet which a snake can
manage. The very young slow-worms are said to
begin with small spiders and delicate insects,^ but it is
very astonishing how soon they, too, tackle the slugs.
Very few days after birth this may be seen. Then
earth-worms are said to be commonly eaten. My own
invariable experience has been that a slow-worm will
never eat earth-worms if it can get slugs, but they
will eat them if nothing else is available. It should
always be remembered that the food of a reptile, or
other animal in captivity, is what the owner chooses to
give it, and it by no means follows that it corresponds
to its natural diet. Of course it should do so, and no
person should keep an animal in captivity unless it
can be fed on a diet very nearly that in its wild state.
Slow-worms will eat worms in captivity, and insects,
and possibly many other invertebrate creatures, but the

^ Gadow, Amjjhibia and Reptiles, p. 540.

THE SLOW- WORM, ANGUIS FRAGILIS 35

result of much watching of them in nature has been to
convince me that their one aim in life as far as food is
concerned is to find good fat slugs, not too large. The
number of these that a slow-worm will eat during an
hour or so about sunset, when they feed most, is
simply astonishing. I can vouch for a meal which
consisted of seventeen slugs, the slow-worm being a

large male 16 inches long. But the usual number
taken seems to be from four to ten. Doubtless they
feed during the night also, but not during the heat of
the sun. In other words, when the slugs emerge from
beneath stones and debris, then comes the slow-worm
also. It is thus quite evident that a few slow-worms
in a garden would be the best friends the gardener
could have, but he, poor, ignorant, prejudiced fool,
never loses an opportunity of slaughtering every one
he finds on the estate. Surely it is not too much to
expect that every field naturalist who comes in contact
with people who have to work on the land should
take the trouble to point out the economic value of
our reptiles, and thus both save interesting lives of
harmless creatures and at the same time prevent the
disturbing of the balance of nature.

Very interesting to v/atch is the slow-worm feeding.
The whole process is carried out very methodically and
deliberately, and with evident satisfaction. The slug
is seldom taken except when moving, and, as far as I
have seen, never when dead. The slow-worm either
gradually approaches or allows the slug to approach

36 BRITISH LIZARDS

until the latter is within reaching distance, then poises
its head in a delicate curve over the body of the slug,
and with a quick movement — the only sign of haste
in the whole business — seizes the mollusc by the
middle. There is then a momentary pause as if to
make sure that the grip is satisfactory, during which
the reptile remains motionless while the slug exudes
frothy bubbles. A sudden wide gape of the jaws and
mouth — as far as the fixed jaws allow of distension —
and the slug disappears head-first down the throat of
the slow-worm, as if it were the direction of least
resistance. Then follows much gaping and licking of
jaws on the part of the slow-worm, and should another
slug come into range the process is immediately re-
peated. The slug never takes the sHghtest notice of
the slow-worm until it is seized, indeed they will
frequently crawl all over the creature which a few
minutes later feeds upon them. I have found that
the larger slugs are refused, and so also are the brightly
coloured ones ; probably the latter are flavoured in a
manner disagreeable to the slow-worm.

Slow-worms should never be allowed to be short of
water. They drink frequently, and some are very
fond of lying in a shallow bath, while others do not
seem to care about it. They will also take milk.

CHAPTER V

THE SLOW-WORM, ANGUIS FRAGILIS — continued
REPRODUCTION SLOUGHING HIBERNATION ENEMIES.

Reproduction. — Reproduction in lizards takes place
in one of two ways, either by the deposition of the
eggs by the mother when the eggs are but imperfectly
developed, or, secondly, by the bringing forth of the
young fully developed and able to look after them-
selves from birth. Both methods are found in British
species, that of the slow-worm being the latter method.
That is to say that Anguis fragilis is ovo-viviparous
or viviparous. The two terms are used synonymously,
but the former is the more descriptive, since it denotes
the additional fact that the young have been carried
to full time within an egg-membrane. The same
process obtains in the adder. The egg-membrane is a
very delicate transparent structure easily ruptured by
the embryo when fully developed. This generally
happens in August or September, the exact time
depending upon the nature of the season. In a warm
early spring the young slow-worms see the light in

37

38 BRITISH LIZAKBS

August ; in a later and colder season their advent is
delayed until September. The number of the off-
spring varies a good deal, rarely less than four or six,
but often as many as a dozen. Their size at birth
also varies, probably with the age and size of the
parent. Most we have seen have been very slightly
under 2 inches long, but that they may sometimes
be much larger than this the following quotation
from The Field Naturalist's Quarterly (August
1902) will show. The writer is Eev. S. Cornish
Watkins, who has for many years observed slow-
worms in nature and captivity. The illustration
opposite is the litter in question along with the
mother.

" On September 8, 1902, 1 captured two female slow-
worms under a large stone in a disused quarry. They
were evidently heavy with young. I placed them in
a glass-covered box, with some damp moss, and kept
them liberally supplied with slugs, their favourite diet.
Each of them has since then brought forth a litter of
young ones, the one on September 20 th, the other on
the 24th, and in each case the litter numbered twelve.
This is the maximum number stated to occur. I
measured the young ones on the day of their birth
and found that they were 3-| inches in length, a size
considerably larger than that given in the article
referred to.^ From the time of birth they were
extremely active, and commenced to feed upon good-

^ The Field Naturalist'' s Quarterly, vol. i. p. 181.

THE SLOW-WORM, ANGUIS FRAGILIS 39

sized slugs the clay after they were born. One of the
young, on being handled, disgorged a slug quite half
an inch in length which it had swallowed.

" I took several photographs of the mothers and the
young together soon after birth, but on account of the
extreme activity of the young ones they did not turn
out as successful as I hoped. The most satisfactory
perhaps is the one reproduced, but the incessant
wriggling was most trying to the patience of the
photographer."

This valuable note is of interest not only from the
point of view of the size and number of young, but
also as showing the short time which elapses before
the young ones take to the favourite diet of their
elders. The probability is that these were somewhat
larger than the average young ones, and it is a fact
that the slow -worms in Herefordshire, where this
observation was made, are a large race. As a rule it
is some six weeks before they attain the size of 3 inches.
The following spring they will be found to be 5 or 6
inches long, and it takes four or five years for them to
reach maturity.

Sloughing. — Like other reptiles of the lizard or snake
groups, the slow-worm casts its slough periodically. I
have described this process at length elsewhere,^ and it
will be sufficient here to state that the slough may be
cast intact as one piece, or in several or many pieces.
The slough is exceedingly delicate and therefore torn

1 British Serpents, chap. vi.

40 BRITISH LIZARDS

with great ease, and can only be shed untorn if the slow-
worm is able to glide through soft material during the
process. Any sharp projecting point rubbing against
the side of the creature will inevitably tear the slough
before it is completely removed. The process starts
at the jaws, and the lizard gradually crawls out of the
slough, leaving it turned inside out as a rule, though
the terminal portion of the tail slough may slip off
unreversed. After sloughing, the slow-worm, like
other reptiles, is more lively and feeds readily. The
length of time between successive sloughings varies.
Sloughing always happens after the slow-worm comes
out of its winter quarters where it has been hibernating,
and is generally repeated at intervals of six weeks or
so during the months in the year when active life
is in progress. The colouring of the reptile is more
brilliant after sloughing than at other times. The
slough is never eaten by lizards, as is the habit of
some amphibians.

Hibernation} — The slow-worm docs not seem to
feel the cold quite so much as some of our reptiles,
and consequently may be found active later in the
autumn than the snakes, and earlier in the spring.
The exact date of commencing hibernation will depend
upon the nature of the season, being earlier in a cold
autumn, and later in a warm season. The month of
October generally finds them in their winter quarters
in most parts of the country, but in the extreme

^ British Serpents, chap. vi.

THE SLOW- WORM, ANGUIS PRAGILIS 41

south they are often seen later. The places selected
for passing the period of torpidity are under thick
masses of fallen autumn leaves, in burrows, and
especially at the bottom of a heap of stones.

As far as I have observed, these lizards are not so
apt to congregate in numbers to hibernate as do the
snakes, but I have several times found six and seven
together under masses of stone. Bright warm days in
the winter months will sometimes bring them out of
their hiding-place, especially in December, but they
are rarely seen in January and early February, except
in such counties as Cornwall and Dorset.

Enemies. — It is always of interest in sketching the
life of any animal to note what are the other animals
which prey upon it. In the case of our reptiles these
enemies seem to be very few, for the simple reason
that other reptiles are few in this country, and small
reptiles have more to fear from larger reptiles than
from most other animals. As far as the slow-worm
is concerned, the adder or viper is by far the most
dangerous and persistent foe, large numbers of slow-
worms being taken by adders for food. Indeed, the
adder is the only animal that the present writer is
aware of which does this habitually, though it is quite
possible that some large birds, rats, and the hedgehog,
may also account for a certain number. An illustration
elsewhere shows an adder which was captured in the
act of swallowing a slow- worm, 4 inches of the tail
of which were protruding from the mouth of the

42 ' BRITISH LIZARDS

adder.^ I captured this specimen under a large flat
stone in an old disused quarry near the Monnow Valley
in Herefordshire. It is now preserved in the Zoological
Museum at Edinburgh University. Apart from the
adder, man is the most persistent persecutor of the
unfortunate slow-worm, and the fact that this harm-
less lizard does not shun the abodes of men as some
reptiles do, tends to bring about its own destruction.
Slow-worms are found more abundantly in the neigh-
bourhood of villages and farms where there are gardens
and walls and quarries than in bleak open moors, and
it is therefore the more necessary that the utility
and harmlessness of the creature should be widely
recognised. Hedgerows they delight in, and a country
lane near a village is more likely to reward the
searcher than a lonely wood off the road. Unfor-
tunately this very habit is their greatest danger.

Disposition. — As far as the character of the slow-
worm is concerned it may challenge comparison with
almost any animal, and is certainly more docile than
most other reptiles. Though extremely timid at first,
it rapidly becomes familiar with its owner, and will
feed from the hand after a short time in the vivarium.
But — and this is a point that many observers appear
to have overlooked — slow-worms have their individual
idiosyncrasies like other creatures, and some of them
will exhibit a great tendency to bite. Even when
they do, the small size of the teeth renders the bite

^ British S'erjjcnts, p. 19.

THE SLOW- WORM, ANGUIS FR A GILTS 43

perfectly harmless, the only result being a series of
small depressions on the skin showing the marks of the
teeth. This exhibition of temper is generally seen in
old females before the young are born, and I have had
several such in my cages which would attempt to bite
on every opportunity. The great majority, however,
never attempt any such thing so long as they are
handled carefully, being quiet and docile to a degree.
They are extremely clean and take to life in a vivarium
well, and therefore make most interesting pets. One
cannot help being struck with their patience and
curiosity. Time after time will they raise themselves
up on to the tail to examine the side of the cage,
until they may be said to stand on the tip of that
organ, or very nearly so. Miss Hopley states that
one of her slow-worms learned to recognise certain
sounds made to attract her attention, and recognised
a peculiar intonation of voice w^hich was used to this
specimen alone, even when at a distance of the far
side of a room. In fact, the total sum of the
characteristics of the slow- worm, or blind- worm, forms
an entire negation of those implied by the popular
names, since the creature is neither slow, blind, deaf,
nor a worm.

This species will always be remembered by zoologists
as that in which the discovery w^as made of the exist-
ence of a third or median eye in lizards. In the
chapter on the anatomy of a lizard reference was made
to the " pineal body," which comparative anatomists

44 BRITISH LIZAEDS

have demonstrated to be nothing more nor less than a
degenerate eye. It is deeply embedded in the slow-
worm, and is not at all affected by light ; but in the
remarkable New Zealand lizard, Sphenodon, this median
eye is in a more perfect state of development. A
detailed study of this pineal body would be beyond
the province of this work, but its existence is a point
of too great interest to be omitted altogether. Much
has been written about it in zoological literature,
which those who are specially interested can consult.

CHAPTER VI

THE COMMON LIZAED, LACERTA VIVIPARA

DISTRIBUTION DESCRIPTION HAUNTS HABITS FOOD

COLOUR VARIATION REPRODUCTION.

Distribution. — The common lizard has a wide
European distribution, characterised on the whole by
a marked preference for high lands and mountainous
districts, the low-lying areas being generally avoided,
a feature which at the very outset provides one point
of contrast with the sand lizard. Thus, Lacerta vivi-
'parci occurs in the mountains of Switzerland, and in
all the following countries, namely, France, Germany,
Italy, Belgium, Poland, and Eussia. In the area to
w^hich this work particularly applies, the common
lizard is to be noted as occurring in the four divisions
of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Herein it
differs from the slow-worm, which species, like the
snakes, is absent from Ireland. It may be remarked
in passing, that the statement so commonly made that
there are no reptiles in Ireland is therefore inaccurate,
the truth being that while there are no indigenous

45

46 BRITISH LIZARDS

snakes in that country, lizards are not at all un-
common. Its local distribution in this country will
be dealt with later, but I would just say here that,
personally, I have not found this species in England
to be markedly restricted to mountainous counties.
Thus, while rather abundant in Norfolk, it is extremely
rare in the hills of Monmouthshire ; but the latter
county is so rich in " cover " that the small lizards
easily escape observation. It is peculiarly interest-
ing from the distribution point of view, inasmuch as it
is the only reptile to be found in Ireland, the sand
lizard as well as the slow-worm having apparently
come under the decree of banishment ascribed to
St. Patrick. Why this species alone should have
been permitted to set foot upon Irish soil is not quite
clear, but very likely the viviparous lizard preceded
the others in the spread of reptiles to the British Isles
from the Continent at a time when the mainland was
continuous from the Continent to Ireland. Ireland
then became cut off from Great Britain, and Great
Britain from the Continent, but in the case of Great
Britain the viviparous lizard had been followed by the
slow-worm and the sand lizard, as well as the three
species of snakes before the separation occurred.
Whether this is actually what took place or not, it
is one view which gives a feasible explanation of the
curious distribution of the British reptiles.

On the Continent this common or viviparous lizard
is, as we have said, widely distributed, ranging " through

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THE COMMON LIZARD, LACERTA VIVIPARA 47

Northern and Central Europe and Siberia to the Amoor
country and the Island of Saghalien. It does not
occur south of the Pyrenees or south of the Alps." ^
In Ireland its distribution seems to be irregular and
somewhat local, " occurring, for instance, in the county
of Meath, and in the south-eastern counties, e.g. Water-
ford." ^ A writer in The Zoologist (p. 7172) describes
it as being unusually numerous in the year 1860 in
the county of Down, where, he also states, the common
lizard had never occurred before except in rare cases
of single specimens.

Description. — A careful examination of the illustra-
tions in this book, all of which are from photographs
of living specimens, will convey a better idea of the
appearance of the hzard than any amount of written
description. Coloured plates are very misleading,
because all our reptiles have such a great extent of
colour variation, and the most that any coloured plate
can do, even if it be absolutely accurate, is to depict
the appearance of one particular specimen. The
observer is apt to get the impression therefrom that
all lizards of the species represented are of that
colour. For this reason, we have preferred to illus-
trate from photographs alone. " The general colour
of the adult is brown or reddish above, with small
darker and lighter spots ; many specimens have a
blackish vertebral streak and a dark lateral band
edged with yellow. The under parts are orange to

^ Gadow, Amphibia and Rejjtiles, p. 553.

48 BRITISH LIZARDS

red in the male, with conspicuous black spots ; yellow
or pale orange in the female, either without or with
scanty black spots. The newly-born specimens are
almost black. The males are slightly smaller than
the females ; males of a total length of 6 inches, and
females 7 inches long, may be considered rather large
specimens." ^ It is important to remember that the
viviparous lizard is smaller than the sand lizard.
Much confusion seems to prevail amongst field
naturalists about the two species, and the sand lizard
is constantly being reported from new localities, in
Scotland for example, in mistake for the common vivi-
parous lizard. The absolutely distinctive characters
are few, but most specimens are clearly defined by
their colours. If the distribution be compared, it will
be at once noted that the sand lizard is very local and
comparatively rare. In the common lizard no teeth
are to be found on the palate bone, and in normal
specimens there is a single post-nasal shield, and a
single anterior loreal shield. The scales covering
the dorsal surface are elongated and hexagonal, and
indistinctly keeled as compared with those of the
sand lizard. The general shape of the head is more
flattened than in the rare species, and the snout more
pointed. The ventral scales are arranged in from six
to eight longitudinal rows : the marginal rows being
the smallest ; " the second series on each side from the
median ventral line," the largest.^ In these and other

^ Gadow, Amphibia and Reptiles, p. 553.

COMMON LIZARD (fEMALE).

CO.M.MOX LIZARD ( ALVLKj.

IP'acingp. 49.

THE COMMON LIZARD, LAGERTA VIVIPARA 49

lizards there are no glands in the skin, unless the
femoral and pre-anal pores which occur in this and
many other species are to be regarded as glands.
These pores are found on the under-surface of the
thighs, particularly in the males, and also in front of
the anal opening. Those on the thigh of the common
Hzard number from nine to twelve. "Each of these
organs perforates a scale and leads into a tubular
invagination, which is lined with epidermal cells, the
proliferation of which produces a horny yellowish
debris, and this fills the- tube and appears above the
surface in the shape of a little cone." ^ The function
of this excretion is not definitely ascertained, but
possibly it is concerned in gratifying some sense-
perception. Professor Cope remarks upon this : " The
use of this substance is uncertain, but it is probably
an important aid to the animal in maintaining its
hold on smooth surfaces. Lizards which move on
the ground rest much on the thighs, which are not
elevated above the ground in many types, but serve as
the principal point of contact from which they make
their leaps. The same is true of some genera which
leap among trees from branches and trunks. A
similar secretion issues from the pre-anal scales in
some Iguanidae {Liolcemus, etc.), and in an African
Lacertid a rudimental structure of this character is
found on many of the abdominal scales (Foroidogaster).
An approximation to this structure I have seen on

^ Gadow, Amphibia and Reptiles, p. 553.
4

50 BRITISH LIZARDS

the pre-anal scales of an adult male of Sceloporus
horridus of Mexico. Here the epidermis is greatly
thickened above the middle posterior part of the scale,
so much so as to make a deep impression in the true
skin, simulating a true pre-anal pore. I suspect that
the nature of these structures is similar to that of
corns in higher Vertebrata." ^

The relative size, the colour, and the viviparous
character of the common lizard, will be the points
that the field naturalist will keep in mind as dis-
tinguishing this species from the sand lizard, not
forgetting the wide distribution of the former com-
pared with the very restricted distribution of the
latter.

Haunts. — It has been noted that, as far as Europe
is concerned, this lizard shows a preference for
mountainous areas, but in England it will be found
in flat districts as well as hilly. My own experience
has been to see more specimens in dry sandy spots
than in well-watered and greener places. Moors and
commons and heaths seem to be its haunts particu-
larly, as well as sandhills near the coast. I took
half a dozen of these lizards one morning on the sand-
heaps on the coast of Norfolk, near Stalham, where
they scuttled across the sand from one stunted bush
to another, or into tussocks of grass. I also saw a
good many on a gorse-covered common in Dorset, so
that they are not very particular as to the kind of

' Cope, Crocodiles f Lizards, and Snakes, p. 198,

THE COMMON LIZARD, LACERTA VIVIPARA 51

place they dwell in. Open country they certainly
prefer to deep valleys and woods.

Habits. — Keptiles are frequently described as being
sluggish and slow of movement. This is certainly not
true of many lizards, and is very wide of the mark in
the case of the viviparous lizard. A more difficult
creature to catch it would be hard to mention. The
pace at which one of these creatures will cross a
piece of open ground to the nearest cover is simply
astonishing, and almost defies capture by the hand.
The observer sees the lizard first here, then there, and
then not at all, and it is a hundred to one against
finding it, unless it has sought the shelter of an
isolated tuft of grass, from which it may be dislodged.
Even then it is very difficult to see the little creature
amongst the roots, and just as it is exposed and you
are about to grasp it, like a flash it darts out and
away to another more secure hiding-place. As to
attempting to see the individual movements of the
limbs it is a sheer impossibility. In fact, all the
movements of this lizard are rapid. Feeding is
carried out in desperate haste, as well as locomotion.

During the hot summer months they may be seen
sunning themselves in the open, especially the gravid
females, at which time, of course, their movements are
more deliberate and less speedy, and therefore they
are at this period more easily captured.

L. vivipara is said to be a good swimmer and to
take readily to water. It is also stated that when

52 BRITISH LIZARDS

the young are first born they remain with the parent
for a time, and, like the adder, she has been credited
with swallowing them for purposes of protection.
Personally, I have never observed any indication of
parental relationship in these lizards, either in nature
or in captivity.

This lizard has a greater objection to being handled
than either the slow-worm or the sand lizard ; very
hard it is to retain one in the hand without injury if
it is attempting to wriggle out.

Sloughing occurs at intervals as in other lizards, it
being somewhat rare to obtain a perfect slough in
one piece (see page 39).

J. A. thus describes some habits of this lizard
{Newcastle Weekly Chronicle, 1881): —

"Some years ago I remember being on a bird-nesting excursion in
Belford Cragg. Seeing a bird flying about with food in its mouth, I
concealed myself up the branches of a tall, thick holly-bush, and there
waited quietly to see where the bird would go to feed its young. I
had not sat more than a fcAV minutes, when a small lizard crept out
from the side of a stone and laid itself quietly down to bask in the
sun's rays. It was presently joined by a second, and then a third,
fourth, and fifth. I watched the motions of these little creatures for
nearly an hour, and so interesting and amusing were they that I forgot
to observe what became of the bird with the 'bait' in its mouth.
Sometimes they would lie motionless, separated from each other by a
few yards ; then suddenly one would dart swiftly towards his neigh-
bour, who, in turn, Avitli equal agility, would avoid the attack ; then
a general darting to and fro, helter-skelter, would occur amongst the
lot. Suddenly there was a pause, and all would lie still ; then one
would dart at some insect, secure it, and resume his vigils ; then in a
moment all was commotion again, a general darting here and there in
all directions. Could not I secure one of these little lizards, thought I.
But how was it to be done ? The slightest movement on my part
alarmed the whole, and they were all out of sight in an instant. In a
short time they would return and resume their manoeuvres. I thought

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THE COMMON LIZARD, LACERTA VIVIPARA 53

the best way to secure one was to overturn the stones under which
they had taken shelter. Accordingly I began to turn over first one
stone and then another, and after seeking for a considerable time, and
turning over several stones under which I felt stire one at least had
taken shelter, I was compelled to give up the search in despair, with-
out getting a glimpse of the animals again. Such is the capacity of
the lizard for keeping out of sight that it is next to impossible to
capture it when once it gets among rough stones, grass, or heath ; and
the rapidity with which it darts about on a surface of loose sand can
only be likened to the movements of a dragon-fly on a pool of water."

Food. — The insects furnish the main food supply
of this species. Fhes of various kinds, blue-bottles,
the small blue dragon-flies which abound in July in
some places, June bugs, and beetles. In captivity
meal worms are generally depended upon, and these
the lizards take with evident satisfaction. An insect
which ventures within seeing distance of the lizard is
instantly captured and swallowed with great celerity.
Caterpillars in their season are not despised, and they
seem to vary the diet during successive months,
doubtless as the different insects become more
numerous. Miss Hopley found that her captive
lizards took flies in the early summer only, and later
on refused them ; and she hazards the opinion that the
flies may be obnoxious when depositing their eggs.
All her lizards refused centipedes, and ejected any
if swallowed accidentally. Spiders they all took
eagerly.

Reproduction, — As the specific name implies, the
common lizard is viviparous or ovo-viviparous. The
number of the family varies from six to twelve. The
young burst the egg-membrane just after extrusion or

54 BRITISH LIZARDS

within the mother ; in the latter case, therefore, they
are born quite free. No nest of any kind is made.
The mother simply deposits the young upon the
ground and leaves them to their own devices. As
they have the perfect use of their limbs from the
moment of birth, this apparent carelessness of the
mother has no disadvantageous effect upon the young,
who, in obedience to the dictates of hunger, very soon
commence the search for small insects. These little
ones, as already mentioned, are nearly black at first.
In size they measure about an inch at birth, or a
fraction less. Within a week they are actively
engaged in feeding, but for the first few days they
remain under leaves, and apparently subsist upon the
remaining yolk from the egg, which has passed into
the body. " Their first food consists of Aphides and
similar tiny insects." ^

Synonyms. — The various names by which this lizard
is known are as follows : —

The common lizard.

The viviparous lizard.

The scaly lizard.
In addition to the correct specific name of L. vivipara,
the name Zootoca mvipara will be found in many
writings apphed to this species. The classification is
given on page 101, and the specific scaling characters
whicli distinguish it from the sand lizard are described
in the chapter on " Specific Characters."

^ Gadow, Amphibia and Reptiles, p. 554.

CHAPTER VII

THE SAND LIZAED, LACEBTA AGILIS

DISTRIBUTION DESCRIPTION HAUNTS HABITS

FOOD COLOUR VARIATION REPRODUCTION.

Distribution. — The sand lizard, like the common
lizard, is widely distributed in Europe, but must be
regarded as an inhabitant of the plains rather than
of the mountains. It is especially found, that is, in
low-lying land. It occurs in Germany, Switzerland,
Poland, the North of Eussia, Siberia ; but in the
British Isles it is limited in its distribution to a
few of the most southern counties. A good deal of
confusion exists in the minds of field naturalists on
this point, specimens of the common viviparous lizard
frequently being recorded as sand lizards, the reason
for this mistake undoubtedly being that the great
range of colour variation seen in the latter is not
sufficiently well known. It is too generally assumed
by those who are not familiar with the appearance of
both species that any light brown or sandy-coloured
lizard must be a sand lizard, which is far from

&5

56 BRITISH LIZARDS

actually the case. A careful examination of the two
species together will render the distinctions quite
obvious ; but a large number of field naturalists never
see a sand lizard, owing to its limited distribution,
and hence are liable, on encountering an unfamiliar
colour variation in the common lizard, to erroneously
put the specimen down as Lacerta agilis. The distri-
bution of the sand lizard in this country is practically
that of the smooth snake (Coronclla austriaca), namely,
restricted localities in Dorset, Hants, and Surrey,
rarely anywhere else.

The sand lizard is not very rare on some Dorset
heaths, being found especially in the neighbourhood
of Poole. It is perhaps as common in parts of Surrey,
but is everywhere very local in its distribution. It
has been stated to occur in Berkshire, but the evidence
is not good, though it is very interesting to remember
that twenty years ago the smooth snake (C. austriaca)
was also found in that county, where it has recently
reappeared.^ When we consider the close connection
between these two reptiles, it is just possible that
L. agilis once inhabited Berkshire, and that the same
causes which led to the extermination of its enemy,
the smooth snake, also had an influence in its o^vn
distribution. At any rate, it is not found there
to-day. Coming to other counties, this species has
often been recorded in places where there is no doubt

1 "Reappearance of the Smooth Snake in Berkshire," The Field
Naturalist's Quarterly, August 1903.

SAND LIZARD (mALEJ.

SAND LIZARD (fe:MALE).

\Facingp. 56.

THE SAND LIZAKD, LAGERTA AGILIS 57

it never existed, on the authority of more or less
incompetent naturalists. Thus Mr. Forrest was led
to include the species in the Vertebrate Fauna of
Shropshire, not from his own observation, but on the
authority of others who asserted they had seen it.
After this otherwise excellent book was published,
Mr. Forrest, havinsj his doubts raised as to the
accuracy of these observations, conferred with G. A.
Boulenger upon the matter, and in a letter to myself
on the matter, he says, " as a result of this conference
I have come to the conclusion that all these observers
were mistaken, and that all the lizards in Shropshire
which were said to be sand lizards belonged to the
L. vivipara species." No doubt this is really the case.
Personally, I have had the sand lizard reported to me
from Scotland (Ayrshire), but I never could get the
specimen forwarded for inspection, so upon this record,
too, the gravest doubt must rest.

The neighbourhood of Bournemouth has been one
of the districts where the sand lizard frequented ; and
F. G. Aflalo says, " I have dug it up in this state (i.e.
in hibernation) near Bournemouth, where it is very
common." ^

The general statement may be made, therefore, that
the sand lizard is practically confined to those counties
south of the Thames, and is found particularly in
Surrey, Hampshire, and Dorset.

Are there no reliable records of the occurrence of

^ British Vertebrates, p. 302.

58 BRITISH LIZARDS

this species in the northern counties of England ? To
answer that question we cannot do better than quote
a communication to The Zoologist of September 1901,
by Mr. T. A. Coward, the well-known Cheshire
ornithologist. We give the communication in extenso,
as it covers the ground, and from it my readers can
gather the position of the matter. It is as follows : —

"The Sand Lizard in the North of England.

" In the recent volume of the Camhridge Natural
History on ' Amphibia and Eeptiles,' Dr. Hans Gadow
says that the sand lizard (Z. agilis, Linn.) ' is absent
in Ireland and Scotland, while in England it is re-
stricted to the southern half ' ; and a similar statement
is made by Mr. Boulenger in the Hampshire volume
of the Victoria History of the Counties of England.
The reputed sand lizards, frequently reported from
northern counties, generally prove, on investigation,
to be large examples of the common lizard (Z. mvi-
yara). This, however, is not the case in Lancashire,
and, I believe, in Cheshire, for on the coast sandhills
the true sand lizard was formerly common, and may
even yet occur in places where the sandhills are
unreclaimed. Lancashire naturalists of the old school
knew the sand lizard well, but, as questions of geo-
graphical distribution did not greatly interest them,
there are few records left beyond the bare fact that
the species was common. There are, however, speci-
mens in the Warrington Museum, whose identity Mr.

THE SAND LIZARD, LACERTA AGILIS 59

Boulenger has confirmed, which were captured at
Southport and Formby, on the Lancashire coast. In
Mr. Isaac Byerley's Fauna of Lixerijool, pubHshed in
1856, the sand Hzard is described as occurring 'on
the sandhills from West Kirby to New Brighton'
(in Cheshire). ' At Seaforth, Crosby, and elsewhere '
(in Lancashire). Mr. W. D. Koebuck states
{Naturalist, 1884-85, p. 258) that, after examining
specimens sent to him from various North of England
localities, and finding that they were only ' lightly
coloured specimens of the viviparous lizard,' he did
not believe in the existence of the true L. agilis so
far north, until Mr. G. T. Porritt procured him a
couple of specimens from the Southport sandhills,
which he ' at once saw were unmistakably referable
to that species.' He adds : * Mr. Porritt tells me
these lizards swarm on the sandhills at Southport,
where he has frequently seen them sparkling in the
sun with a glistening emerald-green, and sometimes
almost golden, brightness.' The late Thomas Alcock,
in his pamphlet on the Natural History of the Coast
of Lancashire (1887), also speaks of the sand Hzard
at Southport, where he says it was ' formerly plentiful
on the isolated group of sandhills at the north end
of the town. Hesketh Park, however, now occupies
the best part of this locality.' In 1862 and 1865 he
captured and received a number of examples from
this place. Mr. H. 0. Forbes, in the British
Association Handbook for 1896, says, on the authority

60 BRITISH LIZARDS

of Mr. Linnaeus Greening, of Warrington, ' Common ;
Wallasey, Southport, and Formby sandhills.' The
Cheshire locality is included on the strength of
specimens which were shown to Mr. Greening by the
late C. S. Gregson, who stated that he had obtained
them at Wallasey. The sandhills between West
Kirby and New Brighton were of the same character
as those extending along the Lancashire coast from
Liverpool to the mouth of the Eibble, and it is a
generally accepted theory that the river Mersey,
within geologically recent times, used to empty itself
into the sea considerably to the west of its present
mouth ; so that at one time the Wallasey coast-line
was north of the river. The spread of the suburban
residential districts round Liverpool, the growth of
seaside resorts, such as Hoylake and West Kirby,
and the formation of golf links all along the coast
have destroyed a large portion of these sandhills ;
but there are considerable stretches in both counties
where the lizard may still exist. The sand lizard
is not known in Cumberland or Westmoreland, and,
although many miles of the North Wales coast, from
the mouth of the Dee westward, are, or were, similar
in character to the Cheshire shores, I know of no
record of the sand lizard from the Principality. The
evidence therefore shows that L. agilis, generally con-
sidered to be only an inhabitant of some of the
southern counties, occurs in the north, on a strip of
sandhills bordering the Irish Sea, from the mouth

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THE SAND LIZARD, LACERTA AGILIS 61

of the Eibble to the outskirts of Liverpool, and, unless
Byerley's and Gregson's specimens were incorrectly
localised, on the Cheshire shore from West Kirby to
New Brighton."

Description. — A glance at the photographs of this
species will convey the correct impression that the
sand hzard is larger and of heavier build than the
viviparous species. Associated with this is the fact
that L. agilis, in spite of its specific name, is less agile
than the smaller common form. It possesses granular
nodes over the eye, and teeth upon the palate bone,
the latter an important distinction between the two
lizards. A comparison of the scales on the body will
reveal that in the sand lizard these are more numerous
across from one side of the back to the other, and also
that the individual scales are smaller and evidently
keeled. On the dorsal aspect these scales are more
rounded or irregular than in L. vivipara, where we
saw they were hexagonal and elongated. In colour
there is the greatest variety, which is responsible for
much of the confusion between the two species. Dr.
Gadow describes it thus : — " The colouration is subject
to much variation, local as well as individual. As a
rule, the sand lizard gives the impression of being
striped longitudinally, the striation being caused by
rows of dark and white spots and patches along the
sides of the back, flanks, and tail. In the male a
more or less pronounced green, in the female brown
and grey are the prevaihng ground-colours. A

62 BRITISH LIZARDS

typically coloured male during the breeding season is
grass-green on the sides and suffused with green on
the yellow under parts ; the sides are dotted with
black, with whitish eye-spots. The under parts are
spotted with black. The adult female is brown or
grey above, with large dark brown, white-centred
spots, which are arranged in three rows on each side.
The under parts are cream-coloured, with or without
black specks. The young are grey-brown above, with
white, black-edged spots ; the under parts are whitish." ^
A careful description such as the above shows how
impossible it is to convey an accurate impression of
the colour of this species by a coloured plate. Com-
paring the shields with those of the viviparous lizard
we find that the sand lizard has, as a rule, two anterior
loreal shields in place of the one in the smaller lizard,
these two along with the single post-nasal shield
making a triangle. The average size of the male sand
lizard is about 7 J inches, the female being a little larger,
8 inches or rather more. Again, it is to be observed
that the tail in the male sex is relatively longer than in
the female, in the latter it is less than one-half of the
entire length of the lizard. The tail is cylindrical,
and covered by a number of rings of scales, these
scales being more elongated than those on the dorsum.
These annulations have a distinct relation to the position
where fracture of the tail is apt to occur, a point
which is dealt with later.

* Gadow, Amphibia and Rej)tiles, p. 554.

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THE SAND LIZARD, LACERTA AGILIS 63

Haunts. — The popular name of sand lizard in this
case appears to rest upon a good foundation, sandy
districts it undoubtedly affects. There is good reason
for this in connection with the two physiological pro-
cesses in this species of reproduction and hibernation.
The warmth of the sand assists the former — for in
this case the eggs are deposited early, while the ease
with which it can burrow in loose sandy soil assists
in hibernation. Sunshine is a much more necessary
condition of life to the sand lizard than to the slow-
worm, hence the former keeps to the open and un-
disturbed sandy heaths and commons, with sunny
banks on which to bask. Much of its life is passed
underground, and on the slightest approach of cold it
retreats from exposure to air. But on bright warm
days the sunniest spot in its local habitat will find the
sand lizard deriving all the heat it can for its cold-
blooded system from the sun. It is a dweller in
plains rather than mountains.

Habits. — There is always the danger in attempting
to give an account of the character and disposition of
an animal, that its behaviour in captivity, i.e. under
artificial conditions, is assumed to be identical with
that in the natural wild state. Further, we know
that in some reptiles, the adder for example,^ the
effect of captivity upon the character is very marked.
But the great difficulty has to be faced that it is
practically impossible to watch some creatures in

^ Field Naturalist'' s Quarterly, vol. i. No, 1.

64 BRITISH LIZARDS

nature, and in no case could that difficulty be much
greater than in the sand lizard, except perhaps in fish.
The sand lizard simply refuses to allow itself to be
studied out of doors, at anyrate at close quarters. So
that we are forced to gain our impressions from their
behaviour in vivaria, where the conditions of existence
are made as natural as possible. It is well that this
should be frankly stated, because the impressions thus
gained may not be perfectly accurate if appHed to
the wild reptile. Even then the difficulty is not
ended, for various observers have recorded the most
diverse opinions of the disposition of the sand lizard.
Assuming that all these recorders were truthful, which
doubtless they were, the conclusion to be arrived at is
that the disposition in this lizard is a greatly varying
one. Some are snappish, others docile ; some refuse
to feed, others feed readily ; some inoffensive, others
pugnacious ; and so on. Miss Hopley had a male
Z. agilis which "at once displayed an aggressive
viciousness of temper that would be deplorable were it
not ridiculous. He not only turned to bite whenever
approached, but held on to the finger so persistently
as to be carried about the house on exhibition thus
pendent. His feeble little jaws could, of course, in-
flict no injury ; therefore, his spiteful efforts to grip
the harder whenever touched, as he thus hung, were
simply laughable, reminding one of the fly on the
bull's horn, only lacking the fly's polite apologies. If
he happened to grip a fleshy part of the hand, you

THE SAND LIZAKD, LACERTA AGILIS 65

might afterwards almost count the number of his
teeth, from the two little rows of indentations, like
a V. The skin was never penetrated. To do him
justice this temper lasted only a few days ; and very
soon he was the tamest of the family, which, at that
time, consisted of himself and two ladies agilis, and
five of L. zootoca." ^ Here is a case in point, where
the lizard at first showed signs of a disposition which
afterwards disappeared. Is it not just possible that
the whole exhibition of apparent temper was really
due to abject fear and fright in the new surroundings ?
One can quite understand the reptile hanging on to
the finger " like grim death," while being carried
about pendent, not necessarily from innate viciousness,
but from an instinctive knowledge that if he let go he
would fall and hui^t himself. Lizards are extremely
timid creatures until they become accustomed to their
owners, and thus exhibit all sorts of curious traits
when first made captive. Whether their subsequent
good behaviour, when they have settled down to
their vivarium life, is their real mood, or merely an
acquiescence in the inevitable, my readers must judge
for themselves.

Food. — As in the case of the viviparous lizard, insects
of various kinds are the main diet of this species in
nature. In captivity, as hinted above, some specimens
refuse to feed, but most take food without difficulty.

Colour variation. — When describing the sand lizard

^ i.e. Laccrta vivipara.

5

66 BRITISH LIZARDS

the various colours which are met with were mentioned.
It need only be stated here that a large series of
specimens will show a great range of colour variation,
and it is only by examining such a series that the
student of lizards can become familiar with all the
differences which the species may show. The general
impression will be gained that the males have more
green about them than the females, the latter of
which include the browner types. Thus sex evidently
plays a part in the production of the varying colours,
and the other factors concerned will be studied in a
later chapter.

Beprocliiction. — The sand lizard is the only lizard of
the mainland of Great Britain which is oviparous or
an egg-layer. In this respect it agrees with the
green lizard and the wall lizard of the Channel Isles,
and with one of our snakes, namely, the ring-snake.
Pairing takes place in England in May or June,
according to the particular kind of spring weather in
vogue. The eggs are deposited some four weeks or so
later, in July, to the number of eight, frequently five,
six, or seven. Some observers state that as many as
a dozen are sometimes deposited. The female simply
makes a depression in the sand, and leaves the eggs to
hatch out by the aid of the heat of the sun and
moisture. If the habitat be not in sandy ground, the
eggs will be placed under leaves, eartli, or debris. The
egg-membrane is thin, but of firm consistence, having a
parchment-like appearance.

THE SAND LIZARD, LAGERTA AGILIS 67

Enemies. — Whatever the enemies of the sand lizard
may be in other lands, by far the most important and
interesting from the present point of view is the
smooth snake (Coronella austriaca). We have seen
that the distribution of these two reptiles in England
is practically identical, and L. agilis seems to be the
one meal which Coronella delights in above all others.
An average-sized sand lizard is a large morsel for a
snake only 2 feet long to manipulate, but it is astonish-
ing what the serpent jaw is capable of in the direction
of swallowing. When in the gullet of the snake the
lizard will occupy the whole length of that organ, and
if swallowed head-first in the usual way, the head of
the lizard just reaches the entrance of the stomach at
the end of the swallowing process. Digestion there
takes place progressively as the lizard passes into the
stomach, the part in the oesophagus being left un-
digested, so that one sometimes finds in the snake a
lizard half digested, the intact part being that still
in the gullet.

The sand lizard is also preyed upon by the adder
( Vi'jpera herus).

CHAPTER VIII

THE GREEN LIZARD, LAGERTA VIRIDIS

DISTRIBUTION DESCRIPTION HAUNTS HABITS

FOOD — REPRODUCTION.

Distribution. — A further word of explanation is neces-
sary to account for this species being introduced into a
book which purports to deal only with British lizards.
It is not at all a question of the evidence concerning
the capture of this or that specimen in this or that
locality, or the further argument thereupon as to
whether these captured green lizards are to be re-
garded as indigenous. As far as England is con-
cerned, Zacerta viridis is not, and never has been, an
indigenous species, and the capture of a few specimens
under circumstances which seem to point to their
being so, merely indicates that out of the very large
number that are kept by dealers and as vivarium
pets, some few every now and then manage to make
their escape from captivity. The same thing has
occurred with a tortoise, but it was not therefore
seriously urged that land tortoises were to be regarded

68

THE GREEN LIZARD, LACERTA VIRIDIS 69

as indigenous British re^Dtiles. The real reason why
the green lizard finds a place here is simply because
according to the " County and Vice- County Divisions
of the British Isles" (for biological purposes), the
Channel Islands form one division ; and as the green
lizard and the wall hzard are both indigenous in those
islands, it has been necessary for the sake of uniformity
and accuracy to include both species in this book.^

Distribution. — In Europe the distribution of the
green lizard may be said to be mainly in the centre
and southern portions of that continent. It is fairly
common in France. I recently had a specimen of the
asp ( Vipera aspis) sent to me from the Gironde
district which contained a full-grown green lizard in
its gullet. It is also found in Italy, the south of
Switzerland, Sicily, Greece, Poland, Austria, Barbary,
and the Morea. It is not indigenous to England,
Scotland, or Ireland, but is so in the Channel Isles.
It is essentially an inhabitant of warm and temperate
climates, and hence is found to be common in those
areas washed by the Mediterranean.

The belief which many people in the south of
England have, that the green lizard is truly indigenous,
has been supported, or possibly originated, by a remark
of Gilbert White's in the Natural History of Selhorne.

^ This sheet was issued by Alexander Somerville, B.Sc, F.L.S., after
consultation with most of the leading naturalists in this country ; in it
the whole country is mapped out into divisions according to natural
boundaries. It is most valuable to field naturalists in tracing out dis-
tribution.

70 BRITISH LIZARDS

It occurs in Letter XXII., and runs thus : — " It is
a satisfaction to me to find that a green lizard has
actually been procured for you in Devonshire ; because
it corroborates my discovery, which I made many
years ago, of the same sort, on a sunny sandbank
near Farnham, in Surrey, I am well acquainted with
the south hams of Devonshire ; and can suppose that
district, from its southerly situation, to be a proper
habitation for such animals in their best colours."
There is not much in the paragraph to throw accurate
light upon the source of this specimen ; Pennant did
not even take it himself, it was " procured " for him.
The context, however, clearly shows that both White
and Pennant understood the specimen to have been
a wild specimen captured in the open. The associ-
ation of the incident with White's own discovery at
Farnham probably reveals the true nature of the
lizard, since, as we have seen, Farnham is one of the
localities frequented by the sand lizard {L. agilis).
The green colour of the specimen was the feature
that specially attracted the attention of both these
observers, and that, as we have already noted, is a
prominent characteristic of the males of the sand
lizard species. Both the specimen procured for
Pennant and that seen ]3y White at Farnham were
doubtless sand lizards. White's remark concerning
the suitability of Devonshire for the requirements of
L. viridis may be quite correct, but it is of no value,
since it is a common occurrence in nature to find

THE GREEN LIZAED, LACERTA VIRIDIS 71

the absence of species in places apparently well
adapted for them. That White was not very familiar
with the green lizard is evident from the first sentence
of the very next letter (Letter XXIII.), where he says :
" It is not improbable that the Guernsey lizard and
our green lizard may be specifically the same ; all
that I know is, that, when some years ago many
Guernsey lizards were turned loose in Pembroke
College garden, in the University of Oxford, they
lived a great while, and seemed to enjoy themselves
very well, but never bred." Indeed, the naturalist
of Selborne appears to have given very little attention
to the local reptiles, if one may judge from the paucity
of his references to them.

Then, of course, green lizards are not uncommonly
found as escaped captives. I am not aware to what
extent they were kept as vivarium pets in the days
when Gilbert White wrote, but nowadays a very
large number of people have vivaria with them in
captivity, and like all lizards they are quick to
take the opportunity of a door left open, so that
the real wonder is that not more specimens are thus
encountered. I know lizard lovers, too, who, desirous
of introducing such a graceful and beautiful creature,
have deliberately set free some specimens in their own
locality, but I am not aware of any of these having
been recaptured. The conclusion is absolutely certain,
however, that L. viridis is not an indigenous lizard to
the mainland of Great Britain, although in time, if

72 BRITISH LIZARDS

sufficient are introduced and set free, it may succeed
in establishing itself in some counties. From the field
naturalist's point of view such a consummation is
devoutly to be wished, as it would make a handsome
addition to our all too scanty reptile fauna.

Description. — The green lizard is considerably larger
than any of the other lizards encountered in the
British Isles, with the exception of the slow-worm,
which indeed reaches as great a length, but is not
nearly so bulky a creature. The average size of the
adult may be put at 12 to 15 inches, though a good
number of specimens exceed this measurement. The
males, as in most other lizards, are larger than the
females, very large males reaching a length of 16 or
1 7 inches. Here again, the observer must be careful to
see whether the tail is intact before coming to a con-
clusion as to the total length, for the tail is responsible
for the greater part of the total length, almost three-
quarters of it in very long males.

The predominating colour, as the name implies, is
green. This is particularly upon the upper surface,
and therefore the colour most readily seen. It shades
off into yellow on the belly, the intermediate part, or
the lateral aspect, being greenish yellow.

Other colours are found in special parts of the body.
If the specimen be a male in the breeding season, the
throat will exhibit a bluish tinge. The prevailing
green of the back will often be mottled with black
specks, or yellow spots. Often, too, a decided brown

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THE GEEEN LIZARD, LACERTA VIRIDIS 73

colour will be noticed. As in other reptiles, age has an
influence on the colouring. In this species it affects
specially the stripes on the sides, which in the young
ones are yellow. These disappear in the older males,
but are persistent in some of the adult females.

There is a distinct semicircular collar on the neck.
The eyelids are prominent, the head flattened, and
the snout rather pointed. The post-nasal shields are
generally two in number, one overlapping the other.
The head shields are large, the scales on the back
small, the ventral scales in longitudinal rows, the
scales on the tail elongated and hexagonal, again
arranged in annular fashion. The transition from the
small body scales to the long hexagonal tail scales
is abrupt, and the tail very gradually tapers to a
very fine point. These characters can be made out in
the illustrations, and the several species may be com-
pared to show their respective prominence.

Haunts and Hahits. — Since it is only in the
Channel Islands that we have to deal with the
green lizard as a British species, it will suffice to
say that, as far as its haunts are concerned, it prefers
rocky ground at a somewhat high altitude.

In its habits it is mainly terrestrial, but not ex-
clusively so, as it has frequently been observed to
climl) trees, especially when endeavouring to elude a
pursuer. Dr. Gadow states that in these circum-
stances, if hard pressed, the green lizard will take
tremendous leaps down to the ground, curiously enough

74 BRITISH LIZARDS

without sustaining the fracture of the tail which under
some other conditions occurs with great ease. This
lizard is another example of a reptile which is any-
thing but slow and sluggish in its movements ; indeed,
the very opposite is the truth, it is extremely quick
and agile. In captivity it has been found by some
to do badly, whilst others have found no difficulty
in keeping it. It certainly does not seem to thrive
after a year or so, possibly the artificial hibernation is
not satisfactory. It soon becomes accustomed to its
owner and free from all fear.

Food. — As usual insects of one kind or another
are largely partaken of. Butterflies are said to be
a favourite diet. Worms also, and, according to
Dr. Gadow, snails, are eaten. In a specimen the
author has from Gironde, the stomach was nearly
full of a species of black beetle. The lizard itself
was from the gullet of a smooth snake, so that the
snake, the lizard, and the beetles, formed a striking
object-lesson on the struggle for existence in nature.
What the beetles contained in the way of food w^as not
ascertained.

Reproduction. — After the green lizards emerge from
the winter hibernation, the males fight amongst them-
selves a good deal previous to pairing with the females,
which takes place in the spring months. After fer-
tilisation, the eggs are partially developed in the
female oviducts, where they are carried for four
weeks. They are then deposited in situations suitable

GREEX LIZARD : VENTRAL SURFACE.

lFacin£:/>. 74.

THE GREEN LIZARD, LACERTA VIRIDIS 75

for further development with the aid of warmth, and
the young are hatched out in another four weeks, so
that the whole period of gestation is eight weeks.
The young, or at any rate the eggs deposited, are
usually from eight to ten in number. They have
yellow lateral lines, which, as we saw, persist in some
of the females in adult life. With regard to the
question of the mother exercising any watch over the
eggs, or giving any other sign of interest. Miss Hopley
says : " Mr. Jenner Weir told me of one (a green
lizard, that is) in his possession, who displayed not
only vigilance and care for her eggs, but considerable
wiliness in secreting them. The spot where she had
laid them being discovered, she being there, hastily
retreated, but presently returned and scratched the
peat over them till hidden by a little mound ; then
continued day after day to visit the spot and bask
on the mound ; but, as if conscious of being watched,
would never do anything to betray the place while
anyone was near." ^ The w^hole question of parental
relationship is a very interesting one in reptiles, as
they seem to be on the border line of those vertebrates
which give indications of its evolution. A ^j>?"io?"i one
would expect to find it appearing first in those animals
which brought forth their young alive, rather than in
oviparous creatures such as the green lizard.

^ C. Hopley, British Reptiles, p. 92.

CHAPTER IX

THE WALL LIZARD, LAGERTA MURALIS

DISTRIBUTION HABITS DESCRIPTION CHARACTERS

COMMON TO THE FAMILY.

We have already explained why it is that the green
lizard has found a place in a work on British species,
and it is for the same reasons that the wall lizard,
Lacerta muralis, must be here included. The one
cannot be regarded as a British species unless the
other be also so regarded, since it is simply a question
of the inclusion or omission of the Channel Islands in
the area denominated British. Since we include these
islands in our faunal divisions, both these species, on
that ground alone, become British.

Whilst it is necessary, for the sake of consistency
and uniformity, to do this, the fact remains that the
average field naturalist in this country has but a
nominal acquaintance with the wall lizard ; and since it
will not come under his observation in field work,
unless he pays a visit to its habitat in the Channel
Islands or elsewhere, it is not necessary to treat it

76

WALL LIZARD.

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THE WALL LIZARD, LACERTA MURALIS 77

in the same detail as in the case of the other
species.

Distribution. — The wall lizard is a very common
species in the countries of South Europe, as well as
across the Mediterranean in Northern Africa. It is
also common in Asia Minor. To the north its dis-
tribution extends as far as the more southern portion
of Germany, and into Belgium. Dr. Gadow states
that in the Iberian Peninsula it is found at an altitude
of 5000 or 6000 feet above the level of the sea.
Speaking generally, the distribution of this species
may be said to be chiefly in those countries bordering
upon the Mediterranean.

Description and Hctbits. — The average length of the
wall lizard is from 6 to 8 inches, so that it is one of
the smaller species. " This graceful little creature is
easily recognised by the series of granules between the
supra-ocular and supra-ciliary scales, and usually by
having only six rows of ventral scales. The great
variety in colouration has given rise to the establish-
ment of many races, varieties, and subspecies. In
the typical forms the upper parts are brown or
greyish, with blackish spots or streaks, sometimes with
a bronzy-greenish sheen. The under parts are white,
yellow, pink, or red, either uniform or, especially in
the males, with large black spots. The lateral rows
of ventral shields are frequently blue. The colour-
varieties are almost endless. One of the most note-
worthy is that described as var. cxrulea by Eimer ;

78 BRITISH LIZARDS

this, confined to the Faraghone Kocks, near Capri, is
blackish above, like the rock, and sapphire-blue below.^
Similarly coloured specimens, var. lilfordi, occur on
some of the rocky islets of the Balearic Isles.

"The wall lizard deserves its name, since in the
Mediterranean countries there is scarcely a wall on
which these active lizards do not bask or run up
and down, often head downwards, in search of insects.
They are oviparous. The hibernation is short and not
very deep, since these lizards can sometimes be seen
basking on sunny winter days before their regular
appearance in the early spring." ^

As its specific name implies, the wall lizard belongs
to the same family — the Lacertidse — as the green
lizard, the common viviparous lizard, and the sand
lizard. The slow-worm is the only British species
which is not of this family. This family of Lacertida^,
or the True Lizards, as they are called, comprises
'' nearly twenty genera, with about one hundred
species, and is typical of the Old World, being found
in Europe, Asia, Africa, but not in Madagascar, nor in
the Australian region. They are most abundant in
Africa. Their northern limit coincides fairly closely
with the limit of the permanently frozen under-
ground. All the Lacertid?e live upon animal food,
chiefly insects, and, after them, worms and snails ; but
the larger lizards take what they can master, fre-

^ Boulenger, British Maseum Catalogue.

" Gadow, Anvphibia and Reptiles, pp. 557, 558.

WALL LIZARD.

WALL LIZARD.

[Faci>i^ />. 78.

THE WALL LIZARD, LAGERTA MURALIS 79

quently other lizards, and even younger members of
their own kind. Many of them love sugar, which
they lick, and all require water. They are all terres-
trial, preferring, according to their kind, such localities
as yield them their particular food. Sunshine and
warmth make a marvellous change in the same in-
dividual, which on dull, rainy, or cold days lies in its
hole, or shows only sluggish movements. Their sense
of locality is great, or rather each individual inhabits
one place of which it knows every nook and corner,
cranny, tree, and bush. It has its favourite hole to
sleep in, a stone, the branch of a tree, or a wall to
bask upon, and when disturbed or chased it makes
with unerring swiftness for a safe spot to retire into.
The same lizard, when once driven away from its
own locality, seems to lose all its presence of mind,
flounders about, and is comparatively easily caught.
Most lizards are extremely curious, although shy, and
this state of their mind can be made use of by those
who want to catch them without injury, and, above
all, without getting the animal minus the brittle tail.
This safe way of catching lizards consists in taking a
thin rod with a running noose of thread at the end, in
drawing the latter over the lizard's head, and then
raising it. The little creature does not mind the rod
in the least ; on the contrary, it watches it carefully,
and often makes for the thread. The boys in Southern
Italy have improved upon and simplified this mode of
catching lizards by bending the end of a wisp of grass

80 BRITISH LIZARDS

into a noose, and covering the latter over with a thin
film of saliva. The shiny film, like a soap-bubble, is
sure to excite the curiosity of the creature. The late
Professor Eimer refers to this practice as carried out
by the children of two thousand years ago, and he
sagaciously explains that the beautiful statue of the
so-called Apollo Sauroctonos represents a boy who is
in the act of noosing the little lizard on the tree." ^

Field naturaHsts who wish to pursue their study
of lizards beyond the limited lizard fauna of Great
Britain, cannot do better than read Dr. Gadow's book,
from which we have quoted the above passages.

The general appearance and attitudes of L. muralis
may be best appreciated from the illustrations, which
are from photographs of living specimens.

^ Gadow, Amphibia and Rc2itilcs, pp. 551-553.

0

-^0

si ^

5>

i'-.

CHAPTER X

THE SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LIZARDS

TEEMINOLOGY OF HEAD SCALES — SPECIFIC SCALING OF

THE THEEE SPECIES CLASSIFICATION OF BRITISH

SPECIES.

The average field naturalist is not as a rule very-
interested in questions of minute structure and details
of classification, unless he be a botanist or an entomo-
logist. He is generally satisfied with being able
to distinguish an adder from a ring-snake without
troubling to learn the particular scaling arrangements
which are characteristic of the species. And this
state of knowledge or ignorance will be found to be
specially applicable to the group of reptiles, the lizards
as well as the snakes. If one inquires from the field
worker — as the present writer has frequently done —
why it is that the specific characters of our reptiles
are so neglected, the reply given is that none of the
semi-popular books which deal with the fauna of this
country explain how those characters are arrived at, or

the meanings of the descriptive terms used for each
6

82 BRITISH LIZARDS

type. Whether the excuse is a good one or not, the
charge is a perfectly true one, and the field worker, to
a certain extent at any rate, is not to be blamed. It
would, however, be inexcusable in a book dealing with
lizards alone not to try and make this matter clear to
the learner, — firstly, because it is an aspect that he
ought to be familiar with ; and secondly, because, unless
he does know it, he cannot tell a typical specimen
from an abnormal variation. If all field workers were
quite familiar with the typical scale arrangements of
our snakes and lizards, we should very soon be in
possession of a far greater amount of information as to
their variations than is obtainable at present. Every
specimen captured by a member of a field club should
be carefully examined to see whether it presents any
deviation from the normal in scaling, and if it does,
the record should be incorporated in the club transac-
tions and sent to one of the zoological journals.

The present chapter, then, is an attempt to make
clear to the beginner, what is regarded by most field
workers as the uninteresting and rather mysterious
question of scaling arrangements of species. As a
matter of fact, once the type of a species is thoroughly
learnt, it becomes a matter of the greatest interest
to discover the variations from that type, and the
technical terms which are unavoidable in this con-
nection can be mastered with a few minutes' close
application. After following out the diagrammatic
representation of the relative positions of the various

SPECIFIC CHAEACTERS OF BRITISH LIZARDS 83

head scales (p. 86), the reader should endeavour to

draw it himself from memory, so as to familiarise

himself with the position of each scale. Then he

should turn to the description of the specific scaling

characters of each species and construct for himself

a line drawing of the head of each species. This is

even more important in the snakes than in the lizards,

for the field naturalist who is familiar with the scahng

of the heads of the adder and the ring-snake, can

identify a specimen from the head alone, and is

not misled by any considerations of size or colour.

Whether this is the best possible manner that could

be devised for classification, and whether weight should

not be given to other characters more than it is, are

questions which need not concern us here ; the point

is, that scaling arrangements are specific characters,

and as such should be known by every field naturalist.

It is quite possible that originally the scales which

cover the bodies of hzards were all alike, but a glance

at one of the lizards of the present day will show that

considerable differentiation has taken place between

the scales of one part of the body and those of

another. The scales of the head, back, limbs, and

belly, have become different in shape, and in ti/pe of

arrangement. For this reason those who have been

responsible for making classifications of reptiles have

found it best to take these as their guide. That is to

say, the scaling becomes of the greatest importance in

the distinction of one species from another, and of one

84 BRITISH LIZARDS

genus from another. Some of the scales have become
much larger than others, probably from fusion of the
original small ones. Thus on the top of the head will
be found some scales larger than those of the back,
and of a different shape. As it is necessary for
purposes of accurate description to give these larger
scales or head shields definite names, they have been
named from the particular positions they fill on the
head, e.g. nasal shield. These various names must
now be studied.

THE TERMINOLOGY OF THE HEAD SCALES-

In describing the head of any reptile we distin-
guish three aspects or surfaces. Two of these are
visible when the lizard is in the natural attitude on
the ground, the third only when lifted off the ground.
First of all we have the upper aspect, that of the top
of the head, the vertex or dorsal aspect. Secondly,
there is the side view of the mouth and eyes, or the
lateral aspect. These are the two ordinarily visible.
Thirdly, there is the under surface of the head, that of
the chin and throat, or the ventral aspect. On each
of these surfaces are scales or shields arranged in a
definite manner for each species, and named either after
their position with regard to other parts of the head,
or after some of the cranial bones which they cover.

These shields vary immensely in different species,
some havinfj more than others. In order to under-

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LIZARDS 85

stand the general principle of their terminology, it is
necessary to take an instance of a head which exhibits
all the scales or shields which have special names.
Such a typical head is shown in the illustrations
here given. We shall see later which of these shields
are present, and which are wanting in our indigenous
lizards.

We restrict our description to those shields only
which are most important for purposes of specific
distinction, the rest may be disregarded by the field
naturalist.

The three surfaces of the head must be taken in turn.

1. The Vertex.

The shields which claim attention on the top of the

head are the following : —

{a) The frontal ; (h) the parietal ; (c) the
fronto -parietal ; {d) the pre - frontal ; (e) the
inter - parietal ; (/) the inter-nasal; (g) the
inter-fronto-nasal ; (A) the supra-ocular ; {i) the
occipital ; {j) the temporal.

In addition to these, portions of the rostral shield,

and of the nasal shields, may be visible from above ;

the former, however, is, strictly speaking, anterior — not

superior, and the latter belong more to the lateral

or side view.

Of those which are actually on the top of the head,

the most important are the frontal, the parietals, the

supra-ocular, and the pre-frontals.

SQ BRITISH LIZARDS

These are the most constant in their presence and
arrangement, and are always looked for first.

The most conspicuous is often the frontal, a large
polygonal shield in the centre of the top of the head,
a single shield in the middle line, which is easily re-
cognised (f.). Immediately in front of this, anteriorly
that is, are some smaller shields whose number and
arrangement will be found to vary considerably, they
are called from their position relative to the frontal,
the pre-frontal shields (pf.). The part of the head
behind the frontal is the parietal region. The two
largest shields here, one on either side of the middle
line, are the parietal shields (p.). Sometimes these
parietals are in contact with the posterior border of
the frontal, in other cases — as represented in the
diagram — they are separated from the frontal by
smaller shields, which are therefore termed the fronto-
parietal shields. Further, if the two parietal shields
are themselves separated from each other by a shield
in the middle line, this will naturally be called the
inter-parietal shield (iP.). Directly behind the pari-
etal shields is a smaller one, which is the occipital
shield (o.) ; while more to the side of the parietals
but still posterior, are the temporal shields (t.).

We have thus disposed of the shields in front of
and behind the large central frontal shield ; there
remains still the large shield found on either side of
the frontal, which since it lies immediately above the
eye region, is termed the supra-ocular (so.).

TYPICAL lizard's HEAD : DORSAL ASPECT.

{Facing- />. 86.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LIZARDS 87

Lastly, from this aspect, some smaller shields will
be found towards the front end of the snout. If
any separate the nasal shields from each other they
are called the inter-nasal, and those just behind the
nasals may be described as fronto-nasal (fn.) since
they are placed in the region between the frontal
and nasal shields. The single shield at the very
front of the snout is called the rostral (r.) or beak
shield ; it is more prominent from above in some
species than in others.

This completes the terminology of the shields of the
vertex, and though the names at first sight appear
somewhat formidable, they are so descriptive that a
careful study of the arrangement as shown in the
diagram will make the matter quite clear. It remains
to describe the shields on the other two surfaces of the
head in a similar manner.

2. The Lateral Aspect.

The shields or scales at the side of the head are
those which are in relation to the nostrils, the eyes,
and the line of division between the upper and lower
halves of the mouth when closed, the labial region.

The names of the shields or scales which must be
noted on this aspect are as follows : —

(a) The nasal ; (h) the superior labials ; (c)
the inferior labials ; {d) the supra-ciliary ; (e) the
loreal ; (/) the pre-loreal ; {g) the infra-labials;
Qi) the rostral.

SS BKITISH LIZARDS

We have already defined the rostral (r.) ; it is seen
again from this lateral view of the head, and the same
applies to the nasals (n.), which are at once recognised
by the opening of the nostril through them.

The superior labials (l.) are the scales which take
the place of the upper lip in snakes and hzards.
Their number varies greatly even in the same species,
and very often is different on the two sides of the
head of the same specimen. Thus it is very common
in the adder to find eight upper labials on the right
side, and seven or nine on the left side. They are
often termed simply lip scales. Seven are represented
in the diagram, the three largest being those beneath
and posterior to the eye.

Immediately above the eye will be noticed a row
of much smaller scales, which are named, from their
position, the supra-ciliary scales (sc). In front of the
eye are two scales of irregular shape, the loreals (lo.
and Lo'. ), posterior and anterior. The word " loreal " is
derived from the Latin lorum, a thong or strap, the term
being originally applied to a corslet of leathern thongs,
which had a somewhat scaly appearance. Hence the
term " lore " in ornithology, to define the space be-
tween the bill and the eye which in some birds is bare
and devoid of feathers, hence scaly-looking. The word
has the same significance in the lizards, and refers to
the position of the scale between the eye and the
snout. A further development is from the Latin lorica,
a coat of mail, hence the order of reptiles, the Loricata,

TYPICAL lizard's HEAD : LATERAL ASPECT.

[Facing />.

TYPICAL LIZARD S JIEAD : VENTRAL ASPECT.

\_Fachisi f>. 8g.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LIZARDS 89

including the crocodiles, which are characterised by
the plate armour with which their bodies are protected.
The only other scales claiming attention on the side
of the head are those in the position of the lower lip
of other animals, namely, the inferior labials, or lower
lip scales (l'.) ; and immediately below these the chin
shields, the tops of which are seen, the rest of these
scales belonging to the under surface. Like the upper
labials the lower ones vary considerably, and should
always be examined.

3. The Ventral Aspect.

We now come to the third and last aspect of the
head, that which is out of sight until the specimen is
held up or turned on its back. The scaling here is
very simple. There are first the lower labials, which
were seen partly from the side. The only others
which need concern us here are the scales of the chin
region. The most anterior of these which extends
between the two rows of lower labials is termed
the mental shield, or chin shield proper. Those just
behind the mental are, as we should expect, the post-
mental shields, and these merge into the scales of the
throat farther back.

The rest of the scales covering the body present no
difficulty. They take their names from their position,
dorsal on the back, ventral on the belly, caudal and
suh-caudal on or under the tail, aiial or 'pre-anal in
front of the anal aperture.

90 BRITISH LIZARDS

The reader who has mastered the few preceding
pages will have no trouble in understanding the
descriptions of the specific characters of the lizards,
though these would otherwise be unintelligible. He
will now be able to appreciate the statement that
normally in Lacerta vivijjctra there is a single post-
nasal shield, and a single anterior loreal shield, while
in Z. agilis there is usually a single post-nasal and two
superimposed anterior loreals, the three shields forming
a triangle.

We are now in a position to enumerate the specific
characters of the British lizards, as they are given
in the British Museum Catalogue of Reptiles (second
edition, vol. ii. 1885, and vol. iii. 1887, by G. A.
Boulenger, F.E.S.).

" Family ANGUiDiE. Genus Anguis.

" No lateral fold. Scales roundish, arranged quin-
cuncially on the back, forming vertical series on the
sides. No limbs. Teeth fanglike. Palate toothless.

" Europe, Western Asia, Algeria.

" Anguis fragilis, the Slow-worm.

" Frontal large, its anterior angle wedged in between
a pair of pre-frontals ; an azygos pre-frontal in front
of the latter, separated from the nasal by two small
shields; 1 or 2 small azygos shields behind the
very small rostral ; nasal very small, separated from
the latter by one shield; labials and loreals small,

r.

o. --

HEAD OF INDIAN SLOW-WORM.

OPHISA UR US GRA CIL IS.

\Facing />. go.

r.

COMMON LIZARD.

\F(icin^/>. gr.

SPECIFIC CHAKACTERS OF BRITISH LIZARDS 91

numerous ; inter-parietal as long as and broader than
the parietals and in contact with a small occipital ; a
small fronto-parietal between the supra-oculars and
the inter-parietal, and a larger shield between the
supra-oculars and the parietal ; supra-oculars 5 or
6. Ear - opening minute, usually hidden. Scales
smooth, median dorsal and ventrals broad, hexagonal ;
24 to 28 scales round the middle of the body.
Tail at least as long a;S the body. Young silvery
above, with a black vertebral line ; sides and lower
surfaces blackish. In the adult these markings often
disappear, or may be replaced by a series of dark
dots, and the colour of the upper surfaces becomes
brown or bronzy. A variety (colchica), in which the
ear-opening appears to be normally distinct, is distin-
guished by having scattered pale blue spots on the back.
"From snout to vent, 195 mm.; tail, 230.

" Family LACERTlDiE. Genus Lacerta.

" Head shields normal. Nostril pierced between
two or three nasals, bordered by the first upper labial,
or separated from that shield by a very narrow rim.
Lower eyehd scaly, or with a small transparent disc.
Collar well marked. Dorsal scales much smaller than
caudals, not or but feebly imbricate ; ventral shields
tetragonal, feebly imbricate, smooth. Digits sub-
cylindrical or compressed, with smooth, tubercular, or
indistinctly keeled lamellae inferiorly. Femoral pores.
Tail long, cylindrical.

92 BRITISH LIZARDS

" Europe ; Northern and Western Asia ; Africa,
north of the equator.

" Lacerta vivipara, the Common Lizard.

" Head small ; snout moderate, obtuse. Eostral not
touching the nostril ; normally a single post-nasal, a
single anterior loreal, in contact with the fronto-nasal,
and 4 upper labials anterior to the sub -ocular ; no
granules between the supra-oculars and tlie supra-
ciliaries, occipital small, usually smaller than the inter-
parietal ; temple covered with irregular flat scales,
among which a masseteric is often, and a tympanic
constantly, distinct. Gular fold feebly marked, or
absent. 14 to 21 gular scales on a line between
the collar and the third pair of chin shields ; collar
with serrated edge, composed of 7 or 9 plates. Dorsal
scales hexagonal, longer than broad, more or less
distinctly keeled, not or but slightly imbricate, some-
wiiat smaller than the laterals, which are smooth ;
nuchal scales roundish, smooth, or nearly so ; 2
lateral scales correspond to the length of a ventral
plate ; 26 to 37 scales across the middle of the
body. Ventral plates in 6 or 8 longitudinal series,
the second series on each side from the median ventral
line the largest; 24 to 30 transverse series. Two
semicircles of scales border the pre-anal shield. The
adpressed limbs meet, or the hind-limb reaches the
wrist or the elbow. Foot usually longer than the
head. Femoral pores, 7 to 13. Tail thick, once

SAND LIZARD.

[Faclnc^ />. 93.

SPECIFIC CHARACTEKS OF BRITISH LIZARDS 93

and two-fifths to once and two-thirds as long as head
and body; caudal scales large, upper strongly keeled
and pointed posteriorly. Brown, yellowish, or reddish
above in the adult, with small darker and lighter
spots ; frequently a blackish vertebral streak and a
dark lateral band edged with yellowish ; lower surfaces
orange or vermilion in the male, largely spotted with
black ; yellow or pale orange in the female, imma-
culate or scantily spotted with black. Newly-born
young almost black, which colouration sometimes per-
sists in the adult.

Male.

Female.

Mm.

Mm.

Total length

151

178

Head ......

12

12

Width of head ....

9

9

From end of snout to fore-limb

19

23

From end of snout to vent

53

73

Fore-limb. .....

17

18

Hind-limb

24

25

Tail

98

105

<(

Northern and Central Europe ; Northern Asia.

" Lacerta agilis, the Sand Lizard.

" Habit stouter, snout shorter than in L. viridis.
Eostral not touching the nostril ; 1 or 2 post-
nasals ; frequently 2 superimposed anterior loreals ;
normally 4 upper labials anterior to the sub-
ocular — no granules between the supra-oculars and
the supra-ciliaries ; occipital small, shorter and usually

94 BRITISH LIZARDS

narrower than the inter - parietal ; temples covered
with flat scales ; 2 or 3 large temporals in contact
with the parietal ; no tympanic. Gular fold feebly
marked, or absent. 14 to 22 gular scales on a line
between the collar and the third pair of chin shields ;
collar with serrated edge, composed of 7 to 11 plates.
Dorsal scales hexagonal, strongly keeled, larger on
the sides, where they are feebly keeled or smooth ;
2 or 3 lateral scales correspond to the length of
a ventral plate; 34 to 52 scales across the middle
of the body. Ventral plates in 6 or 8 longitudinal
series, the second series on each side from the median
ventral line the largest ; 25 to 32 transverse series.
The hind-limb never reaches beyond the elbow of
the adpressed fore - limb. Foot not, or but very
slightly, longer than the head. Femoral pores, 10
to 18. Tail once and a half to once and two-thirds
the length of head and body ; upper caudal scales
strongly keeled, pointed posteriorly.

" Northern and Central Europe ; Western Asia.

"(a) FORMA TYPICA.

" Usually a single post-nasal and two superposed
anterior loreals, the three shields forming a triangle.
Median dorsal scales very narrow, sharply differentiated
from the broader laterals; 34 to 46 scales across
the middle of the body. Usually a single semicircle
of scales bordering the anal, none of which are much
enlarged. Young greyish brown above with longi-

SAND LIZARD I LATERAL ASPECT.

\Facing-f. 94.

(;kkkn lizard: scaling of ventral surface.

\Facin^p. C5.

SPECIFIC CHAEACTERS OF BRITISH LIZARDS 95

tudinal series of white, black-edged ocelli ; no light
vertebral streak, lower surfaces whitish, immaculate.
Adult female, brown or greyish above, the vertebral
zone darker than the sides of the back, with large
dark brown spots with a central white shaft or round
spot ; usually the larger spots form 3 longitudinal
series on the body ; belly cream-coloured, with or
without black spots. Male, during the breeding
season, green on the sides and lower surfaces, rarely
also on the back ; sides black-dotted, usually with
lighter ocelli ; lower surfaces more or less abundantly
spotted with black. A form is distinguished by the
unspotted reddish-brown or brick-red back (Z. rubra).

Total length ....
Head . . . . .

Width of head

From end of snout to fore-limb
From end of snout to vent
Fore-limb . . . .
Hind-limb . . . .

Xall. • • • • •

Male.

Female.

Mm.

Mm.

206

212

20

18

14

12

29

27

78

87

21

25

31

34

128

125

" South of England ; Northern, Central, and Eastern
France ; Belgium ; Holland ; Switzerland ; Germany ;
Austria ; Denmark ; Sweden ; Kussia.

" Lacerta viridis, the Green Lizard.

" Head moderate ; snout moderately long, obtuse.
Kostral usually touching or entering the nostril ;

96 BRITISH LIZARDS

normally 2 regularly superposed post-nasals and 4
upper labials anterior to the sub-ocular ; a series of
granules may be present between the supra-oculars
and the supra-ciliaries ; occipital narrower than the
frontal ; temples covered with flat scales ; 2 large
temporal shields in contact with the parietal. Gular
fold usually distinct ; 1 6 to 2 5 gular scales on a
line between the collar and the third pair of chin
shields ; collar with serrated edge, composed of 7 to
12 plates. Dorsal scales oval-hexagonal or rhom-
boidal, keeled, not or but slightly larger on the sides,
where 2 or 3 correspond to the length of a
ventral plate; 40 to 58 scales across the middle of
the body. Ventral plates in 6 or 8 longitudinal
series, the second series of each side from the median
ventral line the largest ; 25 to 31 transverse series.
Pre-anal plate bordered by two semicircles of small
plates. The hind-limb reaches between the wrist of
the adpressed fore-limb and the shoulder. Foot,
in the female and young, longer than the head.
Femoral pores, 12 to 20. Tail usually about twice as
long as head and body ; caudal scales keeled, pointed
posteriorly.

" Central and Southern Europe ; South-western Asia.

" {a) FORMA TYPICA.

" Granules between the supra-oculars and the supra-
ciliaries often absent ; occipital usually very small ;
usually a distinct masseteric plate but no tympanic.

HEAD OF GKKKN LIZARD (fROM ABO\'e).

[Facing/. 97.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LIZARDS 97

42 to 50 scales across the middle of the body, the
laterals a little larger than the median dorsals.
Usually only 6 longitudinal rows of ventrals. Femoral
pores, 13 to 18. Young, brown or green above, with
one or two more or less distinct yellowish lateral
streaks, which may persist in the adult female. Adult,
green above, uniform or dotted, or spotted with black,
or blackish olive speckled with green, lower surfaces
yellow, uniform ; throat usually blue, especially in the
males.

Total length
Head

Width of head

From end of snout to fore-limb
From end of snout to vent
Fore-limb ....
Hind-limb ....
Tail

Male.

Female.

Mm.

Mm.

400

355

28

24

18

15

43

42

110

120

36

39

64

64

290

235

" Italy, France, Switzerland, Austria, Germany,
Eussia, Channel Islands.

" Lacerta muralis, the Wall Lizard.

" Head rather long, more or less depressed. Kostral
not entering the nostril, normally a single post-nasal
and 4 upper labials anterior to the sub -ocular (often
5 anterior labials in vars. hispanica and hedriagce) ; a
series of granules between the supra-oculars and the
supra- ciliaries ; occipital smaU or moderate ; temple
7

98 BRITISH LIZARDS

granular, usually with distinct masseteric and tympanic
plates. Gular fold more or less distinct ; 20 to 3 5
gular scales on a line between the collar and the
third pair of chin shields ; collar even-edged or, rarely,
slightly serrated, composed of 9 to 11 plates. Dorsal
scales granular, smooth or feebly keeled, laterals as
large or a little smaller; 40 to 80 scales across
the middle of the body ; 3 to 5 lateral scales cor-
respond to the length of a ventral plate. Ventrals
squarish, broader than long, in 6, rarely 8, longi-
tudinal, and 25 to 32 transverse series. Pre-anal
bordered by one or two semicircles of small scales.
Limbs rather elongate, especially in the males, in
which the hind-limb reaches the shoulder or beyond.
Scales on upper surface of tibia smaller than dorsals.
Femoral pores, 13 to 29. Tail usually about twice as
long as head and body ; caudal scales more or less
distinctly keeled, with truncate or very obtusely
pointed posterior border.

" Central and Southern Europe, North-west Africa,
Asia Minor, Northern Persia, Syria.

"(ct) FORMA TYPICA.

" Size comparatively small. Head usually rather
strongly depressed. The hind-limb rarely reaches the
axilla in the female. 40 to 65 scales across the
middle of the body; 3 or 4 lateral scales corre-
spond to the length of a ventral. Upper parts brown
or greyish, variously spotted, marbled, or streaked

<

SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF BRITISH LIZARDS 99

with blackish ; lower surfaces white, yellow, pink, or
red, uniform or (in males) more or less largely spotted
with black ; outer ventrals frequently blue.

Total length ....
Head .....
"Width of head

From end of snout to fore-limb
From end of snout to vent
Fore-limb . . . .
Hind-limb . . . .

Xdili • • • • •

Male.

Female.

Mm.

Mm.

187

180

16

13

11

9

25

22

62

62

23

20

35

30

125

118

" Central and Southern Europe ; North-western
Africa ; Asia Minor to Northern Persia."

The above is the technical account of the specific
characters of the British species of lizards, and with
the explanation we have given of the terms used, any
member of a field club will be able to trace these
characters out for himself on a specimen. It is
hoped that one result will be that a few field natural-
ists here and there will take up the subject of the
variations in size, colour, and proportions, of the
lizards of the locality, and thus add to our present
knowledge of the question. We would urge those
who do look into the matter to keep most careful
records of every specimen examined, to have them
incorporated in their Society's Transactions, and to send
any specimens presenting marked abnormalities to
the British Museum of Natural History, at South

100

BRITISH LIZAEDS

Kensington. The same injunction may be taken as
applying to our snakes. As a mere matter of mental
training and education, it is of infinitely more value to
master accurately the details of such a subject, than
to acquire a superficial smattering of half a dozen
sciences. The following explains the lettering of the
diasrams : —

C.S. Chin shields.

/. Frontal.

fn. Fronto-nasal.

fp. Fronto-parietal.

in. Inter-nasal.

ip. Inter-parietal.

L. Upper labial.

L'. Lower labial.

r. Rostral.

sc. Supra-ciliary.

Lo. Anterior loreal.
Lo'. Posterior loreal.
771. Mental.
n. Kasal.
0. Occipital.
p. Parietal.
j)n. Post-nasal.
pf. Prse-frontal.
Sbo. Sub-ocular.
so. Supra-orbital.
/. Temporal.

[Table.]

CLASSIFICATION OF BRITISH LIZARDS 101

?/2

P

N

W

CO

l-H

o

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CHAPTER XI

THE FRAGILITY OF THE TAIL IN LIZARDS

It is a matter of very common knowledge and ob-
servation that in some families and species of lizards,
the tail is extremely fragile. The European slow-
worm (Anguis fragilis) takes its specific name from
this circumstance. This anomalous reptile if startled
or taken hold of at once stiffens its tail into a rigid
condition, and very slight violence is then sufficient to
cause a fracture of the tail, either complete or partial.
If complete, the portion of tail broken off remains
in the grasp while the lizard escapes ; if partial, the
fracture appears on the ventral aspect of the tail as a
transverse crack, but remains attached along the dorsal
aspect. When the lizard thus makes the tail rigid, a
very slight blow is enough to cause part of the tail to
come away, and the reptile is apparently none the
worse for the loss of a portion of its anatomy.

Ophiologists have accounted for this remarkable
phenomenon by the peculiarity of structure exhibited
by some families of Lacertilia in the caudal vertebra.
Thus Professor Cope in his monumental work on Tlie

102

FRAGILITY OF THE TAIL IN LIZARDS 103

Crocodiles, Lizards, and Snakes of North America, says
(p. 190): "In a good many families the caudal ver-
tebrae are divided by a transverse fissure or suture in
front of the middle, which often splits the base and
sometimes the length of the diapophysis. Such a
structure is seen in Iguanidae {Iguana, Saitromalus,
Sceloporus, Bipsosaurus), Anolidse, Anguidae (Celestus),
Teiidae (Tupinamhis, Gnemidophoriis), Lacertidae {La-
certa), and Scincidae {Gongylus, Eumeces). In Bipso-
saurus, Anolis, and Lacei^ta, the neural spines of the
vertebras (caudal) are double ; in the other genera
named, single. In Varanidce, Helodermidce, Gerroiiotus,
Crotaphytiis, and Plirynosoma, the caudal centra are un-
divided, and the neural spines are single. In Ophisaurus
the centra are undivided, and the neural spines double.
The centra are excessively thin in Ophisaurus, so that
they break more readily than they disarticulate."

In Sceloporus, which is a common species in Mexico
and the Southern United States, this segmentation of
the centra of the caudal vertebrae is present only from
about the eighth vertebrae. Professor Packard in his
Text- Booh of Zoology (p. 502), says: "In many lizards
{Lacerta, Iguana, and the Geckos), the middle of each
caudal vertebra has a thin cartilaginous partition, and
it is at this point that the tails of these lizards break
off so easily when seized."

In British text-books on Zoology, the anatomy of
the Eeptilia is usually very deficiently dealt with ;
but Dr. Hans Gadow's recently pubHshed work on

104 BRITISH LIZARDS

A^njyhihia and Reptiles goes into some detail on the
point. He says (p. 495): "The caudal vertebrse of
the Geckones and of most Lacertoe are liable to break
across, like those of Sphenodon. They are enabled to
do this owing to a transverse spHt, which makes its
appearance with the ossification of the vertebral bodies
and extends later into and across the neural arch and
the various lateral processes. This split is ultimately
referable to a transverse septum of cartilage, wrongly
called chordal cartilage, which develops in the shell of
the body of the vertebra, destroys the chorda, and
extends peripherally. The cells of this septum retain
throughout life their juvenile quasi-embryonic char-
acter. When the tail is broken off — and this always
happens at such a septum — the cells of the remaining
half reproduce a new tail." Again, Dr. Gadow, on
p. 503 of the same work, says : " Each vertebral
centrum consists of a cartilaginous tube, more or less
calcified or ossified, with a narrow waist and a car-
tilaginous septum in the middle. In the tail this
septum, which is only slightly invaded by ossification,
coincides exactly with the line of transverse division
of the vertebrae into an anterior and a posterior half.
This is the level where the tail breaks off and whence
it is renewed."

We may therefore say that the accepted explanation
of the phenomenon of the fragility of the tail in some
lizards, is that it is due to a peculiar condition of the
vertebrae, namely, the development of a cartilaginous

FRAGILITY OF THE TAIL IN LIZARDS 105

septum in the middle of the caudal vertebral centra,
whereby these vertebrae are enabled to fracture trans-
versely at the position of the septum. The object of
this chapter is to inquire into the truth or otherwise
of this view, and to point out how this explanation
is insufficient to account for all the facts. Further, if
possible, to show that other factors play a part in the
process, without which it could not occur.

Theoeetical Considerations.

It had long appeared to me that the views enun-
ciated above, and copied into all text-books, even if
true as far as they went, afforded but a partial ex-
planation of the possibility of a lizard to lose a portion
of its tail with ease. The mere fact that an animal
has sustained a transverse fracture of a bone in a limb
or organ, is not enough to account for that limb be-
coming detached from the body.

Bones are not the only parts of an organ, they are
kept in position by ligaments and by muscles acting
upon them, by connective tissue affording further sup-
port, and finally by the integument enclosing more or
less firmly the whole organ or limb. (An appendage,
such as the tail of a lizard, is practically an axial
limb.) The usual arrangement of these tissues other
than bones has the effect, when a fracture occurs, of
keeping the limb in connection with the body until a
more or less perfect union has taken place at the point
of fracture. In other words, for a limb to become

106 BRITISH LIZAEDS

detached from the body, requires a division of the soft
parts surrounding it, as well as a fracture of the bone.
It therefore may be concluded, theoretically, that the
dropping of the lizard's tail must depend upon the
pecuhar arrangement of the muscles and integument
quite as much, if not more than, upon the ease with
which the vertebrae are enabled to break across.

The first problem which presents itself in this
connection is this. Seeing that in most animals
possessed of long tails the muscles are attached from
one vertebra to another, allowing of a certain amount
of intervertebral movement, but keeping the tail, as a
whole, attached to the body even if a fracture of
a vertebra occurs, what special muscular arrangement
exists in those hzards which drop their tails when
this accident happens ? Secondly, even if by some
anatomical arrangement the muscles do not keep the
tail attached to the body, how is it that the skin or
integument always breaks all round the circumference
of the tail exactly over the point of the fractured
vertebrae ?

(The species of lizards first used to investigate
these points were Aiiguis fragilis, the slow-worm, and
Lacerta viridis, the green lizard, of the Continent and
Channel Islands.)

1. Angicis fragilis, the Slow-worm.

Selecting a specimen from my collection, I proceeded
to carefully break off a portion of the tail. It was

SLOW-WORM : ALMOST COMPLETE FRACTURE.

PORTION OF TAIL OF SLOW-WORM

FRACTURES.

TWO INCOMPLETE

[Facing- />. io6.

FRAGILITY OF THE TAIL IN LIZARDS 107

at once evident that while the integument ruptured
readily round the circumference of the lower half (the
ventral half) of the tail at the point of fracture, it did
not do so nearly so easily on the dorsal aspect. In
fact, some degree of force was necessary to complete
the division of the skin all round. But by bending
the two halves of the tail, as one would bend a stick
across the knees, the fracture was completed. The
structures thus separated in the following order : —

First, the ventral integument ;

Then the ventral muscles ;

Then the lateral integument and muscles on
each side ;

Then the dorsal muscles ;

Lastly, the dorsal integument.
This indicates the degree of ease with which the
parts separated, the ventral aspect rupturing most
easily, the dorsal remaining intact the longest. The
first thing that struck me was that the initial point of
separation was in the skin, not, apparently, in the
vertebra, and one naturally wondered whether this
corresponded to the position of the cartilaginous
septum. The next thing that compelled notice v/as
that the two separated ends of the tail — the proximal
and the distal ends — presented a marked contrast.
The proximal end, still of course attached to the body,
exhibited eight muscles which had been separated
from their attachments to the distal portion, giving
the proximal end a stellate appearance ; while the

108 BRITISH LIZARDS

distal end exhibited a plain, smooth surface, no muscles
being visible. Closer inspection at once revealed the
spaces into which these eight muscles fitted, seen as
holes dipping into the distal portion of the tail. The
appearance of the two ends is seen in the accompany-
ing illustration.

Taking next the portion of the tail which had come
away from the body, I refractured this in several
places, with precisely the same results. In each
fracture the proximal portion retained the eight
muscles, while in each distal portion the positions
into which these muscles fitted were seen as holes.
The shape of each of these muscles was roughly tri-
angular, thick at the proximal attached end, tapering
to a point at the distal separable end. In doing this,
I found that the fracture always took place at the
same point as regards the muscles, nowhere else. I
next dissected one of the fractured pieces of the tail.
The integument is extremely tough, and difficult to cut
in the slow-worra. To the naked eye, as one dissects
it, this skin appears to be disposed in two layers, — an
external thick layer covered by scales, and an internal
thin layer. The external thick layer strips off all
round the tail, leaving the thin internal layer, which is
an investim^ membrane for the tail. It is whitish in
colour, and tough to dissect. An incision was made
along the whole length of this internal layer of tissue,
in the median dorsal line. This was carefully reflected
laterally, with the result that the eight muscles came

PIVE VERTEBR.^ FROM TAIL OF SLOW-WORM.

INTEGUMENT DISSECTED OFF A
FRACTURED TAIL.

CROSS-SECTION OF FRACTURED
TAIL.

PROXIMAL END OF FRACTURED TAIL.

DISTAL END OF FRACTURED TAIL.

Facing^ p. loS.J

FRAGILITY OF THE TAIL IN LIZARDS 109

off with it, leaving the caudal vertebrae lying free in
the dissection. The appearance of the integument
with the muscles attached is seen in illustration, which
gives a better idea of it than any description. Turn-
ing next to the condition of the vertebrae, it was with
the greatest interest that I found them to be intact.
The separation had taken place at the intervertebral
articulation at both ends of the fractured piece of tail,
and not in the centre of the bodies of the vertebrae as
supposed. I photographed this portion of the caudal
vertebral column, and it is here reproduced.

So that, in this case at any rate, when the tail was
broken off, the fracture did not take place at the
cartilaginous septum, as is said always to happen.

Looking closely at the arrangement of the muscles,
it was easily seen that their arrangement was curiously
adapted to permit of their readily separating. This
arrangement is best described perhaps by the term
" dove-tailed." They fit into each other just as the
handle of a cricket bat is dovetailed into the blade.
And, further, they separate from each other just in
the same way that the handle of a bat is forced
apart from the blade, so that when in process of
separation they look like the fingers of one's two
hands interdigitating.

These eight muscles are not equal in size, nor are
they disposed at equal intervals round the vertebral
column. Six of them are longer than the other two,
the two short ones, which are the thickest, being

no BRITISH LIZARDS

ventral. Diag-rammatically, the positions of the eight
muscles may be thus represented —

Dorsal Muscles.

Lateral Muscles. jf '^ Lateral Muscles,

Ventral Muscles.

Fig. 1.

The two dorsal muscles are separated from each
other by a somewhat wider interval than any of the
others, so that they are, strictly speaking, dorso-lateral,
the dorsal median line being free from muscle.

The relative shortness of the two ventral muscles
accounts for the fact that the fracture begins on the
ventral side and is easiest here.

The thick end or attached end of these muscles is
very firmly inserted into the inner layer of the integu-
ment. The thin tapering end lies practically free in
the sheaths provided for its reception. After all, this
is the only arrangement which would permit of that
easy fragility of the tail under consideration. It is
impossible to fracture the tail opposite the points of
origin of these muscles in the integument ; any attempt
to do so results in their separation where the ends

FRAGILITY OF THE TAIL IN LIZARDS HI

taper to the free point in the spaces made by the
fibrous septa in which they lie.

2. Lacerta viridis, the Green Lizard.

These anatomical arrangements on which this
phenomenon depends are even better seen in the
green lizard, where the scaling of the tail adds another
factor not so easily made out in the slow-worm. The
scales in the latter are extremely small, in the green

(^

AAA
AAA
A/\A
A/NA
AAA
AAA

Fracture.

No fracture.

Fracture.

No fracture.

Fracture.

No fracture.

Fracture, and so on.

Fig. 2.

lizard they are large and elongated. When I pro-
ceeded to confirm the results above described, by
fracturing the tail in green lizards, it was found that
these caudal scales have a definite position with regard
to the muscles. One naturally expected that the
fracture took place between two rows of scales, not
across a row, but I was not prepared to find that it
occurred at definite intervals of scales, and only at
those intervals. But, of course, it simply is that a

112

BRITISH LIZARDS

certain number of scales correspond to each muscle-
length, and that number, as a matter of fact, is two.
The length of two scales is the length of one muscle,
so that the fracture is found to occur at intervals
of two scales. One cannot make the tail fracture at
the end of the scale next to that which covered the
termination of a previous fracture. The diagram on
p. Ill may explain this more clearly.

Fig. 3.

-Section of Tail, Lacerta viridis (diagrammatic).

SC is spinal cord. C is centrum of vertebra.
D 1, D 2, are positions of the two dorsal muscles.
V 1, V 3, „ „ „ ventral muscles.

L 1, 2, 3, U, „ „ four lateral muscles.

iV^ofc— There are three partitions on each side, the ventral one on each side
holds two muscles, a ventral and a lateral muscle.

There is thus a very well-marked metameric seg-
mentation in the tail of these lizards, each segment
being marked externally by the interval between every
second scale, though no differentiation is apparent.
Just as in the case of the slow-worm, so in the
green lizard, if the skin be dissected off a part that is
fractured, the muscles come off with it, and present
the same arrangement seen before. The caudal ver-

FRAGILITY OF THE TAIL IN LIZARDS 113

tebrae are left intact, or may be so left, and there
is seen a number of fibrous septa running from the
vertebral processes to the integument, thus dividing
the tail into compartments into which the muscles are
fitted, and out of which the thin tapering ends readily
escape when the fracture occurs. The diagram on
the opposite page shows the arrangement of these
septa.

These septa are not continuous longitudinally, but
each is inserted into the integument of its own
segment, opposite the end of the scales of that
segment, so that here the fracture takes place. Here
again, as in the slow-worm, the proximal end of the
fragment of tail shows the eight muscles protruding,
while the distal end shows the intervertebral articu-
lation surface intact, the fracture having occurred
behueen two vertehrce, not across one. On illustration
facing page 108 these two ends are seen photographed
from the fresh dissection. Both these fractures show
the articulating surfaces of the vertebrae intact. In a
word, there is no fracture of the caudal vertebrae in
these cases, but a simple disarticulation or dislocation.

It was thus concluded that fracture of the tail in
the green lizard, as in the slow-worm, depends mainly
upon the pecuhar arrangement of muscles and integu-
ment ; that this fracture takes place or may do at
definite intervals corresponding to the end of every
second caudal scale ; and that this position as regards

the caudal vertebrae was at an intervertebral articula-
8

114 BRITISH LIZARDS

tion. Given a fracture at any point, one may say
with certainty where any other fracture may occur, by
simply counting the scales ; the other fractures will
be only at the ends of the rows of scales numbering
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and so on, from the first fractured
point. It should be added that the explanation here
offered to account for the fragility of the tail is not an
accepted view, but it is one which any observant field
naturalist can examine for himself on the first slow-
worm he encounters.

It is quite obvious that no special arrangement
of ossification in the vertebrae would be sufficient to
account for the phenomenon, unless some highly
specialised form of muscular and scale structure also
existed. Lack of ossification in a bone may be a
cause of fracture ; it will not account for a limb or an
appendage dropping oh" from the body, as do the tails
of some lizards.

CHAPTER XII

COLOUR VARIATION IN LIZARDS

THE PKOBLEM FACTOES CONCERNED EVIDENCE OF SEX

INFLUENCE EVIDENCE OF AGE INFLUENCE — CON-
CLUSION REFERENCES.

From what has been said in the foregoing pages under
the headings of the various species of British lizards,
it will be quite evident to the reader that there is
a very marked degree of colour variation to be foimd
in these reptiles. In that respect they resemble the
snakes, in which the same phenomenon is equally pro-
nounced. The present writer has on various previous
occasions dealt with the problem as presented in the
order of serpents, and a reference to the literature in
that group is appended at the end of this chapter. It
remains, therefore, to review the principles appHcable
to the subject with special reference to the lizards,
and to endeavour to ascertain to what extent the
processes of colour variation in lizards are due to the
same or similar causes as those proved to be responsible
for the colour variation of serpents.

115

116 BRITISH LIZARDS

" To state the problem clearly, it is necessary at the
outset to recognise the distinction between protective
colouration and colour variation. The former term is
used to describe the resemblance in appearance between
many creatures and their surroundings, by means of
which resemblance the members of the species are
protected from attack, and thus the species from
extinction. Thus every sportsman knows how difficult
it is at a little distance to distinguish partridges from
the earth on which they are crouching. . . . But this
protective colouration is quite a different phenomenon
from that of colour variation. This latter term is
descriptive of the varying colours seen in any given
species, whether that species exhibits any protective
colouring or not." ^

In the present case, in other words, the problem is
not to account for the specific markings and colourings
of the different lizards which may be protective or not,
but to ascertain the reason why these specific markings
and colours exhibit such striking variations, i.e. to solve
the problem of colour variation in lizards.

Every student of natural history knows that there
are many factors which are usually considered to take
part in producing colour variation in animals. Most
of these factors, perhaps, will fall under one or other
of the following : —

Variations due to Heredity.
„ „ Climate.

^ Leightou, British Serpents^ pp. 109, 110.

COLOUR VARIATION IN LIZARDS

117

Variations due to Food.

Locality.

Age.

Sex.

Temperature.

Moisture.

Light.

It is quite obvious that in many of the instances
of colour variation, two or more of the above factors
will be exerting their influence concurrently. For
example, the temperature and degree of moisture
which form the environment of an animal depend
upon its geographical distribution, i.e. the locality ;
while both these factors are part of all those which
go to make up the climate. In like manner, what we
term seasonal changes are associated with climate and
locality. The old view that brilliancy of colour is
dependent upon light and high temperature, is found
to be unsatisfactory, since it does not follow that the
animals of the hot and glaring desert present the
brightest hues, and much of the deep-sea favma is of
very brilliant colouring, though living in comparative
darkness.

But these considerations apply to the question of
colour variation in its widest sense. When we come
to consider the problem in a somewhat restricted area,
many of the factors just mentioned are at once found
to be inoperative to a great extent. In a country the
size of Great Britain, it can hardly be supposed that
climate can be responsible for any great extent of

118 BRITISH LIZARDS

colour variation, since the variations in the climate in
such a limited area are not sufficient. The same
remark applies to some of the other factors, and, as
a matter of fact, the list of those which are really
responsible is found to be a comparatively short one.
Fortunately, the problem has been very fully worked
out in some countries which possess far more species
of lizards than does Great Britain, and we may safely
assume that the same factors produce colour variation
in one family of lizards as in another. The colours
themselves, of course, may be entirely different, and
do not affect the question. We may therefore briefly
note what has been observed in American lizards,
where the number of species allows of more accurate
conclusions being drawn than could be done from a
restricted collection of our indigenous species.

The following examples of colour variation are
quoted from Professor Cope's great work on The
Crocodiles, Lizards, and Snakes of North America, a
work which abounds in references to this question as
affecting both snakes and lizards.

The genus Scelojyorus consists of terrestrial, and
therefore depressed Iguanid?e. Its especial habitat is
Mexico and Central America, the south-western parts
of the United States and California. The species are
rather numerous, and in all the species the males are
generally more brilliantly coloured and larger than the
females ; moreover, the males have a blue blotch on
the under surface and on the sides of the belly. But

COLOUR VARIATION IN LIZARDS 119

while the species of Sceloporits possess brilliant colours,
these are generally on the inferior surfaces and are
therefore concealed. The throat and sides of the belly
are usually of some shade of blue (sometimes purple),
while the dorsal regions are, in the majority of species,
different shades of brown. When the animal raises
the head, as it habitually does, the brilliant colours of
the throat are visible, but those of the sides are much
less apparent. All these colours are most conspicuous
in the males, and in many species they are absent from
the females. They are to be regarded as secondary
sexual characters. In the species S. undulatus the
males are cross-barred, while the females are banded,
the species being found all over the continent south of
the Canadian district. In the species S. dugesii, the
females resemble the males in the colour of the upper
surface, but have the under parts yellow. In still
another species of this genus (S. pyrrhocephalus) a
marked distinction in colour is to be observed in the
two sexes. The males are greenish brown with a
broad black band extending from the shoulder to the
groin, the sides being bluish. The females, on the
other hand, have the head brown above, the lateral
stripe is obsolete, and the blue marks on the sides are
replaced by brown.

In several other species of the same genus we find
a similar sex variation, the males exhibiting a blue
colour on the chin and sides which is wanting in the
females. In some other species the variations are

120 BRITISH LIZARDS

still more striking, and Professor Cope thinks that
S. variabilis was probably so named on account of the
wide difference between the colouring of the males and
the females.

Taking next another family of lizards, the Scincidae,
it is found that similar variations obtain in them. In
some members the differences are so marked that they
have been supposed to represent distinct species, but
careful examination shows them to be attributable to
age and sex. In these particular species (Scincus
erythrocephalus, qicinquelineatus, and fasciatus) Professor
Cope says that it is probable, or even almost certain,
that the females retain their stripes and other mark-
ings longer than the males, and have a much less
tendency, if they exhibit it at all, to reddening and
wideningr of the head. It is almost certain that
females never entirely lose their stripes. All those of
the largest size, with narrow head and distinct stripes,
are females ; all those of the same or even less size,
with very broad red head and obscure markings, are
males. Similar variations are found to characterise
other species besides those named.

Examples such as those quoted might be multi-
plied almost indefinitely, but enough has been said to
show that, from the point of view of sex, we have
one powerful factor operating to produce colour
variation.

The field naturalist will doubtless call to mind the
fact that sexual colour variation is common in other

COLOUK VARIATION IN LIZARDS 121

animals than reptiles, notably in amphibians and birds.
In the former we find amongst the newts some striking
sexual colourings, while it is a matter of common
knowledge that in the birds the sexes in very many
cases are readily distinguished by the plumage.

Those who have studied this question in the reptiles
will recollect that there is another factor which seems
to exert considerable influence, and that is the factor
of age. In the case of the adder it is found that the
very old specimens are not so brilliantly coloured as
are the young adults.^ This applies to both sexes
in those reptiles. The next point, therefore, is to
inquire into the question of age in the case of the
lizards.

Again, we may note some of the many observa-
tions on American species quoted in Professor Cope's
book.

Eeferring again to the genus Sceloporics, the follow-
incj; instances of the effect of acre strike the reader.

In the species >S'. zosteromus there is a dark, broad,
lateral band connecting the groin with the arm in
adults ; in younger specimens the prebrachial spot
often does not connect with the lateral abdominal
band, the pigment in the intervening area apparently
not having been yet developed. In S. hiseriatus, the
throat, middle of the belly, and lower side of the thigh
may be black in old males, instead of the greyish or
bluish colour of younger specimens.

^ British Serpents, p. 120.

122 BRITISH LIZARDS

In the genus Phrynosoma, the so-called horned toads,
a striking change of colour due to age is seen in the
species P. coronatum. The young of both sexes have
short tails. The colour above is brownish, yellowish,
or greyish, darker laterally. There is a large brown
patch on each side of the neck, and a series of three
more or less distinct brown bars on each side of the
back. These bars are light-bordered posteriorly. The
tail is transversely banded with brown. The belly is
often dotted or blotched with brown or black. All
these colour markings are more distinct in the young
specimens than in old ones. In very young individuals
the scales on the top of the head are greyish or
yellowish white, with a few minute brown or black
spots. These spots, which are on the raised portions
of the scales, become more numerous as the animals
increase in size, i.e. in age, until the whole crown
appears black or dark brown, crossed by irregular lines
formed by the yellow posterior edges of the scales.
So that in P. coronatum the colour of any particular
specimen depends mainly upon the age. A closely
related species exemplifies the disappearance of mark-
ings in old age, namely, Anota platyrhina. In this
lizard the markings on the posterior part of the back
are apt to become obsolete in old specimens. It
frequently happens that the regular arrangement of
the colour pattern is appreciable only in the young.
An example of this is to be found in the Mexican
Heloderma sicspectum, a lizard of great interest, inas-

COLOUR VARIATIOX IX LIZARDS 123

much as it has been by some supposed to be poisonous,
whilst others have failed to detect any evidence of
poison glands. If it be poisonous, it is the only genus
that is so amongst lizards. The species noted is
characterised by a series of rings on the limbs and
on the tail With increasing age these rings become
broken up, and the pattern becomes an irregular coarse
network of a blackish colour.

In the genus Gerrhonotus, the young individuals are
much more brilliantly coloured than adults, and have
a more distinct colour pattern of alternating light and
dark cross-bars. On young individuals were proposed
the species G. cceruleus and G. ivebbii. The colours
fade out with increasing age and maturity in most
species of this genus, becoming shades of olive or
brown with lateral bars ; or if the brilhant colours are
retained as in two other species, G. gramineus and
G. auritus, the cross-bars disappear.

Occasionally it is found that age is responsible for
an apparently quite new arrangement of markings and
colours, but, when this is the case, careful investigation
shows that there are intermediate steps in the process
as the age advances.

Thus, in the genus Cnemidopliorus, a genus in which
it is most difficult to discriminate the species, the
colour markings differ in the same individual at
different ages, and, what is still more interesting, the
age at which the adult colouration is attained appears
to vary in different localities. Some of the species,

124 BRITISH LIZARDS

e.g. C. sexlineatus, never abandon the colouration of
the young of other species and subspecies. When
there is a distinct modification in colour marking due
to age, the process is as follows : — The young are
longitudinally striped from two to four stripes on each
side of the middle line. With increasing age, light
spots appear between the stripes, in the dark inter-
spaces. At a later stage these spots increase in trans-
verse diameter, breaking up the dark bands into spots.
In some of the forms these dark spots extend them-
selves transversely and unite with each other, forming
black cross stripes of greater or less length. Thus we
have before us the process by which a longitudinally
striped colouration is transformed into a transversely
striped one, as age advances.

Another case in which the striped colouring of the
young is replaced by spots in the adults and old
specimens, is to be found in C. tessalatus, the process
being similar to that just described.

We noted previously some sex variations in the
Scincidse. This family also exhibit striking variations
due to age. Indeed, Professor Cope states that all the
North American skinks lose their distinctive marks of
colour with age. All are dark, nearly black, when
young, varied with white lines or spots, which leave a
trace of their presence when old. Three of the labials,
the upper especially, are black with white centres.
There is always retained a dusky border to the lateral
edges. If the edge of the upper jaw be white, the

COLOUR VARIATION IN LIZARDS 125

character is never lost, the labials never having darker
lateral borders. The light lines in increasing age
generally remain for a time, and are bordered by
blackish or dark brown, the interspaces generally
becoming light olive. Even these, however, gradually
disappear, and the scales generally are olivaceous
above, with dusky borders, especially where originally
dark coloured. The colour of the young in this genus
is of great importance in classification.

In other skinks the light lateral lines of the young
disappear entirely, and it is well known that the
characteristic colour markings of the skinks are most
appreciable in the young, the females retaining their
markings longer than the males.

(Eeferences to other similar cases as those quoted
are appended at the end of this chapter.)

If the reader will turn back to the chapters which
described the colours of our indigenous lizards, he will
see at once that the problem of colour variation in
them is that of the whole group. The most striking
differences are undoubtedly due to the two factors of
age and sex. The very young specimens of Lacerta
vivipara, the common lizard, are nearly black, while
the adults are brown and spotted ; the under parts
red or orange in the males with black spots, while in
the females these portions are yellowish. The young
of the sand lizard, Z. agilis, are greyish brown above
with spots, whitish underneath ; the adult male is
typically green on the sides, the female more brown.

126 BRITISH LIZARDS

In L. I'iridis, the green lizard, the yellow lateral
stripes which are found in the young persist in some
of the old females, just as similar markings do in some
of the skinks.

The general conclusion, therefore, is that colour
variation in lizards is mainly to be accounted for by
the influence of the two factors of age and sex. It
must not be supposed, however, that these two factors
are exclusively concerned in the matter, for many
lizards exhibit variations which can only be explained
by attributing them to individual peculiarities, whilst
others, the sand lizard for example, have considerable
local variations. The wall lizard, too, has a great
number of colour varieties, some of which are un-
doubtedly local in origin, such as the variety on the
Faraglione Eocks, near Capri, which is the colour of
the rock on its upper parts, blue underneath. This is
a matter of protective colouration, and it is in con-
sidering these varieties that the two questions of
colour variation and protective colouration overlap.
The object here, as we explained at the outset, has
been to account for the variations found in a given
species, irrespective of whether that species was pro-
tectively coloured or not. In either case, these varia-
tions are chiefly sexual or a matter of age, while some
are due simply to individual peculiarities not affecting
more than the particular specimen under observation.

For the benefit of those who would like to look
more deeply into the matter, we append the following

COLOUR VARIATION IN LIZARDS 127

references to Professor Cope's work, from which this
chapter is chiefly compiled.^

^ The Crocodiles, Lizards, and Snakes of North America, by Edward
Drinker Cope, Professor of Zoology, University of Pennsylvania. (Sex
and colour, pp. 332-334, 336, 337, 342, 343, 400, §37. Age and colour,
pp. 354, 357, 363, 382, 431, 445, 478, 508, 564, 569, 575-577, 627,
635, 636, 641, 642, 645.)

Other references : —

" Colour Variation in British Adders, " Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc, Edin.,
1903. British Serpents, chapter ix. Proceedings Dorset Nat. Hist,
and Antiquarian Field Club, vol. xxii. p. 43, 1901, Leighton.
Zoologist, March 1892, Boulenger.

Since this chapter was written, Mr. Nelson Annandale has pub-
lished his Fasciculi Malayensis. The report on the Batrachians and
Reptiles collected by Mr. Annandale and Mr. Robinson has been
furnished by G. A. Boulenger, and it is of great interest to find here
also much evidence of the effect of age in the production of colour.

CHAPTER XIII

THE LIMBS OF LIZARDS
ORIGIN OF VARIATIONS ORIGIN OF A LIMBLESS LIZARD.

The widespread idea that the slow-worm is a snake
and not a lizard is no doubt due to the fact that it
possesses no visible signs of the presence of limbs.
And as this absence of limbs is a characteristic feature
of the serpents, the term " serpentiform " is used to
describe those lizards which are likewise devoid of
limbs, or partially so.

The oldest reptiles were possessed of the ordinary-
number of four limbs, constructed on the usual verte-
brate pentadactyle type ; it is only among recent forms
that we meet with this singular departure from the
vertebrate type of limbs, of which we have such a
striking example in our indigenous slow-worm. In
other words, limbless lizards have been evolved from
lizards with four limbs, by a gradual process of reduc-
tion in size and number of limbs, and this reduction
having been specially suited to some of the conditions
in which reptiles are found, has become a fixed

128

THE LIMBS OF LIZARDS 129

character in certain families and species. The process
is an excellent example of the origin of specific
characters which the field naturalist may well be
expected to be interested in, and we therefore propose
to indicate very simply and briefly the views that are
held on the subject, taking the slow-worm as an illus-
tration.

The problem may be thus stated. Seeing that the
earliest forms of reptiles were provided with limbs,
and that at the present time a large number are
limbless, what explanations does biology offer to
account for this structural change occurring in the
first instance, and becoming a fixed character after-
wards in some species ? Every field worker should be
familiar with modern teaching on this question, and
the group of lizards is a very convenient one in
which to indicate the views held by various schools
of thought.

For our purpose all that is necessary is to indicate
the two main lines on which the explanations of such
problems run, the older or Lamarckian view, and what
we may describe as the modern or Darwinian view.

The underlying universal fact which has driven
so many observers to give their attention to these
matters is the great variation that is found every-
where in the animal world. The systematist gives
expression to these variations by dividing animals into
orders, families, genera, and species, according to their
affinities and differences, thus emphasising the fact
9

130 BRITISH LIZARDS

that some animals are closely related to others. But,
further than that, it is a matter of common know-
ledge that no two animals are exactly ahke, even
the members of the same litter, except under very
exceptional circumstances which we need not consider.
Out of a litter of half a dozen puppies, some may
resemble one parent, some another, some neither ;
while as they grow up to adult life entirely new
characters may make their appearance in one of them.
In other words, there is great variation even in closely
related organisms. It is the question of what causes
this variation in animals that gave rise to the two
views above mentioned. How came the wonderful
variety in shape, size, structure, and habits of all the
species of animals ? A paragraph in Mr. G. P.
Mudge's Text-hook of Zoology puts the matter as
follows : —

" Biologists are divided into two great camps on the
question of the ' Origin of Species.' There is the
Lamarckian or older camp, and the Darwinian or
newer one. The former asserts that organisms are
profoundly modified by the necessities of their exist-
ence and the nature of their physical environment, and
that these modifications are hereditarily transmitted,
accumulated, and perfected with each generation.
The Darwinian camp, on the other hand, asserts that
variations are fortuitous, that they arise spontaneously
from some inherent cause of which we know nothing,
but that having arisen, they can be either advantageous

THE LIMBS OF LIZARDS 131

or otherwise to the organism. If advantageous, then
they confer a benefit and advantage upon the organism
possessing them, which the others do not possess ; and
that therefore in the struggle for existence, the former
will survive and procreate their species, and the latter
will become exterminated. Thus Nature selects the
fittest to survive, and rejects the unfit, and hence to
the Darwinian theory has been given the name of
Natural Selection. Thus may be explained why
organisms are adapted to their environment ; not
because, as the Lamarckians assert. Nature has in-
discriminately moulded them to it, but because those
not so adapted have become exterminated."

It is no part of our purpose to even mention the
various arguments for and against these opposing
views, every field naturalist can and should become
acquainted with them from zoological text - books.
What we wish to do is simply to take the case of
the slow-worm as an example of a species which has
arisen as the result of variation, and apply the two
views to it.

We may suppose that the ancient four-limbed
lizard, according to the first of the views enunciated,
found itself in the course of time, and in some cir-
cumstances of its distribution, under the necessity of
taking to a burrowing life or living in loose sand, or
in some other condition in which the limbs were not
well adapted for locomotion. What the precise nature
of the environment was does not matter. Whatever

132 BRITISH LIZARDS

it was, " the organisms are profoundly modified by the
necessities of their existence, and the nature of their
physical environment." That is to say, that this
lizard, because of this environment, became modified
in structure, in the direction of the reduction in size
of the limbs. These modifications " are hereditarily
transmitted, accumulated, and perfected with each
generation." The first lizards to have smaller limbs
transmitted them to their offspring ; the process con-
tinued ; they in their turn were still further modified
in the same direction, and transmitted their still
smaller limbs to their offspring. The process is
" perfected with each generation," until, finally, as the
result of the effect of their environment, the lizard
has no external limbs left at all. Thus a new species
of lizard has arisen, without limbs, and at the same
time some may be still in a transitional stage, with
small limbs, or the hind pair only, showing the inter-
mediate condition. We may represent the process
diagrammatically thus : —

' Male (long limb) C Male (short limb) r Male (limbless)

have offspring I have offspring ^

, Female (long limb) t Female (short limb) ^ Female (limbless),

the structural change being due to —
{a) Action of the physical environment ;
(h) Hereditary transmission of these acquired

characters ;
(c) Accumulation and perfection in succeeding
generations.

THE LIMBS OF LIZARDS 133

It is to be particularly noted that according to this
view the cause of the variation in the lizard is some-
thing extraneous to itself — its environment, in the
first place, — and that the variation having once
occurred, is transmitted by the influence of what is
called heredity.

On the other hand, according to the Darwinian
view, the initial factor in the variation of the four-
limbed lizard is not to be sought for in extraneous
circumstances such as environment, but in the inherent
nature of animal life. All admit that the variations
take place, but the newer theory is that these varia-
tions arise spontaneously. That does not mean that
they arose in a haphazard way necessarily, but that
they are the result of the operation of a law con-
cerning which we know nothing. It means that it
is the property of germ plasm to vary, whether the
environment changes or not. The result of these
variations may be useful to the creature or otherwise.
In this case, if one of these spontaneous variations in
the lizard took the shape of a reduction in the size of
the limbs at a time when limbs were rather in the
way than otherwise, then that variation would confer
an advantage upon those individuals in which it
occurred. If their life depended upon being able to
burrow or otherwise protect themselves in some special
way which limbs interfered with, it is obvious that
the members of the race which had this new character
would be the survivors in the struggle for life. If

134 BRITISH LIZARDS

the circumstances which made this a useful variation
continued in operation, those which had not thus
varied would in time become exterminated. The
offspring of the lizards with the reduced limbs would
also have this character, some to a greater degree
than others, and those in which it was most marked
would in their turn survive. They would vary in
their turn, and so the process would finally result
again in a species of lizard without limbs. In this
case the spontaneous variations have in some instances
been adapted to the environment of the creature,
and therefore have conferred upon it a commanding
advantage, enabling it to survive where others have
become exterminated. The environment has not
caused the variation during the life of any given
members of the species, but these members have given
rise to offspring which have varied from their parents,
simply because all offspring do vary more or less from
their parents. They have thus become adapted to
their environment, and given rise to a new species.
According to this view, only a certain number of
offspring possess the advantageous variation, and they
are selected to survive. It only requires that a male
and a female each possessed of the new character
should pair, in order that it may be possible for the
variation to become permanent and intensified. It
thus appears that some very profound modifications
may arise suddenly, as the result of this spontaneous
variation, and in such a case the intermediate stages

THE LIMBS OF LIZARDS 135

may be non-existent. We may represent the origin
of the limbless lizard on this view thus : —

(Male (lonff limbs) 'I ...

^ ° ^ f no variation

Female (long limbs) J
Female (short limbs), a spontaneous
variation conferring an advantage.

If a similar variation arose in a male of the same
or another litter, and the two spontaneous variations
paired, the result would be —

a js or ^ ^ I offspring a short-limbed family, a new species.
Female (short limbs)/ ^ ^ J> f

And similarly with other variations of kind or degree.

This brief outline of the two main biological views
on this subject is merely intended to direct the
attention of the field-naturalist reader to the explana-
tions offered by science to account for the origin of
such an anomalous reptile as the slow-worm is, as well
as for the origin of species in general. It merely
touches the fringe of the greatest of all biological
subjects, and of necessity ignores all the numerous
sidelights which may be thrown upon it ; but it is
hoped that it may be just sufficient to induce readers
to examine the matter for themselves, and apply what
they learn to the species of animals in their own
country.

It remains to be noted what degrees of variation in
the matter of limbs are to be found existing at the
present day amongst hzards, which may be regarded
as connecting links between the ordinary four-limbed

136 BRITISH LIZAEDS

type and the absolutely limbless species of which the
slow-worm is an example.

It has been said that a burrowing habit, or a life
amidst sand, might be regarded as conditions under
which limbs would be not altogether an advantage,
and, as a matter of fact, it will be found that it
is precisely in those lizards which live under these
conditions nowadays that this partial or complete
absence of limbs is to be observed. It is, too, almost
certain that the laws of the past in biology have been
very similar in their methods of operation to those of
the present.

Along with this reduction in the size of the limbs
in lizards is found an elongated trunk or body,
approaching the shape of that of a serpent. This is
seen, for example, in the slow-worm. This long body
may be associated with a shortened tail or not ; in
the slow-worm the tail is as long as the body. In
many-limbed lizards the tail is, of course, considerably
longer than the body, as in the viviparous lizard.
Then we find that in the limbless lizards there are
some vestiges of the limbs or limb girdles usually
found under the skin. Those of the hind-limbs lie
immediately in front of the anal aperture. A very
interesting point is that the fore-limbs disappear
before the hind-limbs, or are frequently smaller than
the hind-limbs. Some species have hind-limbs only,
while rarely the opposite condition occurs, e.g. in
Chirotes canaliculatits, a species found in Mexico and

THE LIMBS OF LIZARDS 137

California, in which there are still fore-limbs with
four clawed digits. This family (Amphisbaenidse) in-
cludes a number of species which are burrowing in
habit and limbless ; Chirotes being the only species
with limbs. In most cases the pectoral and pelvic
girdles are to be found in a vestigial condition ; but in
one family (Dibamidae) not merely the limbs, but the
limb girdles also are absent, though in the males there
are flaps which seem to indicate limbs. The family
to which the slow-worm belongs (Anguidae) seems to
be in a state of change, there being a general tendency
to reduce and lose the limbs, which " may be more or
less developed, or entirely absent externally, in which
case, however, the rudiments of the pectoral and
pelvic arches are always present " (British Museum
Catalogue, G. A. Boulenger). Another member of the
slow- worm family (Ophisaurus apus) possesses external
rudiments of hind-limbs. This last species is of
interest because the shape, arrangement, and number
of the head shields are extremely similar to those of
the slow-worm. It is known as the glass snake, and
is found in South-Eastern Europe, South-Western Asia,
and North Africa, growing to a length of 3 feet.
Finally, in this connection may be mentioned the
genus Ghamcesaiira, a South African genus, with three
species which exhibit a curiously progressive diminu-
tion in the limbs which may be thus summarised : —

1. C. cenea. — Both pairs of limbs present, penta-
dactyle.

138 BRITISH LIZARDS

2. C. anguina. — Both pairs of limbs present, reduced
to stumps (styliform and undivided).

3. C. macrolepis. — Fore-limbs absent ; hind-limbs
styliform, undivided.

A more gradual and complete reduction is seen if
the whole of the genera in the slow-worm family be
compared. Thus : —

Synopsis of the Genera in the ANGuiDiE.

1. Gerrhonotus. — Limbs four, pentadactyle.

2. Ophisaiiriis. — Limbs absent, or hind pair rudi-
mentary externally.

3. Diploglossus. — Limbs four, pentadactyle.

4. Scmresia. — Limbs four, tetradactyle.

5. Panolopus. — Limbs four, monodactyle or di-
dactyle.

6. Ophiocles. — External rudiments of the hind-limbs
only.

7. Anguis. — No trace of limbs externally.

Here we have in the one family a number of genera
exhibiting a series of variations from the four-limbed
five-fingered type to the highly specialised serpentiform
creature without any external limbs at all, as in the
slow-worm. It is the existence of so many inter-
mediate conditions of organs that proves animals to
be connected by almost every possible structural
modification, and which makes it impossible to believe
that species could have arisen except by a gradual
transition of forms from the generalised type to the

THE LIMBS OF LIZARDS 139

specialised, by means of natural selection acting upon
ever-occurring morphological variations.

It naturally follows that locomotion in lizards will
be of different kinds, according to the state of develop-
ment or absence of limbs. The two extremes are, of
course, the quick, running movements of the lizards
with perfect fore and hind limbs, and the quiet,
gliding motion of the entirely limbless forms, like the
slow-worm. In intermediate forms the method of
progression is likewise modified, sometimes exhibiting
bipedal locomotion, the hind-Hmbs only being used.
If the four limbs are very small in proportion to
the body, the locomotion is correspondingly sluggish.
Along with the variations in the limbs themselves
there have occurred alterations in the muscular
structures to enable the reptile to adopt the new
mode of locomotion, and other organs have become
similarly modified for their particular functions in the
changed conditions of life.

It is only necessary to study the respective move-
ments of different kinds of lizards to appreciate what
a wonderful amount of specialisation has taken place
in connection with this function alone, and the reader
who would pursue this interesting topic is recom-
mended to turn his attention to the geckos, skinks,
and the slow-worm, to observe the immense variety
of movements which have resulted from structural
modifications. He will then naturally turn his atten-
tion to the question of the relationship of the lizards

140 BKITISH LIZAEDS

to the snakes, observing that in some families, that of
the boa-constrictor for example, snakes have external
indications of limbs in the shape of spm-s, a subject
which is beyond our province here.

The general conclusions to be drawn from an
examination of all the lizards which exhibit some
stage of degeneration in the limbs, are summed up
by Professor Cope somewhat as follows. It is obvious
that degeneracy of the scapular and pelvic arches to
which the fore and hind limbs are attached when
present, sooner or later follows partial or complete
loss of the limbs themselves. In the Diploglossa
(lizards with papillose tongues), the fore-limbs have
disappeared more generally than the hind-limbs. In
the skinks the limbs incline to degenerate more
equally, the fore and hind limbs tending to be at the
same stage. In one or two groups it seems that the
fore-limbs have a tendency to persist longer than the
hind-limbs. The scapular arch remains long after
the degeneration and loss of the fore-limbs, before it
degenerates itself, while the pelvic arch degenerates
previously to the loss of the hind-limb.

The various parts of the scapular arch degenerate
in the following order: — (1) limb; (2) interclavicle
(generally) ; (3) costal attachment ; (4) sternum.

The order of disappearance of the parts in the
pelvis is : — (1) pubis and ischium together (generally) ;
(2) limb; (3) ilium.

" The conclusion that the rudimental condition of

THE LIMBS OF LIZARDS 141

arches and limbs is due to degeneracy is supported by
palseontologic evidence, which shows that the ancestral
orders of the Eeptilia (Cotylosauria and Theromora)
had well-developed limbs. Similar evidence shows
that the Sauria and Ophidia had a common ancestor." ^

^ Cope, Crocodiles, Lizards, and Snakes, p. 206.

PART II

BRITISH LIZARDS
IN COUNTIES AND LOCALITIES

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE AREAS DEFINED IN THE

"COUNTY AND VICE-COUNTY DIVISIONS
OF THE BRITISH ISLES"

(for biological purposes)

143

COUNTY AND VICE-COUNTY DIVISIONS
OF THE BEITISH ISLES

(for biological purposes)

ENGLAND AND WALES.

C. Channel Islands.

I. Peninsula Province.

1. West Cornwall with Scilly.

2. East Cornwall.

3. South Devon.

4. North Devon.

5. South Somerset.

6. North Somerset.

II. Channel Province.

7. North Wilts.

8. South Wilts.

9. Dorset.

10. Isle of Wight.

11. South Hants.

12. North Hants.

13. West Sussex.

14. East Sussex.

10

III. Thames Province.

15. East Kent.

16. West Kent.

17. Surrey.

18. South Essex.

19. North Essex.

20. Herts.

21. Middlesex.

22. Berks.

23. Oxford.

24. Bucks.

IV. OusE Province.

25. East Suffolk.

26. West Suffolk.

27. East Norfolk.

28. West Norfolk.

29. Cambridge.

30. Bedford.

31. Hunts.

32. Northampton.

146

BRITISH LIZARDS

V. Severn Province.

33. East Gloucester.

34. West Gloucester.

35. Monmouth.

36. Hereford.

37. Worcester.

38. Warwick.

39. Stafford.

40. Shropshire.

VI. South Wales Province.

41. Glamorgan.

42. Brecon.

43. Radnor.

44. Carmarthen.

45. Pembroke.

46. Cardigan.

VII. North Wales Province.

47. Montgomery.

48. Merioneth.

49. Carnarvon.

50. Denbigh.

51. Flint.

52. Anglesey.

VIII. Trent Province.

53. South Lincoln.

54. North Lincoln.

55. Leicester vnth. Rutland.

56. Nottingham.

57. Derby.

IX. Mersey Province.

58. Cheshire.

59. South Lancashire.

60. West {i.e. Mid) Lancashire.

X. HrMBER Province.

61. South-east York.

62. North-east York.

63. South-west York.

64. Mid-west York.

65. North-west York.

XI. Tyne Province.

66. Durham.

67. Northumberland, South.

68. Cheviotland, or Northumber-

land, North.

XII. Lakes Province.

69. Westmoreland ^vith North

Lancashire.

70. Cumberland.

71. Isle of Man.

COUNTY AND VICE-COUNTY DIVISIONS 147

SCOTLAND.

XIII. West Lowlands

98. North Aberdeen.

Province.

94. Banff.

72.

Dumfries.

95. Elgin or Moray.

73.

Kirkcudbrifflit.

96. Easterness (East Inverness

74.

Wigtown.

with Nairn).

75.

Ayr.

76.

Renfrew.

XVI. West Highlands

77.

Lanark.

Province.
97. Westerness (West Inver-

XIV. East Lowlands

ness).

Province.

98. (Main) Argyll.

78.

Peebles.

99. Dumbarton.

79.

Selkirk.

100. Clyde Isles.

80.

Roxburgh.

101. Cantyi-e.

81.

Berwick.

102. South Ebudes (Islay, etc.).

82.

Haddington.

103. Mid Ebudes (Mull, etc.).

83.

Edinburgh.

104. North Ebudes (Skye, etc.).

84.

Linlithgow. »

XVII. North Highlands

XV. East Highlan

DS

Province.

Province.

105. West Ross.

85.

Fife with Kinross.

106. East Ross.

86.

Stirling.

107. East Sutherland.

87.

West Perth with

Clack-

108. West Sutherland.

mannan.

109. Caithness.

88.

Mid Perth.

89.

East Perth.

XVIII. North Isles Province.

90.

Forfar.

110. Outer Hebrides.

91.

Kincardine.

111. Orkneys.

92.

South Aberdeen.

112. Shetlands.

148

BRITISH LIZARDS

R LLOYD PKAEGER'S FORTY DIVISIONS
OF IRELAND (1896)

(See Journal of Botany and Irish Naturalist of February 1896)

IRELAND.

1. South Kerry.

2. North Kerry.

3. West Cork.

4. Mid Cork.

5. East Cork.

6. Water ford.

7. South Tipperary.

8. Limerick.

9. Clare with Aran Isles.

10. North Tipperary.

11. Kilkenny.

12. Wexford.

13. Carlow.

14. Queen's County.

15. South-east Galway.

16. West Galway.

17. North-east Galway.

18. King's County.

19. Kildare.

20. Wicklow.

21. Dublin.

22. Meath.

23. Westmeath.

24. Longford.

25. Roscommon.

26. East Mayo.

27. West Mayo.

28. Sligo.

29. Leitrim.

30. Cavan.

31. Louth.

32. Monaghan.

33. Fermanagh.

34. South Donegal.

35. North Donegal.

36. Tyrone.

37. Armagh.

38. Down.

39. Antrim.

40. Derry.

CHAPTER XIV

COUNTY AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE AREAS DEFINED IN THE
COUNTY AND VICE-COUNTY DIVISIONS OF THE
BRITISH ISLES (FOR BIOLOGICAL PURPOSES).

So far as I am aware no systematic effort has hitherto
been made, or at any rate published, to show the
relative frequency and distribution of the indigenous
lizards of this country throughout all the counties.
It therefore follows that the first attempt at such
a description must be somewhat imperfect, and that
there must be a good many blanks. It is quite im-
possible for one observer to work the problem out,
and the method here adopted is similar to that in my
previous work on the snakes. I have endeavoured to
get information from most of the field clubs in the
country on the point, and these reports have been
condensed and tabulated according to the scheme
before referred to. In addition to this, I have
quoted the localities mentioned in the British Museum
Catalogue as affording specimens, and some other

149

150 BRITISH LIZARDS

records are obtained from other collections. In each
case the name of the authority for the information is
given opposite the record. The general results, as
far as my present information goes, may be shortly
summed up in a few paragraphs.

I. Peninsula Province.

Both the slow-worm and the common lizard occur
frequently. The sand lizard is not found anywhere
in this area, except, perhaps, on the Mendips.

IL Channel Province.

This is the best supplied of all the provinces in
reptiles, snakes as well as lizards. The slow-worm
is universally distributed throughout the province,
including the Isle of Wight. The common lizard is
likewise found everywhere in the province. In the
New Forest it is called the Furze Evvet, in contradis-
tinction to the newts, which are called Water Evvets.

The sand lizard, which is particularly characteristic
of this province, along with its special enemy the
smooth snake, is distributed locally on a few heaths.
Bournemouth district, the New Forest heaths, and
Wareham in Dorset, are the places most associated
with this species.

III. Thames Province.

The slow - worm and the common lizard are
found throughout the province, being perhaps more

COUNTY AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION 151

numerous in Surrey and Kent than in the other
counties.

The sand lizard is found in Surrey only, in the
Farnham district, again associated with the smooth
snake.

Years ago the smooth snake occurred in Berkshire
in this province, and it is most interesting to note
that it has recently (June 1903) been rediscovered
near Wellington College, by one of the boys at the
College. It is therefore quite possible that further
careful search might reveal the presence of the sand
lizard in Berkshire also.

IV. OusE Peovince.

The slow-worm, though fairly common in places,
is not so abundant as in the south and west of
England. In some places it is quite unknown for
miles. It is rare in the neighbourhood of Hickling.
The author in 1901 took ten common lizards in this
district in a few days, and only saw one slow-worm,
which was brought to him from some distance. The
common lizards are found on the sandhills on the
coast particularly, where they are fairly numerous.
The sand lizard does not occur.

V. Severn Province.

This province includes some localities which furnish
abundance of slow- worms, especially in Gloucester-
shire, North Monmouthshire, parts of Herefordshire,

152 BRITISH LIZARDS

Worcestershire, and Shropshire. " The blind-worm is
plentiful throughout Shropshire, in such situations as
are suitable to its habits, and this too in spite of
numbers killed every year by the misdirected zeal of
ignorant persons " {Fauna of Shropshire, H. E. Forrest).
The common lizard is not nearly so frequently seen as
the slow-worm in most parts of the province, and in
many parts there are areas of miles in extent in which
it appears to be entirely absent. The author saw only
one specimen in South Herefordshire and the Monnow
Valley in seven years, whilst the slow-worm is very
common in the same part. In other parts it occurs
more plentifully.

In Shropshire, Mr. Forrest says of the common
lizard that it is fairly common on heathy uplands.
The provincial name is Harriman. Mr. J. Steele
Elliot reports it as common in the Wyre Forest ; and
Mr. Martin Harding says he has seen it frequently
along the old Potteries Eailway line, near Shrewsbury
{Fauna of Shropshire, H. E. Forrest, p. 189).

The sand lizard has been reported by several ob-
servers as occurring in Shropshire ; but Mr. Forrest,
who has carefully looked into the matter with Mr. G.
A. Boulenger of the British Museum, has come to the
conclusion that all these observers were mistaken, and
that all the specimens supposed to be of the sand
lizard species were in reality Laccrta vivipara. The
great variation in colour has led to similar errors in
other places.

COUNTY AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION 153

VI. South Wales Province.
The slow-worm is common in this province, very
numerous in some of the most southern localities.
The common lizard is somewhat rare in Brecon and
Eadnor, and no information is available as to its
occurrence elsewhere.

VII. North Wales Province.
The slow-worm is found throughout the province,
as is the viviparous lizard. Our knowledge of the
lizard distribution in this area is particularly complete
owing to the researches of Mr. H. E. Forrest, who is
preparing a work on the Fauna of North Wales. All
the records quoted later for this province, though in
the names of the individual observers, have been sent
to me by Mr. Forrest for this work.

VIII. Trent Province.

In Leicestershire the slow-worm and the common
lizard appear to be equally distributed in the large
woods of the county, whilst in other parts of this area
both species seem to be somewhat local in occurrence.

IX. Mersey Province.

The main interest in this area centres round the
occurrence of the sand lizard in considerable numbers
in the neighbourhood of Southport. In no district
north of the Thames is this species so common as near

154 BRITISH LIZARDS

Southport. Its distribution is said to extend to the
Cheshire coast also. The slow-worm and the common
lizard both occur fairly numerously in restricted and
specially suitable places.

X. HuMBER Province.
Here the slow-worm and common lizard are the
only two species found, as in most of the northern
provinces. Of these two, the information avail-
able points to the common lizard being the more
common in the majority of places in the province.
The slow-worm has suffered more than its more
active relative at the hands of civilisation in these
populous districts.

XI. Tyne Province.

On the whole the common lizard predominates over
the slow-worm here also, though in some of the
sheltered valleys the slow-worm is the more common.
The latter species is, however, more local nowadays
than the former.

XII. Lakes Province.

The author's experience of the Lake District has
been that reptile life is conspicuous by its absence.
No species can be said to be more than occasion-
ally seen. The neighbourhood of Morecambe Bay is
one of the localities where the slow-worm is fairly
common. The common lizard occurs in the Isle of Man.

COUNTY AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION 155

C. Channel Islands.

The only point that need be mentioned here is that

the green lizard and the wall lizard occur in these

islands as truly indigenous species. They should not

be included in the fauna of any of the provinces of

the mainland.

Scotland.

The author has found both the slow-worm and the
common lizard to be somewhat rare in the East Low-
lands Province, certainly neither species is anywhere
as common as in some of the English localities named.
In the North Highlands Province he found the slow-
worm rare, and the common lizard fairly common.
Indeed, the latter may possibly be very common in
the heather, since ten specimens were seen in as many
days, and the colour protection of this species is so
perfect that it may easily be much more common than
is recognised.

There is no authentic record of the occurrence
of the sand lizard in Scotland, though it has been
reported. The specimen reported in The Field (July
11, 1903) as having been swallowed by an adder, was
on more careful examination found to be the common
lizard. (See The Field, July 18, 1903.)

Ireland.
The statement that there are no reptiles in Ireland,
though frequently made, is inaccurate, since the

156 BRITISH LIZARDS

common lizard is found. The slow-worm is absent,
else would the proverbial absence of snakes never
have been recognised, as the popular fancy always is
to regard the slow-worm as a snake. Some details
of the distribution of Ireland's only reptile, the
common lizard, are given later, and these have been
furnished by Dr. Scharff.

COUNTY AND LOCAL DISTRIBUTION 157

Keports on Local Distribution.

The following reports have been sent to the author
from field naturalists in various parts of the country
in reply to a circular asking for information on the
local distribution of the lizards. The author takes
this opportunity to express his thanks to all those
who were good enough to supply this information or
to obtain it from others. The reports are quoted
verbatim, and the names and addresses of corre-
spondents added for the sake of authority, and so that
others interested may communicate with each other.
The tables which follow are compiled from this list
and from the specimens in various museums.

CHAPTER XV

I. PENINSULA PROVINCE. II. CHANNEL PROVINCE.

I. Peninsula Province.

SOMERSET.

" The slow-worm and the common lizard both abound.
The sand Lizard is found on the Mendips, where it has
taken up its abode in the huge accumulation of fine
sand, and the refuse of the lead workings, which
have been carried on from very early times. I
am not sure of its existence anywhere else in this
neighbourhood." — Herbert E. Balch, Laura Place,
Wells.

"The slow -worm is the most common in this
district, the only other lizard I am acquainted with
being the viviparous lizard, which I have seen in the
neighbourhood of Glastonbury in the Mendip Hills,
and at Clevedon. Slow-worms are common in all
parts of the county as far as my observation goes." —
Arthur Ballied, Midsomer Norton.

" The slow-worm and the common lizard both occur
in suitable localities in the district 15 miles round

168

PENINSULA PROVINCE 159

Bristol (both Somerset and Gloucester), and are fairly-
common on Leigh Down and Brockley Common. The
finest slow-worm I have ever seen was taken in Leigh
Woods (Somerset) in May 1896, and measured 18
inches in length. Another, 16 J inches, was sprinkled
with bright blue spots on the upper part of the neck
and back of the body. These spots were irregular
in shape and distribution, generally towards the
outer edge of the scales. The effect was a beautiful
colour variation." — H. J. Charbonnier, Kingsdown,
Bristol.

[The blue-spotted colour is one which not un-
commonly occurs in old specimens. — Author.]

DEVON.

" The slow -worm and viviparous lizard both occur,
the latter being the most common. I have not found
the sand lizard in Devonshire." — Eev. Gregory C.
Bateman, Lew Down.

" In South Devon the slow-worm is the most
common, although the viviparous lizard is perhaps
more often noticed, as the former frequents inac-
cessible places. The local names for these lizards
vary in almost every parish." — E. A. S. Elliot,
Kingsbridge, South Devon.

" In the Culm Valley the common viviparous Hzard
is the most numerous." — W. Horton Date, Culm-
stock.

160 BRITISH LIZARDS

II. Channel Province.

HAMPSHIRE.

The following paragraphs relating to the lizards are
from a paper on the " Eeptiles of Hampshire and the
Isle of Wight," by Kev. J. E. Kelsall {Proc. Hamp.
Field Club, Part m. vol. iii. 1898): —

" The Slow-worm, or Blind- worm (Anguis fragilis).

" Universally distributed, including the island.

" This common reptile is well known to all country
people. Though resembling a snake, it is really a
lizard, with rudimentary limbs beneath its skin. It
is quite harmless, and indeed useful, living chiefly on
slugs. It brings forth living young.

"The Eev. H. M. Wilkinson, vicar of Milford,
informs me that when living at Bisterne he once
heard a disturbance amongst his poultry, and found
that it was caused by a slow-worm, which had the tail
of a young one hanging from its mouth. On killing
it, he found several others in its stomach.

" The Common Lizard {Lacerta vivipara).

" Universally distributed, including the island.

" This is the common little brown scaly lizard,
found upon all our dry banks and heaths. The forest
people call it the Furze Evvet, to distinguish it from
the Water Evvets or Newts. The natural history
books call it the Scaly Lizard, or the Viviparous Lizard,

CHANNEL PROVINCE 161

because it does not lay eggs. When you try to catch
it in the heather, it will sometimes run up the outside
of your sleeve, and I have more than once carried
one a long way clinging on to my coat or sitting
on my shoulder.

" The Sand Lizard (Z. agilis).

" Locally distributed ; apparently confined to the
Bournemouth and New Forest heaths.

" This is one of the rarer species referred to by
Kingsley, who wrote of it as ' found on Bourne Heath,
and, I suspect, in the South Hampshire moors also.'
He probably counted Bourne Heath as belonging to
Dorset. I have caught specimens at Bournemouth,
but not yet in my own parish.

" The sand lizard is not always easily recognised ;
but if you see a green lizard, you may be sure it is
this rarer kind. It is sometimes brown, but is larger
than the common sort when full grown, and has three
rows of spots down its back, each with a white centre.
This lizard lays eggs, and is supposed to be the species
referred to by Gilbert White as the * beautiful green
Lacerti' which he saw on the sunny sandbanks near
Farnham."

" Both slow - worms and viviparous lizards are
common in the New Forest." — Mervyn Palmer,
Willmer Museum, West Norwood.

" In the Portsmouth and Gosport District Natural
Science Society's area, the viviparous lizard and the
II

162 BRITISH LIZARDS

slow-worm are common, the sand lizard being more
local, but common where it is found. The two former
species are more freely distributed. The district
above referred to I have defined for cataloguing as
starting from the mouth of the Tichfield river, through
its course through Wickham, Droxford, to West Mean,
turning east to Petersfield, and straight to the bound-
aries of the counties of Hants and Sussex, following
this line to Emsworth, its termination. Thence through
Chichester harbour, thence west through Spithead to
Tichfield river. This embraces the watershed of the
Tichfield river and Emsworth river, no river of any
size being in this neighbourhood." — Chakles Foean,
Normanton, Southsea.

HAMPSHIRE (HAYLING ISLAND).

" The slow-worm, the viviparous lizard, and the sand
lizard are found in Hayling Island, the viviparous
lizard being the most common." — A. May, Hayling
Island, Hants.

SUSSEX.

" In my experience the slow- worm is the most
common lizard ; the viviparous lizard, though found, is
not so common as formerly. I have never met with
the sand Lizard, though I believe it is found. The
slow-worm is very abundant. The rustics look upon
the common lizard as poisonous, and even educated
people often regard the slow-worm as a venomous
serpent." — B. Lomax, 4 Cleveland Eoad, Brighton.

CHANNEL PROVINCE 163

" The slow-worm is the most common, and usually
looked upon as harmful. It is frequently met with in
this locality. The common viviparous lizard is not so
common here as on the Downs. Like the slow-worm
and sand lizard, it does not hesitate to part with a
portion of its tail, which by its wrigghng about takes
the attention of the pursuer off the escaping creature.
The sand lizard is not uncommon here, although not
so frequently seen." — Joseph Andekson, Aire Villa,
Chichester.

" Both the slow-w^orm and the common lizard are
very common in this district." — Leslie Lewis, near
Arundel, Sussex.

DOESET.

" I have never seen any other lizard in the Wey-
mouth neighbourhood but the slow-worm, which is
very common. The viviparous lizard is very abundant
near Parkstone." — Nelson M. Eichardson, Montevideo,
near Weymouth.

"On April 28th, 1901, I captured a fine melanic
variety of the viviparous lizard on Knowle Hill, near
Corfe Castle." — E. E. Bankes {Proc. Dorset Nat Hist.
Soc, 1902).

" The slow-worm, the sand lizard, and the viviparous
lizard, are all found in Dorset ; the viviparous lizard
being perhaps the most common species." — H. J.
MouLE, Dorchester.

The following extracts are from a paper on the
" Eeptiles of Dorset," by Eev. 0. P. Cambridge, M.A.,

164 BRITISH LIZARDS

F.RS., which was read before the Dorset Natural
History and Antiquarian Field Club on March 15 th,
1894. I am informed that it applies with equal
truth to the present date.

" Sand Lizard {Lacerta agilis, Linn.).

" The length of this reptile often reaches 7 inches
or slightly over. It is a beautiful species, and prob-
ably well known to most of our members who live in
or near the heath districts. Its colour varies from
bright green to dark rich brow^n, their hues being
often intermingled in parts of the same individual,
and always marked with numerous bright white or
yellowish spots margined with black. In capturing
this species care should be taken not to hold it
by the tail, as it at once endeavours to get free by
stiffening and snapping the tail off. A new tail will
in time grow from the stump, but it is always of
a more stumpy form than the original one, and its
junction is plainly visible. I have frequently come
across individuals with such stumpy tails, and have
conjectured that they may have been lost in escaping
from their enemy, the smooth snake {Coronella Icevis),
which appears to feed upon this lizard. (See Proc.
Dorset N. H. and A. F. Cluh, vol. vii. p. 88.)

" This species may be kept alive in confinement. I
have had them in a glass case, with heather and grass
on its floor, for months together, feeding them with
flies and other insects, and keeping a small saucer

CHANNEL PROVINCE 165

always full of water in the case, though I cannot say
that I ever saw one drink. They are very pretty
objects when basking in the sun, but with those kept
in confinement I was not able to make any observa-
tions of much interest in respect to their ways and
habits.

" The sand lizard is not a rare species in many
parts of the Dorset heaths. As a rule, those examples
found on the high and dry part of the heath are
browner than those found in lower damp grassy parts ;
an evident adaptation to the surrounding colour, and
no doubt protective.

" Viviparous Lizard (Z. vivipara, Dum. et Bib.).

" The smaller size, more slender form, and duller
colours of this hzard will easily prevent its being
confounded with the preceding (Z. agilis). As its
name implies, it produces its young alive, not like the
preceding, laying eggs which are afterwards hatched,
but producing the young just after the shell (or rather
membraneous envelope) bursts within the female. Its
length is from 5 to 6 inches, and, although I have
never found it in any abundance, it is not unfrequent in
all the parts I have rambled over in Dorsetshire. It
appears to be distributed generally through England,
being also found both in Scotland and Ireland.

" Slow- worm {Anguis fr agilis, Linn.).
" No description is needed of this common and (so

166 BRITISH LIZARDS

far as Europe is concerned) almost universally dis-
tributed reptile. Although destitute of limbs, it is in
its essential characters nearer to the Hzards than to
the snakes. Though perfectly harmless, it is almost
without exception disliked, and often superstitiously
feared by English country folk. I have rarely come
across a Dorset country person who would not, if it
were possible, destroy a slow-worm. It varies con-
siderably in size — from 10 to 14 inches — and, like
the last species {L. vivipara), its young are produced
alive." (End of extract.)

" All three species are found in the so-called Isle of
Purbeck, which (in reahty a peninsula) occupies the
south-east corner of the county of Dorset. The most
common is the viviparous lizard, found especially on
the heaths and downs. The slow-worm is moderately
common. The sand lizard has been very rarely found
in the Isle of Purbeck, and then, of course, only on
the heaths. I cannot remember having seen the
viviparous lizard in those parts where the soil is stiff
clay." — Eustace E. Bankes, Corfe Castle, Wareham.

" The most common species in my immediate neigh-
bourhood is the green sand lizard. Among the snakes
the smooth snake is not uncommon." — F. Beckford,
Witley, Parkstone, Dorset.

WILTSHIRE.

" The slow-worm is quite common. I cannot say
that I remember seeing either of the other lizards in

CHANNEL PROVINCE 167

the county of Wiltshire." — Eev. E. Goddard, Clyffe
Vicarage, Wooton Basset.

" The slow-worm and common lizard occur, the slow-
worm most commonly. The common lizard is local,
occurring, so far as I know, only in two or three
places on warm banks." — E. Meyrick, Elmswood,
Marlborough.

ST. LEONARDS-ON-SEA.

" Each species occurs in the Hastings district, the
slow-worm being the most commonly seen." — Edward
CoNNOLD, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

VARIOUS LOCALITIES.

" The outskirts of Plymouth and Dcvonport.
" Anguis fragilis. — Common.
" Lacerta vivijMra. — Very common.

" Pembroke Dock district.
" Anguis fragilis. — Extremely common.
" Lacerta vivipara. — Also very abundant, particularly
on a railway bank between Pembroke and Pembroke
Dock. I have never seen these lizards so abundant
anywhere else.

"Portsmouth outskirts.

" Have found the slow- worm only.

" Falmouth.

" I handled and released several slow-worms in May
1902.

168 BRITISH LIZARDS

" Scilly Isles,
" I saw two specimens of Lacerta vivipara in St.
Mary's in August 1896.

" Fortishead, Somerset.

" Anguis fragilis. — Fairly common.
''Lacerta vivipara. — Eather rare." — Geokge Boyd,
Stamford

CHAPTER XVI

HI. THAMES PROVINCE. IV. OUSE PROVINCE.
V. SEVERN PROVINCE.

III. Thames Province.

OXFORDSHIEE.

" The slow-worm and the viviparous lizard both
occur, and are equally common." — Lilian Yeley, Hon.
Sec, Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc, Oxford.

KENT.

" Both slow-worms and viviparous lizards are common
here, the former especially. Both are giving way
before the bricks and mortar ; though both, I am glad
to say, still occur on Bostall Heath. Two years ago
(1901) I found eleven slow-worms on one Saturday
afternoon ramble, on the edge of Plumstead Common.
They were all under old tins, slates, etc." — Aethur S.
PoORE, Bostall Heath, Belvedere.

KENT AND SURREY.

" The slow-worm and common lizard both are found,

169

170 BRITISH LIZARDS

the latter most commonly. It is most abundant on
heaths, as Hayes and Keston Commons, and in disused
chalk quarries round Gravesend, where they sun them-
selves upon the pieces of chalk or stones. The vivi-
parous lizard is easy to breed from the pregnant females.
The slow-worm occurs occasionally in Lonesome Woods
near Mitcham, also commonly under large stones on
the South Kentish coast. In 1900 I took two,
each 15 inches long, at Folkestone, one copper hued,
the other steel grey." — Mervyn Palmee, Willmer
Museum, West Norwood.

SURREY.

" All three species occur in Surrey. The slow-
worm and the viviparous lizard most commonly. The
sand lizard I find in a valley between the Devil's
Jumps and Tilford ; always fairly close to a delightful
little brook that contains lamperns and crayfish. The
sand lizard is very fond of grasshoppers as food." —
Oswald H. Latter, Charterhouse, Godalming.

" The slow-worm is the most common. The sand
lizard and the common lizard are found in about
equal numbers upon the heath land of Fernsham
and Hindhead." — Bryan Hook, Farnham, Surrey.

" Lacerta vivipara and Aoiguis fragilis are both
common in all parts of the county. They are our
only local species." — Henry Layer, Colchester.

OUSE PROVINCE 171

" The viviparous lizard is common at the sea-front
at Southend." — Mervyn Palmer, Willmer Museum,
West Norwood.

" The viviparous Hzard is the most common, and
the specimens found on the sand-dunes on the coast
are very brilliantly coloured. It is possible that
some of these brightly coloured specimens may be
responsible for the records of the sand lizard which
have appeared. On examination, all these have proved
to be erroneous. It is a somewhat remarkable fact
that the sand lizard should not occur." — William
Cole, Buckhurst Hill, Essex.

" I have records of the slow - worm from Ivor
(Bucks), fairly plentiful at Hanwell (Middlesex),
Chelmsford (Essex), Crockham Hill (Kent), and a
number from Orlestone (Surrey). The viviparous
lizard I know of from Burnham Beeches (Bucks), and
Eedhill (Surrey)."— W. M. Webb, Odstock, Hanwell.

IV. OusE Pkovince.

NORFOLK.

" The viviparous lizard I have found fairly common
on the edges of sand-dunes that extend from Yar-
mouth towards Cromer (Norfolk)." — Oswald H.
Latter, Charterhouse, Godalming.

N.-E. NORFOLK.

" When reptile hunting in the neighbourhood of

172 BRITISH LIZARDS

Stalham I found the viviparous lizard common on the
sand-dunes of the coast, but the slow-worm very rare.
In fact, I saw only one specimen of the latter in a
fortnight. Neither species seems common on the
* walls ' round the broads." — Author.

V. Severn Province.

GLOUCESTER.

" The slow-worm and the viviparous lizard occur,
the latter most commonly. A half - grown viper,
caught in September, threw up the half -digested
carcase of a common lizard shortly after being
captured. I well remember noticing in 1884 that
some viviparous lizards caught on the rubbly southern
slope of Painswick Hill were of rather stronger build
than those near Stroud, and had their scales seemingly
more prominent, and certainly more polished." — Chas.
A. WiTCHELL, Cheltenham.

" In the Cirencester district both the slow-w^orm
and the common lizard are found, the former most
often." — E. L. T. Austen, Kingley, Alcester.

" The slow- worm and the common lizard both occur,
but personally I have seen more specimens of the
slow-worm than of the latter." — KiCHARD P. Lord,
Cirencester.

HEREFORD.

" In some parts of the county the slow-worm is
very abundant, and attains a length of 16 to 17

SEVERN PROVINCE 173

inches. In the Monnow Valley the slow-worm is the
only lizard I have ever seen, and the same remark
applies to Garway Hill, Kentchurch, and Ewyas
Harold. I am convinced from some years' observa-
tion that the viviparous lizard is very rare in South
Herefordshire, while the slow-worm may be found in
every old quarry." — AuTHOK.

STAFFORD.

" The viviparous lizard is the most common in this
county. The slow-worm also occurs. The sand lizard
has been once, but quite erroneously, recorded as being
found in the county." — G. H. Stoeer, Burton-on-Trent.

SHROPSHIRE.

" The slow-worm is plentiful throughout Shropshire ;
while the common lizard, locally called Harriman, is
fairly common on heathy uplands." — H. R Forrest,
Shrewsbury.

MONMOUTH.

" In North Monmouth the slow - worm is very
abundant, especially in the valleys in the neighbour-
hood of the Graig Hill, and round Abergavenny. In
these same localities the viviparous lizard is absent or
at any rate extremely rare." — Author.

WORCESTER.

" The slow-worm seems generally distributed and
moderately common throughout the county. The

174 BRITISH LIZARDS

common lizard I have only seen in one Worcester-
shire locality, viz. Hartlebury Common near Stour-
port, a sandy common of considerable area covered
with heather, gorse, etc. It probably occurs in other
parts, but I have not personally observed it elsewhere,
except in the Wyre Forest, where I remember seeing
it some few years ago." — W. H. Edwards, Hastings
Museum, Worcester.

The following extract is taken from the Victorian
History of Worcestershire (vol. i. pp. 137, 138): —

"The sand lizard is met with in Worcestershire.
Pennant gives Tenbury as a locality, and in parts of
the Wyre Forest, and near Kidderminster, it is still to
be found. The present writer received one, which
was taken on the Worcestershire side of the park of
Eagley, the seat of the Marquis of Hertford, which
measured a little over 8 inches in length, and another
of smaller size, which was captured when removing
some rubbish at the entrance to the excavations for
gypsum at Spurnal, near Alcester.

" Common or viviparous lizard. — Although so
abundant in the southern counties of England, the
present small species is rare in Worcestershire, or at
any rate seldom observed, owing, no doubt, in some
measure, to its unattractive appearance. There is,
however, every reason to conclude that careful search
would discover it in localities where it has not yet
been noticed. On the Eidgeway, which divides the
counties of Worcester and Warwick, this small lizard

SEVEKN PEOVINCE 175

has been found, as well as on Hartlebury Common,
and in Wyre Forest."

[I am not aware whether any of the specimens of
sand lizards mentioned in the above paragraph are in
existence, or whether they were authoritatively identi-
fied as such. — Author.]

CHAPTER XVII

VI. SOUTH WALES VIII. TRENT PROVINCE.

PROVINCE. IX. MERSEY PROVINCE.

VII. NORTH WALES X. HUMBER PROVINCE.

PROVINCE. XL TYNE PROVINCE.

XII. LAKES PROVINCE.

VI. South Wales Peovince.

" I HAVE occasionally seen the common lizard, and it
is probably more abundant than one would suppose,
owing to the amount of ' cover ' for it. The slow-
worm is exceedingly plentiful. Both species are
considered venomous by the country people in this
district, an opinion which seems to be general in
country places." — Frank Davies, Newcastle-Emlyn.

BRECON.

" The slow-worm and the common lizard both occur,
the former most commonly. The latter is rare, not
nearly so often seen as in Sussex. The slow-worm
is frequently seen." — Dr. W. Baldock Fry, Builth,
Brecon.

176

SOUTH WALES PROVINCE 177

CARDIGAN.

" The common lizard is abundant, and the slow-
worm frequent, the former being most often seen.
I have never identified the sand lizard here." — Prof.
J. H. Salter, University College, Aberystwith.

RADNOR, PEMBROKE, CARMARTHEN, CARDIGAN.

" The common lizard and the slow-worm are both
found in the above counties, the slow-worm being the
most common. Both may be seen in probably any
locality in S. Wales. The slow-worm is commonly
found resting under large slabs of stone, indeed I
believe that if they can find such a place they will
choose it in preference to any other. A favourite
hunting-ground for boys used to be the churchyard,
and underneath some fallen headstone three would
often be, found lying together." — J. Herbert, Disserth
Rectory, Llandrindod.

GLAMORGAN (EAST).

" The slow-worm, which is always called an adder
here, is fairly common. Before the Government took
possession there was a very handsome cream-coloured
variety on the island of Steep Holm in the Bristol
Channel, while on the Flat Holm there was only the
ordinary coloured one." — Letter from the late John
Storrie, A.L.S., to Author.

12

178 BRITISH LIZARDS

VII. NoKTH Wales Province.

The distribution of the slow-worm and the common
lizard in this area is given in great detail later, from
the inquiries made by Mr. Forrest. Both species
occur almost everywhere in greatly varying number
and proportions. — Author.

VIII. Trent Province.

LEICESTER.

" The slow-worm and the common lizard are perhaps
equally common in the district of Charnwood Forest.
I have not seen either of them elsewhere. The sand
lizard is recorded for Charnwood Forest in 1843, by
Mr. James Harley, a competent observer, but there is
no later record. I have generally seen the slow-
worms in the rocky parts of Charnwood, but others
have been brought to me from Norfolk where there
are no rocks." — F. T. Mott, Birstal Hill House, near
Leicester.

NOTTINGHAM.

" All the lizards are very uncommon in this county.
I hear on reliable authority that the slow-worm is
not uncommon about railway banks in the Worksop
district. The viviparous lizard I have seen and
taken on the Barrow Hills, Averton Parish, North
Notts." — Kev. A. Thornley, F.L.S., South Leverton
Vicarage.

MERSEY PROVINCE 179

UPPINGHAM DISTKICT.

" The viviparous lizard is rare, one specimen from
Wakerley Woods. The slow- worm is not common
near Uppingham, two seen at Wakerley." — C. R.
Haines, Uppingham. {Zool. Report for 1901.)

LINCOLN.

" The most common is the viviparous lizard, which
is plentiful within a mile from here, on a sandy bank
on Langton Hills, near Horncastle. The slow- worm
is fairly common, in damp meadows chiefly, near the
Woodhall Moor, five miles distant." — J. Conway
Dalter, Langton, Horncastle.

IX. Mersey Province.

" Eeport has it that the sand lizard was once
common on Overton Hills, and I saw and took some
there on Whit-Monday, 1903. It is common on the
sandhills at Southport, and I have brought specimens
from that locality. I have also a fine male and
female sent to me from Soham. This lizard does not
appear to care much for w^ater, although, when I have
sprinkled water on the growing grass in their cage,
I have seen them repeatedly take off the globules,
which suggests that in the wild state the dew is their
natural beverage. They are seldom, if ever, found in

180 BRITISH LIZARDS

damp situations, and mine avoided the water-basin
kept in their cage.

" The viviparous Uzard occurs locally in the neigh-
bourhood of Birkenhead and Liverpool, also at Weston,
where they are known as ' Swifts.' Unlike the sand
lizard, I have repeatedly seen this lizard dip its
tongue in water, and altogether it seems to have less
antipathy to moisture than the preceding species.

" The slow - worm is common in the midland
counties, and is reported to have been found locally
in the Frodsham district. It is not uncommon in
Mid-Cheshire, and is often found by the platelayers
on the railway between Knutsford and Chester." — •
LiNN^Us Greening, Warrington. (Extract from a
paper read before the Warrington Field Club, 1885.)

[During the month of July 1903 I received six
sand lizards and one viviparous lizard from the South-
port sandhills, which were captured by Mr. W. E. W.
Wakefield. This seems to point to the conclusion
that the viviparous lizard is much rarer than the sand
lizard in this district. The slow-worm is uncommon.

— Author.]

cheshire.

" I have seen a few examples of the slow-worm
in Cheshire, but it is not common. It is, however,
common at Colwyn Bay and the surrounding district.
The common viviparous lizard I have frequently seen
in the hilly and heather-covered parts of Cheshire,
also near Mold, and on the coast of Anglesey. At

MEKSEY PROVINCE 181

one time I thought the sand lizard occurred with us,
but I now find that I was mistaken." — K. Newstead,
Grosvenor Museum, Chester.

LANCASHIRE, CHESHIEE, AND DERBYSHIRE.

" The slow-worm occurs in each county ; the sand
lizard in Lancashire and Cheshire, and the viviparous
lizard also in Lancashire and Cheshire.

" Slow-ioorm. — In the cultivated districts this species
is less common than formerly, owing to so many being
cut to pieces by mowing machines ; but in remoter
places, e.g. the Derbyshire dales, it is still abundant. In
Lathkill Dale we have seen a score in a day. Its local
name in North Lancashire is ' Lang-worm ' {i.e. Long-
worm), which is also a local name for the grass snake.

" Vivijjccrous lizard. — This species is becoming rarer
on account of the breaking-up of the peat bogs, but
may still be found wherever there is a stretch of bog
or mossland. On Chat Moss, near Manchester, it is
still quite numerous. The local names are ' Land
Asker ' or ' Ground Ask,' or more usually in this part
of Lancashire ' Chucktail.'

" Safid lizard. — Occurs here and there along the
Lancashire and Cheshire coasts amongst the sand-
dunes. It is now most abundant in the neighbour-
hood of Birkdale. Neither of us has ever seen this
species inland, but only along the coast-line. The
local names for it are ' Sand Dragon,' ' Green Asker,'
and 'Chucktail.'

182 BRITISH LIZARDS

" The word ' Ask ' or ' Asker ' is a universal name
applied to all newts and lizards in the three counties
by the country-folk, by whom all creatures of the
kind are considered venomous." — E. Standen and
J. K. Hardy, Zoological Dept., Manchester Museum,
Owens College.

X. HuMBER Province.

YORKSHIRE.

" In the Scarborough district both the viviparous
lizard and the slow-worm are found, the former being
the more common. This species is generally distri-
buted in all suitable localities, and in some, e.g. upon
the Wykeham High Moor, is extremely abundant.
Its local name is ' Ask.' The local name for the
blind-worm is ' Slier-worm,' pronounced as spelt.
Both are considered venomous by the country-folk ;
the latter species particularly is held in greater dread
than the adder. The viviparous lizard, probably on
account of its small size and active habit, is holding
its own, but the slow-worm is becoming less abundant
every year. In some districts, where fifteen years ago
it was plentiful, it is now quite exterminated. I have
seen a young slow-worm disgorge a lob-worm only one
inch less in length than itself, an apparently quite
impossible morsel." — W. J. Clarke, Scarborough.

YORKS.

" The viviparous lizard is more common than the

TYNE PROVINCE 183

slow-worm, though both occur." — Oxley Gkabham,
M.A., Pickering, Yorks.

EIPON DISTKICT.

" The slow-worm and common lizard both occur." —
C. Chapman, The Museum, Eipon.

XL Tyne Pkovince.

DUEHAM.

" The common or viviparous lizard is the most
abundant, and is found in the quieter parts of the sea-
coast, and also on the borders of the western moors.
The slow-worm is frequent in damp woods and moist
places, especially in the western portion of the county,
being much rarer in the eastern districts." — J. W.
Faavcett, Satley, Darlington.

" In the Derwent Valley the slow-worm is the most
common, and some good specimens have been found
not more than a quarter of a mile from where I
reside. One was taken on May 14, 1901, the size of
which was 13 inches. I have not found the common
lizard in the lower parts of the Derwent Valley, but
have seen numbers of them in the higher reaches,
where I have had some interesting experiences of this
creature's ability to avoid capture.

" At a point about five miles south-west of New-
castle, many years ago, I frequently saw a species
which I now feel certain was the sand lizard, but I

184 BRITISH LIZARDS

mention it with all reserve." — W. Johnson, Byper
Moor, Burnopfield.

DURHAM (and PART OF YORKSHIRE).

" Both the slow-worm and the viviparous lizard
are fairly well distributed in this district." — G. Best,
Darlington.

NORTHUMBERLAND AND DURHAM.

" I see the slow- worm fairly often and the common
lizard now and then, and as this is without keeping a
special lookout for them I should suppose that both
are moderately common." — E. Leonard Gill, Museum,
Barras Bridge, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

XII. Lakes Province.

CUMBERLAND.

" The slow-worm and viviparous lizard both occur
in Cumberland, both being fairly common, especially
in the west district on the coast-line. The common
lizard is most frequently met with on the moorlands
round Seascale." — T. G. Mathe^vs, M.D., Whitehaven.

NORTH OF ENGLAND.

" The common lizard is plentiful in suitable dry,
warm localities. I have found it often in the neigh-
bourhood of Morecambe Bay.

" The slow-worm is very local. It is rare in West-
moreland, fairly plentiful in the Appleby district, and

LAKES PROVINCE 185

used to be found not far from Carlisle in woods on
the banks of the Eden." — G. W. Murdoch, Bentham
E.S.O.

LANCASHIRE (NORTH OF THE SANDS).

" The slow-worm is the most common, although it
may be local, as the late H. A. Macpherson {Fauna of
Lakeland, 1892) thought. In the neighbourhood of
Ulverston I have seen only one specimen of the
common viviparous lizard ; but this proves nothing, as
I can say the same of the grass snake, which other
people have found locally abundant. On the lime-
stones of AVest Lancashire I have seen no reptiles

except a few vipers." — S. L. Petty, Ulverston, Lanes.

I

CUMBERLAND, NORTH LANCASHIRE, AND
WESTMORELAND.

" The most common is L. vivipara, which in many
places is numerous. Dry sandbanks, hedgerows, and
quiet roadsides are the special haunts. It may be seen
sunning itself on the piles of old sleepers near quiet
railway stations. Angitis fragilis is, I believe, in some
parts of Furness more common than L. vivipara. I
had no difficulty when living at Ulverston in finding
small colonies of this species, often several individuals
under one stone, about the edges of the high moor-
lands near there. In Cumberland and Westmoreland
it is thinly scattered, nowhere in any great numbers."
— W. Duckworth, Beaconside, Penrith.

CHAPTER XVIII

SCOTLAND

Throughout the whole of Scotland the slow-worm
and the common lizard are both to be found, of course
more plentifully in some districts than in others, but
still the distribution of both species is almost universal.
The author was much struck, during a recent reptile
hunt in the Highlands of Eoss-shire and Inverness-
shire, with the comparative rarity of the slow-worm
in the particular glens searched, whilst the common
lizard was frequently seen scuttling away amongst the
heather, and this experience seems to have been that
of many other observers. On the whole, then, we
may say that the common viviparous lizard is the
most common in Scotland, and that the slow-worm is
almost as widely — if less numerously — distributed.

Scotland.
Mr. G. A. Boulenger, F.E.S., has been kind enough
to send me the list of lizards and the localities
from which they were taken, which are in the

186

SCOTLAND 187

British Museum at South Kensington. These are as
follows : —

Anguis fragilis (slow-worm).
Aberdeen.

Loch Tay, Perthshire.
Stornoway, Lewis Island.
Lacerta vivipara (viviparous lizard).
West Koss-shire.

PERTH.

" The slow-worm and the viviparous lizard are
found, the latter being the more common. It is
widely distributed throughout the county, but no-
where, I think, very numerous, though one may
sometimes see four or five in one day, while hunting
the southern slopes of heather-covered hills during
sunshine. I have only once taken the slow-worm,
and but rarely have one sent to the Museum. I am
not sure that they are so rare as might be supposed,
their habit of moving about in thick herbao-e havino^
much to do with their rare appearances." — Alex.
EoDGER, Museum, Perth.

STIRLING.

" The common lizard is the more numerous. The
slow-worm is also common, though not so often found.
I have not seen any slow-worms on this estate, but I
have in Torwood and west of Stirling, and once on
Kippen Moss. I think they are to be found on

188 BRITISH LIZARDS

Dumnore and on Airth Sounds close to the Firth of
Forth.

"As regards Scotland in general, I should describe
the distribution of both species as almost universal,
and the excepted of more interest than the occupied
localities. I can scarcely name a county in Scotland
which I have visited in which they are not to be met
with, and they are common even on the isolated rock
of Ailsa Craig. In Harris and Lewis they swarm. I
have seen them all over Sutherland. I have not seen
them in Orkney nor Shetland. The colouring of the
slow-worm which I saw on Ailsa Craicr was brown-steel
colour ; such as I have seen in Sutherland are blue-steel
colour." — J. A. Haryie-Brown, Dunipace, Larbert.

" The common lizard or ' Ask ' is generally distributed
throughout the west of Scotland in dry heathy places,
stone heaps, walls, and ruined buildings.

" The slow-worm is very common amongst dead
wood and decayed leaves, quarry refuse, and stone
heaps, preferring dry situations.

" The obscure and retiring habits of these creatures
induce people to believe that they are individually
scarce. This is far from being tlie case, as they may
still be found fairly numerously in spite of the relent-
less persecution to wliich they are subjected." — MSS.
of the late Mr. Alfred Luss, Dumbarton.

" The slow-worm and the viviparous lizard may be
called frequent in all the following counties : — Lanark,
Kenfrew, Ayr, Stirling, Argyll, Dumbarton, and Bute.

SCOTLAND 189

In most, the viviparous lizard is the more common.
In Ailsa Craig, however, the slow-worm was very
common, and attained a large size. I have frequently
found them 18 inches long. Since the introduction
of the rat, they are far less common, and likely soon to
be scarce from the depredations of that rodent. Their
favourite food seems to be snails, and the ease with
which they can swallow the larger black slugs so
common on the Craicr is marvellous. The slow-worm
is common all over Arran, where it is called in many
places the ' Silver Adder,' and ruthlessly destroyed
by the people as venomous. Their favourite spot is
under flattish stones where there is a cavity under-
neath, and in moderately dry or porous soil.

" In a field, formerly a marsh, at Dunoon, now
being converted into a public park, the viviparous
lizard was very common among the furze bushes,
among the roots of which, in sunny spots, the gravid
female would often be seen basking in the sun. I
have also seen this species close to the summit of
Ailsa Craig, where, however, it is less common than
the slow-worm. Being more active and shy than the
latter, it is less likely to be observed unless one is on
the lookout for them." — J. Macknaught Campbell,
Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow.

Mr. W. Eagle Clarke, F.E.S.E. (Science and Art
Museum, Edinburgh), has sent me the following
extracts from his records of specimens which have
come under his notice at the Museum.

190 BRITISH LIZARDS

" Lacerta vivipara. — A specimen examined from
Morven, Sound of Mull, Argyll, June 1893. A young
specimen brought alive which had been captured in
Arran, September 3, 1888. Two specimens from the
Island of Eum, Hebrides, captured by Mr. Symington
Grieve and brought for identification, July 1884.

" Anguis fragilis. — A specimen sent by Charles
Campbell from Morven, Sound of Mull, June 6,
1893. Another from same place, July 19, 1893,
measured 300 mm. One captured in June 1897, in
East Princes Street Gardens, brought alive. I have
also had it alive from Arthur's Seat. Several corre-
spondents in the Evening Dispatch, May 1896, speak
of the slow-worm as not uncommon on Blackford Hill.

" L. agilis. — On October 8, 1895, I examined the
specimen of the sand lizard belonging to the Elgin
Museum. It was from Culbin Sands, and proved to
be only a medium-sized example of the common lizard
(Z. vivipara). This is the specimen upon which the
species has been included in the fauna of Scotland."

Mr. Wm. Evans, F.E.S.E., Edinburgh, has been
good enough to send me the following note and
extracts from his observations in various Scottish
districts.

" In my experience the common viviparous lizard
is the commoner and more generally distributed in
Scotland. The following notes are additional to my
paper published by the Eoyal Physical Society in
1894 (vol. xii.):—

SCOTLAND 191

"Slow-worm, A. fragilis. — In 1897 a slow-worm
was captured in East Princes Street Gardens, Edin-
burgh, and is recorded in the Annual Report of the
Museum of Science and Art for that year.

"On April 11, 1901, my son, Mr. W. Edgar Evans,
saw a party of youths kill one on the south side of
Blackford Hill, Edinburgh.

"On August 20, 1894, I received a male from
Doune, S.W. Perthshire.

" In April 1896, 1 found the slow-worm to be fairly
common around Aberf oyle, on the confines of the counties
of Perth and Stirling. On April 19, one was observed
basking in the sun along with three adders on a bank
near Loch Ard, Aberfoyle. So closely were they all
huddled together and mixed up before being disturbed
by me, that little more than the head of the slow-
worm could be made out. I secured one of the
adders, and then tried to capture the slow-worm, but
it escaped minus its tail.

" In May 1897, 1 again met with a few slow- worms
about Aberfoyle.

"On September 11, 1897, one was captured at
Denny, Stirlingshire, and taken to Mr. Harvie-Brown.

"In May 1893, I came upon one at Loch Vaa,
near Aviemore, Inverness-shire.

" In July 1901, two adult slow-worms, a male and
a female— the latter 15 inches long — were brought
to me from Loch Awe, Argyllshire. They were put
into a fern case, and on July 29 two young ones were

192 BRITISH LIZARDS

discovered beside them. The female seemed still as
bulky as before, but next day she was much thinner,
and my son then took from among the moss in the
case no less than twelve young ones. The length of
these was about 3 inches, colour pale yellowish, grey
on upper surface and sides, under surface black, and
a black spot on forepart of head, and another larger
one on occiput, with a line running backwards from it.

" Common lizard, L. vivipara. — Two from Bavelaw
Moss, near Balerno, Midlothian, April 1898. Another,
a young very dark specimen in same locality, August
22, 1901.

" In June 1895, 1 received a female from Craigburn
Quarry, Peeblesshire; and on April 7, 1896, another
from Eddleston in the same county.

"In April and May 1896, I found this species
commonly about Aberfoyle, S.W. Perthshire.

"In September 1891, I observed several at Crom-
dale. Strathspey, Elginshire, and, in May 1893, two or
three near Aviemore, Inverness.

"In April 1894, I found it locally common in the
vicinity of Oban, Argyllshire.

"In September 1900, I saw several at Elvanfoot,
Lanarkshire. One of these I captured alive, but not
before it had parted with its tail, which wriggled
about on the ground for a considerable time. The
stump bled a little, but not much. After photo-
graphing the animal it was set at liberty." — Wm.
Evans, Morningside, Edinburgh.

CHAPTER XIX

IRELAND

Me. G. a. Boulengee informs me that the Irish
specimens in the British Museum are as follows : —

Lacerta vivipara (viviparous lizard).
County Meath.
Graigue, Kilkenny.

Dr. E. Scharff, Science and Art Museum, Dublin,
has sent me the following paragraph : —

" The ^^.viparous lizard (Z. mvipara), though widely
spread in Ireland, is decidedly rare and almost un-
known to the general public. We possess specimens
in this Museum from the following localities : —

Kenmare, Co. Kerry. Bellmullet, Co. Mayo.

Killarney, Co. Kerry. Moville, Co. Donegal.

Castletown-Berehaven, Piperstown, Co. Louth.
Co. Kerry. Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin.

Eoundstone, Co. Galway. Glen of the Downs, Co.

Cappagh, Co. Waterford. Wicklow.

" I have no doubt at all that this species occurs
in every county in Ireland. Thompson (cf. Natural
History of Ireland) records it from Co. Down, Antrim,
13

194 BRITISH LIZARDS

and Cork. Most of the specimens in this Museum
I collected myself when looking for mollusca under
stones or in hedges."

We may therefore state that the viviparous lizard
is generally distributed throughout Ireland, although
not abundantly as regards the numbers in a particular
locality.

I

CHAPTER XX

SUMMARY OF COUNTY AND DISTRICT
DISTRIBUTION

The following records have been obtained for the
provinces : —

I. Peninsula Pkovince.

1. West Cornwall with 3. South Devon.

Scilly. 4. North Devon.

2. East Cornwall. 5. South Somerset.

6. North Somerset.

Slow-worm, Anguis fragilis.

Locality. Frequency. Observer.

Somerset Abundant H. E. Balch.

Midsomer Norton Common A. Ballied.

Devon Not uncommon Rev. G. C. Bateman.

South Devon Common E. A. Elliot.

Bristol (district) Fairly common H. Charbonnier.

Common Lizard, Lacerta vivipara.

Devon Plentiful H. P. Hearder.

Falmouth (Cornwall) ... Spec. Brit. Mus.

Fowey (Cornwall) ... ,, ,,

Devon Common Rev. G. C. Bateman,

Bristol (district) Fairly common H. Charbonnier.

195

196

BRITISH LIZARDS

Sand Lizard, Lacerta agilis.
Locality. Frequency. Observer.

Mendip Hills Occurs H. Balch.

II. Channel Province.

7. North Wilts. 11. South Hants.

8. South Wilts. 12. North Hants.

9. Dorset. 13. West Sussex.
10. Isle of Wight. 14. East Sussex.

SloW'

Locality.

Central Dorset

Isle of Wight

Hampshire

Dorset

Central Dorset

Ringwood

Crowboroiigh (Sussex)

Sussex

New Forest

Weymouth

Wiltshire

■worm, Anguis fragilis.

Frequency. Observer.

Common

>>
Universal

Common

Abundant
Common
Very common
Common

Dr. Leighton.
Rev. J. E. Kelsall.

Rev. 0. P. Cambridge.
Rev. F. W. Brandreth.
Spec. Brit. Mus.

B. Lomax.
M. Palmer.
N. Richardson.
Rev. E. Goddard.

Common Lizard, Lacerta vivi2Mra.

Central Dorset

Dorset

Hampshire

Isle of Wight

Eastbourne

Ringwood

Bournemouth

Poole Heath

Petersfield (Hants)

Fairly common
Not uncommon
Universal

>>

Dr. Leighton.

Rev. 0. P. Cambridge.

Rev. J. E. Kelsall.

Spec. Brit. Mus.

)>

>»

it

>>

i>

COUNTY AND DISTRICT DISTRIBUTION 197

Sand Lizard, Lacerta agilis.

Locality.

Frequency.

Observer.

Dorset heaths

Not rare

Rev. 0. P. Cambridge

Bournemouth

Local

Rev. J. E. Kelsall.

NeAv Forest

>>

>> j>

Poole Heath

• • «

Spec. Brit. Mus.

Bournemouth

• • •

S J 5 5

Ringwood

• • •

J J 5)

Stutland Heath

(near

55 55

Swanage)

III. Thames Pkovince.

15. East Kent. 20. Herts.

16. West Kent. 21. Middlesex.

17. Surrey. 22. Berks.

18. South Essex. 23. Oxford.

19. North Essex. 24. Bucks.

Slow- worm, Aiigids fr agilis.

Locality.

Frequency.

Observer,

Knockholt (Kent)

. . .

Spec. Brit. Mus.

Oxted (Surrey)

55 5 5

Mitcham (near)

Occasional

M. Palmer.

South Kent

Common

55

Bostall Heath (Kent)

Occurs

A. Poore.

Plumstead Common (Kent)

Common

5 5

Essex

55

H. Laver.

Iver (Bucks)

Occurs

W. Webb.

Han well (Middlesex)

Fairly plentiful

55

Chelmsford (Essex)

55 55

55

Crockham Hill (Kent)

>} 55

55

Orlestone (Surrey)

>» 55

55

Common Lizard, Lacerta vivipara.

Limpsfield (Surrey) ... Spec. Brit. Mus.

Sheire Common (Surrey) ... ,, ,,

198 BRITISH LIZARDS

Locality.

Frequency.

Observer,

Hayes Common

Abundant

M. Palmer.

Keston Common

)>

»i

Gravesend (near)

5 5

} J

Bostall Heath (Kent)

Occurs

A. Poore.

Essex

Common

H. Laver.

Southend

>>

M. Palmer.

Sand Lizard, Lacerta

agilis.

Farnham Common (Surrey)

. . •

Spec. Brit. Mus.

Tilford (near), Surrey

Occurs

Oswald Latter.

IV. OusE Province.

25. East Suffolk. 29. Cambridge.

26. West Suffolk. 30. Bedford.

27. East Norfolk. 31. Hunts.

28. West Norfolk. 32. Northampton.

Slow-worm, Angttis fragilis.

Locality. Frequency. Observer.

N.E. Norfolk Rare Dr. Leighton.

Common Lizard, Lacerta mvipara.

N.E. Norfolk Common Dr. Leighton.

Norfolk ... Spec. Brit. Mus.

Cromer (near) Fairly common 0. Latter.

V. Severn Province.

33. East Gloucester. 37. Worcester.

34. West Gloucester. 38. Warwick.

35. Monmouth. 39. Stafford.

36. Hereford. 40. Shropshire.

COUNTY AND DISTRICT DISTRIBUTION 199

Slow- worm, Anguis fragilis.

Locality.

Frequency.

Observer.

N. Monmouth

Common

Dr. Leighton.

Monnow Valley

3 }

>)

South Hereford

Very common

))

Welsh Newton

Fairly common

9)

Wye Valley

Common

}>

Forest of Dean

>5

>>

South Shropshire

Plentiful

H. E. Forrest.

North Shropshire

Fairly common

3>

Gloucester

Common

C. Witchell.

Stafford

Occurs

G. H. Storer. '

Cirencester

Common

E. Austen.

CoTnmon

Lizard, Lacerta

vivipara.

N. Monmouth

Rare

Dr. Leighton.

S. Hereford

5 J

i)

Monnow Valley

Very rare

>>

Shropshire heaths

Fairly common

H. E. Forrest.

Wyre Forest

Common

J. Steele Elliot.

Shrewsbury (near)

Frequent

Martin J. Harding,

Church-Stretton district

Common

H. E. Forrest.

Gloucester

>>

C. Witchell.

Stafford

j>

G. H. Storer.

Cirencester

Occurs

E. Austen.

Hartlebury Common Seen

W. Edwards.

(Worcester)

VI.

South Wales Peovince.

41. Glamorgan.

44.

Carmarthen.

42. Brecon. 45. Pembroke.

43. Eadnor. 46. Cardigan.

Slow- worm, Anguis fragilis.

Locality. Frequency. Observer.

Cardigan Common Prof. J. H. Salter.

Newcastle-Emlyn Abundant F. Davies.

Brecon Frequent Dr. Fry.

200

BRITISH LIZAEDS

Common Lizard, Lacerta vivipara.
Locality. Fuequency. Observer.

Aberystwith Abundant Prof. J. H. Salter.

Cardigan

})

J 5

Brecon

Occurs

Dr. Fry.

Newcastle-Emlyn

>>

F. Davies.

VII. NoKTH Wales Province.

47. Montgomery. 50. Denbigh.

51. Flint.

52. Anglesey.

48. Merioneth.

49. Carnarvon

Slow-worm, Anguis fragilis.

Locality.

Frequency.

Observer.

47. Welshpool

Common

Miss Mytton.

Leighton

3 J

Miss Naylor.

Montgomery

Scarce

Rev. E. W. Brown.

Ford en

Occurs

Rev. J. E. Vize.

Newtown

Plentiful

E. J. Williams.

Llanerfyl

)>

Rev. C. Harington.

Carno

j>

Mrs. Andrew Davies.

48. Bala

Common

T. Ruddy.

Corris

Seen

F. H. Birley.

Aberdovey

Common

W. E. E. Kershaw.

Towyn

}>

E. W. Kirkby.

Barmouth

J J

F. C. Rawlings.

Llanbedr

Clusters

found

A. Moore.

when di

gging in

spring of 1902

Penrhyn Deudraeth

Common

A. B. Priestley.

49. Bangor

))

Dr. P. J. White.

Conway

jj

A. Moore.

Deganwy

>>

G. A. Hutchinson.

Llanberis

j>

W. H. Brinckman.

Nanhoron (near Aber-

■ Very numerous

C. Lloyd Edwards.

daron)

COUNTY AND DISTRICT DISTRIBUTION 201

Locality.
49. Menai Straits

51. J

Colwyn Bay

Llanrwst

Llangollen

Llansilin

Wrexham

52. Menai Bridge
Llandegfan
Pentraetli
Aberffraw
Holyhead

Frequency.
Plentiful

Fairly common
Plentiful

Scarce

Common but dim-
inishing
Common

>>
Observed 1902

Few seen

Rather scarce

Observer.

E. G. Humphreys.

Col. Davies Cooke.

R. Newstead.

W. B. Halhed.

J. Pownall.

G. Dumville Lees.

R. H. Venables Kyrke.

Dr. P. J. White.
J. Rowland.
C. Oldham.
E. Gosling.
R. J. Edwards.

Common Lizard, Lacerta vivipara.

47. Welshpool
Leigh ton
Montgomery
Forden
Newtown
Llanerfyl
Carno

48. Bala
Aberdovey
Towyn
Llanbedr
Penrhyn Deudraeth

49. Bangor
Conway
Deganwy
Llanberis
Nanhoron
Ffestiniog

^°- 1 Mold
51./

Colwyn Bay

Llanrwst

St. Asaph

Wrexham

Plentiful

Scarce
Occurs
Plentiful

jj

Common
>>

P. A. Beck.

F. Williams.

Rev. E. W. Brown.

Rev. J. E. Vize.

E. J. Williams.

Rev. C. Harington.

Mrs. Andrew Davies.

T. Ruddy.

W. E. E. Kershaw.

E. W. Kirkby.

A. Moore.

A. B. Priestley.

E. G. Humphreys.

A. Moore.

T. H. Hague.

W. H. Brinckraan.

C. Lloyd Edwards.

,, H. E. Forrest.

rCommon on lime-^ r^ ^ t^. • r^ a
< . yCol. Davies Cooke.

I stone rocks J

Fairly common Dr. W. B. Russell.

Plentiful W. B. Halhed.

Common W. A. Rogers.

,, on moors R. H. Venables Kyrke.

In stone walls
Common

>}

202 BRITISH LIZARDS

Locality. Frequency. Observer.

52. Menai Straits Common E. G. Humphreys.

Llandegfan ,, J. Rowland.

Rhosneigr ,, Col. T. Long.

Holyhead ,, R. J. Edwards.

VIII. Trent Province.

53. South Lincoln. 56. Nottingham.

54. North Lincoln. 57. Derby.

55. Leicester with Eutland.

Slow-worm, Anguis fragilis.

Locality. Frequency. Observer.

"Woodhall Moor (Lincoln) Occurs J. Conway Dalter.

Uppingham Not common R. Haines.

Leicester (Charnwood) Common F. T. Mott.

Derbyshire dales Abundant R. Standen.

Common Lizard, Lacerta vivipara.

Langton Hills (Lincoln) Plentiful J. Conway Dalter.

Uppingham Rare R. Haines.

Charnwood Forest (Leices- Common F. T. Mott.
ter)

IX. Mersey Province.

58. Cheshire. 59. South Lancashire.

60. West (i.e. Mid) Lancashire.

Slow-worm, Anguis fragilis.
Locality. Frequency. Observer.

Newby Bridge (Lanes.) ... Spec. Brit. Mus.

Mid-Cheshire Not uncommon Lin. Greening.
Knutsford ,, ,,

Chester

>> it

COUNTY AND DISTRICT DISTRIBUTION 203

Common Lizard, Lacerta vivipara.
Locality. Frequency. Observee.

Birkenhead\^.g^^.^^ Occurs Lin. Greening.

Liverpool J

Chat Moss (near Man- Numerous R. Standen.

Chester)

Sand Lizard, Lacerta agilis.

Southport Fairly common Dr. Leighton.

Southport ... Spec. Brit. Mus.

Overton Hill Occurs Lin. Greening.

X. HuMBER Province.

61. South-east York. 63. South-west York.

62. North-east York. 64. Mid-west York.

65. NTorth-west York.

Slow-worm, Angids fragilis.

Locality. Frequency. Observer.

Scarborough (district) Occurs W. J. Clarke.

Ripon (district) ,, C. Chapman.

Common Lizard, LoA^erta, vivipara.

Yorkshire Fairly common Oxley Grabham.

Scarborough (district) ,, ,, W. J. Clarke.

Wykeham High Moor Abundant ,,

Ripon (district) Occurs C. Chapman.

XL Tyne Province.

66. Durham. 67. Northumberland, South.

68. Gheviotland, or Northumberland, North.

204 BRITISH LIZARDS

Slow-worm, Anguis fragilis.
Locality. Frequency. Observer.

Durham • Fairly common G. Best.

Common Lizard, Lacerta vivipara.
Durham Fairly common G. Best.

XII. Lakes Province.

69. Westmoreland with North Lancashire.

70. Cumberland. 71. Isle of Man.

Slow-worm, Anguis fragilis.
Locality. Frequency. Observer.

West Durham Frequent J. Fawcett.

East Durham Rarer ,,

Cumberland Fairly common T. G. Mathews.

Common Lizard, Lacerta vivipara.

West Durham Frequent J. Fawcett.

Cumberland Fairly common T. G. Mathews.

Isle of Man Occurs Dr. Leighton.

APPENDIX

The following blank pages are intended to be filled
up by the field naturalist as specimens come under
observation, thus providing a permanent record of
the distribution of our indigenous lizards additional
to that recorded in the text, and a means of com-
parison with the observations of others.

[The author would be glad if field naturahsts
would from time to time communicate the results
thus obtained to him.]

205

/

206

APPENDIX

Anguis fragilis, or Slow -worm.

Locality.

Date.

Observer.

APPENDIX

207

Lacerta vivipara, or Common Lizard.

Locality.

Date.

Observer.

208

APPENDIX

Lacerta agilis, or Sand Lizard.

Locality.

Date.

Observer.

i

INDEX

The names of Counties, Districts, and Localities will he found under
the heading " County Distribution.'^

The detailed references to the various species loill he found under the
respective headings ''Slow-worm," " Common Lizard,^ ''Sand Lizard,^'
" Oreeih Lizard,'' and "Wall Lizard."

Adder, 41.
Anal scales, 15.
Anatomy of lizards, 14-23.
Anguis fragilis, 28-44.
Appendix, 205-208.
Asker, 181, 182.

Biological sheet, 145.
Bladder, 18.
Blind- worm, 24-44.
Blunt tail, 33.

Chucktail, 181.
Class Reptilia, 10.
Classification, 101.
Colour variation, 115.
Common Lizard —

Anatomy, 14-23.

Classification, 101.

Colours, 47, 48, 50, 93.

Description, 47-50.

Disposition, 52, 53.

Distribution, 44-47.

Feeding, 52.

Food, 52, 53.

Habits, 51.

Haunts, 50.

Head scales, 92.

Hibernation, 40, 41.

14

Common Lizard — continued.

Length, 48.

Movements, 51.

Pores, 49.

Reproduction, 53.

Scaling, 48.

Sexes, 93.

Specific characters, 92.

Synonyms, 53.

Ventral scales, 48, 91, 92.
Coronella austriaca, 56.
County Distribution —

Aberdeen, 187.

Aberdovey, 200, 201.

Aberlfraw, 201.

Aberfoyle, 191, 192.

Abergavenny, 173.

Aberystwith, 200.

Ailsa, 188, 189.

Airth, 188.

Alcester, 174.

Anglesey, 180.

Antrim, 193.

Ap]3leby, 184.

Ard, 191.

Argyll, 188, 190, 191, 192.

Arran, 189, 190.

Arthur's Seat, 190.

Averton, 178.

210

INDEX

County Distribution — cmitd.
Aviemore, 191, 192.
Awe, 191.
Ayr, 188.
Bala, 200, 201.
Bangor, 200.
Barmouth, 200.
Bavelaw, 192.
Bedford, 198.
Berks, 151.
Birkenhead, 180, 203.
Bostal Heath, 169, 197, 198.
Bournemouth, 196, 197.
Brecon, 199, 200.
Bristol, 159, 195.
Bucks, 197.

Burnham Beeches, 174.
Bute, 188.
Cappagh, 193.
Cardigan, 199, 200.
Carlisle, 184.
Carmarthen, 177.
Carnarvon, 200.
Carno, 200.

Castletown -Berehaven, 193.
Charnwood Forest, 178, 202.
Chat Moss, 203.
Chelmsford, 174, 197.
Chester, 180, 181, 202.
Chichester, 163.
Church Stretton, 199.
Cirencester, 172, 199.
Clevedon, 158.
Colwyn Bay, 201.
Conway, 200, 201.
Corfe Castle, 163, 166.
Cornwall, 195.
Corris, 200, 201.
Crockham Hill, 171, 197.
Cromdale, 192.
Cromer, 198.
Crowborough, 196.
Culbin Sands, 190.
Culm Valley, 159.
Cumberland, 184, 204.
Deganwy, 200.
Denbigh, 200.
Denny, 191.
Derbyshire, 181, 202.
Derwent, 183.

County Distribution — contd.
Devon, 159, 195.
Dorset, 163-166, 196, 197.
Doune, 191.
Dumbarton, 188.
Dunmore, 188.
Dunoon, 189.

Durham, 183, 184, 203, 204.
East Lowlands, 155.
Edinburgh, 191.
English Divisions, 145.
Essex, 170, 171, 197, 198.
Ewyas Harold, 173.
Falmouth, 167, 194.
Farnham, 151, 198.
Fernsham, 170.
Ffestiniog, 201.
Flat Holm, 177.
Forden, 200, 201.
Forest of Dean, 199.
Fowey, 195.
Garway, 173.
Glamorgan, 199.
Glastonbury, 158.
Glen of the Downs, 193.
Gloucester, 151, 159, 172, 198,

199.
Gosport, 161.
Graig Hill, 173.
Graigue, 193.
Gravesend, 198.
Hampshire, 162, 196.
Hanwell, 171, 197.
Harris, 188.

Hartlebury, 174, 175, 199.
Hayes, 170, 198.
Hayling Island, 162.
Hebrides, 190.

Hereford, 151, 152, 173, 199.
Herts, 197.
Highlands, 186.
Hindhead, 170.
Holyhead, 201, 202.
Humber, 154.
Hunts, 198.
Ireland, 148, 155, 156, 193,

194.
Isle of Man, 146, 154, 204.
Isle of Wight, 196.
Iver, 197.

INDEX

211

County Distribution — contd.
Kent, 169, 197.
Kentchurch, 173.
Kerry, 193.
Killarney, 193.
Knockbolt, 197.
Knutsford, 202.
Lakes Province, 184, 185.
Lancashire, 181, 18 i.
Leicester, 178, 202.
Leighton, 200.
Le-v^ds, 188.
Limpsfield, 197.
Lincoln, 179, 202.
Liverpool, 203.
Llanbedr, 201.
Llanberis, 201.
Llandegfau, 201, 202.
Llanerfyl, 201.
Llangollen, 201.
Llanrwst, 201.
Llansilin, 201.
Loch Tay, 187.
Meath, 193.

Menai Straits, 201, 202.
Mendip, 150, 158, 196.
Merioneth, 200, 201.
Mersey Province, 153, 179, 180,

202, 203.
Middlesex, 197.
Midlothian, 192.
Midsomer Norton, 159, 195.
Mitcham, 170.
Mold, 201.

Monmouth, 151, 173, 199.
Monnow Valleyj 173, 199.
Montgomery, 200, 201.
Morecambe Bay, 184.
Moville, 193.
Mull, 190.
Nanhoron, 200, 201.
NeAvby Bridge, 202.
Newcastle-Emlyn, 199, 200.
New Forest, 197.
Newtown, 200, 201.
Norfolk, 171, 198.
Northampton, 145.
Northumberland, 185.
North Wales, 153, 178, 200,

201.

County Distribution— con^^.
Nottingham, 178.
Oban, 192.
Orkney, 188.
Orlestone, 197.
Ouse Province, 151, 171, 172,

198.
Overton. 179.
Oxford, 169.
Oxted, 197.
Painswick Hill, 172.
Parkstone, 163.
Peeblesshire, 192.
Pembroke, 167.
Pembroke Dock, 167.
Peninsula Province, 145, 150,

158, 195.
Penrhyn Deudraeth, 201.
Pentraeth, 201.
Perth, 187, 191, 192.
Petersfield, 196.
Pickering, 183.
Piperstown, 193.
Plumstead, 197.
Poole Heath, 196, 197.
Portishead, 16S.
Portsmouth, 167.
Purbeck, 166.
Ptagley, 174.
Renfrew, 188.
Rhosneigr, 202.
Eingwood, 196, 197.
Ripon,. 183, 203.
Ross-shire, 186, 187.
Roundstone, 193.
Rum, 190.

Scarborough, 182, 203.
Scilly Isles, 168.
Scotland, 155, 186-192.
Severn Province, 151, 172-175,

199.
Sheire Common, 197.
Shetland, 188.
Shropshire, 152, 173, 199.
Somerset, 158, 195.
Southend, 171.
Southport, 179, 203.
South Wales, 177, 199, 200.
St. Asaph, 201.
Stafford, 173, 199.

212

INDEX

County Distribution — coibid.
Steep Holm, 177.
Stirling, 187, 188, 191.
Stornoway, 187.
Stutland Heath, 197.
Surrey, 170, 197, 198.
Sussex, 162, 163, 196.
Sutherland, 188.
Tenbury, 174.
Thames Province, 150, 169, 170,

197.
Tilford, 198.
Towyn, 200, 201.
Trent Province, 178, 179, 202.
Tyne Province, 183, 203.
Ulverston, 185,
Uppingham, 202.
AVakerley Woods, 179.
Wales, 176-178, 200-202.
Wareham, 150.
Wellington, 151.
Welsh Newton, 199.
Welshpool, 200, 201.
West Lancashire, 185.
Westmoreland, 184, 204.
Weston, 180.
Weymouth, 163, 196.
Wilts, 166, 167, 196.
Woodhall Moor, 179, 202.
Worcester, 152, 174.
Wrexham, 201.
Wye Valley, 199.
Wykeh am High Moor, 182, 303.
Wyre Forest, 152, 174, 199.
Yorkshire, 182, 183, 203.

DEScmrTiON of —

Green Lizard, 72, 73.

Sand Lizard, 61, 62.

Slow-worm, 28-33.

Viviparous Lizard, 47-50.

Wall Lizard, 77.
Distribution of —

Green Lizard, 69-72.

Sand Lizard, 55-61.

Slow-worm, 27, 28.

Viviparous Lizard, 45-47.

Wall Lizard, 77.
Diet, 34-36, 52, 65, 74, 78.
Digits, 17.

I Disposition, 42, 43, 63-65.
Dissections, 108.
Distension of throat, 36.

Eggs, 12, 66, 75.
Endo-skeleton, 16.
Enemies of lizards, 41, 67, 74.
Eyelids, 11, 27.
Exo-skeleton, 15.

Feeding, 20. 40, 51, 35.

Food, 23, 34, 35, 36, 52, 53, C5,

74, 78.

Gaping, 36.
Gironde, 74.
Green Lizard —

Anatomy, 14-23.

Average length, 72.

Classification, 101.

Colour, 72.

Description, 72.

Distribution, 68-72.

Eggs, 75.

Enemies, 74.

Food, 74.

Habits, 73.

Haunts, 73.

Reproduction, 74.

Size, 72.

Specific characters, 95-97.
Gullet, 19, 74.

Habitat, 45, 55, 69, 77.
Habits, 31, 51, 52, 63-65, 73, 74,

77-80.
Haunts, 31, 42, 73, 74.
Hibernation, 40, 41.
Head scales, 81, 84-102.
Heart, 19.

Infra-labials, 87.
Intestine, 12.

Ireland, 46, 148, 155, 193, 194.
Isle of Man, 154, 204.

,, Purbeck, 166.

,, Wight, 160, 196.
Italy, 97.

Jaws, 8, 20-23, 27, 34.

INDEX

213

J 5
5 >

Kidneys, IS.

Labials, 87.

Lacerta agilis, 55-67, 93-95.

mnralis, 76-80, 97-100.

viridis, 68-75, 95-97.

vivipara, 44-54, 92, 93.
Lacertidse, 78, 91.
Lacertilia, 8-14.
Lateral fold, 29.
Lenortb, 30, 38, 48, 62, 72. 77.
Limbs, 11, 17, 128-141.
Liver, 18.
Locomotion, 51.
Loreal, 87, 88.
Lungs, 19.

Medulla, 19.
Motion, 51, 139.

Non-poisonous, 27.

(Esophagus, 18.
Olfactory, 19.
Ophidia, 27.
Optic lobes, 19.
Orders, 101.
Ovaries, 18.

Paieing, 74.
Palaeontology, 5.
Pancreas, 18.
Physiology, 4.
Pineal body, 19, 43, 44.

Radius, 17.
Recurved teeth, 27.
Reproduction, 12.
Reptilia, 101.
Respiratory, 19.
Ribs, 16.
Rostral, 87.

Sand Lizard —
Average length, 62.
Classification, 101.
Colour, 59, 61, 65, Q6.
Description, 61, 62.
Disposition, 64, 65.
Distribution, 55-61.

Sand Lizard — continued.

Eggs, 63, 66.

Enemies, 67.

Food, 65.

Habits, 63, 64.

Haunts, 63.

Hibernation, 41.

Records of, 56.

Reproduction, 66.

Size, 62.

Sloughing, 39, 40.

Specific characters, 93-95.
Scaly lizard, 53.
Sloughing, 39, 52.
Slow-worm —

Average length, 28, 29.

Classification, 101.

Colour, 33, 34.

Description, 28-30.

Disposition, 31.

Dissections, 108-110.

Distribution, 27, 28.

Enemies, 32, 41.

Food, 34-36.

Habits, 31.

Haunts, 31.

Hibernation, 41.

Limbs, 128-141.

Movements, 33.

Reproduction, 37.

Size, 30.

Sloughing, 39, 40.

Specific characters, 90, 91.

Tail, 32.

Teeth, 29.

Young, 38, 39.
Slugs, 34, 35.
Squamata, 101.
Swimming, 51.
Synonyms, 53.

Tail, 11, 15, 17, 29, 32, 62, 72,
73, 91, 92, 94, 96, 98, 102-114.
Tarsal, 17.

Teeth, 11, 18, 27, 61, 65.
Temporal, 85, 100.
Terminology, 84.
Testes, 18.
Thigh, 49.
Thorax, 16.

214

INDEX

Time of birtli, 38, 53.
Tongue, 11, 27.
Trachea, 19.
Trunk, 15, 17.
Types, 82, 83.

Urinary bladder, 18.

Ventral scales, 75.

Wales, 176, 200.
Wall Lizard —

Catching, 79, 80.

Classification, 101.

Wall Liza rd — continued.

Colour, 77.

Description, 77.

Distribution, 77, 98.

Food, 79.

Habits, 77.

Haunts, 77, 78.

Reproduction, 78.

Size, 77.

Specific characters, 97-100.

Tail, 79.

Variety, 78, 77.
Water, 51.
Windpipe, 19. '

Printed by Morrison & Oibb Limited, Edinburgh

Crown 8yo, pp. xvi and 383, price 5s. net,

British Serpents.

By GERALD R. LEICHTON, M.D., F.R.S.E.

A Concise Description of the Life-History of the

Adder or Viper, the Ring Snake or Grass Snake,

and the Smooth Snake, together with their

Distribution in all the Counties.

The Lancet. — " Dr. Leighton is an expert, and any ordinary person
who digests the book before us will have a greater knowledge of snakes
than he ever had before."

Manchester City News. — ' Dr. Gerald Leighton's book is the first
really worthy treatise on the subject."

The Outlook. — "Those who would know all about English Snakes,
their habits and distribution, cannot do better than read Dr. Leighton's
book."

Morning Post. — "Dr. Leighton and his publishers may be con-
gratulated on the production of a very fascinating and a very useful
work."

With 50 Illustrations.

EDINBURGH AND LONDON:
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS.

Jfieia Baturalisrs (auarterlp.

Edited by GERALD R. LEIGHTON, M.D., F.R.S.E.

THIS New Journal is devoted to all the subjects usually
worked by Field Naturalist and kindred Societies. It
is conducted from the point of view of the ordinary member
of a field club, not for the specialist or advanced student.

" The Field Naturalist's Quarterly " is issued in the
months of February, May, August, and November, and deals
with each subject as much as possible from the point of view
of the season of issue : thus the first number of each year
specially treats of animal and vegetable life in winter ; the next
issue is a spring number, and so on.

Each issue consists of about Mnety-six pages, demy 8vo, with
Illustrations. The Annual Subscription is lOs., payable in
advance.

Contributions and correspondence from Secretaries of Field
Clubs, etc., should be addressed to the Editor, " Field
Naturalist's Quarterly," 17 Hartington Place, Edinburgh.

SOME RECENT PRESS OPINIONS.

Westminster Gazette. — "The interesting character of this periodical
continues to be well maintained. ... A really valuable feature of the
magazine to many readers is that devoted to British Field Zoology. It
is to be hoped that members of field clubs and societies will give * The
Field Nauralist's Quarterly ' their hearty support. . . . Must be to
all field naturalists an attractive periodical."

Lancet. — "Each succeeding issue of this interesting quarterly seems to
show some improvement on that of its predecessor."

Outlook. — "The papers are well written by people who know what
they are talking about. . . . We wish Dr. Leighton's Quarterly a long
life and a prosperous one."

Edinburgh : GEOEGE A. MORTON, 42 George Street.
London : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. LTD.

Mr. george Jl. Morton's

f^ew ^ublieations.

Edinburgh : GEORGE A. MORTON, 42 George Street.
London: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. LTD.

The Keeper's Book.

A Practical Guide to the Duties of a Gawelceeper,

BY

P. JEFFREY MACKIE

AND

A. STODART WALKER

With Special Chapters by Lord Douglas Graham, Captain
Shaw Kennedy, Dr. Reid, John Lamb, P. D. Malloch,

and Tom Speedy.

In One Volume, crown 8vo, 3Sm 6dm net {postage, 4d.).

Note. — Although the literature of Sport is large and compre-
hensive, till the present time no book has been prepared exclusively
for the benefit of gamekeepers. *' The Keeper's Book " is intended
to serve as a vade mecum for the gamekeeper, dealing as it does
with all the duties of a keeper by moor, covert, river, and forest.
All important questions, such as the improvement of ground and
stock, and the duties of a gamekeeper during both the close and the
open season, will be fully dealt with in general by the authors, and
in specific cases by well - known specialists. For instance. Lord
Douglas Graham contributes the chapter on "Wildfowling,"' Captain
Shaw Kennedy will deal with the duties of the Deer-stalker,
Dr. Reid writes on the training and the working of Dogs, Mr, John
Lamb, advocate, on " The Keeper and the Law," Tom Speedy on
the elimination of Vermin, and P. D. Malloch discusses the functions
of a keeper in River, Loch, and Burn.

Dedicated to Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Minto.

Curling in Canada

AND THE

United States.

By the Rev. JOHN KERR,

M.A., F.R.S.E., F.S. A.Scot., Minister of Dirleton.

Ordinary Edition, Extra Crown 8vo, 500 pp., with about 400
Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d. net (to be raised on publication
to 10s. net).

Edition de Luxe, Demy 8vo, on Art Paper. Impression limited
to 250 copies, signed and numbered. Price £1 net (to be
raised on publication to £1. 5s. net).

This volume contains a complete account of the Tour of the
Scottish Team of Curlers sent by the Royal Caledonian Curling
Club to visit Canada and the United States in the winter 1902, and
of the most enthusiastic reception everywhere met with by the
team. The numerous illustrations in the volume include portraits
of His Excellency the Governor-General of Canada, Lord Minto,
and Her Excellency Lady Minto, and portraits, either separately
or in groups, of the majority of curlers who were met on the tour,
with illustrations of most of the covered rinks on which play took
place, important buildings, scener}', etc. Alongside the account
of the tour there is given a succinct statement as to the rise and
progress of the royal and ancient game of curling at each important
centre visited by the Scottish team, with reminiscences of famous
players in the various districts.

A special chapter is devoted to the impressions which the various
members of the Scottish team formed of Canada and its people, on
their memorable and historic tour, while for the special benefit of
Transatlantic curlers there is included in the volume an official
description of the Curlers' Court and the mysteries of initiation so
far as it is allowable to reveal the same.

From Journalist to

Judge,

An Autobiography,

By FREDERIC CONDE WILLIAMS,

Judge of the Supreme Com-t of Mauritius ; late Puisne Judge of the

Supreme Court of Natal ; formerly Judge of the Northern

District Court, Jamaica ; sometime Editor of the

Birviitighatn Daily Gazette, and of the

Windsor Gazette and Eton

College Journal.

With Portrait. Crown 8uo, Ssm

** Judge Williams tells some good stories." — Bookman.

'' Contains the cream of an interesting and varied experience. . . .
His racy stories, portraits, and aperais are unencumbered with the
slightest alloy of tediousness or triviality." — Pall Mall Gazette.

" Brightly recorded out of his varied experiences and observations
in many parts of the world." — Times.

"An amusing and attractive piece of work. . . . His remini-
scences of the Birmingham statesmen of his day are well worth
reading." — Sunday Sun.

"A lively autobiography of a varied and interesting life." —
Daily News.

" A racy and popular book of reminiscences written with unusual
frankness and good humour." — Glasgoiv Evening News.

"Full of interesting reminiscences." — Sussex Daily News.

"Thoroughly interesting. . . . We have a series of thumb-nail
sketches of Birmingham statesmen. . . . They are of a certain
historical interest." — Northern Whig.

Recollections of

James Martineau.

With some Letters from him and an
Essay on his Religion,

By the Rev. ALEXANDER H. CRAUFURD, M.A.,

Formerly Exhibitioner of Oriel College, Oxford ;
Author of "Enigmas of the Spiritual Life," "Christian Instincts and

Modern Doubt," etc.

With a Photogravure Portrait of Dr. Martineau.

Crown 8uo, 3Sm 6dm net {postage, 3d.).

" It is indeed a winsome and fascinating personality that meets
us in these pages. . . . Mr. Craufurd has much that is interesting
to tell us of his friend's judgments on his more noted contempor-
aries. . . . Mr. Craufurd's pleasantly-written ' Recollections ' has
a place of its own as a supplement to the more formal and complete
biography of his revered and venerable teacher." — Scots fnan.

*' Distinguished by sympathy, refinement of criticism, and
considerable suggestiveness and insight. . . . Verdicts on books
and men and movements are scattered through these interesting
pages." — Daily News.

"A vivid picture of the man. ... A just and high and true
appreciation of one of the noblest and loftiest thinkers of the
nineteenth century." — Examiner.

" It is a tribute of affection, and there is heart as well as head in
it. By all means read this book." — Expository Times,

**A finely critical and appreciative bit of work. . . . Full of
reverence for the saintly character of the man. . . . Undoubtedly
of abiding interest and value." — Aberdeen Free Press.

" It shows the mind of James Martineau in a marked degree.
. . . Full of striking and suggestive thought." — St. Andreiu.

Second Edition, Revised.

In stiff covers, price Is. net (postage, 2d.) ;
in cloth gilt. Is. 6d. net (postage, 2d.).

The Care of Infants

A Manual for Mothers and Nurses.

BY

SOPHIA JEX-BLAKE, M.D.,

Member of the Irish College of Physicians ; late Dean of the Edinburgh

School of Medicine for Women ; Lecturer on Midwifery for

the University of Edinburgh ; late Senior Physician

to the Edinburgh Hospital for Women

and Children.

Opinions of the Press and of Medical Men on the

First Edition.

Athenceum. — "We can most strongly recommend Dr. Sophia Jex-Blake's
manual ; it is an excellent work, and we should like to see a copy in every
nursery."

The Literary World. — "Her directions are eminently practical — the book
should obtain a wide circulation."

Nonconformist.—" A very valuable little manual."

Scotsman. — "An excellent little practical manual — a book which ought to
have a place in every household."

Medical Press.— "Deserves to be read with care by young mothers, who will
find much in it to assist them to rear strong and healthy offspring."

From Dr. G. W. Balfour, LL.D. — "I have to thank you for your excellent
little book, every word of which I have read with great pleasure."

From Dr. Symes Thompson. — "Let me thank you for your book on the care
of infants, which is exactly what has long been wanted."

From Sir Thomas Barlow, M.D. — "I consider it most sensible, and that it
ought to be of great use."

From the late Dr. King Chambers. — "I am much obliged to you for a copy
of your little volume. It is quite an incarnation of educated common sense."

From the late Dr. Octauius Sturges. — " I am charmed with your book about
the infants, and hope it will spread far and wide for the lighting up of a very
dark place."

Drinkers of Hemlock.

A Novel.

By a. STODART WALKER,

Author of "The Struggle for Success," "The Poet of
Modern Revolt," etc.

Crown 8vo, 6s.

" Full of clever satire." — Daily Neivs.

*' Most interesting and entertaining." — Vanity Fair.

*' Mr. Walker has abundantly proved his powers as a novelist." —
Glasgow Herald,

Windfalls-

By ROBERT AITKEN.

With a Frontispiece in Colour by John Hassall, R.I.

Crown 8vo, 6s.

"A very remarkable volume. . . . We have read no more
striking first book since Kipling's ' Plain Tales.' " — World.
** The best piece of fiction this week." — Morning Advertiser.

'* Gives proof of a keen power of observation, and a sense of
humour equally keen." — To- Day.

" Brimful of humorous incident and exciting adventure." —
Glasgow Herald.

The Very Short Memory of

Mr. Joseph Scorer.

By JOHN OXENHAM,

Author of " Barbe of Grand Bayou," " Bondman Free,"
"John of Gerisau," etc.

Price Is. net ; cloth limp, Is. 6d. net,

*' Amongst the rarest literary gifts is that of writing a good short
story. John Oxenham possesses it in a marked degree. . . . Sud-
denly, towards the end, there is introduced an unexpected develop-
ment that charms and delights the reader." — Punch.

' ' One of the best productions of its kind. ... A shilling's
worth of genuine fun." — Pall Mall Gazette.

^Ss^ S3.00 rv of "Rritisii Lizards and their local Distribution in th

.ymg?

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