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LIVES

EMINENT ZOOLOGISTS,

ARISTOTLE TO LINN^US:

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS ON THE STUDY OF
NATURAL HISTORY,

OCCASIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROGRESS
OF ZOOLOGY.

BY W. MACGILLIVRAY, A.M., F.R.S.E., &c.

Author of " A Narrative of the Travels and Researches of
Alexander Von Humboldt."

WITH A PORTRAIT OF LINN^US ENGRAVED BY HORSBURGH.

SECOND EDITION.

EDINBURGH:

OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT;

AND SIMPKIN & MARSHALL, LONDON.
MDCCCXXXIV. ^Osv4

ENTERED IN STATIONERS' HALL.

Printed by Oliver & Boyd,
Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh,

PREFACE.

Natural History has of late become a favourite
pursuit in this country; and although its progress
as a study may not have been equal to the enthusi-
asm which it has excited, its general effect is unques-
tionably beneficial. In consequence of the interest
which it has created, a great variety of works, from
the simple catechism to the elaborate treatise, have
appeared in rapid succession. But while compends
and manuals are thus multiplied, little has been
said with regard to the private history and profes-
sional pursuits of the distinguished persons who
have contributed most to the general stock of know-
ledge from which these popular essays have in a
great measure been derived. We have, therefore,
endeavoured in some degree to supply this defi-
ciency, by presenting a series of Lives of the more
Eminent Zoologists, from Aristotle to Linnaeus in-
clusive.

In the Introduction will be found a view of the
objects, to the investigation of which the talents of
the individuals whose annals we record were prin-
cipally directed. The remarks there offered are cal-
culated to enable such readers as may not have been

133062

4 PREFACE.

previously acquainted with the subject to compre-
hend many circumstances which might otherwise
appear unintelligible.

Few, even of those who have made considerable
progress in the study of nature, are aware of the
difficulties with which the ancient philosophers had
to contend. For this reason we have begun with
Aristotle, the founder of Natural History among the
Greeks. A biography of the elder Pliny, the great-
est of Roman writers in this department, comes next
in order. The lives of the more remarkable zoo-
logists who flourished after the revival of learning
in Europe are briefly sketched ; while some degree
of connexion has been given to the series by remarks
on the progress of knowledge at that period, on the
labours of their contemporaries, and on the princi-
pal works which occasionally issued from colleges and
museums. Although it is unnecessary here to enu-
merate all the names that enter into the catalogue
of zoological writers of the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, Swammerdam, Ray, and Reau-
mur, may be particularly mentioned. The great
Linnaeus witnessed the termination of those dark
ages, during which his favourite pursuits were treat-
ed with comparative neglect, and the commencement
of a happier era, in which they were to assume the
dignity of a science. His life is given with more
detail than those of his predecessors, both because
the facts relating to him are more abundant, and
because he exercised a more decided influence upon
the opinions of Europe. The volume concludes with
a notice respecting his son, which forms an appro-
priate appendix to that of his more distinguished
parent.

r

PREFACE. i)

Although the lives of studious men may, gene-
rally speaking, present fewer striking incidents than
those of warriors, navigators, and politicians, yet
the memoirs of naturalists are always extremely in-
teresting, on account of the connexion in which
they are necessarily placed with whatever is curious,
beautiful, or sublime in creation. Some of them,
too, will be found to have occupied a high station in
society; others to have forced their way through num-
berless obstacles, before obtaining the end of their
ambition ; while a third class are seen perishing in
the midst of their career, the victims of indiscretion,
or of neglect. Certain highly-gifted individuals,
again, shine as bright luminaries in the firmament of
science, and extend their influence over the whole of
the civilized world ; while the labours of nearly all
have been in some degree productive of good. Per-
haps there is no order of men to whose charge so
little positive evil can be laid; and if their stu-
dies do not always elevate the mind above the
corroding cares and cankering jealousies of life, they
at least tend to bring it into a more immediate re-
lation with the great Creator and Governor of the
universe.

It is not therefore imagined that the general reader
will find the following sketches destitute of interest,
even although he should possess only a superficial
knowledge of the principles and phenomena to which
they refer. The professional student, on the other
hand, cannot fail to obtain in them information
which will prove of the utmost value to him, whe-
ther viewed as a guide, or as a stimulus to exertion ;
and even the accomplished naturalist may derive
pleasure from the general review of the labours of

6

PREFACE.

those to whom he is mainly indebted for the know-
ledge which he possesses.

The authorities which have been consulted with
reference to these Lives are too numerous to be
mentioned here ; but the more important are pointed
out as occasion presents. It may be sufficient to re-
mark, that no modern work on Natural History
would be deserving of public confidence^ which did
not acknowledge some obligation to the valuable
labours of the French School, and of Sir James Ed-
ward Smith in our own country.

The second volume, already in preparation, will
be devoted to the most distinguished writers in the
same department, from Pallas, Brisson, and Buffon,
down to Cuvier, and will conclude with General
Reflections on the present state of the science.

Edikbuegh, June 1834.

I

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

Remarks on the Estimation in which Natural History is held at
the present Day, and on its Importance — Men are more conver-
sant with Nature in uncivilized Life — The original State of Man,
and his progressive Acquisition of Knowledge — General View of
the Objects of Natural History : the Earth's Surface and Struc-
ture, the Ocean, the Atmosphere, Plants, and Animals — Defini-
tion of Mineralogy, Botany, and Zoology — Sketch of the Pro-
Ifress of Zoology : four Eras distinguished, as marked by the
Names of Aristotle, Pliny, Linnaeus, and Cuvier, Page 17

ARISTOTLE.

SECTION I.

REMARKABLE EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF ARISTOTLE.

Introductory Remarks — Birth and Parentage of Aristotle — He
studies Philosophy under Plato — Is highly distinguished in the
Academy — Rethres to Atarneus on the Death of his Master —
Marries — Is invited by Philip to superintend the Education of
Alexander — Prosecutes his Studies at the Court — On the Suc-
cession of Alexander, returns to Athens, where he sets up a

8 CONTENTS.

School in the Lyceum— Corresponds with Alexander, who sup-
plies Means for carrying on his Investigations — Alexander finds
Fault with him for publishmg some of his Works, and after put-
ting Callistlienes to Death, exalts his Rival Xenocrates — On the
Death of Alexander, he is accused by his Enemies of Impiety,
when he escapes to Chalcis, where he dies soon after — His
personal Appearance and Character— His Testament — History
of his Writings— Great Extent of the Subjects treated of by
him— His Notions on elementary Bodies — The Material Universe
—The Changes to which the Earth has been subjected, and the
Eternity of its Existence— Conclusion, Page 38

SECTION II.

ACCOUNT OF ARISTOTLE'S HISTORY OF ANIMALS.

Aristotle's Ideas respecting the Soul — His Views of Anatomy and
Physiology — Introduction to his History of Animals, consisting
of Aphorisms or general Principles — His Division of Animals ;
their external Parts ; their Arrangement into Families ; their in-
ternal Organs; Generation, &c 55

PLINY THE ELDER.

ACCOUNT OF HIS LIFE AND WORKS.

Introductory Remarks— Notice respecting Pliny by Suetonius-
Account of his Habits, as given by his Nephew, Pliny the Younger
—Various Particulars of his Life— His Death occasioned by an
Eruption of Vesuvius— BufFon's Opinion of the Writings of Pliny

Judgment of Cuvier on the same Subject— Brief Account of

the Historia Naturalis, including Extracts respecting the Wolf,
the Lion, and other Animals— Cleopatra's Pearls— History of a
Raven— Domestic Fowls— General Remarks, 74

CONTENTS.

GESNER,

BELON, SALVIANI, RONDELET,

AND ALDROVANDI.

ZOOLOGISTS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

Conrad Gesner — Account of his Life and Writings, preceded by Re-
marks on those of -iElian, Oppian, Albertus Magnus, Paolo Gio-
vio, and Hieronyraus Bock — Pierre Belon — Hippolito Salviani
— Guillaurae Rondelet — Ulysses Aldrovandi — General Remarks
on their Writings, and the State of Science at the Close of the
Sixteenth Century, Page 102

JONSTON, GOE.DART,
REDI, AND SWAMMERDAM.

ZOOLOGISTS OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

Brief Account of the Lives and Writings of John Jonston, John
Goedart, Francis Redi, and John Swammerdam — Notice respecting
the principal Works of Swammerdam — His Birth and Education
— He studies Medicine,but addicts himself chiefly to the Exami-
nation of Insects — Goes to France, where he forms an Acquaint-
ance with Thevenot — Returns to Amsterdam, takes his Degree,
improves the Art of making Anatomical Preparations — Publishes
various Works — Destroys his Health by the Intensity of his Ap-
plication — Becomes deeply impressed with rehgious Ideas —
Adopts the Opinions of Antoinette Bourignon — Is tortured by
conflicting Passions — Endeavours to dispose of his Collections —
Is aff'ected with Ague and Anasarca, and dies after protracted
Suffering — His Writings published by Boerhaave — His Classifi-
cation of Insects, 118

iO CONTENTS.

RAY.

ACCOUNT or THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF RAY.

Birth and Parentage of Ray — He receives the Rudiments of his
Education at Braintree School— At the age of Sixteen enters at
Katherine Hall, Cambridge— Removes to Trinity College, where
he passes through various Gradations, and becomes a Fellow —
Publishes his Catalogue of Cambridge Plants, and undertakes
several Journeys — Extracts from his Itineraries— Resigns his
Fellowship— Becomes a Member of the Royal Society — Pub-
lishes his Catalogue of English Plants, &c. — Death of his
most intimate Friend, Mr Willughby — Character of that Gen-
tleman— Mr Ray undertakes the Education of his Sons, and
writes a Vocabulary for their Use — Notice of Dr Lister — Seve-
ral Works published by Mr Ray, who improves and edits
Willughby's Notes on Birds and Fishes — Continues his scientific
Labours — Remarks on the Scoter and Barnacle — Letters of Dr
Robinson and Sir Hans Sloane — Notice respecting the latter —
Publication of the Synopsis of British Plants, the Wisdom of
God manifested in the Works of Creation, &c — Estimate of the
Number of Animals and Plants known — Synopsis of Quadrupeds
and Serpents — Classification of Animals — Various Publications
— Ray's Decline — His last Letter — His Ideas of a Future State,
and of the Use of the Study of Nature— His Death, Character,
and principal Writings, Page 136

REAUMUR.

ACCOUNT OF THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF REAUMUR.

Birth and Education of Reaumur — He settles at Paris, where he
is introduced to the Scientific World by the President Henault,
and becomes a Member of the Academy of Sciences — His La-

CONTENTS.

11

hours for the Improvement of the Arts— His Works on Natural
History, of which the Memoirs on Insects are the most import-
ant—His Occupations and Mode of Life, Paj^e 183

LINNJEUS.
SECTION I.

BIRTH AND EDUCATION" OF LIKN.^;US.

Birth and Parentag'e of Linnaeus— He is destined for the Clerical
Profession— His early Fondness for Plants—He is sent to School,
where his Progress is so slow that his Father resolves to make
him a Shoemaker— Is rescued from this Fate by Dr Rothmann,
who receives him into his Family— He becomes decidedly at-
tached to the Study of Nature, enters the University of Lund,
and is patronised by Professor Stobaeus— When on an Excursion
is attacked by a dangerous Malady— Stobaeus surprises him in
his nocturnal Studies— He goes to Upsal— Is reduced to ex-
treme Poverty, from which he is relieved by Professor Celsius,
whom he assists— Is next patronised by Rudbeck, and delegated
to read his Lectures — Forms a Friendship with Artedi, 193

SECTION II.

JOURNEY TO LAPLAND.

Linnaeus, chosen by the Royal Society of Upsal to travel in Lap-
land, sets out in May 1732 — Enters Lycksele Lapland — A Lap-
land Beauty — Beds made of Hair-moss— Conversation of a Cu-
rate and a Schoolmaster— The Lapland Alps— Their Vegetation
— Brief Account of the Rein-deer — Passing over the alpine Re-
gion, he enters Norway — Again visits the mountainous Region
—Difficulties of the Journey — Pearl-fishery— Forests set on Fire
by Lightning — At Lulea he discovers the Cause of an epidemic

12 CONTENTS.

Distemper amon^ the Cattle — Returns through East Bothland
—Concluding Remarks, Page 204

SECTION III.

STUDIES, ADVENTURES, AND TRAVELS OF LINNiEUS, FROM f]

1733 TO 1738.

Linnaeus returns to Upsal — Is prevented from lecturing by Rosen,
whom he attempts to assassinate— Accompanies some young
Men on an Excursion to Fahlun, where he is introduced to the
Governor of the Province, with whose Sons he travels to Nor-
way— Returning to Fahlun, he delivers Lectures, falls in Love,
is furnished with Money by his Mistress, and prepares to go
Abroad for his Degree — He visits Hamburg, detects an Impos-
ture there, and is obliged to make his Escape— Obtains his De-
gree at Hardft-wyk— Proceeds to Leyden, where he pubhshes
his Systema Naturae, and waits upon Boerhaave — Goes to Am-
sterdam, is kindly received by Burmann, and lodges with him —
Is employed by Cliffort, publishes various Botanical Works —
Goes to England, visits Sir Hans Sloane, Miller, and Dillenius
—Returns to Holland, pubhshes several Works — Goes to Ley-
den, and resides with Van Royen— Publishes the Ichthyologia
of Artedi, who was drowned in Amsterdam — Becomes melan-
choly, and falls into a violent Fever— On his Recovery goes to
Paris, where he is kindly received by the Jussieus— Returns to
Sweden after an Absence of Three Years and a Half, 218

SECTION IV.

PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF LINNAEUS FROM 1738
TO 1741.

Linnaeus is treated with Neglect at Stockholm — Is offered a Bota-
nical Professorship at Gottingen, but prefers remaining in Swe-
den— His medical Practice is at length extended — He prescribes
for the Queen, and becomes acquainted with Count Tessin, who

CONTENTS. 13.

procures for him the Offices of Lecturer to the School of Mines
and Physician to the Admiralty — He marries Miss Moraeus, de-
livers Lectures on Botan}', and becomes a Candidate for the Bo-
tanical Chair at Upsal, which, however, is given to Rosen — Is
sent to examine the Islands of Oeland and Gothland — Being ap-
pointed to succeed Roberg in the Chair of Medicine and Ana-
tomy, he goes to Upsal, is reconciled to Rosen, and delivers
his Introductory Discourse — Linnaeus and Rosen exchange
Professorships — The Botanic Garden is restored, and a House
erected for the Professor, who enters upon his Duties with Ar-
dour, Page 234

SECTION V.

COMMEXCEMENT OF LINN^US's ACADE3IICAL CAREER.

Linnjeus restores the Botanic Garden at Upsal — Takes Possession

of his new Residence — Founds a Natural History Museum

Publishes Catalogues of the Plants and Animals of Sweden —
In 1746, makes a Journey, to West Gothland — Medal stnick to
his Honour — He publishes a Flora of Ceylon from the Herba-
rium of Hermann — His alleged Discovery of a Method of pro-
ducing Pearls — Success as a Professor — MaUce of his Enemies
— Journey to Scania — Is appointed Rector of the University —
Attacked by Gout — Sends several of his Pupils to travel in fo-
reign Countries, 243

SECTION VI.

TRAVELLING PUPILS OF LINN^US.

Enthusiasm excited by the Lectures of Linnaeus — Ternstroem dies
on his Voyage to China — Hasselquist, after travelling in Egypt,
Arabia, and Palestine, dies at Smyrna — Forskal perishes in Ara-
bia; Lcefling in South America; Falk in Tartary — Kalm sent to
Canada ; Rolander to Surinam ; Toren to Malabar ; Osbeck to
China — Sparrmann travels in the Cape, and accompanies Cook on
his second Voyage — Thunberg visits Japan, Ceylon, and other
7

14 CONTENTS.

Countries — Various parts of Europe visited by Pupils of" Lin-
naeus— Remarks on the Accumulation of Facts produced by their
Exertions, Page 251

SECTION VII.

LINNiEUS'S OCCUPATIONS FROM 1750 TO 1770.

Publication of the Philosophia Botanica — General Account of that
Work — Linnasus engaged in arranging the Collections of the
Queen and Count Tessin — The Species Plantarum — Sir J. E.
Smith's Remarks on it — Quotation from the Preface, with Re-
marks— Linnaeus publishes improved Editions of his Works —
Obtains Prizes for Essays from the Royal Societies of Stockholm
and Petersburg — Is elected a Member of the Academy of Sciences
of Paris — Receives Plants and Seeds from various Quarters —
Purchases two Estates — Delivers private Lectures at his Mu-
seum— His Emoluments — His Son appointed his Assistant and
Successor — He receives Letters of Nobility ; and is rewarded for
his Discovery of the Art of producing Pearls — His domestic
Troubles, Infirmities, and sincere Reconciliation to his old An-
tagonist Rosen, who attends him in his Sickness, 260

SECTION VIIL

ACCOUNT OF THE SYSTEMA NATURE OF LINN^US.

Linnaeus's Classification of the Animal Kingdom — Remarks on the
Gradations employed, and on Nomenclature — Classification of the
Animal Kingdom — General Remarks — Method of Tournefort —
Method of Linnaeus — Classification of the Vegetable Kingdom
—Theory of the Formation of Minerals and Rocks, 272

SECTION IX.

DECLINE AND DEATH OF LINNiEUS.

Review of the Medical Writings of Linnaus— His Materia Medical
System of Nosology, Theory of Medicine — His last Work, a Con-

CONTENTS. 15

tinuation of the Mantissa, published in 1771 — DecHning' State of
his Heahh — In 1774, has an Attack of Apoplexy, followed by
Prostration of his Intellectual Powers — Another Attack in 1776,
from the Effects of which, and Tertian Fever, he never recovers —
His Death in 1778 — Honours paid to his Memory, Paj^e 307

SECTION X.

CORRESPONDENCE OF LINNAEUS.

Linnaeus's first Letter, addressed to Rudbeck in 1731 — His last, to
Dr Cusson in 1777 — Correspondence with Haller — With Dille-
nius, Ellis, and other English Naturalists, 322

SECTION XI.

CHARACTER OF LINN^US.

Specific Character of Linnaeus — Remarks of Condorcet — Linnjeus's
Appearance and bodil}" Conformation — His Habits, mental Cha-
racteristics, Sociality, domestic Relations, Parsimony, and Gene-
rosity— His Forbearance towards his Opponents, Inaptitude for
the Acquisition of Languages, Love of Fame, moral Conduct, re-
ligious Feelings — Character of his Writings — Remarks on his
Classifications, 361

SECTION XII.

CATALOGUE OF THE WORKS OF LINNiEUS.

Hortus Uplandicus — Florula Lapponica — Systema Naturee — Hy-
pothesis Nova de Febrium Intermittentium Causa — Fundaraenta
Botanica — Bibliotheca Botanica — Musa Cliffortiana — Genera
Plantarum— Viridarium Cliffortianura — Caroli Linnaei Corolla-
rium Generum Plantarum — Flora Lapponica — Hortus ChfFortia-
nus— Critica Botanica — Petri Artedi, Sueci Medici, Ichthyolo-
gia— Classes Plantarum, sen Systema Plantarum— Oratio de

16 CONTENTS.

Memorabilibus in Insectis — Orbis Eruditi Judicium de C. Lin-
naei Scriptis — Oratio de Peregrinationum intra Patriam Necessi-
tate— Oratio de Tellurus Habitabilis Incremento — Flora Suecica

Animalia Suecias — Oelandska och Gothlandska Resa — Fauna

Suecise Regni — Flora Zeylanica — Wastgbtha Resa — Hortus Up-
saliensis — Materia Medica Regni Vegetabilis — Materia Medica
Regni Animalis — Skanska Resa — Philosophia Botanica — Materia
Medica Regni Lapidei— Species Plantarum — Museum Tessinia-
num — Museum Regis Adolphi Suecorum — Frederici Hasselquist
Iter Palestinum — Petri Losflingii Iter Hispanicum — Oratio Regia

Disquisitio Qua2stionis, ab Acad. Imper. Scientiarum Petropoli-

tanae, in annum 1759 pro Prasmio, Propositae — Genera Morborum
— Museum Reginae Louisce Ulricae — Clavis Medica Duplex —
Mantissa Plantarum — Mantissa Plantarum altera — Delicias Na-
turae— Essays printed in the Transactions of the Academies of
Upsal and Stockholm, Page 375

SECTION XIII.

A BRIEF NOTICE OF LINN^US'S SON.

Unnatural Conduct of the Mother of the Younger Linnaeus — His
Birth and Education — In his eighteenth Year he is appointed
Demonstrator of Botany, and, three Years after, Conjunct Pro-
fessor of Natural Historj^ — He visits England, France, Holland,
Germany, and Denmark — On returning engages in the Discharge
of his Duties ; but at Stockholm is seized with Fever, which
ends in Apoplexy, by which he is carried off — His Character and
Funeral, 386

LIVES

EMINENT ZOOLOGISTS.

Introduction.

Remarks on the Estimation in which Natural History is held at
the present Day, and on its Importance — Men are more conver-
sant with Nature in uncivilized Life — The original State of Man,
and his progressive Acquisition of Knowledge — General View of
the Objects of Natural History : the Earth's Surface and Struc-
ture, the Ocean, the Atmosphere, Plants, and Animals — Defini-
tion of Mineralogy, Botany, and Zoology — Sketch of the Pro-
gress of Zoology : four Eras distinguished, as marked by the
Names of Aristotle, Pliny, Linnaeus, and Cuvier.

At no period in the progress of civilisation have the
advantages to be derived from the study of nature
been so highly appreciated as at the present day,
when descriptions and representations of the various
objects by which we are surrounded, or which have
been observed in distant countries, are issuing from
the press in a variety of forms calculated to attract
the attention and to gratify the taste of almost every
class of society. Only a few years ago. Natural
History was held in some degree of contempt by
the enlightened as well as by the ignorant ; its cul-

18 INTRODUCTION.

tivators were considered as triflers, wasting their
energies upon that which could profit nothing ; and
the information which it affords was looked upon
as unworthy of the attention of persons fitted for
intellectual pursuits. Now, it is raised in popular
estimation to the highest dignity, and is pronounced
to be a science capable of exercising the most splen-
did talents, and of affording pleasure to the most
improved minds.

Of the several changes that have recently taken
place in society this is not the least important. The
diversified productions of Nature, — those objects, in
the formation of which have been exercised unlimited
wisdom and power, — are not now considered beneath
the notice of the wisest of the sons of men. It still,
however, remains to be perceived, that in the con-
struction of the familiar fly that buzzes through our
apartments, not less than in the frame of the mighty
elephant, — in the simple blade of grass that springs
from between the stones of the pavement, not less
than in the knotted oak or the graceful palm, —
in the small cube of salt, not less than in the gra-
nitic mountain or the volcanic cone, — there is some-
thing of a mysterious nature, the comprehension of
which would be a much more glorious achievement
than any that the human intellect has yet per-
formed. The ship that carries the adventurous
merchant over the great ocean is an object worthy
of our admiration ; but how complicated is its ap-
paratus, compared with the fins of the most com-
mon fish ! The balloon that floats calmly in the
atmosphere,^ — what an unwieldy instrument is it,
compared with those beautiful organs of Divine
workmanship by which the swallow is conveyed

INTRODUCTION. 19

from the equatorial to the polar lands^ or pursues
its prey through the pathless air !

Man, in the early stages of his existence, is drawn
by an instinctive power to observe and admire na-
ture. The love of it, too, glows in the breast of
every child. We have never, indeed, witnessed
the actions of men in the infancy of society, and
therefore cannot estimate the influence exercised
upon them by external objects ; for the savages
whom the European, wandering over the globe in
quest of gold or knowledge, finds in the deserts or
in the remote isles of the ocean, are evidently de-
graded beings who have degenerated from a nobler
stock. But the history and traditions of most of
the tribes with which we are acquainted, and espe-
cially of those inhabiting the American continent,
show that at some remote period they must have
possessed more knowledge than they exhibited at our
first acquaintance with them. Revelation, too, as-
sures us that man was made perfect ; and philo-
sophy has not succeeded in forming a theory to ac-
count for the physical or moral diversities exhi-
bited by our race, approaching in consistency to
that which may be drawn from the pages of the Sa-
cred Writings.

" Man," says Cuvier, '' who was cast feeble and
naked on the surface of the globe, seemed created
for inevitable destruction. Evils assailed him on
all sides; the remedies remained concealed from
him, but he had been endowed with genius for
discovering them. The first savages gathered in
the woods some nutritious fruits, some wholesome
roots, and thus satisfied their more urgent wants.
The first shepherds perceived that the stars follow

20 INTRODUCTION.

a regular course, and were directed by them in their
journeys over the plains of the desert. Such was the
origin of the mathematical and physical sciences.

" When the genius of man had discovered that
it could combat Nature by her own means, it no
longer rested ; it watched her incessantly, and
continually wrested from her new conquests, each
marked by some improvement in his condition.
Then succeeded, without interruption, meditating
minds, which, being the faithful depositaries of
acquired knowledge, and continually occupied with
connecting and giving a vivifying unity to its parts,
have led us, in less than four thousand years, from
the first attempts of those pastoral observers to
the profound calculations of Newton and Laplace,
and to the learned classifications of Linnseus and
Jussieu. This precious inheritance, always aug-
menting, borne from Chaldea to Egypt, from Egypt
to Greece, hidden during periods of misfortune and
darkness, recovered in a happier age, unequally dis-
persed among the nations of Europe, has been every
where followed by riches and power; the nations
which have welcomed it have become the mistresses
of the world, while those which have neglected it
have fallen into feebleness and obscurity."

Had man, in his original state, been cast feeble
and naked on the surface of the globe, he could not
have survived a single week, with all the elements
of nature combined against him. His first experi-
ment on the tiger or the asp, even his first morsel
of food, might have been fatal to him. He must
have been formed perfect in knowledge ; or, being
formed in ignorance and feebleness, he must have
been protected by a power capable of controlling

INTRODUCTION. 21

the influences of surrounding nature. But before
we proceed to offer a few remarks on the origin and
progress of zoological science, it seems expedient to
mark the subjects to which the attention of the na-
turalist is directed.

If we cast our eyes around, and survey, in a com-
prehensive manner, the objects which exhibit them-
selves to our view, we may form some idea of the
occupations of those individuals who devote them-
selves to the examination of nature. The surface of
the globe presents in part a vast expanse of water
bounded by the sinuosities of the shores, and in part
an undulating succession of plains and mountains.
It is enveloped with an aerial fluid, which extends
to a considerable height, sometimes transparent, and
sometimes obscured with masses of floating vapour.

The land is diversified by slopes of every degree
of inclination, — extensive plains, depressions and
hollows, ridges and protuberances of various forms ;
the highest, however, bearing a very insignificant
proportion to the earth's diameter. The waters,
which cover more than two-thirds of the globe, se-
parate the land into unequal portions, dividing it
into continents and islands. Tracts of elevated
ground traverse these in various directions, constitut-
ing the elongated mountain-groups named chains ;
which, being intersected by valleys and containing
the sources of numberless streams, slope towards the
adjacent countries. Other portions of the surface
consist of irregularly- grouped eminences, of infe-
rior height, interspersed with corresponding valleys.
Elevated platforms are sometimes met with, and
the plains and slopes are not unfrequently diversi-
fied with hills. The depressed parts of mountainous

22 INTRODUCTION.

regions present great diversity of form, extent, and
direction, and often exhibit basins or hollows, which
are occasionally filled with water.

Descending into the plains, we find that they are
seldom perfectly level, but are formed into slopes of
small inclination and of various extent. The pam-
pas of South America, for example, stretch from the
base of the Andes to Buenos Ayres, over a space of
900 miles ; and in Africa are vast expanses of nearly
level land, where the traveller, day after day, sees
the horizon preserving the same distance as he pro-
ceeds, and bounding an ocean of arid sand. Large
flats are also found at great elevations above the
sea, such as those of Tartary, Thibet, and INIexico.

Of the other inequalities of the land, the more re-
markable are the cavities forming lakes, and the
grooves occupied by the beds of rivers. The former
are of all sizes, from several hundred miles in cir-
cumference down to very small dimensions, and
occur in all situations, — between mountain-chains,
like the Caspian,— in plains, like Onega, — and along
the course of rivers, like those of Canada. The
streams necessarily flow in the line which marks
the greatest depression of the valleys ; although, in
some instances, towards their mouths, they occupy
a higher level, their beds having been raised by the
deposition of the debris carried down by the torrent.

The bottom of the ocean, being merely the conti-
nuation of the surface of the land, may be supposed
to present inequalities of a similar nature, although,
owing to the action of currents, they are probably
not so distinctly marked. The transition from what
is above to that which is under the water is not in
general denoted by any striking phenomenon, ex-

t

INTRODUCTION. 23

cepting the not unfrequent occurrence of long ranges
of cliffs, pebbly beaches, and accumulations of sand.
When the coast is low and flat, the depth of the sea
in its vicinity is usually small ; whilst along a rocky
and abrupt shore it generally presents a depression
in some measure corresponding to the height of the
land. The existence of submarine chains of moun-
tains is established by the numerous shoals and
rocks which are to be considered as their summits.
On these, coral reefs and islands have been gra-
dually raised by myriads of zoophytes.

The mighty mass of waters, which is collectively
termed the sea, occupies, as has been already men-
tioned, more than two-thirds of the surface of the
globe. Its chemical composition, its tides, its cur-
rents, and all the varied phenomena which it pre-
sents, afford subjects of highly-interesting research.

The atmosphere, in like manner, which envelopes
the earth, supplies, in its ever-varying aspects, its
motions, its electrical phenomena, and the influence
which it exercises on animal and vegetable life, an
object of investigation pregnant with curious and
useful knowledge.

The mysterious agency of subterranean fire has
elevated great masses of rocky matter in various
parts of the globe. Earthquakes have effected ex-
tensive and remarkable changes upon its surface ;
the waters of the ocean have alternately worn away
the shores and eked them out by depositions of
sand and mud ; the rivers have furrowed the land,
and carried the debris of the higher regions to the
valleys and plains ; while air and moisture have exer-
cised their decomposing influence upon the hardest
substances. By the action of these powers the earth

24 INTRODUCTION.

has become a fit receptacle for the varied forms of
animal and vegetable existence with which we see
it so profusely stored.

The variable distribution of heat has produced
a striking effect in modifying the earth's surface.
The cold of the polar regions covers them at all sea-
sons with an extensive deposite of snow and ice,
the margins of which are periodically dissolved by
the increasing warmth of summer, to be repaired
during the succeeding winter. The numberless
icebergs, originally formed on the land or in its vi-
cinity, floating on the ocean, and drifted by winds
and currents, often pass into more genial regions,
producing occasional variations of temperature. The
elevated ridges of mountains experience a similar
degree of cold, and in all climates, even in the tor-
rid zone, are covered towards their summits with
perennial snow.

Limited as are our powers of examining the inte-
rior of the globe, we yet find in its crust indications
of a power which, by operating so as to produce
apparent confusion, has effected results highly be-
neficial to the beings by whom the earth has been
peopled. The strata, at first regularly superimposed
upon each other, and consisting of those diversified
materials which are supplied by the disintegration
of pre-existing rocks, have been broken up, and in-
clined in every possible degree, so as to form those
depressions and elevations which we every where
observe on the surface. These inequalities have
been increased by the protrusion of masses from the
more central regions, and the whole has been sub-
jected to the agency of powerful currents of water,
by means of which the angular cavities and projee-

INTRODUCTION. 25

tions have been smoothed or filled up. The consi-
deration of these phenomena constitutes a distinct
branch of natural science.

The mountains, rocks, and strata, are composed
of ingredients which in themselves are worthy of
examination, and capable of affording intense inte-
rest. The extremely-diversified forms which these
substances assume, their various properties, their uses
in the economy of nature, and the purposes to which
they may be applied by man, render their investi-
gation not less useful than pleasant.

A most extensive and delightful field of observa-
tion presents itself to us in the vegetable bodies with
which the surface of the land, and even the depths
of the ocean, are so profusely furnished. The va-
rious regions of the globe are not less characterized
by the form and grouping of the plants which have
been allotted to them, than by the comparative ac-
tivity of their vegetating power. The wastes of
Europe, covered by ling, heaths, rushes, and sedges,
exhibit little change of aspect under the variations
of temperature and the revolutions of the year;
while the plains of Venezuela, which during the
drought are covered with a layer of sand, and pre-
sent only a few withered palms scattered along the
margins of muddy pools, are converted in the rainy
season into an ocean of luxuriant vegetation. In the
equinoctial regions of the globe, palms, arborescent
ferns, and a multitude of magnificent trees, inter-
twined with flowering lianas hanging in festoons,
form themselves into impenetrable forests, whereas
the frigid regions of the arctic circle hardly produce
plants a foot in height. The solemn and stately
pines of the north of Europe have a very different

26

[NTRODUCTION.

aspect from the slender-twigged beeches and chest-
nuts of its temperate regions, or the laurels and fan-
palms of its southern shores.

Viewed in relation to their productions, the gelid
regions of the globe are not confined to the circum-
polar zone, but extend along the summits of the
lofty mountains, following the line of perennial
snow, which rises from the level of the sea, in Green-
land and Spitzbergen, to the height of 14,000 feet
in the Andes. These steril tracts nourish only a few
species of plants, although the individuals belonging
to them are frequently numerous. In the valleys,
and on the southern slopes, no sooner has the return-
ing heat of summer melted the snow, than a beau-
tiful carpeting of verdure, diversified by flowers of va-
rious tints, spreads over the soil, displaying an asto-
nishing rapidity of development, while the rocks in
many places appear covered with cryptogamic plants.
Besides mosses, lichens, and other inferior tribes, mul-
titudes of ferns make their appearance. Grasses and
creeping dicotyledonous plants are fully matured;
and a rich pasturage aifords, during the warm season,
abundant nourishment to herbivorous animals. Some
trees of small size also appear here and there, or even
form themselves into thickets and woods. But, in
general, the vegetation of these dreary regions, placed
on the limits of the habitable earth, is characterized
by a paucity of species and a stunted growth.

Firs and pines, existing in vast numbers, and re-
taining a perpetual though gloomy verdure, cha-
racterize the transition from the frigid to the northern
temperate zone. This last extends from the parallels
of 50° to 40° north latitude, and in its southern
borders, the beech, the lime, and the chestnut, mingle

INTRODUCTION. 27

witli the trees peculiar to more southern regions.
The meadows and pastures, especially those in the
vicinity of the sea and in the mountain- valleys, are
clothed with a brilliant verdure, which we in vain,
look for in the other sections of the globe.

The warm temperate zone, extending to 25°, pre-
sents in general a less beautiful vegetation ; for al-
though the heat is greater the humidity is less con-
stant. But it is in the torrid latitudes that Nature
displays all her magnificence. There the species of
tribes, which in other climates are herbaceous, be-
come shrubs, and the shrubs trees. Ferns rise into
trunks equal to those of pines in the northern regions
of Europe ; balsams, gums, and resins, exude from
the bark ; aromatic fruits and flowers abound ; and
the savage, as he roams the woods, satisfies his hun-
ger w^ith the spontaneous offerings of the soil. Here
also are all the climates of the globe, and almost all
their productions united ; for, w^hile the plains are
covered w ith the gorgeous vegetation of the tropics,
the lofty mountains display the forms that occur in
the colder regions, and the places intermediate in
elevation all the graduated transitions from these
to the warmest parallels.

The vegetation of the seas presents much less di-
versity than that of the land. It is less luxuriant,
less elegant, less ornamented, and less productive of
substances directly useful to man. There is also
less distinction between marine plants of different
latitudes ; for the great currents of the ocean, and
other causes, render its temperature more equable
than that of the atmosphere.

The numerous and diversified forms which plants
assume, their distribution over the globe, their

28

INTRODUCTION.

various qualities and uses, and their internal or-
ganization, are subjects which have long occupied
the attention of observers. In their reproduction,
growth, and maturation, phenomena are presented
to us, which are well calculated to excite our admi-
ration ; and the curious and diversified apparatus
of tubes and cells, in which are circulated the fluids
derived from the atmosphere and the earth, although
apparently more simple than that of the animal eco-
nomy, affords a profound as w^ell as an interesting
subject of research.

All parts of the earth's surface, even the deep
recesses of caves and mines, the snows of the polar
and alpine regions, and the bottom of the sea, are
more or less covered with plants. The same may
be said respecting animals, which, being much more
diversified in their forms and internal structure, and
endowed with more wonderful faculties, lead the
mind, by the contemplation of their mechanism and
habits, to a nearer approach to the great Creator
of all things.

From the gigantic elephant that roams among the
splendid forests of the warmer regions of the earth,
the unwieldy hippopotamus that plunges in the
pools and marshes of the African wilds, and the
timid and graceful giraffe that bounds over the
sandy desert, down to the little dormouse that we
find slumbering in its winter retreat, to the lem-
ming that in congregated myriads overruns the
fields of the North, or to the mole that burrows
under our feet, we find an astonishing variety of
beings, exhibiting forms, instincts, passions, and
pursuits, which adapt them for the occupation of
every part of the globe. The woods, the plains, the

INTRODUCTION. 29

mountains, and the sands of the sea, are replete with
life. The waters, too, whether of the ocean or of
the land, teem with animated beings. Scarcely is a
particle of matter to be fonnd that does not present
inhabitants to our view ; and a drop of ditch-water
is a little world in itself, stored with inmates of cor-
responding magnitude.

The consideration of the anatomical structure and
external conformation of the many thousands of
living creatures that come under our view_, would
of itself occupy many volumes, were it presented
in detail ; and even the simplest outline in which
it could be produced would require more space
than can be devoted to it here. All departments
of Nature are full of wonders ; but this excels the
rest in interest, and is proportionally more difficult
to be studied ; although men, contented with super-
ficial knowledge, may fancy themselves masters of
her secrets when they have merely learned to dis-
tinguish some hundreds of objects from each other.

Man, separated from all other animals by pecu-
liarities of corporeal organization, not less than by
those intellectual faculties which are not in any con-
siderable degree participated by the other inhabit-
ants of the globe, and who is capable of subsisting
in every climate, from the arid regions of the torrid
zone to the frozen confines of the poles, also belongs
in some measure to the study of nature. But the
consideration of man includes a multitude of subjects
that do not properly belong to Natural History, in
the limited sense in which we use the term. It might
even be said that it embraces all human knowledge.
Thus, the constitution of the human mind, and the
structure of the human body, as well as its healthy

30 INTRODUCTION.

and morbid phenomena, together with the means of
regulating the former and of counteracting the lat-
ter, may certainly be included in it.

Natural history, however, in its more limited ac-
ceptation, may be considered as comprehending the
three great kingdoms of Nature, — the mineral, the
vegetable, and the animal, — the sciences treating of
which are named Mineralogy, Botany, and Zoology.
The first of these departments of knowledge compre-
hends, along with the consideration of simple minerals,
that of the masses produced by the aggregation of these
substances, and the changes effected upon them by
natural causes. Botany teaches us to distinguish and
arrange the subjects of the vegetable kingdom, points
out the forms and functions of their organs, investi-
gates their internal structure, traces them in their
distribution over the surface of the globe, and makes
known the various properties which render them
noxious or useful to us. Zoology treats of the va-
rious tribes of animals, marks their external forms,
compares their various organs, describes their ha-
bits, discloses the laws which regulate their distri-
bution over the continents and islands, arranges
them into families according to principles deduced
from their structure, and in general makes us ac-
quainted with all that belongs to their history. Al-
though it is unnecessary here to offer any extended
remarks on the cultivation of the vast field which is
thus opened up to us, yet, the science of animals
being intimately connected with the Series of Lives
which we propose to offer to the public, it may not
be improper to give a short account of its origin and
progress.

In the History of Zoology, four eras are marked by

INTRODUCTION. 31

the names of four great cultivators of that science.
All knowledge of nature must have commenced in the
observation of individuals, or in an intuitive percep-
tion of their properties bestowed upon the first man.
We may suppose, however, that at some period not
remote from the creation of the human race men
were left to their own resources, when they w^ere
necessarily forced to examine the nature and qua-
lities of plants and animals, as well as of all na-
tural objects wdth which they came into contact.
The son would learn from the father, and impart
to his descendants a certain degree of knowledge
acquired by observation. Where the art of writing
was unknown, science would advance but slowly ;
and even where it was practised, the privilege
would probably belong to individuals or families^,
so that the mass would still be left to their ordi-
nary resources. Those who lived in the remote ages
antecedent to the Christian era probably knew as
much of natural history as the unlettered peasant
of our own age and country. Whatever may have
been the acquirements of the priests, the sole depo-
sitaries of science in ancient India, Chaldea, and
Egypt, they perished amid the revolutions of empires.
The Sacred Scriptures, however, show that IMoses,
who was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,
had bestowed considerable attention on the animal
world ; but as these writings were not intended for
our instruction in natural knowledge, the observa-
tions which they contain on the subject have no re-
ference to systematic arrangement. In short, what-
ever may have been the knowledge possessed by the
subjects of the Pharaohs, or the Hebrews and Greeks
of the earlier ages, we do not find that it had assumed

32 INTRODUCTION.

any definite form, or constituted a body of doctrine,
until the time of Alexander the Great. At this
epoch the illustrious Aristotle collected the obser-
vations of his predecessors ; added to them those,
more extensive and more important, which were
made by himself; and, although deeply engaged in
the study of other subjects, succeeded in collecting
a mass of facts, and in eliciting from them general
principles, the accuracy of many of which might
surprise us, did we not reflect that, in this depart-
ment at least, he followed the true method by which
the physical sciences have in our times received so
vast an augmentation. He, however, stands alone
among the writers of remote antiquity in this field ;
for, if others followed in his steps, their works have
been lost.

Among the Romans, by whom the sciences were
carried from Greece to Western Europe, there must
have been many naturalists of considerable attain-
ments ; but the only writer of that nation whose de-
scriptions have come down to us is Pliny the Elder,
who flourished under Vespasian. His books on natu-
ral history are compiled from the writings of others,
and may be considered as a general collection of all
that was known in his time. Although he must
have possessed opportunities of observing the many
rare animals that were brought from all parts of the
world to Rome, it does not appear that, by original
observation, he added much to the mass of facts ;
still he may be viewed as marking the second epoch
in the history of zoology, more especially as his
works supplied the materials out of which natural-
ists in later ages have constructed their systems. As
to iElian, a Greek writer, whose treatise was also a
6

INTRODUCTION. 38

compilation;, his merits were much fewer^ and his
absurdities more numerous than those of his prede-
cessor. Both were fond of the marvellous, but he
was eminently addicted to falsehood.

During the long ages of barbarism that succeeded
the destruction of the Roman empire all the sciences
were lost. On the revival of learning some feeble
efforts were made to rescue natural history from
its degraded condition ; and at the commencement
of the sixteenth century appeared several works
on fishes, by Paolo Giovio, Pierre Belon, Rondelet^,
and Salviani. Belon wrote on birds also, and his
observations are remarkable considering the period
at which he lived. Conrad Gesner, a physician of
Zurich, in his History of Animals, presented a
compilation, arranged in alphabetical order, of all
that the ancients had left on the subject ; and Al-
drovandi, after the labour of sixty years, left be-
hind him an immense work on natural history, com-
prising no less than fourteen folio volumes. In the
seventeenth century, we find our own Ray and Wil-
lughby among the most successful students of na-
ture. Besides these celebrated individuals, there
were others, such as Jonston and Redi, who labour-
ed in the field of zoology; but perhaps the most
original authors of this period were Swammerdam
and Reaumur, whose minute observations, in ento-
mology especially, have not been excelled in accu-
racy by those of any subsequent writers. It was not,
however, until the middle of the eighteenth century,
that a new era was formed by the labours of Lin-
naeus, who was the first to collect all the known
productions of nature, to class them according to
simple principles derived from the observation of

B

34 INTRODUCTION.

facts, and to invent a nomenclature at once effi-
cient and comprehensive.

Since the time of that philosopher natural history
in all its branches has been cultivated with extreme
ardour. The writers of this period have been nu-
merous beyond those of any former epoch ; and as
anatomical investigation was successfully applied to
the study of zoology, while the objects known were
immensely increased, it was soon found that the
classifications of the great reformer of the science
were in many respects deficient, and that he had fre-
quently associated objects which have too little affi-
nity to be grouped together in the same class or
order. The Systema Naturae, in place of forming
a complete catalogue of all the objects of nature,
" became," to use the words of an accomplished
author, " a mere sketch of what was to be done
afterwards. Even more recent naturalists touched
with a timid hand upon the natural grouping of
the highest branches of the science, and it was
reserved for a mighty genius of our own time to
open the path to us, and to smooth the difficulties
of that path, by precisely determining the limits of
the great divisions, by exactly defining the lesser
groups, by placing them all according to the inva-
riable characters of their internal structure, and by
ridding them of the accumulations of synonymes
and absurdities which ignorance, want of method,
or fertility of imagination, had heaped upon them."'^
This '' mighty genius," it is almost unnecessary to
add, was the illustrious Cuvier, who, although by
no means the only great, and possibly not even the

* Mrs R. Lee's Memoirs of Baron Cuvier, p. 51.

INTRODUCTION. 35

greatest zoologist of his time, may, if we are dispos-
ed to mark an epoch by a single name, be selected
for that purpose. But even this celebrated writer has,
in his Regno Animal, merely presented a sketch,
leaving to others the task of completing the various
departments. They who think otherwise forget that
the generic and specific characters of the systema-
tist, necessarily condensed, are very inadequate to
convey any other than the most superficial know-
ledge of the diversified objects of nature.

These, then, were the men who progressively
reared the structure of zoology. Aristotle was a
universal genius ; but with respect to natural his-
tory he is to be looked upon chiefly as a zoologist.
Pliny was a collector of every thing known in his
time, whether true or fabulous, that related to ani-
mals, minerals, and plants. Linnaeus arranged all
the objects of nature. He w^as perhaps greater as
a zoologist than as a botanist, although, in the latter
capacity, his labours have been more highly appre-
ciated, because there have been more cultivators of
the science of plants, of which the study requires
less laborious investigation, and to many persons is
more attractive. Lastly, Cuvier, an original genius,
an acute observer, and an accurate reasoner, profit-
ing by the accumulated knowledge of ages, remo-
delled the system of zoology, and, in his Regne Ani-
mal, arranged the series of animals according to
principles elicited from the investigation of their
structure and relations.

The present volume includes the lives of the more
eminent zoologists, from Aristotle to Linnseus.
Those who succeeded the latter will furnish ample
materials for another.

36 INTRODUCTION.

It is scarcely necessary to remark, that these vo-
lumes may either be considered as complete in them-
selves, or as introductory to a general and particular
description of the various tribes of animals. A work
on this most extensive subject is a great desideratum
in English literature, — not that books on this depart-
ment of science are wanting, but because we have
none that present a continuous view of the families
and species of the different classes, at once intelligi-
ble to the student of nature, attractive to the general
reader, and free from that meagreness of phraseology
necessarily peculiar to the composers of systematic
catalogues.

It is not now required of us to point out the ad-
vantages that might result from the establishment
of natural history as a branch of popular education.
These advantages have been repeatedly pressed on
the notice of the public ; and, although the system
has not been as yet adopted, the time cannot be far
distant when the elements of mineralogy, botany,
and zoology shall be taught in our schools, along
with those branches of knowledge which at present
occupy the field, to the exclusion of others not less
adapted for the improvement of the youthful mind.
" To constitute such pursuits a prominent part of ele-
mentary education," says a popular writer, '' would
without doubt be erroneous: it is, however, certain
that none are more eminently fitted to fill the
minds of youth with admiration of the numerous
contrivances and proofs of design afforded in every
part of the creation, and to inspire them with
exalted conceptions of the Supreme Being."^' We are

* Quarterly Review, vol, xxxvi. p. 219.

INTRODUCTION. 37

of opinion, notwithstanding, that they ought to occu-
py a distinct place in elementary education, because
they possess many important recommendations, of
which those mentioned are certainly not the least.
The study of nature may be pursued in any degree,
as a relaxation from other studies, as a pleasing
occupation invigorating alike to the mind and the
body, or as a science capable of calling into action the
noblest faculties of man, and of affording employment
to intellects of even a higher order than any of those
who have hitherto acquired distinction in the walks of
literature. Natural history has already to boast of
an Aristotle, a Ray, a Reaumur, a Linnaeus, a Hal-
ler, a Hunter, and a Cuvier. What other science can
rank abler men among its cultivators ? And, as is
remarked by one of the most eminent naturalists
that this country has produced, the late president
of the Linnsean Society, " How delightful and how
consolatory it is, among the disappointments and
anxieties of life, to observe science, like virtue, re-
taining its relish to the last !"

ARISTOTLE.

SECTION I.

Remarkable Events in the Life of Aristotle.

Introductory Remarks — Birth and Parentage of Aristotle — He
studies Pliilosophy under Plato— Is highly distinguished in the
Academy— Retires to Atarneus on the Death of his Master —
Marries — Is invited by Philip to superintend the Education of
Alexander — Prosecutes his Studies at the Court — On the Suc-
cession of Alexander, returns to Athens, where he sets up a
School in the Lyceum— Corresponds with Alexander, who sup-
plies Means for carrying on his Investigations — Alexander finds
Fault with him for publishing some of his Works, and after pat-
ting Callisthenes to Death, exalts his Rival Xenocrates— On the
Death of Alexander, he is accused by his Enemies of Impiety,
when he escapes to Chalcis, where he dies soon after — His
personal Appearance and Character— His Testament— History
of his Writings— Great Extent of the Subjects treated of by

him His Notions on elementary Bodies — The Material Universe

The Changes to which the Earth has been subjected, and the

Eternity of its Existence— Conclusion.

Natural History, considered as a science or body
of doctrine, commenced with Aristotle, the founder
of the Peripatetic School, and one of the most il-
lustrious philosophers of antiquity. His writings
were held in the highest estimation by his own
countrymen the Greeks, as well as by the Romans :
they were considered as the most authentic sources
of knowledge, after the revival of learning in Eu-
rope ; and even at the present day their influence
may be traced in the works of many who have not

ARISTOTLE. 39

SO much as bestowed upon them a cursory glance.
It is therefore fit that we should begin our biographi-
cal sketches with that celebrated author^ the more
especially as he did not confine himself to a single
branch of natural history^ but^ like all great minds^,
possessed an extensive acquaintance with objects of
various classes. It is he only, whose comprehen-
sive glance seizes upon what is common to nume-
rous tribes, that can duly estimate what ought to be
considered as distinctive of a particular group, or
can form rules for the arrangement and description
of the beings which compose it. The three greatest
naturalists whom the world has produced, Aristotle,
Linnaeus, and Cuvier, were men whose conceptions
were enlarged by the most expanded views. Others
have excelled them in particular departments, but
none have equalled them in general knowledge.

Aristotle was born at Stagira, a city of the
Thracian Chersonesus, in the first year of the 99th
Olympiad, or the 384th before the Christian era.
His father, Nicomachus, was physician to Amyn-
tas, king of JMacedonia, the father of Philip, and
grandfather of Alexander the Great. Of his mo-
ther, we only know that her name was Phestis,
and that, like her husband, she was originally
from Chalcis. His family claimed descent from
Machaon, the son of Esculapius. Having lost his
parents at an early age, he went to reside with
Proxenus, a citizen of Atarneus in Mysia, the friend
to whose guardianship he had been left. According
to some authorities, not being observed very strictly
by those who had the immediate charge of his educa-
tion, he spent a great part of his youth in licentious
indulgences, by which he dissipated nearly the whole

40 ARISTOTLE.

of a large patrimony. It is also said that he entered
into the military profession, but finding it disagree-
able soon renounced it, and, as a means of subsist-
ence, sold medicines at Athens. But most of these
reflections on his juvenile character may perhaps be
attributed to slander.

However this may be, it became necessary for him
to choose an employment ; and, on going to Delphi to
consult the oracle, he was directed to proceed to
Athens, and apply himself to the study of philoso-
phy. This he accordingly did, and at the age of
seventeen commenced his career as a pupil of Plato.

Being of an ardent temperament, he addicted
himself to his new pursuit with so much energy,
that he determined to reduce his hours of repose to
the smallest possible limits. For this purpose he
placed a metallic basin beside his couch, and on lying
down held out one of his hands with an iron ball in
it, that the noise produced by the collision might
awake him should he happen to slumber. Such in-
tensity of application, in a penetrating and subtile
mind, could not fail to render him highly successful
in his studies. We accordingly find that he had not
been long in the academy when he was distinguish-
ed above all the other scholars ; and it is said that
Plato used to call him the mind of his school, and
to compare him to a spirited colt that required the
application of the rein to restrain its ardour.

He has been accused of disrespect and ingrati-
tude to his aged master, and with having set up a
school in opposition to him. The author of this
charge was Aristoxenus, his own pupil ; but it is
well known that he was personally an enemy to
Aristotle, because that philosopher, in choosing a

ARISTOTLE. 41

successor^ had preferred Theophrastus. It is doubted,
besides, whether he taught publicly until after Plato's
death, which happened in 348 b. c.

Speusippus, the nephew of the sage just named,
having been appointed to succeed him in his school,
Aristotle, retiring from Athens, went to reside with
Hermeias, governor of Assus and Atarneus in My-
sia. Here he remained three years ; but his friend
having been executed, by command of Artaxerxes,
as a rebel against Persia, he was obliged to seek
refuge in Mytelene, taking with him Pythias, the
kinswoman and adopted daughter of Hermeias, to
whose memory he afterwards erected a statue in
the temple of Delphos. This lady, endeared to him
by the gratitude which he felt towards her father,
and by the distress to which she had been reduced
by his death, he married in the thirty-seventh year
of his age. She died, however, soon after their
union, leaving an infant daughter, who received the
same name.

A short time having elapsed, he was invited by
Philip to superintend the education of his son.
This distinction he no doubt owed in part to his
previous intimacy with the King of Macedonia;
but it must also have arisen from the great celebrity
which he enjoyed, as excelling in all kinds of science,
and especially in the doctrine of politics. Alexan-
der had attained the age of fifteen when the manage-
ment of his studies was confided to Aristotle, then in
his forty-second year. There is ground, however,
for presuming that previous to this period the phi-
losopher had been consulted respecting the instruc-
tion of the young prince.

The master, it has been said, was worthy of his

42 ARISTOTLE.

pupil, and the pupil of his master. In our opinion
the master was worthy of a better pupil, and the
pupil might have had a better master. At all
events, Alexander, who was ambitious of excelling
in every pursuit, must have profited greatly in the
acquisition of knowledge by the lessons of the most
eminently-endowed philosopher of his age. Accord-
ing to Plutarch and Aulus Gellius, he was instruct-
ed by him in rhetoric, physics, ethics, and politics ;
and so high was the estimation in which he held
his preceptor, that he is said to have declared, that
" he was not less indebted to Aristotle than to his
father; since if it was through the one that he
lived, it was through the other that he lived well."
It is also supposed that he had been initiated in
the abstruse speculations respecting the human soul,
the nature of the Divinity, and other subjects, on
which his master had not yet promulgated his no-
tions to the world.

During his residence at the court of Macedonia,
Aristotle did not exclusively devote himself to his
duties as instructor of the young prince, but also took
some share in public business, and continued his
philosophical researches. For the latter purpose
Philip is said to have granted him liberal supplies
of money. In consideration of his various merits the
king also rebuilt his native city, Stagira, which had
been destroyed in the wars, and restored it to its
former inhabitants, who had either been dispersed
or carried into slavery.

Alexander had scarcely completed his twentieth
year when the assassination of his father, by Pau-
sanias, one of the officers of the guard, called him
to the throne. Aristotle, however, continued to re-

ARISTOTLE.

43

side at the court two years longer ; when some mis-
understanding having arisen, he left the young
monarch at the commencement of his celebrated ex-
pedition into Asia, and returned to Athens. It has
been alleged that he accompanied his former pu-
pil as far as Egypt ; but the fact is not certain, al-
though circumstances would seem to render it
probable.

He was well received at Athens, on account of
the benefits which Philip had conferred, for his sake,
on the inhabitants of that city ; and, obtaining per-
mission from the magistrates to occupy the Lyceum,
a large enclosure in the suburbs, he proceeded to form
a school. It was his custom to instruct his disciples
while walking with them ; and for this reason the
new sect received the name of Peripatetics, or walk-
ing philosophers. In the morning he delivered his
acroatic lectures to his select pupils, imparting to
them the more abstruse parts of metaphysical science ;
and in the evening gave to his visiters or the pub-
lic at large exoteric discourses, in which the subjects
discussed were treated in a popular style. As the
Lyceum soon acquired great celebrity, scholars
flocked to it from all parts of Greece. Xenocrates,
who shared with him the lessons of Plato, had by
this time succeeded Speusippus in the Academy,
and it has been alleged that Aristotle established
his seminary in contemptuous opposition ; observing,
that it would be shameful for him to be silent while
the other taught publicly. But although the rival
sages of those days cannot be supposed to have been
influenced by a gentler spirit than animates those of
our own times, there is no reason for attributing to
the Stagirite in this matter any other motive than a

44 ARISTOTLE.

laudable desire of seeking his own interest by com-
municating knowledge to those who were desirous
of receiving it.

In this manner he gave public lectures at Athens
thirteen years^ during the greater part of which time
he did not cease to correspond with Alexander.
That celebrated prince had placed at his disposal
several thousand persons, who were occupied in
hunting, fishing, and making the observations which
were necessary for completing his History of Animals.
He is moreover said to have given the enormous
sum of 800 talents for the same purpose; while
he also took care to send to him a great variety of
zoological specimens, collected in the countries which
he had subdued.

The misunderstanding which had begun before
Aristotle parted from his royal pupil, but which had
not prevented the good offices of the latter, increased
towards the end of his career. One of the first oc-
casions seems to have been offered by the philoso-
pher, who, having published his works on physics
and metaphysics, received from Alexander, who was
piqued at his having divulged to the world the va-
luable knowledge which he had obtained from him
in his youth, the following letter : —

" Alexander to Aristotle, wishing all happiness.
You have done amiss in publishing your books on
the speculative sciences. In what shall I excel
others if what you taught me privately be commu-
nicated to all ? You know well that I would rather
surpass mankind in the more sublime branches of
learning than in power. Farewell."

ARISTOTLE. 45

This epistle exhibits the king as a very exclusive
personage ; and, joined to what history has recorded
of his actions, tends to show that selfishness, how-
ever refined or disguised, was the main source of
his insatiable ambition. One of the sincerest plea-
sures of a great mind is to communicate to others all
the blessings that it possesses. On other occasions
he appeared to entertain a wish to mortify the philo-
sopher by exalting his rival Xenocrates, who had
nothing to recommend him besides a respectable
moral character. It has even been asserted by some,,
that the conqueror, after he had put Callisthenes to
death, intended the same fate for Aristotle.

This Callisthenes was a kinsman and disciple of
the other, through whose influence, it is said, he
was appointed to attend the king on his Asiatic ex-
pedition. His republican sentiments and independ-
ent spirit, however, rendered him an indifferent cour-
tier ; while his rude and ill-timed reflections finally
converted him into an object of suspicion or dislike.
The conspiracy of Hermolaus affording Alexander
a plausible pretext for getting rid of his uncourtly
monitor, he caused him to be apprehended and put
to death. Some say that he was exposed to lions,
others that he was tortured and crucified ; but, in
whatever way he met his end, it is generally agreed
that his life was sacrificed to gratify the enmity of
his sovereign. Aristotle naturally espoused the cause
of his relative, and from that period harboured a
deep resentment against his destroyer. It has even
been alleged that he was privy to the supposed de-
sign of murdering the victorious prince ; but of this
there is no satisfactory evidence.

Notwithstanding the coolness which thus existed

46 ARISTOTLE.

between " Macedonia's madman" and " the Stagi-
rite/' the latter continued to enjoy at least an ap-
pearance of protection, which prevented his enemies
from seriously molesting him. But as the splen-
dour of his talents, his success in teaching, and the
celebrity which he had acquired in all parts of
Greece, had excited the animosity of those who found
themselves eclipsed by the brightness of his genius,
no sooner was Alexander dead, than they stirred up
a priest, named Eurymedon, with whom was asso-
ciated Demophilus, a powerful citizen, to prefer a
charge of impiety against him before the court of
Areopagus, on the ground that he had commemorat-
ed the virtues of his wife and of his friend Hermeias
with such honours as were exclusively bestowed on
the gods. Warned by the fate of Socrates under
similar circumstances, he judged it prudent to re-
tire ; remarking, that he wished to spare the Athe-
nians the disgrace of committing another act of in-
justice against philosophy.

He effected his escape, with a few friends, to
Chalcis in Euboea, where he died soon after, in the
year 322 b. c, and the 63d of his age ; having, on
his deathbed, appointed Theophrastus of Lesbos,
one of his favourite pupils, his successor at the Ly-
ceum. Various accounts are given of his demise ;
but it is probable that an overexcited mind, and a
body worn out by disease, were the real causes of
his dissolution.

According to Procopius and others, Aristotle
drowned himself in the Euboean Euripus, because he
could not discover the cause of its ebbing and flowing,
which are said to take place seven times a-day. Sir
Thomas Browne, in his Enquiries into Vulgar and

ARISTOTLE. 47

Common Errors, refutes this assertion on the follow-
ing grounds :— In the first place, his death is related
to have taken place in two ways by Diogenes Laer-
tius ; the one, from Eumolus and Phavorinus, that
being accused of impiety for composing a hymn to his
friend Hermeias, he withdrew to Chalcis, where he
drank poison ; the other, by Apollodorus, that he
died of a disease in his stomach, in his sixty-third
year. Again, the thing is in itself unreasonable,
and therefore improbable ; for Aristotle was not so
apt to be vexed by the difficulty of accounting
for natural phenomena, nor is there any evidence
that he endeavoured to discover the ebb and flow
of the Euripus, for he has made no mention of
it in his works. Lastly, the phenomenon itself is
disputable; and it appears from a comparison of
testimonies on the subject, that the stream in ques-
tion flows and ebbs only four times a-day, as is the
case with other parts of the sea, though it is sub-
ject to irregularities dependent upon the winds
and other causes. " However, therefore, Aris-
totle died," concludes our author, " what was his
end, or upon what occasion, although it be not al-
together assured, yet that his memory and worthy
name shall live, no man will deny, nor grateful!
schollar doubt : and if, according to the Elogie of
Solon, a man may be onely said to be happy after
he is dead, and ceaseth to be in the visible capacity
of beatitude : or if, according unto his own Ethicks,
sence is not essentiall unto felicity, but a man may
be happy without the apprehension thereof; surely
in that sence he is pyramidally happy, nor can he
ever perish but in the Euripe of ignorance, or till
the torrent of barbarisme overwhelme all."

48 ARISTOTLE.

With respect to personal appearance^ Aristotle was
not highly favoured. He was of short stature^ with
slender legs, and remarkably small eyes. His voice
was shrill, and his utterance hesitating. Although
his constitution was feeble, he seems to have enjoyed
good health. His moral character has been im-
peached by some ; but we may presume that it was
not liable to any serious imputation, otherwise his
faults would not have escaped the observation of his
numerous enemies, who yet could only prefer against
him some vague charges of impiety.

Aristotle was not merely a philosopher; he was also
what would at the present day be called a gentle-
man and a man of the world. In accordance with
this character he dressed magnificently, wore rings
of great value, shaved his head and face, contrary to
the practice of the other scholars of Plato, and freely
indulged in social intercourse. He was twice mar-
ried. By his first wife, Pythias, he had a daughter
of the same name, who was married to Nicanor,
the son of Proxenus. His second wife was Herpy-
lis, a native of Stagira, by whom he had a son,
called Nicomachus.

It is difficult to determine his real character.
Those who seem to find pleasure in reviling him,
assert that he was a parasite, a habitual glutton and
drunkard, a despiser of the gods, a vain person,
whose chief care was to ornament his person, and
thereby counteract the unfavourable impression
which his disproportioned figure might make. It has
been said, with perhaps more truth, that he taught
his pupil Alexander principles of morals and policy
which were not the best adapted for a prince of his
ambitious temper ; and that his desire of standing

ARISTOTLE. 49

forth as the founder of a philosophical sect, induced
him to prefer abstract disquisitions to solid know-
ledge, and to indulge in a spirit of contradiction and
innovation. On the other hand, he has been ex-
tolled as a prodigy of knowledge and intellect, and
represented as " the secretary of nature." Jews
have laid claim to his philosophy as derived from
Solomon, and Christians have held him up as a per-
son ordained to prepare the way for a Divine revela-
tion. It is certain, however, that he was a very re-
markable individual, possessed of great powers of
observation and discrimination, and one who, had
he devoted himself to the study of natural objects
with a sincere desire of ascertaining their proper-
ties and a resolution to adhere to truth, might
have succeeded in laying on a solid basis the found-
ations of physical science.

Diogenes of Laertes in Cilicia, who lived about
the end of the second century, and who wrote an
account of the lives of the philosophers, has pre-
served his testament, the substance of which is as
follows : — Antipater, the regent of Macedonia, is
appointed his executor. To his wife Herpylis he
leaves the choice of two houses, the one in Chalcis,
the other at Stagira. He commends her domestic
virtues, and requests his friends to distinguish her
by the kindest attention. To Nicomachus, his
son by Herpylis, and to Pythias, his daughter by
his first wife, he bequeaths the remainder of his
fortune, excepting his library and writings, which
he leaves to Theophrastus. He desires that his
daughter shall be given in marriage to Nicanor,
the son of his benefactor Proxenus, or, should he not
be inclined to receive her, to Theophrastus, his es-

c

50 ARISTOTLE.

teemed pupil. The bones of Pythias lie orders to
be disinterred and buried with his own body, as she
herself had desired. None of his slaves are to be
sold ; they are all either emancipated by his will,
or ordered to be set free by his heirs whenever they
shall become worthy of liberty. Finally, he orders
that the dedications which he had vowed for the
safety of Nicanor be presented at Stagira to Jupi-
ter and Minerva.

The same writer gives the titles of 260 works of
Aristotle. Many of these, however, have perished.
From his situation in society, and the munificent
patronage of Alexander, he possessed more ample
resources than any other man of science that could
be named ; and, considering the age in which he
lived, his success in the investigation of nature may
be considered as almost unrivalled. It is to be re-
gretted that so many of his treatises have been lost,
and that even those which have been transmitted
to us have not been preserved in a perfect state.

Strabo has given a melancholy history of these
works, in the ninth book of his geography. Aris-
totle, as we have stated above, had bequeathed
them to Theophrastus, the most distinguished of
his pupils, and his successor in the school. That
philosopher left them, together with his own works,
to his scholar Neleus, who carried them to his
native city, Scepsis in Asia Minor. The heirs of
Neleus, who were unlettered men, kept them locked
up ; and when they understood that the King of
Pergamos, to whom the town belonged, was collect-
ing books, to form a library on the plan of the Alex-
andrian, they concealed them in a vault or cellar,
where they lay forgotten 130 years. When acci-

ARISTOTLE. 51

dentally discovered, at the end of that period, they
were found to be greatly injured by damp and ver-
min. At length they were sold to an inhabitant of
Athens, named Apellicon, who, however, was not
so much a lover of philosophy as a collector of
manuscripts, and who adulterated the original text
by his injudicious emendations and interpolations.
Several copies thus altered were published by him.
When Athens was taken by Sylla, the library of
this citizen was carried to Rome, where the works
of Aristotle were corrected by Tyrannion, a gram-
marian. Andronicus of Rhodes afterwards arranged
the whole into sections, and gave them to the world.

According to Dr Gillies, Aristotle must have
" composed above 400 different treatises, of which
only forty-eight have been transmitted to the pre-
sent age. But many of these last consist of several
books ; and the whole of his remains together still
form a golden stream of Greek erudition, exceeding
four times the collective bulk of the Iliad and
Odyssey."

He was scarcely less ambitious than his pupil
Alexander, and his works embrace nearly the whole
range of human knowledge as it existed in his day.
He was the inventor of the syllogistic mode of rea-
soning, the principles of which he lays down in his
work on logic. In his books on rhetoric, he has in-
vestigated the principles of eloquence with great
accuracy and precision, insomuch that they form
the basis of all that has since been written on the
subject. His work on poetics, or rather the frag-
ment which has come down to us under that name,
although almost entirely confined to the considera-
tion of the drama, contains principles applicable to

52 ARISTOTLE.

poetical composition in general, and is equally distin-
guished for precision and depth of thought. Those
on ethics and politics are also remarkable produc-
tions ; and although the former has been effectually
superseded by a more perfect system, the latter con-
tains much that is interesting even at the present day.
In his metaphysics, he expounds the doctrine of Be-
ing abstracted from Matter, and speaks of a First
iVIover, — the life and intellect of the universe, eter-
nal and immutable, but neither omnipresent nor
omnipotent. When treating of physics, he does not
in general lay down rules a prion, but deduces them
from the observation and comparison of facts. This
being the case, we might expect that such of his
writings as relate to natural history should contain
much truth.

He holds that all terrestrial bodies are composed
of four elements, — earth, water, air, and fire. Earth
and water are heavy, because they tend towards the
earth's centre ; while air and fire, which tend up-
wards, are light.

Besides these four elements, he has admitted a
fifth, of which the celestial objects were composed,
and whose motion is always circular. He supposed
that there is above the air, under the concave part
of the moon, a sphere of fire to which all the flames
ascend, as the brooks and rivers flow into the ocean.

He maintains that matter is infinitely divisible;
that the universe is full, and that there is no vacuum
in nature ; that the world is eternal ; that the sun,
which has always revolved as it does at present, will
for ever continue to do so ; and finally, that the ge-
nerations of men succeed each other without having
had a beginning or foreseeing an end.

ARISTOTLE. 53

He alleges that the heavens are incapable of decay ;
and that although sublunar things are subject to
corruption, their parts nevertheless do not perish ;
that they only change place ; that from the remains
of one thing another is made ; and that thus the
mass of the world always remains entire. He holds
that the earth is in the centre of the world ; and that
the First Being makes the skies revolve round the
earth, by intelligences which are continually occu-
pied with these motions.

He asserts that all of the globe which is now covered
by the waters of the sea was formerly dry land ; and
that what is now dry land will be again converted
into water. The reason is this : the rivers and tor-
rents are continually carrying along sand and earth,
which causes the shores gradually to advance, and
the sea gradually to retire ; so that in the course of
innumerable ages the alleged vicissitudes necessarily
take place. He adds, that in several parts which
are considerably inland, and even of great elevation,
the sea, when retiring, left shells, and that, on dig-
ging in the ground, anchors and fragments of ships
are sometimes found. Ovid attributes the same
opinion to Pythagoras.

Aristotle farther remarks, that these conversions of
sea into land, and of land into sea, which gradually
take place in the long lapse of ages, are in a great
measure the cause of our ignorance of past occur-
rences. He adds, that besides this other accidents
happen, which give rise even to the loss of the arts ;
and among these he enumerates pestilences, wars,
famines, earthquakes, burnings, and desolations,
which exterminate all the inhabitants of a coun-
try, excepting a few who escape and save them-

54 ARISTOTLE.

selves in the deserts, where they lead a savage
life, and where they give origin to others, who
in the progress of time cultivate the ground, and
invent or rediscover the arts; and that the same
opinions recur, and have been renewed times with-
out number. In this manner, he maintains that,
notwithstanding these vicissitudes and revolutions,
the machine of the world always remains indestruc-
tible.

If an apology were necessary for the brevity of
the above sketch, it might be urged, that it probably
contains all that is authentic respecting the life
of this eminent philosopher ; and that our object is
to condense, not to expand ; to direct the attention
to characteristic features, not to lead the mind to
expatiate vaguely upon the general surface.

ARISTOTLE.

55

SECTION II.

Account of Aristotle's History of Animals.

Aristotle's Ideas respecting the Soul— His Views of Anatomy and
Physiology — Introduction to his History of Animals, consisting
of Aphorisms or general Principles — His Division of Animals ;
their external Parts ; their Arrangement into Families ; their in-
ternal Organs ; Generation, &c.

Of all the sciences, it has been remarked, that which
owes most to Aristotle is the natural history of ani-
mals. Not only was he acquainted with numerous
species, he also described them according to a com-
prehensive and luminous method, which perhaps
none of his successors have approached; arrang-
ing the facts observed, not according to the species,
but according to the organs and functions, which
affords the only means of establishing comparative
results. It may in fact be said, that besides being
the oldest author on comparative anatomy whose
writings we possess, he was likewise one of those
who have treated that part of natural history with
most genius, and best deserves to be taken as a
model. The principal divisions which are still adopt-
ed by naturalists in the animal kingdom are those
of Aristotle, and he proposed some which have been
resumed after having been unjustly rejected. If
we examine the foundation of these great labours,
we shall find that they all rest on the same method.

56 ARISTOTLE.

which is itself derived from the theory respecting
the origin of general ideas. He always observes facts
with attention^ compares them with great precision^
and endeavours to discover the circumstances in
which they agree. His style^ moreover^ is suited to
his method : simple, precise, unstudied, and calm, it
seems in every respect the reverse of Plato's ; but it
has also the merit of being generally clear, except in
some places where his ideas themselves were not so.^'
In one of his treatises, Aristotle divides na-
tural bodies into those possessing life, and those
destitute of that principle, — into animate and in-
animate. He considers soul as the vital energy or
vivifying principle common to all organized bodies ;
but distinguishes in it three species. Thus, in plants
there is a vegetative, in animals a vegetative and
a sentient, in man a vegetative, a sentient, and a
rational soul. The functions of nutrition and ge-
neration in plants and animals he attributes to the
vegetative soul ; sense, voluntary motion, appetite,
and passion, to the sentient soul ; the exercise of
the intellectual faculties, to the rational soul.

His ideas of anatomy and physiology were ex-
tremely imperfect. Thus, he supposed the brain to
be a cold spongy mass, adapted for collecting and
exhaling the superfluous moisture, and intended for
aiding the lungs and trachea in regulating the heat
of the body. The heart is the seat of the vital fire,
the fountain of tlie blood, the organ of motion, sen-
sation, and nutrition, as well as of the passions, and
the origin of the veins and nerves. The blood is
confined to the veins; while the arteries contain

* Biographie Universelle.

ARISTOTLE. 5'J

an aerial spirit ; and by nerves he means tendons,
nerves, and arteries, — in short, strings of all kinds,
as the name implies. The heart has three cavities ;
in the larger animals it communicates with the
windpipe, or the ramifications of the pulmonary
artery receive the breath in the lungs and carry it
to the heart. Respiration is performed by the ex-
pansion of the air in the lungs, by means of the in-
ternal fire, and the subsequent irruption of the ex-
ternal air to prevent a vacuum. Digestion is a kind
of concoction or boiling, performed in the stomach,
assisted by the heat of the neighbouring viscera.

It is perhaps impossible at the present day, when
the investigation of nature is so much facilitated by
the accumulated knowledge of ages in every depart-
ment of physical science, by the commercial rela-
tions existing between countries in all parts of the
globe, by a tried method of observation, experiment,
and induction, and finally, by the possession of the
most ingenious instruments, to form any adequate
idea of the numerous difficulties under which the
ancient naturalist laboured. On the other hand,
he had this great advantage, that almost every
thing was new ; that the most simple observation
correctly recorded, the most trivial phenomenon
truly interpreted, became as it were his inalienable
property, and was handed down to succeeding ages
as a proof of his talents, — a circumstance which must
have supplied a great motive to exertion.

The History of Animals is undoubtedly one of
the most remarkable performances of which phy-
sical science can boast It must not, however, be
imagined that it is a work which, replete with truth
and exhibiting the well-arranged results of accurate

58 ARISTOTLE.

observation and laborious investigation, is calculat-
ed to afford material aid to the modern student.
To him more recent productions are the only safe
guides; nor is it until he has studied them, and
interrogated nature for himself, that he can derive
benefit from the perusal of the treatise which we now
proceed to examine.

The first book contains a brief description of the
parts of which the bodies of animals are composed.
The introduction consistsof general propositions; of
which we shall present a few of the more remark-
able as a specimen.

Some parts, he observes, are simple, and divided
into similar particles ; while others are compound,
and consist of dissimilar elements. The same parts
in different animals vary in form, proportion, and
other qualities ; and there are many creatures which,
although they have the same parts, have them in
different situations. Animals differ in their mode
of living, actions, and manners : thus, some reside
on land, others in water; and of the latter some
breathe water, others air, and some neither. Of
aquatic animals, some inhabit the sea, others the
rivers, lakes, or marshes. Of those which live in
the sea, some are pelagic, others littoral, and others
inhabit rocks. Of land-animals, some respire air,
as man ; others, although they live on the land and
obtain their food there, do not breathe air, as wasps,
bees, and other insects.

We know no animal, says he, that flies only, as the
fish swims ; for those which have membranous wings
walk also; and bats have feet, as have seals, al-
though imperfect. But some birds have the feet
weak ; in which case the defect is compensated by

ARISTOTLE. 59

the superior action of the wings, as in swallows.
There are many species which both walk and
swim. Animals also differ in their habits ; thus,
some are gregarious, others solitary, — a distinction
applicable to them whether they walk, fly, or swim.
Some obey a leader, others act independently;
cranes and bees are of the former, ants of the latter
kind. Some feed on flesh, others on fruits, while
others feed indiscriminately; some have homes,
others use no covering of this kind, but reside in
the open air. Some burrow, as lizards and snakes ;
others, as the horse and the dog, live above ground.
Some animals seek their food at night, others by
day; some are tame, others wild; some utter
sounds, others are mute, and some sing; all of
them, however, sing or cry in some way at the sea-
son of pairing.

In this way he proceeds, stating briefly the va-
rious circumstances in which animals differ from
each other, and in conclusion asserting that man is
the only one capable of design ; for, says he, al-
though many of them have memory and docility,
none but man have the faculty of reflection.

These general propositions or aphorisms are not
so simple or so easily attained as one might imagine
on reading them inattentively. Let any person
who has a tolerably comprehensive idea of the series
of animated beings reflect a little, and he will per-
ceive, that such as the following must be derived
from the observation of a great number of facts : —
Those parts which seize the food, and into which
it is received, are found in all animals. The sense
of touch is the only one common to all. Every living
creature has a humour, blood or sanies, the loss of

60 ARISTOTLE.

which produces deatli. Every species that has
wings has also feet.

In this chapter Aristotle divides animals into
such as have bloody and such as have it not. Of
the former (the red-blooded) some want feet, others
have two of these organs, and others four. Of the
latter (the white-blooded) many have more than
four feet. Of the swimming-animals, which are
destitute of feet, some have fins, which are two or
four ; others none. Of the cartilaginous class, those
which are flat have no fins, as the skate. Some of
them have feet, as the mollusca. Those which have
a hard leathery covering swim with their tail.
Again, some animals are viviparous, others produce
eggs, some worms. Man, the horse, the seal, and
other land-animals, bring forth their young alive ;
as do the cetacea and sharks. Those which have
blow-holes have no gills, as the dolphin and whale.
In this department, the observations of the great
philosopher are often minute, and generally accurate,
although usually too aphoristic and unconnected to
be of much use to the student.

Of flying-animals, some, as the eagle and hawk,
have wings ; others, in place of wings, have mem-
branes, as the bee and the beetle ; others a leathery
expansion, as the bat. Those which have feathered
or leathery wings are blooded (red-blooded) ; but
those which have membranous wings, as insects, are
bloodless (white-blooded). Those which fly with
wings or with leathery expansions, either have two
feet or none; for, says he, it is reported that there are
serpents of this kind in Ethiopia. Of the flying
bloodless animals, some have their wings covered
by a sheath, as beetles ; others have no covering.

ARISTOTLE. 61

and of these some have two, others four wings;
Those which are of large size, or bear a sting be-
hind, have four ; but the smaller and stingless, two
only. Those which have sheaths to their wings,
have no sting ; but those which have two wings
are furnished with a sting in their fore part, as the
gnat.

Animals are distinguished from each other, so as
to form kinds or families. These, according to our
author, are quadrupeds, birds, fishes, cetacea, all
which he says have (red) blood. There is another
kind, covered with a shell, such as the oyster ; and
another, protected by a softer shell, such as the crab.
Another kind is that of the mollusca, such as the
cuttle-fish ; and lastly, the family of insects. All
these are destitute of (red) blood.

Here, then, we have a general classification of
animals, which it is important to notice, as we may
have occasion afterwards to compare it with ar-
rangements proposed by other naturalists. It may
be reduced to the following form : —

Red-blooded Animals.

Quadrupeds, Serpents, Birds, Fishes, Cetacea-

White-blooded Animals.

Testacea, Crustacea, Mollusca, Insects.

It must, however, be understood, that Aristotle
proposes no formal distribution of animals, and that
his ideas respecting families, groups, or genera, such
as those of our present naturalists, are extremely
vague.

His quadrupeds include the mammalia and the
quadrupedal reptiles. He divides them into those
which are viviparous, and those which are ovipa-
rous ; the former covered with hair, the latter with
7

62 ARISTOTLE.

scales. Serpents are also scaly^ and, excepting the
viper, oviparous. Yet all viviparous animals are not
hairy ; for some fishes, he remarks, likewise bring
forth their young alive. In the great family of vivipa-
rous quadrupeds also, he says, there are many spe-
cies (or genera), as man, the lion, the stag, and the
dog. He then mentions, as an example of a natural
genus, those which have a mane, as the horse, the
ass, the mule, and the wild-ass of Syria, which are
severally distinct species, but together constitute a
genus or family.

This introduction to the History of Animals the
philosopher seems to have intended, less as a sum-
mary of his general views respecting their organiza-
tion and habits, than as a popular exordium, cal-
culated to engage the attention of the reader, and
excite him to the study of nature. Whatever errors
it may contain, and however much it may be defi-
cient in strictly methodical arrangement, it is yet
obviously the result of extensive, and frequently ac-
curate observation. He then proceeds to the de-
scription of the different parts of the human body,
first treating of what anatomists call the great re-
gions, and the exterior generally, and then passing
to the internal organization. His descriptions in
general are vague, and often incorrect. As an ex-
ample, we may translate the passage that refers to
the ear.

This organ, he says, is that part of the head by
which we hear ; but we do not respire by it, for
Alcmeon's opinion, that goats respire by the ears, is
incorrect. One part of it has no name, the other is
called lobos ; it consists entirely of cartilage and flesh.
The internal region is like a spiral shell, resembling

ARISTOTLE. 63

an auricle at the extremity of the bone, into which
as into a vessel the sound passes. Nor is there any
passage from it to the brain, but to the palate ; and
a vein stretches from the brain to it. But the eyes
belong to the brain, and each is placed upon a small
vein. Every animal that has ears moves them, ex-
cepting man ; for of those which are furnished with
the sense of hearing, some have ears, others none,
but an open passage; of which kind are feather-
ed animals, and all that are covered with a scaly
skin. But those which are viviparous, the seal, the
dolphin, and other cetacea excepted, have exter-
nal ears, as well as the viviparous cartilaginous ani-
mals. The seal has a manifest passage for hearing ;
but the dolphin, although it hears, yet has no ears.
The ears are situated at the same level as the eyes^
but not higher, as in certain quadrupeds. The ears
of some persons are smooth, of others rough, or partly
so ; but this furnishes no indication of disposition.
They are also large, small, or of moderate size, pro-
jecting, or flat, or intermediate. The latter circum-
stance indicates the best disposition. Large and
projecting ears are indicative of a fool and babbler.
From this passage we perceive that Aristotle was
acquainted with the Eustachian tube; although
his anatomical knowledge of the ear is certainly of
the most superficial kind, and his physiognomical
notions respecting it sufficiently ludicrous. He di-
vides the body into head, neck, trunk, arms, and
legs, much as we do at the present day. The head
consists of the calvaria, or part covered with hair,
which is divided into three regions, the bregma
or fore part, the crown, and the occiput. Under
the bregma is the brain ; but the back part of the

64 ARISTOTLE.

head is empty. When speaking of the face, he
remarks, that persons having a large forehead are of
slow intellect, that smallness of that part indicates
fickleness, great breadth stupidity, and roundness
irascibility. The physiognomists of our day have a
different opinion. The neck contains the spine, the
gullet, and the arteria (or windpipe). The trunk
consists of the breast, the belly, &c. ; — and in this
manner he passes over the different ex^ternal regions.

In describing the brain, he states that all red-
blooded animals have that organ, as have also the
mollusca, and that in man it is largest and most
humid. He had observed its two membranes, as
well as the hemispheres and cerebellum ; but he as-
serts that it is bloodless, that no veins exist in it,
and that it is naturally cold to the touch. He was
ignorant of the distribution of the nerves, was not
aware that the arteries contain blood, imagined that
the heart being connected with the windpipe is in-
flated through it, and, in a word, manifests extreme
ignorance of every thing that relates to the internal
organization.

Judging from this specimen, the reader may sus-
pect that his time would not be profitably employed
in separating the few particles of wheat from the
great mass of chaff which the writings of Aristotle
present to us. Nor must it be concealed that the
modern naturalist does not consult his volumes for
information, but merely to gratify curiosity. There
is to be found, indeed, in the most imperfect of our
elementary works on anatomy, whether human or
comparative, more knowledge than was probably
contained in the Alexandrian library.

In his second book, he treats more particularly of

ARISTOTLE. 65

animals. At its commencement we unfortunately
meet with a stumbling-block, in the shape of an as-
sertion, that the neck of the lion has no vertebrae,
but consists of a single bone. In speaking of limbs,
he takes occasion to describe the proboscis of the
elephant, and to enter generally into the history of
that gigantic quadruped. He then speaks with re-
ference to the distribution of hair, remarking, that
the hair of the human head is longer than that of
any other animal ; that some are covered all over
with long hair, as the bear ; others on the neck only,
as the lion ; and others only along the back of the
neck, as the horse and the bonasus. He describes
the buffalo and the camel ; of the latter of which
he mentions the two species, the Arabian and the
Bactrian. The subject of claws, hoofs, and horns,
is next discussed. He states that some quadrupeds
have many toes, as the lion ; while others have the
foot divided into two, as the sheep ; and others
again have a single toe or hoof, as the horse. His
aphorisms on the subject of horns are in general
correct. Thus, he states that most creatures fiu*-
nished with them have cloven hoofs, and that no
single-hoofed animal has two horns.

He then proceeds to speak of teeth, which he says
are possessed by all viviparous quadrupeds. Some
have them in both jaws, others not ; for horned ani-
mals have teeth in the lower jaw only, the front ones
being wanting in the upper. Yet all animals which
have no teeth above are not horned ; the camel, for
example. Some have projecting teeth, as the boar ;
others not. In some they are jagged, as in the lion,
panther, and dog ; in others even, as in the horse
and cow. No animal has horns and protruded

QQ ARISTOTLE.

teeth ; nor is there any having jagged teeth that
has either horns or projecting teeth. The greater
part have the front teeth sharp, and those behind
broad ; but the seal has them all jagged, for it par-
takes of the nature of fishes, which have that pecu-
liarity. His remarks on the shedding of the teeth
are in general erroneous. The elephant, he says,
has four grinders, together with two others, the
latter of which are of great size and bent upwards
in the male, but small and directed the contrary way
in the female. This circumstance Cuvier states to
be correct wdth respect to the African variety, al-
though the case is different in the Asiatic. His ac-
count of the hippopotamus, however, is inaccurate
in almost every particular. Thus, he says it has a
mane like a horse, cloven feet like an ox, and is of
the size of an ass, — a description w^hich answers bet-
ter to the gnu. In speaking of monkeys, of which
he mentions several kinds, he remarks their resem-
blance to the human species, and the peculiar forma-
tion of their hind feet, which may be used as hands.

He then gives a general account of the oviparous
quadrupeds, particularly of the Egyptian crocodile
and the chameleon, concerning which he relates
many interesting circumstances.

In treating of birds, he remarks that they are
bipedal, like man, destitute of anterior limbs, but
furnished with wings, and having a peculiar forma-
tion in the legs. Those birds which have hooked
claws, he says, have the breast more robust than
others. He then describes the differences in the
structure of their feet ; remarking, that most of them
have three toes before and one behind, although a
few, as tlie wryneck, have two only before. Birds,

ARISTOTLE. (')7

he adds, have the place of lips and teeth supplied
by a bill ; and instead of external ears and nostrils
properly so called, they have passages for hearing and
smelling in different parts of the head. The eyes have
no lashes, but are furnished with a membrane like
lizards. The other remarkable peculiarities, such
as the feathers and the form of the tongue, are
then mentioned. No birds, he observes, that have
hooked claws are furnished with spurs. In his re-
marks on this family he is generally correct ; though
here, as elsewhere, he is not merely brief, but vague
and superficial. His division of birds would seem to
be the following : — Those with hooked claws ; those
with separated toes ; and such as are web-footed.

Fishes are next discussed with nearly equal bre-
vity. He remarks, that they have a peculiarelongated
form, are destitute of mammae, emit by their gills the
water received at the mouth, swdm by means of fins,
are generally covered with scales, and are destitute
of the organs of hearing and smelling.

His description of the internal parts of these
tribes of animals contains a mixture of truth and
error. This book terminates with remarks on the
structure of serpents.

The third commences with observations on those
parts of animals which are homogeneous, such as
the blood, the fibres, the veins, the nerves, and the
hair. Under the general title of nerve, he confounds
the columnse carnese of the heart, the tendons and
fasciae ; and it does not appear that he had any idea
of what modern anatomists call nerves. In speak-
ing of hair, he remarks that it grows in sick per-
sons, especially those labouring under consumption,
in old people, and even in dead bodies. The same

68 ARISTOTLE.

remark applies to the nails. The blood is contained
in the veins and heart, is, like the brain, insensible,
flows from a wound in any part of the flesh, has a
sweet taste and a red colour, coagulates in the air,
palpitates in the veins, and when vitiated is pro-
ductive of disease. On the subject of milk, his ob-
servations deserve attention. Thus, he says that
all viviparous animals which have hair are furnish-
ed with mammae, as are also the whale and the
dolphin ; but those which are oviparous are not so
provided. All milk has a watery fluid, called se-
rum, and a thick part, called cheese; while that
produced by animals which are destitute of fore
teeth in the upper jaw coagulates. On this subject
he mentions some curious circumstances. Some
kinds of food occasion the appearance of a little
milk in women who are not pregnant. There have
even been instances of it flowing from the breasts of
elderly females. The shepherds about Mount (Eta
rub the udders of unimpregnated goats with nettles,
and thus obtain abundance of milk from them. It
sometimes happens that male animals secrete the
same fluid ; thus, there was a he-goat in the island
of Lemnos, which yielded so much that small
cheeses were made of it. A little may be pressed
from the breasts of some men after the age of pu-
berty; and there have been individuals who on
being sucked have yielded a large quantity. In-
stances of this have been recorded by other observ-
ers ; and Humboldt met with a similar case in South
America.*

In the fourth book, Aristotle treats of the animals

* See Edinburgh Cabinet Library, No. X. Travels and Re-
searches of Alexander Von Humboldt, p. 91.

ARISTOTLE. 69

which are destitute of red blood. Of these, he says
there are several genera : the mollusca, such as the
cuttlefish, which is externally soft with an internal
firm part ; the Crustacea, internally soft and covered
with a firm integument, such as the crab ; the testa-
cea, internally soft and externally hard and solid, as
the limpet and oyster. The insects form the fourth
genus; and are distinguished by their being external-
ly and internally formed of a hardish or cartilaginous
substance, and divided into segments ; some of them
having wings, as the wasp ; while others have none,
as the centipede. He then gives a pretty full ac-
count of the cuttlefish and nautilus, treats of the
crustaceous animals generally, and enters into de-
tails respecting the other two classes. After this he
enumerates the organs of sensation, stating that man,
and all the red-blooded and viviparous animals,
possess five senses, although in the mole vision is
deficient. He describes correctly the eye of that crea-
ture, showing that it is covered by a thickish skin,
but presents a conformation similar to that of other
animals, and is furnished with a nerve from the
brain. He shows that although fishes have no visi-
ble organs of smelling or hearing, they yet possess
both senses, and, in treating of this subject, states
many interesting facts relative to the mode em-
ployed in catching dolphins. He also shows that
insects have the faculty of hearing and smelling.
The testacea, he says, besides feeling, which is com-
mon to all animals, have smell and taste ; but he
also asserts that some of them, the solen and pecten,
are capable of seeing, and others of hearing.

All viviparous quadrupeds not only sleep, but also
dream ; but whether the oviparous dream is uncer-

70 ARISTOTLE.

tain ; although it is plain that they sleep, as do the
aquatic animals, fishes, mollusca, testacea, and Crus-
tacea. A transition is then made to the subject of
sex, for the purpose of showing that in the mollusca,
Crustacea, testacea, and eels, there is no diiference in
that respect between individuals of the same species.

The subjects of generation and parturition occupy
the fifth, sixth, and seventh books. From the com-
paratively large space which he has devoted to the
result of his inquiries in these departments, the
minuteness with which he describes the phenomena
presented by them in man and the domestic ani-
mals, and the accurate knowledge which he fre-
quently exhibits, it may be inferred that they were
favourite subjects with Aristotle. It is sufficient
for our purpose to mention some of the cases in
which he attained the truth, and others in which
he failed.

He describes the membranes with which some
of the mollusca envelope their eggs, mentions the
changes through which insects pass before they ac-
quire the perfect state, and speaks with tolerable ac-
curacy of the economy of bees and wasps. He states,
however, that the former make wax from flowers, but
gather their honey from a substance which falls from
the air upon trees. The eggs of tortoises, he says,
are hard, like those of birds, and are deposited in
the ground. His remarks on those of lizards and
the crocodile are also correct. He states accurately
that some serpents bring forth their young enclosed
in a soft membrane, which they afterwards burst ;
l)ut that sometimes the little animals escape from
the egg internally, and are produced free. Other ser-
l^ents, he observes, bring forth eggs cohering in the

ARISTOTLE. 71

form of a necklace. On the eggs of birds his obser-
vations are nearly as correct as those which we find
in books at the present day. He was acquainted
with their general structure, and the develop-
ment of the chick, which he minutely describes.
He remarks of the cuckoo, that it is not a changed
hawk, as some have asserted ; that, although cer-
tain persons have alleged that its young have never
been seen, it yet certainly has young ; that, how-
ever, it does not construct a nest, but deposites its
eggs in the nest of other birds, after eating those
w^hich it finds there.

He remarks that the cartilaginous fishes are
viviparous, but that the other species bring forth
eggs, and states correctly that they have no alantoid
membrane. He then passes to the cetacea, with
which he seems to be nearly as well acquainted as
modern naturalists, and reverts to the oviparous
fishes, respecting which he presents numerous de-
tails. He maintains, however, that the eel is pro-
duced spontaneously, and that no person had ever
detected eggs or milt in it.

Having discussed the subject of generation, he
proceeds, in the eighth book, to treat of the food
and actions of animals, their migrations, and other
circumstances. The ninth consists of a multitude
of topics without any direct relation to each other,
but apparently treated as they had successively
presented themselves to the author. Thus, at the
commencement we find remarks on the peculiarities
of disposition observed in the males and females of
different animals, the combats of hostile species, the
actions of animals, nidification, generation, and
other matters. Several species of different classes

72 ARISTOTLE.

are then described^ such as the kingfisher, the black-
bird, the cuckoo, the marten, eagles, owls, fishes,
insects, and quadrupeds.

The fragments which remain of Aristotle's His-
tory of Animals may, perhaps, be considered as
presenting the general views which he had intended
to precede his more particular descriptions; but,
regarded even in this light, it cannot be denied that
they are extremely deficient in method. There is
in them no approach to a regular classification, we
do not say of animals, but of subjects to be discuss-
ed. He is continually making abrupt transitions,
seems to lose sight of the object more immediately
in view, to indulge in digressions foreign to it,
and frequently repeats a circumstance which he
had related before. His work resembles the rude
notes which an author makes previous to the final
arrangement of his book ; and such it may possi-
bly have been. Of descriptions, properly so called,
there are few, — those of the elephant, the camel,
the bonasus, the crocodile, the chameleon, the
cuckoo, the cuttlefish, and a few others, being all
that we find.

It may appear strange, that the statements of
naturalists should so frequently prove incorrect. In
how many works, even of the present day, are er-
rors to be discovered, which might have been avoid-
ed by a proper use of the organs of vision, and a re-
solution to take nothing on trust ! But it is much
easier to employ the imperfect remarks of others,
to collect from books, compare and arrange, than
to seek or make opportunities of observation for
one's self; and of so little consequence do some men
hold the actual inspection of natural objects, that.

ARISTOTLE. 73

without practising it to any extent^ they neverthe-
less arrogate to themselves the title of philosophical
inquirers.

In fine, the observations of Aristotle, consider-
ing the period at which he lived, and the prone-
ness of the human intellect to wander from the true
path, are remarkable for the great proportion of truth
which they present to us. Whatever may be their
actual merits, they are certainly superior to those of
any other naturalist whose works have come down
to us from the remote ages of classical antiquity ;
and we may take leave of this distinguished man
by observing, in the words of Dr Barclay, that,
" notwithstanding his many imperfections, he did
much both for anatomy and natural history, and
more, perhaps, than any other of the human spe-
cies, excepting such as a Haller or Linnaeus, could
have accomplished in similar circumstances."

The best edition of his History of Animals (IIsp/
ZojMv 'I?-oPia), is that of Schneider, in 4 vols 8vo,
which issued from the press at Leipsic in 1811.
Many editions of his works have been published; but
the most complete is said to be Sylburge's, printed at
Frankfort, containing, — Organon, 1585 ; Rhetorica
et Poetica, 1584; Ethica ad Nicomachum, 1584;
Ethica Magna, &c. 1584; Politica et (Economica,
1587; Animalium Historia, 1587; DeAnimalium
Partibus, &c. 1585; Physicse Auscultationis, lib.
viii. et Alia Opera, 1596 ; De Ccelo, lib. iv. ; De
Generatione et Conceptione ; De Meteoris, lib. iv. ;
De Mundo ; De Anima ; Parva Naturalia ; Varia
Opuscula, 1587 ; Alexandri et Cassii Problemata,
1585 ; Aristotelis et Theophrasti Metaphysica, 1585.

PLINY THE ELDER.

Account of his Life and Works.

Introductory Remarks— Notice respecting Pliny by Suetonius —
Account of'his Habits, as given by his Nephew, Pliny the Younger
— Various Particulars of his Life— His Death occasioned by an
Eruption of Vesuvius — Buffon's Opinion of the Writings of Pliny
—Judgment < f Cuvier on the same Subject — Brief Account of
the Historia Naturalis, including Extracts respecting the Wolf,
the Lion, and other Animals— Cleopatra's Pearls — History of a
Raven — Domestic Fowls — General Remarks.

Between the death of Aristotle and the birth of
the celebrated naturalist whose life and writings we
now proceed to delineate, there elapsed nearly three
centuries and a half. It was in the reign of Tiberius,
in the 77^th year of Rome and the 20th of the
Christian era, that Pliny was born. Some assert
that he w^as a native of Verona ; others maintain
that Comum was his birthplace ; while Hardouin
labours to prove that the honour belongs to Rome.
Of his history little, except the circumstances of
his death, is known that could afford any interest
to those who look into biographies for marvellous ad-
ventures, although it would appear that he had tra-
velled extensively, having visited Germany, Spain,
the coast of Africa, and perhaps Britain, Egypt, and
Judea. There are only two brief notices respecting
him to be found among the ancient writers, be-
sides those contained in the works of his nephew,

PLINY THE ELDER. ^O

Pliny the Younger, and the incidental remarks that
occur in his own books on natural history. From
these, together with a few casual observations by
other authors, have been elaborated all the lives of
this illustrious naturalist that are to be found in our
dictionaries and cyclopaedias. The first authentic
account is contained in the book of Suetonius, De
Viris Illustribus, and is to the following effect : —

Caius Plinius Secundus was a native of New
Comum. When young he served with distinction
in the cavalry. He was intrusted with the most
important procuratorships, and on all occasions dis-
charged his office with the greatest integrity. At
the same time he engaged with so much assiduity
in the study of literature, that hardly any one,
though entirely free from public occupations, wTOte
so many works. Among these was an account of
all the wars that had been carried on between his
countrymen and the Germans, which he compre-
hended in twenty volumes. He also compiled thirty-
six volumes of natural history.

From his nephew we learn the following inte-
resting particulars respecting his habits : — In sum-
mer he usually began his studies about sunset,
and in winter generally at one in the morning,
never later than two, bestowing very little time
on sleep. Before it was day he went to the Empe-
ror Vespasian, who, like himself, was in the prac-
tice of using the hours of darkness for philosophy
or business. He then proceeded to discharge the
duties of his office, and, on returning home, spent
the remainder of the morning in reading or contem-
plation. In summer, when he happened to have any
leisure, he often lay in the sunshine, having a book

76 PLINY THE ELDER.

read to him, from which he carefully took notes.
It was a saying of his, that no treatise was so meagre
but that some part of it might afford instruction.
Afterwards he usually took a cold hath, ate a little,
and slept a very short time. He then resumed his
labours till the hour of dinner. These were his or-
dinary habits while occupied with his public duties,
and amid the tumult of the city. In retirement
his studies were still more constant. When travel-
ling, he seemed to set all other cares aside, and
employ himself in literary occupations. He had a
secretary by his side with a book and tablets, his
hands in winter protected by gloves, so that even the
inclemency of the weather should not cause any loss
of time. For the same reason, when at Rome, he
was carried in a sedan chair. By this continued
application he accumulated an almost incredible mass
of materials, insomuch that his works, had they been
preserved, would have formed a library of themselves.

But it is very obvious that the study of books, to
which alone he seems to have been addicted, cannot
impart all the information necessary to constitute a
naturalist ; and accordingly the writings of Pliny
contain less a description of the objects of which
they treat than a compilation of all that had been
recorded by observers regarding them. As such,
however, they are of considerable value.

At an early age he went to Rome, where he stu-
died under Appion. It does not appear that he could
have seen Tiberius, who by this time had retired to
Caprese; but it is probable that he was admitted
to the court of Caligula. When twenty-two years
of age, he resided some time on the coast of Africa,
and afterwards served in the cavalry under Lucius

PLINY THE ELDER. 77

PomponiuSj when he had an opportunity of tra-
versing Germany from one extremity to the other.
At this time he wrote a treatise, De Jaculatione
Equestri, on the art of casting the javelin on horse-
back ; and afterwards composed an historical work,
in which he detailed all the wars carried on by the
Romans beyond the Rhine. Returning to Rome at
the age of thirty, he pled several causes, and became a
member of the college of augurs. Part of his time
was spent at Comum in superintending the edu-
cation of his nephew, for whom, it is probable, he
composed his three books entitled Studiosus, in
which he described the progress of an orator in the
various steps towards perfection. During the greater
part of the reign of Nero he seems to have been
without any public employment ; but towards the
end of it he was appointed procurator in Spain,
where, it is presumed, he remained pending the
civil wars of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. On re-
visiting the capital he was favourably received by
Vespasian, on whom he had the privilege of waiting
every morning before sunrise, as already mentioned.
It is probable that at this period he wrote the His-
tory of his own Times, which consisted of thirty-
one books, and completed the work which Aufidius
Bassus had left unfinished. His Natural History,
which he dedicated to Titus, appears to have been
finished about the 78th year of our era.

He was at Misenum, where he commanded the
fleet which protected all that part of the Mediter-
ranean comprised between Italy, the Gauls, Spain,
and Africa, when a great eruption of Vesuvius took
place. His sister and her son, the latter of whom
was then about eighteen years of age, were with him.

78 PLINY THE ELDER.

He had just retired to his study, when he was
apprized of the appearance of a cloud of the most
extraordinary form and size. It resembled a pine-
tree, having an excessively elongated trunk, from
which some branches shot forth at the top, and
appeared sometimes white, sometimes dark and
spotted, according as the smoke was more or less
mixed with earth and cinders. Anxious to disco-
ver the cause of this singular appearance, he or-
dered a light vessel to be got ready, and was pro-
ceeding onboard, when he met the mariners belong-
ing to the galleys stationed at Retina, who had just
escaped from the danger. They conjured him not to
advance and expose his life to imminent peril ; but
he ordered the fleet immediately to put to sea, for
the purpose of rendering aid to such as might re-
quire it ; and so devoid of fear was he, that he noted
all the variations and forms which the cloud assumed.
By this time the vessels were covered with ashes,
which every moment became hotter and more dense,
while fragments of white pumice and stones black-
ened and split with the heat threatened the lives of
the men. They were likewise in great danger of
being left aground by a sudden retreat of the sea.
He stopped for a moment to consider whether he
should return ; but to the pilot who urged to this
expedient, he replied, " Fortune helps the brave
— steer to Pomponianus." That officer was at Sta-
biae, and being in sight of the danger, which, al-
though still distant, seemed always coming nearer,
had put his baggage on board, and was waiting a
more favourable wind to carry him out. Pliny
finding him alarmed, endeavoured to recall his
firmness. In the mean time the flames were burst-

PLINY THE ELDER. 79

ing from Vesuvius in many places, so as to illumi-
nate the night with their dazzling glare. He con-
sulted with his friends whether it were better to
remain in the house or to flee to the open fields ;
for the buildings were shaken by frequent and
violent shocks, so as to reel backwards and for-
wards, and in the open air they were not less in
danger from the cinders. However, they chose to
go forth, as the hazardous alternative, covering their
heads with pillows, to protect them from the stones.
It was now morning, but the country was enveloped
by thick darkness. He proceeded towards the shore
by the light of torches, but the sea was still so much
agitated that he could not embark; and, seating
himself on a sail which was spread for him, he asked
for some water, of which he drank a little. The ap-
proach of flames, preceded by the smell of sulphur,
put his companions to flight, excepting two slaves,
who assisted him to rise, when he seems to have im-
mediately fallen, suffbcated by the vapours and ashes.
On the following day, his body was found in the same
place without marks of external violence, and resem-
bling a person asleep rather than one who had suf-
fered death. This event took place on the 24th Au-
gust, in the seventy-ninth year of the Christian era,
and a few months after the demise of Vespasian.

As in the case of almost every writer of eminence,
so in that of Pliny, we find panegyrists, whose ad-
miration leads them to lavish the most extrava-
gant praise, and calumniators, who seem resolved
to leave nothing to be admired. It is astonishing,
says one, that in every department he is equally
great. Elevation of ideas, and grandeur of style,
give additional exaltation to his profound erudi-

80 PLINY THE ELDER.

tion. Not only was he acquainted with all that
was known in his time, but he possessed that faci-
lity of forming comprehensive conceptions, which
multiplies science ; he possessed that delicacy of re-
flection on which depend elegance and taste; and
he communicates to his readers a certain freedom of
mindj a boldness of thought, which is the germ of
philosophy. His work, which is as varied as Na-
ture, paints her alwaj^s in a favourable light. It
may be said to be a compilation of all that had pre-
viously been written, a copy of every thing useful
and excellent that existed; but in this copy the
execution is so bold, — in this compilation the mate-
rials are disposed in a manner so new, that it is pre-
ferable to the greater part of the originals which treat
of the same topics.*

The judgment of a recent author, founded also
on an extensive view of his character, is perhaps
more worthy of our confidence. It were impossible,
it is remarked, that in handling, even in the brief-
est manner, so prodigious a number of subjects,
he should not have made known a multitude of
facts, which are not only in themselves remark-
able, but so much the more valuable to us, that
he is the only author who has made mention of
them. Unfortunately, the manner in which he has
collected and expounded them detracts much from
their value ; while, from the mixture of truth and
falsehood, but more especially from the difficulty,
and even in some cases the impossibility, of making
out the objects of which he speaks, the reader is
often left in the dark. Pliny was not such an ob-
server as Aristotle ; much less was he a man of genius

* BufFon, Histoire Naturelle, tome i. p. 64, edit. 1785.
d

PLINY THE ELDER.

81

like that great philosopher, capable of apprehending
the laws and relations according to which Nature has
disposed her productions. He was in general merely
a compiler, and even in many instances a compiler
who, not having himself any knowledge of the objects
concerning which he collected the testimony of others,
was unable to appreciate the truth of these testimo-
nies, or even in all cases to comprehend their pre-
cise meaning. He is in short an author destitute of
critical acumen, who, after occupying a great deal
of time in making his extracts and arranging them in
certain chapters, has added to them reflections which
have no relation to science properly so called, but
present alternately the most superstitious impressions,
or the declamations of a peevish philosophy, which
is continually accusing man, nature, and the gods
themselves. The facts which he accumulates ought
not, therefore, to be considered in connexion with
the opinion which he forms of them ; but, on the con-
trary, ought to be restored in imagination to the
writers from whom he has derived them ; and the
rules of criticism should be applied agreeably to
what we know of those writers, and the circum-
stances in which they were placed. Studied in this
manner, the Natural History of Pliny is one of the
richest stores ; it being, according to his own state-
ment, composed of extracts from more than 2000
volumes, written by authors of all kinds, travellers,
historians, geographers, philosophers, and physi-
cians,— authors of whom there remain to us only
about forty, and of several of whom we have merely
fragments, or works different from those which
Pliny used ; and, even of those whose labours are
lost to us, there are many whose names have escaped

82 PLINY THE ELDER.

from oblivion only through the quotations which he
has made from them.

On comparing his extracts with such originals as
we still have^ and in particular with Aristotle, we
find that he was by no means accustomed to select
the parts that were most important or most cor-
rect. In general, he fixes upon the singular or
marvellous; upon those circumstances which an-
swer best for the contrasts which he is fond of mak-
ing, or for the reproaches which he so often prefers
against Providence. He certainly does not place
the same confidence in all that he relates ; but his
doubts and affirmations are made at random, and
the most childish stories are not those that most ex-
cite his incredulity. For example, there are none
of the fables of the Grecian travellers, about head-
less and mouthless men, men with only one foot,
or men with large ears, that he does not place in his
seventh book, and with so much confidence in their
truth, that he concludes his enumeration with this
remark : Hcec atque talia ex hominum genere, lu-
dibria sibi, nobis miracula, ingeniosa fecit na-
tura : " See how nature is disposed for the nones to
devise full wittily in this and such like pastimes to
play with mankind, thereby not onely to make her-
selfe merrie, but to set us a wondering at such strange
miracles." Any one may judge, from this creduli-
ty in respect to the absurd fables about the human
species, of the little discernment which he must have
exercised in selecting testimonies respecting exotic
or little-known animals. Accordingly, the most
fabulous creatures, manticores, with the head of a
man and the tail of a scorpion, winged horses, ca-
toblepas, the mere sight of which caused death, oc-

PLINY THE ELDER. 83

cupy their station by the side of the elephant and
lion. Howevei-j all is not false even in those arti-
cles which are most replete with falsehoods. We
can sometimes come at the truths which have given
rise to them^ by recollecting that they are extracts
from travellers, and supposing that the ignorance
of the ancient tourists, and their love of the mar-
vellous, betrayed them into the same exaggerations,
and dictated the same vague and superficial descrip-
tions, with which we are shocked in so many of
their modern successors. It may likewise be said of
Pliny, that he does not always give the true sense of
the authors whom he translates, especially when treat-
ing of the designation of species. Although we have
now very few means of judging with certainty re-
specting errors of this kind, it is easy to prove, that
on several occasions he has substituted for the Greek
word which denoted a particular animal in Aristotle,
a Latin word which belongs to another species. It
is true that one of the great difficulties experienced
by the ancients was that of fixing a nomenclature ;
and the defects of their systems are more percep-
tible in Pliny than in any other writer. The
descriptions, or rather the imperfect indications,
which he gives, are almost always insufficient for
recognising the species, when tradition has not pre-
served the names ; and there is even a very great
number, of which he mentions the names without
joining to them any character, or affording any
means by which they may be distinguished. Could
there be any longer a doubt as to the advantages of
the systems invented by the moderns, it would be
dissipated by finding that all that the ancients have
said of the virtues of their plants is lost to us, from

84 PLINY THE ELDER.

our not being able to distinguish the species to which
they assigned them. — Were we to give credit to
all that he says in the part of his work devoted
to Materia Medica^ there is not a disease incident
to humanity for which nature has not provided
twenty remedies; and unfortunately, during two
centuries after the revival of letters, all these ab-
surdities were confidently repeated by physicians.
It must therefore be admitted, that with reference
to facts the volume of Pliny is of no real interest,
excepting in regard to the manners and customs of
the ancients, the processes which they followed in
the arts, and some particulars respecting geography,
of which we should otherwise be ignorant.*

The Historia Naturalis was the last work which
Pliny wrote, and is the only one that has come down
to us. It is not a treatise on natural history, as that
term is at present limited ; but, besides relating all
that he knew of animals, plants, and minerals, it em-
braces astronomy, geography, agriculture, commerce,
medicine, and the arts ; so that it maybe considered
as a cyclopaedia rather than a publication on any par-
ticular subject. It is divided into thirty-seven books.

The first contains a dedication to the Emperor
Titus Vespasian, together with a summary of the
following sections, and the names of the authors who
contributed to them.

In the second book, he treats of the universe, the
elements, and the stars. The world and the heavens,
which he says are God, are infinite, without begin-
ning and without end ; the form of the latter is sphe-
rical, the motion circular, and they are impressed with

* See Life of Pliny, by Cuvier, in the Biographic Universelle,
tome XXXV. p. 70.

PLINY THE ELDER. 85

innumerable forms of animals and other objects. The
elements are four; namely, fire, air, earth, and water.
There are seven planets, or wandering stars, in the
midst of which moves the sun, the ruler of all things.
As to God, if indeed there be any Existence distinct
from the world, it were absurd, says he, to assign him
any form or image. He being all in all ; for which rea-
son the gods that the nations worship are mere fan-
cies. It is absurd to imagine that He should have
regard to the human race, for by interfering with
their affairs he would necessarily be polluted. Men,
he observes, are wretchedly prone to superstition of
all kinds ; however, it is beneficial, he admits, to
believe that the gods take care of them, and punish
malefactors. The nature of the planets, the moon,
eclipses, comets, lightning, winds, clouds, meteoric
stones, land, water, earthquakes, and many other
subjects, are discussed in this book.

The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth, treat of geo-
graphy ; and the seventh of the diJQTerent races of
men, monsters, great characters, human inventions,
longevity, and other matters relating to the human
race, disposed without order, and selected without
discrimination.

The eighth book, which is devoted to land-animals,
contains notices respecting the elephant, dragons,
serpents, lions, panthers, tigers, the camel, the ca-
melopard, the rhinoceros, and a multitude of other
mammalia, and reptiles. As a specimen of our
author's manner of discussing these subjects, we
give his account of the wolf: —

It is commonly believed, says he, in Italy, that the
sight of wolves is hurtful, and that when they see a
man before he observes them, they cause him to lose

86 PLINY THE ELDER.

his voice for the time. Those which are produced
in Africa and Egypt are small and sluggish ; but in
the colder climates they are fierce and cruel. That
men are changed into wolves, and afterwards re-
stored to their proper shape, we must either be-
lieve to be false, or else at once admit all those tales
which have for so many ages been proved to be fa-
bulous. But how this opinion came to be so firmly
fixed, that when we would apply the most oppro-
brious term to one, we call him versipellis (or turn-
skin), I shall shew. Euanthes, a respectable Greek
writer, reports that he found among the records of
the Arcadians, that a person is chosen by lot from
the family of Anthus. Being led to a certain pool
in that countrj^, he relinquishes his clothes, which are
hung up on an oak, swims over, proceeds into the de-
serts, is transformed into a wolf, and for nine years
herds with the wild animals of that race. This pe-
riod being completed, if he has refrained from eating
human flesh, he returns to the same pool, and, re-
crossing it, is restored to his original form, only look-
ing nine years older than before. Fabius adds, that
he finds his clothes again. It is strange to see how
far the credulity of the Greeks goes j for there is no lie
so shameless that it does not find one of them to vouch
for it. Thus, Agriopas, who wrote of the conquerors
at the Olympic games, relates that Demoenetus of
Parrhasia, at a sacrifice, ate of the entrails of a child
that had been oifered as a victim (for the Arcadians
at that time offered human sacrifices to Lycean Ju-
piter),' and turned himself into a wolf ; and that the
same person, ten years after, having been restored
to his proper shape, fought at the Olympian games,
and was proclaimed victor. Besides, it is commonly

PLINY THE ELDER. 87

believed that in the tail of this animal there is a
minute hair possessing a power over love, and that
the wolf casts it when he is taken ; but that it has
no efficacy unless it be plucked from him when
alive. Wolves pair only during twelve days in the
whole year. When famished, they eat earth. With
respect to auguries, when one meets a wolf, and the
latter turns to the right hand, especially if he have
a full mouth, there could not be a better presage.
There are some of this kind that are called stag-
wolves, such as the one mentioned by us as having
been seen in the circus of Pompey the Great. They
say that this animal, however hungry he may be,
should he happen to look back, forgets the food
which he had, and goes to look for some elsewhere.

The following extract from Pliny's account of the
lion, '' right pleasaunte" as it is in the original, is
rendered still more so by Dr Holland. " To come
againe to our lions : the signe of their intent and
disposition, is their taile ; like as in horses, their
ears : for these two marks and tokens, certainly hath
nature given to the most couragious beasts of all
others, to know their affections by : for • when the
lion stirreth not his taile, hee is in a good mood,
gentle, mild, pleasantly disposed, and as if hee were
willing to be plaied withall ; but in that jfit he is
seldome scene : for lightly hee is alwaies angrie. At
the first, when hee entreth into his choller, hee
beateth the ground with his taile : when hee groweth
into greater heats, he flappeth and jerketh his sides
and flanks withall, as it were to quicken himselfe,
and stirre up his angry humor. His maine strength
lieth in his breast : heemaketh not a wound (whether
it be by lash of taile, scratch of claw, or print of

«« PLINY THE ELDER.

tooth), but the bloud that foUoweth is blacke.
When his belly is once full, all his anger is past,
and he doth no more harme. His generositie and
magnanimitie he sheweth most in his daungers :
which courage of his appeareth not onely herein,
that he seemeth to despise all shot of darts against
him, defending himselfe a long time onely with
the terrible aspect of his countenance, and protest-
ing as it were that he is unwilling to deale unlesse
he be forced thereto in his own defence, and at
length maketh head againe, not as compelled and
driven thereto for any perill that he seeth, but an-
gred at their follie that assaile and set upon him :
but herein also is seen rather his noble heart and
courage, that be there never so many of hounds and
hunters both following after him, so long as hee is
in the open plaines where lie may be scene, hee
maketh semblance as though he contemned both
dog and man, dismarching and retiring with ho-
nour, and otherwhiles seeming in his retreat to turne
againe and make head ; but when he hath gained
the thickets and woods, and gotten once into the
forrests out of sight, then he skuds away, then hee
runneth amaine for life, as knowing full well that
the trees and bushes hide him, that his shamefull
dislodging and flight is not then espied. When he
chaseth and followeth after other beasts, hee goeth
alwaies saltant or rampant ; which he never useth
to doe when he is chased in sight, but is onely pas-
sant. If hee chaunce to be wounded, hee hath a
marveilous eye to marke the partie that did it, and
be the hunters never so many in number, upon him
he runneth onely. As for him that hath let flie a
dart at him, and yet missed his marke and done no

PLINY THE ELDER.

89

hurt, if he chaunce to catch him, hee all to touzeth,
shaketh, tosseth, and turneth him lying along at his
feet, but doth him no harme at all besides. When
the lionesse fighteth for her young whelpes, by re-
port, she setteth her eies wistly and entirely upon
the ground, because she would not be aflfrighted at
the sight of the chasing-staves of the hunters. Lions
are nothing at all craftie and fraudulent, neither be
they suspicious : they never look askew, but alwaies
cast their eie directly forward, and they love not
that any man should in that sort looke side-long
upon them. It is constantly beleeved, that when
they lie a dying they bite the earth, and in their
very death shed teares. This creature, so noble as
he is, and withall so cruell and fell, trembleth and
quaketh to heare the noise of cartwheeles, or to see
them turne about; nay he cannot abide of all
things charriots when they be void and emptie :
frighted he is with the cocks comb, and his crow-
ing much more, but most of all with the sight of
fire. The lion is never sick but of the peevishnes
of his stomacke, loathing all meat : and then the
way to cure him, is to tie unto him certain shee
apes, which with their wanton mocking and making
mowes at him, may move his patience and drive
him for the verie indignitie of their malapert sauci-
nesse, into a fit of madnesse ; and then, so soone as
he hath tasted their blood, he is perfectly well againe :
and this is the onely remedie.

''Q. Sccevola the sonne of Publius, was the first at
Rome that in his Curule ^Edileship exhibited a fight
and combat of many lions togither, for to shew the
people pastime and pleasure : but L. Sylla, who after-
wards was Dictatour, was the first of all others that in

90 PLINY THE ELDER.

his Pretorship represented a shew of an hundred
lions, with manes and collars of haire: and after
him Pompeius the Great shewed 600 of them fight-
ing in the gi*and Cirque, whereof 315 were male
lions with mane. And Ccesar Dictatour brought
400 of them into the shew-place. The taking of
them in old time was a verie hard peece of worke,
and that was commonly in pit-fals : but in the Em-
peror Claudius his dales it chaunced, that a shep-
heard or heardman who came out of Gsetulia, taught
the manner of catching them : a thing (otherwise)
that would have been thought incredible, and alto-
gither unbeseeming the name and honour of so good-
ly a beast. This Getulian I say, fortuned to en-
counter a lion, and when he was violently assailed
by him, made no more adoe but threw his mandi-
lion or cassocke full upon his eies. This feat or cast
of his was soone after practised in the open shew-
place, in such sort, that a man would hardly have
beleeved, but he that saw it, that so furious a beast
should so easily be quailed and daunted so soone as
ever hee felt his head covered, were the things never
so light ; making no resistance, but suffering one
to doe what he would with him, even to bind him
fast, as if in very truth all his vigor and spirit rested
in his eyes. Lesse therefore is it to be marvelled at,
that Lysimachus strangled a lion, when as by com-
maundement oi Alexander the Great, he was shut up
alone togither with him. The first that yoked them
at Rome and made them to draw in a charriot,
was M. Antonius. And verily it was in the time
of civill warre, after the battaile fought in the plains
of Pharsalia, a shrewd fore-token and unhappie pre-
sage for the future event, and namely, for men of

PLINY THE ELDER.

91

an high spirit and brave mind in those daies, unto
whom this prodigious sight did prognosticate the
yoke of subjection : for what should I say, how An-
tonie rode in that wise with the courtisan Cytheris,
a common actresse in enterludes upon the stage ?
to see such a sight was a monstrous spectacle, that
passed all the calamities of those times. It is re-
ported, that Hanno (one of the noblest Carthagi-
nians that ever were) was the first man that durst
handle a lion with his bare hand, and shewe him
gentle and tame, to follow him all the citie over in
a slip like a dogge. But this device and tricke of
his turned him to great domage, and cost him his
utter undoing : for the Carthaginians hereupon laid
this ground, that Hanno, a man of such a gift, so
wittie and inventive of all devises, would be able to
persuade the people to whatsoever his mind stood ;
and that it was a daungerous and ticklish point to
put the libertie of so great a state as Carthage was,
into the hands and managing of him, who could
handle and tame the furious violence of so savage
a beast : and thereupon condemned and banished
him." He then relates two examples of the gentle-
ness of this animal, or rather of his confidence in man.
On one occasion, a lion applied to Mentor, a Syra-
cusan, for relief from a thorn which had pierced his
foot ; and on another, Elpis, a Samian, had the
honour, when in Africa, of extracting a bone from
the palate of the royal beast, for which he was re-
warded by him with an abmidant supply of fresh
venison so long as he remained in the country.

In this book Pliny follows no methodical arrange-
ment, either as to the animals themselves or as to
the descriptions and anecdotes in each article. He

92 PLINY THE ELDER.

commences indeed with the largest, and ends with
mice^ which are among the smallest bred on land ;
but in this catalogue he includes mammalia, croco-
diles, lizards, serpents, and snails. It may be said
generally, that in his descriptions at least three-
fourths of each article are erroneous, false, or fabu-
lous; and that he scarcely anywhere attempts to
elicit general principles, or to discover the circum-
stances in which animals agree or differ. It were
therefore vain for the student of nature to look into
this book for any information on which he could
place reliance, with respect to their organization or
habits. Some particulars respecting the exhibition
at Rome of elephants, lions, panthers, crocodiles,
and other ferocious creatures, with the combats of
which the emperors and great men amused the peo-
ple, and a few facts relating to the geographical dis-
tribution of the more interesting species, are all that
the reader finds to recompense him for the labour
of examination.

The ninth book treats of fishes, crabs, sea-urchins,
mollusca, and other marine animals, including not
only turtles and cetacea, but also mermaids, tri-
tons, and other fabulous creatures. These he ar-
ranges in no definite order, although he proposes
a kind of classification founded on the covering
or skin; some, as seals and hippopotami, having
a skin and hair; others skin only, as the dol-
phin ; while the tortoises are covered with a sub-
stance resembling bark ; oysters and other shells
with a substance as hard as flint ; echini with crusts
and prickles ; fishes with scales ; sharks with a
rough skin fit for polishing wood ; lampreys with
a soft skin; and polypi with none at all.

PLINY THE ELDER. 93

As might be expected, many wonderful tales are
related of the dolphin, which was a special favour-
ite with the ancients, on account of its supposed at-
tachment to the human species. One of these ani-
mals, if we may credit Pliny and his authorities, car-
ried a boy daily to school and home again, from Baia-
num to Puteoli ; another, who used to mount a child
on his back, having one day suffered him to be
drowned, brought back his body, and out of grief
thrust himself ashore, where he of course died ; and,
lastly, a king of Caria having caught a dolphin, and
kept him prisoner within the harbour, a whole mul-
titude of the same species came to beg his release,
and remained until their prayer was granted.

The most interesting chapters in this book are
those on pearls and the shell- fish that furnished
the purple dye so highly esteemed by the Romans.
This oyster, he says, which is the mother-of-pearl, at
a certain season of the year, gapes and receives one
or more drops of a kind of dew, which are ulti-
mately converted into pearls. According to the na-
ture of this dew, or the state of the weather at the
time of its being received, the pearl is dusky or
white, dull or possessed of a brilliant lustre. These
ornaments were very highly esteemed in Pliny's
days. The ladies wore them dangling at their
fingers and ears, took great delight in hearing
them rattle, and not only appended them to their
upper garments, but even embroidered their bus-
kins with them. It will not suffice them, says
he, nor serve their turn, to carry pearls about them,
but they must tread upon pearls, go among pearls,
and walk as it were on a pavement of pearls. Lol-
lia Paulina, the wife of Caligula, was seen by him.

94 PLINY THE ELDER.

on an ordinary occasion, ornamented with emeralds
and pearls, which she valued at forty millions of ses-
tertii (about i:300,000).

The two finest specimens ever seen were in the
possession of the celebrated Cleopatra, who, on being
sumptuously feasted by Mark Antony, derided him
for the meanness of his entertainment ; and on his
demanding how she could go beyond him in such a
matter, answered that she would spend upon him
in one supper ten millions of sestertii. Antony, con-
ceiving it impossible for her to make good her boast,
laid a great wager with her about it. When the
supper came, although it was such as to befit the
condition of the hostess and guests, it presented no
extraordinary appearance; so that Antony jeered
the queen on the subject, asking by way of mockery
a sight of the bill of fare ; whereupon she affirmed,
that what had as yet been brought to table was
not to be reckoned in the count, but that even
her own part of the supper should cost sixty mil-
lions. She then ordered the second service to be
brought in. The servants placed before her a cruet
of vinegar, and she put into it one of the pearls
which were appended to her ears. When it was
dissolved, she took up the vessel, and drank its
contents ; on which Lucius Plancus declared that
she had gained the wager. Afterwards, when Cleo-
patra was taken prisoner and deprived of her royal
estate, the other pearl was cut into two, and affixed
to the ears of the statue of Venus in the Pantheon
at Rome.

The tenth book speaks of birds, beginning with
the larger species, and concluding wdth remarks on
generation, the food of animals, and other circum-

PLINY THE ELDER. 95

stances of a general nature. He believes that the
spinal marrow of a man, as many persons have as-
serted, may turn into a snake ; that salamanders,
eels, and oysters, are neither male nor female ; and
that young vipers make their way through the sides
of their mother. His History of Birds is extremely
meagre and incorrect ; but many amusing particulars
are related by him, of which we select two examples.
In the days of Tiberius Caesar, a young raven
that had been hatched in a nest upon the temple of
Castor and Pollux took her first flight into a shoe-
maker's shop just opposite. The master of the booth
was well pleased to receive the guest, especially as it
had come from so sacred a place, and took great care
of it. In a short time the winged visiter began to
speak, and every morning flew to the top of the
rostra, where, turning to the open forum, he sa-
luted the emperor, and after him Germanicus and
Drusus, the young princes, each by his name, and
after them the people that passed by. This he con-
tinued to do for many years^ till another shoemaker,
either envying his neighbour the possession of so
rare a prize, or enraged at the bird for muting on
his shoes, killed him. At this rash proceeding, the
people were so indignant that they drove the unge-
nerous mechanic out of the street, and afterwards
murdered him. The body of the raven was solemnly
interred in a field two miles from the city, to which
it was carried by two blacks, with musicians play-
ing before, and a great crowd following. In such
esteem, says Pliny, did the people of Rome hold
this wit and aptness to learn in a bird, that they
thought it a sufficient cause for ordering a sump-
tuous funeral, and even for putting a man to death.

96 PLINY THE ELDER.

in that very city where many brave and noble per-
sons have died without having their obsequies
solemnized, and which afforded not one individual
to revenge the undeserved death of the renowned
Scipio ^milianus, after he had conquered both
Carthage and Numantia.

Cocks, he says, which are our sentinels by night,
and destined by nature to rouse us from sleep and call
us up to our work, have also, like the peacock, a
sense of glory, and a love of approbation. They are
astronomers too, and know the course of the stars ;
they divide the day by their crowing, which is per-
formed at the end of every three hours ; they go to
roost when the sun sets, and before he rises again
they warn us of the approach of day by clapping their
wings and crowing. They are rulers in their own com-
munity, whether consisting of other males or females.
Their sovereignty is obtained by combat, as if they
knew that they had weapons on their heels for the
purpose, and the battle is often protracted until one
is killed. The conqueror proclaims his victory by
crowing, while the vanquished hides his head in si-
lence, although it goes hard with him to be beaten.
Not only are these fighting cocks thus high-minded,
but even the common dunghill kind are equally proud,
marching in a stately manner, their neck erect,
with a comb on the head like the crest of a soldier's
helmet. There is no other bird that so often looks
aloft to the sun and sky, and as he moves he carries
his tail in an arched form. Even the lion, the most
courageous of animals, stands in awe of the cock.
Some of these birds are made for nothing else than
fighting, and are never satisfied unless when en-
gaged in a quarrel; and to them the emperors

PLINY THE ELDER. 97

and nobles of Rome do not disdain to give honour.
The best breeds are from Rhodes, Tenagra, Melos,
and Chalcis. These birds rule our rulers, nor is
there a great man in Rome that dare open or shut
the door of his house before he knows their good
pleasure ; even the sovereign, in all the majesty of
the empire, with the insignia of office, neither sets
forward nor recedes without their direction. They
give orders to armies to advance to battle, or com-
mand them to keep within the camp. They supplied
the signal and foretold the issue of all the famous
fields, in which the Romans achieved their victories
in all parts of the world. In a word, they com-
mand the greatest commanders of all nations, and,
small as they are, prove as acceptable to the gods in
sacrifice as the largest and fattest oxen. Their
crowing out of time is portentous, and it is well
known that, by once crowing all night long, they
foretold to the Boeotians the noble victory which
that people achieved over the Lacedemonians, for
this result w^as expected, as these birds never crow
when beaten. When converted into capons, they
cease to crow ; but in this state they become sooner
fat. At Pergamus there is a solemn cock-fight
every year. It is recorded that, within the territory
of Ariminum, in the year when Marcus Lepidus
and Quintus Catulus were consuls, a dunghill-cock,
belonging to one Galerius, spoke ; but, as far as
Pliny could learn, the like never happened again.

Bees, silkworms, spiders, scorpions, locusts, gras-
hoppers and a few other animals of a similar nature,
are briefly treated of in the eleventh book, which,
moreover, contains an anatomical description of the
human body, and of various parts of animals, not

98 PLINY THE ELDER.

remarkable for its accuracy, but not the less inte-
resting to the historian of science. The greater
part is derived from Aristotle.

Then follow seventeen books on plants, their cul-
tivation and uses in domestic economy and the arts,
and the remedies that are obtained from them.
These subjects form the most extensive portion of
Pliny's writings, but they are discussed in so irregular
and injudicious a manner, that it is impossible, in
most cases, to determine the species of which he speaks ;
and as to the cures alleged to be accomplished by
means of herbs, it is obvious that no confidence
can be placed in his details. The culture of many
of the more important species, such as the vine, the
mulberry, the olive, wheat, and other cereal plants,
is described at length ; as are the processes of making
bread, wine, olive-oil, and other substances obtained
from vegetables.

The twenty-eighth book treats of dietetics, reme-
dies derived from various animals, and the nature
and cure of certain diseases. These subjects are
continued to the end of the thirty-second book, and
give occasion to the discussion of numerous topics,
such as water, magic, medicine, &c.

The metals are considered in the two next books ;
colours and painting in the thirty-fifth ; stones and
minerals are mingled in the thirty-sixth with obe-
lisks, temples, and statues ; and the last book con-
tains an account of precious stones, the descriptions
of some of which, amber and beryl, for example,
are as good as those of many of our modern mine-
ralogists.

It is not our object to present a detailed account
of the contents of any of these books, it being sufl5-

PLINY THE ELDER. 99

cient for our purpose to indicate the general nature
of the work, and to point out a few of the subjects
discussed. It affords a magazine of curious informa-
tion on most subjects connected with natural his-
tory and the arts ; but it is obvious that this in-
formation could not be useful to the student unless
he were furnished with a correct commentary. Pliny's
volumes have been translated into various modern
languages, and there is an English version by Dr
Philemon Holland, published at London in 1601.
This performance, although generally accurate, fails
in the nomenclature of the plants and animals ; so
that a good translation is a desideratum at the
present day, which, however, is not likely to be soon
supplied, — an extensive acquaintance with Greek
and Roman literature, and a critical knowledge of
the various branches of natural history, being essen-
tially requisite in him who should undertake it.

Although Pliny cannot be depended upon as a
naturalist, his writings are important as a source of
pure Latinity. His style is generally simple, some-
times harsh, usually laconic, although when he en-
ters upon philosophical reflections it becomes ani-
mated, energetic, and copious. His morality is more
pure than we could have expected, considering his
doubts respecting the existence of a Deity, his dis-
belief in the immortality of the human soul, and the
absence of those motives by which mankind are
commonly influenced. He never ceases to censure
vice of every kind ; and as to the examples of cruelty,
luxury, and effeminacy, which he has occasion to re-
late, his remarks are not less accordant with reason
than with the soundest principles of Christian ethics.

The first editions of Pliny appeared at Venice in

100 PLINY THE ELDER.

1469^ and at Rome in 1470. The most useful and
convenient is that of Franzius, in ten volumes 8vo,
published at Leipsic in 1791.

From what has been said above it will appear,
that down to the time of Pliny naturalists had not
succeeded in forming any system of zoology. In the
writings of that author, the animals of which he
treats are so disposed, that the absence of all arrange-
ment is very obvious ; nor is it even possible to
guess upon what principle he makes the species suc-
ceed each other. In his chapter on land-animals,
he places the elephant first ; and as mice come last,
we might imagine that he had intended to proceed
on the principle of size. The bison, the wild-horse,
the elk, the bonasus, the lion, the panther, the tiger,
the camel, and the camelopard, of which the first
individual seen at Rome was exhibited by Julius
Csesar at the Circensian games, follow in order.
Then come the rhinoceros, the lynx, apes and
monkeys, wolves, serpents, the ichneumon, the cro-
codile, the skink, the hippopotamus, first shown at
Rome by Marcus Scaur us, lizards, tortoises, hyenas,
frogs and seals, deer, porcupines, bears, marmots,
squirrels, vipers, snails, dogs, horses, asses, and
mules, and the other principal domestic animals.
His arrangement of birds is equally unsystematic.
The fabulous phoenix occupies the first rank, and
is followed by eagles, hawks, birds of evil omen,
as ravens and owls, woodpeckers, peacocks, the do-
mestic fowl, geese, cranes, swans, thrushes, doves,
the ibis, the nightingale, and the kingfisher. With
these are mingled various heterogeneous elements.
The same may be said of all the other depart-
ments. Were the knowledge of animals which we

PLINY THE ELDER. 101

possess at the present day not regularly methodizedj
it would be utterly impossible for an individual
to distinguish half the number of mammalia and
birds, which are among the least extensive classes.
The first inventor of a system, however imperfect,
has therefore the strongest claims upon our grati-
tude. Aristotle may be said to have laid the founda-
tion for one, or at least to have made an attempt ;
Ray was the first who sketched a rude classification,
in which he partly adopted that of the Stagirite :
it is to Linnaeus, however, that we owe a system,
which is at least methodical and perspicuous ; and
if succeeding zoologists have produced more perfect
arrangements, they can only be said to have im-
proved upon his.

GESNER,

BELON, SALVIANI, RONDELET,

AND ALDROVANDI.

Zoologists of the Sixteenth Century.

Conrad Gesner — Account of his Life and Writings, preceded by Re-
marks on those of iElian, Oppian, Albertus Magnus, Paolo Gio-
\io, and Hieronyraus Bock — Pierre Belon — Hippolito Salviani
— Guillaiime Rondelet — Ulysses Aldrovandi— General Remarks
on their Writings, and the State of Science at the Close of the
Sixteenth Century.

CONRAD GESNER.
From the time of Pliny to the commencement of the
sixteenth century, zoology, like the other sciences,
made little progress. The only naturalists during the
earlier portion of this interval at all deserving of no-
tice are iElian and Oppian. The former was born at
Praeneste in the year 1 60, and wrote in Greek a His-
tory of Animals, which, like that of the philosopher
of Comum, is disfigured by numerous errors and fa-
bles. The latter was a poet, a native of Cilicia, who
lived under the Emperor Caracalla in the begin-
ning of the third century. Two only of his produc-
tions are now extant, his Halieuticon and Cynsege-
ticon ; the one containing five books on fishing, the
other, four on hunting. These works are still occa-
sionally consulted, though they afford little useful
information, and might without any loss to science
be consigned to oblivion.

CONRAD GESNER. 103

The principal author who appeared between the
epoch which witnessed the destruction of the Ro-
man Empire and the beginning of the century just
specified, was Albertus Magnus ; so called, according
to some, not because he was great as a man of
science, but because his family-name was Groot,
which in Dutch signifies " great," and being Latin-
ized, as was then the fashion, became " magnus."
However, he was not a small personage in his day ;
for it is told of him that he constructed a brazen
head which had the faculty of answering questions,
and wrote so many works that, when collected for a
general edition at Lyons in 1651, they filled twenty-
one thick folios. His character \tas highly respect-
able, and his History of Animals is certainly a re-
markable production for the age in which he lived.
Born at Lavingen in Suabia in 1205, he received
his education at Pavia, where he entered the order of
Dominicans. Some time having elapsed, he went to
Paris and delivered public lectures with applause.
In 1248, he was invited to Rome by Pope Alexander
in., who appointed him to the office of Master of
the Holy Palace, and bestowed on him the bishop-
ric of Ratisbon, which he soon after resigned. R<i-
turning to Cologne, he resumed his lectures, which
were much frequented. Pope Gregory X. called
him to assist at the general council, held at Lyons
in 1274, where the conclave of cardinals for the
election of the successor of St Peter was first insti-
tuted. He died at Cologne at the age of 77- The
celebrated Thomas Aquinas, who was his pupil, is
reported to have broken, in a fit of terror, his fa-
mous brazen oracle ; and the progress of science has
shown as little respect to his other works, consisting

104

CONRAD GESNER.

chiefly of a commentary on Aristotle, with certain
additions from the Arabian writers.

Sir Thomas Browne, in his famous Enquiries
into Vulgar and Common Errors, thus characterizes
our author : — "^ Albertus, bishop of Ratisbone, for his
great learning and latitude of knowledge sirnam-
ed ^lagnus, besides divinitie, hath written many
Tracts in Philosophic ; what we are chiefly to re-
ceive with caution, are his naturall Tractates, more
especially those of Mineralls, Vegetables, and Ani-
mals, which are indeed chiefly Collections out of
Aristotle, iElian, and Plinie, and respectively con-
taine many of our popular errors. He was a man
who much advanced these opinions by the authori-
tie of his name, and delivered most conceits, with
strickt enquirie into few."

It is scarcely necessary to mention here a work
on the fishes of Rome, De Romanis Piscibus, by
the celebrated Paolo Giovio, an Italian writer of
this age, who was born at Como in the year 1483.
It was dedicated to the Cardinal of Bourbon, and ap-
peared in 1524, but is of little or no value, being
the production of a person who, although eminent
in general literature, had no claims to the character
of a naturalist.

Another author who lived at this period, Hierony-
mus Bock, generally known by his Latinized name
Tragus, was principally distinguished as a botanist,
although he wrote also on animals. In 1549, he
published a work entitled Kraeuterbuch von den vier
Elementen, Thieren, Voegeln,and Fischen, of which
there have been various editions. He was born at
Heidesbach at Zweybruecken in 1498, and died, in
the 56th year of his age, on the 21st of June 1554.

CONRAD GESNER. 105

The sixteenth century produced a little band of
worthies, who^ without having made great acquire-
ments, may yet be justly styled the fathers of modern
zoology. These were Guillaume Rondelet, a physi-
cian of IMontpellier; Hippolito Salviani, also a physi-
cian, and a native of Citta di Castello in Umbria ;
Conrad Gesner, surnamed the German Pliny, who
was born at Zurich, and followed the same profes-
sion ; Pierre Belon, a Frenchman ; and Aldrovandi,
professor at Bologna. In presenting a sketch of the
lives and labours of these venerable sages, we shall
begin with him whom Haller characterizes as a pro •
digy of knowledge, monstrum eruditionis.

Conrad Gesner, one of the most celebrated of this
class of naturalists, was born at Zurich on the 26th
March 1516. His parents were of an humble rank
in life, and having several other children, could not
have given him the benefit of a good education, had
it not been for the kindness of his maternal uncle,
a clergyman, who imparted to him the rudiments
of knowledge, and instructed him in botany. This
relative, however, died while he was yet at an
early age ; and when not more than fifteen he was
also deprived of his father, who was killed at the
battle of Zug, in which the celebrated reformer
Zuinglius or Zwingle lost his life. The small pa-
trimony left by his parent having been divided
among a large family, Gesner was reduced to great
distress, which was heightened by a dropsical affec-
tion. Recovering from this disease, he resolved to
seek his fortune in another country, and going to
Strasburg, entered into the service of Wolfgang Fa-
bricius Capito, professor of Hebrew in the university
of that city. Soon after, receiving pecuniary assist-

106 CONRAD GESNER.

ance from the canons of Zurich^ he betook himself to
Bourges, where he commenced the study of medi-
cine. At the age of eighteen, he had occasion to go
to PariSj where he indulged to excess his literary
appetite, and devoured indiscriminately all kinds of
knowledge; being supported meanwhile by a young
Bernese nobleman, named Steiger, who had contract-
ed a friendship for him. Soon after, he returned to
Strasburg, whence, in 1536, he was recalled to Zurich,
to teach some children the elements of grammar, with
a salary barely sufficient for his support. In the fol-
lowing year, the magistrates, perceiving the supe-
riority of his character, furnished him with an ad-
ditional grant of money, which enabled him to go to
Basil to prosecute his medical studies. To increase
his income he assisted Phavorinus in editing his
Lexicon, and in a short time removed to Lausanne,
where the senate of Berne appointed him Greek
professor, in which office he continued three years.
He then went to Montpellier, where he engaged
more particularly in the study of anatomy and
botany, and formed an intimate acquaintance with
the celebrated Laurent Joubert and the naturalist
Rondelet. In 1541, he obtained the degree of doc-
tor in medicine at Basil, where he arranged some
extracts respecting botany and physic, taken from
Greek and Arabian writers, which were published
the following year at Zurich and Lyons ; in the for-
mer of which places he now took up his residence and
engaged in professional practice. Soon afterwards,
he published a catalogue of plants in four languages,
in which he evinced his extensive knowledge of
botany, which was subsequently increased by se-
veral excursions among the Alps. In 1545, he

CONRAD GESNER. 107

made a journey to Venice and Augsburg, where he
enjoyed some valuable opportunities of consulting
rare works and manuscripts. The same year, he
commenced the publication of his famous Bibliotheca
Universalis, which contains a catalogue of all the
works then known, whether extant or lost. Several
other fruits of his industry appeared successively be-
tween this period and the year 1555, when his merits
induced the magistrates of Zurich to appoint him
professor of natural history. The Emperor Ferdi-
nand I., to whom he dedicated one of his works, the
History of Fishes, rewarded him with various marks
of his esteem. These, however, he did not long en-
joy, as he fell a victim to a pestilential disease
which, commencing at Basil in the spring of 1564,
afterwards broke out in his native city with in-
creased violence. When attacked by this fatal
malady he betook himself to his cabinet, for the
purpose of arranging his papers, and in this occu-
pation died on the 13th December 1565, at the age
of 49 years and a few months ; leaving a widow who
had participated in his adversity and prosperity,
having been married by him when he acted as gram-
mar-teacher at Zurich. He bequeathed his library
and manuscripts to Caspar Wolf, his pupil, with in-
junctions to print all that could be rendered fit for the
public eye. His principal work is the Historia Natu-
ralis Animalium, chiefly composed of extracts from
Aristotle, ^lian, and Pliny, without order or dis-
crimination, but intermixed with numerous original
observations, and illustrated by rude engravings. It
consists of five books, and forms four folio volumes.
There is an English translation by Topsell of part of
it under the name of The History of four-footed

108 CONRAD GESNER.

Beasts and Serpents, collected out of the Writings of
Conradus Gesner. Down to the end of the seven-
teenth century his compilations were held in the
highest estimation in every department of zoology :
they are now considered as objects of curiosity rather
than stores of useful know^ledge. — The three next of
whom mention is to be made were chiefly eminent
as ichthyologists.

PIERRE BELON.
The three great authors, it has been remarked, who
really laid the foundation of modern ichthyology,
appeared in the middle of the sixteenth century,
and, what is remarkable, almost at the same time :
Belon, in 1553; Rondelet, in 1554 and 1555 ; Sal-
viani, from 1554 to 1558. Unlike the compilers
who, after Aristotle and Theophrastus, swell our
list of writers, they saw and examined for them-
selves the fishes of which they speak, and had draw-
ings of them taken under their immediate inspection
with considerable accuracy. Too faithful, however,
to the spirit of their time, they took more pains to
find out the names which these fishes bore among the
ancients, and in selecting fragments for their history,
than in describing them in a distinct manner ; so that,
were it not for the figures, it would in many instances
be alm-ost impossible to determine their species.""'

Scarcely any of the older naturalists, however,
confined their attention to one department of their
favourite science. Belon was a physician, a zoolo-
gist, and a botanist. He was born at Souletiere, in
the parish of Oise, in Le Maine, about the year

* Cuvier, Hist. Nat. des Poissons.

PIERRE BELON. 109

1518. It is supposed that his parents were poor;
and we accordingly find that he was indebted for his
education to Rene du Bellay^ bishop of Mans, Wil-
liam Duprat, bishop of Clermont, and the Cardinals
of Tournon and Lorraine. At an early age, he com-
menced the study of medicine and botany, and
having distinguished himself among the pupils of
Valerius Cordus, professor of natural history at
Wirtemberg, was allowed to accompany his master
on the excursions which he was wont to make into
Germany and Bohemia, for the purpose of obtain-
ing specimens. On finishing his education he tra-
velled through Greece, Egypt, Palestine, and Asia
Minor, whence he returned to Paris in 1550, with
a valuable collection, after an absence of three years.
He now arranged the materials which he had thus
procured, and published several interesting works ;
notwithstanding the merit of which, he experienced
great difficulty in obtaining admission into the medi-
cal faculty of Paris. In 1557, he midertook another
journey into Italy, Savoy, Dauphiny, and Auvergne.
On his return, he engaged in a translation of Dioscori-
des and Theophrastus, and was preparing an imports
ant work on agriculture, when he was murdered in
the wood of Boulogne, as he was proceeding from
Paris to his place of residence at the Chateau de
Madrid. This happened in 1564, when he was
about forty-five years of age.

His first great performance was the Natural His-
tory of Sea Fishes, with wood engravings, containing
a figure and description of the dolphin, and several
other species of the same family. It was published
at Paris in 1551, in quarto. In 1553, he gave to the
world another work on fishes, entitled De Aquatili-

110 PIERRE BELON.

bus Libri Duo, cum Eiconibus ad Vivam ipsorum
Effigiem, which he afterwards translated into French,
and with certain additions printed in three different
forms in 1555. A work on pines and other evergreen
trees, De Arboribus Coniferis, also appeared in 1553,
as well as a dissertation on Egyptian antiquities.
Soon after he presented to the public his Obser-
vations de plusieurs Singularites et Choses memo-
rabies, trouvees en Grece, Asie, Judee, Egypte, Ara-
bic et autres Pays etranges, redigees en trois livres,
in which are many curious details on the subject
of geography, and on the manners of Eastern na-
tions. A treatise on birds was published at Paris in
]555 ; another, containing representations of animals
and plants observed in Arabia and Egypt, was put
forth in 1557; which in 1558 was succeeded by an
essay on the cultivation of plants. As a botanist,
Belon ranks not less highly than as a zoologist ,• and,
to do honour to him in the former capacity, Plumier
has dedicated to his memory an American genus,
to which he has given the name of Belonia.

HIPPOLITO SALVIANI.

The Aquatilium Animalium Historia of Salviani is
chiefly remarkable for the beauty of its engravings,
some of which have scarcely been surpassed by the
efforts of modern art. The titlepage bears the date of
1554, but the work was not completed till 1558. It
contains descriptions of ninety-nine species of fishes,
each including the synonymy, the external appear-
ance of the animal, the places in which it occurs, its
habits, the manner in which it is caught and pre-
pared, and its medical properties. He also points

HIPPOLITO SALVIANI. Ill

out the passages in Aristotle, Pliny, and other an-
cient writers, who have spoken of them, and to the
observations of these authors adds many excellent
ones of his own ; so that the work, on account of the
general accuracy of the plates and descriptions, is
one that may be considered indispensable to the
modern ichthyologist.

Salviani was born in 1514, at Citta di Castello in
Umbria. His family was noble. After finishing
his studies, he settled at Rome, where he practised
medicine, and delivered public lectures. The friend-
ship of Cardinal Cervini obtained for him the ap-
pointment of physician to the pope, Julius III. The
death of this personage, and that of Cervini, who had
been elevated to the apostolic chair, which, however,
he occupied only three weeks, were not productive of
any serious disadvantage to him, for he was continued
in his offices by Paul IV., to whom he dedicated his
work. He died at Rome, in 1572, at the age of
fifty-eight.

GUILLAUME RONDELET.
RoNDELET greatly surpassed Gesner, Belon, and
Salviani, in the extent of his knowledge as an ich-
thyologist ; and although his figures, being only
w^ood-cuts, are inferior in beauty to the copperplate-
engravings of the last of these authors, they are
yet more correct in the characteristic details. His
work is entitled De Piscibus Marinis Libri XVIII.,
in quibus vivse piscium imagines expositse sunt,
and was published at Lyons in 1554. A second part
appeared in 1555, under the name of Universae
Aquatilium Historiae Pars Altera, cum veris ipsorum
Imaginibus. The first part treats of marine ani-

112 GUILLAUBIE RONDELET.

mals, including the cetacea, turtles and seals, the
mollusca, and the Crustacea. In the second part,
shells, insects, zoophytes, and fresh- water fishes, are
described. These objects, although not methodi-
cally arranged, are often placed in such a manner
as to indicate that the author had some idea of
generic affinity. The anatomical details which he
presents are pronounced by Cuvier to be frequently
correct; but his descriptions, it must be granted,
are inferior to the figures, which are truly surprising
for the period at which he lived. In reference to
the fishes of the IMediterranean this work is indis-
pensable, and, indeed, to the ichthyologist generally
it is one of the most important that exists. The
descriptions and figures have been copied by Gesner,
in his work De Aquatilibus ; while Ray, Artedi,
and Linnaeus, have obviously profited by them.

Rondelet, the son of an apothecary, was born at
Montpellier on the 27th September 1507- Being
originally of a very infirm constitution, he was
judged incapable of performing a part in active life,
and, accordingly, when his father's fortune was dis-
tributed, he received a sum merely sufficient to pro-
cure his admittance into a convent. As he grew up,
however, he improved in strength, and having no af-
fection for a monastic life, he commenced his studies
at the age of eighteen, and finished his general edu-
cation at Paris, where he was supported by his elder
brother. Having resolved to embrace the medical
profession, he returned in 1529 to his native city,
and afterwards settling at Pertuis, a small village in
Provence, he began to practise ; but not meeting with
success in the healing art, he endeavoured to procure
subsistence by setting up a grammar-school. This
2

GUILLAUME RONDELET. 113

expedient also failing, he went again to Paris in order
to improve his knowledge of the Greek language, and,
being unwilling to burden his brother any longer,
became tutor to a young nobleman. Some time af-
ter, he removed to Maringues, in Auvergne, where
he again entered upon practice, and in 1537 re-
ceived a medical degree at Montpellier. The fol-
lowing year he married a young lady endowed with
many estimable qualities, but destitute of fortune ;
and, as his brother was dead, this alliance increased
his difficulties. However, he settled finally at the
place of his birth ; and, being assisted by his wife's
sister, began to extend his acquaintance, and suc-
ceeded so well in his profession, that, in 1545, he
was appointed professor of medicine in the uni-
versity.

He also obtained the office of physician to the
Cardinal of Tournon, whom he accompanied on
his missions in France, Italy, and the Low Coun-
tries, of which occasions he eagerly availed himself
to increase his knowledge of natural history. Re-
turning once more to his usual place of residence he
established an anatomical theatre, at which he lec-
tured several hours daily to a numerous audience.
His passion for dissection was so strong, that he
opened one of his own children after death, and
this circumstance has naturally enough given rise to
the opinion, that he must have been a man destitute
of sensibility ; which, however^ does not appear to
have been the case. His wife having died in 1560, he
soon procured another, poor and handsome like the
first. While on a journey to Toulouse he was at-
tacked by dysentery, occasioned by eating too many
figs, and he died at Realmont, whither he had gone

G

114 GUILLAUME RONDELET.

to visit a patient. His death happened on the 30th
July 1566, in the fifty-ninth year of his age.

He was a man of very small stature, but robust
and active. At the age of twenty-five he gave up
the use of wine and spirits, from an apprehension
of gout ; but he compensated for his abstemiousness
in these articles by indulging his appetite for fruit
and pastry. Although he had acquired consider-
able sums of money in the practice of his profession,
he expended them in the gratification of his taste
for building, and in various acts of generosity ; so
that he left very little behind him.

ULYSSES ALDROVANDI.

One of the most celebrated naturalists of the six-
teenth century was Ulysses Aldrovandi, professor
at Bologna, who was born in that city in 1527, and
died on the 4th of May 1605. He was of a noble
family, and his fortune enabled him to travel exten-
sively, to collect materials for his books, and to em-
ploy artists in painting and engraving suitable illus-
trations. He carried, indeed, his liberality in this
respect so far, that, having expended his whole for-
tune in his enthusiastic pursuit of natural history,
he left nothing for the support of his old age, and
is commonly believed to have died in the hospital
of his native city. Cuvier, in a notice of his life
in the Biographic Universelle, regards this circum-
stance as doubtful ; imagining it improbable that
the senate of Bologna, to whom he bequeathed his
museum and manuscripts, and who laid out large
sums after his death in completing the publication
of his works, would have left him destitute during

ULYSSES ALDROVANDI. 115

his life. This, however, is mere conjecture ; and
there is too much reason to fear that, like many
other eminent persons, he was abandoned to struggle
with misfortune, and not advanced to honour and
estimation until after his career was finished, when
they could be of no use to him.

The works of Aldrovandi form thirteen folio vo-
lumes. Of these, four only were published by him-
self; namely, three on birds and one on insects. Im-
mediately after his death, in 1606, his widow put
forth a volume on the other white-blooded animals,
including testacea and crabs. Cornelius Uterverius,
a native of Delft, and his successor in the institute
of Bologna, revised the work on fishes and whales,
which appeared in 1613, as well as that on the
quadrupeds with solid hoofs, published in 1616.
In 1621, the History of the Quadrupeds with split
Hoofs was edited by Thomas Dempster, a Scottish
gentleman, who was also a professor at Bologna.
The other treatises, on the viviparous and oviparous
digitate quadrupeds, on serpents, monsters, and mi-
nerals, were prepared for the press by Bartholomew
Ambrosinus, another of his successors, and that on
trees by Ovid Montalbanus. These works under-
went a second impression at Bologna, and some of
them were subsequently printed at Frankfort. It
is diflicult to procure a uniform edition, and some
of the tracts are much rarer than others.

Aldrovandi was certainly one of the most zeal-
ous naturalists of his time ; but, although he added
considerably to the stock of information, he can only
be considered as a laborious collector of materials.
Cuvier pronounces his works '' an enormous com-
pilation without taste or genius," and agrees with

116 ULYSSES ALDROVANDI.

Buffoii in thinking, that were the useless parts re-
moved, they would be reduced to a tenth of their
bulk. Moreover, the plan and matter are to a
great extent borrowed from Gesner ; but in all ages
writers on natural history have been so much ad-
dicted to the practice of borrowing, that Aldrovandi
is hardly to be censured on this account.

Some portions of his museum have successfully
struggled with the destructive energies of time, and
are still to be seen in the collection of the Institute
of Bologna. His manuscripts, of which there is an
immense mass, are preserved in the public library of
the same city ; and the drawings from which the
engravings for his work were taken were carried,
at the time of the Revolution, to the Museum of
Natural History at Paris.

Such were the dawnings of zoological science after
the revival of learning in Europe. The authors of
those times, it is manifest, looked less to nature than
to tlie writings of Aristotle, Pliny, and their other
predecessors; so that in their works we find little more
than a repetition of what had been previously said.
Their descriptions are rude, frequently incorrect, and
in few cases characteristic. They had no idea of dis-
posing the objects of which they treated in a man-
ner resembling that to which we have been accus-
tomed since the period of Ray and Linnaeus. The
alphabetical arrangement was followed by some,
while others possessed a rude notion of the affinity
of species; but although attempts were made to
separate the animal creation into classic groups, yet
from the days of Aristotle to those of Swammer-
dam, Ray, and Reaumur, we find no traces of the
anatomical knowledge necessary for the accomplish-

ULYSSES ALDROVANDI. 117

ment of such an undertaking. We have, indeed,
little reason to expect in the writings of the an-
cients, or in those of the succeeding naturalists, any
example of a just classification ; still we cannot but
marvel when we find, that very few of them en-
deavoured to represent objects as they might have
seen them with their own eyes. Whatever may be
the causes of this defect, those who are extensively
conversant with the publications of our own times
must be aware, that the practice of copying from
books, instead of having recourse to Nature herself,
has not yet been relinquished ; though nothing is
more clear than that there can be no real progress in
natural history without authenticating the obser-
vations of preceding writers by examining the ob-
jects which they have described, and by noting the
particulars in which they are erroneous.

JONSTON, GOEDART,
REDI, AND SWAMMERDAM.

Zoologists of the Seventeenth Century.

Brief Account of the Lives and Writings of John Jonston, John
Goedart, Francis Redi, and John Swammerdam — Notice respecting
the principal Works of Swammerdam— His Birth and Education
He studies Medicine, but addicts himself chiefly to the Exami-
nation of Insects— Goes to France, where he forms an Acquaint-
ance with Thevenot— Returns to Amsterdam, takes his Degree,
improves the Art of making Anatomical Preparations— Publishes
various Works— Destroys his Health by the Intensity of his Ap-
plication — Becomes deeply impressed with religious Ideas —
Adopts the Opinions of Antoinette Bourignon— Is tortured by
conflicting Passions— Endeavours to dispose of his Collections —
Is afi^ected with Ague and Anasarca, and dies after protracted
SuflFering— His Writings published by Boerhaave— His Classifi-
cation of Insects.

JOHN JONSTON.
Of the three kingdoms of nature, the vegetable was
that which, down to the time of Linnaeus, had re-
ceived most attention. IMineralogy could scarcely be
said to have commenced. Zoology had indeed made
considerable progress ; but botany had advanced in a
still greater degree, having been cultivated by a host
of naturalists, chiefly belonging to the medical pro-
fession. One of these, Csesalpinus, who flourished
in the end of the 16th century, had already invented
a system ; whereas Ray, who belonged to the 17th,
was the first zoologist who formed a methodical ar-

JOHN JONSTON. 119

rangement of animals. It might thus be supposed
that the examination of plants is easier, while that
of minerals is more difficult, than the study of zoo-
logy ; but the cause of the preference given to the
vegetable economy seems to be connected with the
value of herbs as articles of the Materia IMedica,
while the animal kingdom attracted more atten-
tion than the mineral, as exciting greater curiosity,
and tending more directly to. supply the most ur-
gent wants of man. However this may be, it is
certain, that in the 17th century the botanists greatly
exceeded the zoologists in number. One of the most
remarkable of the latter was the subject of the pre-
sent notice, who, although merely a compiler, and
not possessed of much judgment or taste, continued
to be a popular author on natural history until his
works were superseded by those of Linnaeus.

John Jonston, descended from a family origi-
nally Scottish, was born, in 1603, at Sambter, near
Lissa, a city of the palatinate of Posen in Poland.
After studying at Beuthen on the Oder, and at
Thorn in the Prussian dominions, he prosecuted his
education at the University of St Andrews ; whence,
in due time, he returned to his native country, and
for three years acted as tutor to the sons of Count
Kurtzbach. He then studied medicine and natural
history in several of the more distinguished semi-
naries at home and abroad. In 1632, he took charge
of two young noblemen, whom he accompanied to
England, Holland, France, and Italy. At Leyden
he obtained a medical degree, and was offered a pro-
fessorship ; which, however, he declined, preferring
a private life. On completing his travels, he re-
tired to a place in the neighbourhood of Lignitz,

120 JOHN JONSTON.

where he spent the rest of his days. He died on the
8tli June 1675.

The most important of Jonston's works is his His-
toria Animalium, which was published at Frankfort
on the Maine. The first part, containing five books
on fishes and cetacea, and four on the white-blooded
aquatic animals, appeared in 1649. The second
part, which treats of birds, followed in 1650; the
third, on quadrupeds, in 1 652 ; and the fourth, on
insects and serpents, in 1653. Several editions of
this work have since come out ; the latest being that
of Heidelberg, in 1755. It is, however, a mere com-
pilation from the writings of Gesner, Aldrovandi, and
others. The plates, which are numerous, are also, for
the most part, copied from these authors, a few only
being original. They are not without merit, having
been engraved by the famous Matthew Merian ; but
several of them, resting on no authority beyond that
of simple description, represent objects which have no
real existence. His first treatise, which is a collection
of the most curious phenomena presented by the
sky, the elements, meteors, fossils, plants, birds,
quadrupeds, insects, and man, was printed at Am-
sterdam in 1632, under the title of Thaumatogra-
phia Naturalis in Decem Classes Distincta. He
also produced a Dendrographia, or natural history
of trees and shrubs ; and two smaller tracts, the one
entitled Notitia Regni Vegetabilis, the other Noti-
tia Regni Mineralis ; together with several others,
on various subjects, which, as they have long since
passed into oblivion, it is unnecessary to mention at
greater length.

JOHN GOEDART — FRANCIS REDI. 121

JOHN GOEDART.
This distinguished naturalist was born at Middle-
burg in Holland, in 1620. He was a sedulous
observer of the nature and properties of insects,
which he examined with admirable patience and
sagacity. His work, which was written in Dutch,
was published at Middleburg in 1662, with the title
Descriptions of the Origin, Species, Qualities, and
Metamorphoses of Worms, Caterpillars, &c. Being
a painter by profession, he adorned it with very
accurate coloured engravings. The treatise was also
printed in Latin and French translations. The
former bore this title : — IMetamorphosis et Histo-
ria Naturalis Insectorum, cum Commentario Jo.
de IMey et duplici ejusd. Appendice, una de He-
raerobiis, altera de Natura Cometarum. An im-
proved edition, in the English language, was pub-
lished by Lister in 1682; and another, in Latin,
in which the species were methodically disposed,
appeared in 1685, under the care of the same na-
turalist, who had the work reprinted a third time
as an appendix to his Historia Animalium Anglise.
Goedart describes 150 different species, and may
be considered as the first who subjected the meta-
morphoses of insects to accurate examination. He
died in 1668.

FRANCIS REDI.

The principal works of this eminent physician, hav,
ing any reference to zoology, are on the generation of
insects, on the poison of the viper, and on intestinal
worms. His observations and experiments were trans-
lated from the Italian into Latin, and published at

122 FRANCIS REDI.

Amsterdam in 1670 and 1686, and atLeyden in 1729.
Fabroni gives his life in the third volume of his Vitse
Illustrium Italorum. Sprung from a noble family,
he was born at Arezzo on the 18th February 1626.
After finishing his studies at the University of Pisa,
he settled at Florence, where he soon became known
as a successful practitioner, and was appointed phy-
sician to Ferdinand II. grand duke of Tuscany, in
which office he was continued by Cosmo III. Redi's
experiments, directed by professional views, had for
their chief object the treatment of the bite of serpents,
and the destruction or removal of intestinal worms.
His letters, however, published in 1724, in two
volumes 4to, are replete with interesting observations
in every department of natural history ; his poetical
works are said to be distinguished by elegance and
grace ; and his numerous literary compositions are
described as evincing a pure and cultivated taste.
He was a considerable contributor to the edition of
the Dictionary of the Academia della Crusca, printed
in 1691. He died at Pisa on the 1st of March 1694,
at the age of sixty-eight, and was buried at Arezzo, in
a tomb which his nephew decorated with an inscrip-
tion, remarkable for its simplicity and good taste : —
Francisco Redi Patritio Aretino
Gregorius Fratris Filius.

JOHN SWAMMERDAM.

As a naturalist, Swammerdam is chiefly celebrated
for the extent and accuracy of his inquiries into the
structure of insects ; though anatomy and physiology
are equally indebted to his labours. He was the first
who discovered the method of rendering the blood-

JOHN SWAM3IERDAM. 123

vessels more easy to be traced in dissection, by in-
jecting them with coloured wax in a fluid state ; and
although he cannot for that reason alone claim all
the discoveries that have been made in anatomy, any
more than the first person who skinned birds can
claim the honour of determining the numerous species
that have been conveyed from distant countries,
or he who first cut a slice of petrified wood, all the
results that have emanated from his experiment,
yet he certainly devised the means of extending
our knowledge of the human body as well as of
pathology. His works on insects are the following :
—1. The General History of Insects, published
in Dutch at Utrecht in 1669, and subsequently in
French and Latin, in which he gives a classification
of these animals, founded on their structure and
metamorphoses. 2. The History of the Epheme-
ris, published in Dutch at Amsterdam in 1675,
and in Latin at London in 1681. 3. The Biblia
Naturae, sive Historia Insectorum in Classes Certas
Redacta, Leyden, 1737-38, 2 vols folio, which has
been translated into German, English, and French.
This important work was published after his death
by Boerhaave, in Dutch and Latin, and contains
a masterly exposition of the structure of such insects
as came under his observation.

It has been remarked by an eminent entomologist,
that natural history, which, during the long series of
ages in which barbarism reigned, shared the fate of the
other sciences, underwent the same treatment when
a taste for knowledge began to revive. For example,
it was chiefly in Aristotle that the history of animals
was sought ; whereas, if Aldrovandi, Gesner, Moufet,
and other physiologists, had studied nature as much

124 JOHN SWAMMERDAM.

as they studied the ancient writers, the assiduous la-
bour of so many active minds would have secured for
that science a more sure and rapid progress. The ma-
terial world was then observed only for the purpose of
confirming the reports made by the authors of anti-
quity. At length Nature opened the eyes of those
who were trying to see in her only what they had
seen in Aristotle and Pliny. She disclosed to them
facts worthy of being noticed, which they vainly
sought in the books which they imagined to contain
every thing ; and unfolded others, which gave them
reason to doubt the truth of those that had been
transmitted from former ages. After having thrown
oif the fetters of authority, farther, perhaps, than
was quite consistent with the respect that was really
due to the ancients, men perceived that they ought
to study facts, verify whatever had been related, and
try to discover more. It was thus that Malpighi,
Swammerdam, Redi, and other illustrious authors
proceeded. Even those, such as Goedart and Ma-
dame Merian, who^ from an ignorance in some de-
gree fortunate, were unable to read the ancients,
laboured with advantage as observers.*

The subject of this memoir was born at Am-
sterdam on the 12th February 1637. His father,
an apothecary, was fond of natural history, and,
being in prosperous circumstances, embellished his
house with preserved animals, shells, and minerals,
insomuch that it became an object of attraction to
the curious. Young Swammerdam was intended
for the church, and received instructions in the
Greek and Latin languages, to qualify him for
the study of divinity ; but, on seriously consider-

* Reaumur, Histoire des Insectes, tome i. p. 28.

JOHN SWAMMERDAM. 125

ing the importance of the task designed for him,
he judged himself incapable of discharging the du-
ties of a religious instructor. On representing the
matter to his parents, he received their permission to
commence the study of medicine. Being frequently
employed in cleaning and arranging his father's ca-
binet, he gradually acquired a liking to natural
history, and even at an early age began to form a
collection of insects, which he disposed into classes,
agreeably to ideas derived from observation and the
descriptions of authors. Day and night he pursued
his favourite employment, searching the woods and
fields, the sandhills and muddy shores, the lakes,
rivers, and canals, for insects, worms, and mollusca,
until he acquired, even while a youth, a more exten-
sive and more accurate knowledge of the lower ani-
mals than all the naturalists who had preceded him.

In 1661, he went to Leyden, for the purpose of
attending the lectures at the celebrated university
of that city. There he remained two years, study-
ing surgery with Van Home, and medicine with
Franciscus Sylvius de le Boe, with as much dili-
gence as he had previously displayed in his other
pursuits. During the whole of this time he enjoyed
the friendship of Steno and De Graaf ; and, becom-
ing much attached to the study of anatomy, he
exerted his utmost ingenuity in devising means for
eifectually preserving his preparations.

He then went to Paris to improve himself in his pro-
fession. Therehe continued theexamination of insects,
and had the good fortune to discover the valves in the
lymphatic vessels. After this he resided for some
time at Lyons, where he lived on terms of intimacy
with Thevenot the celebrated traveller, who intro-

126 JOHN SWAMMERDAM.

duced him to the learned men by whom his house was
frequented. In their society he usually remained a
listener, and could not be prevailed upon to com-
municate his ideas ; but, being repeatedly urged to
exhibit one of his minute dissections, he gratified
the wishes of his friends, and, by the profound
knowledge which he displayed, acquired at once
their esteem and admiration. Thevenot recommend-
ed him to Van Beuningen, a senator at Amsterdam,
who, on his returning to that city, obtained permis-
sion for him to examine the bodies of patients dying
in the hospital, — an opportunity of increasing his
knowledge which he took care not to neglect.

In his native town he frequented a society of medi-
cal men, who met once a-fortnight for the purpose of
discussing subjects connected with their profession,
and made observations on the structure of the spinal
marrow and nerves, on respiration, and on the ef-
fects produced by the injection of fluids into the
blood-vessels of animals.

About the end of 1666, he returned to Leyden
with the view of obtaining his medical diploma, and
there continued his researches in company with his
former teacher. Van Home, in whose house he in-
jected the uterine vessels with wax, — a method of
showing the distribution of the arteries and veins
afterwards greatly improved by him, and which has
been productive of much advantage in the study of
anatomy. In February 1 667, he received the degree
of doctor, and in IMarch published his thesis on
respiration, which he dedicated to Thevenot. He
next invented a new method of preserving anato-
mical subjects by inflating them with air. But the
eagerness with which he engaged in these occupa-

JOHN SWAMMERDAM. 127

tions was prejudicial to his health, and he was seized
with a quartan ague, which reduced him to a state
of extreme debility. On recovering from this dis-
ease, he remitted his professional studies for two
years; resuming the investigation of insects, the
structure of which he unfolded with astonishing
precision and success.

It happened about this time that the Grand Duke
of Tuscany visited Amsterdam. Accompanied by
Thevenot, he examined the collections made by
Swammerdam and his father, and was so struck
by the wonderful dissections of insects that he of-
fered 12,000 florins for the museum, on condition
that its proprietor should accompany it to Florence,
and take up his residence in the palace. But the
young naturalist had been so much accustomed to
roam about at will, that he could not relinquish
his liberty, and therefore refused the offer.

In 1669, he published his General History of In-
sects, which he dedicated to the senate of Amster-
dam. The expense which he incurred in procuring
specimens from all quarters, while no emoluments
resulted from his labours, so displeased his father, that
he earnestly urged him to relinquish his unprofit-
able pursuits, and engage in the practice of medicine.
At length, finding him unwilling to follow his ad-
vice, he was obliged to threaten a total intermission
of supplies; though by this time the ardent student
had fallen into such a state of debility that he was
totally unfit to undergo the fatigues of practice. He
was, however, sensible of the propriety of the counsel
which was administered to him, and retired to the
country to recruit his strength ; but he had scarcely
arrived when he recommenced his studies, being

128 JOHN SWAMMERDAM.

wholly unable to resist the temptation offered by
solitude and by the presence of the objects which
invited his research. In the mean time^ Thevenot,
being made acquainted with these circumstances,
urged him to return to France, generously offering
him every thing necessary to enable him to fol-
low the bent of his genius. His father, however,
did not approve of this scheme, which was there-
fore relinquished ; but the son did not the less con-
tinue to pursue his former occupations.

In 1672, he published his Miraculum Naturae,
seu Uteri Muliebris Fabrica. He soon afterwards
entered upon an extensive examination of fishes, hav.
ing reference chiefly to the pancreas. About this time
he began to be impressed with religious ideas ; be-
coming sensible of the vanity of human pursuits, as
well as of the sinfulness of that inordinate ambition
which impels men to aim at the highest place in
the estimation of their fellows. He accordingly re-
solved to eradicate that base passion from his breast.
In this state of mind he imbibed the mystical no-
tions of the celebrated Antoinette Bourignon.

This lady, who was a native of Lisle in Flanders,
had become at an early age impressed with the idea
that pure Christianity was in a state of decay, and
that she was called to revive it. She became gover-
ness of the hospital of her native city, and took the
order and habit of St Augustin ; but owing to the
disturbances caused by her violent temper and pre-
tensions to inspiration, the magistrates were obliged
to expel her from her office, when she retired to
Ghent. The fortune which she inherited from her
parents, and that bequeathed to her by her convert
De Cordt, enabled her to publish several works of

JOHN SWAMMERDAM. 129

her own composition, and rendered her^ notwith-
standing the deformity of her person, the object of
much hypocritical admiration. Such was her ex-
treme parsimony, and so inconsistent was her con-
duct with her professions, that she declared she
would rather throw her wealth into the sea than
bestow the smallest sum on the poor, or on '^ beastly
persons who had no souls to be saved."

She was at that time in Holstein ; and Swammer-
dam wrote to a friend of his who accompanied her,
to obtain permission to consult her in writing re-
specting his doubts." The result of their correspond-
ence was a resolution on his part no longer to addict
himself exclusively to pursuits which had reference
to this world only, but to endeavour to make his
peace with God. He did not, however, entirely re-
linquish his anatomical studies, but on the contrary
engaged with astonishing ardour in the examination
of the structure of bees, which he finished on the
last day of September 1674. " He had laboured
so assiduously at this work," says Boerhaave, '' as
to destroy his constitution ; nor did he ever recover
even a shadow of his former strength. The labour,
in fact, was beyond the power of ordinary men : all
day he was occupied in examining subjects, and
at night described and delineated what he had seen
by day. At six in the morning, in summer, he be-
gan to receive sufficient light from the sun to enable
him to trace the objects of his examination. He
continued dissecting till twelve, with his hat removed
lest it should impede the light, and in the full
blaze of the sun, the heat of which caused his head
to be constantly covered with a profuse perspiration.
His eyes being continually employed in this strong

130 JOHN SWAMMERDAM.

light, the effect of which was increased by the use
of the microscope, they were so affected by it, that
after mid-day he could no longer trace the minute
bodies which he examined, although he had then
as bright a light as in the forenoon." A month of
this excessive labour was necessary to examine and
depict the intestines of bees alone ; and the investi-
gation of their entire structure cost him much addi-
tional labour ; and all this w as done, with a body de-
bilitated by disease, and a mind agitated by conflict-
ing passions, amid sighs and tears. At one time
the bent of his disposition impelled him to investi-
gate the wonderful works of Omnipotence ; at an-
other a voice within told him that he ought to set
his affections on God alone. After finishing his exa-
mination of the structure of bees, he was so affected
with remorse, that he gave the manuscript and
drawings to a friend, careless what might happen to
them. At the same time, however, he wrote two
letters to Boccone, on the nature of corals.

These occupations being ended, he was more power-
fully impressed than ever with the vanity of human
pursuits, and after this period he never engaged in
his customary investigations. He acknowledged that
hitherto ambition alone had incited him to undergo
so many labours, but now resolved to devote the re-
mainder of his life to the cultivation of Christian
piety. Being encouraged in this resolution by the
approbation of Antoinette Bourignon, he firmly ad-
hered to it ; and estimating the annual sum neces-
sary for his subsistence at 400 Dutch florins, he en-
deavoured to dispose of his collections, which formed
the only treasures that he possessed. For this pur-
pose, he applied to Thevenot, who, however, was

JOHN SWAMMERDAM. 131

unable to find a purchaser in France. He then had
recourse to another friend, Nicolas Steno, who had
abjured the Protestant faith and was living at Flo-
rence, and whom he requested to represent the mat-
ter to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, in case he might
feel disposed to purchase them. This person ad-
vised him to follow his example, relinquish his
creed, embrace the Catholic faith, and proceed to
Florence, promising that he should induce the
duke to accept the offer. Swammerdam replied
indignantly, that he would not sell his soul for
money.

Being without any fixed occupation, he devoted his
leisure to arranging and cleaning the contents of his
museum, and writing out a catalogue of them. They
consisted of anatomical preparations and insects, of
the latter of which there were nearly three thou-
sand distinct species. These were all described and
arranged into classes, and the entire structure of many
of them had been demonstrated by the most minute
dissection. He then published his Treatise on the
Ephemeris, which he had commenced when in
France, and which is considered as one of the most
remarkable productions of any age. He did not^
however, venture upon this step without consulting
Bourignon. These arrangements completed, he now
determined in earnest to lead a holy life, and being
desirous of a personal consultation with his direct-
ress, he went to Hoi stein, where he remained with
her some time. On returning to Amsterdam, he
again endeavoured to dispose of his museum, but
without success ; and his sister, who had hitherto
presided over the domestic establishment, happening
at this time to be married^ his father resolved upon

132 JOHN SWAMMERDAM.

living with his son-in-law, so that he was obliged
to look out for another residence. On this occasion
his allowance was limited to 200 florins, and as he
could not find any one to purchase his collection
he was reduced to great perplexity. However, a
thought struck him that he might apply to an old
friend, who had formerly treated him with great
kindness ; hut in this he also failed.

In the following year, his father died, leaving him
heir to his property, which was sufficient for his
support ; hut he became involved in disputes with
his sister, which, together with his assiduous endea-
vours to discharge his religious duties, so agitated
his mind, that he was again seized with a severe ague.
For three entire months he was confined to his bed,
and even when the accessions of the fever had become
more gentle and less frequent, he still persisted in re-
maining in the house. In vain did his friends, Sla-
dus, Ruysch, Schrader, Hotton, and Guenellon, urge
upon him the propriety of adopting means for im-
proving his health. He would not yield to their
proposals ; and, when they still persisted, at length
maintained an obstinate silence.

Finding all his endeavours to sell his collection
fruitless, he determined to expose it to public auc-
tion ; but before the period arrived, his disease was
much aggravated by the various agitations to which
his mind was now habitually subject. The fever
proved again regular and continuous, the countenance
was emaciated, the eyes were sunk, the feet, the
legs, and at length the whole body, dropsical. His
friends dared not speak to him respecting his former
studies, for he detested all allusion to them, and wish-
ed to withdraw his mind entirely from earthly con-

JOHN SWAMMERDAM.

133

cerns. At length, on the 25th January 1670, when he
perceived his end approaching, he wrote his will, leav-
ing to Thevenot all his original manuscripts on the
history of bees, butterflies, and anatomy, with 52
plates ; all of which were at that time in the house
of Herman Wigendorp in Leyden, to whom they had
been delivered to be translated into Latin. He be-
queathed his property to Margaret Volckers, wife of
Daniel dt Hoest, appointing her and Christopher
Wyland his executors. The remainder of his time
he spent in devotion, and died on the 17th February.
It was some years before Thevenot obtained pos-
session of the manuscripts, and after his death they
passed into various hands, but were bought in 1 727
by the illustrious Boerhaave, who arranged and
published them in two folio volumes, prefixing a
life of the author, from which we have drawn the
materials of this notice.

The learned editor gives an interesting account of
the instruments and expedients employed by Swam-
merdam in dissecting insects and other minute ani-
mals. When the anatomical preparations, insects,
and apparatus, were offered for sale, no purchaser
could be found, and the collection was subsequently
dispersed. The manuscripts and drawings of the
Biblia Naturae were deposited by Boerhaave in the
library of the University of Leyden.

The works of Swammerdam contain more ori-
ginal and accurate observations than those of any
naturalist who preceded him, excepting Aristotle.
He refuted numerous errors committed by his pre-
decessors, and carried his observations to a degree of
minuteness and accuracy truly astonishing ; but it is
not a little surprising that he succeeded less in de-

134 JOHN SWAMMERDAM.

scribing the structure of large objects than in de-
lineating the organs of the most minute.

His classification of insects differs very materially
from those now in use. The characters of his four
classes he derives from the state in which each insect
appears after its birth, and those through which it
passes before attaining its entire development. In
the first he places all those which issue from the egg
with nearly the same form as that w hich they have at
the period of their full growth; such as spiders,
slugs, leeches, &c. In the second are included
those which, like the grashopper, issue with six feet,
and some time after cast off the covering under
which the wings were concealed. These insects run
or leap with agility in their first stage, which is not
the case with those of the next class. To the third
are referred insects which undergo greater changes,
such as caterpillars, and which proceed from the egg
in the state of a worm, remain in that state for
some time, cast off their hairy covering, assume the
form of a chrysalis, when they become motionless,
and finally emerge in a winged state. The fourth
class consists of such as, like the common fly, on
changing the form under which they issued from
the egg to assume that of a worm, do not cast
their covering, but become separated from it, while
it remains and forms a shell or egg-like investiture,
in which the insect remains in the pupa state un-
til it finally emerges with wings.

The history of Swammerdam must excite our
sympathy and commiseration ; but that, as some
have alleged, he lost his reason towards the end of
his life, and became subject to mania, arising from
religious melancholy, no one who has any share of

JOHN SWAMMERDAM. 135

that piety which he evinced will feel disposed to ad-
mit. Although he lived in misery, the close of his
life was perhaps more enviable than that of many
who have gone smiling to their final rest ; and it is
well for those who, before the period arrives when as
the tree falls so it must lie, can like him become
truly sensible of the vanity of all earthly pur-
suits, even although after death they should be
pointed out as the victims of a distempered ima-
gination.

RAY.

Account of the Life and Writings of Ray.

Birth and Parentage of Ray — He receives the Rudiments of his
Education at Braintree School— At the age of Sixteen enters at
Katherine Hall, Cambridge — Removes to Trinity College, where
he passes through various Gradations, and becomes a Fellow —
Publishes liis Catalogue of Cambridge Plants, and undertakes
several Journeys — Extracts from his Itineraries — Resigns his
Fellowship— Becomes a Member of the Ro3'al Society — Pub-
lishes his Catalogue of Enghsh Plants, &c Death of his

most intimate Friend, JNIr Willughby — Character of that Gen-
tleman— Mr RajT undertakes the Education of his Sons, and
writes a Vocabulary for their Use — Notice of Dr Lister — Seve-
ral Works published by Mr Ray, who improves and edits
Willughby's Notes on Birds and Fishes — Continues his scientific
Labours — Remarks on the Scoter and Barnacle — Letters of Dr
Robinson and Sir Hans Sloane — Notice respecting the latter —
Publication of the Synopsis of British Plants, the Wisdom of
God manifested in the Works of Creation, &c. — Estimate of the
Number of Animals and Plants known — Synopsis of Quadrupeds
and Serpents — Classification of Animals — Various Publications
— Ray's Decline — His last Letter — His Ideas of a Future State,
and of the Use of the Study of Nature — His Death, Character,
and principal Writings.

The distinguished individual whose history we are
about to sketch, and who is considered by many
persons of the present age as the greatest naturalist
that Britain has yet produced, was born on the 29th
November 1628, at Black Notley, near Braintree in
Essex. His father, Roger Wray, was a blacksmith,
— a circumstance which affords another proof that

RAY. 137

natural history has had among its most successful cul-
tivators men of all stations in society, from the lowest
to the highest. He received the rudiments of his
education at Braintree School, under the care of a
Mr Love, who, it seems, was but indifferently qua-
lified for his office. Young Wray, however, profited
so well by his opportunities of acquiring knowledge,
that at the age of sixteen he was sent to the Uni-
versity of Cambridge, where he entered at Katherine
Hall in June 1644. As it is not stated that on this
occasion he had to draw on the generosity of any of
his rich neighbours, it is to be presumed that his
father was in prosperous circumstances. At the end
of a year and three-quarters he removed to Trinity
College, where he had the good fortune to have for
his tutor Dr Duport, a man of great learning, under
whose direction he acquired considerable skill in the
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages. About three
years afterwards he was chosen iMinor Fellow of Tri-
nity, at the same time with his friend the celebrated
Isaac Barrow ; and, after passing through the usual
gradations, was appointed Greek lecturer of the Col-
lege in October 1651, Mathematical lecturer in Oc-
tober 1653, and Humanity reader in October 1655.
After this he was made Prselector Primarius, Junior
Dean, and College Steward, having been sworn
into the latter office in 1659.

During the time of Mr Wray's residence at the
university, he had several gentlemen of great merit
under his tuition. He also became eminent as a
pulpit orator, being, according to the testimony of
Dr Tenison, archbishop of Canterbury, " much
celebrated for his preaching solid and useful divi-
nity, instead of that enthusiastick stulf, which the

138 RAY

sermons of that time were generally filled with."
He contracted an intimate friendship with Mr John
Nidj who, like himself, was an ardent " admirer of
the works of God/' and whom, in a funeral sermon,
he eulogizes for his admirable amenity and candour,
his strict probity, innocence of life and manners,
singular modesty, and great learning. He was aid-
ed by this gentleman in writing his Catalogue of
Cambridge Plants, which he published in 1660,
and which was found of great use in promoting
the much-neglected study of botany at that uni-
versity. But before it was entirely finished, he was
deprived of the companion whose society had af-
forded him so much delight.

The favourable reception given to the work now
mentioned, encouraged Mr Wray to prosecute his re-
searches with more vigour, and induced him to extend
his excursions through the greater part of England
and Wales, as well as over a portion of Scotland. On
these journeys or "simplingvoyages,"as hecallsthem,
he was usually accompanied by some of his friends,
and in particular by his pupil, Mr Willughby. The
notes made on these hurried expeditions were after-
wards published by Mr George Scott, under the titleof
" Select Remains of the learned John Ray ;" and as
they are not deficient in interest, one or two ex-
tracts from them may be not misplaced here :

'' August the 17th (1661), we travelled to Dun-
bar, a town noted for the fight between the English
and Scots. The Scots generally (that is the poorer
sort) wear, the men blue bonnets on their heads,
and some russet ; the women only white linen,
which hangs down their backs as if a napkin were
pinned about them. When they go abroad, none

RAY. 139

of them wear hats, but a party-coloured blanket,
which they call a plad, over their heads and shoul-
ders. The women generally to us seemed none of
the handsomest. They are not very cleanly in their
houses, and but sluttish in dressing their meat.
Their way of washing linens is to tuck up their
coats, and tread them with their feet in a tub. They
have a custom to make up the fronts of their houses,
even in their principal towns, with firr boards nailed
one over another, in which are often made many
round holes or windows to put out their heads. In
the best Scottish houses, even the king's palaces, the
windows are not glazed throughout, but the up-
per part only, the lower have two wooden shuts or
folds to open at pleasure, and admit the fresh air.
The Scots cannot endure to hear their country or
countrymen spoken against. They have neither
good bread, cheese, nor drink. They cannot make
them, nor will they learn. Their butter is very in-
different, and one would wonder how they could
contrive to make it so bad. They use much pot-
tage made of coal- wort, which they call keal, some-
times broth of decorticated barley. The ordinary
country houses are pitiful cots, built of stone, and
covered with turves, having in them but one room,
many of them no chimneys, the windows very small
holes, and not glazed. In the most stately and fa-
shionable houses, in great towns, instead of cieling,
they cover the chambers with firr boards, nailed on
the roof within side. They have rarely any bel-
lows, or warming-pans. It is the manner in some
places there, to lay on but one sheet as large as two,
turned up from the feet upwards. The ground in
the valleys and plains bears good corn, but especially

140 RAY.

beer-barley, or bigge, and oats, but rarely wheat
and rye. We observed little or no fallow-grounds
in Scotland; some layed ground we saw, which
they manured with sea- wreck. The people seem
to be very lazy, at least the men, and may be fre-
quently observed to plow in their cloaks. It is the
fashion for them to wear cloaks when they go abroad,
but especially on Sundays. They lay out most
they are worth in cloaths, and a fellow that hath
scarce ten groats besides to help himself with, you
shall see come out of his smoaky cottage clad like a
gentleman."

That this is a true character of the people of the
southern division of Scotland in those days is very
probable ; — it is needless to say that things are much
altered now. Still the picture applies in almost
every particular to the inhabitants of several dis-
tricts at the present day, although the men seldom
plough in their plaids ; but as the Scots cannot (any
more than the English) endure to hear their country
spoken against, we desist from making any reflections,
merely wishing that they would strive to render it
such as to merit the utmost praise.

The next extract which we shall present, has a re-
ference to the Bass Rock, in the estuary of the Forth :

'' August the 19th, we went to Leith, keeping all
along on the side of the Fryth. By the way we
viewed Tantallon Castle, and passed over to the
Basse Island ; where we saw, on the rocks, innu-
merable of the soland geese. The old ones are all
over white, excepting the pinion or hard feathers of
their wings, which are black. The upper part of
the head and neck, in those that are old, is of a
yellowish dun colour. They lay but one agg a-piece,

RAY.

141

which is white, and not very large. They are very
bold, and sit in great multitudes till one comes close
up to them, because they are not wont to be scared
or disturbed. The young ones are esteemed a choice
dish in Scotland, and sold very dear (Is. 8d. pluck-
ed). We eat of them at Dunbar. They are in
bigness little inferior to an ordinary goose. The
young one is upon the back black, and speckled
with little white spots, under the breast and belly
grey. The beak is sharp-pointed, the mouth very
wide and large, the tongue very small, the eyes
great, the foot hath four toes w^ebbed together. It
feeds upon mackrel and herring, and the flesh of the
young one smells and tastes strong of these fish.
The other birds which nestle in the Basse are these .;
the scout, which is double ribbed ; the cattiwake,
in English cormorant ; the scart, and a bird called
the turtle-dove, whole-footed, and the feet red.
There are verses which contain the names of these
birds among the vulgar, two whereof are,

« The scout, the scart, the cattiwake,
The soland goose sits on the lake,
Yearly in the spring.'

" We saw of the scout's eggs, which are very
large and speckled. It is very dangerous to climb
the rocks for the young of these fowls, and seldom a
year passeth, but one or other of the climbers fall
down and lose their lives, as did one not long before
our being there. The laird of this island makes a
great profit yearly of the soland geese taken ; as I
remember, they told us £130 sterling. There is in
the isle a small house, which they call a castle ; it
is inaccessible, and impregnable, but of no great
consideration in a war, there being no harbour, nor

142 RAY.

any thing like it. The island will afford grass
enough to keep thirty sheep. They make strangers
that come to visit it Burgesses of the Basse, by
giving them to drink of the water of the well, which
springs near the top of the rock, and a flower out of
the garden thereby. The island is nought else but
a rock, and stands off the land near a mile ; at Dun-
bar you would not guess it above a mile distant,
though it be thence at least five. We found grow-
ing in the island, in great plenty. Beta marina,
Lychnis marina nostras, Malva arborea marina
nostras, et Cochlear ia rotundifolia."

In this sketch, short as it is, there are several in-
accuracies, and yet it is on the whole more correct
than some later accounts of the same interesting
islet.

On the restoration of Charles II., when there was
a prospect of peaceable times, and the church of
England was re-established, JMr Wray took orders,
though he continued a fellow of Trinity College.
But his views of preferment were blasted by his
resolution not to subscribe to the conditions implied
in the Act of Uniformity, by which divines were re-
quired to declare that the oath entitled the Solemn
League and Covenant was not binding on those
who had sworn it. The reason of his refusal did
not, however, arise from his having himself taken
the oath, which he never did, having always believed
it to be unlawful, but from his considering those
who had taken it as still under an obligation to
abide by it. In consequence of this opinion he deem-
ed it proper to resign his fellowship in 1662.

On leaving Cambridge he resolved to go to the
Continent, with the view of extending his know-
5

RAY. 143

ledge of natural history, to which he had long been
devoted. Accordingly, in the spring of 1663, ac-
companied by Mr Willughby, Mr Skippon, and
31r Bacon, his pupils, he crossed to Calais, and tra-
versing the Low Countries, visited Germany, Italy,
and several islands in the Mediterranean. In re-
turning homewards he directed his way through
Switzerland and France, and arrived in his own
country in the spring of 1666, with a rich store of
materials for the cultivation of his favourite science.
He now occupied himself in reading the works that
had been published during his absence ; in review-
ing and arranging Mr Willughby's collections ; and
in making a catalogue of such plants as were natives
of the English soil. He was also employed during
the winter in forming a table of plants and quadru-
peds to illustrate the famous work of Dr Wilkins
on a '' Real or Universal Character." In the sum-
mer of 1667j, he made a journey into the west,
accompanied by his favourite pupil. While on this
excursion the two friends described many natural ob-
jects, and in particular examined the Cornish mines,
and the methods employed for smelting ores.

His fame as a naturalist being now fully esta«
blished, he was solicited to become a member of
the Royal Society, which he accordingly entered in
1667- The remainder of this year he spent with
his friends in Sussex and Warwickshire. In 1668,
he made a journey into Yorkshire and Westmoreland,
where he assiduously exerted himself in collecting
plants and animals. The greater part of the winter
was passed in Warwickshire, with Mr Willughby,
who in the following spring engaged with him in a
series of experiments on the ascent and descent of

144 RAY.

the sap in trees, the results of which were published
ill the Philosophical Transactions.

Although botany seems to have been his princi-
pal study, his attention was by no means confined
to it, for, like most naturalists of the time, he was a
general collector. The materials which he had ac-
cumulated in the course of his journeys having now
increased to a great extent, he began to digest his
observations ; commencing, rather oddly, with a set
of proverbs, which he made ready for the press, al-
though they were not published till 1672. In 1669,
he also prepared his Catalogue of English Plants,
which was printed in the following year.

At this time he changed his name to Ray, omit-
ting the initial letter ; the altered mode of spelling
being, as he conceived, more correct. In one of his
notes to Dr Lister he mentions his having had an
offer of L. 100 per annum to travel with three young
noblemen, expressing, at the same time, his unfit-
ness for the office, and his unworthiness of so large
a salary. To this his friend replies : " I joy you
of the condition offered you. If you accept it, I
wish you all the satisfaction and comfort in the
world of it ; and I pray God, of his infinite mercy,
to preserve you in your travels, and to send me
home again my dear friend well. Fix not long
with them in any place ; for the gentry of France
are very proud, and will soon (when acquainted)
learn them to despise their tutors, however well
deserving." This proposal, however, Mr Ray re-
jected, being in a weak state of health, and con-
sidering it more expedient to continue his pursuits.

In the spring of 1671, he had an attack of
jaundice, of which, as he informs Dr Lister, he

RAY. ]45

" got pretty well rid." On recovering^ he pursued
his experiments on the motion of sap, and in sum-
mer visited several of his acquaintances; after which,
in July, he commenced a journey to the north-
ern counties, taking with him Thomas Willisel,
from whose assistance in collecting and describing
plants he derived much profit.

In this erratic mode of living, — at one time wan-
dering over the country in quest of its rarer produc-
tions, at another residing with his friends at their
country-seats, enjoying their conversation, and de-
riving instruction from the inspection of their col-
lections,— Mr Ray must have experienced much
real happiness ; one principal source of which, how-
ever, was now dried up. He had scarcely returned
from his excursion when he was informed of the
dangerous illness of Mr Willughby, who, having
been seized with violent pain in his head, fol-
lowed by pleurisy and fever, expired in the thirty-
seventh year of his age, on the third day of July
1672.

The character of this estimable man and excellent
naturalist cannot be better described than in Dr
Derham's words : — '' His example deserves the imi-
tation of every person of great estate and honour.
For he was a man whom God had blessed with a
very plentiful estate, and with excellent parts,
capable of making him useful to the world. And
accordingly he neglected no opportunity of being so.
He did not (as the fashion too much is) depend
upon his riches, and spend his time in sloth or
sports, idle company-keeping, and luxury; but
practising what was laudable and good, — what
might be of service to mankind. And among other

I

146 KAY.

virtuous employments, one he much delighted in
was the searching after, and describing of, ani-
mals (birds, beasts, fishes, and insects), which pro-
vince he had taken for his task, as ]\Ir Ray had
that of plants. And in these matters he was a
great master, as he was also in plants, fossils, and,
in short, the whole history of nature ; to which I
may add that of coins, and most other curious parts
of learning. And in the pursuit and acquest of
this knowledge he stuck neither at any labour or
cost. Noble monuments of which he left behind
him in those posthumous pieces which Mr Ray
afterwards published."

To render a separate article unnecessary, some
particulars may here be given respecting that dis-
tinguished individual. He was born in Lincoln-
shire in 1635, and, as has already been mentioned,
studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, under the
tuition of Ray, whose most intimate friend he con-
tinued to be until the period of his premature and
lamented death. Dr Derham states, from a con-
versation which he had with Ray a short time before
his last illness, that " these two gentlemen, find-
ing the history of nature very imperfect, had agreed
between themselves, before their travels beyond sea,
to reduce the several tribes of things to a method ;
and to give accurate descriptions of the several spe-
cies, from a strict view of them." Both entered
upon the task with an enthusiasm which could have
been excited only by an intense love of nature, and
although Ray was more successful in the event,
Willughby was not less industrious during his
short career. Ornithology and ichthyology seem to
have been his favourite studies, and in prosecuting

RAY. 147

them he formed an extensive museum^ not, how-
ever, excluding other objects. In 1668, he married
the daughter of Sir H. Bernard, and settled at
Middleton Hall in Warwickshire, where he conti-
nued his researches under the eye of his former tutor.
His untimely death prevented the publication of his
several essays, which were left to the care of Mr Ray,
who was also one of the executors of his will. As a
special mark of his friendship, besides bequeathing an
annuity of £60, he confided to him the education
of his two sons, Francis and Thomas, the first of
whom died before attaining his twentieth year. The
younger was one of the twelve peers created on the
same day by Queen Anne, on which occasion he re-
ceived the title of Lord Middleton.

Mr Ray accordingly betook himself to the in-
struction of these two young gentlemen, the eldest
of whom was only four years of age at the period of
their father's decease. For their improvement he com-
posed his Nomenclator Classicus, which was publish-
ed in I672, and which, with respect to the names of
natural objects, was much more accurate than any
that had previously appeared. Having resolved to
discharge his duties with fidelity, he was obliged to
give up the thoughts of another botanical excursion
which he had meditated, as well as to refuse the in-
vitation of Dr Lister, who wished him to live in
his house at York.

This eminent physician and naturalist, who was
one of Ray's most intimate friends, was born, in
1638, in the county of Buckingham. He was edu-
cated at St John's College, Cambridge, and having
chosen the medical profession, settled at York as
a practitioner. In the year 1683, he removed to

148 KAY.

London^, when he took the degree of doctor at Ox-
ford, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal College
of Physicians. Having, in 1698, attended the Earl
of Portland on his embassy to France, he published,
when he returned^ an account of the journey, which
was ridiculed by Dr William King in a parody, in
consequence of the minute observations in natural
history which it contained. In 1709, he was made
physician in ordinary to Queen Anne; but he occu-
pied this post only two years, as he died in February
1711- Omitting his medical writings, which are
not of much importance, we may observe, that be-
sides composing several papers which were printed
in the Philosophical Transactions, he published the
following works on shells, which are referred to by
the naturalists of the present day as important pro-
ductions : —

Historia Animalium Anglise, with three tracts
on spiders, land and fresh- water shells, and marine
shells, together with fossils having the form of shells.
4to, London, 1678.

Exercitatio Anatomica de Cochleis. 8vo, 1694.
Exercitatio Anatomica Altera, de Buccinis Fluvia-
tilibus et Marinis. 8vo, 1695. Exercitatio Ana-
tomica tertia Conchyliorum Bivalvium. 4to, 1696.

Historiae sive Synopsis Conchyliorum libri iv., 2
vols folio, 1685-1693. An edition was published, in
1770, by Mr Huddesford, keeper of the Ashmolean
Library at Oxford. Of this work there is a new
impression by Mr Dillwyn, with a scientific index.
The plates of the Historia Conchyliorum were exe-
cuted from drawings by his daughters, and are in
general accurate.

As a specimen of the correspondence which na-

RAY.

149

turalists hold with one another, we may present
the following letter to Mr Ray : —

" Sir, — August 18, I passed through Marton
Woods, under Pimco-Moore, in Craven. In these
woods I then found very great plenty of Mushromes,
and many of them then withered, and coal-black ;
but others new sprung and flourishing. They are
some of them of a large size, and yet few much bigger
than the Champignon or ordinary red-gilled eat-
able Mushrome, and very much of the shape of
that ; that is an exactly round cap, or crown, which
is thick in flesh, and open deep gills underneath ; a
fleshy, and not hollow, round foot-stalk, of about
six fingers breadth above ground, and ordinarily as
thick as my thumb. The foot-stalk, gills, and cap,
all of a milk-white colour. If you cut any part
of this mushrome, it will 6/^e<^ exceeding freely and
plentifully a pure white juice. Concerning which,
note,

'' 1. That the youngest did drop much more
plentifully and freely than those that were at their
full growth and expansion. That the dried and
withered ones had no signs of milk in them that I
then discern'd.

'' 2. That this milk tastes and smells like pepper,
and is much hotter upon the tongue.

" 3. That it is not clammy or roapy to the touch.

" 4. That although I used the same knife to cut
a hundred of them, yet I could not perceive all that
time, that the milk changed colour (as is usual with
most vegetable milks) upon the knife blade.

" 5. That it became, in the glass viol I drew it
into, suddenly concrete and stiff, and in some days

150 RAY.

dried into a firm cake, or lump, without any serum
at all.

" 6. That it then also, when dried, retained its keen
biting taste, as it does at this day, yet not so fierce :
Its colour is now of a yellowish green, yet very pale.

" 7- This milk flows much faster from about the
outmost rimm, or part equivalent to the bark of
plants, than from the more inward parts, &c.

" 8. I observed these mushromes even then, when
they abounded with milk (not to be endured upon
our tongues) to be exceeding full of ^^/-maggots ;
and the youngest and tenderest of them were very
much eaten by the small grey naked snail.

" You can tell me what author describes this
mushrome, and what he titles it.

" I have revised the History of Spiders, and added
this summer's notes. Also I have likewise brought
into the same method the land and fresh water
snails, having this year added many species found
in these northern lakes. And by way of Appendix,
I have describ'd all the shell-stones that I have any-
where found in England, having purposely viewed
some places in Yorkshire where there are plenty.
The tables of both I purpose to send you. I am not
so throughly stocked with sea-shells as I wish and
endeavour. I aim not at exoticks, but those of our
own shores. Concerning St Cuthberfs Beads, I
find 3 species of them in Craven : and this makes
it plain, that they have not been the back-bone of
any creature, because I find of them ramous and
branched like trees.

« York, October 12, 1672.'*

Soon after Mr Willughby's death, Mr Ray lost

RAY. 151

another of his best friends. Bishop Wilkins, who died
on the 19th November 1672. Being thus deprived
of some of those persons whose intercourse had afford-
ed him the purest pleasure, he began to think of
consoling himself by marriage ; having formed an
attachment to a young woman recommended by her
personal and mental accomplishments. She was
the daughter of Mr John Oakeley of Launton, in
Oxfordshire. They were married in Middleton
Church, on the 5th June 1673. This lady gave
him important assistance in educating Mr Willugh-
by's children ; and afterwards, by her unremitting
attentions and constant affection, contributed to en-
liven his mind, when he was labouring under the
pressure of protracted disease.

In the year just named, he published an account
of the observations which he had made in his travels
on the Continent, to which was appended a cata-
logue of plants observed in foreign countries, and
also, about the same time, his Collection of Unusual
or Local English Words, adding to it a catalogue
of English birds and fishes, and an account of the
way of smelting and refining metals and minerals.
Mr Oldenburgh, the secretary of the Royal Society,
having solicited him by numerous letters to com-
municate any discoveries which he might have
made, he sent several papers, some of which were
printed in the Philosophical Transactions, as well as
a discourse concerning seeds and the specific differ-
ences of plants, which was read to the members.

In 1674 and the following year, he was busily
engaged in the task of preparing for the press Mr
Willughby's observations on birds. These notices
had been committed to paper without any method,

152 RAY.

and left in a very imperfect state, so that the
trouble of revising and digesting was of no light
kind. Without at all detracting from the merits
of the author, whose labours, according to Dr Der-
ham, were such, " that he allowed himself little
or no time for those recreations and diversions
which men of his estate and degree are apt to
spend too much of their time in, but prosecuted
his design with as great application, as if he had
been to get his bread thereby," it may fairly be pre-
sumed, and indeed has been generally admitted,
that the greater part of his works belong in fact to
Mr Ray, who, however, claimed no merit in the
performance. The book was published in 1676, in
Latin, with engravings, which, in the titlepage, are
designated as icones elegaiitissimi et vivarum avium
simillimi, although few who inspect them will be
disposed to concur in the opinion now stated. It
was afterwards translated into English by his af-
fectionate editor, and put forth with large additions
in the year 1678. Derham apologizes for the inferior
execution of the plates, which were done at the
charge of the author's widow. " Considering," says
the Doctor, " how well the engravers were paid for
their labour, it is great pity they had not had some
able person in London to have supervised them,
that they might have given better likenesses to the
birds than what most of them have. But this is
what Mr Ray could only complain of, but not help,
by reason of his being in Warwickshire, at a dis-
tance from London, where every thing was trans-
acted by letters, — a method which could never af-
ford sufficient directions in a matter of that nature."
The descriptions, however, are in general excellent^

RAY. 153

regard being had to the state of science at the time
when they were written. Some of them, indeed, are
very imperfect, and there is, besides, a deficiency
of method, which becomes more striking when they
are compared with those of Temminck or Selby, or
any other of our best modern ornithologists.

In this important work birds are divided into
Terrestrial and Aquatic. The former are disposed
in the following order : —

In the first place, land-birds are either furnished
with hooked-bill and claws, or have these organs
nearly straight.

Those with hooked-bill are carnivorous and pre-
datory or frugivorous. The former are either diur-
nal, that is, hunt by day, or nocturnal, seeking
their food by night.

The diurnal carnivorous birds are either large,
as the eagles and vultures, or small. Of the former
there are two kinds, the generous, as the peregrine
falcon, lanner, goshawk, &c. ; and the ignoble, as
the buzzard, kite, &c. The smaller predatory birds
are the shrikes, and birds of paradise.

The nocturnal birds of prey are the owls.

The frugivorous birds with hooked-bill are the
macarvs, pat-rots, and parrakeets.

Those having the bill and claws nearly straight,
are divided into large, middle-sized, and small.
The large are the ostrich, emeu, and dodo; the
middle-sized are the C7'orvs and rvoodpeckers, pea-
cock, pigeons, &c. ; the small are such birds as the
swallofi) and lark, which have the bill slender, and
the sparrow, greenfinch, &c., in which it is thick.

The aquatic birds are of two kinds ; some fre-
quent watery places, without being capable of

154 RAY.

swimming, while others betake themselves to the
water.

Of the former some are large, as the crane; others
of smaller size. The latter either live on fish, as
the heron, spoonbill, stork, ibis, &c., or search for
insects in the mud, as the oyster -catcher, plover,
sandpiper, &c.

Of the swimming water-birds some have the toes
separated, as the coot and 7vater-hen ; while in
others they are united by membranes. The web-
footed birds are either long-legged, as the flaiJiingo
and avocet, or furnished with short legs. Of the lat-
ter some have three toes, as the pengui7i, auk, Sec. ;
others have four. The four-toed aquatic birds
either have all the toes webbed, as the pelican,
gannet, cormorant, &c., or have the hind toe loose.
Of the latter some have a narrow bill, which is
hooked at the tip in the merganser and albatross,
or acute and straight in the divers and gulls.
Others have the bill broad, as geese and ducks.

Of the figures which accompany the descriptions
there certainly are not ten that bear a tolerably ac-
curate resemblance to their originals ; but, in criti-
cizing ornithological plates, we are apt to forget that
it was not until Audubon displayed his drawings
that artists began to see how well nature might be
imitated.

Mr Willughby's sons having been withdrawn from
Mr Ray's inspection, in 1675, he left Middleton
Hall where he had resided, and removed with his
wife to Sutton Cofield, about four miles distant,
where he continued till Michaelmas 1677? when
he w^ent to Falborne Hall in Essex, near his native
place. In the course of his residence there his

RAY. 155

mother died, to whom he was affectionately at-
tached, and of whom he says that she stuck con-
stantly to her profession, and never " left the church
in these times of giddiness and distraction." Im-
mediately after this event he repaired to Black Not-
ley, where he resolved to remain during the " short
pittance of time he had yet to live in this world."

He now finished his Methodus Plantarum Nova,
which was published in 1682 ; and laboured at his
Historia Plantarum Generalis, of which the first vo-
lume appeared in 1686, the second in the following
year, and the third in 1 704. In compiling this great
work, he received much valuable assistance from
his friends, but more especially from Sir Hans Sloane
andDr Tancred Robinson. With respect to the former
of these publications, it may be stated, that it was
founded upon the labours of his predecessors, such as
Csesalpinus and Jungius, as well as on the writings of
Morison, whose method he principally followed. He
divided plants into woody and herbaceous. The
woody kinds he again divided into trees and shrubs,
distinguishing the trees by their possessing buds,
which he showed to be, in fact, new plants annually
springing from the old ones. The families were
better defined, the classes characterized with more
precision, and various terms introduced which were
of great advantage as tending to render the language
of botany more appropriate. The General History
of Plants is his most celebrated work on the ve-
getable kingdom. In it he describes with consi-.
derable exactness and perspicuity all the species
which his predecessors had made known, adding
those that had been discovered in his own time. All
botanists who have spoken of this work agree in

156 RAY.

considering it as one of immense labour, although, as
the greater part was avowedly borrowed from other
writers, it has not the advantage of ranking among
those that have resulted from original observation.

About the same time he revised and arranged Mr
Willughby's papers relative to fishes, which, being
put in order for the press, and communicated by Dr
Robinson to the Royal Society, were published at
the charge of that learned body; the engravings
having been executed at the expense of several of
the members. This important treatise appeared in
1686.

Besides all the species of Belon, Rondelet, Gesner,
Aldrovandi, Olina, and Margrave, says an eminent
ichthyological writer, there are in these works a great
number which Willughby and Ray had observed in
Germany and Italy. The fishes of the Mediterranean
in particular are described with great accuracy, and it
is often easier to trace them in their volumes than in
Linnaeus. To these two works are appended nume-
rous figures, most of which are only copies, although
there are some very good original ones among them.
Even such of them as are borrowed from Belon and
Rondelet acquire an interest from the descriptions
which accompany them, and which are much supe-
rior to those of the French writers.*

Dr Robinson appears, by his notices contained in
the '' Philosophical Letters between the late learned
Mr Ray and several of his ingenious Correspond-
ents," to have been of considerable use to our au-
thor in transmitting information on every subject
that seemed interesting to the latter, and especially

* Bio^aphie Universelle, art. Ray, tome xxxvii. p. 161.

RAY. 157

in procuring objects for description. In one of his
communications from Geneva is a passage respecting
the celebrated Malpighi, which exhibits the character
of that great anatomist in a favourable light : — " I
had several conferences with S. Malpighi at Bono-
nia, who expressed a great respect for you, and is
not a little proud of the character you give him in
your Method. Plantar. Nov., which book I had pre-
sented him withal a day before. Just as I left Bo-
nonia I had a lamentable spectacle of Malpighi's
house all in flames, occasioned by the negligence of
his old wife. All his pictures, furniture, books,
and manuscripts, were burnt. I saw him in the
very heat of the calamity, and methought I never
beheld so much Christian patience and philosophy
in any man before ; for he comforted his wife, and
condol'd nothing but the loss of his papers, which
are more lamented than the Alexandrian Library, or
Bartholine's Bibliothece at Copenhagen."

Of the epistolary correspondence of this gentle-
man, and of Sir Hans Sloane, it may be interesting
to some of our readers to peruse a specimen : —

Dr Robinson to Mr Ray.

" London, August 1, — 84

" Sir, — I have sent you two Macreuses, male
and female, and hope they will come safe to Black
Notley. My ingenious and worthy friend Mr
Charlton (now at London) procur'd them for me
at Paris, who hath them both designed to the life
in proper colours by the most accurate hand in
France. If you saw the pictures I believe they
would give you a better insight than these skins,
which are a little broke and chang'dj yet never-

158 RAY.

theless your most discerning faculties may discover
that in the dark which few can distinguish at noon-
day. This Parisian bird (very famous of late) may
be no unwelcome subject^ it being in Lent;, and upon
maigre days, the greatest dainty of convents. I
have been told by several of the most learned priests
beyond sea, that the macreuse was as much a fish
as the barnacle (and indeed I am of the same
opinion), that the blood was the same in every
quality with that of fishes ; as also the fat, which
(as they falsely affirm) will not fix, dry, or grow
hard, but always remains in an oily consistence.
Upon these and other reasons the Sorbonists have
ranked the macreuse in the class of fishes. For
the rest I refer you to my paper from Paris, and
impatiently wait for your judgment, for which I
have a particular esteem."

The bird referred to in this letter, and concern-
ing which Mr Ray had not previously been able to
satisfy himself, is the scoter or black-duck {Anas nu
gra of Linnaeus, Latham, and Temminck). '" Why
they of the Church of Rome should allow this bird
to be eaten in Lent, and upon other fasting days,
more than others of this kind," we see no reason, any
more than Mr Ray did. Perhaps the story of the
barnacle's originating from a shell of the same
name, may have been invented for a similar pur-
pose. On this head we have the following testi-
mony from Hector Boece : — " All trees that are cast
into the seas, by process of time, appear first worm-
eaten, and in the small holes and bores thereof grow
small worms; first, they show their head and feet, and
last of all they show their plumes and wings ; finally.

RAY. 159

when they are coming to the just measure and
quantity of geese, they fly in the air as other fowls
do, as was notably proven in the year of God 1480,
in sight of many people, beside the Castle of Pitsli-
go." The evidence of Gerard, the herbalist, on this
subject is an excellent specimen of leasing : — " What
our eyes have seen," saith the venerable man, " and
our hands have touched, we shall declare. There is
a small island in Lancashire, called the Pile of
Soulders, wherein are found broken pieces of old
and bruised ships, some whereof have been cast
thither by shipwrecks ; also the trunks and bodies,
with the branches, of old and rotten trees, cast up
there likewise, whereon is found a certain spume
or froth, that in time breedeth into certain shells,
in shape like those of the muscle, but sharper-point-
ed, and of a whitish colour, and the end whereof
is fastened unto the inside of the shell, even as the
fish of oysters and muscles are, and the other end is
made fast unto the belly of a rude mass or lump,
which, in time, cometh into the shape and form of
a bird. When it is perfectly formed, the shell
gapeth open, and then the first thing that appeareth
is the aforesaid lace or string ; next cometh the legs
of the bird hanging out ; and, as the bird groweth
greater, it openeth the shell by degrees, till at length
it has all come forth and hangeth only by the bill.
In short space after it cometh to full maturity, and
falleth into the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and
groweth to a fowl, bigger than a mallard, and lesser
than a goose, having black legs and bill or beak,
and feathers black and white, spotted in such man-
ner as our magpie, called in some places pie-annes,
which the people of Lancashire call by no other

160 KAY.

name than tree-goose; which place aforesaid, and
all those places adjoining, do so much ahoimd
therewith, that one of the best is bought for three-
pence. For the truth hereof, if any doubt, may it
please them to repair to me, and I will satisfy them
by the testimonies of good witnesses."

Now the whole substance of this wondrous nar-
rative is simply this : — There is a species of goose
called barnacle, and there is a species of cirripedous
animal or shellfish bearing the same name. The
latter animal is furnished with certain filamentary
organs which may be imagined to bear a semblance
to feathers ; and hence the conclusion that it must be
a bird in the progress of development, which is final-
ly converted into a goose. A refutation of the in-
ference here made does not require the acuteness of
an Aristotle. Gerard saw the shells, no doubt, but the
rest he dreamt ; and the good people beside the Castle
of Pitsligomay have seen a flock of geese, but what else
theysaw nobody cares. But let us now hear Sir Hans.

Sir Hans Sloanb to Mr Ray.

« London, March 9, 169s.

" Sir, — This day a large tyger was baited by
three bear-dogs, one after another. The first dog
he kill'd ; the second was a match for him, and
sometimes he had the better, sometimes the dog;
but the battle was at last drawn, and neither car'd
for engaging any farther. The third dog had like-
wise sometimes the better, and sometimes the worse
of it ; and it came also to a drawn battle. But the
wisest dog of all was a fourth, that neither by fair
means nor foul could be brought to go within reach
of the tyger, who was chain'd in the middle of a

RAY.

161

large cock-pit. The owner got about £300 for this
show, the best seats being a guinea, and the worst five
shillings. The tyger used his paws very much to
cuff his adversaries with, and sometimes would ex-
ert his claws, but not often ; using his jaws most,
and aiming at under or upper sides of the neck,
where wounds are dangerous. He had a fowl given
him alive, which, by means of his feet and mouth,
he very artfully first pluck'd, and then eat, the
feathers, such as got into his mouth, being trouble-
some. The remainders of his drink, in which he
has lapp'd, is said by his keeper to kill dogs and
other animals that drink after him, being, by his
fome, made poisonous and ropy. I hope you will
pardon this tedious narration, because I am apt to
think 'tis very rare that such a battle happens, or
such a fine tyger is seen here."

Ray had many other correspondents besides those
of whom mention has been made. Their commu-
nications, however, seem neither very interesting in
themselves, nor so closely connected with our nar-
rative as to render it necessary to introduce any
extracts. But, as we have given some samples of
his friends' letters, it may be thought right to pre-
sent one of his own.

Mr Ray to Dr Robinson.

« Black Notley, Dec. 15, —90.

" Sir, — The essay you propound concerning the
ancient and modern learning were not difficult to
make ; but I think you are better qualified for
such an undertaking than I, and therefore shall re-
fer it to you. In summe the ancients excel the

K

162 RAY.

moderns in nothing but acuteness of wit and ele-
gancy of language in all their writings, in their
poetry and oratory. As for painting and sculpture,
and musick and architecture, some of the moderns
I think do equal, if not excel, the best of them, not
in the theory only, but also in the practice of those
arts : Neither do we give place to them in politicks
or morality ; but in natural history and experimen-
tal philosophy we far transcend them. In the
purely mathematical sciences, abstracted from mat-
ter, as geometry and arithmetick, we may vie with
them, as also in history ; but in astronomy, geo-
graphy, and chronology, we excel them much. No
wonder they should outstrip us in those arts which
are conversant in polishing and adorning their lan-
guage, because they bestowed all their time and
pains in cultivating of them, and had but one, and
that their native tongue, to mind. But those arts
are by wise men censured, as far inferior to the
study of things, words being but the pictures of
things ; and to be wholly occupied about them, is
to fall in love with a picture, and neglect the life ;
and oratory, which is the best of these arts, is but a
kind of voluptuary one, like cookery, which sophis-
ticates meats, and cheats the palate, spoiling whol-
some viands, and helping unwholsome."

Before resuming our narrative it may be proper
to state some particulars respecting the celebrated
founder of the British Museum, to whom there has
been more than one occasion of alluding in the pre-
ceding pages. Sir Hans Sloane was born at Killi-
leagh in Ireland on the 16th April 1660. His father
was a Scotchman, who headed a colony which, in the

RAY. 163

reign of James I., was planted in the northern part
of the sister isle. Having at an early age evinced
a decided taste for natural history, he chose the pro-
fession of medicine, and after studying four years in
London, where he became acquainted with Boyle and
Ray, went to Paris, and afterwards to Montpellier,
in which latter place he took his degree. At the age
of twenty-four he settled in London, and became a
Member of the Royal Society. In April 1687, he
was made a Fellow of the College of Physicians, and
in November following embarked for Jamaica as
physician to the Duke of Albemarle, who was ap-
pointed governor of the island ; but that nobleman
having died soon after his arrival, Dr Sloane returned
to England after an absence of only fifteen months.
In 1693, he was made secretary to the Royal So-
ciety, and in the ensuing year named physician to
Christ's Hospital ; in 1701, he obtained a medical
diploma from Oxford, and, in 1708, was elected an
Associate of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. In
I7I6, he was created a baronet by George I., an ho-
nour which no medical man had previously obtained,
and afterwards was raised to the rank of physician -
general to the army. On the accession of George II.
he was made physician in ordinary to his Majest}^ ;
and on the death of Sir Isaac Newton, in 1727,
succeeded that illustrious philosopher in the chair
of the Royal Society, which he occupied till 1740,
when his advanced age induced him to resign it.
He died at Chelsea on the 11th January 1752.

Sir Hans Sloane was a man of the most respect*
able character, being distinguished not less for his
liberality and patriotic zeal, than by his attain-
ments in science. The most important of his works

164 RAY.

is the Natural History of Jamaica, of which the
first volume appeared in 1707, the second not
till 1725. He was a governor of most of the hos-
pitals of the metropolis, to which he left consi-
derable sums. He set on foot the scheme of a dis-
pensary for the poor ; gave the Apothecaries' Com-
pany a piece of ground for a botanic garden ; and
on many occasions exerted himself eflfectually for
the public benefit. Such a man is undoubtedly
worthy of more honour and admiration than the
mere author, who, it may be from the most selfish
motives, labours in solitude to enlighten the world
and illustrate himself: " The good that men do
too often dies with them," and as books are lega-
cies of which the benefit is more extended than that
of individual acts of generosity or patriotism, peo-
ple are ever ready to laud an author, even al-
though they may not clearly see wherein his me-
rit lies ; while the truly good, whose lives are a
continued scene of beneficence, have but a slight
hold on the admiration of posterity. The share
which Sir Hans Sloane had in the establishment of
the British Museum is the circumstance on which
his reputation seems now chiefly to depend. Hav-
ing made an extensive museum of natural history,
medals, books, and manuscripts, he bequeathed it
to the public, on condition that £20,000 should be
paid to his executors, — a sum far from equal to the
value of the collection. In 1753, an act was passed
by the legislature for purchasing it and the Har-
leian manuscripts, as well as for procuring a gene-
ral repository for their better reception and more
convenient use, the Cottonian library included. In
this manner commenced the British Museum, which.

RAY. 165

by the numerous and extensive additions made to
it, has become worthy of the greatest empire of mo-
dern times ; although, in the department of natu-
ral history, it is admitted to be still much inferior
to the National Museum of France, and, in seve-
ral branches of zoology, to be surpassed by many
collections in Britain.

Mr Ray, who had now betaken himself to a more
sedentary and studious mode of life, began to suffer
severely in his health. His Catalogue of English
Plants having become scarce, he was solicited by
some friends to improve it for a third edition, which
he accordingly did; but a difference arising be-
tween him and the booksellers, to whom the copy-
right belonged, he forthwith resolved to publish it in
another form. In the mean time, however, to sa-
tisfy his friends, he printed his Fasciculus Stir-
pium Britannicarum, as a substitute for the Cata-
logue. In 1690, appeared the Synopsis Methodica
Stirpium Britannicarum, which may be considered
as the most important work on British plants that
has been hitherto written, with the exception of Sir
James Smith's English Botany, and its continuation
by Dr Hooker. It was farther augmented by him,
and reprinted in 1696, together with a description of
the Cryptogamic plants, which had hitherto receiv-
ed little attention.

Having thus published many important works
on natural history, he resolved to compose another
in which he should unite that science with his pro-
per profession of divinity, and accordingly commen-
ced his Demonstration of the Being and Attributes
of the Deity, — a performance on which his popular
fame now principally rests. When finished he trans-

166 RAY.

mitted it, in March 1690, to his friend Dr Tancred
Robinson, who disposed of it agreeably to his direc-
tions ; so that it made its appearance in the following
year. One of his reasons for writing this admirable
treatise he expresses in the following words : — '^ By
virtue of my function I suspect myself to be obliged
to write something in divinity, having written so
much on other subjects ; for being not permitted to
serve the church with my tongue in preaching, I
know not but it may be my duty to serve it with
my hand by writing ; and I have made choice of
this subject, as thinking myself best qualified to
treat of it. If what I have now written," he con-
tinues, *' shall find so favourable acceptance as to
encourage me to proceed, God granting life and
health, the reader may expect more ; if otherwise,
I must be content to be laid aside as useless, and
satisfy myself in having made this experiment."

The objects of this work, which is entitled The
Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Crea-
tion, were, 1^^, To demonstrate the existence of a
Deity; 2dly, To illustrate some of his principal at-
tributes ; 3dli/, " To stir up and increase in us the
affections and habits of admiration, humility, and
gratitude." Like many excellent theological treatises
of former times, it is now less frequently read than
it deserves to be. Happily, however, we have volumes
of more recent date, which inculcate the same prin-
ciples, with perhaps more accuracy of detail in all
that relates to science. From a passage in it we
learn what was his conception of the true character
of a naturalist : "^ Let it not sufiice us," says he,
^' to be book-learned, to read what others have
written, and to take upon trust more falsehood than

RAY. 167

truth. But let us ourselves examine things as we
have opportunity, and converse with nature as well
as books. Let us endeavour to promote and increase
this knowledge, and make new discoveries, not so
much distrusting our own parts, or despairing of
our own abilities, as to think that our industry can
add nothing to the invention of our ancestors, or
correct any of their mistakes. Let us not think
that the bounds of science are fixed like Hercules'
pillars, and inscribed with a ne plus ultra. Let us
not think we have done when we have learnt what
they have delivered to us. The treasures of nature
are inexhaustible. Here is employment enough
for the vastest parts, the most indefatigable indus-
tries, the happiest opportunities, the most prolix and
undisturbed vacancies."

As a specimen of the author's manner and rea-
soning, we may present a passage in which he re-
futes the opinion of Descartes, that it were an ab-
surd and childish thing, and a resembling of God to
a proud man, to assert, that he had made the world^
and all the creatures in it, for his own honour. " It
is most reasonable that God Almighty should intend
his own glory : For he being infinite in all excel-
lencies and perfections, and independent upon any
other being, nothing can be said or thought of him
too great, and which he may not justly challenge as
his due ; nay, he cannot think too highly of him-
self, his other attributes being adequate to his un-
derstanding ; so that, though his understanding be
infinite, yet he understands no more than his power
can effect, because that is infinite also. And, there-
fore, it is fit and reasonable, that he should own
and accept the creatures' acknowledgments and ce-

168 RAY.

lebrations of those virtues and perfections^ which he
hath not received of any other, but possesseth eter-
nally and originally of himself. And, indeed (with
reverence be it spoken), what else can we imagine
the ever-blessed Deity to delight and take compla-
cency in for ever, but his own infinite excellencies
and perfections, and the manifestations and effects
of them, the works of the creation, and the sacrifices
of praise and thanks offered up by such of his crea-
tures as are capable of considering those works, and
discerning the traces and footsteps of his power and
wisdom appearing in the formation of them ; and,
moreover, whose bounden duty it is so to do. The
reason why man ought not to admire himself, or
seek his own glory, is, because he is a dependent
creature, and hath nothing but what he hath re-
ceived; and not only dependent, but imperfect;
yea, weak and impotent : And yet I do not take
humility in man to consist in disowning or denying
any gift or ability that is in him, but in a just va-
luation of such gifts and endowments, yet rather
thinking too meanly than too highly of them ; be-
cause human nature is so apt to err in running into
the other extreme, to flatter itself, and to accept
those praises that are not due to it ; pride being an
elation of spirit upon false grounds, or a desire and
acceptance of undue honour. Otherwise, I do not
see why a man may not admit, and accept the tes-
timonies of others, concerning any perfection, ac-
complishment, or skill, that he is really possessed
of; yet can he not think of himself to deserve any
praise or honour for it, because both the power and
the habit are the gift of God : And considering that
one virtue is counterbalanced by many vices, and

RAY. 169

one skill or perfection with much ignorance and in-
firmity."

This book obtaining general approbation, the im-
pression, which consisted of 500 copies, was quickly
sold off. A new edition was therefore published,
and several others succeeded. Encouraged by this
success, he prepared for the press his Three Physi-
co-theological Discourses, concerning the Chaos, De-
luge, and Dissolution of the World, the substance
of which had been embodied in some sermons
which he preached before the university. This
work has also gone through several editions. In
the opinion of the illustrious Cuvier, it affords ^' a
system of geology as plausible as any of those which
had appeared at this period, or for a long time after-
wards;" and if it contain facts and arguments
which are not now admitted as accurate or conclu-
sive, this, with our experience of like defects in other
theories, should teach us to moderate our zeal in
defending any hypothesis elicited from the partial
examination of that complex system, which, being
the work of infinite power and wisdom, cannot be
thoroughly understood by minds constituted like
ours.

In one of these works is an estimate of the num-
ber of animals and plants known in Ray's time, to
which it is of importance that we should advert, as
it furnishes an interesting fact in the history of
science. According to the author's classification,
animate bodies are divided into four orders, " beasts,
birds, fishes, and insects." The number of beasts ^
including also serpents, that had been accurately de-
scribed, he estimates at not above 150, adding that,
according to his belief, " not many, that are of

1 70 RAY.

any considerable bigness, in the known regions of
the world, have escaped the cognizance of the cu-
rious." At the present day, more than 1000 spe-
cies have been described. The number of birds,
he says, " may be near 500 ; and the number of
fishes, secluding shell-fish, as many: but, if the
shell-fish be taken in, more than six times the num-
ber." As to the species remaining undiscovered, he
supposes " the whole sum of beasts and birds to ex-
ceed by a third part, and fishes by one-half, those
known." The number of insects, that is, of animals
not included in the above classes, he estimates at
2000 in Britain alone, and 20,000 in the whole
world. The number of j)la7its described in Bau-
hin's Pinax was 6000, and our author supposes,
that " there are in the world more than triple that
number ; there being in the vast continent of Ame-
rica as great a variety of species as with us, and yet
but few common to Europe, or perhaps Africk and
Asia. And if," says he, '' on the other side the
equator, there be much land still remaining un-
discovered, as probably there may, we must sup-
pose the number of plants to be far greater." —
'' What," he continues, '' can we infer from all
this ? If the number of creatures be so exceeding
great, how great, nay immense, must needs be the
power and wisdom of Him who formed them all !"

Early in 1692, the Synopsis Methodica Animalium
Quadruped um et Serpen tini Generis was finished,
and published the year after. Important as were the
botanical writings of Ray, his zoological works have
had a more decided influence on the advancement
of natural history. " Their peculiar character," says
Cuvier, " consists in clearer and stricter methods

RAY. 171

than those of any of his predecessors^ and applied
with more constancy and precision. The divisions
which he has introduced into the classes of quadru-
peds and birds have been followed by the English
naturalists almost to our own day ; and we find
very evident traces of his system of birds in Lin-
naeus, Brisson, Buflfon, and all the authors who
have treated of that class of animals." In the Sy-
nopsis of Four-footed animals and Serpents, he com-
mences with an interesting discussion respecting the
nature and faculties of animals. The definition,
however, on which he proceeds is scarcely correct, or
at least sufficiently distinctive : — " An animal is an
animated body, endowed with sense and spontaneous
motion, or rather with the faculty of feeling and mov-
ing, although it may not change place." In treating
of the generation of the lower species, he discusses
the subject of spontaneous or equivocal origin, the
idea of which he refutes, and endeavours to prove
that all animals were created at one time. The di-
vision of them into viviparous and oviparous he
rejects, alleging, that all are in one sense or other
oviparous. The most suitable primary division,
he says, is into blooded and bloodless, or, as we
should say, red-blooded and white-blooded. The
former may be divided into those which respire by
lungs, and those which respire hy gills. The first of
these are again divided into such as have two ventri-
cles to the heart, and such as have only one. Ani-
mals with two ventricles are viviparous, as Quadru-
peds and Cetacea, or oviparous, as Birds. Those
having a heart furnished with a single ventricle, are
the Oviparous Quadrupeds, and serpents. Animals
that respire by gills are the true Fishes, not includ-

172 RAY.

ing whales. The rvMfe-hlooded animals are divided
into the larger and the smaller. The former, he
says, are suitably divided by Aristotle into three
kinds or orders: 1. MoUusca ; 2. Crustacea; 3.
Testacea. The smaller white-blooded animals are
the Insects. The following table exhibits a sum-
mary of this classification, which is essentially that
of Aristotle : —

Red-blooded Animals.

Respiring by lunp^s, and having a heart furnished with two ven-
tricles, viviparous, and aquatic, Cetacea.

Terrestrial, QUADRUPEDS.

Oviparous, Birds.

Those having a heart with a single ventri-
cle, Oviparous Quadrupeds axd Serpents.

Respiring by gills, FiSHES.

White-blooded Animals.

( Malacia or Mollusca.
Of large size,.., -s Malacostraca or Crustacea.

(OSTRACODERMA or TeSTACEA.

Of small size, INSECTS.

Characterizing the different groups by circum-
stances connected with their organization, he ar-
ranges quadrupeds into those which have undivided
hoofs, as the horse; those having cleft hoofs, of
which some are ruminant, others not. Of the for-
mer, some have permanent concave horns, as oxen,
sheep, goats ; others have solid deciduous horns, as
deer. The cloven-footed animals which do not
ruminate are the hog family. The rhinoceros, hip-
popotamus, tapir, and musk, he classes as anoma-
lous. Of the unguiculate animals, some are ru-
minant, with two claws only, as the camel ; others
are carnivorous, with more numerous claws, as cats,
dogs, polecats. Some again are herbivorous, with
two long front teeth, as hares ; and others are tooth-

RAY. 173

less, as the miteater. Other animals of this kind
are furnished with wings, and have a short muzzle,
as the bats ; while some are without wings, as the
sloth. Tortoisesy lizards, and serpents, bring up
the rear.

After this work had been published, he completed
a Synopsis of Birds and Fishes, which was sent to
Dr Robinson to be printed ; but the booksellers who
had the copyright neglected it, so that it did not
appear until after the author's death, when it was
enlarged and edited by Derham in 1713.

Having finished these synopses, Mr Ray considered
his labours at an end, — a consummation which gave
him the more joy, because he had for several years
suffered severely in his health. But soon after, he
was induced to add to an English translation of
Rauwolf's Travels '^ three Catalogues of such trees,
shrubs, and herbs, as grow in the Levant." His
next publication was the Catologus Stirpium in Ex-
teris Regionibus Observatarum, consisting of species
not growing spontaneously, or at least very rarely
seen, in Britain. Having taken occasion in this
work to criticize the method of Rivinus, this cir-
cumstance gave rise to some literary altercation, the
result of which was a more careful revisal of his
system, and a republication of his Methodus Plant-
arum Nova. At this period he was so tormented by a
continual diarrhoea and painful ulcers in his legs,
which kept him sleepless for whole nights, that he
could not walk into the fields, much less visit the
botanic gardens, where he might have found mate-
rials for his work.

His booksellers being unwilling to incur the pecu-
niary hazard attending this work, it was transmit-

174 RAY.

ted by Mr Ray to his friend Dr Hotton, professor
of botany at Leyden^ who got it printed in 1703.
The Dutch publishers inserted in the titlepage that
it was printed at London for Smith and Walford,
the persons who usually took charge of his books ;
and although the author objected to this proceeding
they disregarded his wishes, alleging, that '' it was
customary among the printers to say what they
thought would be for their interest in such cases/'
This production was very favourably received on the
Continent, and Hotton used it as his text-book.

In a letter to Dr Derham, written in May 1702,
he thus describes his condition : — " It is not many
years since I applied myself to the observation and
search of insects, in order to compose an history of
them ; but now I am wholly taken oif from that
study, by the afflictive pains I almost constantly la-
bour under, by reason of ulcers upon my legs, I hav-
ing not been half a mile out of my house these four
years ; and though I have made use of many means,
and have had the advice of some of the most skilful
surgeons and physicians, yet without success, grow-
ing yearly worse and worse. Besides, I have been
very much haunted with a troublesome diarrhoea,
frequently recurring ; so that you may well think
I can have but little heart to mind natural history :
But I am yet so far engaged, that I cannot shake it
off. I have now just ready to go under the press a
third volume of the History of Plants, being a sup-
plement to the two former volumes, which hath en-
grossed almost my whole time for two whole years.
Besides, I have a little book now printing at Ley-
den, in Holland, entitled Methodus Plantarum
emendata et aucta."

RAY. 175

We now approach the termination of the career
of this truly great man, who was distinguished not
less for his fervent piety than for his extensive
knowledge and unwearied application. The last
letter which he wrote was to Sir Hans Sloane, and
is as follows :— '

'' Dear Sir, — The best of friends. These are
to take a final leave of you as to this world. I look
upon myself as a dying man. God requite your
kindness expressed any ways towards me an hun-
dred-fold,— bless you with a confluence of all good
things in this world, and eternal life and happiness
hereafter, — grant us an happy meeting in heaven.
I am. Sir, eternally yours, John Ray.

« Black Notley, Jan. 7, 1704."

There is a passage in The Wisdom of God ma-
nifested in the Works of Creation, which exhibits
his ideas of a future state, and which it would be
instructive to compare with the maniacal effusions
of infidels and scoffers : '' It is not likely that eter-
nal life shall be a torpid and inactive state, or that
it shall consist only in an uninterrupted and end-
less act of love ; the other faculties shall be em-
ployed, as well as the will, in actions suitable to,
and perfective of, their natures, — especially the un-
derstanding, the supreme faculty of the soul, which
chiefly differenceth from brute beasts, and makes us
capable of virtue and vice, of rewards and punish-
ments, shall be busied and employed in contemplat-
ing the works of God, and observing the divine art
and wisdom manifested in the structure and com-
position of them ; and reflecting upon their great

176 RAY.

Architect the praise and glory due to him. Then
shall we clearly see^, to our great satisfaction and ad-
miration, the ends and uses of these things which
here were either too subtle for us to penetrate and
discover, or too remote and unaccessible for us to
come to any distinct view of, viz. the planets and
fixed stars, those illustrious bodies, whose contents
and inhabitants, whose stores and furniture, we
have here so longing a desire to know, as also their
mutual subserviency to each other. Now the mind
of man being not capable at once to advert to more
than one thing, a particular view and examination
of such an innumerable number of vast bodies, and
the great multitude of species, both of animate and
inanimate beings, which each of them contains, will
afford matter enough to exercise and employ our
minds, I do not say to all eternity, but to many
ages, should we do nothing else.

" Let us, then, consider the works of God, and
observe the operations of his hands. Let us take
notice of, and admire his infinite wisdom and good-
ness in the formation of them. No creature in this
sublunary world is capable of so doing beside
man, and yet we are deficient herein. We content
ourselves with the knowledge of the tongues, or a
little skill in philology, or history perhaps, and an-
tiquity, and neglect that which to me seems more
material, I mean natural history and the works of
the creation. I do not discommend or derogate from
those other studies; I should betray mine own ig-
norance and weakness should I do so ; I only wish
they might not altogether justle out and exclude this.
I wish that this might be brought in fashion among
us. I wish men would be so equal and civil, as not

RAY. 1

//

to disparage, deride, and vilifie those studies which
themselves skill not of, or are not conversant in ; no
knowledge can be more pleasant than this, — none
that doth so satisfie and feed the soul ; in compari-
son whereto that of words and phrases seems to me
insipid and jejune. That learning (saith a wise and
observant prelate) which consists only in the form
and pedagogy of arts, or the critical notions upon
words and phrases, hath in it this intrinsical im-
perfection, that it is only so far to be esteemed as it
conduceth to the knowledge of things, being in it-
self but a kind of pedantry, apt to infect a man with
such odd humours of pride, and affectation, and cu-
riosity, as will render him unfit for any great em-
ployment."

We do not find any particular account of his last
years, nor of his family relations and circumstances,
further than that he had three daughters, and lived
contentedly on very humble means; being constantly
occupied, when his health permitted, in studying the
works of God, and communicating the results of his
observations to the world. We are not aware of
a single stain on his character, and are proud to
point to him as a naturalist of undoubted and
acknowledged powers, who " walked humbly with
his God," and furnishes the best practical refuta-
tion of the lying assertion advanced by certain
philosophers of the '' grand nation," that men emi-
nent for piety are either fools or knaves. As he had
lived, so he desired to die "^ in the communion of
the Catholick Church of Christ, and a true though
unworthy son of the church by law established in
this kingdom," of which he considered '^ the doc-
trine pure, and the worship decent, and agreeable

178 RAY.

to the Word of God." After making this declara-
tion, he desired the Rev. Mr Pyke, rector of Black
Notley, to read to him the prayers of the church
appointed to be used in the visitation of the sick ;
and, in particular, the absolution. He then re-
ceived the sacrament, ^' which, as it is men's duty
often to receive in the time of health, so, at the hour
of death," he said, *' it was a necessary viaticum he
thought for the great journey he was now a-going."
He died in his own house, at Black Notley, on
the 17th January 1705, having reached the seventy-
seventh year of his age, and was buried, accord-
ing to his own desire, in the church of that parish.
The authors of the Biographia Britannica, however,
assert that he declined the offer made by the rector,
of a place in the chancel, choosing rather to repose
with his ancestors in the churchyard. A monu-
ment was erected to him at the expense of some of
his friends, with an elegant Latin epitaph, descrip-
tive of his character, composed by the Rev. William
Coyte, M. A. In 1737, this monument, having
fallen into decay, was restored at the charge of Dr
Legge, and removed into the church. Forty-five
years after, it was repaired by Sir Thomas Gery
Cullum and others, who subjoined an additional
inscription.

According to his biographer, Dr Derham, he
'' was a man of excellent natural parts, and had a
singular vivacity in his style, whether he wrote in
English or Latin. In a word, in his dealings, no
man more strictly just ; in his conversation, no man
more humble, courteous, and affable. Towards God,
no man more devout ; and towards the poor and dis-
tressed, no man more compassionate and charitable.

RAY. 179

according to his abilities." His merits have been
duly appreciated;, both by foreigners and his own
countrymen; and although, in the last century,
they seemed in danger of falling into oblivion, amid
the blaze of the numerous discoveries and improve-
ments then made, they are, at the present day,
brought more prominently into view, when men have
begun to compare systems, and to shake off the in-
fluence of party-spirit. An interesting commemora-
tion of him was made in London on the 29th No-
vember 1828. A genus of plants was dedicated to
his memory by Plumier, under the name of Jan
Raia, which Linnaeus changed into Rajania, and
Smith into Raiana. Raia would have been more
appropriate ; but unfortunately it was previously oc-
cupied by the skate, and therefore could not be al-
lotted to him of whom Sir James Smith says, that
he was " the most accurate in observation, — the
most philosophical in contemplation, — and the most
faithful in description, amongst all the botanists of
his own, or perhaps any other time." Several spe-
cies of fishes, however, are named after him, in con-
sequence of his having been the first who made men-
tion of them.

'^ Mr Ray," says Dr Pulteney, in his Sketches of
the Progress of Botany, " had the singular happiness
of devoting fifty years of his life to the cultivation
of the sciences he loved. Incited by the most ar-
dent genius, which overcame innumerable diflicul-
ties and discouragements, his labours were, in the
end, crowned with a success before almost unequal-
led. He totally reformed the studies of botany and
zoology ; he raised them to the dignity of a science,
and placed them in an advantageous point of view ;

180 RAY.

and, by his own investigations, added more real im-
provement to them in England than any of his pre-
decessors. The extent of his improvements in science
procured him the admiration of his contemporaries,
and have justly transmitted his name to posterity,
among those who have done honour to their age and
country."

We have now only to present a catalogue of his
more important works : —

1 . Historia Plantarum Generalis, species hactenus
editas aliasque insuper multas noviter inventas et de-
scriptas complectens. Two vols folio. The first
was published in 1686; the second, in 1687i and
the third, in 1704.

2. Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum.
The first edition was published in 1690. The se-
cond, considerably enlarged, appeared in 1696. The
third, printed in 1724, was edited by the celebrated
Dillenius. This edition is the one in general use,
and is that referred to by Linnaeus, Hudson, Smith,
and other botanists. The Synopsis was illustrated
by Petiver with a set of seventy-two folio plates,
having twelve figures in each.

3. Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupe-
dum et Serpen tini Generis. 8vo, London, 1693.

4. Synopsis INlethodica Avium et Piscium. 8vo,
London, 1713. A posthumous work, edited by Dr
Derham.

5. Historia Insectorum. 4to, London. Printed
at the expense of the Royal Society in 1710.

6. The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works
of the Creation, in two parts. London, 1691. There
are many editions.

RAY.

181

7. Three Physico-Theological Discourses concern-
ing the Chaos, Deluge, and Dissolution of the World.

8. Observations, Topographical, Moral, and Phy-
siological, made in a Journey through Part of the
Low Countries, &c. London, 1673. A second edi-
tion in 1738.

To these may be added,

9. Francisci Willughbeii Ornithologiai, Libri tres,
with plates. Folio, London, 1676. There is also
an edition in English, with three discourses, viz. Of
the Art of Fowling, Of the Ordering of Singing
Birds, and Of Falconry. London, 1678.

10. Francisci Willughbeii Historia Piscium, Libri
quatuor, with plates. Folio, Oxford, 1686.

When this pious writer died, his papers were in-
trusted to his friend Dr Derham, who, having ar-
ranged and selected such as seemed of most import-
ance, published a part of them in 1718, under
the name of Philosophical Letters between the late
learned Mr Ray and several of his ingenious Cor-
respondents, natives and foreigners, to which are
added those of Francis Willughby, Esq. The same
person, as has been already mentioned, also edited
the Synopsis of Birds and Fishes, and prepared for
publication his posthumous work on Insects. He
moreover got ready for the press his Travels in Eng-
land, Wales, and Scotland, to which he intended to
prefix an account of the author ; but, although the
life was written, the book did not make its appear-
ance until a later period, when, as has been noted
above, it came forth under the direction of Mr George
Scott, bearing the title of the Select Remains of the
learned John Ray.

182 RAY.

The principal authorities for his life and writ-
ings are, the Select Remains just mentioned; Dr
Pulteney's Sketches of the Progress of Botany;
the article Ray, in Rees' Cyclopaedia, by Sir James
Edward Smith; and that by Cuvier and Du
Petit-Thouars, in the Biographic Universelle. In
the two latter, his botanical and zoological la-
bours are carefully recorded ; and from the former
we learn, in conclusion, that " his hand-writ-
ing was peculiarly fair and elegant;" which has
been the case with few of the more distinguished
naturalists. His portraits are not numerous, but
there is one in oil, taken at an advanced period
of his life, remaining in the British jMuseum ; a
miniature, in the possession of Dr John Sims,
having been engraved in the first volume of the
Annals of Botany, published in 1805; and two
prints, the one by Elder, the other by Vertue,
from a picture by Faithorne, being prefixed to the
third edition of the Synopsis, and to the Historia
Plantarum. We may add that, in the fifteenth
number of the Gallery of Portraits, published under
the Superintendence of the Society for the Diifusion
of Useful Knowledge, is a beautiful engraving by
Meyer of the painting in the British Museum.

In the likeness of Ray the phrenologist will look
in vain for indications of those intellectual faculties
which are displayed in his writings. The forehead
is contracted in all its dimensions ; so as to form a
direct contrast to that of Cuvier, another naturalist
of equal industry and zeal, but perhaps of not more
comprehensive mind.

REAUMUR.

Account of the Life and Writings of Reaumur.

Birth and Education of Reaumur — He settles at Paris, where he
is introduced to the Scientific World by the President Renault,
and becomes a Member of the Academy of Sciences His La-
bours for the Improvement of the Arts — His Works on Natural
History, of which the Memoirs on Insects are the most import-
ant— His Occupations and Mode of Life.

Rene Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur^ one of
the most ingenious naturalists whom France has
produced, was born at Rochelle in 1683. He com-
menced his studies in his native place^ continued
them at Poitiers under the Jesuits, and finished his
professional course at Bourges ; but feeling less in-
clined to the practice of law than to the investiga-
tions of natural science, he resolved to devote him-
self entirely to the latter. In this respect he was
the more justified in following his inclination, that
he possessed a fortune sufficient to support him
without engaging in any occupation merely to pro-
cure the means of subsistence. He began to prepare
for his new pursuits by studying mathematics, and
when he thought his proficiency such as to qualify
him to make a respectable figure among the natu-
ralists and philosophers of the capital, he removed
thither in the year 1703.

184 REAUMUR.

The President Henault^ who held a distinguished
station among the literati of PariS;, and who was
his relative, introduced him to the scientific world.
In I7O8, when only twenty- four years of age, he
presented some geometrical memoirs to the Academy
of Sciences, who were so much pleased with his
performance as to admit him into their society, — an
honour which he enjoyed nearly fifty years. His
exertions were directed successively to the improve-
ment of the arts, to natural philosophy,, and to na-
tural history. From his entrance into the academy
he scarcely allowed a year to pass without publish-
ing some work of importance. Soon after his ad-
mission he was appointed to assist in drawing up a
description of certain arts and trades ; but not con-
fining himself to a simple elucidation, he endeavour-
ed also to improve them, by applying the princi-
ples of physics and chemistry. On the other hand,
by observing the ingenious combinations employed
in some of the arts, he had frequent opportunities
of adding to his knowledge of the phenomena of
nature.

In his inquiries into the business of ropemaking,
for example, he proved by conclusive experiments
that, contrary to the common opinion, twisting im-
pairs the strength of ropes. Again, while describing the
labours of the goldbeater, he took occasion to show the
prodigious ductility possessed by certain substances.
But, more especially, when examining the processes
by which artificial pearls are coloured, he discovered
the singular matter which gives lustre to the scales
of fishes, and even explained the formation and growth
of those scales. The colouring principle in glass pearls
is obtained from thehleak{Ct/prmusalburnus)yan

REAUMUR. 185

inhabitant of fresh water, and about six inches in
length. This silvery ingredient is procured by ma-
cerating its scales in water, and is then mixed with
a little isinglass. The small globes which are to re-
present pearls are first furnished with an internal
coating of the solution, and then filled with melted
wax to give them suitable weight. The pearly mat-
ter occurs also in the membrane which envelopes
the stomach and intestines, and is supposed by
Reaumur to be produced in the latter, from which
it is conveyed by the blood-vessels to the scales.
He likewise made inquiries into the formation and
growth of shells, which he proved to be developed
by accessions to their outer edge. He is even said
to have examined the structure of pearls, with the
view of forcing the shell-fish to produce them.
When describing the turquoise-mines of the south
of France, and the means adopted to make the
mineral assume a blue colour, he discovered that
these alleged stones were the teeth of a large ani-
mal, which is now known under the name of the
mastodon.

His most important labours, however, with refer-
ence to the arts, were his researches respecting iron
and steel, which he published in 1722, in a sepa-
rate work under the title of Traite sur Tart de con-
vertir le fer en acier, et d'adoucir le fer fondu. At
this period all the steel that was used in France was
imported, none having previously been made in that
country; and one may imagine how numerous and
patient were the trials made by Reaumur before
he succeeded in his object. The Duke of Orleans
rewarded him for this valuable discovery, by be-
stowing on him a pension of 12,000 livres. In like

186

REAU3IUR.

manner, he found out the method of manufacturing
tin-plate or whiteiron, which until then had been
brought from Germany. In his various experiments,
he had frequent occasion to observe that melted me-
tals assume regular forms on cooling, and he accord-
ingly gave an account of the crystallizations which
they present. The manufacture of porcelain also
engaged his attention, and received considerable im-
provements from him, although he did not succeed
in perfecting it. In 1739, he made known a me-
thod which he had discovered of giving a whiteness
and opacity to glass, which causes it to assume the
appearance of chinaware. He was also the first who
tried in France the expedient practised by the Egyp-
tians for hatching eggs, — a subject which, being of
a nature suited to popular apprehension, procured
for him at least as much estimation as all his other
researches.

In Great Britain his fame seems to rest almost
entirely on his peculiar scheme of graduating the
thermometer. He chose the extreme points of the
freezing and boiling of water, which, under similar
circumstances, are always fixed and unvarying. The
interval between these points he divided into eighty
degrees, upon the principle that spirit of wine, in a
certain state of rectification, expands 80,000 parts.
In his experiments on this subject he arrived at
some valuable conclusions, in regard to the varieties
in their volume and temperature which are exhi-
bited by particular fluids when combined, as well as
on frigorific mixtures. He also carefully collected
the observations on heat made in different places
by means of his thermometer.

The importance and utility of these researches
7

REAU3IUR. 187

are uiiquestionable^ and yet there is even more of
novelty and interest in those which he made in na-
tural history. For instance, he explained the means
by which many shells, sea-stars, and other mollusca
or zoophytes, execute their progressive motion. He
likewise illustrated the curious manner in which
the claws of crabs and lobsters are reproduced. He
also threw a new light on the singular action of
the torpedo, and the organ by means of which it is
exercised, although the phenomena of electricity w^re
not then sufficiently understood to enable him to
perceive all the relations of his subject. In 17i8, he
published a memoir on the rivers of France, which
contain grains of gold in their sands, and soon
after described the immense beds of fossil shells
known in Touraine under the name oi falun. In
1723, he made observations on the lustre emitted by
several kinds of shell-fish, especially the pholades,
which perforate wood and stones.

Physiology is indebted to him for the ingenious
and decisive experiments which, in 1752, made
known the difference that exists, with respect to
digestion, between birds of prey, whose stomach acts
on their food only by means of a solvent fluid,
and granivorous birds, in which a very powerful
muscular gizzard exercises a pressure sufficient to
break down the hardest bodies and reduce them to
powder.

These labours might well have sufficed for a
single life ; but the most remarkable undertaking
of Reaumur has not yet been mentioned. It is
entitled Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire des In-
sectes, and extends to six quarto volumes, which

188 REAUMUR.

were published between 1734 and 1742. This work
occupied many years, and was the result of numerous
observations made principally in his own garden,
where he kept insects of all kinds, for the purpose of
examining their habits, changes, and generation. It
is, however, incomplete, — the locusts and grashop-
pers, as well as the whole tribe of coleoptera, hav-
ing been intended for subsequent volumes^ which
never appeared.

In regard to these Memoires, he remarks, that
although he has endeavoured to give them some de-
gree of connexion, they might for the most part be
considered as independent of each other ; and that
his object was not to present a systematic description
of insects, but to furnish materials for the use of
future naturalists. It is therefore improper to say,
that he wrote his work with an entire contempt
of method ; and certainly the notices which he col-
lected must have required more time and talent
than the mere arrangement of insects according to
characters derived from their external form. " The
number of observations necessary for a tolerably
complete history of so many minute animals," he
says, '^ is prodigious. When one reflects on all
that an accomplished botanist ought to know, it
is enough to frighten him. His memory is loaded
with the names of twelve or thirteen thousand plants,
and he is expected to be able to recall on occasion
the image of any one of them. There is perhaps
none of these plants that has not insects peculiar to
itself; and some trees, such as the oak, give sus-
tenance to several hundreds of different species.
And, after all, how many are there that do not live

REAUMUR. 189

on plants ! How many species that devour others !
How many that live at the expense of larger ani-
mals, on which thej^^ feed continually ! How many
species are there, some of which pass the greater part
of their time in water, while others pass it entirely
there ! The immensity of Nature's works is no-
where more apparent than in the prodigious multi-
plicity of these species of little animals." He then
proceeds to remark, that, as it is impossible for one
man to acquire a knowledge of all the insects of even
a limited district, and as thousands of minute insects
must for ever remain unknown to us, instead of
burdening our memory with the characteristic dis-
tinctions of these creatures, and thus preventing
ourselves from attending to matters of more im-
portance, it would be sufficient for us to know the
principal genera, and especially those that are of
most frequent occurrence, and to make ourselves
acquainted with their peculiarities, their food, their
propagation, the different forms which they assume
in the course of their life, and such like circum-
stances. He avows that he had no great regard for
a precise enumeration of the species of each genus ;
holding it enough to distinguish the more remark-
able.

" Although," he continues, " we would greatly
restrict the limits of the study, there are persons who
will think them still too wide ; there are even some
who consider all knowledge of this part of natural
history as useless, and who unhesitatingly pronounce
it a frivolous amusement. We are equally willing
that these pursuits should be regarded as amusements,
that is, as studies which, so far from being trouble-

190 REAtJMUR.

some, afford pleasure to the person who engages in
them. They do more, — they necessarily raise the
mind to admire the Author of so many wonders.
Ought we to be ashamed of ranking among our
occupations observations and researches, of which
the object is an acquaintance with the works on
which the Supreme Being has displayed a bound-
less wisdom, and varied to such a degree ? Natural
history is the history of his works; nor is there
any demonstration of his existence more intelligible
to all men than that which it furnishes."

The two first volumes treat of caterpillars,
their forms and habits, their metamorphoses into
butterflies, and the insects which attack them, or
which live within their bodies. The third speaks
of the small creatures named moths, w^hich exist
in the interior of the substances which they devour,
or form of them coverings for their protection. It
also contains the history of the aphides, a very nu-
merous race of small insects, which suck the juices
of trees and plants, live in society, and are often
productive of great damage. These animalcules are
especially remarkable for their mode of generation ;
it having been proved by IM. Bonnet, that a single
impregnation is sufiBcient for the production of many
successive generations, and that they are viviparous
in summer and oviparous in autumn. The flies
which produce the excrescences named gall-nuts,
and the worms from which come the dipterous in-
sects, so diversified in their forms, manners, and
places of abode, occupy the fourth volume. The
fifth contains, among other genera, the bees, of
which the history is so singular and interesting.

REAUMUR. 191

Certain varieties of these as well as wasps are
described in the last volume. Similar researches
were made by Bonnet and De Geer, of whom we
shall have occasion to speak in another part of our
series.

Reaumur was the first naturalist who formed
an extensive collection of animals in France. The
celebrated Brisson^ who was the keeper of his mu-
seum, derived from it the principal materials for
his works on quadrupeds and birds. These last af-
terwards constituted the basis of the Royal ]\Iuseum
at Paris.

When the first volumes of Buffon made their ap-
pearance, the elegance of their style had a prejudi-
cial effect on the popularity of Reaumur's writings ;
and as naturalists, like poets and artists, generally
belong to the irritahile genus, — the sensitive class
of mankind, — our author seems to have experienced
considerable chagrin. In other respects, however,
he lived a very quiet life ; residing sometimes on his
estate in Saintonge, and sometimes at his country-
house of Bercy, in the neighbourhood of Paris. He
had no public employment, except that of intendant
of the order of St Louis, of which he performed the
duties for the benefit of a relative whom circum-
stances prevented from discharging them, and to
whom he resigned the emoluments. He died on
the 18th October 1757, at the age of 74; his death
being accelerated by a fall which he had received
at the castle of Bermondiere, whither he had gone
to pass the vacations. He seems to have been in
all respects an amiable man, of correct habits and
great mildness of disposition. His life, therefore,
presents none of those bickerings and other mani-

192 REAUMUR.

festatioiis of rivalry which have produced so much
disquietude to some other naturalists ; and, as his
fortune was sufficient for his comfortable subsistence,
he was freed from those cares which distract the at-
tention, and enabled to pursue his favourite studies
with advantage.*

* Biographie Universelle, art. Reaumur, tome xxxvii. p. 198.

LINN^US.

SECTION I.

Birth and Education of Linnceus.

Birth and Parentage of Linnaeus — He is destined for the Clerical
Profession — His early Fondness for Plants — He is sent to School,
where his Progress is so slow that his Father resolves to make
him a Shoemaker — Is rescued from this Fate by Dr Rothmann,
who receives him into his Family — He becomes decidedly at-
tached to the Study of Nature, enters the University of Lund,
and is patronised by Professor Stobaeus — When on an Excursion
is attacked by a dangerous Malady — Stobaeus surprises him in
his nocturnal Studies — He goes to Upsal — Is reduced to ex-
treme Poverty, from which he is relieved by Professor Celsius,
whom he assists — Is next patronised by Rudbeck, and delegat-
ed to read his Lectures — Forms a Friendship with ArtedL

Charles Linnjeus was born on the 23d May 1707,
at Rashult, in the province of Smaland. His fa-
ther. Nils, whose ancestors were peasants, was pas-
tor of the village, and being the first learned man
of his house, had, agreeably to a custom prevalent
in Sweden, changed his family-name with his pro-
fession, and borrowed that of Linne from a large
linden-tree^ which stood in the vicinity of his na-
tive place, between Tomsboda and Linnhult. His
mother, Christina Broderson_, was the daughter of
his father's predecessor in office.

The pious parents had intended him likewise for
the service of the church, either because they con-
sidered the clerical profession the best adapted to

194 LINNiEUS.

their son, or as calculated to ensure the means of a
comfortable subsistence, and to render him the stay
of their old age. But, whatever were their motives,
the design, fortunately for the progress of natural
science, was frustrated by the propensities which
he soon displayed ; for, inheriting a strong passion
for flowers, he devoted a great part of his earlier
years to the cultivation of a corner of the family-
garden, which he profusely stocked with wild plants
collected in the woods and fields. The excursions
which he w^as thus induced to make, gradually
led him to an acquaintance with the productions of
the vegetable and animal kingdoms, and were at
first rather encouraged than discountenanced by his
parents, as affording innocent amusement, and being
beneficial to health.

Charles was happy also in the affectionate care
of his father, who taught him the elements of the
Latin language, geography, and other departments
of knowledge suited to his capacity. At the age of
seven, however, he was committed to the care of a
teacher ill qualified for the task ; and three years
after he was sent to a grammar-school in the neigh-
bouring town of Wexio, where he continued several
years. During this period he made little pro-
ficiency in the studies connected with his intended
profession ; for the love of nature prevailed in his
mind to such a degree as to induce him to consider
every other occupation as compulsory. He found
much more pleasure in gathering plants and insects
than ioi performing the tasks imposed by his teachers.
Every hour of respite from his lessons was devoted
to his favourite occupation, and all his holidays were
spent in rambling over the country. His school-

LINNiEUS.

195

fellows considered him as an idle vagabond; but
his master, whose name was Lanaerius, formed a
proper judgment of his genius, which he was the
better enabled to do, as he himself was fond of
botany.

In 1724, young Linnaeus entered the upper col-
lege or gymnasium at Wexio, where his deficiencies
in classical attainments were looked upon with less
indulgence. The admonitions of his teachers were
contemned ; the passion inspired by nature still pre-
vailed; and complaints were made to his father,
who, finding him averse to the study of divinity,
and perhaps believing him incapable of acquiring
literary knowledge, resolved to bind him apprentice
to a shoemaker. Considering the circumstances of
his parents, and the little prospect of their son's
obtaining a comfortable livelihood by his botanical
pursuits, we need not ascribe this determination to
a less estimable motive than prudent affection.
Fortunately, however, the design was not carried
into effect.

A physician at Wexio, who was also professor of
medicine in the college of that city, had taken no-
tice of the genius and peculiar pursuits of the boy,
and, hearing of his father's intentions, ventured to
offer his assistance and advice. The encomiums of
this benevolent person, Dr John Rothmann, in-
spired the parents with unexpected pleasure. The
entreaties of their son himself were joined to the kind
intercession of his protector, who had promised to take
him into his own family for a year, and provide him
with every thing necessary. Natural history was
not then in Sweden, any more than it is now in our
own country, a study which of itself could lead to

196 LINN.EUS.

wealth, or even to a moderate independence. It was
therefore resolved that he should qualify himself for
the practice of medicine ; and to this proposal the
pastor and his wife at length reluctantly assented.

Baffled in their views with respect to Charles,
they resolved to transfer their cares to their second
son, Samuel, whom they hoped to prevent from
addicting himself to similar pursuits by prohibiting
his entrance into the garden, and even the gathering
of flowers in the fields. This restriction, however,
had not the full effect ; for Samuel also was a lover
of botany, although his parents had the gratification
of seeing him at length become a preacher.

In the house of Rothmann, the elder brother, who
had hitherto studied botany without any regular
method, found Tournefort's Institutiones Rei Her-
bariae, — a work which opened new prospects to his
view, and tended to increase his zeal. The more
he became acquainted with nature, the more did his
love of knowledge increase, and his frequent excur-
sions into the country soon rendered his acquire-
ments conspicuous. Having remained three years at
the College of Wexio, he was prepared to become a
pupil in a higher seminary of learning, and in 1727
set out for the University of Lund.

At an early stage of his progress he had studied
several botanical works which are now little known,
such as those of Manson, Tilland, Palmberg, Bro-
mellius, and Rudbeck. But the benevolent Roth-
mann showed him that the guides whom he had
followed were unworthy of confidence, and advised
him to begin by examining the flower, as recom-
mended by Tournefort, giving him at the same
time Valentini's figures of plants. He accordingly

LINN^US. 197

copied these engravings, and commenced a rigorous
examination of flowers and fruits. Towards the
end of his twentieth year, he attempted to arrange
in systematic order the various species growing in
the neighbourhood of Wexio and Stenbrohult, many
of which he found it difficult to determine, owing
to the imperfect manner in which they had been
described. Down to this period he had not dis-
tinguished himself in any other way than as a young
man who was supposed to be foolishly addicted to
the study of natural objects, while he ought to have
been engaged in more important pursuits ; although
he says he had always been among the first in ma-
thematics and natural philosophy.

On leaving the gymnasium at Wexio, the rector,
Nicolas Krok, gave him a certificate expressed in
the following terms : — '' Students may be compared
to the trees of a nursery. Often among the young
plants are found some which, notwithstanding the
care that has been bestowed upon them, resemble
wild shoots j but, if transplanted at a later period,
they change their nature, and sometimes bear deli-
cious fruit. With this hope only I send this young
man to the university, where another climate may
perhaps prove favourable to his progress." This
testimonial, however, he did not find it necessary
to show ; for he was introduced to the rector by one
of his old teachers, Gabriel Hoek, whom he fortu-
nately met at Lund.

Professor Humserus, who was his relative, had
promised to support him at this university; but,
on arriving, Linnaeus was informed that the last
duty had just been paid to his remains. He be-
came a pupil of Kilian Stobaeus^ professor of medi-

198 LINNJEUS.

cine and botany, whose notice he soon attracted by
his diligence and attention, and who, learning his
indigent condition, received him into his family.
Here he found a small collection of natural objects,
which he studied with great delight. At the same
time he began to form an herbarium for himself; to
add to which he made excursions into the neigh-
bouring districts.

On one of these expeditions he was, or imagined
himself to have been, stung by a venomous worm,
said to be not uncommon in some parts of Sweden.
However this may be, he was seized with a violent
disorder, w^hich threatened the extinction of life,
more especially as he had removed far into the coun-
try, where medical assistance could not be readily
procured. This accident, instead of diminishing
his zeal, tended to increase his desire of becoming
more acquainted with the lower orders of animals.
In a work which he subsequently published, this
singular worm, the existence of which, however,
is still doubtful, is thus described by him :— " It
occurs in the extensive turfy marshes of Bothnia,
in the northern parts of Sweden. Falling from
the atmosphere, frequently upon the bodies of men
and animals, it instantly penetrates them with the
most intense pain, so as to produce death from agony
within a quarter of an hour. I myself was smitten
by it at Lund, in 1728. I have not seen the ani-
mal unless in a dried state. It seems in its proper-
ties to be allied to the chaotic animals. By what
means it rises into the air, whence it falls during
the interval between the summer and winter sol-
stice, no one has explained."

Stobaeus's library was well stored with works on

LINNiEUS.

199

botany, which Linnaeus procured secretly from a
young man who also lodged in the house, and in pe-
rusing which he often spent a great part of the night.
His patron was informed of his vigils, and as he
was of a merry, convivial disposition, suspected him
of sitting up for the purpose of amusing himself
with the servants. He resolved, therefore, to watch
his proceedings, and, if his suspicions proved just,
to reprimand him for his unbecoming conduct. But
on entering Linnseus's room unexpectedly, what
was his surprise to find him intrenched among
the tomes of Csesalpinus, Bauhin, Tournefort, and
other eminent botanists ! The result of this visit,
as might have been expected, was free permission to
make use of the library, and an increased attach-
ment to the student. The same benevolent person
embraced every opportunity of aiding him in his
pursuits ; gave him lessons on petrifactions and
molluscous animals ; taught him various branches
of medicine; admitted him to his table; sent him
occasionally to visit his patients ; and went so far
as to talk of making him his heir.

In 1728, after he had recovered from the effects
of the severe malady with which he had been at-
tacked, he visited his parents. His mother was ex-
tremely grieved at seeing him occupy his whole
time in collecting plants and glueing them upon
paper, as she plainly perceived that there was now
no hope of his ever becoming a preacher. Dr Roth-
mann, who frequently saw him, pointed out the
superior advantages which students possessed at
Upsal, where there were '' the learned Roberg, the
great Rudbeck," a splendid library, and a fine bo-
tanic garden. He also named many poor students.

200 LINNiEUS.

who had received assistance from the government,
and had become able practitioners. The young na-
turalist readily believed the representations of one
who had taken so much interest in him, and re-
solved to follow his advice. At setting out, his
father gave him a sum of money equivalent to
about £8 sterling ; informing him at the same time
that he could do no more for him.

With this slender provision Charles proceeded
to the University of Upsal, where, although he had
no reason to expect a kind reception, he hoped at
least to obtain more ample means of scientific re-
search. The professors, however, were not such as
they had been represented, nor did any of them
show the smallest attention to the poor student.
Before he had been a year there his pecuniary re-
sources failed ; so that he was in a manner cast upon
the charity of his companions, among whom he was
glad to accept an occasional meal, and even a worn-
out article of clothing. The old shoes which they gave
him, he was often obliged to mend with pasteboard
and birch-bark before he could render them tole-
rably efiicient. He now found reason to sigh for
the comfortable home which he had left at Lund ;
but to it he could not return, for as he had quitted
his benefactor Stobaeus abruptly, and without so
much as apprizing him of his intentions, he justly
dreaded his displeasure. Aware that he could not
obtain aid from his father, destitute of friends, and
even of the hope of procuring a livelihood by the ex-
ertion of his talents, he was reduced to the extre-
mity of indigence : yet he despaired not ; nature had
at all times charms to support his spirits ; he strug-
gled with his fate and conquered. On an important

LINN^US. 201

occasion which occurred many years after, he pub-
licly returned thanks to Providence for having sup-
ported him amid these privations : — " I thank thee.
Almighty God/' said he, " that in the course of my
life, amidst the heavy pressure of poverty, and in
all my other trials, thou hast been always present
to me with thine omnipotent aid."

At this period, Olaus Celsius, first professor of
divinity, whom Linnaeus afterwards, in a letter to
Haller, describes as the only botanist in Sweden,
returned from Stockholm, where he had been on
official business, and happening to visit the college-
garden, met a young man, who attracted his no-
tice by the accurate knowledge of plants which he
displayed. On inquiring after him, and receiving
a satisfactory account of his character and conduct, he
gave him an apartment in his house, and supplied
him with every thing of which he stood in need.
Thus was he on many occasions obliged, if not to
solicit, at least to accept pecuniary assistance. He,
however, repaid in some measure the kindness of
the venerable Celsius, by assisting him in preparing
his Hierobotcmicon, in which the vegetable produc-
tions mentioned in Scripture are described. To
enable him to perform his task, he was allowed the
free use of a library rich in botanical works.

Hitherto Tournefort was the only author to whose
works Linnaeus was indebted for the more solid parts
of his knowledge ; but a small book of Vaillant on
the structure of flowers now coming into his hands,
he perceived many defects in the system he had em-
braced ; and from the ingenious observations made
by the latter writer on the sexes of plants, he con-
ceived the idea of founding a system of botany on

202 LINN^US.

the stamens and pistils. With this object in view,
he recommenced his studies on a new plan ; the
sexual distinction continually occupied his thoughts,
and the knowledge which he acquired in this path
t)ecame the basis of his future eminence. A small
treatise which he composed on the subject of an aca-
demical disputation attracted the notice of Rudbeck,
the second of the name, then professor of botany,
who, being advanced in years, was looking out for
an assistant. He received the ardent student into
his house, and delegated to him the office of reading
his lectures, and demonstrating the plants in the bo-
tanic garden. Rudbeck was also a zoologist, and
had made a collection of all the Swedish birds ; the
examination of which failed not to add to Linnseus's
knowledge in this department of natural history.
Botany, however, continued to be his favourite
study ; and about this period he wrote several trea-
tises, which were afterwards published in Holland.

During his residence at Upsal, he had the happi-
ness to enjoy the friendship of a young man, not less
fervently devoted than himself to the study of na-
ture. This was Peter Artedi, so well known for
his work on fishes. The name of Linnaeus is usual-
ly mentioned as that of a distinguished botanist ;
but it ought to be observed, however great his merits
were in that capacity, they were scarcely less in the
department of zoology, and that from the commence-
ment of his career he manifested nearly as strong a
liking to the one as to the other. Speaking of his
friendship for Artedi, he says, " He excelled me in
cliemistry, and I outdid him in the knowledge of
birds and insects, and in botany."

At this period, a new prospect opened to his ambi-

LINN^US.

203

tion. A society had been instituted at Upsal, chiefly
for the purpose of examining the natural produc-
tions of the kingdom. The remote and desert regions
of Lapland were less known than any other of the
Swedish provinces, although Rudbeck the elder had
been sent by Charles XL to explore them. The cu-
riosities which he brought home had been destroyed
by the great fire in 1702 ; and it was now proposed
to repair the loss by sending out another scientific
traveller. The choice fell on Linnaeus, who was
recommended by Celsius and the younger Rudbeck.

204 LTNNiEUS.

SECTION II.

Journey to Lapland.

Linnaeus, chosen by the Royal Society of Upsal to travel in Lap-
land, sets out in May 1732 — Enters Lycksele Lapland — A Lap-
land Beauty — Beds made of Hair-moss — Conversation of a Cu-
rate and a Schoolmaster — The Lapland Alps — Their Vegetation
— Brief Account of the Rein-deer — Passing over the alpine Re-
gion, he enters Norway — Again visits the mountainous Region
— Difficulties of the Journey — Pearl-fishery — Forests set on Fire
by Lightning — At Lulea he discovers the Cause of an epidemic
Distemper among the Cattle — Returns through East Bothland
— Concluding Remarks.

Having received this appointment^, he visited his
friend Stobseus at Lund, as also his parents, who
were now reconciled to him, and returned to Upsal
to prepare for his perilous enterprise.

On the 12th May 1732, he set out alone, equipped
as follows : — " My clothes," says he, in his La-
chesis Lapponica, " consisted of a light coat of
West Gothland linsey-woolsey cloth without folds,
lined with red shalloon, having small cuffs and
collar of shag ; leather breeches ; a round wig ; a
green leather cap, and a pair of half-boots. I car-
ried a small leather bag, half an ell in length, but
somewhat less in breadth, furnished on one side
with hooks and eyes, so that it could be opened and
shut at pleasure. This bag contained one shirt;
two pair of false sleeves ; two half-shirts ; an ink-
stand, pencase, microscope, and spying-glass; a gauze
cap to protect me occasionally from the gnats; a
comb j my journal, and a parcel of paper stitched

LINNiEUS. 205

together for drying plants, both in folio ; my manu-
script Ornithology, Flora Uplandica, andCharacteres
Generici. I wore a hanger at my side, and carried
a small fowling-piece, as well as an octangular stick,
graduated for the purpose of measuring. My pocket-
book contained a passport from the Governor of Up-
sal, and a recommendation from the Academy."

Nature wore her most delightful aspect ; the dan-
delion, the violet, and the primrose, unfolded their
blossoms to the sun ; the sky- lark chanted its lively
song as it soared aloft in the clear sky ; and the red-
wing warbled its love-notes from the lofty pines.
How delightful must have been the feelings of the
young naturalist, as he advanced toward the scene
of those anticipated discoveries, which were to im-
mortalize his name, or at least to increase the sphere
of his ideas, and perhaps form the basis of his for-
tune ! As he advanced, " the redwing, the cuckoo,
the black.grous, and the mountain-finch, with their
various notes, made a concert in the forest, to which
the lowing herds of cattle under the shade of the
trees formed a bass."

He proceeded through Helsingland, Angerman-
land, and West Bothland, to Lycksele Lapland,
where he embarked on a large river, during his voy-
age on which he was gratified by the sight of nume-
rous birds. But a succession of cataracts occurring
soon after, the owner of the boat, inverting its po-
sition, placed it on his head, and " scampered away
over hills and valleys, so that the devil himself could
not have overtaken him."

By the beginning of June he found himself
among swamps, torrents, and woods, occasionally
accompanied by a Laplander as guide, and now and

206 LINNiEUS.

then incurring dangers which would have damped
the ardour of a less enthusiastic traveller. On one
of these occasions^ after wandering a long time in
a labyrinth of marshes^ he was met by a woman,
whom he describes as presenting a very extraordi-
nary appearance : " Her stature was very diminu-
tive ; her face of the darkest brown^, from the effects
of smoke ; her eyes dark and sparkling ; her eye-
brows black; her pitchy-coloured hair hung loose
about her head, and on it she wore a flat red cap.
' O thou poor man !' quoth she, ' what hard des-
tiny can have brought thee hither, to a place never
visited by any one before ? This is the first time
I ever beheld a stranger. Thou miserable creature !
how didst thou come, and whither wilt thou go?' "
Linnaeus entreated her to point out some way by
which he might continue his journey. " ' Nay,
man,' said she, ' thou hast only to go the same
way back again; for the river overflows so much,
it is not possible for thee to proceed further in this
direction. From us thou hast no assistance to
expect in the prosecution of thy journey, as my
husband, who might have helped thee, is ill.' " The
traveller begged of her something to eat, and after
much difficulty procured a small cheese. He was
obliged to retrace his steps through the marshes;
and, when almost exhausted by hunger and fatigue,
at length reached the house of a poor curate, where
his wants were supplied.

The bountiful provision of nature, he remarks,
is evinced in providing mankind with bed and
bedding, even in this savage wilderness. The great
hair-moss {Volytrichum commune), called by the
Laplanders romsi, grows copiously in their damp

LINN^US. 207

forests, and is used for this purpose. They clioose
the starry-headed plants, out of the tufts of which
they cut a surface as large as they please for a bed
or bolster, separating it from the earth beneath;
and, although the shoots are scarcely branched, they
are, nevertheless, so entangled at the roots as not to
be separable from each other. This mossy cushion
is very soft and elastic, not growing hard by pres-
sure ; and if a similar portion of it be made to serve
as a coverlet, nothing can be more warm and com-
fortable. They fold this bed together, tying it up
into a roll that may be grasped by a man's arms,
which, if necessary, they carry with them to the
place where they mean to sleep the following night.
If it becomes too dry and compressed, its former
elasticity is restored by a little moisture.

Leaving the town of Lulea, on the 25th June, he
embarked on the river, which he continued to na-
vigate for several days and nights in a comfortable
boat. At a place called Quickjock he was present-
ed by the " famous wife of the curate, Mr Grot,"
with provisions sufficient to last a week. At Jock-
mock, the schoolmaster and the priest tormented
him " with their consummate and most pertinacious
ignorance." The latter began his conversation with
remarks on the clouds, showing how they strike the
mountains in their passage over the country, carry-
ing off stones, trees, and cattle. '' I ventured," says
Linnaeus, " to suggest that such accidents were ra-
ther to be attributed to the force of the wind, for
that the clouds could not of themselves lift or carry
away any thing. He laughed at me, saying, surely
I had never seen any clouds. I replied, that when-
ever the weather is foggy I walk in clouds, and

208 LINN^US.

when the fog is condensed, and no longer supported
in the air, it immediately rains. To all such rea-
soning, being above his comprehension, he only
returned a sardonic smile. Still less was he satis-
fied with my explanation how. watery bubbles may
be lifted up into the air, as he told me the clouds
were solid bodies. On my denying this, he rein-
forced his assertion with a text of Scripture, silenc-
ing me by authority, and then laughing at my
ignorance. He next condescended to inform me,
that after rain a phlegm is always to be found on
the mountains, where the clouds have touched them.
Upon my replying that this phlegm is a vegetable
called nostoc, I was, like St Paul, judged to be
mad, and that too much learning had turned my
brain.

'' The other, the pedagogue, lamented that people
should bestow so much attention upon temporal
vanities, and consequently, alas ! neglect their spi-
ritual good; and he remarked that many a one
had been ruined by too great application to study.
Both these wise men concurred in one thing : They
could not conceal their wonder that the Royal Aca-
demy should have expressly appointed a mere stu-
dent for the purposes on which I was sent, without
considering that there were already as competent
individuals resident in the country, who would
have imdertaken the business. They declared they
would either of them have been ready to accept the
charge. In my opinion, however, they would but
have exhibited a fresh illustration of the proverb of
the ass and the lyre."

On the 1st July, the traveller obtained a glimpse
of the Lapland Alps, which resembled a range

LINN^US. 209

of white clouds rising from the horizon. Arriving
in the evening at a place named Riomitis^, he
saw the sun set apparently on the summit of a
high mountain, — a spectacle which, although com-
mon enough in hilly countries, was so new to liim as
to excite his utmost surprise, and to induce him to
exclaim, " O Lord, how wonderful are thy works !"
Towards the close of day, July 6, accompanied by
a native, who acted as his servant and interpreter,
he ascended the heights of Wallavari, the first of
the range. Here he found himself as in a new
world. The forests had disappeared ; mountains
upon mountains, covered wdth snow, presented
themselves on all sides; no traces of human ha-
bitations were to be seen ; the plants of the lower
districts had ceased, and a vegetation of a peculiar
kind occupied their place, presenting such a profu-
sion of new forms to the delighted eye of the natu-
ralist, that he was overcome with astonishment. He
observed the silken-leaved alpine lady's-mantle, the
deep-green sibbaldia, the little purple- flowered aza-
lea, the diapensia lapponica, the beautiful saxifraga
stellaris, rivularis, and oppositifolia, the succulent
rose-root, the red lychnis, several ranunculi, and a
variety of other species, most of which are found to-
wards the summits of our own Grampians. The
more elevated parts were composed of slaty rocks ;
and from the snow with which they were covered
the water was running in copious streams. He
caught a young ptarmigan, upon which the parent
bird ran so close to him that he might have taken
her also. " She kept continually jumping round
and round me," says he ; " but I thought it a pity
to deprive the tender brood of their mother, neither

N

210 LINNiEUS.

would my compassion for the mother allow me long
to detain her offspring, which I restored to her in
safety."

About the evening of the following day, they
reached a secluded spot where a Laplander had
pitched his tent. Immediately after their arrival,
the herd of reindeer, consisting of seven or eight
hundred, came home to be milked. Some of the
milk was boiled for the stranger, but it proved
rather rich for his stomach. His host furnished
him with his own spoon, usually carried in his to-
bacco-bag, and which he washed by squirting a
mouthful of water upon it.

He was here joined by another guide, and after
refreshing themselves by sleep they proceeded on
their journey. On the sides of the hills were ob-
served in abundance the holes of the lemming-rat ;
and the alpine hare occasionally presented itself.
Scarcely any other fish occurs in the lakes than the
char, a beautiful species of trout, with the belly of
a bright-red colour. In the evening they sought in
vain for one of the native dwellings. Linnaeus had
walked so much that he could hardly stand ; and,
being ready to faint with fatigue, lay down, resolv-
ing rather to endure the cold and boisterous wind
than proceed any farther. But his companions at
length found some reindeer-dung, which by smelling
they discovered to be fresh ; and, perceiving a track
in the snow, they advanced till they came to a hut,
where they remained all next day, it being Sunday.

It is mentioned that the reindeer of those moun-
tains are innumerable. The herds are brought home
night and morning to be milked, and are so tract-
able as to be easily conducted by a single driver

LINNiEUS. 211

and a dog. The head is of a grayish colour, black
about the eyes ; the mouth whitish ; the tail short
and white; the feet encompassed with the same
colour above the hoofs. The whole body is gray,
darker when the new pile comes on, and lighter
before it falls. The hair, like that of some other
species of deer, is brittle and easily broken. The
horns of the female are upright, or slightly bent
backward, furnished with one or two branches in
front near the base, the summit sometimes undi-
vided, sometimes cleft. Those of the male are often
two feet and a half long, and their points are as
far distant from each other. They are variously
branched. These animals cast their horns every
year ; the males about the end of November, the
females in May ; at first they are hairy, but the
pile disappears before Michaelmas.

As the reindeer walks, a crackling noise proceeds
from its feet, which is produced by the hooflets strik-
ing against each other. When these animals are
driven to the place where they are accustomed to
be milked, they all lie down, panting violently, and
chewing the cud all the while. One of the attend-
ants takes a small rope, and, making a noose, throws
it over their heads in succession. The cord is then
twisted round the horns, and the other end fastened
to a stick thrust into the ground. If the milk does
not come readily the udder is beaten sharply with
the hand. The nipples are four, very rarely six, and
all yield the fluid. After the process was finished,
he observed the maid-servant taking up some of the
dung, which she kneaded with her hands and put in-
to a vessel. This was for the purpose of smearing the
teats, to prevent the fawns from sucking too much.

212 LINNiEUS.

He remained a few days among the Laplanders,
who were occupied in feeding their flocks along the
valleys, during which time he had an opportunity
of observing their manners. He then proceeded
over the range westward.

At length the mountains began to present rocks
uncovered by snow, a glimpse of the ocean was ob-
tained, and soon after the scene entirely changed.
Arriving upon the abrupt edge of this elevated re-
gion, he beheld a vast expanse of forest stretching
towards the sea, and presenting the semblance of
cultivated fields. As he descended, the alpine
plants gradually disappeared, the climate improved,
and on reaching the margin of the plain, he sat
down to regale himself with wild strawberries. He
was struck with the circumstance, that the two na-
tives who accompanied him showed no symptoms
of fatigue. He attributes their superiority as walk-
ers to their wearing no heels on their boots, to their
being accustomed to running from their infancy,
to their exemption from hard labour, to the habi-
tual exercise of their muscles, to their chiefly using
animal food, to their not overloading their stomachs,
and to their being of small stature. Their conti-
nued health he imagines to be owing to the ex-
treme pm-ity of the air, to their eating their meat
cold, to the excellence of the water, to their tran.
quillity of mind, to the absence of spirituous li-
quors, and to their being inured to cold from their
earliest days.

Nothing could be more delightful to the feelings
of our traveller than this transition from the seve-
rity of winter to the warmth of summer. He now
approached the coast;, and next day proceeded by

LINN.«US.

^1$

sea, examining the various objects that presented
themselves. In the evening he arrived at the house
of iMr Rask, the pastor of Torfjorden, who received
him with much kindness. When day dawned he
proceeded on his voyage, but was obliged by a con-
trary wind to put about and return to the place
from which he had sailed. On the following morn-
ing, having climbed one of the neighbouring heights,
he was resting on its side, when he heard the re-
port of a gun, the ball from which struck a stone
quite near him. It was fired by a native, whose in-
tention, it would appear, had been to murder him,
although, as he presently took to flight, no informa-
tion could be obtained respecting his motives.

On the 15th of July he set out on his return
from the low grounds of Norway, and began to
ascend the snowy mountains, accompanied by an
interpreter. He directed his course towards the
Alps of Tornea, which were described as about forty
miles distant ; but having for several days endured
the greatest fatigue and privation, he doubted the
expediency of advancing farther, especially as he
made few discoveries in natural history. He there-
fore, on the 23d, took leave of the momitainous
part of Lapland, and returned by water towards
Lulea. In this tract he had abundant opportuni-
ties of observing the peculiar characters and man^
ners of the inhabitants, which he cursorily details
in his journal. On the 26th he reached a place
called Purkijaur, where he in vain attempted to
procure a boat to descend the river. His attendants
and he were therefore obliged to make a raft, on
which they embarked ; but they had not proceeded
half a mile when the force of the current separated

214 LINN^US.

the timbers^ and with great difficulty they reached
a house situated on an island.

Here he hired a man to show him the manner
of fishing for pearls. This person made a raft of
five logs, two fathoms in lengthy which he fur-
nished with a stone anchor, a cable of birch-rope, a
pole, and a pair of wooden pincers. When he
reached a part which he wished to examine, he
dropped the anchor, lay down at full length, looked
over the edge of the raft, and on perceiving a pearl-
mussel laid hold of it with the instrument. This
shell is common in many of our own rivers, such as
the Tay, the Ythan, the Dee, and the Don ; but
the pearls which it yields, although frequently
large, are inferior in brilliancy to those of the true
pearl-oyster, which is a marine, not a fresh-water
production.

The forests having been set on fire by lightning,
the flames raged with great violence, owing to the
drought of the season; hence he and his guide,
in crossing a part of the woods, experienced no
small danger. The wind beginning to blow, a
sudden noise arose, and the travellers, imagining it
best to hasten forward, ran with all their might
to reach the open ground. Sometimes the fall of a
huge tree was so sudden that they looked aghast,
not knowing which way to turn ; and in one in-
stance a large trunk fell between them, while the
space by which they were separated did not exceed six
feet. However, they at length effected their escape.

Visiting the Laxholms, or Salmon Islands, in this
vicinity, he made observations on the fish, for the
taking of which an establishment had been formed.
He remarked, that the individuals of which the

LINN^US. 215

lower jaw was bent inwards and attenuated, were
invariably males. On the 30th July he reached
the old town of Lulea, where he was detained a
day by a violent storm of thunder and rain ; and on
tlie 3d of August arrived at Torne^, which stands
on a small island, or rather peninsula, with a swamp
for its isthmus. At this place every body was talk-
ing of a distemper to which the cattle were subject,
and which attacked them principally in spring. On
walking to examine the meadows to which they are
first turned out, he found them covered with a pro-
fusion of the water-hemlock {Cicuta virosa), to
w^hich he attributed the malady. " The slightest
observation," he says, " teaches us that brute ani-
mals distinguish, by natural instinct, such plants
as are wholesome to them from such as are poison-
ous. The cattle, therefore, do not eat this hemlock
in summer or autumn, whence few of them perish
at those seasons, and such only as devour the herb
in question incautiously, or from an inordinate ap-
petite. But when they are first let out in the spring,
partly from their eagerness for fresh herbage, partly
from their long fasting and starvation, they seize
with avidity whatever comes within their reach.
The grass is then but short, and insufficient to sa-
tisfy them," and they eat up whatever comes in the
way. The proper remedy was pointed out by the
visiter ; and, as from 50 to 100 of their cattle pe-
rished annually, the matter was of great importance
to the inhabitants.

In the church he saw a memorial of King Charles
the Eleventh's zeal for astronomical science. That
prince having visited Tornea, on the 14th June
1694 saw from the belfry the solar orb at midnight.

216 LINN^US.

and the following year sent Professors Bilberg and
Spole to repeat the observation.

Leaving that town on the 9th August, Linnaeus
proceeded to Kimi, where there was a great salmon-
fishery, and continued his journey through East
Bothland ; but finding that the Finlanders did not,
or would not, understand him, he was obliged to
return. He next directed his steps to Calix, and
made several excursions in the neighbourhood, not-
ing the Finnish names of articles which he might
want at the inns, and again ventured to enter East
Bothland. He then pursued his way along the east
coast, through that district and Finland, visiting
Ulea, Brabestadt, Carleby, Christina, and Abo. In
the latter place he found one of his class-fellows,
Mennander, who was afterwards archbishop of Up-
sal, and who furnished him with some money as a
recompense for instructions in natural history. He
then went by the post-yacht to Aland, crossed the
sea of that name, and on the 10th October reached
Upsal.

The whole extent of the journey was about 3800
English miles. It is quite unnecessary for us to ex-
patiate on the dangers of such an expedition, to ex-
tol the courage and perseverance of him w ho accom-
plished it, or even to dilate on the important results.
'' My journey through Lapland," he says in a sub-
sequent notice, " was the most toilsome ; and I con-
fess, that I was obliged to sustain more hardship
and danger in wandering through this single tract
of our northern world, than in all the travels which
I undertook in other parts, though these were cer-
tainly not without fatigue. But when my journeys
were over, I quickly forgot all their dangers and

LINN^US.

217

difficulties, which were compensated by the invalu-
able fruits obtained on these excursions."

If he turned to such advantage the observations
which he had made in a region but scantily sup-
plied with the forms of animal and vegetable life,
how much more profitable, it may be thought, would
it have been for himself and for the world, had it
been his lot to travel in some equinoctial country,
teeming with the wonders of creation ! Yet, perhaps
the multiplicity of objects which would have forced
themselves upon his notice in that richer scene, in
an age when natural history was only beginning to
emerge from its pristine chaos, would have bewilder-
ed the most comprehensive mind ; whereas the less
abundant stores of Lapland and Sweden presented
themselves to him in such a way as to afford time
to examine each individually, and to note the com-
mon and distinctive characters. It seems indeed
more than probable, that if he had been a native of
one of the warmer regions of the globe, he would
not have attained such distinguished merit as a
reformer of science.

218 LINNiEUS.

SECTION III.

Studies, Adventures, and Travels of Linnceus, from
1733 to 1738.

Linnaeus returns to Upsal— Is prevented from lecturing by Rosen,
whom he attempts to assassinate— Accompanies some young
Men on an Excursion to Fahlun, where he is introduced to the
Governor of the Province, with whose Sons he travels to Nor-
way— Returning to Fahlun, he delivers Lectures, falls in Love,
is furnished with Money by his Mistress, and prepares to go
Abroad for his Degree— He visits Hamburg, detects an Impos-
ture there, and is obliged to make his Escape— Obtains his De-
gree at Harderwyk— Proceeds to Leyden, where he publishes
his Systema Naturae, and waits upon Boerhaave— Goes to Am-
sterdam, is kindly received by Burmann, and lodges with him —
Is employed by Cliffort, publishes various Botanical Works-
Goes to England, visits Sir Hans Sloane, Miller, and Dillenius
Returns to Holland, pubHshes several Works — Goes to Ley-
den, and resides witli Van Royen— Publishes the Ichthyologia
of Artedi, who was drowned in Amsterdam — Becomes melan-
choly, and falls into a violent Fever— On his Recovery goes to
Paris, where he is kindly received by the Jussieus— Returns to
Sweden after an Absence of Three Years and a Half.

On returning to Upsal, Linnaeus was elected a
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences ; but this
distinction was the only reward which he obtained
for having undergone so many fatigues, excepting
a small bursary, of which he was soon deprived.
Now, however, he expected a more favourable re-
ception in society, and in 1733 began to give pub-
lic lectures on botany, chemistry, and mineralogy.
Unfortunately for his success, he had not yet taken
his degree,— a circumstance which legally disquali-

LINN^US.

219

fied him for such an office ; and a rival, Dr Nicholas
Rosen, professor of anatomy, instigated, it would
appear, by motives of envy, denounced him to the
senate of the university. He was summoned to
appear before that august body; and, although
several of its members were disposed to favour him,
he was prohibited from continuing his course.

Fortune then seemed bent upon thwarting him
in all his projects. Stimulated by revenge, he laid
wait for Rosen, and, assailing him with the utmost
fury, attempted to run him through with his sword,
when the bystanders interfering, wrested the wea-
pon from his hand. For this offence he would
have been expelled, had not Celsius interposed, and
got him off with no other punishment than a repri-
mand. Men of quick tempers seldom cherish hatred ;
but Linnaeus was of a peculiar disposition, — ambi-
tious, confident of superiority, irritable, and obsti-
nate. Moreover, he was in desperate circumstances,
utterly destitute of all means of subsistence, and
the world seemed to have conspired against him.
He was still determined to stab his enemy to the
heart, should he ever meet him in the streets. The
conflict of his mind, under such excitement, must
have been truly painful. He awoke one night from
a dream of horror, seriously consi.dered what he
was about, and resolved, instead of assassinating
Rosen, to expel the demon from his own breast.

An assistant-professorship being vacant in the
University of Lund, he endeavoured to procure it,
but, although his claims were supported by Stobseus
and others, was unsuccessful. Prohibited from lec-
turing, he was only prevented from falling into de-
spair by the consciousness of superior intellect, by

220 LINN^US.

cherishing a plan of botanical reform^ and by still fix-
ing his eyes on the prospect, however distant, of future
independence. In the mean time, some of his for-
mer pupils, resolving to make an excursion to Nor-
berg, Bipsberg, Afwestadt, Garpesberg, and Falilun,
solicited the benefit of his knowledge and experience
in conducting their researches.

At the last-named town, where he occupied him-
self assiduously in exploring the mines, he was in-
troduced to Baron Reuterholm, governor of the pro-
vince of Dalecarlia, who was fond of natural his-
tor}'^, and especially of mineralogy. Having two
sons whom he was desirous of sending upon a jour-
ney, for the purpose of improving themselves in that
department of science, he resolved to place them
under the guidance of Linnaeus. They set out in
the spring of 1734, and extended their travels as
far as the mines of Roraas in Norway.

Returning to Fahlun, he commenced lecturing
on mineralogy, under the patronage of the gover-
nor, and found himself in all respects more com-
fortably situated than he had ever been at Upsal.
He also obtained some employment in the medical
line, and contracted an intimacy with John Browall,
the tutor of the baron's children, who afterwards
became bishop of Abo. Although he was now in
comparatively easy circumstances, his friend advised
him to procure a degree, and settle as a regular
practitioner. This, however, being impracticable,
on account of his want of funds, he turned his
thoughts to matrimony, in the hope of being able
to accomplish a suitable establishment.

There was a physician at Fahlmi named More,
or Morseus, who was reputed rich, and in fact was

LINNiEUS. 221

one of the wealthiest individuals in the district.
He had two daughters, of whom the elder, Sarah
Elizabeth, was in all respects to the mind of Lin-
naeus, who became a frequent visiter, and soon in-
gratiated himself with the family. Finding that the
object of his choice was not less pleased with his
person and manners, he determined to ask her in
marriage ; and, summoning all his resolution, made
known his views to her father, who, although he
had no objection to the character of the suitor, was
little satisfied either with his fortune or his pros-
pects. However, he promised that, should he suc-
ceed in obtaining his diploma, the young lady should
be consigned to him after a period of three years.

It was customary at this time for Swedish students
to take their degree at some foreign university, where
it could be procured at the least expense. Hither-
to Linnaeus had been unable to qualify himself in
this respect for the practice of his profession ; but
love now came to the aid of ambition. Miss Mo-
raeus, who was thrifty as well as handsome, had
saved about 100 dollars of the pocket-money which
she had received at various times, and offered them
to her lover. To this sum he succeeded in addino-
a little by his own exertions, though the whole did
not amount to more than thirty-six Swedish ducats.

After visiting his friends, weeping over the grave
of his mother, who had died some months before,
preparing his academical dissertations, and arrang-
ing his papers, he set out from Fahlun, in April
1735, accompanied by a young man named Shol-
berg. Travelling through the southern provinces
of Sweden, Jutland, and Holstein, he arrived at
Hamburg, where he remained for some time, in-

222 LINN^US.

specting the collections and curiosities which that
celebrated city contained. In the museum of John
von Spreckelsen was a preparation of great value,
presenting the appearance of a serpent with seven
heads. It had even been pledged for a loan of 10,000
merks, and was in fact considered one of the most
remarkable objects in the cabinets of the curious.
Linnseus, however, on minutely inspecting the mon-
ster, discovered that the heads consisted of the jaws
of a small quadruped covered over with the skin of
a serpent. The wonder ceased, Spreckelsen nearly
became bankrupt, and the stranger was obliged to
leave Hamburg in order to avoid the enmities in
which his sagacity had involved him.

Continuing his journey to Holland, he arrived at
Harderwyk at the end of May, and made applica-
tion for his degree, which he received on the 24th
June. His thesis was on intermittent fevers, one of
the principal causes of which he maintained to be
water impregnated with argillaceous substances.
Though he had now accomplished his chief object,
he resolved, before returning to Sweden, to make
himself known to some of the Dutch literati ; and
for this purpose proceeded to Leyden, where he hired
a lodging. Here he made the acquaintance of Pro-
fessor Roy en, Dr Van Swieten, Lieberkuhn, Gro-
novius, and several others.

By the advice and assistance of the last of these
scholars, he published his Systema Naturae, in four-
teen folio pages. This little work, containing a com-
pendious classification of the three kingdoms of na-
ture, was very favourably received. Boerhaave, one
of the most illustrious physicians that the world has
ever seen, was at the same time the most eminent

LINN^US. 223

individual in the University of Leyden. Linnaeus
was therefore anxious to see him ; but finding an
interview impracticable in the ordinary way^ on ac-
count of the great man's constant occupation, he
resolved to send him a copy of his treatise, accom-
panied with a letter. The consequence was an in-
vitation to meet him at his villa near the city,
where he had a botanical garden. On entering into
conversation with the young foreigner, the venerable
professor, astonished at his knowledge, strongly ad-
vised him to remain in Holland, where he might be
sure of making a fortune ; but the other, prevented
by poverty from adopting this counsel, was obliged
to set out on the following day.

Arriving at Amsterdam with a recommenda-
tion to Professor Burmann, he was kindly receiv-
ed by that gentleman, who was then occupied with
his description of the plants of Ceylon. Linnaeus him-
self relates the occurrences which took place during
this interview : " ' Do you wish to see my plants ?'
asked Burmann, ' which of them would you in-
spect ?' He held out one, and observed, ' It is
very rare.' I begged a single flower, which I exa-
mined after softening it in my mouth, and pro-
nounced it to be a species of laurus. ' It is not a
laurus,' said Burmann. ' But it is,' said I; Mt is
the cinnamon-tree.' — ^ It certainly is the cinnamon,'
rejoined Burmann. I then convinced him that
this tree was a species of laurus, and so of other
plants. At length he said, ' Will you help me with
my work on Ceylon, and you shall lodge with my-
self?' " To this proposal the other assented, delight-
ed with the prospect of at once adding to his reputa-
tion and his knowledge.

224 LINN^US.

In Burmann's house lie found a collection of na-
tural objects and an extensive library, both of
which were of great use to him. The time passed
pleasantly enough, and he deferred his return to
Sweden till the following spring ; about which pe-
riod, a circumstance occurred that proved of great
advantage to him. Dr George Cliflfort, burgomaster
at Amsterdam and one of the directors of the Dutch
East India Company, who was a zealous lover of
natural science, was in need of a domestic physician
to take daily care of his health. Boerhaave, who
was his medical attendant, recommended Linnseus,
whom he represented as being also an excellent bo-
tanist, and capable of arranging his botanic garden.
Cliffort accordingly invited Burmann and Linnaeus
toHartecamp, his villa, where they found many new
plants from the Cape of Good Hope. The young
Swede pointed out those which had not been de-
scribed, and evinced so accurate a knowledge of bo-
tany, that the burgomaster made him a proposal of
freeboard and lodging, with a salary of 1000 florins.
The terms were accepted with no small satisfaction.

This year he published a tract which he had
commenced at Upsal, — his Fundamenta Botanica, —
in which he exhibited the basis of his new system
in 365 aphorisms. About the same time he printed
his Bibliotheca Botanica, another small work, the
materials of which he had found in the libraries of
Spreckelsen, Burmann, Gronovius, and Cliffort. A
description of the banana- tree {Musa paradisiacd),
which had flowered in the garden of his patron,
formed the subject of a third treatise. The Im-
perial Academy of Naturalists at Vienna admitted
him as a member, under the honourable appellation

LINN^US. 225

of Dioscorides the Second, and his name began to be
known throughout Germany.

Cliffort being desirous of extending his collection
by obtaining new species from England, resolved to
send Linnaeus to that country, which he did in the
latter part of July, limiting the period of his absence
to twelve days. The passage from Rotterdam to
Harwich occupied eight ; and the stranger, finding
himself surrounded by attractions, was in no haste
to return, even to the elysium of Hartecamp. He
arrived in London, with a letter of introduction from
Boerhaave to the celebrated Sir Hans Sloane.
Whether the venerable physician meant to make
merry at the expense of the naturalists, or whether
he really thought they both deserved the compli-
ment which he paid to them in his note, let the reader
determine : — '' Linnaeus, who will give you this let-
ter, is alone worthy of seeing you, alone worthy of
being seen by you. He who shall see you both to-
gether shall see a pair, whose like will scarcely be
found in the world."

Notwithstanding this high encomium. Sir Hans
exhibited no kindliness of feeling towards him. He
was in fact a person who had grown old in self-
esteem. Cliffort was desirous of procuring some
plants from the garden at Chelsea, and his agent ac-
cordingly waited upon Mr Miller, who listened to his
request with very little respect. At a subsequent
visit, however, the Englishman became in some de-
gree sensible of the merits of the young foreigner,
and furnished him with the specimens which he
had solicited. Proceeding to Oxford, he pre-
sented himself before the celebrated Dillenius, pro-
fessor of botany, who received him much in the

o

226 LINNJEUS.

same way as the others had done. " See/' quoth Dille-
nius to his patron Sherard, who happened to be pre-
sent at the interview, " this is the young man who
confounds all botany." Although the Swede was
ignorant of the language spoken by these island-
ers, he readily guessed at the meaning of '' con-
founds/' but thought it prudent to take no notice of
the accusation. They then went to the garden,
but the professor still treated the presumptuous
youth with undisguised contempt. Next day, he
waited upon Dillenius previous to his departure.
'^ Before I go," said he, " I have one favour to re-
quest; tell me why you lately used those words
about confounding botany." He refused to explain ;
but when Linnaeus insisted that he should, " Come
this way," said he ; so the sheets of half of the Ge-
nera Plantarum were referred to. On almost every
page were the letters N. B. When he asked what
they meant, Dillenius said they marked the false
genera. He maintained that the genera were not
false, and the Oxonian referred to a plant in the gar-
den, which he and other botanists considered as hav-
ing three stamens. It was found to have only one,
as his opponent had alleged. " O !" quoth Dillenius,
'' it may be so accidentally in a single flower /' but
behold, all the flowers were the same; for when
they examined a number, all turned out as the
Swedish youth had described them. The professor
had been slow of belief, it is true ; but he now
gave due honour to his visiter, detained him several
days, and supplied him with all the plants which
Cliffort required.

In a letter to his friend Dr Richardson, dated
August 25, 1736, Dillenius expresses the following

LINNiEUS. 227

opinion of him : — '' A botanist is arisen in the North,
who has founded a new method on the stamens
and pistils, whose name is Linnaeus. He has pub-
lished Fundamenta Botanica, Bibliotheca Botanica,
Systema Naturae ; and is now printing in Holland
his Characteres, and his Flora Lapponica. He is
a Swede, and has travelled over Lapland. He has
a thorough insight and knowledge of botany, though
I am afraid his method will not hold. He came hi-
ther, and stayed about eight days, but is now gone
back to Sweden."

On his return to Holland, which took place in
September, Linnaeus continued his researches with
increased diligence. In the course of the year 1737,
he laid before the scientific world about two hun-
dred printed sheets, not of compilation, nor of
fiction, but for the most part completely original.
The Genera Plantarum, containing the characters
of all the genera of plants according to the number,
form, situation, and proportion of their organs of
generation, was the first work published by him
after his return from England. This treatise ex-
hibited 935 genera, to which were added during the
same year sixty others, in a supplement, to which
he also appended a concise view of his system. A
full account of the plants observed by him in Lap-
lEind, arranged according to the method invented
by himself, formed his next undertaking. It was
dedicated to the Royal Society of Upsal, and con-
tained a brief physico-geographical description of the
country. At the solicitation of Gronovius, he per-
mitted one of the productions of that northern region
to be named after himself, Linncea horealis. The
great object of his residence at Hartecamp was now

228 LINNiEUS.

completed by the publication of his Hortus Clif-
fortianus, in which were described all the species of
plants cultivated in the burgomaster's garden. The
Critica Botanica, in which he attempted to reform
the absurd nomenclature that then prevailed^, and
the Viridarium Cliflfortianum, describing the green-
house-plants of Clitfort's establishment^ were the
other books published by him during this year.

Boerhaave, who had been in a great measure the
author of his good fortune in Holland, now procured
for him the appointment of physician in ordinary
to the Dutch colony of Surinam, which, however,
he declined, both on account of the insalubrity of
the climate, and because he could now entertain
the prospect of a more eminent station. He there-
fore recommended a young friend named Bartsch,
who died in six months after his arrival in South
America.

When about to depart from Leyden, Linnaeus
went to take leave of Boerhaave. The interview,
which, however melancholy, was very flattering, is
thus related by him : " That great man, who was
affected with a dropsy of the chest which forced him
to keep himself always sitting in his bed to prevent
suffocation, would not receive visiters, but admitted
me to bid him farewell. Summoning the little
strength that remained in him, he raised my hand
to his lips, and said : ' I have finished my career,
and all that I have been permitted to do I have
done ; may God preserve you, who have yet a greater
task to perform ! What the learned world expected
from me it has obtained ; but it expects much more
from you, my dear son. Farewell, farewell, my
dear Linnaeus !' "

LINNiEUS. 229

Having gone with Cliffort to Amsterdam, and af-
terwards to Leyden, he visited among others his
friend Van Royen, professor of botany, who having
made proposals of marriage to Miss Boerhaave, the
sole heiress of the great physician, had been rejected,
and therefore vowed hostility to the family. The
botanic garden there had been arranged and de-
scribed agreeably to Boerhaave's method ; but the
other now resolved to alter the disposition, and
adopt the system of Linnaeus. He accordingly
offered him a salary of eight hundred florins, if he
would live with him, and assist in the execution
of this scheme. Influenced by respect for his de-
ceased friend, he would not countenance the al-
teration, although he devised a plan by which nei-
ther his benefactor nor himself should receive the
honour. He remained with Van Royen, classed
the plants after a principle of his own invention,
and drew up a catalogue of them, which was pub-
lished in the name of that teacher.

The next work which he printed was produced
by the genius and industry of Artedi. When he
resided at Leyden, previous to his going to Harte-
camp, he had the pleasure of meeting this friend of
his youth, who had left Sweden in 1734, and gone
to England to prosecute his scientific labours. From
thence he went to Holland for the purpose of obtain-
ing his degree, which he was unable to accomplish
on account of his extreme poverty. Linn£3us recom-
mended him to Seba, an apothecary at Amsterdam,
and author of a large work on natural history, who
received him as his assistant. But soon after, re-
turning home in a dark night, he fell into a canal
and was dro^vned. His countryman had the melan-

230 LINN^US.

choly satisfaction of depositing his remains in the
grave ; and having induced Cliffort to purchase his
manuscripts^ which were detained for debt, he ar-
ranged and committed them to the press. This
tract, in his opinion, was the best that had appeared
on the subject of fishes. He also published his own
Classes Plantarum, in which he presented a general
view of all the botanical systems that had been pre-
viously proposed.

His ambition was now on the point of being at-
tained. Not only were his works received with ap-
probation, but his principles had been adopted by
several teachers. He had also formed connexions
in Holland which promised to be of the great-
est advantage to him; and the Dutch, desirous
of securing his services, proposed that he should
make a botanical voyage to the Cape of Good
Hope, with the promise of a professorship on his
return.

But Linnaeus about this time was seized with an
ardent desire to revisit his native country, and fell
into a state of extreme depression of spirits, suc-
ceeded by a violent fever, which lasted upwards of
six weeks. His excessive application to study may
be considered as the source of his complaints ; and
perhaps to this may be added his disquietude con-
cerning the daughter of Morseus. But it does not,
however, appear that his love for Elizabeth wus
equal to that for botany or even for his own re-
nown ; for though the stated period had elapsed,
he still resolved to make a journey to Paris before
returning to the place of his birth.

He reached that capital in the beginning of May
1738, and was kindly received by the two Jussieus,

LINN^US.

231

one of whom was the successor of Tournefort. —
It is related by M. Fee, that on his arrival he
went first to the Garden of Plants, where Bernard
de Jussieu was describing some exotics in Latin.
There was one which the demonstrator had not yet
determined, and which seemed to puzzle him. The
Swede looked on in silence, but, observing the hesi-
tation of the learned professor, cried out, — '' Hsec
planta faciem Americanam habet, — It has the ap-
pearance of an American plant." Jussieu, surpris-
ed, turned about quickly and exclaimed, — " You are
Linnaeus." — '' I am, sir," was the reply. The lec-
ture was stopped, and Bernard gave the learned
stranger an affectionate welcome. Through the kind
offices of these amiable men and excellent bo-
tanists, he was introduced to many of the literati
of Paris, and obtained access to the libraries, col-
lections of natural objects, and public institutions.
The French, however, were by no means disposed
to adopt his views : " He is a young enthusiast,"
they said, " who confounds all, and whose only
merit consists in having reduced botany to a state
of anarchy." He was, notwithstanding, admitted a
corresponding member of the Academic des Sciences.
He then visited Versailles, accompanied by his two
friends, who defrayed all his expenses, and showed
him the public libraries, the museums, and the most
celebrated private collections, especially that of Reau-
mur. " Linnseus," says he, in his autograph me-
moirs, " was now desirous of returning to Sweden
without further delay, for time seemed to him too
valuable to allow him to engage in studying the
manners and language of the French. He never
had a genius for languages, nor could he ever render

232 LINNJEUS.

himself familiar with the English, French, German,
or even the Lapland tongues. He felt the same
difficulties with respect to Dutch, although he had
resided three years in Holland. This, however, for-
tunately did not prevent him from making him-
self sufficiently imderstood. After seeing all the
curiosities at Paris, he went to Rouen in the dog-
days. There he embarked for the Cattegat, with
a favourable wind, and after crossing the Sound
landed at Helsingburg. He immediately visited his
old father at Stenbrohult, rested there a few days,
and set out for Fahlun. After being formally be-
trothed to his bride, he proceeded to Stockholm,
where he arrived in September."

He had left his native country in April 1734,
and returned in the autumn of 1738, having been
absent three years and a half. In the course of this
period, he visited Holland, England, and France,
formed acquaintance with many eminent natural-
ists, obtained his medical degree, published nume-
rous works on botany, and extended his fame over
all Europe.

With respect to the improvements which he made
in that branch of natural history, it is unnecessary
here to enter into any detail, as it is proposed to speak
particularly of them in a subsequent volume. It
may be sufficient to remark, that there had not pre-
viously been any good arrangement of plants ; that
the principles of the science had not been laid down
in a satisfactory manner ; that the nomenclature was
barbarous and unsuitable ; the mode of distinguish-
ing species rude and inefficient ; and that, in short,
the works on this subject were little better than a
chaos of names and unintelligible descriptions. Some

LINN^US. 233

writers maintain, indeed, that he did more harm
than good, when he became the legislator of bo-
tany. But their opinion can deceive those only
who, too idle or too weak to judge for themselves,
adopt the sentiments of their teachers with a defer-
ence unworthy of the student of nature.

234 LINN^US.

SECTION IV.

Principal Events in the Life of Linnceus from 1 738 to
1741.

Linnaeus is treated with Neglect at Stockholm — Is offered a Bota-
nical Professorship at Gottingen, but prefers remaining in Swe-
den— His medical Practice is at length extended — He prescribes
for the Queen, and becomes acquainted with Count Tessin, who
procures for him the Offices of Lecturer to the School of Mines
and Physician to the Admiralty — He marries Miss Moraeus, de-
livers Lectures on Botany, and becomes a Candidate for the Bo-
tanical Chair at Upsal, which, however, is given to Rosen — Is
sent to examine the Islands of Oeland and Gothland — Being ap-
pointed to succeed Roberg in the Chair of Medicine and Ana-
tomy, he goes to Upsal, is reconciled to Rosen, and delivers his
Introductory Discourse — Linnaeus and Rosen exchange Profess-
orships— The Botanic Garden is restored, and a House erected
for the Professor, who enters upon his Duties with Ardour.

LiNNiEus had naturally expected, on returning to
his native land, to enjoy the fruits of his labours,
and if not to step at once into a lucrative ofl&ce, to
receive, at least, the honours which he imagined to
he due to him. This hope, however, was more
the result of a strong confidence in his own powers,
and of the high sense which he entertained of his
merits, than of sound judgment, which might have
taught him that time was yet required to render
him known to his countrymen, and address or ac-
cident to bring him into the notice of those who
might interest themselves in his behalf. He had
forgotten that a prophet is usually less esteemed at
home than any where else. At Stockholm he was

LINNiEUS. 235

treated with neglect, and even with contempt.
Science in the North had few gifts to bestow ; and,
in order to obtain the means of subsistence, he found
himself once more obliged to attempt the practice of
medicine. In this, however, he had very little suc-
cess, public opinion being opposed to the professional
qualifications of one who had merely the reputation
of being an aspiring botanist ; and in the capital he
seemed destined to undergo hardships similar to
those which he had experienced at Upsal. In this,
perhaps, the inhabitants judged rightly ; for the im-
portant office of a physician certainly ought not to
be assumed by one who has resolved to devote the
greater part of his time to studies unconnected with
the healing art. The only favour, he says, which
was at this time conferred upon him was his being
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of
Upsal ; and he would have again left Sweden had
not his Elizabeth prevented him.

In this perplexed condition he remained until
the summer of 1739, when the tide of misfortune
began to ebb. At this time he received from his
friend, the illustrious Haller, an offer of the botani-
cal professorship at Gottingen, which, however, the
prospect of success in his own country induced him
to reject. The first turn in his affairs was caused
by his having cured two young men of debility
brought on by long excesses ; and in less than a
month he had under treatment most of the profli-
gates in the capital. Soon afterwards a catarrhal
fever or influenza became prevalent. He happened
to be called to visit, among others, the lady of an
Aulic councillor, for whom he prescribed a remedy
which she was directed to carry about her for occa-

236 LINN-EUS.

sional use. This lady being one day at court, and
engaged in a card-party, was following his direc-
tion, when the queen, Ulrica Eleonora, asked her
what it was she from time to time put into her
mouth. Upon being informed, her majesty, who was
herself troubled with a cough, immediately^ sent for
Linnaeus, who recommended the same medicine, by
which the complaint was removed.

This fortunate accident completely established
his popularity, and he now became the fashionable
doctor of the place. About the same period he was
elected president of a society instituted by Cap-
tain Triewald for the improvement of the national
language, — a circumstance which also tended to pro-
mote his reputation. He had, moreover, the good
luck to become acquainted with the celebrated
Comit Charles Gustavus Tessin, who being him-
self fond of natural history, could not fail to take
an interest in one who had undeservedly suffered so
much obloquy for his devotion to it. The nobleman
asked him if there were any oflSce for which he
wished to petition, as the Diet was then sitting.
He replied that he wanted nothing ; but his patron
having allowed him a day to consider, he consulted
his friend Triewald, who advised him to ask the
oflBce of lecturer to the School of Mines, which
brought about a hundred ducats a-year. The count
soon after invited him to dinner, when he informed
him that the request had been granted. In a short
time the more important office of physician to the
Admiralty became vacant, and was procured for him
by his Maecenas, who, besides, offered him apart-
ments in his house, and frequently admitted him to
his table. There he had an opportunity of making

LINN^US. 237

the acquaintance of many persons of influence^ by
whose means his credit was greatly extended.

Being now in prosperous circumstances^ he resolv-
ed to complete the contract into which he had enter,
ed with the daughter of old Morseus, and proceed-
ing to Fahlun, received her in due form. After
spending a month of merrymaking, he returned to
Stockholm. In September he resigned the presi-
dency of the Academy, and, agreeably to the rules
of the institution, delivered on that occasion a dis-
course on insects (De Memorabilibus in Insectis),
which was afterwards printed.

In the summer of 1740, he delivered a course of
lectures on botany, and published a new edition of
his Fundamenta Botanica, which he dedicated to
Dillenius, Haller, Van Royen, Gronovius, Jussieu,
Burmann, and Ammann ; showing, in this classifi-
cation, his opinion of the comparative merits of the
most eminent botanists of that time. His medical
practice continued to increase ; and with his lec-
tures, his private studies, and his duty as physician
to the Admiralty, his time was fully and satisfac-
torily occupied. His former protector, Olaus Rud-
beck the younger, professor of botany, having died
in the spring of this year, Linnseus, Rosen, and Wal-
lerius offered themselves as candidates for the vacant
office. Count Tessin supported the first mentioned ;
but the chancellor, Count Gyllenborg, gave Rosen
the preference, as he had taken his degrees before
the other, and had acquired stronger claims on the
public by a longer residence at Upsal. The king,
however, was desirous of bestowing the office on the
great botanist, who was consoled for the loss by the
promise of succeeding Roberg, who held the chair

238 LINNiEUS.

of medicine and anatomy. That gentleman, beingad-
vanced in years, requested permission to resign, which
was granted ; but althougli the appointment had been
promised to Linnaeus, it was not without difificulty
that he obtained it. In the mean time, Wallerius,
his rival, took every opportunity of impugning his
botanical doctrines, with the view of lessening the
estimation of his merits ; though the efibrt tended
only to bring himself into contempt.

The affair was brought before the Diet in 1741,
when it was decided that Linnseus should be pre-
ferred to the vacant place. War having broken out
between Sweden and Russia, he was apprehensive of
being obliged to officiate as physician to the fleet ; and
finding that the government had resolved upon send-
ing persons to explore the least-known parts of the
Swedish provinces, for the purpose of promoting
domestic manufactures, he made application for this
office also, which was granted to him. Accompanied
by six of his friends, to each of whom was assigned
a separate department, he accordingly examined the
islands of Oeland and Gothland, with the view of
discovering any earth that might answer for the
making of porcelain, and of bringing to light such
ingredients, mineral or vegetable, as might be useful
in medicine, dyeing, and domestic economy. The
expenses of the journey were defrayed by the Board
of Manufactures. In the course of this expedition,
he narrowly escaped breaking his leg while descend-
ing into an alum-pit ; was nearly suffocated among
the snow in the vicinity of Blakulla ; and experienced
great danger from a violent storm while crossing
from Gothland to Upsal. Although he was unable
to accomplish the chief object of his mission, he
7

LINN^US. 239

made numerous observations on the antiquities of
those islands, their natural productions, fisheries,
and the manners of their inhabitants. The States
gave him a public acknowledgment of their satisfac-
tion, and the narrative of his tour was published
four years afterwards.

On arriving at Upsal in September, he made a
sincere peace with his old antagonist Rosen, propos-
ing to him a mutual oblivion of the past. In Oc-
tober, he assumed his professional duty as successor
to Roberg ; on which occasion he delivered a discourse
on the advantages of examining the interior of the
country, — De Peregrinationum intra Patriam Ne-
cessitate. Towards the end of the year, Rosen and
he entered into an amicable negotiation, the result
of which was an interchange of offices ; the former
taking the chair of anatomy and physiology, and re-
signing to the latter that of materia medica, botany,
dietetics, and natural history.

No man of eminence, in any department of science
or literature, has been without enemies. Linnaeus
could not, therefore, expect to become an exception
to the general rule. It is doubtful whether Haller
manifested more kindness or enmity towards him ;
or it may be said that though he remained his friend,
he yet took many opportunities of uttering censure.
A more violent opponent appeared in Heister, pro-
fessor at Helmstadt, who, imagining himself a great
botanist, was offended by the pretensions of the
Swedish naturalist, and stirred up one of his pupils,
Dr Siegesbeck, a man of even less knowledge than
his master, to fight his battle for him. The repre-
sentations of this last had, for a time, considerable
influence over the fortunes of Linnaeus, and Heister

240 LINN-EUS.

secretly rejoiced at his success; while he excited
partisans every where to wage war against the sexual
system. Other adversaries started up in Germany,
France, and various parts of E urope. The only open
antagonist whom he had in his own country was the
celebrated Wallerius, the mineralogist ; in order to
counteract whose unfair criticisms he published a
pamphlet entitled Orbis Eruditi Judicium de Car.
Linnsei^M.D.Scriptis,— The Judgment of the Learn-
ed World on the Writings of Charles Linnaeus, M.D.
This is the only defence that he ever made of him-
self, and the only work which he published anony-
mously. It contained merely a short sketch of his
life, a list of the books published by him, and testi-
monials and opinions of celebrated individuals re-
specting his merits. Whatever vexation these at-
tacks may have given him, they had no permanent
influence, and he had the happiness of triumphing
over all opposition. With reference to the attacks
of Siegesbeck, he thus writes from Hartecamp to
Haller:—

'' I have received from a friend Professor Sieges-
beck's Verioris Botanosophiae Specimen, with his
Epicrisis on my writings. This author has been
very hard upon me. I wish he had written these
things when I was first about publishing. I might
have learned when young, what I am forced to learn
at a more advanced age, to abstain from writing, to
observe others, and to hold my tongue. What a
fool have I been, to waste so much time, to spend
my days and nights in a study which yields no
better fruit, and makes me the laughing-stock of all
the world! His arguments are nothing; but his
book is filled with exclamations, such as I never

LINN^US. 241

before met with. Whether I answer him or keep
silence, my reputation must suffer. He cannot un-
derstand argument. He denies the sexes of plants.
He charges my system with indelicacy; and yet I
have not written more about the polygamy of plants
than Swammerdam has about bees. He laughs at
my characters, and calls upon all the world to say
if any body understands them. I am said to be
ignorant of scientific terms. He judges me by the
principles of Rivinus, and hundreds of the vilest
scribblers. Inasmuch as the man humbles me, so
do you, whose learning and sense have been made
sufficiently evident, exalt me. It distresses me to
read the commendations you are pleased to heap
upon so unworthy an object. I wish there might
ever be any reason to expect that I could evince my
gratitude and regard for you. I hope life will be
granted me, to give some proof of my not being
quite unworthy."

Linnaeus was now, however, in his proper element,
and commenced his academical career with great
ardour. The botanical garden, founded by the ce-
lebrated Olaus Rudbeck about fifty years before, was
entirely destroyed by the dreadful fire which, as al-
ready mentioned, had, in 1702, converted the greater
part of Upsal into a heap of ruins, and now served no
more important purpose than that of pasturing a few
cows. His first efforts were directed towards its re-
novation, which he soon succeeded in accomplishing.
Count Gyllenborg, who was then chancellor of the
university, was a man of considerable scientific at-
tainments, and had a special love for botany. This
circumstance, as well as his interest in the prosperity
of the institution, induced him to lend a ready ear to

242 LINNJEUS.

the solicitations of the professor, and to give his im-
portant aid to the undertaking. Baron Harlemann,
the king's architect, furnished the plan. Hothouses
were erected, walks formed, ponds dug, plots fur-
nished with plants ; in short, the garden soon assum-
ed a most promising appearance. A house was also
built for the accommodation of the teacher, who had
no longer any cause to complain of the neglect of his
countrymen. In the early part of this year his wife
presented him with a son ; so that in all respects he
was a happy man.

At this point ends the more romantic portion of
this illustrious individual's life. His continued strug-
gles for subsistence, for the acquisition of loiowledge,
for fame, for an honourable independence, were now
crowned with success. His rivals had shrunk from
the contest, his calumniators had fallen into deserved
obscurity, his merits had been acknowledged at
home and abroad, his perseverance, his ardoiu*, and
his acuteness of observation, were duly estimated.
While yet in the vigour of manhood, he had attained
the honour and emolument that are often deferred
to cheer only the declining years of the votary of
science. On the other hand, how many individuals
have toiled through a life of continued misery, with-
out ever reaching that haven into which the gentle
breezes of prosperity had already wafted our ardent
adventurer.

UNNiEUS. 243

SECTION V.

Commencement of Linnesus's Academical Career.

Linnjeus restores the Botanic Garden at Upsal — Takes Possession
of his new Residence — Founds a Natural History Museum —
Publishes Catalogues of the Plants and Animals of Sweden — .
In 1746, makes a Journey to West Gothland — Medal struck to
his Honour — He publishes a Flora of Ceylon from the Herba-
rium of Hermann — His alleged Discovery of a Method of pro-
ducing Pearls — Success as a Professor — Malice of his Enemies
— Journey to Scania — Is appointed Rector of the Universit\' — -
Attacked by Gout — Sends several of his Pupils to travel in fo-
reign Countries.

Under the fostering care of Linnaeus, the botanical
garden of Upsal was gradually enriched by dona-
tions from numerous friends. In the year 1742, he
introduced into it more than two hundred indige-
nous species, while he sent a student to Norway
to collect rarities. An experienced gardener, whom
he had formerly known with Mr Cliffort, was
engaged to take cliarge of it. Some idea may be
formed of his zeal, from the circumstance of his
having the first year sown seeds of 567 different
species, the next year of 600, and the third of more
than 1000. Plants and seeds were liberally trans-
mitted from Berlin by Haller and Gleditsch, from
Leipsic by Ludwig, from Yevern by Dr Moehren,
from Stutgard by Gesner, from Paris by Jussieu,
from Montpellier by Sauvages, from Oxford by Dil-

244 LINNJEUS.

lenius, from London by Collinson, Miller^ and Cates-
by, from Leyden by Gronovius, from Amsterdam
by Burmann, and from Petersburg by Gmelin and
Ammann. He even received seeds from Louis XV. ;
and the Baron Bjilke brought him from Russia a
great number of plants, collected in Siberia by
JMesserschmidt, Gerber, Heller, Heinzelman, and
others, most of them not previously described. From
Holland he also obtained the Musa, a tree which
he considered himself extremely fortunate in pos-
sessing.

Six years after the restoration of the garden, he
published a description of it under the title of the
Hortus Upsaliensis. At this time, the number of
exotic plants which it contained amounted to 1100.
A learned traveller, who visited it in 1771^. writes
as follows : — " An iron gate of excellent workman-
ship leads to it from the road. At the top of the gate
are displayed the Swedish arms, and those of Count
Gyllenborg, who so zealously promoted its restitution.
Within, a large court presents itself to view ; on the
right stands the house of Linnaeus, who is the director
of the garden, and on the left are some other build-
ings. A straight avenue leads by another gate to the
garden, which is separated from the court by a neat
wooden railing. The garden itself is laid out in a
superb style. The greater part consists of two large
tracts of ground, one of them containing the peren-
nial, the other the annual plants. Each of these
tracts is divided into forty-four beds, surrounded
with a low hedge and small doors. The plant-house
is divided into the greenhouse, the hothouse, and
the thriving-house, which form the northern side ;
the gardener's cottage, which is on the southern ; the

LINNiEUS.

245

thriving-bank on the west ; and the grass-bank on
the east. The sun-house faces the ponds, into which
fresh water is conveyed by pipes."

The professor took possession of his beautiful re-
sidence in 1743, and delivered a course of lectures
on dietetics, which was numerously attended. The
same year he was elected a corresponding mem-
ber of the Academy of Montpellier. In 1 744, Prmce
Frederick visited the university for the first time,
when the professors were presented to him. Celsius
and Linnaeus were complimented with the title of
lumina academice, on account of their great learn-
ing and reputation. Some months after this occur-
rence, the same prince was received at Upsal by the
rector and professors ; on which occasion Linnaeus
alone was invited to follow him to Ekhelsund, where
he had a private interview. In October, he was ap-
pointed secretary to the university, in the place of
Andrew Celsius, professor of astronomy, who had
died in the preceding spring, and in November
was made medical inspector of Smaland, an office
which had also been possessed by the same indivi-
dual.

In the following year, he founded a museum of na-
tural history at the botanic garden ; the prince-royal
and Count Gyllenborg furnishing the first collection
of animals. In autumn, he published two import-
ant works, the Flora Suecica and the Fauna Sue-
cica, in the composition of which he had laboured oc-
casionally during fifteen years. The former contained
descriptions of 1140 species of plants indigenous to
Sweden, with their medical and economical uses,
their stations, and other useful information; the

246 LINNiEUS.

latter exhibited the characters of 1350 animals oc-
curring in the same country. In a subsequent edi-
tion this number was increased to 2266.

In the summer of 1746;, he made a journey to
West Gothland^ accompanied by several of his stu-
dents^ andj on returning, devoted himself to the com-
pletion of his work on the species of plants. To
favour his views, and contribute to the extension of
science, Coimt Tessin obliged the East India Com-
pany, who at this time had their charter renewed,
to send out every year to China, at their own ex-
pense, a young naturalist, to be selected by Linnaeus.
The same year he received a very flattering testi-
mony of respect from four patriotic noblemen, the
Barons Harlemann, Hopken, Palmstjerna, and Count
Ekeblad, who caused a medal to be struck in honour
of him as well as of his patron, the Count Tessin.
One side represented the bust of Linnaeus, with these
words : —

CaroL Linnaeus, M. D., Bot. Prof. Ups. Mtat. xxxix.

On the other were the following : —

Carolo Gustavo Tessin et immortalitati effigiem Caroli Linneei
CI. Ekeblad, Andr. Hoepken, N. Palmstierna, et Car. Harlemann.

Die MDCCXLVI.

This mark of respect to the distinguished natu-
ralist and his illustrious friend proved so agreeable
to the latter, that it induced him to order a piece
to be stamped, representing on the one side a like-
ness of the professor, and on the other three crowns,
indicative of his dominion over the three kingdoms
of nature, with the sun casting his beams on them, as

LINNiEUS.

247

emblematic of the genius of the North illuminating
the mimdane system. lUustrat, — He illumines, —
Avas the appropriate motto. It is not in infancy only
that men are '^ pleased with a rattle, tickled with a
straw ;" nor are flattery and presumption peculiar
to any age.

In January 1747, the King of Sweden conferred
on Linnseus and his issue the title of First Physi-
cian, or Dean of the College of Physicians; and
soon after he was elected a member of the Royal
Academy of Berlin.

Professor Hermann of Leyden, who, towards the
end of the preceding century, had been sent to Cey-
lon and other parts of India, for the purpose of exa-
mining the spice-plants, died soon after his return,
and his collections fell into the hands of Mr Gunther,
apothecary at Copenhagen. This person, desirous of
knowing what they contained, sent them to Holland ;
but receiving from thence information that Linnseus
was the only person who could satisfy him, he finally
addressed them to Upsal. Delighted with this ori-
ental treasure, which had been lost half a century,
the botanist examined it with the greatest attention,
and, on completing his laborious task, published the
result under the name of Flora Zeylanica. At the
same time he gave to the world an account of his
journey to West Gothland.

It is stated, that about this period he made an im-
portant discovery relative to the formation of pearls
in the river-mussel {Unio margaritiferd), a shell
of common occurrence in the northern parts of Eu-
rope as well as in our own country, and from which
are obtained all our indigenous pearls, w^hich not

248 LINNiEUS.

many years ago were held in considerable estima-
tion. By injuring the shelly, probably by means
of puncture or perforation, it is supposed that he
succeeded in causing a deposition of the pearly
matter, so that one might procure a certain quan-
tity at pleasure. The precise method, however,
is still uncertain, nor is it believed to have been
generally successful ; at all events the secret has
been entirely lost.

At this period, says Linnaeus, botany was culti-
vated at Upsal with unparalleled ardour. Fre-
quent excursions were made for the purpose of col-
lecting plants, insects, and birds. Every Wednes-
day and Saturday herbarizations took place, which
continued from dawn to night. The pupils, having
their hats covered with flowers, returned to the
town, and preceded by musical instruments accom-
panied their professor to the garden.

But amid all this success he was harassed by
the malice of his enemies. A decree of the se-
nate appeared, which prevented any native of Swe-
den from publishing a work in a foreign country.
This was evidently directed against him alone, for,
as he says, it could apply to no other person. In a
fit of bad humour he flung his pen from him, and
swore that he would never write another book. At
this period also a person named Fick endeavoured,
by disgraceful calumnies, to injure him in the es-
teem of his fellow-citizens. This conduct he felt so
much the more severely, because the slanderer was
one of his familiar friends, which was also the case
with respect to Halenius, who openly censured one
of his dissertations, although he had approved of it

LINNiEUS.

24d

before it was sent to press. About the same time he
received a letter from Haerlem^ which he says nearly
cost him his life, and prevented him from sleeping
for two months. The purport of this communica-
tion has not been disclosed; but, surely, if he had not
placed too much value on the opinion of the world,
he would have allowed the malice of his enemies to
vent itself in impotent rage.

His self-love, however, was soon gratified by the
arrival of a pupil from Paris, the first who had
come to him from a foreign country, and by tlie
presence of several persons of distinction at his ex-
cursions. This year he had a hundred and forty
students at his lectures.

The following year, after publishing a work on
Materia Medica, he was directed by the Diet to
make a journey to Scania or Schonen, the most
northern of the Swedish provinces, for the purpose
of examining its natural productions. This was the
sixth and last tour which he made in his native
land. On returning he visited his brother Samuel
at Stenbrohult. During his absence he was ap-
pointed rector of the university, and towards the
end of the year entered upon the duties of his new
office.

In 1750, he continued his lectures with his wonted
energy and success. The king and queen had com-
menced a collection of objects belonging to natural
history, which were kept at Ulrichsdahl or Drott-
ningholm, about eight Swedish miles from Upsal.
Thither he used to repair during the summer and
winter vacations, for the purpose of arranging and
describing the various specimens. But a violent

250 LINN^US.

attack of gout obliged him to relinquish for a time
all his occupations.

On his recovery he laboured at his Philosophia
Botanica, which appeared in the following season,
together with an account of his journey to Scania.
During this and the preceding year^ he sent out
several of his most distinguished pupils to travel in
various parts of the world.

LINNiEUS. 251

SECTION VI.
Travelling Pupils of Linnaeus.

Enthusiasm excited by the Lectures of Linnaeus — Ternstroera dies
on his Voyage to China— Hasselquist, after travelling in Egypt,
Arabia, and Palestine, dies at Smyrna— Forskal perishes in Ara-
bia; Loefling in South America; Falk in Tartary— Kalra sent to
Canada ; Rolander to Surinam ; Toren to Malabar ; Osbeck to
China— Sparrmann travels in the Cape, and accompanies Cook on
his second Voyage— Thunberg visits Japan, Ceylon, and other
Countries — Various parts of Europe visited by Pupils of Lin-
naeus— Remarks on the Accumulation of Facts produced by their
Exertions.

The enthusiasm excited by the lectures and de-
monstrations of Linnaeus, seems to have exceeded
that produced by the efforts of any other professor.
The fervour of the teacher, his ardent love of na-
ture, his eloquence, and the kindliness of his dis-
position, made an indelible impression upon his
pupils, many of whom were anxious to devote their
lives to the extension of their favourite science.
Upsal became the centre of botanical, if not of zoo-
logical knowledge ; and while students flocked to it
from all parts of Europe, there were proceeding
from it those whom we may call the devoted heroes
of science, and who were resolved to enlarge its
boundaries, by exploring regions previously unknown
to the natural historian. An account of these men
belongs in some measure to the life of their mas-
ter, in which it will form an interesting episode.

252 LINN-EUS.

The first of his pupils that embraced the oppor-
tunity presented by the Swedish East India Com-
pany, was a young man named Ternstroem, who
in 1745 embarked for China. He died, however, at
Pulicandor, before reaching the place of which he
had intended to describe the productions, and there-
by to secure for himself a scientific immortality.

In the summer of 1749, Frederick Hassel
QUisT, another of his students, was induced by his
representations to undertake a voyage to Smyrna,
for the purpose of examining the natural treasures
of Palestine. Private contributions were made
to defray the expense of his journey, and a free
passage was given in an East Indiaman. Next
year he continued his course to Egypt, where he re-
mained nine months, surveying the pyramids and
other remarkable objects, and collecting all the in-
formation that he could obtain respecting minerals,
plants, and animals. He communicated the result
of his labours to his friends at home, and was admit-
ted a member of the Royal Society of Upsal, and of
the Stockholm Academy of Sciences. InMarch 1751,
he left Cairo, and taking the route of Jaffa, travelled
with a caravan of pilgrims to Jerusalem, where he
remained some time. He then visited the river
Jordan, Mount Tabor, Jericho, Bethlehem, Tyre,
and Sidon, and embarked for Smyrna, where he
arrived with a great variety of specimens illustrative
of natural history, as also with a valuable selection
of Arabic manuscripts, coins, and mummies. He
was preparing to return to his native country, to
enjoy the fruit of his toils, when he was seized
with a violent affection of the lungs, the predispo-
sition to which existed before he left Sweden, and

LINNiEUS. 253

of which the syrnptpms had been aggravated by the
fatigues and privations he endured in crossing the
sandy deserts. The disease quickly assumed an
alarming character, and he finally sunk under it on
the 9th February 1752, in the thirtieth year of his
age.

Hasselquist having contracted debts at Smyrna,
his creditors seized his collections, and would have
exposed them to sale, had they not been prevented
by the Swedish consul, who sent home an account of
the circumstances under which the youth had died.
The queen, Louisa Ulrica, gave orders to redeem his
property, which was accordingly transmitted to her,
and deposited in the palace of Drottningholm, where
she usually resided. Duplicates of the various arti-
cles were given to Linnaeus, together with all the
manuscripts, which were published in the Swedish
language under the title of Iter Paleestinum. This
work was afterwards translated into German, Eng-
lish, and French. It consists of two parts, the first
of which contains the journal of the traveller and
his correspondence ; while the second is devoted to
observations on mineralogy, botany, and zoology, as
well as to many interesting subjects relating to
the diseases, commerce, and arts, of the countries
which had been visited. A Flora of Palestine,
made up from the papers and specimens of Hassel-
quist, was afterwards published in the fourth vo-
lume of the Amaenitates Academicse.

Professor Michaelis of Gottingen, so well known
for his proficiency in the languages of the East,
having strongly enforced the propriety of obtaining
a more extensive knowledge of those countries in
which most of the events recorded in the Scrip-
6

254 LINN-35US.

tures took place, a society was instituted for that
purpose ; and through the influence of the Danish
ministers. Counts Bernstorif and Moltke, an expe-
dition was fitted out for Arabia. In 1761, five per-
sons were chosen for conducting this enterprise, viz.
Counsellor Niebuhr, Professor Forskal, a native of
Sweden^ Von Haven, Cramer, and Baurnfeind the
painter. In June 1763, Forskal wrote to Count
Bernstorff, communicating some information respect-
ing the balsam of Mecca ; but in about a month
afterwards he fell a sacrifice to science, and died at
Jerim. His companions suffered a similar fate,
with the exception of Niebuhr, who on returning
published an account of the journey. The observa-
tions of the naturalist were arranged by the same au-
thor, and appeared in 1775, accompanied with illus-
trative engravings. In a letter to Ellis, several years
earlier, Linnaeus mentions him thus ; — " Mr For-
skal, an excellent pupil of mine, just appointed pro-
fessor at Copenhagen, is to be sent next year, at the
expense of the King of Denmark, to the Cape of Good
Hope and Arabia Felix. If God preserve him to
us, we may expect a multitude of interesting dis-
coveries. He excels more particularly in the know-
ledge of insects, although very well versed in the
other branches of natural history." Niebuhr, who
sent to him a copy of the posthumous work as soon
as it was printed, was elected a member of the
Stockholm Academy of Sciences, out of gratitude
for the pains which he had taken to preserve the
name of his unfortunate friend.

Application having been made to Linnaeus, from
Madrid, for an able botanist, he chose Peter Lcef-
LiNG, one of the most distinguished of his pupils.

LINNiEUS. 255

who proceeded to Spain in 1751. During two years
he continued to collect and describe the plants of that
country. At the end of this period;, he was sent by
the government to travel through the different Spa-
nish settlements in South America. He had explored
the districts of Cumana, New Barcelona, and St Tho-
mas of Guyana, and was preparing to extend his
journey, when he was attacked by fever, and died in
the twenty-seventh year of his age. The professor,
who was much affected by the death of this zealous
and enterprising youth,, published an account of his
travels, under the name of Petri Loeflingii Iter His-
panicum.

The next victim to the eager pursuit of knowledge
was Falk, a native of West Gothland, who, coming
to Upsal in 1751 to study natural history, was re-
ceived by Linnaeus into his house, and appointed to
take charge of the education of his son. In 1759, he
made a journey to Gothland, and afterwards went
to Copenhagen, in the hope of being sent to Arabia
along with Niebuhr and Forskal ; but not finding
his wishes gratified returned to college. In 1763,
through the recommendation of his master, he was
engaged by M. Kruse, first physician to the Empe-
ror of Russia, to take charge of his cabinet of na-
tural curiosities, and was proceeding to Petersburg
when he suffered shipwreck at Narva. In 1765, he
was appointed keeper of the botanic garden and
professor of the medical college ; but the assiduity
with which he pursued his studies rendered him
subject to a disease of the bowels, causing accessions
of melancholy. In one of these fits of hypochon-
driasis he shot himself, at Casan in Tartary, on the
night of the 20th March 1774.

256 LINN^US.

Thus perished, in the midst of their career, five
of the most promising pupils of Linnaeus ; but, not
deterred by their fate, others pressed forward with
the desire of distinguishing themselves.

The professor, knowing that a species of mulberry-
tree grew in Canada, proposed to the Royal Society of
Stockholm a voyage to that country, for the pur-
pose of learning whether the plant in question
could be naturalized in Sweden. The proposal be-
ing acceded to, he made choice of Peter Kalm,
one of the most promising of his students. In 1747.
he departed for America, where he remained three
years. In 1751, he returned to Abo, in Finland,
where his patron had obtained a professorship for
him, and published an account of his voyage. The
Canadian mulberry-tree {Morus rubra) was in fact
introduced by him into Sweden, and seems in some
degree to have answered the purpose intended ;
but, although the government offered a premium
for its cultivation, the silk-manufacture of that coun-
try has never succeeded. Kalm, after travelling in
various parts of Russia, died at his own residence in
1790. His travels in America were translated into
English by John Reinhold Forster, who accompanied
Captain Cook on his second voyage.

Rolander embarked for Surinam in 1755 ; To-
ren, in 1 750, for the coast of Malabar and Surat ;
and Osbeck for China in 1751. The journal of the
latter was also translated by Forster. But the most
distinguished among the more fortunate travelling-
pupils of Linnaeus were Sparrmann and Thunberg,
the latter of whom became his successor in the uni-
versity.

Andrew Sparrmann studied medicine at Upsal,

LINNiEUS. 257

where, by his attention to natural history, he attracted
the notice of the celebrated professor of that science.
In 1760, he made a voyage to China with his cousin.
Captain Ekeberg, who commanded a ship belonging
to the East India Company, and who was also fond
of similar studies. On his return, he described, in
an academic thesis, the plants and animals which
he had collected on this voyage. Having now form-
ed a strong attachment to botany and zoology, he
again became desirous of travelling ; but his poverty
would have prevented him had not his friend Eke-
berg procured for him the office of tutor to the chil-
dren of a person residing at the Cape of Good Hope,
where he arrived in 1772. Soon after, he had the
pleasure of meeting his countryman Thunberg, from
whom, however, he was soon forced to separate;
and in October made a journey to Paarl, on his
return from which he occupied himself with a de-
scription of the plants indigenous to the district in
which he resided. Captain Cook, on his second voy-
age, having arrived at the Cape, the two Forsters, who
accompanied him as naturalists, went to see Sparr-
mann, and persuaded him to go along with them.
This he was not loath to do, and, accordingly, had the
pleasure of circumnavigating the globe. On revisit-
ing the Cape, in July 1775, he subsisted by practis-
ing medicine, and in a short time acquired sufficient
funds to enable him to undertake an excursion into
the interior. He penetrated 350 leagues in a north-
easterly direction, and returned with a large stock of
plants and animals. The same year he revisited his
native country, where he found that in his absence
he had been promoted to the degree of Doctor in Me-
dicine. He was now elected a member of the Royal

Q

258 LINNiEUS.

Society of Stockholm, and, after the death of Baron
de Geer, was appointed conservator of his collection
of natural history, which had been bequeathed to that
body. Some time after, he was made president of the
same learned institution, — an office which he resigned
in three months. In 1787, he accompanied his friend
Wadstroem on an expedition into the interior of
Western Africa; but the project failed, and in the fol-
lowing year he returned to the Swedish capital, where
he continued till his death in July 1820. The prin-
cipal works which he published are, 1. A Voyage
to the Cape of Good Hope, to the South Polar Circle,
and romid the Globe, with a Journey into the Coun-
try of the Hottentots and Caffres. This book has
been translated into English. 2. The IMusaeum
Carlsonianum, containing Descriptions of the rarer
Animals in the Collection of Baron Carlson. 3. A
Discourse on the Advantages of Expeditions to the
Pacific Ocean, with Descriptions of Animals and
Plants.

Charles Peter Thunberg was born in Swe-
den in 1743, and died at Upsal in 1828. In J770,
after finishing his education, he went to France,
and from thence to Holland, where, on being re-
commended by Burmann, he was engaged by the
Dutch East India Company to go to Japan in a
medical capacity. After remaining some time at
the Cape, he proceeded to his destination, and
afterwards to Java and Ceylon, whence he returned
first to England, and subsequently to Germany.
His travels occupied nine years. Fourteen months
after the death of Linnseus, he was appointed director
of the botanic garden of Upsal during the absence of
the son of that renowned professor. He acquired

LINNJEUS. 259

the honours usually bestowed on fortunate cultiva-
tors of science, and finally succeeded the younger
Linnaeus.

Besides these celebrated individuals, who ex-
plored the most remote regions of the globe, many
of the students trained in the garden and lecture-
rooms of Upsal traversed various parts of Europe.
Koehler visited Italy ; Alstroemer the same coun-
try, as well as France and Spain; Von Troil
made a voyage to Iceland ; Fabricius travelled in
Norway, England, and France ; and Solander exa-
mined the Lapland Alps. In short, an astonishing
impulse was given to the study of natural history
in general, and of botany in particular. Facts and
observations were accumulated to such a degree,
that had Linnaeus lived ten years longer he would
have been utterly unable to continue the legislator
of the science in all its departments.

To him, however, remains the glory of having been
the only individual who described all the minerals,
plants, and animals, known in his time. Before
him no one had attempted the task.

260 LINN^US.

SECTION VII.

LinncBus's Occupations from 1750 to 1770.

Publication of the Philosophia Botanica— General Account of that
Work — Linnaeus engaged in arranging the Collections of the
Queen and Count Tessin— The Species Plantarura— Sir J. E.
Smith's Remarks on it— Quotation from the Preface, with Re-
marks— Linnaeus publishes improved Editions of his Works^
Obtains Prizes for Essays from the Royal Societies of Stockholm
and Petersburg— Is elected a Member of the Academy of Sciences

of Paris Receives Plants and Seeds from various Quarters —

Purchases two Estates— Delivers private Lectures at his Mu-

seum His Emoluments — His Son appointed his Assistant and

Successor — He receives Letters of Nobility ; and is rewarded for
his Discovery of the Art of producing Pearls — His domestic
Troubles, Infirmities, and sincere Reconciliation to his old An-
tagonist Rosen, who attends him in his Sickness.

It has been already mentioned that Linngeus, when
residing in Holland, printed a short treatise con-
taining his theoretical views respecting the classi-
fication of plants. This work, to which he gave
the title of Fundamenta Botanica, consisted of a
series of aphorisms or propositions, which his friends
afterwards repeatedly urged him to demonstrate at
length, so as to constitute them into a body of
doctrine which might be considered as the code of
botanical science. Accordingly, in 1751„ he pub-
lished the Philosophia Botanica, one of the most re-
markable performances that any age or country can
boast of. It consists of 12 chapters, 52 sections, 365

LINN^US. 261

aphorisms, in imitation of the different divisions
of the year, — a puerile conceit, with which his ene-
mies have not failed to taunt the illustrious author.
Had there been a hundred days more he might
have found aphorisms for them all ; and any one
conversant with zoology might engage to construct
a classification of animals on the very same prin-
ciple. Since he was so attached to numerical ana-
logies, it is surprising that he did not form 12 classes
of plants, 52 orders, 365 families, and a number
of genera corresponding to that of the hours in a year.
On such an arrangement might, with due calcula-
tion, have been founded a system of botany as per-
fect as any that had appeared before his time. The
distribution of his materials, however, is the only
childish part of the book ; for in other respects it
must be acknowledged to be a model of perspicuity,
precision, and force.

The first chapter gives an account of the principal
writers on botany ; the second, of systems of classi-
fication ; the third, of the roots, stems, and leaves
of plants ; the fourth, of the parts of fructification.
In the remaining chapters are discussed the doctrine
of sexes, the characters of the classes and subdivi-
sions, the names of the genera, the specific differ-
ences, varieties, synonymes, the descriptions of the
species, and the virtues or uses. At the end of the
volume are several curious fragments, containing
directions to students of botany, the method of
forming herbariums, a plan to be followed by na-
turalists in travelling, and other matters of a like
nature.

" The Genera Plantarum," says Linnaeus in his
private memoirs, '' the most important of all the

262 LINN^US.

works on botany, and which was intended for faci-
litating the study of that science, being completed,
he laboured at the species. He was at this period the
only person who had at his disposal the materials
necessary for the composition of that great work.
His herbarium was immense, and no one had seen
so great a number of gardens and collections. With
the assistance of this methodical book, any person
can make out the plants already described by au-
thors, and those which have become known only
of late, or which are entirely new. He laboured
two successive years at the species ; and it was at
this period that he felt the first attacks of calculus,
the usual consequence of too sedentary a life, and of
long-continued pressure on the lower abdominal
viscera."

In 1753, being again called to Drottningholm^ he
was desired to describe the natural productions con-
tained in the museums of his majesty and the Count
Tessin. The former rewarded him with a valuable
ring, the latter with a gold watch and a copy of
Rumphius's splendid Herbarium Amboinense. But
what delighted him most was the assurance given
by the queen, that should his son evince a liking to
natural history, she would send him to travel over
Europe at her own expense.

This year appeared the Species Plantarum, which
was published at Stockholm in two volumes, and
contained the characters of 7000 species. Haller
denominates this production " maximum opus et
seternum." It is unnecessary here to olfer any de-
tailed account of it, as it is well known to every
botanist. Sir James E. Smith, in his Life of Lin-
naeus^ observes, that '' it is ever memorable for the

LINN^US. 263

adaptation of specific^ or^ as they were at first called,
trivial names. This contrivance, which he first used
in his Pan Suecicus, a dissertation printed in 1749,
extended to minerals in his Museum Tessinianum,
and subsequently to all the departments of zoology,
has perhaps rendered his works more popular than
any one of their merits besides. His specific difi*er-
ences were intended to be used as names ; but their
unavoidable length rendering this impracticable, and
the application of numeral figures to each species,
in Haller's manner, being still more burthensome to
the memory, all natural science would have been
ruined for want of a common language, were it not
for this simple and happy invention. By this means
we speak of every natural production in two words,
its generic and its specific name. No ambiguous com-
parisons or references are wanted, no presupposition
of any thing already known. The distinguishing
character of each object is mostly stamped in its
name ; and if this perfection of the art cannot al-
ways be attained, the memory is assisted, often very
ingeniously, with collateral information, indicating
the colour, the habit, or the qualities of the object
of our examination. The philosophical tribe of na-
turalists, for so they are called by themselves and
their admirers, do not therefore depreciate Linnaeus
when they call him a nomenclator. On the con.
trary, they celebrate him for a merit which no other
person has attained, and without which their own
discoveries and remarks, of whatever value, would
not be understood."

In the preface to this work, which he dedicated to
the king and queen, we find the following passage,
which will enable the reader to form an estimate of

264 LINNJEUS.

that kind of forbearance which he showed towards
his critics : — '' I have never sent back upon my ene-
mies the shafts which they have hurled at me. The
grins of the malicious, the ironies and attacks of the
envious, I have quietly borne. They have always
been the reward of the labours of great men ; but
nothing of all this can hurt a hair of my head. Why
should I not tolerate the wretches, when I have been
loaded with the praises of the most celebrated bo-
tanists, before whom they must bend in the dust.
My age, my profession, and my character, prevent
me from waging war with my opponents. I will
employ the few years I have to live in making use-
ful observations. In natural history, errors cannot
be defended nor truths concealed. I appeal to pos-
terity." The decision of posterity, however, may be
as unjust as that of our contemnoraries, and the
former is in all cases of less impc tance to us than
the latter, for it can in no degree benefit the au-
thor who relies upon it. And to show that Lin-
naeus severely felt the censure of his opponents,
we have only to refer to his private memoirs. His
treatment of them seems to have been the effect
of pride more than of magnanimity, although it
appeared to belong to the latter. Rousseau, who
greatly admired it, was heard to exclaim, '' Would
that I had imitated the Upsal professor ! I should
have gained some days of happiness and years of
peace."

About this time also was published his descrip-
tion of the museum of Count Tessin, already allud-
ed to, under the name of Musaeum Tessinianum.
Loefling sent him plants from Spain, and similar
accessions poured in from other quarters; but he

LINNJEUS. 265

occasionally experienced a return of his complaints^
which were relieved by the plentiful use of wild
strawberries. His account of the king's museum
appeared the following year.

Besides his ordinary occupations of lecturing and
accompanying his pupils on their excursions into
the country, he sent forth successively improved
editions of several of his works, which he endeavour-
ed to bring up to the level of his expanding know-
ledge. The Stockholm Academy having offered a
prize, consisting of two gold medals, for the best
essay on the means of improving Lapland, he com-
posed a treatise on the subject, which received the
approbation of that learned body. Although no
regular cultivation could be applied to so dreary a
region, he showed that considerable improvements
might be made by introducing plants which grow in
the mountainous districts of similar latitudes, and
especially by planting trees suited to the climate.
In 1759, the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Pe-
tersburg announced a premium for the best work
on the confirmation or refutation of the doctrine of
sexes in the vegetable kingdom. He wrote on this
topic also, in which he established the fact by new
and irrefragable arguments, and the reward was of
course adjudged to him. The motto which he af-
fixed to this tract was indicative of his prevailing
passion : " Famam extendere factis."

The celebrity of his name now attracted pupils
from many parts of Europe ; obtained him admission
into most of the distinguished learned societies ; and
rendered him an object of attraction to travellers.
In 1762, he was elected a foreign member of the
Academy of Sciences of Paris, — a circumstance of

266 LINNiEUS.

which he was not a little proud. " It was/' says
hcj '' the greatest honour that could be conferred on
a man of science, and hitherto no Swede had en-
joyed it. The number of foreign members is li-
mited to eight. The following are the names of
the persons who were then invested with that dig-
nity : — Morgagni, Bernouilli, Euler, Macclesfield,
Poleni, Haller, Van Swieten, and Linnaeus."

The botanic garden at Upsal received acces-
sions corresponding to the increasing fame of its
restorer, and was enriched by specimens or seeds
transmitted from many remote regions ; from Kamt-
schatka and Siberia, by Demidoff and Gmelin;
from China, by several of his pupils ; from Egypt,
Palestine, Java, and the Cape of Good Hope, by
Thunberg, Sparrmann, and others; from Canada,
Pennsylvania, and Virginia, by Kalm and Grono-
vius; from Jamaica, by Dr Browne; and from South
America, by IMiller. A great quantity of African
seeds came into his possession in the following sin-
gular manner : — Donati, a young Italian naturalist,
had been sent to Egypt and the Levant, at the ex-
pense of the King of Sardinia. At Alexandria he
fell in love with a young lady, the daughter of a
Frenchman, and in order to forward his suit, al-
lowed her brother to accompany him on his tra-
vels. The intended relative, however, robbed
him of all his money and collections, and carried
them to France. Not finding himself safe there,
he embarked again for Constantinople ; but being
still unable to turn his stolen seeds to any a/?-
count, he sent them to Linnaeus, whose name he
had often heard mentioned by Donati. Among the
rare exotics which he procured was the tea-plant.

LINNAEUS. 267

which his friend Ekeberg brought from China in
176.3, and which had not been previously seen in
Europe.

In 1758, he purchased for 80,000 dollars (above
£2.330 sterling) two estates, situated at the dis-
tance of about three miles from Upsal, to which
he retired during the vacations, and where he spent
the last ten years of his life. On an eminence,
near the mansion at Hammarby, he erected a
museum, in which he deposited all his collections.
It was of an oblong form, and had a magnificent
prospect over an extensive plain sprinkled with vil-
lages, the city of Upsal and the river Sala appear-
ing at a distance, and the lofty mountains of Da-
lecarlia lining the horizon. Here he occasionally
gave lessons to foreigners, and improved his various
works.

These private instructions seem to have been a
source of great emolument to him. They were
confined chiefly to strangers, who used to lodge in
the neighbouring villages of Honby and Edeby,
and to whom he pronounced his lectures, not in
the grave and solemn habit of a professor, but as a
companion, frequently wearing his dressing-gown
and a red fur cap, with a tobacco-pipe in his mouth.
Lord Baltimore, governor of Maryland, having gone
from Stockholm for the purpose of seeing him, was
entertained with a discourse on natural history ; for
which he presented him with a splendid gold
snuff-box, 100 ducats, and a superb piece of silver
plate.

A pleasing picture of his manners and amusements
is given by his pupil Fabricius, although, in one cir-
cumstance at least, his example may not be consi-

268 LINN^US.

dered as commendable : " We were three^ Kuhn,
Zoega, and I, all foreigners. In summer we fol-
lowed him into the country. In winter we lived
facing his house^ and he came to us almost every
day in his short red robe-de-chambre, with a green
fur cap on his head^ and a pipe in his hand. He
came for half an hour, but stopped a whole one, and
many times two. His conversation on these occa-
sions was extremely sprightly and pleasant. It
consisted either of anecdotes relative to the learned
in his profession with whom he got acquainted in
foreign countries, or in clearing up our doubts, or
giving us other kinds of instruction. He used to
laugh then most heartily, and displayed a serenity
and an openness of countenance, which proved how
much his soul was susceptible of amity and good
fellowship.

" Our life was much happier when we resided in
the country. Our habitation was about half a quar-
ter of a league distant from his house at Hammar-
by, in a farm-house, where we kept our own furni-
ture and other requisites for housekeeping. He
rose very early in summer, and mostly about four
o'clock. At six he came to us, because his house
was then building, breakfasted with us, and gave
lectures upon the natural orders of plants as long as
he pleased, and generally till about ten o'clock. We
then wandered about till twelve upon the adjacent
rocks, the productions of which afforded us plenty
of entertainment. In the afternoon we repaired to
his garden, and in the evening we usually played at
the Swedish game of trisset in company with his
wife.

" On Sundays the whole family usually came to

LiNN^us. zoy

spend the day with us. We sent for a peasant who
played on an instrument resembling a violin, to the
sound of which we danced in the barn of our farm-
house. Our balls certainly were not very splendid,
— the company was but small, the music superla-
tively rustic, and no change in the dances, which
were constantly either minuets or Polish ; but, re-
gardless of these defects, we passed our time very
merrily. While we were dancing, the old man,
who smoked his pipe with Zoega, who was deform-
ed and emaciated, became a spectator of our amuse-
ment, and sometimes, though very rarely, danced a
Polish dance, in which he excelled every one of us
young men. He was extremely delighted whenever
he saw us in high glee, nay, if we even became very
noisy. Had he not always found us so, he would
have manifested his apprehension that we were not
sufficiently entertained."

The presents which he received from his admir-
ers, the fees of his pupils, his salary, and the pro-
perty which he had acquired by marriage, ren-
dered him one of the richest of the Upsal professors ;
and, during the latter period of his life, his stated
income was doubled by order of the king. The
emoluments which he derived from his works were
not great, as he got only for each printed sheet the
small sum of one ducat, or about nine shillings and
sixpence sterling.

To add to his happiness, his son, at the age of
twenty-one, was appointed his assistant and suc-
cessor, shortly after he himself had received letters
of nobility, which were antedated four years. In
1748, Frederick I. had founded the order of the Polar

270 LINN^US.

Star for men of merit in the civil line, and Linnaeus
was the first who was admitted into it by his suc-
cessor, Frederick Adolphus. He proposed for his
arms the three fields of nature, black, green, and
red, surmounted by an egg, with the Linnsea for a
crest; but the keeper of the great seal adopted a
different arrangement. The Diet at the same time
bestowed on him a reward of upwards of £520
sterling, for his discovery relative to the production
of pearls ; and it is even asserted that his elevation
to the rank of nobility was not given on account
of his botanical labours, or his general merits, but
for this alleged discovery, which, however, has turned
to no account.

But the interest which we have felt in the pro-
gress of this great man now begins to be less intense.
He seems to us to have accomplished his destiny, and
we prepare to trace his steps to the grave. In his do-
mestic life he is supposed to have been subjected to
many mortifications, arising from the parsimony and
domineering temper of his wife. Long before this
period, too, he had become subject to attacks of rheu-
matism, gravel, and gout ; while his too-sensitive
mind was harassed by the open as well as more in-
sidious attacks of his opponents. It is pleasing to
witness the reconciliation of enemies, and we have al-
ready remarked that Linnaeus and his old antagonist
Rosen were ultimately on the most friendly terms.
'^ In 1764," says the private manuscript, '' he was
attacked by a violent pleurisy. He was anxiously
attended by Dr Rosen, who saved him from certain
death. From this time he conceived the most sin-
cere affection for his brother-professor."

LINN^US. 271

Before proceeding to convey the prince of natu-
ralists to the tomb, it seems expedient to examine
the most important of his numerous works, — that,
namely, in which he arranges all the known objects
of nature, and of which the last edition, brought out
under his o^vn inspection, appeared about this epoch
of his life.

272 LINN^US.

SECTION VIII.

Account of the Systema Naturce of Linnceus.

Linnaeus's Classification of the Animal Kingdom— Remarks on the
Gradations employed, and on Nomenclature — Classification of the
Animal Kingdom — General Remarks — Method of Tournefort —
Method of Linnaeus— Classification of the Vegetable Kingdom
Theory of the Formation of Minerals and Rocks.

The work just mentioned bears the title of Sys-
tema Naturae per Regna tria Naturae, secundum
Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteri-
bus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis, — A System of
Nature, in which are arranged the objects consti-
tuting the three kingdoms of nature, in classes, or-
ders, genera, and species, with their characters, dif-
ferences, synonymes, and places of occurrence.

The first volume contains the animal kingdom.
The introduction presents a brief view of the con-
stitution, of the world, in the usually laconic style
of the author. In it the three kingdoms of na-
ture are thus defined : — Minerals are concrete bo-
dies, possessing neither life nor sensibility; vege-
tables are organized bodies, possessed of life, but
without sensibility ; animals are organized bodies,
possessing life and sensibility, together with volun-
tary motion. Objections may be made to these
definitions ; but it is not our object at present to
criticise his views and arrangements, our inten-

LINN^US. 273

tion being simply to oifer a brief account of them,
omitting all that is not absolutely essential. It
ought to be understood, that the entire work is
merely an index or catalogue of the productions of
nature ; that it was obviously intended as such by
its author ; and that they who object to the Sys-
tema Naturae, because it contains nothing more
than characteristic notes methodically arranged, for-
get that Linnaeus never professed to give descrip-
tions in it.

The natural division of animals, he says, is indi-
cated by their internal structure. This principle
his modern adversaries have chosen to overlook, as-
serting that his classification is founded on exter-
nal form. In some species the heart has two dis-
tinct cavities, and the blood is warm and red ; of
these some are viviparous, — the mammalia^ — others
oviparous, — the class oi birds. In certain species the
heart has only a single cavity, with a single auricle,
the blood red but cold ; of these the amphibia have
a voluntary respiration, \y\)S\e fishes respire by gills.
In other animals the heart has also a single cavity,
but without an auricle, while the blood is cold and
of a white colour ; of these the insects are charac-
terized by their antennae, the vermes or worms by
their tentacula.

The Mammalia, which constitute the first class,
are the only animals furnished with teats. Their
clothing, hoofs, claws, horns, teeth, and other or-
gans, are briefly described, in such a manner as to
enable the student to comprehend the meaning of
the terms to be subsequently employed. The cha-
racters of the orders are derived principally from
the teeth.

274 LINN^US.

I. Primates or Nobles: Mammalia furnished with
fore teeth, of which there are four in the upper jaw, and
two pectoral mammae.

II. Bkuta : No fore teeth in either jaw.

III. Fer^, Beasts of Prey : The fore teeth conical,
usually six in each jaw.

IV. Glires or Gnawers : Two chissel-shaped fore teeth
in each jaw.

V. Pecora, Cattle : No fore teeth in the upper jaw,
several in the lower.

VI. Bellu^ : Fore teeth ohtuse ; feet furnished with
hoofs.

VII. Cete, Whales: Pectoral fins in the place of feet,
and in place of a tail the hind feet united so as to form a
flat fin ; no claws ; the teeth cartilaginous.

The order Primates contains four genera : —

1. Homo, Man, of which (strange to say) he
makes two species, viz. Homo Sapiens, including all
the descendants of Adam, and Ho7no Troglodytes,
the orang-outang ! The varieties of the human
race are the American, the European, the Asiatic,
the African or Negro, and those called monstrous,
such as the Patagonians, characterized by their
great size, the flat-headed Indians of Canada, &c.
His description of the human figure is amusing ; and
as it may aiford an idea of his mode of viewing ob-
jects, we shall translate it in part : —

" The Body erect, bare, sprinkled over with a few
distant hairs, and about six feet high. The Head
inversely egg-shaped : scalp covered with longer
hairs : the fore part obtuse, crown very obtuse, hind-
head bulging. The Face bare : Forehead flattish,
square, compressed at the temples, ascending at the
corners among the hair. Eyebrows somewhat pro-

LINN^US. i^/O

minentj with hairs closely set and directed out-
wards, separated by the flattish glabella. Upper
eyelid moveable, lower fixed, both pectinated with
projecting somewhat recurved hairs. Eyes round :
pupil round, without nictitant membrane. Cheeks
bulging, softish, coloured, their lower part some-
what compressed, the buccal portion looser, l^ose
prominent, shorter than the lip, compressed, higher
and more bulging at the tip ; nostrils ovate, hairy
within, with a thickish margin. Upper lip nearly
perpendicular, grooved in the middle; lower Up
nearly erect, more prominent. Chin protruded, ob-
tuse, bulging. Mouth in the male bearded with
bristles, which on the chin especially form a bundle.
'Fore teeth in both jaws sharp edged, erect, parallel,
close ; canine teeth solitary, a little longer, close to
the rest on both sides; grinders five, bluntish.
Ears lateral ; auricles roundish- semilunar, pressed
in some measure towards the head, bare, vaulted
above the margin ; bulging and soft below." He
then proceeds to state more particularly, that there
is no tail, and that the thumb is shorter and thicker
than the fingers. Man, therefore, differs from other
animals, as he says, in having the body erect and
bare, although the head and eyebrows are covered
with hair, two pectoral mammae, a brain larger
than that of any other creature, a uvula, the face
bare and parallel to the abdomen, the nose promi-
nent and compressed, the chin projecting, no tail,
feet resting on the heels, the males bearded on the
chin, the females smooth.

As to the orang-outang, which forms his se-
cond species of man, he might have known that
having four hands, and being incapable of carrying

276 LINN^US.

its body erect, it had no right to stand beside the
lord of the creation.

The second genus, Simla, includes the baboons
and monkeys, of which, with and without tails, he
enumerates thirty-three species.

3. Lemur, the macaucos : 5 species.

4. VespertiliOj the bats : 6 species.

These are the Nobles of the animal kingdom :
men, monkeys, lemurs, and bats. There could
hardly be a more unnatural association ; but all ar-
tificial systems, founded upon the consideration of
a single organ or set of organs, are chargeable with
similar absurdities.

The second order, Bruta, is composed of the
following genera : —

5. Elephas, the elephant, of which there is only one
species.

G. Trichechus, the walrus : 2 species, the morse and
manati.

7. Bradypus, the sloth : 2 species.

8. Myrmecophaga, the ant-eater : 4 species.

9. Manis : 2 species.

10. Dasypus, the armadillo : 6 species.

The third order, Fer^, or Beasts of Prey :—

11. Phoca, the seal: 3 species.

12. Canis, the dog, wolf, hyena, fox, jackal, &c. : 9
species.

13. Felis, the cat kind, including the Hon, the tiger,
&c. : 7 species.

14. Fiverra, the civet : 6 species.

15. Mustela, the martin, including otters, weasels, er-
mines, polecats, &c. : 11 species.

16. Ursus, the bear : 4 species.

LINN-SJUS. 277

17. Didelphis, the opossum : 5 species.

18. Talpa, the mole : 2 species.

19. Sorex, the shrew : 5 species.

20. Erinaceus, the hedgehog : 3 species.

The fourth order, Glires, Gnawing Animals : —

21. Hystrix, the porcupine : 4 species.

22. Lepus, the hare : 4 species.

23. Castor, the beaver : 3 species.

24. Mus, rats and mice : 21 species.

25. Sciurus, the squirrel: 11 species.

26. Noctilio : 1 species.

The fifth order, Pecora, the Ruminating Ani-
mals : —

27. CameluSy the camel, dromedary, lama, and alpa-
ca : 4 species.

28. Moschus, the musk : 3 species.

29. Cervus, the deer : 7 species.

30. Capra, the goat: 12 species.

31. Ovis, the sheep : 3 species.

32. Bos, the ox tribe : 6 species.

The sixth order, Bellu^e, contains, —

33. Equus, the horse, ass, and zebra : 3 species.

34. Hippopotamus : 1 species.

35. Sus, the hog tribe : 5 species.

36. Rhinoceros : 1 species.

The seventh order, Cete, the Whales, consists of
four genera : —

37. Monodon, the narwhal, or sea-unicorn : 1 species.

38. Balana, the whale, properly so called : 4 species.

39. Physeter, the cachalot : 4 species.

40. DelpUnus, the dolphin : 3 species.

278 LINN^US.

Including a few additional species mentioned in
the appendix to the third volume, and the Man-
tissa of I77I;. the number of Mammalia known to
Linnaeus was about 230. At the present day, more
than 1000 species are described.

The second class, that of Birds, is divided by
him into six orders, the essential characters of which
are derived from the bill and feet, as follows : —

I. AcciPiTRES : Birds of Prey. The bill more or less
curved, the upper mandible dilated or armed with a tooth-
hke process near the tip; the feet short, robust, with
acute hooked claws.

II. Pic^. The bill cultriform, with the back convex;
the feet short, rather strong.

III. Anseres : Web-footed Birds. The bill smooth,
covered with epidermis, enlarged at the tip ; the toes
united by a web, the legs compressed and short.

IV. Grall^ : Waders. The biU somewhat cylindri-
cal ; the feet long, bare above the knee, and formed for
wading.

V. Galling : Gallinaceous Birds. Bill convex, the
upper mandible arched over the lower, the nostrils
arched with a cartilaginous membrane. Feet with the
toes separated, and rough beneath.

VI. Passeres : Small Birds. Bill conical, sharp
pointed ; feet slender, the toes separated.

It may here be remarked, that this arrangement is
liable to many objections, and especially because the
characters given to the orders are totally inapplicable to
many species contained in them. Thus, the vultures,
which belong to the first order, have no projecting
processes on the upper mandible ; the parrots, which
are referred to the second, have the bill hooked, not
cultriform, and bear no resemblance to the other spe-

LINN^US. 279

cies ; among the Anseres, which are characterized
as having the bill smooth, covered with epidermis,
and enlarged at the tip, are the gannet with a bare
pointed bill, the divers, the terns, and the gulls,
with bills not at all answering to the description
given ; among the Grallee with a cylindrical bill, are
the ostrich with a short depressed one, the boatbill
with one resembling a boat, the spoonbill, the
heron, the flamingo, and others, whose bills differ
from each other as much as from that of the snipes
and curlews ; the character given to the bill of the
Gallinse agrees with that of many Passeres ; and,
lastly, the wagtail, the swallow, the tit, the robin,
and a multitude of other small birds, have bills ex-
tremely unlike those of the goldfinch, bunting, and
crossbill, which are referred to the same order. We
mention these circumstances, not for the purpose of
detracting from the merit of Linnaeus, but simply
because we are persuaded that many of his general-
izations are extremely incorrect, as are in many re-
spects those of all his predecessors, and even of the
ablest philosophers of the present age. It is absurd
to attempt to thrust the objects of nature into squares
or circles, or enclosures of any other form. Every
system that has been invented has failed in pre-
senting even a tolerably accurate view of the dis-
crepancies and accordances of the endlessly-diversi-
fied forms that have resulted from the creation of
an Infinite Power.

The following table presents the Linnaean arrange-
ment of Birds in outline : —

Order I. Accipitres.

41. VuUur, vultures. Beak hooked; head bare: 8
species.

280 LINN^US.

42. Falco, eagles and hawks. Beak hooked; head
feathered : 32 species.

43. Strix, owl. Beak hooked, feathers at its base di-
rected forwards : 12 species.

44. Lanius, shrike. Beak straightish, notched : 26
species.

Order II. Pic^.

45. Psittacus, parrots. Beak hooked ; upper mandible
furnished with a cere : 47 species.

46. Ramphastos, toucan. Beak very large, hollow,
convex, serrated ; both mandibles incurved at the tip : 8
species.

47. Buceros, hornbill. Beak convex, curved, cultrate,
large, serrated j forehead covered with a horny plate : 4
species.

48. Buphaga, beef-eater. Beak straight, somewhat
quadrangular ; the mandibles bulging : 1 species.

49. Crotophaga, plantain-eater. Beak compressed,
half-eggshaped, arched, keeled on the back : 2 species.

50. Corvus, crows. Beak convex, cultrate; nostrils
covered by recumbent bristly feathers : 19 species.

51. Coracias, roller. Beak cultrate, the tip incurved,
not covered with feathers at the base : 6 species.

52. Oriolus, oriole. Beak conical, convex, straight,
very acute ; upper mandible slightly longer, and indis-
tinctly notched : 20 species.

53. Gracula, grakle. Beak cultrate, convex, bareish
at the base : 8 species.

54. Paradisea, birds of Paradise. Beak covered with
the downy feathers of the forehead; feathers of the
sides long : 3 species.

55. Trogon, curucui. Beak shorter than the head,
cultrate, hooked, serrated : 3 species.

56. Bucco, barbet. Beak cultrate, laterally compress-
ed, notched at the tip, incurved, opening to beneath the
eyes : 1 species.

LINN.EUS. 281

57. Ciiculus, cuckoo. Beak roundish ; nostrils with a
prominent margin : 22 species.

58. Yunx, wryneck. Beak roundish, sharp pointed ;
nostrils concave : 1 species.

59. Picus, woodpecker. Beak angular, straight, the
tip wedgeshaped; the nostrils covered with recumbent
bristly feathers : 21 species.

60. Sitta, nuthatch. Beak awlshaped, roundish,
straight : 3 species.

61. Todus, tody. Beak awlshaped, a little flattened,
obtuse, straight, with spreading bristles at the base : 2
species.

62. Alcedo, kingsfisher. Beak three cornered, thick,
straight, long: 15 species.

63. Merops, bee-eater. Beak curved, compressed,
keeled : 7 species.

64. Upupa, hoopoe. Beak arcuate, convex, a little
compressed, rather obtuse : 3 species.

65. Certhia, creeper. Beak arcuate, slender, acute :
25 species.

66. Trochilus, humming-bird. Beak slender, longer
than the head, its tip tubular : 22 species.

Order III. Anseres.

67. Anas, swans, geese, and ducks. Beak lamellated
at the margin, convex, obtuse : 45 species.

68. Mergus, merganser. Beak denticulate, cyhndri-
cal, the tip hooked : 6 species.

69. Alca, auk. Beak short, compressed, convex, fur-
rowed ; the lower mandible with a prominent angle ; 5
species.

70. Procellaria, petrel. Beak a httle compressed ; the
upper mandible hooked, the lower channelled and com-
pressed at the tip : 6 species.

71. Diomedea, albatross. Beak straight; upper man-
dible hooked at the tip, lower abrupt : 2 species.

282 LINNiEUS.

72. Pelecanus, pelican, gannet, shag. Beak straight,
the tip hooked, ungmculate : 8 species.

73. Plotus, darter. Beak straight, sharp pointed, den-
ticulate : 1 species.

74. Phaeton. Beak cultrate, straight^ acuminate : 2
species.

75. Colymbus, diver. Beak slender, straight, sharp
pointed : 1 1 species.

76. Larus, gull. Beak straight, cultrate, the tip a
little hooked ; the lower mandible with an angular pro-
minence: 11 species.

77. Sterna, tern. Beak slender, nearly straight, acute,
compressed : 7 species.

78. Rynchops, skimmer. Beak straight ; upper man-
dible much shorter, lower abruptly terminated: 2 spe-

Order IV. Grall^e, Waders.

79. Phcenicopterus, jflamingo. Beak incurvated as if
broken, denticulate ; feet webbed : 1 species.

80. Platalea, spoonbill. Beak flattish, the tip dilated,
rounded, and flat : 3 species.

81. Palamedea, screamer. Beak conical; the upper
mandible hooked : 2 species.

82. Mycteria, jabiru. Beak acute; lower mandibk
trigonal, ascending ; upper three cornered, straight : 1
species.

83. Cancroma, boatbill. Beak bulging; the upper man-
dible resembhng a boat with the keel uppermost : 2 spe-
cies.

84. Ardea, cranes and herons. Beak straight, acute,
long, a little compressed, with a furrow from the nostrils
to the tip : 26 species.

85. Tantalus, ibis. Beak long, slender, arcuate ; face
bare : 7 species.

86. Scolopax, snipes, curlews. Beak long, slender,
obtuse ; face feathered : 18 species.

LINN^US.

283

87. Tringa, sandpiper. Beak roundish, as long as the
head ; nostrils linear ; feet with four toes : 23 species.

88. Charadrius, plover. Beak roundish, obtuse ; feet
with three toes : 12 species.

89. Recurvirostra, avoset. Beak slender, recurved,
pointed, the tip flexible : 1 species.

90. HcBmatopus, oystercatcher. Beak compressed, the
tip wedgeshaped : 1 species.

91. Fulica, coot. Beak convex; upper mandible arch-
ed over the lower, which has a prominent angle : 7 spe-
cies.

92. Parr a, jacana. Beak rouncUsh, bluntish ; forehead
wattled ; wings spurred : 5 species.

93. Rallus, rail. Beak thicker at the base, compressed,
acute : 10 species.

94. Psophia, trumpeter. Beak conical, convex, rather
sharp ; the upper mandible longer : 1 species.

95. Otis, bustard. Beak with the upper mandible
arched : 4 species.

96. Struthio, ostrich and cassowary. Beak somewhat
conical ; wings unfit for flying : 3 species.

Order V. Galling, Gallinaceous Birds.

97. Didus, dodo. Beak contracted in the middle, with
two transverse rugae ; the tip of both mandibles bent in-
wards : 1 species, now extinct.

98. Pavo, pea-fowl. Head covered with feathers ; fea-
thers of the rump elongated, with eyeUke spots : 3 species.

99. Meleagris, turkey-fowl. Head covered with spongy
caruncles; the throat with a longitudinal membranous
wattle : 3 species.

100. Craoc, curassow-bird. Beak with a cere at the
base ; head covered with recurved feathers : 5 species.

101. Phasianus, pheasartt. Sides of the head bare : 6
species.

102. Numida, Guinea-fowl. Carunculated wattles on
each side of the face ; head with a horny crest : 1 species.

284 LINN^US.

103. Tetrao, grouse and partridge. A bare papillar
spot near the eyes : 20 species.

Order VI. Passeres.

104. Columba, pigeon. Beak straight; nostrils with
a tumid membrane : 40 species.

105. Alauda, lark. Beak slender, pointed ; tongue
slit ; hind claw very long ; 1 1 species.

106. Sturnus, starHng. Beak slender, flattened to-
wards the point : 5 species.

107. Turdus, thrush. Beak tubulate, compressed,
notched : 28 species.

108. Ampelis, chatterer. Beak awlshaped, depressed
at the base, notched : 7 species.

■ 109. Loxia, grossbeak. Beak conical, bulging at the
base : 48 species.

110. Emheriza, bunting. Beak somewhat conical ;
lower mandible broader : 24 species.

111. Tanagra, tanager. Beak notched, awlshaped,
conical at the base : 24 species.

112. Fringilla, finch. Beak conical, acute: 39 species.

113. Muscicapa, ^ycdtcher. Beak notched, awlshaped,
with large bristles at the base : 21 species.

114. Motacilla, wagtails, warblers. Beak awlshaped,
tongue jagged ; claw of the hind toe of moderate length :
49 species.

115. Pipra, maxiakin. Beak awlshaped, incurved : 13
species.

116. Parus, tit. Beak awlshaped, feathers at its base
directed forwards j tongue abrupt : 14 species.

117- Hirundo, swallow. Beak very small, depressed
at the base, incurved ; the mouth wider than the head :
12 species.

118. Caprimulgus, goatsucker. Beak very small, in-
curved, depressed at the base ; large bristles ; the mouth
very wide : 2 species.

LINN^US. 285

The class of Birds comprehends 930 species^ which
are characterized by the colours of the plumage, the
forms of the feathers, the existence of wattles, spurs,
and various other circumstances.

The third class. Amphibia, is composed of anic
mals not, strictly speaking, capable of living both in
air and in water, but having the power of suspend-
ing their respiration in a more arbitrary manner
than others. They are arranged under four orders ; —

I. Reptiles. Amphibious animals respiring through
the mouth by means of lungs ; and furnished with four
feet.

To this order belong the tortoises, dragons, croco-
diles, lizards, toads, and frogs, which are disposed
into four genera, containing 83 species.

II. Serpentes, Serpents. Respiring through the
mouth by means of lungs; destitute of feet, fins, and
ears.

There are six genera, and 132 species.

III. Meantes, Gliders. Respiring by means of gills
and lungs ; furnished with feet and claws.

There is only one species, the lizard-syren of Ca-
rolina.

IV. Nastes, Swimming Amphibia. Respiring at will
by means of gills and lungs : the rays of the fins cartila-
ginous.

These animals, of which 76 species are enume-
rated, are referred to fourteen genera, — the lamprey,
ray or skate, shark, chimaera, frog-fish, sturgeon,
lump-fish, oldwife-fish, bonyskin-fish, sun-fish, por-
cupine-fish, trumpet-fish, pipe-fish, and dragon-fish.

286 LINNJEUS.

The number of species described as belonging to
this class is 292. The specific characters are de-
rived from various circumstances connected with
the external conformation ; in the tortoises, from the
shell and feet ; in the snakes, from the number of
the abdominal and caudal plates ; in the swimming
amphibia, or, as they are now more properly called,
the cartilaginous fishes, from the form of the body,
the diflTerences of the fins, and other circumstances.

The fourth class, that of Fishes, contains four
orders, founded upon the relative position of the
fins, which are compared to the feet of other ani-
mals. Thus, the ventral fins may be placed before,
beneath, or behind the pectoral, or they may be
wanting.

I. Apodes, Apodal or Footless. Fishes destitute of
ventral fins ; such as the eel, the wolf-fish, and the sword-
fish.

II. JuGULAREs, Jugular. Fishes having the ventral
fins placed before the pectoral ; as the dragonet, weever,
cod, haddock, and coal-fish.

III. Thoracici, Thoracic. Fishes having the ven-
tral fins placed under the pectoral; as the goby, bull-
head, hohbut, gilt-head, perch, mackerel, &c.

IV. Abdominales, Abdominal. Fishes having the
ventral fins placed on the abdomen behind the pectoral
fins ; as in the salmon, trout, pike, mullet, and herring.

In this class there are 47 genera, and 400 spe-
cies. The specific characters are taken from the
number of rays in the fins, the form of the tail, the
cirri or filaments at the mouth, the colouring of the
body, the form of the scales, and other circum-
stances.

LINN^US. 287

The fifth class, that in which the Insects are in-
cluded, comprehends 86 genera, disposed into seven
orders, which are founded on the number and tex-
ture of the wings.

I. CoL.F.o'PTERA, or Hard-winged Insects. Insects hav-
ing the wings covered by two crustaceous cases. This
order is the most extensive, including 30 genera, and 893
species. It includes all the insects commonly known by
the name of beetles.

II. Hemiptera, or Half-winged Insects, having the
shells or cases semicrustaceous, not divided by a straight
line as in the coleoptera, but overlapping each other at
the margin ; the beak curved inwards ; 12 genera, 353
species. The cockroach, cricket, locust, and cochineal-
insect, are examples.

III. Lepidoptera, or Scaly-winged Insects, having
four wings, which are covered with imbricated scales ;
the tongue spiral and coiled up, the body hairy. In this
order there are only 3 genera, Papilio, Sphinx, and Pha-
IcBna, the butterflies and moths; but the species are 780.

IV. Neuroptera, or Net-winged Insects, with four
naked, transparent, or reticulated wings ; the tail gene-
rally destitute of a sting. There are 7 genera, and 83
species, among which are the dragon-fly, the may-fly,
and the scorpion-fly.

V. Hymenoptera, or Thin-winged Insects, with four
naked membranous wings ; some species, however, being
wingless. The females have the tail armed with a sting.
This order contains 10 genera, and 313 species, of which
may be mentioned as examples, the wasp, bee, ichneu-
mon-fly, and ant.

VI. Diptera, or Two-winged Insects, having only
two wings, and being furnished with a balance or club
behind each wing. There are 10 genera, and 262 species,
among which are the common house-fly, the flesh-fly,
and the gnat.

288 LINNiEUS.

VII. AvTEKA, Wingless. Insects destitute of wings in
both sexes. They are arranged under 14 genera^ and
consist of 300 species. In this order there are three divi-
sions : some have six feet, as the flea, the louse, and the
white ant ; others have from 8 to 14 feet, as the spider,
scorpion, crab, and lobster ; while others have a still
greater number, as the centipede.

The generic characters are derived from the an-
tennae, the jaws, the head, the thorax, the wings,
the elytra or wing-covers ; and the specific, from
the colours and other circumstances. The number
of species is 2984.

The sixth class, that of Vermes or Worms, is a
very heterogeneous one, and to later authors has
supplied materials for several classes. Linnaeus di-
vides it into five orders :

I. Intestina, Intestinal Animals : simple, naked, and
destitute of Umbs : for example, the earth-worm, the
guinea- worm, the leech, and the ascaris: 7 genera, 24
species.

II. MoLLuscA. Simple, naked animals, furnished with
limbs : the slug, the sea-mouse, the sea-anemone, the cut-
tle-fish, the sea-nettle, the star-fish, and the sea-urchin :
18 genera, 110 species.

III. Testacea, Shell-fish. Soft, simple animals, co-
vered with a shell which is usually calcareous. This or-
der includes 36 genera, and 814 species. It is divided
into three groups, the multivalve shells, or those which
consist of several pieces ; the bivalve, of two pieces ; and
the univalve, or those of one piece only.

IV. LiTHOPHYTA. Compound animals, affixed to, and
fabricating a fixed calcareous base, called coral. There
are 59 species, which are referred to 4 genera, the tubi-
pores, madrepores, millepores, and cellepores.

V. ZooPHYTA. Compound animals, sending forth pro-

LINN^US. 289

cesses resembling flowers, and springing from a vegetating
stem. This order contains 15 genera, among which are
the red coral, the sea-fan, the sponge, coralline, &c. The
number of species is 156.

The characters of the genera and species of these
orders are derived from so many various circum-
stances, that it would be tedious to recapitulate
them. The number of objects defined in this part
of the Systema Naturae, is as follows : —

MamraaUa, 219

Birds, 930

Amphibia, 292

Fishes, 400

Insects, 2984

Vermes, 11G3

Species from the
Appendices,... 140

In all, 6128 species of animals.

It may be observed with respect to the method
followed by Linnseus in his arrangements, that he
has generally chosen the most simple and perspicu-
ous that he could devise. The whole creation he dis-
poses into three kingdoms, the animal, the vegetable,
and the mineral. The animal kingdom is divided in-
to six great classes, characterized by various circum-
stances of their organization. Each of these six classes
is divided into several orders and nvLmerous genera ;
and the genera are composed of species. Sometimes
the species exhibits varieties, or variations of form,
colour, and other qualities, dependent upon cli-
mate, food, domestication, and other circumstances.
There are thus in his arrangement of animals five
gradations : kingdom, class, order, genus, and spe-
cies. We shall find that the same series is adopt-
ed in his classification of the vegetable kingdom.
It must be remarked, however, that in nature none

s

290 LINNiEUS.

of these gradations actually exist. Individuals alone
form the subjects of observation ; but a number of
individuals closely resembling each other are con-
sidered in the mind as forming a species ; and seve-
ral species agreeing in certain respects with each
other form a genus ; while genera united by parti-
cular characters compose an order ; and the orders
constitute a class. Thus all the individual birds
called goldfinches form the species Goldfinch, which
with the species Chaffinch and others constitute the
genus Finch. This genus^ and those known by
the names of Grossbeak, Bunting, Lark, &c. con-
stitute the order Passerine Birds. Natural objects
may thus be arranged in a definite series, so that
the place of any given species may be determined ;
hence, if the student should be desirous of finding
the name and history of a particular object, he can
readily discover it, or he can satisfy himself that it
has not yet been described. At the same time, it
must be remembered, that the classification in ques-
tion is entirely artificial, and does not necessarily
place together genera that are the most closely allied.
It is a kind of systematic index to the works of na-
ture, and is useful in many respects, although it
may not lead to the disclosure of all the peculiarities
or all the affinities and relations of the object to be
examined. The Linnsean arrangement of animals
cannot be considered in any other light ; for, if we
view it as a natural classification, we meet with
false positions and erroneous views at almost every
step. His disciples mistook it for a perfect system,
and viewed the various species with reference to
it, rather than with respect to their mutual rela-
tions. Still, they who look upon the artificial clas-

LINNiEUS. 291

sifications of our great master as having done more
harm than good^ judge erroneously; for although
they are certainly imperfect, without them or others
of a similar kind it would have been impossible to
retain any distinct remembrance of the numerous
objects which have successively been introduced to
notice. It were more reasonable to admire the in-
genuity displayed in the construction of so simple a
system, than to blame the unsuccessful attempt to
classify, according to their essential peculiarities, ob-
jects whose multiplied relations have, to the present
day, defied the most accomplished naturalists.

With respect to the nomenclature, it is sulBficient
ta remark, that the classes and orders bear appro-
priate names, derived from various circumstances.
Thus in the class Mammalia, so denominated because
the animals composing it bear mammse and suckle
their young, are the orders Primates or Nobles,
Bruta, Ferce, &c. The generic names are always
substantives, as Phoca, Canis, Lepus, &c. ; and
the specific names are either adjectives, as Phoca
harhata, Canis familiaris, Lepus timiclus, or, in
certain rarer cases, substantives, as Canis Lupus,
Ursus Arctos, &c. We now proceed to the exami-
nation of another kingdom.

The second volume of the Systema Naturae con-
tains an arrangement of all the species of vegetables
known to Linnseus. It is in this department that
our author has been generally allowed to excel, and
his system, after undergoing some modifications, re-
mains in use at the present day ; nor is it likely ever
to be superseded by any other merely artificial ar-
rangement.

Before proceeding to a general account of this ce-

292 liiNN^us.

lebrated scheme, it may be useful to take a brief
view of those by which it was preceded. It is ob-
vious, that without a methodical disposition of
plants, and a fixed nomenclature, it would be im-
possible for an individual to retain the knowledge
of the numerous and diversified forms which these
present. Descriptions, moreover, would be unin-
telligible, and we should find it difficult or imprac-
ticable to ascertain the species of which authors
might write.

The alphabetical arrangement of plants, the most
artificial, or at least the most unnatural of all, was
at one time much followed by botanists, especially
in local catalogues. The time of flowering, the place
of growth, the general habit or appearance, and va-
rious other circumstances, formed a basis to other
arrangements. In the sixteenth century, Conrad
Gesner showed that the flower and fruit were the only
parts capable of affording determinate characters.
Caesalpinus, physician to Pope Clement VIII., pre-
sented the first model of a botanical system, in his
Ijibri de Flantis, published in 1583. The cha-
racters are derived principally from the fruit,
though likewise from the flowers, and the duration
of plants. The two Bauhins, Ray, and Morison,
published systems constructed on similar principles.
Others, as Rivinus and Ludwig, derived their cha-
racters from the corolla. All these methods, how-
ever, successively passed into neglect, and were su-
perseded by that of Tournefort, who was professor
of botany at the Garden of Plants in Paris, in the
reign of Louis XIV. This eminent writer was
the first who defined the species and genera with
any degree of precision. He arranged plants ac-

LINNiEUS.

293

cording to the various forms of the corolla, dividing
them primarily, according to the consistence of the
stem, into Herbs and Trees. The former were
subdivided into three orders; those with simple
flowers, those with compound flowers, and those
destitute of flowers. The following is an outline of
his system : —

Division I, Heebs.

* With simple Jlowers.

Corolla of one piece, regular.
Class I. Campaniformes, with a regular corolla, of
one piece, and resembling a bell ; as the convolvulus,

II. Infundibulifobmes, with a regular corolla, of one
piece, and resembling a funnel ; as the tobacco.

CoroUa of one piece, irregular.

III. Personatte, with an irregular corolla, of one
piece, resembling an antique mask ; as the foxglove.

IV. Labiat.?:, with an irregular coroUa, of one piece,
divided into two lips ; as the sage.

Corolla of several pieces, regular.

V. Crucifobmes, with a regular coroUa, composed of
four petals, placed crosswise ; as the wallflower.

VI. Rosacea, with a regular corolla, composed of se-
veral petals, arranged in the form of a rose ; as the wild
rose and apple.

' VII. Umbellifeb^, with a regular corolla, composed
of five petals, the flowers arranged on stalks resembhng
the spokes of an umbrella ; as in the carrot.

VIII. Cabyophylle^, with a regular corolla, com-
posed of five petals, having long claws ; as the pink.

IX. Liliace^, with a regular coroUa, composed of six
or three petals, or sometimes of one piece with six divi-
sions ; as the tuUp.

294 LINN^US.

Corolla of several pieces^ irregular.

X. PAPiLioNAeE^, with an irregular corolla^ composed
of five petals ; as the pea.

XL Anomal^^, with an irregular corolla^ composed of
five petals^ but differing from the papihonaceous form ;
as the violet.

* * With compound flowers.

XII. Flosculos^, with flowers composed of small
funnel-shaped;, regular corollas, divided into five seg-
ments ; as the thistle.

XIII. Semiflosculos^, with flowers composed of
small irregular corollas, of an elongated flat shape; as
the dandelion.

XIV. Radiate, with flowers composed of funnel-
shaped florets at the centre, and flat ones at the circum-
ference ; as the daisy.

* * * Destitute of flowers.

XV. Apetal^, whose flowers have no true corolla; as
the grasses.

XVI. Apetal^, entirely destitute of flowers, but hav-
ing leaves ; as the ferns.

XVII. Apetal^, without apparent flowers or fruit ;
as mosses.

Division II. Trees.

Without petals.

XVIII. Apetalous Trees or Shrubs, having their
flowers destitute of corolla ; as the box.

XIX. Amentacea:, with the flowers disposed in cat-
kins ; as the oak.

With flowers of one petal.

XX. Trees with a regular or irregular corolla of one
piece ; as the lilac.

With regular flowers of several petals.
. XXI. Trees or Shrubs with rosaceous coroUa ; as the
apple-tree-

LINN-EUS. 295

With irregular flowers of several petals.
XXII. Trees or Shrubs with papilionaceous corolla;
as the laburnum.

Each of these classes is subdivided into various
sections or orders^ founded upon modifications in
the form of the corolla, the nature of the fruit, the
figure of the leaves, &c. The sections contain a
greater or less number of genera, under which are
disposed all the species known to the author.

This classification was of the greatest service to
botanists ; though it was^ like every other method
that had been proposed, defective in many respects.
A great objection to it is, that it separates the herba-
ceous from the woody plants, thus tearing asunder
the most natural connexions ; nor is the form of the
corolla always so determinate, that one can say
whether it be bell-shaped, funnel-shaped, or salver-
shaped, — a point which it is necessary to decide be-
fore the species can be made out. Various changes
were soon proposed, and new methods planned, so
that the science was again falling into confusion,
when Linnaeus published his system, which was
presently adopted by many teachers, and long be,
fore his death was in general use.

He made the stamina and pistils the basis of his ar-
rangement, which he was induced to do from the con-
sideration of their great importance, as the parts most
essential to fructification. These organs being analo-
gous to those distinguishing the sexes of animals,
the Linnsean method is sometimes called the sexual
system. It consists of twenty-four classes. The first
ten are determined by the number of the stamina.

Class I. MoNANDRiA, Containing all plants of which
the flowers have only one stamen ; as the mare's tail.

296 LINNJEUS.

II. DiANDRiA : two Stamens; as the jasmine.
UI. Triandria : three stamens ; as wheat, oats, and
grasses in general.

IV. Tetrandria : four stamens ; as woodruff.

V. Pentandria : five stamens ; as the primrose.

VI. Hexandria : six stamens ; as the hly and tulip.

VII. Heptandria : seven stamens; as the horse-
chestnut.

VIII. OcTANDRiA : eight stamens ; as the heaths.

IX. Enneandria : nine stamens ; as rhubarb.

X. Decandria : ten stamens ; as the pink.

In the next three classes, the stamens exceed ten
in number, but differ from each other in certain
circumstances.

XI. DoDECANDRiA : stameus from twelve to twenty ;
as in agrimony.

XII. Icosandria: twenty or more stamens, inserted
upon the inner side of the calyx ; as in the rose and apple.

XIII. PoLYANDRiA : twenty or more stamens, inserted
upon the receptacle or point of union of aU the parts of
the flower ; as in the crowfoot and anemone.

The relative length of the stamens determines the
next two classes.

XIV. DiDYNAMiA : four stamens, of w^hich two are
shorter ; as in thyme and foxglove.

XV. Tetradynamia : six stamens, of which two are
shorter ; as in cabbage and wallflower.

Three classes are indicated by having the stamina
connected by their filaments.

XVI. IVIonadelphia : stamens united by their fila-
ments into a single body or set ; as in maUows.

XVII. DiADELPHiA : stamens united into two distinct
sets ; as in fumitory.

LINN^US. 297

XVIII. PoLYADELPHiA : stamcns United into three 01
more bundles ; as in hypericum and cistus.

In the next class, the stamens are united by their
anthers.

XIX. Syngenesia : five stamens united by the anthers;
as in the dandehon and violet.

In the twentieth, the pistil and stamen are united.

XX. Gynandria : stamens united to the pistil ; as in
orchis.

The plants of all the above classes have flowers
furnished with both stamens and pistils ; but in the
next three the flowers are unisexual.

XXI. MoNCEciA : Flowers bearing stamens only, and
flowers bearing pistils only, occurring on the same plant ;
as in the oak.

XXII. Dkecia: stameniferous flowers on one, and
pistilliferous flowers on another individual of the same
species ; as in willows.

XXIII. Polygamia: Flowers bearing stamens and
pistils, flowers bearing stamens only, and flowers bearing
pistils only, all on the same individual, or on different in-
dividuals of the same species ; as in the ash and pellitory.

The above classes contain all the plants that are
Phcenogamous, or have distinctly perceptible organs
of reproduction ; the next and last class is composed
of the cryptogamous, or those of which the flowers
either do not exist, or have not been demonstrated.

XXIV. Cryptogamia: Ferns, mosses, Hchens, sea-
weeds, mushrooms, &c.

The orders or subdivisions of the classes are
founded on the number of the pistils in the first
thirteen. Thus, in any of these classes, the first

298 LINNiEUS.

order is Monogynia, or one pistil ; the second TH-
gynia, two pistils^ &c. But in the fourteenth class,
Didynamia, there are only two orders, Gymno-
spermia and Angiospermia, the former having
four naked seeds, the latter having the seeds en-
closed in a seed-vessel. In the fifteenth class, Te-
tradynamia, there are also two orders, Silicidosa,
in which the pod is short, and Siliquosa, in which
it is long. The orders of Monadelphia, Diadelphia,
and Polyadelphia, are formed from the number of
the stamina, and bear the names of Hexmidria
when there are six, Decandria when there are ten,
&c. The orders of the nineteenth class, Syngenesia,
are six. In the first, Polygamia cequalis, all the
flowers {or florets, as they are here called on account
of their small size, and because they are viewed as
components of a compound flower) have stamens
and pistils, and are equally fertile ; in the second,
Polygamia sKperfliia, the flowers of the centre have
stamens and pistils, those of the circumference pis-
tils only, but both kinds produce seeds ; in the third,
Polygamia frustranea, the flowers of the centre
have stamens and a pistil, and are fertile, those of
the circumference neutral, or furnished with a pistil,
but steril ; in the fourth, Polygamia necessaria, the
flowers of the centre have stamens and a pistil, but
are steril, in consequence of an imperfection in the
stigma, those of the circumference have a pistil, and
are fertile ; in the fifth, Polygamia segregata, all the
flowers are perfect, but each has a small calyx, and
tlie whole are contained within a common involucre;
and in the last order, Motiogamia, the flowers are
separated from each other. In Gynandria, the orders
are determined by the number of the stamens. In

LINN^US. 299

Monoecia and Dioecia, the characters distinctive of
the classes are employed for the orders. Polygamia
has three orders, Monceda, Dioecia, Trimcia ; and
the last class, Cryptogamia, is divided into four or-
ders, consisting of the Filices or Ferns, the Musci
or IMosses, the Algce, and the Futigi.

The genera are established upon characters derived
from all the parts of fructification compared together,
according to their number, figure, proportion, and
situation ; but as this volume was intended to con-
tain all the plants known to the author, the natural
characters thus formed could not be employed on
account of their length, and he has used the essential
cliaracter, which is shorter, and consists of those
marks that serve to distinguish the genera from each
other in the natural orders ; while at the head of
each class, the genera are synoptically disposed, be-
ing defined by their factitious characters, or those
by which one is distinguished from another in the
artificial order only.

The remarks which we have already made re-
specting the generic and specific names, apply equal-
ly to this department. These last, in the systems
of former botanists, were lengthened descriptions,
taken from various circumstances, and seldom in
any degree distinctive; but Linnajus reduced them
to twelve words at most, and derived them from
some remarkable difference in the leaves, roots,
stems, or other unvarying properties. These short
phrases he continued to call the specific name, but
they are now properly considered as the specific
character ; while he invented what he called the
trivial name, consisting of a single word added to
the generic, and which we now use as the specific.

300 LINNJEUS.

The number of species mentioned in the Systema
Naturae amounts to upwards of 7800.

We come now to the third and last volume^ con-
taining his arrangement of the objects forming the
mineral kingdom. This department has received
less elucidation from him than the others. In
1736, he first digested a mineralogical system, in
which he attempted to found the genera on definite
characters ; but he seems to have lost sight of the sub-
ject until obliged to attend to it when editing the
twelfth edition of his work. There he prefixes to
his arrangement a brief account of his theory on the
origin of fossil bodies in general, and of their several
combinations. His views, however, are extremely
fanciful, and cannot be said to have produced any
beneficial effect on the study of this science. As
they have long ago passed into oblivion, it may af-
ford amusement, if not instruction, to present an
outline of them.

The earth originated from water, agreeably to the
testimony of Moses, Thales, and Seneca ! The sea
becoming pregnant gradually produced the dry land,
from which the dew rose by evaporation, was ele-
vated into clouds, and again descended in showers.
No certain indications of a universal deluge have
yet been found, but we every where perceive that
land has been formed from the sea.

The water of the ocean, being impregnated by
the air, produces a twin birth ; the saline principle,
which is masculine, soluble, acrid, transparent, and
crystalline ; the earthy, which is feminine, fixed,
viscid, opaque, and attractive. It also nourishes the
animal and the vegetable beings, which in course
of time are reduced to earth.

LINNiEUS. 301

The salts, which are sapid, polyhedral, transpa-
rent, multiplicative, soluble into infinitely minute
particles, although always retaining the same form,
and again becoming concrete so as to form larger
particles of the same figure, generate various mi-
nerals by crystallizing.

Nitrmn, which is aerial, by covering over in-
creases sand.

Muria, which is marine, by corroding attracts clay.

Natrmn, which is of animal origin, by deliquesc-
ing coagulates lime.

Alumen, which is of vegetable origin, by ramify-
ing produces earthy soil.

These are the Fathers of minerals.

The Earths, which are powdery, drying, soluble,
fixed, primitive, are generated or reproduced by
crystallizing, precipitating, fermenting, or putrefy-
ing. From them, by crystallization or attraction,
minerals are reformed, and these again are resolved
into earths and regenerated.

Clay is the precipitation of the viscid water of the
sea; and is opaque, plastic, friable, capable of harden-
ing, and fireless.

Sand is the crystallization of turbid rain-water ;
and is transparent, juiceless, giving sparks, durable,
and capable of being vitrified.

Mould is the decomposition of fermenting vege-
tables ; and is black, bibulous, powdery, and com.
bustible.

Lime is the decomposition of putrescent animal
substances ; and is whitish, absorbent, mealy, pene-
trable, and effervescent.

Clay, the earth of sea- water, is hardened into talc,
when redissolved is regenerated in the form of as-

302 LINNiEUS.

hestus, and when more intimately dissolved resumes
the form of 7nica. Sand, the earth of rain-water,
when thrown on the land and dried, forms drift-
sand, which finally becomes gravel. Both sub-
stances, when under ground, are converted into
sandstone, and when mixed with other matters
form pebbles, which grow into stories. When re-
dissolved and crystallized, it produces quartz.
Mould, the earth of vegetables, is hardened into
fissile slate, which being impregnated with bitumen
becomes coal. It is dissolved into ochre, and re-
generated into tophus. Lime, the wife of natron,
produces marble, dissolved and saturated with acid
is crystallized into gypsum. Both are decomposed
by the elements into chalk, which, acted upon by
rain-water, becomes ^2>2/; and when dissolved, is
crystallized into spar (or calcedony).

Such are the Mothers of minerals.

It is unnecessary to follow our author, while he
states the principles of his sexual system of mine-
rals, through the forms and modifications of crystals,
metals, rocks, and petrifactions. His scheme of geo-
logy may be described as follows : — The strata of the
earth are generally parallel to each other, although
not always so, nor always of marine origin. The
lowest is of sandstone {cos), the second of slate, the
third of marble filled with marine petrifactions, the
fourth of slate, the uppermost of the saxose kind,
which includes granite, porphyry, trap, conglo-
merate, and puddingstone. It is obvious that the
ocean has produced the land. It is rendered turbid
by nitrous showers, precipitates, and is crystallized
into sand, which covers the bottom of the sea. The
surface of it is here and there covered over to a great
7

LINN^US. 303

extent with floating fuel, the mould derived from
which gradually descends, while the lighter par-
ticles help to form a floating meadow. IVIarine
vermes, the mollusca, testacea, lithophytes, and zoo-
phj'tes, together with fishes and sea-birds, feed be-
neath this floating meadow. An argillaceous sedi-
ment falls down in the quiet water, and this, together
with the calcareous shells of the marine vermes^
gradually forms a heap, which rises to the surface,
w^hile the pressure agitating the water drives out
the marine animals. On the rock thus formed,
the sea casts up great quantities of fuci, which are
converted into mould, until at length the sandy
earth rises above the surface, dries, is driven about,
and concresces into gravel and sandstone. In the
course of ages, the sand is hardened into sand-
stone, the mould into bituminous shale and coal,
the clay into marble, other layers of mould into
other beds of shale or slate, and other masses of
sand into gravel and conglomerate. This again is
converted into pebbles, these into stones, the stones
into rocks. At length, the water subsiding, the
mass becomes a mountain. Had Linnaeus been
as unfortunate in his other theories as in this, his
name would have been long ago forgotten.

However fanciful his theoretical views may be,
his classification is not unworthy of praise, and his
specific definitions are generally intelligible to a mo-
dern mineralogist ; but this is nearly all, however,
that can be said in their favour. He divides the
mineral kingdom into three classes, under the names
of Peb'ce, Minerce, and Fossilia. These are again
subdivided into several orders, and the number of
genera amounts to fifty-four.

304 lilNNJEUS.

Class I. Petr^ or Stones, or, as modern geologists
would say, Rocks.

Steril stones, originating from an earthy principle by
cohesion ; simple, as being destitute of salt, sulphur, or
mercury ; fixed, as not being intimately soluble ; similar,
as consisting of particles united at random.

Order I. Humos^. Deposited from vegetable earth,
combustible and burning to cinders, their powder harsh
and light ; as roofing-slate.

Order II. Calcari^. Originating from animal earth ;
penetrable by fire, and becoming more porous, their pow-
der mealy ; and when burnt, they fall into a fine powder ;
as limestone, marble, gypsum.

Order III. Argillace^. Originating from the vis-
cid sediment of the sea, becoming harder and stiffer in
the fire, their powder unctuous before exposure to fire ;
as serpentine, asbestus, mica.

Order IV. Aren'at^. Originating from precipitation
caused by rain-water, when struck with steel emitting
sparks, very hard, their poAvder rough and angular Uke
bits of glass; as quartz, jasper, flint.

Order V. Aggregate. Originating from a mixture
of the foregoing, and therefore participating their consti-
tuent particles; their powder diifering accordingly; as
granite, puddingstone.

Class II. Miners, Minerals.

FertOe stones, originating from a saline principle by
crystallization; compound, as produced from a stony
substance (of the preceding class), impregnated by salt,
sulphur, or mercury, intimately soluble in an appropriate
menstruum, and crystalline.

Order I. Salia, Salts. To be distinguished by the
taste, soluble in water ; as rock-salt, alum, borax.

Order II. Sulphur a, Sulphureous Minerals. Dis-
tinguishable by smeU, emitting an odour and flaming under
the action of fire, soluble in oil ; as amber, naphtha,
pyrites.

LINN^US. 395

Order III. Metalla, Metallic Minerals. Distin-
guishable by good eyes ! very heavy, fusible, soluble in
appropriate acid menstrua ; as molybdfena, lead, gold,
and copper.

Class III. FossiLiA, Fossils.

Ambiguous stones, originating from modifications of
the substances included in the preceding classes.

Order I. Petrificata, Petrifactions. Impressed
with the form of some natural object, as, —

Zoolithus, the petrifaction of an animal of the class
Mammalia.

Ornitholithus , a petrified bird.

Amphibiolithus, a petrified frog, snake, &c.

Ichthyolithus, a petrified fish.

Entomolithus, a petrified insect or crab.

Helmintholithus, of the class vermes, including shells.

Phytolithus, vegetable petrifactions.

Graptolithus, resembhng figures produced by painting ;
as florentine and landscape marble.

Order II. Concreta, coagulated from particles agglu-
tinated at random ; as urinary and salivary calcuh ; tar-
tar of wine ; pumice, formed by fire ; stalactite, formed
by air ; tophus, produced under water, as oolite.

Order III. Terr^, Earths. Pulverized, their par-
ticles loose ; as ochre, sand, clay, and chalk.

The first edition of the Systema Naturae, which
consisted of fourteen folio pages, was, as has been
already related, printed at Leyden in 1735. That
which the author reckoned the twelfth, but which
was in reality the fifteenth, is the one that ought to
be referred to by naturalists, it being the last that
was published under his own care and inspection.
It appeared at Stockholm in 1 766.

An edition, greatly enlarged, was published at
Leipsic by Gmelin in 1788, and contains numerous
species not included in any of the preceding. '' No

T

306 LINN^US.

nation/' says Dr Stoever, '' can produce so com-
plete a repertory of natural history as the above.
With infinite labour, exertion, and judgment, all
the recent discoveries and observations in all the
branches of natural science have been united in it."
It is, however, as every one who has had occasion
to consult it must be aware, a most injudicious
compilation, in which a single species is often de-
scribed under two, three, or even four different
names, and in which no improvement correspond-
ing to the advanced state of the science was made
in the grouping of the species or genera.

There is an English edition of the same work,
translated by William Turton, M. D. London,
1806, 7 vols 8vo.

'' We may venture to predict," says Sir J. E.
Smith, in his account of the Life of Linnseus, '' that
as the Systema Naturae was the first performance
of the kind, it will certainly be the last ; the science
of natural history is now become so vast, that no
man can ever take the lead again as an universal
naturalist."

LINNiEUS. 307

SECTION IX.

Decline and Death of Linnceus.

Review of the Medical Writings of Linnaus— His Materia Medical
System of Nosolog'y, Theory of Medicine — His last Work, a

Continuation of the Mantissa, published in IJJl Declining

State of his Health— In 1/74, has an Attack of Apoplexy, fol-
lowed by Prostration of his Intellectual Powers — Another Attack
in IJJfJ} from the Effects of which, and Tertian Fever, he never
recovers — His Death in 1778— Honours paid to his Memory.

Hitherto we have considered Liniiseus principally
as a naturalist ; but his merits in another department
of science were such as to entitle him to rank among
its more eminent cultivators. It will be recollected^
that he practised medicine with success at Stock-
holm ; that he was appointed physician to the Ad-
miralty ; that on the resignation of Roberg he ob-
tained the professorship of anatomy, which in the
following year he exchanged with Rosen^ and
became, with the consent of the chancellor of the
university^ professor of botany. As the latter chair^
however, was essentially a medical one, he was
bound to direct his attention to the sanative powers
of plants, as well as to their uses as articles of
food, and was moreover obliged to deliver lectures
on materia medica and dietetics. He may even
be said to have been the founder of the first-men-
tioned of these branches of medical science. As
a text-book for his lectures, he published an ac-

308 LINN-^US.

count of the medicinal substances derived from the
vegetable kingdom. This treatise, which appeared
at Stockholm in 1749, bears the title of Materia
Medica, Liber I. de Plantis digestis secundum Ge-
nera, Loca, Nomina, Qualitates, Vires, &c. The
author seems to have regarded it as one of his most
successful performances ; for in his private memoirs
he remarks of it, that " it is undoubtedly the best
work that has appeared in this department of me-
dical science."

In treating of each plant, he first gives its specific
character, then a synonyme from Caspar Bauhin, or
its discoverer, — thirdly, the country of which it is a
native, — fourthly, the Swedish officinal name, the
part used, the preparations made of it, and the doses.
Its qualities and uses, its effects, the diseases in
which it is employed, and the compound medicines
of which it forms an ingredient, are then mentioned.
At the end of the volume is an index of diseases,
with the plants proper for each. Haller's opinion of
this work confirms that of Linnseus himself; for, in
his Bibliotheca Botanica, he says of it, — '' He has
referred to their proper genera very many plants
which were highly celebrated for their use in me-
dicine, although their true genus was unknown.
He also praises various plants, unknown in the
shops, for their healing powers. But it is necessary
to read the whole work, which is among the best
that its author has produced." Two other parts
were published afterwards, one on the animal, the
other on the mineral kingdom.

The subject of dietetics also engaged his attention
in an eminent degree. In this department, however,
he did not write any specific volume, but confined

LINN.EUS.

309

himself to his lectures, which were copious and
highly interesting.

In pathology, or rather in nosology, by which
latter term is meant the systematic arrangement
and precise definition of diseases, his merits are very
considerable. His practice was no doubt too limit-
ed, and of too short duration, to enable him to
form, from his own experience, correct ideas of all
the ailments to which man is liable ; but it was suf-
ficient to render him capable of methodizing the ob-
servations of others ; and it requires little penetra-
tion to perceive, that one man may learn more in
three years than another in fifty. The several classi-
fications of diseases which have been given to the
world, possess various degrees of accuracy. Dr Cul-
len of Edinburgh, whose Synopsis Nosologise Me-
thodicse has been almost universally acknowledged
as one of the most successful attempts to reduce to
order the complicated phenomena of morbid action,
considers the Genera Morborum of Linnaeus as the
most important work on the subject, next to that of
Sauvages. It was first published in 1759 as an aca-
demical dissertation, and afterwards as a separate
work.

In the system now mentioned he arranges the ge-
nera of diseases under eleven classes, as follows : —

I. ExANTHEMATici. Fcvcrs attended with eruptions
on the skin.

II, Critici. Critical fevers.

HI. Phlogistici. Fevers from local inflammation.

IV. DoLOROsi. Painful diseases without fever.

V. Mentales. Diseases in which the functions of the
mind are disturbed.

310 LINNiEUS.

VI. QuiETALES. Diseases in which the voluntary and
involuntary motions and the senses are impaired.

VII. ]\IoTORii. Diseases attended with involuntary
motion of parts whose action is ordinarily under the in-
fluence of the will.

VIII. SuppREssoRii. Diseases characterized by op-
pression of the organs, or impeded excretions.

IX. EvAcuATORii. Diseases attended with increased
excretion.

X. Deformes. Diseases causing deformity of the
body, or change of colour in the skin.

XI. ViTiA. Cutaneous, external, or palpable diseases.

Systems of nosology are no doubt useful or con-
venient, in the same manner as systems of zoology
and botany ; but so complicated are the phenomena of
Nature, and so diversified her productions, that no
arrangement, made according to any principles
hitherto assumed, can possibly discriminate objects
in conformity with all their connexions. If this
remark required illustration, it might readily be
afforded by the mere inspection of any one of the
Linnsean classes or orders. Thus, in the class Vi-
tia there are eight orders.

1. Humoralia. Diseases attended with vitiated or ex-
travasated fluids ; as emphysema, oedema, inflammation,
abscess, and gangrene.

2. Dialytica. Solutions of continuity; as fracture, dis-
location, contusion, wound, laceration, burn, excoriation,
chapped skin.

3. Exulcerationes. Purident solutions of continuity ;
as ulcer, cancer, caries, fistula, whitlow.

4. Scabies. Cutaneous diseases ; as lepra, itch, pim-
ples, w^arts, pustule, eschar.

5. Tumores. Tumours or swellings ; as aneurism,
varix, scirrhus, anchylosis, ganglion, exostosis.

LTNN^US.

311

6. Procidentia. Swellings arising from dislocation of
soft parts ; as rupture, prolapsus, phymosis.

7. Deformationes. Distortions ; as rigidity of joints,
humpback, curved bones, squinting, harelip, plica polo-
nica.

8. Macula. Spots ; as mole, scar, freckle, sunburn.

Now it is obvious that, in a pathological point of
view, aneurism, anchylosis, and scirrhus, have no
affinity to each other, nor to spina bifida or scrofula,
which are all genera of the same order. Nor have
the different orders, deformationes, procidentise, hu-
moralia, &c. any very perceptible bond of affinity.
But the nosological, like the botanical system of
Linnaeus, w^ithout being natural, may be useful;
and it were absurd to reject all attempts to classify
diseases, because no scheme has been or can be in-
vented, capable of giving each state of the body, or
its various parts, its precise position in the mind.
However, we have no reason to join the outcry of
his biographers against the criticism of IM. Vicq
d'Azyr, who says, " he should have been the last
to write on objects that were foreign to him, be-
cause he had recourse to that spirit of detail, and
that aphoristic and figurative style, which have been
considered as defects even in the works which esta-
blished his reputation."

" The whole class of envious persons at Upsal,"
says Dr Stoever, " and in other parts of Sweden,
found it strange and inconsistent at first to see the
botanist Linnseus appear on the scene as a patho-
logist. They made very merry at his expense ; but
the goodness of his cause soon became triumphant."
That bis nosology was contemptible can hardly be
admitted ; but that it ever was triumphant, except-

312 LINNiEUS.

ing in his own university, no one who is desirous
of adhering to truth can assert.

His theory of medicine is amusing, if not in-
structive. He supposes the human body to consist
of a cerebroso-medullary part, of which the nerves
are processes; and a cortical part, including the
vascular system and its fluids. The nervous sys.
tem, which is the animated part, derives its nour-
ishment from the finer fluids of the vascular system,
and its energy from an electrical principle inhaled
by the lungs. The circulating fluids are capable of
being vitiated by acescent or putrid ferments, the
former acting on the serum, and causing critical
fevers; the latter on the crassamentum, and exciting
phlogistic diseases. Eruptive ailments are excited
by external causes, which he supposes to be animal-
cula. The cortical or vascular system undergoing
continual w^aste, requires continual reparation,
which is effected by means of suitable diet. Its
diseases arise from improper food, and are to be re-
medied by sapid medicines ; while those of the me-
dullary system are cured by olid substances.

Systems of nosology, theories of medicine, and
classifications of natural objects and phenomena,
agree in this one respect, that they are all eagerly
embraced, strenuously defended, fall into disuse,
and become subjects of ridicule. Such must be the
fate of the Linnsean system of botany, as it has been
of the other fancies of its author ; and such must be
the fate of every system not founded on organic
structure and its modifications, or upon external
form as connected wdth internal disposition.

In 1766, he published a small work extending to
only twenty-nine pages, entitled Clavis Medicinae

LINNiEUS.

313

duplex. Exterior et Interior, which maybe consider-
ed as a syllabus of his lectures. It contains a view
of his theory of medicine, and an arrangement of
drugs in thirty orders, according to their sensible
qualities.

The last book which he produced was a conti-
nuation of his Mantissa, containing new species and
genera, with a variety of emendations. Such of his
writings as have not been already mentioned, will
be noticed in a subsequent section ; and in the mean
time we resume our narrative, remarking, that few
individuals had a longer scientific career than he ;
forty-four years having elapsed between the appear-
ance of his first tract, the Hortus Uplandicus (in
I73I) and the Mantissa (in 1771)-

It w^ould appear that Linnaeus possessed a good
constitution, although we have seen him suffering
under attacks of rheumatism, nephritis, and gout.
In 1764, as already mentioned, he had a violent at-
tack of pleurisy; after which he passed the period
of his convalescence at his villa of Hammarby,
where, on the 9th July, he celebrated the 25th an-
niversary of his marriage. The same year he had
the pleasure of marrying his eldest daughter to Lieu-
tenant Bergencrantz.

It does not seem very easy to determine the pre-
cise nature of the disease under which he laboured,
although it is probable that it was rheumatism
and not gout. In the Latin diary of Dr Gieseke,
as quoted by Stoever, is the following passage rela-
tive to this subject : — " In 1750, I (Linnaeus) had
such a violent attack of rheumatism (malum ischia-
dicum), that I had great difficulty in getting home.
For a whole week the pain, which was insupport-

314 LINN^US.

able^ prevented me from sleeping ; for which reason
I would have taken opium, but was prevented by
a friend who came in on the seventh evening. My
wife asked me if I would eat some strawberries. I
will try, said I. It was about the beginning of the
strawberry-season, and they were in good condition.
Half an hour after, I fell asleep, and continued so
till two in the morning. When I awoke, I won-
dered that the pain had abated, and asked whether
I had been asleep, which the persons who were
watching assured me had been the case. I asked if
they had more of the strawberries, and ate up the
remainder. I then slept till daylight, when the
pain was about my ankles. Next day I ate as many
strawberries as I could, and on the second morning
was free of pain. I thought that mortification had
taken place ; but tlie part was entire, and I was able
to get up, although I felt weak. Next year, about
the same time, I had an attack, and another the
following year, but milder, and it was always alle-
viated by the strawberries ; and from that time I
have been free of the disease." This conversation
took place in 1771-

In the spring of 1772, he was visited by Dr Mur-
ray, professor of medicine and botany at Gottingen,
who had been one of his pupils, and had long en-
joyed his confidence and esteem. At this period he
possessed good health, and was as ardent as ever in
his endeavours for the improvement of science. He
was appointed rector of the university for the third
time, and, during the six months in which he dis-
charged the duties of that office, the conduct of the
young men was highly exemplary. When he retired,
deputations from all the nations of the students came

LINNiEUS.

315

to present their warmest thanks, and to beg his per-
mission to print the address which he delivered on
resigning.

In 1773, he had another attack of lumbago, and
was moreover affected with an epidemic sore throat ;
but on the whole his health did not suffer mate-
rially. This year, a committee of six bishops, six
doctors of divinity, and eight literary and scientific
individuals, was appointed by the government to
undertake a better translation of the Bible into the
Swedish language. Linnaeus was among the num-
ber, having been chosen on account of his knowledge
of the animals and plants mentioned in the Scrip-
tures ; but it does not appear that he ever engaged
seriously in the undertaking, although he made two
journeys to Stockholm for the purpose.

While delivering one of his lectures in the bo-
tanic garden, in the beginning of May 1774, he had
a slight attack of apoplexy, from which he did not
recover for some time; and from this period his
health rapidly declined. It is said, that the vexation
produced by the publication of a letter in which be
had confidentially disclosed to a friend the history
of his youth, and especially the progress of his
courtship, was the exciting cause of this fatal af-
fection. The illustrious Haller, with whom be
had corresponded from 1737 to I766, published a
volume of letters, written in Latin by men of li-
terary eminence, and addressed to himself; and,
having been always extremely jealous of Linnajus,
thought proper to print all his epistles, in order to
defend his own character against the accusations of
envy which had been but toojustly preferred. When
he read these communications he was violently agi-

316 LINN^US.

tatedj and from that moment his health became per-
ceptibly worse. The apoplectic attack followed soon
after ; and from a comparison of testimonies on the
subject, it seems to us extremely probable that it
was occasioned by the causes now assigned.

He did not, however, despair, nor give himself up
to inactivity under these distressing circumstances.
A Swedish gentleman returning from Surinam,
where he had been residing on his estates, brought
with him a collection of plants preserved in spirits
of wine, which he presented to the king. The lat-
ter sent them to Linnaeus, whose health was much
benefited by the pleasure which the possession of
these treasures inspired. He immediately com-
menced a description of them, which was published
in the Amsenitates Academicse, — a work respecting
which we shall have occasion to speak in another
section.

After this period, however, little remained of his
former vigour. His body feeble and emaciated, his
mind stripped of its distinguishing faculties, he ra-
pidly sunk into decrepitude. In 1775, he thus de-
scribes his state in his diary : — " Linnaeus limps, can
hardly w^alk, speaks unintelligibly, and can scarcely
write." Even in this condition he received plea-
sure from occasional visits to his museum, and more
especially from the regard of his sovereign, who did
him the honour of going from Ekhelsund to Upsal
for the purpose of seeing him, and continued in con-
versation with him a whole afternoon. The foL
lowing year, finding his infirmities greatly increased,
he requested permission to retire from his offices ;
but the king would not grant it. On the contrary,
his majesty doubled his salary, and gave him two

LINN.EUS.

317

farms, which his children were to inherit. The last
words inscribed in his diary are the following : —
"Horrebow and Berger, both Danes, and Gruno from
Hamburg, came to Upsal as pupils ; but Linnaeus
is so ill that he can with difficulty speak to them ;
for the tertian fever is added to paralysis, and his
weakness is extreme."

In the winter of 177^^ he was reduced to the
most deplorable condition ; and as in the day of his
mental vigour he had presented a brilliant example
of the human intellect, so now in that of his prostra-
tion did he afford an instance of the utter feebleness
of our nature. Another attack of apoplexy caused
paralysis of his right side, in which he had most
frequently suffered pain ; his memory failed him
to such a degree that he could not remember the
names of the most famihar objects ; his incoherent
and unconnected words indicated a total decay
of the powers of his understanding; he could no
longer feed, dress, or clean himself ; he could not
even move from one place to another. The fever
continued, and he became extremely emaciated.
Yet even in this state he contrived to write a few
scarcely-legible letters, one of which was to his
friend Baek. It was dated the 9th December 177^,
and contained the following sentence : — " God has
determined to break all the bonds that attach me
to terrestrial objects." Yet to the last he clung
to these with a pertinacity as deplorable as it is
surprising in a man who had manifested in his
writings, if not in his actions, no small degree of
piety. For several years previous to his death, his
diary contains little else than an enumeration of
the incidents most calculated to gratify his vanity;

318 LINN^US.

such as a visit or letter from the king, the adoption
of his system in the botanic garden of Paris, the
Pope's approval of his works, and similar occurrences.

At the beginning of 1777^ he was still at Up-
sal, and continued in the same lamentable state,
although he occasionally enjoyed intervals of in-
tellectual vigour. In general, however, his powers
had so much failed, that he ceased to recognise his
own works when they were placed before him ; and,
it is said, even forgot his name. When the season
advanced, he was carried to his country-house at
Hammarby, where he remained during the sum-
mer. In fine weather he was occasionally taken
into the garden or museum, that he might see his
collections and books, which always gave him plea-
sure. In autumn his health improved a little, and
he returned to Upsal ; but, although he had inti-
mated that he was still desirous of rendering him-
self useful to the university, so far as his decayed
faculties might permit, he was unequal to the de-
livery of his introductory lecture, which was there-
fore read by his son.

He was still able to go out, however, although
the coachman had orders not to take him beyond
the limits of the town. In December, he got upon
a sledge, and forced his servant to drive him to
Safja, about a league distant. The family, finding
that he did not return as usual, became extremely
vuieasy, and sent in search of him. He was found
stretched on the covering of his vehicle, and quietly
smoking his pipe by the farmer's fire; nor was
it without difficulty that he was induced to go home.
This is the last remarkable act of his life that has
been recorded; and we have nothing more to add, but

LINN^US.

319

that his sufferings daily increased, until, worn out
with disease, he expired on the 10th January 177^,
in the 71st year of his age. According to the re-
port of his son, in a letter to Mutis, he died of a
gouty suppression of urine, terminating in gangrene.

The honours paid to the memory of this great
naturalist were correspondent to the high estima-
tion in which he was held. His death was regarded
as an irreparable loss to science ; and he is said to
have " carried to the grave, with the grief of his
fellow-citizens, the admiration of the learned of all
countries. Upsal was in deep sorrow on the day of
his funeral." His body was conveyed to the ca-
thedral, where it was committed to the tomb.
Eighteen doctors, who had been of the number of
his pupils, supported the pall, and all the professors,
officers, and students of the university, followed in
procession.

The king, Gustavus III., ordered a medal to
be struck in commemoration of him who had con-
tributed so essentially to elevate the Swedish cha-
racter in the scientific world; and in 1778, at
a convention of the Diet, expressed himself in the
following terms : — " The University of Upsal has
also attracted my attention. I shall always re-
member with pleasure that the chancellorship of
that university was intrusted to me before I as-
cended the throne. I have instituted in it a new
professorship ; but, alas ! I have lost a man whose
renown filled the world, and whom his country will
ever be proud to reckon among her children. Long
will Upsal remember the celebrity which it acquir-
ed by the name of Linnaeus." The Academy of
Belles Lettres, History, and Antiquities of Stock-

320 LINN^US.

holm, offered a prize for the best panegyric in La-
tin, French, or Italian. One written in French
was received in 1786, but the Academy judging it
unsuitable, offered a second prize, which in 1792 was
conferred on Mr Gunnar Baekmann, a Swede. The
late Dr Hope of Edinburgh erected to his memory,
in the botanic garden there, a monument bearing the
simple inscription, " Linnseo posuit, J. Hope ;" and
the Due d'Ayen-Noailles placed in his garden a ce-
notaph, with the bust of the naturalist in a medallion,
surrounded by the Linncea and Ayenia, — the latter
plant having been dedicated to himself. Three
eloges or panegyrics were pronounced ; the first by
his friend Dean Back, at a meeting of the Royal
Society of Stockholm ; the second by M. Condor-
cet, in the Parisian Academy of Sciences; the
third by M. Vicq d'Azyr, in the Medical Society of
Paris. In 17^7^ an association was formed in that
city, under the name of La Societe Linneenne,
which subsequently changed its designation into
that of Societe d'Histoire Naturelle. In 1788, the
Linnsean Society of London was established by Dr
Smith and other admirers of the Swedish sage;
and in 1 7^0, another, bearing the same appellation,
was constituted at Leipsic. It is unnecessary to
mention all the honours that have been paid to this
illustrious professor, as his name has been distin-
guished in all civilized countries beyond that of
any cultivator of natural history, and in our own
is as familiar as that of Newton or Herschel. We
shall therefore conclude with stating, that in 1822
the students of the university of which he had so
long been the chief ornament, resolved to erect a
statue as a token of their admiration of his charac-

LINNiEUS.

321

ter. It was executed by a native artist, and in
1829 was erected upon a pedestal of porphyry.

Besides the three medals which were struck in
Sweden to perpetuate his memory, his portrait has
been repeatedly engraved. It appears, for example,
in the edition of the Systema Naturae, published at
Leipsic in 1798 ; in the second edition of the Spe-
cies Plantarum, published at Stockholm in 1762 ;
and in the sixth edition of the Genera Plantarum,
which appeared in 1748. In Trapp's translation
of his life by Stoever is another likeness engraved
by Heath, which, being the most characteristic that
we could find, has been selected for the purpose of
adorning the present volume. In the biography of
Linnaeus by IM. Fee, are two lithographic portraits,
one taken at the age of 20, the other at that of 60.

On inspecting our engraving, the physiognomist
will readily detect several of the more prominent
traits of his character. The person represented is
evidently an active, lively little man, possessed of
much acuteness, great judgment, love of order, a
self-estimation not susceptible of being diminished
by opposition, and a love of approbation, prompting
his benevolent mind to generous labours.

322 LINNiEUS.

SECTION X.

Correspondence of Linnceus.

Linn^us's first Letter, addressed to Rudbeck in 1731— His last, to
Dr Cusson in 1777— Correspondence with Haller— With Dille-
nius, Ellis, and other English Naturalists.

The correspondence of Linnaeus was so extensive,
that he declared to a friend that ten hands like his
were insufficient to return answers to all the letters
which were sent to him. Some time before his
death, he drew up a list of 150 persons with whom
he had maintained a communication of his ideas in
writing. Among the earliest of his epistles was one
directed to his benefactor, Olaus Rudbeck, profes-
sor in the University of Upsal, and is dated the
29th July 1731. The last is addressed to Peter
Cusson, M.D. of Montpellier, and was written in

1777.

The first of his correspondents of whom we shall
make mention is the celebrated Albert Haller,
who was born in October 1708, and died on the
12th December 1777, aged 69. He was eminently
distinguished for his knowledge of the physical
sciences, as well as by his poetical talents, and his
general acquaintance with literature. In fact, he
aimed at universal dominion ; and the renown of
Rousseau, Voltaire, Linnaeus, and Buffon, excited
his envy of some and his contempt of others of these

LINNJEUS. 323

celebrated men. After the death of his father, wha
was an advocate and citizen of Berne, he chose the
medical profession ; and in 1723, went to Tubingen,
where he studied comparative anatomy under Du-
vernoi. In 1 725, he removed to Leyden, then the first
medical school in Europe. After taking his degree
at the former seminary, he visited England, whence
he went to Paris, and dissected under Le Dran. He
then proceeded to Basil, to study mathematics un-
der Bernouilli. There he imbibed also a taste for
botany, — a science in which he subsequently made
great progress. In 1729, he returned to Berne, and
commenced his professional career as a lecturer on
anatomy. In 1736, he was appointed by George II.
to the professorship of surgery and botany in the
University of Gottingen. Here he resided seven-
teen years, in the course of which he distinguished
himself by his numerous and important disco-
veries. But, in 1753, having taken a journey to
Berne, where his countrymen received him with
the honour due to his talents, he settled there, and,
having been elected a magistrate, entered with zeal
on the duties of a citizen. The correspondence
of Linnaeus with this eminent naturalist and phy-
sician commenced when the latter was at Gottin-
gen, and originated in a report that he was hostile
to the proposed system of the young Swede, who
thus supplicates his forbearance : —

" From Mr Clifforfs Museum, April 3, 1737-

1. I must declare, that I am anxious

to avoid, if possible, all anger or controversy with
yoii; my wish is rather to act in conjunction with
you. I should detest being your adversary, and.

324 LINNJEUS.

as far as possible, I will avoid it. May there be
peace in our days !

" 2. I have always, from the time I first heard
your name, held you in the highest estimation ; nor
am I conscious of ever having shown a contrary dis-
position. Why then should you provoke me to a
dispute ? Let me know if I have unwillingly of-
fended, and I w^ill omit nothing to satisfy you. I
ask but for peace.

'' 3. If my harmless sexual system be the only
cause of offence, I cannot but protest against so
much injustice. I have never spoken of that as a
natural method ; on the contrary, in my Systema,
p. 8, sect. 12, I have said, ' No natural botanical
system has yet been constructed, though one or two
may be more so than others ; nor do I contend that
this system is by any means natural. Probably I
may, on a future occasion, propose some fragments
of such an one, &c. Meanwhile, till that is disco-
vered, artificial systems are indispensable.' And in
the preface to my Genera Plantarum, sect. 9, — ' I
do not deny that a natural method is preferable, not
only to my system, but to all that have been invent-
ed. ... But, in the mean time, artificial classi-
fication must serve as a succedaneum.' Therefore, if
you establish a natural method, I shall admit it.

" 4. If you detect any mistakes of mine, I rely
on your superior knowledge to excuse them; for
who has ever avoided errors in the wide-extended
field of Nature ? Who is furnished with a sufficient
stock of observations ? I shall be thankful for your
friendly corrections. I have done w^hat I could of
myself j but a lofty tree does not attain its full sta-
ture by the first storm that bursts forth.

LINNJEUS.

325

" 5. I have been acquainted with most botanists
of distinction, who have all given me their encou-
ragement ; nor has any one of them thwarted my
insatiable desire of natural knowledge. Will you
be more severe than any body else ? You appear,
by your dissertation, too noble to triumph over the
ignorance of others.

" 6. You may, with great advantage, and without
injury to me, display your profound learning and
intimate knowledge of the works of Nature, so as to
acquire the thanks of all the learned world. Do
but turn over the writings of botanists in general,
and you will see, by their earlier performances, how
they are puffed up at first with their own conse-
quence, and scarcely able to keep from assaulting
others ; of which I myself have perhaps been guilty,
which I deeply regret, having now learned better.
But when these same people have passed a few years
in the field of battle, they become so mild, candid,
modest, and civil to every body, that not a word of
offence escapes them. This chiefly leads me to doubt
the truth of the report in question ; for I know your
reputation has already been long established.

'' 7. It seems wonderful to me that I should have
excited so much of your displeasure ; for I cannot
but think there is no work of any author more in
unison with my ideas than this essay of yours.

" 8, I, and perhaps I alone, have acquired what
I know entirely by the rules you have laid down,
of studying without a master. I am still but a
learner ; and you must pardon me if I am not yet
become learned. If knowledge is to be acquired by
your mode, the hope of it, at least, still serves to il-
luminate my path.

326 LINN^US.

" 9. I doubt, indeed, whether you, or any other
lecturer, can enter into controversy with propriety.
Professors and teachers should, above all things,
acquire the confidence and respect of their hearers.
If they appear in the light of students, how much
of human imperfection must appear, and what a
depreciation of their dignity ! What man was ever
so learned and wise, who, in correcting others, did
not now and then show he wanted correction
himself? Something always sticks to him. We
have lately seen an instance of this in a most dis-
tinguished professor, the ornament of his university,
who, having long indulged himself in attacks upon
schoolmasters, has at last got so severe a castiga-
tion from one of this tribe, that it is doubtful whe-
ther he can ever recover his ground at all, and cer-
tain that he cannot recover it entirely. A very wise
physician has declared, that he would rather give
up physic, and the practice of it altogether, than
enter into public controversy.

" 10. Look over the whole body of controversial
writers, and point out one of them who has received
any thanks for what he has done in this way.
IMatthiolus would have been the greatest man of his
day if he had not meddled with such matters. Who
is gratified by '^ the mad Cornarus,' or ' the flayed
fox/ (titles bestowed on each other by Fuchsius
and Cornarus) ? What good have Ray and Rivi-
nus done with their quarrels ? Dillenius still la-
ments that he took up arms against Rivinus ; nor
has the victory he gained added any thing to his
fame. Did not Threlkeld give him much more just
cause of oifence } But he was now grown wiser,
and would not take up the gauntlet. Vaillant, at

LINNiEUS. 327

one time a most excellent observer, attempted to
cut his way with authority through the armies of
Tournefort ; has he not met with his deserts ? and
would he not have risen much higher had he left
him unmolested ?

" 11. I dread all controversies, as, whether con-
queror or conquered, I can never escape disgrace.
Who ever fought without some wound, or some in-
jurious consequence ? Time is too precious, and can
be far better employed by me as well as by you. I
am too young to take up arms, which, if once taken,
cannot be laid aside till the war is concluded, which
may last our lives. And, after all, the serious con-
tentions of our time may, fifty years hence, seem to
our successors no better than a puppet-show. I
should be less ashamed to receive admonition from
you than you must be to take it from me.

" Behold, then, your enemy, submissively seek-
ing your friendship ; which, if you grant him, you
will be more certain of securing a friend than of
stirring up an adversary. I know you to be of a
more generous nature than to level your attacks at
one who has not offended, unless any enemies of
mine have raised doubts in your mind against me.
If, after all, I cannot obtain that peace which, by
every argument and supplication, I seek of you, I
hope you will at least be so generous as to send me
whatever you may print on the subject, and I will
take care to convey my answers to you.

" If the news I have heard be without founda-
tion, I earnestly beg of you to forgive me for the
trouble I now give you."

Linnaeus is here exhibited under the influence of

328 LINNiEUS.

fear, with much flattery and humiliation soliciting
the forbearance of a powerful rival ; but the report
which had reached him was false, and Haller hasten-
ed to dispel from the mind of the young botanist the
apprehensions under which he laboured. The cor-
respondence thus commenced continued with great
regularity, the letters of Linnaeus manifesting entire
confidence in Haller ; who, however, from a feeling
of envy, or, as he alleges, in his own defence, thought
proper to publish what had obviously been intended
to remain private. The publication of these epistles,
as we have seen, was productive of great distress to
their author ; and more especially of the following
one, which gives an account of his earlier years.
The Swiss professor concludes one of his notes in the
following generous terms: — " Farewell, my dear
Linnaeus ! may you enjoy your health and your
botanical pursuits, with every advantage for the pro-
secution of your labours ! My studies and engage-
ments, of a different kind, draw me unavoidably
aside ; but my inclination always leads me to the
charms of Flora. To botany I wish to devote my
leisure and my old age ; and my fortune to the col-
lecting of drawings, plants, and books. May you,
from whom Flora expects more than from any other
mortal, make the most of your advantages, and one
day or other return to a more genial climate ! If at
any time my native country should invite me, or I
can ever, as I hope, return to it, I have fixed upon
you, if the situation be worth your having, to in-
herit my garden and my honours, such as they are.
I have spoken on this subject to those in whose
hands all these concerns are placed. As soon as I
hear from you, I will tell you all the news I can.

i

LINNiEUS.

329

for I shall be happy to resume our agreeable corre-
spondence."

The following is Linnseus's answer : —

« Stockholm, Sept. 12tli, finished the lotli, 1739.

" Your letter, of which the value to me is beyond
estimation, though dated Nov. 14, 1738, did not
reach me till the 12th of August of the present year,
when I received it from the minister of the German
church at this place. Of the cause of its delay I am
ignorant.

" A thousand times have I invoked the honour-
ed shade of Hermann ! How well did he deserve
the compliment of having all the foimtains in the
royal gardens play on his arrival, if we consider his
liberal conduct towards Tournefort ! Hermann had
previously offered to resign the botanical professor-
ship (at Leyden) in his favour, intending himself
to seek some other situation during Tournefort's
life. But what shall I say of you, who have con-
ceived so strong an affection for a stranger, as to in-
vite him to accept your professorial appointment,
your honours, and your garden ! A man could
scarcely do this for his brother, or a father for an
only son. I can only say, in one word, I have had
a numerous acquaintance among my fellow-crea-
tures, and many have been kindly attached to me ;
but no one has ever made me so bountiful an offer
as yourself. I would express my thanks, if possible,
but cannot find words for the purpose. Your me-
mory shall be engraved on my heart whilst I live,
and shall be cherished by those who come after me.

'' I cannot give an answer ; but as you have
placed yourself in the light of a father, and me of a

330 LINN.EUS.

son, I will lay before you a sort of history of my
life, down to the present time.

" In the year 1730, I taught botany in the gar-
den at Upsal. Our common friend, Dr Rosen, re-
turned thither the same year. I, then a student of
medicine, was Professor Rudbeck's deputy in bo-
tany, as Rosen was in anatomy j he being likewise
the adjunctus or coadjutor in medicine. In 1732, I
went to Lapland, and returned ; after which, I read
lectures on botany and metallurgy for a whole year.
I then quitted Upsal, and, as Providence ordained,
went into Dalecarlia. Having accomplished my
journey, I returned to Fahlun, the principal town
of that province. Here I lectured on mineralogy,
and followed the practice of physic. I stayed a
month at Fahlun, where I was received with uni-
versal kindness. A physician named IMorseus re-
sided there, who was esteemed rich by the common
people. Indeed he was one of the richest persons
in that very poor country. With regard to learn-
ing, he might undoubtedly claim the first rank
among the medical men of Sweden. I have heard
Jiim say, a thousand times, that there was no line
of life less eligible than the practice of physic.
Nevertheless, he was much attached to me. I
found myself frequently a welcome visiter under
his roof. He had a handsome daughter, besides a
younger one, the former of whom was courted, but
in vain, by a gentleman of rank and title. I was
struck when I first saw her, and felt my heart as-
sailed by new sensations and anxieties. I loved
her, and she at length, won by my attentions, listen-
ed to my proposals, and returned my passion. I
became an accepted lover. I addressed myself to

LINNiEUS. 331

her father^, avowing, not without much confusion,
my total want of fortune. He was favourable on
some accounts, but had many objections. He ap-
proved of me, but not of my circumstances; and
desired that things might remain as they were for
three years, after which he would tell me his de-
termination. Having arranged my affairs, and made
the necessary preparations for a journey, I quitted
my native country with thirty-six gold ducats in
ray pocket. I immediately took my medical degree
(at Harder wyk in Holland), but was not in cir-
cumstances to return home with much comfort. I
remained, as you know, in Holland. In the mean

time, my most intimate friend B regularly

forwarded the letters of my mistress by the post.
She continued faithful. In the course of last year,
1738, which I passed at Dr Van Royen's with the
approbation of the young lady, though it was the
fourth year of my absence, and her father had re-
quired but three, B thought he had himself

made considerable progress in her favour. By my
recommendation he was made a professor ; and he
took upon him to persuade my betrothed that I
should never return to my own country. He court-
ed her assiduously, and was very near obtaining
her, had it not been for another friend, who laid
open his treachery. He has since paid dearly for
his conduct, by innumerable misfortunes.

" At last I came back, but still destitute of a main-
tenance. The young lady was partial to me, and
not to him. I settled at Stockholm, the laughing-
stock of every body on account of my botany. No
one cared how many sleepless nights and toilsome
hours I had passed, as all, with one voice, declared

332 LINN^US.

that Siegesbeck had annihilated me. There was
nobody who would put even a servant under my
care. I was obliged to live as I could, in virtuous
poverty. By very slow degrees I began to acquire
some practice. But now my adverse fate took a
sudden turn, and after so long a succession of cloudy
prospects the sun broke out upon me. I emerged
from my obscurity, obtained access to the great, and
every unfavourable presage vanished. No invalid
could now recover without my assistance. I began
to get money, and was busy in attendance on the
sick, from four in the morning till late in the even-
ing ; nor were my nights uninterrupted by the calls
of my patients. Aha! said I, Esculapius is the
giver of all good things ; Flora bestows nothing up-
on me but Siegesbecks ! I took my leave of Flora ;
condemned my too-numerous observations a thou-
sand times over to eternal oblivion ; and swore
never to give any answer to Siegesbeck.

'' Soon afterwards, I was appointed first physician
to the navy. The magistracy immediately confer-
red upon me the regius professorship, that I might
teach botany in the seat of government at Stock-
holm, with the addition of an annual stipend. Then
my fondness for plants revived. I was also enabled
to present myself to the bride to whom I had been
for five years engaged, and was honourably received
as her husband. My father-in-law, rather fond of
his money, proved not very liberal to me ; but I
can do without it, and those who come after me will
enjoy it.

" Just now, both the medical professorships are
likely to become vacant. Professors Rudbeck and
Roberg, both advanced in age, are about offering

LINN^US. 333

their resignation. If this takes place, probably Mr
Rosen may succeed Roberg, and I may obtain Rud-
beck's appointment. But if I do not, I am content
to live and die at Stockholm ; nor shall I oppose the
pretensions of any competitor. If, therefore, I should
not obtain the botanical professorship at Upsal, and
you, at the end of three months, should invite me,
I would come, if I may bring my little vs^ife with
me. Otherwise, if there be any chance of my
ever seeing you at Hamburg, for that reason alone
I would go thither, though I live here at a great
distance. My regard for you makes me wish to
know you personally, to see and talk to you, before
I die. Farewell ! may you long continue to be the
load-star of our science !"

Linnaeus and Haller, notwithstanding the fre-
quent disputes that took place between them, con-
tinued upon the whole on friendly terms, and wrote
to each other occasionally, until 1749. The last
letter from the Swiss naturalist is dated Berne,
April 10, 1766. The correspondence, which is full
of interest, more especially with respect to botany,
is given by Sir J. E. Smith, from whose " Selection"
the above translations have been copied.

" It is to be lamented," says he, " that Haller
published so many confidential letters, unjustly
reflecting, here and there, on Linnseus; and that
he betrays, in his prefaces and notes, so much
petulance towards this old and distinguished friend.
He pretends, indeed, to have excluded from all
the letters he published every thing personal or
confidential. But there are few more disgraceful
chronicles of ill humour than this collection of letters

334 LINNJSUS.

of various persons to Haller. He leaves chasms,
truly, in many places, which, like Madame Dacier's
asterisks, is ^ hanging out lights \ for they serve to
aggravate the force of what remains. Above all, he
is censurable for printing letters from this very son
of his, after his death, reflecting severely on persons
who had, as the young man says, shown him the
greatest favour at Paris ; and abusing the Academy
of Sciences, which had just elected him into its body
as a corresponding member."

Linnaeus, in one of his letters to Haller, says,
" There is nobody in England who understands or
thinks about genera except Dillenius." We may
therefore mention, as next in order among his cor-
respondents, this celebrated professor of botany.
Born at Darmstadt in 1685, and educated as a phy-
sician at Giessen, he was brought to England by
Sherard in 1721 ; and, when the latter, who had
been English consul at Smyrna, founded his bo-
tanical professorship at Oxford, he appointed him
to it.

Dillenius was a plain blunt man, and used great
freedom of speech in writing to Linnaeus. Thus, in
one of his letters, he says, — '^ I feel as much dis-
pleased with your Critica Botanica as I am pleased
with your Lapland Flora, especially as you have,
without my deserving such a compliment or know-
ing of your intention, dedicated the book to me.
You must have known my dislike to all ceremo-
nies and compliments. I hope that you have bur-
thened but few copies with this dedication, — per-
haps only the copy which you have sent me. If
there be more, I beg of you to strip them of this
vain parade, or I shall take it much amiss. At

LINNiEUS. 335

least I cannot offer you my thanks for what you
have done, though I gratefully acknowledge the fa-
vour of the copies you have sent me of the Critica
as well as the Flora. We all know the nomen-
clature of botany to be an Augean stable, which
C. Hoffmann, and even Gesner, were not able to
cleanse. The task requires much reading, and ex-
tensive as well as various erudition ; nor is it to be
given up to hasty or careless hands. You rush up-
on it, and overturn every thing. I do not object to
Greek words, especially in compound names ; but I
think the names of the ancients ought not rashly
and promiscuously to be transferred to our new ge-
nera, or those of the New World. The day may
possibly come when the plants of Theophrastus and
Dioscorides may be ascertained ; and, till this hap-
pens, we had better leave their names as we find
them. That desirable end might even now be at-
tained, if any one would visit the countries of these
old botanists, and make a sufficient stay there ; for
the inhabitants of those regions are very retentive of
names and customs, and know plants at this mo-
ment by their ancient appellations, very little al-
tered, as any person who reads Belonius may per-
ceive. I remember your being told, by the late
Mr G. Gherard, that the modern Greeks give the
name of amanita (a/xav/ra) to the eatable field-
mushroom ; and yet, in Critica Botanica, p. 50, you
suppose that word to be French. Who will ever
believe the Tliya of Theophrastus to be our arbor
vitse > Why do you give the name of cactus to the
tuna } Do you believe the tuna, or melocactus (par-
don the word), and the arbor vitse, were known
to Theophrastus.? An attentive reader of the de-

336 LINNiEUS.

scription he gives of his sida, will probably agree
with me that it belongs to our nymphsea^ and in-
deed to the white-flowered kind. You, without
any reason, give that name to the malvinda ; and
so in various other instances concerning ancient
names ; in which I do not, like Burmann, blame
you for introducing new names, but for the bad ap-
plication of old ones. If there were, in these cases,
any resemblance between your plants and those of
the ancients, you might be excused ; but there is not.
Why do you, p. 68, derive the word medica from
the virtues of the plant, when Pliny, book xviii.
chap. 16, declares it to have been brought from IMe-
dia, &c. ?

" I fear I have angered you by saying, as you ob-
serve in your last, so much against your system of
arrangement. Nevertheless, I could say a great
deal more, and should be able to prove to you that
you separate and tear asunder several genera nearly
related to each other. But this is not my aim, as I
value your friendship too much."

In another letter, dated May 16, 1737. he writes
as follows : — " I must say a word concerning sta-
mens and styles, as being unfit to found a system of
arrangement upon ; not only because they vary as
much as flowers and seed-vessels, but because they
are hardly to be discerned, except by yourself, and
such lynx-eyed people;* and in my judgment,
every scheme of classification offers violence to na-
ture. Notwithstanding all this, I applaud and
congratulate you, in the highest degree, for having

* A singular objection, remarks Sir James E. Smith, from the
great sharp-sighted cryptogamist !

LINNiEUS. 337

brought your premature birth to such perfection.
You have accomplished great things, and, tliat you
may go on and prosper still more, let me exhort you
to examine more and more species. I do not doubt
that you yourself will one day overthrow your own
system. You see, my dearest Linnaeus, how plainly
I speak my sentiments, depending on your candour
to receive them favourably."

One of the most respectable of his English cor-
respondents was Peter Collinson, with whom he
became acquainted when he visited London in 1736.
He belonged to the Society of Friends, possessed a
most amiable disposition, evinced the strictest pro-
bity and the purest benevolence, was blessed with
a genuine and ardent love of nature, enjoyed a long
life of active virtue, and died in the glorious hope
of a happiness unappreciable. The gentle though
rather romantic character of the quaker shines forth
in all his letters, but in none more than in the
last he wrote, which is as follows : —

" Ridgewa3'-hoiise, on Mill-hill, ten miles north of London,

March 16, 1767.

" I am here retired to a delightful little villa, to
contemplate and admire, with my dear Linnaeus,
the unalterable laws of vegetation. How ravishing
to see the swelling buds disclose the tender leaves !
By the public newspapers we were told that with
you in Sweden the winter was very severe, the
Sound being frozen over. I have no conception of
the power of that cold which could fetter the roll-
ing ocean in icy chains. The cold was what we
call severe, but not so sharp as in the year 1740. It
lasted about a month, to the 21st of January, and

X

338 LINNJEUS.

then the thaw began and continued. February the
1st and 2d were soft, warm, sunny days, as in
April, and so continued, mild and warm, with
southerly winds, all the month. This brought on
the spring flowers. Feb. 8th, the Helleborus niger
made a fine show ; the Galanthus and winter aco-
nite by the 15th covered the garden with beauty,
among some crocuses and violets, and Prmiula ve-
ris, &c. How delightful to see the order of nature !
Oh, how obedient the vegetable tribes are to their
great Lawgiver ! He has given this race of flowers a
constitution and fibres to resist the cold. They
bloom in frost and snow, like the good men of Swe-
den. These flowers have some time made their
exit; and now, March 7th, a tenderer tribe suc-
ceeds. Such, my dear friend, is the order of nature.
Now the garden is covered with more than twenty
diff*erent species of crocuses, produced from sowing
seeds, and the Iris Persica, Cyclamen vernale, and
polyanthos. The 16th INIarch, plenty of Hyacin-
thus cceruleus and alhus in the open borders, with
anemones ; and now my favourites, the great tribe
of narcissuses, show all over the garden and fields.
We have two species wild in the woods that now
begin to flower. Next, the Tulipa prcecox is near
flowering ; and so Flora decks the garden with end-
less variety, ever charming.

'^ The progress of our spring, to the middle of
IMarch, I persuade myself will be acceptable to my
dear baron. Now I come to thank him for his most
acceptable letter of the 8th of October last. I am
extremely obliged for your kind intentions to send
me the work of works, your Systema Naturae. I
hope it will please God to bless my eyes with the

LINN^US.

33D

sight of it. I feel the distress you must be under
with the fire. I am glad, next to your own and fa-
mily's safety, that you saved your papers and books.
By this time I hope all is settled and in order ; so
pray now, at your leisure, employ some expert pu-
pil to search into the origin of the nectarine ; who
are the first authors that mention how and when it
was first introduced into the European gardens. It
is strange and marvellous, that a peach should na-
turally produce or bear nectarines, a fruit so differ-
ent, as well in its exterior coat as flavour, from a
peach ; and yet this nectarine will produce a nec-
tarine from the stone, and not a peach. This re-
markable instance is from a tree of a nectarine
raised from a stone in my own garden, which last
autumn had several dozen of fruit on it, finely ri-
pened. For more particulars I refer to my last let-
ter. Pray tell me who Perses was, what country-
man, and who is the author that relates his intro-
ducing peaches into the European gardens ?

" That bats as well as flies lie as dead all winter
is true ; but they do not change elements, and go
and live all that time under water. Swallows can-
not do it without a provision and contrivance for
that end, which it becomes your great abilities to
find out j for it is not sufficient to assert, but to de-
monstrate the internal apparatus God Almighty
has wonderfully contrived for a flying animal, bred
on the land and in the air, to go voluntarily under
water, and live there for so many months. Besides,
we are not informed which species lives under wa-
ter, as there are four species. You, my dear friend,
have raised my admiration, and that of all my cu-
rious acquaintance ; for we never heard before that

340 LINNiEUS.

mushrooms were of an animal nature, and that
their eggs are hatched in water. We must suspend
gratifying our curiosity until this phenomenon is
more particularly explained to us here, Dr Solan-
der is also a stranger to it. Very probably some ac-
count has been published in the Swedish tongue ;
if that is sent to Solander, then we shall be made
acquainted with the discovery.

" I herewith send you a print of the Andrachnet
which flowered, for the first time I presume in Eu-
rope, in Dr Fothergill's garden in May last year.
It was raised from seed from Aleppo, sent to him
by Dr Russell in the year 1756. You see its
manner of flowering is very different from the ar-
butus. I have a large tree raised from the same
seed, that stands abroad in the garden, but never
blossomed. It is now beginning to shed its bark,
as Belon or Belonius well describes; which is a
peculiar difference from the Arbutus, and nearly
agrees with the Plataniis.

o

" I am, my dear friend, with my sincere wishes
for your health and preservation, your affectionate
friend,

" P. COLLINSON,

" Now entered into my 73d year, in perfect health
and strength in body and mind. God Almighty
be praised and adored for the multitude of his
mercies ! — March 16th, 1767."

A great part of the correspondence which Col-
linson had with Linnaeus bore a reference to the al-
leged hibernation of swallows, which the latter, fol-
lowing the authority of certain writers, supposed to
retire on the approach of winter to the bottom of

LINN^US.

341

lakes and rivers, among reeds and other aquatic
plants, where they remain in a torpid state till the
beginning of summer. This preposterous idea the
Englishman labours to convince his friend ought
either to be given up, or established by accurate ob-
servation; but, if the great botanist was not too
proud to renounce an error, he at least manifested
no desire to satisfy his correspondent, nor does it
appear that he ever afterwards alluded to the sub-
ject in any of his letters.

The other individuals with whom he carried on an
epistolary intercourse in England were, Dr Solander,
his pupil ; Mr Ellis, the first who proved the ani-
mal nature of corals and corallines; IMr George
Edwards, librarian of the Royal College of Physi-
cians, who produced a work on birds ; IMr Pennant,
the celebrated author of the British Zoology and
other treatises ; Mr Catesby, who wrote the Natural
History of Carolina ; Dr Mitchell, and a few more.
Of these Mr Ellis appears to have been his most as-
siduous correspondent.

Mr Ellis to Linnjeus.

« London, December 5, 176t).

" Sir, — I am obliged to you for sending me Dr
Garden's account of the Siren. I am sorry I could
not get the rest of the things he sent you, before the
ship sailed, when I sent you the specimens of plants.
I have only got the insects, which are of little value,
and the skin of a Siren. The things in spirits are
not yet brought on shore ; but I hope to get them ;
and as soon as I have an opportunity, will send
them to you. Peter Collinson spent the evening
with me, and shewed me a letter you wrote to him

342 LINN.EUS.

about funguses being alive in the seeds, and swim-
ming about like fish. You mention something of
it to me in your last letter. If you have examined
the seeds of them yourself, and found them to be
little animals, I should believe it. Pray, what time
of the year, and what kinds ? I suppose they must
be taken while growing, and in a vigorous state. I
intend to try ; I think my glass will discover them,
if they have animal life in them. The seeds of the
Equisetum palustre appear to be alive by their twist-
ing motion, when viewed through the microscope ;
but that is not animal life.

^' I have just finished a collection of the Corallince.
I think there are thirty-six species ; but I believe
some of them will prove varieties. I have most of
the copperplates that represent them finished. They
are the most difficult to examine of all the zoophytes ;
their pores are so small, and their manner of grow-
ing so singular

'' Pray let me know how your Tea-tree grows.
It is very odd that, notwithstanding we have had
fifteen ships from China this year, we have not had
one Tea-tree brought home alive. I have sent a boy
to China, whose dependence is on me, to try to bring
over several sorts of seeds in wax. I expect him
home next summer.

" The English are much obliged to you for your
good wishes. We every day see a superiority in
the Swedes over the other European nations. All
your people that appear among us are polite, well-
bred, and learned ; without the vanity of the French,
the heaviness of the Dutch, or the impudence of the
Germans. This last nation has intruded on us
swarms of their miserable, half-starved people, from

LINNiEUS. 343

the connexion that our royal family have had with
them."

The first voyage of Captain Cook, in which he
was accompanied by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr So-
lander, interested Linnaeus in a high degree, as he
expected from it great accessions to science. On
being apprized by Ellis of the return of the expe-
dition in 1771 J he thus writes in reply: —

" I received, about an hour ago, my ever valued
friend, yours of the 16th of July, nor did I ever
receive a more welcome letter, as it conveys the
agreeable news of my dear Solander's safe return.
Thanks and glory to God, who has protected him
through the dangers of such a voyage ! If I were not
bound fast here by sixty-four years of age, and a
worn-out body, I would this very day set out for Lon-
don, to see this great hero of botany. Moses w^as not
permitted to enter Palestine, but only to view it
from a distance ; so I conceive an idea in my mind
of the acquisitions and treasures of those who have
visited every part of the globe."

The following letter, principally on the same sub-
ject, is selected as one of the best specimens of Lin-
naeus's epistolary style : —

LiNNiEus TO Mr Ellis.

" Upsal, October 22, 1771.

" My dear Friend, — I have just read in some
foreign newspapers, that our friend Solander in-
tends to revisit those new countries, discovered by
Mr Banks and himself, in the ensuing spring. This
report has affected me so much, as almost entirely
to deprive me of sleep. How vain are the hopes of

344 LINN^US.

man ! Whilst the whole botanical world, like my-
self, has been looking for the most transcendent be-
nefits to our science, from the unrivalled exertions
of your countrymen, all their matchless and truly
astonishing collection, such as has never been seen
before, nor may ever be seen again, is to be put aside
untouched, to be thrust into some corner, to become
perhaps the prey of insects and of destruction.

" I have every day been figuring to myself the
occupations of my pupil Solander, now putting his
collection in order, having first arranged and num-
bered his plants in parcels, according to the places
where they were gathered, and then written upon
each specimen its native country and appropriate
number. I then fancied him throwing the whole
into classes; putting aside, and naming, such as
were already known ; ranging others under known
genera, with specific differences ; and distinguishing
by new names and definitions such as formed new
genera, with their species. Thus, thought I, the
world will be delighted and benefited by all these
discoveries ; and the foundations of true science will
be strengthened, so as to endure through all genera-
tions.

" I am under great apprehension, that if this col-
lection should remain untouched till Solander's
return, it might share the same lot as Forskal's
Arabian specimens at Copenhagen. Thus shall I
be only more and more confirmed in my opinion,
that the Fates are ever adverse to the greatest un-
dertakings of mankind.

" Solander promised long ago, while detained off
the coast of Brazil, in the early part of his voyage,
that he would visit me after his return ; of which I

LINN^US.

345

have been in expectation. If he had brought some
of his specimens with him, I could at once have told
him what were new ; and we might have turned
over books together^ and he might have been in-
formed or satisfied upon many subjects, which after
my death will not be so easily explained.

" I have no answer from him to the letter I en-
closed to you, which I cannot but wonder at. You
yourself know how much I have esteemed him, and
how strongly I recommended him to you.

" By all that is great and good, I entreat you,
who know so well the value of science, to do all that
in you lies for the publication of these new acquisi-
tions, that the learned world may not be deprived
of them. They will afford a fresh proof, that the
English nation promote science more than the
French, or any other people whatsoever. At the same
time, let me earnestly beg of you to publish, as soon
as possible, your own work, explaining those elegant
plates of rare zoophytes, &c. which you last sent me.
I can no longer restrain my impatience. Allow me
to remind you, that ' nothing is so uncertain, no-
thing so deceitful, as human life ; nothing so frail,
or surrounded with so many diseases and dangers,
as man.'

'' Again the plants of Solander and Banks recur
to my imagination. When I turn over Feuillee's
figures, I meet with more extraordinary things
among them than anywhere else. I cannot but
presume, therefore, as Peru and Chili are so rich,
that in the South Sea Islands as great an abundance
of rarities have remained in concealment, from the
beginning of the world, to reward the labours of our
illustrious voyagers. I see these things now but afar

346 LINN^US.

off. If our travellers should take another trip, I
shall have seen them as IMoses saw Canaan.

" When I ponder upon the insects they have
brought, I am overwhelmed at the reported number
of new species. Are there many new genera ?
Amongst all the insects sent from the Cape, I have
met with no new genus ; which is remarkable. And
yet, except four European ones, they are all new
species.

" Pray make use of your interest with Solander,

to inform me to what class and order the nutmeg

belongs. I shall not take advantage of this infor-

• mation without making honourable mention of my

authority.

" When I think of their Molhisca, I conceive the
new ones must be very numerous. These animals
cannot be investigated after death, as they contract
in dying. Without doubt, as there were draughts-
men on board, they would not fail to afford ample
materials for drawings.

" Do but consider, my friend, if these treasures
are kept back, what may happen to them. They
may be devoured by vermin of all kinds. The
house where they are lodged may be burnt. Those
destined to describe them may die. Even you, the
promoter of every scientific undertaking in your
comitry, may be taken from us. All sublunary
things are uncertain, nor ought any thing to be
trusted to treacherous futurity. I therefore once
more beg, nay I earnestly beseech you, to urge the
publication of these new discoveries. I confess it
to be my most ardent wish to see this done before I
die. To whom can I urge my anxious wishes but
to you, who are so devoted to me and to science }

LINN^US. 347

" Remember me to the immortal Banks and So-
lander.

"P. S. — I can never sufficiently thank you and Mr
Gordon for the beautiful and precious trees of Mag-
nolia, both the Gardenise, both the Kalmia?, and the
Rhododendrum ; all now in excellent health. But
the Calycanthus, and a tree of a new genus allied to
Hamamelis, I am sorry to say, are no more. They
were very sickly when they came, nor did they put
forth any new roots. Dionsea died, as might be ex-
pected, in the voyage.

'' My Lord Baltimore passed a day with me about
a year ago, at my country-house. I read over to
him whatever he desired. After his departure, he
sent me a most elegant vase of silver gilt, certainly
worth more than 150 guineas. I never received so
splendid a present before. No Frenchman, nor per-
haps any other person, was ever so bountiful. The
English are, doubtless, the most generous of all men.

'' My second Mantissa is at length published.
After it was finished, I received from Surinam what
I call Hypericum Lasianthus, so similar to your Gor-
donia that at first I thought them the same. The
flower is, in like manner, internally hairy; the stem
is shrubby, and the leaves similar. But the stamens
are in five sets, separated by five hairy nectaries.
On a careful examination, I conclude your Gordonia
Lasianthus to be really a different plant, agreeing
with that of Plukenet, in having winged seeds, as
you rightly describe it. The synonym of Plukenet,
therefore, does not belong to my Lasianthus, whichj
however like it, is truly a species of Hypericum ;
but that synonym must be referred to your plant."

348 LINN^US.

Mr Ellis was a native of Ireland, but had settled in
London, where he died in 1776. In the early part
of his life he engaged in merchandise, and sub-
sequently was employed as agent for West Florida
and Dominica. His foreign connexions were the
means of furnishing him with rich supplies of curi-
ous specimens : and hence both botany and zoology
were enriched by him with many discoveries, the
most remarkable of which, as we have already men-
tioned, was that of the animal nature of corals and
corallines.

It was to this gentleman that Linnaeus recom-
mended his favourite pupil Solander, who came to
England in 1759, and who was held in great es-
timation on account of his politeness and extensive
knowledge in natural history. Being engaged by
Sir Joseph Banks he accompanied him on his voy-
age round the world, and on his return was do-
mesticated under his roof as his secretary and li-
brarian. He undertook to describe the objects
which had been collected on the voyage ; but the
dissipation of London society, his other avocations,
and the indolence which soon gained upon him,
rendered his progress too slow for the expecta-
tions of the learned, and in 1782 he was carried off
by apoplexy. He seems to have almost forgotten
his venerable master, to whom he was under so
many obligations, and even his aged mother, several
of whose letters to him were found miopened after
his death. He was, notwithstanding, a man of
considerable merit, and more especially in that he
proved the means of establishing the Linnaean doc-
trines in this country.

Mr Ellis, in return, had the satisfaction of in-

LINNiEUS. 349

troducing to the correspondence of Linnaeus the
celebrated Dr Garden, who had settled at Charles-
ton in South Carolina, where he practised medi-
cine for nearly thirty years. He was amative of
Scotland, and received his education at Aberdeen
and Edinburgh. During the intervals of leisure
which occasionally occurred in the practice of his
profession, he directed his attention to the study of
botany and zoology. When the differences be-
tween Great Britain and her American colonies
arose, he took part with the former, and returned
to Europe about the end of the war, with his wife
and two daughters, leaving, however, a son, who
submitted to the new government. He died of pul-
monary consumption in 1791, in the sixty-second
year of his age.

Dr Garden to Linnaeus.

" Charleston, Nov. 30, 1758.

« Sir, — Three years ago I troubled you with a
letter by way of Holland, of which I sent also a
duplicate ; but I fear they have both accidentally
miscarried. From that period I have often thought
of soliciting afresh your friendship and correspond-
ence, but shame has deterred me. I am well aware
that your time must be fully occupied with more
valuable correspondents, and that I am likely to be
more troublesome than useful, having nothing wor-
thy to repay such an indulgence. I do, however,
stand in great need of your advice and assistance in
the prosecution of the most delightful of studies ;
and such is my conviction of the benevolence of your
character, that I cannot refrain from writing you
another letter. I earnestly beseech you to take this

350 LINNiEUS.

in good part, and not to refuse me the favour of
your friendship. Mr Ellis^, in a recent letter, en-
courages me to believe that my correspondence may
not be unwelcome to you, v^^hich, you may v^^ell
suppose, has greatly delighted me ; and it has in-
duced me to hope you will pardon this intrusion.
I learn from him that you have already written to
me ; and it has given me no small concern that your
letter has never come to hand. I flattered myself,
as long as I possibly could, with the prospect of its
arrival ; but I have now given up all hopes, and am
only sensible of my loss and mortification.

" Had it not been for the repeated encouragement
of Mr Ellis, I should scarcely ever have ventured to
expect that my friendship and correspondence could
engage your attention ; nor can I now attribute
your favour and kindness towards me to any other
cause than, probably, to the too partial representa-
tions of this friend. I fear that his usual indulgence
for me, of which I have had repeated instances, may
have prompted him to say more in my recommen-
dation than my abilities deserve, or than truth can
justify.

'' Of this I am very certain, that if you do deign
to correspond with me, I can never repay such a
favour as it deserves. Nevertheless, I am ready to
receive and to obey your wishes and directions;
and if this country should afford any thing worthy
of your notice, I will, if you please, make descrip-
tions, or send specimens, with all possible care.
Your commands will indeed prove most welcome
to me. I have only to request that you will inform
me of every thing you want, and of the best methods
of preserving and forwarding specimens. Every
2

LINNJEUS. 351

opportunity that you may be so good as to afford
me of serving you, I shall esteem an honour; and
if at the same time you favour me with your advice,
and allow me to drink at the fountain of pure bo-
tanical science from your abundant stores, I shall
esteem it the highest honour, as well as gratification,
that I can enjoy.

" Almost every one of your works is already in
my hands, and I trust I have thence greatly im-
proved my knowledge of botany. Mr Ellis informs
me of your being about printing a new edition of
your Systema Naturae and Genera Plantarum, both
which I have ordered to be sent me as soon as they
appear. From the riches and erudition of what you
have already published, your whole mind being de-
voted to this one pursuit, I am at no loss to anticipate
the still greater degree of information, elegance, and
perfection, of your future performances. Nothing,
indeed, more excites my wishes, as a certain source
of pleasure and improvement, than to be more deeply
conversant with your writings ; that I may not only
profit by your genius, but, at the same time, have
the information of the most eminent and approved
writers in botany always ready at hand.

" I am disgusted with the coarse and malicious
style in which some carping and slanderous critics
have attacked these works of yours, the delight and
ornament of botanical science. But such men are
objects of pity rather than anger. Their blind in-
clination to find fault leads them so far into the
mazes of absurdity, that they censure what ought
to afford them nothing but instruction. Their fu-
tile reasonings, indeed, fall harmless to the ground,
like the dart of Priam from the shield of Pyrrhus.

352 LINNiEUS.

The works they abuse shine brighter the more
strictly they are scrutinized, and will certainly be
read with delight by men in every age who are
best qualified to appreciate their value. Your cen-
sors, when duly weighed themselves, seem to have
acquired what they know by application rather than
by any great powers of mind ; and they make but
a poor figure, with all that they can find to say,
when they enter into a controversy with a man
whose learning has received its last polish from ge-
nius. Nor are you, my excellent friend, unsup-
ported in the contest ; for you are surrounded by
all who have entered on the same studies at the im-
pulse of genius, or under the auspices of Minerva,
and whose industry has gradually improved, sharp-
ened, and given the last finish to the powers of their
understanding. These stand ready armed for the
battle in your defence. They will easily put to
flight the herd of plodding labourers ; for nature
can certainly do much more without learning, than
learning without nature.

<^' If your adversaries and detractors had candidly
pointed out the disputable, inconvenient, or faulty
parts of your system, for your better consideration
and revision, I have no doubt that they would now
have found in you a friend and patron, instead of
an enemy and conqueror. But they were excited
by an envious malignity, and a depraved appetite
for controversy, to write without judgment or ge-
nius, and to blame without candour or liberality.
Not that I pretend to say, that your system is al-
ready brought to the supreme point of perfection.
That would indeed be a foolish assertion, which
your better judgment would at once reject as mere

LINNiEUS. 353

flattery. But to give due praise to supreme merit
in botanical science^, and to recommend, as they de-
serve, your most ingenious and most useful writings,
is a duty incumbent on me, as well as on all who
are not destitute of every spark of gratitude, for the
immense services which your labour and ingenuity
have rendered to the whole world. Nor are you,
sir, so little able to appreciate your own merits, as
not to be perfectly conscious that the attacks alluded
to originate in envy, rather than the commendations
you receive, in flattery. Compliments out of the
question, we certainly ought to give every one his
due.

" But it is time to conclude. I venture to enclose
for your opinion the characters of a very handsome
plant, which seems to me a new genus. I am very
anxious that it should bear the name of my much-
valued friend, Mr Ellis ; and if, upon mature exa-
mination, you should judge it to be new, I wish
you would correct my description wherever it may
be necessary, and publish it in the new edition of
your Genera Plantarum, under the name of Ellisia,
This plant grows about the bases of the Apalachian
Mountains, rising annually from its old roots to the
height of about twelve feet, ornamented with whorls
of leaves, at the distance of eighteen inches from
eacli other.

'' It only remains for me, sir, to beg your pardon
for this intrusion. I am well aware how many im-
portant labours you have on your hands, and you
probably have many more in prospect. Grant me
only your friendly assistance in my ardent prosecu-
tion of the study of nature ; and may you at the
same time go on advancing in reputation and sue-

y

354

LINN^US.

cess ! and after you have given your works to the
public, may you long enjoy the honours which your
abilities have acquired !

" May God grant you a long life, to investigate
the secrets of nature, as well as to improve the
powers of your mind in their contemplation ! and
may your valuable exertions benefit the literary
world as long as you live ! — Such is my sincere
prayer. Farewell !"

In France, the correspondents of Linnaeus were
Messrs Angerville, Barrere, De Bomare, Duchesne,
Carrere, Chardon, Cusson, Guan, Guettard, the two
Jussieus, Le Monnier, Maynard, F. de Sauvages,
and the Abbe de Sauvages.

Antoine de Jussieu, Professor of Botany at
Paris, to Linn^us at Hartecamp.

« Paris, July 1, 1736.

'' Sir, — I received with much pleasure your work
on the Musa, which I immediately read through
with avidity, and no less satisfaction ; not only be-
cause of the singularity of the plant itself, but for
the sake of your remarks. I never suspected that
this plant, which I had seen bearing flowers and
fruit in Spain, could produce any in Holland, as we
have never had an instance of the kind in the royal
garden at Paris, where it has not even flowered.
None of the other works mentioned as having been
published by you have ever reached me, and I shall
be greatly obliged by your ordering them to be sent
hither at my expense. I long very much to see
your Hortus Clifibrtianus and Flora Lapponica;
especially the latter, as the king has recently sent

LINNiEUS. 355

some of our academicians towards the most northern
parts of Europe, to whom, in their search after
plants in those countries, your book would be a
guide, instructing them what seeds or dried speci-
mens to send us. If, therefore, you are likely soon
to complete this work, I request the favour of two
copies, which shall be paid for with the above-men-
tioned publications. If you know of any thing is-
suing from our Parisian press likely to be worthy
of your notice, nothing will give me more pleasure
than to procure it for you. Be pleased, sir, to accept
the respects of my brother and myself."

The writer of the above letter was elder brother
to the author of the following, who was also Regius
Professor of Botany at Paris, and the reputed in-
ventor of what is called the Natural System of
Plants, which was subsequently improved by his
nephew, Antoine de Jussieu.

Bernard de Jussieu to Linn^us.

« Paris, Feb. 15, 1742.

'^' My dearest Friend, — I received your wel-
come letter, and have several times been desirous of
answering it, but have as often been hindered by
various affairs. Pardon my past neglect, though I
have permitted some opportunities of testifying my
regard for you to pass by. I have been occupied in
various journeys. All last autumn I was wander-
ing on the seacoast of Normandy. I have met with
many novelties, among which you will be surprised
to find some additions to the animal kingdom. I
mean, however, before I make my discoveries pub-
lic, to examine into the matter more fully,
7

356 LINNiEUS.

'' I have heard with the most sincere pleasure of
your being appointed professor of botany at Upsal.
You may now devote yourself entirely to tlie service
of Flora, and lay open more completely the path you
have pointed out, so as at length to bring to per-
fection a natural method of classification, which is
what all lovers of botany wish and expect. I know
of nothing new here except an essay on the natural
history of Cayenne, and a catalogue of officinal plants.
These little works will be conveyed to you by the
surgeon of Count de Tessin, when he returns home.
I shall also add a fasciculus of medical questions, of
the faculty of Paris. I have not yet received what
you last sent me ; but I return you many thanks
for your repeated kindness. I beg leave to offer you,
a^ a testimony of my gratitude, a few exotic seeds.
]May God preserve you long in safety ! Believe me
your most devoted, Bernard de Jussieu."

We have nothing of much interest to offer from this
quarter, as Buffon, who was the' most popular na-
turalist of his time, showed himself the rival of the
Swede and a despiser of all classifications ; although,
as Lord Monboddo says, " those who have merely
made themselves acquainted with the first rudi-
ments of philosophy, cannot possibly be ignorant,
that a distribution into genera and species is the
foundation of all human knowledge ; and that to
be acquainted with an individual, as they term it,
or one single thing, is neither art nor science."

From the long list of correspondents which Lin-
naeus had in Germany and other parts of the Con-
tinent, we shall only mention Professor Gesner at
Tubingen; Hebenstreit and Ludwig at Leipsic;

LINN^US. 357

Hermann and Jacquin at Vienna ; Gieseke at Ham-
burg; Murray at Gottingen ; Brunnich, Fabricius,
and Muller, in Denmark ; Gmelin, Ammann, and
G. Muller, in Russia; Allemand, Burmann, Gor-
ier, Cliffort, and Van Royen, in Holland; John
Gesner and Scheuchzer, in Switzerland. We do
not, however, find it necessary to insert any of the
letters of these celebrated individuals ; but shall con-
clude with part of a communication to the younger
Linnseus, from Don Joseph Celestine Mutis, pro-
fessor of philosophy, mathematics, and natural his-
tory, at the University of Santa Fe de Bogota, in
New Grenada.

« From the Mines of Ybagua, Sept. 12, 1778.

" This letter, which I have many a time, in the
joy of my heart, had it in contemplation to write to
you, my worthy friend, I find myself now scarcely
able to begin, on account of the grief with which
yours just received has overwhelmed me. As I
opened this letter, enclosed in one from a beloved
brother of mine who lives at Cadiz, I did not at
once discover from whom it came, the superscrip-
tion being in an unknown hand ; but I feared it
might bring me an account of the precious life of my
valued friend the Chevalier Von Linne being either
in danger, or perhaps extinct. When I had read it,
I perceived but too certainly the truth of what had
been announced in the public papers, that this great
man, your illustrious father, was no more. To cul-
tivate his faithful friendship has for many years
been my chief ambition, in spite of the wide dis-
tance between your polar region and the equator.
I wanted resolution to open, soon afterwards, a

358 LINNiEUS.

packet from M. Gahn, whose handwriting I recog-
nised in the direction, lest I might perhaps find a
letter, the last, and now posthumous, pledge of his
friendship, flattering me with hopes which I had
already abandoned. Allow me, therefore, my dear
sir, to recall to your mind those recollections which,
however sad, we ought not to forget. If it were
possible for you to overcome the feelings of nature,
I cannot satisfy the claims of friendship without la-
menting, with you, our common loss.

" Let me inform you, therefore, tiiat, so long ago as
the year 1761, when I ventured to introduce myself
to this great man by a trifling communication, as I
had not enjoyed any intercourse w^ith him before my
departure from Europe, I was first favoured, in this
my distant abode, with one of those letters, so highly
valued by the most learned men in Europe. In
this, according to his usual custom, your distin-
guished father endeavoured, in the most attractive
style, to stimulate my youthful ardour more and
more for the study of nature. From that period I
rejoiced to devote myself to his service, and our cor-
respondence was kept up for eighteen years, as re-
gularly as the great distance between us, the negli-
gence of those in whom we confided, and my occa-
sional extensive journeys would admit. By some
unavoidable accidents, indeed, many of my letters
never reached him ; and I have also, too late, dis-
covered that many of his had been lost. Mean-
while, our communications were confidential and
exclusive, not extended on my part to any other
persons, whether my countrymen or not ; for I de-
voted all my discoveries and all ray labours to his
immortal genius alone. A little while ago, when I

LINN^US. 359

still supposed him living (as I saw the illustrious
name of Von Linne among the members of the
Royal Academy of Paris, in a list at the end of the
Connoissance des Terns), I was particularly happy
to obtain the complete fructification of that most
elegant tree which yields the Peruvian balsam, in
order that I might satisfy his curiosity, so often ex-
pressed, on the subject of the genus of this tree,
either by describing it among my new genera, or
by transmitting any observations for his use. But
when I had just overcome the difficulties which had
so long deprived me of this acquisition, and was an-
ticipating the pleasure my excellent friend would
receive from the communication, the world was
deprived of him. You have lost an affectionate
parent, and I a most highly-esteemed patron. I
trust that you, my honoured friend, will, with his
blood, inherit his exalted genius, his ardent love of
science, his kind liberality to his friends, and all the
other valuable endowments of his mind. On my
part, I shall show my gratitude to his memory by
teacliing and extolling the name of Linnaeus, as the
supreme prince of naturalists, even here under the
equator, where the sciences are already flourishing,
and advancing by the most rapid steps ; and where,
I am disposed to believe, the muses may, perhaps,
in future ages, fix their seat. If my opinion be of
any weight as a naturalist, I must declare that I can
find no name, in the whole history of this depart-
ment of knowledge, worthy to be compared with
the illustrious Swede. Of this at least I am cer-
tain, that the merits of Newton in philosophy and
mathematics are equalled in botany, and all the
principles of natural history, by the immortal Von

360 LINN.^US.

Liiine. These great men stand equal and unrival-
led, in my judgment, as the most faithful interpre-
ters of Nature's works. I trust, sir, you will not
take amiss this testimony of mine in favour of your
distinguished parent ; for, as you are closely allied
to him in blood, I feel myself scarcely less inti-
mately attached, by the particular friendship with
which he was so good as to favour me. His me-
mory will ever be cherished by me, as that of a be-
loved preceptor, and I shall value, as long as I
live, every pledge of his regard "

With this testimony to the transcendent merits of
Linnaeus we conclude the present section, regarding
it as a fit introduction to that which follows, in
which we shall attempt to sketch the character of
this extraordinary man.

LINNJEUS. 361

SECTION XL

Character of Linnceus.

Specific Character of Linnaeus — Remarks of Condorcet — LinnaeusV
Appearance and bodily Conformation— His Habits, mental Cha-
racteristics, Sociality, domestic Relations, Parsimony, and Gene-
rosit}'^— His Forbearance towards his Opponents, Inaptitude for
the Acquisition of Lanj^uages, Love of Fame, moral Conduct, re-
ligious Feelings— Character of his Writings — Remarks on his
Classifications.

The character of Linnseus, marked as it is by fea-
tures which the least reflective mind can hardly
fail to distinguish as indicative of qualities that sel-
dom present themselves in so high a degree of deve-
lopment, is not difficult to be appreciated.

The method which he employed for characteriz-
ing the genera and species of animals and plants, he
applied to himself as an individual, and the de-
scription which he gave of his own person and mind
is too remarkable to be omitted here. It is this : —

'' Occipite gibbo, ad suturam lambdoideam trans-
verse depresso, pili in infantia nivei, dein fusci, in
senio canescentes. Oculi brunnei, vivaces^ acutis-
simi, visu eximio. Frons in senio rugosa. Verru-
ca obliterata in bucca dextra et alia in nasi dextro
latere. Dentes debiles^ cariosi ab odontalgia haere-
ditaria in juventute.

" Animus promptus, mobilis ad iram et laetitiara
et maerores, cito placabatur ; hilaris in juventute,

362 xiNN^us.

nee in senio torpidus^ in rebus agendis promptissi-
mus ; ineessu levis, agilis.

'" Curas domesticas commiltebat uxori, ipse natu-
rae productis unice intentus ; incepta opera ad finem
perduxitj nee in itinere respexit."

To convert this aphoristic description into elegant
English, such as is employed by writers of the Buf-
fon school, — men of many words and few facts, —
would be to destroy its peculiar beauty, which can
only be retained in an appropriate translation : —

'' The head of Linnaeus had a remarkable promi-
nence behind, and was transversely depressed at
the lambdoid suture. His hair was white in in-
fancy, afterwards brown, in old age grayish. His
eyes were hazel, lively, and penetrating ; their
power of vision exquisite. His forehead was fur-
rowed in old age. He had an obliterated wart on
the right cheek, and another on the corresponding
side of the nose. His teeth were unsound, and at
an early age decayed from hereditary toothach. His
mind was quick, easily excited to anger, joy, or
sadness ; but its aifections soon subsided. In youth
he was cheerful, in age not torpid, in business most
active. He walked with a light step, and was dis-
tinguished for agility. The management of his do-
mestic affairs he committed to his wife, and con-
cerned himself solely with the productions of na-
ture. Whatever he began he brought to an end,
and on a journey he never looked back."

" Some time Ijefore his death," says Condorcetin
his Eloge, " Linnaeus traced in Latin, on a sheet of
paper, his character, his manners, and his external
conformation, imitating in this respect several great
men. He accuses himself of impatience, of an ex-

I

LINN-EUS. 363

cessive vivacity, and even of a little jealousy. In
this sketch he has pushed modesty and truth to
their utmost ; and they who have known that great
naturalist, jiistly charge him with severity towards
himself. There are moments when the most vir-
tuous person sees nothing but his own failings. Af-
ter describing universal nature in all its details, it
may be said that the picture would have remained
incomplete had he not painted himself. At the
same time it is vexing that he should have painted
himself in colours so unfavourable. Judging him
by his conduct, no one could have fancied the exist-
ence of these defects, nor could they have been known
unless he had revealed them." Yet, if the damna-
tory revelation which he made be, as M. Fee asserts,
nothing more than the above sketch, it would appear
that he has half in playfulness presented a techni-
cal character of himself, such as he would have writ-
ten of a bear or a baboon. It presents indications
of candour and self-reproach, but certainly is, on
the whole, much more laudatory than otherwise.

With respect to bodily conformation, he was of a
stature rather below the ordinary standard, as has
been the case with several very ambitious, active,
and successful men. His temperament was the san-
guineous, with a proportion of the nervous ; whence
he was lively, excitable, full of hope, and of great
ardour ; but since he was in no degree melanclio-
lic, some physiologists might puzzle themselves to
discover where he obtained his indefatigable indus-
try, his perseverance, his obstinate straightforward-
ness, and the tenacity with which he held all opi-
nions which he had once received. In youth and
middle age he was light, but muscular ; whence his

364 LINN^US.

personal agility and energy; but as he advanced in
years he became rather full, although with little di-
minution of his corporeal, and still less of his men-
tal activity. In walking he stooped a little, having
contracted that habit from his constant search for
plants and other objects. He was moderate in his
diet, regulated his mode of living by strict method,
and by temperance preserved his energies, that he
might devote them to the cultivation of his favour-
ite sciences. His hours of sleep were in summer
from ten to five, in winter from nine to six.

Punctual and orderly in all his arrangements, he
underwent labours which to most men would have
been impracticable. Yet the period of study he al-
ways limited by the natural flow of his spirits, and
whenever he became fatigued, or felt indisposed for
labour, he laid aside his task. Some persons have ac-
counted for the immense extent of his works by sim-
ply allowing him industry and perseverance; but they
who think so are not aware, that these qualities are
generally inseparable from geniusof the highest order.

In the evenings he frequently indulged in social in-
tercourse with his friends, when he gave free vent to
his lively humour ; never for a moment enveloping
himself in that reserve with which men of little minds
conceal their real want of dignity. Whether deliver-
ing a solemn oration at the university, or familiarly
conversing with the learned, or dancing in a barn with
his pupils, he was respected and esteemed alike.

It is perhaps strange that, although of this joyous
temperament, he had not a musical ear, having been
in this respect like a man whose character was in
almost every point very different, but not less truly
estimable,— that great master of moral wisdom, Dr

LINN.EUS. 365

Johnson. It would even seem that he had a kind of
antipathy to certain combinations of harmonious
sound, although it is clear that he enjoyed the lively
song of the thrush and skylark, which he mentions
in his Lapland journey as affording him delight.

With respect to his domestic relations, it is agreed
by his biographers that he manifested a very ami-
able character. He was a faithful and tender hus-
band, although his consort possessed few estimable
qualities; a fond and indulgent father, although
his children obtained a much smaller share of his
solicitude than his garden and museum. His wife,
who, as we have seen, took charge of all his domes-
tic arrangements, is described as having been of a
masculine appearance, selfish, domineering, and des-
titute of accomplishments. Unable to hold any share
in rational conversation, she had little desire to en-
courage it in others ; and as her parsimony was still
greater than her husband's, we may suppose that
her mode of management was not very conducive to
the comfort of her guests. As a mother being inca-
pable of estimating the advantages of proper train-
ing, her daughters were in a great measure left
destitute of the polite acquirements becoming their
station in society ; and the father being, as he says,
" naturae productis unice intentus," did not trouble
himself about uninteresting affairs of this nature.
The result, so far as regards his son, we shall see in
a subsequent section.

It is generally acknowledged that Linnaeus was
more addicted to the love of gold than becomes a
philosopher, and that his style of living was by no
means equal to his income. " For my own part,"
says his pupil Fabricius, '' I can easily excuse him

366 LINN^US.

for having been a little too fond of money, when I
consider those extremes of poverty which so long and
so heavily overwhelmed him. It may also be said
in his defence, that the parsimonious habits which
he had contracted under the most pressing necessity
remained with him ever after^ and that he found it
impossible to renounce them when he lived in the
midst of abundance." This apology may perhaps
suffice, especially when we find it asserted that his
frugality never degenerated into avarice.

Towards his pupils he conducted himself with
the most praisew^orthy liberality. To those who
were poor he remitted the fees due to him as pro-
fessor, and even from the rich he on many occa-
sions refused to receive any recompense. Dr Gieseke,
when about to leave him in the autumn of 1771;.
pressed upon him a Swedish bank-note, as a remu-
neration for the trouble which he had taken in afford-
ing him instruction; but he was unwilling to accept
it, and it was not till after the repeated entreaties of
his pupil that he acceded to his request : — " Tell me
candidly," said he, " if you are rich, and can afford
it ; — can you well spare this money on your return
to Germany ? If you can, give the note to my wife ;
but should you be poor, so help me God, I would
not take a farthing from you !" — " To the praise of
Linnaeus," says Mr Ehrhart, " I must farther own,
notwithstanding his parsimony, that he neither would
nor did accept a single penny as a fee for the lec-
tures which he gave me. You are a Swiss," he
once said to me, '' and the only Swiss that vi-
sits me. I shall take no money of you, but feel a
pleasure in telling you all that I know gratis."

His excitable temper not unfrequently betrayed

LINN^US. 367

him into expressions which indicated a great want
of self-control ; but if he was easily roused to anger^
he was as speedily appeased. He was exceedingly
pleasant in conversation, humorous, and fond of tell-
ing entertaining stories. Constant in his attach-
ments, he was ever disposed to look with indulgence
on the faults of his friends ; and he was fortunate
in the affection which his pupils manifested towards
him. But it is said that he was equally tenacious
of dislike towards his enemies, or those of whom he
had formed an unfavourable opinion.

His opponents he treated with forbearance or con-
tempt, and on no occasion engaged in controversy.
In a letter to Haller he says, — " Our great example,
Boerhaave, answered nobody whatever : I recollect
his saying to me one day, ' You should never reply
to any controversial writers ; promise me that you
will not.' I promised him accordingly, and have
benefited very much by it." If he cherished ani-
mosity towards his adversaries, it certainly did not
prevent him from expressing his esteem for their
merits ; and as dissimulation had no place in his
character, he did not follow the example of those
who by private misrepresentations undo the benefits
conferred by public encomiums. ''^ I am certain,"
says Murray, '' that had his most unjust and most
violent opponents heard him, they could not have
refused him their esteem and affection."

No man ever excelled him in the discrimination of
natural objects ; nor is it necessary for us to enter
upon any exposition of the excellencies of his men-
tal constitution, as fitting him for the office which
he assumed as legislator of natural history. Active,
penetrating, sagacious, more conversant with nature

368 LINN^US.

than with hooks, yet not unacquainted with the la-'
hours of others, he succeeded in eliciting order from
the chaotic confusion which he found prevailingin his
favourite sciences. His memory, which was uncom-
monly vigorous, was, like his other faculties, devoted
to natural history alone ; and it was the first that suf-
fered dec4y. When he was only fifty years of age
it already exhibited symptoms of decline; and a
few years before his death it was almost entirely
extinguished. In the study of modern languages
he had never made sufiicient progress to enable
him to express his ideas with fluency in any other
than his native tongue. His intercourse with
strangers was carried on in Latin, of which he had
a competent knowledge, although in his letters he
paid little attention to elegance, or even in some cases
to grammatical accuracy. He used to say to his
friends, — '' Malo tres alapas a Prisciano, quam
unam a Natura, — I would rather have three slaps
from Priscian than one from Nature."

The love of fame was his predominant passion.
It possessed his soul at an early age, strength-
ened as he advanced in years, and retained its hold
to the last. " Famam extendere factis" w^as his
favourite motto, and that w^hich, when ennobled,
he chose for his coat of arms. But his ambition
was entirely confined to science, and never influ-
enced his conduct towards the persons with whom
he had intercourse, nor manifested itself by the as-
sumption of superiority. Fond of praise, he was
liberal in dispensing it to others ; and, although
nothing afibrded him more pleasure than flattery,
he was neither apt to boast of his merits, nor disin-
clined to extol those of his fellow-labourers.

LINN^US. 369

We do not find any remarkable deviations in
his general conduct from the straight path of mo-
rality. It is trae^ that in the affair of Rosen the
impetuosity of his temper had nearly betrayed him
into an act which would have stamped his memory
with indelible disgrace ; but if he exhibited some
of the frailties and errors inseparable from hu-
manity, it is neither our inclination to search them
out, nor our province to pronounce judgment upon
them. He has been accused of betraying a pru-
rient imagination in the names which he gave to
many objects, both in the vegetable and animal
kingdoms. It is certain, that a more chastened
taste would have enabled him to avoid offence in
this matter ; but neither in conversation nor in act
has any moral delinquency been laid to his charge.

In all his writings there appears a deep feeling
of reverence and gratitude towards the Supreme
Being ; and in the history of his life we find nothing
which could lead us to suppose that such feelings
were assumed for the occasion. Over the door of his
room was inscribed^ — " Innocui vivite, Numen adest,
— Live in innocence, for God is present." His more
important works he commences and ends with some
passage from the Scriptures, expressive of the power,
the glory, the beneficence of God, the creator and
preserver of all things. Whenever, in his lectures
or on his excursions, he found an opportunity of ex-
patiating on these subjects, he embraced it with en-
thusiasm. ^^ On these occasions," says one of his
biographers, " his heart glowed with celestial fire,
and his mouth poured forth torrents of admirable
eloquence." Where is the naturalist, possessed of the
true feelings of a man, who does not honour in his

z

370 LINN^US.

heart the being possessed of such a character ! The
sneer of the filthy sensualist^ who, steeped in pollu-
tion, endeavours to persuade his turbid mind that
all others are like himself; the scorn of the little
puflTed-up intellect, which, having traced the outline
of some curious mechanism in nature, exults in the
fancied independence of its own poor energies ; the
malice of the grovelling spirit, that, finding itself
eclipsed by the splendour of superior talents, strives
to obscure them by the aspersions of calumny, — what
are they that they should influence our estimation
of the character of this great man, who with his
ardent piety and the devotion of his faculties to the
glory of his Creator, is, amid all his imperfections, an
object w^orthy of our love and esteem. And such
he will remain, while the world endures, in the
view of every enlightened admirer of the wonder-
ful works of God.

His writings are characterized by extreme bre-
vity, nervousness, and precision. He expresses
in a dozen words what might be expanded into
half as many sentences. His style certainly is not
always pure, nor even on all occasions grammati-
cally correct. He was more desirous to instruct
than to entertain, and therefore his expressions are
weighed but not ornamented. Yet no teacher ever
excited such enthusiasm in his pupils ; and since the
world began has there been none wiio gave such an
impulse to the progress of natural history. They
who can sneer at such a man must be cold and
selfish indeed. " The language of Linnaeus," says
Cuvier, " is ingenious and singular. Its very sin-
gularity renders it attractive. His phraseology, and
even his titles, are figurative ; but his figures are in

LINN^US. 371

general highly expressive. With him, the various
means by which Nature ensures the reproduction of
plants are their nuptials ; the changes in the posi-
tion of their parts at night are their sleep; the
periods of the year at which they flower form the
calendar of Flora."

As an example of his manner, when treating of a
subject not technically described, we may present
his account of the plant to which he gave the name
of Andromeda : '' This most choice and beautiful
virgin gracefully erects her long and shining neck
(the peduncle), her face with its rosy lips (the co-
rolla) far excelling the best pigment. She kneels
on the ground with her feet bound (the lower part
of the stem incumbent), surrounded with water,
and fixed to a rock (a projecting clod), exposed to
frightful dragons (frogs and newts). She bends
her sorrowful face (the flower) towards the earth,
stretches up her innocent arms (the branches) to-
ward heaven, worthy of a better place and happier
fate, until the welcome Perseus (summer), after
conquering the monster, draws her out of the water
and renders her a fruitful mother, when she raises
her head (the fruit) erect." The analogy that gave
rise to this fanciful description, which is contained
in the Flora Lapponica, suggested itself to Linnaeus
on his Lapland journey. " The Chamaedaphne of
Buxbaum," says he, " was at this time in its highest
beauty, decorating the marshy grounds in a most
agreeable manner. The flowers are quite blood-red
before they expand, but when full grown the co-
rolla is of a flesh-colour. Scarcely any painter's art
can so happily imitate the beauty of a fine female
complexion ; still less could any artificial colour

372 LINN-EUS.

upon the face itself bear a comparison with this
lovely blossom. As I contemplated it^ I could not
help thinking of Andromeda as described by the
poets; and the more I meditated upon their de-
scriptions, the more applicable they seemed to the
little plant before me ; so that, if these writers had
had it in view, they could scarcely have contrived
a more apposite fable. Andromeda is represented
by them as a virgin of most exquisite and unri-
valled charms ; but these charms remain in perfec-
tion only so long as she retains her virgin purity,
which is also applicable to the plant, now preparing
to celebrate its nuptials. This plant is always fixed
on some little turfy hillock in the midst of the
swamps, as Andromeda herself was chained to a
rock in the sea, which bathed her feet, as the fresh
water does the roots of the plant. Dragons and ve-
nomous serpents surrounded her, as toads and other
reptiles frequent the abode of her vegetable proto-
type, and, when they pair in the spring, throw mud
and water over its leaves and branches. As the dis-
tressed virgin cast down her blushing face through
excessive affliction, so does the rosy-coloured flower
hang its head, growing paler and paler till it withers
away. Hence, as this plant forms a new genus, I
have chosen for it the name of Aiidromeda."

"■ Botany may be compared to one of those plants
which flower only once in a century. It first put
forth some seed-leaves in the reign of Alexander.
After the war of Mithridates, the victorious Romans
transported it to Rome, when the root-leaves began
to appear. Receiving no further cultivation, it
ceased to grow. It was next carried from Italy to
Arabia, where it remained until the twelfth century.

LINNAEUS. 373

It then languished in France during three centuries ;
its root-leaves began to wither, and the plant was
ready to perish. Towards the sixteenth century,
however, it yielded a slight flower (Csesalpinus),
so frail that the gentlest breeze might seem sufficient
to detach it from its slender stalk. This flower bore
no fruit. Towards the seventeenth century, the
stem, which had been so long without appearing,
shot up to a great height ; but its leaves were few,
and no flower appeared. In the early spring of this
happy period, however, when a gentle warmth had
succeeded the frosts of winter, this stem yielded a
fresh flower, to which succeeded a fruit (C. Bauhin)
that nearly attained maturity. Soon after, this splen
did stem was surrounded with numerous leaves and
flowers."

These figurative descriptions, however, have no
place in the more technical writings of Linnaeus,
where, on the contrary, all is brief, clear, and pre-
cise ; but, as we have already presented some speci-
mens of these, it is mmecessary to make any addi-
tional remarks.

Notwithstanding the attacks that have been made
on his mineralogical system, it is at least deserv-
ing of praise, as showing the practicability of ar-
ranging the objects belonging to this kingdom of
nature according to strict method. In botany his
merits were transcendent, and with the mention of
that science his name is uniformly associated. He
found it in a rude and unsettled state, and left it
so admirably disposed, that the beauty and prac-
tical utility of his method recommended it to the
cultivators of science in all countries. Nor were
his labours in the animal kingdom less successful.

374 LINN^US.

The general principles of classification which he
introduced, his invention of specific names, his im-
provements in nomenclature and terminology, and
the wonderful precision of his descriptions, rendered
the study of these sciences as pleasing and easy as
it had previously been irksome and laborious.

All systems flourish and fade. The mineralogy
of Linnaeus has perished ; his zoology, cut down to
the root, has sent forth a profusion of luxuriant
shoots ; and although his botany maintains as yet
a strong claim upon the admiration of the lovers of
nature, a fairer plant has sprung up beside it, which
promises a richer harvest of golden fruits. But
should the period ever arrive when all that belonged
to him of mere system and technicology shall be
obliterated, he will not the less be remembered as a
bright luminary in the dark hemisphere of natural
science, which served for a time to throw a useful
light around, and led observers to surer paths of
observation than had previously been known.

LINNiEUS. • 375

SECTION XII.

Catalogue of the Works of Linnceus.

Hortus Uplandicus — Flonila Lapponica — Systema Naturae — Hy-
pothesis Nova de Febrium Intermittentiura Causa — Fundamenta
Botanica — Bibliotheca Botanica — Musa ClifFortiana — Genera
Plantarum — Viridarium ClifFortianura — Caroli Linnaei CoroUa-
rium Generum Plantarum — Flora Lapponica — Hortus Cliffortia-
nus — Critica Botanica — Petri Artedi, Sueci iMedici, Ichthyolo-
gia — Classes Plantarum, seu Systema Plantarum — Oratio de
Meraorabilibus in Insectis — Orbis Eruditi Judicium de C. Lin-
naei Scriptis — Oratio de Peregrinationum intra Patriam Necessi-
tate— Oratio de Telluris Habitabilis Incremento — Flora Suecica
— Animalia Sueciae — Oelandska och Gothlandska Resa — Fauna
Sueciae Regni — Flora Zeylanica — Wiistgotha Resa — Hortus Up-
saliensis — Materia Medica Regni Vegetabilis — Materia Medica
Regni Animalis — Skanska Resa — Philosophia Botanica — Materia
Medica Regni Lapidei — Species Plantarum — Museum Tessinia-
num — Museum Regis Adolphi Suecorum — Frederici Hasselquist
Iter Palestinum — Petri Loeflingii Iter Hispanicura — Oratio Regia
— DisquisitioQuaestionis,ab Acad. Imper. Scientiarum Petropoli-
tanae, in annum 1759 pro Praemio, Propositae — Genera Morborum
— Museum Reginae Louisae Ulricas — Claris Medica Duplex —
Mantissa Plantarum — Mantissa Plantarum altera — DeliciEe Na-
turae— Essays printed in the Transactions of the Academies of
Upsal and Stockholm.

]. Hortus Uplandicus, sive enumeratio planta-
rum exoticarum Uplandiae, quae in hortis vel agris
coluntur, imprimis autem in horto Academico Up-
saliensi. Upsal, 1731. 160 pages 8vo. This is
the first work published by Linnaeus, and in it the
plants are already disposed according to the sexual
system.

376 LINNiEUS.

2. Florala Lapponica, quae continet catalogum
plantarum, quas per provincias Lapponicas Westro-
bothnienses observavit C. Linnaeus. It was written
in 1732, and inserted in the Acta Litteraria Suecise
of the same year, but only in part, the second sec-
tion having appeared in the same collection in 1735.

3. Systema Naturae, sive Regna Tria Naturae,
systematice proposita, per classes, ordines, genera
et species. Lugd. Batav. apud Haak, 1735. 14
pages folio. Of this work we have already spoken
at considerable length. The two editions most in
use are that of 1766-68, published at Stockholm,
being the last that appeared under the author's in-
spection, and the enlarged but ill-digested one of
Gmelin, published in 1788-1792 at Leipsic.

4. Hypothesis Nova de Febrium Intermittentium
Causa. Harderovici, 1735. 4to. This is Linnaeus's
thesis, written when he took his medical degree at
Harderwyk in Holland.

5. Fundamenta Botanica, quae majorum operum
prodromi instar, theoriam scientiae botanicse per
breves aphorismos tradunt. Amst. 1736, apud
Schouten. 36 pages 12mo. There have been eight
editions of this tract, of which the last was published
at Paris in 1774. 8vo.

6. Bibliotheca Botanica, recensens libros plus
mille de plantis, hue usque editos secundum sys-
tema auctorum naturale, in classes, ordines, genera
et species dispositos, &c. Amstelod. 1736, apud
Schouten. 136 pages 12mo. There have been two
other editions ; the last of which appeared at Am-
sterdam in 1751.

7. Musa Cliffortiana, Florens Hartecampi prope
Harlemum. Lugd. Batav. 1736. 40 pages 4to,

LINN.EUS. 377

8. Genera Plantarum earumque characteres na-
turales, secundum numerum, figuram, situm et
proportionem omnium fructificationis partium. Lugd.
Batav. apud Wishof, 1737- 384 pages 8vo. The
last edition^ corrected by Linnaeus^ was published
at Stockholm in 1764. It contains 1239 genera.
Five other editions have appeared since ; the two
last by Schreber and Hanke.

9. Viridarium Cliffortianum. Amst. 1737- 8vo.

10. Caroli Linnaei Corollarium Generum Plan-
tarum; cui accedit Methodus Sexualis. Lugd.
Batav. 1737. 8vo.

11. Flora Lapponica^ exhibens plantas per Lap-
poniam crescentes, secundum systema sexuale, col-
lectas itinere impensis Societ. Reg. Litterar. Scien-
tar. Suecise, anno 1732 instituta, additis synonymis^
&c. Amstelod. apud Schouten, 1737- An improved
edition was published by Sir J. E. Smithy London,
1792.

12. Hortus Cliffortianus. Amst. I737. One vol.
folio.

13. Critica Botanica, in qua nomina plantarum
generica, specifica et variantiaexaminisubjiciuntur,
selectiora confirmantur, indigna rejiciuntur simul-
que doctrina circa denominationem plantarum tra-
ditur ; cui accedit Browalii Discursus de introdu-
cenda in scholas Historiae Naturalis lectione. Lugd.
Batav. apud Wishof, 1 737- A second edition, with
a Dissertation on the Life and Writings of Linnaeus,
was given by J. E. Gilibert in 1788.

14. Petri Artedi, Sueci Medici, Ichthyologia,
sive opera omnia de Piscibus j scilicet Bibliotheca
Ichthyologica ; Genera Piscium; Synonyma Spe-
cierum et Descriptiones ; omnia in hoc genera per-

378 LINNiEUS.

fectiora quam antea ulla. Posthuma vindicavit,
recognovit, coaptavit et edidit C. Linnseus. Lugd.
Batav. apud Wishof, 1738. A second edition, by
Walbauni;, appeared at Gryphishaw in 1788-1791.
3 vols 4to.

15. Classes Plantarum, seu Systema Plantarum ;
omnia a fructificatione desumpta, quorum sexdeeim
universalia et tredecim particularia, compendiose
proposita secundum classes, ordines et nomina ge-
nerica, cum clave cujusvis methodi et synonymis
genericis. Lugd. Batav. apud Wishof, 1738. A
second edition came out in 1747-

16. Oratio de Memorabilibus in Insectis, in Swe-
dish. Stockholm, 1739. 8vo. There have been
seven editions in Swedish, German, and Latin, one
of which was inserted in the Amsenitates Acade-
micae.

17. Orbis Eruditi Judicium de C. Linnsei Scriptis.
Upsal, 1741. This pamphlet was published ano-
nymously by Linnseus, to vindicate himself against
the attacks of Wallerius. A second edition by Stoe-
ver, in his Collectio Epistolarum Caroli a Linne.
Hamburg, 1792.

18. Oratio de Peregrinationum intra Patriam
Necessitate. Upsal, 1742. 4to. This oration was
delivered by Linnseus when he assumed his profes-
sorial functions. It is also inserted in the Amseni-
tates Academicae.

19. Oratio de Telluris Habitabilis Incremento.
Upsal, 1743. 4to.

20. Flora Suecica, exhibens plantas, per Regnum
Suecise crescentes, systematice cum diiferentiis spe-
cierum, synonymis auctorum, nominibus incolarum,
solo locorum, usu pharmacopseorum. Lugd. Batav.

I

LINNiEUS. 379

apud Wishof, 1745. A second edition was printed
at Stockholm, 1755.

21. Animalia Suecise. Holm. 1745. 8vo.

22. Oeliindska och Gothlandska Resa. Travels
in CEland and Gothland. Stock, och Upsal, 1745.
This work was translated into German by Schreber,
1763.

23. Fauna Sueciae Regni, IMammalia, Aves, Am-
phibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes; distributaperclasses,
ordines, genera et species. Holm, apud Salvium,
1746. A second edition also at Stockholm, 1761.

24. Flora Zeylanica, sistens plantas Indicas Zey-
lonae Insulae, quoe olim 1670-1677^ lectse fuere a
Paulo Hermanno. Holm. 1747. A second im-
pression was executed at Leipsic, 1748.

25. Wastgotha Resa. Travels in West Goth-
land. Stockholm, 1747- Translated into German
by Schreber, 1765.

26. Hortus Upsaliensis, exhibens plantas exoticas
horto Upsaliensis Academise a Car. Linnseo illatas
ab anno 1742, in annum 1748, additis differentiis,
synonymis, habitationibus, hospitiis, rariorumque
descriptionibus, in gratiam studiosae juventutis.
Holm. 1748.

27. Materia Medica Regni Vegetabilis. Holm.
1749. 8vo.

28. Materia IMedica Regni Animalis. Upsal,
1750.

29. Skanska Resa. Travels in Scania. Stock-
holm, 1749. 434 pages 8v^. Translated into Ger-
man by KleiUj vol. i. The rest has not appeared.

30. Philosophia Botanica, in qua explicantur
fund amenta botanica, cum definitionibus partium.

380 LINN^US.

exemplis terminorum, observationibus rariorunij ad-
jectis figuris. Holm, apud Kiesewetter, 1751. 362
pages 8vo. Seven editions have been published of
this splendid work. It has also been translated into
English by Rose, and into Spanish by Capdevila.

31 . Materia Medica Regni Lapidei. Upsal, 1752.
The three parts of the IVIateria Medica were publish-
ed separately, and the two last have been inserted
in the Amaenitates Academicae. Two editions were
afterwards required by the scientific world.

32. Species Plantarum, exhibens plantas rite
cognitas, ad genera relatas cum differentiis specificis,
nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis na-
talibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. Holm,
apud Salvium. 2 vols 8vo, 1753. Two other
editions have since appeared, the last by Trattner in
1764.

33. Museum Tessinianum, Opera Comitis C.
G. Tessin, Regis Regnique Senatoris, coUectum.
Latin and Swedish. Stockholm, 1753.

34. Museum Regis Adolphi Suecorum, &c., in quo
Animalia rariora imprimis Exotica, Quadrupedia,
Aves_, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes describun-
tur et determinantur. In Latin and Swedish.
Stockholm, 1754. Folio, with 35 plates. The
preface has been translated into English by Sir
J. E. Smith, and published under the title of Lin-
naeus's Reflections on the Study of Nature.

35. Frederic! Hasselquist Iter Palestinum ; Ella
resa til heliga landet. Holm. 1757- These travels
have been translated into German, French, and
English.

36. Petri Loeflingii Iter Hispanicum ; Ella resa

LINNiEUS. 381

til Spanksa landerna, uti Europa och America, &c.
Holm. 1758. 8vo. This work was translated into
English by the Forsters. London, 1771-

37. Oratio Regia, coram rege reginaque habita.
1759. Folio. This is to be found also in the Amae-
nitates Academicse.

38. Disquisitio Quaestionis, ab Acad. Imper. Scien-
tiarum Petropolitanse, in annum 1759 pro Praemio,
Propositae : Sexum Plantarum argumentis et experi-
mentis novis, &c. Petropol. 1760. This essay has
been inserted in the Trans, of the Petersburg Aca-
demy of Sciences, vol. vii. 1761 ; and in the 22d
volume of the Journal Encyclopedique. A trans-
lation also published in London in 1786. 8vo.

39. Genera Morborum, Upsal, 1763. Three edi-
tions.

40. Museum Reginse Louisae Ulricae, in quo Ani-
malia rariora Exotica, imprimis Insecta et Conchylia
describuntur et determinantur ; et Musei Regis
Adolphi prodromus tomi secundi. Holm. 1764.

41. Clavis Medica Duplex, exterior et interior.
Holm. 1763.

42. Mantissa Plantarum, generum editionis sextae
et specierum editionis secundae. Holm. 1767-

43. Mantissa Plantarum altera. Holm. I77I.

44. Deliciae Naturae, an oration delivered in 1772.
It was translated into Swedish by Linnaeus himself,
at the request of the students, and published at
Stockholm, 1773. 8vo. The Latin edition has also
been printed in the Amaenitates Academicae.

Besides the above works, of which the Systema
Naturae alone would have sufficed to immortalize
its author, he published numerous essays on various

382 LINN.EUS.

subjects in the Transactions of the Academies of
Sciences of Upsal and Stockholm.

In the Transactions of the Upsal Academy : —

1. Animalia Regni Sueciae, 1738.

2. Orchides, iisque affines, 1740.

3. Decern Plantarum genera nova^ 1741.

4. Euporista in Febribus intermittentibus^
1742.

5. Pini usus oeconomicus, 1743.

6. Abietis usus oeconomicus, 1744.

7. Sexus Plantarum, 1744.

8. Scabiosse novae speciei descriptio, 1744.

9. Penthorum, 1744.

10. Euporista in Dysenteria, 1745.

11. Sexus Plantarum usus oeconomicus, 1746.

12. Theffi potus, 1746.

13. Cyprini speciei descriptio, 1746.

In the Transactions of the Stockholm Royal
Academy of Sciences ; —

Vol. I. 1739-40.

1. Cultura plantarum naturalis.

2. Gluten Lapponum e Perca.

3. OEstrus rangiferinus.

4. Picus pedibus tridactylis.

5. Mures Alpini Lemures.

6. Passer nivalis.

7. Piscis aureus Chinensium. -

8. Fundamenta oeconomiae.

Vol. II. 1741.
9. Formicarum sexus.

LINNiEUS. 383

10. Officinales Sueciae Plantae.

11. Centuria Plantarum in Suecia rariorum.

Vol. III. 1742.

12. Plantse Tinctorise Indigense.

13. Amaryllis forraosissima.

14. Gramen Soelting.

15. Foenum Suecicum.

16. Phaseoli Chinensis species.

17. Epilepsia vernensis causa.

Vol. IV. 1743.

18. De Uva Ursi seu Jackas Hapuck Sinus Hud-
sonici.

Vol. V. 1744.

19. Fagopyrum Sibiricum.

20. Petiveria.

Vol. VI. 1745

21. Passer procellarius.

Vol. VII. 1746.

22. Lininia.

23. Claytonia Sibirica.

24. De vermibus lucentibus ex China.

Vol. X. 1749.

25. Coluber (Chersea) scutis abdominalibus 150^
squamis subcaudalibus 34.

26. Avis Sommar Guling appellata.

27. Musca Frit, insectum quod grana interius
exedit.

28. Emberiza Ciris.

384 LINNiEUS.

Vol. XIII. 1752.

29. De Characteribus Anguium.

Vol. XIV. 1753.

30. Novae duse Tabaci species, paniculata et glu-
tinosa.

Vol. XV. 1754.

31. De plantis quae Alpium Suecicarum indige-
nse fieri possint.

32. Simise, ex Cercopithecorum genere, descrip-
tio.

Vol. XVI. 1755.

33. Mirabilis longiflorse descriptio.

34. Lepidii descriptio.

35. Ayenise descriptio.

36. Gaurse descriptio.

37. Loeflingia et Minuartia.

Vol. XX. 1759.

38. Entomolithus paradoxus descriptus.

39. Gemma, penna-pavonis dicta.

40. Coccus Uvae Ursi.

Vol. XXIII. 1763.

41. De Rubo arctico plantando.

Vol. XXIV. 1764.

42. Observationes ad cerevisiam pertinentes.

Vol. XXIX. 1769.

43. Animalis Brasiliensis descriptio.

44. Viverrae naricse descriptio.

LINNiEUS. 385

45. Simla (Edipus.

46. Gordius Medinensis.

Vol. XXXI. 1770.

47. Calceolarige pinnatae descriptio.

Many of the doctrines discussed in the course of
his lectures were converted by his pupils into subjects
of academical dissertations. These were published by
him, under the name of Amaenitates Academicae, —
a collection which comprises many admirable essays
in natural history, medicine, domestic and rural
economy. The first volume appeared in 1749, the
seventh and last in 1769. An edition in ten vo-
lumes, containing also the later essays of LinnaBUs
himself, was published by Schreber in 1785-91.
Selections from the Amaenitates have also been
printed in English and German.

It has been judged necessary to give at least the
titles of the numerous works of Linnaeus, because
the list may be useful to those desirous of examining
them generally, or of referring to a particular trea-
tise. The influence which they exercised upon the
advancement of science, and especially upon that of
botany and zoology, we shall have occasion to notice
in the second volume of the present work.

2a

386 LINN^US.

SECTION XIII.

A brief Notice of Linnceus's Son.

Unnatural Conduct of the Mother of the Younger Linnaeus — His
Birth and Education — In his eighteenth Year he is appointed
Demonstrator of Botany, and, three Years after. Conjunct Pro-
fessor of Natural Historj' — He visits England, France, Holland,
Germany, and Denmark — On returning engages in the Dis-
charge of his Duties ; hut at Stockholm is seized with Fever,
which ends in Apoplexy, by which he is carried off— His Cha-
racter and Funeral.

Although the younger Linnaeus has been consider-
ed as a botanist rather than a zoologist, a brief notice
of him may be suitably appended to the biography of
his father, more especially as he can scarcely be said
to have possessed an independent existence, either
as a man or as a naturalist. The victim of domestic
tyranny, he seems to have lost whatever energy he
might originally have possessed, and to have passed
through life without being influenced by those power-
ful motives which usually impel ambitious men in
their career. His mother, who in her conduct to-
wards him bore some resemblance to the infamous
mother of Savage the poet, entirely broke his spirit,
which perhaps was never of the most ardent or aspir-
ing description. Not content with making his home
as imcomfortable as she could, she conceived a posi-
tive hatred for her only .son, which she displayed by

LINN^US. 387

every affront and persecution that her situation gave
her the means of inflicting on his susceptible and
naturally amiable mind.*

Charles Linnaeus was born on the 20th January
1741, at the house of his maternal grandfather,
Moraeus, at Fahlun. From his earliest childhood
he was encouraged by his father in the attachment
which he manifested to natural objects, especially
plants ; and when only ten years old, he knew by
name most of those which were cultivated in the
botanic garden at Upsal. A stranger, however, to
the '' stimulus of necessity," which had urged his
parent to surmount every obstacle, he appears not
to have exhibited any indications of enterprise or en-
thusiasm. Notwithstanding this, in his eighteenth
year, he was appointed demonstrator in the botanical
garden, and at the age of twenty-one commenced
authorship by publishing a decade of rare plants.
Within twelve months another decade was pro-
duced, but the work was discontinued, for what
reason is not known. In 1763, he was nominated
conjunct professor of botany, with the promise
that after his father's death he should succeed him
in all his academical functions. In 1765, he took
his degree of doctor of medicine, and began to give
lectures ; but, owing to the causes already alluded
to, his fondness for science soon degenerated into
disgust.

When he was thirty-seven years of age his
father died, and he succeeded to his offices ; but
his mother forced him to pay for the library, ma-
nuscripts, herbarium, and other articles, which he

* Life by Sir J. E. Smith.

388 LINN^US.

ought to have inherited. However, a stimulus was
thereby imparted which roused him from his lethar-
gy, and he began in earnest to discharge the duties
that were imposed upon him, among which were
the arrangement of his father's papers, and the
superintendence of new editions of several of his
works. A third mantissa or supplement to the Sys-
tema Vegetabilium, left in manuscript by Linnaeus,
and enlarged by his son, was published at Bruns-
wick in 1781, under the care of Ehrhart.

The young lecturer had long been desirous of tra-
velling, but during his father's life had found it
impossible to gratify his inclination. Being now his
own master, he prepared to visit the principal coun-
tries of Europe ; and, as Thunberg had been appoint-
ed demonstrator of botany, the government granted
him permission. Want of money, however, pre-
sented an obstacle ; to overcome which he found it
necessary to borrow a sum of his friend Baron
Alstroemer, to whom he resigned his juvenile her-
barium in pledge. At London, where he arrived
in May 1781, he was received with enthusiasm,
and treated with every possible attention by his
father's friends and correspondents, especially Sir
Joseph Banks, in whose house he principally re-
sided. Here he occupied himself in preparing se-
veral works, such as a System of the Mammalia,
and a Treatise on the Liliacese and Palms ; but an
attack of jaundice interrupted his pursuits, and his
happiness was further diminished by the death of
his friend Solander.

On recovering from his illness, he proceeded to
Paris in the end of August, accompanied by I\I.
Broussonet. In that capital he was loaded with all

LINN^US. 389

the attentions which were due to the son of Linnaeus,
and passed the winter among a circle of learned
and ingenious persons. In the spring of 1782, he
visited Holland, where he inspected the gardens
and museums, and received, as in England and
France, the most valuable contributions to his col-
lections. He next proceeded to Hamburg, from
whence he went to Kiel to visit his friend Fa-
bricius, the great entomologist. At Copenhagen
he experienced the same respectful kindness as in
the other great cities. In January 1783, he went to
Gottenburg, to render his homage of gratitude to
Baron Alstroemer, and in February returned to
Upsal.

By this journey he had increased his knowledge,
established useful connexions, collected many va-
luable specimens, and emancipated himself from
the state of listlessness into which he had previously
fallen. Hopes were entertained that he might prove
a worthy successor to the legislator of natural his-
tory ; and there is no reason to doubt that he would
at least have acquitted himself honourably in the
discharge of his duties.

But in the month of August he had occasion to go to
Stockholm, where he was seized with a bilious fever,
which, however, soon abated, so that he was able
to return home. There he experienced a relapse ;
and having imprudently exposed himself to the cold
and damp of the apartment in which his collections
were kept, a third accession of fever came on, ac-
companied with apoplexy, which carried him off on
the 1st of November 1783, in the forty-second year
of his age.

He is said to have possessed a vigorous frame of

390 LINNJEUS.

body, and even to have inherited his father's looks^but
vsrithout his energy, his activity, his consciousness
of talent, or his love of adulation. He was, on the
contrary, gentle and retired. Had he really been
endowed with genius similar to that of his parent,
he must have distinguished his career, brief as it
was, by some meritorious performance. But it is
no doubt wisely ordered that superiority of intellect
should not, like the distinctions conferred by birth
and fortune, be hereditary.

His remains were solemnly deposited, on the 30th
of November, in the cathedral at Upsal, close to
those of his father. A funeral oration was pro-
nounced by M. Von Schulzenheim ; and as the
male line of the family had become extinct, his coat
of arms was broken in pieces. The gardener of the
university then strewed flowers over the grave " of
a generation that," to use the words of one of its
historians, " will remain great and imperishable as
long as the earth, and Nature, and her science shall
exist I"

After the death of this young man, the collections,
library, and even the manuscripts, of his father,
were offered for sale, and purchased by Sir James
Edward Smith, the founder of the Linnsean So-
ciety of London. They are now in the posses-
sion of that illustrious body, whose labours have
tended so much to forward the progress of natural
history in general, and of botany in particular.
The herbarium, which is contained in two deal
presses, similar to the model described in the Phi-
losophia Botanica, is to the botanist an object of
great interest, and has been the means of elucidat-
ing many doubtful points. The building in which

LINN.EUS. 391

his museum was kept at Hammarby, although it
now contains only the chair in which he sat when
delivering his lectures, and a stuffed crocodile sus-
pended from the roof, continues to attract the no-
tice of strangers^ who generally carry away with
them a specimen of the hinncea, which grows pro-
fusely in the neighbourhood.

It may be mentioned, in conclusion, that the wi-
dow of the great Swedish naturalist survived him
fourteen years, having died in 1806, after attaining
the 94th year of her age.

THE END.

Printed by Oliver & Boyd,
Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh,

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