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Webster Family Library of Veterinary Medi
Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine
Tufts University
200 Westboro Road

LIVE STOCK
OF THE FARM

:il»A' TTfeJbBEii^

]OHN, I.ORO SOMERVILT-E
1765-11^:9

PrcsideiU of tlie Board of Agriculture

Reproduced by the courtesy of the Royal Agricultural Socitny of England

from the plate in the Society's Journal for 1S97

LIVE STOCK
OF THE FARM

BY MANY SPECIALISTS
UNDER THE EDITORSHIP OF

PROFESSOR C. BRYNER JONES

M.Sc, F.H.A.S.

Agricultural Commissioner for Wales under
the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries and
Chairman of the Welsh Agricultural Council

VOLUME m
HORSES

THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY LTD.

66 Chandos Street, Covent Garden, London

ei J o

CONTENTS

VOLUME III

CHAPTER I

BREEDS OF HORSES

I. HEAVY HORSES

Faee

Clydesdales By Archibald Macneilage \

Shires By Walter Crosland 1 1

SUFFOLKS By Edward C. Ash, M.R.A.C. 20

CHAPTER H

BREEDS OF HORSES

2. LIGHT HORSES AND PONIES

Cleveland Bays and Yorkshire Coach Horses — Hackneys —
Hunters — Thoroughbreds — Connemara Ponies— Dartmoor
Ponies— ExMOOR Ponies— Fell Ponies— Harness Ponies —
Highland Ponies— New Forest Ponies— Polo Ponies— Shet-
land Ponies By W. Scarth Dixon

Welsh Ponies and Cobs By D. D. Williams, M.R.A.S.E.^ F.H.A.S.

29
79

vi Contents

CHAPTER III

THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF
HEAVY HORSES

By George Macqueen

Page

The Heavy Horse— The Mare— The StalHon— Treatment of Colts-
Treatment of Young Stallions — Hiring Stallions — Care of the Foal —
Artificial Rearing — The Growing Colt — The Working Horse of the
Farm — Management of Working Horses — The Stable — The Street
Horse — Profitable Heavy-Horse Breeding for Farmers - - - 85

CHAPTER IV

THE MANAGEMENT OF LIGHT HORSES
By W. ScARTH Dixon

The Brood Mare and Young Stock — Foaling and the Foal — Weaning the
Foal — The Care of Young Horses — Showing — Breaking and Market-
ing— The Feeding of Light Horses — Profitable Light- Horse Breeding
for Farmers 141

CHAPTER V

COMMON DISEASES OF THE HORSE
By T. Eaton Jones, F.R.C.V.S.

Hereditary Diseases — Some Common Diseases of the Horse — Parasites
— Foaling and the Diseases Attendant thereon — Shoeing and its
Accompanying Diseases — Hints to Horse Owners - - - - 167

LIST OF PLATES

VOLUME III

P»ge

Lord Somerville Frontispiece

Clydesdale Stallion — "Baronet of Ballindalloch" .... 4

Clydesdale Filly — *• Nannie " 5

Shire Stallion — "Gaer Conqueror" 12

Shire Mare — "Dunsmore Chessie" --13

Suffolk Stallion — " Sudboume Peter " 33

Suffolk Mare — "Sudboume Lassie" i^t

Cleveland Bay Stallion—" Cholderton Luck " 48

Cleveland Bay Mare — " Hawthorn Beauty ", with Foal - - - 49

Yorkshire Coaching Stallion — "Renown" 56

Yorkshire Coaching Mare — " Rillington Attraction " - - - 57

Hackney Stallion—" Royal Danegelt " 64

Hackney Mare— "Adbolton St. Mary" 65

Hunter Gelding — "Splendour" 80

Hunter Thoroughbred Mare— " Fair Geraldine " - - - - 81

Thoroughbred Stallion— "Arthur D." 96

Thoroughbred Mare — "Sceptre" 97

Typical Connemara Pony with Foal by an Arab Horse - - 112

Dartmoor Ponies 113

Exmoor Ponies 128

Fell Pony

129

Highland Pony Mare— "Ulva" 144

vii

viil List of Plates

Page

New Forest Pony Stallion 145

Polo Pony — "Re-echo" 160

Shetland Pony Stallion— "Helmet of Earlshall" - - - - 161

Welsh Pony Stallion— "Bleddfa Shooting Star" - - - - 176

Welsh Cob Stallion— "King Flyer" 177

Presentation in the Mare 228

Horseshoes 244

LIVE STOCK OF THE FARM

VOLUME III

CHAPTER I
BREEDS OF HORSES— i. HEAVY HORSES

Clydesdales

By ARCHIBALD MACNEILAGE

Scotland had a good breed of horses from a very early period.
Of the early history of the Clydesdale breed it is difficult to speak
with certainty. The writer has dealt at considerable length with
this subject elsewhere, and it is hardly necessary here to say more,
with respect to the place of origin of the breed, than that the dis-
tricts of Clydesdale and Avondale would appear to have been the
home of its ancestors, if a home is to be found for them anywhere.
The draught horse as we know it, is obviously the creation of a
much later period than that in which the early Stuart kings are said
to have done something to improve the native breed. It is a type
which was only evolved after the conditions of the country became
favourable to the peaceful art of breeding, and the demand for such
a horse arose. The peace following the Revolution settlement of
1689, the Union of 1707, the development of trade, and the making
of roads, all these called for a horse that could pull as well as carry,
and the type of horse required was produced by the farmers of
Clydesdale. The foundation was already there; it is only a question
of how this foundation was built upon. Tradition affirms that it
was through the introduction of Flemish blood that improvement
was first effected. Whether Flemish stallions were imported by
John Paterson of Lochlyoch, or by the sixth Duke of Hamilton —
and there is no reason why John Paterson should not have had a

Vol III. I 84

2 Breeds of Horses \

Flemish stallion at Lochlyoch about 1715-20, and the sixth Duke
of Hamilton another in Avondale from 1742-58 — the probability
is that the " nag " which served the upland farmer in the days of
bridle paths was improved in quality as well as in size by the use
of sires belonging to an alien race which was larger and stronger
than the native breed. We know that an English horse named
Blaze was introduced about 1780 by another of the Patersons of
Lochlyoch, and this horse is spoken of as late as 1836 as "having
founded the famous Clydesdale breed of horses ", truly a somewhat
generous tribute to the influence of one horse. It must be borne in
mind, however, that careful selection and treatment of the stock
descended from him and the native Lanarkshire mares would, nc
doubt, bring about a wonderful amount of improvement.

There can be no doubt that in Clydesdale, Avondale, and
Galloway, there was at the time when improvement in the modern
sense began to take place, a native breed of thick, heavy, short-
legged and active horses which served as an excellent foundation.
It seems clear from the accounts that we possess that the develop-
ment of the Clydesdale breed of to-day is due not so much to the
influence of any one horse, but to the blending of the blood of
several horses of the draught type with that of the native foun-
dation stock, in which the distinctive characteristics of the modern
Clydesdale can be clearly traced. The essential characteristics of
the modern breed were in a great measure to be found in the native
stock, and were not imposed on the breed by Blaze or any other
horse.

Reference has already been made to Lochlyoch. The Lochlyoch
mares had a high reputation in the early part of the nineteenth
century, and a mare now famous as "the Lampits mare", descended
from the Lochlyoch stock if not actually bred at Lochlyoch, is
credited by some with having been the dam of Thompson's black
horse Glancer (335). The writer, however, has given his reasons
elsewhere for being doubtful as to the truth of this; and for taking
the view that too much has perhaps been made of the supposed
connection between " the Lampits mare " and the modern Clydes-
dale breed through Glancer (335).

There can be no question as to the influence of the black horse
Glancer (335) himself on the breed; it is unquestionable that some
of the most noteworthy tribes in the Clydesdale world are descended
from this horse. The line of descent is through Broomfield Cham-
pion (95). This great horse left a lasting impression on the breed
in Clydesdale. He has been identified also with a horse known as
Aberdeen Champion in the North of Scotland. His most notable

Clydesdales 3

descendant was Clyde alias Glancer (153), known as "Fulton's
Ruptured Horse", probably rather a coarse horse if judged by the
present standard, but a most impressive sire. His best-known sons
were Clyde alias Prince of Wales (155), a first-prize winner at the
Highland and Agricultural Society's show; Farmer <7/?V?j Sproulston
(290), which made history in Bute and Wigtownshire; Erskine's
Farmer's P'ancy (298), which secured high honours at the national
shows, and left a strong impression on the Clydesdales of Kintyre;
Muircock (550), a great horse of strong individuality which travelled
in Renfrewshire and north Ayrshire; Prince Charlie (625), a grey
horse which travelled for many a day in the lower district or
Machars of Wigtownshire; Barr's Prince Royal (647), a phenome-
nally successful show horse, and sire of show winners in Renfrew-
shire; and Baasay (21), not a show horse, but evidently a horse of
great individuality which bred useful stock in Renfrewshire. These
seven stallions made the Clydesdale breed in ^he West of Scotland
Their influence was all-pervading there, and even beyond, although
other sires share the honours with them in the south, west, and
north.

As the writer has indicated in another article on this subject,
the modern era in Clydesdale breeding in Galloway is connected
with the names of several gentlemen more or less closely identified
with Lanarkshire. The family of the Muirs went from Sornfallo,
on the slopes of Tinto, to the Stewartry in 1840, and took with
them horses and mares of the true Clydesdale stamp. These were
mated with the native stocks referred to in an earlier part of this
article, and the combination gave the world the Clydesdale of the
closing half of the nineteenth century. Lanarkshire horses, how-
ever, had been imported into Galloway before 1840. The system of
hiring seems to have begun very early in that part of the country.
Samson (1288), a Lanarkshire horse, foaled 1827 or 1828, and his
grandsire, a horse named Smiler, which must have been foaled very
early in the century, both travelled in the district. John Muir
came from Sornfallo to the Banks about 1840; his brother James
had a few years earlier come from Sornfallo to Maidland, Wigtown.
Both brought Clydesdales in their train, and to this fact may be
traced the breeding of one of the epoch-making horses, Lochfergus
Champion (449). The Rhins of Galloway was the scene of the
early rivalry of Colonel M'Douall of Logan, and Mr. Robert
Anderson, Drumore, for the Clydesdale supremacy. In 1835 the
latter introduced Old Farmer (576), and a black mare, Old Tibbie,
and her neighbour from Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire. But the
Lanarkshire foundation had been drawn upon at an even earlier

4 Breeds of Horses

date. Agnew's Farmer (292), from Balscalloch, Stranraer, won a
£^0 premium at the Highland and Agricultural Society's show at
Dumfries in 1830, and his sire was a horse named Clydeside,
which could hardly have borne that name unless he had come from
the valley of the Clyde.

The Clydesdales of the peninsula of Kintyre are clearly de-
scended from the Lanarkshire centre, and the subsequent history of
the race is linked with that of the mainland, and in particular of
the Rhins of Galloway, through Rob Roy (714), a very notable
horse, which travelled both in Kintyre and Wigtownshire. The
first improvement from the native Highland garron is credited to a
black horse or black horses brought into the peninsula by the laird
of Lee in Lanarkshire, who then also owned land in Kintyre. Its
subsequent development during the years under review is closel)-
associated with the horses Farmer's Fancy (298), of the main
trunk line from Broomfield Champion (95); Rob Roy (714), whose
" pedigree " in the usual acceptance of that term is doubtful ; Largs
Jock (444), which belongs to the same Ayrshire race as the cele-
brated Sir Walter Scott (797), the champion at the Royal Inter-
national Show at Battersea in 1862; and Lome (499), a horse
which lived long and left many foals.

The connection between the North of Scotland and the North
of England as Clydesdale breeding areas and the home of the
Clydesdale can easily be traced, but the original elements were not
:he same as in the districts north of the Tweed and Solway, to
which reference has been made. Shire horses undoubtedly travelled
in both localities, and left their mark on the produce. In Aberdeen-
shire there is evidence that the laird of Pitfour imported what he
called Suffolk stallions, although from the descriptions of these
horses it may fairly be doubted whether they were of the race of
the famous sorrels or chestnuts so long bred in East Anglia. It is
more than probable that the Pitfour stallions came from East
Anglia, but the roughness of their legs suggests the Fen country
as their home, and the old English Cart Horse as their ancestor.
There were, however, Suffolk stallions in Buchan, and one of them
was quite well remembered by farmers thirty years ago. Cum-
berland and Westmorland, although aiming at Clydesdales, must
acknowledge some indebtedness to Shires. As cart horses no class
of Clydesdales are more valuable than those bred in these districts.

The main connecting link between Lanarkshire and Cumberland
is Pringle's Young Clyde (949), bred in 1826 near Hyndford Bridge,
Lanarkshire. The other lines of breeding there are all more or less
closely identified with the Clydesdale centres. Blyth (79), a horse

T

Clydesdales 5

with coaching blood in his veins, was bred in West Lothian, and
related on the sire's side to Broomfield Champion (95). He founded
a grey line, which colour has been strikingly displayed in Cumber-
land families of the highest reputation. His son. Young Blyth
(923), was also grey, and travelled both in Cumberland and Aber-
deenshire. The grey Glenelgs (357) were descended from Young
Clyde (949), and had a similar record. Both Blyths and Glenelg
were prizewinners at the Highland and Agricultural Society shows
in the 'forties and 'fifties. The most famous of all the Cumber-
land greys was Merry Tom (532), which won first at Glasgow in
1852 when four years old. His breeding analyses in much the
same fashion as the pedigrees already referred to. The main lines
are of Lanarkshire descent, but the foundation was a mixed race
of heavy cart horses with a dash of the blood of the Coach Horse.
Two notable Shire horses in Cumberland were Farmer's Glory,
owned by John Robinson, Wallace Field (known for two seasons
in Ayrshire as Andrew Hendrie's Farmer's Glory), and Nichol's
Topsman.

The history of the introduction of the Lanarkshire horse into
Aberdeenshire begins with Young Glancer, which in 1823 came to
the county. He is believed to have been a son of Glancer (335),
Thompson's black horse. He was not a high horse, his height
being given as rather under 16 hands. Young Champion of Clyde,
foaled in 1840, came from the West of Scotland, and was at Mill of
Ardlethen, Udny, for several years. Mr. Barclay of Ury introduced
Clydesdales, as he introduced Teeswater cattle, and had good
success with both. A little later came the famous Comet race, the
best of which was the grey Comet (192), a winner at the Highland
and Agricultural Society show in 1856, and Lord Haddo (486), a
very notable horse, of the same line of breeding on the sire's side as
Largs Jock (444) and Sir Walter Scott (797). These gave a certain
stamp of Clydesdale character to the northern draught horse.
About thirty years afterwards this work was renewed with vigour,
so that at the present time it may safely be said that no district in
the country produces a larger proportion of genuine Clydesdales of
the highest class than Aberdeenshire, Morayshire, and the counties
between and adjacent.

The historical outline here given undoubtedly goes to show that
the Clydesdale is largely a composite breed. There has been close
adherence to one type and one family of horses. Lanarkshire or
Clydesdale provided the home of these animals, which, however,
came to be more successfully bred away from the original head-
quarters. In various localities, from time to time, horses which

6 Breeds of Horses

would now be called Shires were in use, and undoubtedly con-
tributed something to modification of type, but that may have been
less than might have been expected. And for this reason. It is
matter of history that during the latter part of the eighteenth and
the opening quarter of the nineteenth centuries a large number of
Clydesdales were purchased at Rutherglen, Lanark, and Biggar fairs,
and taken in droves to England. These young colts and fillies were
driven south in "mobs", and distributed over the Midland counties
by dealers who made this their business. No doubt this explains
why Shire horses were brought north possessing many of the best
characteristics of the Clydesdale. The late Alexander Galbraith,
Croy-Cunningham, Killearn, owned several such horses, and notably
one named Tintock, which won second prize at the Highland and
Agricultural Society show at Glasgow in 1867. This horse, like
Hendrie's Farmer's Glory, left a large number of very superior
fillies which developed into highly-successful brood mares. These
were spasmodic efforts, but about the year 1870, and until 1884,
when he died, the late Lawrence Drew, who was tenant of the farm
of Merryton, near Hamilton, made systematic efforts to blend the
northern and the southern breeds. He stoutly resisted the proposal
to have two stud books, maintaining to the last that Clydesdales
and Shires were not two distinct breeds, but, like Booth's and
Bates's Shorthorns, two distinct strains or tribes of one breed. He
owned the Clydesdale stallion Prince of Wales (673) (foaled 1866,
died 1888), one of the grandest draught stallions ever foaled, and
purchased mares in England expressly selected for the purpose of
mating them with that horse. From the combination Mr. Drew
bred a remarkable succession of first-class animals, which won the
highest honours. But in spite of the admitted merits of the pro-
duce, Mr. Drew failed to convince his countrymen that he was
right, and when he died in March, 1884, it may be said that the
effective opposition to the Clydesdale Stud Book movement also
expired.

The chief credit of founding the Clydesdale Horse Society and
the Clydesdale Stud Book belongs to two gentlemen — the late
Earl of Dunmore, who died in September, 1907, and Mr. John M.
Martin, in 1877 farming Auchendennan, Alexandria, and Haw-
thornhill, Cardross, in Dumbartonshire. The labours of these
gentlemen and their associates were splendidly seconded and their
policy carried out by Mr. Thomas Dykes, the first secretary of the
Society (1877- 1880).

It may be said that the work of the Glasgow Agricultural
Society, which for more than half a century has organized and

Clydesdales 7

earned on a spring show of Clydesdale stallions, has been scarcely
less influential in furthering the interests of the breed than that of
the Clydesdale Stud Book. Shows of a like nature were formerly
held all over the country, at which stallions competed for premiums
offered locally to encourage owners to place their horses in these
districts. The expense of holding numerous small stallion shows
was very great, and about the year 1870 or thereby all of the local
events were given up, and one great show and hiring fair held in
the Glasgow Cattle Market. This event usually took place in
February, and up to 1882 no district horse-breeding society thought
of hiring a horse until the stallion show. The Glasgow Society
undertook all the risk of organizing the event, and contributed two
;6^ioo premiums for two horses, the stipulation being that these
should travel in the Glasgow district. Any contract previously
made with another society was nullified should the selected horse
be chosen for Glasgow. The deputations representing the local
societies received tickets of admission to the show, and a separate
enclosure was set apart for them in the judging area, whence they
had a good view of the horses shown in both rings. In 1882 this
arrangement sustained a severe shock when an Aberdeenshire
society that had engaged beforehand Lord Erskine (1744), then
an unknown three-year-old horse, had to surrender him to the
Glasgow Society. In the autumn of that year the same society
engaged him for 1883, and from that date onwards the system of
hiring privately has become increasingly prevalent. For several
years past, a greater number of horses have been hired for the
ensuing season at the Highland and Agricultural Society's show
in July than at the spring stallion show. As a hiring fair it has
almost ceased to have any importance, but as an exhibition of
Clydesdale entire horses it is unrivalled.

A few words may here be said concerning some of the out-
standing Clydesdale sires of modern times. From 1878 to 1885
the most important possibly were Drumflower Farmer (286) and
Lord Lyon (489). Darnley (222) was slowly but surely coming to
his own, but a considerable change had to come over the popular
view of the highest merit in a Clydesdale before the Darnley type
assumed supremacy. From 1886 to 1892 the leading Clydesdale
sires were either of the two races named or of the Darnley (222),
Drew's Prince of Wales {6yi), Lord Erskine (1744), or Old Times
(579) tribes. Prince of Wales (673) was foaled in 1866, and after a
very distinguished show career, his reputation as a sire began to
assert itself about the year 1871. Very grand mares and fillies
after him were exhibited, including Knox's black mare Rosie, dam

8 < Breeds of Horses

of Dunmore Prince Charlie (634), which was wellnigh invincible,
and several daughters of the fine old show mare London Maggie
(84). Colts out of selected Shire mares, and bred by Mr. Drew at
Merryton, were frequently in the first place at the leading shows.
These were characterized by great substance, and always carried
plenty feather. An outstanding characteristic in all, however, was
action. The old horse himself was a specially gay mover, and his
stock, as a rule, inherited this property. So successful had Prince
of Wales {62 T)) become, that for several years up to 1884 his terms
to the public were ^^40 at service. At the Merryton dispersion
sale on 17th April, 1884, he passed into the hands of Mr. David
Riddell at 900 gs., being then eighteen years old. He lived until
the close of 1888, when he died after two most successful seasons'
work in the Rhins of Galloway. Much dispute has been waged
regarding the breeding of this very remarkable horse. His sire was
General (322), and his dam Darling, by Samson a/ias Logan's
Twin (741). Both sire and dam were first-prize winners at the
Highland and Agricultural Society's show at Inverness in 1865,
where they were mated, and the produce was Prince of Wales (673)
in 1866. The dams of both General and Darling were grey mares,
and came from south of the Border. The opinion of the writer of
this article, based on evidence which he has elsewhere detailed, is
that the sire of the dam of General (322) was Merry Tom (532),
and the sire of the dam of Darling may have been Blyth (79).
Others say they were English, that is Shire mares. They certainly
were English in respect that they came from south of the Solway
to Dumfries market, where they were bought by a West of Scotland
dealer. That they were Shires there is no proof.

Darnley (222) up to his death was the most successful breeding
stallion known in Clydesdale history. He was a less showy horse
than Prince of Wales (673), and there is no doubt as to the Clydes-
dale or old Lanarkshire origin of all the lines in his pedigree but
one. His sire Conqueror (199) was a son of Lochfergus Champion
(449), and his dam was Keir Peggy (187), a daughter of Samson
(741), while her dam was a daughter of Farmer's Fancy (298).
The one unknown strain in Darnley 's ancestry is the grand dam of
Samson (741). She was a chestnut mare, bought in Falkirk tryst
by Mr. Jack, Balcunnock, Campsie, and nothing is known of her
breeding. Darnley was bred at Keir, Dunblane, by Sir William
Stirling Maxwell, Bart., and from 1875, when he was three years
old, until the autumn of 1886, when he died, he was owned by
Mr. David Riddell. He won the highest honours both of the
Highland and Agricultural Society in 1877, 1878, and 1884, and

Clydesdales 9

the Glasgow stallion show in 1876 and 1877. He was a horse of
great character, brown or dark dappled bay in colour, with a white
mark on forehead and one white hind leg. He had a first-rate
well-shapen foot, of the best material, pasterns set at the right
^ngle, good hard bones and clean limbs, a splendid neck and well-
laid oblique shoulders, with high withers, and good barrel. His
head was inclined to the pony shape, and his quarters were short
and drooping. He was a splendid walker, moving with a long,
swinging, cart-horse stride; but his trotting action was defective,
especially in front. In respect of trotting action he was distinctly
inferior to Prince of Wales (673), but as a sire of breeding stallions
and mares he was in his time without a peer. From about 1880 to
1890 the produce of Darnley and his sons, Macgregor (1487), Top
Gallant (1850), Sanquhar (2393), Flashwood (3604), and others,
dominated the showyards and fixed the fashionable Clydesdale
type. Prince of Wales followed Darnley in the Rhins of Galloway
in 1887 and 1888, and among the large crops of foals left by him in
these two seasons out of young mares got by Darnley were some
of the choicest specimens of the breed ever exhibited. They sold
as foals for unprecedented prices — one. Prince Alexander (8899)
making as high as £1200 before one year old, while i^soo was a
common enough price for both colts and fillies got in the way
indicated.

In spite of their fine quality and beautiful action and symmetry,
there can be no doubt that animals of the Prince of Wales-Darnley
cross were frequently lacking in cart-horse character. The reputation
of the breed in this particular was saved largely by a new combina-
tion of the same strains of blood in a later generation.

Sir Everard (5353) was undoubtedly the sire which saved the
situation. He was got by Top Gallant (1850), a son of Darnley
(222), and himself a Glasgow champion horse in 1880, out of a
mare by London Prince (472), a son of Prince of Wales (673) and
the renowned champion mare London Maggie (84). Sir Everard's
pedigree traces back for several generations on the female side to
the old Lanarkshire fountain-head. He was a masculine horse of
weight and substance. He was bred by Mrs, Lamont, Killellan,
Toward. Foaled in 1885, in March, 1891, he stood fully 17.1 hands
high, girthed when in ordinary condition 8 ft, and weighed 2o| cwt.,
or 2324 lb. He measured 26 in. round the upper muscles of the
forearm, 17 in. round the knee, had 1 1 in. bone below the knee, and
12 in. bone below the hock. He was a horse of great depth of rib,
with a short back and splendid quarters and thighs. The formation
of his hind leg was faultless, and in front he stood well up at the

lo Breeds of Horses

shoulders, his withers being high and well furnished with muscle.
His neck was perhaps rather short, and his fore feet might have
been stronger. Taken all in all he was a most massive and weighty
cart horse. Sir Everard was owned by Mr. VVm. Taylor, Park
Mains, Renfrew, and in 1888, 1889, and 1890 was awarded the
Glasgow premium. Mated with daughters of Prince of Wales
(673), he proved a most successful sire, and two of his sons. The
Summit (9442) and Sir Morell Mackenzie (9614), like himself, were
awarded the Glasgow premium. It was, however, when mated
with a mare of Darnley descent that Sir Everard achieved his
highest distinction, and in his son. Baron's Pride (9122), was found
the most successful breeding stallion the Clydesdale breed has
produced.

Baron's Pride was bred by Messrs. Findlay, Springhill, Bail-
lieston, in 1890, and in 1893 was purchased by Messrs. A. & W.
Montgomery, Kirkcudbright. In 1894 he was champion male
Clydesdale at the Highland and Agricultural Society show at
Aberdeen, and after 1896 he dominated the Clydesdale world. His
stock led in the show ring almost regularly from that date, and in
1908 he again headed the list of winning sires, while among the
first twenty of these sires many of his sons found a place. It is
difficult to describe Baron's Pride, just because he was a horse of
such evenly well-balanced merit. Having since 1894 until his death
on 20th December, 191 2, been kept in hard breeding condition,
his measurements would not afford a fair comparison with those of
horses fed and kept for showing. However, it may be said that he
stood fully 17 hands high, and was very proportionately built. The
quality of his bone, its breadth and thinness, with cleanness and
hardness, were the thing wanted by Clydesdale breeders, while his
feet and pasterns were respectively of the formation and " set "
required. When taken to Kirkcudbright in 1894 he was mated
with mares got by Macgregor (1487), and the combination proved
successful to a degree. He also mated very successfully with
animals of Prince of Wales descent, the most outstanding repre-
sentative of which tribe in his time was the handsome and most
successful show stallion Hiawatha (10067). The premier position
among sires so long held by Baron's Pride (9122) was taken by
his son, Baron of Buchlyvie (11263), which in December, 191 1, was
sold by public auction at the record price for a draught stallion of

;^95oo-

The Clydesdale is in high favour with foreign and colonial
buyers, as the following figures from the records of the Clydesdale
Horse Society show: —

Shires

II

Number of

Clydesdales

exported ia

Year

1884

1885

1886

1887

1888

1889

1890

189I

1892

1893
1894

189s
1896
1897

Certifi-
cates
issued.

500

5M
600
920
1 149
1040
554
349

158
110

21

15

56

57

132

Number of

Clydesdales

exported in

Year

1899

1900

I 90 1

1902

1903

1904

1905
1906

1907

1908

1909

I9IO

I9II

I912

I913

Certifi-
cates
issued.

250
178
167
266
411
536
653
I317
I 100

531
1349
I53I
1617

1348
837

The ideal colour for Clydesdales is bay or brown, with a more
or less defined white mark on the face, dark-coloured fore legs, and
white hind shanks. Black is a little more common now than
formerly, but chestnut is hardly ever seen.

The Clydesdale is a very active horse. The impression created
by a thoroughly well-built typical specimen is that of strength and
activity, with a minimum of superfluous tissue.

Shires

By WALTER CROSLAND

There is no doubt that Shire horse breeding is not only main-
taining, but increasing, its popularity amongst the tenant farmers
of this country, and the widespread interest taken in this most
useful breed is abundantly shown by the liberal schedules and
well-filled classes at the numerous shows, held in every county
in England, and in several counties in the Principality of Wales.

It must be borne in mind, however, that the Shire breed is not
by any means a new breed ; on the contrary it is one of great anti-
quity, and has been in existence, according to some writers, although
not in its present form, for over two thousand years. In this con-
nection, the antiquity of the breed is clearly proved in a most in-
teresting little work written by Sir Walter Gilbe)', entitled the Old
English War Horse, now known as the Shire, in which it is shown

12 Breeds of Horses

that horses of great weight and size existed in Great Britain at the
time of the Roman invasion, and moreover, that there existed, even
so far back as the time of Henry VIII, three distinct breeds of
horses, as the following extract from a work written by Sir Thomas
Blundeville shows: —

" Some men have a breed of great horses meete for warre, and
to serve in the field. Others have ambling horses of a meane stature
for to journey and travel by the waie. Some again have a race of
swift runners to run for wagers and to gallop the bucke, but plane
countrymen have a breed only for draftes or burden."

This clearly shows that at the period referred to, nearly five
hundred years ago, the three present-day breeds of racehorse,
hackney, and draught or Shire existed.

The continued success and popularity of the breed is due to
many causes, but the Shire Horse Society and its annual London
Show has been mostly instrumental in improving the breed, and
in stimulating breeders to increased action throughout the country.
The prize schedule of the London Show is a most liberal one, and
the introduction of breeders' prizes, which was a very happy idea,
has proved an additional incentive. No doubt, the gold and silver
medals at provincial shows also have had the effect of widening
the interest in the breed.

There is no more popular breed than the Shire, or more suc-
cessful society than the Shire Horse Society. Its show is also
admirably managed by a very practical council, which is elected
by members of the society and consists of men who are themselves
Shire breeders, so that the council is in touch and sympathy
with, and has the confidence of, the large body of members of
the society, which now numbers nearly four thousand, including
nearly two hundred societies. This undoubtedly accounts in a large
measure for the phenomenal success of the society, while the
rigorous veterinary examination the animals have to undergo at
the London Show has had the effect of largely improving the
soundness of the breed. Nor can the value of the stud book be
overlooked as an important element in this connection, for pedigree
and purity of blood are very important factors in breeding. A
reference to the prize winners at shows proves conclusively the
truth of the adage that " like begets like", and the subtle influence
of prepotency is shown unmistakably. It is in this particular
phase of breeding that the skill of the breeder is brought into
play, for the surest road to success in breeding Shires, as with other
kinds of stock, is in the judicious blending of those strains of
blood which give the best results.

Shires 1 3

In addition to the stimulus given by the Shire Horse Society,
great assistance and encouragement are given to breeders by the
Royal, the Royal Counties, the Bath and West Societies, the
various county shows, and last, but not by any means least, by
the many admirable one-day shows throughout the country,
which act as feeders to the larger shows. The foal shows also
have done much to add to the interest and profit of Shire horse
breeding. Hiring societies, which have increased in numbers in
recent years, are doing a great deal to encourage the breeding of
Shires throughout the country, because by co-operation amongst
farmers and breeders a good sound typical Shire stallion can
be secured. A really good horse in a district is of immense
advantage, as it is not always convenient, for many reasons, for
tenant farmers to send their mares away to a good stallion. This
hiring system is much to be commended, as it can be carried out
without much trouble or inconvenience to members. It means
but small additional expense, and it is bound to bear good fruit
and add considerably to the profit of breeding. The Montgomery-
shire Society in Wales is one of the best and most successful in
the United Kingdom, and they have for some years acquired the
services of the best stallions that money could obtain, with ex-
cellent results. While it is necessary to have a stallion of the
very best type and breeding, it is equally essential that the mares
should be of suitable type, and sound. Horse breeding is, under
the most favourable circumstances, risky, and misfits will occur
even when the animals used for breeding are the best of their
kind ; but it is only when the sires and dams possess the essential
qualities for breeding the proper type, with sound feet and joints,
flat flinty bone, with great substance and robust constitution, that
the breeder has any prospect of success. For such animals there
is always a good market.

Good Shire geldings are still in great demand in spite of the
competition of motor traction, and there is a healthy tone in Shire
horse sales which is reassuring for the continued success of the
breed. As long as breeders continue to produce animals of the
right type, there will always be buyers for them. It is well for
breeders always to endeavour to breed the best, and to remembei
the old adage which sets forth some of the essential points of a
typical Shire:

"Feet, joints, and feather;
Top may come, but bottoms never".

This means that your typical stallion or mare should possess a

14 Breeds of Horses

good set of feet, correct joints, and nice straight silky feather.
A good foundation, or " good at the ground", and the top, or body,
may be made sufficiently weighty by judicious feeding. This,
however, is not all, for your ideal Shire stallion should also possess
good breeding, great size (17 hands) and substance, big knees
and hocks; he should be on a short leg, his body deep, ribs well
sprung, and he should have strong, masculine character, a big
strong head, and robust constitution. His joints should be nicely
turned, and his pasterns set at the correct angle; he should have
wide feet with open heels, and wide coronets, and should move
well all round with a boldness and freedom of action in the walk
and trot that denote soundness, power, and constitutional strength.
He should also have a nice sloping shoulder, short back, and long
quarters. Such a sire, if mated with suitable mares, is bound .to
leave his mark in any district in which he may be located.

Your typical Shire mare should be equally good on the ground
as the stallion, that is, she should have good feet, joints, and legs.
She should be long, low, and wide, and not under 16 hands high;
she should have a sweet effeminate head, with a nice docile expres-
sion of face, and should, in all cases, have good and true action.
In short, the typical Shire mare or stallion should have weight,
size, and quality. While these attributes are essential in stallions
and mares used for breeding purposes, it is important that buyers
of breeding animals should make their choice of animals that are
bred from good mares, that is, mares which, or whose dams, have
proved themselves good breeders.

It may be asked what kind of soil is most suitable for breeding
Shires. Good specimens are bred on almost every kind of soil
throughout the country, from light land to heavy clay, though
it must be admitted that the better the land, the better will be
the chances of producing animals of the required size and weight.
It used to be thought, many years ago, that good Shires could
only be produced on the limestone soils of Derbyshire, and the
Ashbourne district, which, by the way, is considered the Mecca of
the Shire horse world, for it produced amongst other notable Shires
the famous stallion Harold, a giant, truly, of his race. But
during the last quarter of a century Shire breeding has spread
throughout the country, and on all kinds of soils; it is no longer
confined to a few districts as was the case when the Shire Horse
Society was originated. Good sound land is, however, required
to obtain the best results, that is, land that by the porous nature
of its soil and subsoil is drained naturally, or land that has been
artificially drained, and that becomes fairly dry and firm in a

Shires 15

reasonable time after heavy rain. Successful horse breeding can-
not profitably be carried on if the land be waterlogged or sour;
not only do horses do badly on such land, but the land itself
suffers considerably by being poached by heavy horses. Although
Shire horse breeding is carried on in all parts of the country, there
are some districts which have attained specially good results and
prominence. This, however, is due not altogether to the land,
which undoubtedly has its effect, but also to the enterprise of
individual breeders and of societies in those districts. For instance,
in addition to the Ashbourne district already referred to, the fen."^
of Lincolnshire, the Peterboro' district in Northamptonshire, the
Fylde of Lancashire, and the Welshpool district of Montgomery-
shire, are all very important centres in the Shire breeding industry.
They have all made great reputations by reason of the quality
and type of the Shires which are produced by the landowners and
farmers in those districts, and which have attracted buyers from
distant parts of the country.

A great impetus was given to the breeding of Shires some
twenty years ago by the formation of studs by a number of noble-
men and gentlemen in different parts of the country, and the great
interest taken by them in the matter generally. Much credit is
due to them for the good work they have done and which many
of them are still doing at the present time — such men as Mr
A. C. Buncombe, Calwich Abbeys the Duke of Devonshire at
Chatsworth; the late Sir Albert Muntz; Sir Alexander Henderson
Buscot Park, who still holds the show record as having won all the
championship honours at the 1898 London Show, with his famous
quartet, Markeaton Royal Harold and his son Buscot Harold,
Aurea the dam of Buscot Harold, and Lockinge Loiret; the late
Lord Wantage, Lockinge, whose stud included the famous stallion
Prince William, and produced the great sire Lockinge Forest King;
Lord Rothschild, owner of the renowned Tring Park stud, which
has included some of the best sires and dams of the day; Lord
Middleton, owner of the noted Birdsall stud; Sir Walpole Green-
well, Marden Park, Surrey, the enterprising owner of one of the
most successful studs in the country; and many others, who have
helped to build up the Shire breed, and have put money into the
tenant farmers' pockets by buying from them their best animals
at remunerative prices.

The general management and feeding of heavy horses is fully
treated of in another part of this volume, but a few observations
may be made on that subject here for the benefit of those who
desire to be acquainted with the methods adopted in some of the

1 6 Breeds of Horses

large and successful studs. With regard to the management of
foals after weaning, it is perhaps just as well to point out first
of all that many farmers, especially small farmers, make a mistake
in turning out foals to grass after weaning, to find their own living
in the fields in the autumn and often well into winter, without any
help whatever, except perhaps an occasional feed of long hay or
straw. Now this is a suicidal policy, for if young animals get a
severe check in their growth during this period of their lives, it
throws them back at least twelve months, and often permanently
injures their constitution. It probably takes them the whole of
the following summer to gain sufficient strength and nourishment
to start their growth again. Foals require a great deal of care and
attention during their first winter and they will respond to judicious
feeding and kindly treatment in a manner that is bound to be
remunerative in the end. They should be taught to eat before
they are taken away from their dams by having a feeder or trough
in the field, and given a small quantity of crushed oats with hay
chaff once a day, about a month or so before weaning. They soon
learn to eat with the mares, and do not feel the loss of their dam's
milk when weaning time comes along. This should be continued
throughout the winter with the addition of a bucketful each day
of gruel, consisting of dissolved cake, preferably linseed cake, and
sweet, skim, or separated milk, together with a feed of good
meadow hay. A few carrots each day are also a very useful adjunct.
The legs of foals and their manes and tails should be regularly
washed, not only for cleanliness, but to promote the growth of
hair. Their feet also should be attended to at intervals by the
local blacksmith; the hoofs trimmed, and kept in good shape.
The care of foals' feet is of the greatest importance. They are
better turned out to grass in the daytime through the autumn, and
until bad weather comes. Our experience is that they are then
better in a big roomy yard, with a shed to run into during the
winter when the land is very wet or frozen hard, but in fine
weather it is certainly better to let them run out in the fields in
the daytime.

As to the management of brood mares, some breeders are
averse to their doing any work during pregnancy, but the writer's
experience is that mares are all the better for being kept at steady
farm work, except in the case of mares that are going to be shown
throughout the show season, when it would be impossible to keep
them in good show condition if in regular work. For mares, how-
ever, that are not to be shown, they are far better at work, and
earning their living; they are better in health for it, and stronger,

Shires 17

and therefore better able to go through the diflficult and risky act
of parturition than mares that are in high condition. If care is
exercised, mares can be worked up to within two months of foal-
ing, or nearer in some cases, provided they are not put between
shafts when they are advanced in pregnancy ; at this period they
should, of course, only be put in trace harness. It is advisable to
give the mare a respite from all work a month or six weeks before
foaling; the hind shoes should be taken off, and the legs dressed
and washed, as well as the mane and tail, to make her as com-
fortable as possible for the coming period of motherhood. A large,
roomy, and well-ventilated loose box is essential for foaling mares
in, with a good floor of brick or concrete, which can be kept
thoroughly clean, for cleanliness is one of the essential conditions
in the foaling box.

After foaling, the mare should be kept on sloppy mashes con-
taining some crushed oats for two or three days to promote the
flow of milk and to keep the bowels right, together with a little
sweet meadow hay, after which she can be put on dry food, and
if the weather is favourable, and when the sun is shining, they can
be put out in the field for a few hours each day when the foal is
about a week old.

The ideal time for foaling is in April, when the mare and foal
can be turned out to grass as soon as the foal is strong enough ;
but many breeders, especially those who go in for showing, prefer
to have their mares foaling down in February or March, or even
in January, but this is attended by many risks, and very early foals
cause much more anxiety and difficulty in rearing, as must be the
case when they have to be kept cooped up in a loose box for weeks
on account of the inclement weather in the early part of the year,
though from the show point of view the early foal has a distinct
advantage over the later foal.

The docking of foals' tails should be done early, that is when
they are about a month old, or even a week earlier if the foal is
strong and healthy. It is an easy operation, which can be per
formed by any intelligent man who has seen it done previously,
and does not really require the services of a veterinary surgeon.
Of course, a proper docking knife and iron are required for the
operation.

With regard to the management of the legs of the Shire horse,
with so much hair they are apt to become scurfy and itchy unless
they are regularly attended to. In our experience, the best dressing
to apply is a mixture consisting of linseed oil i pt., paraffin | pt.,
powered sulphur 2 tablespoonfuls. This should be well rubbed in
Vol. IIL 35

1 8 Breeds of Horses

under the hair on the legs, and allowed to remain for 12 hours
before the legs are washed. This dressing not only cleanses the
legs, but improves and promotes the growth of hair. It is also a
most useful dressing for the mane and tail.

Colts and stallions require very liberal and judicious treatment
in the matter of feeding, and this is especially the case when it
is intended to show them. There is nothing better than crushed
oats, with a little bran, and plenty of good hay chaff. In the
autumn and winter they should have carrots in addition, and later
on a mangel or two with their feed, to help digestion. They
require plenty of exercise, either turned out to grass or put in
a roomy shed with a yard. Failing that, they should be given
walking exercise each day. If it is not possible to turn them out,
they should be given some green food in the summer time, clover,
meadow grass, or better still, lucerne, if it can be procured for them.
Lucerne is one of the best fodder crops grown, if not the best, for
horses, and indeed for all kinds of stock. Horses are especially
fond of it, and do well on it. An acre or two on any farm where
horse breeding is done is most valuable, as it is a generous cropper.
Three crops can be taken ofif it each year when once established,
and in our experience, horses thrive remarkably well on it. It is
one of the few crops that can be relied on to give a supply of
fodder in a dry season, but to ensure the best return it should be
cut early, that is, just when the young flowers appear. It should on
no account be allowed to ripen, unless the crop is intended for hay,
otherwise the fodder will not only be tough and bitter, and there-
fore distasteful to animals, but subsequent crops will suffer; so that
in order to secure two or three cuttings in a season it should be
mown early.

The colour of Shire horses varies, but there are certain colours
that are more fashionable than others. At one time, as Sir Walter
Gilbey shows, black and grey were regarded as indicative of pure
blood in the breed. The latter colour, however, is much less
common now than was once the case. Black is still common,
as might be expected in a breed descended from the old English
Black Horse. Roan is also met with occasionally, especially blue
roan. Brown and bay, however, are the predominant Shire colours
at the present day, and it appears likely that at no distant date
well-bred Shire horses will be almost exclusively of these two
colours. Chestnut is not a popular colour, especially for stallions.

The trade in Shire horses in recent years has been remarkably
good. In connection with the London Shire Horse Show, which
is the great event of the year in the Shire world, a sale is held

Shires 19

annually, and the prices obtained at this sale are perhaps a fair
indication of the demand for the breed. At the 191 3 sale, 151
horses were sold for £17,7^7, an average of £117, i6s., which is
practically the same average as that made by a somewhat smaller
number of horses in the previous year.

Perhaps the most interesting sale of the year 191 3 was that
of the Tring Park stud belonging to Lord Rothschild, This famous
stud had for so long held its high position that Shire breeders
expected some high figures would be reached at the sale, but few,
if any, anticipated the actual prices made. A notable fact in con-
nection with the sale is that the record price for a Shire stallion
was there made, viz. 4100 gs., which was paid by Sir VValpole Green-
well for the two-year-old stallion Champion's Goalkeeper (30296),
by Childwick Champion, and bred by the Earl of Powis, Powis
Castle, Welshpool. This horse won the Male Championship at the
London Show in 191 3 and 1914. Other high prices paid at the
sale were 1750 gs, for the three-year-old stallion Blacklands King-
maker (29102), and 825 gs, for the three-year-old filly Halsted
Duchess VII, The number of horses sold was 32, which realized
;^I4,530, thus making an average of ;i^454. This is an average that
has never been reached before at a Shire sale.

An interesting and significant fact in connection with Shire
horses is that some of the most famous animals shown in recent
years have been bred by tenant farmers. Indeed, it may be said
that Shire horse breeding is essentially a farmer's business, for
horses must be kept on every farm to work the land, and why
not keep one or two Shire mares, in districts where Shires can
be reared, for breeding purposes? There are wonderful possi-
bilities in the breeding of Shires. It does not come in the way
of many to breed a London Champion, but there is the sporting
chance for every breeder of Shires, be he the owner of a large stud
or of one or two mares. If a farmer should breed a really good
foal, there is no difficulty in selling it at a good price. There is
always a demand for good ones, and farmers are well advised to
sell when they have the chance of making a good price, which may
not come again, as something might happen to the animal, as so
frequently is the case, which depreciates its value; so the "bird
in the hand " principle is a safe one, and much to be commended.
On the other hand, if the breeder has the pleasure and satisfaction
of seeing his animal winning prizes, especially at the London Show,
he will have the additional pleasure of participating in the "Breeders'
prizes ", which are so liberally given by the Society.

20 Breeds of Horses

Suffolks

By EDWARD C. ASH, M.R.A.C.

{Plaits, facint: pp. 32, 33)

Suffolk, although only a small county, has nevertheless four
distinct breeds of live stock — Suffolk horses, Red Poll cattle,
Suffolk sheep, and large pigs.

The Suffolk Punch is a breed of cart horses, whose home is the
eastern portion of the county — handsome chestnuts, which differ
only in the shade of their colouring; some may be light, a golden
chestnut, whilst others are of a red or bronze shade, but nevei
does any other colour make an appearance. Certain lines of blood
show a few silver hairs interspersed amongst the chestnut, and this
has been a noticeable character in some of the most famous horses.
But as long as the Suffolk is of a true chestnut it matters little
what the exact shade may be. At the present day red chestnuts
with tails and manes to match seem to be in the greatest demand,
and on the whole, as the richer and darker colours are thought to
bespeak finer constitutions, they are preferred to the lighter. But
with colour, as with everything else, fashion varies. A few Suffolks
have lighter-coloured manes and tails, and are considered by some
to be the type of the early breed.

The shape of the Suffolk is so characteristic that, even if it were
not for its colour, it could not be easily mistaken for any other
British breed of cart horses. It has a thickset body of great depth,
measuring some 8 or 9 ft. behind the shoulders, with strong, mus-
cular neck and moderately-short legs. It is by no means a large
animal — a horse standing 15I to 16 hands is somewhere about
the average.

The Suffolk has none of the " feather " so much prized by Shire
and Clydesdale enthusiasts, and the absence of this adornment,
coupled with the fine quality of the hair on the Suffolk's legs,
somewhat gives the impression that their limbs are hardly strong
enough to bear the weight of the body. But " things are not what
they seem ", and particularly not always as they look ; and more-
over, it is well to remember that the real proof lies in what the
result may be. It is perhaps unkind to wonder what some of these
Shire horses would be like if their muff and thick hair were moved
and fine hair substituted.

The origin of the Suffolk is shrouded in mystery, and it is
through the painstaking and remarkable work of Mr. Herman
Biddell that the history of the Suffolk horse from about 1750 has

SufFolks 2 1

been unravelled. Mr. Biddell, to whom every Suffolk breeder and
every lover of the breed owes a deep debt of gratitude, has sifted
every scrap of information. Old horse dealers were interviewed,
thorough search was made through all books that might in any
way mention Suffolks, and no stone was left unturned by Mr.
Biddell in his efforts to obtain reliable information as to the his-
tory of the breed.

The Suffolk horse is without doubt the oldest pure breed of
cart horses in England, and early in the last century it was recog-
nized to be a breed of true blood. Arthur Young was the first
writer to mention the Suffolk horse, and the antiquity of the breed
can be realized when we learn that even in Young's childhood, in
1 74 1, the Suffolk was probably known as "The Old Breed".

It seems rather unfortunate that Young did not make further
enquiries as to its history up to that period. He seemed neither
impressed nor pleased by the Suffolk of his time. Perhaps he
exaggerated somewhat, or perhaps humour guided his pen, for he
writes that " an uglier horse could hardly be viewed ", and that " it
could trot no better than a cow". Yet strangely enough, about
the same time Sir Thomas Cullum mentions that he used the
Suffolks for his own carriages, and Jerry Cullum in 1800 describes
the horses as being good movers, particularly suited for carriage
work. We can hardly imagine that Sir Thomas Cullum should
care to ride behind a creature that "trotted no better than a cow"
and was so extremely ugly, or that Jerry Cullum should recom-
mend such an animal for carriage purposes.

But we can rest assured that the Suffolk of 1741 was not the
handsome creature of to-day, which is the result of so much careful
breeding. Even in those days, whatever its looks, whether hand-
some or ugly, good prices were obtained, for at Sir R. Hartland's
sale in 18 10, ;^I40 was paid for a Suffolk brood mare, and ;^40 was
realized for a foal ; certainly good prices.

The first Suffolk horse of which there is any definite description
was Crisp's horse (404). In 1773 a Suffolk horse without any
particular name was advertised as a five-year-old, " to get good
stock for coach or road ". The famous coaches that were to run
between London and Brighton, and London and Bristol, were then
little thought of. The coaches referred to in the advertisement
were four-wheeled springless post-chaises, which, drawn by horses
of bovine tendencies, must certainly have been far from pleasant to
ride in. A later advertisement mentions that breeders who have
been unsuccessful the previous year may have the use of this
horse at a fee of 5^., and describes it as " a fine bright chestnut,

22 Breeds of Horses

15^ hands high". Crisp's horse left four sons, one of which was
of a dark chestnut colour.

In 1764 a Mr. Blake brought into Suffolk Blake's Farmer, a
four-year-old Lincolnshire trotting stallion. He travelled in a small
district, and was used by the farmers to cross with their Suffolk
mares. The resulting blood became famous. In fact, Blake's blood
was a security of good things, and we are told that 400 gs. was
refused for a horse of this line. Gradually the origin of the Blake
strain becarrie less known, and Blake was nothing loath to keep
the true breed of his Farmer a secret. For several years the
demand for this line continued, but by degrees it became less in
evidence, and to-day nothing but the memory of the breed of horses
exists.

Barber's Proctor, originally a riding horse stallion, was another
so-called Suffolk that travelled in the county. Its history is highly
humorous. It so happened that whilst the horse was undergoing
the operation of nicking in order to give it the appearance of a
riding horse, an accident occurred, and its tail was broken off. The
owner, without much regret, deemed it advisable to travel him as
a Suffolk cart horse. In those days the mark of a good Suffolk
was a " bung tail ", that is to say, the tail was cut off close to the
quarters, and so in at least one respect, if in no other. Barber's
Proctor somewhat resembled a Suffolk. And we can little wonder
that Proctor's blood, similarly to that of Blake's Farmer, is now
no longer in existence.

The only other impurity of any importance which might have
mixed with the pure old breed was that of a Flemish horse which
was introduced in the pedigree of a mare towards the end of the
eighteenth century. This, I believe, is not proven, and even if it
were, it would result, as the editor of the Suffolk Horse Stud Book
remarks, in the amount of Flemish blood in the present-day Suffolk
being practically nil.

Fortunately for the breed, the old Suffolk yeomen by degrees
reverted to the pure old stock, and the various foreign strains
gradually died out. It is astonishing that all the horses that have
left our shores, and those which are now in stud and farm, are
every one a direct descendant of one particular horse. Crisp's 404.
Crisp's horse had four sons; three of these carried on their respec-
tive lines for a few generations only, whilst it was deed's horse of
Dickleburgh, the remaining son, that had so much to do with the
subsequent Suffolk race.

deed's horse left three sons, but only one again. Smith's horse
of Parham. carried on the blood by Brady's Briton and Julian's

SufFolks 23

Boxer. Brady's Briton is, however, of the greater importance, for
he was the first of a line, eventually divided and redivided to form
two of the most important lines of Suffolk horses, the Cupbearers
and the Wedgewoods.

Crisp's Conqueror (413) was the son of a famous mare known
as Toller's Matchet. This mare, considered to be one of the finest
Suffolks that the country has ever produced, was bought by Crisp.
Crisp's Conqueror was eventually sold to the Prussians for 300 gs.,
but fortunately he left a son behind him. Cupbearer (416).

Crisp seems to have had a great liking for this colt. He once
remarked, " Whoever lives to see him, that will make the best horse
I ever had." There certainly must have been something striking
about the colt, for Mr. Crisp was a man of great experience. Little
did he realize that this favourite of his was to be the forerunner of
numerous champions — Eclipse, Harvester, Gold Ring, Peter, Chief-
tain, Easton Duke, and many others of the same blood — which
have taken the majority of honours during the last few years.

It will doubtless interest some to read a description of Cup-
bearer. He was a large horse with grand muscular shoulders, but
plain behind. He is said not to have been an elegant mover, but
nevertheless exceedingly active. It is remarkable that the Cup-
bearers of to-day are excellent movers.

The Wedgewood line, which are also direct descendants of
Brady's Briton, has included many winners, amongst them being
the famous Wedgewood, who was seldom, if ever, beaten, Saturn,
Arab, Arabi, Mendlesham, Major Gray, &c.

Although Suffolk is the home of the Suffolk horse, yet many
of the farmers are interested in Shire horses, or use crossbreds for
working purposes. A few years ago this was even more noticeable
than it is to-day, for the sudden increase in trade and the bettering
of prices persuaded many to commence to breed Suffolks. Export
trade increased, and good colts fetched high prices, whilst mares
and horses nearly doubled in value.

In the meantime, not only were Suffolk horses spreading gradu-
ally into various counties of England, but some of the finest mares
and stallions left our shores for distant parts. And as these horses
gave satisfaction, and people realized the value of the Suffolk
breed, the export trade increased to a considerable extent; and it
is doubtless only a question of time before the export trade will be
even keener yet, for a good reputation means much, and the con-
fidence of buyers means more.

In years gone by there was but little export trade, and although
possibly the Suffolk farmer did not realize at the time, it was never-

24 Breeds of Horses

theless a matter of good fortune that this should be so, for the best
horses remain in the country, and breeders are able to select care-
fully their stock for breeding purposes. In this manner the breed
was greatly improved, not only in shape and quality, but also in
quantity of bone and in many other characters that are to-day
their best advertisement.

An olden-day show attraction, at the present day superseded,
perhaps rather unfortunately, by various non-agricultural amuse-
ments, was the " pulling match ". On these occasions the Suffolks
were pitted against one another. These sporting contests did much
to increase the natural keenness to work so predominant in the
Suffolk's character. Strangely enough. Crisp's blood, the true
Suffolk, was invariably master of the field, and Blake's, Wright's,
and other non-true Suffolk lines were always outpulled. Drawing
matches were of constant occurrence. Wagons were loaded with
sand until the weight was past all moving, but history relates that
if there was a chance, the Suffolks, throwing their weight into
their collars and going down on their knees, would succeed in
moving it.

Even to-day, although these matches of endurance have long
since been abandoned, yet the Suffolk horse remains remarkable
for its indomitable pluck and willingness. For the Suffolk is a
most resolute worker. Seldom, if ever, will a horse refuse to pull,
nor will it cease in its efforts to move the load even though it be
far out of proportion to its strength. Should a wagon, owing to
the carelessness or inexperience of the driver, strike a gatepost,
unless the post is particularly well grounded it is liable to be
uprooted or broken in two. This might sometimes result in the
harness rapidly disintegrating, for it is natural to the Suffolk horse
if impeded by additional weight to redouble its efforts. Suffolk
breeders will, it is hoped, bear in mind the intrinsic value of this
character, and will realize that the producing of a breed of easy
fatteners at the expense of muscle is much to be deprecated. The
use of overfat horses for breeding purposes must in time materially
affect the race.

Another quality very much in evidence is docility. In fact, it
would be a difficult matter to find any breed so tractable and so
gentle. They are practically free from all vice. Mares, foals, colts,
and stallions are equally docile. It is quite usual for stallions to be
exercised on the halter by mere boys, and accidents seldom occur.
On a Suffolk farm, when a colt is broken in, it is not driven tc
partial distraction by the cracking of whips, nor are its life and
limbs jeopardized by rough handling, for the colt is treated quietly

SufFolks 25

and thereby taught to know man not as an enemy but as a friend.
It thus gains confidence. A bridle with a well-covered bit is then
adjusted, and the colt is left to think matters over. The next stage
in " breaking in " may seem risky to those accustomed to less docile
breeds. The colt is sent to plough for half a day by the side of
an old stager; coaxed and calmed by the voice of the ploughman
and by the confidence of its fellow worker, it does its share of
the day's work. The Suffolk horse is naturally of a kind dispo-
sition, and bad-tempered horses, although rarities, when they do
occur are the result of rough handling.

Several years ago the breed obtained the reputation of being
particularly liable to various troubles. Whether this breed was
actually worse than any other is a doubtful matter. But as soon
as breeders realized the importance of soundness, and the Suffolk
Agricultural Association had taken drastic steps to eliminate
hereditary diseases by a veterinary examination at all shows after
the judging, the breed was gradually placed on a firmer footing
in respect to health, and to-day it may be honestly affirmed that it
is one of the soundest breeds of horses in England. In fact, at the
present day, practically every horse entered passes the veterinary
examination successfully.

Constitutionally the Suffolk is remarkably strong. It is able
to thrive and work well on rations poor both in quantity and
quality; and the rations that would only keep one of the largei
breeds of cart horses in working condition would tend to fatten the
Suffolk. In their native home the horses are accustomed to go
without food for long hours; from 6.30 in the morning till 3 in
the afternoon is the usual practice, and although they are allowed
half an hour's rest at 1 1 o'clock they are given neither food nor
water. One might imagine that this treatment would be liable to
curtail the life of a horse, but the Suffolk Punches live to a good
old age. Their power of fecundity is remarkable. Cases are on
record of stallions travelling for as many as twenty-five years,
whilst mares are frequently met with twenty or more years old
with colts by their sides. Prejudice, partly founded on fact and
partly founded on fiction, has done much to prevent farmers in
other parts of our islands from taking up the breed.

Often it is affirmed that the Suffolks have too little bone.
That they have certainly less than the Shires must be admitted, but
we must remember that the question is not so much of quantity
as of quality. The bone of the Suffolk is very similar to that
of the Thoroughbred and therefore of paramount excellence, and
the horse proves by the age to which it lives, by its general

26 Breeds of Horses

soundness and by the work that it does, that the share of bone
nature has bestowed upon it is certainly sufficient for its needs.

Much has been written and more has been said as to the Suffolk
being unfitted for hard roads and for town purposes. Those who
have used Suffolks in the streets of London or in those of other
large cities speak highly of the lasting powers and general utility
of the breed. The Ipswich Corporation with laudable loyalty
employs a large number of Suffolks and finds them perfectly satis-
factory. But although the Suffolk will actually stand road wear
and tear as well as any other breed of heavy horses yet it is
perhaps particularly suited to agricultural purposes.

Again, prejudice has labelled the Suffolk as a "slothful"
creature, particularly because the horses are exhibited at shows
in an immoderately fat condition. Visitors from over the seas are
given an entirely wrong impression of the Suffolk horse, if their
enquiry into the breed begins and ends at a show ground. Breeders
should realize that overfeeding not only somewhat handicaps the
trade but also is liable to lead to constitutional troubles.

The young Suffolk has naturally good feet, equal to those of
any other breed of cart horses, and in stables or studs where the
feeding is rational and exercise sufficient, laminitis seldom occurs.
For sufficient food and hard work spoils no horse, whilst fattening,
heating foods, in too great quantities is highly detrimental.

It is often asked if the Suffolk is especially suited to any
particular district or county. It is found that the horses bred on
the heavier lands are liable to produce more bone than those on
the light lands. But whether on heavy land or on light land,
the Punch is equally useful. The absence of feather saves not
only men's time but also keeps the legs far freer from grease and
other skin affections. The position of the shoulders gives the
horse a particular advantage for a steady pull, and the animal is
a decidedly quick walker. In fact, the Suffolk is, without doubt,
one of the most useful agricultural horses for any and every county
in England.

There is no advantage in attempting to breed big Suffolk
horses. The type of Suffolk to be aimed at is one standing up to
1 6 hands i in. high, with hard short legs, close-knitted joints, and
deep carcass, with plenty of width in front. The smaller Suffolks
are of value for crossing with light breeds in order to obtain active
horses with more substance and stamina; in this way many good
hunters have been bred and several excellent riding and driving
cobs. It is interesting to know that the result of these crosses
is usually a chestnut with a remarkably docile disposition.

Suffolks 27

The capacity to thrive well on a scanty diet, the drawing
instinct, and the docility, are the characters which ought to be
well developed. The world, as it is now, requires reliability above
all things, and gradually the reliable horse — the horse that will do
its utmost and will cause a minimum of trouble, the horse that
will keep soundest and breed longest — must gradually become more
and more a favourite.

Buyers from America, Australia, Africa, and from our neigh-
bours, Russia, Austria, and Germany, are constant visitors to
Suffolk. It is thought by many that the Punch horse is pre-
dominantly suited for army crosses. Those who come to buy
naturally wish to obtain the best animals, and unfortunately there
are but comparatively (e\v Suffolks in the country. Good prices
are offered and gradually the best blood is being taken from our
shores. A day must come when good Suffolks will make still
higher prices, for the demand is certain to increase. Rather let
the Suffolk breeders refuse good offers and keep a few more mares
of the best blood in the country so that the quality of good stock
will increase, than sell them to be deported whilst yet they are so
urgently required in their own country. If it had not been for
a few loyal Suffolk breeders who have refused to sell their best
horses and mares at any price, even to-day the Suffolk would be
no longer the horse it is. Unless drastic steps are taken the
Suffolk horse in this country will gradually deteriorate and the
painstaking work of the early breeders will be lost for ever.

The Suffolk Horse Society, noticing the demand for the best
blood, particularly in respect to mares and fillies, started a worthy
scheme of denomination mares, which will also do a great deal
for the Suffolk breed for this and future generations.

In conclusion, it is interesting to note that although at the
present day the various breeds of stock no longer compete with
each other in the same class, except when it is a matter of judging
respectively milking or beef qualities, yet at the meetings of the
Royal Agricultural Society from 1839 to 1862 there was a general
class for heavy horses of all breeds. Shire, Clydesdale, and Cross-
bred competed with the Suffolk in regard to general merits as
agricultural horses, and during the twenty-two years one hundred
and sixty prizes were divided between four classes — aged horses,
two-year-old colts, mares and foals, and two-year-old fillies. At
the Oxford Show in 1839 only two prizes were offered, and whilst
a Suffolk mare won the aged horse class the honour of the best
mare and foal passed to another breed. The following year at
Cambridge the results were somewhat similar, a Suffolk winning

2 8 Breeds of Horses

the "best mare and foal" class, and the only other honour, the
ag^ed class, was won by a Shire or Clydesdale. From 1841 until
1847 the winners were mostly Shires, Clydesdales, or Crossbreds,
but at York in 1848, five of the prizes were won by Suffolks and
three by other breeds.

During the following years at Norwich, Exeter, Windsor,
Lewes, and Gloucester, practically all the honours were taken by
Suffolk horses, whilst at the subsequent shows held at Lincoln
and Carlisle the East Anglian breed was far from successful.
However, from 1856 to 1861 the Suffolks regained the lead, the
majority of honours falling to their share — in fact, winning twenty-
nine prizes, whilst the Clydesdales, Shires, and mixed breeds won
only nineteen.

The final total for the twenty-two years was as follows: —

1st Prizes. 2nd Prizes. Total.

Shires, Clydesdales, and Crossbreds 43 29 72

Suffolks ... ... ... ... 44 44 J 88

Considering the number of Suffolks compared with other cart
horses in Great Britain, and bearing in mind how distant most of
the towns at which the show was held were from the east of
England, it speaks well for the "Old Breed" that they should yet
have managed to obtain the greater number of awards in the
mixed class for purely agricultural horses

CHAPTER II

BREEDS OF HORSES

2. LIGHT HORSES AND PONIES

By W. SCARTH DIXON

Cleveland Bays and Yorkshire Coach Horses

There is such an affinity between the Cleveland Bay (see plates
pp. 48, 49) and the Yorkshire Coach Horse (see plates pp. 56, 57)
that it seems advisable to treat the two breeds under one heading.
The Cleveland Bay was to a certain extent bred on the same lines
as were afterwards adopted and modified, and of course consider-
ably developed, in the breeding of the Yorkshire Coach Horse.

It is the opinion of many authorities that the Cleveland Bay
nearly approaches in character the original horse of the country —
the horse that drew the war chariots which gave even Caesar's
veterans a severe shock. It is highly probable that they are direct
descendants of those horses, which must have been something out
of the common to have attracted the attention of such a fine judge
and horseman as Julius Caesar. It is, however, very possible that
the native breed of the country was considerably modified during
the Roman occupation of Britain. Here is one way by which it
might have been improved. We are informed that the Roman
cavalry stationed at Doncaster {Danum) in the 2nd century A.D.
were mounted on Barb stallions. What so likely as that some
of these would be used to improve the breeds found in the East
and North Ridings of Yorkshire? There is also historical evidence
that the Eastern horse was found in Yorkshire in another con-
nection, for we are told that when the Emperor Severus was
staying at York some of the Roman officers organized for his
amusement a race meeting at Wetherb}', which was possibly the
first race meeting of importance held in England.

It has been suggested that the ancestor of the Cleveland
Bay was in all probability the horse of the age of chivalry, which

TO

30 Breeds of Horses

figured in battlefield and tourney. The suggestion is an ingenious
one, and judging from what we see of the Cleveland Bay in these
days, he would seem to be an ideal horse to carry a knight in
armour. But the writer is not inclined to accept the theory. In
the first place, the Cleveland Bay of to-day is very unlike his
ancestor in the days of King Richard or King John. In those days
his ancestor was undoubtedly on a much smaller scale, and I should
feel inclined to look for him in the ranks of the Pack Horses rather
than of the Great Horses. Then in contemporary pictures of war
horses we find the plain, rather heavy head of the Shire and the
feather on the legs, which the Cleveland Bay has not, and Sir
Walter Gilbey seems to have fairly established his theory that the
Shire Horse is the descendant of the Great Horse. It is highly
probable that if we saw the much-vaunted war horses of that
period we should be greatly disappointed in them, and should
consider them common and clumsy. The writer has an idea that
the best of them would not make much at Tattersall's.

The late Mr. Lumley Hodgson, a well-known breeder and fine
judge of all horses, said that the Cleveland Bay or Chapman Horse
was a pure breed before the days of the Godolphin Barb or the
Darley Arabian. There is, I think, every indication of the soundness
of Mr. Hodgson's theory, which receives some confirmation from
the Notebook of Sir Walter Calverley, who flourished in the time of
Charles II. In this notebook Sir Walter tells us that they took
the lighter draught mares to horse the coaches which were then
becoming more common in the country. It is, from this, pretty
clear that, at any rate in Yorkshire and in some of the neighbouring
counties, where horses were used on the land — it must be remem-
bered that cattle were also largely used — those horses were some-
thing of the type of the Cleveland Bay, or Chapman Horse as was
the older name. Long after the time of Sir Walter Calverley we find
this state of things prevailing. In the latter half of the eighteenth
century, when Marshall wrote his Rural Economy of Yorkshire, he
wrote in very trenchant language against the introduction of the
Holderness cart horse into the North Riding, insisting that his
neighbours had a much better horse for their purpose. Yet the
Holderness cart horse was a much lighter horse than the Shire,
and was of the type which is spoken of in the section on Hunters
(p. 42).

This fairly seems to establish the position of the Cleveland Bay
as the draught horse of, at any rate, a considerable section of the
country, and we have now to consider the question of his develop-
ment into the horse we see him to be in these days. All over

Cleveland Bays and Yorkshire Coach Horses 3 1

England, and in Yorkshire especially, there was an exceptional
number of high-class Thoroughbred horses travelling the country.
There being no railways, and other means of conveying mares any
distance being very expensive, country mares as they were called
in Yorkshire, i.e. mares of any breed owned by farmers and others,
had access to exceptionally good horses at merely nominal fees.
We even find a horse like Hambletonian, a St. Leger winner, taking
a few approved farmers' mares at a fee of a guinea.

But long before his time, and as racing began to extend, these
horses became very numerous, and no doubt were used to cross with
the Chapman or Cleveland mares to a considerable extent. We
know of one instance in which this was the case. Traveller by Partner,
dam by Almanzor, a bay horse that was bred by Mr. Osbaldeston
j'l ^735 ^nd which won several races, came owing to some cause or
other into the Yarm district. There he covered the " country "
mares at very low fees — as little as lOJ-. it has been said — until the
Duke of Cleveland, happening to see some of his stock when he
was on a hunting expedition, mated Slighted by All to him.
The result was Dainty Davy, which was the best horse of his year.
And of course after that Old Traveller was purchased and went
to Raby. Several famous stallions of the Cleveland Bay breed
trace their pedigree back to this Old Traveller.

What was taking place in the Yarm district would naturally be
taking place, more or less, all over the country, and hence it is not
difficult to see how the Cleveland Bays gradually "grew to quality",
and how some of them were very smart indeed, on the road or in
the hunting field.

Mr. Lumley Hodgson used to tell of how one Miles of Harlsey,
who was serving on the jury at York, rode to York every morning
on his Cleveland Bay mare, arriving in time to hear his name read
out and returning home when the court rose. This meant riding
the mare seventy miles a day for six days, a very good perfor-
mance for any breed. Mr. Parker's mare, of Cundale and Star, and
her sister, are referred to elsewhere, and other instances, similar in
general character if differing in detail, are constantly cropping up.
I have myself seen a man loose a horse out of the plough and
jump on to him barebacked when hounds have crossed the field,
and seen him go right well too. And when this happened it was
pretty certain to be a Cleveland Bay, with perhaps a cross of blood
a generation or two back that was careering after hounds, fully
equipped with barfin and hames.

The Cleveland Bay is a very powerful horse, standing from
16 hands to 16 hands i in., with big bone of great density. The

32 Breeds of Horses

Thoroughbred and the Arab alone equal the Cleveland Bay in
density of bone. A peculiarity of the breed is the long elegant
quarter — a quarter such as is seen in no other breed. The shoulders
are generally good and the hock action is excellent. The Cleveland
Bays at one time, as well as doing the principal farm work, did a
good deal of harness work on the roads, and when a faster horse
was required for the coaches, they made a capital foundation for that
faster breed. The Cleveland Bay has been well described as the
foundation of light horse breeding, for there is no breed that he will
not cross well with. I even remember more than one good horse
by a Cleveland Bay sire from a heavy draught mare, or vice versa,
that could not be beaten for farm work. But it is with the lighter
breeds that they cross best. I have seen and ridden many a good
Hunter by a Thoroughbred from a Cleveland Bay mare, and some
of the best Hunters I have ever come across, especially as weight
carriers, have been bred that way, or had another cross of Thorough-
bred from a mare bred that way. If the object of the breeder is to
breed Hunters, he will have to get a short-legged compact Thorough-
bred sire. The ordinary King's Premium winner, narrow, and on
the leg standing i6 hands 2 in. or thereabouts, will probably — not
certainly, for the unlikely is always happening at a stud farm —
entail disappointment. Courage and action he must have, and if I
could not find one of the sort standing anything from 1 5 hands to
15 hands 3 in., I should look out for a Thoroughbred Polo Pony of
the stamp of Sir John Barker's Othrae.

In breeding a harness horse from a Cleveland mare there are
three courses open to the breeder. He may cross his mare with a
Hackney, or a Yorkshire Coach Horse, or he may use a Thorough-
bred. If he uses a Hackney with good straight action he will be
sure to breed a good harness horse, but I would suggest that he
should avoid a gaudily marked chestnut, of which there are too
many to be found amongst the ranks of the Hackneys. There are
plenty of good Hackneys bay or brown in colour, and it will be
found a wiser policy to look after one of them without gaudy white
markings, even if a little more expense is incurred, rather than use
a chestnut with a lot of white. It will make a great difference
when the horses are to sell, and it is well to bear in mind that no
harness horse, as a rule, brings so much money as one of the
orthodox Cleveland colour, viz. bay with black legs. If he crosses
with a Yorkshire Coach Horse there will be no difficulty about the
colour of the produce, for the Yorkshire Coach Horse, needless
to say, is of the same colour as the Cleveland Bay. Some care
will be necessary in selecting a sire. I should prefer a horse on the

■■**wsBHiwiirHj.'» ■

':>S&^

Cleveland Bays and Yorkshire Coach Horses 33

small side — about 16 hands. He would be no worse for being half
an inch short of that height, but he should be full of quality and
action. Such a horse would sire a good-looking powerful brougham
horse from a Cleveland Bay mare. In selecting a Thoroughbred,
when the breeding of a harness horse is the object, it is not so
necessary to insist on compactness. There must be length under-
neath, and if harness is the object it does not so very much matter
if there is a little length on the top as well. Action, of course, is
imperative. I should add that the cross between a Thoroughbred
and a Cleveland Bay mare is often very good both in saddle and
harness, and is an exemplification of the proverb which tells us that
a good saddle horse is always a good harness horse, though the
reverse by no means applies.

With the Cleveland Bay, such an excellent worker on the land
and such a valuable acquisition in the stud, one would think the
breed would be found all over the country, instead of only in a
corner of it, and that, really, not in great numbers. As a matter
of fact the Cleveland Bay has had, since the beginning of the nine-
teenth century, a very chequered existence. Sometimes he has
been what Yorkshiremen describe as "all money"; then for a time
it has scarcely been possible to give one away. Curious as this
may be, it is not difficult to account for.

When in the beginning of the nineteenth century a lighter
carriage and a lighter horse were used on the improved roads, an
idea began to prevail that Cleveland Bays would be no longer
wanted, and no attempt was made to maintain the purity of the
breed except by a few enthusiasts. Then came a time of recrudes-
cence, and the Cleveland Bay was looked upon as valuable on the
land, as engravings and articles in the Farmers' Magazine and the
Sporting Magazine and Sporting Review clearly show. Mr. Lloyd,
a Gloucestershire farmer, tells his experience with a Cleveland
horse in the first-named periodical in the year 1825, and up to the
railway days the breed prospered.

When the railway days came there was a slump and a clearing

out, and I have heard a Yorkshire farmer say that it was pitiable

to see so many fine mares leaving the country. He saw shiploads

of them going, and at a price which was a bare acknowledgment

They were sent to Belgium and Germany, and our Belgian and

German neighbours showed they knew what they were about when

they availed themselves of the opportunity caused by our folly.

I wonder how many descendants of those mares we gave away have

come to England at big prices?

There was a revival after this, and in the 'sixties some great
Vot. III. 36

34 Breeds of Horses

horses were shown and made a stir. Then came another falling off,
and in the 'seventies Cleveland Bay breeding had fallen to such a
low ebb that at the Cleveland Agricultural Society's show there was
only one class kept in the schedule, and that not without a hard
fight. I believe that Hinderwell and Egton, two local shows on
the edge of the Dales, were the only other shows at which Cleve-
land Bay classes were to be found, and just before this time the
first prize in a Cleveland Bay brood mare class at Whitby was
awarded to a grey. The class was cut out in the following year,
and was not revived till after the formation of the Cleveland Bay
Horse Society in 1884.

The last few years of the 'seventies and the early 'eighties saw a
wonderful revival in the horse trade. The United States were busy
expanding and opening up new country, and the Continent had got
nicely settled again after the upheaval of the Franco-German war.
Trade was good, and everyone wanted horses. The formation of
the Breed Societies also undoubtedly gave a great impetus to the
trade; the quality and substance of the Cleveland Bay found recog-
nition in the markets of the United States and the Continent, and
for some few years the trade flourished and big prices were made.
Then came another slump from which the breed is now just begin-
ning to emerge.

One cause of the falling off in popularity of the Cleveland Bay
has yet to be referred to, and I have kept it to the last, as it had
something to do with the development of the Yorkshire Coach
Horse breed. The " Beaux of the Regency " took it into their
heads that it was the " correct thing " to drive a cabriolet on high
wheels, drawn by a tall blood-like horse and with a diminutive and
impudent tiger hanging on to the straps behind. The taller the
horse and the more diminutive and impudent the tiger the happier
the voluminous neck-clothed beau who held the ribbons. Of course
Fashion's whims must be gratified, and the want being proclaimed,
dealers set their wits to work to find the horses and breeders to
breed them. The tallest Cleveland Bay mares were selected and
mated with the tallest Thoroughbred stallions, and tall, narrow,
split-up horses were soon bred, which suited the exquisites down
to the ground as long as the craze lasted. There is no doubt —
there cannot indeed be any — that this absurd craze inflicted a
severe blow on the Cleveland Bay breed, and one from which it
has never fully recovered. There were plenty of mares, especially in
the Dales, to keep the breed alive, but there is no getting away from
the fact that the best and most stylish of the mares were selected
to make the foundation of what eventually became a new breed.

Cleveland Bays and Yorkshire Coach Horses 35

The results of this cross of Cleveland Bay and Thoroughbred
were mated, and the produce, as might have been expected, was
tall and narrow; now and again more Thoroughbred blood was
introduced, and the beaux got what they wanted. And then for
one reason or another they tired of them. But if they had been
instrumental in inflicting serious injury on an old breed, they had
formed a new one which the astute Yorkshire breeders, in whose
hands it mainly was, were to establish upon a firm basis.

One drawback to the tall horses with long arched necks was
that so many of them developed roaring and kindred diseases.
When they brought big prices the risk might be run, and indeed
was run, but it is useless running risks for an exploded fashion.
The tall horses began to disappear as the special demand for them
ceased, and the Yorkshire Coach Horse had a capital sale. For he
is a stylish harness horse, and if he has not so much snap of the
knee as the Hackney, he looks better in his leather, his long
elegant quarters giving him a very taking appearance.

The Cleveland Bay cross was introduced again to obtain the
compactness necessary, and many Yorkshire Coach Horses are very
full of good Cleveland Bay blood. Indeed the similarity between
the two breeds is very great, and unless a man is an expert judge
it is very difficult to differentiate between them. Frequently they
are shown in the same class, and it is by no means always that the
Coach Horse wins. Indeed, a Cleveland Bay is eligible for the York-
shire Coach Horse Stud Book, but a Yorkshire Coach Horse is not
eligible for the Cleveland Bay Stud Book. The formation of two
breed societies for two such similar breeds has done the trade in
neither any good, and it is a great pity that there were ever two
societies, for if sufficient precautions had been taken in drawing up
the regulations for entry in the earlier stud books, and especially
the retrospective volume of the Cleveland Bay Stud Book, the
difficulty in all probability would never have arisen.

The conditions were that there should be three top crosses of
pure breeding in the pedigrees of stallions; occasionally amongst the
older horses, two or even fewer securing admission into the stud
book when they were known and fully recognized as Cleveland
Bays. This of course only applied to the retrospective volume.
Now, there is not the least doubt that some horses were admitted
into that volume which had not nearly so much Cleveland Bay
blood in them as some of those that were rejected. For instance,
a horse by a Coach Horse out of a pure Cleveland Bay mare might
have very little Coach Horse in him if his sire was also out of
a pure-bred Cleveland Bay mare; there might, indeed, only be four

3 6 Breeds of Horses

out of the thirty quarterings Coach Horse, whilst the other twenty-
six were Cleveland Bay, whilst with the three top crosses it was
possible for only twenty-one of the quarterings to be Cleveland
Bay, whilst nine might be alien blood — even Cart Horse. But the
committee stuck to the three top crosses, with the result that some
hundred horses were rejected, very (ew of whose descendants would
have interfered with the Cleveland Bay Stud Book. A compromise,
even after the Yorkshire Coach Horse Society was formed, might
have been effected if it had been gone about in the right way, but
nothing was done. The Coach Horse Society took a wider area
than the Cleveland Bay, and admitted direct crosses of Thorough-
bred blood, which of course was a policy which Cleveland Bay
breeders could not adhere to. And so a golden opportunity was
lost, which perhaps would have been seized upon if everyone had
not thought the good times were going to last for ever.

In giving the history of this curious position I would point out
that there is not and never has been any animosity between the
two societies. Many men are members of both. But there is
reason to think that a mistaken policy was pursued.

There was a big slump a few years ago, and for some time
prices were bad, but the demand for both breeds has been improv-
ing. There seems to be every reason to think that the improvement
will continue. Some of the Development Fund money has been
allotted to Cleveland Bay and Yorkshire Coach Horse stallions,
and this has done a great deal of good. For one thing it has made
men register their mares, and the whereabouts of some good mares
have been discovered which would probably have been lost sight
of altogether if it had not been for this grant. Then the grant if
not a large one, will tend to keep a young stallion at home a year
or two longer. He will be all the better to sell for having won a
prize of this sort. Then Lord Hollenden has taken to driving a
team of Cleveland Bays in the Park, and these have been much
admired, so that it is by no means unlikely that others may follow
his example.

But the most important incident in connection with the breed
which has taken place in recent years is the formation of a stud of
Yorkshire Coach Horses and Cleveland Bays by His Majesty at
Hampton Court. It is well known that the King is a great admirer
of the breed, and his gift of a Challenge Cup to be competed for at
some district shows in Yorkshire has given a direct impetus to
breeding.

It seems a paradox, perhaps, but a man who would lay himself
out for breeding geldings of these breeds would do well to buy hi?

Hackneys 37

Cleveland Bays of the Coach Horse type, and his Coach Horse
mares of the Cleveland Bay type. When he has been a little
amongst them he will find that it is not such a paradox as it looks
on paper. It would be, in the present condition of the breeds,
patriotic certainly, and perhaps more profitable to breed on stud-
book lines, for good prices are given for good stallions. One word
of warning may be given about working either Cleveland Bays or
Coach Horses on the land. Steady men must be sent with them.
A "flighty", bad-tempered man will cause mischief They are
quiet enough, but high-spirited, and will not stand knocking about.
There has been a suggestion that the Cleveland Bay and York-
shire Coach Horse Societies should amalgamate with the Hackney
Horse Society, but it is not worth serious consideration.

Hackneys

(Plates, facing pp. 64, 6j)

At one time Hackney breeding was practically confined to the
East Riding of Yorkshire and to Norfolk and Suffolk — East Anglia.
No doubt the breed as we now know it had its origin in those
districts, and that for a very long time something which did the
same work as the modern Hackney and which was much esteemed
in its day, was bred in them many hundreds of years ago. We
have, for instance. Dame Paston writing in the thirteenth century
to her husband to inform him that " three fayre trottyng horses "
have been sent to him from St. Faith's fair; and a couple of centuries
later Blundeville draws attention to what were no doubt the founda-
tions of the Hackney, when he says that mares to breed from should
be " strongly made, large and fayre, and have a trotting pace, as the
Mares of Flanders, and some of our own Mares be ". These mares
of Flanders, no doubt, had something to do with the origin of the
Hackney.

The improvement of the roads, which followed as a matter of
course on the termination of internecine broils and the consequent
increase of inland trade, was, if not exactly the cause of the
modern Hackney's origin, undoubtedly the reason of his rapid
development. He was wanted — very much wanted — and it was
essential that he should be fairly fast, possessed of considerable
stamina, and of quick recuperative powers. There was the founda-
tion in the "trotting mares, fayre and large", which had by this
time become indigenous to Yorkshire and East Anglia, and in the
Thoroughbred there was the combination of quality and stamina
necessary for the formation of the ideal Hackney or Hack.

38 Breeds of Horses

Undoubtedly for a very long period the Hackney was bred for
work and not for fancy, and primarily there is no doubt that the
saddle rather than harness was his metier. When trade began to
expand and merchants, either by themselves or by their representa-
tives, paid periodical visits to their customers all over the country,
the journeys were frequently taken on horseback. For one thing,
short cuts could be taken; for another, a man was a little safer from
highwaymen on horseback than he was in a gig. Whatever the
reason, a good deal of the commercial travelling in the latter part
of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth was
done on horseback. But as time wore on and roads became better,
and the country became more opened out, the gig or the high dog-
cart in some measure took the place of the saddle.

There is one remarkable circumstance in connection with the
development of the Hackney, and that is, that though here and
there we have a record of a horse trotting so many miles within
the hour, or a mile in a given number of minutes, or even ot
beating another horse over a certain distance of ground, trotting
as a sport never "caught on" in England, In England there was
always racing and plenty of it, and, compared with racing, trotting
is only slow sport. It is said, and perhaps with some show of
reason, that the popularity of trotting in the United States is due
to the fact that, whilst the original settlers were opposed to horse-
racing and set their faces against it as a deadly sin, they never
said anything against match trotting, and that in consequence
their descendants got rid of their superfluous energy, first in match-
ing their horses on the roads, and then on the trotting track. If
this is true it is a very amusing instance of human inconsistency.
Unfortunately for this theory it is a well-known fact that Crom-
well and other well-known Puritan leaders were partial to racing,
and I should think the reason why trotting caught on and became
as it were a national sport in America was that they had not suf-
ficient of the right material for racing whilst they had plenty for
trotting. There was some good trotting foundation to work on
when Mambrino and other Thoroughbreds were imported to con-
solidate and found the now famous American trotting breed.

The Thoroughbred influence on the Hackney during the early
years of his written history is worth a passing notice. Beginning
with the original Shales, we find that he was by Blaze by Flying
Childers, who was full of English as well as Eastern blood. Mr
Euren suggests that as that English blood is unknown it might be
running, trotting, or ambling. Surely this is a question that settles
itself. Both Blaze and his sire, Flying Childers, were good race-

Hackneys 39

horses, and trotting blood was scarcely likely to win at Newmarket
or elsewhere. A grandson of Shales, Marshall's Hue and Cry, was
the sire of a lot of horses named Shales, but he scarcely made such
a mark on the breed as did his other grandson, Jenkinson's Fire-
away, who was by Driver, and from whom comes a long list of high-
class horses, perhaps the most notable amongst them being VV root's
Pretender, who was the sire of Bob Ramsdale's Performer, of whom
the Druid writes with such enthusiasm, and who was perhaps the
finest mover not only of his own but of any time. Other Thorough-
bred horses whose names are to be found in the pedigrees of the
older horses registered in the Hackney Horse Stud Book, and who
had much to do with the formation of the breed as we now know
it, were Mr. Robinson's Sampson, a horse that was bred by the
Marquis of Rockingham, and famous for his remarkable substance;
Jalap, a colt by Regulus, who, according to Marshall, was a very
successful sire in the North and East Ridings of Yorkshire, and
whose name is found in the pedigree of Ramsdale's Performer;
and Hartley's Joseph Andrews, a well-known Royal Plate winner,
whose name continually occurs in the pedigrees of East Riding
celebrities. Of course this by no means exhausts the list of
Thoroughbreds who in the eighteenth century and early years of
the nineteenth helped to develop the modern Hackney; but those
whose names have been mentioned come prominently into the
pedigrees of some of the more famous sires, and may be taken as
a fair example of what took place in the way of introducing the
Thoroughbred cross at the time.

The Hackney was at a very high pitch of perfection indeed
when the railways came and altered tlie whole system of travelling.
Then indeed the Hackney seemed likely to suffer severely, but at
first he seemed nearly as much wanted as ever as a means of
communication between the great trunk railways. The end of
road travelling was, however, inevitable; at the best it was only a
question of a few years; and had it not been for the fact that gentle-
men fancied the stylish horses, and took keenly to them, and that
the shows began to increase and multiply, the Hackney would in
all probability have fallen on very evil days.

It is worth noting that during the middle years of the nine-
teenth century — say from the 'forties down to the end of the
'seventies — the Yorkshire and Norfolk Hackneys grew widely apart
in type. This was, no doubt, due in a considerable measure to the
greater frequency with which Yorkshire breeders introduced a cross
of blood. Whatever the cause, however, the fact remains, and the
Yorkshire horses up to quite the end of the 'seventies, or even later,

40 Breeds of Horses

were more of the saddle type, whilst the Norfolk horses were more
of the harness type.

Though it is outside the scope of this article to enter minutely
into the pedigrees of individual horses, there are two to which a
brief reference must be made — Triffit's Fireaway and Bourdass's
Denmark — as they have made such a great mark on the modern
Hackney, and are perhaps the greatest sires of the latter part of
the nineteenth century. Fireaway was foaled in 1859, and was by
Hairsine's Achilles (2), through whom comes some Thoroughbred
blood, out of Nancy by Ward's Performer by Norfolk Phenomenon.
He was a great prize winner, and was the sire of many good
stallions, amongst whom may be mentioned Bismarck; Vary's
Fireaway, the winner at Alexandra Park in 1874; Foster's Fire-
away; Triffit's Landseer; Brough's Phenomenon; Triffit's Sir Edwin
Landseer, and Postill's Sir Garnet. Denmark was three years
younger than Fireway. He was by Beal's Sir Charles (768), dam by
Rickett's Merryman (458). He was very much inbred to Burgess's
Fireaway (208), whose dam was by the Thoroughbred Skyscraper,
a son of Highflyer. The Thoroughbred Hyperion also comes into
his pedigree. His rival, Triffit's Fireaway, also had a strain of
Fireaway (208) in his pedigree, and amongst other Thoroughbred
horses in it are Ponteland by Waxy and Borodino by Smolensko.

Denmark, though scarcely so successful in the show ring as
Mr. Triffit's famous horse, has the better record as a sire of stallions.
First and foremost amongst his sons stands Danegelt (74), for whom
Sir Walter Gilbey gave 5000 gs. when he was thirteen years
old; other great sires by him were Dorrington (174), Charley
Denmark (130), Moore's Confidence (163), Fordham (187), Lord
Derwent (418), and Moore's Sunbeam (819).

The rivalry between these great horses was keen, and the ques-
tion has never been settled satisfactorily to their respective partisans
as to which of the two has had the best effect upon the breed. It
has been said, perhaps with some show of reason, that Denmark
sires and Fireaway mares were the better, and there we will leave it.
But it may be added as a rider that nearly every great Hackney
has a cross of one or other or both.

The formation of the Hackney Horse Society, and the publica-
tion of the Hackney Stud Book marked an important epoch in the
history of the breed. For many years it had gradually been de-
veloping into a fashionable breed, and the growth of the show
system had done much to assist in this development. The Hackney
Horse Society by its London show strengthened the movement,
and an enormous and increasing foreign trade kept it well " in the

Hackneys 41

limelight ". Perhaps there never was such an opportune time for
the successful floating of such an important enterprise. Never in
the history of the breed had there been so many good horses astir,
and their whereabouts were made known to the general public by
means of the large classes seen at the important shows which were
springing up all over the country. In a word, the time was ripe.

The popularity of the Hackney did not all tend to his benefit.
It was perhaps a good thing that the Yorkshire and Norfolk
types should be merged in one, which to a considerable extent
followed on the issue of the Stud Book, though whether it was
altogether due to it is matter of controversy. One notable in-
stance of this combination of blood occurs to the memory — Mr.
Henry Moore's Rufus, a horse of great style and character, that
was champion in 1889 and 1890, and that died all too soon.

There is no doubt that one thing which made the Hackney
popular with the public was his stylish action — his high stepping;
and the result of this is not altogether satisfactory. It came to
pass that if not everything, at any rate many very important things,
were sacrificed to the snap of the knee. It mattered not whether
a horse used his shoulders and hocks sufficiently so long as his
knee action appealed to shouting crowds. It became a fashion,
too, to regard the Hackney as the fashionable harness horse, and to
make him fill this role properly his height must be increased — he
must be bred up to 16 hands i in. or 16 hands 2 in. This was
attempted and to a certain extent it succeeded, but at what a price!
The old type was to a considerable extent lost; horses began to
throw their legs about and " weave ", and upright joints and other
faults began to multiply. The council of the Hackney Horse
Society, wisely realizing that many of the evils which were appear-
ing were due to heavy shoeing, restricted the weight of the shoes,
and further restriction in this direction would be beneficial.

The council has also restored to its London show the riding
classes, and though these were the subject of much hostile criticism,
it is to be hoped they will not be dropped, for it is as the dual-
purpose horse that the Hackney seems to have a bright future.
The coming of the motor car has done much to weaken the position
of the "fashionable" harness horse.

It should be mentioned that the showing of harness horses is
increasing, and may perhaps develop into a sport if the enthusiasm
which is manifested at Olympia is to last, so that here is a way for
the high-class harness horse. But the breeder of Hackneys who is
strange to the details of Hackney breeding will have to find a
market for those horses which do not come up to the first-class

42 Breeds of Horses

standard, and this is really a difificulty sometimes. It will, I think,
be best met by endeavouring to breed a medium-sized horse, under
rather than over i6 hands, and by bearing in mind that originally
the Hackney was a riding as well as a harness horse.

In selecting a stallion or brood mares the breeder must pay
special attention to pasterns, shoulders, and hocks, and must insist
on straight well-balanced action. If this policy is followed, saleable
horses should be bred.

Hunters

[Plates, facing pp. 80, 81)

The term "hunter" embraces a wide area, and is applied to
all sorts of horses, from the upstanding, well-balanced, well-bred
horse that carries his master right up to the tail of the hounds to
Master Johnnie's " hunter ", who is generally a shaggy Shetland
Pony. That there are hunters and hunters a visit to any big show
will abundantly testify, but all the classes of hunters are not found
in the showyard nowadays, whatever may have been the case when
Hunters and Coach Horses were classified together, as I believe is
the case even yet at some old-established and old-fashioned agri-
cultural shows. For the showing of Hunters, as they have come
to be more and more classified, has got into the hands of men who
make of it a speciality, and who have come to recognize that there
are only two or three sorts that can be shown with any chance
of success.

We see the hunter in his " infinite variety " at any important
fixture of a provincial pack. For I would rather take a good pro-
vincial pack than one in the Shires for finding the different kinds
of horses which are classified as hunters. The well-bred weight
carrier, nearly Thoroughbred; the handsome middle-weight hunter;
the galloping light-weight horse, shaped like, and in all probability,
a clean Thoroughbred — all these you will see at any fixture in the
Shires. But there are others. For instance, there is the hack hunter,
who shows his sporting master a good day's sport to-day, and two
days later is taking him round the country on his business. He is
not so much in evidence as he was, but he is a valuable possession
if one of the right sort. The hunting doctor always had something
good of this sort, but since he has taken to going his rounds in
a motor car the sort is not so much in evidence. An old friend
of the writer used to drive out in his gig, see several patients, then
put up at a farmhouse, saddle his horse — he took his hunting saddle
and bridle with him in the gig — and have a spin with the hounds.
He would finish his professional visits as he returned home. I

Hunters 43

cannot say I view such a plan with unqualified approval, but as
in these days there is not much likelihood of its being adopted,
it is scarcely worth while to spend time in criticism.

Then there is the lady's hunter, which once meant any nonde-
script in the stable which no one else would ride, but which is now
generally a high-class middle-weight hunter — a lady should always
be mounted on a horse up to a couple of stone over her weight.
The old man's horse, short-legged, somewhat sober, but full of
quality, and with a character peculiarly his own, is not the least
valuable of the lot of horses which will be seen on such an occasion.
He is a horse which cannot carry his owner right up to hounds, but
he is one on which a man who knows the country, and who will
jump a fair-sized fence on occasion, will see a lot of sport, and on
which he is not unlikely to be " there " at the end of the run of the
season before the gentleman who has gone into every field with
hounds. And so we go on down the scale till we come to horses
which can only be called hunters because they are ridden hunting.

It has been well said by the late Sir Richard Green Price that
the Hunter is a type and not a breed. Many years ago an attempt
was make to make a breed of hunters, and it has, so far, signally
failed. Nor does there seem to be any prospect of success, at any
rate in the immediate future. The drawing up of certain conditions
of entry into a stud book, and the publication of a certain number
of volumes of a stud book, are not of themselves sufficient to con-
stitute a breed. To make a breed it is necessary that the mating
of a horse and mare, bred on stud-book lines, should result in a foal
of the same characteristics as the sire and dam, and these char-
acteristics this stock should have the power of transmitting to their
offspring, and so on. This, where there is very high up in the pedi-
gree a considerable quantity of alien blood — cart horse, perhaps —
is a thing that cannot be looked for with any degree of confidence
Then there is another reason why a Hunter breed is scarcely likely
to be formed successfully. It is above all things necessary, as
pointed out above, that the sires of any breed should be hardy
in constitution, and that they should have their capabilities tested
by some more reliable trials than those of the show ring. How is
the half-bred Hunter sire to be tested? Racing him is an impossi-
bility. The days of half-bred racing are over for ever in this
country, and it is well that it is so. In the hunting field he
would scarcely be tolerated, besides which, if he were, for many
and obvious reasons it would be impossible to be sure that the test
was a sufficiently satisfactory one.

So I think we may fairly hold with Sir Richard Green Price

44 Breeds of Horses

that the Hunter is a type and not a breed. A curious fact which
came under the writer's own observation seems confirmatory of
this, and it also would seem to have a bearing on the whole ques-
tion of Hunter breeding.

It has frequently been remarked by men who flourished in
the beginning of the nineteenth century how certain Cleveland
Bay horses carried their owners to hounds. The late Mr. Lumley
Hodgson spoke of one which carried his owner, Parker of Cundale,
near Boroughbridge, right to the front with hounds, and which
could live alongside any hunter when hounds ran fast and far.
Mr. Hodgson, however, was not able to give a pedigree of Cun-
dale's horse, and he might have had a Thoroughbred cross pretty
near the top of his dam's pedigree. In the cases that I am about
to give there was nothing of this sort. The pedigrees were correct
Cleveland Bay pedigrees. Two sisters were by Barnaby, dam by
Master William, then came two more Cleveland Bay crosses, the
names of which I cannot call to mind, but the breeder was a mar
who had a famous line of Cleveland Bays, and I do not think
he ever bred anything else. Now the elder of these two fillies wa?
named Star, and she was one of the finest show jumpers I ever
saw. She was a very capable hunter, and could get there, but was
a little time in doing it. Her sister was not a very great jumper —
that is, she was nothing approaching a show jumper, but she could
get over a country, and was fast. This is a curious case of rever-
sion to undoubtedly remote ancestors, and such cases are occa-
sionally cropping up. I knew of another similar reversion, and
in the same breed, but not in the stud of the same breeder. A
Cleveland Bay mare of undoubted pedigree threw a chestnut foal
to a Cleveland Bay horse. There was nothing but bays with black
legs on either side for generations, and all the rest of the mare's
foals were of the orthodox colour. The chestnut was made a hunter,
and I have seen her go fairly, but it is a long time since, and I have
no very keen recollection of her performances.

The most difficult thing to generalize about is Hunter breeding.
No sooner does a man enunciate a theory than some instance is
at once brought to his notice which proves that in one instance,
at any rate, he is utterly wrong. Here is a case that occurred with
the writer some years ago. A friend mounted me with a well-
known and very fashionable pack of hounds, where jealous riding
was very much in evidence. The horse met me at the station, a
big upstanding bloodlike horse, too. The hounds were gone on, and
I had to gallop on to catch them. We had a long hard day, and
my horse never put a foot wrong. We took a short cut home over

Hunters 45

some fields, for a train was to be caught, and on coming to a gate
I found it locked. It would never do to go back, so I turned my
horse round and jumped it. As my friend and I were getting to
the end of our journey, I happened to mention a letter which had
appeared in one of the papers advocating the crossing of Thorough-
bred mares with light active Clydesdale stallions. I was criticizing
this letter rather freely, when my friend asked me how I liked my
mount. I replied, " Very well." " That is how he is bred," said he.

" He is by ," naming a Clydesdale stallion of repute, "and his

dam is the old mare." That was an old Thoroughbred mare of his
own. I was certainly surprised, for I was riding what was un-
questionably a good hunter, I noticed, however, that my friend
never tried the same cross again, or if he did, it was a failure of
which he would not speak.

The many different theories about the breeding of Hunters
would fill a volume. There is no doubt that what a breeder should
aim at is to produce as much substance with as much quality as
possible, for the more weight a horse is up to, provided he is a
really fine and fast galloper, the more money he is worth. In
speaking of weight carriers, it is not a little curious how some
people think they can find a horse for a heavy man. " I have just
the horse for you," says a friend who considers himself a judge,
and he straightway shows you a big heavy-headed, probably upright-
shouldered cart-horse-like animal that might take half a plough,
but that looks rather out of place with a scarlet coat above him.
Now, the most erroneous idea a man can conceive is that such
a horse is a weight carrier, and if ever he held such an idea the
sooner he forgets it the better. The heavy, clumsy kind of horse
must be got completely out of the mind if a man would be a
successful Hunter breeder. It is quality, balance, and action that
carry weight.

There is always a certain amount of risk in breeding from
a cross-bred mare, that is, it is difficult to forecast exactly what
sort of a horse she will breed, but some idea can generally be
formed. You will find occasionally that a big powerful mare will
breed her foals rather on the light side, whilst a light mare will
occasionally " breed them big ". That is a point which depends,
no doubt, in a considerable degree upon the breeding of the mare.

In selecting a brood mare, care should be taken to get to know
as much about her antecedents as possible. Unfortunately, there
is not much known about the pedigrees of half-bred or Hunter
mares, though more is known now than there was a few years
ago. The breeder will find that if he wants to buy a tried mare,

^6 Breeds of Horses

one that has won a few prizes, for example, or that has bred some
good horses, he will have to give a big price; but if he keeps his
eyes open he may very easily pick up a young Hunter mare " that
has happened something" at a reasonable price. It is certainly
preferable, where possible, to begin with a well-bred weight-carrying
brood mare, and it is better to begin with a young one, six years
old or even younger. It is impossible to be too particular in
selecting a brood mare of this type, and the best plan is to begin
at the beginning with the feet. It is of immense importance that
tlie mare should have good open feet, with tough horn, and that she
should stand absolutely correctly on her joints. That she should
have size is of importance, but size does not necessarily mean
height. I do not think she will be any better for standing much
over i6 hands; she will certainly not be unless she is wide in pro-
portion. That is, after all, the great point in a brood mare —
balance. It stands to reason, of course, that she must move well.
Her hocks must be big and near the ground, and well let down,
and she must get them well under her. A mare of this type will
do a great deal of light work on the farm, and in that way earn
her keep, but it must be remembered that it will not do to set
any rough lad with her. A friend of the writer adopted the plan
of keeping his young mares well, and always putting them to the
horse at three years old. It answered well in the main, and I re-
member him selling a couple of four-year-olds off two of these young
mares at ;^I50 each.

At one time weight-carrying Hunters were as plentiful in York
shire as leaves in Vallombrosa. This was when the old-fashioned
light, clean-legged cart horse and the Cleveland Bay were plentiful
Unfortunately, the former has disappeared, whilst the numbers of
the Cleveland Bay have become sadly depleted. Of course it was
the formation of the breed societies that extinguished the old-
fashioned cart horse. One of the prices we have to pay for breed
societies is that everyone immediately tries to grade up anything
he has which at all appertains to the type in order to get it into
the Stud Book. At first a stud book has a sort of charm to
some breeders, but they soon find that without the animal stud-
book registration is not of such great importance.

Weight-carrying hunters of great value were bred from these
old-fashioned cart mares if they were properly crossed. I think
it is highly probable that they were descended from the old breeds
of the country, and perhaps it was that which made them breed
such good hunters. If any reader has a mare of the sort — there
may be an odd one here and there — he cannot put her to a more

Hunters 47

profitable use than breeding a hunter. Or, for a weight-carrying
hunter the Cleveland Bay makes an excellent foundation; but
I shall have more to say on this subject later on.

The selection of a sire to suit the mare is a very critical task.
I am of opinion that in all Hunter breeding the wise policy is
to use a Thoroughbred sire. If 1 were mating a well-bred Hunter
mare, a mare with two or three crosses, or perhaps more, of
Thoroughbred blood, and standing anywhere about 16 hands, or
from that to 16 hands i in., I should try to find a horse about
the same size, or a trifle shorter — certainly not taller — and built
as much on the same lines as possible. Particularly should I try
to find one similar in action. Some have a theory that if you mate
a mare that has a bad point with a horse that is particularly good
where she is weak, he will " correct " it. He may, but it is quite as
likely that the produce will have its sire's faults and its dam's as
well. It is a difficult subject, but it is in any case the wiser policy
to avoid breeding from extremes.

I am quite sure that in breeding from the light cart mare or
the Cleveland Bay it is of importance that the sire should not be
tall. If you use a tall, lengthy, split-up sire, your young Hunter may
be good-looking enough, but that will be all. The essentials in
a sire for the direct cross are compactness, courage — but of course
you want that in all sires, and generally get it in the Thoroughbred
— and action. As for height, a horse will be quite high enough
if he is 15 hands 3 in. I would rather have him under than over.
One of the most successful Hunter sires I ever knew was Homoeo-
pathist by The Cure, out of Countess of Burlington by Touchstone,
her dam Lady Emily by Muley Moloch, out of Caroline by Whisker.
Homoeopathist was under 15 hands, indeed very little if at all over
14 hands 3 in. He was picked up in a fair, and a more pitiable
object than he then was I do not think I ever saw. But his
new owner got him into good condition, and he was a handsome
little fellow enough then. He cost something between ;i^5 and £10,
but he made his new owner a small fortune, and was certainly the
best Hunter sire I ever came across, if I except Cape Flyaway,
who stood 15 hands 3 in., and was a most successful sire when
mated with Hunter mares.

It must not be supposed, because I advocate a sire of moderate
height, that the i6-hands-2-in. horses never sire good Hunters, for
they do; but I am satisfied that the more compact and better-
balanced a horse is, the more likely is he to prove a successful
cross in the majority of cases.

Then there is the half-bred Hunter sire whom some people

48 Breeds of Horses

think is going to make a complete turnover in Hunter breeding
and who has been going to do so for some time. There was a
great deal said in some quarters about the excellence of the weight-
carrying Hunter sires at the 191 3 show of the Hunters' Improve-
ment Society, and the premium horses were a very nice lot.
Dr. Haslewood's Dalenberg and Mr. E. W. Robinson's The Tower
are both Thoroughbred, and Mr. T. Wickham Boynton's Atty,
though technically a half-bred, is to all intents and purposes
Thoroughbred. He was in training till he was six years old, was
a winner in good company at Epsom and Newbury, as well as over
hurdles. We should have had all these horses if the half-bred
Hunter sire had never been heard of.

It must not be deduced from what has been said that the
Hunter-bred sire is altogether a failure. Some amongst them are
really good-looking horses, and altogether on Hunter lines, and
occasionally one sees a really good-looking Hunter by them. Also,
I have no doubt that some of their stock will carry a man well to
hounds, just as those Cleveland Bay mares carried men well to
hounds, and for the same reason, viz. that they breed back to some
remote ancestor, or, as Mendelians put it, they are pure bred to
one of the breeds used in the cross. But considerable care will
be necessary in using these sires, and if they are used indiscrimi-
nately, there is pretty sure to be disappointment. Great pains
should be taken to avoid crossing them with mares that are on
the strong side, or coarseness is almost certain to be found in their
offspring, and it is unnecessary to emphasize that no one will give
a big price for a coarse horse unless he is a very brilliant performer.
Very brilliant performers are scarce, and besides they do not do
much good to the breeder.

The difficulty of breeding from two cross-bred animals may
perhaps be most clearly exemplified by the following experience.
In the middle of the hunting season the person in question was
in the unfortunate position of not having a sound hunter in his
stable, and he did not want to miss all the sport. It was before
the days of the Shire horse — that is, before the Shire horse spread
all over the country, and the light, clean-legged cart horse was in
favour in North Yorkshire. Amongst this gentleman's farm horses
was a grey, named Prince, a big raking horse that was somewhat
cross-bred. I do not remember his pedigree, but he had some
Coach Horse blood and a bit of Thoroughbred a generation or two
back. The hounds met in a hilly woodland district, and the owner
thought he might as well see a little sport on Prince. So Prince
was trimmed up a bit, the long hairs singed off his jaws and his

Hunters 49

legs, and, dressed in mufti, his owner rode Prince on to meet the
hounds. It was the last time Prince ever carried mufti with hounds.
It often happens that when you are not particularly anxious for
a start you are sure to get it, and so it happened on this occasion.
The hounds had the best of runs that hounds can have, viz. one in
which a hill fox makes a good point across the low country. Prince
soon showed himself a natural jumper, and he was one of the very
few that were there when the fox was killed. Four days later
Prince, clipped and smartened up, was carrying the scarlet coat.
There was an own sister to this horse in the breeders' hands, and
this gentleman hastened to buy her. He gave a big price, as prices
were then, something like £go. Prince had cost under ;^30. In
appearance she was very much like Prince, but in nothing else, for
she was as bad as he was good. I have frequently heard the owner
say that Prince was the best hunter he ever owned and his sister
the worst. From this it would seem that it is essential in crossing
that at least one parent should be pure-bred, and if this is the
case, it would seem reasonable to expect the best results from a
Hunter -bred sire when he is mated with a Thoroughbred mare,
somewhat on the light and perhaps small side. A small, compact.
Thoroughbred mare, all quality and courage, should cross well with
a Hunter-bred sire provided that he is clear of coarseness. That
is the great thing to avoid in breeding Hunters, for it assuredly
lessens the profit of the breeder.

The light-weight Hunter is not so valuable, and does not meet
with so ready a market as the medium-weight horse or the weight
carrier. The man whose riding weight is under 11 st. 7 lb. is
generally easily mounted, and if he is a wise man he will ride
Thoroughbreds and nothing else. He will easily be able to provide
himself with them if he attends the yearling sales and buys un-
fashionably bred yearlings. These can frequently be obtained for
25 gs., or even on occasion for less, and I have known some good
14-st. hunters turn out from amongst them.

If a man has a light-weight Hunter mare he will have no diffi-
culty in mating her, but, as with stronger mares, he will be wise to
avoid the tall split-up horse.

It remains to say a word about the classification of Hunters.
Generally a light-weight horse is considered as one that can carry
13 St. 7 lb. or less; the middle-weight horse is expected to carry
over 13 St. 7 lb. and not more than 15 st.; and the weight carrier
must be up to 15 st. or upwards. Broadly this is the usual classi-
fication, but occasionally at shows a different one is adopted for
special reasons.

VOL. IIL 87

50 Breeds of Horses

It is important to notice that a well-bred horse will carry much
more weight than his appearance would lead one to suppose, and
that an underbred horse cannot carry so much. Amongst Hunters
of all kinds well-balanced action is power.

Thoroughbreds

[Plates, facing pp. 96, 97)

The English Thoroughbred horse has filled a unique place in the
history of horse-breeding all over the world. He is the only horse
of whom there is a systematic record which dates back to the
seventeenth century, and which is to be found in print, so that he
who runs may read. Perhaps I may be reminded of his relative,
the Arab, of whom the records date back to the days of Mohammed.
But what are the records? There is considerable controversy about
some of them, and Arab pedigrees are sometimes to be taken with
much caution, for your Arab has the reputation of being an accom-
plished horse coper.

But even granted that the Arabs have preserved their pedigrees
for hundreds of years, that is all that they have preserved. There
are stories of wonderful performances, of great pace and courage,
and of remarkable endurance shown; but these mainly rest upon
tradition. No doubt, however, need be thrown upon their accuracy
on that account ; the Arab horse has no greater admirer than the
writer, who, however, would point out that the traditions about him,
if not exactly vague, have no sort of scientific accuracy.

Very different is the case of the English Thoroughbred. From
the seventeenth century there are records of the races that some of
them have run. When we come to the eighteenth century we find
the records increasing year by year, we are told the distances they
ran, the number of heats they contested, and the weights they
carried.

These carefully-kept records, together with the equally carefully-
compiled pedigrees to be found in the General Stud Book, are
of inestimable value. They enable us to form a fairly accurate
opinion of the qualifications of individual horses; from them we are
enabled to learn how certain characteristics are preserved in differ-
ent families; and we are also enabled to form some idea as to the
results of various theories of breeding, though perhaps it does not
do to generalize too much in this direction. And the records of
the Calendar give us a good idea of the stamina and constitution
of the horse whose performances we are considering, which is, per-
haps, the most important thing that we can learn about him.

Thoroughbreds 51

The facts which are forthcoming about the sires of other breeds
are by no means so numerous. The Shire horse, the Hackney,
the Cleveland Bay, or the so-called half-bred Hunter sire, are never
put to any strenuous exertion. Just enough exercise is given to
keep them in health, and their severest work takes place in the
show ring and in the preparation for it.

The performances of a Thoroughbred horse, the races that he has
won and the class of the horses he has beaten or been beaten by,
what racing men call shortly his " form", do not concern the breeder
of Hunters or other half-bred stock. They are only of interest to
the man who breeds Thoroughbreds for the yearling market or other-
wise, and it is not for him that I am writing. It is, however, of the
greatest importance that the Thoroughbred sire which a breeder of
hunters intends to use should have been in training for some years,
and that he should have won races. It is of equal importance that
he should be descended on both sides from ancestors who have also
shown that they have got good constitutions, by keeping in training
for some years and winning races. For the winning of races has a
bearing on the question. If a horse does not win races, or show
that there is a likelihood of his winning races, he will not be kept
very long in training, which is a very costly business.

There is another matter which the racing and consequent train-
ing of a horse brings pretty prominently to notice, and that is the
question of soundness. No one would willingly or knowingly breed
from a horse with any hereditary unsoundness. But there is
such a thing as being too particular. That excellent judge and
authority on all relating to horse-breeding. Baron von Oettingen, says
that we are too fastidious on the question of hereditary unsoundness
in England, and there is some show of reason in what he says.
Certainly it seems absurd that a horse which has been in training
for several years, that has galloped on ground fetlock-deep, and on
ground as hard as brick, should have to undergo as strict an exami-
nation, say, when he is twelve or fourteen years old, to satisfy the
conditions of a premium competition, as the horse that has never
been subjected to a severe strain at all. It is quite possible that,
when a horse has had a strenuous time in training and has begun to
age a little, he may put out some little blemishes which are better
not there; but if he has had four or five years in training and has
passed a pretty strict examination when he was eight years old, I
should not ask for any more; and I should use that horse, lest in
passing him by I might use one that had nothing but his soundness
to commend him.

Here is an illustration. Many years since there was a great

52 Breeds of Horses

class of Thoroughbred stallions at an important show. There were
some eighteen or more in the class, and amongst them were some
horses that had done their share to the making of history. It was
before the days of veterinary examinations at shows; at any rate,
there was no veterinary examination at this one. The judges did
their own veterinary work. They obeyed their instructions to the
letter, and took no notice of what any of the exhibits had done or
had not done on the turf; and, greatly to the surprise of many good
judges outside the ring, they passed over the horses that had helped
to make history and placed a horse first that was practically un-
known. " Quite right," said an onlooker. " See what legs and feet
he has, his legs are as clean as the day he was foaled." So they
were, but the enthusiastic admirer of the winner was not aware of
the fact that he was never sound enough to stand training. If he
had been, perhaps he would have won the Derby.

I have dwelt upon this the more strongly, because there is
scarcely a breed of light horses which the Thoroughbred has not
improved, directly or indirectly. The Hunter could not exist with-
out him, and the Hackney, the Cleveland Bay, and the Yorkshire
Coach Horse get their stamina in no small degree from the Thorough-
bred, which it is the fashion in some places to despise in these days.
Not only do these bigger horses owe much to the Thoroughbred;
the ponies also would be a very different race if it had not been
for occasional crosses of Thoroughbred blood introduced into the
Forests and Hills. The blood of Marske runs in the veins of
many a New Forest pony, and Thoroughbred blood has found its
way into the Dartmoor, Exmoor, and perhaps even into the Welsh
ponies.

It is no part of my design to write a history of the Thorough-
bred horse or of his evolution, but a few notes on it may be of
interest. To begin with, it is well known that in Britain there was
an original breed of horses possessed of activity, a certain amount
of, speed, and hardy to boot. It is sufficient for our purpose that
they were there, and it is needless to enquire into the question of
what particular tribes of horses they belonged to. Those who wish
to pursue their researches in this direction may be referred to
Professor Cossar Ewart's and Professor Ridgeway's writings. It
is quite possible that this native breed had been improved before
the Roman invasion of Julius Caesar, by the importation of horses
by Phoenician traders, but there is no historical record of it.
Racing was indulged in in Anglo-Saxon times, and Athelstan
received some horses as a present from the King of France.
William the Conqueror brought over some Spanish horses, which

Thoroughbreds 5J

were then in high repute in Europe, and which were undoubtedly
descended from the Libyan horse, the ancestor of the Arab. King
John also imported many good stallions, and the native breed was
improved from time to time during the reigns of the Plantagenet
kings and their Tudor successors, so that in early Stuart days we
find that prolific writer, Gervase Markham, speaking with enthu-
siasm of the English hunting horse and courser.

The history of the modern Thoroughbred may be said to date
from the time of Charles II, and the Royal mares, which were pur-
chased for that monarch in the East, are at the foundation of the
General Stud Book. But the Royal mares and the three great
Eastern sires which founded the great families into which modern
Thoroughbreds are divided, to wit, the Darley Arabian, the Godol-
phin Barb, and the Byerley Turk, found some good English material
to unite with. And this English material must have had some
affinity to the Eastern racer or the result would not have been so
satisfactory. The modern Thoroughbred could never have been
developed from two distinct breeds.

If the pedigrees of some of the older horses are carefully ex-
amined it will be seen where this English blood is to be found. Let
us take Eclipse for example. It is unnecessary to go into minute
detail. Snake, Grey Hautboy, Smith's son of Snake, Woodcock,
and Miss D'Arcy's Pet Mare all figure prominently in his pedigree,
and of not one of them does even an approximation to a full pedi-
gree survive. The late Joseph Osborne, who was one of the leading
authorities on Thoroughbred breeding, sums up the case admirably.
After analysing the pedigree, in which there are no fewer than
thirteen unknown sources, he says: " What, then, are the deductions
to be drawn from this analysis? They are surely too obvious to need
pointing out. The thirteen unknown sources affect nine out of the
sixteen divisions, leaving the natural inference that the amount of
English blood in the pedigree of Eclipse is almost as large as that
of the Eastern sires, and it is impossible to tell the relative value of
either blood in the descent."

There is, I think, reason to believe that this same blood under-
lies to a considerable extent the whole of our light horses, and cer-
tainly our ponies, but that it has been developed on different lines.
This is a very important factor, and to it, perhaps, may in some
measure be attributed the acknowledged superiority of English-
bred horses. Another thing which goes to establish the predomi-
nance of the English horse is the climate and the natural grasses of
the country, which are especially favourable to the development of
the equine race.

54 Breeds of Horses

The racehorse in the days of Queen Anne, and for many a year
after her time, was very different from what he is at present, and
when Tregonwell Frampton ruled the Turf, and for long after his
time, a horse on the lines of a twentieth -century Derby winner
would have been looked upon with astonishment. Perhaps it would
not be too hasty a generalization to say that more racehorses in the
first three-quarters of the eighteenth century were 14 hands and
under than were over that height, and certainly some very famous
horses, such as Pacolet, were under 14 hands high. There was
a considerable importation of Eastern blood in the eighteenth
century, so much, indeed, that a writer in the Gentlevians Magazine
had much to say about spoiling our native breed by the admixture
of an effeminate race like the Arab, who only had speed to com-
mend him. It is not a little curious to compare the Thoroughbred
as he has developed with the prophecy of the writer, for the best
Arab of these days has not the speed of an ordinary selling plater.

With the nineteenth century the Thoroughbred horse began to
increase in height, and of late years the increase has been rapid.
This, no doubt, has been to some extent caused by the " forcing"
system, which is caused by the craze for big yearlings. There is
little doubt, however, that in this endeavour to "breed them tall" —
a successful one, as it proves — some very valuable characteristics of
the Thoroughbred, if not lost, are at any rate held in abeyance.

In the latter part of the eighteenth, and for a considerable part
of the nineteenth, centuries, the Thoroughbred, though specialized
to a very great extent for racing, was, par excellence, the general-
purpose horse. He was a good hunter, he was a fast and excellent
hack, and he was also a good light harness horse. Short -legged,
compact, and well balanced, he had a considerable amount of
weight -carrying power, and there were in those days many men
who bred Thoroughbred horses without any idea of racing them.
They had the choice of excellent horses on very reasonable terms,
for in pre-railway days stallion fees were low, a fact which helped
the small breeder considerably. But with the railway system came
a development of racing, and in course of time fees rose and the
scarcity of good stallions in country districts began to be felt. But
not at first, for there was a good steady demand for hunters, and
some very good horses were, for a short period, found travelling
in districts where good mares were plentiful. They became fewer,
however, as time went on. Some enterprising landowners bought
horses for the use of their tenants; here and there a wealthy hunt
kept a horse for the farmers over whose lands they rode. This,
however, was only, as it wete, a drop in the ocean. Then the

Thoroughbreds 55

premium system was started. An agricultural society, or a body
of breeders gave a premium under certain conditions, and some
very moderate horses have been known to win them. In 1888 the
Royal Plates, which had been originally started by Charles II, and
which for many years served a good purpose, were done away with,
and what has come to be known as the King's Premium show has
taken their place.

It is with the Thoroughbred as a probable sire that the farmer
is mostly concerned in these times. There are, as has already been
intimated, a few farmers who breed Thoroughbreds for the yearling
sales, but for them a special literature is provided. The breeding
of Thoroughbred general-purpose horses or hunters scarcely, under
present conditions, seems likely to attract breeders. With prizes
of such value, the man who goes in for Thoroughbred breeding
is likely to breed for the yearling market.

Nevertheless there may be, here and there, a man who has an
opportunity and a fancy to breed from a Thoroughbred mare, or
who may become possessed of a Thoroughbred mare, and for his
benefit a few words of advice may be given. To begin with, if he
would avoid disappointment, let him select as his brood mare one
that is near the ground, short in the cannon bone, and compact.
The tall, narrow, flash, split-up mare, though she may breed a race-
horse, will be likely to breed nothing but disappointing stock. The
mare should have deep well - placed shoulders and a short back.
These points are easier found than the well-set-on neck, which is
another important point. Nothing is a bigger "crab" upon a horse
when he comes into the market than a short neck set on the wrong
way. Little narrow feet and upright pasterns should also be
avoided.

Occasionally I have seen Thoroughbred mares mated with light
cart horses or with Hackneys. I do not really approve of either
plan. Those by the light cart horses are generally what is known
as a rough ride. There is, generally, plenty of substance and power,
it is true, and some people advocate the cross, saying that if the
produce be a filly it will be the typical brood mare for breeding
hunters. It may be so, but it is a far cheaper and more satisfactory
plan to buy the brood mares instead of attempting to breed them
to a type, always a lengthy, and frequently a disappointing, business.

It is, then, as a sire that the Thoroughbred principally interests
the general breeder, and a certain number of sires have been pro-
vided for him by the premium system since 1888, and for twenty-
six years farmers have been able, at more or less inconvenience, to
obtain the services of a sound sire at a reasonable price. One

56 Breeds of Horses

excellent result of this premium system is that it has been edu-
cative. I think there is little doubt that breeders on the whole are
better judges than they were twenty-six years ago, and anyone who
listened to the remarks at the ring side at the earlier shows cannot
fail to be impressed with this.

But he would be an optimist indeed who would venture to state
that the premium system provides a sufficiency of Thoroughbred
stallions for the use of the breeders of half-bred stock in the country.
Nor are the horses provided, as a rule, of the class that they ought
to be. It would be a liberal estimate to say that 1 5 per cent of the
premium horses are of high class, but I think we may put it down
at something like that. The remainder leave much to be desired.
Occasionally, however, there are very good horses left out of the
premium list ; much better horses in point of fact than some that
obtain premiums. This is occasioned by the system, which is at
best only a makeshift, as indeed it is bound by the complications
of the case to be. The amount of money at command is not large
— even when the super premium is added to the premium it is not
a princely fortune that the owner of the horse will gain. It is not
such a sum as justifies the authorities in saying, " Here is our
premium ; you must go where we tell you." This is a fact which
those appear to forget who say that the number of premiums
should be distributed to the whole of the horses in one class and
the districts allocated to the horses afterwards. The entries are
few enough as it is ; they would be still fewer if owners were not
allowed to select their own district classes. And any other plan
would be economically unsound, for naturally the best horses draw
to the districts where there are the best and the largest number of
mares.

There is an inclination in the man who perhaps does not give
much thought to the subject, and who has not had much experience
with Thoroughbred horses, to select the premium horse right away
when mating his light mare. This is easily understandable, but
at the same time he may be warned to consider the case carefully
and on its individual merits before he decides. The horse may
be the best horse in the class, he may be the best horse in the
show, but he may not be the best horse for the individual mare
under consideration.

In selecting a sire a great many people run away with the idea
that it is necessary to select a big, strong horse. There can be no
greater mistake. All the most successful sires I have known have
been under rather than over 16 hands; some of them have been
under 15. The three great requisites in a Thoroughbred stallion

Connemara Ponies 57

for mating with light mares are courage, action, and compactness.
Avoid any leggy, split-up, long-backed horse like the plague. I do
not say he will never sire good horses, but he is not so likely to do
so as the compact, well-balanced horse. The ideal sire should have
well-placed shoulders, his neck should be a fair length and well
arched, and he should have a bold eye and a masculine appearance.
His back should be short, he should be well ribbed up, and his
quarters should be lengthy and elegantly turned. His hocks and
knees should be big and his hocks well let down; his arms and
thighs muscular; and his bone flinty in texture, and flat, with the
sinew well defined. This I consider of more importance than mere
measurement. His action should be free and well balanced, the
foot well put out, and the hocks well flexed and got well underneath
him. A little knee action is a good thing, as the produce will prob-
ably have to hack considerable distances at times. At any rate, a
" daisy cutter" should be avoided. And so should a straight pastern ;
and whilst it is better that a horse should turn his toes in than turn
them out, provided he does not brush, it is wise to avoid both
extremes.

PONIES
Connemara Ponies

[Plate, facing p 1/2)

Undoubtedly one of the breeds of ponies indigenous to the
British Isles is the Connemara pony, which at one time flourished
exceedingly on the mountains of Ireland, but which is now very
rarely to be seen in its original type. In many respects it is very
similar to the Highland pony, has good riding shoulders, and can
jump like the proverbial cat.

But if the original type of Connemara pony has decreased in
numbers till it has become exceedingly scarce, the district of
Connemara is full of excellent small horses or ponies, which are
used for carrying seaweed and other manurial substances in creels
in those parts of the country where carting is a physical impossi-
bility. Ponies of similar type are found on some of the islands, but
they are of smaller stature, rarely reaching over 12 hands 2 in.,
which is perhaps the average size. On the mainland, however,
they grow up to 14 hands i in. This, of course, is the result of
better food and, of what is of quite as much importance, better
climate.

58 Breeds of Horses

Curiously enough a prevailing colour amongst the island ponies
off the coast of Ireland is dun, and this may be perhaps held as
a proof that there is a similar origin to that of the West Highland
pony hailing from Barra, Uist, and Mull. Thon there was at
one time a kinship and connection with the O'Neills, who were,
it is said, offshoots of the M'Neills, and it has been suggested that
the O'Neills took some Highland ponies with them when they went
to Ireland. It may be so; but we are now in the realms of myth,
and may leave that to others. What is of more importance is
that there are many points of resemblance between the pony of
Connemara and the pony of the Western Islands of Scotland.

Many years ago an attempt was made to breed harness horses
from the Connemara ponies, and I believe it met with a certain
amount of success. They were crossed with a Hackney, and the
result was a very hard, wiry, and untiring harness horse.

That the Connemara pony is at the foundation of many a good
Polo pony is an undoubted fact, and I think it quite likely that
more than one good hunter is descended from them, though I
cannot say I have ever heard of an instance. Still, if a Highland
pony has bred one, it seems only reasonable to suppose that a
Connemara pony, which has so many points in common, should
also breed one.

Dartmoor Ponies

{Plate, facing p. ilj)

If, as has been suggested, the Dartmoor pony has a common
origin with the Exmoor, the two are very different in appearance
in these days. The Dartmoor pony has more substance than the
Exmoor; he is altogether on a larger scale, and he lacks the
excellent quality of his more diminutive kinsman. One feature
in the Dartmoor pony is that he is frequently cow-hocked to a
remarkable degree, and it has been ingeniously suggested that
he owes this peculiarity of his formation to standing behind the
walls for many hours together, to shelter himself from the winds
that sweep with such force over his wild moorland home. It may
be so, but the writer is inclined to think that this is rather the
result of weakness caused by insufficient feeding than of standing
for shelter behind a wall.

The Dartmoor pony has scarcely such a fine head as the
Exmoor, but it is small and bloodlike for all that; he has capital
shoulders, and is a smart little fellow, take him all in all. He is
often goose-rumped, but it is said that this defect, like the cow
hocks, breeds out in a generation or two with better grazing. His

Dartmoor Ponies 59

maximum height is 14 hands for stallions and 13 hands 2 in. for
mares. In colour he should be brown, black, or bay. Grey is
allowable, but other colours are objected to.

It has been said that the Devonshire pack horse had something
to do with the foundation of the modern Dartmoor pony, and it is
quite likely that some of his substance may be derived from that
source. It is a matter for regret that our ancestors, either from
jealousy that others would copy their example and so make money
by what they regarded as their secret, or from carelessness or indif-
ference, or from a mixture of all three, made few records of their
crossing experiments, and we have consequently to rely entirely
on tradition, which, though it frequently embodies a great truth,
is as frequently inaccurate about details. In breeding it is details
that matter. Mr. Palmer tells us, however, of a Mr. Watkins, in
the Brentor district, who had a herd of ponies which were miniature
pack horses, and that a Mr. Watts, of Okehampton, bred a similar
type of pony. Mr. Watts introduced some Exmoor pony stallions
into his herd, and these did so well that other breeders followed
his example, and brought Exmoor stallions to improve their native
stock. Eventually Mr. Watts's herd obtained a high reputation,
and on his death it was dispersed by auction. Horses were dear
at the time, and excellent prices were made, some ponies making
upwards of ;{^20, and the average for seventy head, including
suckers and yearlings, was ;^I5.

Arabs, as well as Thoroughbreds, have been introduced occa-
sionally to improve the breed, but they have not been uniformly
successful in so doing, though at times they have done much good.
Lord Arthur Cecil notes in connection with this cross, as well as
with the Hackney or cart-horse cross, that occasionally it produces
" an extremely ugly head, with dull and stupid eyes and large,
bat-like ears, totally unlike either father or mother, but apparently
some reversion to an ancestral type". Lord Arthur Cecil points
out that this is exceptional, and that it is worth bearing in mind
when one sees a Dartmoor pony with a big, ugly head.

At one time Dartmoor ponies were very much used in the
Durham and Northumberland coal pits; but the law which pre-
vents ponies going below till they are four years old has deprived
the Dartmoor commoners of one, and that a very considerable,
market. It does not pay to keep them on the moors another year.
Whether they will be bought and grazed for the mines remains
to be seen; perhaps they will. But the commoners obviously
■cannot keep them, so there again is an opportunity created for the
aniddleman.

6o Breeds of Horses

Dartmoor ponies have the " homing " instinct very strongly
developed, and though but little of the moor is enclosed, they
never stray far. Some breeders, however, put their mares on
enclosed ground in May, turning from a score to a score and a
half of mares to one stallion. Foals begin to be dropped as early
as May, and occasionally, but not often, an August foal is seen.
They rough it from the beginning, for they are soon turned on to
the open moor, and there they remain till the middle of winter,
when some of them are brought into enclosed moors for shelter.
We must remember that "Dartymoor" is from 1200 to 2000 ft.
above sea level. What is known in some districts as hand food —
that is, hay or oats — these ponies never get in their moorland
homes, or, at any rate, but seldom, and that under exceptional
circumstances.

Curiously enough, there is the best demand for them in the
north, and railway rates have been known to run to nearly the
value of the ponies, which is certainly rather hard for the breeders.

The value of Dartmoor ponies is scarcely so high as that of
Exmoor ponies. An average price for suckers is from £2 to
£2, \os.\ ponies rising two years old, from ;^3 to ^5; and mares and
foals, from £(> to ;^iO, prices which fall far short of those realized
at the sale held by Mr. Watts's executors in the early 'seventies.

Dartmoor ponies are excellent for children, and in a wild moor-
land country they make excellent boys' hunters. It is sufficiently
exasperating, as the writer can say from experience, to see a light
boy threading his way fearlessly through an awkward bog which
necessitates a wide detour for the man on a high-class hunter.
And the Dartmoor pony also can show a fine pace. There is a
good, or, at any rate, an increasing trade in Dartmoor ponies with
America, and with a little trouble this might be considerably
increased. One thing that is necessary to bring about this very
desirable state of things is more attention to the registration of
pedigrees. The semi-wild life which most of our mountain and
moorland ponies lead is, of course, somewhat against regular and
systematic registration in the Stud Book; and perhaps there is a
sort of indefinable prejudice against registration. The importance
of it, both from the standpoint of the breed and of trade, cannot
be too much impressed upon breeders.

The principal fairs for Dartmoor ponies are Princetown, South
Brent, Chagford, and Okehampton.

[The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. T. Palmer's
interesting article on Dartmoor ponies for some of the facts of which he has
made use in this article.]

Exmoor Ponies 6 i

Exmoor Ponies

[Piatt, facing p. 12S)

The hills of the west and of the north have their respective
breeds of ponies, breeds of which the types have been firmly
established for many generations — it would not be too much to
say for many centuries. During the last two centuries all over
the kingdom there have been attempts made, with greater or less
success, to improve these breeds; and it is satisfactory to say that
any of these plans which has seemed likely to have an effect on
the hardihood of the breeds has been immediately abandoned.

There is no difficulty in these later days to differentiate between
the Exmoor and the Dartmoor breeds; but for all that, there is an
opinion that they have a common origin. It is not unlikely that
it may be so. Indeed, if we were to go far enough back we might
find a common origin for all our British mountain and moorland
ponies. But there is no necessity to go so far back as the prehis-
toric age, and the Exmoor and Dartmoor breeds have been regarded
as separate breeds long enough — probably for centuries.

There is some kind of tradition that the Exmoor ponies are
descendants from ponies brought over by the Phoenicians to carry
the tin purchased of the natives. There is, I think, no ground for
that opinion, for even if they filled Exmoor and Dartmoor with
ponies, what about the ponies of the New Forest, the hills of Wales,
and other places, which certainly have an affinity to the Exmoor?
The Phoenicians, one would think, could not have stocked the
country with ponies. But what is quite possible is that the Phoe-
nicians brought over some stallions which improved the breed.

There are, of course, any number of legends. Wild and wide
expanses of country lend themselves to legends, and the legend of
. Katerfelto is told in many versions. According to the late Mr. G.
S. Lowe, he ran on the moors " a sort of spectre horse ", and no one
knew how he got there. He was eventually caught and kept by
one of the Froude family at East Anstey. We are also indebted
to Mr. Lowe for a very ingenious theory about the moorland
ponies. Referring to the Give-and-Take plates of the early years
of the eighteenth century, he suggests that these were very popular;
that the horses that ran in them never found their way into the
General Stud Book, and that in all probability many of them,
horses and mares, were turned away on the moors, where they
improved the ponies already there. This may have been the case
— perhaps in some districts was the case — but I think, if we look
carefully through the Racing Calendar and compare it with the

62 Breeds of Horses

General Stud Book, we shall find some of the 14-hands-and-under
racehorses figuring in the latter. That there was some affinity
between the racehorse and the Exmoor pony on occasion is, how-
ever, undoubted. In the eighteenth century an Exmoor pony was
mated with Blank, a son of the Godolphin Arabian. The mare
she bred was the direct ancestress of Mrs. Taft, who won the
Cesarewitch of 1851. She was the dam of New Oswestry, who
was the sire of Zoedone and St. Galmier. So Exmoor may be well
said to have a close connection with the Turf

The modern history of the Exmoor may be said to date from
the beginning of the nineteenth century. Mr, John Knight pur-
chased about 10,000 acres of Crown land in Exmoor in the year
1820, and he also purchased 6000 acres of Sir Thomas Acland.
Sir Thomas Acland took his ponies over to Winsford Hill, near Dul-
verton, and at this time they had a high reputation. Mr. Knight
was not long before he began to experiment on improving the
breed, and he first tried some Dongola Arabs. These were not
a success. The produce generally grew to 14 hands 2 in., a hand
and a half too high — and they lost type in other ways. They also
lost their hardy character, and the Arab cross was abandcned.
Better success attended the introduction of the Thoroughbred
horse Pandarus, whose stock came truer to colour, and did not
" run to seed " like the half-bred Arabs, though some of them were
too tall. Quicksilver and Old Port, the latter a son of the famous
Beeswing, were also horses which Mr. Knight purchased, and which
did good service.

The Exmoor pony is a handsome little fellow. He should
average about 12 hands, and should never, under any circum-
stances, exceed 13 hands. He is generally dark bay or brown in
colour, with black legs; he has a very intelligent head, with broad
forehead and wide nostril, a mealy nose, and well-pricked ears. He
has good shoulders and back, is short-legged, has capital bone, and
has fairly good but not superlative action. Referring to his colour,
I have seen a grey or two, but do not remember to have seen a
chestnut.

The Exmoor pony is hardy and untiring. No breed, perhaps,
unless we except the West Highland pony, can do so much work
on so little meat, and it is astonishing what weight these ponies
will carry cheerfully. I have seen many good hunters from the
Exmoor pony. Mr. Lowe tells us how that hard rider and good
sportsman, Mr. C. Trelawney, said that one of the best hunters he
ever rode was a horse named Canopus, who was by one of the
Dongola Arabs out of an Exmoor mare. He had run on the

Fell Ponies 63

moors as a stallion with Mr. Knight's ponies. Some capital hunters
have been bred, the second cross from Exmoor ponies.

As well as Mr. and Sir Frederick Knight, the names of Earl
Fortescue and Sir Thomas Acland are prominent as breeders of
Exmoor ponies, Earl Fortescue getting Sir Frederick Knight's herd
when he purchased the Simonsbath estate.

Exmoor ponies, it is needless to say, make capital children's
ponies, for, as a rule, they are both sagacious and quiet; but it must
always be remembered that they keep their flesh and their high
spirits on remarkably small quantities of food. If too highly fed
they are apt to get very fat. They are seen in perfection at Exford,
Lynton, and South Molton shows, where many small breeders take
their ponies, in the hope of finding a customer amongst the many
visitors to the west for the stag-hunting, and, judging from appear-
ances, they seem to have a very good trade. Bampton Fair is,
however, the great market for them. A stallion has been sold for
£2$, and mares for as much as ;^20 each. Two-year-olds of
exceptional quality have been known to make from ;^io to ^12
each. The average price at Bampton, however, runs from 16s. 6d. tc
£$, lOJ. for suckers; from £4, iSs. to ;^8, 5^. 6d. for two-year-olds,
and from ^3, los. to £6, 12s. 6d. for mares and foals.

[The writer is indebted to Mr. A. C. Mardon's article on Exmoor ponies foi
some of the facts given in the above article.]

Fell Ponies

{Plate, facing/). I2Q]

There was no more useful breed of ponies than the Fell ponies.
I say " was " advisedly, for the only place where I have seen a real
Fell pony for many years is the Durham County Show. I have
seen one occasionally in Cumberland and Westmorland, but not
frequently, nor for many years. I have, however, heard old men
tell of what they could do, and of their hardihood and endurance;
and from what I have heard and seen of them, I should consider
them ideal ponies for a hill farm ; for they can draw a big load for
their size and weight, they are easily kept, they carry good condi-
tion with comparatively little food, and they can carry their master,
or run him and his goodwife to the nearest station. Always cheery
and lighthearted, if at all decently used, they are ready for any job
that turns up, and anything they are put to, within reasonable
bounds, they do well.

The origin of the Fell pony, or perhaps I snould say his history,
is, unfortunately, enveloped in obscurity, and, so far as I can make

64 Breeds of Horses

out, even tradition has little or nothing to say on the subject.
Lord Arthur Cecil thinks that the Fell pony and the Highland
pony are nearly akin, and he is an authority on anything and
everything connected with ponies. It may be so, and, indeed, it
is almost inevitable that there should be some relationship between
the Highland pony and the Fell pony, as he is known in Scotland.
But the old light trotting cart horse, or the Vardy horse, always
crops up in my mind when I see a good Fell pony, carrying his
head and tail well, put his foot out and his hocks under him, and
making a great show.

It is easy to see how these hardy little ponies could be gradually
evolved from the light, clean-legged cart horse that was so popular
at one time, at any rate on the east coast. A cold climate and
short commons would bring about a reduction in size; and it must
be remembered, if this is supposed to be the origin of the Fell
pony, that his ancestor was not a very big one to begin with,
so the reduction of size would not be very great. I have no
historical grounds for such a theory — it is merely a matter of
surmise, and it is offered as a suggestion. In support of it, however,
it may be permissible to point out that the Fell pony survives
in the Fells and mountainous districts, in the plains of which,
the Vardy horse was such a favourite amongst all who knew
him.

Why the Fell pony should have gradually fallen ofif in numbers
till there are comparatively few left it is difficult to say, for there is
no more useful breed for the small hjll farmer. Is it that, like some
other breeds, the hill pony is so well adapted for crossing that he
has been crossed and crossed, and crossed again, till the old type
has, in many instances, disappeared? It may well be so, and if it
is, the more the pity.

The Fell pony, it is said, should stand from 12 hands 3 in. to
14 hands i in. I do not remember to have seen any of the breed
under 13 hands 2 in., and most of those I have come in contact
with have stood about 14 hands. Short on the leg, with capital bone
and plenty of it, they remind one of a miniature Clydesdale, with
good shoulders. Needless to say, they are fine movers. I am not
aware of the extent to which breeding on the Fells prevails at the
present time, but when, some few years ago, I went through
Cumberland and Westmorland, the only ponies I saw were practi-
cally housebred. That is, they were brought down to the enclosures,
and no doubt sheltered when the weather was very bad, though the
shelter would perhaps scarcely have been considered as such by
a fashionable stud groom. There may be in places ponies bred in

\^

i

Harness Ponies 65

a semi-wild state on the Fells, but I should think they are a very
limited number.

Fell ponies bring a good price when they come into the market,
;^50 and upwards having been given for a stallion. As far as one can
gather from observation and hearsay, the market seems a small one.

It is a pity that a greater effort is not made to preserve and,
indeed, revive this excellent breed of ponies, if it is not too late.

Harness Ponies

It is so self-evident that in our native moorland and mountain
pony breeds we have a most valuable national asset that it almost
seems necessary to apologize for referring to such a fact. Yet not
so very many years ago the native pony breeds were, generally
speaking, but little thought of Pit ponies were wanted as a matter
of course, and Shelties and other breeds made excellent pit ponies
in the narrow seams of the coal measures. Children's ponies of
course were wanted, and in various districts there were enthusiasts
— men like Mr. Knight and Sir Thomas Acland in the past, and
Lord Arthur Cecil and Mr. J. H. Munro Mackenzie in the present
— who devoted their energies to the improvement and develop-
ment of our native pony breeds. But it is only very recently
that anything like a national interest has been taken in them,
and there seems to be good ground for saying that this national
interest is due in a great measure to the influence and work of
the Polo and Riding Pony Society.

Before proceeding to discuss that question, however, it may
perhaps be as well to refer briefly to the Rigmaden ponies, about
which everyone was so enthusiastic some twenty or thirty years
ago. Mr. C. W. Wilson, of Rigmaden, working on the native
pony foundation with Hackneys and Hackney-bred ponies, by an
elaborate system of inbreeding, eventually bred a beautiful little
animal with fine action. But he was a miniature Hackney, the
pony type being practically lost. The names of many famous
winners of this type will occur to anyone who has attended the
shows regularly, and perhaps, at the present day, Mr. Walter
ClifiTs Melbourne Hall stud is as representative as any in the
country. The late Mr. William Foster, of Mel Valley, in Wor-
cestershire, was always to the front where ponies were shown, and
the name of Mel Valley is well known in every country where
harness ponies are shown for valuable prizes.^

1 Mr. Foster died after a brief illness whilst this work was passing through the press.
VOL. III. 38

66 Breeds of Horses

Another well-known stud is that at Dinarth, Llandudno, North
Wales, owned by Messrs. Jones & Son. Messrs. Jones & Son have
followed up the policy of Mr. C. W. Wilson, and have bred some
remarkably handsome miniature Hackneys, the ultimate founda-
tion in their case being Welsh ponies.

If anyone has a wish to breed harness ponies nowadays —
and it is a profitable industry — there is no necessity for him to
grade up his foundation from any of the native breeds. This is
always a lengthy process and consequently an expensive one, and
it is one, moreover, in which there are many disappointments.
There are now obtainable plenty of mares of the type required.
No doubt if a mare is a good one and a fine mover she will cost
a considerable sum of money. But if the original outlay is big
in proportion to the original cost in the "grading up" process,
it must not be forgotten that the profit is in proportion, and also
— a very important consideration — it is immediate.

It fills the imagination to learn that a man, commencing with
the foundation of a Welsh or an Exmoor or a Highland pony,
has in the course of a few generations bred a pony perfect in
type and quality and action, a Hackney in miniature, with all the
Hackney's good points and some that the Hackney does not
possess, and that he has sold him for ;^iooo or something ap-
proaching to that sum. That is a very pretty picture, but if the
cost of the production of that handsome pony is taken into
consideration the result scarcely appears in such glowing colours.
It must be clearly understood that this refers entirely to the
economic view of the situation. The satisfaction which a breeder
feels in having worked out his theories to a successful conclusion
is quite another matter, and can never be estimated in coin of
the realm.

If a man has a fancy that way, if he is fond of a smart
harness horse, he might do much worse than buy a couple of pony
mares and try his luck at breeding ponies. The mares will do a lot
of odd jobs; they will run him to "kirk or market, mill or smiddie";
their meat will not be missed ; if he buys them " right ones " they
will pick up a prize or two probably at local or district shows; and
they will surely pay their way, and may turn out a veritable gold
mine.

In buying mares for this purpose it is essential to get them pony-
bred ones. By this is meant as many crosses of acknowledged
pony blood as possible, and then there will not be much difficulty
in keeping the produce small. It must be remembered that, pro-
vided it is a really smart mover, a small pony is the most valuable.

Highland Ponies 67

There is one thing that is greatly in favour of the pony breeder,
and that is that the pony is easier to breed to type than a bigger
horse. Another generahzation may also be made, viz., that all breeds
of native ponies, that is, all which may be classed as light breeds,
cross well with other light horses such as the Thoroughbred or the
Hackney. This leads me to think that in the remote past all our
native breeds had a common foundation, and that that foundation
had something in common with the Thoroughbred and the Hackney.

Highland Ponies

(Plate, /luring p. 144)

There is no more valuable breed of ponies to be found in the
country than the Highland pony; the old hardy breed, which
carried the men of the hills on many a long journey on " the
roads before they were made". Invaluable in the deer forests,
hardy and quick on a journey, capital breeders, and crossing well
with more than one breed, the genuine Highland pony is a valu-
able acquisition indeed. But, it may be asked, what is a genuine
Highland pony? The answer is a simple one. It is a pony which
has no mixture of the Clydesdale in his composition. There are
some at the present day who claim that a type more like small
cart horses than ponies are the genuine and original Highland
ponies, and they support their contention with many hypotheses
which, although ingenious, are scarcely tenable. The original
tenant of the hills had no cart horse in his composition, and he, or
one like him, could alone have faced those roads before they
were made. The cross of cart-horse blood would have been
fatal.

The Western Islands of Scotland may be safely regarded as
the original home of the Highland pony. The Mainland pony
— sometimes called the Garron — is on a somewhat larger scale
than the pony of the islands, but this is undoubtedly due in great
measure to the better climate and better grazing of the mainland.
There may be, and no doubt frequently are, cases of outcrossing
in the Mainland ponies, but generally when a good one is spotted
he can be traced back to the islands.

These ponies have many subdivisions, such as the Barra, the
Uist, the Skye, the Isle of Rum, and others, but one type pre-
dominates through them all. Indeed, it is characteristic of the
Highland pony that no matter how it is crossed it is almost im-
possible to obliterate the original type. Highland ponies vary
considerably in height, climate and food perhaps being the prin-

68 Breeds of Horses

cipal reason for this. The Barra pony, for example, is found as
small as ii hands 3 in., and from that height to a hand higher,
whilst the Skye ponies run on an average to 13 hands 3 in.
The Mainland ponies are standardized at from 14 hands to 14
hands 2 in.

Some time ago there was a breed which showed all the charac-
teristics of the Highland pony, but was 15 hands 2 in. high. In
all probability Mr. J. H. Munro Mackenzie was correct when he
said that this breed, which has quite died out, was most likely
the result of a cross from some cast troop horses.

One great quality of the Highland pony is his surefootedness,
and he is also capable of undergoing severe fatigue and of carrying
a great weight. A pony of some 1 3 hands i in., almost lost under
the carcass of some gigantic " antlered monarch of the waste ", will
pick his way down trackless hills without falter or stumble ; and
I have heard of a pony of little larger size carrying a man of 13 st.
thirty miles a day for three days on three feeds of corn, which were
all that were obtainable on the journey, and what he could pick up.

During the last few years considerable attention has been paid
to Highland pony breeding, and there is no doubt that in the
Highland pony there is the foundation of an excellent general-
purpose saddle horse. Indeed, the writer has known a very good
hunter whose dam was a Highland pony and whose sire was
Thoroughbred. And it may be just as well to emphasize a
danger here. If the best are used as foundation for hunters and
cavalry horses, what is to become of breeders in a few years' time?
The Highland pony would make a good mounted-infantry horse,
especially the Mainland variety of him, and he is emphatically a
saddle pony that can take on any work that comes to hand.

The Polo and Riding Pony Society has done much for him in
the past, and great improvement has appeared in the Highland
pony since the formation of that society. Enthusiastic breeders
like Mr. J. H. Munro Mackenzie of Calgary, Mr. Cheape in Mull,
the Duke of Atholl at Blair Castle, and others too numerous to
mention, have been indefatigable in their exertions to improve the
breed, and they have adopted the wise policy of improving it on its
own lines and not endeavouring to improve it into another breed
altogether. They have met with remarkable success, in no small
measure because they avoided giving the Highland pony qualities
he never had, and that it was never intended that he should have.

The Development Commission through the Board of Agriculture
and Fisheries has been of great service to the breed. There has
been considerable difficulty always in getting smallholders and

New Forest Ponies 69

crofters to register their brood mares. They fail to recognize the
benefit derived and do recognize that the fee has to be paid. The
Government grant for stallions renders it incumbent that the mares
should be registered, and an indirect benefit is rendered to the
breed. Highland ponies have been sent to the United States and
to Australia, of course for the purpose of crossing, and it is possible
thg,t a regular if a small trade may spring up in course of time.

New Forest Ponies

{Plate, facing f. 14s)

With much in common with their neighbours, and perhaps
relatives, the New Forest ponies have had a more varied history.
Lord Arthur Cecil, than whom there is no more reliable authority
on ponies and pony breeding, says that it is very difficult to come
across a really typical New Forest pony, even in the Forest, and
this is not so difficult to understand when the history of the breed
is considered.

The history of the breed is intimately connected with a Royal
Forest, and with a Royal Forest in which there are, and have
been from time immemorial, rights of common. The New Forest
with its common rights was a Royal Forest in the reign of King
Canute — close on nine hundred years ago — and it is within the
range of probability that ponies were commonable animals in the
time of Canute, or possibly earlier. We know that William the
Conqueror tried to abolish these common rights in the New Forest
and that he failed utterly, as indeed did all subsequent attempts of
the kind; but it is impossible that the conditions under which the
ponies were bred should not have had considerable influence on the
breed. It has been suggested by Lord Arthur Cecil that it is pos-
sible that some attempt was made to improve the breed even so
early as the reign of Canute; and it is highly probable that there
have been introductions of other blood, from time to time, of which
even tradition is silent. But little is really known of the old com-
moners and their relations with their overlords, and the little that
is known is confined to fines and taxes and disputes. Nothing, so
far as I am aware, is known about the ponies or other stock they
bred, till King Henry VHI, alarmed at the shortage of horses in
the country, which he viewed with a more statesmanlike eye than
the subject commands in modern times, began to consider the
question of horse breeding from a national standpoint. In his
time the ponies in the Forest were very closely looked after, and
no stallion under 14 hands 2 in. was permitted to roam within its

JO Breeds of Horses

precincts. So that we may fairly assume that during the last years
of the Tudor dynasty, and probably also in the early days of the
Stuarts, the New Forest pony was on a larger scale than he is at
present.

We know that during the eighteenth century, and probably
later, the New Forest pony was bigger than he is now. During
the time William, Duke of Cumberland, ruled over the destinies of
the New Forest the famous horse Marske was mated with New
Forest ponies, and other Thoroughbred blood was, I believe, intro-
duced much about the same time. This, of course, would tend
to increase the size of the ponies, but Lord Arthur Cecil points
out that there were not so many Crown enclosures in those days,
and that in consequence the ponies had a much richer pasturage.
There is nothing which has such an effect on the size of horses
as the grass they eat in their earlier days, and I should be inclined
to think that the larger size was due just as much to the bettei
grazing as to the introduction of Thoroughbred blood. It should be
borne in mind that the Thoroughbred was not so tall in the early
part of the eighteenth century as he is wellnigh two hundred years
later.

Lord Arthur Cecil gives it as his experience that no pony
— neither stallion nor mare — that is much over 13 hands can
live in the Forest as it now is in winter; and he deprecates the
attempts made to increase the size of the ponies by the intro-
duction of new blood, for he justly points out that these bigger
ponies cannot support themselves in winter and that their owners
are unable to buy corn and hay for them.

It was not until late in the nineteenth century that any system
seems to have been adopted in breeding ponies in the New Forest.
Colts were left running with their nearest relatives, with the result
that, to use the expressive words of an old huntsman, they were
all brothers and sisters and uncles and aunts and cousins, and
promiscuous inbreeding of course told seriously on the breed. But
in the 'eighties a better state of things began to prevail. The
verderers, who are elected by the commoners, became aware of
their powers, and found that they could reject animals which were
in their opinion unsuitable. They were also alive to the impor-
tance of the duty that devolved upon them, and set to work to
do it thoroughly. An annual inspection was appointed in the
month of April, and then they began to purchase a few stallions.
Her Majesty Queen Victoria also lent or gave a couple of Arabs.
A society was also formed which gives premiums to stallions, and
altogether considerable improvement had been effected between

Polo Ponies 'Ji

the time that the change of poh'cy took place and the time when
I paid my last visit to the New Forest some ten or a dozen years
later.

The introduction of "foreign" blood has undoubtedly improved
the style and character of the New Forest pony; but it has not
been all for good. Some of those who know the Forest well
contend that there are not so many mares able to stand the
winter as there were; they say the ponies cannot live on gorse,
as was their wont in the good old days; and that their instinct
of availing themselves of every little bit of shelter, and of seeking
new feeding grounds as the weather changes, is not so keen as that
of their ancestors. Lord Arthur Cecil, too, points to a fault which
the modern New Forest pony has. He gets away from the Forest
when he can, and loves to get into the cultivated enclosures and
lanes. Lord Cecil suggests concerted action on the part of the com-
moners and others interested to check this tendency, and thinks
that if this is done it is highly probable that the modern pony
would regain many of the habits and characteristics of his un-
doubtedly hardier sire.

The modern New Forest pony stands from 12 to 13 hands.
He is good on his forehand, but his general appearance is too
frequently spoiled by a low -set -on tail and cow hocks, which,
as with the Dartmoor, disappear, it is said, in a generation or
two on good pasture — and, by the way, the effect of taking
young New Forest ponies on to good grass is marvellous in
effecting an increase of size. He is short on the leg and has
capital pasterns.

All colours seem to be allowable, but dun is not often seen.
Greys, however, are frequently met with, and flea-bitten greys
are said to be descended from an Arab sent to the Forest by
the Prince Consort. They certainly seem to possess something
of the Arab character, and are handsome little fellows.

Polo Ponies

(Plate, facing p. /6o)

It has been intimated that in all probability the general interest
which is now felt in our native Mountain and Moorland ponies is
due in a great measure to the action of the Polo and Riding Pony
Society, now the National Pony Society, which has done so much
good work, and whose endeavours have been so successful, that
it stands out as an extraordinary example of how much can be
done in a little time. For when we come to look into details

72 Breeds of Horses

there is no society, anywhere, which has done so much in such a
little time as the Polo and Riding Pony Society.

It is not altogether that there has been greater ability dis-
played in the management of the society, or that there has
been a greater loyalty to ideals than in any other of the breed
societies, that the wonderful progress is due. It is rather to
the exceptional circumstances in which the society was situated
and the exceptional material which lay convenient to its hand
that the great success is due. For, whatever may be the ultimate
fate of the Polo-bred pony, the society can claim that up to the
present time, at any rate, they have fairly established a breed.

The establishment of the Polo pony on a firm basis has been
nearly as rapid as was the establishment of the racehorse —
perhaps more so, for there were greater advantages in the sur-
roundings— and for precisely the same reasons. The Polo pony,
like the racehorse, was wanted for a specific purpose. So long
as he was able to do the work he was called on to do, it mattered
but little what he looked like. As the racehorse's primary object
in life is to win races, so is the Polo pony's to gallop and pull
up quickly and bend well — in short, to play polo. So many points
which might have had some bearing on the development of the
pony, and which probably would have caused differences of opinion,
never came in question at all. Then comes the question of material.
Like the racehorse the Polo pony, sire or dam, has done its life's
work before it goes to the stud. There is therefore a higher
standard of excellence guaranteed than that which is merely the
result of showyard competitions.

Polo is, in Europe, only a comparatively new game, and has not
been in existence in England fifty years. Yet it is one of the oldest
games in which horses take part — a game of unknown antiquity
in the East — the famous Changan of the Arabian Nights' Enter-
tainment.

It is a remarkable thing in its way that Englishmen did not
take to polo sooner. They must have seen much of it in India,
and the wonder is that they did not realize its possibilities at
once. True that India had been kept pretty busy with wars
and risings all the early part of the nineteenth century, but one
would think that even the brief intervals of quiet which took
place were sufficiently long to enable the game to "catch on"
with a set of men always eager to take up a sport that has a
horse in it.

However, such are the facts, and the introduction of polo
into England is due to the loth Hussars, a dull afternoon,

Polo Ponies 73

and an Indian newspaper. Some subalterns of that regiment
were whiling away the tedium of a dull afternoon over the
papers when one of them came across an account of a match
at polo, which had been played by the Munnipoories. The
possibilities of the game were talked over, and, having nothing
else to do, the subalterns determined on trying it then and
there. So they got their chargers, some crooked sticks, and a
billiard ball, and engaged in the first game at polo played in Eng-
land— or indeed, for the matter of that, out of India. The game
was talked over with their brother officers and with the officers
of the 9th Lancers, and then, as a result of the conversation, a
match was played in June, 1870, between the loth Hussars
and 9th Lancers and the ist Life Guards and Royal Horse
Guards, which was the first public polo match played in this
country.

The game caught on from the first, but it was a very different
game from the polo that is played at Hurlingham and Ranelagh
to-day. The ponies were from 13 to 14 hands high, and they
never went out of the "regulation canter". This kind of thing
could not last long. Gradually the game got faster and faster;
instead of dribbling the ball men drove it along merrily; and
a natural consequence of a faster game was that a taller pony
was introduced into it.

It is difficult to realize in these days the trouble there was
in getting Polo ponies at all approaching the right sort, or the
many long and fruitless journeys which were undertaken in the
search for them. With many, a pony was a pony and there
was an end, just as a primrose was a primrose to Peter Bell
in the ballad. How difficult it was to make people realize
what you wanted may be shown by a personal experience. I
was told about a Polo pony which was " just what I wanted ".
Fortunately, as I thought, I met the owner soon afterwards.
I asked him about his pony, telling him I wanted one with
good deep shoulders, and a galloper. Again he told me he
had just what I wanted. So I went to see it — a distance of
sixty miles by train — and found a Hackney pony with upright
withers, short on the neck, and hitting his curb chain with his
knees. Of course I did not look at him twice, and went away
without saying a word to the owner. But I verily believe
that he thought the pony could have been made to do, so ignorant
was he of the correct type.

This was in or about 1890 — twenty years after the game was
introduced into England. It was spreading over the country

74 Breeds of Horses

rapidly. Rugby had become a centre, and wherever a cavalry
regiment was stationed there the game was played. So natu-
rally the demand for ponies increased, for civilian clubs were
formed; hunts took up the game, and the cry was for still
more ponies. Under such circumstances what so natural as
that players should say, "Let us breed our own"? So there
was a little talk in clubs and other places where men met, and
a little correspondence in The Field and Land and Water, the
then hunting editor of which, the late Captain Moray Brown,
taking an active part both in the correspondence and in the
subsequent formation of the Polo and Riding Pony Society, which
came into existence in 1893.

Mr. John Hill, and his son, Mr. Frederick Hill, who was by
the way, the first secretary of the society, had much to do with
the formation of the society, and Mr. Hill was a member of
the first council. Other members were Mr. T. F. Dale, Lord
Arthur Cecil, Mr. Tresham Gilbey, and Lord Harrington. Now,
in Mr. Hill, Lord Arthur Cecil, Lord Harrington, and Mr. Dale
there were four of the strongest believers in the native pony to
be found in the length and breadth of the land, and it was
pretty certain what they would say in reply to the question,
"Where are we to go for a foundation?" Attention was thus
called at once to the excellent qualities inherent in the native
Mountain pony, who was given a trial, and with what amount
of success the development made by the Polo-bred pony is
ample testimony.

Not only was the pony of the moors and mountains given
his chance in a new sphere, but he was given his chance without
any attempt being made, as it were, to merge his personality in
a new breed. Sections in the Stud Book were opened for him
in his different varieties, and the wise policy of improvement
on natural lines was emphasized from the beginning.

But, as well as sound judgment. Polo pony breeders had
some good fortune when they first established their society and
published their Stud Book, and good fortune has followed down
to the present time. Reference is made to the high-class Thorough-
bred stallions which were under the height which admitted of
their being entered in the Polo Pony Stud Book. One of the
first was Rosewater, by Rosicrucian, out of Lady Day H, by
St. Mungo; then we have had Spanish Hero, by Kilwarline, out
of Spanish Maiden, by Merry Hampton; Othrae, by Raeburn,
out of Othery, by King Monmouth; Gownboy, by Montezuma,
out of Santa Zeta, by Galliard; Arthur D, by Pride, out of

Polo Ponies 75

Maquay, by Florentine; Merry Moment, by Count Schomberg
out of Merry Gal, by Galopin ; and Sammy the Verger, by
Avington, out of Gold Flake, by Esterling — all of them good
ponies with exceptionally fine pedigrees. One would have
thought that Eastern ponies would, on account of their un-
doubtedly fine pedigree and comparatively small size, have been
largely used in grading up the Polo pony; and such indeed
was the case at first. But recently the Eastern sire has not
been so much in evidence. There is, of course, a considerable
amount of Eastern blood to be found in the Stud Book, but
it is mostly found in the older volumes, and the class for
Eastern sires has only obtained few entries at the last few shows.

Before leaving the subject of Polo pony stallions it may be
well to refer to Sandiway, a little big one that has made his
mark, and that no small one, on the Polo pony breed. He was by
Rosewater, out of Cuddington, by Cucumber, her dam a Welsh
pony mare. Not only was Sandiway a good pony himself but
he transmitted his good points to his descendants, and there
are many fine ponies by him, amongst which may be named
Sandileto, Sandipix, and Lady Buckingham, all of them good
winners.

The playing ground, rather than the Stud Book, is, however,
the final court of appeal for the most successful breeders, and
" Breed from the ponies that have been accomplished players
themselves " is the principle they stand by. It was the policy
adopted by the late Sir John Barker, and it is not necessary to
point out that he was not only the most successful breeder but
that the blood of his animals is to be found in all the leading
Polo pony studs in the kingdom.

In considering the question of breeding Polo ponies a very
important matter is whether the would-be breeder is capable
of training them to stick and ball and to bending. A pony
that js broken to stick and ball, and that bends well, is not a
perfect Polo pony it is true, but he is on the highroad to
becoming so. It is not necessary for a man to be a good polo
player, or even a polo player at all, to enable him to do this,
but it is necessary that he should be a good horseman and
have good hands. And it requires also considerable patience
and perseverance to train a pony even only as far as this. If
a man has these qualifications he may enter upon the breeding
of Polo ponies with the greatest of confidence, for a pony with
good looks, pace,* and manners that " is likely to make a Polo
pony", as the prize schedules say, is always good to sell.

76 Breeds of Horses

The Polo pony should be built on the lines of a weight-
carrying Hunter. He should have plenty of rein, a well -set -on
neck, and good shoulders, and plenty of heart room is essential.
Upright shoulders and a short ewe neck are fatal, however handy
the pony may be generally. For the moment comes, sooner or
later, when the pony's handiness deserts him for a moment,
and if he can get his nose out, a bolt is almost certain. It
need not be insisted that there is considerable risk in a run-
away, and in the middle of a game it would certainly be dan-
gerous. Then an upright shoulder might easily cause a nasty
fall in one of those sharp stoppages which are constantly taking
place in a fast game of polo. So that it is essential that a Polo
pony should have a good forehand. A short back and a muscular
one is necessary, for Polo ponies often have to carry considerable
weight. The ribs should be well sprung so that there is plenty
of room for heart and lungs, for polo is a big strain on the
breathing apparatus. The loins should be muscular and the
quarters well turned. The hocks should be big and flat and
powerful, well let down and near the ground. Pace, of course,
is indispensable. The height limit is 14 hands 2 in. " Hurlingham
measurement ", which means a trifle over the strict measurement
of the showyard. But Hurlingham measurement is always
accepted, and the breeder or owner of a Polo pony will act
wisely in getting the Hurlingham measurement registered as
soon as his pony is four years old.

How are such ponies to be bred? Starting from a Mountain
or Moorland foundation has already been hinted at, and I think
it will be all the better where that plan is adopted to select a
Thoroughbred pony if possible. For it must be remembered that
polo is a fast game now, and that the Thoroughbred is the best
exponent of pace. There is of course some risk, if Thoroughbred
blood is resorted to freely, that the produce may grow over height,
which is to be guarded against. If a mare " breeds them big " it
may perhaps be as well to mate her with a Polo-bred pony; but
the subject is a difficult one to generalize upon, and the breeder
will be guided by his experience and the circumstances of each
individual case.

If, unfortunately, he should breed one or two over the regu-
lation size, there should be no difficulty in getting rid of the
misfits at a fairly remunerative price. Well-bred saddle horses
standing 15 hands find a ready market as boys' hunters or as
hacks, and they bring a big price if they chance to be up to
weight, for there are too few of them.

Shetland Ponies 77

Shetland Ponies

(Plate, facing p. i6r)

Of all the pony breeds, the Shetland is the best known and
the most popular. To many, the New Forest pony or the Dart-
moor pony is a vague entity — a something they have heard of,
but everyone knows the quaint little Sheltie with his "old-
fashioned " ways, and everyone has a good word for him.

The Shetland as we now know him has a long history, and
he is probably — I had almost said undoubtedly, and if I had
I should perhaps not have been very far wrong — the purest
bred of the equine race. There is no historical record of the
time when he was^ not to be found in the Shetland group, for
that he was a Norwegian importation, as was once thought, is
a theory which is no longer tenable. He was certainly known
in the islands in Celtic times, and practically as he was known
then so is he known now. No Arab or Thoroughbred^ has found
his way into the Shetland Islands to improve the native breed,
and the management of the Shetland pony of to-day is on
similar lines to those which have always prevailed. That is
the management in his native islands.

Winter and summer the Sheltie " fends for himself", finding
his own food and his own shelter. It must be borne in mind,
too, that though, owing probably to the action of the Gulf
Stream, the Shetland Islands are, in spite of their more northern
situation, warmer in climate than the mainland of Scotland, the
winter months are dark and drear, and the herbage is scant and
at times practically non-existent. Then the hardy little Sheltie
finds his way down to the sea and exists on seaweed. Occasion-
ally, perhaps, when the ground is covered with snow and ice-
bound— a very rare occurrence — he will find his way down to his
owner's dwelling, and find his reward in a bundle of oat sheaf
or meadow hay. At the end of winter he looks a curious spec-
tacle in his shaggy, matted coat — more like the fleece of a sheep
than the coat of a horse — and he is as thin as the proverbial
lath. But genial spring weather soon puts him right, and though
his coat is a considerable time in slipping, some of it remaining
till after midsummer, he is soon in good case and sleek as a
mole. In the islands the mares as a rule only breed every other
year, this being due in great measure to the fact that the foals
are not weaned till they are a year old, a plan which cannot be

* Professor Cossar Ewart has compared the skeleton of a Shetland pony with that of the
lamous Thoroughbred horse Persimmon and has found them to be in perfect proportion.

yS Breeds of Horses

defended on economical grounds; and though it is insisted that
the young stock stand the rough winter better than if they were
weaned in the autumn, which is probably correct enough, a little
forethought and a little enterprise might easily obviate any diffi-
culties on that score.

Most of the ponies in the islands are owned by crofters, who have
from two to half a dozen, and they generally sell their ponies
at a year old. It is easy to see how they would benefit if they
were to so manage that their mares breed every year, but old
customs die hard.

The Marquis of Londonderry, and his agent, Mr. Robert Brydon,
were about the first to breed Shetland ponies systematically.
Shelties had first been used as pit ponies in the coal measures
of the county of Durham as early as 1850, "and thirty years
later the Londonderry stud was formed. The greatest care was
taken to improve the bone and substance without increasing
the height, and though all colours are found amongst the Shet-
lands it may pretty safely be said that blacks and dark browns
were fairly established at this stud. Other successful breeders
have been — and, indeed, still are — Mr. R. W. R. Mackenzie, and
the Ladies Hope, whose ponies are known through the length
and breadth of the land. The Londonderry stud was dispersed
a few years ago.

From his extraordinary power for his inches the Shetland pony
has been called a Clydesdale in miniature. This is, however,
a misnomer, except as regards their wonderful weight -shifting
power. There are two types amongst Shetlands, one with a
coarse head, and collar-filling, rather than saddle, shoulders; and
the other with smart blood-like head and riding shoulders. As
there have been no importations of stallions it is probable that
this variation is due to the difference of individual traits common
to all breeds, and there it may be left. The height of the Shet-
land pony is from 8 hands to 10 hands 2 in., the latter being
the extreme height admissible in the Stud Book; but with refer-
ence to the height it may be added that a class for miniature
ponies at the Agricultural Hall (191 3), in which the height limit
was 8 hands, obtained an entry of seven, and that one of these
only measured 6 hands 3 in. It has been noticed that good
pasturage and a better climate has had a material effect upon
the size of the Exmoor, Dartmoor, and New Forest ponies;
change of climate certainly does not tend to increase the height
of the Sheltie, so far as can be gathered. Occasionally, however,
they are crossed with larger breeds and with considerable success.

Welsh Ponies and Cobs 79

The Shetland, as well as being a powerful pony well suited
for pit work, is high-spirited and docile, a famous children's pony,
with a lot of pace. Mr. R. Brydon relates how Mr, R. Lacy's
Beauty trotted in harness ten miles on the Leeming Road in
39 min. 30 sec, driven by a man weighing 11 st. 4 lb., that she
several times trotted a mile in 3 min. 44 sec, and that she
trotted fourteen miles in 55 min. 45 sec driven by the same man,
who then weighed 11 st. 7 lb., and had it not been for a rein
breaking she would have covered the fifteen miles within the
hour with ease. There is a joint sale at Earlshall, Leuchars,
every year, and though all ages, including foals, are sold, con-
sequently the averages are not reliable as to the value of adult
ponies, some idea can be formed of the market from the follow-
ing figures: —

Average Price.
Sold. Vendors. £ s. d.

1903 57 3 16 13 4

1904 108 9 15 4 o

1905 Ill 16 16 II o

1907 86 10 19 8 6

1908 115 17 14 4 3

1909 90 14 23 2 7

1910 124 — 20 13 2

1911 106 — 17 18 2

Welsh Ponies and Cobs

By D. D. WILLIAMS, M.R.A.S.E., F.H.A.S.

(Plates, /cuing pf>. 176 and igi)

The Principality of Wales has long been famous for its light
horses, whose merits have long been recognized also in other parts
of Britain. Of late years an increasing demand for exportation
purposes has been experienced, particularly from America and
Australia. Indeed, such excellent specimens have found their way
to South Australia that we are. assured of the continuance of the
breed in its purity, however much it is threatened with extinction
at home.

It is a regrettable fact that so many of the farmers of Wales
have been crossing their mares so extensively with the Hackney.
The cross, it must be admitted, is a decidedly good one in the
majority of cases, but the question which will have to be seriously
faced sooner or later is that of foundation stock. The crossbreds
are altogether unsuitable for the country, and can only breed a

8o Breeds of Horses

very mixed lot of light-boned, weak-constitutioned animals, such
as we only too frequently see at the leading fairs even to-day.
Much has been said and written about the advantages and dis-
advantages of shows, but as far as Welsh ponies and Cobs are
concerned they certainly have been a disadvantage. The Hackney
generally gives a much better exhibition of action in the show-
yard, but when it comes to road work he is quickly out of com-
petition. The Welsh Cob really never shows himself to advantage
until he gets on the hard road; here he will complete a forty-mile
journey without any sign of fatigue. Weight of shoes does not
improve his action so materially; all he wants is to hear the sound
of his feet and then for pace and action he will challenge all
comers. The outstanding features of Welsh ponies and Cobs are:
hardiness, courage, stamina, surefootedness, and freedom from
disease.

The Welsh Pony and Cob Society divides them into four
sections :

1. The Mountain Pony, which does not exceed 12 hands 2 in. high.

2. The Lowland Pony, „ „ „ 13 „ 2 „

3. The Small Cob, „ „ „ 14 „ 2 „

4. The Large Cob, which is 14 hands 2 in. high or over.

1. THE MOUNTAIN PONY

This is the one which has preserved its original characteristics
best. The description given of this animal four hundred years ago
applies equally well to-day. It is an admitted fact that into the
best specimens of these a certain amount of Arab blood has been
infused, and it may be clearly detected in many of those seen at
shows. But in the case of the thousands found on the Welsh
hills the probability is that no cross has ever been introduced.
Their breeding has been entirely unmethodical. Even the intro-
duction of a stallion of another strain is an unusual thing, the
majority of owners rearing their own stallions and allowing them
to run with the mares in much the same way as they do with theii
sheep. Such a course of inbreeding pursued for generations pro-
duced a race of breedy-looking, small-boned ponies for which there
was only a very limited demand.

For a long period there has been a gradual reduction in the
number of Welsh ponies, but now again the tendency is towards an
increase. The demand from America has done much to foster this
tendency. More attention, also, is now given to their breeding

■'■■'• 2i

Welsh Ponies and Cobs 8 1

than ever before, partly, no doubt, on account of this newly-opened
market, but mainly owing to better knowledge of the principles
of breeding. The passing of the Commons Act, 1908, which
provided for the elimination of undesirable stallions, has had a
marked effect already in improving these ponies, and the en-
couragement given by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries in
awarding premiums to suitable stallions must ultimately result
in the production of a most useful and marketable pony.

Pony Improvement Societies have already been formed in
several districts, notably at Church Stretton, which is the pioneet
in this movement. The annual " drive" and " round up" of the
ponies from the hill, and the annual show, are events worth seeing
Other societies have been already formed at Gower in Glamorgan-
shire, Gwynfe and Brynamman in Carmarthenshire, and Eppynt
in Breconshire.

To see these ponies in the improved state one cannot do better
than pay a visit to Church Stretton ; while Llanwrtyd Wells show,
Newbridge-on-Wye fair, or places like Lampeter and Tregaron
during the third week in April, when they are collected and taken
back to the hills from their winter quarters, will give an excellent
idea of the unimproved type.

2. THE LOWLAND PONY

This is altogether a larger and better class of pony than the
one just described. It has been bred with much more care and
on better soil, and thus possesses more bone and substance, while
its constitution, stamina, and endurance have not suffered in the
least.

The sires selected for mating with the mares of this class are
those of the small-cob type of from 13 hands 2 in, to 14 hands 2 in.
high. This mating results in the production of a pony of about
12 hands 3 in., which one so frequently comes across in the counties
of mid Wales, particularly in Cardiganshire. The celebrated cob
stallion, Eiddwen Flyer, has played a more important part in the
moulding of this type of pony than any other sire.

Most of the mares entered in this section of the Stud Book
are found, when we examine their pedigrees, to be sired by either
Eiddwen Flyer or his descendants, and this is considered the blue
blood of Welsh ponydom.

They have all the characteristics that a Welsh pony should

possess, viz. small head, prominent fiery eyes, restlessness, activity,

intelligence, small ears, width between the eyes, and tapering
Vol. III. 39

82 Breeds of Horses

towards the nostrils, which should be wide and open, long neck;
short back, with quarters well up; long to the hock; long forearm;
short cannon bones and pasterns, with long wavy silken feather.
These points apply equally well to the Welsh cob, the main
difference being one of height.

These ponies are in great demand by English buyers, who
use them for riding and driving, or keep them for show purposes,
where they often win great fame. Others use them as foundation
stock for breeding Hackney ponies, and for this purpose they are
unrivalled. Many a London winner bred in this way has been
picked up at a comparatively low figure at the Welsh sales and
shows. For breeding Polo ponies, again, they are excellent. To
say that thirty per cent of the Polo ponies bred in this country
have Welsh blood in them would probably be no exaggeration.

Their suitability for such a variety of purposes is not without
its disadvantages, and the scarcity of mares of the old Welsh stamp
is already felt. Welsh farmers would be well advised to use their
best mares for breeding pure-bred specimens, for which there will
be an increasing demand as time goes on. The soil and climate
of Wales suits the pure breed, and the natural system of breeding
adopted ensures that stamina and endurance which is its special
feature.

3, 4. THE WELSH COB

The two cob sections may well be taken together, as the only
difference which exists between them is one of height.

Much as the lowland pony has done to ensure popularity for
the light horses of Wales, the reputation of Welsh horses of this
class is chiefly to be attributed to the strength, courage, and en-
durance of the Welsh Cob. At home cobs begin to give a return
for their keep in their third year, and they may be seen doing
saddle and carriage work in addition to all kinds of farm work.
This variety of purposes for which they are adapted and used
accounts perhaps for their extraordinary muscular development.
It is not by any means an unusual sight to see two cobs drawing
a plough, or a mowing machine, and on the hill farms they are
even preferred to heavier animals.

In the absence of any records their origin must always
remain a matter of conjecture. The generally-accepted view is
that the Welsh Cob and the old Welsh cart horse are closely allied,
and a cross between mares of the latter breed and Mountain Pony
stallions, with a certain amount of subsequent grading up, resulted
in the evolution of the cob, Farmers who cultivate land adjoining

Welsh Ponies and Cobs 83

the hills generally bring their ponies down to the lower slopes
during the winter. The stallions always accompany the mares, and
there are seldom any precautions taken to keep the other farm
horses from mixing with them, so it is a plausible theory of how
these crossbreds, which ultimately were called Cobs, were obtained.

Authentic information concerning the Welsh Cob does not date
further back than the memory of men still living. We cannot,
with any degree of certainty, go further back than the year 1840,
when a foal was dropped which was destined to become the pro-
genitor of numerous Cobs, both male and female, which have had
a marked influence on the race. That was Old Trotting Comet.
His descendants include the Welsh Flyers, Comets, Expresses,
Caradogs, Railways, Jacks, and Beaconsfields. Ninety per cent of
the cobs of recognized breeding in Wales to-day are descendants
of one of the first three sires named above.

There is no doubt that a certain amount of Arab blood has
been infused; the famous sire Cymro Llwyd was the son
of Mr. Richard Crawshay's Arabian. Eiddwen Flyer therefore
had two strains of Arab blood in his pedigree. Whether any
Hackney blood was introduced must remain a debatable point.
Definite proof is wanting.

There is no doubt that the most typical specimens are to be
found in the i4-hands-2-in. class, but the demand at present is
for the larger cob, not because of his better type, but owing to the
fact that by mating mares of this class with large Hackneys some
of the finest carriage horses in the country have been produced.
Although specimens of Welsh Cobs of the old stamp are few in
number, an effort is being made at the present time to revive the
breed, and the effort is already beginning to bear fruit. The Board
of Agriculture and Fisheries, by offering premiums to approved
stallions to travel the cob-breeding counties of Wales and award-
ing free nominations in respect of suitable mares, have already
arrested the decline, and if this is continued for some years, and
every care taken in the selection of mares, we may look forward
to a rapid increase in the number of these most serviceable animals.

CHAPTER III

THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT AND
FEEDING OF HEAVY HORSES

By GEORGE MACQUEEN

At an early period in the history of the world man, who had
been endowed with power over the lower animals, began to utilize
their strength for the work of cultivating the soil and moving
heavy weights. Asses and oxen appear, however, to have been
used for that purpose long before horses. We read of oxen and
kine being employed for draught purposes and as beasts of burden.
We are informed also that the patriarchs of old possessed many
sheep, cattle, asses, and camels, but horses are seldom mentioned.
The original country of the horse is not known with certainty
from any records of history, or from any reliable tradition. As an
animal used in warfare the horse is frequently mentioned in early
records, and is frequently depicted as such in ancient sculptures
recovered from buried cities, where he is represented in all the
grandeur of military equipment, but never in the menial occupation
of cultivating the soil.

As an animal used in military operations, for military displays,
for purposes of racing, for saddle work, and for harness work, the
horse is known to have been used in many countries from early
times; but it is difficult to ascertain when people began first to
use him for purposes of draught. And it is even more uncertain
when and where the heavy type of wagon horse first appeared
and was harnessed to work. Most probably he is the product of
gradual evolution and development, the result of the efforts ot
man to produce an animal fit to move heavy weights. Query: Is
there still room for improvement in that respect?

The old saying that there is " no horse perfect " should
encourage further efforts at development towards perfection. Still
further encouragement may be derived by looking back half a
century, and comparing the heavy horse of that period with the

86 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

almost perfect, or at least greatly improved, horse of the present
day. For many centuries the ox was recognized as being the best
and most useful of the lower animals for helping man in the work
of cultivating the land, and of moving heavy weights from place
to place. It is not many years since teams of oxen were quite
frequently to be seen at work in some of the counties of England,
and are even up to the present day used for timber hauling and
other heavy work in some of our colonies. In countries where
roads are yet unmade, and wagons have to be dragged through
the forest and across a rough country, a span of oxen is considered
preferable to a team of horses.

Although we now consider the anatomy of an ox far inferior
to that of the heavy horse for draught purposes, yet there must
have been special characteristics in the ox which qualified him to
be retained and used for so many centuries in the service of man —
characteristics which man must have appreciated not only in the
working of the ox, but as possible or desirable characteristics to be
introduced into the heavy horse during the process of development.

THE HEAVY HORSE

It is almost impossible to say with certainty now from what
foundation our heavy horses have been evolved, or of what materials
they have been built. It may be conjectured, however, that in his
efforts to produce a horse for draught purposes, man kept his eye
on the special attributes of the ox, attributes which so long re-
tained him in the service of man in preference to the horse. One
may conjecture that the quiet, patient temper of the ox, his power
of steady pulling, his readiness to work together or co-operate
as a team, the inexpensive nature of his food, his value as human
food when his working days were over, and his freedom from
serious ailments, all must have contributed to the retention of his
services on the farm and on the road, as being the superior
animal for draught purposes, compared with the horses of old
times.

The Romans were renowned for their skill in agriculture as
well as for their valour in war, and we have glimpses in their his-
tory of horses being used in the cultivation of the soil. Is it too
much to suppose that they tried to select the horses for that work
that they considered the best qualified for the performance of it,
and that in their horse breeding they aimed at producing a type of
horse suitable for the work? Is it too much to suppose that they
tried to combine as far as they could the patient temper, steadiness,

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 87

hardihood, and constitution of the ox, with the high courage, greater
activity, heavier weight, and superior anatomy of the horse, in
breeding an animal for the purposes of heavy draught? Is not
the heavy horse of the present day the result of the efforts of those
early breeders, followed by the persistent efforts of generations of
agriculturists who have all tried in their time to produce some
slight improvement in this our grandest and most popular farm
animal? And if we mean to carry on this work of improving our
heavy horses, can we do better than follow, to some extent, on
the same lines as our skilful predecessors, who have done so much
in the evolution of our fine breeds of heavy horses?

The horse has now proved himself to be the most suitable
animal for heavy work, either on the farm or on the road, and
has almost entirely displaced all other animals in use for that
purpose. There is therefore quite a steady demand for horses of
this type, and the breeding and rearing of such has become quite
a profitable branch of British agriculture. It is also a branch that
is likely to continue profitable, as no mechanical substitute has yet
been invented that is likely to displace the horse on the farm or
on the road.

When railways were first introduced many croaking prophets
foretold that horses would not be required afterwards. How far
that prophecy has proved incorrect may be judged by the keen
demand experienced, and the higher prices prevailing, since the
country has been opened up by railways; and never have sound
working horses of the heavy class been more eagerly sought after
than at the present time, when we read of record prices being paid
for geldings as well as for stud animals. True, the cab horse and
the bus horse have been displaced by mechanical contrivances, and
great efforts are being made by inventors to bring out a rival for
the heavy horse, but so far with only partial success. For the
work of the farm, for moving goods on the streets of our large
cities, for shunting at railway stations, and for hauling timber from
the woods, no other power can yet rival the heavy horse. It is
therefore highly desirable to bestow increased attention upon the
breeding and rearing of this branch of farm stock.

The heavy horses of Britain have practically developed into
three distinct types or breeds: the Suffolk Punch, chiefly bred and
reared in the county of Suffolk; the Clydesdale, the prevailing
breed in Scotland and the north of England ; and the Shire breed,
now generally bred all over England and Wales, and the source
of supply for the street work of all our large towns and railway
stations. Each breed has its distinctive features and characteristics,

88 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

and may have to be referred to differently in treating of the breed-
ing and rearing of each ; but the remarks on the general management
may be applied to all the breeds alike.

With the formation of societies and the publication of stud
books a general advance has been made in the improvement and
development of all the heavy breeds during the last generation or
two. The science of breeding has been brought within the reach
of every farmer who has capital and convenience to embark in it.
Previously it was confined to the few men of genius, born horsemen
and enthusiasts, who on meeting began to talk of horses before the
seat got warm — men who knew every horse of note in the county
and a good many outside it, every horse of their lifetime, and the
history of many that lived before their time — men who knew where
to find a good mare, and the best horse to send her to. To such
men we owe what improvement was effected in the type, size, and
quality of the horse. To such also we owe a great deal of the
information collected and conserved in the early volumes of the
Stud Books — information which enables every farmer to breed on
the right lines.

It would be interesting to trace how the heavy horses came to
be divided into three breeds, and the causes that led to the develop-
ment of the different types; but that enquiry scarcely comes within
the scope of the present chapter.

THE MARE

The first and most important subject for consideration in horse
breeding is the selection of suitable mares. The idea that a mare
which has broken down and is unfit for work is a suitable animal
to breed from must be waved aside at once. If success is to be
attained in breeding, great care is necessary in the selection of
foundation stock. How, when, and where, and what to get, are all
questions of great importance. Men of wealth can always com-
mand the best, and by plucky speculation at some of the periodical
auction sales can always acquire some good breeding animals, even
if they do not all turn out quite a success. A tenant farmer of
limited capital cannot afford to speculate; he must lay out his
money carefully. To do so he must have a clear idea of the type
of animal he requires, whichever breed it represents. The age to
buy at is of some importance. By buying fillies of one or two
years old, which have the full length of their breeding life before
them, he secures not only the full term of their life but also the
best and most vigorous years. A brood mare should be young

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 89

and vigorous, not worn out with years of continuous toil and hard
feeding.

At the same time there is the risk of their proving non-breeders
or inferior breeders; there is also the risk of the development of
sidebones or other diseases that do not generally show their presence
during the first years of their life; so that many farmers may con-
sider it safer to buy a mare which has bred one or two foals success-
fully, even if they have to pay a higher price for her, and lose a
year or two of her breeding life. An exceedingly important point
is her pedigree. We must know something about her ancestors;
and now, with the opportunity we have of getting all that infor-
mation in the Stud Book, there is no reason why we should buy in
the dark. At the same time, if the mare herself is not worthy it
is unwise to introduce her into the stud simply because she has
some grand relations. Neither must we forget that the information
given in the Stud Book is very limited. It gives the name, colour,
date of birth, accomplishments in the stud or in the show ring; but
it does not tell her faults, her vices, her unsoundness or malforma-
tions. It proclaims the good qualities, but keeps the bad ones in
the dark. In selecting a mare, the character, style, symmetry, con-
stitution, type, and soundness are of more importance than pedigree.
It is well to have the type of perfection in one's eye, and to get as
near that as possible.

It is a matter of controversy which is the most important point
to be considered in selecting a mare; some breeders attach the
greatest importance to one point and some to another. A very
successful Shire horse breeder, lately deceased, insisted on having
the feet and fetlocks correct, whatever other defects might be appa-
rent. Breeders of Clydesdales always consider the feet and coronet
as of prime importance, and express the point in Scotland as " guid
strong cutes ". In a brood mare a strong and healthy constitution
is of the utmost importance. The long, low, wide sort, with well-
sprung ribs, and plenty of middle room to carry a good dinner bag,
wide in chest, and thick through the heart and lungs, is the ideal
stamp of a Shire mare, or indeed of any heavy mare. It is also
essential in a brood mare that she should be wide in her hind
quarters, both in hips and thighs — a mare that leaves you with a
good impression as she walks away, and has no appearance of
legginess or of being "split up", as it is commonly called. Her
loins should be strong and well padded with muscle. The head
should be typical of the breed, and with the eyes and ears should
betoken docility, intelligence, and courage.

By close observation anyone may get to recognize the different

90 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

characters of mares. If the look of the eye, the fretful twitch of
the ear, and the defiant toss of the head show any signs of bad
temper, it is well to avoid a mare of that sort. On the other hand,
the vacant sleepy look that betokens stupidity and laziness, is also
to be avoided. Brightness and intelligence, combined with good
nature, are the desirable qualities, and these may be recognized in
the little mannerisms of head, eyes, and ears, the talking organs of
the horse. Close observation, however, is better than any amount
of descriptive writing in teaching one how to acquire the art of
recognizing character in any animal.

The mare should have a fairly long neck, well crested and just
slightly arched, and nicely set into the shoulders, which should be
sloping at a considerable angle. A horse or mare with upright
shoulders always goes as if fettered, and cannot step out, is apt
to stumble, and does not get over the ground quickly. The tail
should be well set up in line with the back, and not drooping.
A droop-tailed horse is ugly, and often of a sluggish disposition.
Most important of all, however, are the size, shape, and quality of
the feet and limbs. When we come to consider that the work of
the heavy horse is the moving of heavy weights on the hard road
or paved street, we readily recognize the necessity of his being
furnished with strong limbs and large well-shaped feet.

The hoofs of the mare must be of the proper shape and slope,
well dished out underneath, wide at the heels, and strong at the
top or coronet. The Clydesdale mare excels in these points; but
there is still room for much improvement in the Shire and the
Suffolk. The hoof should be of a tough nature; brittle hoofs are
very objectionable, troublesome to the blacksmith, frequently break-
ing off with the shoe, and a prolific cause of lameness. The fetlock
should be strong, fairly long, and nicely sloped at an angle of about
forty-five degrees. Short as well as upright pasterns are very
objectionable, and do not stand the jar of the hard road ; there is
a want of elasticity and springiness in the upright pastern that
creates greater concussion on the stones and causes more frequent
lameness. On the other hand, a very long pastern, or one that is
sloped down too flat, is by no means a strong one, and although
allowing free action and enabling the horse to go easy when not
heavily loaded, yet it is apt to give way and break down when the
horse has to put all his weight in the collar to move a heavy load.
The feet should be set straight on the legs, and the mare should
move them straight forward. The toe (or front centre of the hoof,
as there is really no toe) should neither turn inwards nor outwards;
pigeon-toed and splay-footed animals are both very objectionable.

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 91

The knees should be wide when viewed in front, and straight in
front when viewed sideways; at least there should be no tendency
to bend back at the knee. The hock should be of great width
when looking sideways at the mare, but narrow and free from
puffiness when looking at her from behind, and well set together
as hocks set wide apart are not at all desirable, and are to be
avoided. The bone under the knee and hock should be flat in
formation, hard in consistence, and free from fleshiness. Round-
boned, fleshy legs are very subject to grease, and a mare with that
class of bone should never be put to the stud. The muscle should
be well developed above the knee and hock; a strong muscular
forearm and thigh give power to pull a heavy load when the footing
of the animal is unfavourable, such as on a slippery road. The
curve of the hock is of great importance, as, if there is too much
bend, or what we term " cow hocks ", the animal is not so strong at
a pull, and is apt to strain the ligaments when pulling with all her
weight at a load, while very straight hocks are subject to spavin,
and devoid of action.

The feather should be long and silky, and free from any
tendency to hardness or curling. This is important in both
Clydesdales and Shires, as the feather is generally indicative of
the quality of the b^ne, and of freedom from grease and other
leg troubles.

A mare with such a class of legs and feet is almost sure to be
a good mover; but it is well to ascertain that this is so by testing
her paces, both walking and trotting, as good action adds greatly
to her value and usefulness. She should bend both knees and
hocks well, and put her feet straight forward without any side
action or throwing about of the feet. A mare that moves straight
economizes her power much more than one that throws her legs
all about; she is, besides, much more pleasant to see and to work
with.

The Clydesdale breed excels in action. The late David Riddell
used to say about a particularly good specimen of the breed that
" her very step had music in't ". Shires have also been greatly
improved in action; but there is still much need of development
of action in both Shires and Sufiblks, so many of them having a
habit of lumbering on without using their joints.

The above is a brief description of the style of animal which
should be kept in one's mind ; and, in selecting a mare for breeding,
the aim should be to select the nearest approach to such an animal
that can be obtained, bearing in mind, of course, that the perfect
horse has not yet been discovered.

92 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

As regards size, a mare standing i6 hands high, and of pro-
portionate symmetry, is big enough. Colour may be decided by
taste. Sufifolks, of course, are all chestnuts. Bay or brown are
the prevailing colours among Clydesdales, and among Shires a
good bay or brown sells better than any other colour. Not so
long ago, white feet and legs were considered very objectionable,
as it was thought that dark feet were harder and more enduring.
Whether that idea stood the test of experience or not, dark points
are not now insisted on as formerly. Indeed, white feet and legs
seem to be all the fashion now in Shires as well as in Clydesdales;
and it must be admitted that a ring full of fine horses with clean
white legs and fine flowing feather is a sight well worth seeing.

Having now grasped the idea of what is the most suitable
animal to breed from, the next consideration is how, when, and
where to obtain her. Facilities for doing so are much greater than
they were a few years ago, when the only way was to travel about
among the breeders, attend the horse fairs, or commission a dealer
to buy one, a process which took time and could not be done
without expense.

The periodical auction sales, which many of our successful
breeders have instituted, afford excellent opportunities for young
breeders to obtain foundation stock. The information given in
the catalogues of these private auctions being generally reliable,
one can depend on its being more correct than that obtained in
a horse fair or from a dealer. The agricultural shows instituted
in every county, and in nearly every parish, also present good
opportunities of discovering where the right class of mare is bred,
and of by and by securing one. Indeed, many breeders now ex-
hibit their young stock for the sole purpose of obtaining customers
and effecting sales. Farm sales also afford occasional oppor-
tunities of buying a useful animal ; the stock at these sales being
generally well known to the neighbours, information as to the
characters of the various animals can generally be obtained. Yet
another system of buying and selling stock is being introduced,
and is likely to develop into a means of transacting a vast amount
of business; that is, by advertisement. The agricultural journal
is now cheap, and is read by nearly every farmer. It is used
for advertising all sorts of goods the farmer has to buy. Why
should not the farmer advertise what he has to sell? Old pre-
judices, of course, will have to be broken down. The idea that
something is suspiciously wrong because a farmer advertises stock
for sale should not be harboured for an instant in these days of
enlightened business habits. And because a farmer advertises

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 93

that he is open to buy a certain class of animal, it is unreasonable
to suspect that he wants to obtain it by fraud, or to get it under
its value. The columns of the agricultural papers offer facilities
of obtaining information and of transacting business far superior
to the oldfashioned, slow-going, time-wasting system of peram-
bulating the country from fair to fair. Of course, it is obvious
that no one would think of buying by advertisement only, and
without seeing the animal. The advertisement, however, gives
information which beforetime was difficult to obtain. Whatever
system is adopted, it is absolutely necessary that the animal should
be seen and thoroughly well examined. One pair of eyes is not
always sufficient for this work. The advice and assistance of a
friend who may be an expert as a judge of horseflesh is invaluable.
Indeed, if there is any suspicion of unsoundness, it may be advis-
able to employ the services of a qualified veterinary surgeon.

It is of the greatest importance to ascertain whether the animal
is perfectly sound and free from any hereditary disease before con-
templating the purchase. Shire horses especially are very subject
to have sidebones, and Clydesdales and Sufifolks are not all free
from them, so that a strict examination is necessary for traces
of sidebone, ringbone, sand-crack, contraction of the hoof, spavin,
thoroughpin, or splint; for diseases of the breathing organs, such
as roaring; for diseases of the eyes, such as cataract; for nervous
diseases, like stringhalt or shivering. If there is the least trace
of any of these hereditary ailments in the mare, it is better to
avoid investing money in her, and the buyer should try for some-
thing else.

Horse-buying, at best, is a risky business. There is an old
saying that " no man is honest in selling a horse ". The clever
horse dealer can hide the faults from the buyer, and parade the
good qualities of the animal and make the customer believe he
is offering him perfection. In buying a mare it is well to have
one that is entered, or eligible for entry, in the Stud Book. The
future progeny will be much more saleable, and will command
a higher price.

As types of the present-day Shire mare, Dunsmore Chessie,
Lorna Doone, and Halstead Royal Duchess may be considered
models. In the Clydesdale circle, Harviestoun Baroness (now
in America), and Lady Peggy, from Boquhan, may be considered
typical specimens; whilst Bawdsey Jewel and Sudbournc Lassie
are good representatives of the Suffolk breed,

94 Management and Feeding ol Heavy Horses

THE STALLION

Having secured a mare, or mares, the next important step is
X.O secure a good stallion to mate her with. The selection of a
suitable sire for stud purposes is even more important than the
choosing of the mare. Breeders who keep a large number of
mares generally arrange to have a horse of their own, and in that
case it is of supreme importance to get the right horse. Small
farmers cannot afford to keep their own stallions, and therefore
have to send the mare to another man's horse and pay him a fee
for the service. The keeping of stallions for stud purposes is
generally a distinct branch of the business of farming, and as it
requires special skill and aptitude, the majority of farmers do not
care to embark in it. Those who do so, and keep a choice of several
horses, are benefactors to their neighbours, and deserve encourage-
ment as well as payment for their enterprise. The system of
co-operation has been called into action for the purpose of securing
stallions, and has been for many years the recognized method for
providing stud horses. The Clydesdale breeders began it, and it
was soon afterwards adopted by the Shire men. The farmers of
a district unite and form themselves into a Society, pay a yearly
subscription, and appoint working officials. A few of the best
judges amongst them are appointed as a deputation to select a
horse to travel the district for the season. They arrange with the
owner of the horse which they select, that he travels the horse a
certain number of weeks in the district, and that the horse serves a
specified number of mares belonging to the members, the Society
paying a certain amount agreed upon, or so much per mare, or, in
some cases, it is paid both ways. The Glasgow Show is the great
mart of the Clydesdale breeders, and the London Show that of the
Shire horse breeders. If the various deputations fail to secure
what they require at those great marts, they have to visit the
owners of the principal studs and select what they think most
suitable for their mares.

These Societies have been formed in many districts of the
country, and are found a great convenience to many farmers, who
do not care to send their mares a long distance off to meet a horse,
and also to some who have not sufficient confidence in their own
judgment to select a horse. The drawback to the system is that
whatever the mare is, there is no choice of a horse; they are all
tied to the same horse. As mares vary greatly in size, character,
and symmetry, they should be mated to horses of correspondingly
varying characteristics. Districts, therefore, wherein resides a stud-

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 95

owner possessed of a number of horses of varying types who is
wilh'ng to let the public have the use of these horses, are better
served in the choice of a horse than where they are tied to the use
of the Society's hired horse.

The mares of a district are not all alike. The horse chosen
by the Society, even if he is one of the best in the country, is not
likely to suit all the mares; so that a still greater benefit to a dis-
trict is the existence of a private stud, the property of some wealthy
farmer or enterprising landowner. Such a stud, in which are
stallions of different ages, varying types, and different sizes, gives
a much better opportunity of mating the mares with suitable
stallions, and is of incalculable service to the breeders of a district.
■ Every farmer who has such a choice should keep one or more mares
and rear young horses of the best sort.

The reprehensible practice of beating down the service fee to
the lowest possible pitch, thereby encouraging the travelling of
cheap, unsound or worthless horses, is a "penny wise pound foolish''
practice, which ought to be discountenanced by every right-minded
farmer. Owners of good horses deserve encouragement, and they
cannot afford to keep a good horse and accept a small fee.

Railway companies now give improved facilities for conveying
brood mares to distant studs, so that the best horses are almost
within reach of everyone. There are drawbacks to this plan ; for
one thing, the expense is considerable. To a wealthy landowner
it may appear but a trifle, while to a tenant farmer it may seem an
outlay which he does not care to face. There is a high fee, the
keep of the mare for several weeks, railway freight, risk of travel-
ling, disadvantage of being from under the owner's observation,
and possibly no result, or a disappointing result, at the finish.
There is a certain element of uncertainty in all arrangements of
this sort, but the uncertainty seems to be greatly increased when
the mare has to be sent off some distance. " The best laid schemes
o' mice and men gang aft aglee." And it has been noticed many
times that very weedy foals have been the result of excellent mares
being sent a long way to noted horses. However, this risk must
be faced sometimes when there is no better alternative.

The proper plan is to select a sire of repute as a stock-getter,
not necessarily a prizewinner. Many of our greatest prizewinners
have been disappointing at the stud, while some of our most noted
sires made no show in the ring. Of course, it is almost impossible
to get a horse possessing as many good qualities as we should like
and be, at the same time, free from bad ones. If the mare has
a weak spot or deficiency anywhere — and most mares have — the

96 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

proper plan is to select a horse strong in those points. The pro-
geny may then inherit the horse's good points, or at least the
weak points of the mare may be modified. By no means should
a mare showing any pronounced defect be put to a horse exhibiting
the same weakness, as the progeny is almost certain to inherit the
same defect, and perhaps in an aggravated form.

The remarks previously made respecting the outward appear-
ance and soundness of mares hold good with equal force in the
selection of a sire. It is contended by some that a horse intended
for stock should stand at least 17 hands high. That is by no
means essential, as many of the best Clydesdale and Shire stallions
do not reach that height. There are more important points than
the mere height.

The bone below the knee should be large and strong, and
measure at least 11^ in. in circumference (Laurence Drew's Prince
of Wales, the best Clydesdale stallion of the last century, measured
considerably over ii^ in.). The cannon bone should be short from
knee to fetlock; a long-legged horse with small bone is unfit to be
used in the stud. The chest should be wide, affording ample room
for the action of heart and lungs. The forearm and thigh should
be well covered with muscle. It has been averred that the progeny
is likely to inherit the outward framework of the sire, including
legs, feet, and action, and is more likely to inherit constitution,
temper, and character from the dam. If that theory is correct,
it is doubly necessary to use a sire with large limbs and feet, and
with good action.

Some of our best Shires have been the progeny of compara-
tively small mares, but mares of style, quality, and constitution
mated with sires of weight, bone, and muscle. Purity of breeding,
soundness, robustness of constitution, strength of conformation, and
activity, are leading characteristics essential in a sire. It is most
essential that he pass a thorough examination by the veterinary
surgeon. Many of our heavy horses have had to be condemned
for roaring. Some of the very best have been afflicted with this
ailment, so that it is not to be wondered at that it shows itself
still in their descendants. A horse so afflicted should not be used
in the stud. The groom may have a plausible tale to tell about
some dusty hay he had to eat when ill with the influenza, and that
his stock will never inherit it, but unfortunately many of his pro-
geny have the influenza and the dusty hay, and are roarers. It is
a disease that must be exterminated at all costs.

The Board of Agriculture have recently instituted a scheme
with the object of eliminating the unsound sire. The scheme,

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 97

which applies to all breeds of horses, gives the owners of stallions
an opportunity of having their horses registered, and certificates of
soundness issued annually. The diseases which debar from regis-
tration are cataract, roaring, whistling, ringbone, sidebone, spavin,
navicular disease, shivering, stringhalt, and defective genital organs.
The idea at the initiation of the scheme was, that the breeders
would be enabled to ascertain what horses had been certified as
sound, would patronize the horse that was registered, and would not
patronize the others, which would have to be withdrawn from the
road. Up to the present time the scheme can hardly be considered
a success. Not more than 10 per cent of the heavy breeds of
stallions have been registered, the principal owners of studs appear-
ing to ignore the scheme. Perhaps in time it may be adopted more
generally, and only sound sires used in the stud.

If properly managed, the keeping of stallions may be made a
profitable branch of business. Of course, capital, judgment, and
close attention to details are requisite if success is to be won.
Wealthy landowners have taken up the business as a hobby, and
when the requisite skill is obtained the business goes booming.
But many have succeeded well who had no large estate at their
back. Laurence Drew, David Riddell, and Andrew Montgomery,
all now gone over to the majority, made the Clydesdales what they
are, and made money at the business.

Three also of the Shire stallion owners, who have passed away,
began business with one horse, and extended it into large and
valuable studs. The names of James Forshaw, Thomas Shaw, and
Walter Johnson were well known in the Shire horse world long
before the formation of the Shire Horse Society and the starting
of the Stud Book.

The risks are considerable, the death rate of stallions being con-
siderably higher than that of the ordinary working stud on a farm.
If the stud is large, the cost of insurance may be heavier than the
annual losses, but where the stud is small and comprises only one
or two valuable animals, it is safer to have the risk covered by
insurance, and there are now plenty of insurance companies willing
to take the risk at a reasonable rate. Some large stud owners form
a sort of insurance of their own, by allocating a certain percentage
of the profits. and putting it to a reserve fund to cover losses. To
ensure success in the stallion business, the first requisite is to secure
a good animal to begin with — one that will gain the confidence of
the breeders, command the trade of the district, and be worth char-
ging a good fee for his services. It does not pay to keep an inferior
or an unsound horse, as that would almost immediately alienate the

VOL. III. iQ

98 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

patronage of the public, besides which it costs as much to keep and
attend to an inferior horse as to a good one, or usually rather more.
One does not realize the difficulty and extra trouble there is with
horses that are subject to defects of any sort, in bringing them out
in presentable form to the public, hiding their defects, patching up
their unsoundness, and keeping them in trim for work; whilst at
the end of the season the money earned may be less than the cost
of their keep. Not only must the animal be a good and a sound
one, but he must also be of a type to suit the district.

A stallion owner must have judgment, not only to know a good
horse, but also to know which type of horse would succeed best in
the district, by pleasing the breeders and mating suitably with the
mares. He must also know how to select and place his horses, each
in his proper sphere of work. The stallion may be a home-reared
one, or he may be purchased at weaning time as many are, or he
may be acquired later in life.

A farmer is sometimes fortunate in rearing a good promising
foal, and as he has perhaps felt the inconvenience of sending his
mares for long distances to meet the horse, he decides to keep the
foal and use him as a stud horse at home when he attains the proper
age. Or perhaps a stallion keeper (a profession distinct from
ordinary farming) may come past, take a fancy to the foal, and by
offering a good price tempt the breeder to sell. Many of the best
stud horses have been bought for this special purpose at the time
they were being weaned.

TREATMENT OF COLTS

Whether reared at home or bought from a breeder, the after
treatment of the colt must be on similar lines. Granted that a
breeder has the good fortune to have a colt of the right stamp,
descended from sound parents, with plenty of bone and muscle,
good wide feet, open heels, hard tough hoofs, correctly-set pasterns,
flat-boned limbs, big knees, strong clean hocks, masculine head,
strong neck, nicely sloping shoulder, stout back, well-sprung ribs,
strong muscular loin and quarters, with tail well set on — a colt of
this description may well be saved from the castrator, put on extra
good keep, and watched for a time to see how he develops.

Good feeding is necessary after weaning and all through the
first winter. A liberal quantity of sound oats, with a little bran
and plenty of well-harvested clover hay, should be allowed until the
grass comes again in the spring. As colts seldom do so well singly
as when wintered along with others of the same age, our prospective

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 99

stallion should have some company. He will be more contented,
will take his food better, and will take more exercise.

A convenient paddock with a shed in it is the most suitable
place in which to winter yearling colts; the paddock for exercise in
the daytime and the shed for night quarters, or for shelter in stormy
weather. If no paddock is available, a large well-fenced bullock
yard, with a shed, is very suitable. Plenty of straw underfoot is
necessary with this arrangement, and care must be taken that there
are no projections or obstacles with which the colts might come in
collision and injure themselves. Yearling colts are very playful,
and if they have plenty of room will usually take sufficient exercise
without being led. At the same time it is good management to
have yearlings accustomed to be haltered, taught to be led, and
rendered quiet and docile. It sometimes happens that they have
to be led to the blacksmith's to have their feet attended to; but even
if it is not necessary to lead them anywhere it is better to have
them trained to it, as they are easier to manage and take their lesson
better at this age than they will when they get older.

When the spring comes, if the colt has developed properly in
size, symmetry, and action, he must of course be saved entire, and if
convenient, ought now to be done better than the other colts. This,
however, must be done judiciously, as it is quite possible to ruin a
colt at this age by too much forcing. Indeed, many a good colt has
become a victim to laminitis and ruined for life through too much
forcing, and many have been lost through internal derangements —
literally killed by kindness.

The colt must be kept healthy, and that can only be done by
feeding on natural food and having regular exercise.

There are some noted pastures on which the entire yearling colt
will grow and develop as much as is desirable without the help of
artificial feeding. It is really amazing how the bone and muscle
will grow on some of these natural pastures, which presumably
must be rich in phosphates and the other constituents which are
required for the formation of bone. Those noted pastures are not
to be found everywhere, but the districts in which they are found
have acquired a name for the excellence of their cart horses. How-
ever, if pasture of any sort is available, it is better to run the colt
out all summer at this age than to have him confined entirely to the
house, and if the pasture is not strong and rich enough, his food
must be supplemented by a continuance of the winter rations, or
part of them. Bran may not be necessary on the pastures, neither
of course is hay necessary, but the oats may safely be continued.
If it is not. convenient to turn the colt out on the pasture and he has

I oo Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

to be kept indoors, he must have green food carried to him, such as
vetches, rye, mowed grass or clover, as much in reason as he will eat
of it, and a small feed of oats in addition.

When indoors, exercise must be allowed him ; the run of a large
bullock yard will do, and will save time and labour in hand leading.
The yard must be kept well littered with straw, and the manure
must not be allowed to accumulate under him until it ferments.
His feet may be spoiled if he is kept on hot manure.

The same treatment may be continued through the second
winter, increasing the quantity of oats and bran as the grass fails,
and of course allowing as much hay as he will eat, seeing also that
the fences are strong and secure. As colts at this age are wicked
and playful, it is better to keep them by themselves, so that they
cannot injure others or be injured by them. The yard and shed
must be kept for his use, or, if available, the paddock and shed.
Indeed, the ideal arrangement for a playful entire colt is to keep
him in a strongly-fenced grass paddock, with a sheltered shed in the
corner of it. This paddock may be utilized as his winter quarters
for the after years of his life. An ordinary hedge is scarcely to be
depended on for fencing in an entire horse unless protected and
strengthened by a line or two of barbed wire. The wire must not
be stretched in the hedge or very close to it, or the horse may injure
himself with it before he is aware of its presence; but if it is
stretched about 2 or 3 ft. from the hedge inside the field, the
horse will ascertain its presence and its character and will keep
at a respectful distance from it. With this safeguard almost any
sort of hedge will do round the paddock. In the absence of a
hedge, a strong safe fence may be erected with disused railway
sleepers set close together in a row on their ends in a trench 2 ft.
deep, and well rammed in and fastened together by a light rail at
the top. This kind of fence costs a good deal to fix up, as old
sleepers are not always to be had cheaply, but it has the advantage
of being very durable, very strong, and affording some little shelter
from cold winds, besides being of a nature that the horse cannot
possibly hurt himself by coming in contact with it.

The shed, which is useful as a protection from the sun in summer
and from the cold blasting storms of winter, need not be an expen-
sive erection; no bricks or mortar are needed. On farms where
there is some rough timber and plenty of straw suitable sheds for
colts may be run up very cheaply. The late Thomas Shaw, of
Lancashire, who owned about half a hundred entire horses, had
a specially-designed shed of his own put up at little cost with the
materials at hand. These picturesque, quaint-looking hovels were

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses loi

erected all over his farm where required, and simply consisted of
a framework of scantling attached to posts set in the ground, the
walls thickly interlaced with gorse, the roof thatched with straw or
heather, and the floor thickly laid with dried peat-moss litter. A
strongly made sparred gate, about 6 ft. wide, formed the door and
shut in the horse when he was wanted in. The sheds were com-
fortable, convenient, inexpensive, and very healthy. They were
cool in summer and warm in winter, free from draughts, and easily
repaired. The straw-thatched roof is the most comfortable, but in
many districts straw is scarce and too expensive to use as thatch.
This is the case now, especially on the western side of England and
Scotland, and in all Wales. The larger portion of the land being
in grass, what little straw is grown is utilized for stock feeding. In
these districts useful, inexpensive sheds are erected with timber, and
galvanized corrugated iron for roofing. As the iron roofing is cold
in the winter and hot in the summer, it is found the better plan to
erect these sheds high enough to admit of a loft overhead, being
careful to leave plenty of head room for the horse underneath. The
loft keeps the shed at a more equable temperature, cool in summer,
and cosily warm in winter; besides, it comes in useful for storing
a load or two of hay for the use of the horse, saving a lot of labour
carrying hay if the haystack is some distance away.

When two horses have to be run in adjoining paddocks, a little
expense is saved in building and material by making a double shed
with a partition in the middle, one end with entrance on one side
being used for the one paddock, the other end with the entrance on
the other side available for the other paddock. A typical shed of
this construction may be 30 ft. long, 15 ft. wide, divided in the
middle, and forming two boxes each 15 ft. by 15. The loft should
be 10 ft. from the ground, and should have at least 4 ft. of wall
under the circular corrugated -iron roof. A hayrack and corner
manger should be fixed in each shed, and although the shed is
usually left open so that the horse may go in or out as he likes, it
is advantageous to have a door fixed so that he may be shut in if
required. A door of open framework, admitting light and air, may
be made by bolting together strong rails about 4 in. by 3. A good
layer of moss litter should be spread on the floor. A substantial
building of this sort without any architectural pretensions may be
erected for a little over £20.

When the travelling season is over the horse can go back into
the paddock for the rest of the year. If the paddock is large he
will require nothing besides grass till Christmas, and all being well,
will require very little attention. His feet must be watched and

I02 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

kept in proper form ; if any shoes are worn they must be flat shoes,
and very Hght. On some few soils it is quite possible, and, indeed,
is better to let the horse go without shoes, but on most classes of
land it is necessary to have some light shoes, more especially with
some sorts of hoof. The ideal, hard, tough, nicely shaped hoof should
not require a shoe when at grass ; but we have scarcely yet attained
that ideal.

After the new year begins the young stallion must now be taken
up, allowed a gradual increase in his rations, his horsebox prepared
for his regular use, and the run on pasture substituted by a daily walk
out. We must now decide the programme for the coming season,
whether the horse is merely to stay at home for the use of the home
stud and perhaps a few neighbours' mares, whether he is to be
offered to some association for the season, or whether he has to
travel a certain district and make a season for himself — all three
courses open to horse owners; also, we must decide whether he is
to be exhibited at any show or not. Various circumstances may
contribute to the decision of the programme. The quality of the
horse himself, his comparative excellence amongst other horses, and
his chances of winning a prize will probably decide on the point of
exhibition, and will also have a certain influence on the decision of
the season's arrangements.

TREATMENT OF YOUNG STALLIONS

The treatment and management of the horse must necessarily
be regulated by the work intended for him. If the first, or stay-at-
home course, is selected for him, no special training is required ; he
must just be kept in natural growing condition; no attempt at
forcing the condition should be allowed. The same fare on which
the farm teams have to do their work is quite good enough for him.
Indeed, there is no reason why he may not perform a share of the
work if broken and trained to it when young, so that he is docile
and manageable, and will work quietly along with the geldings. It
is often asserted that a horse living the life of a labourer will beget
more stock than one living the life of a gentleman, so that it really
may prove the best treatment to keep him in the team for the first
three months of the year. So many horses are spoiled by being
overloaded with fat, that when the season comes round they are
practically unfit for their work. Of course it may not be convenient
to keep him at team work after the season begins, neither is it
desirable. If the horse has to be offered for hire, or if he has to
travel a district and make a trade, he will have to be treated

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 103

differently. He must be made as presentable as possible so that
he will please the public, and as condition generally improves
symmetry and hides faults it is best to bring him out in the pink
of condition. Condition in a horse, however, does not mean having
him boxed up and fed like a pig and getting him covered with fat.
Conditioning a horse is getting him in good health and spirits,
improving his movements and muscle, putting some heart into him.
It is comparatively easy to fatten a heavy horse; but it is a mistake
to do so at the beginning of the travelling season, and have him
falling off during the season.

To give satisfaction a horse should be thriving and improving
during the time of travelling, and those horses that have to work
during winter are more likely to do so than those that have been
fed up all winter. To develop the muscle we must feed him
judiciously, keep him in a natural state, and exercise him regularly.
For that purpose there is no better feed than oats and bran.
Animals vary so much in their requirements, and in their ability to
digest and assimilate rich food in their system, that it is difficult
to name any given quantity which a horse should have as a daily
ration. As much good hay should be given as the horse can eat
the oats and bran being given sparingly at first, and gradually
increased as the system of the animal can absorb them. It must
always be remembered that a horse has a very small stomach in
proportion to his size. Consequently he cannot consume and digest
a large quantity of bulky fodder, and a stallion on travel, or one
that is being got up in condition, should have most of his food in a
concentrated form, given at short intervals as many times a day as
possible. Sixteen pounds of oats and two pounds of bran may be
taken as a fair standard for this class of horse, the quantity to
be varied according to circumstances. The oats should be bruised
and mixed with chopped hay cut about an inch in length, so that
the animal may be compelled to chew it. If the hay is cut too
short it is very likely to be bolted without chewing, and if oats are
given whole and without being mixed with chop some horses will
swallow them without chewing, and they are passed through the
system undigested. The groom in charge must be observant and
use his discretion regarding the quantity to give a horse, and the
owner must allow him ample scope to use his own discretion.
Beans in small quantities are of great value to a horse that is
working hard; but it is not advisable to use them for an idle
stallion; and maize tends rather to produce fat than muscle. A
little boiled linseed given once a week helps to keep the digestive
organs healthy.

I04 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

Horses also appreciate a few roots; a mangel or two, or a
swede or two may be given daily. Condiments, spices, and con-
dition powders are not necessary for a healthy horse; these articles
are of more profit to the maker, seller, and advertiser than they are
to the buyer or user, and often do harm to the stock. All aphro-
disiac agents should be strictly prohibited ; some grooms are
addicted to the administering of these noxious, exciting drugs,
especially if they think the horse a bit slow at work. To produce
healthy condition, regular exercise is an absolute necessity. The
stallion should be walked out for at least two hours daily, not with
a slouching, easygoing step, but at a brisk pace as if being shown
off to a customer. The daily exercise helps his appetite, keeps his
digestive organs healthy, keeps legs, joints, and feet all in working
order, and gives a splendid opportunity for training a horse to his
proper step. Stylish action and good manners are most important
if we wish to sell, to hire out, to exhibit, or even to travel the
district with the horse. It is wonderful how the eye of a judge, or
the eye of the public, is attracted by a bit of style and movement.
So many of our heavy horses are deficient in these qualities that a
horse which excels in action gains rapidly in popularity. This is
also one of the attributes of the horse which may be improved
greatly by practice and training. Some horses, of course, have it
naturally by inheritance, and are much more amenable to training
than are others, but it is in the drill and instruction of the horse
that the aptitude, tact, patience, skill, and perseverance of the man
are brought into prominence. As the soldier has to be drilled into
the proper step and movement, so must the horse, and it is only by
persevering in daily training that the horse is brought to his proper
paces and behaviour. Some, of course, require much more time,
patience, and perseverance than others do, but the hours of exercise
give just the proper opportunity for applying the drill instruction.
The man must imagine that he is in the show ring, and should put
the horse through his paces each day as if the eyes of the public
and the judges were on him — walking, trotting, turning round, and
making him stand out in the best position as if for inspection,
and checking all tendency to erratic action or to sluggishness. If
intended for exhibition, this daily role must be carried on for some
considerable time so that the horse may acquire perfection in his
manners ; it does not do to leave the training to the last day or two
before the show. Some animals may require a long course; but
when they do acquire the education it is not readily forgotten.
Great patience and perseverance will effect a wonderful improve-
ment in time. Very excitable horses are apt to forget themselves

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 105

and to cause trouble when brought first into the ring. It is a good
plan to try to accustom an excitable horse to some of the same
kind of noises at home that he is likely to be disturbed by when
taken to a show. Some of the Cl>'desdales are very excitable,
more so than the Shires or Suffolks. After he has well learned his
lesson on the quiet, he might be further trained in a paddock where
some colts are running loose, and a noisy boy or two introduced to
get up a lot of noise and excitement among the colts.

A course of training under these circumstances may get him
partly accustomed to the excitement, so that he will not be taken
so much by surprise when he comes into the ring. It is a great dis-
appointment to an exhibitor if his colt, through nervousness, forgets
all his training at home, shows himself at a disadvantage in the
ring, and has to take a lower place on account of his bad manners.
It is also painful to see a good colt shown in a careless manner,
brought into the ring and allowed to jog round in a sluggish,
happy-go-lucky manner, with a happy-looking, easygoing lout at
his head, who has taken no trouble to drill the colt or to smarten
himself

Of course if the horse is not to be exhibited at a show, it may
not be necessary to take quite so much trouble and spend so much
time on him. Still, if he has to be offered for hire, it may pay well
to show him in good condition and well trained in action and
manners. A deputation of judges will not readily take a fancy to
an animal that does not show to advantage in style or action;
whereas a horse that makes the most of himself, moves straight
and true, carries himself well, and has pleasant manners will at
once prove attractive, and may command a better price than one
that was carelessly brought out, even if a better animal.

The feet of the stallion must also be carefully watched, shoes
regularly removed, and any tendency to erratic growth checked.
This care of the feet must of course be at all times taken by those
in charge of the horse; still more is it required at this time, so that
his feet may be in perfect order for the travelling of the season.
It is very annoying to have a horse go lame during the season, and
perhaps be held up a long way from home. A skilful blacksmith
is of great value in a stud of heavy horses in keeping their feet in
good form. Any blacksmith can shoe a horse with good tough
well-formed hoofs, but it requires one with some skill to shoe a
horse with a narrow heel and get it to develop width, or to shoe
one with a low sole and avoid lameness, or to shoe a brittle hoof
and fix the shoe that it will not be off before he reaches the end of
the lane. A good blacksmith may improve poor feet, and a care-

io6 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

less blacksmith may ruin good feet. By careful trimming and
shoeing a narrow heel may be gradually widened, and a malformed
hoof gradually brought into shape. It must be done by degrees,
and by frequent application of the knife just a little at a time.
The width of heel is such an important point in a heavy horse that
a stallion showing any tendency to that deformity would be avoided
and neglected. Flat shoes, levelled to the slope of the outside wall
of the hoof should be used ; they should be wide at the heels but
not very thick and heavy. It is better to change frequently than
wear out a very thick and heavy shoe. If the hoof of the stallion
is at all inclined to be brittle, it may be greatly improved by a
daily smearing of that well-known ointment used years ago by the
Paris Omnibus Company for dressing the feet of all their horses.
Indeed, if the hoof of the stallion is not apparently in need of it, it
is well to use it, as it keeps the hoof sound, and improves the
appearance of the feet. It is not a costly ointment, and a pot
of it may be made by taking i lb. of mutton fat, i lb. of beeswax,
5 pt. of neatsfoot oil, 6 tablespoonfuls of Stockholm tar, and let the
ingredients simmer together for a little till they are thoroughly
incorporated. When the horse is travelling, the groom would find
it convenient if he took a small tin boxful of the ointment in his
scrip.

The feather is a point of great importance in the show ring,
especially amongst Shires and Clydesdales; and it should be care-
fully looked to when bringing out a stallion for hire or for travelling.
Some people would have us believe that hair is not wanted, that
the horse is better with as little as possible on his legs, and that
the Americans would buy more of our Shire horses if there were
not so much hair on their legs. Yet with it all a fringe of nice
long silky feather adds greatly to the appearance of the horse, and
hiring deputations would immediately consider it a detraction if
the horse seemed short of feather. So it is really necessary to see
that nothing should be allowed to cause the hair to come off", as
once lost it takes a long time to grow again. Some horses are
apt to bite it off with their teeth ; of course it is itchiness in the
leg that causes them to do so. The itchiness may be caused by
heating of the blood through high feeding, or it may be by want
of cleanliness in the legs. Frequent use of the comb and brush,
and an occasional dressing with an ointment composed of sulphur
and paraffin, will be found the most effectual means of cleaning the
legs, curing the itchiness, and promoting the growth of the hair.

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 107

HIRING STALLIONS

Stallion owners prefer now, when they have the opportunity,
to let out their horses to some society or company, and are even
prepared to accept a smaller sum than the prospective amount
they might realize by travelling him in a certain district. The
obvious advantages are that a certain sum is assured, and the
money is paid in one payment or it may be by two instalments,
the society taking the onus of collecting the fees from the members.

It has always been a troublesome and disagreeable part of the
business of the horse owner to collect the fees. The fee is not usually
a large item, but it is apt to be forgotten or postponed indefinitely
by the farmer. He is not likely to forget to pay his rent, as that is
a large item; but it is a general cause of complaint among horse
owners that he does forget to pay the small item of the horse fee,
that they have to wait a long time for the fee, have trouble in
getting it, and some of it may never be paid at all. The society
also takes the onus of getting up the number of mares, whereas
it is a matter of uncertainty what number may be got if the horse
is travelled as a private speculation ; besides, it saves the necessary
expense of canvassing and treating to get the promise of mares.

When hiring out a horse to an association, it is important to
have a written and stamped agreement stipulating the amount
of fee, date of payment, numbers of mares nominated, date to
begin travelling, and date of finish. Most societies have certain
rules drawn out which they compel the horse owner to adhere to.
One of these generally stipulates that the owner of the horse pays
all expenses of travelling, and that in the event of the horse dying
or breaking down in health during the season, the owner has to
send a substitute to the satisfaction of the committee.

The above is perhaps the most general and simplest form of
hiring arrangement; but some societies offer a certain sum as a
premium, and in addition a certain fee per mare, the number being
uncertain, or it may be a certain fee per foal, the number of which
is still more uncertain. The latter system involves a prolonged
account between the parties. Various modifications of these
systems are in use by other societies.

Opinions differ greatly as to the number of mares which
should be allotted to each horse, and a good deal of controversy
has arisen over the question. Most societies fix the maximum for
a horse at full age at one hundred; a four-year-old at eighty; a
three-year-old at fifty; whilst it is generally considered that a two-
year-old colt should not be allowed more than eight or ten. There

io8 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

can be no doubt as to the wisdom of restricting the number within
reasonable compass both in the interest of the horse owner and
that of the members. A desire to gain in number of foals by
increasing the number of mares is apt to disappoint the greedy
members by overtaxing the capabilities of the horse.

The matter could be more easily arranged if all the mares
would settle at once; but some of them are almost certain to
cause trouble by coming in season every few weeks during the
summer. Of course, if there are many such, the work of the horse
is greatly increased, and the result is unsatisfactory at last. Most
societies allow their members to withdraw a mare that has got
into this objectionable habit, and to substitute another instead, and
as a rule the horse owner concurs in the arrangement.

If the owner of the horse does not travel with it himself, it is
of the greatest importance to get a steady, reliable man to go
with it. Generally the beginner who starts business with one
horse does all the work himself; but most owners have to engage
a travelling groom, a steady man who understands his business,
and can work up a trade if the horse is not secured by a society.
An experienced travelling groom who has been on the road for
a few years acquires the art of talking farmers into the belief that
his horse is by far the best to suit their mares, and by his per
suasive eloquence works up a trade more readily than an inex-
perienced hand would do even with a superior horse. His con-
vincing assertion that " He'll just suit your mare" decides many
a farmer who has not sufficient confidence in his own judgment,
and secures more business, A good man deserves good wages.
The rate of wages varies considerably in different parts of the
country; but it is an almost universal custom that the groom has
about 2s. 6d. of a fee for each mare, which fee is paid by the owner
of the mare. This custom no doubt was instituted to encourage
the groom in his endeavours to get a trade for the horse. The
hiring system tends to deprive the groom of his fee, the mares
all being booked by the society. Still, if the horse is hired it
requires a reliable man to go with him, and this man must be well
paid, having to be from home and lodging wherever the horse is
placed all through the season. The groom has to make arrange-
ments not only for his own accommodation but for the stabling
and food of the horse, which may probably be at five different
stopping places. These places should be arranged for previously,
and it should be entered on his card where he will stay each night
in the week. As a rule, societies arrange most of these details.
When, however, the horse is not hired but is being worked privately,

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 109

these arrangements have to be made by the groom and his master.
If the district and route are such that the horse can be at home
for the week-end it simplifies matters; but even then it is necessary
to carry certain requisites along with them. These are carried on
the horse in a double-ended bag slung over his back, balanced and
strapped to a broad girth band which is usually buckled round
the horse. This bag is designed to carry what corn the horse may
require before he gets to his next night's quarters, some food for
the groom, a curry comb and brush, any simple ointments or
medicines likely to be wanted in an emergency; also attached
to or in the bag should be a set of hobbling cords. These hobbling
cords should be made of strong inch-thick rope; two ropes about
6 ft. long should be spliced together about the middle, leaving four
loose ends; to two of these ends should be strongly stitched two
straps with buckles to fit round the mare's hind fetlocks, the other
two ends to be drawn forward between her fore legs and fastened
on her neck, the one end being made with a loop. The operation
of hobbling is done in a twinkling, and does not prevent the
mare from walking, but it effectually prevents her from kicking
out behind. Vicious mares must be guarded against, and the
hobbling cords are the safest protection. Many a horse has been
seriously hurt by a kick from a mare; and as prevention is better
than cure, most careful grooms will not let the horse come neai
the mare until the hobbles have been fixed, however quiet she
may appear. A light waterproof loin cloth should also be carried
in case of heavy showers; this may be folded up neatly when not
required.

The date of the travelling season varies slightly in different
parts of the country, but usually continues for three months from
the commencement. In England the first of April is the most
common date for starting the horse on his rounds. Some breeders
are anxious to have the foals early, thinking that if exhibited, the
early foal will have a better chance to win. That, however, does
not always happen. How often does the foal born in May, and
exhibited at the autumn shows in full bloom, beat the early March
foal which evidently had experienced a check and was looking
stale. As there is greater risk in early foaling and more foals are
lost in the early months of the year than after warm summer
weather sets in, it is by no means worth the risk, just for the off-
chance of having a prize winner, to have the mares foaling in the
cold weather. May is usually considered the best time to have
the mares foaling, so there is not often much for the horse to do
in April. In many districts the farmer would prefer to have the

iio Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

horse extend his visits into July, even if he did not begin till late
in April.

The weather gets warmer in May and there is then a fresh
bite of grass to turn the mare out to. If the mares are idle
and have been lying out the winter, the point is not of so much
importance, as the foal will usually stand as severe cold after birth
as its mother was accustomed to before. But where the mare
has to assist in the work of the farm, and is kept in a warm stable
or box during the winter, it is better to have foaling deferred till
summer weather sets in. When the farm work has to be carried
on with the help of the mares, it is well to arrange their time of
foaling, so as to interfere with the work as little as possible. And
as the work varies in different parts of the country and on different
farms in the same district, so also the time of foaling varies. The
mares should be healthy and thriving when sent to meet the
horse — not loaded with fat, and heated with rich food — but just
in good working condition, even if not full of flesh. There is
sometimes much trouble and annoyance in getting mares that
have been highly fed, or got up for showing, to breed. A change
of diet, by turning them out to grass for a few weeks, may cause
a change in their system, and bring the desired result about.

There is some difference of opinion as to whether it is best to
begin the mares at two years old to the work of the stud or to let
them run till they are three, and much may be said on both sides.
Circumstances, however, should decide individual cases. If a two-
year-old filly is strong and well grown, and is not required for the
work of the farm, she may as well be put to the stud, and the work of
breaking her in to the collar postponed till after the foal is weaned.
This course may cause her to be left barren the next year, as it
is not desirable to break them in to work when pregnant. Neither
is it desirable to miss a year, as it is sometimes difficult to get them
to breed again when they run barren for a year. However, as most
farmers like to collar their fillies at two years old, and get them
steadied for work, even if they do not insist on them doing a full
share of it, they do not find it convenient to have them foaling at
three years old. On the other hand, some breeders assert that by
starting them in the business when young they are more likely to
make good mothers and more regular breeders than if they are
allowed to live a maiden life a year longer. Those who practise
this system are generally on farms where the horse work is not
so pressing, and where they can allow the young brood mares to
be idle most of the year. It is well, however, to mate a filly with
a horse of more mature age, and it is of great importance that her

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses i i i

first mate be a horse of superior excellence. The practice of
working the brood mares is common on nearly all arable farms.
Farmers, as a rule, cannot afford to keep the mares idle. Yet in
some of our best studs, where valuable mares are kept solely for
breeding or showing, they are never compelled to put their heads
through a collar; and, indeed, in some districts where most of the
land is in grass and the horse work of the farm is light, many
tenant farmers allow their brood mares to run idle all the year.
The expense of keeping them is very small, and if they rear a colt
every year, each mare is reckoned to be as profitable as a dozen or
twenty ewes would be. They also breed more regularly, and have
fewer mishaps than those that are highly fed and hard worked.

A curious problem, however, arises out of the practice, viz.
whether horses which are bred for the heavy work of the farm
and the streets will continue to inherit their powers of draught,
their staying powers, their adaptability for the work, and their
hardiness when descended from some generations of ancestors
living a life of ease and luxury — ancestors who do not know what
it is to do a day's work? Will the descendants of these ancestors
lose the power and grit requisite for a hard day's work through
being descended from a race of idlers? It will not pay to sacrifice
stamina, ability, and willingness to work for the sake of size,
symmetry, and all the other requisites of the show ring. We often
observe the effeminating effects of idleness and luxury in the
human race; whilst a life of pampering has a degenerating effect
on most domesticated animals.

CARE OF THE FOAL

It has been observed also that there is sometimes a difficulty in
getting well-kept mares to breed, and that the more highly-bred
members of the stud are the shyest breeders. It is important,
therefore, that when a mare is once successfully started in the
business of breeding, and is safely in foal, no pains should be
spared to give the future progeny every opportunity of developing
on the right lines. If the mare is not required for the work of the
farm, and can be turned out to roam the pastures without shoes,
she will not require much attention until her time of foaling is
approaching. The pastures need not be of a rich and fattening
nature, as pregnant mares will maintain their condition during
summer and autumn on very middling grass, unless they are suck-
ling a foal. The field, however, should have no open ditches, no
boggy or marshy spots. If two or more are grazing together they

I 1 2 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

will soon become friendly, and will do better than if grazing alone
or in the company of some wicked colts. Hackney or pony colts
should not be allowed in the same field; they are too active and
excitable for the heavy mare.

Mares run out like this are more likely to have a happy foaling
time than if shut up in a close stable all the winter. Even if they
foal in the snow, the foal will take no harm if the mare has been
accustomed to such conditions previously. Of course in the hard
weather of winter the mare should have some extra feed ; a little
hay and a few pounds of oats given daily in a crib on the field will
serve the purpose, and prevent her sinking in condition; her feet
also should be watched and kept in form. Sometimes gravel
causes trouble in the feet when going without shoes.

If the mare is required to help with the work of the farm, she
should not be allowed to overstrain herself by hard pulling, neither
should she be allowed to do any heavy shafting. If two mares are
in foal, and will work together, it is a good arrangement to put
them in charge of a careful ploughman, and keep them working on
the land — ploughing and harrowing — and to let the other horses
do the carting, rolling, and heavy cultivating. Working the land, if
not too steep, is just the right sort of exercise for the in-foal mare,
and she may be kept at it quietly up to the time of foaling, and
will be quite as likely to have a good foaling time as if she were
doing no work. Even in harvest time they may help a little, if not
put to shafting or kept too long without food.

The mares may be fed the same as the other farm horses until
Christmas, when a little more liberality may be advisable. The
extra food should be given in the shape of bran mash daily. There
is a considerable amount of nourishment in bran, and it keeps the
bowels open and the mare in good health. It is well suited for
mares as they approach foaling, especially when there is no grass
and corn has to be used.

As foaling time approaches the mare must be allowed the use
of a loose box for her night quarters. This box must be roomy,
not less than 12 by 12 ft, so that she can turn about and lie
comfortably, and there should be no projections that might cause
injury to the mare or the foal.

Some simple arrangement should be devised by which the
attendant can look in without opening the door or disturbing the
mare. It is well to have the mare accustomed to the box some
time before foaling, so that she may feel quite at home in it; but
previous to turning her in the box should be thoroughly well
cleaned, lime-washed, and disinfected with a strong solution of

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses i 1 3

carbolic acid, by which all germs of navel ill may be destroyed.
The box must be kept clean and well ventilated, the temperature
not being allowed to get too high, say from 40° to 45° F. during the
night, all draughts being prevented. If the mare is kept too warm,
the foal is apt to be tender and susceptible to colds ; and if the box
is too cold, a mare that has been accustomed to a warm stable, and
has been at work all day, will feel the cold, and may contract a
chill. Straw is preferable to moss for littering the foaling box, and
short straw is preferable to long straw, the latter being more likely
to hamper the foal in his first efforts to get on his feet. A rack
and manger in one corner, similarly fixed to that in a colt's shed,
with no supports under it that the mare or foal could knock against,
is a good arrangement for feeding purposes.

As the expected time of foaling approaches, which is roughly
calculated at eleven months, but with exceptional cases of ten
months, twelve months, and any period between these extremes,
the mare should be watched carefully, especially so after the
appearance of a spot of wax on the teats. The symptoms of
approaching parturition vary so much in different animals that it
is difficult to prognosticate the foal's arrival with any certainty
as to time. Some mares foal quite suddenly, without showing any
symptoms whatever, whilst others may have milk dropping from
their teats for a week or more. Some also get the business over
easily in a few minutes, while others have a protracted time of it
and require help. As it is not possible to tell beforehand, so much
greater is the necessity for keeping a careful watch, and be ready
to render assistance. If no assistance is required, so much the
better; but even in cases of easy parturition, the foal is sometimes
lost for want of someone being present to remove the cowl or
covering from the foal's head. In those cases of easy delivery,
when the foal has not struggled and the membrane does not break,
the foal cannot breathe, and in a minute or two it is smothered.
Then in difficult cases a little help sometimes saves the foal's life,
and helps the mare in her labour. There is also the possibility of
wrong presentations; these are always difficult cases to manage,
and may possibly require the assistance of a skilled practitioner.
Fortunately these difficult cases do not occur so frequently amongst
mares as they do amongst ewes and cows.

A reliable man should be appointed to the task of watching the
mare, and if the watching has to be continued for any length of
time, it may be necessary to relieve him. If it is observed that the
mare is likely to accomph'sh the task without help, it is much better
to let her do so. Meddling and fussing about unnecessarily may
Vol. III. 41

114 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

agitate the mare and make her irritable; and if no assistance is
really required, it is much better to leave her and just keep watch
from the outside. As soon as the foal is safely delivered, the navel
of the foal and the part surrounding the navel should be dressed
with an antiseptic lotion, of which there are various preparations
recommended. Carbolized oil has been used successfully for this
purpose, but a still more effective dressing is iodoform. The latter
is now used by the principal breeders, and is usually successful in
warding off the disease if applied at once to the portion of the
navel string attached to the foal. The germs of the disease are
supposed to enter the system of the foal by the navel soon after
birth, and frequent cases of it occur despite all precautions of
watching, cleaning, and disinfecting. If any symptoms of the
disease appear, a qualified veterinary surgeon should be called in
at once. The first symptoms discernible are stiffness and swell-
ing in one or more of its legs, probably changing from one leg to
another, and gradually getting worse. It is a difficult disease to
conquer. Probably not more than lo per cent of its victims recover,
and of those that survive many are left with some unfortunate dis-
ablement, the result of the battle with the disease. " Prevention
is better than cure " is an adage peculiarly applicable in cases of
this sort, hence the importance of disinfecting.

When the mare foals out on the pasture, the risk of the foal
contracting the disease is very much less than when foaling takes
place in a building. In fact, cases are very rare of foals born out of
doors contracting navel ill.

In all cases of difficult parturition the mare must be examined
by inserting the hand, dressed with carbolized oil, into the womb,
and carefully but thoroughly removing every vestige of the after-
birth. The smallest portion of the afterbirth left to decay in the
womb may cause blood poisoning and result in the death of the
mare. An injection should also be administered by syringe of a
very mild antiseptic in plenty of lukewarm water. Further direc-
tions relating to these and other matters connected with parturition
will be found in Chapter V.

If the foal is all right he will soon scramble to his feet, and will
get to business on his own account by exploring round in search of
the teat. If the mare is quiet in temper and motherly in behaviour
she will do what she can to assist him, and to further his schemes.
In such cases it is the better plan to leave them alone together, and
if the foal has all his wits about him, they will soon be on the best
of terms. Too much injudicious fussing and interfering may make
the mare irritable and the foal shy or stupid, and tend only to

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 1 1 5

delay matters. Sometimes, however, the foal may be stupid, or it
may be weakly, and unable to find the teat. A foal of that sort is
rather trying and troublesome, and requires any amount of patience,
tact, and perseverance. It does not do to force it to the teat, as
that is apt to make it more unwilling to try to find it; neither does
it do to assist it very much, or it will not acquire self-reliance,
and will lose the instinct of self-help. By patiently guiding it, and
letting it feel its own way, it may be quietly started on the work of
getting its living. Sometimes a slight smearing of treacle or syrup
on the mare's teats will facilitate matters and induce him to suck.
The task is rendered more dififiicult if the mare is not willing to be
a partner in the scheme. Some mares are so irritable and nervous
that they cannot bear the touch of the foal's mouth on the udder or
teats, and are apt to kick or bite it, and either injure it or frighten
it from trying to suck. The udder being very full, and being
painful, may be the cause of irritability and unwillingness to let the
foal touch it. If that is the cause, it may be advisable to relieve
the tension of the udder by drawing a little of the milk off by
hand ; a little hand rubbing will also tend to deaden the nervous,
sensitive feeling, and accustom the mare to be touched about the
udder. Much tact and patience is required, and in extremely
nervous cases it may be necessary to have one man at her head
holding her firmly, another holding up a fore leg, so that she cannot
kick, while a third manipulates the udder and gets the foal to it.
It may even be necessary to continue doing this for some time
until the nervousness abates and the foal has acquired courage and
agility to manage the business himself Occasionally mares are so
vicious, and of such a vile temper, that it is both dangerous and
difficult to manage them at these times, the foal frequently being
the immediate cause and the victim of the bad temper.

It is doubtful whether it is wise to breed from an animal of this
sort; as a quiet docile temper in a heavy horse is one of his finest
attributes. An irritable, hasty temper is one of the gravest faults,
which it is not prudent to propagate, and it requires a multitude of
good attributes to cover the sins of a vile-tempered mare.

The foal during the first few days of its life must have a good
deal of attention. Although there is an old saying that if a foal
gets over the third day it will be all right after; yet the state of
its bowels must be observed, and if troubled with costiveness, steps
must be taken to relieve it. About a tablespoonful of castor oil
may be administered with good results sometimes, and even an
injection of lukewarm water in the rectum will help to relieve it.
Costiveness may, however, be prevented best by the proper feeding

I 1 6 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

of the mare. When the mare is kept on dry, hard food, the foal is
more likely to suffer from costiveness, so it is important that at this
time the mare should be fed judiciously, and in the absence of grass
or other green food, there is nothing better than bran mashes, with
which she should be liberally supplied. The bran mashes will keep
both mare and foal right in their bowels, and will induce a greater
flow of milk.

A foal may also be troubled with diarrhoea, the result of a cold,
or the result of picking up something that has upset its stomach.
A good cure for that is to give it first about half a tablespoonful of
castor oil. When the oil has operated, follow with a glass of port
wine, in which is mixed a little powdered chalk, and give it three
or four times a day till the bowels assume their normal condition.

It seems all the fashion now to have the heavy horse docked, a
fashion which has some reason at the root of it. It is decidedly
very inconvenient when working heavy horses to have a long tail
swishing in one's face, and getting entangled in the reins and
harness. If the tail is docked, the hair that remains can be plaited
and fastened up tidily out of the way, and it certainly improves
the appearance to do so, by the better showing off of the muscular
development of the hind quarters. When the foal is about eight
days old the operation of docking may then be performed with the
minimum of pain to the colt, and the minimum of trouble and risk
to the owner. A piece of string and a sharp knife are all the
implements required. The hair must be tied up firmly around the
tail above the point of severance, and then with the knife snip it
off at one of the joints of the tail, leaving the length of stump
considered desirable. The disadvantages of this plan are felt
during the summers of colthood when the young horses are being
pastured, and no long tail is available to drive away the swarms of
troublesome flies. For this reason some breeders postpone the
operation till the horse is ready for work, and will presumably
spend less of his time on the pastures among the flies. At that age
docking is not quite so simple an operation, but requires a specially
constructed knife and a searing iron, whilst the risk and the pain are
doubled.

ARTIFICIAL REARING

The foaling time is always an anxious time for the farmer and
for his horseman, and when the mare has foaled all right, and the
foal got to run about and suck, both master and man feel relieved
and thankful. Serious losses, however, sometimes occur at that
time, and when a mare dies and leaves an orphan foal, the difficulty

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 117

of rearing that foal has to be faced. If another mare can be found
within reasonable distance that has lost her own foal, and is willing
to take the orphan, that is the simplest way of overcoming the
difficulty. Or if another mare foals about the same time, and the
orphan is smeared over with the mare's discharge and taken to her
first, she will usually take to it at once, and if her own foal is
allowed to get to her immediately after, she will generally acknow-
ledge it and feel proud to be the mother of twins. The mare, if fed
liberally and judiciously, will rear them well, and they will soon
learn to help her at the manger. This is a much more successful
plan, if it is carried out properly, than that of rearing on cow's milk,
the next best alternative. When a foal has to be reared on the milk
of a cow, the milk should be diluted with water and sweetened with
sugar to convert it as near as possible to the character of mare's
milk ; a small quantity of bicarbonate of potash should also be dis-
solved in the milk. The foal should be fed with this very frequently
during the day, and sometimes during the night, as the stomach of
the foal is small, and it can only take a small drink at a time.
This work involves a lot of time, trouble, and patience, and should
be entrusted to someone who has the patience, can spare the time,
and will take the trouble.

Around a farm in summer work sometimes becomes pressing,
and the foal is apt to be forgotten or neglected. It is possible,
however, to save a lot of this work, by teaching the foal to suck the
cow. And a cow will rear the foal in this manner almost as well as
a mare. The writer can vouch for two instances where that plan
was adopted successfully. A quiet-tempered, upstanding cow was
selected, one that had been accustomed to suckle a calf. As the
foals in both instances had learned to suck before their mothers
had died, matters were considerably simplified. The plan adopted
was to tie up the cow in a place by herself, take the foal to her
frequently, and stand by the cow meanwhile to prevent her using
her heels or her horns. As soon as the foal discovered where the
milk was to be had, which he did simply by exploring round, he
quickly learned to help himself to it. After the first day the foal,
being left in the same place with the cow, gradually got to stealing
a drink, and she gradually became reconciled to allowing him the
privilege. In about two days she got so used to the foal that she
wanted him to come to suck. After this they were turned to the
field together and accompanied each other all summer, the cow
looking after him as carefully as if it were her own calf As the
foal gets older it may be helped on in growth and condition by a
little manger food.

1 1 8 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

When the mare foals indoors, it is necessary to be careful to
select fine weather for the first outing of the mother and foal.
When about a week old, if the day is fine and warm, they should
be turned out into a nice sheltered paddock for a few hours to
obtain a fresh bite of grass. If the ground is damp, the foal should
be watched to see that it does not lie down and get a chill. If rain
comes on they should be taken in at once, as it is not desirable that
the foal gets its back wet for a few days until it becomes inured a
little to outdoor life. The mare, if not required for work on the
farm, may now be turned out to grass all summer along with her
foal. If the land and pasture are of the best, the grass alone will
be sufficient to keep them improving; on inferior land some help
should be allowed in the form of a feed of oats daily. The foal
will soon learn to pick at the crib along with the mare, an edu-
cation which will prove advantageous to him when weaning time
arrives, and he has to depend on his own exertions, and he will not
be so likely to lose condition when deprived of his mother's milk.

If the mare is required to help with the work of the farm as
well as rear the colt, she must be well fed, so that she may not only
do her foal well but also gain strength herself Besides good pas-
turage she should have a good allowance of oats. It is not desirable
to set the mare to work until the foal is at least a month old, and
it is not desirable that the mare should be kept too long at a
stretch away from the foal. When the mare is at work, the foal
should be shut in a roomy box where he cannot possibly hurt him-
self in his endeavour to get out. On the mare's return from work
she should be allowed to cool a little, and just a little of the hot
milk drawn off by hand before the foal is allowed to suck. If the
mare is too long away, the foal will get very hungry, will be apt to
suck too greedily, which may perhaps produce indigestion, and this
may result in more serious trouble. Of course, as the foal gets
older and gets to eating from rack or manger, the mare may be
kept longer away, the same precautions about the heated milk
being observed.

Foals are so fond of company that, if practicable, two of them
should be kept together at these times, when it would be found
that they would not miss their mothers nearly so much.

When the foal is in the box by himself it is a good opportunity
to have him haltered and taught to be led about. A few practice
lessons in the box will get him that he will lead anywhere. If
trained when young, they learn more easily, they are much handier
to manage, and more tractable when they get stronger.

The usual time of weaning is when the foal is five or six months

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses i 1 9

old. If the mare is not in foal again, the foal may be allowed to
go on sucking a month or two longer; but if the mare is pregnant
it is not desirable to let the foal suck any longer at the expense
of his mother and younger brother. If he has been picking at the
crib with his mother he will be able to hold his own when turned
out in the company of other foals. There is seldom any trouble
with the mare's udders at that time; if they are working hard the
milk will soon disappear. The teats may be relieved a little by
hand stripping. Foals should always have company at weaning
time; two or more together will do much better than one by itself,
and will sooner forget their mothers. A single foal taken from its
mother and kept by itself is greatly to be pitied, and is likely to
fret and lose condition. After a few days in a box they may be
turned out together if kept out of their mothers' hearing.

After weaning, foals must not be allowed to sink in condition.
Up till this time they have had a happy life; now they lose all at
once the mother's milk and the mother's company; the autumn
pasturage is getting less nutritious, and the nights are getting
longer and colder ; so altogether it is a change for the worse in the
life of the foal — a change that may cause a serious check in their
growth and development unless carefully guarded against. To
some extent we must be guided in our management of weaned
foals according to our plans regarding their future destiny.

If a foal is considered promising enough to keep for stud pur-
poses he should be granted a little special treatment and attention,
as mentioned already. If, on the other hand, the foal is destined
to take his place in the team and assist in the work of the farm
during the early part of his life, and ultimately succeed to the work
of the streets, a more modified system of rearing may be adopted.
Of course all foals should be well fed after weaning, and on through
their first winter, with a liberal allowance of oats, bran, and good
hay. Until there is plenty of grass for them in the spring, the
quantity of corn should be regulated by the character of the pasture
and the state of the weather.

THE GROWING COLT

To rear young horses successfully they must be kept constantly
improving. No check should be allowed if possible. A check in
growth or condition is serious, as it entails loss of time, and extra
expense recovering that loss. Indeed, the results of a check may
be permanent and continue through life.

The chief objects to aim at are the natural growth of bone and

1 20 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

muscle, the development of the respiratory organs, strength ol
constitution, and good sound feet. To attain these objects the
colt must have a proper supply of good food and plenty of exercise.
There is no economy in keeping a colt short of food, or in feed-
ing him with what is at hand on the farm, whether suitable or
not.

For the development of bone and muscle bran is one of the
most useful foods, and as it can generally be bought at a reason-
able price in the autumn months, it should always form part of the
rations of the young colts. It may be given dry, mixed with oats,
or it may be given as a mash. When there is plenty of grass, the
best plan is to give it dry with the oats; but when grass fails
during winter a mash should be given twice a day. In the grass
districts of the west of England the colts are generally wintered
on the dry food, half oats and half bran with hay ; or it may be one-
third oats, one-third peas, and one-third bran, having a run or
grass all winter when weather permits.

The sheltered paddock with conveniently placed shed in it, as
already referred to, is the ideal arrangement for wintering colts.
This arrangement gives just the necessary opportunities for exer-
cise, and enables the farmer to bring his colts through the winter
in capital form, with the smallest cost and the minimum amount
of labour. The shed should be left open during the day, so that
the colts may go out or in at pleasure. At night, or in very bad
weather, they may be shut in, although if they have the choice
they will often be seen out browsing in the rain, or galloping or
playing in the snow, and taking no harm. The cold winds when
accompanied by rain or sleet drive them in, and cause them to
appreciate the shelter.

In the arable districts of England and Scotland, where the
sheltered paddock and shed are not available on every farm, a
different system has to be adopted for wintering the colts. There
is generally plenty of straw on these farms, and a large yard well
littered with straw is the best available substitute for the paddock.
If the bullock yards are all occupied a temporary yard may be
improvised between the straw stacks, where the colts may play
and take the requisite exercise. Of course they have to spend
most of their time in their box, which should be roomy and com-
fortable.

Grass not being available, the feeding of the colts will have to
be arranged on a different basis, and more of the food given as a
mash. The morning feed may be half a pailful each of a mixture
of boiled swedes, bran, and oats, or part oats and part peas, given

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 121

warm. When maize is cheap it is used in part with the oats; but
being more inclined to produce fat than to grow muscle, maize is
not to be recommended for growing colts. An improvement may
be made in the mash by adding about i lb. of the fine siftings of
linseed cake. Linseed cake, besides being valuable as food, is
useful in keeping the bowels kind and healthy, preventing consti-
pation, colic, and other stomach derangements.

As hay is not always available on these arable farms, the bulky
food has to be got from the straw. In some parts of Scotland
bean straw is the favourite sort; it is chopped short, mixed with
bran and oats, and well scalded. After cooling it is given in a
sloppy state, the quantity of straw being used to lessen the con-
sumption of hay. When hay is not available some straw should
be given in the racks, besides what is chopped; nice oat straw is
the most suitable for filling the racks. Colts that are fed largely
on mashes like a change, and appreciate something they can chew.
Indeed, it is important they should have some long fodder which
they are obliged to masticate. If fed entirely on chopped food
and mashes, they are apt to get into the habit of bolting their
food without chewing it; their powers of mastication become im-
paired for want of use, their digestive powers are weakened, and
their health suffers accordingly. When fed on mashes they should
not be allowed to satisfy their appetite completely with the pail
food, but should be kept so that hunger will compel them to have
recourse to the racks during the long night, and to chew some of
the long fodder, whether it is hay or straw. Their loose box or
yard should be fitted up with rack as well as manger, the rack
being low down near the floor. It is not natural for a horse to
eat from overhead : in their wild state they eat off the ground ; so
that besides the lessened danger of getting chaff and dust in the
eyes, they can eat much more comfortably from a low rack. The
practice of giving the unthrashed sheaves of oats to the colts is
adopted on some farms. It is rather a rough-and-ready method
of feeding, by which the quantity of corn used can only be guessed
at, and is a practice that can scarcely be entrusted to boys or
unobservant workmen. Of course where the farmer himself or
some careful horseman undertakes the work, one who can estimate
pretty accurately the quantity of corn used, can watch results in
the thriving of the colts, and can guard against waste, the practice
will work well, and has a good deal to recommend it. It saves a
lot of labour in thrashing, chopping, mixing, and scalding; it also
compels the colts to use their teeth, and it thus conduces to a much
healthier and more thorough mastication of the food. Of course

122 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

the cribs must be made with close bottoms, so that the oats which
are shed do not get lost.

The practice of chopping, mixing, and scalding the food has
much to recommend it from an economical point of view, but it
must be done with caution and with judgment. In rearing colts
we must endeavour to develop fully all of their natural faculties.
The power of masticating and digesting their food is an all-impor-
tant faculty. If we attempt to do it for them by artificial means
we do not encourage the animals to cultivate the power of exer-
cising their faculties; and, as is well known, faculties not used will
remain undeveloped and will degenerate, so that after generations
of pail -fed colts have been reared in luxury, a toothless horse might
be produced, which would want all its food chewed, cooked, and
specially treated for a weak stomach. It is, of course, during colt-
hood that the natural faculties are improved or impaired. We
have an object lesson when we compare the teeth of the present
civilized races of mankind, accustomed to living on cooked food
and prepared artificial food, with the teeth of the uncivilized savage,
who lives a natural (or what we would consider unnatural) life.
We do not want to create a necessity for horse dentists, so that
prepared food for growing colts must be used with caution.

The feet of the colts must also be watched; if standing much of
their time on the accumulated litter and manure the hoofs may
grow abnormally and lose consistency. The colts in the paddock
are not so liable to go wrong in their feet as are those in a box or
yard on straw litter. But all colts want attention, and if there is
any tendency to erratic growth a visit to the blacksmith and a little
judicious paring and rasping will greatly help in the development
of a well-shaped hoof It is important at those times to encourage
widening of the heel, which may be done by paring the heel and
encouraging an outward growth. Sometimes it is necessary to put
tips on the toes to prevent undue wear, and to induce a more level
planting of the foot on the ground. It is the shelly, quickly-growing
hoof that will require most attention. Possibly a case may occur
where it is considered advisable to put on a thin, light set of shoes
to prevent the hoof from cracking and breaking. These shoes,
however, should be frequently removed and the feet dressed.

The advantage of having had the foals accustomed to the halter
will be appreciated now, when they have to visit the blacksmith.
Indeed, whether they have to go to the blacksmith or not, it is well,
when time permits, to renew their lesson and remind them of their
schooling by haltering them about a little. If this is done occa-
sionally they will soon become quite tractable, and are much easier

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 123

managed when wanted to work. It also affords an opportunity of
training them to trot out and to show their paces, so that if wanted
in the show ring or to offer for sale they can be shown off to greater
advantage. Besides which, if the colts have not the benefit of a
run in a paddock, and if the yard they run in is limited in size,
this leading-out exercise should be practised frequently.

To develop limbs, joints, and muscle in growing colts, plenty
of exercise is supremely essential; exercise of all kinds, walking,
trotting, and even a little galloping, should be allowed.

Where a number of colts are together the constant personal
supervision of the owner is all-important, to see that all the indi-
vidual colts are getting fair play, to see that his instructions are
being properly carried out, to see that nothing is going amiss with
any one of them, and to compare progress of the different animals.
The latter is always an interesting study when one knows the
various animals, their history, and the history of their ancestors.

When just turned a year old the colts not intended for stud
purposes must be castrated. A professional expert should be em-
ployed, the farmer and his men rendering assistance. There are
various ways of performing the operation, each professional adopt-
ing the system he has been trained to and considers the best.
Some operators recommend casting the colt, by throwing him on
his back and fastening his legs securely. Others prefer to operate
whilst the colt is standing, a system which lessens the risk of
injury to the colt by throwing him, but increases the danger to
the operator. Whichever system is adopted care should be taken
that the operation is performed in mild, fine weather, easterly
winds being avoided, and the colts kept in if rain comes on, as
it is undesirable that they get their backs wet. It is undesirable
also to have the operation performed when the animal is changing
his coat. All being well, the colts will get over the effects of the
operation in about a week or ten days, when they may be turned
out to grass for the summer.

A bill was proposed in 191 2 to compel the use of anaesthetics
when performing operations causing pain on animals. The bill
met with general opposition from farmers because of the great
expense it would cause in the castration of calves, lambs, and pigs.
If it had been confined to horses only, it would probably have met
with no opposition. Indeed, the use of anaesthetics in the castra-
tion of colts is being adopted voluntarily by many advanced
operators.

If the pasture is good, the colts should do all right on grass
alone. There is a great difference, however, in the quality of soils

124 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

for the growth of colts. Soils on a limestone foundation are sup-
posed to be suitable for the development of bone, and rich alluvial
deposits will grow size and muscle. On arable farms, where grass
land is not available, it may be found expedient to send them out
for the summer to farmers, who make a practice of taking in colts
at a charge of from ^s. to 5j. per week, according to the size of the
colts and the quality of the pasture. There are many poor pas-
tures, though, where the colts will have to be very busy to get
a living on the grass alone, and where a little hand feeding is
necessary if we want them to grow into heavy horses. A feed
of oats and bran once a day will greatly assist them in their
growth, and will prove a good investment. The quantity given
should be regulated by the quality of the pasture and by the
progress the colts are making. The " tail " oats from the thrashing
machine may be utilized profitably in this way. The aim must be to
keep them growing and improving all the summer. The following
winter, when rising two years old, the colts, being stronger and
hardier than the yearlings, will stand rougher treatment through
the winter. Indeed, in some favoured localities in England, the
two-year-olds have to winter out, and if there is natural shelter
and a good bite of grass on the land, it is wonderful how they will
do. Generally speaking, it pays to help them a little even on the
best land, whilst on poor farms, high altitudes, and in the northern
climate it is necessary to do them through the winter in a similar
manner to that described for the yearlings, using a larger proportion
of the bulky food and comparatively less of the grain. On arable
farms swedes may enter largely into their ration. These may be
boiled and mixed with cut straw, light grain, and bran, or they
may be given a few in a raw state when free from frost, as much
straw or hay as they will eat being supplied in the racks. If straw
and no hay is used, the pail food should be made richer or a little
corn given dry. It is not a good plan to box up the two-year-olds
and keep them warm. Although in stormy weather some shelter
is necessary, yet it is astonishing what little use they will make
of a shed if they have the chance of going into one. They seem
to prefer being out unless the weather is both cold and wet.

The life of a heavy horse may be divided into three eras:
say, two and a half years of idle colthood, three years of work
on the farm, and the remainder of life on the road or street. Of
course many continue all their life on the land. Females for
breeding, geldings with some unsoundness or deformity, and others
too small and light for the streets are kept on the land. But where
horse breeding is worked on scientific principles, the farmer aims

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 125

at receiving a big cheque for his gelding when he has turned five
years old. A good many of the best Shire geldings will reali/.e
the three figures at that age; so also will Clydesdales and Suffolks,
if weighty enough. The demand for the best heavy horses con-
tinues very good up to the present time, large numbers of them
being required to keep up the teams of the brewers, coal merchants,
railway companies, contractors, and carters in all our large towns.
These are the best customers for the farmer's heavy horse, and to
supply these customers the farmer must breed and rear the right
sort, make them serve an apprenticeship on the farm, and bring
them out properly qualified for their life's work.

THE WORKING HORSE OF THE FARM

The breeding and rearing has been fully described ; the play-
time of the colt is over, now he must enter on his apprenticeship.
Sometimes the colt has to begin work at two years old ; but it is
much better management to let him have another summer's run,
break him in after harvest, give him just a little work during the
winter; then, when the busy springtime arrives, the three-year-old
colt is able to fill his place in the team. If the colts have beer
accustomed to be led about, the task of breaking them in to work
is very much simplified. It is quite unnecessary to employ a pro-
fessional breaker. The head wagoner or ploughman, with a little
assistance, will do it better than any of these professionals. It
may be well to put the colt at once into the charge of the man
whose team he will have to work in. The stubble ploughing in
autumn is a suitable job to begin the youngster with, and although
the north-country farmers generally yoke the colt abreast beside
a steady old horse, the English plan of putting a colt between two
old horses working in single line is very much to be preferred.
With a steady leader, and a quiet stager behind, the colt in the
middle is compelled to come into line at once. After a little
plunging and jerking for a round or two he will settle down to
work immediately. The two old horses will keep him straight
and pull him along, and in his position in the middle he can
neither hurt them nor himself, which he may easily do when
hooked abreast.

Half a day at a time is quite enough for the youngster for a
few weeks. If two colts are being broken in at the same time,
one may be worked in the morning and the other in the afternoon
without any hindrance to the other teams. When they have been
worked in this manner for a week or two they will have become

126 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

quiet and tractable, and may then be hooked abreast or put into
the shafts. The ploughing and field work generally being done
by two horses abreast in the north, the colts have to work in that
manner, and if put alongside a strong old horse, and the work is
a bit heavy, the colt may be relieved by using an adjustable main
swingletree and letting him have the longer end.

In the Midlands and south of England much of the strong land
is worked by the horses going in single file — two, three, or four in
a team, according to the weight of the implement, the state of the
soil, and the depth of cultivation. Much may be argued in favour
of the system, although it is not the most economical, nor does it
equalize the draught so well as when the horses are working in
pairs abreast, attached to swingletrees ; yet, from the horse rearers'
point of view, the training of the colt and getting him fitted for
after-life on the street, with the prospect of receiving a large price
for him, is of more importance than the aim of getting as much
work as possible out of him. Of course, the system involves the
employment of more horses on the same acreage of land, but when
each of these horses is annually growing in value, the increased
number is not such a drawback as it might appear at first
sight.

The character of the soil also sometimes renders it advisable to
have the horses working in line in the bottom of the furrow, thus
saving them from trampling the soil except as little as possible.
The farmer who aims at economy by keeping the minimum
number of horses and getting the maximum amount of work out of
them, the type of farmer who, seeing ten pairs of horses ploughing
in a field, exclaimed, "There goes a thousand a year straightway!",
is not the farmer to bring colts up and make money of them. He
may cultivate his land more cheaply and grow his crops more
cheaply, but he will make no profit out of his horses; he will, on
the contrary, probably have to take off for depreciation so much
annually.

Young colts must not be overdone the first year, but must be
accustomed gradually to the work; when four years old they can
do their full share of it; when five years old they are fit for any-
thing.

A farmer occupying an arable farm of strong land, fairly level,
and working it with brood mares and young horses, must of neces-
sity keep more in number. For instance, six brood mares may
be expected with ordinary luck to rear four foals annually; there
would thus be four five-year-olds, four four-year-olds, four threes,
four twos, and four yearlings, besides the six mares, making twenty-

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 127

six head in all. The four five-year-olds would be expected to realize
;^30O, which would be profit on the horse department.

Another farmer would probably work the same size of a farm
with twelve seasoned horses able to do a full day's work. To keep
up this stud he would probably have to buy two every year and
dispose of two worn-out and old ones, which would probably result
in ;^ioo against the horse department. The one man would be
employing eighteen horses to do his work, besides keeping eight
youngsters, and gaining ;iiJ^30o; the other would be employing
twelve horses, and losing ;i^ioo on them. The first farmer would
thus have about ^^400 extra for keeping the extra number of
horses. Probably his risks would be greater in a breeding stud
than in a working stud, and of course his capital invested would
be greater; but as most, if not all, of the horses' food would be
grown on the farm and obtained at the cheapest rate, ;^400 appears
fairly good pay for the keep of fourteen extra horses. In other
words, it is finding a profitable market for a quantity of the farm
produce, besides making extra manure, and having the benefit of
the extra horse strength when a busy time comes on.

In breaking young colts to work, care must be taken at first
that the harness fits properly; the shoulders must not be allowed
to get sore, or it may daunt a colt and make a bad puller of him.
When the harness is put on at first it must be done quietly, so that
he is not startled or frightened. The harness and chains must be
strong, so that they will stand a sudden jerk; it is when breakages
occur that accidents are likely to happen. The colts may have
half a day's work all through the winter when weather permits;
then, when the busy work of spring comes on, they will be steadied
and seasoned, able to do a full day's work, and to keep up with
the other teams. Of course a good manager will arrange the work
so that the colts will have the lighter jobs, and the older horse
have the heavier work of shafting, drilling, rolling, and cultivating.
The work of rolling affords an excellent opportunity for getting
the colt accustomed to shaft work. After a few days in the roller
he will be fit to put in a cart or wagon, and when harvest comes
on can take his place and his share of the mowing, reaping, and
carting.

MANAGEMENT OF WORKING HORSES

The management of the working horses on the farm varies
greatly in the different parts of the country. The most general
system is to work them in pairs, each ploughman having his two
horses to feed, groom, and work. In some districts the wagoner

128 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

has four horses to feed and groom, a boy or a labourer helping
to work them during the hours they are in the field. This plan
fits in with the system of the long single-file teams, and appears
to work well on some farms where the teams are prepared for the
work of the London streets. But for general economical farming
the system of pairs is the best. Two horses is enough for one
man to attend to in the morning ana at night if he has to do a
full day's work in the field. The most of the farm irriplements
are made now for two horses; the old heavy cultivators are being
replaced by lighter ones, so that, except in the districts of the long
teams, nearly all the work of cultivating the soil and securing the
crops is done by two-horse implements.

On some large farms the feeding of the horses is entrusted, as in
contractors' stables, to one man appointed for the work; but on
most farms the man who works the horses has to feed them, his
corn being delivered to him weekly by the farmer himself or his
foreman, each man having a coffer or chest sufficiently large to hold
a week's supply.

With farm horses, whose work is not so regular as horses on the
road, the feed must be regulated according to the work. In wet
weather they may be idle many days; in frosty or snowy weather
they may also be idle. Then, when fine weather sets in they may
have to do a bit extra. Wheat sowing and mangel carting are
trying times on the horses, so is turnip sowing and harvest work ;
so that it is advisable to regulate the feed according to the time of
year and work on hand.

On most farms the horses have the chance of a run out on
pasture during a few months in summer, when they can spend their
nights and idle days out of doors. This is very beneficial to the
health of the horses. On some arable farms, however, there may
be no pasture available for the horses, so that they may have to
remain in the stable or be turned loose into a yard, green food being
carted to them. Vetches, clovers of the first and second mowing,
meadow grass, or green oats come in handy for that purpose.
When the second cutting of clover is finished, some long hay should
be given to the horses. On some north-country farms, however,
the horses have to eat oat straw or bean straw, no hay being avail-
able. The feed of corn has thus to be regulated by the quality of
the fodder, as well as by the pressure of the work. A sort of
standard for, the horses when busy, and having straw only in their
racks, would be for each pair per week, a mixture made up as
follows: — 112 lb. oats (crushed); 56 lb. maize (cracked); 84 lb.
beans (cracked); 30 lb. bran — mixed with chopped hay. This makes

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 129

a capital feed for a busy time, and might be safely reduced in an
idle time by docking them of all or part of the beans.

In summer when on green food the maize and the bran might
be omitted. When maize is dear there is no need to include it, but
add a few oats instead. The only reason for using maize at all is
its being usually a cheap form of supplying a nutritious food. As it
is not grown on the farm it is never advisable to buy it except when
it is at a low figure, unless it is wanted to improve the condition of
the home-grown grain. Farmers as a rule are acting in their own
interest when they use food grown on their own land to feed their
own horses, and they should aim to grow the oats and beans
necessary for the purpose. It happens sometimes, of course, after
a bad harvest, that the home-grown grain is not in a dry enough
condition for bruising or cracking; then a little dry maize mixed
with it would correct matters. If very damp, a slight drying on a
kiln may be found necessary.

If a grass run is available the cart horses should be turned out
about the beginning of May in the south of England, the time
graduating to the beginning of June in Scotland. The early
summer grass has a medicinal benefit on horses working hard and
fed on corn all winter. To modify the change and lessen the risk
of catching cold at turning-out time, it is a good plan to turn them
out for about two hours in the evening for a few days, bringing them
in all night. Then on Sunday they may be turned out after a good
feed of corn in the morning and left out all night, thus beginning
their lying-out time.

If the work of the farm permits, it is a good time during June
to give a colt a little rest for a few weeks ; he will be all the more
fit for the work of the harvest. On strong land farms where there
is much work on the fallows this opportunity might not occur; but
on light land farms sometimes a few weeks intervene between turnip
sowing and hay time, when some of the horses might have a little
rest and run on grass. Now that the horses are required to do all
the harvest work, they must still have their feed of corn, although
on the pasture, the quantity being regulated by the quality of the
pasture and the amount of work expected of them. Oats crushed,
say about 140 lb. per pair weekly, or about 20 lb. of beans in
addition, if the work is heavy, is the most suitable food on grass.
Maize or bran is unnecessary.

The horses, when required to work, should be got in early, so

that they will have an hour and a half to feed in the stable and get

well groomed. Some chopped hay should be mixed with the corn.

If no good hay is available, or if straw has to be used, it is a good
Vol. III. 42

130 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

plan to mix some green rye grass or clover with it Good wheat
straw and green Italian rye grass in equal parts and run through
the chaff cutter will make an excellent mixture for giving with the
corn. Of course it must be cut frequently, as if allowed to lie in
a heap for any length of time it will heat and get musty. If the
custom is to make one long hooking daily, the horses should have
their nosebags filled with some of the chop and corn and taken with
them to the field, so that they may have a feed whilst the men have
their lunch. The custom of making one long hooking a day is
prevalent in many parts of England, and no doubt was intended to
save time coming home to stable in the middle of the day when the
land lay a long way off, and save also a big slice in the best part of
a short winter day. It is, however, a much better plan for both
men and horse to stable for an hour and a half or two hours in the
middle of the day if the field is within reasonable distance of the
stable. The men can have their dinner comfortably and time to
attend to the horses. The horses will have time to eat a good feed,
rest a little, and be ready for a good afternoon's work. By adopt-
ing the latter system the horses will do more work, and do it with
greater comfort during the long days of spring and summer; during
the short days the other system has its advantages.

During hay time and harvest hours have to be forgotten some-
times, and the horses fed as convenient, care being taken that they
are not kept too long without food or water. There are also some-
times certain operations going on when the time of the horses must
be made co-temporary with that of the labourers, as for instance
potato planting and potato digging, when the withdrawal of the
horses from the field would stop a number of the men from getting
on with the work.

After harvest, it is not good policy to let the horses remain out
too late in the autumn if working hard; the grass is deficient in
nutriment, the nights get long and cold, with frequent stormy
weather. They will sink in condition and grow heavy coats and
lose stamina if kept out too long. Some aftermath clover comes in
very useful, and horses will do well on that as a supply of bulky
food at the end of harvest. It should be mowed fresh every day and
given to them in the stable, their allowance of corn being continued.
This season of the year is generally as trying to farm horses as any
time. The work of autumn cultivation, wheat sowing, root carting,
and the many incidental jobs which fall to the share of the farm
horses at this season, make it an arduous time. Much of the work
has to be done on soft land in close muggy weather; the horses
probably having heavy coats, and being in what is technically called

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 1 3 1

"soft" condition. They now want a little extra attention and a
little extra corn to keep them up to their work. As the winter
comes on the work will be less arduous, and the horses will gain in
condition.

During long idle spells in wintry weather there is a danger of
overdoing them with corn, to the detriment of their feet and legs.
If possible, it is better to give them some little work to do. It
may be a difficult task, perhaps, to find work for a lot of horses on
some farms during a long spell of frost and snow. But the corn
then had better be curtailed, the racks may be filled with straw
instead of hay, and a few roots may be given when free from
frost.

In many of the farm stables in Scotland a pailful of boiled food
is given to each horse at supper time, and another in the morning
for breakfast. The boiled food consists of chaff, turnips, and grain
the inferior barley, beans, or oats being utilized in that way. The
food is made better at busy times and poorer in idle times by add-
ing to or withholding some of the grain. This system of using so
much boiled food (almost unknown in England) is not altogether
to be commended, and is accountable for a great amount of colic
and constipation.

The writer has had considerable experience of both systems,
and has no hesitation in giving preference to the English system as
being much the healthier. The horse has a comparatively small
stomach and ought to have food in small quantities at a time. The
bulky nature of the boiled food, often swallowed too greedily and
without proper mastication, no doubt is responsible for the frequent
stomach troubles. The bulky food of the farm horse should always
be given in a form that it must be chewed and the concentrated
food given in small quantities. The water supply is important,
and should always be pure ; as a rule "soft water is preferable, and
horses often prefer the half-muddy water of a pond to clear spring
water from a well. Doubtless horses acquire a taste for certain
water, and often refuse to drink at a strange place although the
water appears to be better. The time of watering and amount of
water allowed are of special importance. Water should be offered
to horses in the stable first thing in the morning before anything
else, and at that time they may have as much as they will drink.
They are then in good trim for breakfast, and when drawn out to
work an hour or two afterwards they should be allowed only a few
mouthfuls. When returning from work the horse should again have
water before being fed, care being taken that he does not drink too
much cold water when he is very hot and perspiring, a little less

132 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

than a pailful being allowed. If water is conveniently near, a little
drink when at work is very refreshing in dry hot weather.

If horses are in good health, regularly worked, and properly
attended to, no spices or condiments are necessary, nor should the
wagoners be allowed to give any.

It is possible that a horse may be a shy feeder and does not carry
condition, and when desirous of getting him up we may have re-
course to a condiment, of which there are any number on the market.
It is not desirable to use them if it can be avoided, and they should
only be given by the master or responsible foreman. For cases of
illness it is much the best plan to call in a veterinary surgeon in
time. It is false economy to postpone sending for a skilled man
until the animal is past his skill. But for emergencies, a case of use-
ful remedies should be kept at hand in charge of the master or fore-
man. The case should contain some colic drinks, some purging
balls of varying strength and distinctly labelled, some healing oils
for external application, a bottle of carbolized oil, and one of iodo-
form for foaling time, a large tin of hoof ointment, and a little
saltpetre. A box of soft soap should also be kept at hand.
Sometimes a bottle of linseed oil is required, and may effect all
that is desired. Simple coughs may be relieved in this manner.
The use of boiled linseed in a mash every Saturday night when
the horses are on hard keep is also beneficial and should not be
neglected. If a horse has any difficulty in passing water, a tea-
spoonful of saltpetre given in the mash will help to relieve him.
A farmer may do a good deal in the way of first aid among his
horses by keeping these simple remedies at hand ; but if a veterinary
surgeon is available within a reasonable distance, it is best to call
him in when anything serious threatens.

The grooming and cleaning of horses is an important part of
their management. The stallion, and the carriage and saddle
horses, generally get well attended to by their respective grooms;
but the working horses of the farm are apt to be neglected, or done
over very superficially in this respect. The hairy -legged Shire
horses when working on clay land in wet weather find the
wagoners some extra work. Each wagoner should be provided
with a good currycomb, manecomb, and dandruff brush, and should
be made to use them. It is of importance that the horses' skin be
kept clean ; the use of the currycomb and brush has a pleasing and
stimulating effect on the horse. During the time the horse is
eating his morning feed the wagoner should give both his horses a
thoroughly good grooming, put on the collar and other gears, except
the bridles, give them their additional feed, and then get his own

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 1 3 3

breakfast. It is wonderful how the grooming and harnessing helps
the appetite; the horse seems to know that he has to go to work,
and he sets to with renewed vigour to clear the manger.

When the horses come in at night their legs require first atten-
tion ; probably they are in mud up to the knees. If a running stream
is available a wade in it for a few minutes helps to get rid of a lot
of the dirt; but it is important that the legs be well rubbed dry as
soon as possible after they get into the stable and have their food
given them. For this purpose nothing is better than a firmly
wrapped wisp of straw; with a wisp in each hand, coat off and
shirt-sleeves rolled up, the wagoner must vigorously rub each of the
legs up and down, applying plenty of elbow grease, till he gets them
dry. By the time he gets the eight legs dry he is probably not
very dry himself. The rubbing with the straw, however, causes an
improved circulation of the blood, prevents chill from the cold
water, and cleans the legs. When suppering the horses last thing
at night the wagoner should again give them a good dressing with
currycomb and brush, removing all traces of perspiration and mud
or dust. The horses will rest all the better for this finishing touch.

The harness must also be attended to with care. Collars should
be well fitting, and when soaked with perspiration should be hung
for an hour in the midday sun. The leather should be kept soft
and pliable by occasional oiling. Wagoners should be encouraged
by prizes or bonuses to take care of the harness, and to turn out
their teams in a tidy, workman-like style, without too much osten-
tatious display of brass and ribbon. There are many recipes for
making harness compositions; these may be bought ready-made,
or may be made at home more cheaply. If properly made they
give a nice polish to the harness, and help to preserve the leather.

The style of making harness for heavy horses varies greatly
over the kingdom. Some of it is unnecessarily heavy, with no
addition of strength at the wearing parts. A farmer may prefer
one style before any other; but he is almost at the mercy of his
local saddler, who will pertinaciously adhere to the local type. It
is a difficult task to change local customs in country districts. The
useless and pernicious bearing-rein sticks to us in many districts
just because saddlers will not make a bridle for a cart horse with-
out one. But whatever style is in fashion in the district, the farmer
must see that the collar is not only well fitting but well stuffed,
until it is quite round and hard. A badly stuffed collar is a frequent
cause of sore shoulders. One may appreciate the difference it
makes to the horse by carrying a round pole on the shoulder and
then carry a flat-sided pole. The excellent galvanized-iron collars,

134 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

which never hurt the shoulders, although introduced twenty -five
years ago, have never come into general use, just because of the
prejudice of local saddlers and wagoners, who will adhere to the old
fashion.

THE STABLE

The stable accommodation is an essential item in the manage-
ment of farm horses; unfortunately on many farms the stabling is
very poor. In some districts the farm horses are turned into yards
to lie at night, the advantage of the system being that they rest
better than when tied in a stall ; some horses will not lie when so
tied. The disadvantages are the greater quantity of litter required,
and the greater risk of hurting each other ; horses that have not
been reared together do not always agree. The better plan is to
have them in proper stables, each one in his own stall. The stalls,
to be comfortable, should be 6 ft. wide, and separated by wooden
partitions or " travises ", extending 8 ft. back from the front wall,
and high enough to prevent a wicked horse from teasing his
neighbour. The building should be i8 ft. wide, the length accor-
ding to the number of horses required. The best floor is cement,
grooved to prevent slipping, the floor of each stall being dished
slightly with a channel in the middle to drain off" urine. No under-
ground drains should be constructed, the urine being swept out on
'the surface. A manger of 4 ft. long and i ft. wide should be fixed
about 4 ft. high in front of the horse, a rack about the same height
being fitted in the spare 2 ft. of the stall. The manger may be
made of wood, iron, or fireclay, the latter being preferable, because
of cleanliness and durability combined. The overhead rack is
objectionable for the reasons previously given. A lump of rock
salt should be kept in the corner of each manger for the horse
to lick.

Horses are more comfortable, warmer in winter and cooler in
summer, if there is a loft overhead. There should, however, be
plenty of air space, and plenty of ventilation and light; dark
stables are bad for the horse's eyesight and dismal for the men to
work in.

There is not much benefit derived from having water brought
into the stable ; it soon gets impure from the absorption of noxious
gases, and has to be frequently cleaned out. The loft is useful for
the storage of hay and straw. At one end of the stable should be
a small room for chaff", at the other end a room for harness, the loft
extending the full length, and in it and over the chaff"-room a small
chaff" cutter, which would be found very convenient to cut a small

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 135

quantity of chaff as required. The corn coffers would also he
better kept in the chaff-room than behind the horses as is frequently
done.

The stable should be well swept out twice a day and washed
out once a week, a spare man being appointed to do the washing
when the wagoners have the horses out at work.

The above description is that of an ordinary farm stable, as
well fitted as can be expected consistent with economy. On some
model farms now we have stables lighted by electricity, and fitted
up with every convenience imaginary. That style cannot be
attained, however, by ordinary farm horses.

When horses are working on the land flat shoes are the most
suitable; caulkers are quite unnecessary, and are undesirable for
farm horses. Of course, in slippery frosty weather the caulkers
have to be used, and sharpened if necessary. Shoes do not wear
out so quickly on the land as on the road ; but it is necessary that
they be removed occasionally and not allowed to remain on too
long; the hoof will require to be pared and trimmed into shape.
In frosty weather some of the horses may have to be sharpened
but no more of them should be done than is absolutely necessary.

The great essential in the management of farm horses is to have
capable, intelligent, conscientious wagoners, teamsmen, or plough-
men, by whatever term they are known — men who take an interest
in their horses, take a pride in their work, and can be trusted to
attend to them if the master is not in sight. Unfortunately that
class of wagoner seems now to be very scarce. Farmers generally
complain that, even with advanced education and the higher rate
of wages, the wagoners of the present generation are very much
behind their predecessors in capability, reliability, and adaptability ;
that they do not find their pleasure in their horses, but rather in
leaving them and getting away on a bicycle. The local ploughing
match, which used to be such a potent influence in creating
enthusiasm in country districts, seems to be losing its power to
infuse a spirit of healthy rivalry among country youths; and in
many districts farmers are hard put to find the men for the work.
Dare it be said that very often the employers show a bad example?

THE STREET HORSE

After leaving the farm, the happy scene of his colthood and his
apprenticeship, the life of the heavy horse is one monotonous round
of drudgery on the roads and streets. He has to bid farewell to
pastures green, to joyous scenes, to old acquaintance, and to happy

136 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

companionship; and if there is any sentimentality about a heavy
horse he must figuratively shed floods of tears at the great change
in his life. Fortunately he is more philosophical than sentimental,
and generally adapts himself quietly to his new home, his new work,
and his new surroundings. His new home may be a very happy
one if he happens to be bought by one of those large companies or
large contractors who keep a great number of horses, and place in
charge of them an intelligent superintendent, who sees that they
are well fed, properly harnessed, worked regular hours, and placed
in charge of a careful carter. It is usual also in those large stables
to have a properly qualified veterinary surgeon to look after those
laid aside by sickness, and to advise on the feeding and treatment
of those in health and at work. One man is generally appointed
to feed a certain number of horses; he prepares the feed during the
day when they are out at work, has it ready for them when they
come in, and sees that each has what he requires, not given all at
once but supplied in small quantities as it is eaten up. This man
has to be at work early in the morning, so that he has the horses
all fed and ready for work when the carters arrive; and if they are
not returning for a midday meal, he has to fill their nosebags ready
to be taken out with them.

The owners of the horses are in a different position from the
farmers who reared them, having to buy all the food required.
The farmer had to use chiefly the food produced on the farm ; he
could not always follow strictly scientific lines in his feeding, but
had to be guided by experience and circumstances. The owner of
the street horse can be guided by science as well as experience in
the feeding of the horses. The market prices of the various descrip-
tions of corn probably causes slight variations in the menu.

A heavy horse at street work is supposed to require food per
day from which he can digest albuminoids 3.5 lb., carbohydrates
16 lb., fat I lb. A ration of 14 lb. hay, 12 lb. oats, 2 lb. beans, and
2 lb. bran each per day, would produce something approaching
the above digestive results. The quality of the hay makes some
difference; if clover hay is used the proportion of beans may be
reduced or substituted by maize; if meadow hay is used the beans
may be slightly increased. Timothy hay is a great favourite with
horse owners, and is now in great demand. When hay gets very
high in price it may be substituted in part by oat straw, and a little
additional weight of concentrated food added. If beans get dear,
peas may be substituted in part, and if oats get very high half the
quantity may be used and the other replaced by 4 lb. of maize and
2 lb. of barley crushed. Of course the grain used is of good quality,

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 137

all being crushed, and mixed with the cut hay. A pound of molasses
may be added for each horse.

The points to be kept prominently in view are that the horses
must be kept in strong muscular condition, that the albuminoid
constituents of the food are necessary for this purpose, and that
albuminoids are provided in their most concentrated form in beans
and peas. The hay must not be cut very short, or part must be
given in long racks to induce the horses to masticate it. In town
stables it is not always convenient to give long hay, so that if it is
all cut it should be cut long enough to make the horses chew it
well.

The constant work on the hard road and the continual heavy
feeding is very trying to the constitution. The average duration
of life on the street will not exceed eight or ten years. The feet
and joints fail first; if the horse fails in either he is unfit for the
work and must be disposed of, another being brought in to take his
place. Although many of our patient, hard-working, noble friends,
are shipped off to the Continent to be slaughtered for human food
when they have finished their work on the street, yet a few may
have the good fortune (or misfortune) to be sold back to some
farmer to work on the land, and finish their days in comfort (or in
misery) according to the disposition of their last owner. It is cruel
beyond expression to drive an old horse to death after he is unfit
for work ; and the R.S.P.C.A. is doing a good work in putting a
check on such practices.

PROFITABLE HEAVY-HORSE BREEDING FOR FARMERS

It is obvious that, as the great wear and tear of the street work
shortens the lifetime of the heavy horse, there must of necessity be
a supply kept up of recruits from the country districts to take the
place of those that are worn out or pensioned off. Although much
of the heavy work of the roads and streets is now done by
mechanical power, there has been such an expansion of trade in
the country that every suitable horse is readily picked up for the
work at high prices, from £^0 to ;^ICXD each, many of the best
making over the latter figure. These are paying prices, and if all
that are bred and reared realized similar figures, the horse breeders
would soon realize large fortunes. Unfortunately, however, there
is a large number that do not reach those figures; misfits, unsound,
undersized, unfit through a variety of causes for the hard work of
the streets, these have to be sold for smaller prices, or kept on the
farm until they are worn out. There is a certain amount of

138 Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses

speculation in the work of horse breeding — much more so than in
the breeding of cattle and sheep. The profits from horses may be
much larger than from cattle or sheep, but so may also the losses.
The rank and file of farmers have to look to their herds and to the
flocks for the rent. If the rent depended on the horses, the poor
farmer would many times be at a loss on the approach of rent day.

It must not be assumed, however, that horse breeding does not
pay. In almost every county we have examples showing that it
has proved a most profitable system of farming.

On most farms where horses are required to do the work of the
farm, a few are bred as an auxiliary branch of the management of
the land ; in such cases the profits are not very readily identified.
But on some farms the department of horse breeding takes the first
place; it is worked as a speciality on scientific lines, the young
horses being the principal source of revenue. In such cases the
whole system of managing the farm is arranged with the aim of
making the best of the horses. Although the system appears too
much like the placing of all the eggs in one basket, yet it may be,
and frequently is, done successfully, provided all the necessary
factors for success are in combination and co-operation. Needless
to say, the principal factor is the man himself. He must be
specially gifted, a born horseman, a keen, shrewd judge, enthusi-
astic and enterprising, not readily daunted by losses or failures,
and unremitting in attention to the business. Then the farm must
be suitable, the land fairly level, the soil not too light nor deficient
in lime, the buildings convenient and adapted for the business, the
fields well fenced and supplied with pure water. The farmer must
have capital to get the right sort of stock, and he must have
assistants enthusiastic like himself. Success is safe under these
conditions. This, however, is not a system to be recommended
for adoption by everyone. The most successful breeders are those
who combine horse breeding with farming other stock as well.
Cattle breeding and horse breeding go well together. Sheep and
horses do not fit in so well, hence a sheep farm is not an ideal
horse-rearing farm.

For producing geldings for street work the system adopted by
many farmers in the North of England of mating the Shire mare
with the Clydesdale stallion ensures a horse with the weight and
constitution of the Shire, combined with the grand feet, strong
fetlocks, and splendid action of the Clydesdale. The drawJDack
to the system is that neither sex is eligible for entry in the stud
book, hence the fillies are depreciated in value, and the colts are
of only gelding value. For profitable breeding it is better to breed

Management and Feeding of Heavy Horses 139

from the best of eligible stock on both sides, so that the produce
may be registered. In a certain district of Montgomeryshire where
the best Shire stallions have been in use for thirty years, a large
number of tenant farmers have made a profitable business of horse
breeding. Among so many it may appear invidious to mention
names, but the champion male and champion female at the
London Shire Horse Show of 19 14 were both bred in that district,
the colt having been sold, as indicated in an earlier chapter of this
volume, for the record price of 4100 gs. Such success as this is not
attained by all, but this, like other examples that might be given,
not only in Shires but in the other heavy breeds, notably Clydes-
dales, shows what may be done in heavy-horse breeding by a little
enterprise, careful breeding, and good management. That heavy-
horse breeding may be made a profitable business for farmers, if
conducted on proper lines, the experience of the last few years has
abundantly proved.

CHAPTER IV

THE MANAGEMENT OF LIGHT
HORSES

By W. SCARTII DIXON

THE BROOD MARE AND YOUNG STOCK

One frequently hears it stated, and sometimes with great em-
phasis, as if it were an indisputable fact, that the breeding of light
horses is unprofitable to the farmer. There cannot be a greater
fallacy. Breeding light horses under the conditions that too fre-
quently prevail is undoubtedly a risky business; it could scarcely
fail to be otherwise. It would, perhaps, be an exaggeration to say
that the light horses on an ordinary farm are neglected; it is no
exaggeration to say that if the other stock on the farm were treated
in exactly the same way as the light horses, the profits attendant
on breeding them would be reduced to a minimum.

At a busy time — and busy times crowd upon one another
rapidly at certain periods of the year — what is everyone's business
becomes no one's business. The care of the light horses is passed
on from one to another till it rests with the least responsible of the
farm servants. This is no exaggeration, I have seen it scores of
times; and there is only one remedy for it, the close personal
supervision of the master.

Concrete examples are better than whole pages of generalization,
and I will give two which came under my own personal knowledge
as examples of the profit which can be made out of light-horse
breeding. A little over a quarter of a century ago there lived at
Wilstrop, near York, a man named George Easby, whose name is
written large in the horse-breeding annals of his time. He married
a neighbour's daughter, and on the wedding morning his father-in-
law told him he had no money to give the bride, but that he would
give her a young brood mare, which was perhaps as good as a
dowry. The brood mare proved very much better than any dowry
that could have been looked for from a m&n farming a compara-

141

142 The Management of Light Horses

tively small farm. Her first foal brought 300 gs. ; another colt sold
for 200 gs., and so on; and in the long run the mare and her
descendants made her owner a very comfortable little fortune.
And George Easby had one policy. He would never sell a filly off
any of his mares until he had another filly from her that he liked.

The other case is of a man who is still living, and for that
reason I do not give his name. He was a hard-working and
industrious young man, willing to turn his hand to anything, and
he did a good deal of leading. He saved a little money and bought
a good brood mare of a famous strain. She bred him a filly and
another foal or two. The filly he kept for a brood mare. He took
a small farm and kept on breeding. The filly's first foal was a
filly, and he was offered 30 gs. for it. He refused, though he could
have done well with the money, and 30 gs. is not a bad price for
a foal. But his policy was the same as George Easby's; he sold
no filly till he had another from the mare that he liked. His
resolution did well for him. The mare bred six colts before she
bred a filly, and all of them were sold as stallions. Then she bred
a filly that was a better than her dam. When the filly was old
enough to take her dam's place the latter was sold. Needless to
say that, good as she was, she has always had to take second place
to her daughter. It must be emphasized that these two men were
horse lovers. They delighted in their horses ; nothing was a trouble
in connection with them. I have been at the house of the latter
gentleman, and seen all his horses out. In the course of conver-
sation afterwards, when some point was being discussed, perhaps
it was suggested that a second look at one of the horses would be
appreciated. The suggestion was no sooner made than acted upon,
but instead of the horse in question, the whole lot were had out
again. And my friend's sons are as keen as he is.

Now, the point I would emphasize is this, that unless a man
really loves horses, and takes a keen interest in their progress and
wellbeing, he will be well advised if he has nothing to do with the
breeding of light horses. There is nothing of the kodak policy —
you press the button and we do the rest — about light-horse breeding
any more than there is about any other branch of the farming
industry. The unremitting attention derived from a love of horses
is the great factor which is necessary for success.

It is a matter of common knowledge that the supply of light
horses in the country has been rapidly decreasing during the
last few years, and that it has been given as a reason that, since
the introduction of motor traffic, it does not pay to breed light
horses. Consequently the Government has taken the matter in

The Management of Light Horses 143

hand, has given premiums to stallions of various breeds, has en-
couraged the loaning of brood mares, and has generally undertaken
the encouragement of horse breeding. It is no part of my task to
comment on these various schemes, but I would point out that,
though the premiums given to the stallions are comparatively small,
this policy is far-reaching in its effects, and it is scarcely possible
to estimate the ultimate benefit which may be derived from it.
There would have been no necessity for the brood-mare scheme
if breeders had adopted the wise policy of the shrewd men referred
to above.

There never has been much difficulty in selling really high-class
horses of any kind, and perhaps good horses never realized so much
money as they do now. But, necessarily, really high-class horses
are comparatively scarce, and the price realized for misfits has
much to do with the economic aspect of light-horse breeding. The
omnibus and the cab provided a good market before motor traffic
did away to a considerable extent with horses in the streets. A
well-known breeder, and a successful one too, has been heard to
say that if he can be guaranteed the cost price of his misfits, he
will do all the rest himself without any Government assistance.
He has undoubtedly touched upon the real crux of the question.
" Misfits ", of course, means horses in the second or third class — not
unsound horses.

It has been shown that the omnibus and the cab no longer
provide the outlet for these horses that they did. There remains
the Cavalry Remounts department, which gives the same amount
of money for remounts that it did forty or fifty years ago. If an
appreciable increase were made in the price given for remounts,
there would be, at any rate, a greater inducement to breed light
horses.

The brood mare is too frequently bred from because she happens
to be on the farm. She has been a good servant, has for many
years served the master as a hack or a harness horse, or both, and
now she can no longer work. Her legs have given way, or some-
thing has happened, and so, says the owner, " We will take a foal
off" her ". Sometimes, if the breakdown is the result of an accident,
she makes a very good brood mare indeed ; but too frequently she
never breeds anything so good as herself, and is a constant source
of disappointment to her owner. In the majority of cases an old
mare such as this had better be sold to someone who would give
her a good home or else put off". Though somehow sentiment does
enter into horse breeding, it is dangerous to give way to it, for it
frequently entails serious loss.

144 The Management of Light Horses

If a farmer decides to breed from a Cleveland Bay or a York-
shire Coaching mare, he will find that his brood mare will be able
to do a considerable amount of the light work of the farm up to
within a very few days of foaling. A good deal of work, too, can
be got out of a Hunter mare during the summer months, especially
if she be a weight carrier. I have seen many a Hunter mare
scuffling turnips, but it is necessary to insist that the man who
is sent with her is a steady, capable man, and good-tempered
withal.

If the object be to breed pedigree stock, it is important to
select as a brood mare one that has in a marked degree the charac-
teristics of her breed. It is unnecessary to insist that the brood
mare should be of the best and the soundest. That does not con-
sequently imply that she should have cost a great deal of money.
It is essential that the greatest care should be taken about the
mare's legs and feet, for it is a common enough experience in
breeding to find a little defect in the parents considerably increased
in the offspring.

It is unnecessary to dwell upon the necessity of avoiding
hereditary unsoundness. It seems absurd to hedge round with
safeguards and restrictions the stallions of the country, whilst men
continue to breed indiscriminately from all kinds of decrepit and
unsound mares. It is, of course, desirable that both parents should
be sound, and it is as well if they are so sound that the question
of heredity has never to be raised. It is, however, of far greater
moment that the mare should be sound, for somehow the mare
is supposed to be more likely to transmit unsoundness than the
stallion. It is a difficult subject to generalize upon, for we have
the case of Pocahontas, a bad roarer, who did not transmit that
infirmity to her descendants. In the female line I believe there
was some trace of it; but Stockwell, Rataplan, King Tom, and
Knight of Kars were sound horses, and sired good stock. Mr. Adye
gives it as his opinion that hereditary unsoundness is more likely
to be transmitted through the dam than through the sire, and gives
some notable instances of this in his book. Horse Breeding and
Management. But, as already indicated, it is a very difficult sub-
ject to generalize upon, and the man who runs no risks and avoids
unsoundness on both sides will be wise. There are many examples
on both sides of the question, but the writer is of opinion that
soundness in the mare is of the greater importance.

The mare should have a good pasture during the summer.
During the early months of her pregnancy she may do a little
light work, but it should always be done at a slow pace, and she

The Management of Light Horses 145

should be kept out of the shafts if possible. In the latter case my
" preaching " has not been " followed by my practice ", and I have
frequently driven pregnant mares, and I cannot say that I have
ever had any perceptible loss from so doing. But I have known
ill effects happen from it, and if the mare has a foal at foot, she
should certainly never do fast work to any appreciable extent.
A pregnant mare that is not suckling should be no worse for a
little work. In case she is worked, it should only be by her owner
or under his eye, and she should never be overdone or excessively
heated. Nor should she, when she is lightly worked, be left to
the tender mercies of an attendant when her work is over. Her
comfort should be seen to by her owner himself if he would have
everything go well.

When the pastures are done, and the frosts and bad weather
have come, the mare should have shelter, and, though grass may
be sufficient food for her during the summer if she is not sucklings
when it begins to lose its nutriment it should be supplemented by
good sweet hay and a little corn. A man's judgment should tell
him how to apportion her ration better than any generalization
in a book. Much depends on her constitution, whether she is
a good " doer " or not, and a good deal depends upon her size.
What is an ample ration for one mare would perhaps be starvation
allowance for another.

The condition of the mare is an infallible guide. She should
be in good condition, for during the later months of her pregnancy
the foal will take a good deal of hold of her, and weakness in a
foaling mare is a source of considerable danger and perhaps ulti-
mate loss. But if the mare should be in good condition, all approach
to fatness should be avoided. Internal fat, lending itself to a
clogging up of the passages, is frequently a source of danger to
the dam or her foal, or both. Exercise is absolutely necessary,
especially towards the end of the pregnancy. A paddock, of course,
affords plenty of opportunity for this, but unfortunately, on ordinary
farms, paddocks arc not frequently found. A mare may be turned
out into an ordinary pasture, but if she is, care must be taken that
it is one in which no other horses are there to excite her to gallop.
A mare will not get sufficient exercise in a fold yard, and indeed,
unless she is by herself in a fold, or a loose box with a yard to it,
she should not be turned into one at all. I have seen pregnant
mares running in a fold with cattle. It is a plan which should
never be adopted, and I only mention it to show how careless many
men are with their brood mares. It is, as has already been stated,
necessary that the mare should have plenty of exercise, and the

Vol. III. 43

146 The Management of Light Horses

best way of ensuring this towards the end of her pregnancy is
to have her led out every day.

During the last few weeks of her pregnancy the mare should
be moved into a foaling box, of which there should be one or two
on every farm on which horses are bred. There is no necessity
for anything out of the ordinary way in this foaling box. One
thing necessary is that it should be capacious — 18 feet square is
an excellent size — not a bit too big. The foaling box should be in
a quiet place, so that the mare may not be disturbed by any outside
commotion. Both before she foals and for a few days after she
foals the maie cannot be kept too quiet, especially if she is a young
mare with her first foal. It is absolutely essential that the door
of the foaling box should open outwardly, otherwise it is quite
possible that a mare may be laid so that the door cannot be opened,
and so perhaps much-needed assistance may be unavailable. I prefer
the foaling box to be without mangers — the mare will easily eat her
food from a vessel on the floor. The foaling boxes should be so
arranged that the attendant can see into them without opening the
door and so disturbing the mare.

Where there are large studs frequently there will be as many
as half a dozen foaling boxes. Under such circumstances there
is generally a room provided for the attendant. This is situated
in the middle of the boxes, and a corridor enables him to go round
to see that all is right without being exposed to the wet. This is
not necessary on an ordinary farm, but I would emphasize the fact
that it is as well to have the foaling box "handy" to the attendant's
cottage. The mare will be all the likelier to get properly looked
after under such conditions. Besides, it is scarcely reasonable to
expect a man to turn out in all weathers and trudge half a mile
several times during the night. And unless the mare is looked
after pretty frequently it is no use looking after her at all. A happy-
go-lucky system is as bad as no system. It must be remembered
by every owner of a brood mare that, with a mare, the pains of
labour come on very suddenly, and that it is quite possible that
a mare may be feeding quietly and within half an hour she may
have a foal making more or less futile struggles to get to his feet.
So that the visits to the mare during the night and also throughout
the day should be frequent.

The Management of Light Horses 147

FOALING AND THE FOAL

A mare's period of gestation is generally considered to be eleven
months, but there is no certain rule. I have known some mares —
certainly not many — that foaled at the ten months' end. Some
mares never carry their foals the full eleven months ; others again
will carry them a week or more over that time. Fortunately the
signs of parturition in a mare are plain and unmistakable, and
the time when she has to be closely watched is reduced to a
minimum.

About a month before the mare foals her udder begins to spring,
and in the mornings it will be very full, but will be reduced in size
by exercise. Soon, however, the udder gets more and more dis-
tended, and exercise does not reduce it. Then the quarters begin
to fall in, and a waxlike substance appears at the end of the teats.
In one, or at the outside two days, that is, from twenty-four to
forty-eight hours, this wax drops off, and milk begins to drop away
from the surcharged udder. Now is the time when the mare needs
closely watching, for when once the milks begins to drip away she
may foal at any moment.

It is more with the foal than with its dam that the attendant
will be troubled. As a rule, parturition with the mare is speedy,
and it is in the majority of cases got over without any assistance
being required. Indeed, it may pretty safely be said that no ordi-
nary assistance is ever required by the mare, and that when she
is not speedily delivered, a veterinary surgeon, well skilled in
obstetrics, should be sent for at once. I hasten to say that I have
bred a good few foals in my time, but I never experienced any
difficulty, and never gave any mare I had the least assistance.

Some mares are very nervous when a light is brought into their
box, but with a little use this nervousness disappears. I never had
any trouble with it myself When I looked into the box, after the
first two or three nights, when probably the mare would " blow her
nose out", she took no notice of the light we carried. If the ner-
vousness continues, it is easily obviated by having a light carefully
placed the night the mare may be expected to foal. It stands
to reason that everything which tends to excite the mare should
be carefully avoided. It also stands to reason that the greatest
care should be taken to ensure cleanliness in the foaling box.
It should be well disinfected before the mare is put into it and
thoroughly ventilated, and there should be an ample supply of
wheat straw to bed it with. Everything in the shape of dirt and
all the manure should be regularly removed every time the box

148 The Management of Light Horses

is visited. Many a good foal has been lost through the neglect
of these very necessary precautions.

If the mare does not require much of the attendant's care, the
foal calls for his attention, but it would be as well to point out, to
begin with, that it is essential that he should be careful and steady.
A fussy, excitable man is just as likely to do wrong as right; and
he should bear in mind that he is there to help and not to hinder.
Your fussy man will lose his ligatures amongst the straw, and will
not remember where he has put his scissors until they remind him
by pricking him.

The first thing a groom has to do when the mare is delivered
is to see that the enveloping membrane which covers the foetus
is broken. This he can easily do with his fingers if necessary.
If it is left undone for long the foal may very easily be smothered
Then it often happens that the umbilical cord is unbroken; and
perhaps it is better for the foal when this is the case. There is no
necessity to get into a bad hurry. The first thing to do is to bind
a catgut ligature very tightly round the umbilical cord, about
I or 1 1 in. below the foal's belly. Then tie another ligature
3 in. lower down, and cut the cord between the two with a pair
of sharp scissors, and when this is done, wash the stump on the
foal with a disinfectant. The foal will now be free from the mare,
and may be pulled round under her nose so that she may lick it
freely. Care, of course, should be taken to put the back of the foal
next the mare, for it would never do for her to lick the disinfectant
off the navel. I would point out here that the greatest importance
is attached to getting the navel properly dressed as soon as pos-
sible, as it is a fertile source of mischief, and is remarkably sensitive
to infection. The mare may now be left engaged in licking her
foal, and if she continues lying down, which most mares will if
matters have been skilfully managed, she will recuperate all the
more quickly.

One thing must not be forgotten. The mare, when her labour
commences, and for some little time afterwards, is in a violent per-
spiration, and it may have been advisable to increase the ordinary
ventilation of the box. But she soon cools down, and care must
be taken that no windows are left open which may cause a chill.
The nights are frequently very cold in the foaling season, and
a moment's forgetfulness may have serious and even lasting
consequences.

If the mare and her newly-born offspring are left to themselves
for a time, it does not mean that they should not be under the
eye of the attendant, who should carefully watch all that takes

The Management of Light Horses 149

place. For the trouble is by no means at an end when the foal
is born, the umbilical cord secured, and the recuperating mare
is quietly licking her foal. There are after pains, and the after-
birth, and the foal must get on to his legs and have his first meal
before the attendant can flatter himself that his day's or night's
work is over.

" After pains " are caused by the contraction of the parts after
their abnormal expansion during labour. Sometimes they are
scarcely noticeable, and in my own experience I have never had
any occasion to use remedies for them. But sometimes they are
very severe, and then prompt measures must be taken or serious
results may follow. The symptoms are similar to those of colic.
The mare will paw and "look at herself" — a sure sign of a horse
being in pain — and if the pains are severe she will lie down, roll,
get up and lie down, and roll again, sometimes very violently,
sweating and blowing hard. When this is the case she must be
seen to at once and a sedative given. Two oz. of chlorodyne in
three gills of water is perhaps as good as anything which can be
given; but it is a golden rule in all cases where the foaling mare
does not go on as she should, to have veterinary assistance. If the
mare is unattended to under these circumstances it is possible for
her to bring on labour again, which may, and probably will, mean
an inverted womb and the end of the mare's career as a brood
mare. But this need not be seriously dreaded. In my own experi-
ence I not only never had a case of severe after pains, but I never
knew of one in my neighbourhood or amongst my friends' mares.

The afterbirth will generally come away of itself within about
twenty-four hours of the mare foaling. It is generally unnecessary
to interfere with it unless it should be dragging on the ground.
Under those circumstances it should be tied up on about the level
of the mare's hocks or rather above them, as, if by any chance the
foal should step on it and break it, it may lead to serious trouble.
But in general the afterbirth will take care of itself.

I have frequently seen farm servants, even men who have had a
considerable amount of experience, make the mistake of hurrying
the foal on to his feet and getting him to suck. No sooner have
they bound his umbilical cord, and the mare has made a few per-
functory licks at him, than they hurry to see him well fed. They
will urge the foal to suck, pushing his nose against the mare's
udder, the while making sarcastic remarks about his " stupidity ".
Now, as a rule. Nature will teach him when to take his natural
sustenance far better than his anxious and perhaps fussy attendant.

Generally, a foal will be on his legs in from half an hour to an

150 The Management of Light Horses

hour. Sometimes he will be longer, but he should be on his legs
in an hour and a half at the outside. Naturally a big " gawky "
foal is longer in finding his feet than a more compact one. I am
convinced from my own experience that it is a mistake to hurry
Nature. If a foal is helped on to his legs before his muscles have
begun to act, and when, as I have often seen, his legs double up under
him, and he falls to the ground, it means exhausting him, and it
is decidedly better for a foal to struggle on, gradually finding his
strength as he struggles, and find his dam's teat for himself, than
for him to be unduly interfered with. The temptation to help the
struggling, awkward foal, I admit, is very great, but in the majority
of cases it should be resisted. A foal is particularly aggravating to
the onlooker when he is endeavouring to find his dam's teat, and
her efforts to help him are pathetic. When he first feels the con-
tact of her body he " noses " her all over, and his stupidity seems
marvellous. But if he is fairly strong and healthy, any attempt to
help him makes him only more stupid. Of course sometimes assist-
ance must be given him, but more harm is done by over ofificious-
ness on the part of the attendant than by postponing assistance too
long. It is very natural, I admit, to hurry the foolish young animal
on, but it is not very wise.

There is one thing that the man who is so keen in going to the
foal's assistance fails to realize, and that is that any interference
with him rouses the mare's instinctive jealousy respecting her off-
spring; she resents the interference, and not improbably, and cer-
tainly not unnaturally, "goes for" the meddlesome assistant, or
threatens to do so. Then she is caught and either held or fastened
up, and the foal is caught and taken to her, resisting, of course, all
the time. Nothing is so stupid or so stubborn as a foal under such
circumstances, and I am quite certain that in the majority of cases
the foal would have got its hunger satisfied and have been laid
peacefully by the side of its dam much sooner if Nature had been
allowed to take her course.

Mr. Harry Sharpe, who has had a wide experience as a stud
groom, and whose book. The Practical Stud Groom, may be com-
mended to those who wish for further information on an interesting
subject, describes the amusing scene which is frequently taking place
in the foaling box. " The mare, her maternal instincts aroused,
and misinterpreting the designs upon her foal, places herself be-
tween the man and her foal, and, with ears laid back, indicates
plainly 'hands off'. This entails calling in another assistant, who,
by threats or cajolery, catches the mare. The chief operator then
catches the foal, which more often than not, being startled by this

The Management of Light Horses 1 5 1

new experience, struggles, bucks, and squeals like a young porker,
to the no small alarm and distress of the mare, and apparent banish-
ment of all sucking instinct from the foal. A newly-born foal being
forced to suck is perverseness typified; in some cases its lusty
struggles to escape from its would-be helper alternate with spells of
stolid sulking ; in others it will suck the assistants' fingers, buttons,
clothing, &c., ignoring the mare entirely, following the man round
the box, whinnying after him as though in fear of losing him. The
chief difficulty arises from the fact that to secure the teat and
swallow with any comfort the foal has to hold its head at right
angles to its body. Left to itself in its foraging for refreshments, it
will sooner or later discover the trick of it; but if distracted by a
fussy attendant trying to force its head into the necessary position,
it will stubbornly resist coercion, with the result that it is soon in
that frame of mind best described by the proverb: 'One man may
lead a horse to the water, but a dozen can't make him drink.' "

There are cases, of course, in which it is imperative for the foal
to be helped, but they are happily few and far between. Some-
times a foal is weak and would exhaust himself unduly in his
endeavours to get his natural sustenance. In such a case a small
quantity of milk may be drawn from the mare, and the foal induced
to drink it by allowing it to suck the fingers placed in the milk.
But the sooner the mare and the foal each take up their allotted
parts the better for both of them.

Then there is the case of the mare with her first foal. It
happens sometimes that a mare with her first foal is somewhat
awkward with it, and if it is weakly, as a first foal sometimes is, it
may require some assistance, and the mare and the foal will need
to be very closely watched for a few days. Whoever is responsible
should be sure that the foal is duly suckled. Strange as it may
appear, I have known instances where this apparently imperative
duty has been carelessly neglected, and sometimes with serious
results.

It is essential to see early on that the foal's bowels are properly
moved. An old and favourite plan in my young days was to insert
a tallow candle up the fundament. It is not uncommon for some
hard faeces to be lodged just at the fundament of a newly-born
foal. These must be carefully looked for and removed or the foal
will surely die.

Constipation and diarrhoea are the two most tiresome com-
plaints which trouble the young foal, and his attendant must look
out sharply for symptoms of both. In cases of constipation a
glycerine suppository may be inserted; or, if that should not have

152 The Management of Light Horses

the desired effect, a mild clyster may be administered. Occasion-
ally the diarrhoea is merely a transitory ailment which may dis-
appear without any treatment. It must, however, be carefully
watched. A dose of castor oil in a little gruel may be given, and
then small doses of bicarbonate of soda with a few drops of tincture
of iron, or if there be straining or evidence of pain, a few drops of
laudanum may be given; but in obstinate cases it is as well to have
professional advice.

The mare and foal should be kept in the foaling box for at least
a week or ten days, but they should have plenty of exercise every
day. If the weather is at all genial, an hour in a dry pasture during
the heat of the day is an admirable way of securing this. If the
weather is inclement and wet, an opportunity should be taken to
walk the mare and her foal out for a short time, choosing a place
sheltered from the wind if possible. I am no advocate for " codd-
ling" young horses. It is a plan which will assuredly bring with it
delicacy and all its attendant evils. But the brood mare and her
foal should be gradually hardened off, and certainly in ordinary
spring weather they should not be turned out till the foal is three
or four weeks old. If the weather is favourable they may be turned
out earlier, especially if the foal is strong and healthy. Some
people advocate a hovel in the field, but horses when they get
hardened off can stand a lot of inclement weather, and it is no
uncommon thing to see mares and foals grazing contentedly in the
pouring rain without taking any notice of the hovel erected for
their especial benefit. The grease which accumulates in their coats
is a capital protection against ordinary cold.

The food of the mare should be plentiful. She should have the
best of hay, bruised oats and bran, and a mash at least once a day.
The latter will be all the better for having a little treacle mixed in
it. Of course when she is turned out to grass altogether there is no
need for the mash, and the hay may also be dropped; but if she is
a very good mare, and the foal is a very good one, it may be advis-
able to continue the corn ration, especially if the mare and foal are
good enough to show. The owner, however, is the best judge of
the expediency of this, and it is a subject on which it is not advis-
able to lay down any definite instructions.

In turning a mare and foal out care should be taken to put them
in a quiet pasture; and on a change of pasture, or a change of food,
the foal should be carefully watched lest diarrhoea should set in.

" Now, my lads, it's a nice fine night, let us go and handle these
foals a bit," I have many a time heard a foreman say to the younger
lads on the farm, and away they would all go, eager for the tun,

The Management of Light Horses 153

which would be " fast and furious " enough in its way till it was
nearly dark. A hemp halter would be fixed on the foal's head, and
to that one or two more would be attached. A couple of lads
would be told off to attend to the end of the rope, and instructed
to throw all their weight into it. The foal would throw all his
weight into the halter at the other end, and so the " tug of war "
would go on, the foreman helping matters a little by putting his
shoulders against the foal's quarters and pushing. After some time
spent in this manner — in what appeared to be an impasse — the foal
would move on a few inches. This was something gained. Then
the same state of impasse would arise again, but the struggle would
be shorter in duration, and the foal would move on a few more
inches. And so the game would go on for a few nights, and then
the foal would lead — in a fashion.

Now this was a great deal of unnecessary trouble, and the
foal could have been taught to lead much better at the same
age if a common-sense method had been adopted from the first.
A foal being intended eventually for the service of man, should
be well handled from the very day he is foaled. By this I do not
mean that he is to be made a fool of and petted unduly or teased
and taught tricks. A man who would do either of these things
is not fit to come amongst horses, and when caught should be
instantly dismissed. But the foal should be made familiar with
his future partner. He should be handled sensibly and carefully
every time the man who waits on the mare enters the box. If this
is done there will be no difficulty in putting a halter on him when
he is five days old. It goes without saying that this must be
done in such a manner as to give the foal confidence that it is not
intended to do him any harm. Each part of the process should be
done slowly, and the foal should be well " gentled " and soothed
with kind words. He will not like the halter at all when he gets
it on, but he will soon get used to it. I prefer at first to have the
halter shank knotted up so that he cannot touch it with his feet,
but when he gets well used to the halter on his head, I would put
on a long shank which will trail along the ground for some little
distance. He will constantly be stepping on it and brought up sharp
by so doing. When his head is checked by his standing on the
halter shank he will naturally yield to the pressure, when he does
not quite know where it comes from, and so a very important
lesson will be learned. The foal, when he has got so far, will soon
learn to lead. Let the mare be led away from him, and though
he may not care to be led alongside her at first, he will be eager
enough when she is some way in front of him — perhaps so eager as

154 The Management of Light Horses

to try to take the running into his own hands, so to speak, which
he must not be allowed to do. It is obvious that the earlier this
plan is adopted the greater will be the success attendant on it.
Not only will the foal have less strength to resist his teacher, but
what is of much greater importance, he will have much less inclina-
tion to do so. And it must be firmly impressed upon the owner
of a foal, that when once he is taught to lead he must have con-
stant practice, lest the lesson, once learnt, should be forgotten.
This means serious waste of time, and it is needless to point out
that on a farm time is money. Nothing can be more absurd than
to teach a foal useful lessons and allow him to forget them almost
as soon as they are taught. Once well taught a little judicious
handling from time to time will keep in his memory the valuable
lessons he has learnt.

When the mare and her foal have got thoroughly strong and
are turned out " for good ", the question arises as to what hand
feeding they shall have. Undoubtedly the mare will be all the
better for a few crushed oats, and if the foal learns to eat them
along with her, he will gain in growth and be all the better for it.
But after all, this is an economic question which can only be deter-
mined by the prospective value of the foal. As, however, I do not
suppose that anyone would attempt to breed anything but good
horses, I shall unhesitatingly advise that both mare and foal be
liberally treated, which, it may be pointed out, is a very different
thing from being extravagantly treated. A foal should be kept
growing, which is a different matter from having his growth forced
— a custom which is far too prevalent at the present day.

As to how far the mare and foal should be helped when the
foal has once got thoroughly established, this can only be ascer-
tained by actual observation. If they are both doing well, and
the pasture is good, and especially if it is on a limestone soil and
well looked after, for some few months no assistance may be
needed, but the man who looks after the foal is the best judge
of that. A month or five weeks before the foal is weaned some
bruised oats may be given to both mare and foal at each end of
the day. The extra food will enable the mare to get into some
condition for the work which may be her lot when her foal is
weaned, and it will strengthen the foal and enable him to bear
better the sudden change in his diet and surroundings when he
is deprived of the maternal care and the sustenance he has derived
from his dam.

The Management of Light Horses 155

WEANING THE FOAL

A foal should be weaned at from five to six months old accor-
ding to circumstances. An early foal generally gets the advantage
of a full six months' run with the mare, and I think that it is an
advantage. As a general rule on farms, foals are run with their
dams till the grass season is over, and they are sometimes, per-
haps it would not be any exaggeration to say that they are often,
neglected and left too long with their dams. Many a time I have
heard a man say, " It is time those foals were weaned ; they must
be looked to to-morrow", and on visiting him three weeks later
I have found the foals still unweaned. The fact is, that as with
foaling time, so is weaning time a busy time on the farm. In late
districts there is harvest to clean up; there are potatoes to lift and
turnips to pull; and autumn seed time is at hand. There is only
one thing to do: as soon as the time comes when it is necessary
to wean the foals, wean them then and there; do not wait till
to-morrow.

The mare will have been gaining in condition if she has been
liberally treated. It should be needless to say, that as soon as her
foal is taken from her she should be removed as far as possible
out of his hearing. Missing his accustomed milk he will make no
small noise about it, and should the mare hear and answer him,
they will both be all the longer before they settle. The mare
should be shut up for a few days, and her diet be a little more
spare if she is not being hard worked, so that she may secrete less
milk. She should be given no green or sloppy food, and her
supply of water should be limited. Milk should be drawn from
her udder twice a day, or even oftener if it gets very full, which
is perhaps scarcely likely, but she should never be milked clean
out. If the milk does not begin to "go away" in a few days
a slight dose of physic may be necessary, but this is seldom
required.

The foal should be treated liberally. If he is not, he will slip
back and much of the good work of the summer will be undone.
Care should be taken not to give him too much food at one time.
" Little and often" is the motto for feeding foals. A small quantity
of cut grass, as sweet as can be obtained, should be given fre-
quently. The allowance of bruised oats should be about 3 lb. per
day and should be given at twice. A mash should be given occa-
sionally. Bruised oats, bran, and beans make a capital mash, and
it is none the worse if a little boiled linseed is added. A plentiful
supply of sweet water is essential, and everything out of which the

156 The Management of Light Horses

foal feeds should be scrupulously clean. Too much care cannot be
taken in this respect.

In a few days the mare and foal will forget each other, and then
the foal may be turned out to grass. He should, however, be
helped with some hand food, for this is a very critical period of a
foal's life, and it is possible for him to lose now what he will never
be able to recover. The Hon. E. Coke recommends, as a ration
at once good and cheap, 2 lb. boiled barley, 2 lb. of bruised oats,
and 2 lb, chaff per day, which will cost about 6d. It is always
advisable to have another foal for company, and if there is only
one foal on a place another should be bought. Horses like the
company of their fellows and do best when they have it. Care,
however, should be taken not to turn the foals together till they
have lost their desire to suck. It is very injurious when foals take
to sucking each other. Foals should not be put amongst older
horses if it can be avoided. Certainly they should not run in a
fold yard with them.

THE CARE OF YOUNG HORSES

One thing which is frequently neglected is the care of the feet
of young horses. A close observer, even at a good horse show,
cannot fail to notice the number of horses that turn their feet — one
or both of them — in a little, which is called "pigeon-toed", or out
a little, which is called "splay-footed". In some cases this is a
malformation which cannot be avoided, but not infrequently it is
the result of neglect and the overloading of the growing limbs
of a young horse. If you take a larch pit-prop and allow too big
a weight to accumulate on the top of it, you will find that it will
bulge outwards or inwards. Similarly, if the weak soft joints of
a foal or young horse are weighted with an overgrown body —
if the limbs are not able to bear the weight superimposed upon
them — the joints must point either one way or the other to get the
necessary relief Then negligence comes in. I wonder how many
young horses in England have their feet regularly dressed. Yet
it is essential for the horse's future wellbeing that the feet should
be regularly dressed, and in such a way as to put right any dis-
position there may be to stand out of the exact line of correctness.
The dressing should be commenced in his early foalhood and
continued till he is able to wear a shoe. It should be done also
at frequent intervals, and regularly, or it will not have the desired
effect.

If a horse stands correctly, a plumb line dropped from his fore-

The Management of Light Horses 157

arm to his toe will divide the hoof equally, that is, there will be
as much foot on one side of the imaginary line as on the other,
and when the horse stands, his foot will be pointing straight in
front of him. But suppose, as frequently happens, the inner side
of the wall of the foot should be more worn than the outer side,
he must turn his toe out, or in other words become splay-footed.
Similarly, if the outer side of the wall of the foot is the most worn
the horse will turn his toes in, or will be pigeon-toed. An ex-
cessive weight of the body will naturally accentuate these defects.
It is the farrier's business to keep these outer walls of the hoof
level, and if there is any great difference he will have no very easy
time in the early period of his visits, for it is obvious that he must
never pare down the wall of the foot to such an extent that the
foal becomes footsore. When there gets sufficient wall to allow
him to put on a small light plate his task will be easier.

When a foal has been weaned a few weeks is the most criticaJ
period of his life, for it is then to a considerable extent that it is
decided what his future is to be. I know a well-known breeder
and exhibitor who was asked one day how it was he never showed
or had a bad young horse. His reply was to the effect that a few
weeks after his foals were weaned he judged them as if they be-
longed to someone else, and he were going to buy them. Those
that did not come up to a certain standard were ruthlessly drafted;
they were sold at some price, or if they could not find a customer,
were given away. If they could not be given away, they were
destroyed. As their owner put it tersely, it did not answer his
purpose to keep horses on to sell at ;^45 when they came to be
five years old.

Such drastic measures are scarcely likely to be adopted on a
farm where but two or three foals at most are bred, but it is very
desirable that a breeder should try to copy the example of the
gentleman I have quoted, and if his foals do not approach a certain
standard of excellence, to sell them even at a moderate price, and
try again. And if it should so happen that you have bred moderate
ones, sell them at the earliest opportunity; the first loss is always
the best. I may give a personal experience by way of example.
A friend once paid me a visit, and we were walking round the
farm, when he chanced to see a foal. He asked what the foal
was, and went to look at it, which I did not want him to do, as
it was a very bad one, and in my inmost mind I knew it was.
My friend said it would have been better foaled in a ditch, but
I insisted that it would make a horse. How I hated that filly
before I got rid of it! I finally put it into a sale when it was

158 The Management of Light Horses

about twelve months old. I sent it to the sale with instructions
that it was not to come back, I got 12 gs. for it. I would have
taken four. I had three bids in the morning, and would have sold
it, but gambled on the sale. Now, the same meat and trouble
would have reared a vearling worth four times the money.

The first winter is a crucial time for a young horse. With
respect to shelter, the happy medium should be hit upon. In the
south I know young horses are turned out all winter, and even lie
out at nights. Though I do not believe in coddling and making
hothouse plants of young horses, I do not approve of that plan in
our variable climate. I think it essential for a horse's wellbeing
and future development that his back should be dry sometimes.
It is also much easier to notice what progress he is making when
he is brought in at nights.

The best sort of building to put foals and yearlings, and indeed
all young horses in, is, in my opinion, a roomy covered-in fold yard,
which should be well watered. The young horses should be sorted
according to age, and care should be taken, if there are three or four
young horses together, that there is not what they call in York-
shire an " under lout " amongst them ; that is, that the majority of
them do not combine to push a weaker one from the manger and
the rack till they have satisfied their greed. If there is one of this
sort amongst them a watchful eye will soon discover it, and it is
easier discovered under cover, where men are constantly passing
about, than in the pastures. For if the foals are turned out in the
pasture for their first winter they must have something in the way
of hand meat given them if they are to do any good. Nothing is
more pitiable nor more fatal to success than to see a foal losing
during the winter the bloom he had got in the summer, and repeat-
ing the process year after year.

Need I say that mouldy, bad hay should never be given to
young horses? I am afraid it is necessary to say it, and that on
many farms it will continue to be given unless the master keeps
a very sharp lookout. Many a time I have heard the expression
used, " It is good enough for them ; they have not to work," the
speaker being of course utterly oblivious of the fact that the mouldy
trash he was giving them was probably making them unable to do
the severe work they would be called upon to do some day, and
certainly lowering their value. If, unfortunately, as sometimes
happens, there is not any good hay, or what comes to the same
thing practically from the standpoint of the young horse, there is
none to spare, it is better to give no hay at all, but to mix chopped
wheat straw up with the bruised oats instead. Some people give

The Management of Light Horses 159

oat straw for their young horses to pull at. I knew a farmer in
the East Moor dales, who, when asked what he gave his horses to
make them look so blooming, replied, " Badly thrashed oat straw,"
by which he meant oat sheaf In spite of his experience, I do not
care for oat straw for horses unless it has been cut very green,
when I believe it makes an excellent ration, though I have had
no personal experience of it.

A very excellent ration for young growing horses, yearlings
and upwards, is boiled peas, which may be given with advantage
two or three times a week. I have never tried them with foals,
but I do not see why they should not answer well if given in
moderation. The hand meat given to a young horse has been
valued at something like £24 from the time he is foaled to four
years old, and of course it adds considerably to his cost. But the
breeder does not set out with the intention of breeding ^^50 horses,
and with good material, though it is injudicious to overforce, it
is fatal to lose growth.

SHOWING

Showing is greatly in vogue in these days, and there is no
gainsaying the statement that for the promising young horse the
showyard makes the best market. Unfortunately, the require-
ments of the modern show ring include show condition, and it has
also become a fashion to estimate height in horses at much more
than its real worth. So if a horse is considered good enough to
show, a special preparation is required. He must be big, full of
flesh, and upstanding if he has to have any chance of making
a name.

If a yearling is shown early — a plan which is certainly not
advisable, for reasons which will shortly appear — it is necessary
to begin to get him ready soon after Christmas. It is not possible
to give a ration, or to do anything more than indicate the lines on
which the youngster should be trained. His food should be good
in quality, and care should be taken not to give him too many
mashes, lest he should get soft and run too much to fat. Firm
handling on his neck is a great essential, and he should carry as
much muscle as possible in one of his age. He will require regular
exercise and regular handling.

Anyone who watches the yearlings closely at the early shows
cannot fail to notice how frequently a promising yearling will
" alter " as the season progresses. One that has carried all before
him at first is seen to lose character, his hind legs seem to have
grown away from him, and he stands very differently from what

i6o The Management of Light Horses

he did when he seemed to show so much promise. That is one
reason why I am opposed to the early showing of yearlings. There
is, of course, a cause and a remedy. The cause is generally over-
training; the remedy is to turn the colt (or filly) away. Some few
years ago there was a colt that won golden opinions wherever he
went. He won prize after prize, but at last came the day when he
was third to horses he had beaten before. His owner was advised
to turn him away. " Don't see him for two months," said his
friend. He followed the advice, and brought him out later to have
an unbeaten career to the end of the show season.

A yearling, or any other young horse for that matter, frequently
suffers for the training of the winter weeks afterwards, when less
forcing methods can be, and are, used. There is considerable skill
required in taking the condition off — as much as in putting it on.
The young horse should be turned away into a bare sweet pasture,
where there is plenty of room. Nature will do the rest. When
he comes up again a few feeds of corn will put him in good heart.

A word of warning may be given. Training horses for show is
a speciality, and it is unnecessary to urge the risk that is entailed
by happy-go-lucky methods of high feeding alone. High feeding
is necessary, but it should also be judicious. Some grooms arrive
at a wonderful proficiency in all the details attendant on the show
training of a horse, but they are seldom to be found in the class
of men usually employed on a farm. With them abundance, other-
wise too much, of the best of everything is the right way to get a
horse ready for either show or sale, and it is impossible for a horse
to be too fat. If a man has a really good horse, then — one which
is worth taking round to the leading shows — it will pay him to
engage a man to look after him, who can train him, and also show
him as he ought to be shown, which is no easy task. If this is not
done, and if it is only intended to show the hoj;se " about home ",
the owner's son is the best possible man to undertake the charge
provided he be enthusiastic enough.

BREAKING AND MARKETING

To the ordinary farmer, who only breeds one or two light
horses, the breaking in of his young stock can scarcely be com-
mended as a rule. He has perhaps no special aptitude for the job
himself, and amongst the farm hands there will scarcely be found
anyone fitted to undertake it. The village " breaker " is frequently
a capable man, but when a horse comes back after a month's tuition
at his hands to fall into the charge of a " mutton-fisted " ploughboy,

The Management of Light Horses i6i

he cannot expect to develop the best of manners. Of course if a
breeder is also a horseman, matters are simplified, and if he is, he
knows as much as I can tell him. I know of many farmers who
are fine horsemen, who breed young hunters, and never sell them
till they are five years old, when they make big prices. And these
farmers are always ready to buy a good young horse, two-year-old,
three-year-old, or even yearling or foal. It is not so very long since
I saw one give well on to ^^150 for a three-year-old, and many
instances of the farmer who " grazes " a hunter or two giving big
prices for young unbroken horses occur to the memory. The large
hunter dealers, who are generally, though not always, large exhib-
itors as well, are also good customers for good horses, but they
must be good.

Of course the breeder gets the most out of his horse when he
keeps him till he is five years old, and sells him to some hunting
man; but it must not be forgotten that if his profits are greater
than those of the man who sells earlier, his risks are greater in
proportion.

But there is plenty of money to be got out of selling a good
young horse, and many dealers are always on the lookout for
those that come up to their standard. And it is astonishing
how they find where there is a good one.

There is not much difficulty in selling a good three-year-old
for £60 or upwards, and by a good three -year -old I do not
mean here a high-class show horse with a reputation, but a
three-year-old likely to grow into a good "wearing" horse — a
horse that is described in the words: " So and so has a goodish
colt like making a hunter". And I think that a three-year-old
sold at £60 leaves a fair margin of profit. Of course there are
those that go wrong to take into consideration. But against
them we have to set the real good ones, those that make £ioa
or more at three years old. And if a man begins with good
sound brood mares, mates them with something like knowledge,
and manages them and their offspring intelligently, it will go
hard with him if he does not breed a good one sometimes.

I have heard it insisted with some acerbity that the dealer
gets all the profit and the breeder is put off with a poor and
insignificant sum. The breeder, unless he is a horseman, and is
willing to conduct his business on the same lines as a dealer,
cannot expect to realize the prices which a dealer does. In the
first place, the dealer is always ready to change a horse that
does not suit his customer, of course under certain conditions.
Then he generally gives credit — sometimes long credit. And if
VOL. III. ' 44

1 62 The Management of Light Horses

the horses are good the dealer does not give insignificant prices
for them. 1 have seen many a dealer give from ;^250 to ^300
for a horse, and then he was to " make ". The breeder will find
that the dealer is a very good friend to him if he breeds good
horses. The dealer is the last man to forget where he has
bought a good young horse or where he has seen a promising
brood mare, and I know of many cases in which it is useless to
visit a breeder until his " pet " dealer has been through the horses,
and equally useless afterwards, for he is about certain to have
bought them.

There are some men who have a habit of asking unreason-
able prices just on the ofifchance of getting them. It is a very
unwise policy, and sends away many a would-be customer. The
breeder is not the only one who errs in this direction, but he
frequently does err, and through ignorance of values. " I can't
get it if I don't ask it," I once heard a man say when tackled
on the subject of asking an exorbitant price for a hunter.
This is quite true, but it is scarcely the way to inspire confidence
in a customer. I once went to look at a hunter in a farmer's
hands. He was four years old, and younger than I wanted, but
I thought he was a serviceable horse, and I would put up with
that. I rode the horse, liked him well enough, and asked his
price. I was told ;i^200. I thanked his owner and went away
without bidding. If he had asked me ^100 I should have
bought him. As it was he had to keep him for many weeks
and then he did not make the money I should have given
him.

The oldfashioned Horse Fair is practically a thing of the
past nowadays. It has been slowly but surely going down the
hill for the last quarter of a century. The multiplication of
Horse Shows have had much to do with this. Then most big
dealers have agents in all the principal breeding districts,
and these are generally pretty well cleared of horses fit to go
to work. Another powerful rival of the old Horse Fair is the
Auction Mart, which is either a very good or a very moderate
market for the breeder as the case may be. If the latter is an
unknown man, and his horses are unknown, it may easily happen
that only a relatively poor price will be realized. If, on the con-
trary, they are well-known horses with a high reputation and a
good record, and are the property of a well-known man, quite
the opposite will most likely result. Of course there are excep-
tions in all cases.

The horses, the marketing of which have so far been under

The Management of Light Horses 163

consideration, are those which are required for service, hunters,
harness horses, or hacks, for practically the same general rules
apply to all horses of these kinds.

But with many light-horse breeders the object is the for-
mation of a pedigree stud of some sort. If really good horses are
bred, there is no difficulty in disposing of them at remunerative
prices. Trade fluctuates, of course, but there is always more or
less of a demand for pure-breed breeding stock either for foreign
countries, or the Colonies, or both. A breeder will be well advised
to get acquainted with some of the agents for foreign buyers, and
to keep himself well in touch with all the latest movements of
the society which looks after the interests of his special breed. He
should get to know the officials, and avail himself of every oppor-
tunity of visiting the shows held under the management of the
society. If he would succeed, he must be an fait with all the
latest movements. It is not necessary that he should be an ex-
hibitor at the society's shows, and it will answer an equally good
purpose if his exhibits can hold their own at the district and
county shows, tuiless they are of the very highest rank, when they
should of course be shown at the breed society's show. There they
will meet the very best market if they are high-class.

The county shows — and sometimes the district shows — are
very good markets for pure-bred stock, but scarcely so good as
the Royal, which is perhaps as good a market as the breed
society's show itself.

Auction marts, or, to be more correct. Horse Repositories, also
provide an excellent market. There are several well-known ones
in the country, and it may safely be said that no horse-breeding
district of importance is without one of high character.

An effort has been made, it is to be hoped not quite unsuc-
cessfully, to show that the prejudice existing in some quarters
against breeding light horses is without foundation. Care and
attention are necessary, as well as regularity and method. Atten-
tion one day, followed by a fortnight of neglect, can only end in
disappointment. But if a man breeds carefully from sound stock,
and manages his young horses well, he should have cause to be
satisfied with the result of added profits to his farm.

THE FEEDING OF LIGHT HORSES

There is no more difficult subject to generalize upon than the
proper ration to give light horses. There are a few general princi-
ples to go upon, it is true, but ^ m^n's own experience and his own

164 The Management of Light Horses

observation will be his best guide. One horse will eat and need
four quarterns of good old oats per da)' ; another will do the same
work, and do it quite as well, with three. And this rule applies to
the racehorse as well as to the hunter.

There is one hard-and-fast rule which should always be observed,
and that is, that the proper food for racehorses and hunters is oats
or beans. Maize and barley should be avoided, but peas may be
given. Nothing but the sweetest and the best of old hay should
be used, and new corn should be carefully avoided, unless swollen
legs with their attendant disadvantages are desired. Bran mashes
should be given twice a week — some give them oftener, but I think
twice a week is quite often enough. They are no worse, but better
for being mixed with linseed gruel.

A few carrots once a day are very appetizing, and if they cannot
be got, part of a swede turnip cut up and mixed with the corn will
answer a good purpose. A little change of diet occasionally when
horses are very hard worked is sometimes beneficial, inasmuch as
it stimulates the appetite. I have given a horse a handful of
linseed cake amongst his corn after a very hard day, but this sort
of thing wants doing with discretion.

One thing is a certain guide to a proper ration, and that is,
the faster the work a horse is doing the more stimulating food he
requires. But what the proper quantity is the owner must judge
for himself The quantity a horse requires is entirely a " personal
equation ".

When a young horse needs a little help when at grass it is not
so essential to confine him to oats, beans, and peas. A little maize
may be mixed with his corn, or a little barley, though I must admit
that I don't care much for either, and like the latter the worse of
the two. Prejudice, perhaps, but so it is. All the different kinds
of food I have mentioned may be mixed in a split or crushed state
with a little coarse bran added, and the mixture makes a capital
feed for young horses at grass. From 5 lb. to 8 lb. a day should
be a good ration for such horses — perhaps a liberal one, but here
again a man must be guided by the way in which his horse is
thriving. I would give long hay to all horses, except to hard-
worked horses who are only a comparatively short time in the
stable.

The Management of Light Horses 165

PROFITABLE LIGHT -HORSE BREEDING FOR FARMERS

Can the farmer, and especially the small farmer, breed light
horses profitably? I have already shown how two small farmers
made a competency from breeding light horses, but these were
exceptional men. They bred pedigree horses, and they were adepts
at the business. The question. Can the small farmer make light-
horse breeding an additional source of income on his farm? is yet
for me to answer; and after due consideration I answer it in the
affirmative. Of course much depends on the farmer himself. If
he has not the instincts of a horseman it may be advisable for him
to keep from light-horse breeding. But an old farmer of wide
experience once said to me that there was room on every farm for
one brood mare, and I am inclined to think he was right.

The small farmer who wants to breed a light horse or two
should be very careful in the selection of his brood mare. He
should, in my opinion, select one of the lighter cart breeds — they
are not so plentiful now as they were, though they can still be
found. Or he might select a powerful Cleveland Bay or Yorkshire
Coaching mare. He had better take a mare of this kind than a
hunter, and for more reasons than one. In the first place, his brood
mare will be able to earn her own keep and that of her foal. To
ensure a profit she should be a worker the year round, and if she
does that she will certainly keep herself and her foal.

It is advisable in buying a mare for this purpose to keep in
view the short-legged, wide type with good shoulders and well-
carried head. If one of the light draught type should be selected
care must be taken that the bone is flat and clean, and the sinew
well developed, and she should have as little hair as possible.

A short -legged, short-coupled, high-couraged Thoroughbred
stallion is the best horse to mate such a mare with. A tall narrow
horse should be avoided, and the breeder should remember that
there is no real advantage in any horse standing over 16 hands.
There is one advantage in breeding from a short-legged powerful
mare of the old-fashioned carting type, and that is that in case
her offspring may be a misfit it is generally powerful enough tc
work on any but the very strongest land.

The man who breeds an odd light horse should bear one thing
in mind, and that is, that when a mare breeds regularly there is
soon quite a lot of horses on the farm. He should take care
that there are not too many of them, for it does not do to stock a
farm with light horses. But if he is fortunate enough to breed
fairly useful horses he will not in these times, have much difficulty

1 66 The Management of Light Horses

In selling them at three years old or even earlier, and if his first
youngsters turn out well he will be not unlikely to fall in with a
regular customer. Unless he is a horseman himself, or has some-
one about him who is a horseman, he had better not attempt to
make a horse, as he will be pretty sure to meet with disappointment.
In my younger days there were several young farmers — four or five
of them, perhaps — who met one evening a week or so in spring and
had a ride out together, every man riding every horse, which of
course were four-year-olds. I am afraid the same love of horses
and horsemanship scarcely prevails in these days.

Let me impress upon the breeder the wisdom of not keeping
the bad ones. When a man breeds a bad horse the sooner he gets
rid of it the better, but of course he must first be sure that it is a
bad one. And unless he has been lucky enough to get into a good
strain which has got a name, he will probably find that the younger
he sells his horses the bigger profit they leave him. Above all, let
him avoid making the breeding of army remounts his object.
Forty-five pounds for a four-year-old is no encouragement to
anyone. If our Government were to give £60 for three-year-olds,
as the German Government does, this branch of horsebreeding
would be worth consideration.

CHAPTER V
COMMON DISEASES OF THE HORSE^

By T. EATON JONES, F.R.C.V.S.

I. HEREDITARY DISEASES

Hereditary diseases are those transmitted from parent to off-
spring, and must be distinguished from those which, on the other
hand, are known as acquired diseases. While it is of the first
importance that the breeder should assure himself of the sound-
ness of the sire and dam, it is also of importance that the sire
and dam's parents should be sound, even going back to remoter
generations if at all possible to do so.

Hereditary means, practically, like producing like, and from the
foundation of all breed societies, certain diseases have been
scheduled on their lists which debarred animals affected with
them from competition in the various classes. It is therefore of
paramount importance that, no matter how trifling the unsound-
ness may appear to be, the breeder should start with a fair
chance of producing sound stock, so that when the young animal
is born he may be satisfied that it will be through no fault of his
own, should it prove unsatisfactory from a soundness point of
view. In addition to the diseases which are scheduled as causing
unsoundness, such as ringbone, sidebone, roaring, &c., it has, in the
writer's opinion, been lost sight of that there are other constitu-
tional diseases which should be included in the category of heredi-
tary diseases, such as tuberculosis (consumption), rheumatism, &c.

The diseases scheduled by the breed societies, the leading
shows, and the Government (i.e. the Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries) are as follow: —

Roaring, whistling, unsound wind, shivering, stringhalt, ring-
bone, sidebone, navicular disease, spavin, cataract, and unsound
feet.

There are also other diseases which, although not scheduled,
must be included in the breeder's own list, such as curb, curby
hocks, splint, small feet or odd feet. Some breeders also include

^ An index to the diseases will be found on p. 259,
167

1 68 Common Diseases of the Horse

bog spavin and thoroughpin, but these, there is no doubt, are
more often acquired. The reader must not imagine for a moment
that foals are born with the various diseases enumerated. Such
a condition is extremely rare, but should it occur it is known as
congenital.

An hereditary disease, then, may be said to be that condition
in which an animal is born with a predisposition to inherit the
disease with which its parents are affected, and if bred from
parents not affected with the disease, in an ordinary way it
would escape. The unsoundness may be evidenced sooner or
later, but it usually develops before maturity is reached.

It will be better to refrain from going further into details
at present, but to describe the various diseases more fully under
separate headings.

Roaring and Whistling

These two diseases are practically one and the same, or perhaps
they may be said to be slightly different forms of the same com-
plaint. They are caused by disease of the muscles in the inside of
the throat, due to the nerves which supply these structures becoming
paralysed and unable to act.

To the lay reader it will not be of interest to give further
details. Suffice to say, that the free admission of air into the lungs
is greatly impeded, at least by one-half, so that the lungs cannot
receive their normal supply of air. It may also be well to mention
that in health, and normally, the horse breathes entirely through
his nostrils, which fact may be quickly verified by placing a lighted
match to his mouth, which he will not be able to blow out.

Symptoms. — When a horse is galloped for his wind, roaring may
be described as a groan or snore, and whistling as a kind of
suppressed whistle of a human being. The terms "roarer" and
" whistler" are applied to animals suffering from these diseases. To
test a horse affected with them it is only necessary to put a man on
his back and give him a short gallop up a hill, or a fast gallop on
a field ; or, in the case of harness and cart horses, a short gallop in
harness or a trial in a wagon with the brake on, sending them pre-
ferably up a hill. The person making the trial has only to put his
ear close to the horse's nostrils, when the disease will become mani-
fest to even the most unskilled observer. A further excellent way
of testing an animal is to lock the wheels of a country cart by
placing a stout pole through the spokes and making the horse pull
on soft ground. Another infirmity of the wind which comes under
the same category is that of " grunting to the stick " or " making a

Common Diseases of the Horse 169

noise". Such an animal is commonly known as a "bull". These
terms imply that the animal is defective in the wind, but may not
either roar or whistle in its gallop, although the chances are that it
will do so if pushed to any extent.

To test a horse for these defects, it is only necessary to put him
against a wall whilst wearing only a hemp halter or open bridle and
pretend to strike him with a stick ; the quicker and more suddenly
he can be surprised the more thorough the test will be. It is quite
unnecessary, and it is at the same time cruel, for horses to be
thrashed, as is very frequently done, in order to test them for
" grunting". Usually, after the first startled grunt, and when they
know what is about to happen, they will not do it a second time.
It is amusing, and at the same time may be instructive, to the
uninitiated to learn the various expressions which are applied to
animals suffering from any wind infirmity. By dealers they are
said to be " musical", to " belong to the band", to play the " drum"
or " cornet", and are often called by the name of any singer who at
the moment may be popular. Unsoundness of wind very greath
depreciates the value of animals affected, in some cases rendering
them absolutely useless and unable to do any work. There are,
however, various degrees of the disease, from the extremely bad
case, roaring at the slightest movement, to the slight whistler
which the infirmity seems to affect very little in any work he may
be asked to perform.

A horse which "grunts to the stick" may also perform his
ordinary work quite satisfactorily without the defect becoming
apparent, but as a rule they will be found not to thrive or " do" as
well as they should. Great care must be taken in trying horses,
and every chance given before they are condemned. I have come
across numerous cases where the horse has been condemned, and
found a tight collar responsible, causing the noise by pressing upon
the windpipe and thus precluding the free access of air; or again,
by a tight bearing rein pulling in the throat and altering the
natural position of the neck. The high-mettled horse will some-
times whistle in his gallop from courage, and a nervous horse will
frequently "bull" to the stick from pure fright.

Breed has considerable influence with regard to the incidence of
the disease; the most frequently affected is the Thoroughbred. So
common has it become among racehorses and high-class hunters
that it has nearly amounted to a calamity. Some of our finest and
best-known racehorses of the immediate past and present are defec-
tive in their respiratory organs. Next in order to the Thorough-
bred comes the breeds more or less nearly related to them, such as

I JO Common Diseases of the Horse

the Hunter and Hackney, the most free being the cart horse and
pony. A peculiarity of the disease also is that it affects stallions
much more frequently than geldings, and these again more fre-
quently than mares. It also occurs in large animals more often
than in small ones, and is rarely seen in any under 14 hands. The
larger the animal the more susceptible it is to the disease.

As already observed, "roaring" and "whistling" are most cer-
tainly hereditary, but, on the other hand, may be also acquired
through various causes, the most common of which are strangles,
abscesses in the throat, which press upon the nerves and so cause
them to lose their function, severe colds, catarrh, influenza, inflam-
mation of the throat, and in fact almost any disease of the respira-
tory organs, particularly if they are of a protracted character.

Over-exertion is believed by many to be an exciting cause of
wind infirmity, particularly if at the time the animal is suffering
from any slight ailment of the upper air passages which may not
be apparent to the owner. Thus a horse driven or ridden to
distress, by either being sent too far or too fast, may very soon
give evidence that he has become affected in his wind. There is no
doubt that many cases of broken wind — that is, when the lungs
and not the throat become affected, and are unable to properly
perform their functions — are caused in this way. In fact, this is the
common method of causing broken wind. These sufferers are
popularly called "wids".

The latter defect is not hereditary, but it is even a worse ailment
than either roaring or whistling. It produces such a state of
exhaustion if any work is attempted that the animal is left practi-
cally useless to its owner. Such a one in the hands of an un-
scrupulous person becomes most dangerous to the unwary or
unexperienced horse purchaser. As there are drugs and devices
which, when administered, cause temporary relief, and unless
expert knowledge is brought to bear when the examination for
soundness is made, the defect may easily escape detection. The
following is a narrative the truth of which can be vouched for by
the writer: —

Several low-class dealers obtained possession of a very good-
looking Shire-bred mare. She was, however, badly broken-winded.
Their method of procedure was to put her in a fair, use certain
measures to give her temporary relief, and then sell her for sums
varying from £60 to ^80. The buyer, of course, did not discover
the fraud until he had paid his money and had tried her as a good
worker, when she was discovered to be absolutely useless and
hardly able to pull an empty cart. The next act in the comedy.

Common Diseases of the Horse 171

as it may be called, would be a visit to the buyer from one of the
confederates, and after some parleying she would be bought back for
about one-quarter of the sum paid for her. This kind of thing went
on for over two years, the unscrupulous dealers making a good living
from the proceeds of their various conspiracies, when eventually
the mare got into the hands of a farmer, who, to his amazement,
recognized that he had bought her before and had been done a
second time. Surely enough one of the conspirators turned up to
repurchase the animal, but the farmer stated that neither he nor any
other man should be victimized again, and declined to sell. Al-
though ;^ioo was eventually offered, he remained staunch and had
her shot.

With roaring or whistling in mares that have become affected
after having suffered from some affection of the throat or lungs, and
which may be said to have acquired the disease, practically no risk
is run by using them for breeding purposes. It would, however, be
a dangerous course for the stock-owner to pursue unless he was
absolutely convinced that such was the case — that is to say, that
a hitherto well-known sound mare had suddenly become affected
after an attack of strangles or other throat trouble.

A noise is sometimes produced by the flapping of the nostrils,
but this occurs during respiration. The term "nasal flapper" 13
applied in such cases. In finally deciding whether an animal is
a roarer or whistler considerable skill is required, and it is necessary
to call in the veterinarian.

Treatmeyit. — The remedies for roaring and whistling are not
numerous, there being only one or two that will afford permanent
relief. The best-known remedy is the insertion of a tube of about
I in. diameter into the windpipe in its upper third, between the
throat and the chest. There are various kinds of tubes, the
selection of which should be left in the hands of the owner's
veterinary adviser.

This method, while enabling the animal to perform pretty well
its ordinary work, does not in any way help to cure the original
trouble in the throat. The disease either remains as it was, or
more often progresses in its course. The horse receives the air into
the lungs for the oxidation of the blood through the aperture of the
tube. That this is so may be easily ascertained by blocking the
tube with a cork and testing the animal for his wind. The admini-
stration of blisters to the outside of the throat or of electuaries
by the mouth to the chronic sufferer is, for all practical purposes,
useless and only a waste of time.

Another remedy that has been adopted of recent years, and

172 Common Diseases of the Horse

with a considerable amount of success, is an operation on the carti-
lages in the inside of the larynx or internal throat. It consists in
stripping the lining membrane of the affected cartilage, so that as it
heals the cartilage is pulled out of the air passage. The disease
invariably attacks the left cartilage, and when the membrane is
removed the healing process causes a contraction of the tissues,
which pulls back the paralysed cartilage from obstructing the
middle of the air passage to the side, and thus allows the air to
enter unimpeded. The operation demands very considerable skill,
and at present is only carried out by a few veterinary surgeons.
It involves great expense, and should not be carried out except on
valuable animals.

In order to enable sufferers from wind infirmity to carry out
their work in a satisfactory manner, very careful feeding is required.
As much nourishment as possible must be provided, with a mini-
mum of bulk. Concentrated food must therefore be used, such as
oats and beans, with small quantities of hay, the most suitable
being well-grown best-quality meadow hay. Clover and rye grass
are not good, as they contain too many fat-producing substances.
They should therefore be avoided where possible; but if no other
kind is procurable care should be taken to see that it is of the best
quality — clean, sweet, and not in any way dusty or damaged.
Indeed, dusty and musty hay is supposed to be one of the most
frequent causes of unsoundness of the wind. Where a choice is
possible, hay containing very little or no clover should be used;
that containing the most rye grass is to be preferred; the second
or third year's ley would also be desirable, as it approximates
nearer to meadow hay. Bulk in any form must be avoided before
work ; small quantities of concentrated food and only a little water
should then be given. This can be compensated for by an increased
quantity when the day's work is over.

Shivering

Shivering is a disease of the central nervous system, that is to
say, of the brain or spinal column, and with our present knowledge
little can be said as to the actual cause that will be of interest to the
lay reader. The disease is fairly common, and once acquired it is
usually progressive in its nature; it reduces the value of the animal
probably more than any other disease of an hereditary nature.

Symptoms. — Its chief characteristic is a loss of power, and a
quivering or twitching of certain groups of muscles of the body
when the horse is asked to back, or when the legs are picked up.

Common Diseases of the Horse 173

On attemptinpr to back an affected animal the tail is sharply raised,
and has the same quivering movement, or, as it is sometimes called,
the "pump-handle" movement; this being a sudden and spasmodic
raising of the tail muscles at each step taken in a backward direc-
tion. Various degrees and different forms of the disease are known.
The most common type is what may be described as an "ordinary"
shiverer, which, when backed, causes the muscles of the quarter to
be thrown into a quivering spasm and the tail shot out with the
same quivering movement, or lowered and raised at each step,
with a pump-handle-like action. This kind of animal, when put
to work, is in the great majority of cases quite unable to back its
load, and therefore is useless as a shaft horse. When put into
chains, however, it will be able to walk ahead and perform this
class of work practically the same as if not affected. There are, of
course, exceptions, and numerous instances have occurred in which
horses, although confirmed shiverers, were quite able to do all that
was asked of them more or less as if they were perfectly sound.

Shivering of this nature commonly affects both hind quarters,
but occasionally only one quarter is affected. It may be most
marked and easy to see, or, on the other hand, it may be extremely
difficult to diagnose, so much so that the expert has to carry out
a series of experiments before satisfying himself of its existence or
absence. To test a " shiverer", particular notice should be taken
of the first backward movement in the stall after the animal has
been at rest for some time. The observer should stand at the side
of the horse on a level with the quarters and tail, and any slight
tremors in the regions indicated should be viewed with the utmost
suspicion, particularly if accompanied by any raising of the tail.
Further confirmation should then be sought by getting a man, pre-
ferably a blacksmith, to pick up the hind leg as in shoeing, extend
the limb as far back as possible, when the muscles of the quarter
will be found to quiver or shiver. Both hind legs should be raised,
as there may exist what is called a " one-sided shiver".

Accompanied by spasms of these various muscles and shooting of
the tail, there is an all-round stiff movement about a shiverer when
it is backing. It frequently does so in what is known as "all of
a piece", and appears to drag himself back with the hind legs stiff,
and if pushed violently may even fall down. Such a horse does
not step back with that free-and-easy movement and bending of
the knees and hocks which are the attributes of soundness. An-
other and much rarer form of shivering is that which is found in the
fore limbs, and the horse is then known as a "fore-end" or " front
shiverer".

174 Common Diseases of the Horse

This form has not been observed or looked for by horse owners
as it should be, and is not detected in the ordinary way, as no con-
vulsive movements of the muscles or tail take place when the horse
is backed. Should, however, an attempt be made to lift up a fore
limb, as though to examine the foot, a most pronounced shivering,
which the observer cannot possibly mistake, will occur. At the
same time the muscles of the shoulder, neck, and often those of the
lower lip, are thrown into a quivering spasm.

Very considerable difficulty is sometimes experienced when an
attempt is made to pick up the legs of a shiverer, and the buyer
must always view with great suspicion the animal that will not
allow its legs to be lifted. In some cases it is impossible to pick
them up without slinging, and as excitement aggravates the disease,
the animal, if this is done, usually makes a determined resistance
and is seized with violent spasms. If the foot is hit with a black-
smith's hammer a similar spasm may ensue. Another method of
detecting the disease is by offering the animal a drink of cold water
On attempting to drink, particularly if the bucket is placed upon
the ground, affected animals will show considerable excitement,
will be seized with the muscular tremors, and will shoot their tail
in an unmistakable fashion. These symptoms must not, however,
be thought to be always constant, as some of the worst shiverers
show no excitement whatsoever on being offered cold water or
tapped with the hammer.

Shivering is in every sense a chronic disease, and in the great
majority of cases progressive; that is to say, once a shiverer always
a shiverer. It may be stated definitely, that any attempt to cure
or alleviate the disease is useless.

On a farm the animal may be found to remain in the same con-
dition and become no worse if kept there, but on being brought into
the town and put on slippery stones the disease invariably becomes
aggravated. Debilitating diseases frequently cause the symptoms
to become much more evident.

After such affections as strangles, influenza, prolonged cases of
lung disease, &c., the owner may be astonished to find his horse
has developed into a shiverer; no doubt the latent form already
existed, or he may have been a slight shiverer before the influenza
or other disease occurred. The effects of the illness on the system
bring out the already slightly existing or latent shivering. It is also
well known that a railway journey has a most marked effect upon
a slight shiverer. In the writer's opinion it is never directly re-
sponsible for producing the disease, but there is no doubt whatever
that not infrequently it tends to develop the latent form ; and many

Common Diseases of the Horse 175

cases have occurred in which a horse has been bought and passed as
quite sound, and which, after a railway journey, on being examined
again, has been found to be a marked shiverer.

The deterioration in value of a shiverer is very great. Most
horses that are worth when sound from ;^8o to j^ 100, would realize
not more than i^20 to £^0 even if only slightly affected. Those
showing pronounced symptoms would fetch from knackers' prices
to £10.

The class of animal affected is chiefly the heavy draught horse-
and the disease is comparatively rare among the lighter breeds.

Stringhalt

Stringhalt is another disease the direct cause of which is as
obscure as that of shivering.

Symptoms. — It is characterized by a sudden snatching up of one
or both hind limbs, and is most prominent when the horse is backed
or turned round, or even during ordinary progression. It is best
seen at the walking pace.

It affects all classes of horses. In the writer's own experience
it is most common in Hackneys, but it is also fairly common in
cart horses, Hunters, and Thoroughbreds.

In cart horses it is not infrequently associated with shivering,
the difficulty being to separate one from the other, although no
twitching or tremors of the muscles may occur. Upon being
backed the horse will snatch the limb, and at the same time shoot
his tail with either the quivering movement or the spasmodic
pump-handle action. In some cases the disease is extremely diffi-
cult to detect, as one has to decide between extravagant action on
the one hand and undue spasmodic flexion on the other. Excite-
ment in an extravagant mover has also considerable influence upon
the flexion of the limbs. A horse in a showyard, under strange and
exciting circumstances, will behave in a far different manner from
what he will when near his own stable and under ordinary conditions.

With regard to deterioration, it affects different classes of
animals in diverse ways, and whilst in a cart horse it enormously
reduces the value, it is not regarded in so serious a light in the
lighter breeds. Some of our most valuable racehorses have been
badly affected, but it has apparently had very little effect on their
racing career. Indeed, winners of classic races have been most
prominently affected.

To the horsy man stringhalt is variously known as "cocking",
" lifting ", " snatching ", or " pulling a leg ".

176 Common Diseases of the Horse

In a cart horse, if the animal on being made to move over or
on being backed, Hfts its leg, and at the same time shoots his tail,
it is called a " bobby-backed ", a " bobby ", or a " policeman ". As
already stated, the best time to diagnose stringhalt is when the
horse is moved after standing at rest. The observer should always
turn the animal over in the stall both ways, and should see him
when he is backed out, as not infrequently the disease appears to be
of an intermittent nature, and will only be evident at certain times.
After being brought out of the stable the horse should first of all
be backed, and after that turned sharply round, first to the left
and then to the right, one hand of the attendant having short hold
of the bridle, the other being placed on the flank, and a turn made
in as small a circle as possible. Any undue snatching of either
hind limb should be looked for. The snatching may be of any
degree, from slight undue flexion of the hock to the hind foot being
brought up nearly to the animal's belly. Further confirmation
may be sought by walking or trotting him 20 or 30 yd., and then
suddenly turning first one way and then the other.

In addition to the spasmodic lifting of the limb, it is commonly
banged down with great force to the ground, which causes the shoe
to be worn out rapidly and a good deal of wear and tear to the
limb. In animals working on soft ground, and in the lighter
breeds, the condition does not appear to affect their working
capacity to any great extent; they will frequently do as much
work as their sound companions, provided too great a strain is
not put upon them and they are kept fit and in good condition.
Should they be brought into the turmoil of hard town work, and
placed upon slippery setts, then the condition will become greatly
aggravated; they will rapidly lose flesh and deteriorate.

This applies particularly to the cart horse, which soon becomes
useless for shaft purposes. The cost of such an animal in any case
entails a great increase in maintenance to his owner by having to
be shod very frequently. This, in addition to cost, also causes loss
of time necessitated by repeated shoeings.

Another great defect in what has been alluded to as " bobby-
backed " horses is their refusal to lie down (this also applies equally
to the shiverer), thereby losing the recumbent rest so essential to
the animal, and causing it to be worn out long before its time.

Finally, while one may tolerate certain degrees of stringhalt in
a harness horse or hunter, and not view it with much alarm in a
racehorse, a cart horse should always be refused, as one never knows
how the disease may develop so as to render the sufferer a compara-
tively worthless animal.

Common Diseases of the Horse

^11

Treatment. — Treatment has been tried, and occasionally proved
a success. It is, however, of a complicated nature, and involves
either the severing of a tendon in front of the hock or a cutting
of the fascia of the thigh. This can, of course, only be performed
by the veterinary surgeon.

Ringbone

Ringbone is an exostosis on the pastern bones; i.e. a deposit
of bone on any of the last three bones (not including the small
navicular) of the limb.

These bones correspond to the last three of those of a man's

Ringbone

A, Extensor pedis tendon, b, Os suffraginis or first phalanx. C, Os coronal.
D, Ringbone. E, Os pedis.

middle finger or toe. Thus the fetlock joint represents the knuckle
of the human being. Starting from the foot, they are known as
the coffin bone, which is contained in an unresisting horny box,
the hoof; the coronet, or short pastern bone, which is partly inside
the hoof; and finally the pastern, or long pastern bone, which, with
the cannon bone, unites to form the fetlock joint.

Ringbone is known as "true" and "false": true when it inter-
feres with the action of any of the joints, and false when it is simply
deposited on the bone without impeding the action of the joint.
It is also known as " high " or " low " ringbone: high when it affects
the bones above the hoof, and low when it occurs on those inside.

VOL. IIL 45

178

Common Diseases of the Horse

It occurs more frequently in the fore limb than the hind, and is
usually more serious in its nature there.

The conformation of the pastern is a great predisposing cause
of the disease. A short pastern favours its production by allowing
undue weight to be placed upon the terminal bones of the leg;
and a too long pastern is also found to be a favourable site. In a
short -pasterned horse ringbone usually occurs in the fore limb;
m the long-pasterned animal it usually affects the hind.

Symptoms. — The deposit of bone may be either large or small;
it may extend completely round the pastern — hence the term ring-
bone— and cause great disfiguration of the limb,
being evident to even the most casual observer; or
it may be of a very slight nature, and not easy to
detect even by the expert.

Lameness is caused sooner or later. The de-
gree of lameness, however, does not depend upon
the size of the growth, but upon its position and
the parts affected. The deposits of bone that
cause lameness must interfere with the articula-
tion of a joint by either interfering with its action
mechanically and thus stiffening it, or else by
causing an inflammation of the inside of the joint
on either end of the bones. The latter condition
is, of course, a most serious and almost incurable
disease, which causes the animal to suffer great
pain. On the other hand, the ringbone which
causes lameness by uniting the bones together, and
thus stiffening the limb, is not a painful disease,
and only interferes with the mechanical action of
the limb. This state of affairs is, of course, the ter-
mination of the disease, and it may have been painful during its
production. A simple deposit of bone that is not connected in any
way with the joint is practically only a disfiguration, and the term
"ankle bone" is often applied to this condition. It is advisable,
however, to regard it with a considerable amount of suspicion, and
when occurring in a horse with badly-formed pasterns, one never
knows how soon other deposits will appear which will ultimately
involve the joint.

Ringbone may occur on any part of the pastern ; it may be
in front or behind, or on either side, that on the side being usually
of a less-serious nature.

Low ringbone, or that affecting the bones that are contained
in the hoof (it is also known as pyramidal disease), is the most

"High"
Ringbone

Common Diseases of the Horse 179

serious, on account of the unresisting nature of the structures
involved. Much pain is occasioned, while relief is most difficult
to effect. In the young animal, considerable differences in the size
of the bones of the limb are frequently met with which may be
mistaken for ringbones. The pasterns will be found not to be
pairs, and one side may be larger than the other. These differ-
ences occur on the roughened surfaces of the bone, where certain
ligaments are inserted, and are really small deposits resulting from
the deposition of lime salts; as maturity advances they are absorbed,
and the bone eventually " fines " down to its normal condition.

The lameness arising from ringbone, if in the fore limb, and
particularly on the front of the joint, causes the horse to go on his
heels, as though affected with inflammation of the feet; if on the
hind limb, he goes on his toe. The exciting causes of the disease
are no doubt concussion and any uneven distribution of weight
upon the terminal bones of the limb.

Thus a horse with badly-shaped pasterns — either too long or
too short — although he will be all right as long as he is in the
country or worked on soft land, will soon develop ringbones when
brought on to the sett-paved town. Bad shoeing must also be
reckoned as a factor, as by paring the hoof undue weight is thrown
upon the limb, eventually causing inflammation of either the mem-
branes of the joint — those which secrete the oil — or the bone and
the covering of the bone, any of which may be responsible for the
ultimate bony deposit.

Treatment, — Treatment consists either in trying to fix the joint,
which may be done by firing and blistering, or removing all feeling
from the pasterns by severing the nerve just above the fetlock.
The latter is a somewhat risky operation in heavy horses, as after
the operation there is a tendency to degeneration of the foot, in
which case slaughter is necessary. Appropriate shoeing, such as
a plain or rocker round shoe, particularly if the case is on soft
ground, often gives relief.

Sidebone

In describing this disease, it is necessary to consider very briefly
the construction of the foot.

The terminal bone of the limb, known as the coffin bone, is
contained entirely within the horny box of the hoof, and corre-
sponds to the shape of the latter. Besides this bone there are
two others. One is attached to the supero-posterior border, and
is the navicular bone. Above this, partly within and partly
without the hoof, and articulating at its upper extremity with

i8o

Common Diseases of the Horse

the pastern bone, is the coronet bone. Other important structures
which the hoof contains are the bloodvessels, nerves, tendons, some
of the membranes which secrete the horn, and the elastic structures,
in which are included the lateral cartilages.

The back and lower part of the foot is made up of the horny
frog. Above it is the sensitive frog, and above this again more elastic
tissue, i.e. the plantar cushion. The sides of the foot are continued
backward to the heel, from what is called the wing of the coffin
bone, by two irregular elastic plates, known as the lateral cartilages,
contained partly within the horn, their upper borders being entirely
free. To the touch, they should be resilient or elastic as though

composed of india-
rubber. The function
of the whole of the
elastic structures is
to prevent concussion,
and thus protect the
delicate tissues of the
foot from the effects
of concussion, and
also, by expanding
and contracting as
the weight is on the
foot or otherwise, to
maintain its shape.

Sidebone occurs
when the elastic lat-
eral cartilages become
hardened and converted into bone. The causes of the disease are
no doubt hereditary. In addition, the method of shoeing plays
a most important part, and in some cases injury to the cartilage,
such as by a tramp or a tread, or some mechanical object may be
responsible. Under natural conditions, or when the horse is shod
with flat shoes, the frog should assist in bearing its due proportion
of the body weight. When unnatural conditions have to be adopted
to enable the horse to perform his work, and calkins or high
upright heels are put upon the shoes, as they have to be in towns,
then the frog is out of use, and undue weight is thrown upon the
heels.

In a great measure this will account for the much larger per-
centage of sidebone occurring in town horses compared with those
in the country, where flat shoes are generally used.

The disease is found most commonly in the heavy draught

Pedal Bones, showing ossification ol lateral cartilages,
constituting "sidebones".

Common Diseases of the Horse i ^ i

horse, and usually in the fore feet, although the hind are some-
times, but rarely, affected. Any number of the cartilages may
be attacked, but if only one or two, it is more commonly the
outside, although why this should be so is rather difficult to ex-
plain, as the weight of the horse would appear to fall more upon
the inside. The sidebone when complete invariably takes on the
same shape as the original cartilage, although it may be con-
siderably enlarged. Its position and shape and the condition of
the foot are of vast importance in deciding the future usefulness
of the horse. In light horses, the anterior part of the cartilage,
i.e. about the middle of the side of the foot, just above the coronet,
is almost the constant seat of the disease; in heavy horses it is
formed more towards the heel, and frequently the whole of the
structure is converted into a hard unyielding mass of bone. In
the former class of animal the condition must always be viewed
with the utmost suspicion, as sooner or later it will cause lameness,
and so render the animal useless for any work where speed is re-
quired. As regards the heavy breed, sidebone is an entirely different
matter, and if a number of town horses be examined, particularly
those which have been working two or three years, at least one-half
of them will be found affected. The proportion suffering from
lameness, however, will be infinitesimal.

Some owners look upon the disease as beneficial, as it enables
them to procure horses at a less price than they would have to
pay for sound animals. They also contend that, sooner or later,
the disease will develop. With a good foot, composed of sound
horn, wide, deep, strong heels, with plenty of width round the
coronet, the sidebone need not be taken seriously into account
as regards the future wellbeing of the horse, although it will to
some extent affect the seller. The reduction in price is from 15
to 30 per cent. With the blocky upright hoof, narrow round
the coronet and across the heels, or in the flat, shelly hoof, weak
and fleshy in the heels, sidebone is a serious defect, particularly
if it is prominent anteriorly. It should further never be taken
lightly if accompanied by the slightest suspicion of ringbone,
as in time they tend to coalesce, and often cause incurable
lameness.

The degree of elasticity or resilience of the cartilage will be
found to vary very much in different animals. In some they have
the feel of soft indiarubber, in others they will be found to be as
hard as the rubber tire of a trap. The latter are sometimes con-
demned, but to the writer's knowledge this condition often exists
in two-year- olds, continuing without the slightest change after

182 Common Diseases of the Horse

a long working life on town stones. So long as there is any degree
of elasticity or resilience to the touch, ossification, or the formation
of bone, cannot be said to have taken place. The prophet who
declares that such and such an animal will put up a "knot" (as
sidebone is invariably known in the north of England), will in
many cases find himself held up to ridicule as time goes on and
no change takes place in the condition.

Symptoms. — During the formation of the cartilage into bone,
i.e. while the " knot " is being formed, lameness, more or less, is
'occasioned, although there cannot be said to be any very char-
acteristic gait. The horse will put his toe to the ground first,
and be short and stiff in his action. He may be said to go in
a pottering manner, and will lie down whenever opportunity offers,
to relieve the pressure in the inflamed parts, and will not shovi
any inclination to get up unless compelled to do so. If kept at
work his condition will fall away; he will go over, or knuckle,
on his joints, become worn on his tendons, and soon assume an
entirely worn-out appearance. In this bone-forming stage care
and attention will usually avert serious developments. Work
should be ceased immediately the stiff gait is noticed, the shoes
should be taken off, and the horn in the region of the sidebone
rasped as thin as possible to remove the pressure on the sensitive
parts. The hoof should also be kept moist all over, and for this
purpose castor oil, well rubbed into the coronet and applied over
the surface of the horn, is an excellent remedy. The animal should
be turned out to grass or put in a loose box, and bedded on some
soft material, peat moss for choice, and kept there until the bone-
forming process is complete.

In many cases the lameness will be hardly noticeable, a slight
stiffness only being present. In such cases, appropriate shoeing
and light work on soft land will be found beneficial. When the
sidebone has fully developed, the lameness will usually disappear,
but if it still continues, various remedies may be used.

Treatment. — A very simple and, as a rule, satisfactory method
is by shoeing with a round shoe, thus relieving the heels of pressure
and transferring it to the frog. On no account should the opera-
tion known as springing the heels be allowed, i.e. removing the
horn at the heels so that the wall in that region does not touch
the shoe. The result of this is that with every step taken con-
siderable concussion is caused by the weight of the animal pressing
the diseased part on to the shoe, and thus adding to the pain and
aggravating the disease.

Should the lameness still persist, the operation first introduced

Common Diseases of the Horse 183

by Col. Fred. Smith, and known as " Smith's operation," is by far
the best remedy. It consists in sawing grooves down and through
the wall of the hoof, just without the limits of the sidebone, from
the coronet to the sole. The latter is then separated from the wall,
the result being that the portion of horn bounded by the sidebone
becomes perfectly loose and movable, and pressure upon the sensi-
tive parts is relieved. After the soreness of the operation, which
disappears in three or four days, is over, the horse is fit for work,
and in a week or so is perfectly sound.

This operation requires considerable skill, and all antiseptic
precautions must be taken, or very serious consequences in the
shape of abscesses in the foot will ensue.

Firing and blistering after the sidebone is complete are useless
as well as cruel. They may be sometimes very slightly beneficial
in hastening the process of formation, but as all efforts should be
directed to relieve pressure, one fails to see how other methods can
benefit. In light horses, frog and bar pads are useful, as they bring
the frog into play. With a good foot charlier shoeing may be
tried.

Navicular Disease

This is a condition in which the small bone known as the
navicular, or shuttle bone (situated behind the coffin bone), be-
comes diseased. In addition to this, one of the tendons, commonly
alluded to as the " back tendons ", passing at the back of the
cannon bone, and finally inserted on to the coffin bone, is also
implicated. In its course inside the foot this tendon passes under
the navicular bone, which acts as a lever, but it is separated from
actual contact by an oil sheath, or bursa, which supplies oil to
reduce the friction. This also shares in the disease.

Various causes have been discussed; the only one, however,
on which there is unanimity of opinion is that of heredity. Rheu-
matism is stated by some to be responsible, whilst prolonged rest,
fast work in heavy shoes, injury to the frog by a stone becoming
impacted in its structure and setting up an inflammation which
extends upwards, compression, bad shoeing, &c., are blamed by
others.

The disease is found most frequently in well-bred horses and
those that are about five years of age and upwards. It seldom
occurs under this age or in coarser-bred animals. It is very rare
in cart horses. The fore limbs are invariably affected, and no case
is on record of the hind being affected. The class of feet prone to
suffer are those described as donkey feet, i.e. narrow feet with long

I 84 Common Diseases of the Horse

toes, high contracted narrow heels, and too concave soles and frogs.
Those in which the frog has apparently been thrown entirely out
of action, and become wasted through loss of use, are especially
liable.

The reader must not imagine that all feet similar to those
described are bad, as some of the best light horses in the writer's
experience have had feet answering to this description, with the
exception of the too concave sole and frog. The fact remains,
however, that what are known as open feet, or those with weak
heels or prominent soles, do not become affected.

Symptoms. — Diagnosis is not easy, and requires a good deal
of observation. It may be, and often is, put down to shoulder
lameness or rheumatism, as in the later stages the muscles of the
shoulder become atrophied or wasted through confined action, and
the symptoms during progress are similar. Pressure on the frog,
with one of the jaws of the pincers on this organ and the other
on the wall of the frog, will often cause pain, but as horses which
are perfectly sound will flinch with even a good strong thumb
pressure, and also with a tap of the hammer, this method is any-
thing but certain. The animal should be seen on several occasions,
as the symptoms vary under different conditions. The first notice-
able signs are usually that he goes a bit short on first being brought
out of the stable, but after a few steps this disappears. He begins
to lose his action and go badly downhill. When at rest, and if
the trouble is confined to one limb, the animal will point the foot,
either by extending it with the fetlock only bent, or with the
toe upon the ground and the heel raised. If both limbs are
affected he will point or rest them alternately.

A resting or tired horse often behaves in this manner, but in
such a case he will also rest his hind limbs as well, whereas in
navicular disease the weight is constantly borne by them, and
they are not rested at all.

As the disease advances the symptoms become aggravated.
When put to exercise the animal takes longer to get sound, goes
on its toes, as may be readily proved by examining the shoe, which
soon becomes worn out in this part, while the heels are barely
touched. The patient becomes very confined and pottering in
its action, and gives the impression that it is suffering from rheu-
matism or shoulder trouble. After doing a journey and resting
for an hour or so it will come out of the stable very lame. The
foot in the meantime shows marked evidence of the disease, the
sole becomes more concave, and the frog, through not being used,
retracts still further, while the heels become higher and more

Common Diseases of the Horse 185

contracted, and eventually the animal is so lame that it can only
perform slow work on soft ground, and even at this it will not
last long.

Treatment. — If on account of the construction of the feet the
owner considers there may be danger of the horse becoming affected,
every precaution should be taken to prevent it. The frog should
be allowed to exercise its proper function and bear its due pro-
portion of weight, heavy shoes should be avoided, and thin plates
worn. Charlier shoes, if the condition of the horn will allow, are
excellent.

If the disease is suspected in its early stages and taken in time,
there is hope that with proper treatment the animal may be fully
restored to soundness. I have already mentioned that it originates
as an inflammation of bone, tendon, or oil sheath. The first steps
must be to subdue this as speedily as possible. For this purpose
the shoes must be taken off and the horse put to stand upon a
sloppy, wet bed of clay, where his frogs will touch the ground
without causing him much pain. He should not be allowed to
lie down in the daytime, but at night changed on to another good
bed made up of broken peat moss, mixed with sawdust and fine
shavings, which will keep it nice and open and not too solid.
Usually he avails himself of every opportunity to lie down.

If the case progresses satisfactorily, and the lameness disap-
pears, iron tips or three-quarter shoes with a tapering end may
be put on, the coronets well blistered, and at the end of a month
or six weeks the animal will be ready for light work.

If the treatment is unsuccessful, however, light work may be
performed by appropriate shoeing, and as by this time it will be
useless to try to bring the frog into play, a thick-heeled shoe must
be worn which will relieve the tension upon the diseased tendon.
A good method at the same time is to remove a piece of the toe,
and use a bent toe to the shoe in such a way that the horse practi-
cally rocks on its toe. In all cases the latter must be kept short,
and the soles fairly thin, to relieve pressure. Leathers with tar
dressing are also beneficial.

The old treatment used to be that of setoning the frog, i.e. pass-
ing the needle in at the hollow of the heel and bringing it out on
the sole at the point of the frog, and dressing the tape with turpen-
tine or other blister; but this practice has been discontinued. In
advanced navicular disease the only method of removing the lame-
ness is by neurectomy, an operation which must be performed by
a veterinary surgeon. It necessitates the cutting and removal of a
portion of the nerve which runs down the limb on each side

1 86 Common Diseases of the Horse

between the bone and tendons. It takes away all feeling from the
part below which they are severed. There are two methods, known
as the high and low operation, but the latter is liable to fail.

For a successful operation the horse should not be too old, and
have good thick horn with strong heels. He requires to be cast
and hobbled, and an incision is made in the groove about an inch
above the side of the fetlock, and not less than an inch of the
nerve removed. This process takes place on both sides of the
fetlock, but is performed a little higher on the inside to avoid inter-
ference by the other limb should any thickening ensue. After the
operation all feeling should be entirely removed from the foot.
This can be ascertained by pricking any part below the seat of
operation with a pin. Unnerving does not in any way alleviate the
disease in the foot, and it either remains stationary or probably
advances. Should the result prove satisfactory the horse will go
sound for a year or two, when a return of the lameness will usually
take place. The operation may then again be performed, but a
little higher up the limb.

Unsound Feet

To act on the old saying, " No foot, no horse ", is the best advice
the buyer or breeder can have. However good the animal may
otherwise be, if the feet are not good trouble is being sought in a
most certain fashion. They should be good in every respect and
composed of sound horn, the tougher the better. Dark horn is
usually better than light; the best is of a dark-blue colour. It
must not, however, be supposed that light or white horn is bad.
In many cases a good white foot will wear quite as well as those of
a darker hue; but, all things being equal, preference should cer-
tainly be given to the darker colour as being more likely to stand
the wear and tear to which it will be subjected.

The wall requires to be of a good uniform thickness, greatest at
the toe, and gradually getting thinner towards the heels, with a
slope which attains its maximum in front. This should be an
angle of 45° to 50°, gradually getting more upright as it recedes
towards the heels. The whole wall should be smooth and even,
without rings or depressions, as these are symptoms of previous
disease, either constitutional or of the foot itself It should be of
medium depth and, most important of all, wide round the coronet.

On the ground surface the sole requires to be nicely concave
and united firmly to the wall, and likewise composed of a good
quality of horn. The frog should be bold and well defined ; the

Common Diseases of the Horse 187

heels strong, a fair depth, and a good width across. In shape the
whole foot should approach the oval rather than the round, as calcu-
lated to better resist wear and prove altogether more serviceable.

The round open foot is often not of the wearing kind; it is
likely to become flat-soled. This kind readily bruises, and gives
rise to difficulty in shoeing; has weak, fleshy heels, and has in
iddition a tendency to separation of the wall and sole, or of the
layers of horn composing the wall.

With regard to general conformation, the hind feet are more
upright than the fore, and not infrequently a little narrower and a
trifle longer. In all cases, however, both fore and both hind feet
should be pairs. Odd feet should always be regarded as a grave
defect, as almost invariably there has been some cause for the dis-
crepancy, and a horse showing this defect should not be entertained
for either stud or work.

Seedy Toe is a condition in which a cheese-like material makes
its appearance between the layers of fibres of horn at the toe,
causing a separation in the wall. This disease often extends a con-
siderable distance up the wall, sometimes nearly to the coronet.
It also extends round the foot as far back as the heels. In the
round flat foot the quarters are frequently affected as well. They
are then known as seedy feet, and are readily detected by removing
the shoes and paring the foot between the wall and sole, when the
cavities caused by the disease are easily exposed. If a wall in this
condition is tapped with a light hammer, mallet, or any other suit-
able instrument, a hollow sound is produced instead of that solid
tone one should find. It may be tried in the same way as a barrel
is rapped to determine how much liquid it contains.

Shelly or Shaky Feet are those in which the horn is of a brittle
nature, and easily breaks, chips off", or wears until it is unduly thin,
and will not carry the nails properly. Sandcracks are liable to
occur, and trouble from shoeing is frequent in such a condition.

Contracted Foot is that which appears to have shrunk or become
smaller than its fellow; particularly is this so at the heels, causing
a squeezing together of the various structures in that region. If
picked up the frog is found to be small, and may be distorted in
shape, according to whether the contraction has occurred on one or
both sides. In deciding as to the unsoundness of a foot, the buyer
or breeder must use his discretion, whether the disease or defect
is hereditary or acquired, and if the latter it may not be a difficult
matter to remedy.

Seedy toe is often caused by the toe-clip being too tight; brittle
feet by over-rasping; contracted quarters by bad shoeing. Care

1 88 Common Diseases of the Horse

should be exercised in estimating the size of the foot as to whether
they are small or merely broken through lack of attention. In
many young horses a ringed condition, just below the coronet, will
be found, but this is comparatively common, and indicates a growth
of new horn. It appears to overlap the smooth horn below it, and
shows that the foot is spreading out. Sometimes the wall is allowed
to grow much too long and the sole is neglected. Until it is cut down
and removed to the level of the sole, one may easily be deceived
and imagine that separation existed, because numerous cavities will
be found. They all disappear with the use of knife and rasp, and
perfectly sound condition is found.

The frog may also be thrown out of use by overgrowth of the
wall, and appear small and undeveloped. With proper attention,
and allowing it to come in contact with the ground, it will soon
become restored in shape and size.

Treatment. — Seedy toe or seedy feet should be dealt with as
soon as detected. The whole of the unsound horn should be re-
moved and the cheesy material cut away until not a trace of it
remains. To do this, it may be necessary to remove a very great
deal of the crust of the wall ; in some cases it seems almost like
removing all the outside wall of the foot. This, no doubt, appears
drastic treatment, but it will undoubtedly pay better in the end.

In removing the unsound horn the operator must cut away
until all the horn is perfectly sound, and for this purpose he will
require to almost draw blood. This will, however, not be quite
necessary, as he will recognize the sound material by its elastic
nature. The whole of the parts operated upon must be then well
dressed with a lo per cent solution of carbolic acid. A light bar
shoe should then be put on if it is possible to find room for nails;
if not, a leather boot will be necessary, and a smart blister is to be
applied round the coronet. This may be repeated two or three
times, and afterwards the coronet and hoof may be dressed with
common castor oil.

Such treatment, together with careful attention, should result in
the foot growing down quite sound.

Contracted foot may be treated by several methods. If it is
caused by improper shoeing, it will usually assume its natural
proportion with appropriate methods. If, on the other hand, it is
contracted from disease, surgical treatment is necessary. Some
veterinary practitioners fire the coronet deeply all round, afterwards
blistering and putting on a bar shoe, but unless the firing goes very
deeply into the coronet little relief will be given to the squeezed-in
contents of the back part of the foot.

Common Diseases of the Horse i 89

ration which is very much to be preferred is performed

• manner to that described under Sidebone.

eration is performed on one or both sides according to

:tion ; two grooves should be made, one at the quarter

( about the middle of the heel, severing the horn from

■ry band to the sole. The latter need not be separated

wall as in the operation for sidebone. By this means

is allowed to take place at the contracted side of the

he pressure is reduced. With antiseptic precautions the

ill heal in a few days, after which a blister may be applied

ir shoe put on. In many cases, after operation, the horse

.ik quite sound in about a week or ten days and be fit for

vvork.

The foot will then grow down quite sound, and when the grooves

.lave grown out all trace of the operation will have disappeared.

Shelly or shaley feet, in which the horn is of a brittle nature, or
over-thin, may be greatly improved by applying blisters round the
coronet, and afterwards rubbing castor oil well in daily. The wall
may also be treated similarly with the oil. A leather sole covered
with tow well dressed with Stockholm tar will greatly benefit the
horny sole and frog.

Splint

The fore and hind limbs, from the knee and hock down to
the fetlocks, are each composed of three bones, one large, long,
partially round bone known as the cannon or shank bone, and
two smaller bones situated behind on each side of it and separated
from the large bone by ligamentous structures. All three bones
articulate with those of the knee and hock and so take their
part in bearing the weight of the body,

A splint may be described as a deposit of bone on any part
of those three bones. It is the result of inflammation of the
bone itself or of the membrane covering it.

Several varieties of splint are known. One is a simple deposit
of bone between the small and large bone, or on the large bone
itself Three or four knobs occurring between the large and
small bones are known as a " chain " splint. One small knob
on the inside and another on the outside is called a " peg "
splint; sometimes a small bony bar connects these at the back
of the bone — a " fusee " splint. The last three forms are gener-
ally small knobs about the size of a pea, but occasionally com-
paratively large deposits of bone occur, which are up to the
size of a hazel nut and can readily be seen by looking at the leg.

190

Common Diseases of the Horse

m

B —

f)^

Splint, although undoubtedly hereditary, is not nearly so
serious a disease as any of those previously enumerated. Indeed,
in the majority of cases, it causes very little trouble, and in some
animals may be entirely disregarded. The class of horse and
the position of the splint must be the guide in determining
whether the animal's usefulness will be interfered with. In cart
horses, splint seldom or never causes lameness; in a long ex-
perience in the examination
of a very large number of
cart horses the writer has
never known it to cause any
trouble, so that in dealing
with this disease it is not
proposed to include heavy
horses in the following ob-
servations.

The class of animals
affected are light horses, par-
ticularly finely-bred ones with
long cannon bones and pas-
terns, narrow in their knees
and chests. In short, while
all light horses are subject
to it, and many do suffer
slightly, the "weed" is in-
finitely the most susceptible
to the disease.

Splints may be found on
any part of the cannon; they
occur more often in the fore
than in the hind limbs, and
also on the inside more often
than the outside. The posi-
tion in which they occur determines whether or not they will
cause lameness. In most cases they must be regarded as a
throwing out of bone, the result of inflammation of the bone
or its covering, caused by injury or overwork. Especially is this
so in young horses whose frames have not arrived at maturity.
They do not cause any trouble when placed in a forward position
on the bone, but they must be regarded as serious when so far
back as to interfere with the action of the tendon which runs down
the back of the leg.

The chief cause is concussion, and the reason for their being

k^x

Splint
A, Exposed splint. B, Splint covered by skin.

Common Diseases of the Horse 191

found more frequently on the inside, is the fact that more weight
is thrown here than on the outside of the limb.

Apart from being nearer to the centre of gravity the whole
of the inner splint bone comes into contact with the bones of
the knee, while only part of the head of the outer splint bone
does so. Remembering that concussion is the chief cause, great
care should be taken not to put undue stress on the bone whilst
it is still in the process of formation.

Young horses, if they are to be given a fair chance of reaching
maturity with their development unimpaired, should not have
any great strain put upon them. Thus, a three- or even a four-
year-old should not be put into regular work on town stones,
or be driven regularly long distances on macadamized roads.
A young hunter should not be required to do a hard day, or
expected to gallop at top speed when the going is heavy. Such
are certainly the most fruitful causes of splints. I am not for
a moment an advocate of keeping young horses idle — in fact, I
consider they benefit largely by being broken soon after they
are two years old — but they should only be required to do such
light work as will not interfere with their growth and conforma-
tion, and help to bring them slowly and gradually to maturity;
so that when they attain five or six years of age, they will be
able to resist the extra strain of hard work. A six-year-old that
has not been worked is quite unfitted to perform hard work, and
is not in any way as suitable as a five-year-old, or even a four-
year-old that has been accustomed to work judiciously from two
years of age. It is similar to asking a boy to perform the work
of a man.

The size of a splint has seldom any great bearing upon the
question of whether or not lameness may be caused. The posi-
tion is of the greatest importance. They may be so small as to
escape detection except by the most experienced veterinarian;
they may be so large as to be easily seen. It is the small
splint at the back of the small bone and three or four inches
below the knee, or higher up at the head of the same bone, that
is most often responsible for lameness either by its pressure upon
the tendon or upon the bone or its covering.

Symptoms. — The symptoms shown are much more manifest
at the trot than when walking. In fact, an affected animal
walks sound, but when trotted it will go very lame indeed,
with much dropping of the head. Lameness increases with
exercise and the animal will go worse downhill, particularly
on a hard road. On a level road, soft or hard ground does not

192 Common Diseases of the Horse

seem to make any difference. There is a confined action of
the limb from the knee downwards, and he will appear to take
a short step with very little elevation of the leg. If the splint
is at the back of the limb, the lameness is only slight, and if
work is continued he will tend to go over afe the knee and rest
the leg in the stable to ease the tendon or ligament.

The detection of splint is sometimes easy and sometimes
difficult, but to make a thorough examination, the hand should
be passed down the limb with the middle finger on the edge
of the inner splint bone and the thumb on the edge of the
outer splint bone. It should be done when the horse is standing
naturally with the opposite fore leg held up. This will cause the
tendons to become tense, and any unevenness on the bone will
be more apparent. The suspected limb should then be held
up with the knee of the horse placed upon the bent leg of the
observer and the thumb of either hand run down the whole
length of the cannon bone as far behind it as possible. If the
horse is sound, nothing in the shape of an obstruction should be
encountered.

It has previously been stated that splints situated on the front
of the large cannon bone very rarely cause unsoundness, and need
not be taken into serious consideration except when it is so
prominent that it is likely to be bruised by the other limb.

Treatment. — Unless lameness is caused, it is much wiser not
to interfere with a splint in any way, and any attempt to do so
will probably result in the would-be buyer having his suspicions
aroused by the blemish arising from the treatment.

When lameness is caused, however, it should be dealt with
immediately. Cold-water applications should be used for three
or four days, and if the deposit is small and situated on the
large bone, a little red blister about the size of a hazel nut
should be rubbed in for a few minutes every third night for
ten days or so, the horse being put in a box with a cradle on,
or his head tied up. It should be observed that in all cases of
firing and blistering, the parts operated upon must be protected
from the animal's teeth, by its head being made fast as above
directed until the irritation has subsided. This will generally
have to be done for from three days to a week, according to
the severity of the operation.

If the splint is situated between the large and small bones,
it is usually advisable to have it punctured with a needle firing
iron and afterwards apply the red blister. This course, although
more severe, will save a lot of time and trouble, and it is more

Common Diseases of the Horse 193

certain in its action. Swelling will occur, but in a few days cold-
water bandages may be used, and finally the horse will be sound
with very little or no blemish.

Other methods used with varying success are shaving the hair
from the limb over the splint and frequently painting with strong
iodine liniment; the application of setons; by passing a knife
in underneath the skin and cutting the covering of the bone
over the splint. These operations, however, are not generally
adopted, and it is not necessary to go into further details regard-
ing them.

A word of warning should be given regarding the use of
liniments and other liquids of a like character. The application
of these does a great amount of harm, by causing irritation and
increased inflammation to acutely-inflamed parts, and their use
cannot be too strongly discouraged save when under veterinary
direction.

Spavin

Spavin is a deposition of bone on the lower anterior and inner
aspect of the hock; the joint itself is composed of six bones, but
in addition to these, the large bone, known as the tibia, which
runs from the stifle, forms its upper boundary, and the cannon,
or metatarsal bone, with which we may include the two splint
bones, forms the lower part of the joint. Flexion of the hock is
carried out by the tibia and the upper bone of the hock. This
joint seldom or never becomes affected with the disease.

The deposit of bone takes place on or between the lower small
bones where only a little gliding movement takes place. In reality
spavin is an inflammation of the bone or its covering, and this
causes the bony deposit to be thrown out; and eventually leads
to fusion or welding together of two, or even all, of the small
bones. Sometimes the inflammation occurs on the articular sur-
face of the bones without any bony deposit being discernible.
The term " occult spavin " is applied to this condition. It is
most difficult to diagnose, and is often only suspected when the
observer has failed to find any other cause for lameness in the
limb. Conformation is undoubtedly a predisposing cause, and the
horse with a strong, well-formed hock is much less liable to the
disease. A coarse hock, i.e. where all the prominences are large
and well developed, is far less susceptible than the clean, fine
one. The best hock is broad and long, and when the hand is
passed over it, it should glide without perceptible obstruction to
the cannon bone. This condition is usually met with in a fine,

VOL. III. 46

194 Common Diseases of the Horse

narrow hock, but it will not stand strain or wear, and the same
applies in a less degree to the moderately broad and short hock.
" Sickle hock " is a term applied to a condition where the limb
from the thigh downwards describes a curve, so that the point is
usually too far behind the animal. "Cow hock" is a similar
condition with the angle of the hock sharper than ordinarily, the
points being turned inwards and the cannon bone running out-
wardly and slightly forward. Literally speaking, the hocks are
turned in and the toes out. These latter conditions also favour
the production of spavin. The exciting causes are concussion,
pressure, and sprain. These are produced by overwork, a sharp
pull up, a false step at starting, jumping, rearing, and many other
causes.

Symptoms. — Spavin is diagnosed by passing the hand over the
lower inside portion of the hock, when an undue prominence will
be encountered, which if only present in one limb must be viewed
with grave suspicion. If this prominence exists in both limbs,
however, and on being put through his paces the horse moves
well, and especially if five years of age, little fear need be enter-
tained that unsoundness exists. If, on the other hand, the con-
dition described is found in one limb only and the hocks are not
a pair, it is always wise to consider the animal unsound. Odd-
hocked horses are among the most dangerous purchases, as any
horseman of experience can testify.

Another method of diagnosis is to stand a few paces in front of
the animal, stoop down and look between the fore legs, when fre-
quently the difference in size will be seen.

In examining an animal for spavin, particularly when dealing
with a stranger, care must be exercised where coarse hocks exist,
as it is no uncommon thing for the unscrupulous dealer to tap the
other with some instrument until it attains the size of its fellow.
In this case the latter will be soft and fluctuating, while the former
will be hard and bony. Sooner or later spavin produces lameness,
which in many instances is characterized at the commencement by
being intermittent in character.

An animal will start slightly lame ; this soon wears off. Upon
being pulled up, and after standing a little while, it will again show
lameness. Such an animal will also be noticed to turn over lame
in the stall. If now the hock is examined a slight swelling will
probably be discovered, together with some amount of heat. The
animal may then be taken out of the stable, the leg lifted up to the
belly and held there for a couple of minutes, when on being asked
to move it will likely enough be very lame, and if the disease is of

Common Diseases of the Horse i 95

the occult kind, it will, for the first few steps, be hardly able to put
its foot to the ground.

As time goes on the sufferer will become more lame, and when
trotted will carry his quarter on the lame side low, and will drop
very much. It will drag the toe, thus causing the shoe to become
very much worn, whilst the heel may hardly be touched. Care
should be exercised in the purchase of an apparently sound horse
that has one hind shoe worn at the toe.

Treatvient. — When one is satisfied that spavin lameness exists,
the earlier the animal is treated the more satisfactory will be the
result. If it is allowed to remain at work the deposit of bone may
attain to a very large size and cause complete disfiguration.

Rest, of course, is the first essential, and for this purpose the
shoes may be taken off and the horse put into a loose box on a
good bed of spent tan or peat moss. Cold-water applications may
be then used for as long as may be considered necessary. If in a
month or six weeks a satisfactory result has not been obtained, then
one of several operations should be tried. The most successful, ir
the writer's opinion, is firing with a fine-pointed iron. Other opera-
tions successfully performed are those of line and needle firing.
After each of these it is necessary to blister a day or two later, and
again once or twice during the treatment. Setons are often used,
and have proved very successful in many cases.

Another operation is that known as tarsal tenotomy; it consists
of dividing a tendon which passes obliquely over the hock. It is
very good treatment where large spavins exist, particularly when
the horse is doing slow work. After any of the above operations
a rest of two or three months is necessary, in order to give the
horse a fair chance of recovery.

The best method is to give him a summer's run at grass; or if
not in the grass season, turn him loose in a box with his shoes off
and feet carefully rasped. At the end of that time it must not be
expected that the spavin will have disappeared; it will probably be
as large as ever, but the affected bones will have become united,
the hock action greatly limited, but the lameness gone.

Occult Spavin may be said to be an inflammation of nearly the
whole hock with the exception of the true joint, and may start
between two of the bones or in several places at the same time.
It occurs more often in well-bred animals than in the coarser and
heavy types. The long narrow hock is particularly susceptible.
Lameness varies when compared with that of bone spavin, and is
not lessened by exercise, but persists continually for months.
There is also very limited movements of the joint, and on resting

196

Common Diseases of the Horse

in a stall after a gallop an affected animal will show great uneasi-
ness of the limb. At the trot it will be found to go very much on
its toe.

Treatment. — This should be similar to that of bone spavin, but
a longer time and more severe measures are necessary. The hock

Firing Irons

should be fired all over, inside and outside, with the exception of
the cap, and afterwards blistered several times. Even after this is
done, and from three to six months given, it is quite likely that the
patient will only be fit for slow work.

Curby Hocks

Curby hocks are those which, although not actually diseased
have every predisposition to become so. They may be described
as over-bent, and are of the " sickle " and " cow-hocked " kind.
Generally they have the bone known as the calcis, which forms the
point of the hock, unduly long and altogether too weak.

The reader must not confuse "curb", which arises from a sprain
of the ligaments at the lower aspect of the back of the hock, with
"curby" hock, which is really a point of defective conformation.
The latter is extremely liable to disease, and will not stand wear.
Horses showing such defects will be very deficient in power of the
hind limbs, and if asked to move heavy weights will be found to
screw their legs, causing them to twist round on their hind toes
with the point of the hock turned outward at each step.

Some people are inclined to doubt the wisdom of including
curby hocks in the schedule of hereditary diseases, but experience
has proved that there is little doubt of this defect being transmitted
from parent to offspring. However good the sire or dam may
otherwise be the breeder will always be well advised in declining
those with curby hocks for the stud,

Common Diseases of the Horse

197

Treatment. — As previously remarked tliis class of hock is in-
variably weak, and although it may appear unnecessary and eve«
cruel, the kindest thing to do is to fire the hock practically all
round as suggested for occult spavin, afterwards blistering several
times. This has an effect similar to placing a permanent bandage
round the structure, and enables it to resist wear and otherwise
greatly lengthens its period of usefulness.

In some countries it is a common practice to fire the hocks of
young horses even if quite sound and well formed, for the purpose
of giving them strength, so that the buyer need not always assume
that a fired hock has been treated in this manner for some disease;
particularly is this so if they happen to be young hunters or well-
bred horses from the Emerald Isle.

Cataract

Cataract is a disease of the eyeball, and affects the lens, which
to the lay reader may be described as the transparent partition in
the eyeball. This when looked into in a dark box with a candle

Partial

Cataract

Complete

should appear quite clear, no opacity of any kind being seen.
Cataract is an opacity in this clear part of the eye, i.e. the crystal-
line lens. There are two forms of the disease, known as true and
false, but it would not be of interest to the reader to describe them,
and we shall not attempt to distinguish between them.

The common method of examining the eye is to place the
horse in the shade and interpose some dark object between the eye
and the rays of light. A good method is to place the crown of a
black felt or silk hat just in front of the eyeball and look into it,
when a perfectly clear space should be visible.

198 Common Diseases of the Horse

Symptoms. — An opacity or cataract may take the form of a pin
head, streak, triangle, star, or it may involve the whole lens, so that
the whole space that should be transparent will appear cloudy or
milky-white in colour.

Another method of examination is to place the horse in a dark
box and examine the eye with a wax match or candle, when three
images should be seen; two moving in the same direction as the
candle is moved, the third upside down and moving in the opposite
direction. These images in a fully-expanded healthy pupil should
be perfectly clear and distinct. Should an opacity form, the in-
verted image will become indistinct; as the disease progresses it
will disappear altogether, and in complete cataract only one image
may appear. Cataract, if acquired, is usually preceded by several
attacks of inflammation of the eye. Generally the experienced
man who has an animal twice affected in this manner considers it
advisable to dispose of him, because when a cataract has developed
there is no cure.

Before, however, deciding that the animal is affected, it must be
distinctly understood that an opacity such as has been described,
exists inside the eyeball and not on the outside transparent cover-
ing. The latter form is fairly common, and is usually caused by an
injury or superficial inflammation, and it will soon clear up when
the surface of the eye recovers. Such a condition is of very little
detriment and need cause no alarm.

Complete cataract may cause total blindness, but however slight
the disease may .be, vision is bound to be interfered with. Some
cases of shying are caused in this way.

Treatment. — In the case of the human being, where spectacles
can be worn, there are several methods of operating, but these are
rarely if ever applied to the lower animals.

Rheumatism

It is very probable that considerable dissension may be expressed
as to whether rheumatism should be classed as hereditary, but in
the writer's experience it is most certainly transmissible.

Opinions differ as to its cause. By some it is stated that a
microbe is responsible, but up to the present time this has not been
absolutely proved; by others, that it is due to an excess of lactic
acid in the blood. It is much more common among the lower
animals than is generally supposed, and in many cases of lameness
that are attributed to sprains, and in animals that will not thrive,
rheumatism is responsible. Colour has apparently something

Common Diseases of the Horse 199

to do with the disease, as greys, light chestnuts, and washy bays
appear more prone to its ravages than the darker-coloured horses,
such as browns and dark bays. A characteristic of rheumatism is
that on its first manifestation it appears and disappears, or moves
from one part of the body to another. A horse may be lame one
day in the shoulder and sound the next ; he may be lame in the fore
limb, suddenly become sound in that leg and become lame in a
hind one. Climate has a considerable influence, and wet weather
will frequently cause its appearance.

After one attack it is liable to recur. It causes a great deal
more trouble in young horses than it does to those of some age,
and if not treated in its first stages it is prone to become
chronic.

Constitutional diseases, such as influenza, strangles, and chest
affections, appear to be predisposing causes particularly in young
horses, and if the latter are not given the best of attention as
regards stable management, and they are exposed to wet or cold,
an acute attack is quite likely to supervene.

Symptoms. — Acute rheumatism is marked by fever, and the tem-
perature may rise several degrees. Hot and painful swellings occur
on the tendons or joints; in this condition the horse will be hide-
bound, constipated, and will move with difficulty.

The chronic form is distinguished by an absence of fever. The
swellings are not so large or painful at first, but as time goes on the
joints become enlarged and deformed, the tendons thickened, and
the animal is spoken of generally as being a bad doer. A typical
case may be described as follows: —

The horse will first be noticed to lie down at almost every
opportunity, not in an easy, comfortable manner with his legs
partially under him, but on his side, with all his legs stretched fully
out. On getting up he will show a certain amount of stiffness and
stand with his legs under him. He will begin to lose the healthy
feel on being touched, and become more or less hidebound. The
stiffness will disappear after a little exercise, but he will again
show it after rest. If put into a loose box he will lie down directly
he has finished his feed, and will remain so until he is again forced
to get up. As the disease progresses, on the animal being walked
round the box a crackling of the joints will often be heard, the
sufferer loses condition rapidly, becomes tucked up in his middle,
and soon becomes a complete wreck.

In such a case the writer has very often noticed a great increase
in the height of the horse. Five-, six-, and seven-year-olds have
grown a hand in l&ss than twelve months. Whenever such rapid

200 Common Diseases of the Horse

growth is observed the owner will be well advised to limit the
animal's work and put him on a light laxative diet.

A five- or six-year-old requires to grow down, or as it is com-
monly called, to " drop himself". A little increase in height is
natural, especially when fed as he should be for hard work, but the
growth should be gradual, natural, and an all-round development.

Treatment. — In the acute stage associated with the rise of
temperature and hot and painful swellings, alkaline treatment is
indicated to counteract acidity. A ball containing bicarbonate of
soda and salicylic acid may be given three times daily, and 2 oz.
of Epsom salts in the drinking water first thing every morning will
be found to act as a nice laxative.

The swollen joints or tendons may be rubbed with arnica or
camphor lotion, and dry flannel bandages applied. Hot fomenta-
tions are also used, but in rheumatism I am not an advocate of
water of any kind, and under no circumstance should cold water
be used.

After the acute stage has subsided and the temperature is
reduced, and also in the subacute stage, a full dose of aloes should
be administered, 4 to 6 drachms, depending upon the size and class
of animal — 4 for a cob, 5 for the 15- to i6-hands harness horse or
hunter, and 6 for a full-grown cart horse.

When the bowels assume their normal state salicylic acid may
be given until apparent recovery. Even when this appears per-
manent, one must remember that it is always liable to recur, and
due precautions should be observed.

Upon resuming work the diet must be carefully regulated, and
no dry corn should be given; Indian corn or maize in any form
must be avoided. The best food is steeped oats. Sufficient for
the following day may be placed in cold water, just enough to
cover them overnight, and mixed with the requisite amount of
chopped hay next day. Two pounds of bran and half a pound of
linseed may be added with benefit. A handful of Epsom salts in
the drinking water, first thing in the morning, is an excellent pre-
ventative. Where rheumatism has progressed so far as to become
chronic and not amenable to the above treatment, such as when
the tendons and joints have become swollen and contracted, the
joints enlarged, and the pasterns straight, firing must be resorted
to, and in all cases a long rest is required.

After such operations the result will be far more satisfactory if
the patient is placed in a well-ventilated loose box, with plenty of
fresh air, for a month or six weeks, than if turned out to grass,
because if the weather is at all wet or cold it will have a most

Common Diseases of the Horse 2oi

detrimental effect. In all cases where hereditary predisposition is
indicated, or previous attacks have occurred, prevention is better
than cure; careful dieting should be observed, precautions against
chills should be taken by good grooming, well drying when wet,
and not allowing the horse to cool quickly after getting hot.

Tuberculosis

In the human subject tuberculosis is known as consumption.
In the strict sense of the word tuberculosis is not hereditary, and
it is even stated by well-known veterinarians that under certain
conditions there is no predisposition to inherit the disease. These
conditions are, however, of a very exacting nature, and would not
appeal to the ordinary stockowner. In addition, it is a compara-
tively rare disease among horses, and is not, as a rule, suspected
until too late for remedial treatment.

If an animal is suffering from a wasting disease of the nature
of which the owner is doubtful, it is advisable to apply the tuber-
culin test, which will prove the existence or otherwise of the disease.
Needless to say, an affected animal should be isolated, and as it
will usually be hopeless for treatment, the best course is to have
it destroyed.

II. SOME COMMON DISEASES OF THE HORSE
Catarrh or Common Cold

This is an acute catarrhal inflammation of the membrane lining
the nostrils, which may be the only part affected, or it may arise
as a complication to other diseases of the head, throat, and chest.
It is similar in character to that which in the human being is known
as cold in the head.

Symptoms. — First of all there is a thin, watery discharge from
the nostrils, which gradually gets sticky and thicker as the disease
advances. The mucous membrane lining the nostrils becomes
reddened and slightly swollen; the glands underneath the jaw
become enlarged, tears flow from the eyes, and there may be a
slight cough; the temperature may rise one or two degrees, in
which case the coat will be more or less staring, with some disturb-
ance of the general system, usually not of a serious character.

Causes. — A sudden change in temperature is undoubtedly the
most common cause, and it frequently occurs in cold, damp weather.
A young horse brought from the country into the town invariably
becomes affected, either through indifferent stable management in

202 Common Diseases of the Horse

the shape of badly-ventilated and insanitary stables, or by some of
the microbes which are floating about in the air getting into the
respiratory tract.

Treatynent. — If taken in the early stages it is usually soon cured,
and this with very little trouble, but a neglected cold in the horse,
as in all other animals, may become serious. Complications may
occur; the throat and even the lungs may become affected.

It is wise to isolate the animal as soon as its illness is detected,
because if this is not done other horses in the stable will very likely
become affected, particularly those that have not had a previous
attack. It is usual to regard cold as being caused by microbes,
and therefore it is infectious. As most people know, if one member
of a household contracts cold in the head it usually runs through
the whole establishment. The affected horse should therefore be
placed in a well-ventilated, well-lighted loose box; plenty of fresh
air should be allowed, light, warm clothing and bandages put on,
and the animal fed on easily digested, laxative food, such as bran
and chop. Any green food that may be in season should be offered,
as well as long hay. A certain amount of concentrated nutriment
is also necessary, and this may be supplied by giving a few pounds
daily of steamed or macerated whole oats.

The nostrils require to be well sponged out both outside and
inside several times daily with a weak solution of some disinfectant.
The eyelids also require similar attention, or the face will become
scalded. Very little internal treatment is necessary, and under no
circumstances should the horse be drenched. Two ounces of Epsom
salts twice daily may be administered in the drinking water, and
in a few days the patient will generally make a complete recovery.
If, however, the process is not satisfactory, and at the end of three
days the discharge increases and becomes thicker, steaming of the
head must be resorted to.

This may be done by placing some loose hay in a bucket and
pouring over it boiling water, to which has been added half a table-
spoonful to the gallon of carbolic acid, or one tablespoon ful of
almost any coal-tar disinfectant. The horse should be made to
hold his head as low as possible over this whilst partially enveloped
in a piece of clean sacking.

The process should be repeated frequently during the day.
Under no circumstance whatever must a nosebag be used for this
purpose. Should the appetite not be good oatmeal gruel can be
given with advantage.

Common Diseases of the Horse 203

Sore Throat

This indicates inflammation of the membrane covering the
upper part of the throat, or to give it its proper name, the larynx.
In addition, the back part of the mouth (pharnyx) frequently shares
in the trouble, and consequently considerable difficulty is experi-
enced in swallowing.

Causes. — The commonest causes arc cold; sudden changes of
the atmosphere from dry to wet; damp, muggy weather; badly-
ventilated, insanitary stables, when inflammation is caused by
ammonia and other emanations arising from decomposing urine,
&c.; neglect of stable management, whereby chills may be con-
tracted, such as bringing in the horse hot from a journey and
allowing him to stand without being groomed, or neglect of groom-
ing before he goes out; drenching with hot water or other irritating
fluids; injury in the administration of balls; mechanical injury
from outside; and last but not least, micro-organisms.

Symptoms. — The first thing noticed is a cough, which is harsh,
dry, and painful, and can easily be distinguished as coming from
the throat. There will be difficulty in swallowing either solids or
liquids.

A discharge from the nose occurs when the mucus produced by
the inflammation is thrown off. The temperature rises a little, and
pressure upon the outside of the throat at the top of the gullet
causes coughing and pain. The appetite is not much affected, and
in a simple case little more occurs. With careful nursing and
sanitary precautions the patient soon recovers.

In severe cases all the above symptoms are aggravated; the
cough is troublesome and painful; an afTected animal will hardly
allow his throat to be touched; the appetite is diminished, and
swallowing is performed with great difficulty, or not at all. Liquids
will be returned through the nostrils. The temperature, however,
seldom rises more than two or three degrees, and the pulse is not
greatly affected ; a good deal of slobbering at the mouth may be
observed.

Treatment. — Treatment is somewhat similar to that previously
described in catarrh. A well-ventilated loose box, with abundance
of fresh air, should be provided, and the patient clothed and ban-
daged. The throat may be rubbed with a little strong embrocation
night and morning for the first day or two as discretion directs.
It is wise not to continue the embrocation when more or less
blistering has occurred.

It may not be out of place here to direct attention to the true

204 Common Diseases of the Horse

throat, i.e. the proper place to which the embrocation should be
applied. This is the groove running down from the base of the
ear to the back of the lower jaw; it is between the head and neck,
and not underneath the jaw or down the windpipe. This is men-
tioned because one so often finds that the lower part of the neck,
even down to the entrance of the chest, has been blistered upon
the supposition that these parts constitute the throat. Internally,
sedatives and astringents In the shape of electuaries of belladonna,
chlorate of potash, and boracic acid, are useful. A good method
is to dissolve i oz. of chlorate of potash in a quarter of a bucketful
of cold water, and place it before the horse to play with. This
will act after the manner of a gargle for the human subject. If
the throat is very sore, steaming, as already indicated, with water,
to which a tablespoonful to the gallon of eucalyptus, carbolic acid,
or any other of the coal-tar compounds has been added, will afford
relief Hot-water fomentations, or hot-water packs, covered by hot
dry flannel bandages, applied directly to the throat are also used.

Sometimes the attack is of a chronic nature, and the patient does
not recover. It is then necessary to resort to more drastic treatment,
and a " red " blister (biniodide of mercury) may be applied to each
side of the throat. Occasionally the swelling in the throat may be
so great as to cause a roaring noise, and a danger of suffocation
arises. Immediately such symptoms are noticed the advice of the
veterinary surgeon must be sought, as it may be necessary to put
a tube into the animal's windpipe to give temporary relief and
prevent suffocation. During the course of the disease abscesses
may form and rupture inwardly, or be indicated by the outward
appearance of tense, painful swellings that will require to be treated
with the surgeon's knife. The sooner they are opened the better,
and they should be encouraged to form quickly, or " point ", by the
application of a little embrocation rubbed daily into their dependent
and prominent part. The decline of the disease is marked by the
cough becoming softer and more moist, and the expulsion through
the nostrils of mucus, &c., from the inflamed membranes.

After a severe attack there is some risk, particularly in light,
well-bred animals, that permanent roaring may follow. To mini-
mize such a risk it is advisable to apply the red blister mentioned
above. The disease is often of a very debilitating nature, and
strength is slow in returning. For these reasons, during conva-
lescence the administration of tonics, both mineral and vegetable,
is necessary, as well as a comparatively long rest. Good food and
careful exercise are essential. During the course of the disease
feeding has to be carefully considered. An affected animal may

Common Diseases of the Horse 205

be allowed anything to eat, with the exception of dry corn. In
my experience I have found that the patient will reject mashes
and other soft foods, but will eat long hay with great relish, doubt-
less because the mastication necessary causes an abundant flow of
saliva, and so relieves the dry and parched condition of the mouth
and throat.

Strangles

Strangles is a specific contagious disease affecting only the
horse, ass, and mule, and is due to a micro-organism. It is char-
acterized by fever, a discharge from the nostrils, and the formation
of abscesses. It usually affects young animals, but old horses may
also suffer. After having had one attack it is most unusual for an
animal to become again affected. The most characteristic symptom
is a swelling in the space between the lower jaws, and this ulti-
mately forms into an abscess and bursts. Sometimes, however,
abscesses, depending upon how the disease has been contracted,
form in other parts of the body, such as the liver, kidneys, and
lungs. It is then spoken of as Bastard Strangles. In whatever
form the disease occurs it is of a debilitating nature, and for some
time afterwards careful nursing and good dieting will be very
necessary or other dangerous maladies are likely to supervene.
Once a satisfactory recovery is assured the patient thrives well.

Predisposing Causes. — These are youth, cold, damp weather,
catarrh, change from country to town, badly-ventilated stables,
any condition that lowers the vitality, and by some it is contended
that it commonly occurs during the casting of teeth. The actual
cause is of course the specific microbe.

Symptoms. — These may be mild or severe. In the former case
the temperature rises a little; there is a swelling under the jaws
which may be on one or both sides, and is accompanied by a dis-
charge from one or both nostrils corresponding usually to the side
of the jaw on which the swelling occurs. The discharge is semi-
white and not of a very sticky nature. The pulse is not much
affected and the appetite diminishes very little. If severe, most
of the above symptoms are aggravated, the horse is noticeably
sick, the fever is high, and according to the size and position of the
abscess so will the symptoms vary. If it is deeply-seated in the
throat and swelling inwardly, it will take much longer to form,
and may by pressure affect the breathing, which becomes of a
snoring nature and gives one the impression that strangulation
is about to take place — hence the name, strangles. If the increase
in size is apparent on the surface, the breathing will be very little

2o6 Common Diseases of the Horse

affected if at all, and the abscess will soon come to a head.
Deeply-seated abscesses more often burst inwardly and discharge
through the nostrils and mouth, whilst the superficial or external
abscesses do so underneath the jaw.

Treatment. — Everything must be done to encourage the abscess
to come to a head. For this purpose the swelling should be
fomented with very hot water, the longer the better, and after-
wards a little embrocation may be well rubbed in with two fingers
to the most prominent part. This may be repeated from day to
day. In a favourable case the abscess will burst about the fourth
or fifth day. If it is apparently deep-seated it may be advisable
to apply a smart fly bHster to the whole outward surface of the
swelling, but in a case of this nature veterinary advice should be
sought. After the abscess has burst, a finger should be inserted
into the opening and the cavity explored; loose tissue must be
broken down gently to give relief to any imprisoned matter. The
cavity may then be syringed out with a dilute disinfectant and the
part kept clean. A plug of tow soaked in antiseptic dressing may
be inserted so that gradual healing from the bottom results.
This process may be repeated night and morning.

A course of medicines is also advisable. The diet should be
tempting, and it is sometimes advantageous to have the manger
placed on the ground to aid the escape of nasal discharge. The
nostrils should be carefully sponged as mentioned in common
cold. Clothing suitable to the season and the severity of the
case will have to be used. In some cases it is necessary for
the attendant veterinary surgeon to put a tube in the animal's
windpipe.

Colic

Colic is the manifestation of sudden pain in the abdomen. It
may be called true, when the pain is caused by disturbances of the
stomach or intestines, and false when associated with any other
abdominal organs. It is further divided into two kinds known as
spasmodic, which is caused by spasm or contraction of the muscular
coats of the stomach or intestines, and flatulent, when the bowels
or stomach are unduly stretched or over-distended by gas arising
from fermentation of food. Horses are more liable to colic than
any other domesticated animal on account of the relatively small
size of the stomach and its relationship to man's method of feeding.
The average gastric capacity of the horse is from 2\ to 3| gal.,
and this is small when compared with that of the ox, whose
capacity is from 40 to 60 gal.

Common Diseases of the Horse 207

Causes. — As in the human being, improperly assimilated food,
causing indigestion, is in the main part responsible; but too much
or too little food, unsuitable food, long periods of abstinence,
food given at improper times, food of bad quality, drinking large
quantities of cold water when heated, or on an empty stomach,
worms and other internal parasites, and calculi, commonly known
as stones, are all common causes of the disease.

Symptoms. — The symptoms of spasmodic colic usually occur
very suddenly, and are manifested by restlessness, pawing the
ground with the fore limbs, stamping, kicking, turning the head
frequently to the side, endeavouring to strike the belly with the
hind feet, frequently lying down or attempting to do so and
rising soon again, increased pulse rate, and sweating which is
generally profuse. All or any of these occur in simple spasmodic
colic, which as a rule lasts anywhere from ten minutes to several
hours. An affected animal may even continue to feed, but will
be again seized by the painful spasms. The pain is not constant,
but, as the name indicates, is spasmodic. Flatulent colic, for which
gas formed by fermentation is responsible, in addition to pre-
senting the above symptoms, is accompanied by great distention
and tenseness of the abdomen.

Treatment. — Treatment consists first of all in relieving the pain.
In spasmodic colic a sedative or a diffusible stimulant must be
given as soon as possible after the symptoms are noticed. An
ounce of laudanum and two ounces of sweet spirits of nitre given
in a large wine bottle full of warm water is an excellent remedy;
or, if the laudanum is not procurable, the sweet spirits of nitre
may be given with the same quantity of aromatic spirits of
ammonia (sal volatile). In the latter case, the mixture will require
more dilution with water or the mouth will become scalded, and
at least a quart of warm water or gruel will be required. If these
remedies do not act within an hour or so, expert advice will be
necessary. Until that arrives, however, a little embrocation may
be applied to the belly wall, and rubbed in on each side with straw
wisps. If the pain still continues, hot -water blankets can be
fastened right round the belly. If this is done, it is necessary
that when the blankets are removed the parts should be well
dried, and rubbed with a little embrocation or methylated spirits
in order to obviate the risk of a chill. It is also advisable to rug
the horse up for a time. In the absence of diffusible stimulants
such as have been mentioned, any other available stimulant may
be used. For this purpose half a pint of whisky, given in a quart
of warm water or gruel, or a pint or two of beer — the older the

2o8 Common Diseases of the Horse

better — with half an ounce of ginger added to either, will help to
relieve the pain.

Opinions differ as to whether the horse attacked with spasmodic
abdominal pain should be allowed to lie down. Some veterinarians
will not allow it under any circumstances, and they keep an
attendant in the loose box with a whip to prevent him from
doing so.

Others, the writer among the number, believe in allowing the
animal to lie down, particularly if he shows signs of doing so without
throwing himself down. At the same time every effort should be
used to prevent injury, which may occur from rolling and other
frenzied movements. During the interval of freedom from pain
walking exercise is beneficial. This helps to promote the action
of the bowels.

A further debatable point is whether or not a physic ball
(dose of aloes) should be administered. Those in favour argue
that an irritant is present which should be removed as soon as
possible, and also that the bowel action should be speedily stimu-
lated. Those against such a course contend that to endeavour
to force the action of the bowel, which may be obstructed, or semi-
paralysed, will cause an unequal movement of it, and that in this
manner it may lead to one part becoming telescoped into the
other, or to a twisted gut.

Either of these conditions is fatal. The writer considers the
administration of aloes or i to ij pt. of linseed oil advantageous,
and that if the attack lasts more than two hours it should be given.

Flatulent Colic

Flatulent colic differs from the spasmodic in that the pain
comes on gradually, but it is more lasting, becoming more acute
as the intestines fill with gas. Finally, the abdomen may become
enormously distended and be of a drum-like nature, causing great
pressure upon the diaphragm, or skirt, which is the tendinous
muscle separating the cavity of the chest from that of the
abdomen.

The pressure exercised causes much difficulty in breathing,
because the lungs are confined in their action and cannot obtain
that amount of oxygen which the blood requires.

To relieve the pressure the horse will frequently sit upon his
haunches like a dog, but appears to be afraid to lie down, as by so
doing greater pain is caused to the distended organ.

Rupture of the stomach, bowel, or diaphragm is doubtless

Common Diseases of the Horse 209

caused when the patient is rendered desperate by the pain; the
horse throws himself violently to the ground.

Treatment. — Every effort must be directed to disperse the gas
and arrest any further fermentation, and remembering that the
cause is due to fermenting food the administration of antiseptics
is indicated. One of the most successful is \\ oz. of turpentine
given in i to i^ pt. of linseed oil. Another remedy is 2 oz. of
sweet spirits of nitre in a wine bottle full of water, and it is helped
in its action by the addition of cayenne pepper, or ginger.

The rectum must be examined, any dung removed, and warm
soapy water enemata administered every two hours.

During the intervals of freedom from pain the belly may
be well hand -rubbed or wisped, and hot-water cloths applied.
Walking exercise will also help to disperse the gas.

A favourable symptom in the course of flatulent colic is the
escape of wind by the anus, but if in spite of the above remedy
the swelling continues, nothing is left but to liberate the gas by
piercing the abdominal wall and bowel. This, of course, must be
done by a veterinary surgeon, and one cannot too strongly advise
horse owners to seek his advice unless abdominal pain is very
speedily relieved, because many cases end fatally through lack of
only a little proper treatment at the critical time.

Wind sucking produces a distention of the abdomen similar to
that which occurs in flatulent colic, but in this case the cause is
apparent. As a rule there is little or no colicky pain, because the
animal discontinues the practice when he finds that it is causing
him pain.

Some care is required after recovery from any kind of colic.
The horse should not be put to work until he has entirely re-
covered from the effects of the treatment, particularly if a dose
of aloes has been administered. The bowels should resume their
normal action, and until then only light exercise should be given.
The patient will require light digestible food for a few days and
gradually brought back to everyday diet. Prevention is always better
than cure. The cause should always, therefore, be sought after and
steps taken to prevent a recurrence of the trouble. Many horses
having been accustomed to hard food become attacked by colic
when put upon a whole or partial grass diet, or when they are
given roots or green food of any kind. The diet should be
regulated in the same way as that of a human being. The owner
should thoroughly understand his horse.

Small feeds at frequent intervals are the best means of pre-
venting this malady.

Vol.. 111. 47

21 o Common Diseases of the Horse

W^ounds

These may be divided into several classes, and are known as:
(i) Incised; (2) Punctured; (3) Lacerated; (4) Contused.

An incised wound is one caused by a sharp, clean cut, and the
edges are not ragged.

A punctured wound is usually inflicted by a blunt-pointed, long
instrument, and is more or less circular in shape.

A laceiated wound is one in which the parts are more or less
torn, so that ragged edges result.

A contused wound is one inflicted by a blunt instrument, and
causes more or less bruising of the parts.

Wounds are described as healing in various ways; such as by
immediate union, first and second intention, under a scab, &c. As
a matter of fact they all heal by one method, and that is by the
growth of new tissue to replace that which has been destroyed.

Treatment. — The treatment depends upon the nature and situa-
tion of the wound. If there is much bleeding, this must first of all
be checked by either tying the damaged bloodvessels, bandaging,
or applying antiseptic plugs kept in place by bandages. It is
absolutely necessary that every wound should be thoroughly
cleansed, as, if dirt is present, healing will be retarded and compli-
cations likely to occur. The main treatment, of course, is directed
to the speedy healing of the wound, and with this end in view it is
essential that the healing process should take place from the depth
of the wound, or, as it is commonly spoken of, " from the bottom ".
This is to prevent the matter (pus), which is always present in a
wound of any size, from becoming imprisoned and burrowing its way
into the tissues, which it will do if it " pockets " and is not allowed
free escape.

It is sometimes necessary, where the depth of the wound is in a
downward direction and on a lower level than the opening, to en-
large the latter by the use of a knife so that free drainage may be
given. The main principle in the treatment of all wounds is there-
fore strict cleanliness, to prevent contamination from dirt (micro-
organisms), healing from the bottom, and free drainage. If these
directions are noted a successful termination may be looked for.

To do this it is necessary to keep the wound open, and the
scab that forms must be removed almost daily as discretion directs.
In oldfashioned circles the removal of the scab is looked upon
almost with horror, as it is customary to imagine that when the
wound scabs nicely all is well. The condition is good for a short
time only, as the wound becomes sealed and the matter lying

Common Diseases of the Horse 2 i i

underneath cannot escape. By allowing a scab to remain on the
top of the chine, fistulous withers are caused, and in other parts of
the body deep-seated abscesses result.

Broadly speaking, small wounds may be well cleansed with
cold water (a hose-pipe is a very good method) when first they
occur, and afterwards dressed daily with antiseptics. Nothing
further is required. Large wounds may require to be sewn up and
so many stitches put in. If this is necessary it must be done within
a few hours after the injury has been inflicted or union will not take
place. For after treatment it may be netessary for plugs, bandages,
or drainage tubes to be applied; in any case, if the injury is so
serious as to require stitching, expert advice would have to be
sought.

Contused wounds of a severe nature require very careful hand-
ling, as a good deal of dead tissue results, which has to be thrown
off. This is called a " slough " or a " sloughing " wound, and it
often causes a good deal of after disfigurement.

During the healing of a wound a superabundance of new tissue
forms. This is known as " proud " flesh, and is not of a healthy
character. It requires to be checked by applying a caustic, such
as a little nitrate of silver or butter of antimony. In general treat-
ment the hair requires to be cut from around the edges of the
wound, or irritation will be caused. The injured parts must be
given as much rest as possible; in some cases slings are necessary.
The following make excellent dressings, and a choice can be made
of wet or dry applications. Present-day surgery favours dry
dressings.

Wet dressings. — Carbolic oil, 3 to 5 per cent; chinosol, a 15-gr.
tablet to I qt. of water; perchloride of mercury (corrosive sub-
limate), I to 2000; Jeyes's fluid, or any other of the coal-tar pro-
ducts, according to their various directions; friar's balsam, oil of
eucalyptus, thymol, &c.

Dry dressings. — Boracic acid, iodoform, oxide of zinc, sanitas,
or a mixture of any of these. If much pain is present in the wound,
a little powdered opium may be added as a sedative.

Bumped Knee — Broken Knee

Bumped knee occurs by the horse injuring the structures under-
lying the skin of the knee, without causing a visible wound. In a
day or two considerable swelling occurs, which may be soft and
fluctuating, or hard and tense.

Treatment. — Unless lameness is present rest is rarely advisable.

212 Common Diseases of the Horse

Early treatment, however, must be practised, or a permanently
large knee is likely to result. Hot-water fomentations should be
applied as often and as long a time as possible. They should be
practically continuous. The best method is for the attendant to
get two swabs and a bucket of hot water and bathe the injured
knee with gentle pressure, always from above downwards. During
the night hot cloths may be put on and covered with a mackintosh.
When a hardening of the injured part follows, blistering with a
mixture of red and black ointment may be tried, or it may be
painted night and morning with tincture of iodine, or an even
stronger solution, such as equal parts of the tincture and liniment.
It is very necessary before applying these remedies that the hair
should be removed as closely as possible. It is rarely advisable to
open a big knee, as the wound is long in healirrg, and often leaves
more disfigurement than the original injury would do if left to itself.
Time often effects a cure, and the writer has known several
instances in which big knees have disappeared in the course of a
year or so. It may be mentioned that bumped knee is often
caused by the horse striking it against the manger. Owners should,
therefore, take notice of their stable fittings.

Broken Knee

This occurs when the skin is broken and a wound caused.
When the latter is superficial it should be well cleansed by apply-
ing a moderate force of water through the hose-pipe, and after-
wards treated with dilute disinfectants for a day or so. One part to
20OO of a solution of corrosive sublimate, or one tablet of chinosol in
a quart of water, make excellent lotions. This may be followed by
dry dressings, such as iodoform and boracic acid.

The scab which forms requires removing periodically, the
animal's head fastened up and rest allowed. When a deep wound
is inflicted, a danger arises that injury has been caused to the oil
sheath of the tendon, or that the knee joint itself has been pene-
trated, when there will be an escape of synovia (joint oil). In the
former case the condition is not generally to be regarded as serious,
but in the latter open joint is caused, and the outlook is then very
grave.

Sometimes considerable difficulty occurs in discriminating be-
tween open tendon sheath and open joint ; but, as a rule, one is not
left long in doubt, as, in the latter case, unless the utmost skill is
exercised, inflammation of the joint supervenes and considerable
constitutional disturbances result.

Common Diseases of the Horse 2 1 3

Whenever oil is found escaping from a broken knee expert
advice should be obtained at once, as the treatment has to be of a
very special nature. Every antiseptic precaution is necessary, and
slings are required. If enlargement remains after the healing of
broken knee it may be greatly reduced by applying a smart blister.
In the treatment of broken knee or wounds of any kind, it should
be mentioned that the hair should be removed with scissors from
around the edges to prevent irritation, and the parts below should
be smeared with vaseline or the discharge will cause excoriation.

Sore Shoulders — Sore Backs

The former are caused by friction from a badly-fitting collar,
and the latter by chafing from the saddle, the pad, or a too-tight
girth. The injury may produce swelling of the skin followed
eventually by a wound, or may simply cause a superficial bruise,
rubbing off a thin layer of the skin and hair.

Trfatnient. — When the wounds are superficial they may be
bathed with cold water, and afterwards covered with a freshly-made
paste of powdered fuller's earth and water. If the animal is thin-
skinned and liable to suffer from abrasions on the least provocation,
the skin may be hardened by bathing it daily with a saturated
solution of ordinary salt, i.e. as much salt put in the water as the
latter will dissolve. Attention must, of course, be paid to the
harness; it may be necessary to substitute a breast-pad for the
collar, or to chamber either collar or saddle. In any case until
quite healed the wounds must not be irritated by further chafing.

Sometimes when a swelling is neglected and repeated bruising
occurs, an area of skin and underlying tissue dies, and what is
known as a " sitfast " is formed. These vary in size from a six-
pence to a five-shilling piece, and are extremely painful. The best
treatment is to have them cut out as soon as they are noticed, when
a wound is left which may be treated in the ordinary manner.

Sore Chine

This results from pressure of the pad or saddle. If the injury
has been caused by squeezing, and so prevented the blood supply
to the part, the tissues in the neighbourhood will die, or the injury
may be so severe as to cause inflammation of the bones of the
withers.

Treatment. — The inflammation must be subdued as soon as
possible by rest, cold-water applications, followed by disinfection,

214

Common Diseases of the Horse

and arnica lotion swabs kept in position by a roller with gentle
pressure.

Neglect of attention leads to the formation of fistulous withers.
The latter disease is often incurable.

Capped Elbow

This is also known as " Shoe Boil ". It is a swelling behind the
elbow caused by the latter coming in contact with the heel of the

shoe, or sometimes by lying on
hard ground. It may occur in
a single night, and be found in
the morning larger than a man's
fist, or the swelling may start
gradually and increase in size. It
does not often cause lameness,
but sometimes microbes gain an
entrance and matter forms. In
the latter case lameness is marked,
the leg is moved with great stiff-
ness, and a swelling is found which
often extends down to the knee.

Treatment. — This consists in
the prevention of further injury,
and for this purpose a thick pad
may be girthed on to the lower
part of the chest, just behind the
elbows, or a thick rubber ring
strapped into the hollow of the
heel, or a boot placed upon the
foot. It may be also advisable to
shorten the heels of the shoe.

Occasionally shoeing with a bar
pad is useful. If the swelling is
caused by contact with the hard
ground, a good bed of peat moss
should be provided. If after adopt-
ing the above preventative methods
the swelling is not absorbed, it is for
the owner to decide whether or no further treatment shall be tried.
If no lameness is present, and the tumour is soft and flabby
it is usually better left alone ; or even if it is fairly large and hard,
and not too unsightly, it is wise not to interfere. When, how-

Capped Elbow

Common Diseases of the Horse

215

ever, it grows to large proportions, is hard and unsightly, and an
operation is decided upon, the most successful is that of removing
the tumour by means of an elastic ligature. This is done by cut-
ting the hair from the pedicle or stalk of the tumour and drawing
a piece of rubber cord about the thickness of a lead pencil tightly
around it two or three times. This soon begins to cut its way
through, and in from one to two weeks the tumour falls off. If
the stalk of the tumour is large, it may be necessary to tighten the
elastic occasionally. The wound that results after the tumour falls
off may be treated with any of the ordinary wound dressings.

When matter forms in a capped elbow, and the swelling
becomes tense and painful, it is, of course, necessary to open the
abscess with a knife, and afterwards syringe out the cavity with
dilute carbolic, coal-tar, chinosol, or other weak disinfectant. When
there is no matter present, a capped elbow should never be opened
with a knife.

Capped Hock

This is a swelling at the
point of the hock. It is an
effusion under the skin or an
enlargement of the oil sheath.
Sometimes it is an injury to the
tendon which passes over this
part. It is caused by external
injuries, such as by kicking in
the stable or in harness, or by
the hocks coming in contact
with any hard substance.
Horses often cap their hocks
in getting up or lying down.
When the capping is due to in-
jury of the tendon, overexertion
is sometimes responsible, and in
the latter case lameness is pre-
sent. When the enlargement is
due to simple effusion or disten-
sion of either of the oil sheaths;
it is very rare that any lameness
is caused. In the great majority
of cases capped hock is not of a
serious nature, and very little notice need be taken of it. It is often a
guide, however, to a purchaser in indicating that the animal is a kicker.

Capped Hock

2i6 Common Diseases of the Horse

Treatment. — The swelling is not easy to reduce, and time and
the prevention of further injury is the best method to adopt. The
sides of the stall may therefore be padded, and a chain and log
attached to the legs in an endeavour to prevent further kicking.

If the swelling is tense and inflammation is present, it may be
relieved by cold-water applications as previously recommended,
afterwards applying cotton wool steeped in arnica, and kept in
position by a hock boot. A very oldfashioned remedy is whiten-
ing made into a paste with vinegar and smeared thickly all over
the swollen parts. If the swelling does not subside, and fear is
entertained that permanent enlargement will result, the hair may
be taken off as closely as possible, and the parts painted with a
mixture of the tincture and liniment of iodine daily until soreness
prevents. If blistering is preferred, this may be done with the red
ointment (biniodide of mercury).

When lameness is present, and injury to the tendon, or even the
hock itself has been caused, rest, cold-water applications followed
by arnica lotion swabs, must be continued until soundness is
restored.

Cracked Heels and Mud Fever

These terms are used to denote two forms of practically the
same disease, which is really an inflammation of the skin of the
hollow of the heel and about the fetlocks.

In some horses there is a predisposition to the complaint, arising
from sluggish circulation, which occurs in coarsely-bred animals.
Washy bays and light-coloured chestnuts, probably white-heeled
animals, are more prone to suffer than dark-heeled. Neglect and
bad stable management are invariably the chief causes. The
commonest cause is washing the heels with strong, irritating soaps
and hot water. This alone is sufficient to cause inflammation of
the skin of the heel ; but when the parts are not thoroughly dried
afterwards, or left uncovered, the risk is far greater. Another
common cause is washing the legs immediately after a journey
and when the horse is hot, and leaving them to dry of their own
accord. Occasionally one finds the complaint in hairy -legged
horses that have been worked on heavy, wet land. This causes
irritation or abrasion of the skin, so that unless the feet are
well cleansed and thoroughly dried they are very easily in-
fected.

A common source is from the urine and other filth in which
they stand, in badly-paved and dirty stables. Neglect of grooming
may also be cited, as the sweat, which is of a salty nature, runs

Common Diseases of the Horse 217

down into the hollow of the heel, and unless it is removed it leads
to disease.

Symptoms. — In cracked heel the skin becomes hot and swollen
and the surface covered with a reddish-brown discharge, which
afterwards dries and forms a crust.

This in time cracks and leads to the formation of various
fissures. When first brought out of the stable the horse goes very
stiff. This soon wears off at exercise, but occurs again after resting
a short time. In mud fever the swelling may extend higher up the
limb, and sometimes the lower surface of the belly becomes affected.
There is heat and pain present, and the hair and even parts of
the skin may fall off.

Treatment. — Prevention should be always aimed at. The legs
should always be thoroughly dried after being wet; the best
method is to rub them well with sawdust, peat moss, or, failing
these, soft cloths or bran may be used. If they are washed, a mild
soap should be used. Soft soap and other strong soaps should be
avoided. If hot water is used, in addition to being dried, particu-
larly in thin-skinned horses and those with short hair on their legs,
woollen bandages should be applied, and care taken that the heels
are included.

Actual treatment, for a speedy recovery, requires rest, as move-
ment causes fresh cracks to form, and keeps up the inflammation.
The affected parts must be washed with a mild soap and warm
water, a weak disinfectant applied, such as Jeyes's fluid, creolin,
chinosol, or any of the coal-tar products, and afterwards dried with
a clean soft cloth, and a dry dressing put on of iodoform i, boracic
acid 3; or iodoform i, tannin 3. If an ointment is preferred, i part
of red oxide of mercury to 7 parts of vaseline or lanoline may be
used, and this is best applied by smearing it on tow or cotton wool,
laying it on the parts and bandaging to keep it in position.

It is important that after the first washing no further wetting of
the parts must be allowed.

Simple cases generally take about a week to recover. Severe
ones, in which wounds of considerable size have occurred, and
where there are portions of dead tissue, take a longer period. The
dead portions require removal, and very careful attention is neces-
sary to prevent the formation of abscesses or even quittor.

21 8 Common Diseases of the Horse

Grease

This is a chronic inflammation of the skin about the heels and
fetlocks.

The disease starts with a little weeping or discharge from the
skin, and, if speedy attention is not given, it gradually spreads
until the whole of the parts become involved in a stinking, greyish-
coloured, semi-liquid discharge. In time the skin becomes greatly
thickened, and fleshy-looking tumours form, varying in size from
a pea to a walnut, and in number from two or three to scores.
Frequently the increase in size of the fetlocks is enormous; they
become two or three times their ordinary size, and covered with
" raw grapes ", causing a most unsightly appearance.

Treatment. — Chronic grease is practically incurable. When the
" grapes " have formed, and considerable increase in the size of the
limb has taken place, one can only endeavour to keep it in check
and prevent the nuisance of the stench by palliative treatment.
With this object in view, strong astringent lotions are indicated.
A fairly effective dressing consists in i part of chloride of zinc to
lo parts of water. In the very early stage curative treatment is
fairly hopeful. Rest is not beneficial; a dose of physic is to be
recommended, and after purging has stopped a light diet and work
may be continued. The weeping or desquamating parts may be
washed with a solution of formalin (i in 40), and afterwards dressed
night and morning with a i-in-20 strength of the same solution.
Other lotions recommended are a 10 per cent solution of sulphate
of zinc or alum.

When the discharge has existed for some little time, and per-
haps one or two grapes have formed, a medicated poultice is good
to clean and soothe the surface of the skin. The poultice may be
made with bran or linseed, to which some powdered charcoal has
been added, afterwards using a 5 per cent solution of a coal-tar
disinfectant to complete it.

Thrush

This is a discharge from the cleft of the frog. It is caused by
neglect of cleanliness, and allowing the horse to stand in wet, dirty
stables. For this reason the hind feet are more commonly affected
than the fore. Excessive paring and want of use of the frog are
other responsible causes.

Treatment. — The animal must be placed under good stable
management, i.e. to stand on a clean, dry floor. The frog must

Common Diseases of the Horse 2 i 9

be well cleansed, any ragged parts removed, and a little tow
saturated with a 5-per-cent carbolic solution pushed gently down
to the bottom of the cleft, afterwards filling up the latter with dry
tow. This may be repeated night and morning for a couple of
days, and then a little calomel may be placed at the bottom and
about the cleft, and repeated in a day or so, when the cure will
usually be complete. To prevent a return, good stable manage-
ment and allowing the frog to exercise its proper function is
necessary. Neglected thrush leads to under- run sole, and may
terminate in canker.

Lameness

A good number of the causes of lameness have already been
alluded to in past pages, but a few more short notes are necessary.
Lameness is a symptom of pain, weakness, inability or impedi-
ment in a limb. The detection of the seat and cure of lameness is
often most difficult, and even the most experienced are baffled.

It varies in degree, manifestation, and pain, according to pace
and to conditions of the weather.

Predisposing causes. — These are defects in conformation. The
conformation of bones is often responsible, as are those defective
in structure, such as soft, small, or round bones, or those wrongly
shaped. Small joints also contribute by not taking their fair share
of concussion. Other defects are bent knees, knuckled fetlocks,
deformed, small, or brittle feet, flat soles, badly-shaped pasterns,
deficiency of muscle, slipping, sudden or too often starting and
stopping, backing, unsuitable work, long journeys, badly -paved
roads, immaturity, bad shoeing, allowing the shoes to remain on
too long, heavy shoes, and hereditary disease.

Actual or exciting causes. — Strains, bruises, wounds, external
violence, inflammation (nerves, feet, and lymphatic glands), and
thrombosis (a clot of blood in a bloodvessel).

To detect lameness. — The horse should be seen at rest, and
carefully watched when being turned over in the stall or backed
out. He should then be walked from and to the observer, and
afterwards trotted the same way. It may be also necessary to
back or turn him round both ways, or to canter first and trot
afterwards. When lameness of the fore limbs is suspected, the
horse's head must be watched; it drops or nods with the sound
limb. When the lameness is behind, the observer looks at the hips.
The hip of the sound limb appears to drop lower than that of the
lame leg, and if there is any nodding of the head, it occurs when
the lame limb touches the ground. Where there is lameness of

220 Common Diseases of the Horse

both fore limbs the action is short and pattering. It is very rare
for both hind limbs to be affected except in fever of the feet.

The seat of lameness. — This may be obvious, but if not, the
action of the lame limb must be carefully noted. If the slightest
doubt exists as to the cause, the shoe should always be removed
and the foot examined.

If a negative result is obtained, the remainder of the limb must
be examined carefully, each part in order, all the way up — in the
fore limb, pastern, fetlock, tendons, knee, &c., until perhaps one has
to fix on the elbow or shoulder by negative diagnosis, i.e. through
finding no cause elsewhere. In the hind limb a similar method
is adopted, and a final decision is made that the hip is affected.

Treatment. — With one or two exceptions, such as lymphangitis
(known as " shake ", " weed ", " Monday morning disease ") and
fever in the feet, rest is essential. It is also necessary to subdue
the inflammation, and for this purpose hot- or cold-water fomen-
tations are generally used. It is necessary to add that, when the
former are used, the water should be kept hot and not allowed
to become lukewarm, as it then loses its beneficial effect. The
fomentations should be applied for at least one hour at a time,
and practised night and morning.

Between these intervals, if the position allows, bandages may
be applied with or without cotton-wool packing, kept moist with
arnica, or lead and opium lotion, and other similar lotions.

After the inflammation has subsided and partial recovery made,
a little strengthening liniment may be rubbed in until soundness
is obtained. If the case is protracted, more severe measures are
necessary, such as blistering, setoning, or firing. When the lame-
ness is due to disease of the bones, red blister (biniodide of mer-
cury) should be used ; when due to disease of the muscles and other
soft structures, black blister (cantharides) is the more useful. Seton-
ing is performed in persistent muscular lameness, particularly of
the shoulder, and firing after severe strains of the tendons and
joints. It is also used to permanently strengthen a weak joint.

III. PARASITES

Although there are a great many parasites affecting the horse,
only the most important can be dealt with in these pages. They
may be external or internal. The external parasites are the various
blood-sucking flies, which are very troublesome in hot weather;
lice, which cause much irritation; and mites, which produce the
manges. Internal parasites are chiefly round worms, the grubs

Common Diseases of the Horse 221

or bots of certain flies, and tapeworms, which are so rare as to
be unworthy of consideration. Each of these groups must now
receive some attention.

Blood-sucking Flies

These vary in size, colour, and structure from the smallest black
gnats, which irritate the ear flaps, to the " gad " or " breeze " flies,
which alight upon the thin-skinned parts of the body, such as
the inside of the arms and thighs, for the purpose of engorging
themselves with blood. Most of these flies know well the places
best suited for their mouth parts. Thus, those with long suckers
will pierce the skin anywhere, whilst the short-mouthed species
naturally prefer the thin-skinned parts. Although most of these
flies are found in the open in hot weather, one species very much
like the house fly is very common in stables, and it is consequently
called the stable fly. Animals usually show much uneasiness when
they hear the buzzing of these pests, and if in the fields they try
to escape by galloping. At work in the plough, or on army man-
oeuvres, stampedes may occur. Usually the bitten individual resorts
to kicking or stamping.

Remedial measures consist in having plenty of shade in the
fields, and if needs be applying a little oil and tar to the backs
of the horses, to give off a smell unpleasant to the flies. At work
animals may wear shades, nets, and thin cloths, or leafy branches
may be fixed in their harness. Walnut trees have long been "re-
cognized as harbouring no flies, the peculiar smell they give off
is thus made use of by planting them near stables, or using the
leaves on animals' backs. The annoyance to sick horses in the
stable is prevented by a thin cloth and sponging with weak dis-
infectant. Quite a number of non-biting flies deposit their eggs
in wounds, so that the latter must be carefully treated in summer.

Lice

There are two or three different kinds of lice found on the horse,
but they must be classed as large and small. The latter live on the
dandruff and other products of the skin, and therefore do not cause
much trouble. They are usually found on young animals, or mares
and their foals, when they come up from grass. Affected animals
usually rub a little, and seem dirty in their coats. This filth is
not due to the lice, but is the reason why they are present. The
little creatures may be seen actually running about in the curl
of the flank and other parts of the body.

2 22 Common Diseases of the Horse

If the infection is slight, little need be done save isolation,
good grooming, and disinfection of the loose box and brushes after-
wards. When the parasites are very numerous the animal may
require washing in a weak solution of any of the coal-tar disin-
fectants. In some cases, however, it may be necessary to clip. The
large or large-headed louse is always troublesome to the horse har-
bouring it. It is a bloodsucker, and is usually found with its mouth
parts firmly embedded into the skin. It does not wander aimlessly
about like the small lice, and is usually found on the flank, neck,
and hind quarters. It causes great irritation, and affected horses
rub against their stall partitions or shafts when at work, and often
bite themselves, especially when lying down. The attacks seem
worse at night, and there is much stamping. This louse is most
often seen in middle-aged or old horses, and is extremely difficult
to get rid of. Although it may seem severe, the best thing to do,
no matter what time of the year, is to clip the patient all over,
taking care to burn the hair and not let it blow about, as great
numbers of nits will now be seen in it. The animal should then
be carefully singed. This will kill a great number of the parasites.
An old and thin kitchen knife can then be passed over the body,
and in this manner large numbers of nits are thereby removed.
The body can then be dressed all over with a decoction of staves-
acre seeds twice a week. It is most important that the legs be
clipped and soaked twice a week in a tub of solution of a good
coal-tar disinfectant, because this is the chief breeding ground.
It is needless again to comment on isolation and disinfection of
all gears and utensils.

Mange

There are three forms of this disease, and each is due to a
distinct mite, all three of which are more or less like the familiar
cheese mite. Two of the mites cause body mange (sarcoptic and
psoroptic). These are contagious diseases, within the meaning
of the Contagious Diseases of Animals Acts, and must be reported
to the police. The third form, known as leg mange, is not noti-
fiable.

Sarcoptic Mange

This usually commences on some of the under parts of the
body, such as the space between the lower jaws, under the neck,
the brisket, or belly, and then extends on to the back. The first
sign of the disease is intense irritation, manifested by the animal
licking itself and rubbing against any structures within its reach.
If the withers or other affected parts are rubbed with the hand,

Common Diseases of the Horse 223

pleasure is shown by the animal moving the upper lip, or champing
the jaws and leaning towards the person in attendance. If the
irritated parts are examined, a moist scab, or dandruff" matted
together, will be seen. The extent of the disease varies, but if
untreated, the patient will lose flesh, and in time nearly all its
hair will come off", the skin ultimately becoming practically a mass
of sores. As soon as an animal is noticed showing the above
symptoms it should be isolated, all its harness, brushes, rugs, &c.,
soaked in disinfectant, and the lately occupied stall scrubbed, dis-
infected, and whitewashed. It would be useless to describe the
treatment, as the law practically lays it down that this has to
be done by a veterinary surgeon. All things considered this is
to the owner's advantage. This form is very difficult; and there
is a great liability to recurrence.

Psoroptic Mange

This is the common form; it occurs on the upper parts of
the body, and usually commences on the neck, withers, or croup.
In some cases the diseased area remains localized, closely re-
sembling ringworm. There is a heaping up of dandruff", and so
a round patch of hair sticks up. In a few rare instances a horse
may be apparently all right overnight, and next morning be found
with large patches of hair gone, the skin sore, and the animal very
irritable. In the most usual type of the disease small spots appear
to lose the hair and dandruff" appears. This goes on until large
areas are affected. In other respects the symptoms are the same
as those described under sarcoptic mange, save perhaps that the
initial irritation is a little more intense. The same remarks apply
to the notification and treatment, but this form is somewhat easier
to stamp out. It is a disease of winter and long coats, and in thick-
skinned and dull animals may only be noticed after clipping.

Chorioptic, Symbiotic, or Leg Mange

This form chiefly aff"ects heavy horses, and is most often seen
on the hind limbs. It may, however, aff"ect the fore limbs. Usually,
the parts attacked are not much above the hocks and knees, but
the parasite is sometimes found on the brisket and under the thighs.
Bare patches appear, which then become covered with scales, and
later, the parts from licking may appear raw. Horses with leg
itch stamp violently, and are liable to injure their limbs. The
best treatment to adopt is to give the legs a good washing with
hot water, soap, and soda. This removes the dirt and scales, and

224

Common Diseases of the Horse

so exposes the parasites. On the second day, washing in a solution
of some good coal-tar disinfectant is carried out. The third day
should see the legs smeared over with a mixture of sulphur i part,
and train oil 6 parts. It may be necessary to repeat these dressings
three times to effect a complete cure. Precautions of disinfection
and isolation should always be most strictly attended to.

Worms

Among the internal parasites it is necessary to consider the bot.
large round, and hip or seat, palisade, and red or wire worms.

Bots

Bots are the grub stage in the life-history of the "bot fly",
" horse bee ", or " wasp ". They are found in varying numbers, up

to a hundred or so, attached
to the anterior portion of the
stomach. They are about |
in. long, and divided into seg-
ments, each of which has a
row of small spines upon it.
They are usually found on
horses that have been to grass
or open fields within the pre-
vious twelvemonths. The fly
lays its eggs, usually on the
hair, on the horse's fore quar-
ters. When these hatch out
irritation is caused, and the
horse bites the part and so
swallows the bot. The bots
ultimately get fixed on to
the lining membranes of the
stomach, and after a stay of
about ten or eleven months,
J pass out by the rectum in the
chrysalis stage. The adult
fly emerges from this later.
Affected animals are often
said to show symptoms of indigestion, but usually nothing is
noticed until the bots are passed in the dung. In some cases they
have caused death by weakening the stomach wall, and so paving
the way for its rupture. There is really no satisfactory treatment.

Larvae of Bot Fly anchored on to mucous
membrane of the stomach of the horse.

Common Diseases of the Horse 225

Large White Worms

These are very common, and are found either in the stomach or
the first portion of the small intestine. Sometimes a horse will
harbour a shovelful without showing any symptoms whatever.
When full-grown they are about twice as thick and long as an
ordinary pencil. The females produce eggs, which pass out with
the dung, and after a few changes reach food or water and are
ingested. Prevention, therefore, consists in burning all worms, and
preventing dried dung from blowing into the manger or water.

The usual symptoms are unthriftiness, capricious appetite,
fatigue, loss of flesh, and the passage of a worm. The common
remedy is a course of bran mashes for two or three da}'s, followed
by a draught of 2 oz. of turpentine in just over i pt. of linseed
oil given first thing in the morning on an empty stomach.

W^hip or Seat W^orms

These pests vary in length from about 2 in. to nearly three
times that length. They are very soft and of a yellowish-white
colour. The tail is thin and the head end thick, somewhat resem-
bling a short-handled stock whip. Hence the name "whip" worm.

The natural residence seems to be the blind gut, but they are
often found in the hind gut or the seat on the way to the exterior.
This accounts for their second name. They do not produce any
marked symptoms, but their presence is often indicated by exces-
sive rubbing of the tail and an accumulation of yellow material
round the vent. This is in reality composed of eggs, and it is said
that sponging out the nose or mouth and vent with the same sponge
is a means of reinfecting the animal. The usual treatment is bran
mashes for two or three days, followed by a dose of physic on an
empty stomach, coupled with weak but noxious enemata contain-
ing salt or quassia.

Palisade Worms

There are a few different species of these worms, but the most
important is a stiff straight one, measuring from f to i^ in. It is
found attached to the lining membrane of the large intestine in
very large numbers. It is one of the most important of equine
parasites, and causes great losses every year. It is often associated
with other worms, and especially the species next described. The
damage is in some cases not appreciable for years after the animal
has become infected. This will appear clearer if the life-history be
related.

Vol. IIL 48

226 Common Diseases of the Horse

The eggs of the female pass out with the dung, and in pastures
are, therefore, scattered all over the field in immense numbers.
The eggs first hatch into a small worm, which feeds in the dung,
and in time casts its skin (moults), and then develops a thick coat
and becomes dormant. In this condition it can live for months,
until swallowed by a horse, when it moults again, pierces the bowel
lining, and becomes a full-grown worm. Now the small forms
that pierce the bowel often get into the blood stream and become
arrested anywhere, but usually at the junctions of important large
arteries to the bowels. Here they develop and produce great
bulging of the vessels, which may even cause them to burst. In
any case the vessels are blocked up by the growths produced, and
pieces of material get loose and thus block up other small arteries.
In this way colic in old horses is sometimes caused. Further
remarks will be made under the next species, as the symptoms,
treatment, and prevention are similar.

Red or Wire W^orms

There are also several species of these. Some are blood-stained
and others are white. They vary in length from ^ to about | in.
Some are as thick as darning wool, but others only the thickness
of ordinary cotton. The life-history is somewhat similar to the
preceding species. There is, however, no tendency to gain the
blood stream. These worms are very common, and their ravages
are great. They are most injurious to young animals, and many
breeders have had to give up rearing foals on certain farms.
Thoroughbred studs have been similarly affected. The worm is
found in the large intestine, and the little abscess it produces
allows the entrance of microbes. The worms themselves produce
a poison which affects the blood.

The symptoms are as follows: Young horses are first noticed
not to be doing well, then the coat is not shed at the right time;
there is loss of flesh, increasing weakness, sometimes the stifles are put
out temporarily ; there may be diarrhoea, the eyes appear white, and
there are all the signs of want of blood (anaemia). An examination
of the dung will reveal the presence of the small red worms. When
this state of affairs has been reached, and particularly if it has hap-
pened in previous years, the affected pastures must be grazed by
sheep or cattle, as they are not affected by these worms. It may
be limed, or better still, ploughed and put under a complete rota-
tion of crops before being again grazed by horses. Actual treat-
ment is not at all satisfactory. It will easily be appreciated that as

Common Diseases of the Horse 227

the manure contains myriads of eggs, it should be mixed with h'me
in the midden, or else when dung hauling is carried out the other
pastures will be infected. Animals should be housed, and rugged
and fed from a manger and rack, as this prevents the infection
that would take place on pasture. The diet should be liberal and
strengthening. As the appetite is bad, bitter and mineral tonics,
such as gentian root and sulphate of iron, should be given. For the
anaemia, quinine and chlorate of potash are good. Worm medicines
themselves do not seem to have much effect, because the damage is
already done. However, good nursing, good food, and warmth will
be found to have a beneficial effect.

IV. FOALING AND THE DISEASES ATTENDANT
THEREON

Foaling is the act of parturition, and signifies the birth of the
foal. It is called natural when birth takes place without outside
assistance, and in all cases this should be aimed for as conducive to
the wellbeing of both mother and offspring. Disease in the majority
of cases is caused by undue interference and a lack of attention in
sanitary matters.

Pregnancy

The time during which the mare carries her young, or the
period of gestation, is commonly stated to be 11 months, but it
varies sometimes by a month or more; birth may take place 2 or
3 weeks prior to the time, or may be delayed until as long after,
without causing any injurious effects to either mare or foal. It is
generally believed by breeders to be an indication that the foal will
be a male or "horse foal" if it is carried more than a few days beyond
the 1 1 months. The duration of pregnancy may be from 300 to 360
days, but is usually from 335 to 350 days. In an article devoted
to foaling and its diseases it hardly seems relative to discuss the
question of the signs of pregnancy, but as in some cases confusion
may occur between these and diseases of some of the abdominal
organs, a few brief sentences upon the matter may not be out of
place. In an ordinary way pregnancy is assumed to have com-
menced, when no further signs of oestrum are shown 6 weeks after
the last service.

From this period it is impossible to determine with certainty
whether the mare is pregnant until the 6th or 7th month, when
one is enabled to form quite a decided opinion by certain signs,
such as a more placid temperament, a gradual increase in weight,

228 Common Diseases of the Horse

and in the case of a first foal, an increase in the size of the udder,
and prominence of the teats. At the 7th month definite evidence
is at hand in the presence of the foetus in the belly. This may
be discovered in several ways, viz. by passing the well-oiled arm
into the rectum as far as it will go, when the various parts of the
foetus may be examined, and its movements felt. " Knocking the
foal " from the outside is another method. This is done by the
observer standing at the side of the mare, facing her hind quarters,
with his left hand on her back and his right at the bottom of the
left flank, about a hand's breadth in front, and on a level with
the stifle. In this position a solid body will be found, which, when
pushed, will recede, but return again and hit the hand in a second
or so.

At a later period the movements of the foal can frequently be
seen by the careful observer when the mare is at rest, but sometimes
they are so slight as to be unobservable. In the latter case it is a
common custom to give the mare a drink of cold water, the theory
being that the shock will cause the foal to move. There is no
harm in this method if the mare has been habitually drinking cold
water, but if, as is very frequently the case, she is overheated, made
thirsty, and then given a large drink, danger of abortion or " picking
the foal " may arise. Another oldfashioned and useless method to
determine the presence of a foal is to pour cold water into the mare's
ear. It is said that when pregnant she will shake her head only, so
as not to disturb the foal ; but if not, the whole body will be shaken,
on the supposition that as no foal is present no harm can ensue.

Feeding and Exercise During Pregnancy

During pregnancy the mare may with advantage be kept under
ordinary conditions, as so doing will go a long way to ensure a
natural and easy foaling. As far as feeding is concerned, she may
be kept on an ordinary diet, so long as it does not include a large
quantity of maize, until a few weeks before her time is up, when
the diet should be light and laxative. Bran and oats, the latter
macerated in cold water for twelve hours without being crushed,
and chopped hay, make an excellent and easily -digested diet.
Mares kept entirely for breeding purposes, and which are not
worked at all, may be allowed to remain at grass until a few days
before they are due. If the pasture is good and abundant they
will require little more, or in any case a small quantity of bran and
steeped oats will suffice. Work may be continued right up to
foaling time, so long as care is taken that it is not of a strenuous

I'RliSENTA'riON IN THK MAKE

Common Diseases of the Horse 229

nature. They should not be driven too far or very fast, and cart
mares should not be subjected to overstrain in the way of heavy
loads, working on heavy land, or in shafts where they are likely to
knock the sides of the abdomen, especially if the ground is uneven.
Judiciously worked, she is much more likely to foal at her proper
time and in a natural manner than the pampered animal which has
been kept in a loose bo.x. In some parts of the country, where the
mare has been rested for a month or so prior to the date of foaling,
and the time is exceeded, she is put into the plough for an hour or
so, and this frequently brings about parturition without doing the
least harm.

Preparation of Foaling Box

As the time approaches when the mare is due to foal, prepara-
tion must be made to ensure that birth takes place under the most
advantageous circumstances, and every effort must be made to
guard against disease. The majority of diseases which occur as
the result of foaling are, as already stated, due to lack of attention
in sanitary measures, and can be easily obviated. A loose box
large enough for the mare to foal without running any risk of
injury, or delaying birth by the offspring coming in contact with
the walls, should be prepared.

It will require to be cleansed and disinfected all over in the most
thorough manner, and afterwards lime-washed; no parts should be
missed. If it contains a manger, this should be well scrubbed and
disinfected, and finished with boiling water. A good bed should
then be provided of clean straw, not too long or the movements of
the foal will be hampered. A good plan is to chop a bundle in
two with a hay knife. If a choice can be made it is well to select
a box as near as possible to the accustomed habitation of the mare,
as if removed to remote quarters she is quite likely to fret and
become nervous.

Natural Foaling

About the time the mare is due to foal, it is wise to keep
her under constant observation, but this should be done in such
a manner that she is unaware of the fact, or it is quite likely
to upset her. It is best done by means of a small sliding panel
in the box door. When the labour pains commence, she invari-
ably lies down, and in normal parturition the foal is usually born
in from ten to fifteen minutes. If the attendant is satisfied that
everything is progressing satisfactorily, no interference is necessary
or desirable; his presence will be resented and birth is quite likely

230 Common Diseases of the Horse

to be delayed. On the other hand, if the foal is not expelled
within a short time, the person in charge, who should be well
known to the patient, may very quietly make an examination,
to see that the foetus is in a proper position to be born, and
that it is not in danger of suffocation by the nostrils being
covered by the foetal membranes, an accumulation of mucus, or
other discharge. If the hand has to be inserted into the passage,
it is absolutely essential that it should be clean and disinfected.
The hands should be well washed and scrubbed with soap and
water, then disinfected, and not allowed to come in contact with
anything else prior to examination.

In natural birth the fore legs of the foal, with the head lying
between them, are presented, and if these are in evidence a little
more time than usual may be allowed, especially in the case of
a first foal, which takes longer on account of the maternal organs
not having been previously dilated. If suspicion is aroused that
there is some obstruction, the passage must be carefully explored.
It may be that a limb has become jammed below the brim of
the pelvic basin. This can soon be put right, whereas if delay
occurs, serious consequences will result. In any case, the foal
will soon perish. Should the examination reveal any abnormal
position that cannot very easily be adjusted, the veterinary sur-
geon must be sent for immediately. Any unskilled interference
will complicate affairs, the labour pains will weaken, eventually
cease, and the longer birth is delayed the more difficult will it
be to accomplish.

After the birth, both mother and foal usually lie for half an
hour or so, until the former has recovered from the exhaustion
attendant upon her efforts. She will then rise and commence
to mother her foal by licking it all over until it is dry, or if, as
is rarely the case, she does not give it attention, an effort must
be made to induce her to do so. It may be sprinkled with salt
and drawn up to her head; she will generally commence her
duties when she finds it being interfered with. The attendants
in this case must be careful of themselves. Many mares will
resent human interference in a marked fashion, and in their
efforts to protect their young, be liable to injure either it or any
persons approaching. The chief point is to allow time, and use
discretion. If the mare is over-exhausted or excited when she
gets up, half a gallon of warm gruel with a tumblerful of whisky
in it may be administered. In any case she may have a drink
of warm gruel; it will soothe, and distract her attention momen-
tarily from the foal, which may then be briefly examined If

Common Diseases of the Horse 231

labour has been very painful, the mare may have sweated
considerably. If so, she should be whisked until dry, and per-
haps rugged up for a time to prevent chill, &c. The hind legs,
the parts under her tail, the udder, and all parts soiled with dis-
charge must be sponged with a weak disinfectant. For this,
chinosol is very good — one iS-gr. tablet to i qt. of water — as it
is not sticky, and has not the penetrating odour of the coal-tar
disinfectants. The cleanliness of the box requires attention; if
the mare has cleansed (i.e. has parted with the foetal membranes,
commonly called the foal bag), they should be moved as soon
as possible and buried deeply enough to prevent their being un-
earthed by pigs or dogs. All soiled litter must be taken away
and the bed remade.

In some localities it is the custom to leave the membranes
in which the foal has been born in the box, to see if the mare
will eat them, as it is believed they cause a laxative and bene-
ficial action upon the bowels. This procedure is entirely opposed
to sanitary methods, and should always be condemned. After the
foal has been born there is a slight discharge from the genital
passage of the dam, which does not last more than a day or so.
It is quite natural, and unless it increases in quantity after the
first day and begins to smell badly, the only attention necessary
is to keep the parts sponged occasionally with the chinosol solu-
tion.

Care of the Foal

The first care must be given to the nostrils, to see that they
are not covered by the foetal membranes, or plugged by discharges.
If the foaling period has been prolonged, and partial suffocation
has occurred, so that breathing is almost or entirely suspended,
every effort must be made to induce reanimation. The head may
be douched with cold water, the body flipped with a wet towel,
the fore limbs moved in pump-handle fashion, in imitation of the
respiratory movements, or air blown into the lungs with a pair
of bellows. An examination is also necessary to see that all the
other openings of the body are free, as it is occasionally required
to perform an operation. Having been satisfied that everything
is satisfactory, Nature may be left to itself The foal may be
left to lie quietly until the mother rises, when, if she does not
commence to dry it by licking, this may be done by wisping.

Opinions differ as to the treatment of the navel cord, or to
give its common name, the " foal string ". Some assert that it
should always be tied, from i^ to 2 in. from the belly, and then

232 Common Diseases of the Horse

cut, or tied in this position, and again i in, farther away, and
cut between the knots. Others are emphatic that it is best left
to rupture of its own accord, and this will occur when either foal
or dam begin to move about. The rupture takes place in the
exact part that Nature intended it to do. Without going into
details of physiology and anatomy it is impossible to convey to
the lay reader a knowledge of the actions of the parts concerned;
but it may be taken as a fact, that without tying and with the
natural rupture, subject to proper antiseptic precautions, there
is no danger of bleeding or infection, and in the end a quicker
and more satisfactory result may be obtained. In particular, the
end attached to the belly dries up and drops off in two or three
days, so that the risk of infection, which is the chief danger, is
shortened. When the navel string is tied and cut it is impera-
tive that every antiseptic precaution be taken, a piece of soft,
white string must be thoroughly soaked in a 5 per cent car-
bolic acid or chinosol solution before being applied, the hands
well washed and disinfected, the navel string disinfected, and the
knife or scissors made antiseptic. It is from neglect of these
precautions that the great majority of cases of " navel ill " or
'joint evil" arise. In whatever manner the cord is divided, an
antiseptic powder must be immediately applied to the end and
repeated frequently. By so doing the chances of infection through
the navel are reduced to a minimum. An excellent dressing is
made of equal parts of boracic acid, tannin, and iodoform.

When the foal attempts to rise it should still be left alone.
It will generally soon find its feet, and by instinct seek the teat
of the mother. If, however, it is unable to do so in an hour or
so, the mare may be fastened and assistance given. Sometimes
it is too weak to suck, in which case some milk may be drawn
from the mare into a warm saucer, or put into a feeding bottle
and given in this way until it attains the strength to suck.
Soon after having the first drink of mother's milk, prompt move-
ment of the bowels should be made; the evacuation is usually
black and abundant, and is generally stated to be caused by the
character of the early maternal supply. When constipation and
straining occur it is necessary to relieve it as quickly as possible,
and for this purpose enemas of warm soapy water or two table-
spoonfuls of glycerine to i pt. of water act well. They are much
better than giving castor oil or other laxative medicines; the latter
take too long to operate, and often induce further constipation
after having had their immediate effect.

A very oldfashioned remedy, particularly in the north of

Common Diseases of the Horse 233

England, consists in inserting a tallow candle previously well
oiled up the rectum, where it quickly melts and has the desired
effect.

While the supply of milk must be liberal it must not be too
abundant or digestive troubles will be liable to ensue. It is
sometimes, therefore, necessary to restrict the supply by drawing
some away, after the foal has had what may be considered a
plentiful supply. For the first few days both mare and foal
may be left in the box, but after this it is necessary that proper
exercise be obtained. The best method is to turn them out for
an hour or so in the middle of the first sunny day. This period
may be lengthened daily, and after a week from the first turning
out, if the weather is not severe, they may be left out altogether.
It is advantageous to have an open box in the field where shelter
may be obtained should any sudden change occur. If the mare
is required for work, she may be allowed light duties, in a
week's time, and failing other exercise, will benefit by it. The
foal may be allowed to follow, and this course will be much
better than keeping it shut up in a loose box. It is, however,
necessary to avoid hard work, as the mother has to spend a
good part of her strength in supplying nourishment to the foal;
nor must she be overheated, as it will affect the condition of the
milk, which will be inimical to the wellbeing of the foal. If, on
being first turned into the field, there are other horses present,
it is wise to watch for a time, as, until the mare gets accustomed to
them, she is likely to injure them should they come near the foal.

Some Accidents and Diseases accompanying Foaling

In previous remarks it has been indicated how accidents and
diseases may as far as possible be avoided, but notwithstanding
every precaution, they will sometimes occur. Some are of a very
simple nature and easily put right; while others are serious, and
unless prompt and skilled attention is given soon, may terminate
fatally. It is diflficult to draw the line between the two, or to
explain how what appears to be a simple ailment may, by want
of attention, soon become a dangerous disease. Whenever any
abnormal condition exists that is not thoroughly understood,
veterinary aid should at once be obtained. The animals will
then get the best chance, and it will also save expense to the
owner. The mortality resulting from accidents and diseases ac-
companying foaling is greatly increased by unskilled interference,
which should never be countenanced. It is impossible in the

234 Common Diseases of the Horse

space allotted to this article to deal more than briefly with a few
of the common abnormalities.

Retention of the Afterbirth

This is commonly spoken of as the mare not having "cleansed",
and is due to the membranes which contained the foal not having
been expelled from the foal bed. As a rule these membranes
come away very shortly after the foal is delivered, particularly if
the mare has gone her full time, but should they not do so, it
is essential that they be removed quickly. Some breeders, how
ever, object to their removal, and insist that it is better to wait
until they drop of their own accord. This course is most dan-
gerous, and although it is quite possible for them to remain for
a day, or even more, without harm ensuing, the risk of womb
trouble by septic infection is very great. The practice of to-day
demands that they be taken away within an hour or two of
birth, and this should only be done by a person of experience,
as it is very important that they be removed entirely^ for should
a small piece be left attached to the womb, it will constitute a
dangerous source of disease. It is necessary, then, to see that the
foal bed is complete after removal. The main object throughout
is to prevent infection of the womb, and with this object in view
it is better, if circumstances allow, not to insert the hand into
this organ, but to pull away the hangmg mass by gentle trac-
tion, starting at the borders and gradually detaching it. Should
a piece unfortunately become torn off and left inside, it will then
be necessary to syringe abundantly and thoroughly the womb
and passages, with a solution of i per cent carbolic acid, or
15 gr. tablet of chinosol in 2 qt. of water. Thoroughly
cleanse and disinfect the hand, and oil it with 2 per cent car-
bolic oil, before it is inserted and the attached piece removed.
The womb must again be well syringed afterwards, when as a
rule nothing further is required, although should there be any
considerable discharge the syringing may be repeated when
necessary.

In cases where the membranes, or pieces of them, have been
retained too long, and infection has occurred, the womb becomes
partially filled with a putrid, thick liquid, which comes from the
genital passages as a stinking reddish-brown discharge. This con-
dition sig lifies that there is inflammation of the lining membrane
of the womb, and this will as a rule be speedily followed or ac-
companied by inflammation of the feet. It is most serious, and

Common Diseases of the Horse 235

if not very soon relieved death will ensue. Some risk is also
run by the operator himself by inserting his hand and arm
into the decomposing fluids, as they are highly infectious, and
blood poisoning must be guarded against by thoroughly syring-
ing out the parts before doing so. In any case where there
is an increasing odorous discharge from the genital passages
after the first day, veterinary advice should at once be sought.

Inflammation of the Womb

This condition occurs from three to ten days after foaling.
The chief causes are retention of the afterbirth; injury to the
womb causing wounds; infection from dirty hands or instruments
introduced during foaling; the presence of a dead, decomposing
foetus; chemical irritation from syringing with too strong or
caustic liquids; want of sanitary precautions, such as a dirty
foaling-box, or want of cleanliness in the attendants at foaling
time; and lastly, cold, which no doubt lowers the general vitality,
and does not enable the animal to resist disease as she would
normally. There are several forms of the disease, but as the
varieties would not be intelligible to the lay reader, they may
be discussed under one heading.

Symptoms. — These are stiffness of movement, shivering, staring
coat, loss of appetite, the milk is diminished, rise of temperature,
increased pulse, blowing, in which the respirations are shallow,
infection of the mucous membranes; in fact, all the signs of fever
are exhibited. The characteristic symptoms are a discharge from
the vaginal passage, which at first is usually thin and pale pink in
eolour; in the later stages it becomes thicker, darker, and evil
smelling. The genital organs are swollen and inflamed, and pres-
sure across the loins causes pain. Very frequently the mare will
not He down; if she does it may be considered favourable. An
examination of the womb, through the vaginal passage by hand,
causes groaning and pain, and reveals a thickened and enlarged
organ partially filled with a stinking fluid. Fever in the feet very
commonly accompanies this disease. In the last stages the swollen
genital organs become cold and clammy, the discharge is most
obnoxious, the temperature falls, and death is usually preceded by
convulsions.

Treatment. — Prevention should always be aimed for, and foaling
carried out under strictly antiseptic and sanitary conditions. With
these precautions it will be a very rare disease. When it occurs,
the veterinary surgeon should be summoned at the earliest symptom,

236 Common Diseases of the Horse

and then there will be a chance of recovery. The womb requires
to be explored for any remains of the afterbirth, and well irrigated
with a warm antiseptic solution, such as i per cent carbolic acid, or,
preferably perhaps for a non-practitioner, 5 per cent boracic acid, or
I per cent permanganate of potash, &c. This may be continued
until the solution is returned practically unaltered. A bucketful or
more may be necessary before this is achieved, and as the walls of
the womb when inflamed do not contract, the fluid remaining has
to be removed by rubber siphon tubes. If the mare will eat, her
strength may be maintained by nourishing and sloppy food, such as
milk, with beaten-up eggs. Stimulants are also necessary, such as
whisky, brandy, or sweet spirits of nitre; 2 oz. of either of the former
or I oz. of the latter may be given every hour for the first day. As
regards other medicines, the following is good made into a ball and
given three times daily: —

2 dr. sulphate of quinine,

1 „ powdered nux vomica,

2 „ chlorate of potash.

The bowels also require regulating; a purgative may be necessary,
and a dose of aloes given. Two ounces of Epsom salts in a little
water every morning is very useful.

Inflammation of the Vagina

This is the term applied to inflammation of the passages through
which the foal passes after leaving the womb. The disease often
accompanies inflammation of the womb. When it occurs separately
it is generally caused by difficult labour, in which the parts have
been subjected to violent usage and become lacerated or torn either
by parts of the foetus or the use of instruments, ropes, &c.

Symptoms. — The lips of the vulva or "wearing" are swollen, and
an examination of their lining membrane and that of the passage
reveals heat, swelling, and redness, which may be all shades to
nearly black. In the early stages the lining membranes are very
dry, but in two or three days a discharge begins which thickens as
the disease advances, and if not checked will excoriate the surround-
ing parts. More or less increase of temperature and pulse rate will
be found, as well as constipation, and pain on micturition. Neglect
of the complaint is liable to result in bad ulceration, followed by
mortification.

Treatment. — Sloppy and laxative diet, attention to the bowels,
and careful antiseptic treatment. The parts must be kept very
clean, syringed, and dressed with weak disinfectants, such as chino-

Common Diseases of the Horse 237

sol — one 15-gr. tablet to 2 qt. of water, 2 per cent carbolic acid
solution, (Sec.

Leucorrhoea

This is commonly known as the "whites". It is a chronic dis-
charge from the vagina. When white it has little smell, but when
dark or blood-stained it is most unpleasant.

Causes. — It results from chronic inflammation of the womb or
foal passages, or in some cases debility.

Treatment. — Thorough cleanliness, and disinfection of all thp
surrounding parts, with careful syringing night and morning with
a solution of sulphate of zinc or Condy's fluid. The diet must be
good, exercise suitable, and mineral tonics given, such as —

2 dr. citrate of quinine and iron,
^ ,, powdered nux vomica,
2 ,, powdered gentian,

made into a ball and given three times daily, or tonic powders may
be tried in the food.

Inflammation of the Feet

«

This very frequently accompanies inflammation of the womb 01
retention of the afterbirth, and tends to recover as the general
health is restored. In protracted cases there is danger of dropped
soles and the formation of pus in the hoof.

Symptoms. — Heat round the coronets and throbbing of the
neighbouring bloodvessels, lameness which may be very marked,
and the mare afraid to move. An attempt to pick up a foot will be
resisted, as the mare will be afraid to bear any extra weight upon
the other limb. If absolutely forced to move, she will go on her
heels and in a very gingerly manner.

Treatment. — Firstly, ascertain if there is any womb trouble, and
if so, that is the most important consideration. The shoes must be
removed and cold applications applied continually. If the mare
can stand she may do so in a bath with a soft bottom, such as
sand, sawdust, &c., and the water a foot deep. Poultices must be
kept cold, and if ice is available the feet may be packed round with
it. It is sometimes advisable to give a dose of aloes. The udder
should be kept empty and the milk destroyed, although after the
first day there is practically no secretion. The foal requires to be
hand fed.

238 Common Diseases of the Horse

Inflammation of the Udder

This is a comparatively rare disease in the mare.

Causes. — An over-abundant supply of milk prior to, or after
foaling (it might be called over-stocking), lying on cold, wet, or
hard ground, injuries to, and obstruction in the teats.

Symptoms. — Swelling and enlargement of the udder, in which
the skin is tense and shining, and alteration in the milk, which, on
being drawn, will be found clotted and blood-stained. There is also
pain.

Treatment. — The udder requires to be gently stripped several
times a day, so that it may be kept as empty as possible. The
swelling may be reduced by the continued application of hot water,
regulating the heat by the bare elbow of the attendant. Poppy
heads boiled in the water also greatly assist in relieving the pain.
The more hot applications are persisted in the quicker will be the
recovery. They should be continual; but if this is not possible
three or four times a day, for no less than an hour at a time, should
be the least allowed. The udder may be afterwards dried, and
a little arnica and opium lotion gently applied (i oz. of each of the
tinctures to i pt. of water). Sometimes an abscess may form in
the gland, in which case every effort must be made to bring it to a
head as soon as possible. The hot water will help as much as any-
thing. When a wound occurs mortification may follow; and it is
very essential whenever the skin is ruptured to practise strict
hygiene. For this purpose the loose box must be kept scrupulously
clean, the floor disinfected, and the animal not allowed to lie down.

Haemorrhage of the Womb

In the human subject this is known as flooding. It is not com-
mon in the mare, and is due to want of contraction of the womb, or
laceration of its walls. The latter is often caused by a violent or
unskilful removal of the foetal membranes.

Symptoms. — One might expect always to find an escape of
blood from the vaginal passage, but this is not constant. An
enormous quantity can be retained by the dilated womb, and the
first symptoms may be trembling, anxiety, a feeble pulse, pallid
membranes, coldness of the body and extremities, and finally
staggering and death by convulsions.

Treatment. — The speedy arrest of the escaping blood by every
possible means. Cold water across the loins and cold injections
into the womb. The injections must be antiseptic, and for this

Common Diseases of the Horse 239

purpose a 15-gr. tablet of chinosol to 2 qt. of water is excellent;
a bucketful may be necessary. Cold sponges soaked in the same
solution and placed in the womb sometimes succeed. Failing this,
equal parts of vinegar and water may be tried, and some prac-
titioners rely upon a gentle stimulation of the walls of the womb
by the hand, in the hope that it will cause contraction. In any
case it is necessary to immediately remove any retained membranes
or the walls will not contract. Internally various drugs may be
administered, such as perchloride of iron, laudanum, &c., but 3 oz.
of turpentine given in i qt. of milk, with half a dozen eggs beaten
up, are as good as anything.

Inversion of the "Womb

This is commonly known as "throwing down the foal bed", or
"dropping out the foal bed". It is caused by overstraining during
and after the birth of the foal.

Symptoms. — The womb hangs from the vulva (lips of the
genital passage) as a huge pear-shaped mass, and may reach dowi?
to the hocks. When first thrown out it is red in colour, but if it is
allowed to hang becomes darker, and eventually nearly black; it
also becomes congested and swollen.

Treatment. — The veterinary surgeon must be sent for imme-
diately, as very great care and skill are required. In the meantime,
however, the owner can help very much by common sense and
judicious management. The weight should be relieved at once by
taking a clean sheet (linen preferred) soaked in a warm antiseptic
chinosol solution (or 2 per cent carbolic), and the displaced womb
supported in it by two men, one on either side. It may then be
sponged with a similar warm solution, covered with another anti-
septic sheet, and most carefully protected from injury. In some
instances the organ undergoes such changes that it is not possible
or advisable to return it, in which case amputation is necessary.
This operation is accompanied by a very high mortality.

When the womb has been replaced, everything must be done to
help its retention. For this purpose an endeavour must be made
to prevent straining, and a dose of opium or other sedative is indi-
cated. It may also be syringed with a i per cent solution of warm
carbolic acid solution, which allays irritation. The hind parts must
be raised and kept higher, so that gravitation may assist. Finally,
one has to guard against it being again thrown out. Various
mechanical methods are adopted for this purpose; they consist
of the truss, pessary, and the suture or clam.

240 Common Diseases of the Horse

The Truss may be made out of a pair of plough reins, previously
soaked in disinfectant. Two loops are then made in the middle;
the tail passes through one, the other encloses the vaginal entrance,
limiting its opening and pressing upon it so that the womb cannot
be forced out. A collar or halter is put on the mare's neck, and
the ends of the rope passed between the hind legs and along the
top of the back, and fastened to the collar.

The Pessary may be made of a variety of articles, and consist
of a stick i^ to 2 ft. long, with a soft pad on the end; or a large
champagne or wine bottle; or a pig's bladder, afterwards partially
filled with water. Any of these are inserted into the womb and
kept in position by sticks, which again are maintained in place by
bandages. Their disadvantage consists of the risk that is run of
infection of the womb, as it cannot close while they are in position,

Sutures consist of strong stitches of cord, silk, or white-metal
wire passed through the lips of the vulva, or through the skin from
the point of the hip. No more than one or two of the former are
required, but they must be inserted deeply or they will be torn out
should the straining be at all powerful. If the hip stitches are used,
about half a dozen may be passed from side to side, covering the
vulva in such a manner that the womb cannot pass through.

Some of the diseases to which foals are subject may be now
briefly described.

Inflammation of the Navel

Other names are applied to this disease, such as "joint ill",
"navel ill", blood poisoning, &c. The disease is invariably caused
by lack of attention, want of cleanliness, or unskilful treatment of
the navel at birth. Prevention is essential, as when contracted it is
extremely fatal. The mortality is very high, at least 90 per cent,
and of the very small number of cases which recover the animals
are usually of little value, as more or less deformity results.

It will be evident, then, that every precaution must be taken to
prevent the navel from infection at birth; the foaling box and
bedding need to be scrupulously clean, and the floor covered with
powdered disinfectant. A little expense and extra care is much
better than throwing away the cost of months of time in patient
waiting, limited work of the mare, service fee, and possibly a future
champion in the foal. If the navel string has been allowed to
rupture of its own accord, the powder previously mentioned should
be kept in readiness and frequently applied, as it is necessary to
remember that the mare, unlike most other animals, does not, as a

Common Diseases of the Horse 241

rule, lick the navel of her progeny. The cleansing of the navel by
the tongue of the mother, although not appearing to be a sanitary
measure, helps greatly to protect the young from infection. When
the cord is tied, which method the writer does not advocate, the
string or tape used for the purpose should be thoroughly soaked in
some disinfectant, and both the navel string and the hands washed
and disinfected as well. Carried out in this manner, and with anti-
septic after treatment, navel ill will be very rare.

Symptoms. — Soon after birth, either the same or the follow-
ing day, the skin and parts around the navel become swollen, red,
and present a glistening appearance, and there is a thin discharge
from the end of the navel string, which may also contain urine.

The disease is more favourable when the swellings around the
part are considerable, and when there is a tendency to the speedy
formation of abscesses confined to the neighbourhood of the navel.
In such a case very little change in the general health of the foal
may be noticed; it is not quite as hearty as it should be, and is
perhaps slightly stiff. Unfortunately, however, the above state of
affairs is not often so. The microbes get into the blood stream,
which becomes infected, and great disturbance of the system results.
The temperature and pulse increase, there is a refusal to suck,
constipation or diarrhcea may be present ; the eyes are sunken, and
the coat staring and dull. In other cases the foal apparently pro-
gresses satisfactorily for several days, when all at once it is found
to be very lame, leading one to conclude that some injury has been
sustained. The lameness is more common in the hind limbs, and
generally affects either the stifle or the hock, but any joint may
occasionally suffer. Several joints may be affected at the same
time. The inflammation of the joints may take the form of a
swelling with heat and pain only; or abscesses may form, which in
time rupture and discharge matter mixed with joint-oil. These
affections of the limbs are known as "joint ill" or "joint evil", and
are entirely due to the infection from the navel getting into the
system. Sometimes abscesses form in the lungs or almost any
organ of the body, all of them originating from the same cause.

Treatment. — As the disease is of such a serious nature, treat-
ment cannot, of course, be attempted by any but the professional
man. He will immediately pay attention to the navel, which re-
quires strict antiseptic treatment. At the same time it will be
necessary to administer antiseptics internally, in fairly large and
frequent doses, to prevent, or, if it has already occurred, endeavour
to counteract the poisonous material in the system. For this
purpose quinine, carbolic acid, and salicylicate of soda are to be
Vol. in. 49 a

242 Common Diseases of the Horse

recommended. Constipation may be overcome by a tablespoonful
or two of castor oil, and the strength must be maintained in every
way possible. The mother's milk should be drawn and administered
in small and frequent doses, and, in addition, an egg beaten up with
a tablespoonful each of brandy and port wine may be given every
three hours. It must not be overlooked that the udder of the mare
will also require attention, or it will become overstocked. In the
hope of recovery for the foal it should be partially stripped hourly.

White Scour

This is an infectious diarrhoea, due to the presence of a microbe
in the digestive tract.

Symptoms. — The purging sets in from two or three days to a
week after birth ; the faeces, which are expelled with great force, are
of a dirty-white or yellowish-grey colour, with a very foetid odour,
arud of a sticky nature, so that the tail and hind parts generally
become soiled and coated with them. The disease is also accom-
panied by violent straining, signs of abdominal pain, and rapid
emaciation; the eyes become dull and sunken, and great weakness
ensues.

Treatment. — As the disease is undoubtedly of an infectious
nature, strict cleanliness and general hygiene for the young animal
are to be observed as the best preventive. If the diarrhoea occurs
in the foaling shed, one cannot insist too strongly upon disinfection.
The floors and walls must be scraped and thoroughly disinfected
with strong carbolic or chloride of lime. All litter should be
burnt, or the disease will be communicable to any other foal coming
in contact with the infected material. The mare also requires to
be washed and disinfected. The curative treatment consists in
removing the cause and allaying the irritation in the bowel. For
this purpose a tablespoonful of castor oil may be given. Other
remedies are an egg beaten up with the shell, and repeated at two
or three hours interval ; or two ounces of whisky or a large table-
spoonful of best brandy and port wine, with a small teaspoonful
of ginger, given every four hours in a little starch or flour gruel.
This treatment, although apparently simple, has as quick and
good an effect as giving a variety of drugs. The foal must be kept
quiet and comfortable, and any soiled parts of the body cleansed,
and the surroundings made sanitary.

Common Diseases of the Horse 243

Diarrhoea

Simple diarrhoea may be due to a variety of causes, the chief of
which are improper feeding. In a secondary degree, cold and wet
may be also cited. Sometimes the mare has an over-abundant
supply of milk, and the foal will engorge itself; or the mare will
perhaps be taken away, and it will not get its regular allowance,
thus again running the risk of engorgement. At other times, the
mare will be worked and allowed to come in sweating, or be worked
without a sufficiently nourishing diet, and the milk will be altered
in quality. Again, improper feeding takes place when the foal is
allowed a diet which it is incapable of digesting at so early an age,
in the shape of too large quantities of hay, oats, or other corn feeds;
or when through hunger or depraved appetite the straw bedding is
eaten. The health of the mother is also an important factor, and
any unusual departure from it will affect her milk, and conse-
quently be unfavourable to her progeny.

Treatfnent. — The simpler the better. An ^gg beaten up with
the shell, and repeated in three hours if necessary, often has the
desired effect; or it may be followed by a little ginger in the
brandy and port wine, with a little flour or starch gruel. A dose
of castor oil may be necessary.

Constipation

This has been already briefly alluded to in previous pages,
and the methods recommended should be first of all tried. If the
enemas fail, a purgative is necessary, and for this purpose 2 oz.
of castor oil, or 4 oz. of olive oil, or raw linseed oil may be given.
If colic is present, the pain may be relieved by 15-drop doses of
chlorodyne, given every three hours.

V. SHOEING AND ITS ACCOMPANYING DISEASES

In considering the diseases due to shoeing, either by bad work-
manship or direct injury, it is necessary to briefly glance at the
structure of the horny part of the foot. This consists of three dis-
tinct parts, which may be separated from each other by soaking the
dead foot for a fortnight or so in water. They consist of: (i) The
wall, which is the part seen when the foot is at rest upon the
ground, forming its front and sides. It grows from a sensitive
elastic band which is stretched round the top of the hoof at the
coronet, where the skin and horn meet. Any injury to this secret-
voL. III. 49 a'-

244 Common Diseases of the Horse

ing band will, therefore, interfere with the growth of the wall below
it. At the heels the wall, now known as the bars, makes a half-circle
turn and is reflected inwardly on the ground surface, embracing a
portion of the sole, and running down the sides of the frog. (2) The
sole, which forms the greater portion of the floor of the foot. In
the hinder portion it shows a triangular cleft in which the frog is
inserted. (3) The frog completes the floor of the foot. It is
triangular in shape, and divided longitudinally into two portions by
a fissure known as the cleft. On each side there is a fissure which
separates it from the bars. It is an elastic structure, and its pur-
pose is to prevent concussion and enable the foot to take a firm
grip upon the ground; the cleft and fissure enable expansion to
take place without injuring the sensitive part inside, or by unduly
forcing apart the sides of the foot, which would otherwise happen
when it is upon the ground and bearing the horse's weight. Under-
neath the wall, and above the sole and frog, the foot is composed of
dense layers of fibrous tissue finely interlaced with bloodvessels
and nerves; it is commonly known as the "quick ", and is extremely
sensitive. Any injury to it causes very great pain.

The wall, sole, frog, and other sensitive membranes are all
solidly welded together and take their part in bearing the weight
of the body. The wall, or bars, of the hoof grows downwards at
the rate of about an inch in three months, and apparently grows
more quickly at the toe, on account of the horn fibres having an
oblique direction. The sole does not grow as quickly as the wall,
and appears to detach the old horn by throwing it off in dry flakes.
The frog, when allowed to share its burden of weight, wears off,
but if raised from the ground and thrown out of function, it more oi'
less shrivels up.

Preparation of the Foot

Having briefly explained the structure of the foot, we may now
consider how to prepare it to receive the shoe for the full benefit of
the horse, and so that no ill effects may follow.

The proper bearing surface is the rim of the wall, that part of
the sole immediately abutting thereon, and the bars. These parts
should each take a perfectly level bearing upon the shoe, and at the
same time the frog should just come in contact with the ground.
To bring this about it is necessary to lower the wall until it reaches
the level of the natural growth of the sole. In a foot considerably
overgrown this is usually done with a toe-knife, but the final level-
ling should be made with a rasp, or one may find that the knife
has taken too much away in a particular part, which wiU necessitate

HORSE SHOES

r. Stamped fore shoe for cart horse for farm work. 2. Hind shoe for cart horse for town

work. 3. Hoof prepared for Charlier tip. 4. Charlier tip apphed. 5. Fullered

fore i^hoe dished in ground surface for carriage horse. 6. Concave bar fore shoe for hunter

Common Diseases of the Horse 245

either the over-lowering of the wall and cutting away the sole, or
the application of an unevenly -fitting shoe. The sole requires
little preparation, and only the loose, overgrown parts should be
removed. The paring-out and hollowing that so frequently takes
place should never be allowed; it weakens the hoof generally and
allows a tendency of the walls being forced apart.

A little special attention is necessary to ensure that the small
portion bearing upon the shoe is perfectly level with the wall, and
that sufficient horn is removed in the angle between the wall and
bars so that it will not touch the shoe, otherwise corns will soon
result. The bars need only to be made level with the wall of the
heel ; on no account should they be cut away or reduced, as is fre-
quently done to give what is called an open appearance to the foot,
and so make the heels appear unduly wide. It is one of the worst
evils of shoeing and a common cause of contracted foot. The frog
must not be touched, as it will have been reduced to its natural
proportions by wear. When finished and ready for the shoe, all the
parts enumerated should have a perfectly level bearing surface;
each side of the foot should be exactly the same height, and the
toe and heel in such proportion as to ensure a natural position to
the limb.

The Shoe

Space forbids a long discussion on the different kinds of shoes
and the various methods of application ; a volume might easily be
written upon the subject. The present article simply deals with
the broad principles which are to be adopted.

The first consideration, as conducive to the wellbeing of the horse
and the prevention of disease, is to make the shoe fit the foot
which has been prepared in the manner already described, and not as
is often done, viz. making a shoe and then rasping or cutting away
any parts of the hoof which overlap until it fits the shoe. The
prepared weight-bearing portion of the foot in ordinary working
horses, carriage horses, and hunters, varies from half to three-
quarters of an inch in width, tapering a little as it approaches the
heels. The foot surface of the shoe must be at least of an equal
width, and take a perfectly level bearing throughout. If, on account
of prominent or convex soles, more protection, or " cover " as it is
called, is desired, a wider shoe may be necessary, and in this case
it is bevelled out and made saucer-shaped on the upper surface.
This is a seated shoe, but in no case should the bevelling begin
until all the surface of the foot capable of bearing weight has been
made use of.

246 Common Diseases of the Horse

The length should be at least the length of the wall. The hind
shoes are often made considerably longer, particularly in show and
town horses, and in many cases the fore shoes also. It is con-
sidered to develop the growth of the heels, and also prevent their
being weakened by the shoeing smith cutting them down. There
is danger, however, of the hind feet catching the heels and wrench-
ing off the shoes. The ground surface has to be so constructed as
to enable the horse properly to perform whatever work he may be
required to do, and to give him a sure foothold. It may be per-
fectly flat with just a groove to guard the nail heads, or be pro-
vided with small calkins (heels), or, where heavy weights are required
to be moved, a toe-piece or "spurn " has to be added. In all cases
it should be so constructed that the natural position of the pasterns
is interfered with as little as possible.

Clips

The clip is a small triangular piece of iron hammered out from
the toe of the shoe to enable it to retain a firm position. They
will be beneficial, or liable to cause injury, according to whether
they are drawn properly or not.

The proper method. — They should be comparatively long in
their base and low in height, so that the pressure is distributed
mainly along the bottom of the wall, and the apex should not be
made sharp. The clip that is narrow in its base, with a point that
cuts like a knife, is most dangerous, and frequently causes serious
injury. When the shoe becomes loose or is partially thrown off,
the horse may tread upon it. In addition to this, the pressure is
not evenly distributed. Sometimes a little horn requires to be
removed from the toe, particularly in cart horses, to ensure a good
fit, but as little as possible of this should be done, and on no
account should any scooping out be allowed, as this weakens the
wall. A little rasping is all that is necessary. The clip can then
simply be turned over and hammered down, so that it fits the wall
without causing any pressure.

Nails

The position of the nails in a sense has a most important
bearing upon shoeing. As already observed, the outer crust is a
comparatively thin and unsensitive structure. The nails have to
pass through this without injury or pressure upon the sensitive
vascular structures immediately beneath, and at sufficient depth
to prevent the splitting of the wall, and to allow the point of the

Common Diseases of the Horse 247

nail to come out at the ri^^ht height. It is obvious that the thicker
the wall the better the chance given to the smith. The thickest
part is round the toe, from which point it gradually gets thinner.
The object is therefore to place the nails where there are the least
chances of injury, and for this reason, whenever possible, they
should be confined to the anterior half of the foot.

Nails are called " fine " when they are driven too near the outer
portion of the wall, and "coarse" when too near the inner. In the
former case, they are likely to cause loose shoes and a broken wall,
and in the latter case, lameness from pressure on the sensitive part.
After driving in the nails, turning down and clenching them, a few
strokes of the rasp should be allowed on the clinches only; on no
account should the remainder of the wall be touched with the rasp.

Some of the troubles and injuries caused by shoeing are dealt
with below.

Overgrown Feet

This is the result of lack of attention in shoeing, and is caused
by allowing the horn of the wall to become unduly long, either by
letting the shoe remain on too long, or neglecting to have the
unshod foot cut down and trimmed periodically. In the country
it is not uncommon to find the foot overgrown to the extent of a
couple of inches, with the result that the wall projects beyond the
shoe, and the latter becomes practically embedded in the sole,
which also becomes to a certain extent overgrown. The shoe is
thus thrown out of wear, the walls become broken, causing the
tread to be uneven and out of balance. Thus the weight, instead
of being distributed evenly throughout, is borne by one side or the
other, and the toe and heels are out of proportion. Bruised sole,
and strain of the joints, tendons, and ligaments, are often caused in
this manner. Sometimes even spavin and splints result.

To keep the feet in good order and to avoid injury to other
parts of the limbs, the shoe should be removed once a month.
New shoes will not be required if the horse is working on soft
ground, but the feet must be reduced, and their edges trimmed
with the rasp. This defect has been alluded to in shoeing because
in the country one so frequently finds horses that have not had
their shoes removed for three or four months, and the owner is
surprised to find that when trotting on the road the animal is lame.
In many instances this has prevented an anticipated sale. It costs
very little to have the feet regularly attended to, and more than
ample compensation is received by the benefit accruing therefrom.

24^ Common Diseases of the Horse

Bruised Sole

This results from uneven pressure, causing more or less inflam-
mation of the sensitive parts beneath. Flat-soled feet are of course
more liable to injury, particularly between the toe and the point of
the frog. It is readily detected by removing the shoe and squeezing
the toe with pincers. If the injury is accompanied by great lame-
ness, hot bran poultices may be applied night and morning for two
or three days until the inflammation subsides. If, however, the
lameness is slight, pressure may be relieved, not by removing the
horn and weakening an already thin sole, but by applying a " seated
shoe". This is all the treatment absolutely necessary. Leather
soles, however, with or without a dressing of tow and tar, may be
put on to prevent bruising, and after an injury they are useful
where the roads are not kept in good order, and loose stones
abound. But they are not generally necessary; they are only an
additional expense, and do not improve the quality of the horn.

Corns

Corn is the result of a bruise or injury to the sole in the angle
between the wall and the bars. It commonly occurs on the inside
heel of the fore foot. It is rare on the outside or in the hind feet.
A flat foot, low at the heel, is most susceptible. The cause is
usually the pressure of the shoe from being fitted too closely on
the inside, or of being too short on its inner branch. Other causes
are over-rasping or cutting away the wall at the heels, making it
so thin that it over-expands, and is unable to bear the weight
imposed upon it; cuttmg away the bars and thus removing their
support; and scooping out too much horn between the wall and
bars, thus causing a cavity which becomes filled with dirt and
gravel.

Symptoms. — Lameness, in which the horse will take short steps
and be confined in his action. At rest he will ease the heels by
flexing his fetlocks, or he may point the affected foot. Examina-
tion shows discoloration of the horn, due to extravasation of blood.
The part may be moist and red, in which case it is of recent origin,
or dry and yellow or black, when it will have been in existence
some time.

Sometimes micro-organisms gain access, and matter forms
under the horn. If this is not soon allowed to escape it may burst
out on the coronet, generally just at the top of the heel, or it may
run along the sole. In such a case the horse will be in great pain,
and show all the signs of fever.

Common Diseases of the Horse 249

Treatment. — Remove the shoe, and then relieve the pressure by
as h'ttle paring away of the horn as possible. The bars should not
be touched. It may be that only a very little thinning of the horn
is necessary, and the ordinary shoe may be replaced. In many
cases a good remedy will be found by putting a three-quarter shoe
on the affected side, i.e. by cutting off a couple of inches or so of
the inner branch of the shoe.

When lameness is slight but persistent, poulticing for a day or
two is very useful to soften the horn, and thus reducing the pres-
sure. Afterwards a three-quarter shoe and a leather sole, dressed
with equal parts of Stockholm tar and Venice turpentine, can be
applied.

Corn becomes serious whenever matter forms, and if there is
great lameness, particularly if accompanied by fever symptoms, it
will be necessary to see if it is present. For this purpose the horn
must be thinned until the least trace of blood appears, when paring
must be stopped, the part disinfected with 5 per cent of carbolic
acid solution, and a leather sole dressed with tow and Venice tur-
pentine applied. If matter be present a fairly large opening must
be made, and the wound syringed out with antiseptic solution. A
bar shoe must be then put on, with a leather sole that will slip in
and out. It should be dressed with carbolic ointment, and the
parts attended to daily. In all cases where matter is suspected in
a horse's foot the advice of a veterinary surgeon should be immedi-
ately sought, as unless speedy relief is given most serious conditions
are likely to ensue, often resulting in the death of the horse.

Quitter

Quittor is a wound of the foot in which one or more sinuses
or channels discharging matter at the coronet occur. They are
always the result of some preceding injury, such as a tread on the
top of the coronet, a neglected corn, a prick or injury to the
sensitive part of the foot from the nail in shoeing, or any other
injury, as a result of which matter has formed in the foot and not
been allowed to escape.

In many cases the abscess breaks out at the heel. This may
or may not heal. Later on, secondary abscesses appear discharging
pus, and there is no disposition to heal. If the disease is allowed
to go on unchecked serious damage will be done to the structures
inside the foot. The matter seems to have a most corrosive action,
and attacks the lateral cartilages, burrowing through them in several
places, and causing them to become loosened and pieces of them

250 Common Diseases of the Horse

detached. The matter generally advances towards the front of th<;
foot, and when this happens there is a danger of the coffin joint
being attacked, eventually causing "open joint"; or the coffin bone
itself may be attacked. Necrosis or death of portions of this bone
ensue, and more matter forms, all of which contributes to the dis-
charge through the various channels.

Symptoms. — With the discharge there is swelling round the
coronet, which may reach to the fetlock joint and the back tendons.
There may or may not be lameness. Sometimes the horse i:>
noticed to be lame, an abscess appears at the heel, and he becomes
temporarily sound.

Treatment. — First remove the shoe and examine the foot. An
old suppurating corn, or a " prick ", may be discovered, in which
event every effort should be made to encourage the abscess to drain
from below through the openings. If this is not possible the disease
has to be attacked from the top. Each sinus requires careful prob-
ing to discover its direction and extent, and a decision made as to
whether they should be treated by injection or by a surgical operation.

If the quittor has not been long in existence, and there are only
one or two sinuses, injections two or three times daily of a 10 per
cent solution of perchloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) and
alcohol may effect a cure. If improvement does not quickly result,
then by far the better method is to resort to a surgical operation.

This operation consists in exposing the diseased parts, and
giving free drainage to the matter. To do this it is necessary to
remove a window of horn in the wall of the hoof embracing the
limits of the quittor, and afterwards to turn back a flap of skin on
the coronet, making a connection by means of a knife between the
two parts underneath the coronary band. In this manner the
diseased parts will be exposed. They may then be removed, the
parts dressed with iodoform one part and boracic acid three parts.
A bandage should then be applied, and the wound treated with
ordinary antiseptic precautions. It should be dressed daily.

Another method is known as the " coring out " process, and
consists in plugging the sinus as deeply as it may be with a little
perchloride of mercury powder enclosed in tissue paper, and after-
wards applying a bandage and leaving this in position for forty-
eight hours. After this time one is able to detach a fairly large
core of dead tissue, which may embrace most of the diseased
portions. In any case it exposes them more freely. The wound
may afterwards be treated in the ordinary manner. The reader
does not require to be told that any of the above operations need
a veterinarian to perform them.

Common Diseases of the Horse 251

Burnt Sole

Burnt sole is caused by leaving the hot shoe too long in contact
with the horn, the heat thereby penetrating to the sensitive sole, or
' quick ", beneath. The injury may be slight or severe, and in the
latter case separation may be caused between the horny and sen-
sitive soles.

Sy7nptoms. — The horn will be found to be discoloured and burnt,
and pain is caused by pressure.

Treatment. — The horn must not be pared with the knife; hot
poultices should be applied, and rest allowed. If the burn is of a
severe nature, it may take several weeks to heal.

Brushing, Cutting, or Interfering

These are the terms used to indicate an injury to the inside
of the fetlock joint which is inflicted by the opposite foot. It is
commonly attributed to faulty shoeing or overprominence of the
offending wall, and here a grave error is often made. In nine cases
out of ten the fault arises from greenness and lack of condition in
young horses and debility in older ones. A young horse in break-
ing, and when first put to work, very frequently " brushes "; but
the fault ceases when he becomes fit and accustomed to regular
work. A tired horse, or those slovenly driven with the reins on
their back and not up to the bit, are frequent sufferers.

The remedy then lies in seeing that the horse is in proper
condition, fit for his work, and well shod. Young horses which are
affected should wear a fetlock pad or " boot ". This consists in
wrapping a piece of horse cloth or felt round the fetlock, tying with
a piece of tape, and turning the top part down. If brushing has
previously occurred, the parts will be more or less swollen, so that
the tape requires to be tight, as work soon reduces the swelling,
and if not securely tied the boot will slip down over the foot.

Faulty shoeing as an occasional cause has to be dealt with,
and a properly-applied and well-fitting shoe is usually all that is
required to relieve this condition. It occurs commonly in the hind
limbs, from the fact of their being more frequently shod with
calkins. The removal of these and the application of a flat shoe
is very often the remedy. As a rule, when brushing is noticed the
owner sends straight away to the smithy to have the shoes altered,
and various methods are adopted to cure the complaint. Except
in cases of defective conformation causing faulty action, cutting
or rasping away the foot and altering a well-fitting shoe is calcu-
lated to do little good, and is never to be recommended. It

252 Common Diseases of the Horse

generally causes serious damage to the foot and other parts of
the limb.

When the injury is caused by the hoof, it is the usual custom to
rasp away the horn, weakening the wall and making it unfit to take
its share in bearing weight. The following styles of shoeing arc
for preventive purposes: A "knocked -up shoe", or "feather-
edged preventer", is one with the inner branch narrow and deep,
and without nail holes. This is fitted quite closely to, or even
within, the inner wall, and the hoof rasped off to its level ; some-
times also the outside branch is not allowed to touch the ground,
thus the high narrow web of the inner branch bears the whole
weight. The injury occasioned can be better imagined than de-
scribed. In other cases the heel is removed from one side or the
other, or one side of the shoe made thicker or thinner, according to
the taste of the smith. They all cause an uneven tread, and are
to be strongly condemned.

Speedy Cut

This is a bruise or cut inflicted on the lower part of the inside
of the knee by the opposite fore foot. As a rule, it is more often
due to defective action than to improper shoeing. It also occurs
in young, green horses that have not learned the proper use of
their limbs, and in those that have become fatigued from over-
driving, whose muscles are unable to control the action of the
limbs. It must therefore be understood that " speedy cutting " as
the result of shoeing is comparatively rare. When due to this
cause, however, it is frequently found that calkins are used, or
that the shoe overlaps the wall on the inside of the foot. As a
remedy flat shoes may be tried in the former case, and if this is
not successful, a three-quarter shoe may be used, with, if necessary,
rubber bar pads. In the case where the overprominent shoe is
responsible, close shoeing on the inside must be practised. The
injury itself may be treated by cold-water douches applied con-
tinuously for an hour night and morning, afterwards applying
cold-water bandages kept wet with arnica lotion. Sometimes an
enlargement remains at the seat of injury, which may be reduced
by applying a little mercury (red) blister.

Forging or Clicking

This defect is caused by the toe of the hind shoe striking the
inner ground surface of the shoe of the fore foot of the correspond-
ing side. It is rare for injury to be caused, but it is a source of

Common Diseases of the Horse 253

great annoyance. The trouble may be said to be caused by defec-
tive action; defect in conformation, such as occurs in horses with
legs too long for their bodies, or those with "sickle" or "cow"
hocks (this causing their hind feet to be placed too far forward);
by slovenly driving, and not keeping the horse up to his bit; by
fatigue; and by neglect of attention to the feet. In the last case
it often happens that the feet are allowed to grow too long, and
the cause is obvious; or the shoes may be too large or too heavy.
The remedies consist of: (i) Careful and considerate driving.
Horses should be kept well up to their bits, and not be loosely
driven, with the reins on their backs in a go-as-you-please style;
they should not be overtired by driving too far or too fast, or put
behind loads they are unfitted for, (2) Condition is a most im-
portant factor, and it must also be remembered that "beef " (fat)
is not condition. (3) When the feet are responsible, if they are
too long they should be cut down. (4) As regards shoeing, the
fore shoe may have a narrow-seated web at the toe, and the hind
shoe made with side clips, as short in the toe as possible, and the
outer wall at the toe rasped down and rounded off.

Overreach

This is an injury to the heel of the fore foot caused by the
inside rim of the toe of the hind shoe. If the fore shoes are too
long in the branches they are often wrenched off. It is most com-
mon in Hunters and Thoroughbreds, and invariably happens at the
gallop, A mistake is often made by the wound being attributed
to the blow being struck by the front of the hind shoe. It should
be thoroughly understood that this is not so, as may be testified by
the wound itself, where the skin will be found detached from before
backwards, showing that the inside of the shoe of the hind toe
caused the cut in its backward action. The remedy consists in
hammering down the inside rim of the hind toe, so that it is quite
smooth and bevelled off.

Tread or Tramp

This is a bruise or wound of the coronet, or coronary band,
caused by the shoe of the opposite foot. It is most common in
the hind feet, especially when high narrow calkins are used, and
generally occurs in turning round or backing. The injury inflicted
may cause a clean cut which may bleed more or less freely; or
a crush or severe bruise may be sustained in which there is little
or no bleeding. In either case there may or may not be any lame-

254 Common Diseases of the Horse

ness. In the former case, however, it is usually only temporary,
and passes off in a few days. An injury to the coronet caused
by a " tread " becomes dangerous when, from neglect, germs
gain an entrance and cause matter to form underneath, and in
every case it is imperative that the most careful attention should
be given to it. It is easy to remedy if early precaution is taken.
Where bleeding has occurred, the wound must be carefully washed
and disinfected, and a little tow and antiseptic ointment (carbolic
or boracic) applied and kept in position by bandages. It should
be dressed night and morning. As a rule, in a few days healing
is effected. When the injury sustained is a crush or bruise, there
is practically no bleeding, but the pain is greater, and healing takes
much longer. The pain may be relieved by cold water applied
continuously for an hour. The after treatment is the same as in
the other case. When the injury has been severe a quantity of
dead tissue often results. This sloughs away in time, leaving a
wound which may be dressed and bandaged with the ointment as
described. A neglected " tread ", in which dirt and consequently
germs have gained access, is frequently the source of " quittor ".
Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of giving the
very best attention to any wound on the coronet, no matter how
trifling it may appear. It may be also remarked that high narrow
calkins and long heels, a frequent cause of trouble, are an unneces-
sary evil, and should be avoided.

Injuries from Nails

Nails may injure the foot in several ways, which may be briefly
enumerated.

1. By being coarsely driven, i.e. too closely to the "quick"
(sensitive vascular part), thus causing a bulging of the soft horn,
pressure, and pain. The fault may be due to the carelessness of
the doorman (knocker-on), or perhaps quite as frequently to the
unskilful manner in which the nail holes have been punched by
the fireman (the man responsible for the make and fit of the shoe).
In the latter case the nails have been placed too near the inner
edge of the shoe. This kind of injury is known as a " bind ".
Lameness will surely follow, but may not do so for a few days,
or even longer.

2. By the nail being driven into the " quick " and then with-
drawn. This is known as " drawback ". When it occurs, directly
the nail enters the sensitive structures the horse flinches, the smith
is warned that something is wrong, and withdraws the nail. Mean-

Common Diseases of the Horse 255

while the foot has been injured, more or less blood has escaped,
and this may have happened inside the foot and not be seen at
all. If the offending nail is clean, all may be well, but if dirt}-,
trouble invariably follows.

3. By the nail being driven through the quick and allowed to
remain in position. This is known as a "prick". The lameness
that follows may be immediate, or, again, delayed for a time, but
usually it is the former. If the horse is sent out to work, he will
often come back on three legs, as he will hardly be able to put his
foot to the ground.

4. By the nails being driven too near to the outer wall, i.e. too
fine, so that the horn splits. If this is allowed to go on for long,
the foot, after a few shoeings, will assume a shelly appearance, and
give one the impression that it is unsound.

Symptoms. — Lameness and pain in the foot, may be diagnosed
by heat round the coronet and hoof, throbbing of the bloodvessels
in the neighbourhood, and, lastly and best, by applying pressure,
when the horse will soon show the seat of the injury by flinching.
To detect the injured part, the foot may be tapped gently with
a hammer over each nail; or squeezed all round with the pincers,
one jaw over the nails, the other on the sole, when usually the
offending nail can be located.

Treatment. — The nail must be withdrawn at once. If it has
only been a " bind ", the hole may be disinfected with 5 per cent
carbolic solution, a little tow and tar, and a leather applied. If,
however, the " bind " has been followed by the formation of matter,
or it has been a " drawback " or " prick ", after which matter has
formed, the removal of the nail will be followed by a black fluid or
matter. In this case it is absolutely necessary that it all be allowed
to escape. For this purpose the hole must be opened up with a
fine-ended drawing knife, and the cavity explored until it is certain
that its depth has been reached. It may be necessary to remove
some parts of the sole, which often gets underrun with the matter.
After this has been done, the cavity may be disinfected and a little
carbolic ointment applied and kept in position by tow and a leather.
The latter need not be caught by the nails, so that it can be slipped
in and out, and the wound examined and redressed without remov-
ing the shoe. Lameness generally continues for a few days, until
the soreness wears off, and if there is much pain it may be relieved
by placing the foot in hot baths, to which a little disinfectant has
been added. The formation of matter in the foot is serious, but
not dangerous if it is allowed to escape early. Neglect leads to
quittor, and often results in the death of the horse.

256 Common Diseases of the Horse

HINTS TO HORSE OWNERS

The essential factors for the vvellbeing of a horse are suitable
food and suitable surroundings, coupled with a judicious amount of
work. Feeding has been dealt with in other parts of this volume,
so suffice it to mention that young horses, like young children,
should be fed with discretion. The amount of corn should be
strictly limited, and only that quantity allowed that will keep the
animal " fit " to perform the duties required of him. On no account
should overfeeding be allowed. It will either produce a too fat
condition, causing the body to become too heavy for the legs, or
the growth will be too rapid, producing a condition corresponding
to what is spoken of in the human subject as having " overgrown
their strength". A fat young horse soon becomes worn, and is
always looked upon with suspicion by buyers. The overgrown
animal is a leggy, herring-gutted brute that nobody wants to
purchase. Judicious feeding and management encourage an all-
round growth, and this should always be aimed at.

This means that the increase in weight should be gradual, and
accompanied at the same time by a corresponding increase in
depth, i.e. the horse appears to get shorter on his legs and nearer
to the ground. Maturity is reached at five years of age, and when
this time arrives the horse should be in good condition (not fat),
fresh (or " new " as it is called) on his legs, and buoyant in spirits.

Work has a great influence on the future of a horse. A cart
horse should be broken at two years of age, and allowed light work
on the land for a year, after which light chain and shaft work may
be performed for a time, gradually increasing, until at five years
old he is able to do practically anything that is required. On the
other hand, the animal that has not been broken until compara-
tively late (four or five years old), and then put to hard work, in
many cases sold as fit for town work, is utterly unable to do it, and
invariably breaks down, to the disgust of the purchaser and not to
the credit or satisfaction of the seller.

A hint must be given regarding the surroundings. Until two
years of age the young animals should be running at grass, and
broken in at the commencement of their third year, when they will
require to be stabled for some part of their time. It is most im-
portant that the stabling accommodation should be in every way
sanitary. For this purpose the building should be well lighted, well
ventilated, and well drained. In many stables, unfortunately, hardly
any attention is given to these points, and any place which affords
protection is considered good enough. There should be practically

Common Diseases of the Horse 257

no difference between the smell outside and inside the stable, and
to accomplish this requires ample ventilation and no underground
drains inside. Every part of it should be well lighted. Good
roomy loose boxes are admirable; the floors should only slope
moderately so as not to cause injury to the tendons.

It is unwise to buy a lame horse except for work on the land.
Me would not be sold at necessarily a bad price if there was any
chance of him getting sound. It is very unwise to continue to
work a good horse that goes lame, as this may eventually result in
permanent deformity or disablement. Unless the cause of lameness
is perfectly obvious and beyond all doubt, always have the shoe
removed and the foot carefully examined. Injuries to the foot are
the commonest cause of lameness. Always remember to have the
shoes removed periodically; a small sum expended in this manner
is infinitely better than allowing the foot to be injured. If a horse
that has been standing in the stable for three or four days without
exercise is put to full work, he must not be driven at a fast pace at
the commencement of his journey, or he will be liable to come down
from a disease for which the sudden violent exercise after enforced
rest is responsible. Any wound, no matter how trifling it may
appear, and particularly if it is in the region of the foot, should
never be neglected. It is always wise, and very little trouble, to
cleanse or disinfect it. Disinfectants should always be kept by the
horse owner ; he will find them useful in scores of ways.

To restrain a horse for purposes of examination, it is always
wise to do so in a gentle manner. Lifting a fore leg up is perhaps
the best way, but the lifted leg must be on the same side as the
examiner; i.e., a horse can kick as usual with the off hind leg when
the near fore is held up. If a twitch is necessary, it should not be
Kept on too long, as in a short time all feeling becomes lost, and
grave injury to the nose may result. After the twitch is taken off,
the nose should be well rubbed with the hand. When an ear is
twitched, some of the hair of the forelock or mane should be included
in the loop, as it tends to prevent injury to the base of the ear.

Drenching should never be allowed except under very excep-
tional circumstances, and never then unless the owner is present
himself. It should never be done in any disease of the respiratory
organs, such as sore throat or pneumonia. If a ball cannot be
administered, it would be far better for the horse not to receive
anything at all than to be drenched. The evils of drenching, par-
ticularly when a twitch or loop on the end of a pike is applied and
the head held high, consist in the liquid getting into the lungs
instead of the stomach, and causing pneumonia. The head should

2s8

Common Diseases of the Horse

only be just held high enough to prevent the liquid running
out of the mouth, and must be dropped immediately if there is any
inclination to cough.

A horse's head should always be tied up after a blister, or when
there is a wound that he may bite.

The horse that is going to be turned out to grass should not be
groomed for a week or so before, so that dust and dandruff may
accumulate as a protection against the weather. When brought
back from a run at grass to be got ready for work again, it is wise
to give a dose of physic before proceeding to condition him. Care
should be taken when the early morning feed is refused. It is
generally the first indication that something is wrong, and to satisfy
oneself it is always wise to keep a clinical thermometer, when the
temperature can be ascertained. The normal temperature of a
horse is between 99° and 101° F., and it should not be higher than
the latter.

Working a horse with a high temperature is a great evil, and is
a common cause of pneumonia.

Always insist upon good grooming. This should be done night
and morning. It is not only for the sake of appearance, but is
essential for the animal's health. If dirty, the skin is unable to
perform its functions, and so indirectly the kidneys become affected.
In fact, one may say the whole system suffers.

Sometimes one owns an animal that will not lie down, and
various methods may be attempted to induce him to do so. The
common methods are to change from a stall to a loose box, or, if
he is by himself, to the company of other horses; to litter him up
to his belly with straw ; if this does not succeed, various changes of
bedding may be tried. If these are unsuccessful, the tail may be
plaited with straw, with the end left hanging, or a bag of hot
sand may be placed across the loins. If, however, in spite of every-
thing one fails to induce him to lie down, he should be put in a
stall, with a strong leather belt, or a couple of ropes enclosed in old
hose-pipe tubes, placed behind him across the back of the stall for
him to sit on. The owner would be better without a horse of this
kind.

A few words are necessary as to harness. These require to be
kept in good order, and should be cleaned and polished daily.
Neglect in this direction leads to the formation of sore shoulders,
sore backs, and other wounds, causes the horse to have a slovenly
appearance and the leather to perish quickly. A horse should
always wear the same set of harness, and never that of another
unless it has been well cleaned beforehand.

Common Diseases of the Horse

259

Finally, the most valuable precaution, and in the writer's opinion
the most economical, is to take the advice of a veterinary surgeon
as early as possible when the owner has any doubt as to the serious-
ness of a case. It will give the patient the best possible chance of
recovery at the minimum cost. One finds in the country that far
too often the fire engine is sent for after the house is burnt down ;
i.e., the veterinary surgeon is only summoned as a last resort,
when it is too late for him to be able to give any assistance, and no
satisfaction is given to anybody.

Index to Diseases, &c., in Chapter V

Blood-sucking flies, 321.

Bets, 224.

Broken knee, 212.

Bruised sole, 248.

Brushing, cutting, or interfer-
ing, 251.

Bumped knee— broken knee,
211.

Burnt sole, 251.

Capped elbow, 214.

Capped hock, 215.

Care of the foal, 231.

Cataract, 197.

Catarrh, or common cold, 201.

Chorioptic or leg mange, 223.

Clips, 246.

Colic, 206.

Constipation, 243.

Corns, 248.

Cracked heels and mud fever,

ai6.
Curby hocks, 196.

Diarrhoea, 243.

Feeding and exercise during

pregnancy, 228.
Flatulent colic, 208.
Foaling, 227.
Forging or clicking, 252.

Grease, 218.

Haemorrhage of the womb,
238.

Hereditary diseases, 167.
Hints to horse owners, 256.

Inflammation of the feet, 237.
Inflammation of the navel,

240.
Inflammation of the udder,

238.
Inflammation of the vagina,

236.
Inflammation of the womb,

235-
Injuries from nails, 254.
Inversion of the womb, 239.

Lameness, 219.
Large white worms, 325.
Leucorrhcea, 237.
Lice, 221.

Mange, 222.

Nails, 246.

Natural foaling, 229.

Navicular disease, 183.

Overgrown feet, 247.
Overreach, 253.

Palisade worms, 225.
Parasites, 220.
Pregnancy, 227.
Preparation of foaling box,

228.
Preparation of the foal, 244.
Psoroptic mange, 223.

Quittor, 249.

Red or wire worms, 226.
Retention of the afterbinh

234-
Rheumatism, 198.
Ringbone, 177.
Roaring and whistling, 168.

Sarcoptic mange, 332.

Shivering, 173.

Shoe, The, 245.

Shoeing, 243.

Sidebone, 179.

Some accidents and diseases

accompanying foaling, 233.
Sore chine, 213.
Sore shoulders — sore backs,

213.
Sore throat, 203.
Spavin, 193.
Speedy cut, 252.
Splint, 189.
Strangles, 205.
Stringhalt, 175.

Thrush, 218.

Tread or tramp, 253.

Tuberculosis, 201.

Unsound feet, 186.

Whip or seat worms, 225.
White scour, 242.
Worms, 224.
Wounds, 2ia

I

4

Dster Family library of Vetennaiy Medicifw
nmlngs School of Veterinary Medicine at

:sUniversfty
\ VVestboro Road

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