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A LIVING
FROM THE LAND

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A LIVING
FROM THE LAND

BY

WILLIAM B. DURYEE, M. Sc.

Secretary of Agriculture,
State of New Jersey

WHITTLESEY HOUSE

MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

NEW YORK AND LONDON

1934

Copyright, 1934, by the McGRAW-HiLL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be
reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers.

THIRD PRINTING

PUBLISHED BY WHITTLESEY HOUSE
A division of the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America by The Maple Press Co., York, Pa.

To my friend
HENRY W. JEFFERS

PREFACE

HOMESTEADING days are here again. The pres-
ent movement of people back to the land
is of a different type and has different objectives
from those which prevailed when a continent
was to be conquered and exploited. Today we
know that many urban industries will operate
on a seasonal basis and we know too that periods
of unemployment and shorter working days
will provide more leisure and probably lower
incomes for hundreds of thousands of families.
The utilization of this leisure time to supplement
incomes, to raise the standards of living and of
health, and to attain some measure of economic
security will tend more and more to settlement
on the land.

In these days of rapid transportation and
all the attributes and conveniences of modern
country life, the hardships of the earlier period
of land development are non-existent. Although
urban industrial development has reached a
point which will not be exceeded for many years
to come, the individual who needs additional
income may adjust himself to such circum-
stances by establishing a country homestead.

ix

PREFACE

Industrial activity is tending to decentralize,
largely as the result of widespread power distri-
bution, and a home in the country accessible to
some form of manufacturing or business employ-
ment offers undeniable attractions.

This book is prepared primarily for the family
that is inexperienced in country living and in
soil culture. Such a family should know about
the nature of the soil on which it lives, how to
make it serve the family's needs and purposes,
what to do, and what to avoid in order that
success may be attained and failure averted.
Students of agriculture as a vocation and
practical farmers may find, beyond the elemen-
tary facts presented, information of value and
help to them. To know and to understand the
science and practice of agriculture is to have
power to cope with and to enjoy soil culture
and animal husbandry. If this little volume
helps to answer clearly and definitely the many
inquiries that are in the minds of prospective
and active homesteaders, it will have served
its purpose.

The knowledge of many practical people
and the resources of agricultural institutions and
agencies have been drawn upon for this book.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to those who
have contributed constructive criticism and
have helped in the preparation of material.

PREFACE

Especial credit is due to the personnel of the
New Jersey and New York colleges of agriculture
and to my associates in the New Jersey Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

WILLIAM B. DURYEE.

TRENTON, N. J.,
December, 1933.

XI

CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE ix

CHAPTER

I. TURNING FROM THE CITY TO THE COUNTRY . 3

II. GETTING ESTABLISHED IN THE COUNTRY. . . 12

III. FINANCING AND PROTECTING THE INVEST-

MENT 26

IV. ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE IN THE COUNTRY. . 40
V. SERVICING THE HOME 54

VI. MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS 73

VII. FOOD FROM THE GARDEN 95

VIII. HOME FRUITS AND BEES no

IX. POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME 123

X. SUCCESSFUL MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. . . 138

XL THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY 159

XII. MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 170

1111

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Chapter I

TURNING FROM THE CITY TO THE
COUNTRY

AIERICA was founded on the rock base
of agriculture. The early settlers tilled
the soil and derived from it the simple things
that they needed. Necessity compelled them to
be self-reliant, courageous and resourceful. The
establishment of a home in early days meant
the clearing of land, the erection of a house for
human habitation and the building of shelters
for a few farm animals. Each farm home became
practically self-sufficient so far as the family
needs were concerned. Clothing was made there
for each member of the family. After clearing
and subduing the land, the settlers were able
to produce their cereal foods. Animals were
slaughtered and the meat processed to provide
sustenance throughout the year. Through the
exchange of commodities and ideas with neigh-
bors, advances in living conditions were made.

The family that was not resourceful in those
days failed to survive. Neighbors were too busy
working out their own existence problems to

3

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

succor the incompetent. Resourcefulness was
called upon in meeting onslaughts of beasts or
human marauders. Thus there was built up a
tradition of seeking and utilizing resources
that has gone on to make our country great
and the wonder of the rest of the world.

Since pioneer days we have built a great
industrial, commercial and financial machine.
American inventive genius, coupled with the
best brains of the civilized world, attracted by
resources and opportunities on every hand, has
invaded every field and created a great industrial
superstructure.

With the genesis and development of a great
industrial era in the United States there started
a movement of population from farms to estab-
lished centers of population. The application
of the sciences to the problems of filling human
wants gave this movement greater impetus.
Mining and the refining of metal ores, the
exploiting of coal deposits, the building of
railroads, the construction of buildings for
business and residential purposes, as well as
dozens of other great enterprises, served to
draw from the country the best of its human
resources.

Inventive genius began to concentrate on
the solution of engineering and construction
problems created by congestion of population

4

TURNING FROM THE CITY

and successive steps in industrialization. This
same technical genius was applied also to farm
operations which required laborious effort by
men and work animals. That this development
itself progressed rapidly is demonstrated by
the fact that while in 1810 the effort of nearly
every person was required to produce enough
food to sustain the population, in 1910 the
efforts of one-third of the people were sufficient
to provide food for the nation and export vast
quantities to other countries.

While the nation continued to grow rapidly
in population and sought to apply to ordinary
practices the newer labor-saving devices, all
was well. It was inevitable, however, that the
great industrial machine should become over-
developed, at least temporarily. Instead of
machinery being a servant of mankind it
became an octopus that could not be checked.
Individual initiative, the wellspring of earlier
developments in the process, became atrophied.
There came about such a high degree of speciali-
zation in human effort as to make men dependent
upon others for work to do. Consequently, even
a slight throwing out of gear of the machine
created unemployment, which reduced buying
power for the machine-made products and
started a vicious downward spiral accompanied
by every form of economic distress.

5

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

When such partial or complete breakdown
of the superstructure occurs, thoughtful people
are brought "down to earth," both collectively
and very intimately in thousands of individual
cases. They begin to get back to fundamentals
and to seek means of becoming so reestablished
as to avoid future cataclysms. The family
attracted to the city by the lure of high industrial
wages and by crowded avenues finds in such a
breakdown that it has lost its moorings.

In seeking means of reestablishment free
of the terrifying complications of industrial
life, the mind turns to the country, to the soil,
to growing things that are not visibly affected
by economic cycles. The open country seems
ready to welcome back her errant children
graciously and to enfold them within her protect-
ing bosom. We cannot go back, however,
to pioneer days. Free land is not available and
we have not the arts or the patience to practice
the means of livelihood of those days. To make
the new or renewed relationship with the soil
a success, it is necessary to understand that
country life, too, has changed during industrial
revolutions. Mother Earth is now, as ever, a
generous but exacting parent. To try to re-
establish relationships in a blind and haphazard
manner is likely to lead to further disaster.
Such a debacle is quite needless, provided some

6

TURNING FROM THE CITY

fundamental principles and practices are under-
stood and followed.

Unquestionably, the open country is now
making the greatest appeal as a place of residence
that it has made at any time in the history of
the nation. To list the conveniences which now
exist in the country is to duplicate those which
many people have considered as available only
in cities. In most areas of the country, for
example, there are daily mail delivery, telephone
service, some measure of fire protection, and
transportation by automobile, bus or train. It
is quite possible, for example, to step into a bus
at one's dooryard and be carried to any part
of the United States by the same method of
transportation.

The development of the radio has brought
to the country home all the surging activities
of national life and varied educational and
entertainment programs. The spread of electric
light and power lines through the country
constitutes a boon that makes possible the use
of all kinds of electrical appliances known in
the city, including refrigerators, cooking ranges,
washing machines, water pumps, water heaters
and hundreds of other machines and appliances,
some of which are in their infancy. No great diffi-
culty is experienced in locating in the open country
where such electrical facilities are available.

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

TURNING FROM THE CITY

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FLOOM
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(Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture)
Floor plan of house shown on opposite page.

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

On the main highways in the northern sections
of the country a heavy fall of snow used to mean
isolation for weeks. Today the snow is removed
as rapidly as it falls, and these highways are kept
open. The problems and perils of isolation are
thus removed.

Tradesmen of all kinds are directing their
sales toward country homes, and supplies of
ice and all kinds of food can be obtained almost
daily at the farm doorstep. There is also a
tendency to develop factories in the country
away from the high-rent areas of cities and
to utilize the services of persons living in the
vicinity of the factory for full or partial time
in the plants. The cost of living can be reduced
by living in the country, and opportunities for
purchasing foods and other products at whole-
sale prices and storing them against the time of
need make further economies possible.

The greatest asset that the country has to
offer relates to the health and character of those
who live close to nature. It has long been
recognized by many European countries that
the ownership of even a small tract of land, no
larger than a city lot, perhaps, is a definite
asset in building a nation and in building
individual character. In Germany, in Denmark
and in many other nations, the government
lends its aid toward the establishment of people

10

TURNING FROM THE CITY

in the country and makes it possible for them
to acquire and retain small holdings of land
which they may call "home." It is on these
small tracts that one sees veritable bowers of
pastoral industry and beauty.

Residence in the open country, in contact
with the soil, contributes to physical strength
and to mental health. When a man lives in
the country, his house, his way of living and
his contribution to the community stand out
where all may see them. These latter assets
have always been inherent in country life. When
to these are added the conveniences and the
opportunities for community enjoyment that
are now a part of rural life, its appeal is not
difficult to understand.

Anyone who intends to live in the country
has his individual problems to meet and to
solve. In the solution of these problems there
are many resources and avenues to which he
may turn in the present day for help and for
guidance. The tragic mistakes that have been
made in the past can and should be largely
eliminated in the future. A clearer understand-
ing should be gained as to what one may obtain
in the country in the form of a better way of liv-
ing, serving as an anchor to the windward even
under favorable economic conditions.

ii

Chapter II

GETTING ESTABLISHED IN THE
COUNTRY

IN THE selection of a residence in the country,
the settler must decide whether he wishes
to locate on a farm of considerable acreage or
whether he wants to have a relatively small
tract ranging from 2 to 15 acres. In the latter
case, he is thinking primarily of a place of
residence with sufficient acreage to make it
possible to secure a partial living from the land
immediately surrounding the home. The trend
in such purchases is toward the smaller place
for a number of reasons.

A large farm acquired by a relatively inex-
perienced person means a very considerable
burden in the development and maintenance
of the land itself on a producing basis. Capital
is required for the purchase of equipment and
power. Parts of the land may need to be drained,
and taxes must be paid whether the land is
productive or not. A person acquiring a farm
of 50 or more acres will find that the major
portion of his time, thought and capital will

12

GETTING ESTABLISHED

be called upon to make it a success. If he has
definitely cut off his city connections and the
idea of having a job there, and has had experi-
ence in farming, then he may be in a position
to take over a large acreage so that his full
time and possibly that of other members of
his family can be spent on various projects on
the land he acquires.

We are here primarily concerned, not with
those who desire to enter upon farming on a
large scale, but with the family which would
like to live in the country, secure a partial
living from the land surrounding the home and
still have the opportunity of gaining a livelihood
from some industrial or commercial activity
located in a near-by city or town. It is quite likely
that we shall have a shorter working week and
probably periods of unemployment for hundreds
of thousands of ambitious people. Therefore,
a place in the country that is well located with
respect to hard-surfaced highways and accessible
to urban centers offers opportunities for combin-
ing the advantages and economic assets of
country life with urban employment.

Getting Started Right. — Too much emphasis
cannot be laid upon getting the right start,
particularly with respect to location. This is
not only essential for the satisfaction of the
present occupant of the premises, but also gives

13

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

definite sales value in case circumstances make
a change of location desirable or necessary.

It will often appear that the best location is
on the outskirts of a city or town and from some
angles this is good reasoning. There are some
factors, however, that make such a location
undesirable. For one thing, the tax rate is
likely to be higher in such areas than in the
open country, thus adding to overhead without
compensating advantages. In the second place,
urban centers develop without regard to soil
type and this is an essential factor to the family
that expects to engage in some agricultural
pursuit. Again, the type of inhabitants that
live on the fringe of towns and cities may not
make good neighbors or associates for children,
especially. None of these disadvantages may be
present in locations close to centers of popula-
tion, but the prospective settler should . give
all these factors full consideration. The sales
argument frequently advanced that such loca-
tions will grow in value due to growth of popula-
tion may be fallacious.

Many have found that the higher costs of
living in these areas often prevent the owner
from holding on until the slow growth of popula-
tion outward makes a worth-while profit possible
from his real estate. Furthermore, the growth
of cities and towns is definitely slowing down.

GETTING ESTABLISHED

The expansion of city areas is greatly curtailed
and is not likely to be resumed soon.

The most important time to get expert
opinion as to location is at the beginning and
not after purchasing. There are available in
every locality persons whose advice is useful
in such matters. The county agricultural agent
located in nearly every county seat knows the
countryside and his advice on the subject of
definite location should be sought once one has
decided upon the general area which seems
attractive. In determining on specific location
the bank which has a clientele in the country
will often be found a helpful guide through
suggestions or through ability to refer the
questioner to reputable and informed persons
with more definite knowledge.

Another source of information is the local
dealer in farm supplies. He will be found to
know general soil types in the vicinity, especially
those types which bring business to him because
they are productive. Owners of such land are
able to buy and use to advantage the supplies
he has to offer to the grower.

Size of Tract. — There is the possibility that a
person who goes back to the land may acquire
too little land as well as too much. Inadequate
land resources may seriously hinder possibilities
of revenue from the place and cramp facilities for

15

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

his enterprises. In this connection it may be
helpful to point out that an acre of land com-
prises 43,560 square feet. A city lot measuring
50 by loo feet contains 5,000 square feet. An
acre therefore would comprise about eight and
one-half such city lots. A 5-acre tract is usually
a minimum area for a small agricultural enter-
prise and many have found it entirely adequate.
The size of the tract to be acquired and the
enterprises that can be engaged in will depend
in considerable measure upon the size of the
occupant's family — whether they can assist
in its operation and whether the owner himself
intends to put in all or only a part of his time.
The possibility of securing extra labor should
also be looked into before larger operations are
attempted. No definite formula can be set down
for desirable area and enterprises in relation
to time available for operating. However, the
owner will realize that one pair of hands can
do only so much work. To try to operate beyond
the capacity of his own time and that of others
available is to become involved in striving to
keep up with exigencies that may make country
life a struggle instead of a pleasurable existence.
It may result, too, in losses due to inability to
get things done on time, and nature deals
harshly with those who neglect the seasonable
operations that come in any agricultural enter-

16

GETTING ESTABLISHED

prise. "Bulling through" or skimping or cutting
corners simply will not work when one is dealing
with plant and animal life and only failure will
come to him who undertakes to bluff nature.

The successful operator of a farming endeavor
must always be on top of his work, that is,
able to plan and direct his energies in the most
productive way at the right time. This is really
managing and is likely to lead to success and
satisfaction. To have so much to do that one
emergency after another must be met brings the
operator down under his farming projects. He
ceases to manage under these conditions and
becomes driven by his own creations. To avoid
this unhappy state, which is entirely unneces-
sary, planning must be effectively done and
operations undertaken in a gradual way up to
one's capacity.

Cost of Land. — The price one should pay
for land in a relatively small tract cannot be
arbitrarily fixed. Those who own large farms
or tracts expect to receive a bonus for the acres
located along a highway as compared with an
average price for the entire place. It should
be possible to buy a 5- or lo-acre tract of land
in the open country with highway frontage for
from $150 to $250 an acre, depending on location.
If the land is located near town or city where
speculative operations have enhanced values,

17

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

the cost will be considerably more. Where an
entire farm is desired, the buildings are fre-
quently given no value, the cost being the price
of the land only. As has been stated, it is quite
possible to acquire too much land as well as
too little. A few acres selected from a tract of
good, productive soil will usually be found a
better investment than a large farm that has
been abandoned because of lack of fertility.
Accessibility to Cities. — In deciding upon the
location of a farm, methods of transportation
that are available are as important as nearness
to cities. A location near a railroad station offers
the possibility of low commutation rates to a
point of industrial or commercial employment.
A location abutting upon an improved highway
means that transportation by bus or by per-
sonally owned automobile can be utilized at the
least expense and trouble the year round.
The recent development of bus lines covering
almost every main artery of travel offers
facilities for quick and economical transportation
unknown to country residents even a few years
ago. Furthermore, the selection of a place of
residence accessible to transportation to and
from it is a factor to be borne in mind in con-
nection with the possible resale of the property,
should that at any time be desirable or necessary.

18

GETTING ESTABLISHED

The Soil. — The type of soil is a highly impor-
tant factor in determining upon location; also
important is its crop-producing capacity. For
all general purposes, a soil which is loamy in
texture is desirable. Types to be avoided are
the extremes of clay and sand. A heavy clay
soil, particularly where the land is in a depres-
sion, not only inhibits plant growth of all
kinds but is often undesirable as a place of
residence from the standpoint of healthfulness.
A condition of extreme muddiness in wet weather
creates an unpleasant reaction on those forced
to live near it. On the other hand, areas which
are so sandy in character as to furnish no
fertility for the growth of plants will be found
undesirable in making the surroundings of the
home attractive and in growing the vegetables
and fruits which should constitute a part of
the living.

One method of judging the soil consists of
examining the vegetation that is already growing
upon it and determining on that basis whether
it is likely to be favorable for the growth of
desirable plants. For this reason, the selection
of a site during the growing season is recom-
mended, rather than during a dormant season
when it is difficult to form an estimate of the
vegetation that the soil will support.

19

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Availability of Electricity. — While it is possible
to secure individual electrical generating plants,
it is far preferable to establish a home where
electric lines may be tapped. The obtaining of
electrical energy from a commercial line is
desirable because of its greater dependability,
generally lower cost and the fact that unlimited
use of electricity may be obtained without
the overloading that frequently occurs where
individual plants are set up. Probably the
availability of public utility lines is the greatest
asset of comfortable country life and one of
the most important factors in creating genuine
resale value. These lines bring to the country
dweller most of the advantages that are enjoyed
by city residents. This is true not only because
of the advantages of electric lights, but also
because electricity makes possible the use of
such modern appurtenances to the home as
electric refrigerators, washers, radios, water
pumps and various devices and machines for
use in connection with poultry keeping and
vegetable growing.

Type of Buildings. — Especial attention should
be given to the adaptability to the buyer's
needs of the residence and the other buildings
that may already be in existence. If the plot
being considered is on a main highway, it is
highly desirable to have the residence located

20

GETTING ESTABLISHED

back from the highway a hundred feet or more
as a means of eliminating noise and promoting
safety especially if children are in the family.
The location of a home directly on one of the
main arteries of traffic destroys many of the
advantages of country life, owing to the distract-
ing noises that accompany intensive truck and
passenger traffic.

The age of buildings and their previous
care have a direct relation to their value,
particularly if they are of frame construction.
If the buildings have been standing for a number
of years, full allowance must be made for
depreciation and repairs incident to weathering
and long usage. The actual investment repre-
sented in a building erected under war or post-
war conditions may not be in line with present
values. In measuring the value of the principal
buildings that are already on a tract, careful
consideration should be given to the cost of
replacement. Consideration should be given also
to the outbuildings that may be on such a
place. Instead of being an asset to the property,
they may be a distinct liability if they are not
directly useful to the intending purchaser.
From the standpoint of economy of maintenance
and generally good appearance, it is much better
to have one building serve a number of purposes
than to have a number on different parts of the

21

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

property, adding to the cost of maintenance and
multiplying steps.

Educational Facilities. — Where there are chil-
dren in the family, the location of schools and
the facilities which they offer should be in-
vestigated by the prospective buyer. It is
desirable to locate as near to schools as possible.
In recent years there has been a strong tendency
throughout the country to do away with local
schools and to consolidate educational facilities
in one building. Coupled with this trend is the
free transportation of pupils to consolidated
schools. Therefore, it is highly important to
locate either near a school which will be kept
in operation or where transportation facilities
are available to and from the home and the
school. It should be said that the trend toward
consolidation of schools has carried with it
great benefits to children who live in the open
country by affording them educational facilities
that are not exceeded by most city schools.

Community Advantages. — The community, in
addition to educational facilities that are availa-
ble, should include those opportunities that
appeal especially to the family. The accessibility
of the church of one's preference should not be
overlooked, and the general type of community
life is highly important too. Some communities
are known for the law-abiding proclivities of their

22

GETTING ESTABLISHED

residents while others do not have a savory
reputation from the standpoint of the peace
and security of their more respectable inhabi-
tants. One should establish a residence in the
community with the thought that he is to
become a factor in the life of that community.
He should be sure that there is a genuine spirit
of healthy and cooperative activity which con-
stantly tends to upbuild the neighborhood, by
keeping out or suppressing undesirable elements
and by developing a concerted feeling of responsi-
bility for the welfare of all who live within its
boundaries.

A resident of a city moving to the country fre-
quently finds a difference in his neighbors' view-
point that surprises him. There is, and must be,
in the rural community a closer relationship
between the people in that community than
ever exists in an apartment dwelling in the
city. In the country, one's neighbors are apt to
show a surprising amount of friendly interest in
one's doings, since the whole trend of the com-
munity is based upon the actions and attitude of
the relatively few people who live within it. It
should be repeated, therefore, that the type of
community and the facilities which the people
of that community have developed should be
given careful attention by the prospective
resident and he should determine for himself

23

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

whether the particular community that he has
in mind is in accord with his ideas and ideals.
To be out of step with the community in which
one lives is apt to create dissatisfactions and a
critical attitude on both sides that is not con-
ducive to happiness.

A home in the country has more of the
attributes of genuine ownership than has a
home anywhere else. The country home must
be established with an idea of permanence and
of becoming really rooted in the soil where one
locates, if the true benefits of rural home owner-
ship are to be secured.

Do's

Decide either on large farm or on house and small

acreage.

Determine accessibility at all times of the year.
Purchase soil of loam texture, mixture of sand and clay.
Determine whether electricity is available.
Locate back from highway.
If present buildings are to be used, be sure of their

condition and need of repair.
Find out type and accessibility of schools and other

community buildings.

Prepare to be of the community as well as in it.
Remember there are advantages of small tract over

large farm where available time is an important

element.
Use local sources of information as to desirability of

tract before purchasing.
24

GETTING ESTABLISHED

Work out a plan of management that fits into the time
available for the farm duties.

Don'ts

Don't overlook intrinsic values of the location, such as

soil, low tax rate and good neighbors.
Avoid excessive capital outlay.
Avoid extra heavy or extra sandy soils or evidently

unproductive ones.

Don't overlook advantages of electric light and power.
Don't buy a place just because it has buildings. They

may not be adapted to your needs.
Don't buy too much land. It can be a burden.
Don't let the farm become your master.
Don't pay too much for land. There is plenty of it.

Chapter III

FINANCING AND PROTECTING THE
INVESTMENT

ACQUIRING land for residence and for sub-
^"\ sistence calls for the exercise of good
business judgment. Not only must the site and
general location be acceptable to the family,
but the investment involved should be within
the capacity of the owner to finance without
undue strain on his resources. It should be
recognized that there will be ordinary living
expenses to be met in the country and perhaps
some extraordinary demands resulting from
emergencies. Consequently, adequate thought
and preparation must be made for financing
the investment and making sure, as far as that
is possible, that the investment in a country
home will not be lost through inability to meet
possible contingencies.

It goes without saying that the capital invest-
ment should be kept as low as possible. Wherever
feasible, the cash available should take care
of the full investment without the necessity
for additional financing. This reduces the drain

26

FINANCING THE INVESTMENT

upon resources through obviating the necessity
of meeting interest payments on mortgages
and makes possible the use of any surplus funds
for improvement, for education and for giving
the family the advantages which country life
offers. If it is necessary to borrow funds for
financing the purchase, special attention should
be given to the type of mortgage which is
obtained.

Mortgage Financing. — One of the most desir-
able types of financing is through a financially
sound building and loan association whereby
the interest and the amortization of the mortgage
are taken care of through monthly payments.
Such building and loan mortgages are available
in most localities throughout the country. A
series of monthly payments can be made which
will take care of the interest payments and the
mortgage itself so that within a period of from
ten to twelve years, in most cases, the mortgage
is amortized and the owner has the advantages
of a home that is free of encumbrance. For exam-
ple, if the mortgage amounts to $3,000, subscrip-
tion to fifteen shares of a building and loan
association at $i a share per month would make
it possible to clear off the mortgage in about
eleven years. This would call for the payment
to the association of $15 per month and interest.
Through the compounding of interest, the mort-

27

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

gage can be lifted at less expense than any other
procedure.

Another satisfactory plan is to place the
mortgage with a bank or financing company
or insurance company that will not call the
mortgage so long as the payments are met, and
at the same time start saving through a building
and loan association so as to complete the pay-
ments over a series of years.

There is a far greater sense of security in
having no mortgage or in setting up a definite
and practical procedure for eliminating it than
in always having a mortgage encumbrance with
its interest payments and the possibility of
having it called at an inopportune moment.
A home that is free from mortgage can be carried
at small cost, especially where the owner is
willing to make most of the repairs and attend
to the upkeep himself. The demand for outlay
of cash for mortgage interest may be financially
embarrassing, especially where income is not
guaranteed or may be jeopardized through
a drastic reduction at critical periods or as the
result of emergency expenses in the family,
such as are entailed by serious illness.

Taxes. — One of the factors that is frequently
overlooked in the purchase of a residence in
the country is the cost of meeting taxes. Since
taxes must be met if the property is to be held,

28

FINANCING THE INVESTMENT

it is highly important that the location be one
in which tax rates are not excessive. On the
other hand, an exceedingly low tax rate may
indicate lack of progressiveness in the com-
munity and lack of facilities which from many
angles would lessen the value of the tract as a
place of residence. In most localities, the tax
rate is based principally upon the costs of
building and maintaining highways and schools.
Good facilities in both of these respects are
highly desirable, and yet excessive expenditures
in either direction may so advance the tax rate
as to make them expensive luxuries.

In many rural communities, taxing districts
are burdened with the costs of building monu-
mental schools or a very elaborate system of
roads, undertaken at some time through the
flotation of bond issues. The establishment of a
sinking fund for payment of interest and
amortization of these bonds frequently con-
stitutes a very heavy drain upon the residents
of the district. It is, therefore, necessary to
determine not only the tax rate in the locality
under consideration, but also to know definitely
what are the current charges for maintenance
of government. Taxing methods vary so widely,
even in adjoining districts, that the only method
of determining the annual charges for taxes
is to secure from the present owner or from the

29

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

local tax assessor the definite payments that
must be made.

As a means of saving trouble later, an investi-
gation should be made of the property under
consideration to make sure that taxes have been
paid to the date of purchase. This is distinctly
the obligation of the owner. Unpaid taxes con-
stitute a lien on the property, and an investi-
gation of the status of the tax payments is
essential in protecting the proposed investment.

The Title and Survey. — A great deal of possible
trouble can be eliminated by making sure that
the title is clear. An investigation should be
made along this line by an attorney or agency
equipped to secure information from appropriate
county offices. Very often the owner has had a
recent search made and is willing to pass this
on to the purchaser, thus saving expense and
delay in tracing back the records over a long
period of years. Such study will show whether
there are encumbrances or liens of any kind
on the property, and these, of course, must be
cleared up before any transaction is entered
into.

The potential buyer should also have a
survey made by a competent engineer to defi-
nitely fix the boundaries of the property.
Stakes can then be placed, indicating the
corners and any irregularities in the outline

30

FINANCING THE INVESTMENT

of the area under consideration, showing the
new owner exactly where his property extends.
In many sections of the country the buyer is
in a position to demand of the owner that such
a survey be made at the owner's expense. This
survey is particularly important where an area
of considerable size has been cut up into parcels
for sale to individuals.

The steps that have been outlined to protect
the investment are only those which a prudent
purchaser will insist upon before transfer of
ownership takes place. Frequently a buyer be-
comes so enamored with a property that he
hopes nothing will interfere with his acquisition
of it, and he is apt to mentally minimize the
possibilities of a cloud on the title or the exact-
ness of the property lines. So many people have
suffered serious losses from failure to look
thoroughly before leaping that emphasis is
given to these points as a means of securing
ample protection for the buyer.

An Income from the Investment. — It is pre-
sumed that in most cases the owner of even a
small tract expects to secure some financial
returns from the land as a means of adding to
his income. The plan that is proposed as a
means of securing an income from the land
should not be too complicated and should be of
a type that can be carried on when the owner

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

is necessarily engaged in other work. This,
of course, may run the gamut from a small
home garden to supply the vegetable needs of
the household to the operation of a larger tract
on a commercial basis. Furthermore, as we get
into the commercial type of production, that
may be planned as a means of materially supple-
menting an income or eventually supplying
the entire family income.

Especial attention has been given in recent
years to the use of poultry as a means of supply-
ing an income to the family which is willing
to use its own resources for taking care of the
flock. Another means of securing an income is
the growing of vegetables and the sale of these
vegetables at a stand erected near the house
for the convenience of the traveling public.
Many who engage in vegetable growing or egg
production on a relatively small scale will find
an outlet for their products through associates
in some other line of work, who will be glad to
buy from their country friends on the basis
of quality and freshness that may not be
obtainable through their community stores.

It should be pointed out that where the area
under cultivation is small, the production must
be intensive. In other words, it would be un-
economic for the owner of a small tract to try
to supplement his income through the growth

32

FINANCING THE INVESTMENT

of staple crops. He must specialize in some
particular phase of agriculture, horticulture
or animal industry that will bring the largest
possible net returns per acre even though that
implies a considerably larger labor cost per unit
of operation than would be the case in the grow-
ing of the staple crops, such as the cereals.
The successful production of vegetable crops or
poultry products, for example, and their success-
ful merchandizing, rest primarily on the interest
and the adaptability of the individual.

Avoiding Causes of Failure. — To know what
procedures to avoid is to be fortified against
failure and to be prepared to take advantage
of those constructive measures which are con-
ducive to success. A recent survey has been
made in an eastern state on the causes of failure
in farming, frequently followed by necessitous
abandonment of the farm and home. This
survey shows that one of the principal causes
of failure is the effort to manage a farm that is too
large for the operator's capacity; his inexperience
and lack of knowledge constitute too great a
handicap on a large acreage. Best results can
be secured in farming only by seeding, cultivat-
ing and harvesting at the proper time in each
case. To a greater extent than is usually realized,
success depends upon good management, which

33

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

means doing the things that need to be done
at the right time.

If the farm is large there is a necessity for
employing hired labor, and the costs of this
labor, especially under inexperienced manage-
ment, are likely to be out of line with the value
of the products raised. In many instances the
lack of technical experience can be corrected by
dependence upon governmental agencies, such as
experiment stations, county agricultural agents
and departments of agriculture. These services
are available to every farmer, in most cases
without cost, and all that he needs is the will
to avail himself of such expert help. In the cases
of farms that have been abandoned, we find
that the operators did not make contacts with
dependable sources of information, an indication
of the necessity of cooperating with the agri-
cultural agencies or with experienced and suc-
cessful neighboring farmers.

Still another cause of failure lies in the
purchase of a farm at a price which requires
the assumption of a mortgage which is too high
in relation to the income from the farm. In
short, an attempt to operate on an overcapi-
talized basis will, sooner or later, lead to disaster.
Failure to locate on a productive type of soil
may easily lead to loss of the investment. If the

34

FINANCING THE INVESTMENT

local conditions, including good roads, school
advantages and a healthy community spirit,
are lacking, there will develop a feeling of
discouragement and mental dissatisfaction which
destroys morale and creates the desire to get
out from under at any cost.

The Stocked Farm. — The question is frequently
raised as to whether a farm should be bought
already stocked with work and domestic animals
and with farm equipment or whether it should
be stocked by the operator himself. This will
depend, of course, upon the type of equipment
which may be available in the individual case.
Sometimes fairly good equipment will be sold
with the farm as a means of facilitating a sale,
but the value of each item should be determined
by someone experienced in prices of such live-
stock or commodities as may be sold with the
farm.

In many cases the buyer has loaded himself
with animals or equipment that are ill adapted
to the farm or that are of no particular value,
and in struggling to get along with them he
may seriously handicap the efficiency of his
labors. In most cases it will be found a better
practice to add stock and equipment as the need
becomes definite and the finances of the operator
make it possible for him to add them to the
farm. In this way he will be fairly sure of

35
I

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

acquiring only those items which will be of
direct use and benefit to him and will avoid
an accumulation of worn-out or antiquated
articles which will not meet the requirements
he must observe in selecting tools for his work.

Avoiding Fire Loss. — Possibility of loss by
fire is an ever-present reality to the owner of a
country place. There are two methods of
preventing loss, and the observance of both
will contribute to the peace of mind of the
owner.

In the first place, he should make sure that
adequate insurance is carried on his buildings
and equipment so that in case of loss through
fire there will be sufficient indemnity to permit
the rebuilding of the destroyed or damaged struc-
tures. Lightning heads the list of the causes of
! farm fires and is frequently not reckoned with
by urban residents who have seen little evidence
'of its destructiveness. In cities, points of elec-
trical concentration are avoided by diffusion
through piping, metal poles and a number of
other conductors of electricity. The owner of a
country home can secure quite complete protec-
tion from damage through lightning by the use
of electrical conductors, usually called lightning
rods, properly installed. Such equipment does
away with 90 per cent of the risk caused by
lightning.

FINANCING THE INVESTMENT

In installing a system of lightning rods,
it is well to observe a few simple precautions.
The most exposed parts of a building should
be provided with rods and the rod points
should extend 3 to 4 feet above the structure.
Conductors from the rod point should go in
the most direct line possible to the ground and
sharp bends in the conductors should be avoided.
One of the most essential precautions is to
thoroughly ground the conductors. Water pipes
on the buildings furnish excellent grounding.
The grounds for the conductors must be deep
enough in the soil to reach permanent moisture.
Lightning rods that are not properly constructed
or properly grounded may be a worse menace
than if no such protection is attempted. Specific
methods of protecting farm buildings from
lightning damage can be secured from state
agricultural agencies or from reliable com-
mercial firms which make a practice of erecting
them.

Another cause of fires lies in unsound chimney
construction. By using care and the proper
materials in the building of chimneys, fire may
be avoided. Chimney bricks should be laid
flat rather than on edge, thereby practically
eliminating the development of chimney cracks
through which sparks can escape into floor
spaces, attics and roofs.

37

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Fire risks to residences and other buildings
can be reduced by building the roof of fireproof
or fire-resistant materials. Wooden shingles,
while attractive and inexpensive, may become
so dry at certain seasons of the year as to furnish
tinder for sparks that may rise from a brush
fire or from burning buildings in the vicinity.
The use of slate or asbestos shingles is recom-
mended for roofs and there are other materials
now on the market which have fire-resistant
qualities and can be safely utilized. Flying
sparks carried along on high winds constitute
little menace to those who have equipped their
roofs with non-inflammable materials.

It is important to see that electrical wiring
has been properly installed, and for this purpose
it is safest to secure expert help. If the menace
of fire is properly evaluated by the owner, he
will naturally take suitable precautions to
cope with it, both through utilizing adequate
preventive measures and through having availa-
ble equipment to make possible the smothering
of accidental fires which may develop. The
application of these available common-sense
methods of fire prevention will practically
eliminate the fire risk. An ounce of such pre-
vention effort is to be stressed rather than placing
dependence on means of fire suppression after
the combustion occurs.

38

FINANCING THE INVESTMENT
Do's

Keep capital investment as low as possible.

If part of capital must be borrowed, select type of

mortgage that can be paid off most conveniently.
Determine tax rate before buying.
Make sure that title is clear and the property lines

definitely fixed.
If some income is expected, check on possibilities of

location with that in mind.
Plan to secure income from intensive crop and animal

projects, e.g., vegetables and poultry.
Use governmental aids to the fullest extent.
Carry adequate insurance on buildings, equipment

and furniture as protection against fire loss.
Install protection against lightning.
Be sure electrical wiring is properly installed.

Don'ts

Don't become heavily involved with fixed financial

obligations at outset.
Avoid localities with heavy bonded indebtedness,

resulting in excessive taxes.
Don't expect to get an income from growing staple

crops such as grains.
Don't become dependent on hired labor if it can be

avoided.
Avoid unproductive soil and top-heavy investment of

capital.
Don't buy a stocked farm unless the stock is adapted

to needs and properly valued.

Don't neglect to take every precaution against fire.
Don't forget chimney flues are potential risks.
Avoid roofs of inflammable materials.

39

Chapter IV

ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE IN THE
COUNTRY

THE PROBLEM of selecting a home is always
a serious one. Success in choosing a satis-
factory location and home in the country calls for
careful study and good judgment throughout
the procedure. In urban centers many services
are taken for granted, such as water supply,
sewerage, public utility connections and delivery
systems. The establishment of a home in the
country calls for the consideration of all these
services. Some may not be available and prep-
arations must be made to do without them or
to set up such procedures as will take care of
the family's needs on the basis of the individual
home.

The Rural Home. — To give the elements of
satisfactory living under modest circumstances,
the country home should be so located and
serviced as to give the maximum of comfort
and convenience for the money invested. The
location, type of construction and interior
arrangement of the home are important factors
in attaining these objectives.

40

ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE

Unless the location selected already has
buildings on it which meet the needs of the
purchaser and his family, there will be the
immediate problem of building the home or
remodeling the structure already in existence.
In recent years a great deal of attention has
been given to rural homes, stimulated no doubt
by the very evident trend of population from
the city to the country. These homes should
have attributes distinctly their own and should
harmonize with the purpose and the location
in mind. A house with lines that look well in
town or city may be only a blot on the landscape
when set in the open country. Many excellent
recommendations have been made for country
houses by the United States Department of
Agriculture, the President's Conference on Home
Building and Home Ownership (December,
1931) and by architects who have given this
problem the specific attention it deserves.

In general, we may say that the exterior
of the house should have simple lines and should
not be ostentatious or covered with inappropriate
decorative effects. This is especially the case
where the house is comparatively small and is
located in the open country where there is a
simple and pleasing natural background. The
country house should be low and broad, rather
than tall and narrow. The windows and doors

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

should be of a size and shape that will meet
utilitarian requirements and be so situated as
to give a pleasing and attractive appearance
to the whole structure. The materials used
should be selected to meet the needs of economy in
the original construction and should be of long-
lasting type, assuring economy in maintenance.

Essential Requirements. — In planning the
house there are certain minimum requirements
which should be kept in mind. For example,
the sleeping facilities should include at least
one bedroom for every two persons and should
contain not less than 100 square feet per room.
All sleeping rooms should be provided with
cross ventilation, that is, with a window on
each of two sides, and sufficient closet or ward-
robe space should be provided, equipped with
shelves and hangers for taking care of clothing.
Ordinary lighting facilities for each room include
at least one window, with the kitchen, living
room and sleeping areas preferably having two.
Windows should be so placed as to permit
direct sunlight to enter at least three-fourths
of the rooms. There should be daylight and
artificial lights on all work surfaces such as the
stove, the sink, work tables and in the family
reading center.

Especial attention given in advance to the
kitchen will be more than repaid by the con-

42

ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE

venience and efficiencies secured. There should
be ample built-in kitchen equipment for small
and large utensils, kitchen tools and linens.
Ample lighting devices should be employed
and step-saving arrangements provided so as
to eliminate as much effort as possible in carrying
out the daily duties that are conducted in this
important part of the country home.

Where the funds available for construction
or remodeling are limited, it is important to
know what the cost will be before the job is
started. This procedure calls for a plan which
will show the exterior appearance, the interior
arrangement, and the cost of the completed
job. Plans can be secured from many sources in
addition to those already mentioned. Persons
with architectural experience and ability may
often be employed directly to plan the house
and to supervise its construction. If the prospec-
tive builder wishes to select his own plans
and to know in advance the complete cost,
he can secure from processors of lumber a
catalog of plans which are accompanied by
costs of every item needed. Such processors
cut the material to fit at the factory and identify
each piece so that the mechanically minded
man can do much of the work himself with
help he may employ. These companies will also
quote prices on the cost of erection by their own

43

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

44

ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE

(Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture)

Floor plans of house shown on opposite page.

45

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

employees in addition to the cost of materials.
The outlay needed for lighting, plumbing and
heating facilities can also be obtained from the
same source.

Another method of procedure is to draw
a plan of the house that contains the rooms
considered necessary, submit such plans to a
lumber merchant and get quotations on costs
of various types of material necessary to con-
struct it. Such construction will usually require
the services of a skilled carpenter and mason
but permits of more latitude in most cases than
is available under a set building arrangement.

Types of Country Houses. — Illustrations of
small houses suitable for the country are
shown on pages 8 and 44. The floor plans of
these houses are shown on the facing pages.
There are many other types of small houses
adapted to use in the country and the
selection of any one is largely a matter
of individual preference and ability to finance.

Because of the variation in prices of material
in different locations, the kind and quality of
material that the owner may desire and also
the amount of labor that may be furnished by
the owner, it is difficult to give in definite terms
the cost of various types of buildings. Esti-
mates of costs of materials and construction

46

ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE

may easily be obtained from contractors in
the vicinity.

Simply with the idea of giving approximate
costs, the Conference on Home Building gives
the following cost bases for building frame
dwellings, obtained roughly by multiplying
the volume by the cost per cubic foot. Naturally
the cost will vary in different sections of the
country, and the level of artistry that is set
up by the builder himself will be a factor.

APPROXIMATE COSTS PER CUBIC FOOT FOR FRAME
DWELLINGS

Southern

Northern

First recommended level — 2, 3 or 4 rooms with
masonry base, fire-resistive flue, both sides of
studs covered, painted exterior, interior finish.
Second level — Bathroom space, better finish
M^edium level — 5~~6 rooms with plumbing

*io-iS*

1 2-1 8

16— 2^

*i2-isi

15-21

20—26

Fourth level — Adequate standard plumbing and
hardwood floors

10—27

23— 30

Fifth level — Comparable to better type of mid-
dle-class city home

2C— 3C

28--K

* The cheapest type of shelter (shack) may be built for perhaps half
this cost.

Pre-fabricated Houses. — The field of house
construction has been occupied almost exclu-
sively by the individual architect or builder
who has wrought according to the general
ideas of the intending occupant or the real
estate developer. When the plans are completed

47

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

and approved, the contractor assembles the
necessary materials from local sources, builds
and equips the house and turns it over to the
buyer in completed condition. Under such a
procedure there is little application of mass
production measures which have reduced costs
and raised quality standards in many industries,
notably in automobile construction, for example.
Thousands of houses built to sell in the recent
construction era of the 1920*8 have proved
unsatisfactory and costly to the occupants as
the result of shoddy building methods. Such
methods seem to be typically American as
distinguished from the far more solid and
permanent Old World procedure. It now seems
likely that the problem of economical and
substantial housing will be met in the method
that is also American — namely, by the pre-
fabricated house to which various natural re-
sources of the country contribute. The parts
of such houses are made under mass production
methods and easily assembled on the owner's
lot. The same idea can be applied with ease to
apartment house construction in any location.
The first step in this direction has already been
mentioned in the case of mail-order companies
which cut the lumber to fit and supply every
needed accessory to the last detail.

48

ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE

The next step, and the one that bids fair
to inaugurate an entirely new house-building
procedure, is now in the making, although as
yet it is in the experimental and testing stage.
Examples of such construction made their
first public appearance at the Century of
Progress Exposition at Chicago in 1933.

Materials that enter into the construction
of these new-type houses include steel, asbestos,
aluminum and cement. As a rule, the buildings
have a steel frame erected on cement foundations
and without a cellar; the walls and partitions
are of asbestos composition and the roof con-
structed of steel sheets with aluminum in-
sulation. Such a building is fireproof and proof
also against vermin, lightning, wind and earth-
quake. The house is also adapted to and equipped
with heating, lighting, plumbing and air condi-
tioning facilities. The whole building is pre-
planned and pre-fabricated as a unit with its
component parts constructed under economical
and interchangeable mass production methods.

Modifications of the construction above men-
tioned include the use of sound-proofed steel
panels or insulation board for partitions and
walls with an exterior of painted steel. Many
other modifications are being developed to
insure individuality, stability, insulation and
economy in first cost and maintenance. The

49

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

lines of most of these houses are severe and
modernistic in design, although decorative and
unique effects are easily obtainable.

The costs of the complete house unit range
from $600 for a one-room type to $3,500 to
$6,000 for a complete home of modest size. The
principal fabricators of these houses and their
addresses are: General Houses, Inc., Chicago,
Illinois; American Houses, Inc., New York
City; American Rolling Mill Company, Cleve-
land, Ohio; American Radiator and Standard
Sanitary Company, New York City; Columbian
Steel Tank Company, Kansas City, Missouri,
and National Steel Homes, Inc., Los Angeles,
California. Information on types and costs can
be obtained by addressing these companies.

Rural Home Life. — To have a successful
experience in country life, one must become
identified with one's surroundings and become
a part of the community. Those who seek to
establish a country residence simply as a place
from which to commute to city attractions
will not only miss the greatest asset in country
living but will probably find this existence
unsatisfactory. To become interested in the
growing plants and animals at home, to do
with one's own hands the things that make the
home more attractive and to develop a contact
with the community that helps to increase

50

ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE

its normal activities mean the attainment
of pleasure and satisfaction so far beyond that
obtainable in congested urban quarters that
there is no comparison. In many cases this
direct affinity with one's surroundings will
come gradually and not always easily. It can
be cultivated and should be a part of the plan
of every family expecting to reside in the
country.

Trees as Assets. — One of the greatest assets
that can be secured in the country is well-
developed shade. If the house under con-
sideration is already built and has around it
trees that serve as a softening and beautifying
factor, as well as for shade purposes, the value
is decidedly enhanced. If the home is to be
newly built and a site is available where trees
are already well grown, the house can often
be placed in the midst of such trees, thereby
gaining a number of years in the benefits that
trees give and for which there is no substitute.

Few persons can resist the charm of trees.
That they also have a definite economic value
is shown by the added desirability we all attach
to an attractively landscaped home where
trees of various kinds and sizes furnish the motif.
In acquiring a place in the country the newcomer
will at once wish to plant trees, shrubs and
ornamentals to beautify his holdings. If this
is carefully planned at the beginning, succeeding

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

years and a little care will add to the attractive-
ness and intrinsic value of the home. The saying,
"a house is not a home until it is planted," has
a great deal of truth behind it. Most nurserymen
will be glad to render assistance in properly
planning and setting the ornamental landscaping
of the home, helping the owner avoid mistakes
and costly movings and replacements later.

Commercial Horticulture. — In addition to the
plantings around his home, the owner of a few
acres can at slight expense start small trees for
later ornamental use or for sale at a roadside
stand, for example. Such small trees and orna-
mental plants can often be purchased at whole-
sale prices from nursery companies which have
"laying out" stock, as it is called, for sale. The
standard large-growing evergreens and deciduous
shade trees can be thus transplanted to one's
own acres, as can the popular dwarf types of
evergreens and flowering shrubs. These may
be planted in one area where they can be cared
for as a growing crop, or they may be planted
in groups for beautifying the premises while
they are growing. Again, single plants may be
set by themselves and given special attention,
later becoming "specimens" which are much
in demand by admirers of the species.

An appreciation of tree habits can be thus
developed by all the members of the family,

52

ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE

and considerable income may be obtained in
later years, as the trees become "of age,"
through their sale. We are entering upon an
era of making homes attractive as places in
which to live and not as houses to go away
from. All forms of plant life that contribute
to this end will be admired and sought after
in the years to come.

Do's

Give special consideration to location, type of con-
struction and interior arrangement.

If building a home, select a type that fits surroundings.

Strive for simplicity of lines and full utilization of
every cubic foot of space.

Remember pre-fabricated houses are practical and
likely to supplant some other types of construction.

In buying a pre-fabricated house, be sure plans and
construction fit needs of family and materials used
are adapted to the climatic conditions.

Give special attention to convenience and cheerfulness
of kitchen.

Develop a plan of planting ornamental plants and
trees to be carried out in due course.

Don'ts

Don't try to build a city house in the country.
Don't neglect windows in number or size.
Don't overlook costs of completed job before com-
mencing building or improvements.
Don't neglect the asset value of trees.

S3

Chapter V

SERVICING THE HOME

MANY TYPES of services are available to
the country home owner, including rural
mail delivery, the telephone and electricity.
Rural mail delivery in particular is so common
that, on practically every highway, mail service
is secured by the placing of a mail box along the
highway at the entrance to the residence.
Telephone service is available along practically
all the main-traveled highways and on a majority
of the other types of roads. Where the lines
are not already installed, extensions may be
obtained to new locations, and this is facilitated
when more than one residence is to be served
by the same line. The majority of families
accustomed to city conveniences will want to
have electricity available so as to use electric
lights and the labor-saving devices that are
operated by electric power. With the expansion
that has taken place in the development of rural
electric lines in recent years, there is not a great
deal of difficulty in getting a location which

54

SERVICING THE HOME

will give the housewife the advantages that
electricity offers.

Telephone service and electrical facilities
may fall into the class of luxuries for those
with limited resources. It may be pointed out
in this connection that millions of farm homes
are still using petroleum products for light-
ing purposes and are finding it no hardship.
Practically all would, of course, use electricity
if it were available and financially possible.
The new home owner in the country will find
it advantageous to locate where electric service
io obtainable.

Other services for the country residents are
pretty largely up to the owner as to their
utilization and type. It is necessary, of course,
to have an ample water supply, to maintain
sanitary conditions through sewerage of some
description, to provide a method of heating the
home during cold weather and to provide storage
facilities for food during the dormant season.

The Water Supply. — Perhaps the most impor-
tant attribute of the country home is an adequate
supply of water. This is particularly true where
families have been accustomed to utilizing
municipal water supplies which are safe and
pure as to quality and unlimited in amount.
In most country homes it is necessary to con-
struct a water-supply system, which means
reaching a supply of underground water, pump-

55

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

ing it to the surface and piping it to locations
where it is wanted. Higher standards of living
create new and increased demands for water.

Water for domestic use should be clear,
colorless, odorless, soft, neither strongly acid
nor alkaline, with a temperature averaging
50 degrees Fahrenheit. Such water supplies can
be obtained in nearly every section of the coun-
try. Hot water is necessary in every home and
there must be a heater of some type, using coal,
petroleum products, natural or artificial gas
or electricity for fuel. For this purpose a hot-
water storage boiler or tank must be installed.

The Dug Well. — A dug well is one of the older
types of wells. It should be large enough in
diameter to permit ingress and egress to all
parts of it for repairs or for cleaning. Most dug
wells require cleaning occasionally, due to the
entrance of dirt at the top and to the washing
in of clay and silt with the ground water. Many
of these wells contain harmful gases which
have proved fatal to those entering them. Before
an attempt is made to clean such a well or to
make any repairs, a lighted candle should be
lowered into it. If the candle is extinguished, it
will be dangerous to enter until the well has
been thoroughly ventilated.

A dug well will vary in depth from 20 to
60 feet, depending upon the distance it is

56

Well drilling — an early step in locating in the country. In the fore-
ground may be seen part of the excavation for the house.

SERVICING THE HOME

necessary to dig for an adequate supply of water.
Types of pumping apparatus are on the market
to cope with any depth in digging such a well.
If dug wells are shallow, the water supply
depends very largely upon current rainfall and
in times of prolonged drouth there may be a
serious shortage. Fairly deep wells of this type
are usually very satisfactory and will supply
surprisingly large amounts of water when the
demand is made upon them.

Artesian Water Supply. — Artesian wells have
distinct advantages over dug wells although
they are more expensive to construct. The
water from such wells is absolutely pure and
it never fails. This is because subterranean
streams have been tapped which are not subject
to possible surface contamination, nor are they
dependent upon showers for replenishment.

Special power apparatus is necessary for
constructing an artesian or drilled well. The
drilling costs from $3 per foot up, depending
upon the nature of the subsoil and whether rock
is encountered. Unless such a well has been
drilled in the immediate vicinity it is not possible
to hazard even a guess as to when water will
be struck. The consolation that such an under-
taking has for the owner is in knowing there
will be no doubt as to quantity or purity when
the strike occurs.

57

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Water Pumps. — Pumps are now available
which operate automatically by electricity and
constantly supply the home with fresh water
drawn from the earth as needed. The require-
ments for the pump and the motor will vary
with the depth of the well and the water require-
ments of the family. In all such cases, therefore,
it is desirable to call in for consultation engineers
or competent representatives of pump manu-
facturers or distributors. It should be borne in
mind that adequacy of supply is most important
and that economy in first cost, achieved at
the sacrifice of an adequate supply, may be a
definite handicap to necessary home services.

Heating Facilities. — The type of heating ap-
paratus that is used will depend upon the size
of the house and its arrangement as well as
upon the funds available. The simplest type
of heaters are those which do not have a com-
plete system of extending radiation through the
home but depend upon circulation of the air
within the house to equalize the temperature.
In deciding upon the type of apparatus, it is
necessary to make sure that the system is as
low in original cost as possible; that it will
probably have a long life, thereby spreading
the first cost over a period of years; that it be
economical in operation through efficient con-
sumption of fuel, and that the system be easily

58

SERVICING THE HOME

controlled. The health of the family and the
ability to live in a satisfactory manner will
depend to a considerable extent upon the method
of heating the home, especially in cold climates.
Particular care should be taken to make
sure that whatever type of heating is employed
is adequate in size. It is more economical to
operate a heater that is somewhat oversized
than to "rush" one which cannot easily maintain
a comfortable temperature in cold weather.
Heating engineers and contractors are available
to furnish information on heating costs in
every locality. The generally used types of
heating include stoves, circulator heaters, warm
air, hot water and steam systems, and fireplaces.
Specialists of the United States Department of
Agriculture have developed a great deal of
information to enable the home owner to cope
with the heating problems in a practical manner.
It is estimated by the department that if a
two-pipe hot-water system for a six-room house
costs $500, the other systems for the same house
ordinarily would cost about as follows :

Two-pipe vapor system $600

One-pipe steam system $400

A piped warm air furnace $260

Pipeless furnace $140

Circulator heater or stove $ 60

Of course, these systems vary in efficiency and
in providing comfort as much as they vary in

59

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

cost, but these estimates will provide the home
owner with an idea of the outlay for taking
care of the heating problem.

The ability to maintain a satisfactory tem-
perature depends as much upon the construction
of the house as upon the heating apparatus
itself. Heat is readily lost through walls, roofs
and windows. Most houses can be made more
comfortable at small cost by applying insulation
or by correcting defects in construction. The
use of storm doors or storm vestibules where
doors are frequently opened to the out-of-doors
will prevent drafts and conserve heat. Metal
weather stripping is the most effective means
of preventing air leaks around windows and doors
and making the entire house weather-tight.

The fuel that is used will depend upon the
type of furnace and the relative prices prevailing
for different kinds. Recent developments in
oil heating bring this fuel in close competition
from the standpoint of economy with coal or
coke. Oil is particularly adaptable as a source
of fuel in homes in the country since tank trucks
can readily deliver oil to the home owner.
Improvements in securing the maximum effi-
ciency from all types of fuel are being developed
continually; and there are now on the market
furnaces, using anthracite or bituminous coal
as fuel, which offer many advantages that were
unknown to older types.

60

SERVICING THE HOME

Fireplace Construction. — An open fireplace
where wood can be used as fuel is a great source
of satisfaction and pleasure, as well as a comfort,
in country homes. Wood of proper length for
fireplace burning can be readily secured in
the country and there is ample room for storing
it. Where the house is small in size, such wood
fires can be used for heating the house satis-
factorily in spring and fall and can be used to
supplement other types of heating when desired.

No country home can be considered complete
without a fireplace. The comfort and homelike
atmosphere that it gives make it a general
asset for the enjoyment of the family circle.
Fireplaces should be constructed so as to insure
a good draft with a maximum of heat radiation.
It is desirable to build in the fireplace flue a
damper which can be open when the fire is
burning and can be shut when it is desired to
keep heat from escaping from the room via the
chimney. It is also a convenience to have a trap
opening placed in the back of the fireplace on
the floor so that ashes may be removed in this
manner, eliminating the labor of carrying them
from the fireplace.

Sewerage of Farm Homes. — All wastes from
the farm home coming under the term of sewage
should go direct to a septic tank. Here the
sewage is held in a quiet state for a period of
time, and through bacterial processes, the

61

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

SERVICING THE HOME

organic matter is destroyed. A septic-tank
installation consists of four parts: first, the
house sewer from house to tank; second, the
sewage tank, consisting of one or more chambers ;
third, the sewer from tank to distribution field;
fourth, the distribution field where the sewage
is distributed, sometimes called the absorption
field. Plans for sewerage construction may
be obtained from state and local boards of
health and from federal health and agricultural
agencies.

The Rural Engineering Department of the
New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station
recommends that the septic tank have a capacity
adequate to hold all the water used by the family
for two entire days. For a family of six persons
the inside dimensions of the tank should be
4 feet in width with a length of 4 feet in the first
chamber and 3 feet in the second chamber. The
depth of water should be 4 feet, giving the tank
a capacity of over 600 gallons, thus allowing
100 gallons for each person during the forty-
eight-hour period. The entire tank will be 4 feet
wide, 8% feet long and 6M feet deep.

Septic tanks are usually built of solid concrete,
concrete blocks or brick, waterproofed on the
inside to prevent escape of the contents except
through the outlets described. These outlets
should be 100 to 150 feet away from any source

63

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

of water supply to prevent contamination of
potable water.

Leading from the outlet of the second chamber,
several lines of tile 10 to 14 inches in depth should
be laid at a gentle slope away from the tank,
permitting escape of the effluent at each joint.
For a family of six persons a total length of
150 feet of tile pipe will be sufficient in most
types of soil.

Food Storage. — Every country home should
have a basement in which a room can be set
apart for cold storage. Such a place is suitable
for keeping supplies of potatoes and other root
crops, as well as commodities that deteriorate
under conditions of warmth. Surplus supplies
of food from the garden can be placed in such
storages and be readily available for use during
the winter. With the surplus of perishable food
products in cans and with a good supply of
non-perishable products in such a type of storage
room, economies in food purchase can be effected
and the healthfulness of the family maintained
through their use when fresh products are
difficult to secure or are unseasonable and
expensive.

If a basement is not available for food storage,
root crops can be stored outside the house and
kept during the winter. These products should
be piled in a heap, covered with straw or Other

SERVICING THE HOME

clean, loose material and the mound then
covered with earth. In this manner, potatoes
and similar crops can be kept throughout
the winter and until late in the spring without
serious deterioration. It is important to select
a site for such outdoor storage that is well
drained so that water will not collect and freeze
in the storage area.

Services Available to the Country Resident. —
Public agencies are available for help in solving
the problems of country residents, varying
from agricultural and horticultural practices
to building construction, water supply and sew-
age disposal. As a rule, these services are of
advice and suggestion, are free of cost and may
be utilized freely by those living in the country.

Most of the counties in the United States
have a county agricultural agent, who is located
at the county seat and whose territory covers
only the county in which he resides. The costs of
such service are paid by federal and state appro-
priations, frequently supplemented by county
appropriations, and also frequently through
annual individual subscriptions. The county
agricultural agent is really a field representative
of the United States Department of Agriculture
and of the state agricultural college in the state
where he works. There is hardly a problem of
the country resident for which he cannot obtain

65

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

aid from the county agricultural agent. In
many of the more thickly populated areas the
problems of the family getting a location on
the land for a home are already well known to
the agricultural agent and he is therefore in a
position to guide the newcomer and help him
to prevent mistakes.

In many counties there is also a home eco-
nomics service connected with the office of the
county agricultural agent and supported in
the same general manner. This service, along
the lines which the name implies, is available
to the country home maker. Groups of women
are organized and meet at intervals for discus-
sions on food preparation, canning and storage
and the making of clothing for the family.

In nearly every state there is a state depart-
ment of agriculture with regulatory and pro-
motional activities and dealing especially with
law enforcement provisions passed by the re-
spective legislatures. These agencies are also con-
cerned with development of marketing facilities
in many states. They are supported by state
and federal funds and carry on such projects
as the testing of cattle for tuberculosis, treatment
in prevention of communicable animal diseases
and the control of insect and fungous pests
through quarantine and inspection activities.
These departments are located at the state

66

SERVICING THE HOME

capitols and information on the services available
can be secured by addressing the department in
the state where one resides.

Because there is a lack of understanding among
newcomers to the country of the services that
are available through these agencies without
cost, this particular mention of them is made.
It is recommended that each family get in touch
with the county agricultural agent, the college
of agriculture and the department of agriculture
and learn definitely of the help that can be
secured without cost in meeting the problems
of country life.

Electric Wiring Principles. — Public utilities
are organized to furnish electric service and it
will be found that they are ready to assist
customers in securing the most satisfactory use
of electricity. Such knowledge, based on experi-
ence, will be valuable in helping owners to avoid
costly mistakes and to provide for a wiring
system that will be economical and yet com-
plete. When the plans and specifications of
the wiring system have been worked out, it
is important to secure bids from reliable con-
tractors. Only those contractors who can do
the work in a capable manner should be em-
ployed and it should be determined in advance
that the installation will be in strict compliance
with the National Electrical Code. For wiring

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

work it is necessary to know the number of
amperes the wire is to carry. This may be
determined by dividing the load in watts by
the voltage which is to be used.

The service lateral is a system of wires which
form a path over which electricity is carried
from the main line to the house. This is generally
built by the utility company and its cost will
depend upon the distance of the residence from
the main line and whether the owner furnishes
poles, labor, etc.

Wires should be of such size as to give suffi-
cient mechanical strength to stand up under
sleet conditions. Usually three entrance wires
are used to carry the electric energy from the
utility connection to the house. The lateral
is the electrical doorway to the farm and is
the most essential part of the wiring system.
The wires should be of adequate size so as
to provide proper voltage and give complete
electrical service for all ordinary requirements of
current.

It is important to see that the electrical
equipment is properly "grounded," that is, the
connecting to earth of certain metallic objects
which are near power conductors. The purpose
is to carry to the earth any heavy electrical
charge which might exist on such objects and
cause electrical shocks when they are touched.

68

SERVICING THE HOME

Grounding may be secured by connecting with
water pipes that reach some depth under ground,
or driven pipe may be used as a means of
securing intimate contact with moist earth.

Recommendations for outlets from the
electrical wires in the house call for centering
ceiling lighting outlets, and placing wall brackets
about 5^ feet above the floor. Convenient
outlets in the kitchen and bathroom should
be about 33 inches above the floor. In other
locations they are usually best placed in the
baseboard. Wall switches are usually located
4 feet above the floor. A switch should be located
at each door to a room or entrance to a hall and
in many cases three-way switches can be used
to advantage, since these afford control over
the same lighting from two separate locations.

With these general observations on a rather
complicated subject, most of which are based
on the excellent recommendations of the Na-
tional Committee on the Relation of Electricity
to Agriculture, the home owner should be in a
position to take care of his needs properly,
bearing in mind that the system of wiring should
be adequate in every respect and the number of
outlets sufficiently numerous to provide easy
and convenient service throughout the house.
An official check-up should be made of all
installations after completion. The method of

69

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

(Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service.)

Ground floor plan of a house, showing the number, the type, and
the location of electrical current outlets.

70

SERVICING THE HOME

securing such inspection can be obtained through
a local electrical contractor.

Tank Gas Supply. — A service of supplying
compressed gas in portable tanks has recently
been developed for country homes located away
from public gas lines. This gas can be used
either with a specially adapted range which is
supplied as part of the service or in some cases
with an ordinary gas range. Companies offering
this service are located in most cities and are
understood to be willing to supply residences
anywhere with gas. The cost of first installation
of the system is about $40. Renewals cost
approximately $12 per cylinder of gas. Each
cylinder will supply a family of four with gas
for three to four months, making a monthly
bill of from $3 to $4, which compares favorably
with artificial gas supply through a meter from
pipe lines. This gas may be used for any purpose
for which any other gas is adapted. The gas and
the servicing of it constitute a boon to country
residents from the standpoint of utility and
economy. It is especially desirable for those
previously accustomed to city gas supplies and to
whom the use of any other type of fuel is strange
and somewhat of a problem.

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Do's

Remember that important service factors include mail
delivery, telephone, electricity, water supply and
sewage disposal.

Be sure of adequate water supply of good quality.

Obtain artesian water supply wherever possible.

Provide for such heating facilities as the budget can
stand.

Select the heating system in relation to fuel costs.

Make sure that the sewerage system is adequate for
waste disposal.

Use fully such governmental agencies as county agents,
home demonstration agents, experiment stations and
agricultural colleges, state and federal departments
of agriculture.

Provide storage space for surplus food products.

Remember electric wiring requires skilled workman-
ship.

Investigate advantages and costs of tank gas as a
cooking fuel.

Don'ts

Don't forget that services automatically available to

urban residents must be planned for in the country.
Don't neglect construction defects that prevent full

benefits from heating system.

Don't overlook the advantages of a well-built fireplace.
Don't install electrical service without full attention to

principles of convenience, safety and economy

involved.

Chapter VI

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

/-INHERE are many treatises available that deal
A with the soil, its composition and its treat-
ment. No attempt will be made here to go
exhaustively into that subject. There are a
few fundamental factors, however, which the
potential owner should know regarding soil
treatment, for that is the base upon which he
will build his income-producing operations.

The particles of soil have had their genesis
in rock. The rock has become disintegrated and
decomposed through natural processes. The
action of the weather is the most important
factor in creating soil. Water falling on rock
not only wears it away mechanically, but
through certain mild acid elements which it
acquires, disintegrates the binding materials
that hold rock segments together. In addition,
there is the action of frost and freezing, too,
making the moisture in rock expand and
contract and thereby causing the breaking
down of the segments. With this action is
coupled that of hot suns which cause expansion

73

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

and breaking up of the rock as it becomes heated
and cooled under atmospheric influence.

A great deal of the soil surface in many
sections of the country is the result of glacial
action. These glaciers not only eroded the sur-
face, thereby creating millions of rock particles,
but they also carried large deposits of the rock
particles to more distant areas and deposited
them over a subsoil that may be totally dif-
ferent in character from the surface soil thus
deposited.

How Tillable Soil Is Made. — The action of
plants themselves has a great effect in adding
to our supply of tillable soil. Seeds of plants or
seeds of trees become established in some slightly
weathered rock areas and begin to grow. The
roots penetrate wherever there is any loose
soil, and partly by their pressure and partly
through the acidity accompanying decomposing
plant tissue, complete a further breaking down
of the rock. There is a continuous process of
destruction of rocks and leveling off of mountains
and hills to fill the valleys below.

Many groups of deep-rooted plants tend to
increase the depth of the surface soil by growth
of the roots in the subsoil and by creating
therein a condition approaching that which
already exists on the surface. The action of
earth worms and similar forms of life in bringing

74

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

subsoil to the top and in opening channels
through which water and surface air can pene-
trate constitutes another continually operating
force in the creation of a productive soil. A
deeper layer of productive soil can also be
created through a plan of consistently deeper
plowing, bringing up with each annual plowing
operation a small portion of subsoil which, when
mixed with the surface soil, tends to become like it.

Every type of real soil contains all the elements
of plant growth. This plant food results from
a breaking down of soil particles and the setting
free of chemical elements which, either singly
or in combination, serve as food for plants.

Whatever the type of soil may be, it will be
found that certain crops will make better growth
in it than others. As a general rule, it may be
said that the only way to determine which
plants will grow best on a given soil is by the
trial-and-error method. However, by observation
of the growth on similar types of soil we can
learn something of a soil's crop adaptability.
There are some crops that will grow in almost
any soil and there are others that need an
exactness of texture, moisture and plant food
which makes them highly specialized products.
The operator must learn how to work in harmony
with the peculiarities of his own soil before he
can hope to get the best results.

75

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

In acquiring a tract for the growing of plants
of any kind it is desirable to get a soil type that
will meet the requirements of most plants. As
a general rule, this type contains enough clay
to be retentive of moisture, enough sand to be
easily worked and is generally suitable for
bacterial growth. In other words, what is
commonly called a loam is the ideal type for
general agricultural and horticultural purposes.
This may be a heavy loam, in which clay
predominates, or a so-called light loam, in
which sand particles predominate. An exami-
nation of a handful of soil by a person experi-
enced in farming will indicate its nature and its
adaptability to ordinary crop production.

Essential Elements of Plant Food. — Countless
scientific experiments in plant growth show that
potassium, lime, phosphorus, magnesium, iron,
sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen
are essential to normal development. The carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen elements make up nearly
99 per cent of the entire composition of the plant
and are derived from the atmosphere. All of
the other elements are derived from the soil
except in the case of peas, beans, clovers and
other legumes which secure most of their nitrogen
from the air.

The mineral elements are not needed in large
amounts but well-balanced plant growth is

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

strictly dependent upon their presence in avail-
able form. Of these elements, those most
likely to be deficient either in total amount or
in availability are nitrogen, phosphorus, potas-
sium and calcium. It is entirely feasible and eco-
nomical to apply concentrated chemical fertilizers
containing the first three elements so that their
lack will not constitute a limit to size of crops
harvested. In many cases it is necessary to
apply chemical fertilizers to get satisfactory
yields, even where natural manures are available
and can be applied as well.

In addition to supplying essential plant food,
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium perform
specific functions in plant growth. The applica-
tion of nitrogen in one of its readily available
forms (e.g., nitrate of soda and sulphate of
ammonia) will stimulate vegetative growth. If
too much of this one element is applied, leaf and
branch development may occur at the expense
of the crop. Good results follow the use of
nitrogen on grass sods and on leafy vegetables
like spinach. On the other hand, corn, peas, beans
and other seed-forming crops need to have the
nitrogen balanced with phosphorus. Potatoes,
in common with other tuber and root crops,
will utilize plenty of potassium in the develop-
ment of starch.

Sources of Plant Food. — Chemical fertilizers
can be purchased at supply stores in ready

77

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

mixed condition and of analyses that will meet
general crop needs. A good formula for such a
general purpose fertilizer is 4 to 5 per cent
nitrogen, 7 to 9 per cent phosphoric acid and
7 to 10 per cent potash to the ton. It is known
that such a mixture will supply the food needs
of a large variety of plants in balanced amounts.
Highly concentrated mixtures are now on the
market providing double the amount of plant
food in the example quoted, costing nearly
twice as much but effecting a saving by cutting
in half the material handled to get the same
result. Care should be taken, in using these
highly concentrated fertilizers, to avoid contact
with tender roots. A mixture for general farm
and garden purposes may contain the following
ingredients :

100 pounds nitrate of soda
230 pounds sulphate of ammonia
250 pounds animal tankage (7 per cent nitrogen)
1,140 pounds superphosphate (16 per cent phosphoric acid)
280 pounds muriate of potash (50 per cent potash)

2,ooo pounds.

This mixture will have a formula of 4-9-7
(4 per cent nitrogen, 9 per cent phosphoric acid
and 7 per cent potassium). The individual
who wishes to mix his own fertilizer may do so
by purchasing the finely ground ingredients
separately, and by means of a shovel, integrate

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

them all into a mixture. Home mixing will not
be found profitable where small amounts of
fertilizer are used. Those who practice home
mixing for the first time should realize that most
combinations of ingredients will "set" or harden
if not used immediately, necessitating the break-
ing up and pulverizing of the mass. When
it is broken up after curing, no further diffi-
culty should be experienced with "setting" if
the mixture is kept in a dry place. The advan-
tages of home mixing for the large user lie in
lower cost per ton of plant food as a rule;
confidence in the quality of the ingredients which
he should purchase on the basis of guaranteed
analysis; and the setting up of a mixture which
study of his soil and the plant requirements has
convinced him is best suited for his individual case.
Chemical Soil Analysis Not Helpful. — There is
a mistaken notion that it is necessary to analyze
soils chemically in order to fertilize them
intelligently. Such an analysis of a reasonably
fertile soil will show the presence of the essential
elements of plant food, though perhaps not
all in sufficient amounts, to produce ordinary
crops for centuries to come. Only a small
amount of the elements become available for
root absorption each year and a chemical
analysis will not bring out this most important
factor — availability. The use of a few simple

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

tests, mainly of a physical nature by a com-
petent soils specialist, will prove of some
assistance in the treatment of the soil. Such
tests will show the presence of adequate amounts
of humus, and indicate the acidity content.
The soil texture will give some index of its crop
adaptability and thereby serve as a basis for
fertilizing treatment that will meet the needs
of both soil and crop. The practical man will
not expect any considerable aid from a highly
technical and costly chemical analysis of his
soil.

Another factor that militates against worth-
while benefits of chemical soil analysis is the
great variation in soil types frequently occurring
in the same field. To attempt to draw a repre-
sentative sample by mixing soil from several
areas might result in a specimen that would
not be really typical of any area. For the
purpose of ordinary physical examination and
testing for acidity, representative soil samples
should be taken from several parts of the same
soil type, mixed together and a composite
sample for testing drawn from the mixture,
weighing not less than a pound in each case.
If the soil is quite apparently variable it may
be necessary to draw two or more composite
samples from the same area. Very helpful
service in intelligent soil treatment may be

80

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS*

secured from the county agricultural agent and
the state college of agriculture in the county
or state of residence.

Legumes as Soil Improvers. — A means of soil
improvement that is well understood by progres-
sive farmers is the use of legumes to improve
the soil. The legumes include a large family of
plants of which the bean, the pea and the
clovers are outstanding examples. Such plants
have on their roots nodules which house nitrogen-
gathering bacteria. These bacteria absorb nitro-
gen from the air in the soil and, in the ordinary
process of growth, death and decay, make this
nitrogen available to the host plants, leaving a
residue in the soil for the roots of plants that
are to follow. Thus this group of plants, known
as legumes, have been used for generations as a
method of increasing the nitrogen content of
soils. Nitrogen, incidentally, is the most costly
element to buy in commercial fertilizers. The
soil-improving benefits of legumes may be
secured by growing them either for harvest as a
source of animal food or for plowing under as a
means of utilizing them entirely for the develop-
ment of soil fertility.

In reading of the studies of soil fertility that
were made by George Washington at Mount
Vernon, we learn of the improvement that he
made in the relatively poor soils of that area by

81

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

growing plants of the legume family. The actual
reason why such improvement was brought
about was not known in Washington's time,
but the results were apparent. Today, the value
of legumes as soil builders is well recognized
and we understand much more definitely than
Washington did the reasons for their being so
helpful in increasing crop production.

Many soil areas do not contain the particular
type of bacteria necessary to the fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen by legumes. This is fre-
quently the cause of failure in growing alfalfa,
soybeans, cowpeas and less well known members
of the legume family. Each legume has its own
type of nodule-forming bacteria. In order to
assure the presence of the proper bacterial
family, means often must be employed to add
them to the soil where the specific crop is to
be grown. This may be accomplished by adding
soil from an area where the legume does well to
the new area, or the seed may be inoculated
with commercial cultures before seeding. Either
method is effective. If soil is used it should be
drilled in or spread on a cloudy day to prevent
the destructive action of the sun's rays on the
exposed minute forms of plant life we call
bacteria.

If it is not known that the legume to be planted
has been grown successfully in a given field

82

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

within the previous several years, the precaution
of adding the proper bacteria should be taken.
In some sections, such legumes as red, alsike,
crimson and white clovers have been grown for
many years and the bacteria for these plants
are well distributed. There, inoculation is not
necessary for these crops, but it probably should
be practiced if other legumes such as alfalfa,
cowpeas or soybeans are to be grown on land
for the first time.

The Value of Humus. — In addition to the
chemical elements of plant food, all produc-
tive soils contain decaying vegetable matter,
generally classified under the term "humus."
Humus serves as a source of acid-generating
material which further breaks down soil particles
and, most important of all, serves as a food for
millions of microscopic plants which develop
and die quite beyond the scope of human vision.
These constitute a type of bacteria which are
distinctly beneficial and essential to human life
since they make possible the growth of larger
plants that serve as human food.

Green plants, straw or leaves, when plowed
under or spaded in the soil, are attacked by
bacterial agencies which gradually turn these
products into humus. The same process occurs
when a "compost" is set up. This is made of
leaves, manure, soil, straw and other materials

83

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

thrown into a heap and allowed to decay. Such
compost is excellent for placing around plants
when setting them out, since it holds moisture,
supplies fertility and creates optimum conditions
for young root growth. Under practical field
conditions, humus may be added to soils by
spreading animal manures, followed by plowing
them down, or by the growing of heavy green
crops such as wheat, rye, cowpeas or vetch and
turning the entire mass under with the plow
when they are at their height.

Lime and Its Application. — Reference has
been made to the fact that calcium is an essential
plant food and is frequently deficient in soils.
As a matter of fact, the great majority of soils
are deficient in calcium and their productiveness
is inhibited thereby. Lime supplies calcium and
also magnesium as food for plants. Its application
accomplishes many other desirable things such as
correcting soil acidity. The growth of beneficial
bacteria is greatly stimulated in a soil that has
had its acidity neutralized by the application
of lime. This product, therefore, creates a more
congenial condition for the growth of bacteria,
which, in turn, make for better crop production.
Lime is also beneficial through furnishing the
element calcium with which other plant foods
combine chemically and thereby become soluble
in the soil water. Unless plant foods are in a

84

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

state of solution, they cannot be absorbed by
plant roots. Lime is a potent force in creating
chemical reactions in the soil, resulting in the
stimulation of growth through increased absorp-
tion of essential elements in solution.

Lime also benefits soils of a clayey nature
through its ability to cement together the fine
clay particles and in that way create air spaces
so greatly needed in tight clay soils. Lime is
beneficial, too, in the case of soils which have a
large proportion of sand or large particles, and
serves as an agent in creating a better condition
of tilth and of moisture retention.

It makes little difference in what form lime
is applied. It may be purchased and applied in
the form of ground limestone, a rock rich in
calcium which has been mechanically ground
to a very great degree of fineness. It can also
be applied in the form of hydrated lime. This
is obtained by heating ground limestone and
slaking it by adding water. A common example
of this is the slaking of lime for whitewashing
purposes. Another good source of lime is finely
ground shells of oysters or other forms of sea
life which collect the calcium from sea water and
deposit it in their shells.

Adjusting the Water Content of Soils. — Aside
from the supplying of water by irrigation, a
rather costly process under most conditions,

85

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

the water resources of most soils can be greatly
increased by adding to their humus content.
Humus, which, it has been pointed out, is
decaying vegetable matter, serves as a sponge
for the absorption of soil water and for under-
ground water supplies. Therefore, the more
humus that can be plowed into the soil, other
conditions being equal, the greater is the ability
of the plants growing in that soil to withstand
drouth. As soils are cultivated, the tendency
is for the humus to become " burned out" and
to have a reduced moisture-holding capacity.
To overcome this tendency, it is necessary to
add vegetable matter to the soil whenever it is
possible. Incidentally, the incorporation of large
quantities of humus in the soil creates a condi-
tion of acidity which may call for the application
of lime as a corrective.

There are many acres of land which contain
too much water in the area that roots should
penetrate to permit of optimum plant growth.
Roots of most plants will not penetrate where
there is an excess of water, and air cannot cir-
culate where moisture is superabundant. Usually
these conditions exist where the soil is of a
clayey nature. The abundance of water may
be caused by the inability of surface water to
percolate through the soil. It may take so long,
due to the nature of the soil, for this water to

86

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

pass through the lower depths of subsoil that
the roots of plants are destroyed by lack of
oxygen. In such cases the application of lime,
increasing the humus content, and deeper plow-
ing will be found helpful. Occasionally, the dis-
charge of dynamite or blasting powder in the
area, if it appears to be in the form of a pocket,
will break up the hard pan subsoil and permit
the water to escape. Less dependence is now
being placed on this means of correcting a wet
condition of the soil than was the case some
years ago.

A similar condition of overabundant water in
soil may be due to the presence of springs or
to a high water table. Little can be done to
correct a condition where the water table itself
is so close to the surface as to inhibit plant
growth and this is assuredly one of the factors
to be looked into before a tract is purchased.
Where the surplus water is evidently being
supplied by a spring, an underdrain made of
tile pipe, 3 or 4 inches in diameter, can be laid
as a means of conducting the water into a
ditch or adjoining drain. In laying such a drain,
it should be placed above the area where the wet
soil surface is most evident. If such a drain is
laid 1 8 inches to 3 feet deep above the wet area,
it will cut off the water seeping down under-
ground and carry it away. Good results cannot

87

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

be secured if the drain is laid directly in the area
of extreme wetness or if it does not cut off the
flow of water before it reaches the area that is
consistently too wet for plant growth.

From what has been said in this brief de-
scription of soil treatment and soil improvement,
it is evident that one must live with his soil
for some time in order to understand it and to
be able intelligently to correct its deficiencies,
overcome its weaknesses and make it capable
of supporting plants which are desirable from
the owner's point of view. In the great majority
of cases, the improvement process, while a
slow one, is far from hopeless and almost any
soil that is not extremely sandy or clayey
can be so intelligently treated as to make it
productive.

Cultivation. — Any discussion of soil treatment
is not complete without mention of cultivation.
Intelligent cultivation is an essential factor in
securing adequate crops. It is interesting to
recall that the word "manure," which has come
to mean fertilization or fertilizer, is derived
from the Latin word "manus" meaning "hand"
and implying "manipulation" of the soil, which
we now call cultivation. Cultivation has been
most frequently practiced as a method of
destroying weeds, thereby making all of the
available plant food subject to absorption by

88

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

the roots of the desired plants and not by the
intruders we call weeds. Cultivation does more
than destroy weeds, however. It opens up the soil
so that air containing atmospheric nitrogen can
penetrate it and so that the bacteria requiring
air for their best growth may have it available.
Furthermore, cultivation conserves moisture
and is more essential during dry periods in the
growing season than at any other time.

We know that in entering the soil the rain
water follows certain channels in and around
the soil particles on its way to the subsoil.
When the rain has ceased and the top layer of
soil becomes dry, the tendency is for the water
to work up through these same channels to the
surface, where it evaporates. Cultivation, by
breaking up these channels, or capillary tubes,
checks the escape of moisture into the air.
It creates a blanket of dry surface soil which
insulates the soil moisture from the air above.
The tendency of soil moisture to reestablish
capillary methods of escape makes recultivation
necessary from time to time in dry weather. Care
must, of course, be taken that the cultivation
is not harmful to roots of growing plants. If
these roots are disturbed or destroyed through
cultivation, more harm than good may result
because of the damage to the root systems.

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Farm Power and Equipment. — Where the land
area to be cultivated is larger than the family
garden some type of equipment for working the
land, propelled by horse or motor, will be found
desirable and in larger areas essential. One or
more horses may be used where there are stabling
facilities and where arrangements can be made
for the daily care and feeding that these animals
require. A horse suitable for work purposes may
be obtained for less than $200. The price will, of
course, depend upon the age and physical sound-
ness of the animal, but should not exceed $150
for a physically sound animal under ten years
old. A person unskilled in the assessing of
animal values should obtain the services of a
veterinarian or an experienced horseman in mak-
ing a selection. A horse for this purpose should
be of quiet, tractable disposition, bred and
broken for work purposes. The cost of caring
for a horse for one year will approximate $125,
including feed and bedding, but without labor
charge.

Leather harness costing $25 to $50 will be re-
quired and in addition tools, including a plow,
a harrow, and a cultivator costing about $15
each. Other special equipment such as a mower
will cost considerably more, depending upon
the type used.

90

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

If the members of the family are fond of
animals and willing to assume the responsibility
for their daily care, the horse will be found an
efficient and useful source of power for tilling
the land. In this connection it should be pointed
out that flies breed with great rapidity in the
strawy manure of the stable, and such wastes
should be spread upon the land almost daily
or treated to prevent fly-breeding.

Tractor Power. — Just as large tractors have
supplanted horses and horse-drawn equipment
on thousands of farms in the United States,
the so-called garden tractor has become in-
creasingly popular for the tilling of small
acreages. The tractor requires "feed" only when
it is working, is not subject to the ills that
beset animals, and may be used for twenty-
four hours a day if necessary. It makes an
appeal to the mechanically minded members
of the household and, if properly cared for, will
give economical and lasting service.

The usual type of garden tractor consists
of two large wheels with lugs on them to give
traction and is driven by a one- or two-cylinder
motor. A plow, a cultivator, or mower may
be attached to the drawbar, the operator walk-
ing behind and regulating the speed and guiding
the outfit by handles provided for the purpose.
Earlier types of these machines were not always

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

satisfactory owing to construction weaknesses
and occasionally balky motors. Those now on the
market, however, are greatly improved, require
less attention, and rival their big brothers, the
powerful farm tractors, in dependability.

There are a number of types and makes of
garden tractors now on the market, ranging in
price from $175 or less to $400, the cost depend-
ing largely upon the size and capacity of the
motor. In selecting a satisfactory garden tractor
attention should be directed to the simplicity
and power of the motor, the type of bearings,
the method of lubrication of all moving parts,
the working speed and the economy of fuel.
Bearings ought to be of standard, long-wearing
type since these are subject to hard service.
Two speeds are desirable, a slow one for heavy
duty and a faster one for lighter work. The
tractor should operate all day on about 2 gallons
of gasoline and a quart of oil. In addition to
power applied at the drawbar where special
tools are attached, a pulley will be found a
desirable accessory for operating belt machinery
such as small feed mills, pumps, and cream
separators. The rating of the motor should be not
less than 3 horsepower at the drawbar for the
ordinary tasks it will be called upon to perform.

All types of attachments are available for the
garden tractor. These include plows, disks, har-

92

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

rows, cultivators, mowers, fertilizer distributors,
planters, sowers and seeding accessories. The
prices of these vary according to make and
quality. Levers are provided for adjusting the
depth of plowing, cultivating and seeding. Some
of the large type garden tractors are equipped
with a seat on a sulky attached to the machine
so that the operator can ride and have complete
control over speed and the type of work he
wishes to do. A modern garden tractor will
be found very useful in taking care of a lawn
or garden. In the case of larger areas under
cultivation, but not of field size, this type of
machine is rapidly gaining popularity for per-
forming efficiently and economically the numer-
ous jobs that are to be done on every small
farm.

Do's

Select a soil type that is inherently productive, fertile,

retentive of moisture and easily cultivated.
Supplement soil fertility by adding chemical fertilizers

either singly or in combination.
Buy mixed fertilizers on the basis of guaranteed

analyses.
Use legumes (peas, beans, etc.) to add nitrogen to soils

and increase humus content.
Add specific bacteria for the production of various

legumes.
Use manure and green crops to supply humus.

93

A LIVING FROM THE LAND'

Apply lime when soil test shows need for it as plant
food and general soil improver.

Practice methods that make soils absorptive of mois-
ture and permit escape of excess water.

Cultivate the soil to check escape of moisture and to
kill weeds.

Use a horse or garden tractor for cultivation of areas
larger than the family garden.

Don'ts

Don't buy land that is continually wet and swampy.
Don't expect to produce satisfactory crops on soils

that are extremely heavy or clayey or so sandy as

to quickly lose moisture and fertility.
Don't try to produce crops without maintaining the

humus supply in the soil.
Don't neglect cultivation as a means of conserving

moisture, destroying weeds and stimulating root

growth.

94

Chapter VII

FOOD FROM THE GARDEN

THE HOME vegetable garden should supply
an important part of the food for every
family living in the country. Vegetables that
are of the right varieties and that are fresh and
properly prepared are nutritious, wholesome
and economical. Not only does the well-organized
home garden reduce the cost of feeding the
family, but it constitutes an effective method
of maintaining better health among all members
of the household. Even common vegetables that
are grown from the best varieties and served
fresh will be a revelation to those accustomed
to buying them in stores. Deterioration in
quality and palatability begins immediately
in vegetables when they are harvested. The more
perishable the commodity, the greater is the
rate of deterioration.

The commercial vegetable grower usually
inclines toward varieties that are capable of
producing a heavy yield per acre or that stand
shipment and temporary storage with the least
apparent loss from deterioration. In order to

95

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

have his products reach the consumer in an
attractive condition, the commercial grower
usually must harvest them before they are at
their best. The channels through which vege-
tables and fruits pass on their way to the city
consumer are devious, slow and costly. Such a
consumer therefore usually receives so-called
fresh products that have been removed from
the plant or the soil before maturity is attained
and after such already poor quality has deterio-
rated through aging processes.

All these disadvantages of vegetables pur-
chased in the city are eliminated by the possessor
of a garden where he may produce his family's
needs (and they are genuine needs) in the way
of fresh vegetables. These products are essential
in supplying such necessary elements as minerals,
vitamins, acids, and cellulose. Dietary authori-
ties advise that leafy vegetables, sometimes
called "greens," contain food elements not found
in root vegetables. For the maintenance of
health, the diet should include a variety of
vegetables besides potatoes.

Assets of a Garden. — A garden is a source of
recreation, pleasure and satisfaction to every
member of the family. Real enjoyment can be
had by working in it a little time each day. To
those whose work may be sedentary and of a
routine nature, the garden furnishes a source

96

FOOD FROM THE GARDEN

of inspiration and adventure. Daily evidences
of plant growth and the novelty of having
vegetables of one's own growing stimulate
interest in it. The garden is an aid in maintaining
health through physical exercise and the liberal
consumption of the fruits of labor. There is no
other avenue of activity that can afford so much
in the way of health, economical recreation and
pleasure as a well-planned garden.

Having decided on a garden, the question
immediately arises as to the procedure to be
followed to get the most out of it. Special
attention has been given to this problem by
experts throughout the country and specific
recommendations are now available on the
subject at state agricultural colleges. These
cover varieties, planting dates, adequate area,
fertilization, rotation of crops and storage.
Typical recommendations along these lines are
given here for the north-central and eastern
states. Readers living elsewhere may wish to
check them with the practices recommended by
authorities in their home states.

Vegetable Growing by Rule. — The most effective
method of presenting the story of recommended
vegetables, desirable varieties, seed required,
average yields and other pertinent data is in
tabular form, such as that used in Table I,
which has been prepared for the aid of home

97

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

vegetable gardeners by the New Jersey Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, and which is based
on years of study of the subject. Table II,
prepared by the Michigan State College of
Agriculture, shows the amount of seed that
should be purchased to supply an adequate
quantity and variety of important vegetables
for a family of six persons.

Examination of the planting table will show
that the setting of plants or roots is occasionally
recommended instead of the use of seed. This
is desirable in some cases to get quicker results
and in other cases is essential if a crop is to be
secured during a normal growing season. While
it is possible for the grower to raise these plants,
or sets, himself, usually more satisfactory results
can be obtained through buying them from a
capable plant grower. The growing of sets is a
specialized business requiring conditions of heat,
moisture, fertility and skill, frequently beyond
the patience and capacity of the amateur.
There are plant growers in nearly every neighbor-
hood who will grow the needed plants at small
cost. Arrangements should be made in advance
for growing the varieties or strains that are
wanted, and usually the grower can furnish
his own seed for the plants if that seems desirable
to him. One desiring to grow one' s own plants from
seed can secure full information from a practical

98

FOOD FROM THE GARDEN

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A LIVING FROM THE LAN'D

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

TABLE II
AMOUNT OF SEED TO PURCHASE FOR FAMILY OF SIX*

Vegetable

Amount to purchase

Asparagus .

66 plants

Beans, snap (in variety)

2 to 3 pounds

Beans, bush lima

I pound

Beet

4 ounces

Cabbage:
Early

I packet

Late . . .

^2 ounce

Carrot

I ounce

Cauliflower

I packet

Celery

I packet

Corn, sweet

2 pounds

Cucumber

I ounce

Eggplant

I packet

Kale

I ounce

Lettuce . .

/^ ounce

IVtuskmelon

I ounce

Onion sets

4 quarts

Onion seed

i ounce

Peas

2 to 4 pounds

Parsley

i packet

Parsnip ... .

I ounce

Radish (in variety)
Rhubarb

2 ounces
20 plants

Salsify

i ounce

Spinach

i pound

New Zealand spinach

I ounce

Summer pumpkin

I ounce

Winter pumpkin

2 ounces

Squash

2 ounces

Tomatoes

I packet or 50 plants

Turnip

4 ounces

Rutabaga .

I ounce

Watermelon

2 ounces

* Prepared by Michigan State College of Agriculture.

102

FOOD FROM THE GARDEN

grower or from state and county agricultural
agencies.

Planning and Operating a Home Garden. —
In planning the home vegetable garden there
are a few essential points to be kept in mind.
The time to plan the garden is in winter when
adequate consideration can be given to the
selection of those vegetables that the family
likes best and can use in large amounts. Seeds
required should be ordered early for the entire
garden. By drawing the plan of the garden on
paper and following it, the procedure is simplified
and the most efficient results attained.

Vegetables should be planted in rows rather
than in beds, and those maturing at about the
same time should be grouped together to
facilitate succession planting. After the early-
maturing crops have been harvested, other
crops can be sown on the same area, thus fully
utilizing the land throughout the growing season.
Perennial crops, including asparagus and rhu-
barb, should be kept by themselves.

A practical farmer wanting to express perfection
in soil preparation is apt to say, " It is just like a
garden." This implies good fertility, optimum
moisture conditions and proper tilth. To attain
these conditions in garden soil it is desirable
to cover it with strawy manure some time
previous to plowing, in order that rains may

103

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

carry the soluble fertility elements into the sur-
face inches of the soil. In the early spring a
thorough job of plowing or spading should be
done to reasonable depth, completely covering
the surface straw or dead plants. Every two or
three years lime should be applied after plowing
and worked into the top soil at the rate of
I pound of hydrated lime to every 25 square feet
of soil.

Fertilizing and Culture. — The fertility supplied
through application of manure should be supple-
mented by the use of commercial fertilizer.
This can be purchased in burlap bags from local
supply agencies and should contain about 5 per
cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and
7 per cent potash. Moderate variations in
analysis from 5-8-7, as above, are not important
so long as the amounts of each element are well
balanced. The fertilizer should be broadcast
over the garden after plowing, at the rate of
I pound to every 25 square feet and worked
into the soil before planting. Poultry or sheep
manure may be used as top dressing to alternate
with commercial fertilizer. It should be borne in
mind that such animal manures are richer in
nitrogen than in other elements and if used to
excess may stimulate leaf growth at the expense
of yield and quality.

Frequent shallow cultivations are desirable.
The ordinary wheel hoe will be found helpful

104

FOOD FROM THE GARDEN

in the cultivating procedure. It should be
well understood that cultivation is essential to
prevent weed growth and conserve moisture.

If watering or irrigating is necessary in dry
weather, it should be thoroughly done. One
soaking of the soil to a depth of 4 to 6 inches
is far more effective than frequent light sprin-
klings. The latter may be more harmful than
beneficial through reestablishing capillary move-
ment, permitting the escape of subsoil moisture.
Water should be applied under the same condi-
tions that apply when rain falls — on cloudy
days or after sunset to prevent "baking" or
encrusting of the surface soil as well as to
conserve the amount of water needed.

Meeting the Insect Problem. — The sponsor
of a garden in which diversified vegetables are
grown must be prepared to meet the onslaught
of equally diversified insect species. While it
is true that insects are multiplying as to species
and voraciousness, it is equally true that methods
of control are becoming available to cope adequ-
ately with most of them. One unfamiliar with
our insect infestations will be amazed to find
that certain species apparently have had advance
notice of his intentions and are sitting about
the planted rows awaiting the appearance of
the tender shoots.

One of the best methods of combating insects
is to create ideal conditions for plant growth.

105

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Plants that are underfed through inadequate
soil fertility or are weakened by other causes
suffer severely from insect attack, while vigorous
plants will come through with much less damage.
It is advisable to insure rapid germination of
seed through careful soil preparation, to seed
at the proper time for a quick and vigorous
start and to have sufficient available fertility
to stimulate growth once the plants have
started.

There are two distinct classes of insects, the
division being based upon their feeding habits.
The larger group, both in the size of the insects
themselves and in the number of species, is
the leaf-chewing group. These can be destroyed
by the application of stomach poisons to the
plants under attack. The other group consists
of the sucking insects, which penetrate the veins
carrying nourishment to the leaves and appro-
priate it for themselves. Such insects multiply
with extreme rapidity, generally feed on the
underside of the leaves and may cause complete
wilting of the plant before their presence is
suspected. In such cases a "contact" spray or
dust must be used. This is based on the principle
of causing the insect to "inhale" the material
through breathing pores along its body. The
insecticide must be composed of extremely
fine particles or must be of such an oily nature

106

FOOD FROM THE GARDEN

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

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NSECTS AND REMED1

Character of damage

Cut the plants off near the surface
of the ground.

Character of damage

Feeds under the leaf, causing a
whitening and curve of the leaves
with a dying of the edges.
Sucks the juices on the under side of
the leaves and on the stems.

Sucks the juices from the under side
of the leaves, producing a whitish
cast on the cabbage group and a
brownish cast on the other groups.
Especially prevalent during pro-
longed dry hot spells.

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108

FOOD FROM THE GARDEN

that it will readily penetrate such pores. In
addition to these, certain repellent materials
are being developed which cause the insect to
seek food where the disagreeable conditions
do not prevail.

Table III (pages 107-108) describes the charac-
ter of damage done by both groups of insects,
the plants attacked and the most effective
methods of control.

Ekfs

Grow vegetables for health, recreation and economy.
Organize the vegetable garden for a maximum of

output, variety of foods and to facilitate its care.
Use lime and chemical fertilizer or manure liberally

for intensive culture.
Combat insects by stimulating plant growth and by

using appropriate lethal products.

Don'ts

Don't plant a garden in hit-or-miss fashion, if maxi-
mum food return is expected.

Don't neglect first appearances of insect damage. Find
out the cause of injury and use recommended meas-
ures for control.

109

Chapter VIII

HOME FRUITS AND BEES

A WIDE variety of fruits may be grown
satisfactorily for home use. Where no
fruit trees are growing the best plan is to set
out individual trees or bush fruits of the standard
types and varieties, adding to the collection
later as the needs of the family develop and the
adaptability of the area for varieties manifests
itself through crop production.

All fruits thrive best on a deep, well-drained
soil. It is difficult to secure good results where
the area is depressed and air drainage is poor.
Elevation of the area planted is desirable there-
fore from the standpoint of both water and air
drainage.

A number of questions confront the pro-
spective grower of fruits. He needs to know,
among other things, the kind of fruit to plant,
the necessary distance between the trees or
plants and the probable yield. The following
planting guide will be found helpful in answering
these questions.

no

HOME FRUITS AND BEES
PLANTING GUIDE*

Average

Distance

Distance

Estimated yield at maturity

number
of plants
to the acre

Kind of fruit

between
rows,
feet

between
plants,
feet

Average

Average

per acre

per plant

27

Apples

40

40

135 bushels

5 bushels

90

Pears

22

22

90 bushels

I bushel

200

Quinces

l6

16

loo bushels

tf bushel

90

Peaches

22

22

90 bushels

I bushel

90

Nectarines

22

22

90 bushels

I bushel

90

Plums

22

22

90 bushels

I bushel

90

Cherries (sour)

22

22

90 bushels

I bushel

48

Cherries (sweet)

30

30

50 bushels

I bushel

6,000

Strawberries

3tt

2

2,250 quarts

y\ pint per

(matted row)

stool

1,800

Raspberries

8

3

2,000 quarts

I quart

1,800

Blackberries

8

3

2,400 quarts

1^4 quarts

1,200

Dewberries

6

6

l,8oo quarts

I quart

(hill system)

1,800

Gooseberries

8

3

5,400 quarts

3 quarts

1,800

Currants

8

3

3,600 quarts

2 quarts

680

Grapes

8

8

4,000 pounds

6 pounds

* New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

The selection of varieties of tree fruits is
highly important. Some sorts are preeminently
adapted to home use because of their high
quality of edibility while others are preferred
for commercial production on account of their
good shipping qualities and high yields per
acre. It is advisable for the grower to inquire of
his state agricultural college regarding varieties
to plant. Responsible nursery firms will also
advise on varieties that will best meet the
needs of the purchaser from the standpoint

in

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

of family use and adaptability to soil and climatic
conditions.

The following varieties are recommended
for general home use in north-central areas
of the United States, subject to check by local
authorities. The apple and peach varieties are
given in the order of ripening.

Apples:

William

Wealthy

Mclntosh

Rome

Stayman
Peaches (all freestone):

Golden Jubilee

Georgia Belle

Elberta

J. H. Hale
Pears:

Bartlett

Seckel
Cherries :

Montmorency or Early Richmond (sour)

Black Tartarian (sweet)
Plums:

Damson (blue)

Burbank (red)

About fifty strawberry plants will be needed
for a row 100 feet long. Because of weed infesta-
tions in old beds, it will be more satisfactory
to set a new row each year and destroy the old
one. The plants during the season of setting
should be trained to form a matted row about
2 feet wide. Mulching the plants after a freeze

112

HOME FRUITS AND BEES

in the fall with straw or other similar material
will prevent injury caused by "heaving" of
the soil.

Currants and gooseberries should be pruned
annually and only the one- or two-year-old
wood retained for production. Thinning out
in this manner will give better size and quality.
Where the currant worm is troublesome the
foliage should be dusted with arsenate of lead
or Paris green as soon as it is well developed and
before the fruit is started. About thirty currant
or gooseberry plants will be needed for a loo-foot
row, and they can be planted along a fence or
other boundary line.

Blackberries and raspberries should be set
3 feet apart in the row, 100 feet requiring thirty
to thirty-five plants. Old canes should be pruned
out after fruiting and the weaker new canes
should be removed when dormant, leaving
6 or 8 inches between the standing canes. Lateral
branches should be cut back in early spring to
about I foot in length and the upright canes
cut back to uninjured wood, thus removing about
two-thirds of the growth.

Grapes need severe pruning to produce satis-
factory yields of good quality. This is best done
in late winter. It is a good plan to prune so
that from 15 to 30 or possibly 40 buds are left
on each mature vine, depending upon the

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

vitality of the plant. Two or three clusters of
fruit will develop on the shoot that grows from
each bud. A loo-foot row of grapes will require
twelve plants. There are many fine varieties
of grapes and several can be used in a single
row.

In ordering stock for planting, care should be
exercised in making sure of the reliability of
the nursery. As a general rule it is better to
order from a nursery in the vicinity, thus
eliminating losses due to shipping great distances
and also making sure that the varieties or strains
were grown for use in the area in question.
Upon the arrival of the stock from the nursery,
it should be "heeled in" at once. That is, the
roots should be covered in a trench so that they
will not dry out before they can be planted
in the desired location. In the case of a few
trees that can be set immediately, this is not
necessary.

Nearly all country places have sufficient
area for planting small fruits and, as is the case
with vegetables, freshness and fine-flavored
varieties will compensate for the labor involved
in growing them. Strawberries, currants, goose-
berries, blackberries, red and black raspberries
and grapes are especially desirable for home
plantings. Some high-quality varieties are given
for the choice of the home owner, subject to

114

HOME FRUITS AND BEES

confirmation by authorities acquainted with
specific conditions and intended primarily for
home use.

Strawberries (in order of ripening) :

Howard 17

Fairfax

Aberdeen

Joe

Chesapeake

Mastodon is recommended for the everbearing type.
Currants:

Fay

Wilder
Gooseberries:

Chautauqua

Poorman
Blackberries:

Russell

Ward

Eldorado for bush types

Black Diamond for the trailing type requiring a trellis and

ripening late in the season.
Red Raspberries (in order of ripening) :

Ranere

Viking

Latham
Black Raspberries:

Cumberland

Quillen
Grapes (general list, in order of ripening):

Ontario (white)

Fredonia (black)

Delaware (red)

Brighton (red)

Golden Muscat (white)

Concord (blue)

Sheridan (black)

For those desiring a succession of blue-black varieties, Fredonia,
Concord and Sheridan are recommended.

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Controlling Insect and Fungous Pests. — Plant
pests of various kinds infest tree fruits and small
fruits. In general, the best method of controlling
leaf-chewing insects is by applying arsenate
of lead on the foliage. Care must be taken to
avoid staining the fruit with poisonous spray
or thorough washing will be necessary before
it is safe to consume. The control of other insect
pests and fungous plant diseases has been
well worked out by agricultural experiment
stations throughout the country, and these
methods should be sought before attempting
any campaign of suppression. A barrel spray
pump, mounted on a hand truck or on a vehicle,
equipped with plenty of hose will be found
satisfactory for spraying plantings of modest
size.

Rejuvenating an Old Orchard. — The purchaser
of an old-established farm will usually find he
has acquired some apple trees of uncertain age
and health. In many instances these trees can
be renovated and rejuvenated so that they
will again bear fruit. If the trees have several
sound limbs and are making some growth each
year, they may be considered worth saving.
On the other hand, broken tops and limbs
accompanied by large rotted cavities will create
too great an expense if an attempt is made to
restore them to usefulness. The varieties should

116

HOME FRUITS AND BEES

be determined before serious efforts at renovation
are undertaken, so that the strenuous work
necessary for restoration may not be wasted on
undesirable fruit.

Steps in Renovation. — The first operation
in renovation is pruning. Most of this should
be done in early spring during the dormant
season and supplemented in June or July when
the trees are in leaf. Large broken limbs and
dead wood should be removed, together with
interfering branches, and those reaching too
high should be headed back. At about the same
time that pruning is started the loose bark
should be thoroughly scraped off and burned,
thus destroying insects and fungi that attack
the fruit. Harboring places for further infesta-
tions are also thus removed. If the trees are
badly in need of pruning, it is best to do the
job over a period of two or three years rather
than all at one time, due to the tendency of
trees to "sucker" and develop a multiplicity
of small non-bearing branches.

Spraying, fertilizing and cultivation, where
that is possible, should follow the pruning and
scraping jobs. Spray schedules and cultural
practices best adapted to the region can be
obtained without cost by applying to state or
county agricultural agencies. Ordinarily two
or three years are required to rejuvenate these

117

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

trees and begin to secure a crop. Production
will then increase in quantity and quality during
succeeding years.

Bees as Pollinators. — The production of fruits
of all kinds is dependent upon pollination of
their blossoms by bees and other winged insects.
Bees of many species are useful in pollen dis-
tribution, but the most important is the honey
bee, which is available in larger numbers just
at flowering time, seeking nectar from the
flowers. In large commercial orchards colonies
of honey bees are set at regular intervals to
insure adequate pollination, usually one hive
per acre.

A practical method of adding to county life
enjoyment and adding to income as well is the
keeping of bees for honey production.

Securing a Honey Crop. — Bee husbandry can
be carried on successfully as a specialized side
line where only small areas of land are available.
Colonies can be located at one side of the garden
or placed under trees where they will not
be disturbed either through accident or by
cultivation of the plot immediately surrounding
them. The activity of the bees during the nectar-
gathering season, accompanied by the well-
known hum as they dart in and out of the hive,
makes a genuine appeal to the country dweller.
This appeal is heightened by the fact that

118

HOME FRUITS AND BEES

they are working for him, in part at least, and
without his having to pay for their raiding the
nectar from the flowers around. He knows that
his efforts in providing favorable working condi-
tions for the bees will be repaid by a harvest
of salable honey. A colony at full strength
just at the right time will invariably gather a
surplus.

First Principles in Beekeeping. — The beginner
in bee husbandry should purchase established
colonies from a reputable business concern or
from beekeepers in the neighborhood of his
home. He should begin in a small way with a
few colonies, learn the business with a small
investment and then increase as his liking for
the work develops and the market for the
product expands. Being able to read the signs
at the entrance to the hive is the surest way to
success. Too much manipulation is just as
harmful as neglect. The novice in beekeeping
who is really interested and follows carefully
a few details gained from a reliable bee book
should harvest at least 30 pounds of honey a
year from each colony. Experts get much larger
yields and have been known to secure 200 pounds
per colony and 200 sections of comb honey from
one hive. The deciding factor in producing
honey is the skill of the watchful beekeeper,
assuming of course that there is a sufficient

119

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

supply of nectar-secreting blossoms in the
area.

The cost of engaging in bee husbandry is
nominal. An established colony of the preferred
Italian bees should cost about $8. The equip-
ment should include two fitted supers for
each colony in which the bees may store the
honey, costing about $3 each; a veil to protect
the head and face, linseed-oil-soaked canvas
gloves, a bee smoker, a hive tool and a bee
escape (needed for removing the bees from filled
supers), each item costing less than a dollar.
An additional piece of apparatus, a queen
"excluder," is needed for each hive, to keep
the queen in the lower chamber and prevent
the mixing of stored honey surplus and develop-
ing bees.

The principal nectar-secreting plants are the
clovers, sumac, buckwheat, cranberry and blue-
berry blossoms, goldenrod, asters and mallows.
Since these plants bloom at varying periods
during the growing season, the beekeeper will
find it necessary to adjust his operations in
accordance with the nectar-producing capacity
of his own region. The experience of successful
beekeepers will be found helpful as a guide in
taking the successive and orderly steps necessary
to secure maximum honey crops. In many states
there are associations of beekeepers formed for

120

HOME FRUITS AND BEES

mutual advantage and the promotion of the
industry. The novice can hardly expect to learn
unless he affiliates himself with such groups and
attends their meetings. Subscription to a good
bee journal is also desirable.

Selling the Product. — Honey can be marketed
in the comb or in glass jars in the extracted or
crystal form. Many suburban beekeepers dispose
of their crop in their own neighborhood or at
roadside stands. Many food products are being
promoted which contain honey as one ingredient,
and this opens an attractive field to the re-
sourceful beekeeper. The healthful qualities
of honey for human consumption are being
given greater recognition and it appears that the
market for locally produced honey of high
quality is steadily expanding.

Do's

Fruit trees should be included in every country home-
owner's plan.

Be sure varieties are such as will yield, plentifully,
good quality fruit.

Use bush fruits as ornamentals and sources of food to
be put in cans.

Seek advice on fruit problems from the state agri-
cultural college.

Old orchards may be rejuvenated under proper systems
of management.

121

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Use colonies of bees to pollinate fruit blossoms and to

produce honey.
Begin bee husbandry in a small way at first and get

advice from experienced bee culturists.
Sell surplus honey in home markets.

Den'u

Don't plant varieties of fruits that are ill adapted to

climatic conditions.
Don't overlook the necessity of preparing for insect

attacks in advance of appearance.
Don't establish bee colonies without making sure that

proper care of them can be taken.
Don't try to practice horticulture or bee husbandry

without frequently obtaining expert advice.

122

Chapter IX

POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME

THE MAJORITY of the owners of small farm
properties are interested in the possibilities
of poultry keeping as a means of adding to
the family income. Efforts in this direction are
logical from a number of angles. For example,
the keeping of poultry appeals to them as an
interesting line of work for the sake of the
activity itself. Furthermore, the cost of housing
a comparatively large number of laying hens
is not expensive, as compared with the invest-
ment required in other agricultural enterprises.
Again, there is a ready market for the eggs
and for the poultry in the neighborhood where
the enterprise is carried on. No doubt, too, the
more or less fabulous stories of easy profits have
stimulated a desire to get into this business
and to make it a rather important source of
income. Again, there is the thought that the
work involved in feeding and caring for the
flock can be carried on by another member
of the family when the owner or principal
bread-winner is engaged in some other activity
temporarily.

123

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

All these factors have tended to develop in the
mind of the settler in the country a pretty
definite idea that he can supplement the family
income with poultry. Sometimes this idea is
erroneous and there is apt to be little definite
knowledge on the part of the new owner as
to costs, problems and profits that are likely
to accrue. It is the thought of the writer to
outline some definite recommendations for the
prospective poultryman which will enable him
to safeguard his investment and prevent the very
serious losses that have occurred to many who
have not taken into consideration all of the
factors involved.

Soil Type. — The prospective poultryman will,
if he is wise, make sure that the soil is adapted
to the project. The ideal soil for poultry raising
is sufficiently porous to furnish good water
drainage and yet not so open or sandy as to
be incapable of crop production. A porous soil
is warmer than a clay soil and is more conducive
to good sanitation through permitting moisture
and debris to be carried quickly to the subsoil.
If the subsoil is of a gravelly nature the natural
condition will be improved. Presumably the
same type of soil that will bear the poultry
plant should be capable of producing garden
crops, growing shade or fruit trees satisfactorily
and producing grass and short-rooted crops that

124

POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME

can be used in conjunction with the poultry
plant or the beautification of the home surround-
ings. Consequently, the soil type must be produc-
tive and capable of improvement while being
well drained and conducive to good sanitation.
Heavy clay soils or those with rock strata close
to the surface are to be avoided.

Successful poultry farms are operated on
both level and rolling lands. Extremely flat
topography should be avoided and also pre-
cipitous slopes. If the site is on rolling land
the poultry plant should be located on a slope
with southern exposure to secure warmth,
quicker drying conditions and protection from
cold north winds.

Breeds of Poultry. — Fowls have been domesti-
cated and bred for ages all over the world. As
the result of various crossings a large number of
types or breeds of poultry are available for
present-day use and propagation. Some of
these breeds are maintained for show or novelty
purposes only and furnish an interesting field
for the fancier.

For the person who is engaging in the com-
mercial poultry business the choice of breed
narrows to a very few utility types. For purely
egg-producing purposes or for broilers weighing
slightly over a pound at killing time, the light
Mediterranean breeds are the most efficient.

125

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Less feed is needed for maintaining the egg
machine itself and less room per bird required.
Of these so-called egg breeds, the White Leghorn
is in a class by itself. This breed is noted for
its large white-shelled eggs which top the markets
where this color egg is in demand. In the most
intensive egg-producing areas of the country
the White Leghorn predominates. On the other
hand, this breed is not a good meat producer,
the mature birds being light in weight.

For the dual purpose of egg and meat pro-
duction the American breeds are the most
popular. The principal commercial types of
this general purpose group are Plymouth Rocks,
Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. In some
instances crosses of these breeds are proving
good layers and highly efficient meat producers.

The Rocks, Wyandottes and Reds have
bright yellow skin, shanks and beak which are
desired in market poultry. They are good winter
layers, particularly, and some strains have been
developed that rival the Leghorn in the number
of eggs per bird. Both the White and the Barred
Plymouth Rocks are popular among those
seeking a dual purpose breed, and being slightly
heavier than White Wyandottes and Rhode
Island Reds they are preferred by many poultry-
men. The latter two breeds are rapidly increasing
in popularity and their best qualities are being

126

POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME

brought out more uniformly by careful selection
of breeding stock in each case. All of these
American breeds lay brown eggs.

In addition to the egg and the dual purpose
types of poultry epitomized by the Leghorn
and the Plymouth Rock, respectively, there
are breeds which are primarily meat producers.
Less attention is paid to the egg-producing
ability of these than is the case with the others
mentioned. The Brahmas, Cochins and Lang-
shans stand in high regard as economical meat
producers. The Jersey Black Giant is a more
recent addition to the popular heavy breeds,
especially for the capon trade.

These Asiatic types grow slowly and are
phlegmatic in movement so that they utilize
feed for the economical development of high
quality meat and attain great weight. For
broilers of more than i% pounds each, for
roasting chickens and for capons, the dual
purpose breeds are becoming more popular
than the extremely heavy breeds due to their
more rapid growth and more popular weight
average at marketing time.

Buying Stock. — The advantages of buying
and maintaining definite breeds of poultry are
now so well understood that the mixed or
mongrel flock is fast disappearing. Having
decided which type of fowl is best adapted to

127

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

one's market and ideas, there is no difficulty
in finding a breed that will fit the need. As has
been pointed out, the attributes of high egg
production or fine quality of meat are inherent
in certain breeds. A single breed means uni-
formity in color, size and shape of the eggs which
increases their marketability. More attractive
appearance of the flock and greater efficiency
from feeding without additional cost are other
advantages pertaining to standardizing the flock
as to breed.

Stock may be acquired as day-old chicks, as
ten- to twelve-week-old pullets or as adult
birds ready to lay. Hatching eggs may also be
bought if desired, but it will be found more
satisfactory and just as economical for the
inexperienced person to buy the hatched chick
or the more mature birds. The hatching and
brooding processes are fraught with difficulties
which may be especially acute for the amateur.
The greatest demand at the present time, and
properly so, is for day-old chicks. A highly
specialized industry has been developed for
the purpose of supplying this demand and a
reputation for reliability has been established
by many concerns catering to this trade.

Poultry House Construction. — Where flocks
of poultry are to be kept for egg production,

128

POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME

special laying houses must be provided in addi-
tion to brooder houses that will be needed in
any case.

One of the best types of brooder house is
the two-room type developed by Cornell Uni-
versity, Ithaca, New York. Such a house
should be about 8 by 14 feet, and mounted
on skids for convenience in moving. A movable
partition divides the house into two rooms.
Thus a cold room is provided for exercising
and a warm room for sleeping. The marked
difference in temperature between the two
rooms helps to harden the chicks, while the
reduced space about the hover conserves the
heat.

A great deal of study has been given to the
construction of laying houses for poultry. The
purposes in mind have been to obtain maximum
sunlight throughout the day, protection from
storms and from dampness, and adequate venti-
lation.

In the construction of a modern laying house,
I square foot of glass should be provided for
every 20 square feet of floor space. The windows
should be hinged so that they may be opened in
warm weather. One of the commercial glass sub-
stitutes that are now on the market may be used
instead of ordinary glass to allow violet light

129

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

L/ojod uo Afaj.euj3j.f0 j.~iedo

130

POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME

rays to reach the birds. The other openings
permit free circulation of air through the house.
They should be equipped with muslin curtains
to be used during storms and in extremely
cold weather. Such a house can be used the
year round.

The floor of the laying house must be dry at
all times if vigor and health are to be maintained.
During the winter there should be about
10 inches of dry litter in the form of straw,
peat moss or shavings mixed with the straw.
Small windows in the rear wall will make for
better distribution of the litter, since the birds
scratch away from the light.

Equipment and Appliances. — A great deal of
hand labor and daily drudgery can be eliminated
by equipping the house with properly con-
structed appliances. These will not only save
labor but will also supply the birds with their
needs at the time the need for certain materials
is felt and thus contribute to health and flock
efficiency.

The best method of feeding dry mash is
from a hopper. This should be so constructed
as to hold a reserve supply at all times that
will run into the feed trough as it is consumed.
Care should be taken in construction to prevent
the birds from throwing out the mash with their
beaks and thus wasting it.

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Water fountains of a standard type that will
furnish the birds with a constant amount of fresh
water are available at poultry supply houses.
Receptacles should also be provided for grit,
ground oyster shell and charcoal which can
be easily filled. A sloping board should be
placed over these receptacles to prevent the
birds from roosting on them and soiling the
contents.

Bins so constructed as to be vermin-proof
and moisture-proof should be available for
storing the scratch grain and other concentrated
feeds. Provision for storing litter where it can
be kept clean and dry will be necessary. If
long straw is to be used, a cutter operated by
hand or by a motor will prove useful in fining
the straw. The scratch grain will be spread
through the litter on the floor, compelling the
birds to scratch for it and thus obtain needed
exercise.

Artificial Lighting. — Modern laying houses
are equipped with electric lights that are turned
on and off automatically. Artificial lighting
prolongs the hen's working day when the days
are short, resulting in greater food consumption
and more exercise which will increase egg produc-
tion and give better health and stamina at
seasons when more eggs augment profits. A

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POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME

4<D-watt bulb should be placed in one receptacle
with reflector for each 200 square feet of floor
space, located midway between the front wall
and the front line of perches.

Investment Needed for the Start. — The pro-
spective poultryman should be familiar with
the principal items of cost before engaging in
the business. To be thus forewarned is to be
forearmed. The scale upon which one takes up
commercial poultry production should depend
upon experience in coping with the industry's
peculiar problems and upon the amount of
capital available. Success depends, of course,
both upon skill in handling the poultry and
upon the capitalization of the plant. It should be
recognized that costs can be only approximate
and are usable as guides only. They will vary
according to geographical location, general eco-
nomic conditions, labor costs and the bargaining
power of the individual. The figures here given
are for a plant comprised of 1,500 laying hens —
the minimum number from which a living can
be obtained and probably the maximum number
that can be cared for by one person.

The houses for the flock will necessarily
include a laying house of the multiple unit or
other similar type, which should cost about
$1,000. In addition, eight brooder houses will

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

be needed to care for the chicks and growing
stock, costing about $100 each, or a total of
$800. The growing stock when on range will
need shelters for protection against hot sun
and rain, and these should be built for about
$25 each, or a total of $200, making a total
cost for buildings and the necessary interior
equipment about $2,000. In addition to this
item, there will be needed about $1,500 for the
purchase of pullets at $1.00 each, making a
grand total of $3,500.

If baby chicks are purchased, it will be neces-
sary to buy not less than 4,000 of these if the
operator is to obtain 1,500 desirable laying
birds. The cost of these chicks will depend
upon the breeding that is behind them, upon
whether they are blood-tested to eliminate
bacillary white diarrhea (a scourge of young
chicks) and the general care that has been
taken in the hatchery to produce good, livable
chicks. This care, incidentally, must extend to
flocks from which the hatching eggs are secured,
as well as to the final incubating process. Chicks
sold at extremely low prices are rarely bargains.
Quality is far more important than low first
cost. Assuming a cost of 14 cents per chick
as an average for chicks that will produce virile,
productive layers, the initial investment for
this item will be between $500 and $600. There-

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POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME

fore, if chicks are purchased, it will reduce the
item for stock from the amount of $1,500 given
above, which would represent the cost of partly
grown pullets.

Assuming that the complete poultry plant
already stocked will cost $3,500, we must add
to the budget of the prospective poultryman
a sum for the purchase of a farm of from 5 acres
upward, including a residence. In most localities
a small tract with a modest house can be pur-
chased for about $4,000. If only the land is
purchased, that should be available at $200 an
acre as a subdivision of a larger tract. Assuming
that a house costing $3,000 will be suitable for
the operator and his family, the total outlay
will be in the neighborhood of $7,500. Experi-
enced poultrymen estimate that a modest poul-
try farm of the type above described can be put
into operation for an investment of $5 per bird.
If it is planned to begin with a smaller flock
than 1,500 individual layers, the same figures
can be applied in proportion to the number of
birds to be kept. In short, the poultry house
and equipment should be estimated on the basis
of not less than $1.50 per bird and the cost of the
farm, residence and stock will be in addition
to such a charge. The allowance of $1.50 per
bird provides only for simple housing facilities
for the flock.

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Using these figures, it will be easy to under-
stand the reason for the general recommendation
that a total investment of $10,000 is a requisite
for a poultry establishment from which a modest
living can be obtained. While the investment
in housing, land, residence and stock may not
exceed $7,500, there will need to be sufficient
capital for paying the living expenses of the
family until the flock begins laying and to enable
the operator to purchase feed and other necessary
adjuncts to his establishment before an income
is obtained.

For a flock of smaller size than the so-called
maximum one-man type above described, the
costs per bird for the various items will apply in
most cases. It is, in fact, advisable to begin with a
smaller flock if the owner is inexperienced.

Do's

Poultry keeping must be efficiently carried on to yield

returns to the country home owner.
Select well-drained soil that is free of infection.
For egg production, use the Leghorn; for both meat and

egg purposes, the American breeds are best.
Standardize on one breed if possible.
Buy the best chicks or mature stock available.
Use a brooder house for the young birds.
The laying house must be well ventilated, fully lighted

and easily cleaned.

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POULTRY AS A SOURCE OF INCOME

Use latest mechanical feeding and watering devices to

save labor.
Employ artificial lighting to lengthen the hen's working

day.
Work toward the "one-man plant" — a total of 1,500

laying hens — for most efficient results.

Don9 is

Don't try to raise poultry in buildings that may still

carry infection.
Don't economize by buying cheap chicks or breeding

stock.
Don't overlook importance of health factors and

productive qualities in determining value of stock

purchased.
Don't try to operate a poultry plant with ill-adapted

buildings and equipment.

137

Chapter X

SUCCESSFUL MANAGEMENT OF
POULTRY

THE SUCCESSFUL poultryman will have set
up his establishment with due attention to
adequate housing, good stock, facilities for
maintaining sanitation and for creating generally
favorable conditions for egg production. His
next problem will be that of adopting successful
methods of management so that he may obtain
a satisfactory net income from the investment.

Feeds and Feeding. — There are two groups
of materials that are essential in food rations
for all ages of poultry. The organic feeds include
grains and grain by-products, hays, grasses
and vegetables. The inorganic feeds include salt
to increase palatability and digestibility of
the ration; lime, to aid in building bone and
body tissue as well as to furnish the shell mate-
rial; bone ash, especially for growing chicks, and
water in liberal amounts supplied by a fountain
as well as from succulent green foods. The fact
that a dozen eggs contain approximately one
pint of water demonstrates the necessity of

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MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

having drinking water before the flock at all
times.

The feeding of baby chicks, young stock and
laying hens has been scientifically worked out by
research and practical experience over a period
of many years. The poultryman, especially
if he is a novice, will do well if he carefully
observes the recommendations of competent
authorities. The ration for each of the three
ages will consist of a grain feed and a dry mash
composed of grain by-products reinforced with
materials that supply the birds' daily nutrition
requirements.

The following rations and recommendations
for management have been prepared by the New
Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, New
Brunswick, New Jersey:

CHICK RATION
Baby Chick Grain

200 pounds finely cracked yellow corn
IOO pounds cracked wheat

Fed morning and evening, beginning when chicks are
36 hours old.

Baby Chick Mash
20 pounds ground yellow corn
20 pounds wheat bran
20 pounds flour middlings
20 pounds pinhead oats
10 pounds meat scrap (50 per cent protein)
5 pounds dried buttermilk or skim-milk
2 pounds oyster shell meal or limestone flour or bone meal
2 pounds cod liver oil (mixed with the pinhead oats)
I pound table salt

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

This mash is fed to the chicks as soon as they are
placed under the brooder stove. It may be placed in
hoppers. Let the chicks have all they want to eat; some
of the mash should be before them at all times.

Teach the chicks where to find the warmth by enclosing
them for a few days with a J^-inch mesh wire one foot
high and set from 10 to 12 inches from the edge of the
hover.

Put some clean grit on bits of cardboard in several
places around the hover when the chicks are first brought
from the incubator.

A little sour skim-milk or semi-solid buttermilk,
diluted I to 7 in founts should be available from the
beginning.

After the chicks are 60 hours old or when you are
sure they are hungry, begin to feed, using cardboard
in the same manner as before. Follow the feeding chart.

Feed little and often. Keep the chicks slightly hungry.

Watch for dead chicks and remove them as soon as
they are noticed.

Attend to heaters early and late; be sure at all times
that they are in good working order.

Clean out litter, particularly beneath the hover as
often as it becomes soiled.

Induce exercise and keep the youngsters occupied.

Get them out-of-doors as early as possible, even if only
for a few minutes in the warmer part of the day.

Feed green feed. Feed early and late. Keep the chicks
growing.

Growing Stock Ration. — The baby chick mash
can be used for feeding the growing birds,
omitting the cod liver oil if they are on range.
The baby chick grain ration can be used also

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MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

during this period but it need not be so finely
cracked. Plenty of grain should be available at
all times.

Laying Ration. — When the birds are getting
ready to lay, the ration should be changed so
that during the winter laying season the mash
will include equal amounts of yellow corn meal,
wheat bran, wheat middlings, ground heavy
oats and meat scrap. Twenty-five per cent of
dried buttermilk or skim-milk may be substituted
for an equal amount of meat scrap.

The grain ration should consist of equal
amounts of cracked or whole yellow corn and
wheat. This should be fed in the late afternoon,
giving sufficient to satisfy the appetites of
the birds between the time of going to roost
and a light morning meal. It should be fully
consumed by eight o'clock in the morning.
Adequate consumption of mash is a prime
requisite in egg production. The feeding of
semi-solid buttermilk at the rate of 3 to 5 pounds
to 100 hens daily is recommended. Ten pounds
of mangel beets per 100 hens or I square inch
of well-sprouted oats per bird will supply needed
green food during the winter.

In many cases it will be found more satis-
factory to purchase ready mixed rations from a
local dealer who handles reliable and scientifically
compounded feeds for poultry. This is particu-

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

larly applicable where the number of birds is
of ordinary proportions. Little, if any, economy
will be found in purchasing small quantities of
each ingredient and attempting to thoroughly
mix them at home. If the flock is very large
there may be worth-while economy in home-
mixing of the ration. The efficient poultryman
will compare the cost of branded feeds with ingre-
dient costs to guard against being overcharged.

In addition to the standard rations the growing
stock and laying birds should have access at all
times to grit, shell and charcoal, kept in suitable
containers. These may be obtained of the local
dealer.

Sanitation. — When growing stock and laying
hens are kept under modern intensive conditions
the observance of the rules of sanitation is
essential. Failure to observe them is likely to
result in loss of production, serious sickness of
the flock and the nullifying of all other con-
structive factors.

Dropping boards beneath the roosts must be
cleaned frequently and regularly to prevent
accumulation of filth. If the dropping boards are
constructed of matched lumber with the boards
running in the direction in which they are to
be scraped it will facilitate the cleaning process.

Before the birds are placed in winter quarters
the laying house should be thoroughly cleaned

142

MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

of all litter and debris. The interior may then
be thoroughly sprayed with a disinfectant
composed of some good coal tar preparation,
and this repeated in the spring. The surface
will need to be painted with a good disinfectant,
of which there are a number of commercial
preparations on the market. A close watch should
be made for vermin in the house and on the
birds, and if lice or similar parasites are dis-
covered, immediate action should be taken to
destroy both the adults and the eggs, since these
parasites will debilitate the flock and prevent
their development and may seriously check their
ability to lay.

Management of Artificial Lights. — The electric
lights mentioned in the previous chapter should
be turned on about four-thirty in the morning
and kept on until daylight or used for an hour
in the late evening. When lights are used there
should be plenty of food and water available
to enable the birds to take advantage of the
additional feeding period. The scratch grain
should be increased by 2 pounds daily for each
hundred birds when lights are used. Many
poultrymen find it advantageous to have a low
wattage light burning all night so that hungry
individuals may get a meal and return to the
perches at all times. Three to five kilowatt
hours per month for each hundred birds repre-

H3

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

sents the average current consumption where
lights are used.

Practical Suggestions for Efficient Management.
A number of successful poultrymen were recently
asked to state the requisites for success in
the poultry industry, with particular reference
to what is known as the one-man poultry flock.
Such a flock is of adequate size to take practically
the full time of one person in its operation. As
the result of the development of standardized
feeding practices, improved equipment and
better methods of management, the maxi-
mum number of birds that can be successfully
managed by one person has greatly increased
in recent years. Likewise, the problems of
proper feeding, adequate disease control and
successful selling have increased as the size
of the unit has grown and as greater intensive-
ness is practiced.

All of the successful men questioned advised
that the keeping of poultry should be begun in a
small way in order that experience can be gained
without the risk of losing the initial investment,
or that the intending operator should gain
practical knowledge of the business by working
on a poultry farm for a year. Valuable knowledge
can also be gained by attending short courses
in poultry husbandry that are being offered at

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MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

most agricultural colleges with a very moderate
expenditure of funds.

One of these successful men writes as follows :
"We are working with a man now who was let
out of a position recently but who has some
savings and who desires to go into the poultry
business. He has purchased six acres of ground,
has built a bungalow on it and has the founda-
tions in for three laying houses of 500 birds'
capacity each. He will have ample range for
a two-yards system for each laying house, and,
in addition, will have two ranges to alternate
yearly for growing his young stock. His program
calls for putting out about 2,400 chicks yearly
from which he should have at least 1,000 pullets,
which he will house in two of the laying houses.
The following year he will carry over about
500 of these birds and can fill up with 1,000
pullets. This is to be a one-man plant with
possibly some assistance in the spring.

"I feel that 1,500 birds is the minimum re-
quired from which one man can make a living,
and five acres devoted to poultry, properly laid
out, is sufficient area for this purpose. If more
land is available, so much the better. These are
minimum requirements, as I see it, and with
regular feed deliveries directly to the poultry
house, running water and other labor-saving de-

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

vices, there is no reason why one man cannot
successfully take care of this number of birds,
particularly where a man is starting on new
ground where there have never been any chickens
and therefore less chance of disease. We advise
buying baby chicks rather than partly grown
or mature stock. If he follows a definite economic
and sanitary program right from the start, there
is no reason why his plant should not carry
on profitably, indefinitely."

This practical man says further: "It is our
experience that the majority of the people going
into the poultry business go in c blind.' Their
chicken houses are put up irrespective of range
facilities and then after two or three years when
they begin to run into trouble they find their
mistakes. I would suggest that you point out
to prospective poultrymen the advisability of
first, buying land and developing their own
poultry plant rather than trying to make over
someone else's plant; second, buying in a location
where buying and selling facilities have been
developed; third, getting in touch with a
reliable local poultryman for guidance in laying
out his plant and following only one advisor.
By hooking up with only one poultryman he is
presented with one way of doing things which
this poultryman has found successful in his own
business."

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MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

Another successful man states that the most
economical time to start the business is in the
spring when day-old chicks can be secured and
purchased at a lower cost than is possible in
the buying of laying stock at other seasons of
the year. He further advises that the greatest
mistake made by many starting in the poultry
business is the lack of adequate capital. Too
many invest all of their money before any
income can be secured, according to this man.
Should there be a set-back during the first
year or two, there is no way of continuing and
the whole investment may be lost.

Still another practical man states that "Site
is, in my opinion, the most important factor to
be considered after the decision is made that a
person wishes to go into the poultry business.
Successful poultry keeping probably requires
more careful selection of a farm than any
other agricultural industry. There should be
light soil with good air and water drainage and
an area of sufficient size to permit shifting the
poultry on different areas as a means of pre-
venting disease infection and as a means of
securing vigor in the birds." He, too, points
out that old poultry farms should not be con-
sidered by prospective poultrymen unless they
have been approved by an expert in these lines,
for the reason that these farms are frequently

H7

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

offered for sale because of persistent disease
infection which it is very difficult to eliminate,
or because of some fundamental difficulty, such
as poor soil drainage.

"In the construction of buildings," continues
this experienced poultryman, "sufficient hous-
ing should be provided to prevent overcrowding
and the difficulties that come in the train of
that condition. About three square feet of
floor space per bird is required for the lighter
breeds such as Leghorns, and four to five
square feet per bird for the heavier breeds.
For the one-man plant, the recommendation
is for a maximum of about 1,500 birds. This
would require from 4,5°° to 5,250 square feet
of floor space suitably arranged for the lighter
breeds of the Leghorn type. For the young
stock to be used as replacements, seven to ten
brooder houses, 10 by 12 feet in size, would be
required and about the same number of range
shelters, usually 6 by 8 feet, for the purpose of
sheltering growing young stock from hot sun
and heavy rains when they are out on range."

Probable Net Income. — Many persons who
have started in the poultry business have been
misled as to the amount of net income they will
be likely to receive from a one-man plant. It
is pretty well established that in normal times
a net income of from $1,500 to $2,500 annually

148

MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

can be secured from a plant housing 1,500 birds.
A great deal depends, of course, upon the skill
of the operator, and a plant of this size requires
the full time of one competent person. It should
be borne in mind that this net income is in
addition to the residence and such food as would
be taken in the form of poultry products and
from the garden.

Sales Management. — Every prospective poul-
try keeper should determine the marketing
possibilities for the product in the area under
consideration before he makes a choice of
location. There are at least four methods of
marketing eggs and poultry meat, any one
of which can be used exclusively or two or more
used in combination as a means of disposing
of the product to the best advantage. The system
that he will adopt will depend largely upon his
location, as well as upon his individual pref-
erence, and upon the facilities that are available
in the area where he operates.

In many sections of the country there are
cooperative egg marketing associations where
the eggs are received in bulk from the producers,
are graded and marketed in large quantities,
the producer receiving the full selling value
less, of course, the costs of operating the dis-
tributing agency. In the northeastern states,
egg auctions have been very successfully devel-

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

oped. Under this system the individual producer
brings his eggs to the auction market where they
are graded and sold on the basis of weight, size
and other factors pertaining to quality. In this
method of selling the producer receives a definite
price for his eggs less a small charge per case
made by the selling agency.

A successful type of direct marketing is
through roadside stands. This is especially
successful in or near large centers of population
where eggs can be purchased, together with
other farm commodities, at the same stand.
Another method is the operation of a retail
route in which the producer sells the eggs by
the door-to-door method in a near-by city. This
method is followed successfully by many poultry-
men who deliver eggs as regularly as the milk
distributor or the baker deliver their products.

Still another method is the use of mail or
express as a means of transporting the eggs to
consumers in urban centers. This method, while
largely in use some years ago, has not proved
so generally successful as have some of the
other methods previously given.

A well-organized program of work is essential
in successful poultry keeping. The following
schedule is followed by many successful poultry-
men as a means of distributing their time to
the best advantage during the day.

150

MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

A POULTRYMAN'S DAILY TIME TABLE

Based on a One-man i,5oobird Farm Producing Market Eggs
7:00- 8:00 A.M. — Feed and water all stock.
8:00- 9:00 A.M. — Fill mash hoppers and clean dropping boards.
9:00-11:00 A.M. — Two hours for cleaning houses, cultivating yards,
repairing of buildings, preparation of egg cases,
packing eggs and miscellaneous jobs.
11:00-12:00 M. — Feed green feed and collect eggs.
12:00- 1:00 P.M. — Lunch hour.
1:00- 2:00 P.M. — Water all stock.

2:00- 4:00 P.M. — Same work as from 9:00 to 11:00 A.M.
4:00- 5:00 P.M. — Feed and collect eggs.

Ducks, Geese, Turkeys and Other Fowl. —
While the raising and keeping of chickens
occupy the largest and most important part of
the general operation of poultry keeping, there
is a growing interest in the production of other
types of fowl, including ducks, geese, turkeys,
and in some instances, guinea fowl and pheasants.
Each of these really constitutes a separate and
distinct poultry industry, requiring specific feed-
ing, breeding and management practices. Some
of the fundamental factors in the care of these
types of poultry are given for the beginner. In
the case of these fowl, as in chickens, it is essen-
tial to start in a small way and develop as experi-
ence dictates.

Ducks. — From a rather obscure and unknown
source of poultry meat, the duck and the duck-
ling have become common to restaurants and
the home table. This has been accomplished
through the operations of large commercial duck

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

farms which sell hundreds of thousands of birds
annually. The selection of breed types, proper
feeding and management and skillful marketing
have made it possible to attract a wide public
interest and an appetite for these fowls on a
permanent basis.

The best known varieties of ducks are the
Indian Runner, a small type and primarily an
egg producer; the Muscovy and the Pekin, both
of which are used for meat purposes, the former
being best adapted to general farm use and the
latter to intensive breeding on large establish-
ments devoted solely to the purpose of duck
raising. The old simile, "Like a duck takes
to water," implies the fondness of ducks for the
aquatic element. However, ducks will do well
without swimming facilities.

Incubation of duck eggs can be carried on in
the same manner as chicken eggs, except that
more moisture is essential to good hatches. The
period of incubation is 28 days for all types,
except for the Muscovy, for which it is 33 to 35
days. The growing birds, like mature ducks, are
hardy and ordinarily show a much lower mor-
tality percentage than chickens. If only a few
ducks are kept, they will follow the habits of a
flock of chickens and need be given no special
attention. When they are raised without other
poultry an open shed is all that is necessary for

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MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

winter quarters and some shade arrangement for
protection against hot summer sun.

The feed rations that have been given for
baby chicks and growing stock can be used for
ducks, or any standard commercial feed for the
respective ages. It is recommended that the chick
and growing mashes be mixed with fine, chopped
greens such as cabbage or lawn clippings, and
sufficient water added to the mixture to make it
moist. One pound of sand or grit may be added
to furnish the duck with grinding material.
Fresh water in shallow dishes should be available
during the feeding periods which ought to be
three times a day. For the mature birds, the
laying mash, previously given, and moistened,
will be found satisfactory with fresh greens
added, unless grass is available on range.
Hoppers containing sand or grit should be avail-
able if a number of ducks are kept.

Geese. — Geese can be raised successfully
wherever other types of poultry will grow. That
they are not so popular as ducks is shown by the
fact that only about one-third as many geese as
ducks are raised in this country. The most
popular breeds, in order of popularity, are
Toulouse, Embden, African and Chinese. The
Toulouse is the largest and most favored, the
mature gander weighing 26 pounds and the adult
goose about 20 pounds.

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Geese are usually kept in small numbers in
areas where there is an abundance of grass and a
supply of water for swimming. They, like ducks,
are hardy and are rarely affected with diseases
or parasites. A plentiful supply of grass is suffi-
cient feed for the growing goslings. The demand
and prices for geese are lower than for most
other types of poultry. For housing, only a shed
in winter and a sun-shade in summer are re-
quired.

The period of incubation varies from 30 to
35 days, depending upon the size of the breed.
The young goslings are easily killed by excessive
moisture or may become lost and therefore they
require considerable attention during the early
stages. A good food for the goslings is stale
bread soaked in milk or water, fed after they are
48 hours old. Scalded cracked corn may also be
given or a mash made of four parts corn meal and
one part grain middlings. Plenty of drinking
water is essential. Whole grain may be fed after
the goslings are well feathered. When the geese
near the marketing period they should be kept
in confinement and fed a moist mash made of
one part grain shorts and two parts corn meal.
A bedding of short straw will keep the fattening
pens clean and provide roughage. Best prices
are obtainable during the late fall and early
winter months.

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MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

Turkeys. — Because the turkey is such a popu-
lar form of meat during the holidays and so
much attention is directed to it as an indigenous
native bird, it rivals the American eagle as a
national emblem. Turkey raising on a commer-
cial scale has had its ups and downs for a great
many years. One of the principal scourges has
been the so-called black-head disease and this
has destroyed the industry in many areas. It is
now known that this disease is carried by a small
parasitic worm common to chickens, which, how-
ever, it apparently does not seriously injure.
The black-head germ, carried by this worm,
clogs the blood in the head of the turkey and
causes quick death. For this reason, it has
been found impracticable to raise turkeys where
chickens are present, unless they are kept
entirely separate by confinement.

The principal varieties of domesticated tur-
keys are the Bronze, White Holland, Bourbon
Red, Black, Narragansett and Slate. All are
large, handsome birds, each breed having a
following of admirers. The Bronze is the largest
and heaviest and most popular, the mature
adult male weighing 36 pounds and the mature
hen 20 pounds. Under ordinary conditions
turkeys do not require much in the way of
housing, except in cold weather when covered
roosting sheds should be available. The period

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

of incubation is 28 days and they may be hatched
under the same conditions as chickens. The
day-old young birds, or poults as they are called,
can be shipped in the same manner as day-old
chicks.

For feeding the poults, the United States
Department of Agriculture recommends fine-
chopped hard-boiled eggs, including the shell,
mixed with green feed for the first ten days.
This may be followed by feeding the chick ration
previously mentioned. Milk, especially butter-
milk, is excellent for the poults, and grit must
be provided if it is not available on range.
Cod liver oil will be found helpful if added to the
ration. Turkeys are great rangers and travelers
if they have the opportunity and will pick up
enough insects to keep them going through the
day. A grain ration should be fed just before they
go to roost. Where they are raised in confine-
ment, or semi-confinement, more food must be
given and under these conditions the strictest
sanitation must be practiced.

Both old and young turkeys should be pro-
tected from dampness, and the growing birds,
especially, kept free from lice. The turkey grower
who practices the best systems of management
and feeding will be successful and will find a
ready market for his product at Thanksgiving
and during the Christmas holidays. A few birds

156

MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY

may be successfully kept in confinement and
used as a home-raised source of high quality
meat during a considerable portion of the year.

Guinea Fowl. — The guinea is known for its
watch-dog proclivities, making a characteristic
raucous noise when strangers appear; for the
rich quality of the eggs which are produced in
good quantity; and for the delectability of the
breast meat when properly prepared. The young
guinea may be fed as has been recommended for
young chicks. The older birds are excellent
foragers and require little attention. The country
home owner, if he does not object to their noise,
will find a few of these unusual birds an interest-
ing and valuable asset.

Pheasants. — Many persons with a flair for
the new and unusual are successfully raising
pheasants, the Ring Neck variety being the
most popular. While they are not so hardy as
chickens and must be given some added care for
that reason, they may be fed in the same manner
and kept successfully in confinement. Pheasants
may be used as an additional source of income
since they are nearly always in demand for meat.
The eggs may be hatched in incubators or by
hens and the young pheasants brooded like
chicks. The period of incubation is 21 days.
Shelter is not necessary except in extremely cold
weather and not then if trees or shrubs are

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

available. Detailed information on game bird pro-
duction can be obtained from More Game Birds in
America, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York City.

Bo's

Net income depends upon efficient management and
each phase of the latter must be mastered.

Feed a well-balanced chick ration to the very young
and growing stock.

Be sure the ration fed to laying stock is adapted to
their needs in egg production.

Sanitation measures are fundamental in good manage-
ment and their neglect may be fatal.

Follow the management recommendations of practical
and successful poultrymen.

Use the marketing system best adapted to the locality
and the personal factor of sales ability.

Determine possibilities of selling ducks, geese, turkeys
and other fowl as a means of supplementing income
from chickens.

Remember each type of poultry requires specific
management.

Don'ts

Don't neglect scientific feeding of the poultry flock.

Don't go into poultry production on a large scale with-
out experience.

Don't neglect local markets as outlets for the sale of
eggs and poultry and don't make shipment of eggs
and stock to commission houses of unknown rating.

Don't over-extend in poultry investment to the point
where temporary reversal would be disastrous.

Chapter XI

THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY

EfiNG in the country should make possible an
adequate and safe milk supply for the family.
The transportation of milk from the farm and its
distribution in the city constitute a costly process
under present methods, and this limits consump-
tion. Furthermore, the ordering in advance of a
definite quantity each day means as a rule that
only the milk delivered will be consumed. A
maximum amount of milk is thereby set, based
upon factors that may be alien to real needs of
the family for this food beverage. Using milk and
dairy products freely from a near-by supply will
contribute much to the health of the entire
family and especially of the children. The term
"family" is used in this case to denote two or
three adults and the same number of children.

Nutritional experts declare that milk is the
most important of the "protective" foods.
Scientists agree that milk protects by providing
in the best form those necessities which are often
lacking in other foods. Milk supplies calcium so
necessary for sound bones and teeth, phosphorus,

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

easily digested protein, butter fat and milk
sugar. Most important of all are the vitamins
found in milk. Milk acquires these properties
from the cow, a living factory manufacturing
milk from raw products, which are the foods the
cow eats — the pasture grasses and the cured hay,
supplemented with carefully blended grain
rations. Nutrition authorities recommend at
least a quart of milk daily for every child and
ample amounts for adults as well.

Sources of Milk Supply. — The country resident
will have little difficulty in securing an adequate
supply of wholesome milk at low cost. He may
obtain it from a neighbor who is in the dairy
business or he may maintain a cow or two where
the area is large enough to provide some pastur-
age and where a building for stabling is available.

If the milk is bought from some near-by
farm it is important that the purchaser assure
himself of the health of the cows producing
the milk and of the sanitary conditions surround-
ing production and handling. Quality in milk is
much more than cream content. Cleanliness in
production and handling is far more important,
and this the country resident can personally
determine by occasional visits to the source of
supply, an advantage difficult for the urban
resident to attain. Quality in milk is not neces-
sarily measured by the investment in the milking

1 60

THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY

barn or the showy external features of the
producing and handling plant.

The essential factors in the production of
clean, wholesome milk are healthy, clean cows;
healthy milkers; clean, sterile utensils; and sani-
tary stables and premises. These conditions
can be attained by any careful dairyman and
can be checked by any layman interested in
securing a dependable supply of safe milk.
The purchaser should insist that the cows be
tested regularly under government supervision
for tuberculosis and the reactors to the test
removed from the herd. This is important in all
circumstances and particularly so where the
milk is consumed in the unprocessed state by
children.

Producing Milk at Home. — It is entirely
feasible for the rural family to produce at home
an ample supply of milk at low cost. To do this
it is only necessary to have stabling facilities
for one or two cows and to have a member of
the family sufficiently interested to feed, care
for and milk the cow or cows. If this plan is to
be followed the owner, if he is inexperienced,
should enlist the aid of a neighbor or friend
in making the purchase. The animal should be
fresh, that is, just starting the period of lactation,
and preferably not more than four or five years
of age. A cow that is fresh can be judged as to

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

ability to produce good milk from all four
quarters of the udder in adequate amount.

Selecting the Family Cow. — The breed to
be selected is not important, except that for
family use a cow of the so-called Channel breeds
(Guernsey or Jersey) is considered better adapted
because of the higher butter fat content of the
milk as compared with the Holstein-Friesian,
for example, which usually produces a larger
total quantity of milk with less butter fat.
It is not necessary to purchase a pure-bred
animal of any of the breeds, so far as milk
production is concerned. On the other hand,
a pure-bred registered cow may often be pur-
chased at moderate cost. The owner will un-
doubtedly take greater pride in such an animal
and her offspring will have higher selling
value.

In making a purchase the new owner should
insist upon having a tuberculin test chart de-
livered with the animal, and certification as
to freedom from contagious abortion (B. abortus)
should also be obtained if possible. If production
records have been kept during the animal's
previous lactation periods, these should be
secured, as they will definitely indicate milk-
producing ability over a considerable period
of time. For family use a cow that produces
milk steadily in uniform amounts over eight or

162

Desirable types of utensils for a small dairy. A. Crock for temporary
milk storage or for gravity separation of cream. B. Milking stool.
C. Twenty-quart milk can and cover. D. Strainer. E. Stirrer. F.
Circulating water cooler for freshly drawn milk (not essential for a
one- or two-cow dairy if other cooling practices are followed). G.
Sanitary covered-top milk pail. H. Measuring rod. 7. Small churn for
family butter making.

THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY

ten months is far more desirable than one which
produces a large volume following freshening
and then slumps off rapidly.

Importance of Pasture. — Pasturage plays so
important a part in economical milk production
and in contributing to the health of the animal
that it is unwise to consider keeping one's own
cow unless 3 or 4 acres of pasture land per
animal are available. When the cow is on pasture
from May until November no other roughage
is required, provided of course the grasses and
clovers are plentiful. Plenty of water is essential,
and if this is not made available by a stream in the
pasture, it will be necessary to furnish drinking
water three times daily.

Stabling and Feeding. — From early November
until May it will be necessary to provide stabling
facilities, roughage in the form of hay, ensilage
or beet pulp, and concentrated feed to keep the
animal producing. About 3 tons of good timothy-
and-clover hay or alfalfa will be needed per
animal during these six months. Storage room
will be needed in the building for the hay and
for the concentrated feed. A good practice is
to keep the cow in a box stall 12 by 14 feet in
size. Ample bedding should be provided, con-
sisting of straw, wood shavings, shredded corn
stalks, peat moss or dried leaves. These will
absorb the liquid manure and after such use

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

should be applied to the garden or other land
areas for fertilizing purposes.

The daily ration of the cow when stabled will
consist of from 15 to 25 pounds of hay daily
and I pound of concentrated feed for each
3M pounds of milk being produced. (A quart
of milk weighs about 2.2 pounds.) Milk flow
can be stimulated and the health of the cow
conserved by feeding moistened beet pulp,
where silage is not available. This may be
purchased locally at the feed store, where the
grain concentrate may also be obtained. The
latter can be bought in bags and a mixture
analyzing about 20 per cent protein is recom-
mended. When the cow is on pasture the grain
ration may be reduced by one-third or one-half,
depending upon the quality of the pasture
available.

Cost of Milk Production. — Where all of the
feed mentioned above is purchased, the cost
per quart of the milk will approximate 3 cents,
excluding labor and overhead costs of buildings,
etc. This cost can be reduced if pasture does not
have to be rented and if some of the other food
requirements are raised at home.

Management. — Feeding the cow twice daily
and milking at the same interval will give the
best results. Morning and evening are usually
the most convenient times for milking and the

164

THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY

same hourly routine should be observed daily.
Feeding the grain ration after milking is desir-
able. A good practice is to furnish hay and beet
pulp between milkings.

To insure cleanliness of the milk, the udder
and teats may be wiped with a damp cloth before
milking. Flanks and the udder should be clipped
of hair, thus facilitating a clean condition of
the animal at all times. Soiled bedding should
be removed and clean material substituted as
required.

The normal cow should produce an average
of 10 quarts of milk daily over a period of ten
months. In the remaining two months the cow
will not be producing milk but will be resting
and building up body reserves for the coming
period of lactation. The cow should be bred
about nine months before it is desired to have
her bear a calf. The time of year when such
freshening should occur is not important, al-
though either spring or fall months are con-
sidered best, to avoid weather and temperature
extremes at the critical calving period. Under
this plan it will be noted that the family will
not have milk from home sources for two months
during the year. The alternative is to have two
cows, one freshening in April and the other in
October, ensuring a continuous supply, or to
purchase milk during the "dry" period.

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Utilizing a Large Supply of Milk. — The urban
consumer of milk accustomed to I or 2 quarts
daily may wonder how an average of 10 quarts
or more per day can be utilized. Plenty of uses
will be found for the product. Milk will be used
more often as a beverage; cream will be found
delightful in many ways, in the form of butter
and home-made ice cream, for example; and
cheeses will provide an outlet for surplus whole or
skimmed milk. Milk of good quality can be
disposed of readily to neighbors. If two families
own one cow each, a plan may be worked out
for furnishing each other with milk when one
cow or the other is not producing. Wherever
facilities are available and there is a willingness
to care for a family cow or two, the availability
of large amounts of milk will compensate for
the trouble and bring health and vigor to the
rural family.

The Goat as a Source of Milk Supply. — The
milk goat is especially useful to those who desire
a smaller quantity of milk than that produced
by a cow and where the space is inadequate for
keeping a larger milk-producing animal. In
composition, goat's milk closely resembles that
of the cow, the butter fat ranging from 3.2 per
cent to 4.4 per cent with total solids of nearly
12 per cent. The average production of a good
milk goat is about 2 quarts of milk daily, suffi-

166

THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY

cient for many a family. The milk is pure white
in color and the cream rises very slowly. If
goat's milk is properly produced and handled,
the bad odor, associated with the animal in
the public mind, should not be present. Keeping
dirt or hair out of the milk when it is being
drawn, and clean quarters, are essential in
eliminating odor in the milk. It has been proved
that goat's milk is especially valuable for children
and invalids and exceeds cow's milk in ease of
digestibility.

Goats are in their prime at about five years
of age, but will continue to produce milk for
several years after that. They should be bred
twice a year. The usual number of kids is two,
although occasionally four are born at one time.
The period between breeding and giving birth
is about five months. Goats may be successfully
fed with the same rations as the dairy cow.
Although they consume only about one-seventh
as much feed as the cow, the common impression
that the goat can produce milk on practically
no feed is erroneous. A ration for winter feeding,
suggested by the United States Department of
Agriculture, consists of 2 pounds of alfalfa or
clover hay, iJ-£ pounds of silage or roots and
from I to 2 pounds of a concentrated grain ration,
composed of 100 pounds of corn, 100 pounds
of oats, 50 pounds of bran and 25 pounds of

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

linseed meal. In the summer when pasture is
available they should be fed I to iM pounds of
the grain mixture. Data from experiment stations
indicate that the annual feed cost of a milk
goat is about $11 and the feed cost per quart
of milk produced, about iK cents.

Good milk goats bring good prices and in
most instances will cost almost as much as a
cow. They are much more prolific, however,
permitting more rapid additions and offering
greater revenue from the sales of young animals,
wherever there is a market for them. The two
principal breeds are the Toggenburg and the
Saanen, both originating in Switzerland, and
the Spanish Maltese whose original home was
in the island of Malta. Goats are thoroughly
domesticated, are contented with a small grazing
area and may be easily handled. They are subject
to stomach worms, indicated by loss of flesh and
weakness, and to Malta fever, which can be
transmitted to man, in whom it is evidenced by
recurring high temperatures. The former can
be controlled by using, as a drench, a copper
sulfate solution of I ounce to 3 quarts of water.
Where the latter trouble is present the milk
should be pasteurized or scalded before it is
consumed. As an economical source of easily
digested milk, the goat is recommended, espe-
cially to those families with rather small acreage.

168

THE FAMILY MILK SUPPLY

They can make the most of poorer pasturage,
are clean in habits and docile.

Do's

Use milk freely for its food value to every member of

the family.

Make sure of the quality of the milk purchased.
Acquiring a family cow is the best and cheapest source

of an adequate milk supply.
Management of the right kind will make the family

cow an invaluable asset.
Learn to use surplus milk in nutritious and palatable

ways.
Determine the possibilities of securing from the goat

an adequate milk supply for a small family.

Don'ts

Don't use canned milk except as supplement to liberal,

fresh supply.
Don't overlook the need of pasturage for economical

milk production.
Don't supply family with milk of doubtful sanitary

quality.
Don't neglect to have a veterinarian make health tests

of the cow or goat.

169

Chapter XII

MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS

THE DISTRIBUTION of farm products on an
efficient basis is one of the most difficult
problems in agriculture. Because of the demand
of the consumer for small quantities of products
at each purchase, the breaking up of wholesale
packages, involving additional labor and con-
tainers and the elimination of unfit specimens,
increases handling costs and delays the arrival
of the product from the farm to the consumer.
In recent years the producer has sought various
means of eliminating some of these costs of
distribution so that he could get a larger share
of the consumer's dollar, and the consumer has
welcomed the opportunity of buying products
direct from the producer.

Unquestionably, one of the best means of
selling farm commodities is through the medium
of roadside markets that have now become so
common along the principal highways of the
country. These range in type from the display
of a few baskets of farm commodities on the
ground or on a table, with sales of $100 a year

170

MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS

or less, to those of a more pretentious nature
in which buildings and equipment are erected
suitable to the purpose. That there are great
possibilities of developing a successful business
in selling products in this manner is evidenced
by some of the more elaborate markets, transact-
ing an annual business of $30,000 or more. In
most cases these have been developed from small
beginnings and the facilities have increased as
the good reputation of the market has spread.

Advantages of Roadside Marketing. — From the
standpoint of the producer or the operator of
the roadside stand, there are certain advantages
that have contributed to the growth of the move-
ment. For example, there is no expense or time
involved in delivering the products to a distant
market, since the produce is sold by a member
of the household, or by the operator's employees
in the larger types of markets. It is possible
through such a market to build up a clientele
of buyers who will return for further purchases.
They will tell their friends about the good
quality, dependable produce which they have
been able to purchase at some particular stand.
Furthermore, a wide variety of products can
be sold in this way at one stand, which might
have to be segregated and shipped to different
markets if some other method of marketing
were being followed. This would add con-

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

siderably to the expense of selling, especially
where the volume of each commodity is small.
Furthermore, in such a method of selling, the
producer comes in direct contact with the con-
sumer. Ideas are exchanged, mutual confidence
is developed and both should share financially
in the advantages accruing from eliminating
ordinary means of distribution.

Problems in Roadside Marketing. — On the
other hand, there are certain disadvantages
of roadside selling which operate against success-
ful merchandising in such a manner. These
should be fully considered in deciding how the
surplus farm products are to be disposed of.
Due to the difficulty experienced by many
potential buyers in getting satisfactory produce,
they have become discouraged and will often
drive by all roadside markets rather than take
a chance on buying commodities that may be
misrepresented. Naturally, this works against
the development of adequate business and makes
it necessary for the individual to spend con-
siderable time and effort in selling himself and
his market to the public and in creating con-
fidence and good will.

There is necessarily some loss due to deprecia-
tion in the quality of perishable commodities.
In many cases it is necessary to expose these
commodities to the sun and weather, and if they

172

MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS

are not sold promptly they will not long maintain
the standard of quality which the operator must
have identified with his market. The operator
has no knowledge of the number of customers he
will have when he displays his products, nor
does he know the whims of the individuals who
may patronize his market that day. To avoid the
losses resulting from unsold products it is desira-
ble to have some other outlet which will absorb
unused quantities, even though the price is not
so good as would be secured from ordinary
sales at the market. Many of the commodities
can be delivered to some wholesale market to be
sold for what they will bring. Another outlet
that is available is through canning or preserving
the commodities and selling them later in the
season under the label carried by the roadside
stand.

It should be borne in mind that the business
of operating a roadside market has its own
peculiar problems and success in it depends upon
following good merchandising principles, to
which are added those finer points which
pertain to direct selling. The attitude of the
public must be studied and plans for promoting
sales must be adopted which will result in
attracting and holding customers. Beyond doubt,
the two most important factors in the operation
of a successful roadside market are attractive-

173

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

ness of the stand itself and the quality of the
products that are offered for sale.

Plans for a Roadside Market. — A roadside
market need not be expensive to be attractive.
The thought motivating the whole project
should be to create in the buyer's mind a farm
scene, laying emphasis upon such factors as are
easily associated in the public mind with farm-
ing. These include neatness of the establishment,
cleanliness and honesty in every phase of the
operation. One should not undertake to run a road-
side market in competition, so far as appearance
goes, with the corner grocery store in the city. It
should have an individuality of its own and be of
the country as well as in the country.

The location of the market has a great deal
to do with its attractiveness. It is well to locate
it a short distance from the house, so that it
stands out as a market, and it should be placed
back from the highway to permit motorists to
drive off the highway in making stops for
purchases. In some states, highway regulations
require that such stands be located far enough
from the highway to permit all four wheels of a
standing vehicle to be off the road surface. If the
stand can be located under some good shade
trees, that in itself constitutes an invitation to
the sun-blinded traveler to stop and partake
of the commodities offered for sale.

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MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS

So far as the design of the market itself
is concerned, there are endless opportunities for
one's genius to be brought into operation. It
should be borne in mind that, while there are
certain standard requirements in the way of
display shelves and facilities for keeping reserve
stocks immediately available, as well as a safe
container for funds, originality in design attracts
attention. Here again, the design should not be
obtrusive, but one that blends with the atmos-
phere of the place where the stand is set up. It
must convey the impression that the owner of
the property is himself the operator of the stand
and has transferred to the stand the same interest
which is manifested in his home and its imme-
diate surroundings.

Most purchasers at roadside stands want to
see the whole display without having to stumble
over baskets and other articles to find out what is
offered, and they expect prompt attention. As a
general rule, the more nearly the stand can
supply the complete needs of the purchaser in
that field, the more likely are buyers to stop and
become regular patrons. In addition to the
display of seasonable fruits and vegetables, it is
desirable to have eggs and dairy products,
including butter, cottage cheese, canned fruits
or jellies that have the home-made farm atmos-
phere about them.

I7S

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

In most cases, ice is available or electric
refrigeration can be utilized for keeping cold
milk, buttermilk, cider and other products avail-
able for immediate consumption for the hot and
thirsty traveler in the summertime. Hot coffee
or hot chocolate can be made available for
service in colder weather. Very often the road-
stand operator destroys the genuine sales appeal
that such stands have by specializing in manu-
factured concoctions that have no relation what-
ever to the location where they are sold. Too
often the stands are covered with advertisements
of such commodities, and this immediately
creates sales resistance so far as the promotion
of fresh farm products is concerned.

Origin of Products Offered. — The ordinary
purchaser at a roadside market likes to think
that he is buying products raised or processed
on the place where they are sold, and believes
that he is thereby securing fresher and better
commodities in which the seller has had an
interest from planting time to harvest. Certainly
some of the commodities sold should come
directly from the tract where the market is
located, and visual evidence should be given of
that fact. On the other hand, there is no objection
to the addition of other commodities so long as
they are in accord with what a producer might
be expected to have for sale at that season of the

MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS

year. Many operators have found that the sale
of gasoline and lubricating oil and tobacco
in various forms can be offered for sale to good
advantage simply as a part of the service being
offered by the market to the public.

Quality the Keystone. — The fundamental basis
for success in the operation of any roadside
market lies in the quality of the products that
are offered for sale. This is a rather difficult
condition for the operator to maintain consist-
ently, but it is fundamental in securing customers
and in keeping them. Products that have become
stale, unattractive or unpalatable for any reason
should never be offered for sale and should be
discarded, made into some by-product or sold
through some channel which will not identify
the article with the stand itself. A satisfied
customer who develops confidence in the integ-
rity and good faith of the stand operator is a
decided asset, and no effort spent in cultivating
such confidence is wasted.

Every successful roadside stand operator has
built his business on honest dealing and a per-
sonal interest in seeing that the buyer is satisfied.
This contact between the owner of a small
business and a buyer is one that can be capital-
ized to a very great extent. It is one of the
handicaps which a chain-store organization has
to face and one that must be developed by the

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A LIVING FROM THE LAND

person who wishes to establish a permanent and
satisfactory business in this merchandising field.
Very often the sale of farm products can be
supplemented to the advantage of the stand by
offering small ornamental plants or by the
display of pet animals, particularly for the
younger members of the traveling public.

Success Factors. — A definite program of adver-
tising can be developed with many original
features that apply directly to the type of
business. If the operator has pride in his products
he will be glad to have his name on every
package of commodities that he sells. This is
good sales propaganda even if it only indicates
the confidence of the seller in his products and
his willingness to stand behind them. Besides
that, however, it creates a knowledge of his
name or the designation of his farm or stand
among purchasers who will then have a means of
identifying it to their friends. A small leaflet,
describing the products that are offered for sale
and the intention of the operator to give the
customer service, can be put in each package at
very small cost with good results. It is also
possible to prepare leaflets dealing with methods of
cooking or of preparation of the commodities sold
that will build good will on the part of customers.

The most successful operators, again, are
those who do not depend upon casual visitors

MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS

for their trade but who make of the casual
visitor a regular customer and one who will
speak a good word to others. In other words,
genuine effort must be made to identify the
location as a place to which buyers will wish to
return as they do to any other place of business
that gives satisfactory service. In this way the
operator distinguishes himself from his fly-by-
night competitors who exist during a week or
two when surpluses of commodities are available
at low prices and who have no thought beyond
that of the immediate sale.

Wherever possible, the attention of the pass-
ing consumer should be directed to the stand
before he reaches it so that he will be prepared
to stop when he comes upon it. Signs of this type
on either side of the stand, but some distance
each way from it, are more important than is
generally recognized. They constitute invitation
cards and should be so worded as to excite
curiosity and create a feeling in the intending
purchaser's mind that he will make no mistake
in stopping to fill his wants at the stand. It
goes without saying that both the advertising
and the stand itself must be so planned as to
attract the purchaser, and every effort should be
concentrated on the psychology of such an
appeal, avoiding any appearance of slouchiness,
which would be more repellent than attractive.

179

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

The purchaser forms a quick opinion of the
stand from the way in which it is conducted and
from the appearance of the one who is there to
make sales. An attitude of cordial cooperation
on the part of the attendant, who is, of course,
appropriately dressed and in the right mental
attitude, is a factor that must not be overlooked
in the effort to create a favorable impression.

Meal Service Amid Farm Surroundings. —
Many operators, located at strategic points near
main highways, have found that maximum
profits are obtained by serving meals prepared
from the vegetables supplemented by poultry
or other products of the little farm. These meals
may be served in a booth or building adjoining
the roadside stand or in a room of the house
turned into a seasonal dining room. Persons who
are city residents quickly learn to appreciate the
virtues of fresh vegetables and freshly killed
poultry that may be thus served. A schedule of
reasonable prices must be maintained if trade is
to be built up. Usually special dinners or lunches
can be prepared from available products in
season, thereby giving the customer more for
his money at the least cost and trouble to the
operator.

This small home restaurant business can
be handled frequently by members of the
operator's household and countless examples can

1 80

MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS

be given of real financial success following such
ventures. Expansion can take place as consumer
demand develops. Cleanliness, good home cook-
ing, generous portions and prompt and courteous
service will work wonders in such a project.

Tourist Guest Houses. — A large number of
country homes are now open to the public as
tourist guest houses, their owners finding that
they can obtain a modest but worth while
supplement to other forms of income from them.
These tourist guest houses are largely a develop-
ment of the past several years. Their popularity
with automobile travelers appears to be increas-
ing, and there is genuine opportunity for the
housewife on a small farm to operate one of these
establishments.

It should be kept in mind by the housewife
who thinks of opening her home to tourists that
the proposition has its drawbacks as well as its
advantages. Only a modest fee, often $1.00 for
a room and 30 or 35 cents for breakfast, is
obtained from each tourist guest. However, a
great number of American women have found
that the work and trouble occasioned by taking
in tourists are worth while and actually enjoy
their contacts with the traveling public.

The tourist guest house, obviously, should be
located on a road that is well traveled by tourists.
A simple and attractive "Tourists Accom-

181

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

modated" sign and a neat and pleasing front
yard are needed to interest passers-by in the
place. The porch should be neat and attractive
and the interior of the house should give the ap-
pearance of restfulness, simplicity and comfort.

Tourists usually inquire about prices and look
over a place before deciding to stop there; if there
are women in the party, one of them usually
makes the inquiry. The family should be cour-
teous in answering questions and showing the
prospective customers about. They should not
be indifferent, and yet must not seem to be too
anxious for business. When the travelers decide
to stay, the family should endeavor at once to
make them feel at home. The guests will fre-
quently ask questions about roads, local resorts
and near-by recreational facilities, and the family
will find it useful to be informed on these matters.

Dog Breeding as a Source of Income. — Many
persons who have located in the country, and
who have a liking for domestic animals, have
found dog breeding an interesting and fre-
quently profitable enterprise. By placing a wire
cage along the highway the attention of the
traveling public is attracted to the puppies.
Some of the more popular breeds of dogs include
the Airedale; the Boston, Fox and Irish Terriers;
the Chow Chow; the Collie, and the English and
Irish Setters.

182

MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS

The breeding of dogs is a highly specialized
activity, particularly where it is carried on under
intensive conditions and with little range. Dogs
are subject to external and internal parasites
requiring preventive and curative measures.
As in the case of all other animals, sanitation is
an essential factor to success and feeding methods
must be adjusted to the age and the breed.

The beginner in dog raising should consult
a recognized veterinarian who specializes in small
animal practice, and observe his recommenda-
tions. Such professional men are located in
most communities and their advice will be
found most helpful.

The prices obtainable for male and female
young animals vary with the locality. There is
usually an established scale of prices which may
easily be obtained and which it will pay to
observe. Dog shows are growing in popularity
and exhibitions at these expositions will serve to
advertise the breeder's stock. Advertising in
local papers is effective in bringing to the public
the availability of stock of distinctive breeds.
Fashions in dog breeds change with the times and
the public must be catered to along the lines of
current interest.

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Do'i

Use the roadside market or near-by outlets for dis-
posing of excess farm products.
Fully utilize the possibilities of roadside stands in

building a permanent business.
Road stands, as well as the products on display, must

have sales appeal.
Produce at home all farm products offered for sale, if

possible, and make the growing area the background

of the market.
Stress quality of products and the responsibility of the

operator.

Advertising of the right type will multiply sales.
Offer meal service with farm surroundings wherever

possible.
If considerable traffic passes the premises, try out

possibilities of accommodating tourists.

Don'ts

Don't try to dispose of miscellaneous surplus of farm
commodities by shipment to market if a roadside
market can be set up.

Don't ruin standing of roadside market by selling
inferior or stale products.

Don't try to run a city fruit stand with a farm back-
ground.

Don't destroy country home life by over-commerciali-
zation.

184

SUGGESTED REFERENCE LIST

TIMELY and valuable publications of the
United States Department of Agriculture,
state departments of agriculture and state
agricultural colleges and experiment stations
are available to country residents. Copies of them
may be obtained by writing to the agencies
mentioned. To supplement them and also to sup-
plement advice received from county agricul-
tural agents, a number of useful books are listed
below. Those interested in them may, in many
cases, obtain them from local libraries, or may
find it useful to own certain of them themselves.

Author
Agee, Alva
Arnold, Schuyler
Auchter, E. C, and

Knapp, H. B.
Ayres, Q. C., and

Scoates, D.
Bailey, L. H.

Bear, E.

Bottomley, M. E.

Title

"First Steps in Farming"
"Wayside Marketing"
"Orchard and Small

Fruit Culture"
"Land Drainage and Rec-
lamation"
"Manual of Gardening,"

Rev. ed.

"Soil Management"
"Theory and Practice in
the Use of Fertilizers"
"Design of Small Prop-
erties; a Book for the
Home-Owner in City
and Country."

185

Year

Publisher

1923
1929
1929

Harper
De La Mare

Wiley

1928

McGraw-Hill

I92S

Macmillan

1927
1929

Wiley
Wiley

1926 Macmillan

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Author Title Year Publisher

Bush-Brown, Mrs. "Flowers for Every Gar- 1927 Little

Louise (Carter) den"

Chenoweth, W. W. "Food Preservation; a 1930 Wiley
Textbook for Student,
Teacher, Homemaker
and Home Factory
Operator"
Chupp, C. "Manual of Vegetable 1925 Macmillan

Garden Diseases"
"Manual of Vegetable 1925 Macmillan

Garden Insects"

Cline, L. E. "Turkey Production" 1933 Orange Judd

Cox, J. F. "Crop Production and 1930 Wiley

Management"
Crosby, C. R., and "Manual of Vegetable 1918 Macmillan

Leonard, M. D. Garden Insects"

Davenport, Eugene "The Farm" I927 Macmillan

Foster, W. H., and "Farm Buildings" 1928 Wiley

Carter, D. G.

Fraser, Samuel "American Fruits; Their 1927 Judd

Propagation, Cultiva-
tion, Harvesting and
Distribution"

Fraser, W. J. "Dairy Farming" 1930 Wiley

Galpin, C. J. "Rural Social Problems" 1924 Century

Gustafson, A. F. "Handbook of Ferti- 1932 Orange Judd

lizers"
Hottes, A. C. "1001 Garden Questions 1930 De La Mare

Answered"
Hurd, L. M. "Practical Poultry Farm- 1931 Macmillan

ing"

Jull, M. A. "Poultry Husbandry" 1930 McGraw-Hill

Knott, J. E. "Vegetable Growing" 1930 Lea

Langstroth, L. L., "Honey Bee," Rev. by 1927 American Bee
andDadant, C. P. Dadant, Ed. 23 Journal

Charles

Larson, C. W., and "Dairy Cattle Feeding 1928 Wiley
Putney, F. S. and Management"

1 86

SUGGESTED REFERENCE LIST

Author Title Year

Lewis, H. R. "Productive Poultry 1928

Husbandry"

Lippincott, W. A. "Poultry Production" 1927
Millar, C. E. "Soils and Soil Manage- 1929

ment"
Murray, P. "Planning and Planting 1932

the Home Garden"
Pellett, F. C. "Productive Bee-Keep- 1923

ing"
Phillips, E. F. "Bee Keeping; a Discus- 1928

sion of the Honey Bee

and of the Production

of Honey," Rev. ed.
Powers, W. L., and "Land Drainage 1922

Teeter, T. A. H. for Farmers"
Rice, J. E. "Practical Poultry Man- 1930

agement"
Rice, J. E., and "Practical Poultry Man- 1925

Botsford, H. E. agement"

Root, A. L, and "A B C andX YZof Bee 1923

Root, E. R.
Rose, M. S.
Rowe, H. G.

Sanderson, E. D.

Sears, F. C.

Sharp, M. A.
Smith, R. H.
Thompson, H. C.

Culture"

"Feeding the Family" 1928

"Starting Right With 1922
Bees"

"Insects Pests of Farm, 1921
Garden and Orchard,"
Ed. 2, rev. and enl. by
L. M. Peairs

"Productive Orcharding; 1927
Modern Methods of
Growing and Market-
ing Fruit"

"Productive Small Fruit 1925
Culture"

"Principles of Farm Me- 1930
chanics"

"Agricultural Mechan- 1925
ics"

"Vegetable Crops" 1931

187

Publisher
Lippincott

Lea & Febiger
Webb Pub.

Co.
Orange Judd

Lippincott
Macmillan

Wiley
Wiley
Wiley
Root

Macmillan
A. I. Root Co.

Wiley
Lippincott

Lippincott
Wiley
Lippincott
McGraw-Hill

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Author Title Year Publisher

Thorne, C. E. "Maintenance of Soil 1930 Orange Judd

Fertility"

Watts, R. L. "Vegetable Gardening" 1921 Orange Judd

Worthen, E. L. " Farm Soils, Their Man- 1927 Wiley

agement and Fertili-
zation "

SOME FARM AND GARDEN MAGAZINES

General

American Agriculturist New York, N. Y.

Country Gentleman Philadelphia, Pa.

Farm Journal Philadelphia, Pa.

New England Homestead Springfield, Mass.

New Jersey Farm and Garden Sea Isle City, N. J.

Pennsylvania Farmer Pittsburgh, Pa.

Rural New Yorker New York, N. Y.

Beekeeping

American Bee Journal Hamilton, 111.

American Honey Producer Producers' League, Fargo, N. D.

Bee-Cause Watertown, Wis.

Gleanings in Bee Culture Medina, Ohio

Dairying

Ayrshire Digest Spencer, Mass.

Dairy Farmer Des Moines, Iowa

Guernsey Breeders' Journal Peterboro, N. H.

Hoard's Dairyman Fort Atkinson, Wis.

Holstein-Friesian World Laconia, N. Y.

Jersey Bulletin Indianapolis, Ind.

Flower Gardening

American Home Garden City, N. Y.

Better Homes and Gardens Des Moines, Iowa

Flower Grower Calcium, N. Y.

Gardener's Chronicle of America New York, N. Y.
Horticulture Boston, Mass.

188

SUGGESTED REFERENCE LIST

Fruit Growing

American Fruit Grower Chicago, 111.

Better Fruit Portland, Ore.

Livestock
Breeders' Gazette Chicago, 111.

Market Gardening

Market Growers' Journal Louisville, Ky.

Poultry

American Poultry Journal Chicago, 111.

Everybody's Poultry Magazine Hanover, Pa.

New England Poultryman Boston, Mass.

Poultry Garden and Home Dayton, Ohio

Poultry Item Sellersville, Pa,

Poultry Success Springfield, Ohio

Poultry Tribune Mt. Morris, 111.

189