TECHNICAL REPORT LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING ICE FORMATION IN NORTH STAR BUGT, GREENLAND RAYMOND J. McGOUGH Applied Oceanography Branch Division of Oceanography JANUARY 1956 U. S. NAVY HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AGB Sf RUA Environmental factors influencing the formation and growth of sea ice in the area of North Star Bugt and Wolstenholme Fjord indicate that the peculiar characteristics of the harbor are the free water exchange with the fjord at all levels, the relatively small importance of fresh-water runoff, and the smail annual change in surface water temperatures during the open season. Because of these characteristics, the harbor is well situated for the use of long-range ice prediction techniques based on the thermohaline structure. The formation and growth of sea ice in 1953 was studied in detail. Data indicated that the observed and computed ice thicknesses were nearly identical, both for the original ice and for the newer ice which formed after the first ice was broken up by wind action. It is shown that in order to determine the weather conditions over the ice, observations from a ship anchored in the harbor are more accurate than those at a land station because of the greater wind velocity and warmer air temperature over the ice. Accumulation of degree days of frost corresponded closely to the ice growth in two different , but the el nee of degree days satin varied MBL/WHOI AA FOREWORD Successful arctic operations require a considerable amount of preparation and plaming. To aid such planning, the Hydrographic Office has been engaged in the development of various techniques for the forecasting of growth, movement, and disintegration of sea ice, especially in the harbor areas since each arctic and subarctic harbor constitutes a special environmental problem. This report presents a study of the environmental factors that are peculiar to North Star Bugt and Wolstenholme Fjord, and evaluates their effect on the formation and growth of sea ice in the harbor area. The ice growth in the autwm of 1953 was studied in detail. The conclusions expressed in this report are tentative and may require revision as more data become available, Al additianal informa~ tion which might amplify or modify this report will be welcomed by the Hydrographic Office» Ly Ch EES Sy, ty fl bd Lett the H. H. MARABLE Captain, U.o, Navy Vydrographer 0 0301 0040863 4 DISTRIBUTION LIST CNO (Op-03, 03D3, 31, 316, 32, 33, 332, OL, 05, 533, 55) BUAER (2) BUSHIPS (2) BUDOCKS (2) ONR (Code 100, 102, 410, 416, 420, 430, 464, 466) NOL (2) COMOPDEVFOR (2) COMSTS (2) COMSTSLANT (2) CODTMB (2) AROWA SUPNAVACAD (2) NAVWARCOL (2) NAVPOSTGRADSCOL, Monterey (2) NATECHTRAU, Lakehurst (5) OIC USFLTWEACEN NAVY #127 °/oPM Seattle, Wash. OIC USFLTWEACEN NAVY #103 °/oPM New York, N.Y. COMDT COGARD (IIP) (2) USC&GS (2) CG USAF (AFOOP) CGAWS (2) CGNEAC (2) USAF CAMBRSCHLAB (2 ADTIC USWB (2) CIA (2) BEB (2) SIPRE (2) ASTIA (5) ARTRANSCORP CE (2) CANJBEMIS (5) INTLHYDROBU, Monace (2) ARCRSCHLAB, COL, Alaska ARCINSTNA (2) WHOL (2) SIO (2) UNIV WASH (2) TEXAS A&M (2) DARTMOUTH COL (STEFANSSON LIB) TUFTS COL (DEPT. OF PHYSICS) NAUTISK AFDELING METEOROLOGISKE INSTITUT, Denmark DIRECTOR, DANSKE S@KORTARKYV, Denmark GRONLANDS STYRELSE, Denmark dv CONTENTS Page RONG WONCMememeMcle) ele) (c) tele) of ololen enclose) eile ellen lionel elicits cimeniicicll Oplehrlenaler Jalag oF 06 66 OO byolo 6 O06 615.0 5.6 066 6 6 abe Figures e @eee @ @ 6 © 6 6 © %F 6 FTF M7 FH HHH HHH 2A HHH DV TEDLOSMeieike le e)ie) 0 16 6 ele « 6 oe on tele © ee «6 6 6 « ee ‘oe vi eS Introduction . . © o 6 oe ee BO HoeF O OF HO eee ee oe IT. Climatology. oer eee CCFC FF OCH HBT HM EH eH HO Ho oO HL IItI. Oceanography e« e o oo ee 6 ev CFF Fe BH He ee YQ IV. Ice Formation and Growth EN IEEE Gb OOOO OO OOOO oO SF Wie ice~growth Computations » oe¢8e 67 eee eee woe 6 eo ew F VI ConcilustonsS\eicmeleniel o. ale serlel ele fo) «et ele Velen lonel el feliolie 7 Bibliography oe ee 6 e FeO oH HHH HOE OH HOH Oe eo woe © e KO FIGURES 1 © Location and Bathymatric Chart ~ North Star Bugt and Wolstenholme Fjord. . 0. coe ec toe eo co wee cece eo we oly 2 =~ Mean Air and Surface Water Temperatures in North Ster IER 6 010.6 605000000006 0006600600 06006 0150 00 3 @ Temperature, Salinity, and Density Profiles for Site A, Jose ptember 1.9556 leltone bello enremmon enol cle cle) vero: teitenel cena l = Temperature, Salinity, and Density Profiles for Site A, GrOc tober 1953s er eivertet a tot etelr cere otro ointe; salie loltete Mah fammereniee 5 = Temperature, Salinity, and Density Profiles for Site A, PAROS TODEr IOS Ss wliclic: ee Moments ve elieuiete ctuedioneneet ol lel oem: 6 = Temperature, Salinity, and Density Profiles fer Site A, Oat Gea Sapo Oe en Re olny gan A Lae RE 2h 7 - Synoptic Ice Conditions, 6 October 1953 (1000 LST). . o « « « 25 8 = Synoptic Ice Conditions, 9 October 1953 (1000 IST)... . » © 26 9 = Synoptic Ice Conditions, 9 October 1953 (1200 LST). »« « « © « 27 10 - Synoptic Ice Conditions, 10 October 1953 (1100 LST) o oe « © 28 11 - Synoptic Ice Conditions, 10 October 1953 (1600 LST) . « « « o 29 12 =» Fee Conditions, 12 October 1953 20 0 &® © @ © © © & © e » 0 30 13 « Ice Conditions, 23 October 1953 oe ¢ @ e@ eo ee Oe 8 le @ © Bilt 1 = Temperature and Salinity Gradients in Ice, 11 October 1953 CLOSODUS Tees Olicitice))s. oc lonielies emetic sa) ch cine velvet 15 = Temperature and Salinity Gradlents in Ice, 23 October 1953 GIBOO=1O00 MIST = New ice) ie) ecele 6 ei os or ole) one) (6 e a 32 16 = Temperature and Salinity Gradients in Ice, 2h October 1953 CLO@OBES T= New ice) <. oo sh ete votes eves ere” el ene Cains 6.0 33) 17 = Ice Growth as a Function of Degree Days of Froabe e « » » « « 3h 18 = Accumulation of Degree Days of Frost. « « « oo ee ao © 0 o SY 19 = Ice Growth as a Function of Degree Days of Frost in 191)8- ; MONG ANAUUGS Ruma revises let wsetuen lol ool oudtel ReMi teliienerina astro oer enue 20 = Historical Degree Days of Frost CurveSe 0 « « «© « o ee © e © 36 L ~ Computed Icesprowth Curves for Selected Snow Covers. Computation Based on Data from Site A, 29 September 1953. « o 37 22 ~- Compited Iceegrowth Curves for Selected Snow Covers. Computation Based on Data fron Site A, 12 October 1953. 23 = Computed and Observed Ice-growth Curves for New Ice . . 2), » Computed and Observed Iceegrowth Curves for Old Ice . . TABLES I. Surface Water Temperature and Salinity . « o © » « « « II. Synoptic Weather Observations at Thule Air Force Base and on the USS ATKA. « .2««eeseee%%0808 00 III. Monthly Snowfall in Inches 6 «se see8e680806008 0 vi Page I. INTRODUCTION During the past 3 years, the Ue S. Navy Hydrographic Office has been providing ice forecasts in support of military operations in the Arctic. These forecasts include information on the distribution, growth, and disintegration of sea ice, and other predictable factors which serve as aids to such operations. The forecasts are divided into two classes (a) shorterange (l8-hour) forecasts designed to provide detailed ice in- formation for the field units while operating in the ice and (b) long= range (5-day to 6-month) forecasts designed for operational planning. Forecasts of ice conditions in open-water areas present problems which involve oceanographic and meteorological factors that simultane- ously influence major areas. Conditions in the open water are suffi- ciently homogeneous so that forecasts can cover large areas. However, the local topography influences the various oceanographic and meteorologi-= cal factors for each harbor site. Separate ice studies are contemplated for the various harbors in which military shipping is conducted. These reports will describe the special local factors which affect ice fore= casting in each harbor, so that the local sequence of freezeup and ice growth can be delineated and a study of the particular harbor will be available for future operations. The present report discusses the local conditions of North Ster Bugt and Wolstenholme Fjord, Greenland. North Star Bugt, which is approximately three square miles in area, is situated in a protected cove opening to the west. A narrow peninsula to the north separates this bay from Wolstenholme Fjord, into which large glaciers discharge from the inland icecap. The peninsula terminates with the spectacular landmark, Mount Dundes, which is over 700 feet high, Hills about 1,000 feet high lie close to the south and east of the bay. Between these hills, Pitufik Valley (local name) extends to the east-southeast with a relatively gentle slope. Geographic features of the area are shown in figure i. The bay is normally open to shipping for three months anmually (5 July to the first week of October). These dates vary somewhat from year to year, depending on the influencing factors. During the first half of July, shipping is almost entirely dependent on icebreaker escort. Obstructions to shipping are caused largely by the presence of sea ice, since ice of land origin is not of sufficient concentration to present a navigational problem. If. CLIMATOLOGY The warmest air temperatures at Thule occur during July with a mean temperature of 2° F, The coldest air temperatures occur during February with a mean temperature of ~159 F. The total precipitation throughout the year averages about 2.5 inches, nearly half of this amount occurring during July and August. January and February are the driest months, averaging less than Q.l1 inch per month. An interesting feature, in contrast to the low amount of precipitation, is that nearly half of the days throughout each month record a trace or more of precipitation. The amount of cloudiness scmewhet parallels the precipitation pattern, the greatest mean total cloud amount being observed during the summer and the least during winter. July observations show a mean total cloud amount of fowr=tenths or more about 78 percent of the time, whereas in December, the percentage drops to 5. Mean total cloud amounts of eight tenths or more were observed 68 percent of the time in July and 39 percent of the time in December. Surface winds are comparatively weak throughout the year, averaging 10 knots or less approximately 80 percent of the time, with considerable monthly variation. Almost all of the stronger winds are from an easterly direction. Ti. OCEANOGRAPHY The most important oceanographic factors in the formation and growth of ice are surface water temperatures, which indicate the heat loss and gain at the sea surface, and physical properties, which show how the heat logs and gain will be distributed throughout the water mass. Figure 1 shows the location of the oceanographic stations (sites A and B) occupied in the area. Surface water temperatures in North Star Bugt vary little from year to year. Figure 2 shows the relationship between air and sea surface temperatures and indicates that the air temperature is higher than the water temperature until approximately 21 August. Air temperatures reach a peak near the end of July and decrease rapidly thereafter. Surface water temperatures lag behind the air temperatures by about 3 weeks, reaching a maximum near 16 August and decreasing slowly to the freezing temperature by the first week in Octcber, At this time, however, the air temperature is more than 10° F, colder than the water temperature. The reversal of the heat budget (the date when the water temperature begins to fall) can be placed at about 16 August. After that date it may be assumed that the water is losing heat continuously. The oceanographic structure was studied for four stations made at site A (fig. 1) on 29 September and 6, 12, and 21 October 1953. Observa= tions at site B, in shallow water, showed that the ice thickness was largely independent of depth. Changes in the oceanographic structure are show by the four station plots for site A (figs. 3, h, 5, and 6). Surface water temperatures and salinities are listed in table I. The gradual dis- appearance of the layer of warm water produced by the summer heating is illustrated by the oceanographic plots. Only the upper 100 meters were affected by this seasonal warming, while the water below 100 meters was nearly isothermal and isohaline, water temperature being about ~0.8° C. and salinity ranging between 33.70 and 33.90 °/oo. Cooling of the upper layer was steady and had evidently been proceeding from the time of the reversal of the heat budget. In the station profile of September 29 (fig. 3), 5 days after the heat budget reversal, the surface water temperature was ~1o39 C. and the warmest temperature at 50 meters was ~0.36° GC. The salinity curve shows the beginning of convection in the first 10 meters. The seasonal. thermocline lies between 75 and 100 meters and is still fairly sharp. In the second station profile (fig. h) taken a week later, the shallow layer has cooled further, so that the warmest water now has a temperature of ~0.5° C. The surface convection extends to 15 meters. At this time, the ice was 1.6 inches thick. The seasonal thermocline had weakened during the week. In the third station profile (fig. 5) taken 6 days later on 12 October, cooling has reduced the temperature of the upper layer so that it is less than that of the lower layer, thus eliminating the seasonal thermocline. The nearly isothermal lower layer now is the warmer of the two layers. Convection has produced an isohaline layer in the upper 20 meters, while the continuing surface cooling has brought the temperature to the freezing point. At this time, a 6-inch cover- ing of ice at site A was the result of thermohaline convection. Finally, 9 days later on 21 October, the station profile (fig. 6) shows that the surface cooling has extended below 75 meters. hLittle change in the salinity and in the depth of the mixed layer has occurred. Since the ice thickness was nearly 12 inches, it is evident that the loss of a moderate amount of heat through the ice produced a relatively large amount of ice with lithle added change in the convection of the water. At this point, the winter oceanographic structure is well ese tablished. The precipitation of salt and the process of convection dure ing the formation of ice are shown clearly in the four prefiles. The surface salinity increased from 31.20 °/co on 29 September to 31.6 °/oo on 6 October, to 32.00 °/oo on 12 October, and to 32.21 °/oo on 21 October. IV. ICE FORMATION AND GROWTH IN 1953 Fringe ice was first noticed on 25 September along the eastern edge of North Star Bugt where fresh water empties from Pitufik Valley. By 1 October, grease ice was forming over North Star Bugt in the area north- east of Delong Pier; a considerable amount of slush ice formed along the eastern shore. By 3 October, the first new ice was formed over this area of the bay. Temporary patches of grease ice were forming in the area of sites A and B. The first sheet of young ice formed at site B during the morning of October and at A during the morning of 5 October. This new ice attained a thickness of about 2 inches by 6 October, the thicknesses being 1.6 and 2.2 inches at sites A and B, respectively. The areal distribution of ice at this tims is illustrated in figure 7. & polynya with some grease ice existed slightly north of site A, and a few smaller open-water areas were present. Some rafting had occurred. Ice continued to grow with little change in areal distribution, attain= ing a thiclmess of l.8 inches at site B by 9 October (1000 IST). The snow cover amounted to one-half inch. Figure 8 shows the synoptic ice picture at this time, The polynya north of site A had decreased in size; a small polynya had developed a short distance southwest of Delong Pier; and a small area in the immediate vicinity of the pier had becoma ice 3 free, A point of interest here is that within 2 hours after this ice was observed at 1000 LST by helicopter the areal distribution changed very rapidly to that indicated in figure 9. This change occurred with the approach of high tide and 10-knot surface winds from the east and southeast. Average tide range during this period (9 to 10 October) was about 6 feet. On 10 October, westward movement of the ice was noticed at ap- proximately 1000 LST. Easterly winds at this time had increased to 19 knots with gusts to 25 knots. At 1100 LST, aerial reconnaissance made possible a detailed synoptic analysis of the ice as shown in figure 10. Numerous cracks, leads, and polynyas had developed. Con=- siderable amounts of slush ice had formed in the newly developed water areaSe Ice thickness on this date measured 5.0 inches. By 1300 LST, the wind speed was 32 knots with gusts to O mots. By 1600 LST, the ice picture was radically different. The ice had moved out of the local harber area, except along the east shore, as shown in figure 11, Com- paratively strong easterly winds continued throughout the next day. During the period from 1 to 12 October, the USS ATKA (AGB-3) was anchored in North Star Bigt. Weather observations were taken regularly aboard the ship during the time and can be compared directly with the observations taken at Thule Air Force Base. These observations are given in table IIe On 10 October, when the ice changed radically as shown in figures 10 and 11, winds recorded on the ATKA were considerably stronger than those recarded at the Air Force station. In checking the winds for 1030, 1330, and 1630 IST, it was found that the wind speeds at the land station were only 5) percent of those at the ship. Similar conditions also existed on nearly every day. This wind speed differential plays an im- portant role in forecasting ice distribution during breakup as well as during the period of freezeup. Since nearly all of the wind information used by the Hydrographic Office in making ice forecasts in harbors is derived or inferred from observations at neighboring land stations, it is evident that local harbor studies are necessary to determine the relative applicability of each land-station record to the forecasting of sea ice conditions in the surrounding areas. Grease ice developed on the newly formed water area during the morning of 12 October, at which time there was about five-tenths grease ice coverage. The distribution of the ice between the harbor and Wol- stenholme # on this date is shown in figure 12. Ice that formed on this newly exposed water area will be known as "new" ice hereafter, whereas the ice that formed the first part of the month will be known as "old ice. On this date (October 12), the old ice was 6.0 inches thick. Much rafting had occurred in this ice southeast of Saunder § to the main- land coast. By 21 October, the new ice attained a thickness of 8.5 inches and the old ice 11.2 inches. No polynyas, cracks, or leads were present from Kap Athol to the dock area. On 23 October (fig. 13), the old ice was 12.0 inches thick with 1.5 inches of snow cover. No snow cover was evident on the new ice, even though some very light snow had fallen between 20 and 23 October. However, there was a brine covering of three-sixteenths of an inch, which appeared to cover the entire area of new ice. A sample of this brine, taken 50 feet south of the deck on 23 October, had 9 salinity value of 62.3 °/oo. Evi~ dently, this salinity value is the result of rapid ice formation on and after 12 October. The ice was able to form with comparatively low air temperatures, averaging about 7° F. between 12 and ll; October. Over a large area 300 feet south of the dock, walling was found to be very difficult owlng to the slippery brine covering. Three ice temperature and salinity profiles, as illustrated in figures 1), 15, and 16, were taken from ice in the immediate dock area. The salinity values were taken at 2-inch intervals vertically; i.e., O-2, 2- inches, etc. Temperature readings were taken at 2-inch ine tervals, starting at the surface. It will be seen that the temperature gradients are nearly linear, while salinity decreases irregularly with depth, Several ice thickness measuremants were made from time of forma= tion until the ice had attained a thickness of approximately 13 inches. Only one measurement was made after this time, and that was on 18 Novem- ber 1953. The new ice thickness at that time was 28 inches with ? inches of snow cover. Ice growth as a function of degree days of frost (° F.) and the accumulation of degree days of frost with time for the new and old ice are shown in figures 17 and 18. Degree days of frost are based on tho normal freezing point of the water at each location and may be expressed either in ° F. or ° GC. To illustrate the use of degree days of frost, a day with an average temperature of 25° F,. would accumulate h de- gree days of frost when the base temperature of 29° F. is used. It is the practice in the Hydrographic Office to use a base of 29° F. or =1.8° Ce at sites with salinity between 25 °/oo and 35 °/oo while a base of 32° or 31° F. for fresh or brackish water is used.» In figure 19, the ice growth as a function of degree days of frost is shown for two ice seasons, 1918-9 and 1953=-5h. The curves are nearly identical for the overlapping portion. Fhysically, this identity ex= presses the fact already noted that the water of North Star Bugt is well mixed because of the free exchange to depths. Since the composition of the sea water does not change greatly from year to year, the relationship between ice growth and the heat loss expressed in degree days ef frost is also the sane. There is, however, a wide variation in the accumla= tion of degree days of frost. Figure 20 shows the available historical data on degree days of frost and reveals that the extreme values ranged from the total of 7,950 degree days of frost on 31 May 195), to the total of 5,650 on 31 May 1917. This variation would be expscted to cause con= Siderable differences in ice thickness, assuming the other paremeters were unchanged. V. ICE GROWTH COMPUTATIONS In computing the ice growth a formula daveloped in the Hydrographic Office (Lee and Simpson, 195) is used, which tales into account the in- fluencing oceanographic and metecrological parameterse t | | is ie Nat [ Ahi + { Se + Shy, + Sear, where Tp = temperature of freezing in © C., T = temperature of the water in ° C., k; ® heat conductivity of sea ice, k, = heat conductivity of snow, /; = density of sea ice, K = latent heat of fusion, 1, = thickness of the ice in cme, 1, = thickness of the snow in cme, and Qr = amount of sensible heat loss in kg. cal. Using this method, ice~growth curves, figures 21 and 22, are plotted against degree days of frost (° F.) for various snow depths that may be covering the ice. The growth curves are based on oceanographic data taken at site A on 29 September and 12 October. Ice grows more rapidly during the early stages and/or with no snow cover. Greater ice thickness and/or snow cover offer more insulation therefore resulting in 4a slower rate of ice growth as compared to degree days. It will be noted here that these degree days are based on 26.6° f compared to the previous 29.0° F. However, differences are very small, less than 1 percent. The computed ice growth curve (in inches) versus degree days of frost (° F.), using the actual measured snow depths, is shown in figures 23 and 2h. Figure 23 and figure 2h are for the new and old ice, respectively. For comparison purposes, the actual growth curves are plotted. In the case of the new ice, these curves parallel very closely. she old ice curve does not verify as well. Nevertheless, after 150 degree days (° F.) with 13 inches of ice, the computed thickness of the old ice is only 1.5 inches less than the actual depth. It is possible that this discrepancy may be the result of measur= ing the ice thickness in a comparatively shallow area, whereas the oceano=- graphic data is based on information from site A, in deeper water. The same was not true in the case of the new ice. Im this latter case the ice growth was the same over the entire areas; i.eo, from the pier to site A, which is approximately 6 nautical miles to the southwest. Neverthe- less, the actual growth curves parallel the computed values very closely, especially in the case of the new ice, thus reflecting the accuracy of the method in predicting ice growth. Naturally, if one were to predict the air temperature and snow depth values, a forecast of this natwre probably would not be so accurate as in the case pointed out here is figures 23 and 2h, where the observed values for snow cover and temparatures are used. Difficulty in making accurate long-range predictions of snow depths and temperatures will vary for dif- ferent areas. In general, the larger the monthly variation of these par= ticular parameters, the more difficult the forecast will be. Comparatively the variation for these two parameters is small in the area of Thule. For instance, table III indicates that the snowfell varies very little. Therefore, accurate predictions for this element are relatively easy. Temperature forecasting, however, is not so easy, as is evidenced in figure 20, which shows considerable variation. For example, on 15 November 197 there was an accumulation of about 650 (9 F.) degree days of frost as compared to 1,200 (° Fe) degree days of frost on the same date in 1953. In referring to figure 23 this difference would mean approximately 10 inches more ice (19 versus 29 inches), Of course, the comparison assumes el] other influencing factors to be the same. This is clearly an extreme case. In other years the temperature values are more nearly equal. VI. CONCLUSIONS The area of North Star Bugt and Wolstenholme Fjord constitutes an open bay with free water exchange at all depths from surface to the bottom. The special characteristics of this area from an oceanographic standpoint are 1) the presence of contimal water exchange and hence temporal continuity in thermohaline structure, 2) the relatively small importance of runoff water, and 3) the small annual change in surface water temperetures during the open season. North Star Bugt, although a harbor suitable for shipping operations, is not a closed water system but, instead, is an arm of Wolstenholme Fjord and open at all levels. Since the water of the bay is contimally mixed with that of the fjord, the thermchaline structure remains re- latively constant from week to week. This continuity, in turn, is an essential prerequisite for long-range ice forecasting, in which the thermohaline structure must be studied in early autumn and the heat budget utilized on the basis of the early sampling. It also makes possible the use of an oceanographic sampling in deep water to predict ice growth in the bay. There is relatively little runoff into North Star Bugt, coming mostly from the Pitufik River. This runoff stops by the first week in September, so that there is essentially no runoff problem thereafter; the water sa= linity remains nearly constant, increasing slightly due to evaporation. The combination of the above characteristics makes North Star Bugt a suitable harbor for the use of the techniques of long-range ice pre~ diction even though these techniques were developed for use in open- water areas, The 1953 long-range ice prediction verified satisfactorily, as shown by figures 23 and 2h). In one aspect North Star Bugt presents obstacles to long-range ice prediction methods. The techniques assume that the ice remains in situ once it is formed. In North Star Bugt, however, it is normal for the ice to break up in the area of the pier as often as three times during the freezeup period, sometimes not permanently until the first part of November. Similar movement of the ice will generally apply to the greater part of Baffin Bay north of 70° Ne NOE Oree CMS Orsie BIOS Orsky Cale ous BE°SE B°8e Le° ce 8° 8% WOE EPG Goras Be S8°LE 6°82 76°TE 6°8% 00°CE 0°62 C9. UG OneG LG alesonce Lil ake Omsic Woo Us, &)-Sie 9L°TE 6°82 O09°TE O°0€ LGAs SAIS 00° CE 3°82 79°TE 6°82 Ors SSE ASMESTIED JO Letqd jo UAL0} es py °43 O€ sei detd fo yqnog "43 00€ detg JO yynos 26" OG letg jo espy q yynos e3TS UOT4eI0T ALINTIVS CNY HUALVdEdRal WaLvm SOVAENS I STAeL f AR BAY TKA A a BASE AND ON THE USS Relative Che emir USS ATKA — IN NORTH ST CH i ia 1D] FAT IONS tT uv Relative eee TABLE II SYJOPTIC WEATHER OBSER _Temperature ee Lr @ iced S a ip Direction eg humidity Wet 1b bulb Percent AVE Tn» Dr _ bu eed So on (ikn.) . q Direct nt yweather** >} dity Pre humi < Dry . Weather 3 gl Wet bulb bulb Percent _ Oct. 1953 Lst* NOES SS oo CELLS TSE RS [GIS eal uy) ho sO ip) al ww oO BoaSGeRRa fl Fd Ba fe fy ROL SAER WOOOOQO oh ie) Pia RE) ereieh we Sibel Gea Gal Sep re Ql) NANNY AL ACC OAWMWAOGN © a ° ° © ° 6 o Wr AA tA STO LANAI AO OL o~in~twy © ~+ BS fo) &) fo | (epi ep) [cpimep) re Hl -] © { OwmoOwWmoOeI Or OO OO ao dtaddoe AOWOOdOOd He ROOON AAANNAY 0430 0730 1030 1330 1630 1930 2230 sles cates allies (eal a vey Ley SELLER HAM~OMOMONC A te Deel Jes ed Tat J se NANO” (vi NAAN A ode OA MNHwO MW St IN e o ° e e ° ODN St SO et OD an OQ A OA CO? rd ord a ON SES Ocal IN bs Vins Fl Bo Bt eo Bo) 2 (ep men ESASRLES WDMNWINE NOM e Crile No: eile hewn leynvel OO MminmO © 0 AdAadaddes OOnOW ROM o ° o oe 2 2 E ESE ESE 3} OM) wn TO .9 b- 46O ) un i cl (a) e (a) ri we) ESE mous 4UZT] - ST MOUS) = S- xx: “EST O€TO JO 8X74 UT IST OOTO ‘eTduexe soz “amoy ey} Uo Usieq aJen SULTJeATeSgO VyLY 643 Seeseym ‘sy ye fancy J[Tey oy UO Ueriey eueM SUCTYeATESGO JeYyZeeM x 8 a “TY Oe OF 6 as BL Cite nce Oece 6 a GS OSE. 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T’e O€c~ isis as 08 ONG» SIE O€6T So a 69 Shezs 8°3 ssi uS ch G26 6°E O€9T WIG abSTI €S6L °3°0 dig qUueoieg q[nq qjnq (*W{) UOT_OeZTq yxyJeyZeeN qUedTeG Qimq qinq SS _ suT] AA Tpruny 33M Aig peeds queseig AVTprTuny 498M sig SATIETOU eaTIETOU TeyzpEeN DUT M Ore Sainzereduey, E AYd G¥LS HLYCN NI ~ Vay SSa aSvd GOdOK YY ~ Ihe (Pi9U0D) VWHIY SSN HHL NO GNY HSVd HOUO4 HIV HIGHE LY SNOLLVAGHSEO GEHLVEM OLLGONAS II aiayd 17 Average Table Tift MONTHLY SNOWFALL IN INCHES 6 Seb Soa rate UN OO°0 (2) Onos Onn ANoO uN On 2 2@« © @ @ © ef—y *Fi 2 0 rei wo AN & ay o uh & b, & Am ® oO hu pe OD O ey a} MOO8BE 3 © ed OCs 3s¥P 0 © O SONhk ROW Oap F&O CI @ Go tence) cs Bl as Se "> fe as 7 eanowa 18 os9 u01283S s04]20M YSAGNAVWS L335 N! NOIWVAR13 SLVIIGNI SYSEANNN SWOHLV3 OO! SWOHLW4S O02 SAWOH1V4 O1 SWOHLWS GS -——~—-—: QON39371 19 19N8 YVLS HLYON NI SAuNIVESdWal YSLYM 20VAYNS ONY HIV NVAN “é auNndis 4380.90 YyaSWwaLdas isnony xine aI Sa a a ee es i eel ee ee ee ORE St me O72 N (€S6l GN ‘2Sel'ISe! YO4 SQYOOSY ic \ JOVYSAY SLITGWOONI) SANNIVHSCWSL YSLVM JOINS sulle \ (SNV3 AVO-SI sO 39VUSAV HVSAb) SSUNIVYSWAL YIy —— —— | 92 QN3931 (Jo) SUNLIVYSdINSL 20 31.6 31.8 32.0 32.2 32.4 32.6 32.8 33.0 33.2 33.4 33.6 33.8 34.0 34.2 34.4 34.6 348 35.0 31.4 31.2 S%e 31.0 -0.8 0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0 % 25.00 25.20 25.40 25.60 25.80 26.00 26.20 26.40 26.60 26.80 27.00 27.20 27.40 27.60 27.80 28.00 28.20 28.40 28.60 28.80 29.00 -0.9 -1.0 -1.8 -1.9 Tec -2.0 =i asst = LEGEND SALINITY DENSITY } cocvctes | Co) 120 130 140} i50 160 170 ° (2) (SYSLAW) H1Ld3d AND DENSITY PROFILES FOR SITE A 29 SEPTEMBER 1953 9 SALINITY, a FIGURE 3. TEMPERATURE 21 S%o 310 31.2 31.4 316 318 32.0 32.2 324 326 328 330 332 33.4 336 338 340 342 344 346 348 35.0 TC. -20 -19 -N8 -cly -Ne 215 <4 KELL SECS UNOBSERVED SOME GREASE ICE tmag” x KANGITDLASSAVAT if ze & 6 z/e B a zs s|3 2 w Se El fe 3 q — ” ad q < a 9 cS 2 nearest ft Lead ED Polynya THICKNESS OF SEA ICE AND SNOW] [ICE OF LAND ORIGIN where SAUNDER p 1801 70° rage rage SB fe te & Ss 8 2, on 2 SC 2 S = 1649 of £ t=) 7m a co 0. 10 0.8 cov jo 1.0 cov overag HET —— Known ——— Assumed WOLSTENHOLME 0) « NNE Cd fo) 7 H 76° H 30 25 40° Tis 69° FIGURE 7 SYNOPTIC ICE CONDITIONS, 6 OCTOBER 1953 20’ 40’ (1S71 000!) €S6] Y39G0L90 6*SNOILIGNOD 39! DILMONAS “8 SuNdI 00 069 10@ 5 OV LVAVSSYIGLISNY Tost QaAYSSHONN o0L @ |JWIOHN3LSIOM Of _ # o9L © SENS ee SSSR RRR gz0t Gente 4 Prior Ne s> Lae pare aol aaAuasaonn shes GD pes) ——— 4981) ape} U OF y BE) 28 sajdwex (maj) S812989) Vv a a (Auew) s813qa9} Vv Y Wsaeeu=u aiaym 5 I paunssy —-—— UMDUY oe AaWONNOS (uayeas Ou) 28es9A09 0] BRA a8e1aa02 O'] 0) 80 AA 28es3A02 810 01 $0 Lo aSeaaoa $0 01 10 NS a8es2a02 10> fEz3] [uotuwaiN30N03] 292 | Or fi 26 (1$1 002!) €S6l YASOLOO 6 “SNOILIGNOD 30! 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SYNOPTIC ICE CONDITIONS, IO OCTOBER 1953 (1100 LST) 40’ 70° os9 u01}eS saujeam & L gong 195 yHON KX ee yeuew!) JINHL ie LVAWSSYTOLIONY Q3AYSSEONnN ve G3AYUSSEONN 301 pagpiy WAY an payed \V\/ AHd¥Y90dOL ] (saj) Siajmoud pue sjiq Aduag (Auew) ssejmoud pue sig Adag (maj) 88639} (Auew) s8yaqao! G |SWIOHN31S1OM SSRGENE Mave pawnssy — — — PAUAIOg CD UMOUY ee [xuvonnoa pea) ——— yres9 aeett (4ajem 0u) a8es3n0) 0 | ee) a8es9009 01 01 80 KN a8evan0) £0.01 $0 Li} 28 g : sadwex3 28218009 $0 01 10 SS 5 uu Ssaseau=u asaym = — yw} rT $1 29 €66! Y3GOLIO 2! “SNOILIGNOD 39D! “2! 3uNndis 10d 069 pe a aa LVAYSSYTOLISNY 4 YSLYM N3SdO : HN i 3014 §° B oe =| ee § OL nel mye 8 AS —-g01 BSWSND : 36ng 4235 40K EX SOG ei a i 4 yeuewl) a f 31NHL i EA) QSAYNSSSONN 315 10M SS gwioHN = = Lae pues guolF 221 padpiy — WY ekiniog &D umouy, an payey \/\/ [AavONNOS Adva90dOL eles ye dt (arom ou) 28019400 01 ie: [Saunas SLY seam otoe0 AS Bessa0d 8:0 03 $0 0 4 2 10¥ = YE} § cf sajdwex9 a8e3n02 $00) 1:0 BJ D 4 (maj) $842q39) Vv chu — } : UR aBesaao2 30 1h 74s 30’ 40’ ig 5 4 aes eens ‘ F 235 8 ye 2's aie Fs : M2 EDT HB NS SRO | = Z = ST SS ‘ ELIE CER ER SS _ 39! NO SNIME ONY MONS 3O SYNLXIW NI °%08'SE = ALININVS 2/22=HLd3d MONS (do) SUNIVYSIWSLOE 62 sz zs (0%) ALINITWSoz 6t st “zt or st °*LVOE=ALINIIVS YALVM N& ‘40062 = SUNLVYEADNSL YALVM sovsyNns (Ge te. Sig te Gh th a Of Be Cg & @ M O& G 6 Z 9 § 30! 40 WOLLOS ALINITWS '409'€Z= 30! AOSV ne SYuNLWeSadW3L YyIv y—owsUNs \ ve €z 7 Iz oz 61 26 Zt ot St Sun lve sdW ot te) 31 a6 ol i] (S2HON!) H1d3d ‘GI JYNIIS (SAHIN!) Hid3ad 32 Sundls : (S391 MSN-LS71 0001) €S6l YSGOLIO v2 S3Ol NI SLNSIGVYEDS ALINIIVS GNV SYNLVYSdW3al 91 SYNSIS | ra 391430 WOLLOS °% BE CE=ALINIIVS YALVM "30882 = 3YNLWYSdNSL eSlVM 391 NO 3NIug LaM 40 ,9I/¢ NI °%0¢'Z9 = ALINITWS SION b = Ol JAOgy L4¢ GasdS GNIM “deG'6 = 301 JAORV Mee See av ALINIaVS JuNLveadNal ‘ J9VSYNS 0 (4 \JERGMMERUEL © Ge mm Oe & tw @ @ ize cf Go mo & CI) MINAKS C2 Gl on am Of Sr Rt M a im wo G 8 L 9 S 33 (SSHONI) Hida 1SOu¥4 40 SAVG 33493d JO NOILVINWNOOV 8I €S6| YAEWNSAON €S6| YsaeOLI0 ma Gl i @ Y CS S&@ te Sr wi 62 ‘4.62 3S78 ‘1SO44 JO SAVG 33udDR30 SYuNdIs S OT cl vl 91 ca (4.0) LSOUS 43O SAVG 335Y93G 30 SGSYGNNH LSOY¥4 JO SAVO 3358930 dO NOILONNS V SV HLMOYD Fd! ZI 3YNdIS (do) LSOYS 40 SAVO S3au9aG 00z1 0001 008 009 00b 00z 0 : ¢ : 391 010 NO_— MONS 40,80 / 8 BAND HLMOYS 39! 0107 4 zi 391 G10 NO _ MONS 4O ,S* sf 391 M3N NO MONS ON Gj oz 3AgND “H1MON9-391 M3N tz 391 ,M3N,, NO MONS 40,2 Se ze ‘4.62 3Sv8 ‘1SOY¥s JO SAVA 335yNDR0 | ! 9€ SSINHOIHL Sot (SSHONI) 34 €S6] ONY 6v-Sv6i NI LSOYS SO SAVG 33BY9SC0 JO NOILONAZ V SV HLAOYD 39! 6! aunoid (3040 S00!) LSOYS 30 SAVQ 354930 96 c6 88 v8 08 92 (qb 89 v9 09 9S eS 8Y br OV GES ce 8c ve 0¢ 9T et 8 v | 335i MAN NO MONS ON 6-875 l viva es61 -———| GNa937 30! M3N NO j MONS JO 2. / 35 89 cL (SSHINI) SSANHOIHL Fol VEGREE DAYS OF FROST CF.) 3000 | cae eg GIO Lo o0 } Ke 7200 | / 7 Eee as | 7 eae aia ohare Ne vote, 7 6400 | Ve A { Me f7S | if ae ee) Kady 5600 | Loh yi ; / i 7 ° / ° | 4s) 4800 | Or 7 dh / ne ede), : j } 4000 | AN KOs Pe A Ll, // . ' / ° /. be 3200 Voy ih j / a A $ a a vA = OM | LEGEND | 2400} / DY, 50h 6 1946 - 47 [Sop ° ° 1947-48 | [ott 7 1948 - 49 fol y 1949 — 50 1600 } Tes parse ' - 1953-54 | °° A MEAN ° rf * oe of 7 Ge 800 Lol ff CoG TF, Soh Se E50 30 SEPT. 31 OCT. 30 NOV. 31 DEC. 31JAN.: 28 FEB. 31 MAR. 30 APR. 31 MAY 30 JUNE FIGURE 20. HISTORICAL DEGREE DAYS OF FROST CURVES 36 eh 80 5 70 Zz { Q it. 2 60! (see = wow DEP EW 50) ne 2 iN. oat j =H Zi. w | a= 0 \ : o <0 - Saat Z 30} | 5 | == 20h } ab ee ee = am ad A is Qo | ll Hey 1 otc ae es ee re) 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 EGREE DAYS OF FROST (°F) FIGURE 21. COMPUTED ICE-GROWTH CURVES FOR SELECTED SNOW COVERS. COMPUTATION BASED ON DATA FROM SITE A, 29 SEPTEMBER I[953. 80 ¢ ICE THICKNESS (I;) IN INCHES 0) aa 1000 1560 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 950010000 DEGREE DAYS OF FROST (BASE 28.8°F) FIGURE 22. COMPUTED ICE-GROWTH CURVES FOR SELECTED SNOW COVERS. COMPUTATION BASED ON DATA FROM SITE A , i2 OCTOBER 1953. 37 ICE THICKNESS (INCHES) | fo (A | COMPUTED THICKNESS J /7 ed : 7 | /, 2 } //——MEASURED THICKNESS a / BASED ON OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA >| f FROM SITE A, i2 OCTOBER (953 i f 2 i i h " Hf i { 1 iy r , , , ; ; t H | ' I i } ] 0 100. 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 DEGREE DAYS OF FROST (°F) FIGURE 23. COMPUTED AND OBSERVED ICE-GROWTH CURVES FOR NEW ICE 38 MEASURED _._, 2 a] THICKNESS 2 = | “COMPUTED oe THICKNESS =x iO} (S) tl 2 | wo H wn | ny | = 6 | x v x= | ff - i f BASED ON OCEANOGRAPHIC wi f DATA FROM SITE A, v 29 SEPTEMBER 1953 6100 200 300 400 500 600 700 600 900 DEGREE DAYS OF FROST(°F) FIGURE 24. COMPUTED AND OBSERVED ICE-GROWTH CURVES FOR OLD ICE 39 BIBLICGRAPHY LEE, O.S. and SIMPSON, L.S. A practical method of predicting sea ice formation and growth, U.S. Hydrographic Office Technical Report 4, 9 pes 17 figs, 195k. U.S. AIR FORCE. Daily weather records; Thule, Greenland, 1953, [iepey Unpublished. U.S. WEATHER BUREAU. Ice _ measurements in North Star Bugt; Thule, Green- land, 1948-1949, /nep./ Unpublished. - — — Climatology summary; Thule, Greenland, October, 1946 through December, 1949, 38 pe, 1950. 40 €@-al “0 °H* ybnogow °F pucwADy csz0ysnD ct pup jussag “38g 4545 YON ul VOLsDUIOL Sd] Suljrsipy s10jap 4 jOwweuU0 si AUD RUOsIDS Oa Stites! S2} DSS - pudjuseig ‘psoly SUS ES | ON S:D 85>] beg = pudjusei9 “48ng ais YON Aydo s50ups20 °7 ABpyowuwns °-f ABSojososyey 7 Suiyspoes0 4 8>2| bes 1 EZ-ML OCH HH yBRogow °f pucwADy woyIMD oH puDjusss5 “25ng 2085 YON 41 BOUDWIOY 25] Survey S40j504 jesuswucs aul PMD }DD07 28]414 “! B2{ Des = punjusasg ‘psols @ujouuejs jour *D B3{ Des = PUDjUeBIC “4699 Dig yon To Aud iboupesH *y ABojoyou ist *E Abojososiswy TZ Suisposso4 So] Dag Y "|DO1jUSp! AjsDSu Siam SSSuxdI4y B21 peyndwod pud PeAsesgo Sui JOU) Pewripul DjHG *4IDJep UI petpnys asam CCH] Ul 85! Des jo ysmosd puo Uo! 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