Natural History Museum Library LONDON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY / 'C? #\\ Y7 % * .. .. * * .. . . .. 210 Official Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Statement of Accounts .. .. .. .. .. .. 218 Sectional Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 * Reprints are available oj these articles 2 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 The Society 1858 to 1957 THE history of our Society was surveyed in the two Presidential Addresses of the late L. G. Payne, “ The Story of our Society,” delivered in 1947 and 1948*. In the present issue we have attempted to cover the ground in a different way, with contributions from four of our members who have each played a prominent part in guiding the Society’s affairs. We begin with the first part of the Presidential Address delivered by Mr. C. P. Castell on the occasion of the Society’s centenary meeting at Church House on March 11, 1958. Then follow some personal remin¬ iscences of the early days contributed by Mr. L. J. Tremayne — who was President of our North London parent society as long ago as 1899, and of the L.N.H.S. in 1930-1 — and by Mr. C. L. Collenette, President in 1937-8. Finally Mr. L. Parmenter, President in 1949-51, deals with the last thirty years of the Society. *Available as reprint No. 55, price 6d. The Society’s First Sixty Years By C. P. Castell, B.Sc., F.G.S. The London Natural History Society arose from the union, in 1913, of the City of London Entomological and Natural History Society and the North London Natural History Society, but this year we are celebrating the Centenary of the founding of the parental Haggerstone Entomological Society. In April, 1856, the first number of the Entomologists'’ Weekly Intelligencer appeared, price Id., evidence of the existence of considerable interest in entomology at that time. Two years later, a letter from Henry Aris appeared in the issue for April 12, 1858 ; it stated that “ As many entomologists reside in the N. of London, I think a local society might be formed. I am ready to assist in the construction if anyone will step forward and make a beginning.” On June 10, 1858, the original convening meeting was held, with seven entomologists present. The formal inauguration of the Society of 20 members took place on June 17. By the end of the year the membership had grown to 35 and Edward Newman had become a prominent member. The subscription was a penny a week and members met every Thursday evening from 9 till 10.30 at the Carpenter’s Arms, Martha Street, Haggerstone. In the first year, the Society started a Library, spending 19s. on books in the first quarter and in the second 30s. for Wood’s Index Entomologicus in four volumes, with supplement, 1839. This original purchase is still in our library. Nine months later the Society took over a large room above the Brownlow Arms, Brownlow Street, Haggerstone (now Dalston), which remained its home for nearly 30 years (Plate 1). In apparent deference to the views of some of the members who would have preferred to hold the meetings in a private house, the Society’s address was given as No. 10 Brownlow Street, the actual number of the public house. By 1860 membership exceeded 60 and not only was a library being built up but a collection too, for in that year a 40-drawer cabinet was acquired. By 1867 the Society possessed 200 entomological and botanical books and 2,000 specimens, and in the following year the Society even THE SOCIETY 1 858 TO 1 957 3 paid part of the expenses of a member to collect in Scotland on its behalf and also held its first Annual Exhibition. By 1870 the Exhibition was so popular that visitors queued outside before opening time and a report stated that “ the Exhibition passed off in a most quiet and orderly manner and not an insect received the slightest injury.” Membership exceeded 100 by 1874. In his Presidential Address of 1908, A. W. Mera remembered going as a visitor in about 1878 to one of the meetings in a spacious room over the bar at the Brownlow Arms, “ each member being provided with a long clay pipe, while the necessary refreshments were provided from below, under which soothing influences the science of Entomology was keenly pursued. . . . Now things have changed and for many years we have been fortunate in being able to hold our meetings in surroundings more appropriate if less convivial.” These were the palmy days of the Society when its room was the meeting place of almost all the best-known entomologists such as Doubleday, Stainton, E. Newman and S. Stevens. In 1887 a combined agitation among members to get away from licensed premises and to a more central position resulted in the removal to Albion Hall, London Wall, and the new title of the City of London Entomological and Natural History Society. 1891 was an important year, marking the first appearance of the Society’s Transactions. Before this date, accounts of the meetings and some of the papers read were published in various entomological journals. In volume 1, we learn that there were 80 members, the annual subscription had gone up to 5s., and meetings took place on the first and third Tuesday of each month from 8 till 10 p.m. at 33 Finsbury Square. The Transactions were mostly the proceedings of the meetings, with details of exhibits, short papers and discussions. In that year Dr. Buckell read a paper on “ The Lepidoptera of a London Garden ” and called attention to the need for the compilation of a list of the fauna of the London District. Early in 1892 the Council was appealing for records made since 1880 and defined the London District to mean within 10 miles of Charing Cross, including South London. Although the Society was overwhelmingly lepidopterist, yet there were members interested in other branches of natural history, giving a little justification for the title Entomological and Natural History Society. The President, Dr. J. A. Clarke, was appointed recorder for Birds, F. J. Buckell for Lepidoptera and H. Heasler for Coleoptera. The Society was now meeting at the London Institution, thanks to the friendly offices of Lord Avebury. In 1893 Dr. J. A. Clarke gave as his Presidential Address a review of the list of London Birds compiled for the Society’s London Fauna Lists, but it does not appear to have been published. A conversazione was held in 1895 and “ the hum of conversation was pleasantly interrupted at intervals by vocal and instrumental selections arranged by the organist of St. Andrew’s, Plaistow.” One member exhibited twenty drawers of “ Micros ” which were “ universally admired.” Mr. F. J. Hanbury provided “ rare and extinct ” (or should it have been exterminated ?) dried British plants, chiefly orchids. There were stuffed birds, nests and eggs and a fine display of 20 microscopes. In contrast to this enthusiasm, we are reminded in the Annual Report that the Society, for the first time for many years, had “ paid its expenses entirely out of its own pocket without accepting generosity at the hands of its worthy Treasurer, whose purse strings have been found to be loosely tied when 4 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 the needs of the Society became very pressing.” But the Society still owed him £5 10s. on account of previous deficits. A MS. list of records of Coleoptera of the London Area was placed in the Society’s library and represented more than half the total number of British species. 1896 is recorded as “ memorable for the Society’s debt to the Treasurer of £16 5s. 8d.” The Society was “ wallowing in financial mire ” and the Treasurer had resigned, but “ not without a crowning act of benevolence. The Treasurer at one fell swoop, actually, but not morally, annihilated that part of the debt due to him by paying £5 of it for life membership and presenting the balance of £1 11s. 2d. as a donation. What can be said of generosity like this ? ” We gained our first life member, but there was still £9 14s. 6d. due to the Secretary. The Conversazione of 1897 was enlivened not only by a demonstration of X-rays and an address by Lord Walsingham, but by songs, pianoforte solos and trombone solos. The Council complains that “ our young men are afraid they cannot write anything to which it would be worth the Society’s while to listen ” and that “ if a man has reached the age of 40 without reading a paper it is pretty certain he will never read one.” Membership is down to 63 and the subscription up to 7s. 6d. The President, J. W. Tutt, drew attention in 1898 to the existence of a rival natural history society north of the Thames and recommends an immediate union, adding that “ the present condition is scientifically deplorable.” His advice was apparently ignored. This was the year of publication of the first part of the “ Lepidoptera of the London District ” by J. F. Buckell and L. B. Prout. In spite of the patronage of Lord Walsingham, Sir John Lubbock and H. T. Stainton and the presidency of such eminent entomologists as J. W. Tutt, L. B. Prout, Dr. J. A. Clarke and A. W. Mera, the Society continued for the next fourteen years as a society of Lepidopterists with its membership stagnating between 70 and 80 before dropping to 67 in 1913. In 1906, the Secretary had complained that “ for some occult reason it is apparently impossible for the Society to secure more than 70-75 members.” There were repeated complaints in the annual reports that visitors were rarely seen at the meetings. It is clear from the Transactions that the meetings were run by a small body of enthusiastic and a few very eminent lepidopterists. The scientific value of their work and of the papers in the Transactions was remarkable for such a small band of workers ; but that, by itself, was insufficient to maintain the Society. We must now turn to the Society which had become such a serious rival in 1898, and go back to 1886 when four boys at the Grocers’ Company’s School at Hackney formed the Clapton Naturalists’ Field Club, holding meetings at the members’ houses. The frontispiece of the London Naturalist for 1929 shows a party of these and other boys, aged about 15 to 17, on a day’s excursion at Folkestone in May, 1888. The four founder members continued a life-long membership of the Society. Later in 1888, a meeting room was offered at the school and the title was changed to the Grocers’ Company’s School Science Club, and the President was J. W. Gregory who became an eminent professor of geology. The Society grew rapidly and at about this time S. Austin, A. Bacot, M. Culpin, R. W. Robbins and L. J. Tremayne joined, all serving in later years as Presidents. Mr. Tremayne is the only survivor, and until recent years he served the Society continuously, holding at one time or another almost every office both of the Society and of its sections. THE SOCIETY 1 858 TO 1 957 5 In 1892 the Society began meeting at the North East London Institution, Dalston Lane, and changed its name to the North London Natural History Society, the eminent botanist F. J. Hanbury being its first President and Tremayne its Secretary. The North London Society had from the start much wider interests than the City of London Society, all branches of natural history, including astronomy, meteorology and geology finding a place in its programme. There were monthly field meetings, an evening meeting twice a month and a debate every six months. It is interesting to note that a Miss Nicholson gave a description of her summer holiday in 1893, when “ persons desiring to become members could obtain full particulars from the Secretary.” Next year we see the word “ persons ” replaced by “ ladies and gentlemen ” and Miss E. L. Simmons was giving some notes on her holiday. She was on the Council the following year and had married the curator, Mr. R. W. Robbins, in 1897. Last year her sister presented the portrait of Mr. Robbins which hangs in our Library. Was this welcome to ladies, combined of course with the equally broadminded natural history outlook, one of the secrets of the Society’s success ? Its rival waited until 1910 before admitting a lady member and then apparently only because her husband joined as well. One of our oldest members is our Hon. Vice-President, Mr. Oliver G. Pike, the famous bird photographer, who joined in 1897 and gave a lantern lecture entitled “ Notes on the nesting habits of birds.” I was surprised to find that, in 1902, Mr. Pike lectured on “ The Haunts of our Rarer Birds,” illustrated by lantern and cinematograph , and Mr. T. Jessop lectured on “ Colour Photography ” with lantern illustrations, presumably also in colour. What appears to be the first publication of the North London Society other than its programme, is the slim Annual Report for 1904, which continued in that form until 1914. The Society was now meeting on the second and fourth Tuesdays at 7.45 at the Hackney Technical Institute. The meeting room, with the library and collections, was open every Tuesday evening from 7 till 10. The subscription was 5s. and membership 78. There was now a Research Section, with four Research Committees — Botany, Biology, Lepidoptera and Protection (the preservation of Fauna and Flora, Footpaths, etc.). Here we see the origin of some of our present sections. We also see the first definition of the Society’s area, as within 20 miles of St. Paul’s, North of the Thames, and the adoption of 12 divisions for recording purposes. In 1907 our Hon. Vice-President, Mr. C. L. Collenette, joined the Society and gave a lantern lecture on “ Observations on Birds in the neighbourhood of Epping Forest.” The following year he was on the Council and had initiated an Ornithological Research Committee and so, 50 years ago, arose our Ornithological Section, which must now be the largest local ornithological society in the country, if not in the world. It was now the turn of the North London Society to face the occult restrictive influence on its membership, which persisted at about 100. It was decided to combat this by moving headquarters to the City and, in 1909, a room was engaged in Salisbury House, Finsbury Circus. The same year also saw the formation of the Archaeological Committee, with Tremayne as Secretary, and the inauguration of the Chingford Branch. By the end of the following year, membership had jumped to 143. The 6 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Ornithological Committee was already co-operating with the Bird Ringing Scheme just initiated by the British Birds journal, and had ringed 155 birds of 16 species. One is startled, however, to read that the type collection of British birds’ eyes is growing until we see that an oological cabinet is being purchased to house them. In 1911, the Chingford Branch had the remarkable number of 600-700 visitors to its Exhibition. So Mr. Collenette, not to be outdone by Chingford, formed a Woodford Branch which in 1912 had an audience of more than 120 to hear Oliver Pike’s lecture “ In Birdland.” The Society’s membership was now 211. 1913 was a sad year for many members of the City of London Society, when it was decided to merge with its stronger rival. Both societies were now meeting in Hall 20, Salisbury House, on alternate Tuesdays, but on November 4 they met together and sanctioned amalgamation to form the London Natural History Society. Neither of the societies’ finances was flourishing and the new one started 1914 with £15 joint Life Composition Funds and balances of £1 8s. 9d. from the City of London Society and 5d. from the North London Society. The 20 mile radius for the Society’s area was immediately extended South of the Thames. An interesting experiment was started in 1913 in the setting up of a bird sanctuary by arrangement with the owner of a piece of woodland, Hatch Grove, at Chingford. Nesting boxes were set up and nestlings ringed, but by the end of 1914 a new owner cancelled the arrangement and the Society had to abandon the scheme. The effects were sold and realized enough to buy Vols. 1 and 2 of British Birds for our library. The Woodford Branch became a war casualty in 1916, but surprisingly enough, the height of the war saw the inauguration of the present system of sections in 1917 in place of the Research Committee, i.e. Archaeological, Botanical, Lepidoptera, Ornithological and a new Plant Gall Section. In 1920 the Society moved its headquarters to Winchester House, Old Broad Street, where it remained until the transfer to the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 1 930. Up till now meetings had been held for many years on the first and third Tuesday in each month, but from 1931, except for the war years, weekly meetings have been held. Until 1921 the Society’s publication was in the form of Transactions which included the proceedings of the meetings, but in that year they ceased to appear and the title was changed to The London Naturalist. The North London Society in 1892 and onwards By L. J. Tremayne The charm of the original Grocers’ Club was its schoolboy friendships and butterfly-collecting. We were few, but we knew one another more or less intimately. The original syllabus I think was slight — only a few meetings and fewer excursions. But there was a great deal besides that. There were rowing excursions up the Lea. There were even bathing excursions in the Lea, the thought of which still makes me shudder. Based as we inevitably were upon Epping Forest, some of us were always likely to be prowling about there every week-end, and were always liable to meet others of us on the same prowl. I did not take part in all these outings, because I lived on the other side of London. But I was often at Clive Smith’s house, and took part in many of them. Nor were we confined to Epping Forest, We had an annual excursion to the New THE SOCIETY I 858 TO 1 957 7 Forest at Whitsun, which for some of us was the greatest event of the year. And we had plenty of excursions elsewhere. Even after we were turned out of the School and became the North London Natural History Society the same conditions still obtained. The men who now joined the schoolboys — Louis Prout, Arthur Battley, Charley Nicholson and others — no doubt brought with them a more scientific interest in the study of Lepidoptera. No one could associate Prout, for instance, with anything but entomology of the most serious kind. But he was a thoroughly good fellow and a pleasant companion. And so were they all. We remained a local body united by friendship and common interests. We held an annual Exhibition, somewhere about Christmas, which half the town came to see. On a walking tour in the Chilterns in 1904, led by Arthur Bacot, I first made the acquaintance of Edmund Browne Bishop, who had recently joined the Society, an acquaintance which quickly ripened into a lifelong friendship, and has given me some of the happiest days of my life. Meanwhile the Society was slowly and imperceptibly changing and expanding. The lady members, I think, were a pretty early development. They were not brought in without a certain amount of opposition, and one promising young member indignantly resigned in disgust. But they soon made good and prospered. Then there were the inevitable gains and losses. Arthur Battley died young. Charley Nicholson in time retired to the depths and wilds of Cornwall. Prout retired into the Museum, gave up his life to the Lepidoptera and became a world specialist on the Geometridae. Jim Simes (one of the schoolboys) left us early, became a Public Messenger to the Post Office, and an authority on the butterflies of Europe. He rejoined the Society many years later. But before Prout retired he prevailed upon the Council to institute four private committees for research work in entomology, botany, biology and protection (spoliation). Note that there was no committee for ornithology. On the other hand new members were constantly coming in, some of great importance. Such were John Oldham Braithwaite, the chemist, who founded the Chingford branch, and Cyril Collenette, who later brought in the Woodford branch, and recently completed fifty years of valuable service to the Society. Collenette came to us as an ornithologist, and repaired Prout s omission by forming an ornithological research committee, a work in which I had the privilege of assisting him. But perhaps our greatest acquisition was that powerful personality Charles Smith Nicholson, F.L.S., who ultimately became President, and our presiding genius for some years. But all this time the Society had not remained at the Hackney Institute. From there we moved to the Sigdon Road Board School, and when we had to leave that, came the great change. After a great deal of hesitation and deliberation we moved to the City. I fancy C. S. Nicholson was largely instrumental in this. I had been advocating it for some time. Equally slowly, but surely, the character of the Society must have been altering all this time. Any extension of our interests must at first, I think, have been based upon Randolph William Robbins, one of the greatest members the Society ever had, who spent his whole life, from his school days until he 8 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 retired into Devon shortly before his death, in the Society’s close service. Robbins was one of the few among us who had other interests than lepidoptera. He was always a keen botanist. But he was interested in nearly all sciences, and many other things as well. C. S. Nicholson was a botanist pure and simple. Austin took up ornithology and archaeology. Bishop brought in a warm interest in botany, as well as a general love of natural history. Collenette gave a great impetus to ornithology, and later diverged into other branches. In 1915 we gained a most important new member in Harold Burkill, who brought in the study of plant galls, hitherto untouched by us. He quickly threw himself into the Society’s work, soon became an official, and remained a most devoted, loyal and valuable servant of the Society for many years practically up to the time of his death. With the move to the City the character of the Society changed. We were no longer a local body, appealing only to N.E. London. We were now the London N.H.S., appealing to everyone within reach of London. The change took a little time to get going, but the effect was certain, and we presently began to attract members from all points of the compass. Then came the crash, the 1914-1918 War, scattering us in all directions. Many were on service, many others in civilian jobs. The Society, naturally, got into a bad way. It did manage to survive, but not by much. By way of resuscitation, the sections were formed just before the end of the war. Prout’s research committees were thrown open to all members. The scheme was only carried after great opposition, but it was sound, and it worked, though it took some time to work. The election of J. P. Hardiman in 1921 gave a great impetus to the Ornithological Section, which for a time carried the Society on its back. The North London Society in 1907 By C. L. Collenette Fifty years ago the North London Natural History Society, as it then was, numbered 70 full members, with 28 associates, the latter living too far from London to attend meetings. At the present time, the young naturalist can acquire or borrow well illustrated text-books on any subject, scan more periodicals than he can read and hear of more meetings than he can possibly attend. Half a century ago it was perhaps not so easy. The writer searched for his wild flowers in John’s Flowers of the Field, which had no adequate illustra¬ tions ; the Lepidoptera in Furneaux’s Butterflies and Moths, which gave only a small selection of the smaller moths ; and birds from the then very exciting and beautifully illustrated books by Richard Kearton and Oliver Pike. The weekly Country-side, first published in 1905, and British Birds, which appeared in 1907, opened a new world. Then, at last, one heard of a Society where one could meet, once a fortnight, people who really thought natural history a most absorbing occupation, and did not smile in a superior fashion if one was seen with a butterfly net or occupied a corner of the garden with wild plants. There was a very friendly and welcoming spirit at these meetings, and perhaps owing to the late hour of starting, many came early to talk and compare notes. We met at the Amherst Club, Stoke Newington, with two meetings a month, for which members paid an annual subscription of five shillings. Meetings commenced at 8 p.m., illustrating the fact that hours of business THE SOCIETY 1 858 TO I957 9 were long and that some members lived close enough to walk to the meetings. There were few evening attractions in those days, and the more prominent members attended every meeting irrespective of subject. The average attendance reached one-third of the membership. Exhibits were sometimes surprisingly numerous, with the emphasis on botany, and with the insects a good second. This did not prevent ornithology from providing the most popular meeting of 1907— a slide lecture by Oliver Pike — which filled the small room to overflowing. Meetings finished late, and the writer vividly remembers his unlighted walk in winter past the lake in Highams Park and across the Woodford Golf Links. Official excursions were not numerous, and the Society virtually closed down in July and August, in deference to the almost universal custom of seaside holidays in those months. In the winter months, Mr. and Mrs. Clive Smith of Highgate ran a club known as the Chingford Plain Hockey Club, which appeared in no official report, but was supported exclusively by Society members. Arthur Bacot was a very efficient back, and Dr. and Mrs. Greenwood played, the latter in goal, where her long skirt was very useful. Some of the members walked in Epping Forest during the morning and returned for the game, and we won several of our matches, particularly on our own ground, which was somewhat rough. After two or three seasons it became more difficult to raise a team and play ceased. In 1907 the Society’s accounts showed a deficit of £4, or nearly one-fifth of the total income, and there was talk of raising the annual subscription. “ Sending round the hat ” was vetoed by the Council, although this method was employed in other cases— for an insect cabinet, and, somewhat later, for a cabinet to house the Society’s collection of birds’ eggs and again for fencing and nesting boxes for the new bird sanctuary. In this case, with the unofficial approval of the younger members of Council, a subscription dance was held in aid of the funds, in the Morley Hall, Leytonstone, organized by S. W. Bradley and the writer. It was well attended and a great success in every way but one, as the Society benefited to the extent of only five shillings. The Years 1927 to 1957 By L. Parmenter In 1927, the Society had its first big jump in the numbers of new members enrolled. Twenty-seven had been elected in 1926, but in 1927, 65 joined. Lord Grey of Falloden, K.G., P.C., became our first Honorary President and Messrs. F. J. Hanbury and L. B. Prout, members since 1892 and 1905 respectively, our first Honorary Vice-Presidents. New rules and a new type of Programme were produced. The membership of the Society consisted of 279 members and associates. The sectional rolls were Archaeology 50, Botany 61, Entomology and Plant Galls 53 Ornithology 98, Ramblers 35 and Chingford Branch 42. A Society’s growth, influence and strength depends partly on the personalities of its members (and particularly of its officers) and on the amount of time, energy, knowledge and money they can devote to the Society’s activities ; and partly to external influences. By 1927, few of the old City of London Entomological Society were left. They included the Rev. C. N. Burrows, Dr. E. A. Cockayne and Messrs. R. Adkin and C. H. Williams. However, from the other parent society, the North London Natural History Society, were several who had become important 10 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 in the Society’s ranks — Messrs. S. Austin, E. B. Bishop, C. L. Collenette, F. G. Dell, A. B. Hornblower, L. B. Prout, R. W. Robbins and L. J. Tremayne. It seemed that at last the effects of the 1914-1918 War had been over¬ come and expansion was in the air. The depression was to come, also transport strikes and, far greater and more disturbing, another war. The Society has emerged through all these troubles with increasing strength. The difficulties tended to discourage the non-enthusiastic but gave greater freedom to the enthusiast. Individuals join a Society for a variety of reasons and this has been our experience. Not all find fulfilment of their hopes or aims, but their reward to a large extent has depended on the amount and quality of their own work and co-operation in the Society’s activities. Thus the virility of the various Sections and the success and number of their indoor and outdoor meetings, etc., has depended on the individuals who have been able to co-operate and on the amount and quality of that co-operation. Twenty-five of us are left out of the 279 of the Society of 1927. Of those who have died during the intervening period, the man whose influence in the Society was greatest during his lifetime, and is still evident in the Society’s organization and research work, was R. W. Robbins. In the London Naturalist for 1941, a volume whose slimness was due to the war, there is a tribute to his work and character. One of the original schoolboy founders of the Clapton Naturalists’ Field Club, in time to be the North London Natural History Society, he was an all-round amateur naturalist. Among his official duties in the Society he had been its President, and Secretary and Chairman of three sections — Botany, Ecology and Entomology. He read 56 papers to the Society over 50 years. There have been many others who have given excellent service to the Society, many that are still with us, but his contribution remains outstanding. His wisdom in Council, ability in the field and his charm as host at Limpsfield will be remembered always by those privileged to have known him. In 1927, when the member’s subscription was only 7s. 6d., the Society was operating at a cost of 13s. per head, the London Naturalist being published as a result of donations. In the volume for that year we see the commencement of a list of Plants of the London Area with R. W. Robbins as one of the three editors. This publication increased the keenness and numbers in the Botanical Section. The other sections had recording schemes — Archaeology its Church inspection reports, Ento¬ mology and Plant Galls lists of interesting discoveries, and Ornithology its annual list of the birds in the London area and reports on uncommon species. The Ramblers’ Section had only been formed a year before but had commenced holding long week-end outings in addition to the regular all-day meetings every month. R. W. Robbins became Chairman of the reformed Entomology Section in 1928 when it separated from the Plant Galls Section. In 1928 W. E. Glegg became President after serving as Secretary to the Society for several years. He was becoming known throughout the country as a competent ornithologist, preparing his History of the Birds of Essex of 1929 to be followed in 1935 by his History of the Birds of Middlesex. He inspired the Ornithological Section which was expanding steadily. In this year, the first List of the Birds of the London Area was produced, summarizing the Society’s records. The Entomology Section brought out its first report on British Butterflies. The publications THE SOCIETY 1 858 TO I957 II of these two sections and the appearance of a further part of the botanical list undoubtedly increased interest in the Society and in these three sections in particular. Taking over the duties of recorder to the Ornithological Section and helping to produce the 1928 list, assisted by Messrs. S. Austin and C. S. Bayne, made me realize that most members wanted to help in some research project, however simple, and wished to make some contri¬ bution to the furtherance of the study of natural history. From a small local group our members were becoming known over a widening area as their contributions to the national publications were accepted, and as a result experienced naturalists joined our ranks. In December 1948, L. G. Payne continued his history of the Society as his Presidential address, dealing with the period from 1914, the year of the amalgamation of the City of London Entomological and Natural History Society with the North London Natural History Society, up to 1945, the end of the Second World War. In his account he mentioned the effects of the two wars, the general strike, the world-wide depression and the transport strikes : all set-backs to the Society’s progress but success¬ fully overcome. Membership rose steadily. The 279 of 1927 has now grown to 1550. Newcomers in the period have totalled 3,596, 320 joining in 1957. From a Society small enough for all the active members to know each other we have become more specialized, and although the Ornithological Section outnumbers the other sections so completely, the average member is interested in other wild things as well as birds. The many all-round naturalists who have served on the Council and particu¬ larly as Presidents have helped to keep the broad viewpoint. The growth during the period has brought changes in the meeting- places. In 1927 we were meeting in the basement of Winchester House, Old Broad Street, in the City. As the evening approached closing-time, lights were dimmed by the caretaker and at times an over-enthusiastic and eloquent speaker concluded his lecture in the dark. The library was hidden behind frosted glass doors panelling two sides of the room and the books were rarely borrowed. In 1930, our numbers had expanded to such an extent as to require new quarters and we were fortunate to be allowed to use the lecture rooms of the new London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. The library installed in the basement was accessible, and became a focal point before and after meetings for more social chats than were possible in the formal atmosphere of the lecture rooms. The epidiascope was an improvement on our old equipment and with the occasional use of the film projector, the success of the lectures brought a flow of new members. Later, the Art Workers’ Guildhall was used for many meetings and more recently we have been permitted to use the rooms of the Linnean Society at Burlington House, Piccadilly. The removal of the library and collections to the basement of 25 Eccleston Square, brought problems but also gave an opportunity to the sections to hold informal meetings and demonstrations, widening the scope of the indoor programme. There is still a need, however, for accommodation for the library and collections in the same building as that in which the weekly lectures can be given. Prior to the 1939-45 War, the Society had held well-attended exhibitions each year, organized by Mr. C. L. Collenette, and the annual dinners of the Ramblers’ Section had become the Society’s Dinner. They enabled old friends to meet and potential members to sample the Society’s organization and friendly atmosphere ; busy days for the Secretary who 12 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 from 1926 to 1928 was Mr. J. P. Hardiman, a keen ornithologist and bird protectionist. He handed over to Mr. A. B. Hornblower, who continued as Secretary until Mr. H. A. Toombs took over in 1945 to be followed by Mrs. Small in 1956. To them and the two who served so long in their offices, F. G. Dell as Treasurer and H. J. Burkill as Minuting Secretary and the others of the 308 ladies and gentlemen who have served the Society as its Officers, Council or members of Sectional Committees, a great debt is due. The two parent Societies, the City of London and the North London, were both started by entomologists. In the 1890’s, research was the aim of the leaders of these Societies. Louis Prout and A. W. Bacot were becoming outstanding among British entomologists. They had able supporters in R. W. Robbins and L. J. Tremayne, the latter having served as Secretary during J. W. Tutt’s Presidency of the City of London Society. Tutt, a great figure in British entomology, urged the amalgamation of the two societies in 1898 but this did not come into effect until 1914. By then, Research Committees were functioning and in 1917 these were reorganized as Sections. It is this organization of research which Robbins and Tremayne fostered throughout the years and which became the backbone of the sections’ activities. The evidence is in the pages of the London Naturalist and in the London Bird Report (which was first published separately in 1936 when the Society had passed the 500 membership mark). During the years 1927 to 1957, there have been 164 authors of papers in the London Naturalist, whilst in the shorter period the London Bird Report has had 33 authors. These journals, however, recorded the research work of a much larger number of members and friends. Although we have always had eminent taxonomists and biologists in our ranks, the bulk of our numbers have joined with little knowledge, aiming to acquire more and to assist in simple observational work in their first years with the Society. From the observations of members made in their spare time, the sections have organized comprehensive reports annually, from time to time summar¬ izing the results. The same trend has been seen throughout the country and gave rise to the formation of the British Trust for Ornithology. The Botanists commenced publishing in 1927, as previously mentioned, a List of Plants of the London Area, in the London Naturalist. In 1957, a second and greatly enlarged list, edited by D. H. Kent and J. E. Lousley, has been completed. The recorders numbered 393. The collection and publication of the data forming these lists has stimulated many botanists in and around London. The annual reports of the Ornithological Section were first summarized in 1928 and a steady increase in observers followed. By 1957, 1417 members and friends had sent in records. The standard of recording had risen during the years. The ecological viewpoint has been encouraged and with up to 336 recorders in a year the Area has been well covered. The culmination of the work was the publi¬ cation of the Birds of the London Area in 1957 under the authorship of R. C. Homes and his Committee — Miss C. M. Acland and Messrs. C. B. Ashby, C. L. Collenette, R. S. R. Fitter, E. R. Parrinder and B. A. Richards. The co-operative studies during the period have been many. Among the outstanding were the Heron Census, Great Crested Grebe Census, Duck Counts, Starling Enquiry, Gravel Pit Enquiry and the Beddington Sewage Farm Survey. The 1928 list of birds totalled 192 species, but as many as 190 have singe been seen in a single year and the total number of species is now 245, THE SOCIETY 1 858 TO 1 957 13 Other sections have also secured co-operation among their members ; the Entomologists have had records from 322, whilst a Grey Squirrel report was based on the work of 131 observers. Even the more specialized work of the Geologists on Temporary Sections secured the support of 17 recorders. Again, among the Ornithologists, nearly 150 have joined in the Ornithological Section’s bird-ringing schemes and up to and including 1957 had ringed almost 47,000 birds of over 150 species and secured many recoveries of great interest. The rising importance of the Society s ringing station at Beddington Sewage Farm is illustrated by their 1956 ringing total of 3,666 birds of 57 species. In 1936, the increasing interest in ecology caused the formation of an Ecological Section under the chairmanship of R. W. Robbins. The surveys organized by the section at Limpsfield Common, Bookham Common, Cripplegate bombed site and at Coulsdon secured the co-operation in the field of many specialists. Before bombing stopped attendance at Limpsfield Common, over one hundred had joined in the work and a dozen published the results of studies made there. At Bookham Common, the numbers have been much larger ; even in 1945 over 50 visitors were present. The 31 authors of papers forming the annual survey reports for the Bookham Survey are based on the observa¬ tions of many observers and Dr. G. Beven has recorded that 35 assisted him in his more recent bird studies there. The value of the papers has secured grants for publication from the Royal Society. The Entomologists have been able to publish summaries of the status of certain orders of insects known to occur in the London Area. But the large number of species involved will prevent a rapid survey of all the London insect fauna. During the period the sections have maintained a regular and varied programme of lectures and field excursions catering for both the expert and the beginner. Visitors have approved and have become members. But outside events have also influenced the growth of the Society. Archaeology of the early twentieth century was based in most local societies on visits to churches and old buildings. With the influence of television and the excavations for new buildings, a trend has become evident towards more active field-work. Botany has been favoured with a steady flow of illustrated books and progress in taxonomy. In schools, the emphasis has been on function and ecology with less attention being paid to the family characteristics by teachers who were more experienced in field work than those of the previous century. In addition, we have been fortunate in numbering amongst our sectional officials several of the leading botanists in the country, who also serve as officials in the Botanical Society of the British Isles. They have raised our standard of recording considerably. Ecology has become a normal subject of study in many schools. It has also appealed to the many visitors to the various Field Study Centres. Entomology has been aided by the need for increasing the number of specialists for work on pests during the wars, and by the consequent expansion in education for the greater number of posts abroad. The Royal Entomological Society, with an increasing world-wide membership, has grown greatly in usefulness during the period. Our Society has been fortunate in having had members who have become officials and Council members of the senior society. In fact the membership of so many 14 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 national and local societies by our own members has kept this Society well informed as to the present trends in the science. The Ornithologists have particularly benefited by the programmes of the B.B.C. on radio and television. They have also gained several inter¬ esting sheets of water — the new reservoirs — the haunts of waders when under construction, of ducks and gulls when completed. The Geologists have had opportunities for study created by the building boom after the wars. Excavations for building materials and on the building sites themselves have enabled original studies to be undertaken in and around the centre of London. The Ramblers, at first concentrating on the field paths in our Area, have widened their interests, visiting famous houses, museums and factories that use natural resources. The restrictions in travel during the thirty years imposed by war conditions and by transport strikes have been overcome, but they hindered the carrying out of the programmes. Plans have had to be revised as fares rose, but the Ramblers’ excursion trains and the use of more motor coaches have enabled the sections to combine long trips with local visits. At Hounslow, the formation of a South West Middlesex Group has given those living in the neighbourhood the opportunity to organize lectures and excursions v/ithout having to spare time and money to join in the main society’s functions. The war of 1939-1945 possibly had the greatest effect on the Society’s growth. L. G. Payne dealt with some of the life of the Society during the six years so vital to this island. With him I helped to move the library from the corridor at Keppel Street at the very hour when war was declared. Dr. A. Landsborough Thomson joined us in the corridor at that moment with a couple of his staff. Payne and I shared with other members another Sunday, during the early days of the war when our little British Expeditionary Force was retreating to the Channel. We stood on the ridge of the heath overlooking Oxshott station, listening to the thud of the guns thundering all day, thinking of D. A. T. Morgan and others of our members whom w7e believed to be in the midst of the shelling. Behind us and over us came a group of mixed aircraft setting forth for rescue work — Dunkirk Sunday. At first, the absence of the younger members was felt most, but when the bombing of London com¬ menced, both field and indoor meetings were cancelled because of the blackout conditions. But we decided to hold a few meetings as soon as possible and at these we became closer knit, exchanging tales of the bomb damage to our homes or places of work and on travel conditions. The enjoyment of the few hours together in the field, or at the meetings which those of us in the Services were able to share with L. G. Payne, J. B. Foster, R. S. R. Fitter and others who were keeping the Society going, gave promise of a strong revival in due time. In those years the surveys of the ecologists became the backbone of the outdoor programme for they brought the members of the various sections together. In those years also, the all-round naturalists com¬ menced their planning for the days of peace. The wartime loss of several favourite haunts of our members encouraged the consideration of nature reserves and of conservation generally. C. P. Castell commenced his valuable studies preparing the reports for the Government. His work, so admirably supported by Miss C. E. Longfield, was helped by many members and has saved several areas from obliteration by building. THE SOCIETY 1 858 TO 1 957 15 R. S. R. Fitter was writing his London's Natural History which when published in 1945 brought us many new members, a recruitment service he has continued with his later books and lectures. But plans were also made by the Servicemen, and as they returned they took over tasks with a keenness and ability greater for their war experiences. Enthusiasm was catching and the rapid growth in the Society commenced. By 1949 we had passed the 1,000 mark. The projected Birds of London book was under way. The Baron de Worms produced a List of Butterflies of the London Area, fifty years after L. B. Prout and Dr. F. J. Buckell had published one for the City of London Society, then using an area with a radius of only 10 miles from the centre. In 1950, a new list of plants was begun and an exhibition, the first since 1939, was held at the British Museum (Natural History). In the London Naturalist for the year, P. W. E. Currie wrote an editorial, probably the best we have ever had, full of suggestions for increasing the value of the journal and of the co-operative work of our members. The following year, there came the move to the Linnean Society’s rooms and by the next year the increasing interest in insects and mammals had emphasized the need for continuing the London Naturalist at 200 pages or so. It brought about an increase in subscriptions but no decrease in membership. In 1953, the closer working with the University of London led to a series of lectures being arranged on our behalf. Dealing with subjects selected by the Council of the Society and often by lecturers proposed by the Society, the University since then has provided a number of lecture series of high standard and related to the amateur work that our members have been able to tackle. In the remaining years we have seen the completion of the summaries on the status of our birds, plants and moths. New local surveys have been started. The study of mammals has increased. During the past thirty years we have seen a growing interest in conservation and ecology. CastelPs reports on conservation in the Area and J. H. G. Peterken’s and Dr. F. Rose’s papers on the habitats in the London Area have shown the variety of opportunity for studies still available to those who live or work in London. During these thirty years we have seen beginners join the Society, gain tuition and encouragement, and emerge as leaders of the nation’s naturalists, the writers and lecturers whose names are known throughout Britain ; and many have achieved world-wide recognition. Our Honorary Presidents— Lord Grey, Professor Gowland Hopkins^ Professor Major Greenwood and particularly Professor H. Munro Fox’ have encouraged and helped the Society. We have come a long way from the two small groups of collectors of lepidoptera, the working men of Haggerston and the schoolboys of Clapton. Our future as a local natural history society, probably the largest local natural history society in the world, is assured. The Society’s adaptability has been proven time and time again. Its usefulness will depend on the co-operation of its members and the encouragement given to them. The fauna and flora of London and its countryside is forever changing, and constantly needs preserving from spoliation. Of the hundreds of its insects that affect the lives of the plants and form the food of the birds little is known of their life histories, so that the scope for further discoveries remains open. In our area we have the encouragement of London University, the facilities of Kew, South Kensington and the other 1 6 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 research establishments, the best of the science libraries and the homes of the national scientific societies : an excellent habitat for a natural history society. In the years to come, the Society’s role in the education of new naturalists will continue at lectures, discussions and in the field. The flora and fauna will be studied more intensively. May the Society long continue to enable Londoners to enjoy the beauty of the living countryside, and to encourage the growth of their friendships made as they observe and study the plants and animals sharing the open spaces in and around the City and County of London. The Presidents of the London Natural History Society 1914 L. B. Prout, F.E.S. (dec.) 1915-19 E. A. Cockayne, M.A., D.M., F.R.C.P., F.R.E.S. (dec.) 1920 R. W. Robbins (dec.) 1921-4 E. B. Bishop (dec.) 1925-7 S. Austin, F.Z.S. (dec.) 1928-9 W. E. Glegg, F.Z.S. M.B.O.U. (dec.) 1930-1 L. J. Tremayne, F.Z.S. 1932-3 Miss C. E. Longfield, F.R.G.S., F.R.E.S., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U. 1934-6 J. E. S. Dallas (dec.) 1937-8 C. L. Collenette, F.R.G.S., F.R.E.S. 1939^-5 J. B. Foster, B.A. 1946-8 L. G. Payne, F.Z.S. (dec.) 1949-51 L. Parmenter, F.R.E.S. 1952-4 J. H. G. Peterken, F.L.S. 1955-6 R. C. Homes, M.B.O.U. 1957- C. P. Castell, B.Sc., F.G.S. General Secretaries The office was created in 1919. 1919-1925 1926-1928 1929-1945 1945-1955 1956- W. E. Glegg, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U. (dec.) J. P. Hardiman, C.B.E., B.A. (dec.) A. B. Hornblower (dec.) H. A. Toombs Mrs. L. M. P. Small Photo by Joan Small Plate 1 “ The Brownlow Arms.” Headquarters from 1859 to 1887. THE ROLE OF THE AMATEUR NATURALIST 17 The Role of the Amateur Naturalist By C. Diver, C.B., C.B.E. AS the word “ amateur ” has different shades of meaning, some compli¬ mentary, some less so, it is as well to clarify what is meant by it in this note. By derivation, an amateur is a person who does something for the love of it and, by implication, not with the hope of material reward ; the urge may be so strong that he can hardly help himself. But because for the majority what is done for the love of it is often no more than a pastime — an activity treated lightly as a relaxation from the more serious business of life — a secondary and slightly derogatory meaning has come into use. This is best exemplified by the adjective “ amateurish,” indicating work that is imperfect or defective by professional standards. Here, I am applying “ amateur ” solely in its simple, primary meaning to persons who, however well- or ill-qualified, devote much of their spare time to an activity purely for the interest and pleasure of so doing. The fact that they may have been given, rather than giving themselves, a biological education is immaterial. The quality of their serious work is related, just as it is in the professional field, to personal ability. What goes on around us is a perennial source of interest to the alert mind. If such a mind is equipped also with the power to observe, to recognize the finest differences, and to record accurately, and if it displays mental honesty, judgment, a persistent desire to know and, above all, patience and humility, it has the qualities essential to the making of a naturalist. For the absence of these qualities no professional training in methods and techniques will compensate. It is not the subject matter of his, or her, formal education that may put the amateur naturalist at a disadvantage in comparison with the professional biologist. On the contrary, the fact that the amateur has usually been taught subjects other than science and has worked in other professions is likely to broaden the basis of experience against which judgments must be tested. Having avoided the possible danger that early specialization has grooved his mind with the lines of current orthodoxy (for, in spite of the strong emphasis on a critical approach, there are fashions in science as in other human activities), his chances of breaking new ground or making an original approach are at least as good as those of the student who has had the normal vocational training. Given a little determination and the ready help of those with the same interests, it is quite possible for him to find out for himself what he must know about past and current work within the subject of his choice, and to pick up the simpler techniques needed in the field and in the study. But where he is liable to suffer a handicap is in the lack of time and material equipment, particularly of the more expensive kinds. This difficulty has, unfortun¬ ately, increased since the heyday of the great naturalists and shows few signs of diminishing again in the future. But what does this mean ? Surely, no more than that the amount of work the amateur can do and the nature of the enquiries he is able to undertake are to some extent limited ; certainly not that the quality of the work need be in any way sub-standard. Most of the people who belong to natural history societies do so because, having an interest in nature, they derive pleasure from going out, looking at, and hearing about, living plants and animals. They do THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 18 not set out to do “ work,” amateurishly or otherwise, nor do they aim at making any personal addition to the sum of natural knowledge. There is nothing whatever to disparage in this attitude. By their support they help to sustain the framework of the society within which a few active workers can make contributions to science ; by their influence they can help in the preservation of those few parts of this much-populated country where nature can still be enjoyed more or less undisturbed ; and by spreading among their friends and acquaintances a better appreciation of natural values they can do much to educate public opinion. Within the limits of their interest and of their other commitments, they may be willing to lend a hand to some corporate enterprise ; but it is unrealistic and unfair to expect them to convert what is to them a pleasing relaxation into just another job of work. These considerations hardly apply to the few who merit the honoured designation of “ naturalist.” From them have come, and will continue to come, the advances in knowledge that have so distinguished the amateur tradition in this country. Until the last century, scientific research was, as Haldane (1927) reminded us in his essay on “ Scientific Research for Amateurs,” almost entirely the work of men who earned their living by some other methods or had private means. Even at the beginning of the present century, the possibilities of a naturalist being able to pursue his interests as a means of livelihood were still very limited. Those in the few appropriate academic or teaching posts, or in charge of the national collections, were seldom able to devote much of their professional time to the study of the British flora and fauna — though in this respect botanists were more fortunate than entomologists. By far the greater part, therefore, of what we know about our own plants and animals, as well as much of our knowledge about those living in other parts of the world, has been the result of amateur work — and this has been going on quietly but steadily throughout the hundred years of this Society’s life. During the last few decades, scientific research has received constantly increasing recognition. Government expenditure on “ civil research,” which includes industry and communications, fisheries, medicine, agriculture, forestry, meteorology, and most recently nature conservation, is to-day more than seven times what it was in 1939. The number and size of research institutes and units have greatly increased ; and a wide variety of research careers is now open to the young scientist at home and abroad. The question is : How have these changed conditions affected the importance of maintaining the flow of amateur effort ? In the biological field the answer is simple : the need has increased. The work of the amateur in biology has naturally tended to centre, not so much upon the basic problems presented by living matter, as upon the species in most of its aspects — morphology, systematics and taxonomy, distribution and dispersal, behaviour, ecology, variation in natural populations (including the simpler genetic relationships), phytogeny and evolution. Where the amateur is hampered, owing to lack of equipment, laboratory facilities, skilled assistance and time, is in the detailed analysis of physiological requirements, chemical make-up and physical reactions. As the boundaries of our .ignorance are forced back, the winning of further knowledge tends to become more difficult ; greater complexities are revealed ; greater precision and closer analysis are needed : and further advances on that front begin to pass out of the scope of the enquirer with limited time and facilities. But along great lengths of the THE ROLE OF THE AMATEUR NATURALIST 19 boundary that stage is nowhere in sight. Of the many hundreds of thousands of species that make up the world's living flora and fauna there is not one, man included, that cannot still usefully be studied from some aspect by a keen and able amateur. In this country alone there are over 20,000 species of insects, apart from all the other invertebrate groups, and as many species again of fungi and algae ; and there is still a great deal to learn about the distribution, behaviour and requirements of even the commonest of these. The scope of the amateur of palaeontology is no less wide. In short, the opportunities for further work by amateurs are, for practical purposes, inexhaustible. The increasing need for such work is attributable to three main causes — the new policy of nature conservation ; the economic pressure to improve biological productivity and the health of plants, animals and man ; and the trend of academic research towards more general problems as opposed to particular studies of species. In spite of the many new jobs arising from the first two developments and the increase in university research posts, the number of professional biologists working on species is, and is certain to remain, totally inadequate. The field force of amateurs needed to supplement this deficiency can readily absorb every reliable worker. The rapid advances made during the last hundred years in the physical and chemical sciences have provided a wealth of new “ tools ” for the detailed examination of the functioning and general behaviour of living matter under controlled conditions. This has played a large part in shaping the fashion in present-day biological research. The professional ecologist, for example, may nowadays spend much of his time not in the field but with ovens and flame photometers, in constant temperature rooms, or among gadgets for the exact control of light, humidity and air move¬ ment. He may be more concerned with the physico-chemical analyses of various backgrounds and their modification as the result of occupation by particular populations than with the limitations a particular back¬ ground imposes on the population spread of a given species. Radio¬ active substances can now be used to measure the passage of time through millennia or the movement of an insect over a distance of a few feet. Ecology has reached the stage at which it is possible in certain circumstances to make a fair guess why species A lives in one place and not in another, or why species B and C usually live in the same place while D and E practically never do, or to indicate some of the effects produced when species F dominates a given site. But it is not possible, for instance, to state in full what lives in any given place — a set of facts that is fundamental to planning the scientific management or control, whether for conservational or economic reasons, of any natural or semi-natural community ; the meaning of “ what ” here is both qualita¬ tive and quantitative, embracing all the different kinds of life present, from unicellular organisms upwards, and at least the approximate numbers of each kind. Until we know these facts, we have not fully described the background of any one of the component species ; any inferences we may draw can be no better than approximations that fail to take into account an unknown number of unknowns whose individual and combined effects upon the habitat are equally unknown. In very limiting conditions, such as may be found in deserts, or in closely circumscribed minor habitats, such as a single fallen log, it may be possible by a concentrated attack and with the help of the right specialists 20 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 to get fairly close to the full answer at a given time. But in any normal habitat in a reserve, or in a crop, we can hardly begin to assemble an answer beyond the more obvious and easily recognized species. In the plants, admittedly, these are probably responsible for most of the grosser ecological effects ; while the animals noted are likely to include only those that are more or less static, those that we know how to look for, and those that if found happen to be in a recognizable stage of their development at the time of the observations. We still do not know the salient facts in the life cycle of many common species — the seasonal sequence of events, the periods spent in each stage and their habitat requirements, what the various stages feed on or other¬ wise make use of, and what they supply for others in the way of food or shelter when living or dead. In many species we do not know the early stages at all. There is a vast range of fascinating enquiries open to the amateur in this bionomical field alone, some of which may yield informa¬ tion of economic value as well as of scientific interest. In recent decades studies of this kind have become of increasing importance in their application to the control of destructive or disease¬ carrying pests. This is essentially a species problem ; and it is not likely that effective protection will be achieved unless the whole complex of relationships between the species that do, or can, occupy the habitat in question is appreciated and until a good working knowledge is available of the bionomics, dispersal and distribution, not only of the pest species itself, but also of those connected with the pest and what the pest attacks, or even with the general habitat. Because of this ignorance of the ordinary behaviour and relationships of so many of the species likely to be involved in these specialized enquiries, much time (and money) may be lost in the pursuit of profitless lines, and more has to be set aside for the slow process of making ad hoc studies of background species belonging to a number of different groups outside the previous experience of the biologist allotted to the job. Bionomical observations can readily be associated with the recording of distributions. The valuable census of the British non-marine Mollusca has been run for more than eighty years entirely on an amateur basis under the aegis of the Conchological Society, and is a model of what such a census should be. The more ambitious new census of vascular plants undertaken by the Botanical Society of the British Isles on the basis of ten-kilometre grid squares instead of Watsonian vice-counties will depend, not only for its original construction but also for its continuation, upon wide-spread amateur effort. The need has long been felt for distributional censuses on the conchological model for at least the more popular groups of insects. Now that two amateurs (Locket and Millidge, 1951, 1953) have produced a workable handbook on British spiders, it is to be hoped that others will rapidly expand our knowledge of this ecologically important but too often neglected group — though, as Dr. Bristowe claims on page 1 of his introductory chapter, our knowledge of the British fauna in all probability compares favourably with that of any other country in the world ; and he goes on to say : “ This is a remarkable achievement when it is realized that we owe our present knowledge almost entirely to the spare-time enthusiasm of a series of clergymen, doctors, schoolmasters and business men, THE ROLE OF THE AMATEUR NATURALIST 21 a tradition in which the authors of this book and the writer of this chapter are proud to follow.” In this context must also be mentioned the amount of work regularly put in by amateurs, as helpers of the permanent staff, on the upkeep and systematic study of the national collections. Though it is useful for distributional records to have a list of the species found in a reasonably circumscribed area, it is more useful if the type of habitat they occupied is also recorded ; and the greater the accuracy with which this is defined the greater will be the value of the record. This applies to records from any part of the country and not merely to those made in relation to a local survey, like that being conducted by the Society on Bookham Common. For, provided that the habitat descriptions are clear, sufficient and understandable to others, these records help to outline the ecology of the species to which they refer. Furthermore, no oppor¬ tunity should be lost of recording any special aspect of behaviour that may come to notice, since what an animal does, or wants to do, can bear an important relationship to the sort of place in which it likes to be. Much, though by no means all, of the experimental side of the study of animal behaviour may need facilities not readily available to the amateur ; but observations under natural conditions can be made by any naturalist who has the necessary high degree of patience and accuracy and can make the time for the exercise of these qualities. It is insufficiently realized that opportunities for these studies are to be found almost every¬ where, from the few square yards of a London back-garden to the wilds of the mountains. Such studies can have great value in building up the picture, not only of the autecology of the species observed, but also of the background as lived in by associated plants and animals. The setting-up of the Nature Conservancy, with its responsibility for establishing and maintaining national nature reserves, so as to preserve their special flora and fauna, and for doing all it can to safeguard particu¬ larly interesting species and places elsewhere, has thrown into sharp focus, for those who are not myopic, the vast gaps in our knowledge. We seldom know the field necessities of common species, much less of those that are rare. Even when the scientific staff of the Conservancy has been brought up to the numbers regarded as the bare minimum by the pioneers of this development— and there seems little chance of this primitive stage being reached for some time yet— the main brunt of the advance will still have to be borne by amateurs. Though the declaration of reserves and the scheduling of other places of special interest provide new opportunities, as well as urgent needs, for the work of the field naturalist who is able to visit these places, it must again be stressed that reliable field observations anywhere, so long as they are made available by publication or otherwise to those in charge of reserves and special sites, all help to build up the detailed net-work of knowledge without which successful biological “ management ” is impossible. The need to bring all available information together is one of real urgency. No past experience of “ management ” for purely biological purposes can be called in aid. In the absence of this expertise, there is real danger of irreparable damage being done by falling back on the orthodox methods of the land agent, the forester and the gardener ; these can be generalized — if somewhat unfairly — as a wish to replace what is living naturally in a place by something that can only be made to maintain its existence in an acceptable condition by constant human 22 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 interference and care. Within the reserves and special sites great help can be given to the hard-pressed regional officers of the Conservancy by active amateurs who are able and willing to apply their special knowledge of particular groups to determining and recording what species are present and how they are behaving in these places. Although the amateur of to-day has many advantages over his prede¬ cessors in previous generations, and not least in the availability of rapid transport for himself and his improved field equipment, he suffers one serious drawback. Spare time is increasingly at a premium under the growing pressure of things that have to be done in the modern state , but to the really determined man or woman with a true interest in nature, the field is still, and will long remain, wide open. REFERENCES HALDANE, J. B. S., 1927, Possible Worlds , London. „ 0 . T , LOCKET, G. H., and MILLIDGE, A. F., 1951, 1953, British Spiders, 2 vols., Ray Society, London. Changes in the Bird Life of the London Area since 1900 By R. C. Homes THIS paper is based on a Presidential Address to the London Natural History Society in 1955, before the publication of The Birds of the London Area since 1900. The book having now appeared, and with the lapse of a few more years, some modifications have become necessary though these relate more to the winter visitors than to the resident species. In particular, the intensive observations that were made during the unusually severe weather in February, 1956, have added appreciably to our records of aquatic birds, while the post-war years have seen the first recorded occurrence in our Area during this century of no fewer than 31 species. The object then of the present paper is to sum up the major changes that have taken place in a way that was impossible for reasons of space in the book itself. Some repetition in the description of the changing environment has been inevitable, and I hope that a concise summary of the changes will be of sufficient interest to have made this justifiable. It is perhaps obvious to the keener observers that little is too insignificant to put down in their personal records, but it is only too true that all of us tend not to bother about the familiar, and it is for this reason that we are so often left wondering when this or that change really did begin. The shortage of resident bird-watchers with a really thorough knowledge of what has taken place in one district over a long period of years is always one of the great difficulties facing the bird historian. We owe much, for example, to such as T. L. Bartlett, Howard Bentham, Col. McCulloch, H. E. Pounds, Professor E. H. Warmington and the late Bertram Lloyd. It is one of the greatest mistakes to imagine you know all there is to know about the status of your local birds, for their numbers may and do fluctuate from year to year with variations in weather conditions and breeding success, with the result that longer-term trends can readily be obscured in the short-term CHANGES IN THE BIRD LIFE OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE I9OO 23 fluctuations if there is not a continuous record for reference. For this reason alone the censuses of great crested grebes and herons in the breeding season have tremendous value to the student of population dynamics, as they provide our first opportunity of studying the problem on a large scale. I should like to stress this problem of fluctuations, because a Londoner should not be content with glibly attributing long-term changes to the consequences of the spread of London, for these consequences are themselves of great diversity. What then are these developments ? Not so very long ago London was the centre of a built-up area not necessarily regular in its outline but reasonably compact ; outside, the open country was unbroken except for small country towns and villages which were themselves tidy units and did not isolate large sections of the countryside like rural counterparts of the town park. Since those days, however, that curse of the present age, ribbon development, has followed the course of the new arterial roads and linked up the scattered communities fringing London, to be followed by a gradual expansion outwards from the road until the intervening spaces have been gradually filled in. It is true we have the Green Belt, and all honour is due to those who sponsored its conception, but from an ornithological point of view there is a limit below which you cannot compress the size of a habitat and still hope to preserve a stock of some of the more local species. A small community is always liable to sudden extinction if there should be exceptional losses on migration or from a hard winter. To repeat a quotation in the Society’s book from Professor Abercrombie’s Greater London Plan , 1944 : “ Heaths and commons require equal care ; they are much affected by intensity of use — but let their wildness be trampled underfoot and no chance given to regeneration and they become dreary wastes like Mitcham Common.” This is in some respects unfair to the example chosen, but the moral is clear and that, I am afraid, is that the increased use by the public of the open commons and heaths around London, stemming perhaps from the hiking movement of the early thirties, is one of the factors most detrimental to the prosperity of ground-nesting birds. It is not building alone therefore that is responsible for some birds being driven ever further from the centre, but the general disturbance from public use of the land that follows the spread of population. Before we turn to the more encouraging forms of development, from an ornithological point of view, there are three other major changes in the environment to take into account. One is the propensity of local councils for eliminating as much undergrowth as possible from the open spaces under their control, with the result that small birds such as warblers have no hope of breeding successfully. The second is the regeneration of agriculture, with such consequences as the drainage of marginal land beloved of snipe, redshank and many ground-nesting species, the elimination of overgrown hedges that provided nest sites for numbers of our commoner birds, and the conversion to arable in the last two decades of large areas of pasture and commonland — a process which has drastically altered the character of Epsom Common and Walton Heath, for example. The third important change for the worse was particularly marked in the thirties, when probably as a result of careless picnickers in dry weather a succession of heath fires raged on many of our Surrey commons. Large tracts of heather and gorse were destroyed, to be replaced by birch scrub 24 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 and wildernesses of bracken. A contributory factor in this spread of bracken and scrub is almost certainly in some localities the falling into disuse of commoners’ rights, with the consequent cessation of grazing. Conspicuous examples are Bookham Common and Epping Forest. So much for the unfavourable developments. Turning to the more beneficial results — to the bird — of London’s expansion, the most striking is undoubtedly the creation of a vast new series of watery habitats that have in some ways more than compensated for the losses due to improved drainage. It is no longer possible to provide a substitute for the marshes along the Thames as they existed early in the last century when London had at its doorstep an avifauna similar to that of the sanctuaries of East Anglia, but since 1900 the acreage of reservoirs in our Area has grown from some 500 to over 3,000. It is well to remember, however, that these are in no sense equivalent to natural lowland lakes, for rather over three-quarters of the surface area has a normal depth of 28 feet or over and only 500 acres or so are less than 20 feet deep. In most of the reser¬ voirs also the banks are much too steep to support much rooted plant life. On the other hand, the reservoirs, deriving their water from fertile, calcar¬ eous soils possess a vastly richer animal life than would be found in the deep, mountain waters of, for example, the Lake District. They are thus rich in food for diving ducks. Other artificial lakes have been created by excavation for gravel, (especially in the valleys of the Thames, Lea and Colne) and for clay, principally along the south bank of the Thames in the Dartford district. There are now well over a hundred gravel pits, some being actively worked but many disused and flooded. In this condition they provide a habitat for great-crested grebes, reed and sedge warblers, reed buntings, yellow wagtails, snipe, coot, mallard, tufted ducks and occasionally pochard, while the weed-covered surroundings are patronized by flocks of finches. The machinery and buildings attract nesting house and tree sparrows and pied wagtails. It is hardly necessary to add that those pits possessing sandy or muddy edges are responsible for the success of the little ringed plover around London. While the gravel pits thus compensate in no small measure for the loss of natural marsh, they are essentially ephemeral and many are already in course of being filled in. It seems unlikely that their recent large-scale expansion can continue indefinitely. The drier types of pit where sand is the material are sometimes colonized by sand martins within less than a year of the beginning of excavation. Some replacement for natural marshland has also come from the numerous small sewage farms that have grown in number and activity with the expansion of London, and they have encouraged much the same birds as the gravel pits, if we exclude the grebes and the diving ducks, but like the gravel pits they are not necessarily a permanent feature of the landscape. More modern methods of sewage disposal are resulting in the gradual closing down of the smaller, old-fashioned farms and in concentration on a few modern works which possess relatively little attraction for birds. It is an anomaly that at what has been our most famous farm, ornithologically, the old and new methods exist side by side, with the results known to all habitues of Perry Oaks. No fewer than 33 different species of waders have occurred there since the last war, including four American species. A few other miscellaneous factors remain to be considered. The agricultural regeneration already mentioned has extended to the fruit CHANGES IN THE BIRD LIFE OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE 1900 25 farmers, and no longer can one find the old, neglected orchards, full of holes suitable for nesting tits, woodpeckers, owls, etc., such as are still a feature of the West Country. Well-tended orchards with little dead wood provide no sites for these species, though they may still attract goldfinches, hawfinches and magpies. In general, there has been a great shift of emphasis in farming. Thus, in Middlesex, while sheep have fallen in numbers in fifty years to a tenth of their former strength, cattle have only declined to a third and grass and crops combined to a quarter. At the same time there has been a very large increase in market gardening. In the older suburbs trees and shrubs have grown up since early in the century, providing much more cover for birds normally associated with woodland and almost certainly smoothing the way for the invasion of the suburbs by greater spotted woodpeckers, jays and wood pigeons. Downland has probably suffered as much as any habitat from suburban development. To turn from this brief review of environmental changes to changes in the status of the birds themselves, we have seen how species associated with water have benefited most, and the great-crested grebe (. Podiceps cristatus ) is one of the most conspicuous examples. In 1900 only three sites were occupied, yet by 1931 there were 68 pairs, and in the peak post-war year, in 1953, 627 grebes were counted in the summer census, over 2\ times the number in 1931, when the first national census of this species was made. The reason for its increase in the first place was of course better protection, but the rise of London to being one of the chief centres of its population in the country is unquestionably due to the gravel pits which accounted in 1953, for example, for just under half the number of grebes — and over half of those actually proved to breed. The only other grebe whose status has clearly altered is the black-necked (. Podiceps caspicus). Here a digression is necessary. Before 1922 the reservoirs were not watched with any regularity, and such observations as were made earlier were often separated by many years with no notes at all. Obviously a comparison of status between the mid-twenties and the early part of the century is impossible for those species which are at the best only irregular and erratic in their appearances, as are many of the aquatic species. Even in the thirties, however, when a few were being seen annually at Staines, the black-necked grebe was still occurring in very small numbers only. The real increase at these reservoirs seems to have started about 1939, and by 1945 double figures had become almost normal in the late summer and early autumn. Elsewhere, this grebe is much more erratic, as are the Slavonian ( Podiceps auritus ) and the red-necked (. Podiceps griseigend). Cormorants ( Phalacrocorax carbo ) before the thirties were occasional visitors only, and even in 1935 Glegg described them as annual and irregular visitors to Middlesex. Now they are resident every winter on Syon Marsh and at the reservoirs of Molesey, Littleton and Staines, and some forty or more spend the winter in that part of the Thames valley, flying to the Colne valley to roost. This change in status has no obvious connection with any change in the environment. Though the buoys in the new King George VI reservoir were at once adopted as perches, this attraction hardly seems an adequate reason for parties of forty or so at Littleton and Molesey ! Increases in the three species so far mentioned have been clearly substantiated, but information about the ducks is much more difficult to 26 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 assess owing to the complete absence of comparative data for most of the first twenty or thirty years. That the winter numbers of most or all of the ducks have increased since 1900 is almost certain in view of the huge increase in the number and size of the reservoirs, and gravel pits, but it cannot be proved in all cases. Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) have colonized London with great success through their adaptability in using barges, water tanks, window boxes and other unnatural sites for nesting. The flocks on the reservoirs are at times very great, but we have no means of knowing how they compare with 1900. In the last five years or so numbers have increased, even allowing for the inevitable variations with differences in weather conditions from year to year, both in the breeding season through the effect on rearing success and in the winter when duck movements may depend enormously on the severity of the weather. Certainly there seems to be no sign of a decline in the winter flocks, and it was as recently as the winter of 1956-57 when the largest post-war numbers were recorded, some 6,000 being found on the principal waters alone. Among the less common species garganey (Anas querque- dula ) have increased on passage, as elsewhere in the country, and they may even breed regularly, though this has yet to be proved. Gadwall (Anas strepera ) have established themselves at one locality, but unques¬ tionably this can be attributed to escapes from St. James’s Park. Shoveler (Spatula clypeata ), previously known mainly as passage migrants, especially in autumn, have wintered at Staines since 1937-38. They have also bred erratically in small numbers since the thirties. Other ducks which have bred for the first time in recent years are the mandarin (Aix galericulata ) and the shelduck (Tadorna tadornd). It is among the diving ducks that the real changes have taken place. In the severe weather of early 1956 there were probably over 6,000 tufted duck (Ay thy a fuligula ) and 3,000 pochard (Ay thy a ferina ) in the whole Area, a striking commentary on the value of the artificial London waters as wildfowl refuges in winter. Early in the century flocks of twenty tufted ducks were noteworthy, whereas gatherings of many hundreds are now commonplace, and an average winter total for the Area is in the region of 2,500. Pochard also have increased as winter visitors, probably starting in the mid-twenties when they became regular at this season on the Round Pond. A further large increase dates from 1933. Unlike the tufted duck, which has become a normal breeding species in small numbers in quite a few localities, the pochard, which first bred in 1927, has in this respect remained erratic, though in the last few years it has nested in both Battersea and Regent’s Parks. Before 1922 goosander (Mergus merganser ) and smew (Mergus albellus ) were both virtually unknown, although the appearance of 60 goosander at Staines in that year does suggest strongly a lack of previous observation. They showed a tendency to increase in the thirties, when in most years there was at least one count of over a hundred, but except in severe winters there has been no great change since. Smew also increased in 1933-34 and again in 1938-39 when the first gathering of over a hundred on one group of reservoirs was seen. The larger numbers of ducks in our Area have obviously been made possible by the increased number of reservoirs, which act as virtual sanctuaries and are clearly recognized as such by the birds. Many people hold the view that in general surface¬ feeding ducks are decreasing in this country, and it is an open question to what extent the various types of artificial waters created in modern CHANGES IN THE BIRD LIFE OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE I9OO 27 times compensate for increased drainage of natural marshland in the country as a whole. Certainly there are less ducks where they can be shot, but how far have their total winter numbers in this country changed ? Records of geese are scattered at random over the period and almost certainly reflect varying intensity of observation as much as any other factor. In recent years, however, there are a number of records in March of movement with an easterly component in its direction. There is evidence that some of these flocks originate from the New Grounds, on the Severn estuary, while there is conclusive proof from recoveries of ringed birds that in spring much of the movement of white-fronted geese (. Anser cilbifrons) is eastwards rather than northwards in its early stages. Flocks may of course be seen flying north also, as was one of about 475 “ grey geese ” in the Lea valley on March 14, 1955. Mute swans ( Cygnus olor ) increased fairly steadily on the Thames from 1921 to 1938, then dropped in numbers during the war owing to persecution and deliberate restriction of the number of young reared. In 1951 there was a very pronounced rise in numbers between Waterloo and Putney, a state of affairs not unconnected with the bounty of visitors to the Festival of Britain. Between Putney and Staines there were nearly 500 swans at the time of the annual swan-upping in 1954, and in the Area as a whole there were at least 183 breeding pairs and 950 non-breeding birds in 1956 (Cramp, 1957). Though conclusive evidence is lacking, it seems that the breeding population also may have increased appreciably during the half century. One definite loss is that of the corncrake (Crex crex), of which there were probably still a few breeding at the end of the First World War in the country bordering the North Downs. In the 1890’s corncrakes were summer residents on Streatham Common, probably as good an illustration as any of the changes that there must have been in the nature of these inner open spaces. In north-west Middlesex corncrakes continued to breed up to 1926 since when there has been only one record of nesting in the Area. The moorhen ( Gallinula chloropus), once a summer visitor only to Inner London, became a resident in the late nineteenth century and is now also a winter visitor. The coot ( Fulica atrci) may have increased generally in the second quarter of the century and has certainly done so in Inner London, where it first bred in 1926 after the introduction of pinioned birds. It has also become a much commoner winter visitor. There has recently been at least one certain record of the breeding of water rail ( Rallus aquations), which is often suspected but seldom proved. The problem of migrant waders is one of our most difficult. Early records come from birds shot and not birds observed. Knowiedge of field characteristics of the waders and the standard of optical equipment were comparatively poor, and sight records of the rarer species would have been viewed with grave suspicion. It was not until some of the reservoirs were drained that records began to accumulate — at Staines in 1927, Brent reservoir in 1928 and at the King George V reservoir in 1929 and 1933. Yet in the nineteenth century Harting recorded many waders at the Brent — by shooting them — and in 1930 Harrisson was able to quote Professor Warmington as regularly hearing waders passing over Mill Hill at night. Moreover, when attention was focused on sewage farms in the thirties — by Hollom at Brooklands, by Fossey at Romford, and by Hopkins and others at Watford — the waders were there. There are five reasons, therefore, for the increase of records — drainage of reser- 28 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 voirs providing better feeding grounds, realization of the potentialities of sewage farms, increase in the number of observers, greatly improved knowledge of field identification and better field glasses and telescopes. A genuine increase of wader reports from the concrete-banked reservoirs, although these were well watched in the late twenties, may be due to adjacent sewage farms becoming more attractive to passing migrants as the population of London increased faster than the improvements of the farms themselves. While there may be real reasons for more waders alighting now than previously, the extreme paucity of early records is suspicious and I cannot help feeling that some of the waders were much overlooked in the past. To turn to the breeding of waders, we find that lapwings ( Vanellus vanellus) have suffered greatly from building development. For example, they last bred at Harrow in 1922, at Mitcham in 1926, at Eastcote in 1927 and so on. They also seem to have declined in numbers in the more rural parts, presumably in consequence of earlier cropping, the use of synthetic manures, the drainage of marginal land and the ploughing-up of pastures. While the lapwing hastens to nest on newly-ploughed land it seldom now does so successfully owing to the hazards from mechanical harrowing in spring. On pasture and marginal land disturbance was much less. Nesting snipe and redshank have both suffered from drainage, and the latter are now confined mainly to sewage farms and the remnants in our Area of the Thames marshes. I can find no real evidence of any falling-off in the numbers of snipe in winter, and far more jack snipe (■ Lymnocryptes minimus ) are now recorded at the sewage farms, though here again I think our old friend, intensity of observation, is the real explanation. As a quite new breeding species since 1944, we have the little ringed plover ( Charadrius dubius), but its spread has been so well documented that it is hardly necessary to stress how much we owe to the gravel pits for this very welcome gain. The breeding of common sandpiper ( Tringa hypoleucos ) at a gravel pit in Hertfordshire, apparently for several years running, is probably an isolated case, as there have been other similar records in the south of England in the past. That there has been an all-round increase of gulls is well known. In early 1953 and 1954 close on 100,000 were found to be roosting in the Area in mid-winter (Homes, 1955), but we have no idea how many did so in 1900, though there were probably many less. We do know that they were mainly the smaller gulls. At that time even Hudson admitted to difficulty in separating immature black-headed ( Larus ridibundus ) and common gulls {Larus canus) and since we can be far from certain also to what extent common gulls and kittiwakes ( Rissa tridactyla ) were confused it is not possible to be more specific. It was not until 1924 that the first sizeable flock of herring gulls {Larus argentatus) was reported ; there was a rapid increase about 1929 and the first roosting gathering of over 1,000 was noticed in 1936. The total numbers roosting in 1953 and 1954 were about 10,000, but in some years there are undoubtedly many more. Autumn passage of lesser, black-backed gulls {Larus fuscus ) was first found to be increasing in 1925, and the process has continued, gatherings of 500 or so being now observed at the reservoirs at roosting- time after the end of the breeding season. In the last few years British lesser black-backed gulls have started wintering regularly, a habit previously confined to a few odd birds only, and this change in habit has also been noticed in other parts of the country. CHANGES IN THE BIRD LIFE OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE IQOO 29 The greater black-backed gull {Laras marinas ) was the last of the five common species of gulls to increase inland. A few have been seen in most years since the end of the twenties, but the really significant increase has only come in the last ten years or so, and several hundreds are now to be found spread out along the Thames by day and gathered on Walton reservoirs at night to roost. From central London eastwards, however, most of the gulls fly out to the estuary at night. Over the last twenty years the larger gulls have also spread more by day over the countryside away from the Thames, mainly frequenting rubbish-dumps, as at Shepperton and in the Darent valley, and sewage farms. Records of little gulls {Laras minutus ) have increased, but so have the skill and number of observers ; the increase of glaucous gulls, on the other hand, has come at a time when this species has been appearing more frequently in other parts of eastern Britain as well. While the same may be true of the little gulls the evidence is not so clear. There were so few observations of terns in earlier years that it is profitless to attempt a comparison with the present day, but much larger numbers of black {Chlidonias niger) and common terns {Sterna hirundo ) have been seen in some recent years than were ever recorded in the thirties. Among the pigeons, the main increase of the woodpigecn {Columba palumbus) was in the 80’s and 90's of last century, but it spread to the suburbs rather later and this was still the subject of comment in the early part of this century. It is impossible to say more about any change of status, if we ignore short-term fluctuations due to wartime persecution. The wood pigeon has developed only quite recently, however, the habit of nesting on buildings in central London, where its cousin, the stock dove {Colamba oenas) has also shown a marked tendency to increase its range in the last few years. Building has pushed out the cuckoo {Cacalus canoras), which to prosper needs a large supply of potential fosterers of its normal host species, a state of affairs incompatible with London suburban development. The nightjar too {Camprimulgus europaeus ) has receded from the centre and no longer nests at Wembley, Highgate, Hampstead, Elmley, Bromley and Kew Gardens, in all of which it used to breed not so very long ago. The reason is obvious and in the last few years there have been signs of a decrease on some of the outer commons or open birch woods, which are ever becoming more disturbed by building encroachment and increased public use. The woodpeckers have changed greatly in relative abundance. The greater spotted woodpecker {Dendrocopos major) began to increase in the 1890’s, but did not become generally widespread in our Area until about 1920. Fitter (1949) has suggested that its success in the suburbs may be due to the growing-up of trees in the many new gardens dating from the early part of the century, synchronizing more or less with the dying-out of the habit of keeping brightly coloured birds stuffed in glass cases. The basic cause is probably of wider origin, but be this as it may the greater spotted woodpecker is now far commoner than the lesser spotted {Dendrocopos minor) which was once at least equally as common. The apparently growing tendency of green woodpeckers {Picas viridis) to feed on the ground as much as on trees may well have helped them to gain a footing in the suburbs, where they are far from an unusual sight on the close-cropped lawns. 36 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 3? The wryneck (Jynx torquilla ) has not shared the fortune of its relatives. Once nesting commonly all round London, it is now reduced to a mere handful of pairs at the most. The only apparent cause applying through¬ out south-eastern England is the replacement of old neglected orchards with an abudndance of holes by orderly rows of well-tended trees where dead wood is quickly removed. House martins ( Delichon urbica), not being dependent for nest sites on farm buildings as are swallows ( Hirundo rustico ) in most places, have had more success in retaining a hold in suburbs where the swallow is now a rarity except on passage. The enormous decline in the amount of stock around London and consequently in farm buildings is probably sufficient to account for a reduction in the range and number of swallows. Sand martins (Rip aria riparia), on the other hand, though there are natural sites in river banks, have successfully made use of drainpipes — a habit not peculiar to London of course — and they are quick to exploit new sand pits or the over-burden of chalk pits. It is among the Corvidae and predatory birds that some of the greatest changes have taken place, a common factor being the decline of game¬ keeping due to the break-up of big estates for building and accentuated by the effects on manpower of the two world wars. Shortage of cartridges in wartime has also helped this group of birds. Carrion crows ( Corvus cor one) were resident in London itself in 1900 but were extremely scarce in the surrounding country. Their increase after 1918 was slow and patchy, and it was not until the thirties that it became really rapid, helped of course after 1939 by the falling-off of persecution. The magpie (Pica pica ) was described earlier by one observer as one of our rarest breeding birds. With the easing of persecution its increase, like that of the carrion crow, was gaining momentum in the thirties and was similarly helped on by the war. Even now, however, when it is a common bird on the outskirts of the built-up areas it still tends to avoid open spaces entirely surrounded by building — unlike the jay (Garrulus glandarius ) which was never so reduced in numbers and has now penetrated the parks and some of the squares of Inner London. It is perhaps significant that the magpie normally feeds a lot on open pasture whereas the jay is more at home in woodland and scrub, with the result that it is able to feed in comparative seclusion even when the degree of disturbance would be too great for the magpie. In the outlying suburbs, however, the magpie is quite a frequent visitor to the more rural types of garden. The tameness in London and the suburbs of some of the birds which are among the wariest among rural conditions is one of the most striking aspects of the changes which we are considering. The decline in persecu¬ tion has also resulted in a very pronounced increase of sparrow hawks (Accipiter nisus) and kestrels (Falco tinnunculus), the latter being now well- established in the built-up areas, a development which confounds the predictions of our ancestors. Decreases close to London of rooks (Corvus frugilegus ) and jackdaws (Corvus monedula ) are hardly surprising in view of the shortage of open feeding-grounds, and it is this rather than absence of nest sites that is the most probable explanation, for colonies of rooks persist in many towns which are not so divorced from the countryside. Wiring up of church belfries has been suggested as a contributory handicap to the jackdaw, but knowing the ingenuity of this species I think the first explanation is the more important. Hooded crows (Corvus cornix), once quite common CHANGES IN THE BIRD LIFE OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE 1900 3 1 visitors to the North Downs, have become much scarcer as in other parts of southern England. There is little definite that can be said about any change of status of the nuthatch ( Sitta europaea) or the tits. A few pairs of treecreepers ( Certhici familiaris ) bred until the last few years in Kensington Gardens where in 1935 they were said to be occasional visitors only. Among the thrushes there has been considerable change. Song thrushes ( Turdus evicetorum ) were much commoner in 1900 in Inner London than they are now, but there seems to have been a general decline of this species and a more than corresponding increase of blackbirds ( Turdus merula). The reason is obscure, but the blackbird is a much hardier species and more adapted to feeding in shrubberies and the relatively enclosed conditions in suburban gardens, whereas the thrush feeds more in the open and may have suffered from the conversion of pasture to private and market gardens. Its nests are also possibly more conspicuous than those of the blackbird, a source of danger with the increasing population of humans, cats and grey squirrels. Mistle thrushes ( Turdus viscivorus) have increased greatly in London since the twenties, attributed not unreasonably to the extermination of the grey squirrel in the inner zone. In the last few years their nests have been found in a variety of unusual sites. The group which has suffered most is the chats. The wheatear ( Oenanthe oenanthe) was never really common, but it was a regular, though local, breeder in parts of Kent and Surrey, especially on the North Downs — and until 1908 in Richmond Park. Wheatears disappeared, however, long before the greatest increase in population and building, and there is no obvious cause. It is hard to believe that whinchats ( Saxicola rubetra ) could be described by Lodge in 1901 as “ quite one of our commonest birds, a pair or two being in every field or meadow.” Their decline has been variously attributed to building, tidying-up of embankments and the ploughing-up of pastures, but there may well be some wider explanation as the change is not confined to our part of south-east England. Stonechats C Saxicola torquata) remained on the Surrey commons until just before the last war, though they had already declined elsewhere. They have suffered from the general disturbance to heathland already discussed, and a series of hard winters commencing in 1938-39 resulted in only one pair remaining in 1947. The decrease is not confined to the London Area, but so far there has been no recovery as in some other districts where the heaths have been less disturbed. Another species which has dwindled remarkably in numbers in E., S.E. and Central England is the redstart ( Phoenicurus phoenicurus), which in earlier years even bred in town gardens in Bromley in such sites as a robin (Erithacus rubecula ) might choose. Housing development and the disappearance of old, neglected orchards are contributory factors in a situation which must have had a much wider origin. No one knows why black redstarts (Phoenicurus ochruros ) first came to breed in Wembley between 1926 and 1941, and for single years at Woolwich Arsenal and on Westminster Abbey, but as is well known their subsequent spread in Inner London must have been due in very large part to the abundance of nest sites provided by the blitz and to the rapid colonization of the bombed sites by plant and animal life. The nightingale ( Luscinia megarhynchos) has receded from the centre — it last bred at Hampstead in 1899 — and 32 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 here the passion of local councils for clearing undergrowth is probably one of the chief factors. Of the rarer warblers, the grasshopper warbler (. Locustella naevia ) suffered first from drainage and the increased public use of commonland, and later ploughing-up in the forties of large parts of its main stronghold on Epsom and Ashtead Commons resulted in 15-20 pairs decreasing to four in a period of ten years. This species is still regular in two other localities not very far away. The Dartford warbler ( Sylvia undata ) may not have been breeding in the Area in 1900, and its re-appearance, or perhaps we should say recorded re-appearance, in the thirties was brief- lived owing to a series of hard winters and the ploughing-up of its chief haunt. Among the commoner warblers, the willow warbler (. Phylloscopus trochilus ), blackcap ( Sylvia atricapilla ) and to a lesser extent, the chiffchaff (. Phylloscopus collybita ) will tolerate the middle suburbs in reasonably large gardens if sufficiently free from disturbance, and they will come much closer in when derelict or neglected sites provide some simulation of their natural habitat. The garden warbler ( Sylvia borin ) seems to demand something more akin to natural woodland, and disappeared a few years ago even from Hampstead Heath and Ken Wood where the blackcap still flourishes. In 1909 Dixon said that it would be impossible to mention all the places in the more rural suburbs where the meadow pipit ( Anthus pratensis) nested. Details and any support for this statement are lacking, and in some districts according to other sources it was unknown. Only in Surrey is there substantiation that it was anywhere common. Though it is now only a local nesting species along parts of the Colne, Lea and Thames, on some sewage farms, on a few commons and on reservoir banks, it is difficult to say to what extent there has been any real change. Another bird which has exploited the grassy verges of the reservoirs is the yellow wagtail ( Motacilla flava), which also makes good use of gravel pits, sewage farms and the beds of reservoirs under construction. It even bred in Regent’s Park when one part was cordoned off during the war, and it has also nested as close in to the centre as Wormwood Scrubs. With this species a ready acceptance of artificial conditions compensates for the loss of natural marshland. Of the shrikes, the great grey ( Lanius excubitor) is now recorded much more frequently than earlier in the century, and there are grounds for thinking in this case that it is not merely a reflection of the increase in the number of observers. The red-backed shrike (. Lanius collurio ) was undoubtedly more widespread at one time, and bred as near London as Barnes, Dulwich, the Brent valley and Hampstead Heath. Building, increased disturbance and latterly the ploughing-up of commonland have shared in hastening a decline that is noticeable in other parts of the country. Even so, this species , shows great site tenacity and quite a good sprinkling of pairs remain. We come finally among the resident birds to the finches and buntings. Greenfinches ( Chloris chloris ) have shown a great liking for the suburbs, in some of which they are summer residents, disappearing in winter. Goldfinches ( Carduelis carduelis ) also, following their widespread increase about the first decade of the century, have become well-established in the built-up areas. Both have successfully extended their penetration into Inner London. The linnet ( Carduelis cannabina ) is said to have benefited early in the century in the same way as the goldfinch from the Wild Bird CHANGES IN THE BIRD LIFE OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE I9OO 33 Protection Act, but it is not a suburban bird and has since disappeared from most of the land within ten miles of London. It is still common, however, along the lower Thames. Redpolls ( Carduelis flammed) increased about the same time and presumably for the same reason. All the buntings seem to have gone down in strength during the half century. The yellowhammer (. Emberiza citrinella ) bred on Wandsworth Common, for example, at the end of the nineteenth century, while the corn bunting (. Emberiza calandra ) was common in the Wandle valley after the First World War. It is possible that the yellowhammer may be increasing again with the intensification of agriculture, and although the corn bunting has almost gone from the Surrey sector of our Area it is definitely on the increase on parts of the Thames marshes and is spreading inland on the Essex side. In London itself the house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) is said to have decreased, as has horse traffic, but while the connection is obvious there may well be other causes. I doubt if anyone will dispute that the total mass of our avifauna must be much less than it was in 1900, but it is instructive to consider briefly its composition even though some of the opinions must be tentative when so much earlier status is uncertain and there is little quantative data for comparison. However, to take the certain or more probable changes in breeding status, 22 species have been recorded breeding for the first time or have increased as breeders since 1900. Of these there is one grebe, the great crested, six ducks, of which two owe their success to escapes from captivity — the gadwall and the mandarin — while three others have increased generally in the country — the shoveler, tufted duck and pochard — and lastly there is the shelduck which has prospered elsewhere and was recorded breeding in our Area for the first time in 1954. Four other species are associated with water — the mute swan, coot, little ringed plover and grey wagtail ( Motacilla cinerea ). Seven of the 22 are mainly birds of the woodlands or agricultural districts — the greater spotted woodpecker, carrion crow, jay, magpie, sparrow hawk, kestrel and blackbird. Of the remaining three, the goldfinch and redpoll owe their increase in part at least to bird protection, and lastly there is the black redstart. The species which have unquestionably decreased as residents or summer visitors are the corncrake, lapwing, wryneck, wheatear, whinchat, stonechat, redstart, grasshopper warbler, red-backed shrike and corn bunting, most of them ground-nesting birds. Among birds which have probably decreased are the swallow, song thrush and yellowhammer, while the position of meadow pipit is uncertain. Many other species have either colonized the suburbs or been pushed further out with the expansion of London, but where there is no good evidence of any change in status in their remaining natural habitats I have not considered them here. The chief changes then are increases of water birds and of those which formerly suffered most from the game-keeper, and the decline of heathland and ground-nesting species. Among the visitors there have been definite increases of black-necked grebe, cormorant, garganey, shoveler, goosander, smew and all the larger gulls, while there may well have been an increase also of the smaller gulls, the various terns and the great grey shrike. Only the hooded crow, among regular visitors in the past, has clearly decreased. 34 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 So far I have not touched on the vagrants or rare winter visitors. Between 1945 and 1956 no fewer than 31 species were recorded with certainty in the Area for the first time this century, and a few of these have been seen several times, as for example the ortolan ( Emberiza hortulana), pectoral sandpiper ( Calidris melanotos) and dotterel ( Charadrius morin- ellus). The full list is of interest, for although some may of course have come and gone unrecorded in the past their variety is remarkable so near the metropolis. Apart from the three already mentioned they are : — Hydrohates pelagicus Fulmaris glacialis Ardea purpurea Egretta garzetta Ixohrychus minutus Buteo lagopus Accipiter gentilis Milvus milvus Pernis apivorus Circus aeruginosus Porzana porzana Charadrius alexandrinus Tringa flavipes Calidris bairdii Tringites subruficollis Phalaropus lobatus Stercorarius pomarinus Xema sabini Sterna dougallii Merops apiaster Melanocorypha leucoptera Galerida cristata Oenanthe hispanica Muscicapa parva Anthus richardi Anthus campestris Lanins minor Emberiza pusilla Storm petrel Fulmar - Purple heron - Little egret Little bittern - Rough-legged buzzard Goshawk Kite - Honey buzzard Marsh harrier Spotted crake - Kentish plover Lesser yellowlegs Baird’s sandpiper Buff-breasted sandpiper Red-necked phalarope Pomarine skua Sabine’s gull - Roseate tern - Bee-eater White-winged lark - Crested lark Black-eared wheatear Red-breasted flycatcher Richard’s pipit Tawny pipit Lesser grey shrike Little bunting - This takes no account of the many species only erratically recorded in the earlier years of the century which have been proved to be annual or almost annual in small numbers, nor can 1 do more here than mention the wealth and variety of aquatic birds that appear when winters are unusually severe, the best example of this having been in February, 1956, when whooper - and Bewick’s swans {Cygnus cygnus and Bewickii), red-breasted merganser ( Mergus senator), some other ducks and several species of waders were seen in exceptional numbers (Homes, 1957). Divers and grebes too have proved on occasion to be far more frequent than would ever have been dreamt of thirty years ago. Problematic though it may be in some cases, I have given this only too sketchy summary of the changes in order to stress that in variety the avifauna has been improved rather than restricted in spite of the enormous expansion of London. Many of the more interesting small resident birds and summer visitors have undeniably suffered in the course of the years from the various adverse factors outlined earlier, but the tale is by no means CHANGES IN THE FLORA OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE 1 858 35 entirely gloomy, and the gains, though they may be more obvious through familiarity, are none the less satisfying. The urgent need is to guard zealously against any encroachment on such commonland as we have left and to try to preserve some freedom from excessive disturbance for the many additions to our waterfowl. REFERENCES CRAMP, S., 1957, The Census of Mute Swans, 1955 and 1956, The London Bird Report, 21, 58-62. FITTER, R. S. R., 1949, London’s Birds. HOMES, R. C., 1955, Gull Roosts of the London Area, The London Bird Report, 18, 37-39. — - , i957, Wildfowl and Wader Movements in the London Area in the severe weather of February, 1956, The London Bird Report, 21, 41-47. LONDON NAT. HIST. SOC., 1957, The Birds of the London Area since 1900. Changes in the Flora of the London Area since 1858 By J. Edward Lousley IT is appropriate that in the year in which we are celebrating our centenary we should review the changes which have taken place in the flora of the London Area during the history of our Society. The purpose of this paper is to offer a general comparison between the plants available to botanists in 1858 and those which can be seen to-day. At first sight this seems likely to be a depressing subject — a record of districts built over by the relentless advance of the metropolis, of the drainage of ponds, bogs and marshes, of the disappearance of attractive rarities. It is losses such as these which remain prominent in our minds and make it difficult to take a balanced view. The gains from new habitats created, discovered, or rendered accessible are equally important. The collection of information about the flora of 1858 for this paper has left me with a feeling of relief that so many habitats have survived, that so many new opportunities have been opened up, and that so many changes taking place to-day are similar to those of a century ago which have left us so much. This paper will not be a tale of botanical woe ! The first of the Societies which, by amalgamation, became the large and flourishing organization of which we are members was founded as the Haggerstone Entomological Society and, as the title implies, its objects did not include the study of botany. But entomologists are compelled to take some interest in plants, and with Edward Newman, an authority on ferns, a member from the first year, 1858, we can be sure that botany was not entirely neglected.* The other branch, which after change of name fused to form our present Society, originated as the Clapton Naturalists’ Field Club. Of this, R. W. Robbins was an early member, L. J. Tremayne joined a little later, and F. J. Hanbury was in the chair in 1892 : to these, with E. B. Bishop, C. S. Nicholson, and H. Spooner, we owe the foundation of our botanical work. It is unfortunate that unlike the Holmesdale Natural History Club founded in 1857, and the Birmingham Natural * At a (special) General Meeting of the Haggerstone Entomological Society convened for May 14, 1859, at the written request of five members it was agreed that steps should be taken to establish an independent Botanical Society. The Secretary was instructed to convene another meeting when he had collected the names of 20 members interested in the proposal, but no further developments are recorded. 36 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 History Society, founded like us in 1858, which provided botanical records from the first, our own botanical recording did not commence until 1900 and even then was restricted to north of the Thames . It was not until 1914 that the Area was defined as a complete circle of twenty miles radius from St. Paul’s Cathedral, which forms our present boundary. For the present time the printed records of the Society provide adequate coverage. Publication of A Hand List of the Plants of the London Area was completed last year and the 380 pages of this book cover 1835 species, 19 sub-species, 268 varieties, 33 forms and 113 hybrids. Over 12,000 individual records of the less common plants are included and these are only a fraction of those contributed by nearly 400 helpers to support the summarized statements about distribution. This is a record of which any Society might be proud. For 1858 information is relatively meagre and must be obtained from external sources. The account of the flora as known at this period which follows is based almost entirely on the issues from 1855 to 1862 of a chatty monthly periodical called The Phytologist. This was edited at the time by Alexander Irvine, a discursive writer resident at Chelsea, who spent much of his time botanizing in and round London. To his verbose style, and habit of including references to London plants and habitats in articles on apparently unrelated subjects, I am grateful for many useful facts which would not otherwise be available. Thus, for example, in a paper on a Buckinghamshire habitat he tells us that in 1860 a bog on Wimbledon Common was drained for the erection of butts and that marsh lousewort {Pedicular is palustris), and doubtless other interesting bog plants, dis¬ appeared from the ravine. In a paper on Enfield Chase we learn of the felling of Hainault Forest and the “ suburbanization ” of Dulwich. The plan I have adopted of endeavouring to compare the flora of 1858 with that of 1957 offers serious dangers of misinterpretation which should be made clear from the outset. Attention has already been drawn to inequality of recording at the two ends of the period, but an even greater risk is that we may lose sight of the fact that the selection of dates is arbitrary and that rapid changes were taking place at the beginning of the century just as they are now. Many habitats have changed many times in the course of a hundred years and it is sheer chance what state they happened to be in on the significant dates. Many readers will be familiar with certain chalky fields in the Chipstead Valley which are the home of cut-leaved germander {Teucrium botrys), ground pine ( Ajuga chamaepitys ) and other interesting plants. The soil here does not justify regular cultivation but even within my memory the fields have been cleared and ploughed in two world wars and twice reverted to scrub and downland turf. This may have happened on other occasions also during the century, and descriptions of the flora would be very different according to the years chosen, the list of species present in the London Area changes every year and any date selected is merely a stage in a series of changes. The London Area in 1858 From Davies Map of the Environs of London, published in 1858 (which I have checked against other maps published in 1856 and 1860) consider¬ able information can be gained about the extent to which the metropolis then extended. At that time the land within four miles of Charing Cross was almost continuously built up with the exception of the open spaces which still exist to-day. From this core of bricks and mortar (which CHANGES IN THE FLORA OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE 1 858 37 coincides very approximately with the rectangle marked as “ Inner London ” on the Society’s current map) extensions of congested building spread out to Hammersmith, Tottenham, Upper and Lower Clapton, Bow, Poplar, Deptford and Greenwich, Norwood, Balham and Wands¬ worth. Beyond this, open country spread to the bounds of our Area, with the exception, of course, of towns and villages which were then much smaller than they are to-day. Our forerunners thus had a great area of real country open to them — and parts of this they could reach easily (and cheaply) by rail, though many branch lines to complete the railway network as we know it had yet to be constructed. Examples of large areas without buildings included Wimbledon Park with the Common, Putney Heath, Combe Wood and Bettywad Wood ; Claygate, Cobham, Stoke, Leatherhead, Ashtead and Epsom Commons which were almost continuous; Banstead Downs, which extended north and east far beyond the present bounds ; the clay country round the Yeading Brook south of Ickenham, Pvuislip, Eastcote and Pinner across to Northolt ; and Hainault Forest which then extended four miles from east to w7est. Over these and other parts it was possible to walk without a house in sight, but the botanist did not have it all his own way. Large tracts of land were enclosed for parks or preserved for game and permission to enter was very difficult to obtain. The conditions described by Irvine for Hareheld were by no means unusual : “ The fear of poachers has shut up every wood in this neighbourhood. Every place where a pheasant breeds or feeds is carefully tabooed ; notices are nailed up, and the gentle fraternity, who would no more disturb a pheasant than they would wantonly destroy a rare plant, are treated as wilful trespassers, and threatened with all the pains and penalties made and provided. The London botanist who visits Hareheld in search of simples, has need of “ silver in his pocket, or have silk on his tongue ” ; if he be unprovided with one or both of these requisites, he should content himself with such botanizing as he can get on Hampstead Heath, Barnes Common, Battersea fields, or such open places.” Inner London It is significant that of the three habitats specifically mentioned by Irvine, only the last was within the built-up “ inner London ” area, and this was very near its end as an attraction for botanists. Battersea fields, intersected by ditches and creeks, had long been a famous hunting ground and many of its glories were faithfully recorded by William Curtis (Lousley, 1946), but a million cubic yards of soil from the excavation of the docks were used to build up the level and, on the site of the ditches, Battersea Park was opened to the public in 1858. Four years later the editor of The Phytologist put on record that bistort (. Polygonum bistorta ) “ may still be in what was called Battersea fields ; but its ancient station was destroyed when the park was formed,” while various marsh plants were no longer “ in Battersea where ditches are scarce.” There was “ a large crop of small brick houses ” in a spot which was once part of the fields. A few water plants lingered on for a short time “ in Letchmere, near the Wandsworth road ” but by 1860 they were “ gradually perishing by the want of pure water ” — sewage was the immediate threat here. Scirpus triquetrus disappeared from the river shore between Battersea and Nine Elms about 1855, 38 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 As a fleeting solace for the loss of so many fine native plants the botanists of a century ago interested themselves in the alien species which appeared on the dumped material. No doubt they regarded the exchange as a poor one, as we did the dumping on Mitcham Common and resulting aliens of the last few years, but they made the best of it. On the soil used to raise the level for Battersea Park, and on waste ground between Watney’s brewery and the steamboat pier at Wandsworth, many strange and interesting species from the Mediterranean and elsewhere were collected between 1851 and 1859 (Irvine, 1859). Just across the Thames from Wandsworth it was still possible to botanize about Parson’s Green and Walham Green, in places too wet for the builder. Eelbrook Common was then a marshy meadow with the very rare sedge Cyperus fuscus growing on the sides of the ditches with Polygonum minus and marsh dock ( Rumex palustris ). Strawberry clover {Trifolium fragiferum ) and fool’s watercress (. Apium nodiflorum ) were also there. In 1864 or 1865 the meadow was drained, and is now a public open space. In the place of rare marsh plants, shepherd’s purse {Cap sella bursa-past oris'), annual meadow grass {Poa annua), dandelions {Taraxacum officinale) and rye-grass {Lolium perenne) have colonized its bare, dusty and unlovely patches (D. H. Kent). Tothill Fields near Westminster, which also had marsh plants, was built over ten years or more before our Society was founded, but Hammersmith Marshes were still unspoilt. They extended from Addison Road Station west to Shepherds Bush Road, bounded by Blythe Road (then “ Lane ”) to the south, and were osier beds “ intersected with dikes, full of reeds and bullrushes ” and there was a large pond. A. W. Mera gave a first-hand description of these marshes in his Presidential Address of 1906, but although they were much visited by entomologists and ornithologists, little is known of the plants which grew there. Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens produced some flowers of interest (they still do), and the “ Site of the Exhibition of 1862 ” at South Kensington was the source of many records a little later, but apart from the places mentioned the botanists of 1858 had to travel outside the built-up four-mile radius for most of their work. The Fringe of the Built-up Area of 1858 Wandsworth Common was one of their favourite haunts just beyond this radius. Here the construction of the railway a little earlier had caused great disturbance and created new habitats and led to the remarkable appearance in 1856 of three rare bog plants. These were found in “ wet, heathy turf ” at the bottom and on the sides of a deep cutting of the London and South-Western Railway opposite the New Surrey Jail (now Wandsworth Prison). Round-leaved sundew {Drosera rotundi folia), and marsh clubmoss {Lycopodium inundatum), persisted until 1861 or later, but a young botanist dug up and removed the royal fern {Osmunda regalis), of which apparently there was only one root. It seems remarkable that conditions suitable for the growth of these bog plants could develop so soon after the construction of the railway and that the seeds of the sundew could reach the spot — the arrival of the wind-carried spores of the clubmoss and fern is easier to understand. The botanists of 1858 rightly regarded the new railway banks and cuttings as artificial habitats, and treated the plants which appeared on them as “ suspected aliens ” : these three bog plants of undoubted “ British birth ” caused much argument about their CHANGES IN THE FLORA OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE I 858 39 status. Wandsworth Common was still wild and more or less covered with furze, bracken and ling, with ponds, and pits where gravel had been excavated. Even to-day there are parts of it where native plants can grow, and as recently as 1942 I found lesser broomrape ( Orobanche minor ) there. Barnes Common has suffered less, as was shown in a recent account in the London Naturalist (Whitehouse, 1952). A century ago it was much wetter than now and aquatic species, such as frogbit ( Hydrocharis morsus- ranae ), and some marsh plants, have disappeared. Of the plants of drier places recorded in The Phytologist, we no longer have subterranean clover {Trifolium subterraneum ) and Teesdalia {Teesdalia nudicaulis), but it is still an extremely interesting place. There is still plenty of bumet rose ( Rosa pimpinellifolia ), known there since 1666, and a clump of a very rare hybrid of this species {Rosa x glabra W.-Dod), fiddle dock {Rumex pulcher ) and many heath plants. Even in Irvine’s day the “ rejectamenta of gardens ” were becoming established : one welcome recent newcomer found established in 1948 is doab grass {Cynodon dactylon), but many other aliens there to-day are of hortal origin. South of Barnes, there is still a fine open area extending from the remaining part of Putney Eleath across Wimbledon Common — and west through Richmond Park. In 1858, as already mentioned, this area was far more extensive. Smooth rock-cress {Turritis glabra ) was very plentiful on one bank, mousetail {Myosurus minimus) abundant in a field and adder’s tongue {Ophioglossum vulgatum), burnet rose {Rosa pimpinellifolia ) and climbing corydalis {Corydalis claviculata ) were also abundant. By 1862 E. B. Penfold was recording the loss of royal fern {Osmunda regalis ), and said that only one plant of mountain buckler fern {Thelypteris oreopteris) remained. Of the last, and of adder’s tongue, we have recent records from Richmond Park, while corydalis is quite plentiful. Wimbledon Common has changed greatly during the past century through drainage, fires, lack of grazing, trampling and other causes, but it still remains an extremely interesting place to botanists and capable of producing surprises. With so many native plants to concern him it is strange that the editor of The Phytologist devoted nearly a page in 1855 to blue anemone {Anemone apennina), a garden plant established in the gardens and shrubberies of Wimbledon Park. Here it grew with winter aconite {Eranthis hyemalis ), tulip {Tulipa sylvestris), drooping star of Bethlehem {Ornithogalum nutans) — at the Natural History Museum there is a specimen of this collected the same year by our member F. J. Hanbury — and tuberous comfrey {Symphytum tuberosum). Although the blue anemone had been known here since 1724, it was unknown “anywhere about Wimbledon Park, except within the garden-fence, the private pleasure-grounds of the noble occupier of this noble seat.” It survived until 1904. Copse bindweed {Polygonum dumetorum) is a native plant of greater interest, if less beauty. It was first found in Britain in 1834 near Wimble¬ don, and the locality variously described as Pettywood ( = Betty wad) and Copse Hill. An erratic species, abundant in some years, it has been seen in the old station as recently as 1954. The bogs of Wimbledon Common are more overgrown and shaded than they were even when I first knew them 35 years ago, but they still produce species which are uncommon in our area. Between Mortlake and Kew Bridge, snake’s head {Fritillaria meleagris) had been known in a damp meadow since 1762, but the botanists of a 40 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 century ago were anxious about it. In June, 1862, The Phytologist published a note that it had not appeared for some years, but this evoked a reply that two fine plants had been picked at Mortlake in the previous month. It seems to have lingered on in this Surrey locality for a few more years — from other counties in our Area there are recent records. We must now turn to the places on the fringe of the built-up area on the south-east side. At Sydenham, the Crystal Palace had been re-erected in 1852 after removal from the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park, and no doubt this, and easy transport, was the excuse for many visits of botanists from the metropolis. Lawrie Park had a number of established aliens, amongst which a clover, Trifolium resupinatum , recorded in 1859, had spread so much by the following year that it threatened to reach the top of Sydenham Hill. White mullein ( Verbascum lychnitis var. album ) was at Sydenham on shingle-mounds, while two stonecrops, Sedum sexangulare and S. album , grew there on an old brick wall. In the Ravensbourne, Canadian water-weed {Elodea canadensis) had recently appeared, and wood club-rush ( Scirpus sylvaticus) grew by the stream. Publication in 1857 by J. F. Young of a list of 117 species he had found at Forest Hill a quarter of a century earlier, with remark that this once rural spot had completely changed, suggests that little was left of the “ Oak of Honour Woods ” so well known to the older botanists. Eltham and Chislehurst were still unspoiled, as is shown by the list of plants John Stuart Mill found in flower in November and December, 1857, and the rare species which another correspondent had reported in 1856. Hornungia petraea was well in flower on March 14, 1858, only three days after the “ breaking of the frost ” — like Centranthus calcitrapa it grew on the wall of Eltham churchyard. Both plants had been known there since early in the century, and the last persisted until 1884, or perhaps later. The wall was pulled down in 1 893. Pennyroyal {Mentha pulegium) flourished round a small pool on the eastern edge of Chislehurst Common — it lingered until at least 1885 when F. J. Hanbury collected it. Blackheath still produced good plants but was threatened by trampling and building. Autumn squill ( Scilla autumnalis ) was there, and this persisted into the present century — the last botanist to record it was Mrs. G. Foggitt. Knotted hedge-parsley ( Torilis nodosa ), knotted trefoil {Trifolium striatum ), and bird’s-foot Fenugreek {Trigonella ornithopo- dioides) were mentioned in a note published by Mill in 1857, and although these, like round-leaved crane’s-bill {Geranium rotundifolium), are no longer to be found on Blackheath, we still have them elsewhere in north Kent. By 1877 the heath was “ nothing but a grassy common, trodden by thousands of persons, and enclosed on all sides, but the park, by suburban villas of recent construction ’ ’ (De Crespigny) ; it is of very little interest now. The Thames marshes near Woolwich were the scene of some exception¬ ally interesting discoveries “ within half an hour’s journey from the Metropolis” a century ago. In 1857 writers in The Phytologist were bemoaning the loss of marsh sowthistle {Sonchus palustris), which early botanists had known from the banks of the Thames at Blackwall and Greenwich, and summer snowflake {Leucojum aestivum), which had been recorded from between Greenwich and Woolwich. When the following note appeared dated May 17, 1858, over the initials of John Stuart Mill, it was as though part of their prayer had been answered : — “ I have seldom enjoyed a greater botanical pleasure than in finding yesterday, for the first time, the Leucojum in the Plumstead Marshes. , , , I was delighted CHANGES IN THE FLORA OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE 1 858 41 to see that in two different swamps, both already well known to me, this beautiful plant exists in such profusion that all the botanists in England would scarcely exhaust it ; and as both places are within the practising- ground of the Arsenal, they are not likely to be drained and built over.” But Mill had done better than he knew, and it was not until July, 1860, that the full riches of these swamps were discovered. He then found that in the reed-beds between the river bank and the flood, marsh sowthistle was also abundant “ just overtopping the tall reeds, or appearing between them.” On the bank was least lettuce ( Lactuca saligna). All three species persisted until about 1885, but since the ground was enclosed as part of Woolwich Arsenal, modern botanists have had no opportunity of investigating the site. Near the Practice Butts on Woolwich Marshes grew two rare grasses, Polypogon monspeliensis and Agropogon littoralis, and many other salt-marsh plants grew near the river. It is now time to turn to the fringe of the built-up area north of the Thames, but to this there are few references in The Phytologist for the years under consideration. We know from later sources that it was still possible to start botanizing at say Willesden and Brondesbury and work out to Neasden and the Brent Reservoir— the latter, the Welsh Harp, is still an excellent place for plants. Or to the east, Tottenham and Edmonton and the Lea Canal were worth visiting — as the canals still are _ but the correspondents of The Phytologist showed most interest in Hampstead Heath and Ken Wood. With Bishop’s Wood and Highgate Wood these could still produce a good flora. “ The great bog behind Jack Straw’s Castle ” yielded abundance of bog-bean ( Menyanthes trifoliata), round-leaved sundew ( Drosera rotundifolia), bog violet ( Viola palustris), and several uncommon bog sedges. A few years later, in 1866, the lord of the manor claimed the right to build upon the Heath, and if his plans had not been defeated there would have been no chance of survival for even those relics of the native flora which still remain. Bishop’s Wood also had moisture-loving plants such as golden saxifrage ( Chrysosplenium oppositi folium), wood horsetail (. Equisetum sylvaticum), and wood club-rush ( Scirpus sylvaticus), together with guelder rose ( Viburnum opulus) and service tree ( Sorbus torminalis ) — the last was common in many woods in the district. But as at Wimbledon it was a plant of doubtful status which attracted most attention. This was May lily (. Maianthemum bifolium), which had been discovered in Ken Wood by Hunter in 1814, and the discoverer of “this rare gem of Flora’s diadem” writing in 1861 gave directions for finding it in front of a summer-house after the necessary permission had been obtained from the gardener ! It persisted until 1924, and was replanted in the wood in 1933. Lily-of-the-valley ( Convallaria majalis ) disappeared from Hampstead Heath about 1855, but at the date of foundation of our Society it was still in Bishop’s Wood and abundant in Ken Wood, where it still grows but rarely flowers. The Outer Area We have now reviewed the few localities which remained in 1858 in inner London, and those just outside the four mile built-up radius : we can now turn to what was then mostly unspoilt country. Here the choice for day excursions from the metropolis was much more limited by transport facilities than it is to-day. Places on the railway lines which then existed could be reached almost as easily as they can now — the 42 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 journey to Dartford, for example, took less than an hour — but in between the railways were big gaps, and cross-country walks of 20 or 25 miles left little time for detailed research or covering the ground adequately. The influence of the railways, and improved agriculture, were beginning to make changes — an example is the statement reported in The Phytologist in 1860 that the country round Walton-on-Thames had been “ much altered by drainage, enclosures, plantations, cultivations and buildings.” In Surrey the districts most thoroughly worked at the time were those about Esher and Reigate. From the former H. C. Watson recorded many rare species which no longer grow there. An example is the marsh gentian ( Gentiana pneumonanthe), which grew on Arbrook Common from 1856 to 1862. Others, like thrumwort ( Damasonium alisma ) and small fleabane (. Pulicaha vulgaris) by a pond on West End Common, Esher, could be found up to a few years ago, but are now apparently lost. Littleworth Common and Weston Green remained of considerable interest until about 25 years ago, but have gradually deteriorated through trampling and the absence of grazing by horses, cattle and geese and the encroachment of shrubs and coarse vegetation. Nevertheless much good ground, including bogs, remains on Esher, West End, Fairmile and Arbrook Commons, and Oxshott Heath. For Reigate, J. A. Brewer published a new Flora in 1856, and the foundation of the Holmesdale Natural History Club the following year stimulated sustained botanical investigation of the district. Of the favourite habitats of a century ago Wray Common has been lost, but on Reigate Heath our present members can produce almost as good a list as Brewer, while the chalk escarpment still has an excellent flora. Medlar ( Mespilus germanicd) still grows on Redstone Hill where John Stuart Mill discovered it in 1831. The public had been given free access to Box Hill by the widow of a Mr. Hope, who bought the manor in 1831, but it was a very different place from the area we know to-day. Some of the flat- topped spurs were cultivated, and cultivation extended much higher up some of the slopes than now. Turf-covered sheep walks of a century ago are wooded to-day, and elsewhere what were then young plantations have grown up (Hutchings, 1952). On balance the naturalist is no worse, and perhaps better off, here than he was in 1858. Nearer London, mention must be made of Mitcham Common. Although little interest in this part of Surrey was shown in the pages of The Phytologist, the Common must have been a delightful place at the time. When I first knew it the ground was mostly still very wet with abundant aquatic and marsh plants in the ponds and ditches. Thrum- wort I have seen in at least three places and it was a paradise for water starworts and water crowfoots, of various species. Juncus subnodulosus and Carex divisa were other rarities ; I saw green-winged orchid ( Orchis morio ) as recently as 1937, while pennyroyal (. Mentha pulegium ) and Oenanthe lachenalii were still there last summer (see p. 1 83). Continuance of the present policy of tipping household and other refuse on Mitcham Common will soon bring to an end the interest of this fascinating place. From the pages of Brewer’s Flora of Surrey published in 1863 it is clear that knowledge of the part of the county within our Area was patchy, and that little was known about the Chipstead Valley and other places away from the railway system as then developed. The Caterham line was open, and this may have provided transport for W. Robinson of Croydon when he discovered rough-podded vetchling ( Lathyrus hirsutus) CHANGES IN THE FLORA OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE 1 858 43 on Hallelu Farm near Warlingham in 1858. This was to be seen at intervals until quite recently and it is one of the plants we would like to see confirmed. In Kent, Hayes and Keston Commons were easy to reach from the railway at Bromley. Many of the plants recorded are still to be found and perhaps the changes in the drier parts, where birches and scrub have greatly increased within my own memory, following cessation of grazing, are greater than those in the bog. The species recorded in 1860 and 1877 from Keston Bog are set out in Table A with the modern records. The most serious losses are bog pimpinel ( Anagallis tenella) and ivy-leaved bellflower ( Wahlenbergia hederacea), which are two of the most beautiful species in the British flora, but although the extent of the wet ground is less, and some of the species known to-day were no doubt present but Table A. Uncommon Species Recorded from Keston Bog and nearby Phytologist De Crespigny Kent and Lousley 1860-61 1877 1957 Anagallis tenella (L.) L. — X — Blechnum spicant (L.) Roth... X X X Cirsium dissectum (L.) Hill ... X X X Car ex echinata Murr. X X X C. panicea L. X X X Drosera rotundifolia L. X X X Eleocharis multicaulis (Sm.) Sm. ... X X X Erica tetralix L. — X X Eriophorum angustifolium Honck. ... X — X Hypericum elodes L. X X X Juncus squarrosus L. X — X Lycopodium inundatum L. ... X X X Nardus stricta L. X X X Narthecium ossifragum (L.) Huds. ... X X X Myrica gale L. — — V yv Dactylorchis maculata ssp. ericetorum (E. F. Linton) Vermeul . _ X X Osmunda regalis L. . . . — — X Peplis portula L. X — - — - Potamogeton polygonifolius Pourr. . . . — X X Radiola linoides Roth. X ? — Ranunculus hederaceus L. ... X — X Salix repens L. X — X Scirpus fluitans L. — X X Scutellaria minor Huds. X X X Sieglingia decumbens (L.) Bernh. ... X — X Thelypteris palustris Schott ... 9 — — Vaccinium myrtillus L. — X X Veronica scutellata L. X X X Wahlenbergia hederacea (L.) Reichb. X — — Bog and heath species recorded... 21 19 24 This table includes only species which grow in bog or heath habitats. The record of Thelypteris palustris is doubtful, and was not accepted by W. W. Reeves, who knew Keston Bog thoroughly about 1884 and who was the last to record Anagallis tenella. Reference should be made to Lovis (1951) for a recent general account of the flora. 44 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 unrecorded a century ago, we have here little to regret. Just beyond Keston there is even to-day fine unspoiled country round Downe. It was here that Darwin lived when he was working on his book on the fertilization of orchids, which was published in 1862, and the bank which is believed to be the one on which he made some of his observations is still an excellent place for orchids. Dartford, Greenhithe and Swanscombe were also well known to the correspondents of The Phytologist. In spite of extensive quarrying of the chalk, drainage of the marshes, embankment of the Thames, and building, the area is hardly less rich now than it was then. The walk taken by M. H. Wilkin along “ the old Roman road ” (i.e. Watling Street) east of Dartford would no longer be as pleasant to-day as it was on July 28, 1857, but nearly all the plants he mentions are still to be seen by making slight detours. On the other side of the Thames, the marshes at Blackwall and the Isle of Dogs were destroyed, or in course of destruction, by 1858, but an almost unbroken series of unspoilt marshland extended along the Essex bank from East Ham level to Grays. It happens that the contributors to The Phytologist for the period under consideration had little to say about these marshes, but they must have been an area of very great interest. Even to-day, saltmarsh plants can be seen up to as near London as Creekmouth and a century ago there was much ground inundated at high tide, and prior to drainage very wet conditions may have developed locally, as they did at Tilbury just beyond the limits of our Area. Inland, the Essex localities which attracted most interest were the forests of Epping and Hainault. The latter was described in 1862 as “ . . . now under the woodman’s axe, i.e. undergoing the process of disforestment.” Its conversion into arable had been authorized by Parliament in 1851 and it is said that the contractor who undertook to drag the old oaks, including the famous Fairlop Oak, out by the roots by using steam ploughs completed the operation in six weeks ! By 1877 only detached bits of scrub and underwood about Chigwell Row and Crabtree Wood were left and this seems to be just about what we have left to-day. The banks of the Roding were good for marsh and aquatic plants, and still have a useful flora. Epping Forest, fortunately, was saved from such a fate, but only after a great struggle. In 1850 the Forest comprised almost exactly 6,000 acres, and during the ensuing twenty years almost half this area was enclosed, and some of it built upon. Our own forerunner, the Haggerstone Entomological Society, gave active support to the opposition to this process of attrition in such ways as, for example, arranging a petition presented to the House of Commons in 1 863! It was not until 1878 that the Act was passed under which control of the Forest passed to the Corporation of London as Conservators and restoring most of the enclosures. Some 5,542 acres were preserved to the public and various relatively small areas have been added to this since. Epping Forest was the venue of much of the early botanical work of the Society and we published a good general account by R. W. Robbins in 1916. Of the 436 species reported in E. N. Buxton’s list, Robbins had failed to find 70 (including some long extinct, or never actually found, and some critical plants which he may have failed to recognize) and added 25. That Robbins and his fellow workers knew about 380 species suggests that the losses had not been very heavy up to that date, In recent years the bogs have shrunk, and changes CHANGES IN THE FLORA OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE 1 858 45 have occurred in other parts of the Forest, but it seems fair to say that we are not seriously worse off than the botanists of a century ago. Ivy-leaved bellflower is the most regrettable loss. This was mentioned in the pages of The Phytologist, and known until at least 1920 (or perhaps 1946 or 1947) but it seems to have gone. Middlesex is the county which has suffered most during the life of our Society, and particularly during the last 30 years, but even here the work of D. H. Kent has shown how much is still to be found. Of the ancient haunts of botanists, for example, Hampton Court still produces a good list, including autumn squill, while Hounslow Heath, though diminished in area and threatened with further loss from the extraction of gravel, still has interesting plants including dog violet ( Viola canina ), bladderwort ( Utricularia vulgaris), and perhaps Teesdalia nudicaulis. Harrow was one of the districts receiving most attention about the time of the foundation of our Society. Long lists by W. M. Hind published in the Harrow Gazette and reprinted in The Phytologist for 1860 and 1861 gave a total of about 530 species and varieties, while Melvill’s Flora of Harrow, which appeared in 1864, included additional plants. Both writers covered a wide area extending out beyond Pinner, while Flowers and Ferns of Harrow by R. M. Harley, which appeared in 1953, included little more than the school grounds and Northwick Park Golf Course ; yet even in this restricted ground 362 species were found. We have lost the green-winged orchid 0 Orchis morio) and fritillary has been seen recently at Pinner only in an old orchard, but considering the vast building estates that now cover much of the country, it is surprising how little of outstanding value has gone. Harefield has already been mentioned, and here also there have been many changes since Irvine walked there from West Drayton station in May, 1855. No longer do cowslips ( Primula veris) and cuckoo flower ( Cardamine pratensis) occur in such abundance in the meadows between Uxbridge and Harefield, and it is no longer true that in Old Park Wood, coral root ( Dentaria bulbifera ) “ abounds, so much so, that cartloads would scarcely be missed . . .” — but it is still there in quantity. Much of the surface of Harefield Moor has been skimmed away by the excavations for gravel, and in place of the meadows where Carex appropinquata and grass of parnassus ( Parnassia palustris) grew, we now have an area with new lakes and scars in course of recolonization. Time is needed for this to acquire new botanical interest. Other big changes in the Harefield flora have been caused by the quarrying away of chalk. Nearly the whole of the part of Garret Wood where chalk was at the surface has gone — and this was the part where military orchid ( Orchis militaris ) grew. This was last seen there in 1900. The down where Gentianella germanica grows is almost quarried away, and although this lovely blue-flowered gentian is still there it may not last much longer. Nevertheless it is sur¬ prising how many of the old Harefield plants are still to be seen — such, for example, as toothwort ( Lathraea squamaria ) and calamint ( Calamintha ascendens ) which Blackstone recorded in 1737, or wild tulip (: Tulipa sylvestris) which dates from 1853. An account of a visit to Totteridge Green near Barnet appeared in The Phytologist in 1856. The plants listed for the ponds include sweet sedge (. Acorus calamus), greater spearwort ( Ranunculus lingua), buckbean (. Menyanthes trifoliata), fringed waterlily (Nympho ides peltata) and water- violet ( Hottonia palustris). Some of these are still there but the ponds have been tidied up and made “ ornamental,” and lost much of their 46 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 charm in the process. From Finchley Common east to the Essex border, and north into Hertfordshire, the ancient forest of Enfield Chase extended until it was disforested by Act of Parliament in 1777. By 1862, when it was the subject of a paper in The Phytologist, much of this area had been brought under the plough, and a great deal more was enclosed in large estates. Lesser periwinkle ( Vinca minor) “carpeted almost every wood or coppice near Enfield, and it was equally plentiful about Southgate ” ; it was also common about Totteridge and Epping Forest. Our records in the Hand List show that some of the localities known to us to-day, such as Whitewebbs Park, are relics of the former wide distribution over Enfield Chase and beyond. Danewort ( Sambucus ebulus ) was another of the plants found in the Chase. Since 1862, Southgate, Enfield, and Barnet have extended considerably, but north of these places there is still a lot of country not yet built over and there are several large estates which have not been examined for plants in recent years. In June, 1856, a correspondent of The Phytologist spent a few hours botanizing “ about North Mims, Hertfordshire and Middlesex.” The plants he found included giant bellflower ( Campanula latifolia ), hoary cinquefoil ( Potentilla argentea ), crosswort ( Galium cruciata), subterranean clover ( Trifolium subterraneum ) and soft trefoil ( T . striatum). The Hand List includes records of all these from the same area though it is possible that the bellflower, at least, has now gone. Conservation, Agriculture and Aliens Having reviewed the localities as recorded in the pages of The Phytologist, it is now time to turn to more general aspects of the flora of the London Area as they concern the botanists of a century ago and ourselves. The first is antagonism to changes and fear of the imminent loss of interesting plants. In reading these old accounts one is left with the impression that whatever differences there may be in our flora now, the spirit of conservation is much older than most people realize. Our forerunners were deeply concerned about threats to habitats in which they were interested and expressed their concern very freely, but it was only in a very few cases (such as Epping Forest) that any useful action could be taken. In view of all the commercial interests involved during the past century in and around the expanding metropolis it is surprising that so much is left. London botanists in 1858 took a very pessimistic view of the future and our chances to-day in an age with more enlightened public opinion, and with the support of the Nature Conservancy, would seem much brighter by comparison. 4 The second general aspect which merits attention is that of changes in agriculture. In 1858 the weeds of arable land were far more interesting than they are to-day and although, as they pointed out, “ clean culture is detrimental to the botanist ” such plants as pheasant’s eye {Adonis annua) and hare’s ear ( Bupleurum rotundifolium) were still to be found in the cornfields. Improved cultivation aided by modern machinery and cleaner seed has now led to the virtual disappearance of attractive weeds like corncockle {Agrostemma githago) and cornflower {Centaurea cyanus), and selective weed killers are likely to eliminate those that remain. The policy of taking the plough round the farm is rapidly destroying old pastures and any interesting plants which grow in them, and two world wars have involved ploughing up chalk grassland and other ground which CHANGES IN THE FLORA OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE 1 858 47 might otherwise have been left. To this must be added drainage for agricultural reasons, increased run-off from the land consequent on the construction of roads and paths, and covering them with tar or other waterproof surfaces, and the digging of cuttings for railways and roads. As a result many parts of the London Area are much drier than they were a century ago. Changes of this kind during the period have been far greater than they were earlier in botanical history. The third general aspect which has impressed me in re-reading the pages of The Phytologist concerns the importance of studying the spread of alien plants. Some species then recorded with glee as rarities are now common and of considerable ecological significance ; others have failed to spread, while some then regarded as frequent have remained static, or decreased. No botanist at the time could have forecast the future and no doubt many of the records which are now of the greatest value in enabling us to trace the spread of aliens must have seemed very unim¬ portant at the time they were made. Examples of species which have not exhibited any great spread during the century include rose of sharon ( Hypericum calycinurri) and purple toadflax ( Linaria purpurea). These received frequent mention and are still to be found in some of the same places. Of Lepidium ruderale, John Stuart Mill wrote “ ... so many-seeded a plant having found a locality propitious to it, has every chance of remaining there till the botanist’s crack of doom, 4 a trowel ticking against a brick What he intended by the quotation I do not pretend to know, but his words written in 1859 had a prophetic ring, as this species which was then rare in the London Area is now common and no doubt owes much of its success to the abundant seed production. Rosebay ( Chamaenerion angustifolium ) was one of the plants recorded with glee a century ago though it was spreading quite rapidly. By 1863 it was well distributed in the Surrey part of our Area, but in Essex and Middlesex it was much rarer, and many years were to pass before it could be described as common in any district. Orange Balsam ( Impaiiens capensis), had first been recorded in Britain in 1822, when John Stuart Mill noticed it as an escape from Albury Park gardens. From here, the seeds were water-borne along the Tillingbourne and Wey and into the Thames — spreading into many Surrey localities and soon afterwards up the Middlesex streams. Writing in 1859, Irvine bemoaned that although the plant was well known its existence “ was ignored for many years ” and used it as an example to encourage his readers to give more attention to aliens. By then it was plentiful in many places in Surrey and Irvine thought that it had ceased to increase : he was not aware that it already had a foothold in Middlesex. In fact this beautiful American introduc¬ tion has continued to extend its distribution right up to the present time, but the initial spectacular intrusion into our Area had lost momentum at the time he wrote. Beaked Hawk's-beard ( Crepis vesicaria subsp. taraxacifolia) is now abundant throughout our Area, but it was hardly known to the botanists of a century ago. It is mentioned twice in the pages of The Phytologist — from Northfleet in Kent in 1861, and from near Dorking in 1857 — but there are older records from nearer London. It seems that after a long period of rarity and confusion with allied species, the plant suddenly increased extremely rapidly in the second half of the nineteenth century 48 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 until it attained the abundance in which we now know it. Canadian water- weed ( Elodea canadensis) was first recorded from Britain in 1842 and soon increased and spread in a most spectacular manner. By the time our Society was founded, scattered localities within our Area were known in Kent, Surrey, Middlesex, and probably Essex, and occurrences in the Ravensbourne, at Wandsworth and at Horton were mentioned in The Phytologist. Readers must have received this news with some alarm as in 1857 a paper by W. Marshall had described the amazing growth of this New World alien and the threat to navigation and drainage which it had caused in the Fens, and damage to amenities of ornamental ponds elsewhere. It continued to spread round London but its aggressiveness diminished and little is heard to-day of its damaging tendencies. At the present time we have repeated introductions by aquarists of the allied Elodea callitrichoides and Lagarosiphon major which can choke a pond or ditch in a very short period, and their spread is being watched with interest. In this paper an attempt has been made to compare the state of the flora of the London Area in 1858 with that of a century later, and in the case of individual species and localities it has not proved difficult to draw limited comparisons. The task as a whole has, however, proved an impossible one. Both at the beginning and the end of the period — and, indeed, in every year in between — our flora has been in a state of very rapid change. There is probably no other area of comparable size in Britain where the flora changes so rapidly, and emphasis is on the lack of any sort of stability rather than on the gradual trends which are the subject of most ecological studies and are so often the case elsewhere. All our habitats are subject to constant human interference and the changes are often sudden and drastic. It is common for completely new habitats to be opened up by, for example, the removal of gravel or sand over many acres, or the quarrying of chalk, or the building of embank¬ ments or excavation of cuttings. In such cases invasion by plants is rapid, and sometimes of an unusual nature. The rapidity with which bombed sites were recolonized during the war is fresh in our memories, and it will be remembered that in the City alone, the most densely built-up square mile, 269 species were found on the debris (Lousley, in Fitter and Lousley, 1953). The same vectors which brought so many seeds and spores to the City in so short a time, bring them to new habitats exposed elsewhere. On account of this exceptionally rapid rate of change, and the very wide range of different types of habitat available in our Area, it is particularly dangerous to assert that species are extinct. Hardly a year passes without important new habitats being found to replace those that are lost. A century ago the pages of The Phytologist had many examples of species stated to be extinct which were reported again almost as soon as the statements had appeared — the summer snowflake and marsh sowthistle have been mentioned above. Even when restricted to a single county such statements have proved just as misleading. For example, Nicholson in 1916, and Salisbury in 1927, gave lists of species supposed to be extinct in Middlesex but, as Table B shows, these lists proved hopelessly mislead¬ ing. The flora of the London Area has a remarkable resilience which seems to defy human attempts to destroy it. Plus ga change , plus c'est la meme chose. CHANGES IN THE FLORA OF THE LONDON AREA SINCE 1 858 Table B. Analysis of Lists of Species Reported as Extinct in Middlesex. 49 Errors, or never more than casuals.., Still survive ... May survive ... Still regarded as probably extinct . . . Totals listed by each author n and Dyer Nicholson Salisbury 1869 1916 1927 ‘ 4 4 4 18 18 17 3 3 3 32 33 30 57 58 54 The list given by Trimen and Dyer in 1869 was used as a basis by the later writers who introduced only minor modifications. Recent work has shown that more than a third of these species have survived, but some other species not included in the lists have not been recorded for a number of years. There is a remarkable similarity between the opportunities, difficulties and anxieties of the botanists of a century ago and our own. Although the built-up core and the suburban fringe now extend farther from the centre of London, there are compensations in the ease with which modern transport enables us to reach places which were almost inaccessible to the founders of our Society. The study of the flora of the London Area has never been of greater interest than it is to-day. [I am deeply indebted to D. H. Kent for allowing me to draw freely on his unique knowledge of the flora of Middlesex and for other help in connection with the preparation of this paper.] REFERENCES Works consulted in the preparation of this paper include the following : BREWER, J. A.. 1856, A New Flora ... of Reigate, Surrey. 1863, Flora of Surrey. London. London. , - - 7 - - — '-'J - - • • — v*i**W*i. CASTELL, C. P., Natural History Records of the Wimbledon District : Botany (manuscript). Davies’ Map of the Environs of London, 1858. DE CRESPIGNY, E. C., 1877, A New London Flora. London. FITTER, R. S. R., and LOUSLEY, J. E., 1953, The Natural History of the City. London. GIBSON, G. C., 1862, The Flora of Essex. London. HARLEY, R., 1953, Flowers and Ferns of Harrow. Harrow. HUTCHINGS, G. E., 1952, The Book of Box Hill. Dorking. IRVINE, A. (Edit.), 1855-62, The Phytologist, 1-6 (New Series). London. - , 1859, Wandsworth Plants, etc., The Phytologist (New Series), 3, 330-350. KENT, D. H., 1949, Middlesex Plant Records for 1948 (with list of extinct species) London Naturalist, 28, 31-36. - , 1950, Tothill Fields, Westminster : A lost Botanical Area. London Naturalist 29 3-6 KENT, D. H., and LOUSLEY, J. E., 1951-57, A Hand List of the Plants of the London Area Issued as Supplement to the London Naturalist. LOUSLEY , J. E., 1944-58, Botanical Records for 1943-1957 in London Naturalist annually from No. 24 for 1944 onwards. - , 1946, William Curtis (1746-1799) (includes details of Battersea and other London habitats). London Naturalist, 25, 3-12. LOVIS, J. D., 1951, A Preliminary Account of the Vegetation of the Ponds and Bog on Keston Common, Kent. Proc. Croydon Nat. Hist, and Sci. Soc., 12, 60-68. MELVILL, J. C., 1864, The Flora of Harrow. London. NXCFIOLSON, C. S., 1916, The Botany of the District. Trans. London Nat. Hist. Soc. 1915 40-43 PAYNE, L. G., 1948, The Story of our Society. London Naturalist, 27, 3-21. ROBBINS, R. W., 1916, The Flora of Epping Forest. Trans. London Nat. Hist. Soc., 1915 44-48 SALISBURY, E. J., 1927, The Waning Flora of England. The South Eastern Naturalist, 30. 35-54. TRIMEN, H., and DYER, W. T. T., 1869, Flora of Middlesex. London. WHITEHOUSE, M., 1952, The Present Flora of Barnes Common, Surrey. London Naturalist, 31, 1 7-19. WILMOTT, A. J., 1932, The London Flora. The South Eastern Naturalist, 35, 38-41. WYLD, James, 1856, A New Topographical Map of the Country in the Vicinity of London. 50 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Some Reminiscences of the City By W. C. Cocksedge I ENTERED the City as a junior clerk about the turn of the century. The fact that the South African War was still in progress will indicate the date sufficiently. At that time, the great Victorian improvements had been completed, the Embankment had been constructed, the Holborn Viaduct improve¬ ments carried out and Queen Victoria Street had been cut through the City from Blackfriars to the Mansion House. Henceforth, the only alterations had been the ceaseless demolition of old buildings and the erection of modernized premises. The uniform rows of brick-fronted buildings which are familiar to us in byegone prints of London had almost completely disappeared, although there was still a considerable number of the small, low red brick buildings which had been erected under Acts prescribing the rebuilding of the City after the Great Fire. These were mainly in side streets and in my own recollection have almost completely disappeared. There is a good specimen in Wormwood Street and Turner’s hat shop in Gresham Street is familiar to most people. There were also considerable remains of the stuccoed uniform terraces built in Moorgate Street and King William Street early in the nineteenth century, although they had lost their regularity by the erection of modern premises, here and there, giving them a mournful and bizarre effect. Of really old houses, there were practically none left ; only in Cloth Fair, Smithfields and Bishopsgate Street Without, quarters which had escaped the Great Fire, were a few crazy old buildings awaiting demolition. Paul Pindar’s house in the latter street had recently been pulled down and the front removed to the Victoria and Albert Museum. My daily walk for many years extended from Holborn Viaduct Station to Liverpool Street, along Newgate Street and Cheapside and thence by Broad Street or Bishopsgate to my office. The station had then a spacious hotel above its frontage, at which visitors, chiefly foreigners, actually stayed. Turning into Newgate Street, Dance’s grim old Newgate was on the right. It looked a prison and it was a prison, thus fulfilling the highest canons of architecture. It came down, however, and the present fine but scarcely monumental Courts were erected in its place. When they were nearly completed, a high ecclesiastic was approached for a suitable legend over the portal. Probably without much thought he suggested the text “ Defend the Children of the 'Poor and punish the Wrongdoer.” In due course the scaffolding was removed and a terrible outcry arose over the offending inscription. The authorities however, refused to alter it and the controversy now is as completely forgotten as that over the Epstein statues in the Strand. Opposite, Christ’s Hospital stood for a little while and through the tall railings I used to see the boys scampering about in the playground before the 9 a.m. roll-call. A few yards further on, in St. Martin’s Le Grand, stood Smirke’s G.P.O., a gloomy building with a fine lofty portico. It is a great pity that it was pulled down and new buildings erected in King Edward Street nearby, which are, architecturally, negligible. At the top of Cheapside, the roadway was divided by the statue of Sir Robert Peel on a bulky plinth with flower-girls and their baskets on the steps. It was certainly an obstruction but it was fine to see the way SOME REMINISCENCES OF THE CITY 51 the buses swirled round its base when the road was clear. During my time there have been various changes among the City statues. Peel has gone to the Police College at Hendon. Rowland Hill was moved more than once to new positions around the Royal Exchange. It is now in front of the G.P.O., the famous legend “ He gave us Penny Postage ” having been discreetly altered. The massive statue of King William IV has migrated from its commanding site near London Bridge and may now be found on the lawn of the National Maritime Museum at Greenwich where it looks strangely small. Until near the last, it had no inscription on its plinth and it is said that country visitors took it to be the figure of one Nixon, the sculptor’s name being very prominent at the foot of the statue. Cheapside might have been regarded before the late war as an epitome of the way in which the City was slowly but ceaselessly changing. During the many years I frequented it, one-half the buildings must have come down and been replaced, and yet alterations were so gradual and haphazard that one barely marked the change. It still remained the welter of inconsistencies which gave the City an individuality, unshared by any other Capital in the world. At the foot of Cheapside, the ageless Mansion House defied Time but the steps in front have been altered and made more convenient. I stood before them on that memorable day when a telegram was read, announcing that the Queen was passing to her Eternal Rest and the hushed crowds thought blankly of the morrow. The Mansion House never changed but alas ! Soame’s charming and restrained facade of the Bank has suffered the unspeakable indignity of having a colossal jumble of buildings erected, over and behind it. I suppose it was necessary but what a tragedy ! The open space, round about, has not been sensibly improved by the huddle of utilitarian tube entrances. From the Bank, I usually proceeded through Threadneedle Street to Bishopsgate, in order to avoid the crowds surging along Broad Street from Liverpool Street Station. On entering Bishopsgate, I passed the monumental headquarters of the National Provincial Bank, one of the few fine buildings erected by a private concern in late Victorian times. On the right, still stood Crosby Hall, concealed from the street by an ornamental quasi-Gothic building with steep gables. This was of no great age but sufficiently picturesque and was occupied as a restaurant. At a later date, strenuous efforts were made to save Crosby Hall but banking pockets were too deep. It was fortunately, however, found possible to remove it to Chelsea. A little further on came St. Helen’s Place, now entirely rebuilt, a sort of Liberty similar to Ely Place in Holborn. It was separated from the street by railings and had a porter’s lodge. On either side of the Place was a uniform range of tall brick buildings with the Leathersellers’ Hall at the end. Still further on stood, and still stands, the Church of St. Ethelburga with two picturesque squat shops in front, impinging on the pavement. A few years ago, it was decided that the shops must be removed and, although there were many protests, it was admitted that they caused inconvenience to the foot traffic. When the shops were demolished, the cement front of the church was removed also and disclosed the rough rubble of the medieval wall. That was again covered with regular courses of smooth stone and sur¬ mounted by a narrow coping, perfectly straight and proper. Shortly afterwards, at whose instigation I do not know, the stone casing was 52 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 taken down, built up again in a more irregular manner, the stone picked out with a hammer and the coping replaced with a slightly wavy contour. Architectural purists might protest but the result was certainly more pleasing and actually truer to the character of the building. Outside St. Ethelburga’s was a cab-stand and on the opposite side of the street was the Four Swans Inn, an ancient foundation, I believe, but rebuilt. It has since ceased to be licensed. On a low stool outside this inn sat all day long one of the last “ watermen ” left in the City. He was a fresh old man, shaved carefully round the mouth, and wore a large clean linen apron. The stool was gaily painted with his name “ Old Joe ” embellished with sprigs of gay flowers. Alas ! came a day when taxis appeared instead of the cabs and he found asylum elsewhere. Now and again I hazarded the Broad Street route and soon passed on my left the grimiest, most dismal-looking old church in the City, St. Peter le poer. Being later than Wren, it had no friends and was soon demolished to make way for a fine office building. The church had been circular in plan and the building had apparently to conform, more or less, to this arrangement. Subsequent tenants of the building, unaware of this fact, have never ceased to wonder at the tortuous corridors and weirdly shaped rooms which it contains. In this part of the City one finds, or found, many large buildings erected towards the end of Queen Victoria’s reign, to house firms who required spacious offices but did not wish to erect a building of their own. When I started work in the City, two vast buildings were actually being erected on the south side of Finsbury Circus, viz., Salisbury House and London Wall Buildings, replacing tall plain brick houses which in some cases had recently been private residences. Few of these buildings had any pretension to architectural merit. One of the best known of them was Mansion House Chambers in Bucklersbury, rumoured to be — but rumour is a lying jade — the especial venue of “bucket-shops.” the many entrances serving as convenient exits for fleeing Directors pursued by angry share¬ holders. Little these Directors recked that within a few yards was the buried Temple of Mithras, dedicated to secret cults and deep mysteries which not inaptly described their shady offices. The traffic was naturally entirely horse-drawn but vehicles, especially buses, moved at a greater speed than might be thought. At the Bank, however, there was often great congestion and delay and the “ jam ” on London Bridge was proverbial. The buses had few regular stopping places but were supposed to draw up when a fare wished to alight. This they often failed to do and passengers were carried, protesting, some distance along the street. The cleaning of the chief streets was effected by numerous Street Orderly boys, regular employees of the Corporation who wore distinctive white jackets. It is impossible to describe the jaunty manner in which these boys waved their pans and brushes as they darted about amongst the traffic, returning every minute or so to deposit the manure in tall iron receptacles on the kerb. Nevertheless, at the end of a sultry day, the fumes of ammonia were powerful enough to annoy the squeamish. The main streets were paved with Australian jarrah wood blocks but they became rather “ knobbly ” in use and were superseded by creosoted soft wood blocks. The side streets were largely macadamized, and during a wet day the mud was squeezed into pools of liquid abomination along the kerbs, leaving spaces for wayfarers to cross the road. Carts very SOME REMINISCENCES OF THE CITY 53 frequently splashed this semi-liquid mud over the pavements. There were very few women about, however, and men accepted the mud on their clothes with resignation. In fact, the office clothes brush was an institution. Late at night, the main streets were invaded by gangs of men who cleansed the roadway with veritable floods of water, paying little heed to the comfort of the infrequent foot passengers. During the day, the crowds in the streets were predominantly male as the shorthand typist was, literally, still in her infancy. It was some years before women employees became numerous and our office was entirely masculine. We had, in fact, a clumsy typewriter but it was rarely used for letters, these still being written in copying ink, copies being made in a hefty hand-operated press. The damping of the tissue required nice judgment and if the Chairman’s letter was smudged, a position of some delicacy was created. Even type¬ written letters were usually copied in the same manner, carbon copies being regarded as having doubtful legal value. Some old customs still lingered in the City. In our office was a poor old clerk who had seen better days. His sight being bad, he wore large goggles and strongly resembled a magnified edition of the immortal Pickwick but unlike that worthy, I imagine, his waistcoat was often smeared with bacon fat and egg. He was accustomed to buy his chop or piece of steak of a butcher and take it into a small public house to have it cooked on the strength of imbibing a glass or two of beer. I frequently met him in Bishopsgate with the meat in his hand, scarcely concealed by a scrap of newspaper. Those who could afford, dined in taverns or fairly expensive restaurants, but the tea-shops, nearly all A.B.C. or B.T.T. (for Lyons was not yet) were more numerous than at present although usually smaller. Their prices were amazingly low. I have often eaten a poached egg on toast, cost threepence (or was it fourpence ? — I know that two eggs on toast cost sixpence). There were even some vegetarian restaurants which offered three dishes for sixpence. In Bishopsgate were two or three old-fashioned comfortable coffee shops where a chop or steak could be obtained for a few pence. At first the tea-shops were sombre with male garb, but gradually the growing army of women typists and clerks filtered in, adding a diversity of colour and at length a lingerie shop was opened, I think in Broad Street, and men realized that another citadel had fallen. During the mid-day break I frequently took a stroll, often in Leadenhall Market, nearby. In those days, the poulterers’ shops usually had a few interesting birds suspended on cords in front of their premises — herons, bitterns, a smew in full plumage and even owls, green woodpeckers and kingfishers. On the fishmongers’ slabs too was often exhibited some uncommon fish, an opah or a large sturgeon. This is all a thing of the past. Once, a consignment of frozen wallabies was exhibited in like manner. These marsupials never appeared again and I fancy that, in common parlance, they did “ not catch on.” As a footnote, I might refer to the increased cleanliness and salubrity of the City. At the turn of the century, all offices were bedevilled by grime and soot, scarcely conceivable nowadays. The thousands of open coal fires and the belching ventilation shafts of the Underground (the present Inner Circle fines) made it impossible to keep anything clean, and the management in our office actually supplied special slips of paper to 54 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 cover our starched cuffs. Collars, of course, had to be changed daily. I have stood on Blackfriars Station when the opposite platform was barely visible. There was little or no tiling in the stations and the bare brick walls were encrusted with grime. Where an attempt had been made to whitewash patches of brickwork, it was soon a dirty grey and everything was sooty. There was also a prevailing odour of sulphur from the engines. The carriages were remarkably uncomfortable, having wooden backs and seats without covering, but when I was a boy there was one compensation. Before entering a station, a click was heard and upon looking up, one saw a card flicker round and display the name of the station. Who says that we have progressed ! Nature Conservancy in the London Area Report on the Activities of the Nature Conservancy, 1957 By O. E. Balme (Mrs. Young) and W. A. Macfadyen IT is pleasant to report that there have been no outstanding threats to proposed Reserves or Sites of Special Scientific Interest in the London Region during the past year. The Conservancy’s main activities have been directed towards first, preparing management plans for the declared National Nature Reserves and, secondly, reviewing the lists of Sites of Special Scientific Interest to bring up to date the schedules and maps for inclusion in the revised County Development Plans. In most counties these revisions must be submitted during 1958 and the London Natural History Society are invited to assist by putting forward sugges¬ tions for revision of existing S.S.S.L boundaries, additions to the schedule and possible deletions where recent development has reduced the original value. In several cases it is felt that sites are too large and unwieldy for conservation purposes. Geological sites A survey of all geological sites of Special Scientific Interest that have been notified in the Society’s area shows little activity to report for 1957. Swanscombe Skull Site Reserve, Kent. M.R.51/598743 Excavation of the Upper Middle Gravel by Mr. John Wymer and Mr. and Mrs. B. O. Wymer has continued throughout the year. No further human remaihs have been found, but a number of interesting finds have been made, including a large flake showing undeniable evidence of the use of Levallois technique, the first definite specimen ever recorded from the Swanscombe Middle Gravels. One or two of the 33 hand axes found are finer than anything recorded in the Swanscombe Committee’s Report (1938). Specks of charcoal were again occasionally encountered, and one charcoal fragment an inch long lay alongside a bison vertebra and a mint flint flake. One flint with a well-calcined face was found, but no charred bones. Other finds of interest include two species of non-marine mollusca, Sphaerium rivicola (Lamarck) and Unio cantianus (Kennard and Woodward) from the base of the Lower Middle Gravel. The former confirms an earlier record, and both are of interest as indicating Rhenish affinities, NATURE CONSERVANCY IN THE LONDON AREA 55 The dig will be continued by the Wymers during 1958, again with the help of a grant from the Wenner-Gren Foundation of New York. A Management Plan for this reserve is under preparation, and it is hoped that its implementation will gradually lead to improvement in the amenity of this most difficult site. Two problems are of special moment. Firstly, it is required to educate the public so that they may learn to appreciate the interest and value of the outstandingly important treasure in their midst ; to respect it and refrain from damaging the fences, notice boards, buildings, and sections of strata exposed. These have suffered wanton damage in the past. The second problem is the simple one of removing rubbish from the reserve, with the more difficult one of stopping future deposition of more rubbish. An active Warden who can devote considerable time to these duties would contribute largely to the solution of these problems, and the assistance of the Honorary Wardens will also be valuable. Surrounded on all sides by both official and unofficial rubbish, the reserve now lacks that amenity of site and surroundings befitting its scientific importance. Continued effort and collaboration between the Conservancy, the Local Authority, and surrounding owners will be necessary before the ideal is attained. During the year a new independent Geological Conservation Council representative of geological opinion has been in process of formation. It will maintain close liaison with the Nature Conservancy in the geological and physiographical fields, and will focus public opinion on the importance of the conservation of outstandingly important sites of this nature in Great Britain. Some of the sites indeed are of international importance, for they preserve evidence upon which the science of geology itself was built. It is for our generation to protect such sites for the present and future generations. The Nature Conservancy who were given duties and powers for the purpose in their Royal Charter and in the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act, 1949, cannot successfully defend all that needs defending without vigilant and vigorous support. It is hoped that the new Council will aid and strengthen conservation in these fields in the way that is done by other bodies already established for botany and archaeology. At present the Geological Conservation Council consists of sixteen members, geologists (in the widest sense) of eminence, most of them representing geological and allied societies or University Departments of Geology throughout Great Britain. The President is Dr. R. G. S. Hudson, and the Secretary Dr. J. F. Kirkaldy, Department of Geology, Queen Mary College, University of London, Mile End Road, London, E.l. 56 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 The Survey of Bookham Common SIXTEENTH YEAR Progress Report Vegetation. (Report by C. P. Castell and A. W. Jones) A survey of the distribution of Mercurialis perennis (Dog’s Mercury) showed that it was confined to the north edge of the Common in a strip not more than 15 yards wide, extending from Hundred Pound Bridge Wood (just off the Common) in the west intermittently along the margins of Hill House Wood and Kelsey’s Wood almost to Kelsey’s Farm. An isolated easternmost patch occurred in Stents Wood East, just S. of Lady Chewton's Wood. A burnt area near Isle of Wight Pond had been cleared at the beginning of the year and planted with Cherry, Beech, Sycamore, Hornbeam, Laburnum and Alder and then fenced with a strand of wire. The flora of this area was listed and general observations made. Notes were also made on Station Copse and of the relative abundance of species colonizing an area of dead grass near Five Halls. Four 3-ft. square quadrats were mapped in a deturfed area in W. Plain (ref. 465) and percentage cover of the flora estimated. The resurveying of the Short Grass Quadrats was continued. Riccia fluitans was again found to be dominant on Sheepbell Pond in November, when it was also observed in Lower Eastern Pond. Mammals. (Report by G. Beven.) It is evident that the Rabbit is increasing again since it was laid low by myxomatosis in 1954. One was seen on farmland adjacent to the common in March, 1955, and several have been observed there since then (1956-7). In February, 1957, fresh droppings and recently used burrows were found in the copse by Bayfield Pond (ref. 763) and during the year there was similar evidence of occupation of eight burrows in Lady Chewton’s Wood, one rabbit being seen in South-east Wood (ref. 86) in April and fresh droppings were noted in Station Copse (ref. 88) and Eastern Wood in December. Birds. (Report by G. Beven.) The small but enthusiastic group of ornithologists continued to do regular census work during the year on Chesmore and Kelsey’s Farms and on Western and Isle of Wight Plains. The investigation into the feeding niches of birds in dense oakwood (Eastern Wood) is yielding interesting results. For example, it has been demonstrated that the various species of tits each spend a different proportion of their feeding time in the ground vegetation and in branches and twigs of the trees and shrubs. The Wren feeds almost exclusively below the canopy. The Tree Creeper lives mostly on the tree-trunks, whereas the Nuthatch feeds much more on the branches, even reaching the twigs to pick off the nuts. However, more information is required'and this work will be continued. The Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola, |is not mentioned in the check-list of birds for the Common (Carrington" L. I., Castell, C. P., and Wilton, A. R., L.N. for 1943, pp. 23-29). In May, 1945, however, two were observed in display flight and “ roding ” has been noted subsequently, in 1950 (one), 1956 (one) and 1957 (two). One observer considered that THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 57 there were four pairs present in June, 1955, and Woodcock were seen during May in both 1953 and 1954. Therefore it seems likely that this species has at least attempted to breed annually in recent years. It has also occurred there in most recent winters, certainly since 1946. Diptera. (Report by L. Parmenter.) Among the Agromyzidae collected or bred from puparia that he has found on Bookham Common, Mr. K. A. Spencer has described four species as new to science, one being named after our veteran member Mr. M. Niblett Melanagromyza nibletti (Spencer), bred from puparia from stems of SiJaum silaus (L.) (Schinz and Thell), collected November, 1956, emerged April 3, 1957. ( Proc . R. Ent. Soc. Lond., A., 26, 180). Melanagromyza sativae (Spencer), bred from stems of Pastinaca sativa L., 195 6 (op. cit., 181-2). Melanagromyza torilidis (Spencer), bred from stems of Torilis japoniea (Houtt.) D.C., May, 1956 (op cit., 182). Ophiomyia heracleivora (Spencer), bred from puparia in the base of rotting leaves of Heracleum sphondylium L., collected November 17, 1956, emerged February 8, 1957 (Proc. R. Ent. Soc. Lond., B., 26, 162-4). Crustacea. Visits were made to the Common on February 13 and April 18, 1949, and from September 2-7, 1957, by Mr. W. A. Smith of The British Museum (Natural History). The collections made on February 13, 1949, were taken from below ice. The identifications were either by, or checked by, Dr. J. P. Harding. A selection from the material has been preserved in the museum. Mr. Smith’s records are combined below and a few records by C. P. Castell and P. H. Holway added. The following abbreviations are used : P., Pond ; B., Bayfield Crater ; B.S., Bookham Stream, nr. Bank’s Pond ; Cr., Crater ; E.U.E., Eastern End of Upper Eastern ; I.O.W., Isle of Wight ; L.E., Lower Eastern ; W.U.E., Ditch at W. end of Upper Eastern Pond ; 100 P.B., Stream, S. side of Hundred Pound Bridge. Amphipoda. Isopoda. OSTRACODA. COPEPODA. Gammarus (?) pulex (Linn.), I.O.W.P.9/57 ; W.U.E. P.9/57. Asellus meridianus Racovitza, $ only, V/.U.E. P.9/57, (above determinations by R. W. Ingle) Cyclocypris ovum (Jurine), Cr.P.2/49 ; I.O.W.P.9/57 * W.U.E. P.9/57. Cypria ophthalmica (Jurine), B. P.2/49 ; E.U.E. P.9/57. Cypricercus affinis (Fischer), I.O.W.P.4/49. Cypridopsis vidua (O. F. Muller), W.U.E. P.9/5 7. Eucypris sp., B. P.2/49 (juv.). Notodromas monachus (O. F. Muller), I.O.W.P.9/57. Acanthocyclops bicuspidatus Claus, L.E. P.2/49 ; W U E P 9/57 ; B.P. 1?, 2/49. A. gigas (Claus), I.O.W.P.2/49. A. vernalis (Fischer), abundant, with eggs, in temporary pool nr. Bookham Stream (ref. 45) (13.3.55, C. P. Castell), “ seems to be A. vernalis , but if so, your specimens are 58 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 unusually large. A. vernalis is a very common species in ditches or small pools, but never in lakes or open waters.” J. P. Harding. A. viridis (Jurine), I.O.W.P.4/49 ; W.U.E.P.9/57. A. sp., I.O.W.P., juv., 4/49. Diaptomus castor (Jurine), I. O.W. P.2/49, 4/49 ; B.P. 2/49. Eucyclops agilis (Koch), I.O.W.P.9/57 ; E.U.E.P.9/57 ; B.S.9/57 ; 100 P.B.9/57. Macro cyclops fuscus (Jurine), E.U.E.P.9/57. Cladocera. Alonella excisa (Fischer), I.O.W.P.9/57. Chydorus sphaericus (O. F. Muller), W.U.E.P.9/57 ; I.O.W.P.9/57. Ceriodaphnia megalops Sars, I.O.W.P.9/57. C. reticulata serrata (Jurine), I.O.W.P.9/57. Daphnia pulex (de Geer), I.O.W.P.9/57 ; W.U.E.P.9/57 ; L.E. P.4/55 and B.P.4/55, P. H. Holway. SimocephaJus exspinosus (Koch), W.U.E.P.9/57 ; I.O.W.P. 9I57. S. vetulus (O. F. Muller), I.O.W.P.4/49 and 9/57 ; W.U.E.P.9/57 ; U.E.P.5/54, P. H. Holway. Scapholeberis mucronata (O. F. Muller), I.O.W.P.9/57. C. P. Castell. Notes on the Vegetation of Eastern Plain By C. P. Castell and A. W. Jones Eastern Plain is, botanically, one of the most interesting areas of Bookham Common, as the systematic list at the end of this paper will show. It is a somewhat irregular area about 400 yards long from E.-W. and from 80-170 yards from N.-S., sloping gently from 145 ft. O.D. in the S.E. to about 125 ft. in the N.W. The ground continues to rise in the S.E., reaching 160 ft. in South East Wood at the railway tunnel and drops in the N. to the Hollows at about 125 ft. There is a sharp drop, to the S.W., to about 120 ft. in Central Plain. Although the area is mapped as London Clay by the Geological Survey, over most of it several feet of pebbly sandy loam, or even of sand, have to be penetrated before clay is reached. The London Clay, therefore, appears to be covered by a downwash from the sandy gravel capping the higher ground to the S.E. The soil reaction is, consequently, rather acid (pH c. 5-5), sufficiently so to support a local and very small area of Sphagnum (Bog-moss). The Plain is almost entirely surrounded by oakwood. “ Common Road ” and “ Tunnel Path,” running near the W. and E. borders respec¬ tively, provide habitats for a number of plants not found elsewhere on the Common. The Gun-pits, dug in 1943-4, provide interesting examples of colonization. (Bangerter and Castell, 1949, 1951, Bensley 1955, Castell 1955.) Three main types of vegetation may be recognized. 1. Molinia caerulea (Purple Melic) Grassland, boggy in places and drained by Eastern Ditch, THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 59 2. Areas dominated by Pteridium aquilinum (Bracken). 3. Scrub, mostly Birch, Aspen and Willows. The distribution of these in 1948 is shown in the accompanying sketch- map (Fig. 1, from Bangerter and Castell, 1949). The Molinia Grassland (Molinietum) This is by far the largest area of Molinia on the Common, where it is dominant in a narrow belt about 20 yards wide bordering Eastern Ditch in the central part of the Plain, but it also forms extensive areas at the E. and W. ends. Molinia is, however, to be found everywhere under the bracken, which covers most of the rest of the Plain, although it is sometimes in very poor condition. It occurs also in the extreme N.W. corner of S.E. Wood and in the tall scrub and woodland a little to the N. It would seem very clear that Molinia once covered, and was probably dominant over the whole of Eastern Plain, in which bracken has advanced and is still advancing (Plate 3, Fig. 2). Probably Molinia also extended originally over all but the most southern part of the area bounded by Common Road South in the E. and by Central Ditch in the W. This is now chiefly occupied by woodland and bracken, where Molinia in poor condition is still to be found. A more or less pure fringe of Molinia occurs some distance to the E. of Central Ditch and along Eastern Ditch. A small isolated area occupies part of the higher ground of the western part of Bayfield Plain (see map in Jones, 1954). Among the abundant, or locally abundant, plants in this community are : Genista anglica, Ulex minor, Potentilla erecta, Populus tremula (occasional elsewhere), Calluna vulgaris (rare elsewhere), Galium uligi- nosurn, Succisa pratensis, Cirsium palustre, Cirsium dissectum (practically confined to this area), Festuea rubra, Deschampsia caespitosa, Agrostis stolonifera and Nardus strict a (not known elsewhere). Deschampsia flexuosa (local) and Carex panicea (1. freq.) are both known from only one other site and Orchis ericetorum, Carex pilulifera and the mosses Sphagnum subsecundum var auriculatum (Schp.) and Aulacomnium palustre (Hedw.) appear to be restricted to the area. The little bog supporting these mosses is the only one on the Common. Eastern Ditch. This ditch merely contains local drainage and there appears to be little flow of water, the ditch drying up during the summer months. The flora differs little from that of the wetter parts of the Molinietum. Hydrocotyle vulgaris is perhaps the characteristic plant, being abundant to locally dominant. Abundant species are Ranunculus flammula, Juncus articulatus, Carex hirta and C. nigra. Mentha aquatica and M. sativa occur where the ditch crosses Common Road. The following species are not known elsewhere on the Plain, except, in some cases, in the gun-pits : Lychnis flos-cuculi, Sagina procumbens. Trifolium repens, Scutellaria minor, Eleocharis palustris and Carex flava The Bracken Area (Pteridetum) All the species recorded with, or under, bracken also occur in the Molinietum, but usually with greatly reduced frequencies. Molinia caerulea is frequent throughout, although often in poor condition. Hydrocotyle vulgaris and Lonicera periclymenum are both also frequent throughout and the latter may even be locally abundant, being the most successful species in its toleration of the adverse conditions under bracken. 6o THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Fig. 1. Vegetation Map of Eastern Plain, Bookham Common, showing Position of Gun-pits A-j (1948). THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 6 1 Stachys officinalis, Potent ilia erect a and Populus tremula are locally frequent, while other local plants ar tJuncus effusus, Deschanipsia caespitosa and Calluna vulgaris, the latter in large isolated clumps. There is thus ample evidence that Eastern Plain was formerly wetter than it is now, probably a boggy heath, and this drying out of the Plain may have been the principal factor contributing to the spread of the bracken. Several extensive fires have occurred in the Plain since the survey started; these take place in the early spring when the bracken and Molinia litter are dry and vulnerable. Bracken rhizomes, being underground, are quite unaffected and competition from other plants is thus weakened and even eliminated. The fires, although often extensive, are quite superficial. In May, 1956 (after this paper had been prepared) there was, however, a fire which burnt the whole of the Plain, spreading to the fringe of Central Plain and across the eastern part of E. Hollow. The effects of this fire have not yet been investigated but it appears to have done rather more damage to the scrub than previous fires. It is not known if cattle formerly grazed this area, as they did the lower lying plains to the west, but the grazing is unlikely to have been on any¬ thing like the same scale and the trampling unlikely to have inhibited the spread of the bracken. Since 1948, when the map was prepared, the bracken has become much thicker. The cart track shown running from the N.W. corner to the S.S.E, and several of the footpaths have been obliterated. Scrub. Scrub appears to be more strongly developed among bracken than in the Molinietum, partly because the drier areas favour both and partly because the scrub is, in many cases, spreading from the woodland from which the bracken has, doubtless, already spread. Fig. 2. The Spread of Aspen. 62 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Aspen (Populus Tremula) (Fig. 2). The spread of the Aspen from the edge of the woods has been one of the most conspicuous features in Eastern Plain during the last ten years. An area in the N.W. corner of the Plain was investigated in April, 1954. The dense growth of young saplings proved to be the result of root suckering. Horizontal roots are sent out for considerable distances at a depth of only an inch or two below the soil surface and suckers arise from these at frequent intervals. It was not found possible to trace the sources of all the suckers, but those from one male tree, 30 ft. high, on the margin of Hollow Wood were examined. The dense area of the suckers was about 75 ft. E. of pit A, figure of 8 in shape, and was 120 ft. long (N.-S.) by 80 ft. (E.-W.) at its widest. In the southern half, approximately 300 stems, one inch or more in diameter, were counted and there were at least as many smaller ; their heights ranged from 20 ft. in the N.E. to 8 ft. in the south (Plate 2, Fig. 1). In addition, there was a marginal area (c), with occasional small suckers, about 15 ft. wide in the south and as much as 50 ft. in the west. The line of demarcation between these two areas was most marked. The southern half (, a ) was in the open, outside the shade of Hollow Wood, and bracken appeared to be the only plant competitor; the northern half ( b ) was enclosed on three sides by Hollow Wood. All the plants were male, like the parent. Fibrous roots were few on the suckering roots, even under the suckers themselves, which were often quite free from the soil and could be lifted easily. One sucker 20ft. high was unattached to the soil by fibrous roots and it was possible to lift it an inch or two. A neighbour¬ ing colony was wholly female and one on the south side of the Plain was of trees 30 ft. high and obviously originated in a similar manner. Birches. (Mostly Betula verrucosa, with some B. pnbescens). Birches occur all over Eastern Plain and form dense thickets in places (Plate 2, Fig. 2). Several plants were examined, but no evidence of sucker¬ ing was' found in the thickets, although Rollings (1939) records suckering from the roots of adult trees on Wimbledon Common. Willows. (Salix atrocinerea .) Willows occur in and around the gun-pits and along Common Road South and have increased considerably in size and numbers in the last ten years. No evidence of suckering was found in the plants along the road. The Gun-Pits No detailed work has been done on the vegetation of the nine gun-pits since Bangerter and Castell (1950). They have become considerably overgrown and are developing into more or less closed communities. J uncus bulbosus was not recorded in 1 950, but is now dominant over parts of three pits. Several of the pits have parapets [(P) in systematic list] now covered with short turf; this may be due to human treading and, possibly, partly due to rabbit grazing, as rabbit droppings were always to be seen and were still to be seen in 1955. Roadsides The sides of Common Road and of Tunnel Path support a relatively rich flora, of which the following are the most abundant or most inter¬ esting species : . Potentilla anserina and Festuca ovina ssp. tenuifolia are locally dominant, while Ranunculus repens. Odontites verna and Holcus lanatus are abundant. Among the locally abundant species are : Ulex nanus, Mentha sativa, THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 63 Prunella vulgaris, Succisa pratensis, Cirsium arvense and Juncus inflexus. The following are frequent : Tri folium fragiferum, Stellaria graminea, Salix atrocinerea, Plantago lanceolata, Lotus uliginosus, Cirsium palustre, Carex hirta and Anthoxanthum odoratum. Among the more interesting but occasional species are : Ranunculus ficaria (a few plants near S.E. Wood), Poly gal a vulgaris (rare on the Common and the only site on the Plain), Hypericum humifusum (also in several of the gun-pits), Trifolium dubium (also in two of the gun-pits), Lathyrus montanus, Fragaria vesca (not observed elsewhere on the Plain), Pedicularis sylvatica, Glechoma hederacea (the only site on the Plain), Gnaphalium uliginosum and Juncus bulbosus (both in ruts on the road). SYSTEMATIC LIST OF THE PLANTS OF EASTERN PLAIN Equisetum arvense. Occasional along ditch ; rare in Molinietum ; pit C & C(P). Pteridium acquilinum. See main areas of dominance on map, frequent elsewhere ; pits A(P), B(P), C(P), E. Pinus sylvestris. One young sapling in south-central bracken area. Ranunculis acris. Molinietum, very rare. R. repens. Thinly distributed along ditch and in Molinietum, but abundant along road ; pits B, B(P), C, C(P), J. R. flammula. Frequent along ditch ; pits A, B, C, F, J. R. ficaria. A few plants by road in south. Cardamine pratensis. Molinietum, rare, occasional along ditch. C. hirsuta agg. Pit J(P) Viola riviniana. Pits A, A(P), E, G. V. canina. Molinietum, very rare. Poly gal a vulgaris. Side of Tunnel Path. Hypericum humifusum. Rare in ditch and by side of Tunnel Path ; pits B, E, F, G, J. H. pulchrum. Edge of wood in S.W. ; Molinietum (centre of Plain). Lychnis flos-cuculi. Rare along ditch. Cerastium vulgatum. Molinietum, rare. Stellaria graminea. Frequent in Molinietum, Pteridetum, among Deschampsia caespitosa and by road ; pits B(P), C(P). S. holostea. Under bracken ; pit B(P). Sagina procumbens. Rare by ditch ; pits B, J. Montia sp. By ditch. Genista anglica. Very frequent in Molinietum, much less common among bracken or by ditch. Ulex europaeus. Molinietum, very rare ; by pit F. U. minor. Molinietum, very frequent ; Pteridetum, occasional ; frequent by road ; pits A, D. Trifolium medium. Molinietum, very rare. T. repens. Ditch ; pit B. T. fragiferum. Frequent on E. side of road. T. dubium. Side of Tunnel Path ; pits B, J. Lotus corniculatus. Molinietum, rare ; pit C(P). L. uliginosus. Bog ; frequent by boggy part of road and occasional both in pure Molinietum and when latter mixed with Deschampsia caespitosa ; pits B, C, E. Vicia tetrasperma. Very rare (ref. 5896). Lathyrus montanus. By road ; Molinietum, rare. Rubus fruticosus agg. Occasional in Molinietum and Pteridetum ; pits A(P), G. Potentilla anserina. Very frequent by road and on it ; ditch ; pit B. P. erect a. Abundant in Molinietum and amongst Deschampsia caespitosa ; occasional in Pteridetum ; all pits and pit A(P). P. anglica. Pit C(P). P. reptans. Molinietum, scarce ; pit C(P). Fragaria vesca. Side of Tunnel Path. Rosa canina and R. arvensis. Scattered bushes. Prunus spinosa. Molinietum, rare. Crataegus monogyna. Small plants, rare in Molinietum and Pteridetum and along road : pit C(P). Malus sylvestris. Molinietum, very rare. Ribes nigrum. One plant in Pteridetum. Epilobium hirsutum. Amongst Deschampsia caespitosa. E. montanum. Molinietum, very rare. Epilobium sp. Rare by ditch. Chamaenerion angusti folium. Scattered in Molinietum and Pteridetum and by ditch ; pits A(P), D. Callitriche sp. Pit B. Hydrocotyle vulgaris. Very frequent in Molinietum and Pteridetum, abundant along ditch pits B, C, D, E, F, J. Torilis japonica. Very rare. Silaum silaus. Molinietum, rare. Angelica sylvestris. Molinietum, locally frequent. Heracleum sphondylium. Molinietum, rare. 64 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Rumex acetosella. Pit J. R. acetosa. Molinietum, frequent ; Pteridetum, rare ; pits A(P), B(P), C(P). R. conglomeratus. Rare by ditch ; amongst Deschampsia caespitosa. Betula verrucosa. See vegetation notes ; pits B(P), C(P), D. E. G, H. B. pubescens. See vegetation notes. Quercus robur. Scattered seedlings and saplings ; pit D. Populus tremula. See vegetation notes. One sucker in Pit G. Salix caprea. Molinietum, occasional ; by road. S. atrocinerea. Molinietum, occasional ; frequent by road ; pits A, B(P), C. Salix sp. Pits D, E, H, J. Calluna vulgaris. Widely distributed both in pure Molinietum and when latter mixed with bracken, often forming isolated bushy clumps. Pits A, B, D, E. Centunculus minimus. Pit B. Solanum dulcamara. Pit A. Digitalis purpurea. Pit A(P). Veronica officinalis. Side of Tunnel Path. V. chamaedrys. Molinietum, very rare. Pedicularis sylvatica. Bog ; by Tunnel Path, probably forming at one time part of a larger colony, which was separated by the growth of S.E. Wood towards U.E. Pond, isolating the rest of the colony at 914/5. Odontites verna. Abundant along road ; pit J. Mentha spp. These species have not been properly worked on the Plain. By ditch and along road and abundantly at their junction ; pits B, J. M. arvensis. Pit C. M. aquatica and M. sativa recorded for the Plain. Lycopus europaeus. Pit A. Prunella vulgaris. Frequent along road ; Molinietum ; by ditch ; Pit C(P). Stachys officinalis. Locally frequent in Molinietum and Pteridetum. Glechoma hederacea. By road. Scutellaria minor. Ditch. Plantago lanceolata. Frequent by road, Pit C(P). Campanula rotundifolia. Very rare. Galium mollugo. Molinietum, very rare. G. hercynicum. Molinietum, locally frequent ; Pteridetum, rare ; pits D, E, H. G. palustre. Amongst Deschampsia caespitosa in wet ground. Pits A, C, G, H, J. G. uliginosum. Occasional along ditch and in Molinietum ; Pits B, J. Lonicera periclymenum. Pteridetum, very frequent ; Molinietum, occasional ; flowering well in one spot, where it sprawls on the ground. Pit A, A(P). Succisa pratensis. Frequent both in pure Molinietum, and when latter mixed with Deschampsia caespitosa and by road ; occasional in Pteridetum ; pits A, B, C(P), E. Senecio jacobaea. Pit B(P), very rare. S. viscosus. One plant, parapet of a pit (1945). Pulicaria dysenterica. Amongst Deschampsia caespitosa in N.W. of Plain ; bog. Gnaphalium uliginosum. Ruts of road ; pits B. J. Achillea ptarmica. Molinietum, frequent ; along ditch ; scattered in Pteridetum. Cirsium vulgare. Pit C(P). C. palustre. Frequent along road ; Molinietum occasional ; Pteridetum, rare ; pits A, B, B(P), C(P), D, E, G, H, J. C. arvense. Frequent along road ; rare in Molinietum and amongst Deschampsia caespitosa ; Pit C(P). C. dissectum. Locally abundant, but confined to Molinietum, being at its best where there is least bracken ; pit F. Centaurea nigra. Very rare. Serratula tinctoria. Boggy part of Molinietum by pit C. Hypochaeris radicata. Rare in Molinietum, Pteridetum and amongst Deschampsia ceaspitosa ; pits B, B(P), C, C(P), F, J. Hieracium pilosella. Pit F, very rare. Taraxacum spp. Rare in Molinietum, Pteridetum and by road ; pits A(P), C(P). Alisma plamtago-aquatica. Pit C, first noted in 1951. Juncus tenuis. Pit B, not seen since 1952. J. bufonius. Cart-ruts of road. J. inflexus. Frequent by road ; Molinietum. ■* J. effuse. Molinietum, frequent ; Pteridetum and amongst Deschampsia caespitosa ; in all the pits. J. conglomerate. As above ; pits A, C, C(P), D, E, G, H, J. J. acutiflorus. Molinietum, scarce ; by ditch ; pits C, E, C(P), J. J. articulate. Frequent by ditch ; pits A, B, C, E, F, J. /. bulbosus. Pits A, B, C, D, E, F, J, abundant and rapidly becoming dominant. Luzula campestris. Very rare, pit C(P). L. multiflora. Molinietum, rare. Listera ovata. Middle of Plain. Orchis fuchsii. Bog. O. ericetorum. Molinietum, a few plants in S.W., not seen since 1952. Eleocharis palustris. Local by ditch ; pit C, abundant since 1950. Isolepis setacea. Pit J. Carex flava agg. Frequent along ditch ; pit C. C. panicea. Molinietum, occasional. C. flacca. Molinietum, occasional in and amongst Deschampsia caespitosa ; pit C(P), C. pilulifera. Molinietum. occasional. Photo : C. P. Caste!/. Plate 2. Fig. 1. Eastern Plain. Bookham Common. Aspen suckers invading bracken. July, 1954. Plate 2. Photo : C. P. Caste!!. Fig. 2. Eastern Plain, Bookham Common. Dense thicket of adult and seedling birches in Molinietum, near Pit D, April, 1954. Plate 3. Fig. 1. Old bullfinch's nest showing the centre full with skins and empty seeds of rose hips. Plate 3. Fig. 2. Eastern Plain, Bookham Common. Bracken invading Molinietum, July, 1951. THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 65 C. hirta. Occasional in Molinietum and Pteridetum, frequent along ditch by road ; nits B C C(P), D, E, F. C. nigra. Frequent in Molinietum and along ditch ; pit C & C(P). C. ovalis. Occasional in Molinietum and along ditch ; pit J (P). Molinia caerulea. See main areas of dominance on map ; pits B, C, D, E, J, & (P). Sieglingia decumbens. Molinietum, occasional, especially by, and on, paths ; pit J & (P). Glyceria fluitans. Pit A. Festuca rubra. Locally abundant in Molinietum and along road. F. ovina. Molinietum, occasional ; pit C(P). Festuca sp. Pit J. Arrhenatherurn elatius. Very rare. Holcus lanatus. Frequent in Molinietum, abundant along road ; pits A, B(P), C(P), E, J. Deschampsia caespitosa. Molinietum, locally frequent to locally dominant ; Pteridetum, local • pits B(P), C(P). D. fiexuosa. Very rare. Agrostis canina. Molinietum, occasional ; pits B, C, C(P), D, E, G, H, J. A. tenuis. Molinietum, occasional ; pits B, E, G. A. stolonifera. Both in pure Molinietum and when mixed with Deschampsia caespitosa ; pit C(P). Agrostis sp. Pits B(P), J. A.nthoxanthum odoratum. Molinietum, frequent ; Pteridetum, rare ; pit C(P). Nardus stricta. Molinietum, frequent. Thanks are due to Messrs. E. B. Bangerter and G. F. Lawrence for their collaboration in the field. REFERENCES BANGERTER, E. B., and CASTELL, C. P., 1949, Notes on the Vegetation of Gun-pits and Trenches on Eastern Plain, Bookham Common. L.N., 28, 51-56. - , 1951, Further Notes on the Vegetation of Gun-pits on Eastern plain, Bookham Common _L.A., 30, 54-56. BENSLicY, C. J. F., 1955, The Fresh-water Mollusca of the Bomb-craters and Gun-pits on Bookham Common, L.N., 35, 22-28. CASTELL, C. P., 1955, The Beetles of the Gun-pits (1945-194 6), L.N., 35, 21-22. JONES, A. W., 1954, The Flora of Bookham Common, L.N., 34, 25-47. ROLLINGS, S. W., 1939, Further Observations on the Vegetation of Wimbledon Common, Journ. Wimbledon Nat. Hist. Soc., 7, 27. A Bird’s Nest Feeding Site of the Long-tailed Field Mouse By E. W. Groves Whilst working on a short turf area marked out for ecological study on Central Plain, Bookham Common, Surrey, on February 10, 1952, a bright red splash of colour nearby arrested my attention. I walked through the surrounding scrub hawthorn to where there was a solitary rose bush (Square 867). In the fork of a branch 2\ ft. from the ground was an old bullfinch’s nest full to the brim with macerated hip fruits (Plate 3, Fig. 1). The fruit material on the top could not have been there for very long as the skins were quite fresh and were still their character¬ istic scarlet colour. Close inspection showed that along with the skins were many hundreds of hip seeds each bitten in half and with the kernel removed. Under a hand lens minute teeth marks were visible suggesting the work of a mouse, and this was confirmed on further examination of the material by finding several mouse excreta pellets. On the ground beneath the bush was an additional pile of chewed hips also in a compara¬ tively fresh state. I am of the opinion that both of these feeding-sites were of the Long-tailed Field Mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus (Linn.,) a species occurring not infrequently on the plains at Bookham Common (Harrison, 1956). Sanders (1944) mentions that the Long-tailed Field Mouse sometimes uses the old nest of a bird as a winter food store. In the case at Bookham the nest appears to have been used as a feeding-site with the fresh hips gathered from nearby twigs and brought down to the nest ; these being 66 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 consumed on the residue of the last meal. The layer of debris at the bottom (i.e. the lowest and oldest) consisted of skins shrivelled and quite dry. The hip skins on top of the nest and those on the ground appeared to be of equal freshness but it was not possible to say whether they were used by the same mouse repeatedly or by several mice from the same nest. Matthews (1952) states that several Apodemus adults are often found in the same nest though the species ranges but a short distance from home, certainly within a limit of 200 yards. Frequent searching since, both in the same site and others similar on Central Plain, whilst showing evidence of mice being present, has so far revealed no further interesting example of a mouse “ mess-table.” REFERENCES HARRISON, J. L., 1956, Some Small Mammals of Bookham Common, London Naturalist , 35, 12-20. MATTHEWS, L. HARRISON, 1952, British Mammals , Collins (New Naturalist), London. SANDERS, E„ 1944, A Beast Book for the Pocket, O.U.P., London, 3rd Imp. The Lichen Vegetation of Bookham Common By J. R. Laundon INTRODUCTION Bookham Common, lying twenty miles to the south-west of St. Pauls, has the unusually rich lichen flora of 73 species for an area so near London. This paper is an attempt to explain and record this flora in detail, in the hope that workers will be able to note any changes that take place in the future. All the records for the Common were made between 1953 and 1956. The Common is situated mostly on acid London Clay. The annual rainfall is about 27 in. Over half the area is covered with semi-natural woodland, with the pedunculate-oak ( Quercus robur L.) dominant ; birch {Betula spp.), blackthorn (. Prunus spinosa L.), bramble ( Rubus spp.), hawthorn ( Crataegus spp.), hazel ( Corylus avellcina L.) and holly ( Ilex aquifolium L.) are abundant. The rest of the Common is damp acid grassland (the Plains) dominated mostly by Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) Beauv. and locally by Molinia caeruleci (L.) Moench. This grassland is being invaded by bracken ( Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) and by birch and hawthorn scrub. There are several ponds and some small streams and ditches crossed by brick bridges. There are no outcrops of rock. GENERAL AND HISTORICAL The whole of Bookham Common at some time past would have been covered in woodland not very dissimilar from that present to-day. It is probable, however, that the lichen flora of the trees has undergone a number of changes, especially since the early nineteenth century. To judge from old records, e.g. Abbot (1798), Sowter (1950), it appears that a number of macrolichens have disappeared from south-east and midland England since that time, while whole communities of crustaceous lichens have gone (see below). Even in the past fifty years several species of Ramalina have become extinct in the Midlands though formerly abundant (see Sowter, 1950). Doubtless Bookham Common, like many THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 67 other areas, has undergone changes in its lichen flora but there are unfortunately no old lichen records for the Common. The Plains are chiefly the result of felling and grazing. Terricolous* lichens occur in the poorly developed grassland on and about Western Plain, areas which probably owe their existence to the acid quality of the soil and until recently the grazing of rabbits and, more locally, chickens. On Bank’s Plain Cladonia coniocraea (Florke) Spreng., C. fimbriata (L.) Fr., C. furcata (Huds.) Schrad., C. pyxidata (L.) Hoffm. and Peltigera polydactyla (Neck.) Hoffm. are locally common amongst a community of Agrostis tenuis Sibth., Air a praecox L., Festuca rubra L., Hieracium piloselia L., Hypochoeris radicata L., Lotus corniculatus L. and the mosses Pseudosleropodium purum (Hedw.) Fleisch. and Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw. In my experience Cladonia furcata and Peltigera polydactyla are generally confined to grass-heaths in this country, the latter species especially in damp hollows. Unfortunately most parts of the Plains are now too overgrown for many lichens to be present, for they can survive only in comparatively open communities. No terricolous lichens have been found on Eastern Plain although there may have been some present at one time, for according to Spreadbury (1957), the area was almost entirely covered with heather ( Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull) and dwarf gorse {Ulex minor Roth). To-day lichens characteristic of heathland (e.g. Cornicularia aculeata (Schreb.) Ach., Cladonia impexa Harm., C. uncialis (L.) Weber) are absent from the Common. Eastern Plain is now largely covered with hummocks of Molinia, much of which is being invaded by birch and bracken. Terricolous lichens are also absent from the damp clay floor of the woods ; in Surrey they occur only in woods on light sandy soils. The presence of grazing animals (e.g. cattle and horses) on the Plains in the past (Spreadbury, 1957) has affected the corticolous lichen flora. The willow trees ( Salix fragilis L.) around Bayfield Pond and two of the elms ( [Ulmus procera Salisb.) in Station Copse have different species upon their boles from those found in the woods : they are nitrophilous lichens. The latter owe their presence mostly to the excreta produced by the grazing animals, and are more common on elm and willow because the bark of these trees has a higher pH value than that of birch and oak (see Du Rietz, 1945). For a similar reason the brick footbridges over the streams are also covered chiefly by nitrophilous species. The railway from Leatherheaa to Guildford runs along the southern edge of the Common, under a short tunnel and then under the Little Bookham Road Bridge. The walls of both bridge and tunnel have sandstone corner-posts and on these grow a number of lichens (e.g. Acarospora fuscata (Schreb.) Th.Fr., Lecanora polytropa (Ehrh.) Schaer.), some still undetermined, which are not found elsewhere on the Common. These species are frequent on outcrops and walls of acid rock in northern Britain but in the Midlands and south are almost confined to railway bridges, and to a lesser extent acid gravestones in churchyards. Thus Britain’s railway network has helped the spread of some lichens, as well as some ferns and flowering plants. The presence of a heap of chalk in area M provided yet another example of a man-made habitat, and it was here that Mr. A. H. Norkett found the calcicole Collema cristatum (L.) Weber. * A glossary of ecological terms appears on page 70. 68 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 KEY TO MAP. e Areas A - M are chiefly woods. Area N is a hollow with ponds. Areas O - T are chiefly Plains. BRIDGES 1. Hundred Pound Bridge. 5. Central Ditch Bridge. 2. Western Ditch Bridge. 6. Isle-of- Wight Ditch Bridge. 3. Common Road Bridge. 7. Tunnel Bridge. 4. Isle^of-Wight Pond Bridge. 8. Little Bookham Road Bridge. THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 69 SOCIOLOGY (1 a ) Introduction Lichens growing on various substrata such as bark, wood and rock occur in definite communities. The communities have been given names and grouped so as to show their affinities and relationships. The Uppsala nomenclature (see Du Rietz 1936 and 1945 ; Almborn 1948 and 1955) is the most practical and satisfactory to use, and applies only to synusiae or one-layered communities. The federation (designated by attaching the suffix -ion) is the most important unit, this being approximately equivalent to the alliance of the Braun-Blanquet (Zurich-Montpellier) system and in part to the “ epido ” of Hosokawa, Omura and Nishihara. Each federation is readily identified by certain constant species, some of which will be exclusive, i.e. confined to a particular federation. Each federation has a well-defined world distribution controlled by historical factors (e.g. the drifting and disintegration of land masses), climate and atmospheric pollution, and occurs within its geographical area only where certain conditions of illumination, humidity, acidity, etc., are fulfilled. The federation consists of one or more unions (designated by attaching the suffix -etum) and each union comprises one or more societies (no suffix), the society being the smallest unit, normally with one dominant species only. Schematic arrangement of one-layered communities (= synusiae). DU RIETZ BRAUN-BLANQUET Federation A Alliance A T Union A T Association A T Society T Sociation (little used to-day) The Braun-Blanquet system of terminology is used for both one and many-layered communities. As an example I quote Leprarion, which is represented at Bookham by the following communities : FEDERATION -< - UNIONS ■< - SOCIETIES Chaenothecetum Chaenothecci melanophaeci soc. Leprarion < Leprarietum / Lepraria aeruginosa soc. \Lepraria candelaris soc. As there is little written on British lichen sociology it is here proposed to enumerate all the federations known by the author to occur on trees in Britain so that the federations present at Bookham can be seen in their proper perspective. The distributions of the federations are based largely on my own observations in various parts of England, Wales, Scotland and Eire as well as on the available literature, especially Abbot (1798), Baxter (1825), Knowles (1929), Lamb (1942) and Sowter (1950). ( b ) Key to British Corticolous Lichen Federations la. Community of foliose or fruticose lichens . . . . . . 2 lb. Community of crustaceous lichens . . . . . . . . 6 2a. Cladonia coniocraea dominant. Cladonion coniocraeae 2b. Cladonia spp. scarce or absent . , • ? 3 70 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 3a. Xanthoria spp., Physcia spp., or Buellia canescens abundant. Xanthorion 3b. The above species absent . . . . . . . . . . . • 4 4a. Community on mossy trunks with Lobaria, Sticta, Pannaria or Nephromium. Lobarion. 4b. Community without the above lichens and often without mosses ; Evernia, Parmelia or Usnea present . . . . 5 5a. Parmelia trichotera abundant Trichoterion. 5b. Parmelia trichotera absent or scarce ; P. physodes, P. sulcata, Evernia or Alectoria abundant. Physodion. 6a. Community dominated by greenish or greyish sorediose or leprose lichens forming a continuous crust on tree-boles . . 7 6b. Community dominated by non-sorediose lichens which form a “ network ” over tree-boles . . . . . . . . . . 8 7a. Lecanora conizaeoides abundant. Conizaeoidion. 7b. Lepraria spp. abundant or frequent. Leprarion. 8a. Graphis or Pyrenula present. Graphidion. 8b. Graphis and Pyrenula absent ; Lecidea olivacea abundant. Olivaceion. Work on the delimitation of unions and on lignicolous and saxicolous federations is not sufficiently advanced in this country to merit detailed consideration here. (c) Glossary of Ecological Terms Acidiphilous. Living on an acid substratum. Alliance. Associations which show floristic and sociological affinities between themselves form an alliance ; more or less equivalent to the term “ Federation.” Association. Used by continental botanists to denote a plant community characterized by its essential uniform floristic composition, at least as regards the dominant species ; more or less equivalent to the term “ Union.” Calcicolous. Living on a calcareous substratum. Community. “ A general term used to designate sociological units of all degrees from the simplest (as an unrooted mat of algae) to the most complex phytocenosis (as a multistoried rain-forest).” Corticolous. Living on the bark of trees. Eu trophic. Rich in nutrients. Exclusive. Species nearly always confined to a particular community. Federation. Unions which show floristic and sociological affinities between themselves form a federation. Hygrophilous. Living under humid conditions. Lignicolous. Living on dead wood. Nitrophilous. Living in habitats rich in nitrogenous compounds. Nitrophobous. Living in habitats poor in nitrogenous compounds. Oligotrophic. Poor in nutrients. Photophilous. Living in illuminated situations. Photophobous. Living in shaded situations. Phytocoenosis. The total plant population of a given habitat. Saxicolous. Living on rocks. Society. A synusium with essentially uniform species composition, i.e, with frequently one or more constant dominants, THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 7l Sociology. The science of organic communities. Synusium. The elementary one-layered community (e.g. the field-layer in an oakwood). Terricolous. Living on the ground. Toxiphilous. Living in an impure atmosphere. Toxiphobous. Very sensitive to air impurities. Union. Societies which show floristic and sociological affinities between themselves form a union. (d) Corticolous Federations in the British Isles Under each federation the first paragraph deals with the community in general, and the second with its distribution and composition at Bookham. Cladonion coniocraeae (Duvigneaud 1942 ; Laundon 1956) An acidiphilous federation confined to tree-bases, stumps and acid peat, and very common in eastern Britain. Cladonia coniocraea is the constant and exclusive species. At Bookham this federation is common at the base of trees and on decayed stumps, C. coniocraea being generally abundant with C. fimbriata and Lecidea granulosa (Ehrh.) Ach. sometimes also present. A decorti¬ cated trunk in area I in the Broadway had Calicium subtile Pers., Cladonia coniocraea , C. fimbriata, Lecidea granulosa and L. scalaris Ach. on its rotting wood while another in area S had been colonized by Cladonia macilenta Hoffm., Lecanora conizaeoides Nyl. ex Cromb., Lecidea flexuosa (Fr.) Nyl., L. granulosa, L. scalaris and L. uliginosa (Schrad.) Ach. Conizaeoidion (Laundon 1956) A toxiphilous federation with Lecanora conizaeoides constant and exclusive. The federation is found only where the atmosphere is polluted with smoke from industrial areas and can also withstand pollution more than any other corticolous federation (Jones, 1952). In Britain Conizaeoidion is abundant over almost the whole of England except southern and western coastal districts, extending to about as far north as Perth in Scotland but very local beyond (e.g. in the Cairngorm- Monadhliath area of Inverness-shire it occurs only on birch-trees immediately to the north-east of the railway shunting yard at Aviemore.) Absent from parts of Wales away from industrialization, and almost all north Scotland and Ireland, although in the latter recorded from around Dublin (Knowles, 1929) and may occur in other scattered localities near towns. At Bookham the federation is abundant, especially on shrubs and young trees ; as the trees mature Physodion often replaces the Conizaeoidion. Lecanora chlarona (Ach.) Cromb., L. expallens (Pers.) Ach. and Catillaria griffithii (Sm.) Malme are frequent in the federation on the Common. Graphidion (Ochsner, 1928 ; Duvigneaud, 1942 ; Almborn, 1948 and 1955) A nitrophobous, photophobous federation on smooth bark with Graphis spp. constant and exclusive. Enterographa crassa (DC.) Fee, Pertusaria leioplaca (Ach.) Schaer., P. wulfenii DC. and Pyrenula nitida (Weigel) Ach. are often abundant and confined to this federation, while Lecanora chlarotera f. crassula (A. H. Magnusson) Poelt, L. chlarotera f. rugosella (Zahlbr.) Poelt and Opegrapha atra Pers. commonly also occur 72 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 but are not exclusive. In Britain Graphidion occurs in south and west England and Wales, south-west Scotland and throughout Ireland. It is absent or rare in much of north and east Scotland (probably the climate is too severe there) and east and midland England, but was formerly present and indeed was perhaps common in the Midlands to judge from the old records in Abbot (1798) and Sowter (1950), where it appears to have survived until about 1900. Atmospheric pollution has probably caused the federation to become extinct over much of England for habitats suitable for Graphidion are now occupied by the toxiphilous Conizaeoidion. The federation is absent from Bookham but possibly it once occurred there as a single specimen of Graphis elegans (Borr.) Ach. has been found in area G, and the community still persists in scattered localities in Surrey (e.g. on old beeches between Headley and Wentworth Hall and around Bagden Farm near Polesden Lacy and on various trees at Abinger Common and Hurt Wood). Leprarion (Almborn, 1948 and 1955 ; Laundon, 1956) A nitrophobous, photophobous federation occurring on rough bark with Lepraria spp. constant and exclusive. At Bookham two unions are present : Leprarietum (Almborn, 1955), in which the blue-grey leprose Lepraria aeruginosa (Wigg.) Sm. or the yellow L. candelaris (L.) Fr. are dominant and Chaenothecetum nom. nov. which is dominated by Chaenotheca melanophaea (Ach.) Zwack. Other species are only occasionally met with, but in addition Catillaria griffithii and Phlyctis argena (Ach.) Koerb. occur in the Leprarion at Bookham. The Leprarietum appears to be fairly common throughout most parts of the British Isles : at Bookham it is especially abundant on the old hawthorn bushes in Eastern Wood and on old oak branches. The Chaenothecetum is mostly confined to east Britain and is common at Bookham on the shaded north side of old oak boles throughout the woods. Lobarion (Ochsner, 1928 ; Almborn, 1955) A nitrophobous federation occurring on moss-covered tree-trunks in sheltered woods. Species of Lobaria, Nephromium, Pannaria and Sticta are exclusive. The federation is now confined to west Britain and scattered localities in Ireland (especially the south-west), generally near the coast. Relict species, possibly relicts from the Atlantic period when the federation was probably more widespread than it is at present, survived in scattered localities throughout Britain until the early nineteenth century. Thus in Buddon Wood, Leicestershire, Lobaria laetevirens (Leight.) Zahlbr., L. pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm., and L. scrobiculata (Scop.) Gaertn., were found in the late eighteenth century (Sowter, 1950), but to-day all trace of the federation has disappeared from east and central England. Lobarion is absent from Bookham Common. Olivaceion nom. nov. ( Lecanorion subfuscae, Ochsner, 1928, p.p.) A photophilous federation on smooth bark, especially ash. Lecidea olivacea (Hoffm.) Mass. {L. parasema Ach.) is constant and exclusive, usually as the form elaeochroma (Ach.) Vain. Arthonia radiata (Pers.) Ach., Arthopyrenia punctiformis (Pers.) Arm, Lecanora chiarotera f. crassula, L. confusa Almb. ( L . expallens var. lutescens (DC.) Nyl.) and Opegrapha atra are often abundant constituents. Common in south and west coastal districts of Great Britain, at low altitudes in parts of north Scotland, and abundant throughout Ireland, Olivaceion is usually THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 73 replaced by Graphidion in shaded situations, but occupies quite shaded habitats in areas from which Graphidion is absent owing to unsuitable climatic conditions, as in the beech plantations near Rothiemurchus, Inverness-shire. In localities where the atmosphere is polluted (as in most parts of England) the federation is replaced by Conizaeoidion. However, the Olivaceion was probably formerly common in most parts of Britain to judge from the old records, and Baxter (1825) speaks of Lecidea olivacea as being on “ trunks and branches of trees. Very common ” in the vicinity of Oxford and Arthonia radiata : “ on the smooth bark of trees. Very common ” in the same district. Smoke pollution appears to have been responsible for the extinction of Olivaceion over large areas, but even to-day relicts still persist in the Midlands. The Olivaceion is not found on Bookham Common, although a lone specimen of Lecidea olivacea was found on Eastern Plain in 1953. Physodion (Du Rietz, 1945 ; Almborn, 1948 and 1955 ; Laundon, 1956). [Usneion (Ochsner, 1928 ; Barkman, 1954)] A photophilous, nitrophobous federation with Parmelia physodes (L.) Ach. constant and exclusive. The federation is very variable in composi¬ tion and a number of unions have been described (Barkman, 1954 ; Almborn, 1955). Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach., Parmelia caperata (L.) Ach., P. physodes , P. sulcata Tayl., Pertusaria amara (Ach.) Nyl. and P. pertusa (L.) Tuck, are often abundant in Physodion in England, whereas in the Scottish Highlands Alectoria jubata (L.) Ach., Evernia prunastri, Parmelia furfuracea (L.) Ach., P. physodes, P. sulcata, Parmeliopsis spp. and Usnea comosa (Ach.) Rohl. are normally the most abundant constitu¬ ents. Occasionally species of Cetraria and Ramalina occur in quantity. Abundant throughout most of Great Britain but replaced by Trichoterion in southern and south-western oceanic districts. Distribution uncertain in Ireland but absent from the Sligo area. At Bookham Physodion is common on boles and on branches in the woods, being especially well developed in the south-west part of Central Wood. Here Evernia prunastri, Parmelia caperata, P. physodes and Pertusaria amara clothe the trunks while Parmelia physodes and P. sulcata are abundant on the larger branches. The lichen floras of the boles and branches are fairly distinct from each other. Thus Evernia prunastri, Parmelia caperata, P. revoluta Florke and Pertusaria spp. occur on the oak trunks but are absent or rare on the branches, whilst Cetraria glauca (L.) Ach., Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach. and P. tubulosa (Schaer.) Bitt. have been found on branches but not on the boles. Generally speaking the lichen flora of the oak branches bears a close resemblance to that of the sallows and willows around the woodland ponds. Parmelia physodes is usually present in quantity on the bark of sheltered birch trees in the woods, but no other species characteristic of Physodion occurs. Trichoterion nom. nov. This federation is distinguished by the abundance of the exclusive species Parmelia trichotera Hue (P. perlata auct. angl.) which is often co-dominant with P. caperata. Species of Ramalina and Usnea sometimes occur in addition but often the two species of Parmelia are the only lichens present, apparently crowding out all others. Trichoterion is abundant on exposed boles and branches, especially on smooth bark, in southern and western coastal districts of England and Wales and apparently throughout 74 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 most of Ireland. It is not recorded for Scotland but may possibly occur in the south-west. The federation is absent from Bookham Common. Xanthorion (Ochsner, 1928 ; DuRietz, 1945 ; Almborn, 1948 ; Laundon, 1956) All the federations mentioned above are nitrophobous although Conizaeoidion and Olivaceion appear to be equally common on both eutrophic and oligotrophic bark. However, Xanthorion is distinctly nitrophilous and Xanthoria spp., Physica spp., Caloplaca spp., Buellia canescens (Dicks.) De Not. and B. myriocarpa (DC.) De Not. are exclusive. Xanthorion occurs on bark, wood and rock and is abundant in maritime situations but inland is chiefly confined to the vicinity of villages, farms, meadows and roadsides, and is therefore abundant in cultivated districts but absent from large areas of moor and mountain in the north and west, although reported from bird-perching stones in the Cairngorms by Mr. P. W. James. At Bookham the federation is confined to the Plains where it occurs on tree-boles, brick bridges and on the concrete posts by the railway in area M and by the road in area R. On the willow trees around Bayfield Pond Buellia canescens , B. myriocarpa, Physcia adscendens (Th. Fr.) Oliv. sensu Bitt. and P. tribacia (Ach.) Nyl. are common together with the nitropho¬ bous Parmelia fuliginosa Nyl and P. sulcata. On two elm trees in Station Copse Physcia grisea (Lam.) Zahlbr. was abundant and P. tenella (Scop.) DC. frequent ; the other elms were covered mostly in Leprarion and algae. Caloplaca citrina (Hoffm.) Th. Fr., Lecanora campestris (Schaer.) Hue, L. dispersa (Pers.) Rohl. and Squamaria muralis (Schreb.) Elenk. are the most common species on the low bridges, while Hundred Pound Bridge, the south face of which is dominated by Lecanora atra (Huds.) Ach., has a very rich flora, including several species not occurring elsewhere on the Common. Algae and Moss Communities Communities of algae and bryophytes occur also on the trees at Bookham. The green algae, usually known as Pleurococcus vulgaris, forms a distinct community ( Pleurococcetum vulgaris Ochsner, 1928) on shaded bark, possibly in less humid situations and on smoother bark than the Leprarion. A bryophyte community is often present at the base of trees to the exclusion of the Cladonion coniocraeae. This community is generally dominated by Hypnum cupressiforme Hedw. while Lophocolea heterophylla (Schrad.) Dum. is frequent and Dicranum scoparium Hedw. occasional. Dicranoweissia cirrata (Hedw.) Lindb. often dominates large horizontal branches to the exclusion of lichens. SPECIES LIST Normally the ecology of each species over the whole country is given first, followed by the frequency index for the whole Common, then by the detailed distribution on the Common. Corticolous species are often also lignicolous. Usnea comosa (Ach.) Rohl. — Corticolous, photophilous. Rare. On oak, area G ; on sallow, Eastern Hollow, area N. Specimens very small. Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach. — Corticolous, nitrophobous, photophilous. Frequent on oak boles, especially in Central Wood. Parmelia caper ata (L.) Ach. — Corticolous and saxicolous, nitrophobous , photophilous. Frequent on lower part of oak boles especially in Central Wood, THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 75 P. subaurifera Nyl. — Corticolous, especially on bark of high pH, nitrophobous, photophilous. Occasional on oak boles and on sallow in the woods. P. fuliginosa Nyl. var. laetevirens (Flot.) Kichz. — This variety is most commonly corticolous, especially on bark of high pH, nitrophobous, photophilous. Scarce. On sallow, Bayfield and Kelsey’s Ponds. P. revoluta Florke — Corticolous and saxicolous, nitrophobous, photophilous. Local. Occasional amongst mosses at the base of old oaks, area F. P. saxatilis (L.) Ach. — Corticolous and saxicolous, nitrophobous, photophilous. Scarce. On moss-covered branch, area B. P. sulcata Tayl. — Generally corticolous but sometimes saxicolous, nitrophobous (except the f. pruinosa (Harm.) Maas G. which appears to be nitrophilous). photophilous. Abundant on oak boles at the margin of the woods, scarce in the interior ; frequent on oak branches and on sallow ; rare, Central Ditch Bridge. P. dubia (Wulf.) Schaer. — Chiefly corticolous, nitrophobous, photophilous. Scarce. Sallow, Kelsey’s Pond, area A ; moss-covered branch, area B ; oak, area E ; elm, Station Copse, area R. P. physodes (L.) Ach. — Most commonly corticolous but also saxicolous and terricolous, nitropho¬ bous, photophilous. Abundant on oak boles and branches in Central Wood, occasional elsewhere. Common on sheltered birch and on sallow. P. tubulosa (Schaer.) Bitt. — Corticolous, sometimes saxicolous, nitrophobous, photophilous, hygrophilous. Rare. Sallow, Kelsey’s Pond, area A ; oak branch, area F. Cetraria glauca (L.) Ach. — Corticolous, saxicolous and terricolous, nitrophobous, photophilous. Scarce. Decayed oak branches, areas F and K ; sallow in Eastern Hollow, area N. Squamaria muralis (Schreb.) Elenk.— - Chiefly saxicolous but sometimes lignicolous, acidiphilous, nitrophilous, photophilous, hygrophilous. Occasional. Abundant, Isle-of-Wight Ditch Br. and Central Ditch Br. Frequent, Isle-of-Wight Pond Br. Scarce, Western Ditch Br., Tunnel Br., and concrete posts by railway in area M. Lecanora dispersa (Pers.) Rohl., Deutschl. FI. 3. 2 : 91 (1813). I have made numerous observations of this species in the field and herbarium and I am convinced that it is very polymorphic, with several entities regarded by other workers as species falling within the range of variation of the plant. The corticolous and lignicolous “ L. hageni ” is often identical with forms of the saxicolous L. dispersa, so that the former can, in my opinion, no longer be regarded as a distinct species. The following key includes the main forms recognized in Britain and two closely related species with which L. dispersa might be confused : la. Apothecia discs silvery-grey pruinose ; margin crenulate or radiatly cracked. On calcareous rock. L. crenulata (Dicks.) Hook. lb. Apothecia discs brownish or brownish-green, often translucent but never pruinose; margin entire or crenulate. ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 2a. *C + red. Thallus immersed ; apothecia to 1-5 mm. diam. with yellowish-grey or grey margins and pale brown discs. On acid rock ; rare. L. fugiens Nyl. 2b. C — . Thallus very variable but apothecia generally with a whitish or greyish margin, and rarely exceeding 1mm. diam. On acid and calcareous rock, bark, wood, etc. Common. 3a. Thallus sooty-black. On calcareous rock in industrial areas. L. dispersa f. dissipata (Nyl.) comb. nov. [L. galactina ssp. dissipata Nyl. in Bull. Soc. Bot. France 13 : 368 (1866)] 3b. Thallus grey, white or immersed. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 4a. Thallus verrucose, very white. Maritime : on calcareous rock above high-tide level. L. dispersa f. verrucosa (Leight.) comb nov. [L. galactina f. verrucosa Leight., Lich — Flora Great Brit., edit. 3 : 190 (1879) ] 4b. Thallus more or less plane, white or grey. Rarely maritime ... ... ... 5 5a. Thallus with small lobes at the circumference (use lens). Chiefly rough calcareous rock. L. dispersa f. albescens (Hoffm.) comb. nov. 5b. Thallus crustaceous, most often immersed. Apothecia crowded or scattered. On nearly smooth acid and calcareous rock, bark, wood and Zostera. L. dispersa f. dispersa. * a red reaction with Calcium hypochlorite. f. dispersa Lichen dispersus Pers. in Neue Annal. der Bot., 7 : 27 (1794). Lecanora galactina subsp. dispersa (Pers.) Nyl. ex Cromb. in Grevillea 18 : 68 (1890) — A. L. Sm., Monogr. Brit. Lich. 1 : 289 (1918). L. hageni var. umbrina Ach., Lichenogr. Univers : 368 (1810). L. umbrina (Ach.) Rohl., Deutschl. Flora 3, 2 ; 75 (1813). L. hageni auct. angl. L , umbrina auct. angl. 76 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Corticolous, lignicolous, saxicolous. Abundant on cement and concrete on the bridges and posts. On wooden plank across Bookham Stream, area O. Scarce on willow at Bayfield Pond, area Q. f. albescens (Hoffm.) comb. nov. Psora albescens Hoffm., Deutschl. Flora : 165 (1796). Lecanora albescens (Hoffm.) Florke in Flora 11 : 633 (1828). L. galactina Ach., Lichenogr. Univers : 424 (1810) — A. L. Sm., Monogr. Brit. Lich. 1 : 287 (1918) L urbana Nyl. in’ Bull. Soc. Bot. France 13 : 368 (1866)— A. L. Sm., Monogr. Brit. Lich. 1 : 289 (1918). . , , Abundant on brick and mortar of Hundred Pound Br. and occasional on cement elsewhere. L. chlarona (Ach.) Cromb.— Corticolous, especially on smooth bark and lignicolous, nitrophobous, photophilous. Occasional on young ash, birch and oak throughout the woods. Rare on old oaks. L. chlarotera Nyl. f. rugosella (Zahlbr.) Poelt (L. rugosa (Pers.) Nyl. non Ach.)— Corticolous. This form is nitrophobous and photophobous. Rare. On oak, area K. L campestris (Schaer.) Hue.— Saxicolous, calcicolous, nitrophilous, photophilous. Local. Abundant on Isel-of-Wight Ditch Br., frequent on Central Ditch Br., occasional on Hundred Pound Br. and on concrete posts by railway, area M. L. atra (Huds.) Ach.— Normally saxicolous but sometimes corticolous, acidiphilous, nitrophilous, photophilous. Local. Abundant on brick on south face of Hundred Pound Br. L. polytropa (Ehrh.) Schaer.— Saxicolous, acidiphilous, photophilous. Local. Common on sandstone corner posts of Lt. Bookham Rd. Br. and Tunnel Br. L. expallens (Pers.) Ach. s. str. — Corticolous. Common on trees, especially immature ash and old oaks. L. conizaeoides Nyl. ex Cromb. (L. conizaea auct. angl. ; L. pityrea Erichs.).— Corticolous and saxicolous (acidiphilous when on rock), toxiphilous. Abundant on trees and shrubs, occurring on most species. Also on decorticated stumps and on sandstone corner-posts of Lt. Bookham Rd. Br. (scarce) and Tunnel Br. (abundant). Ochrolechia turneri (. Sm.) comb. nov. nonn Lichen turneri Sm. in Sowerb. and Sm., Engl. Bot. 12 : tab. 857 (loUl). Lecanora turneri (Sm.) Ach., Lichenogr. Univers: 373 (1810). L. parella var. turneri (Sm.) Nyl. in Memoir. Soc. Imp. Scienc. Natur. Cherbourg 5 . 113 (1857) — A. L. Sm., Monogr. Brit. Lich. 1 : 313 (1918). Ochrolechia microstictoides Ras., Lich. Fenn. Exsicc., Sched, ad fasc. 4-7 . 2o (193o) Almborn in Bot. Notiser 1952 : 247 and 254 (1952). Pertusaria silvatica A. H. Magnusson in Bot. Notiser 1942 : 16 (1942). Corticolous. Rare. On willow by Bayfield Pond. Fertile. O. subviridis (Hoeg) Erichs, in Verhandl. Bot. Ver. Prov. Brandenburg 72 : 3 (1930).— Almborn in Bot. Notiser 1952 : 243 and 254 (1952). Pertusaria subviridis Hoeg in Saertryk av Nyt Magazin for Natarvidenskaberne 61 : 150 (1923).— Erichs, in Rabh., Kryptog. Flora 9, Abt. 5/1 : 546 (1936) — Almborn m Bot. Notiser Supplement Vol. 1, 2 : 77 (1948). . . Corticolous, nitrophilous. Rare. On willow by Bayfield Pond. Sterile. New to Britain. I have found this plant also at Bythorn, Huntingdonshire, and at Fermyn Park near Brigstock, Hazel Wood near Corby and near Kelmarsh (confirmed by Dr. O. Almborn), Northamptonshire. Identified by the greyish crustaceous thallus covered in lsidia which give an orange reaction with calcium hypochlorite. Lecidea scalaris Ach. ( L . ostreata (Hoffm.) Schaer.). — Corticolous and lignicolous, rarely saxicolous, acidiphilous, nitrophobous. Scarce. Decorticated trunks, areas I and S. L. quernea (Dicks.) Ach.— Corticolous. Rare. On willow, Bayfield Pond. L. flexuosa (Fr.) Nyl. — Lignicolous and terricolous, acidiphilous, nitrophobous. Rare. Decorti¬ cated trunk, area S. L. granulosa (Ehrh.) Ach.— Corticolous, lignicolous and terricolous, acidiphilous, nitrophobous. Occasional. Base of birch, area G ; decorticated trunk, area I ; oak, area J ; decayed fence, area M ; decorticated trunk, area S. L. uliginosa (Schrad.) Ach. — Lignicolous and terricolous, acidiphilous, nitrophobous. Scarce. Decayed fence, area M ; decorticated stump, area S. L. olivacea (Hoffm.) Mass. (L. parasema Ach.).— Corticolous on smooth bark, rarely lignicolous, photophilous. Rare. Immature Betula pubescens, Eastern Plain, area M. L. crustulata (Ach.) Koerb. — Saxicolous, acidiphilous. Scarce. On brick of Common Rd. Br., area E. On flints, areas M and O. L. fuscoatra (L.) Ach.— Saxicolous, acidiphilous. Local. Abundant on brick of Central Ditch Br., and frequent on Isle-of-Wight Ditch Br. Pertrusaria amara (Ach.) Nyl. — Generally corticolous, nitrophobous, photophilous. Occasional on oak boles, scarce on branches. P. hemisphaerica (Florke) Erichs.— Corticolous, nitrophobous, photophilous. Rare, On oak, area N. THE SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON 77 P. pertusa (L.) Tuck. — Generally corticolous, nitrophobous, photophilous. Occasional on oak boles. P. globulifera (Turn.) Massal. var. corallina Zahlbr. (P. henrici Erichs.). — Generally corticolous often nitrophilous, photophilous. Rare. Oak, area K. Acarospora fuscata (Schreb.) Th. Fr.— Saxicolous, acidiphilous. Local. Abundant on sandstone comer-posts of Lt. Bookham Rd. Br. and Tunnel Br. Ramalina farinacea (L.) Ach.— Corticolous, especially on bark of high pH, photophilous Rare Scarce on willow, Bayfield Pond. Cat ill aria g riffithii (Sm.) Malme ( Biatorina griffithii (Sm.) Massal.). — Corticolous, with a preference tor shaded situations, nitrophobous. Occasional on oak throughout the woods but abun¬ dant in area I. Bilimbia sabuletorum (Florke) Arn.— On moss. Rare. Hundred Pound Br. Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr.— Chiefly corticolous and saxicolous, nitrophilous, photophilous Local Frequent on Isle-of-Wight Ditch Br. Scarce on Isle-of-Wight Pond Br and on posts by railway in area M. X. candelaria (L.) Kickx (X. lychnea Th. Fr. p.p.). — Corticolous and saxicolous. nitrophilous photophilous. Rare. At base of oak, Common Road, area D. Caloplaca heppiana (Muell. Arg.) Zahlbr. (Placodium callopismum (Ach.) Mer var plicatum (Wedd.) Leight.).— Saxicolous, calcicolous, nitrophilous, photophilous. Scarce ’ Freauent on Hundred Pound Br. 4 C. teicholyta (Ach.) Steiner — Saxicolous. Local. Sterile forms resembling this species occur on the south face of Hundred Pound Br. C. citrina (Hoffm.) Th. Fr.— Chiefly saxicolous, calcicolous, nitrophilous. Frequent. Abundant on Isle-of-Wight Pond Br. and Hundred Pound Br. Frequent on Isle-of-Wight Ditch Br Occasional on Central Ditch Br. Scarce on Common Rd. Br. and Western Ditch Br. C. aurantiaca (Lightf.) Th.Fr.— Saxicolous, calcicolous, nitrophilous. Rare. Occasional on south face of Hundred Pound Br. C. pyracea (Ach.) Th. Fr.— Chiefly saxicolous, calcicolous. Occasional. Abundant on calcareous stone of Common Rd. Br. Frequent on mortar of Tunnel Br. Occasional, Hundred Pound Br. Scarce on concrete, Western Ditch Br. Candelariella vitellina (Ehrh.) Muell. Arg. — Corticolous, lignicolous and saxicolous ; on both acid and calcareous substratum ; nitrophilous. Occasional. On concrete post area D • abundant on concrete posts by railway, area M ; occasional on sandstone corner-posts! Lt. Bookham Rd. Br. and tunnel Br. Physcia grisea (Lain.) Zahlbr. Corticolous and saxicolous, nitrophilous, photophilous Verv local. Abundant on two elm trees in Station Copse. ' J P. adscendens (Th . Fr.) Oliv sensu Bitt. (P. tenella auct. angl. p.p.). Corticolous and saxicolous, nitrophilous, photophilous. Local. Abundant on concrete posts by railway area M ■ locally frequent on willow, Bayfield Pond ; occasional on stone, Isle-of-Wight Ditch Br’ Scarce on moss, Hundred Pound Br. P. tenella (Scop.) DC.— Corticolous and saxicolous, nitrophilous, photophilous. Rare Freauent on elm. Station Copse. P. caesia (Hoffm.) Nyl. — Saxicolous, calcicolous, nitrophilous, photophilous. Central Ditch Br., Isle-of-Wight Pond Br. and concrete posts, area R. Local. Scarce on P. tribacia (Ach.) Nyl.— Corticolous and saxicolous, nitrophilous, photophilous. Local Abundant on willow, Bayfield Pond ; occasional, Isle-of-Wight Ditch Br Rinodina dernissa (Koerb.) Arn —Saxicolous, occurring on both acid and calcareous substratum nitrophilous. Local. Abundant on south face of Hundred Pound Br., Isle-of-Wight Pond Br., and Western Ditch Br. Scarce on concrete posts, areas D and M. Buellia canescens (Dicks). De Not.— Corticolous and saxicolous, nitrophilous. Local. Abundant on willow, Bayfield Pond ; scarce on elm. Station Copse and one plant at base of oak near Tunnel Br. in area M. B. myriocarpa (DC.) De Not.— Corticolous and saxicolous, nitrophilous, often photophobous Local. Abundant on willow, Bayfield Pond ; scarce on elm. Station Copse and on oak by Common Rd., area D. J Diploschistes scruposus (L.) Norm.— Generally saxicolous, acidiphilous. Rare. Scarce on brick and moss. Hundred Pound Br. Phlyctis argena (Ach.) Koerb.— Corticolous, remarkable in occurring on both eutrophic and ohgotropmc bark in both illuminated and shaded situations. Local. On the north side of ol oaks, areas E, I, and K. Scarce on elm, Station Copse. A specimen from area K was determined by Dr. O. Almborn. Cladonia : f it -C' Pyxi?at-76. BASDEN, E. B., 1954 The Distribution and Biology of Drosophila (Diptera) in Scotland, including a new species of Drosophila. Trans. Roy. Soc., Edin., 62, 603-654. BLAIR, K. G., 1944, Some galls of Lipara lucens (Dipt., Chloropidae) from Norfolk. Ent. mon. BLETCHLY, J.°’d., 1953, The mouth-parts of the Yellow Dung-fly Scopeuma ( = Scatophaga) stercoraria (L.) (Diptera, Cordyluridae). Proc. Zoo. Soc. Lond., 123, 143-166. BOBE, K. H., 1954, Eckinomya ferox Panz. and Rhingia rostrata Linn, in N.W. Kent. Ent. Record, 66, 175. ,, 1C_ BRITTEN H 1954 Records of some of the rarer Trypetidae. Ent. Record, 66, 156-157. BROWN, S. C. S., 1951, The attraction of the Flowers of Polygonum cuspidatum to Insects. BURKILLMH. EM 9 32, An Introduction to the Study of Plant Galls. Lond. Naturalist , 1931, 42-47. _ 1946, Plant Galls of Bookham Common. Lond. Naturalist, 1945, 63-67. BURKILL, L H., 1927, Insect Vision. Lond. Naturalist, 1926, 3-6. BURTON J F., 1954, Diptera Notes from Kent, 1953. Ent. Record, 66, 87. BYERLEY, B. L. J., 1953, Volucella zonaria Poda. in Middlesex and Hertfordshire. Ent. Record, CHEETHAM C. A., 1920, A liverwort-eating larva. Naturalist, 1920, 190. COLLIN, J. E., 1936, A note on Anthomyidae (Diptera) reared from the Flowers of Senecio, Ent. Record, 48, 53-54. ... . DOWNES, J. A., 1955, The food habits and description of Atnchopogon pollimvorous sp.n. (Diptera : Ceratopogonidae). Trans. Rov. ent. Soc. Lond., 106, 439-53. DRABBLE E. and H., 1917, The Syrphid Visitors to certain Flowers. New Phytologist, 16, 105-9. _ 5 1927, Some Flowers and their Dipteron Visitors. New Phytologist, 26, 115-123. EAGLES, T. R., 1942, The Onion Fly ( Hylemyia antiqua Meigen). Proc. S. Ldn. ent. and N.H. Soc., EASTON94A.2M., 1954, Liriomyza flaveola (Fallen) (Dipt., Agromyzidae) parasitized by Opius sp. (Hym., Braconidae). Ent. mon. Mag., 90, 240. EDWARDS, J., 1956, Some Flower Visitors in North Staffs. Ent. Record, 68, 275. ELTON, C., 1946, Dead specimens of Melanostoma calare F. (Dipt., Syrphidae) on flower spikes, of grass. Ent. mon. Mag., 82, 147. . , x . „,T , . FINCHER, F., 1954, Alophora hemiptera (F.) (Dipt., Larvaevoridae) in Worcestershire. Ent. mon 90, 93. GOODLIFFE F. D., 1939, A joint infestation of Barley by Lasiosina cinctipes Mg. together with Chlorous taeniopus Mg. (Diptera, Chloropidae) and their Hymenopterous Parasites. J. Soc. Brit. Ent., I, 248-252. _ ^ 1942, Studies on Insects bred from Barley, Wheat, Maize and Oats. Bull. ent. Res., 32, 309-325. GRENSTED, L. W., 1946a, An Assemblage of Diptera on Golden-rod. Ent. mon. Mag., 82, 35. _ 1946b, An Assemblage of Diptera on Cow-Parsnip. Ent. mon. Mag., 82, 180. _ ’ 1947, Diptera in the spathes of Arum maculatum. Ent. mon. Mag., 83, 1-3. HAMM A. H., 1934. Syrphidae (Dipt.) associated with flowers. J. Soc. Brit. Ent., I, 8-9. _ HAMMER, O., 1941, Biological and ecological investigations on flies associated with pasturing cattle and their excrement. Vidensk. Medd. Nat. Foren. Kbh., 105, 1-257. HARDY, E., 1941, Reaction of certain Diptera to Colours. Ent. mon. Mag., 77, 169-171. HERING, E. M., 1951, Biology of the Leaf-Miners. The Hague. HILL, R., 1954, Volucella zonaria Poda. in Middlesex. Ent. Record, 66, 87. HOBBY B M , 1933, Diptera and Coleoptera visiting Orchids. J. ent. Soc. S. of Eng.. I, 105-6. HOCKING B 1953, The intrinsic range and speed of flight of insects. Trans. R. ent. Soc. Lond., 104,' 223-345. t T HOMES, R. C., et al., 1957, The Birds of the London Area since 1900. London. ISLE d’ 1949, Colour discrimination in the Drone-fly Eristalis tenax. Nature, 163, 225. JONES, A. W.’, 1954, Notes on the Drone-flies (Syrphidae, Diptera) of Wimbledon Common. Lond. Naturalist, 33, 83-88. , .... ia _ ; 1955, Drone-fly Visitors to the Flowers in the City Bombed Sites. Lond. Naturalist, 34, KIMMINS, D. E., 1939, Empididae (Dipt.) and the flowers of Orchis elodes Godfrey. /. Soc. KNUTHML, 1906-9,’Handbook of Flower Pollination. 3 volumes. (Translated by J. R. Davies.) Oxford. [Bibliography of 3,860 items.] . LAURENCE, B. R., 1955, The Empididae (Diptera) of a Yorkshire stream. Ent. mon. Mag., 91, 220-224. LEATHERDALE, D., 1956, Fungi associated with gall-forming Trypetidae. Ent. mon. Mag., 92, 22. NIBLETT, M., 1939, Notes on food-plants of the larvae of British Trypetidae. Ent. Record, _ , 5)946, Diptera bred from flower heads of Compositae. Ent. Record, 58, 121-3. - ’ 1955,’ Some Diptera bred from Fungi. Ent. Record, 67, 151-2. , - , 1956, Some Dipterous Inhabitants of Thistles. Ent. Record, 68, 75-78. FLIES (DIPTERA) AND THEIR RELATIONS WITH PLANTS 125 PARMENTER, L., 1941, Diptera visiting Flowers of Devil’s bit Scabious, Scabiosa succisa L. Ent. Record , 53, 134. - , 1942a, Dolichopodidae (Dipt.) associated with flowers. Ent. mon. Mag., 78, 252. - , 1942b, A note on Insect vision. Ent. Record, 54, 136. — - , 1942c, The Diptera of Limpsfield Common. Lond. Naturalist, 1941, 18-33. - , 1944, Insect Visitors to the flowers of Sea Aster, Aster tripolium L. J. Soc. Brit. Ent., 2, 213. - , 1948, Rhingia campestris Mg. (Dipt., Syrphidae) a further note. Ent . Record, 60, 119-120. - , 1949, Further notes on Insect Visitors to the flowers of Sea Aster, Aster tripolium Linn. Ent. Record. 61, 85-86. - , 1950a, Observations on Rhamphomyia sulcata Fin. (Dipt. Empididae). Ent. mon. Mag., 86, 255-6. - , 1950b, The Diptera of Bookham Common. Lond. Naturalist, 29, 98-133. - , 1951a, Notes on the genus Empis (Dipt., Empididae) in Britain. Ent. mon. Mag., 87, 41-44. - 1951b, Flies taken in a light trap. Ent. mon. Mag., 87, 249-50. - , 1951c, Flies visiting Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Umbelliferae). J. Soc. Brit. Ent., 4, 41-2. - , 1952a, Diptera in grass tussocks. Ent. mon. Mag., 88, 13. - , 1952b, Syrphidae (Dipt.) attracted to yellow colours. Ent. mon. Mag., 88, 50. - , 1952c, Notes on the Asilidae (Robber Flies). Ent. Record, 64, 229-234, 263-266, 295-299. - , 1952d, Flies at Ivy-bloom. Ent. Record, 64, 90-91. - , 1952e, Flies visiting Greater Stitchwort, Stellaria holstea Linn. (Carvophyllaceae.) J. Soc. Brit. Ent., 4, 88-89. - , 1953, The Hover flies (Syrphidae). Ent. Record, 65, 122-126, 154-159, 185-190, 234-238. - , 1954a, The Courtship of Diptera. Proc. S. Lond. ent. and N.H. Soc., 1952/3, 104-109. - , 1954b, Flies of the Cripplegate Bombed Site, City of London. Lond. Naturalist, 33, 89-100. - , 1955a, Flies visiting the Bluebell Endymion nonscripta (L.) Garcke. Ent. Record, 67,89-90 - , 1955b, Diptera and other insect visitors to the flowers of Ranunculus sardous Crantz. J. Soc. Brit. Ent., 5, 131-132. - , 1956, Flies and their Selection of the Flowers they visit. Ent. Record, 68, 242-3. - , 1957, Diptera of the Chalk Downs in May, about Old Coulsdon, Surrey. Ent. Record, 69, 126-130. PETERKEN.J. H. G., 1953, Habitats of the London Area. Lond. Naturalist, 32, 2-12. PUGH, C. H. W., 1952, Xanthempis punctata Mg. (Dipt., Empididae) impaled on thistle. Ent. mon. Mag., 88, 30. ROBBINS, J. C., 1930, A Dipterous Leaf-Miner in Cephalanthera grandiflora . Lond. Naturalist 1929, 77. ROSE, F. D., 1957, Vegetation History and Environmental Factors in the London Area. Lond. Naturalist, 36, 29-40. SCOTT, H., 1953, Discrimination of colours by Bombylius (Dipt., Bombyliidae). Ent. mon. Mag., 89, 259-60. SHILLITO, J. F., 1947, Notes on Insects visiting diseased Elms. Ent. mon. Mag., 83, 290-2. SIDE, K. C., 1955, A study of the insects living on the Wayfaring Tree. Amat. ent. Soc., Leaflet 27. SIMES, J. A., 1946, Behaviour of Bombyliidae (Dipt.) while feeding. Ent. mon. Mag., 82, 234. SMART, J., 1943, Simulium feeding on Ivy flowers. Entom., 76, 20-21. SPENCER, K. A., 1956, The British Agromyzidae (Dipt.). Proc. S. Lond. ent. and N.H. Soc., 1954/55, 98-108. - , 1954, 1956, 1957, Observations on the British Agromyzidae. Ent. Gazette, 5, 183-188, 7, 51-54, 8, 21-27. 93-98. STELFOX, A. W., 1946, Diptera and other insects speared by grass. Ent. mon. Mag., 82, 58. TULLY, H., 1946, Behaviour of Bombyliidae (Dipt.) while feeding. Ent. mon. Mag., 82, 147. VARLEY, G. C., 1935, A new Syrphid larva and some other aquatic insect larvae which obtain their oxygen from plant roots. Proc. R. ent. Soc., Lond., 10, 30-31. - , 1937, Aquatic Insect larvae which obtain oxygen from the roots of plants. Proc. R. ent. Soc., Lond., 12, 55-60. - , 1947, The natural control of population balance in the knapweed gall-fly ( Urophora jaceana). J. of Anim. Ecol., 16, 139-187. WILLIS, J. C., BURKILL, I. H., 1895, 1903, Flowers and Insects in Great Britain. Ann. Bot., 9, 227-273, 17, 313-349. 126 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 The Gall Wasps of the London Area By M. Niblett, F.R.E.S. HTHE following list of galls caused by Cynipidae has been compiled A from records made by me since 1923 ; to these have been added a number from the lists of Mr. H. J. Burkill for Limpsfield Common, and of Mr. J. Ross for Epping Forest. The area is that within a 20 mile radius of St. Paul’s Cathedral ; the majority of the records are from the Vice¬ county of Surrey S.17 ; there are also included others from Kent K.16, Essex E2.18, Hertfordshire H.20, and Middlesex M.21. Much work remains to be done in the area North of the Thames. Roman numerals denote the year in which the gall wasps emerge, ordinary numbers the months in which the galls may be found, or in which the insects emerge. It should be noted that all the larvae pupate in the galls ; also that the emergence times given are all from galls kept under as near natural conditions as possible. SECTION I. GALLS ON QUERCUS SPP Andricus albopunctatus Schlecht. : Galls in buds, 4, 5, 6, emerge II, III, 3. On Quercus robur: K.16, Abbey Wood, Hayes Common, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead Wood, Beddington, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Langley Vale, Limpsfield Chart, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Riddlesdown, Wallington, Walton Heath, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest ; M.21, Edgware. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood, Bostall Heath. S.17, Addington, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Kings Wood, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. A. callidoma Htg. : Galls in buds, 6, 7, 8, emerge II, III, 3, 4, On Q. robur : S.17, Bookham Common, Limpsfield Common, Park Downs, Riddlesdown, Walton Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea. S.17, Banstead Wood. A. callidoma Htg., form cirratus Adler : Galls on catkins, 4, 5, emerge I, 5, 6. On Q. robur : S,17, Bookham Common, Banstead Wood, Epsom Common, Fetcham Downs. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q, petraea : S.17, Banstead Wood. A. corticis Htg. : Galls in wood of trunk, 8-3, emerge II, 3, 4. On Q. robur : S.17, Addington Hills, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Limpsfield Chart, Wimbledon Common. E2.18, Epping Forest. A. corticis Htg. f. gemmatus Adler : Galls in buds, 6, 7, emerge I, 6, 7. On Q. robur : S.17, Bookham Common. E2.18, Epping Forest. A. curvator Htg. : Galls on leaves, 5, 6, emerge I, 5, 6. On Q. robur : K.16, Bostall Heath, Hayes Common, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Beddington, Beddington Park, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Colley Hill, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Kings Wood, Langley Vale, Leatherhead, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mitchley Wood, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Riddlesdown, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Wood- mansterne, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. M.21, Edgware. THE GALL WASPS OF THE LONDON AREA 127 On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Addington, Addington Hills, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Headley Kingswood, Selsdon Wood. A. curvator Htg. f. collar is Htg. : Galls in buds, 9, 10, emerge III, 3, 4. On Q. robur : Bookham Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Langley Vale, Reigate Heath, Riddlesdown, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Littlesheath Wood, Selsdon Wood. M.21, Edgware. A. fecundator Htg. Galls in buds, 7, 8, 9, emerge 1 10, II, III, 3, 4. On Q. robur : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Addington Hills, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Barnes Common, Beddington, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Car- shalton, Chipstead, Colley Hill, Coulsdon, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Farthing Down, Lady Margery Wood, Langley Vale, Leatherhead Common, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mugswell, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Riddles¬ down, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Woodcote, Woodmansterne, Worms Heath. E2. 1 8, Epping Forest. M.21 , Edgware. On Q. petraea : K. 1 6, West Wickham Wood. S. 1 7, Addington, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Headley Heath, Kings Wood, Limpsfield Chart, Littleheath Wood, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. A. fecundator Htg. f. pilosus Adler : Galls on catkins, 4, 5, emerge I, 5, 6. On Q. robur: S.17, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Epsom Common, Fetcham Downs, Limpsfield Common, Oxshott Heath, Walton Heath. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood. S.17, Croham Hurst, Worms Heath. A. glandulae Schnk. : Galls in buds, 8, 9, 10, emerge II, 4, III, 3. On Q. petraea : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Banstead Wood, Chipstead, Croham Hurst, Kings Wood, Littleheath Wood, Limpsfield Chart, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. A. glandulae Schnk. f. xanthopsis Schlcht : Galls on catkins, 5, 6, emerge I, 5, 6. On Q. robur : S.17, Bookham Common, Fetcham Downs, Walton Heath. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood. S.17, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Kings Wood, Littleheath Wood, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. A. inflator Htg. : Galls in buds, 5, 6, 7, emerge I, 5, 6, 7, On Q, robur: K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead, Banstead Downs, Bookham Common, Carshalton, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Headley Heath, Kingswood, Leatherhead, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mitchley Wood, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Riddlesdown, Walton Heath, Woodcote, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Littleheath Wood, Selsdon Wood. A. inflator Htg. f. globuli Htg. : Galls in buds, 8, 9, 10, emerge II, 12 III, 1. On Q. robur : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Ashtead Common, Banstead Downs, Bookham Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Riddlesdown, Worms Heath. On Q. petraea : S.17, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Littleheath Wood, Selsdon Wood. 128 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 A. kollari Htg. : Galls in buds, 7-6, emerge I, 8, 9, 10, II, 6, 7, 8, 9. On Q. robur : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Addington, Addington Hills, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead, Banstead Downs, Beddington Park, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Carshalton, Chip- stead, Colley Hill, Coulsdon, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Headley, Headley Heath, Lady Margery Wood, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mitchley Wood, Mitcham Common, Mugswell, Park Downs, Reigate Heath, Riddlesdown, Walling- ton, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Woodcote, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. M.21, Edgware. On Q. petraea : S.17, Adding¬ ton, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Kings Wood, Limpsfield Chart, Littleheath Wood, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. A. kollari Htg. f. circulans Mayr. : In buds 4, 5, 6, emerge I, 4, 5, 6. On Q. cerris : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Addington Hills, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Farthing Down, Fetcham Downs, Kings Wood, Selsdon Wood. E2.18, Epping Forest. A. marginal is Adler : On leaves, 5, 6, emerge II, 4. On Q. robur : S.17, Riddlesdown. On Q. petraea : S.17, Worms Heath. A. nudus Adler : Galls on catkins, 5, emerge I, 6. On Q. robur : E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Selsdon Wood. A. nudus Adler, f. malpighii Adler : Galls in buds, 9, 10, emerge II, III, 34. On Q. robur : S.17, Ashtead Common, Banstead, Banstead Downs, Bookham Common, Colley Hill, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Oxshott Heath, Walton Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. A. ostreus Gir : Galls on leaves, 7, 8, 9, emerge I, 10, 11. On Q. robur : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Addington, Addington Hills, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Barnes Common, Beddington, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath’ Carshalton, Chipstead, Colley Hill, Coulsdon, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Farthing Down, Fetcham Downs, Headley, Headley Heath, Kings Wood, Langley Vale, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mickleham Downs, Mitchley Wood, Mugswell, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Reigate Heath, Riddlesdown, Selsdon Wood, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Woodcote, Woodmansterne, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea: K.16, Abbey Wood. S.17, Addington, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Headley, Headley Heath, Limpsfield Chart, Selsdon Wood, Wallington, Worms Heath. A. ostreus Gir. f. furunculus Beij. : Galls in buds, 4, 5, emerge I, 4, 5. On Q. robur : K.16, Abbey Wood, West Wickham Wood, Hayes Common. S.17, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Epsom Common, Oxshott Heath, Wallington, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea: K.16, Abbey Wood, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Addington Hills, Worms Heath. A. quadrilineatus Htg. : Galls on catkins, 4, 5, 6, emerge II, III, 3, 4. On Q. robur: K.16, Hayes Common, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Ashtead Common, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Colley Hill, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Oxshott Heath, Riddlesdown, Selsdon Wood, Walton Heath, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Addington Hills, Banstead Wood, 129 THE GALL WASPS OF THE LONDON AREA Croham Hurst, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. K.16, Abbey Wood, Bostall Heath. A. radicis F. : Galls on trunk or root, 8-2, emerge II, III, 3, 4, 5. On Q. robur : K.16, Bostall Heath, Hayes Common, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Leatherhead, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Park Downs, Walton Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. M.21, Edgware. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Croham Hurst, Headley, Selsdon Wood. A. radicis F. f. trilineatus Htg. : Galls on leaves, 6, 7, 8, emerge I, 7, 8. On Q. robur : S.17, Beddington Park, Bookham Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Limpsfield Chart, Oxshott Heath, Walton Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. A. ramuli L. : Galls on catkins, 5, 6, emerge I, 6, 7. On Q. robur : K. 16, Bostall Heath. S.17, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Fetcham Downs, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfieid Common, Park Downs, Walton Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood. S.17, Banstead Wood, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. A. ramuli L. f. autumnalis Htg. : Galls in buds, 10, emerge III, 4. On Q. petraea : S.17, Croham Hurst, Limpsfield Chart. A. seminationis Adler : Galls on catkins, 5, 6, emerge II, 3. On Q. robur: S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Park Downs, Walton Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Addington Hills, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst. A. solitarius Fonc. : Galls in buds, 7, 8, 9, emerge I, 9, 10. On Q. robur : K.16, Bostall Heath, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead^ Common, Bookham Common, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Leatherhead, Limpsfield Chart, Limps¬ field Common, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Walton Heath, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood. S.17, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Kings Wood, Limpsfield Chart, Littleheath Wood, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. A. solitarius Fonc. f. cccultus Tschek : Galls on catkins, 4, 5, emerge I, 4, 5. On Q. robur : S.17, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Epsom Common, Walton Heath. E2. 18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood, Bostall Heath, Croham Hurst. A. testaceipes Htg. : Galls on leaves, 7, 8, emerge I, 8. On Q. robur : S.17, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common. E2.18, Epping Forest. A. testaceipes Htg. f. sieboldi Htg. : Galls on stems, 6-3, emerge II, 3, 4. On Q. robur: K.16, Hayes Common. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Epsom Common, Fetcham Downs, Langley Vale, Limpsfield Common, Oxshott, Oxshott Heath, Oxted, Wimbledon Common. E2.18, Epping Forest. Biorhiza pallida Oliv. : Galls in buds, 5, 6, emerge I, 6, 7. On Q. robur : K.16, Bostall Heath, Hayes Common, West Wickham Wood. 1 30 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 S.17, Addington Hills, Ashtead Common, Banstead, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Beddington Park, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Carshalton, Colley Hill, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Kingswood, Kings Wood, Langley Vale, Leatherhead, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mitchley Wood, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Riddlesdown, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Woodmansterne. E2.18, Epping Forest. M.21, Edgware. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Addington Hills, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Limpsfield Chart, Littleheath Wood, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. B. pallida Oliv. f. aptera Bose. : Galls on roots, 10, 11, emerge I, 11, 12. On Q. robur : S.17, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Limpsfield, Wallington. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea: S.17, Croham Hurst. Callirhytis glandium Gir. : Galls in acorns, 9 onwards, emerge III- VIII, 3, 4. On Q. cerris : K.16, St. Pauls Cray. S.17, Addington Hills, Beddington Park, Bookham Common, Headley Heath, Kings Wood, Limpsfield. E2.18, Epping Forest. Cynips disticha Htg. : Galls on leaves, 8, 9, emerge I, 10, 11. On Q. robur : S.17, Arbrook Common. On Q. petraea : S.17, Addington Hills, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Limpsfield Chart, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. C. disticha Htg. f. indistincta Niblett : Galls on leaves, 5, emerge I, 5. On Q. petraea : S.17, Selsdon Wood. C. divisa Htg. : Galls on leaves, 7, 8, 9, emerge I, 10, 11. On Q. robur : S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead, Ashtead Common, Banstead Downs, Barnes Common, Bookham Common, Bookham Downs, Burgh Heath, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Esher Common, Fetcham Downs, Langley Vale, Limpsfield Chart, Norbury Park, Oxshott, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Reigate Heath, Riddlesdown, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Selsdon Wood. C. divisa Htg. f. verrucosa Schlcht. : Galls on leaves, 4, 5, emerge I, 4, 5. On Q. robur : S.17, Limpsfield Chart, Oxshott Heath, Woodmansterne. E2.18, Epping Forest. C. folii L. : Galls on leaves, 8, 9, 10, emerge I, 11, 12, II, 1. On Q. robur : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Beddington, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Colley Hill, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Esher Common, Fetcham Downs, Headley, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Reigate Heath, Riddlesdown, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Worms Heath. E2. 18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Selsdon Wood. C. folii L. f. taschenbergi Schlcht. : Galls in buds, 4, 5, emerge I, 5, 6. On Q. robur : S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Epsom Common, Limpsfield Chart, Park Down. E2. 18, Epping Forest. C. longiventris Htg. : Galls on leaves 7-11, emerge I, 11, 12, II, 3, 12. On Q. robur : S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead Downs, Burgh Heath, Colley Hill, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, THE GALL WASPS OF THE LONDON AREA I3I Fetcham Downs, Leatherhead Common, Limpsfield Chart, Norbury Park, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Reigate Heath, Riddlesdown, Walton Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Limpsfield Chart, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. C. longiventris Htg. f. substituta Kinsey : Galls in buds, 4, 5, emerge I, 4, 5. On Q. robur : S.17, Bookham Common, Epsom Common, Park Downs. E2. 1 8, Epping Forest. Neuroterus albipes Schenk. : Galls on leaves, 4, 5, 6, emerge I, 5. On Q. robur : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath’ Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Headley, Kings- wood, Leatherhead, Limpsfield Chart, Oxshott Heath, Riddlesdown, Walton Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Kingswood, Kings Wood, Worms Heath. N. albipes Schnk. f. laeviusculus Schnk. : Galls on leaves 8-10, emerge II, 2, 3. On Q. robur : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Addington Hills, Banstead, Banstead Downs, Bookham Common, Colley Hill, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Headley Heath, Headley, Kings Wood, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mickleham’ Mitchley Wood, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Reigate Heath, Riddles¬ down, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Worms Heath. E2 18 Epping Forest. On Q. petraea: S.17, Addington, Banstead Wood’ Colley Hill, Croham Hurst, Headley, Kings Wood, Limpsfield Chart Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. N. aprilinus Gir. : Galls in buds, 4, 5, emerge I, 4, 5. On Q. robur • K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Com¬ mon, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Colley Hill, Epsom Common Fetcham Downs, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Oxshott Heath’ Riddlesdown, Wallington, Walton Heath, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. M.21, Edgware. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Woo’d West Wickham Wood. S.17, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Kings Wood Limpsfield Chart, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. N. baccarum L. : Galls on catkins and leaves, 4, 5, 6, emerge I. 5. 6. On Q. robur: K.16, Bostall Heath, West Wickham Wood. ’ S.17 Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Ashtead, Banstead Wood’ Beddmgton, Beddington Park, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Colley Hill, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Headley, Kingswood, Leatherhead, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mitchley Wood, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Riddlesdown, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Worms Heath. E2 1 8 Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood. S.17, Addington Hills, Banstead Vv ood, Croham Hurst, Headley Heath, Kingswood, Kings Wood, Littleheath Wood, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. N. baccarum L. f. lenticularis Oliv. : Galls on leaves, 8-10, emerge II 3 On Q. robur : Addington, Addington Hills, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead, Banstead Downs, Barnes Common, Beddington Park, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Carshalton, Chessington, Colley Hill, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Farthing Down, Fetcham Downs, Headley Heath, Lady Margery Wood, Leather¬ head Common, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mickleham THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 132 Mitchley Wood, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Reigate Heath, Riddles- down, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Addington, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Colley Hill, Croham Hurst, Headley Heath, Kings Wood, Littleheath Wood, Limpsfield Chart, Selsdon Wood, Wallington, Worms Heath. N. numismalis Oliv. : Galls on leaves, 8-10, emerge II, 3, 4. On Q. vobur : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Addington Hills, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead, Banstead Downs, Beddington Park, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Carshalton, Chipstead, Colley Hill, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Farthing Down, Fetcham Downs, Headley Heath, Lady Margery Wood, Leather- head Common, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mickleham, Mitchley Wood, Oxshott Heath, Park Downs, Reigate Heath, Riddles- down, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Banstead Wood, Colley Hill, Croham Hurst, Headley, Kings Wood, Limpsfield Chart, Littleheath Wood, Selsdon Wood, Wallington, Worms Heath. N. numismalis Oliv. f. vesicator Schlcht. : Galls on leaves, 5, 6, emerge I, 5, 6. On Q. robur : K.16, West Wickham Wood. S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead Wood, Beddington Park, Bookham Common, Burgh Heath, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Kingswood, Leatherhead Common, Limpsfield Chart, Limpsfield Common, Mitchley Wood, Park Downs, Riddlesdown, Wallington, Walton Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. M.21, Edgware. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood. S.17, Croham Hurst, Kingswood, Limpsfield Chart, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. N. schlechtendali Mayr : Galls on catkins, 4-6, emerge I, II, III, 7, 8. On Q. robur : S.17, Ashtead Common, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Colley Hill, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Fetcham Downs, Oxshott Heath, Riddlesdown, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Com¬ mon, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : K.16, Abbey Wood. S.17, Banstead Wood, Croham Hurst, Kings Wood, Littleheath Wood, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. N. tricolor Htg. : Galls on leaves, 5-7, emerge I, 6, 7. On Q. robur : S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Headley, Lady Margery Wood, Leatherhead, Limpsfield Chart, Mitchley Wood, Riddlesdown, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common. E2. 18, Epping Forest. N. tricolor Htg. f. fumipennis Htg.: Galls on leaves, 8-10, emerge II, 4,5. On Q. robur : S.17, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Book¬ ham Common, Carshalton, Colley Hill, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Mitchley Wood, Oxshott Heath, Reigate Heath, Riddlesdown, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Croham Hurst, Kings Wood, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. Trigonaspis megaptera Panz. : Galls on trunks, 4-6, emerge I, 6-7. On Q. robur : S.17, Arbrook Common, Bookham Common, Coulsdon Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Limpsfield Chart, Mitchley Wood. E2.18, Epping Forest. On O. petraea : S.17, Croham Hurst, Limpsfield Chart, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. THE GALL WASPS OF THE LONDON AREA 133 T. megaptera Panz. f. renum Gir. : Galls on leaves, 9, 10, emerge II, 1, 11, 12. On Q. robur : S.17, Bookham Common, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Limpsfield Chart, Mitchley Wood. E2. 1 8, Epping Forest. On Q. petraea : S.17, Croham Hurst, Limpsfield Chart, Selsdon Wood, Worms Heath. SECTION H. ON PLANTS OTHER THAN QUERCUS Aulacidea hieracii Kieff : Galls on stems of Hieracium spp., 8-10, emerge II, 5, 6. K.16, Darenth Wood. S.17, Chobham Common^ Walton Heath, West End Common, Wimbledon Common, Worms Heath. A. hypochoeridis Kieff : Galls on stems of Hypochoeris radicata, 7-10, emerge II, 5-7. S.17, Addington, Banstead Downs, Bookham Common, Croham Hurst, Coulsdon, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Kings Wood, Mitchley Wood, Oxshott Heath, Riddlesdown, Walton Heath, West End Common, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. A. pilosellae Kieff : Galls on leaves of Hieracium pilosella, 7-9, emerge II, 6, 7. S.17, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Buckland Hills, Walton Heath. A. subterminalis Niblett : Galls on runner-ends of Hieracium pilosella, 8-10, emerge II, 6, 7. S.17, Ashtead Common, Banstead Wood. A. tragopogonis Thoms : Galls on stems of Tragopogon spp., 7-10, emerge II, 5-7. K.16, Eynsford. S.17, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Banstead Downs, Epsom Downs, Headley, Mickleham Downs, Riddlesdown, Selsdon Wood, Woodmansterne. Aylax fitchi Kieff : Galls on leaves of Centaurea scabiosa , 8, 9, emerge II, A. papaveris Perris : Galls in seed capsules of Papaver spp., 8-10, emerge II, 4-6, III, 5. Diastrophus rubi Bouche : Galls on stems of Rubus spp., 6-12, emerge II, 5, 6. S. 1 7, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common, Mickleham Downs, Riddlesdown. Isocolus jaceae Schenk : Galls in achenes of Centaurea nigra, C. scabiosa, 8-12, emerge I, 8, 9, II, 6, 7. S.17, Addington, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Colley Hill, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Farthing Down, Fetcham Downs, Headley, Lacey Green, Mickleham Downs, Park Downs, Riddlesdown. /. Rogenhoferi Wachtl : Galls in involucral bracts of Centaurea scabiosa, 7-12, emerge I, 8, 9, II, 6-8. S.17, Addington, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Coulsdon, Epsom Downs, Farthing Down, Fetcham Downs, Headley, Lacey Green, Langley Vale, Mickleham Downs, Riddles¬ down, Selsdon Wood. /. scabiosae Gir. : Galls on stems of Centaurea scabiosa, 8-10, emerge II, 7. S.17, Ashtead, Bookham, Epsom Downs, Fetcham Downs, Woldingham, Woodmansterne. Liposthenes glechomae L. : Galls on leaves of Glechoma hederacea, 6-8, emerge II, 3, 4. S.17, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Buck- land Hills, Colley Hill, Coulsdon, Epsom Common, Fetcham Downs, 134 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Headley Heath, Kingswood, Mickleham Downs, Norbury Park, Walton Heath. Phanacis centaureae Forst. : Galls in stems of Centaurea nigra , C. scab- iosa 8-12, emerge II, 5-7. S.17, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Colley Hill, Epsom Downs, Farthing Down, Fetcham Downs, Headley, Riddles- down, Woodmansterne, Worms Heath. Xestophanes brevitarsis Thoms. : Galls on stems of Potentilla erecta, 8-10, emerge II, 6. S.17, Ashtead Common, Arbrook Common, Book- ham Common, Epsom Common, Kingswood, Limpsfield Common, Sydenham, Walton Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. X. potentillae Vill. : Galls on rhizomes of Potentilla reptans, 8-5, emerge II, 5, 6. S.17, Ashtead Common, Bookham Common, Colley Hill, Epsom Downs, Fetcham, Limpsfield Common, Walton Heath. Note. — As the smooth pea galls caused by several species of Rhodites are identical in appearance, only those records have been included in which the insects have been bred and their identity determined. All previous records of Rhodites spp. based upon the pea galls only must be considered as being very doubtful. Rhodites centifoliae Htg. : Smooth pea galls on leaves of Rosa spin- nosissima, 8-10, emerge II, 6. S.17, Barnes Common. R. dispar Niblett : Smooth pea galls on leaves of Rosa spp., 7-10, emerge II, 4-6. K.16, Eynsford. S.17, Addington, Ashtead Common, Banstead, Banstead Wood, Bookham, Bookham Common, Buckland Hills, Chelsham, Chipstead, Colley Hill, Court Wood, Croham Hurst, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Esher Common, Farleigh, Farthing Down, Fetcham Downs, Headley, Headley Heath, Littleheath Wood Park Downs, Riddlesdown, Sanderstead, Selsdon Wood, Wallington, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. H.20, Bayford, Hoddesdon. R. eglanteriae Htg. : Smooth pea galls on leaves of Rosa spp., 7-10, emerge II, 5-7. S.17, Ashtead Common, Banstead, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Bookham, Bookham Common, Coulsdon, Farleigh, Fetcham Downs, Mickleham Downs, Park Downs, Riddlesdown, Sanderstead, Selsdon Wood, Wimbledon Common, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. R. dispar Niblett : In spiked pea galls on leaves of Rosa spp., 7-10, emerge 4-6. K.16, Eynsford. S.17, Addington, Ashtead Common, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Chipstead, Colley Hill, Coulsden, Court Wood, Croham Hurst, Epsom Common, Epsom Downs, Farthing Down, Fetcham Downs, Hamsey Green, Headley Heath, Kings Wood, Langley Vale, Leatherhead, Littleheath Wood, Mickleham Downs, Mitchley Wood, Norbury Park, Park Downs, Reigate Heath, Riddlesdown, Sanderstead, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Woldingham, Woodmansterne, Worms Heath. H.20, Bayford, Hod¬ desdon. R. mayri Schlecht. : In galls on leaves or stems of Rosa spp., 7-10, emerge II, 5, 6. K.16, Eynsford, Shoreham. S.17, Banstead Downs, Mickleham Downs, Riddlesdown, Sanderstead, Selsdon Wood. THE GALL WASPS OF THE LONDON AREA 135 R. rosae L. : Galls on leaves of Rosa spp., 8-4, emerge II, 4-7. K.16, Eynsford, Stone Marshes. S.17, Addington, Arbrook Common, Ashtead Common, Banstead Downs, Banstead Wood, Bookham Common, Chipstead, Colley Hill, Coulsdon, Croham Hurst, Epsom Common! Epsom Downs, Farthing Down, Fetcham Downs, Hackbridge, Headley Heath, Kings Wood, Kingswood, Lacey Green, Langley Vale, Leather- head Common, Limpsfield Chart, Mickleham Downs, Mitcham Common, Mitchley Wood, Norbury Park, Park Downs, Reigate Heath, Riddlesdown, Sanderstead, Selsdon Wood, Walton Heath, Wimbledon Common, Woodcote, Woodmansterne, Worms Heath. E2.18, Epping Forest. H.20, Bayford, Berkhamstead. R. spinosissimae Gir. : In galls on leaves of Rosa spp., 7-9, emerge II, 4-7. S.17, Addington, Banstead Downs, Barnes Common, Coulsdon, Farthing Down, Kings Wood, Mickleham Downs, Riddlesdown, Walton Heath. E2. 18, Epping Forest. H.20, Hertingfordbury. 136 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 The Moths of London and its Surroundings By C. G. M. de Worms, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.I.C., F.R.E.S. (Continued from p. 99 of the London Naturalist, 36, 1957) T^HE next group of the Geometers to be treated is popularly known as ^ the Pugs. They mainly comprise the very large genus Eupithecia which is found all over the temperate regions of the world and most of the tropical areas as well. The insects are all of small dimensions, probably never exceeding an inch in expanse. The majority of their larvae feed on the seeds and flowers of numerous plants. Of the fifty recognized species in the British Isles very few have not been recorded from the London Area. * Eupithecia centaureata Schiff. ( = oblongata Thunb.). I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Lime-speck Pug is one of the most readily distinguishable of this group. Its white colour is often very conspicuous when at rest on walls or trees. It appears as a rule twice a year in May and August and is widespread over most of the British Isles up to the edge of the Highlands. It is equally common over most of the London Area, being noted in the 1898 list from Paddington, Hammersmith, Highgate, Chiswick, Hackney, Dalston, Wimbledon and more recently from South Kensington in 1938 (Fletcher), the Zoo in 1951 (Bushby), also from Hounslow (Pierce) and Mill Hill (Goater). * Eupithecia pulchellata Steph. M.21, H.20, K.16, S.17, B.24. This very attractive species, the Foxglove Pug, is found all over the British Isles wherever its larval foodplant occurs. In the Hebrides and the west of Ireland it produces special races. It can often be found at rest in great numbers in June in spots where foxgloves abound. The 1898 list only gives it from Croydon. Elsewhere it is recorded from Middlesex. Ruislip (Minnion) ; Hounslow (Pierce). Herts. Watford, rare (Penrose) ; Totteridge, common (Lorimer) ; Bushey Heath and Hoddesdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Orpington, 1948 (Siggs) ; Pett’s Wood and Chelsfield, 1951 (A. Swain) ; West Wickham and Abbey Wood (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Darenth (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Putney and East Sheen, 1933 (D. King) ; Barnes (Gardner) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). * Eupithecia linariata Fabr. M.21, H.20, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Toadflax Pug is very similar to the last species, but is smaller with a darker cross-band on the forewing. Its larvae can be found freely in the pods of Linaria in the late summer. The insect occurs all over England up to the north, but has been only occasionally recorded from Scotland or 174 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 137 Ireland. In the 1898 list it is mentioned from Eltham, Croydon, Becken¬ ham and Bromley (Kent). Also from Middlesex. Mill Hill, a few in 1955 (Goater) ; Hounslow, 1953 and 1955 (Pierce) ; Ruislip, Northolt and Southall, 1950 (J. Ward). Herts. East Barnet, St. Albans, Hoddesdon and Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts ., 1937). Kent. Orpington, 1949 (Siggs) ; Pett’s Wood, 1950 (A. Swain) ; Abbey Wood, 1953 (Showier) ; Hayes, Downe (Birchenough) ; West Wickham (Trundell). Surrey. Wimbledon (van Emden) ; Coulsdon, 1944 and Tadworth, 1954 (Wheeler) ; Chipstead, 1946 (Johnson) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Putney, one, June 1950 (H. Swain). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). Eupithecia irriguata Hiibn. (E2.18). The Marbled Pug is one of the more local species of this genus. It has been found in most of the big oak woods over a large part of the southern counties of England with the New Forest as its headquarters. It can often be dislodged from branches of oak at the end of April, while its larvae can be beaten from the oak shoots in the summer. There appears to be only one old record for the Area, from Epping Forest by Doubleday (V C H 1903). ‘ Eupithecia tantillaria Boisd. (=pusillata Fabr.). M.21 H 20 K 16 S 17 B.24. ’ * ’ ‘ ’ The Dwarf Pug sometimes abounds among spruce plantations in late May, but up to the beginning of the century it was considered to be very localized in the southern part of England. However, the increased growing of spruce has brought about an expansion in its range to the northern counties and the Highlands. It is not in the 1898 list, but has been recorded from Middlesex. Ruislip area (Minnion). Herts. Aldenham, May 1939 (Fletcher) ; Watford, 1894, and Hoddesdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. West Wickham (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Limpsfleld Chart (Cockayne) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). * Eupithecia indigata Hiibn. K. 16, S. 1 7. The Ochreous Pug with its characteristic narrow wings is found in May in most parts of the British Isles where pines are grown. It may often be seen at rest on the trunks or dislodged from the branches. The 1898 list onlY it as numerous in the south-eastern district with two records also from Forest Hill. Elsewhere it has been reported from Kent. Orpington, 1955 (Siggs) ; Abbey Wood and Plumstead (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey, Oxshott (Cockayne) ; Weybridge (Messenger). 175 138 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Eupithecia insigniata Hiibn. H.20, E2.18, S.17, B.24. This very pretty insect, the Pinion-spotted Pug, is regarded as one of the most difficult of this group to obtain, though it has been recorded from most of the southern counties. Its very uncertain appearance is usually in early May when the apple is in bloom, since its larva feeds mainly on the flowers. There are very few records from the London Area, as follows : — Herts. New Barnet in 1919 (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark) ; Loughton (Machin, V.C.H., 1903). Surrey. Burford Bridge, Box Hill, on May 25, 1881 (A. T. Jones, Ent. mon. Mag., 18, 39). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (V.C.H., 1905). * Eupithecia venosata Fabr. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Netted Pug is another readily recognizable species which frequents nearly every part of the British Isles where Sea and Bladder Campion occur since its larvae inhabit the pods. In the Shetlands the form has the fore¬ wings almost plain without any cross-markings. The 1898 list gives it from Ealing, Clapton and Croydon where it was said to be very common. Other records include Herts. Haileybury and Hoddesdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. West Wickham (Trundell) ; Orpington, 1954 (Siggs) ; Erith and Darenth (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Box Hill (Gardner) ; Addington (Birchenough) ; Chipstead, June 1946 (Johnson). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). * Eupithecia pimpinellata Hiibn. M.21, E2.18, S.17. The Pimpinel Pug is mainly a downland insect, since its larva feeds on the Burnet Saxifrage ( Pimpinella ) and may often be located on the flower- heads in September. The species which is out in August has been found in most of the southern English counties as well as in Ireland. The 1898 list mentions it from Hampstead Heath, Walthamstow, Woodford and Croydon. From Surrey it has been taken at Banstead (Gardner) and Riddlesdown (Cockayne), also at Croydon in 1897 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Eupithecia distinctaria H.-S. ( — constrictata Guen.). S.17. The Thyme Pug is a very small insect which inhabits areas where the wild thyme flourishes in England, Ireland and the Western Highlands, but is seldom common and always difficult to obtain. It does not appear in the 1898 list and there is a single authentic record for Surrey from East Sheen where it was obtained on August 6, 1931 (D. King). * Eupithecia expallidata Doubleday K.16, S.17. The Bleached Pug belongs to a group of these small moths which are by no means easy to distinguish from one another. It is the largest of them and has a very shiny appearance. It inhabits woods in southern England 176 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 139 ranging up to the north and occurs also in Ireland. Its larvae may often be readily beaten from golden-rod in September. In the 1898 list it is reported from Croydon and Plumstead and for Kent also from Westerham (Cockayne), from Greenhithe and Dartford (V.C.H., 1908). *Eupithecia assimilata Doubleday I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S 17 B.24. This widespread species, the Currant Pug, is to be found in almost every part of the British Isles, mainly in gardens where there are currants or in areas where hops are cultivated or grow wild. The insect is double- brooded, appearing in May and August. The 1898 list reports it for most of the Area, including from Ladbroke Square, Hampstead, Highgate, Islington, Tottenham, Woodford, Hackney, Croydon, Sydenham and Wimbledon Common, also from Middlesex. Greenford and Southall (J. Ward) ; Stamford Brook, 1955 (Uffen). Herts. Watford, one (Penrose) ; St. Albans, Hoddesdon, Cheshunt and Bushey (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Abbey Wood, 1952 (Showier) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Lee and Eltham (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Putney, 1934, and East Sheen, 1931 (D. King) ; West Ewell and Banstead (Gardner) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). *Eupithecia absinthiata Clerck M.21, H.20, K.16, S.17, B.24. The W ormwood Pug is often a very common species at midsummer in almost all areas of Great Britain even up to the Highlands. Its larva feeds in the flowers of various plants besides wormwood ( Artemisia ). In the London Area it has been noted in the 1898 list from Stamford Hill, Southgate, Harrow, Croydon and Plumstead and from Middlesex. Hampstead, 1944 (Bretherton) ; Hounslow, 1956 (Pierce); Greenford, Southall and Northolt (J. Ward). Herts. Totteridge, common (Lorimer) ; Watford, rare (Penrose) ; Haileybury, Cheshunt, Bushey, Hoddesdon, St. Albans and Barnet (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Orpington, 1949 (Siggs) ; Pett’s Wood, 1946 (A. Swain) ; West Wickham (Trundell). Surrey. Putney, 1928 and East Sheen, 1939 (D. King) ; West Ewell and Banstead (Gardner) ; Coulsaon, 1941-45 (Wheeler) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). * Eupithecia goossensiata Mabeille M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17. The Ling Pug is considered by some to be only a special form of the preceding species, but its environment always connected with heathland together with its slightly different larva seems to give it specific status. It 177 140 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 is found in places where heather grows in most parts of the British Isles. The 1898 list mentions it from Highgate, Hampstead Heath and the Shirley Hills. Elsewhere from Middlesex. Ruislip area, scarce (Minnion). Herts. Bushey Heath and Watford (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark). Kent. Abbey Wood, August 1952 (Showier) ; Dartford and Chisle- hurst (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Oxshott and East Sheen, 1928 (D. King). *Eupithecia denotata Hiibn. K.16, S.17. The Campanula Pug is a very local species occurring only where its chief foodplant the nettle-leaved bellflower grows, mainly in woods in most of the southern counties of England up to Norfolk. The larvae can be readily obtained in the seedheads in September, but the moth seldom appears in the wild, though there is a record in the 1898 list from Croydon. Also noted from Kent. Darenth Wood (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Larvae at Chipstead in 1946 (Johnson) ; East Sheen in July 1933 and 1934 (D. King). *Eupithecia albipunctata Haworth ( = tripunctaria H.-S.). M.21, H.20, K.16, S.17. The White-spotted Pug is a very widespread insect in most regions of these Islands up to the Highlands, appearing as a rule in May, while its larva may be found readily on several kinds of the Umbelliferae, notably Angelica. The 1898 list gives it from Chiswick where larvae were said to be common on Heracleum sphondylium , also from Crouch End, Croydon and Wimbledon. Middlesex. Highgate, 1925 (Andrewes) ; Ruislip (Minnion) ; Bishop’s Wood, Hampstead (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, one (Penrose) ; Cheshunt and Hoddesdon in 1925 (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Lee and Eltham (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Tadworth, 1949, and Bookham, 1947 (Wheeler) ; Wim- beldon, common (Cockayne) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Oxted, 1902 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). *Eupithecia vulgata Haworth I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Common Pug, as its name implies, is one of the most well-known and widespread of this group, being found in almost every corner of the United Kingdom as well as in every quarter of the London Area, whence it has been noted in the 1898 list from Ladbroke Square, Hampstead, Highgate, Clapton, Tottenham, Woodford, Hackney, Dulwich and Wimbledon, also from Thurloe Square, 1918 (Baynes), Brixton (Farmer), Hounslow (Pierce) and Mill Hill, 1955 (Goater). 178 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 141 Eupithecia virgaureata Doubleday. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16. The Golden-rod Pug is always regarded as a scarce insect, though its larva feeds on Solidago flowers in many woodland areas in England, Wales and also in Ireland. It is not recorded in the 1898 list and occurs only from a few localities in the Area, notably from Middlesex. Southall, 1951 (J. Ward) ; Hampstead (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, one (Penrose) ; Hoddesdon (Bull : Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (V.C.H., 1903). Kent. Plumstead (West : Ent. Rec ., 1906). Eupithecia trisignaria H.-S. M.21, K.16. The Triple-spotted Pug is another species seldom seen on the wing, but only obtained as larvae in the flowers of Angelica. Its occurrence is very sporadic and it is only found in rather widely separated localities in the South, ranging up to the borders of the Highlands. It is not given in the 1898 list and has been reported for Middlesex from Southall where one was obtained in June 1950 (J. Ward) and for Kent from Dartford (V.C.H., 1908). * Eupithecia lariciata Freyer M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Larch Pug which is on the wing in May is now very widespread wherever larch is grown in quantity, being found well into the Highlands, and it is also quite common in Ireland. The 1898 list reports it only from Hale End and Croydon. Elsewhere from Middlesex. Ruislip area, rare (Minnion). Herts. East Barnet, Watford, St. Albans (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Theydon Bois, 1912 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Kent. West Wickham (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Dartford (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Weybridge, rare (Messenger) ; Box Hill, 1906 (Meldola, Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). * Eupithecia castigata Htibn. M.21, H.20, E2. 18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Grey Pug is a very common insect to be found all over the British Isles, while its larva is cosmopolitan in the type of foliage it consumes. The moth appears in June and often again in September. The 1898 list gives it from many localities, notably from Hampstead, Highgate, Dalston, Hale End, Chingford, Dulwich and Wimbledon Common. Middlesex. Ruislip, Northolt and Southall, 1951 (J. Ward). Herts. Watford, common (Penrose) ; Bricket Wood, St. Albans, Haileybury, Hoddesdon, Cheshunt, Bushey Heath (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). 179 142 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Kent. West Wickham (Trundell) ; Eltham and Bexley (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Coulsdon, 1944, and Tadworth, 1949 (Wheeler) ; Ham Common and Sheen, 1930 (D. King) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). Eupithecia helveticaria Boisd. f. arceuthata Freyer M.21, S.17, B.24. The true Edinburgh Pug is a denizen of the northern counties and the Highlands where the larvae feed on wild juniper which is also the foodplant of the somewhat larger form known as ab. arceuthata, considered by some to be a separate species, though no difference appears to exist between its genitalia and those of helveticaria. In recent years this Pug has become quite common in suburban gardens as well as in many parts of southern England where the larvae feed in August on species of cypress, mainly macrocarpus and also on cultivated junipers. For the London Area it has been recently recorded for Middlesex. Ruislip, fairly common (Minnion) ; Mill Hill, many bred from macrocarpus in 1950 (H. King). Surrey. Riddlesdown (Cockayne) ; Chipstead, six in June 1946 (Johnson) ; Tadworth, 1950 and 1951 (Wheeler) ; Egham, 1931 (C. de W.) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). * Eupithecia satyrata Hiibn. M.21, H.20, S.17, B.24. The Satyr Pug is another species which occurs in almost every area of the United Kingdom where there is heath or moorland as well as in other types of terrain. It is on the wing in May and in Shetland produces a race known as ab. curzoni. The 1898 list only gives it from Highgate. Herts. Watford, one (Penrose) ; Cheshunt and Watford (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Surrey. Putney (Gardner) ; Box Hill (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Chipstead, 1904 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). * Eupithecia succenturiata Linn. M.21, H.20, K. 16, S.17, B.24. This very pretty insect, the Bordered Pug, is by no means common throughout the country, except perhaps in some city areas such as the Metropolis where it can often be met with in July, while its larvae are sometimes abundant on mugwort in the autumn. It is found up to the north of England and in Ireland. But the 1898 list and Suppt. only mention it from Eltham, Lee, Croydon and Wimbledon Common. More recently it has been noted from Middlesex. Hounslow (Pierce) ; Mill Hill (Goater) ; Ruislip (Minnion) ; Ealing (Ellison) ; Greenford and Southall, 1946 and 1949 (J. Ward). Herts. Watford, rare (Penrose) ; Totteridge, a few (Lorimer) ; Watford and Cheshunt (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). 180 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 143 Kent. Orpington, 1948 (Siggs) ; Pett’s Wood, and Chelsfield (A. Swain) ; Pinden (Hare) ; Abbey Wood, 1952 (Showier) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Lee, Eltham and Dartford (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Putney, 1928, and East Sheen, 1933 (D. King) ; Banstead (Gardner) ; Wimbledon (van Emden) ; Coulsdon, 1946, and Tadworth, 1950 (Wheeler) ; Chipstead, two in 1946 (Johnson) ; Sutton, 1903 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Weybridge, scarce (Messenger) ; Oxshott, 1957 (de Mornay). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge). * Eupithecia icterata Vill. ( = subfulvata Haworth). M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The normal form of the Tawny-speckled Pug is easily recognizable with its red bar on the forewings. It is one of the most widespread of the group, while its larvae are often abundant on yarrow. It is to be found all over the London Area, being reported in the 1898 list from Hale End, Hanwell, Hampstead, Highgate, Hornsey, Harrow, Muswell Hill, Hammersmith, Crouch End, Eltham and Croydon, also more recently from Mill Hill, 1955 (Goater), Totteridge and Stanmore (Lorimer) and from Watford (Penrose). *Eupithecia haworthiata Doubleday M.21, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. Haworth’s Pug is a very small insect which sometimes swarms in July round its foodplant the Traveller’s Joy ( Clematis vitalba ). It is found over most of England where this plant occurs up to northern counties, as well as in Wales and Ireland. For London the 1898 list gives it from Dalston, Stamford Hill, Highgate, Crouch End, Woodford, Forest Hill and Croydon, and more recently from Middlesex. Highgate, 1925 (Andrewes). Kent. Chelsfield, 1949 (A. Swain) ; Dartford (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Barnes (Gardner) ; Coulsdon, 1944 (Wheeler) ; Reigate and Riddlesdown, 1912 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Eupithecia valerianata Hiibn. S.17. The Valerian Pug is of very local occurrence where its larval foodplant the wild valerian ( Valeriana officinalis ) flourishes in most parts of southern England, also in Wales and Ireland. The insect flies freely about this plant in late May, but it is not noted in the 1898 list. Its only apparent record is from Weybridge where it is rare (Messenger). * Eupithecia plumbeolata Haworth M.21, K.16, S.17. The Lead-coloured Pug is an inhabitant of woods where cow-wheat grows. The species which ranges over most of England and Wales up to Scotland has been noted from Ireland. It can often be flushed at dusk in early June from its special haunts. It is only mentioned in the 1898 list from the south-eastern area of the Metropolis. Elsewhere from 181 144 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Middlesex. Ruislip (Minnion) ; Bishop’s Wood, Hampstead (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891) ; Haverstock Hill (Selwyn Image Collection, Oxford) . Kent. Lee (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Caterham (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Wimbledon, 1895 (Geldart : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Putney, one, 1951 (H. Swain). Eupithecia palustraria Doubleday M.21. The Marsh Pug is a very local insect which is widespread in its distri¬ bution over the British Isles, ranging up to the Highlands and occurring in Ireland. It is on the wing in late May and can often be obtained flying in the afternoon sunshine over its foodplant, the Stitchwort, in marshy places. There appears to be at least one authentic capture of this little moth in the London Area, in Middlesex in May 1955 (Minnion). Eupithecia tenuiata Hiibn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, S.17. The Slender Pug is much more frequently met with in the larval state than as the imago, since the short, stumpy larva feeds inside the sallow catkins and is often dislodged when beating the blooms in April. It appears to occur all over these Islands wherever sallow is plentiful. But in the London Area it is not in the 1898 list and has only been recorded for Middlesex. Ruislip district, rare (Minnion). Herts. Haileybury and Cheshunt (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark) ; also there in 1903 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Surrey. Box Hill (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Weybridge, one on July 15, 1953 (Messenger). Eupithecia inturbata Hiibn. M.21, S.17, B.24. The Maple Pug is a very local species, only to be found where there are large maple trees which bloom freely. From the flowers the larvae may be beaten in late May. The moth flies in late July in many parts of southern England and in Wales, but seems to have hardly been recorded for the London Area. Middlesex. Two obtained at Harefield (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Surrey. Box Hill (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). Eupithecia innotata Hufn. I.L., M.21, H.20, S.17. The Angle-barred Pug is another extremely local insect which has only been obtained very sporadically over England up to Durham. Its larva feeds mainly on mugwort in the autumn. For London it has been recorded from Inner London. The Zoo in 1954 (Bushby). Middlesex. Ruislip, rare (Minnion). Herts. Cheshunt (Boyd : Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). 182 THE MOTHS Of LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS *45 Surrey. Sheen Common, June, 1931 and East Sheen, three in 1933 (D. King) ; Weybridge, one on May 18, 1953 (Messenger). *Eupithecia fraxinata Crewe I.L., M.21, K.16, S.17. Some consider that this insect, the Ash Pug, is only a form of the previous species, but apart from its feeding exclusively on ash and that the forewings are narrower than in E. innotata, there is little grounds for not giving it specific rank. It is found in most parts of Britain where ash occurs. The 1898 list mentions it from Highgate, Stamford Hill, Plumstead and Eltham. Inner London. Regent’s Park in 1886 (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Middlesex. Uxbridge, bred from ash in 1951 (J. Ward). Kent. West Wickham, 1950 (Birchenough) ; Lee, Lewisham and Bexley (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Putney in 1929, 1931 and 1933 (D. King) ; Richmond Park (Gardner). *Eupithecia nanata Hiibn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17. The Narrow-winged Pug is a very familiar little insect in May in every part of the British Isles where there is heathland. The 1898 list reports it from Hampstead Heath, Highgate, Hanwell, Woodford and Shirley, also from Middlesex. Ruislip (Minnion) ; Greenford and Uxbridge, 1950 and 1953 (J. Ward). Herts. Watford, common (Penrose) ; Hertford, Bushey Heath and Hoddesdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. West Wickham, 1950 (Trundell) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; Dartford (V.C.H., 1908) ; Plumstead (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Wimbledon Common, numerous in 1928 and Putney in 1937 (D. King) ; Weybridge (Messenger). *Eupithecia abbreviata Stephens M.21, H.20, E2.18, E 1.1 9, K 16 S 17 B.24. The Brindled Pug is one of the commonest species throughout the British Isles in the spring, being on the wing in late April. It is always associated with oak on which the larva feeds. A melanic form is becoming increasingly numerous in many parts of the country. The 1898 list gives it from Walthamstow, Hale End, Croydon, Dulwich and Highgate. Middlesex. Mill Hill, 1955 (Goater) ; Ruislip (Minnion) ; Northolt, one in 1953 (J. Ward) ; Pinner and Highgate Woods (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Cheshunt, Hoddesdon, Bushey Heath, Broxbourne Woods (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937) ; Watford, common (Penrose). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark). Kent. West Wickham (Trundell) ; Pett’s Wood, 1947, and Orpington 1953 (Siggs). 183 146 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Surrey. Bookham Common (van Emden) ; Wimbledon Common, 1921 (Coulson) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge). *Eupithecia dodoneata Guen. M.21, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17. The Oak-tree Pug appears later than the preceding species, usually about the middle of May, but is much less abundant or widespread. Its larva feeds for preference on the shoots of holm oak (ilex) throughout most of the southern English counties up to Yorkshire and it is also found over most of Ireland. For London the 1898 list reports it from Hendon and Eltham where it has always been scarce. Also from Middlesex. Ruislip area, rare (Minnion). Essex. Epping Forest (V.C.H., 1903). Kent. Lee and Eltham (V.C.H., 1908) ; Kidbrooke (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Weybridge, one on May 19, 1952 (Messenger). *Eupithecia exiguata Hiibn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Mottled Pug is another very plentiful little insect appearing in late May and June and found in most parts of Great Britain where its larva feeds on many types of foliage, mainly hawthorn. In the 1898 list it is noted from Hale End, Chingford, Forest Hill, Croydon, Barnes, Highgate, Hampstead, Muswell Hill, Harrow, Southgate and Wimbledon Common. Middlesex. Hounslow, 1956 (Pierce) ; Highgate, 1925 (Andrewes) ; Kenton, 1938 (Fletcher) ; Ruislip, common (Minnion). Herts. Watford, one (Penrose) ; Haileybury, Hoddesdon, Bushey Heath (Foster, Lep. Herts. , 1937). Kent. West Wickham (Trundell) ; Lee and Eltham (V.C.H., 1908); Hayes and Downe (Birchenough). Surrey. Worcester Park (Kaye) ; West Ewell and Banstead (Gardner) ; Coulsdon, 1946 (Wheeler) ; Wimbledon Common (van Emden) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). *Eupithecia sobrinata Hiibn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Juniper Pug, as its name indicates, is to be found in every part of the British Isles where its foodplant flourishes. The larvae may be beaten in great numbers from the bushes in June. In the Highlands a very bright form of the moth occurs. In the London Area it has been reported in the 1898 list and 1902 Suppt. from Finsbury Park, Crouch End, Highgate, Stamford Hill, Croydon, Dulwich, Forest Hill, Woodford and Eltham. Middlesex. Highgate, 1925 (Andrewes). Herts. Cheshunt and Bushey Heath (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Blackheath (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Wimbledon (van Emden) ; Tadworth, 1954 (Wheeler) ; Juniper Bottom, Box Hill, many larvae (C. de W.) ; Riddlesdown, larvae 184 i47 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS (Birchenough) ; Caterham and Headley (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). *Eupithecia pini Linn. ( = togata Hiibn.). E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. This most handsome insect, the Cloaked Pug, is probably the largest of this group, but has in recent years become very difficult to obtain, as its larva feeds in the cones of spruce, most of which are now cut before they are old enough to carry cones. It used to be found in some of the southern counties, notably in the New Forest, but its stronghold seems now to be in the big spruce forests of the Highlands where it can be beaten out of the foliage in late June. The 1898 list gives it only in single examples from Hale Fmd and Lee. It was first discovered in 1845 by Samuel Stevens in Black Park, Fulmer, in Bucks. Also recorded from Essex. Highams Park in 1892 (V.C.H., 1903). Kent. Gravesend area ( Entom ., 1871, 5, 393). Surrey. Weybridge, one on July 8, 1952 (Messenger). * Eupithecia subnotata Hiibn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17. The Plain Pug is a very common species and what might be called a regular Londoner, since it has been found in the larval state feeding on goosefoot ( Chenopodium ) in many parts of the Metropolis. Elsewhere it is widespread up to the northern counties and in the east of Ireland. The 1898 list gives it from a number of localities, including Holloway, Islington, Hampstead, Highgate, Hackney, Woodford, Streatham and Wimbledon. Inner London. South Kensington, July, 1938 (Fletcher). Middlesex. Greenford, Southall, Uxbridge, Northolt, Ruislip (J. Ward) ; Highgate, 1911 (Andrewes) ; Mill Hill, 1955 (Goater). Herts. Watford, common (Penrose) ; St. Albans, Bushey Heath, Waltham Cross (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Orpington, 1948 (Siggs) ; Pett’s Wood, 1948 (A. Swain) ; West Wickham (Trundell, Birchenough). Surrey. Sydenham, 1891 (Sellon : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Sutton, 1904 (Meldola: id.) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Eupithecia subumbrata Schiff. ( = scabiosata Borkh.). M.21, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Shaded Pug can claim to be one of the few British species to be discovered in the London Area, since it was originally described by Stephens from examples taken at Riddlesdown in 1831. Since then it has been found to occur all over England and in many parts of Scotland and Ireland, appearing in late June. Its larva feeds chiefly on hawkbit. Though not mentioned in the 1898 list, it has been recorded from Middlesex. Ruislip area, scarce (Minnion) ; Southall, one bred in 1951 (J. Ward). Kent. Pett’s Wood, 1948 (A. Swain) ; West Wickham, 1950 (Trundell) ; Pinden (Hare). Surrey. Box Hill (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Chipstead, 1904 (Meldola: Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Croydon, 1913 (Geldart : id.) ; 185 I48 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Coulsdon, 1952 (Wheeler) ; Weybridge, rare (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). *Gymnoscelis pumilata Hiibn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Double-striped Pug is a very familiar species which appears in early May and seems to be about all the summer. It is to be found all over Britain with a specially well-marked form in Ireland. It has been noted in almost every part of the London Area, being reported in the 1898 list from Walthamstow, Hale End, Ealing, Muswell Hill, Richmond Park and Putney, also from Epping Forest (Clark), Brixton (Farmer), Hampstead, 1944 (Bretherton), Hampton (Keywood) and Wimbledon (van Emden). *Chloroclystis coronata Hiibn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24* The V-Pug is a pretty little insect which is on the wing in May and August and seems to occur all over England up to the Lowlands, while it is widely distributed in Ireland. It has been seen in many parts of the Area, notably in the 1898 list from Tottenham, Hampstead, Highgate, Mill Hill, Dulwich, Croydon, Shirley, Chiswick and Richmond Park. Middlesex. Ruislip area, scarce (Minnion). Herts. St. Albans, East Barnet, Bushey Heath, Waltham Cross (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark). Kent. Pett’s Wood, 1948 (A. Swain) ; Orpington, 1953 (Siggs) ; Joyden’s Wood (Owen) ; Abbey Wood, 1949 (J. Burton) ; Dartford and Erith (V.C.H., 1908) ; Otford, 1955 (Manley). Surrey. Selsdon (Barnett) ; Putney, 1929, Oxshott, 1928 and Sheen Common, 1931 (D. King) ; Banstead (Gardner) ; Tadworth, 1952 (Wheeler) ; Chipstead, one in 1946 (Johnson) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge). *Chloroclystis rectangulata Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Green Pug is a most variable species occurring all over Britain wherever apples are grown. The melanic form seems to predominate in many quarters. It is widespread over London, being noted in the 1898 list from Hale End, Hackney, Chiswick, Isleworth, Tottenham, Streatham and Dulwich, also from Epping Forest (Clark), Highgate, 1925 (Andrewes), Hounslow (Pierce), Blackheath (Hyatt) and Wimbledon Common (van Emden). Anticollix sparsata Treits. E2.18, S.17. The Dentated Pug is a very local insect occurring sporadically in some of the southern English counties up to Yorkshire. It inhabits marshy spots where its foodplant the Yellow Loosestrife flourishes. The larvae can be sometimes found in numbers on the underside of the leaves in late August, but the moth which flies in June, is seldom taken on the wing. The species is not given in the 1898 list, but there are a few authentic records for the Area notably from Essex. Epping Forest (Welti). 186 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 149 Surrey. Upper Warlingham (Welti) ; Tadworth, one on May 25, 1952 (Wheeler) ; Weybridge, one on July 13, 1954 (Messenger). The next Group of Geometers comprise members of the large Family known as the Ennominae. *Abraxas sylvata Scop. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Clouded Magpie is a very spectacular insect in its haunts, usually among beech and wych elm in many parts of the south as well as the north of England, extending into southern Scotland and it is also found in Killarney in Ireland. It can be dislodged freely by day and comes readily to any illumination in late June. It has been reported from many parts of the Area, in the 1898 list from Walthamstow, Shirley, Shepherds Bush, Barnet and Harrow, also from Herts. Rickmansworth, Bushey, Ghorley Wood, Whippendell Woods (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (V.C.H., 1903). Kent. Abbey Wood, common (J. Burton) ; Lessness Woods (Showier). Surrey. Clapham ( Entom ., 1905, 38, 239) ; Streatham (Ent. Rec ., 1935, 47, 116) ; Norbury Park on July 8, 1951 (Wheeler) ; Redhill (V.C.H., 1902) ; Weybridge, one on June 26, 1952 (Messenger). Bucks. Ghalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge). * Abraxas grossulariata Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Magpie Moth is one of the most remarkable among our fauna owing to its tendency to the most extreme variation. Specimens are known entirely black and others pure white. There exists an almost untold number of intermediate forms, some of the most amazing having been bred early this century by the Rev. Raynor. The insect seems to occur all over the British Isles, especially in large towns where the larvae are often in thousands on Euonymus japonicus. In the London Area the 1898 list mentions it from Paddington, Ladbroke Square, Islington, Hammersmith, Dalston, Hackney, Woodford, Highgate and Ealing. Also noted from Battersea Park, 1925 (Baynes), and Eccleston Square, 1910 (Baynes), Brixton (Farmer), Anerley, 1905 (Keywood), Hounslow, 1954 (Pierce), Kew and Wimbledon (van Emden) and from all other outlying areas. *Lomaspilis marginata Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Clouded Border is another species which lends itself to variation, usually as regards the amount of brown markings. An occasional example occurs almost entirely white. It appears in May and August and is to be found all over Britain up to the Caledonian Canal. It has been recorded from every quarter of the London Area. The 1898 list gives it from Wanstead, Hale End, Woodford, Hampstead, Highgate, Ealing, Finchley, Chiswick, Forest Hill and Wimbledon Common, together with more recent records from all the intermediate zones of the Area. 187 150 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 *Ligdia adustata Schiff. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Scorched Carpet is a familiar little moth in the spring when it flits about the spindle bushes on which its larva feeds. It reappears in August in its wooded haunts over England, Ireland and the west of Scotland. It is widely known in the Area, being noted in the 1898 list from Hampstead, Chingford, Hale End, Woodford, Ilford, Chiswick, Harrow, Southall, and Croydon. Also from Middlesex. Uxbridge in 1950 (J. Ward) ; Potters Bar, 1953 (Odell) ; Ruislip area, scarce (Minnion) ; Whitton, Harefield and Hammersmith (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Hertford, Haileybury, Hoddesdon and Bricket Wood (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937) ; Totteridge, one (Lorimer). Essex. Epping Forest, 1917 (Meldola: Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Kent. West Wickham (Trundell) ; Joyden’s Wood, 1947 (Hyatt) ; Pett’s Wood and Chelsfield (A. Swain) ; Orpington, 1948 (Siggs) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; Kidbrooke and Dartford (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Westerham (Chitty : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Surrey. Box Hill (van Emden) ; Ashtead, 1952 (Chapman) ; East Sheen, 1931 (D. King) ; Chips tead, common in 1946 (Johnson) ; Coulsdon and Tadworth in 1950, Bookham, 1948 (Wheeler) ; Reigate (V.C.H., 1902) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge). *Perconia strigillaria Hiibn. H.20, S.17, K.16. The Grass Wave is one of the most well-known moths on heathland in late June when it flies readily in the sunshine. Its range extends over England and Wales to the edge of the Highlands and to the bogs of Ireland, but it seems to have been little reported from the London Area, except as scarce in the south-eastern region, and as also occurring at Shirley and on Wimbledon Common. Elsewhere for Herts. Haileybury (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Surrey. Oxshott, 1928 (D. King) ; also there (Cockayne) ; Wisley, 1873 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Aspitates ochrearia Ross. H.20, K.16. The Yellow Belle is an easily recognizable insect as it flies up from stony ground and downland in many parts of the south of England up to the Midlands. It is on the wing in May and August, but is not noted in the 1898 list. The only records for the Area seem to be for Herts. Near Hertford (Stephens : Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Dartford and Stone Marshes (J. Burton) ; Darenth (D. Owen) ; Chelsfield, 1950 (A. Swain) ; Dartford and Eltham (V.C.H., 1908). Aspitates gilvaria Fabr. M.21, K.16, S.17. The Straw Belle is larger than the foregoing species, affecting mostly downland in August. Its range is very restricted, since it is mainly known to occur along the downs of Kent, Surrey and parts of Sussex. It is also 188 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 1 5 I reported from Suffolk, Gloucester, Devon and Cheshire. It is abundant in the Burren in Co. Clare where a duskier form prevails. The records for the Area are from Middlesex. Willesden and Oxhey Lane (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891) ; Harrow (South, ii, 331). Kent. Shoreham (V.C.H., 1902). Surrey. Box Hill and Betchworth, abundant, 1951 (Wheeler) ; Mickleham Down, 1911 (Champion : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Reigate, 1877 (Meidola : id.) ; Caterham (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). * Dyscia fagaria Thunb. ( = belgaria Hiibn.). K.16, S.17, B.24. The Grey Scalloped Bar is a real denizen of heath and moor in all parts of the British Isles where this type of terrain predominates, right up to the northern Highlands. The moth which appears in late May can often be flushed by day from ground covered with small white stones which it simu¬ lates. But it is more readily found clinging to heather stalks after dark. It is only given in the 1898 list from Shirley. Kent. West Wickham, 1896 (Meidola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Chislehurst and Greenhithe (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Croydon {Ent. Annual, 1869) ; Oxshott (Kaye, Cockayne) ; Addington (V.C.H., 1902). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (V.C.H., 1905). *Gnophos obscurata Schiff. M.21, H.20, K.16, S.17. The Annulet is a most extraordinary species in the degrees of variation in ground colour which it displays from one locality to another. In some areas, especially in Surrey, it is almost black, while in East Kent is it grey, in parts of Sussex almost white and in Cornwall it often has a distinctly red tinge. It is out in August on heaths, rocky hillsides and downlands all over the British Isles, though it is less frequent in the Highlands and in Ireland. It is only mentioned from Croydon in the 1898 list. Elsewhere from Middlesex. Ruislip area, rare (Minnion). Herts. Hoddesdon (Bull: Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Pinden and Stone (Hare) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Pett’s Wood, and Chelsfield, 1951 (A. Swain) ; Orpington, 1953 (Siggs). Surrey. Oxshott, 1907 (Kaye) ; Caterham (Welti) ; Coulsdon, 1944 to 1946 (Wheeler) ; Croydon, 1931 (Barnett) ; Box Hill, 1905 (Meidola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Bapta distinctata H.-S. {=pictaria auctt.). E2.18, El. 19, [K.16], S.17. The Sloe Carpet is an exceedingly local species which appears only to inhabit a few counties in the south-east of England from Hampshire to Kent and also Essex and Suffolk. It is on the wing at the same time as the black¬ thorn is fully in bloom, usually in early April, but sometimes in mid-March, as in 1957. It has only been noted in the Area in 189 152 The London Naturalist, no. 37 Essex. Epping Forest (Buxton, 1890) ; Loughton (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Kent. Formerly near Dartford (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Redhill (S. Webb : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Redstone, Reigate and Ashtead (V.C.H., 1902) ; Bookham Common (Wheeler, L.N., 34, 28). Bapta bimaculata Fabr. M.21, H.20, E.218, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. This very attractive insect, the White Pinion-spotted, can often be seen in late May flying briskly at dusk near the wild cherry, its larval foodplant. It is found all over southern England up to the northern counties, as well as in Wales and south-west Ireland. But it does not find a place in the 1898 list. Middlesex. Harefield, one in 1889 (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Totteridge, one (Lorimer) ; Haileybury, St. Albans, Watford and Bricket Wood (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark, 1898). Kent. Pett’s Wood, 1948 (A. Swain) ; Pinden (Hare) ; Farnborough (Lawrence : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Plumstead, Dartford, West Wickham (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Tadworth, Bookham Common and Burgh Heath (Wheeler) ; Box Hill (Gardner); Putney, May, 1937 (D. King); Addington, June, 1951 (Birchenough) ; Epsom, 1896 (Sidgwick; Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford); Ashtead (V.C.H., 1902) ; Weybridge, rare (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). * Bapta temerata Hiibn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Clouded Silver is another very pretty species, also on the wing in late May and June all over England up to southern Scotland, as well as in Ireland. It is a cosmopolitan feeder on foliage of many trees, chiefly sloe and birch. The 1898 list mentions it from Highgate, Ealing, Hale End, Croydon and Shirley, also from Middlesex. Mill Hill, 1955 (Goater) ; Southall and Harefield in 1951 (J. Ward) ; Highgate (Andrewes) ; Ruislip area (Minnion) ; Bishop’s Wood, Hampstead (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, rare (Penrose) ; Oxhey (Fletcher) ; St. Albans, Bricket Wood, Broxbourne, Haileybury, Watford (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (V.C.H., 1903). Kent. Eynsford and Shoreham (D. Owen) ; Abbey Wood (Showier) ; Hayes, 1947 (Hyatt) ; Pett’s Wood and Chelsfield, 1950 (A. Swain) ; Dartford, Eltham and West Wickham (V.C.H., 1908) ; Darenth (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Pinden (Hare). Surrey. Croydon, 1905 (Keywood) ; Bookham (Gardner) ; Tad- worth and Banstead (Wheeler) ; Ashtead and Oxshott (V.C.H., 1902) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge). 190 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 153 * Caber a pusaria Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Common White Wave is a very familiar species in the spring and late summer as it flutters about hedgerows and wooded areas. It ranges all over the British Isles and has been reported everywhere in the London Area, notably in the 1898 list from Highgate, Muswell Hill, Ealing, South- gate, Hale End, Chiswick, Dulwich and Wimbledon, as well as from Highgate (Andrewes), Hounslow (Pierce), Putney (D. King), and from all quarters of the outlying regions of the Area. * Cab era exanthemata Scop. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Common Wave is very similar in appearance, habits and habitats to the foregoing species. It is slightly more yellow and the cross-lines are less straight. It is also to be found in every part of Great Britain in May and again in August and is reported widely in the 1898 list from Hale End, Woodford, Highgate, Hampstead, Muswell Hill, Greenford, Chiswick, Croydon and Wimbledon Common, also from Arbrook Common in 1934 (Keywood) and from Joyden’s Wood in 1952 (Hyatt). *Ellopia prosapiaria Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Barred Red is essentially an inhabitant of regions where Pinus silvestris flourishes. Its wrinkled larva can be readily beaten from the needles in the spring, while the moth is on the wing in July all over the British Isles on heathy terrain. It is only given in the 1898 list and Suppt. from Croydon, Roehampton, Shirley and Wimbledon. Inner London. The Zoo, Regent’s Park, 1951 (Bushby). Middlesex. Stanmore, common (Lorimer) ; Enfield (Edelsten) ; Whitton and Harefield in 1886 (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Totteridge, one (Lorimer) ; East Barnet, Waltham Cross, Bushey Heath and Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Otford, 1955 (Manley) ; West Wickham (West, Ent. Rec ., 1906). Surrey. Addington Hills and Caterham (Birchenough) ; Oxshott, 1928 (D. King) ; Esher (V.C.H., 1902) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge) ; Black Park, Fulmer (V.C.H., 1905). *Campaea margaritata Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, [El. 19], K.16, S.17, B.24. The Light Emerald is a most handsome species when freshly emerged, as it flutters about bushes in wooded areas in July. It is found all over Britain, except the extreme north, and from the London Area has been reported in the 1898 list from Walthamstow, Hale End, Woodford, Hounslow, Highgate, Ealing, Southgate, Chiswick, Tooting, Richmond Park and Wimbledon Common. Other records from Inner London. The Zoo, Regent’s Park, in 1954 (Bushby). Middlesex. Hounslow, one in 1954 (Pierce) ; Ruislip and Northolt in 1951 (J. Ward) ; Stanmore, common (Lorimer) ; Enfield (Edelsten) ; Hampstead and Harrow (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). 191 154 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Herts. Watford, rare (Penrose) ; Totteridge (Lorimer) ; St. Albans, Oxhey, Broxbourne (Foster, Lep . Herts., 1937). Kent. Darenth Wood, 1952 (Hyatt) ; West Wickham, 1908 (Keywood) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough). Surrey. Brixton (Farmer) ; Tadworth, Box Hill, 1954 (Wheeler) ; Ashtead and Esher (Gardner) ; Putney Heath and Epsom, 1933 (D. King) ; Bookham (Wheeler) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge). * Anger ona prunaria Linn. (M.21), H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17. The Orange Moth is another of our species which lends itself to great variation and it has been bred on a large scale with this end in view. Although it has been taken over most of England and in the west of Ireland, it is by no means common everywhere. It appears in late June and is recorded in the 1898 list and Suppt. from Hale End, Chingford, Wands¬ worth, Eltham and Wimbledon Common, also from Middlesex. Bishop’s Wood, Hampstead (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Bricket Wood, Oxhey, Haileybury and East Barnet (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest, 1903 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) . Kent. Abbey Wood, 1951 (J. Burton) ; West Wickham and Darenth (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Dartford and Greenhithe (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Oxshott, 1903 (Sidgwick : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Mickleham, 1911 (Waters : id.) ; Reigate (V.C.H., 1902). *Semiothisa notata Linn. E2.18, K.16, S.17. The Peacock Moth is a somewhat local insect appearing in June and again in August in birch woods in most parts of the eastern and south¬ eastern counties. It is rare in the west, but is found in the Midlands up to Lancashire and then in the western Highlands and also in Kerry. The 1898 list only reports it from Croydon, Coombe Wood and Shirley, also recorded from Essex. Brentwood (V.C.H., 1903). Kent. Abbey Wood, 1947 (Showier) ; Joyden’s Wood (D. Owen) ; West Wickham, 1950 (Trundell) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; Darenth (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Chislehurst, Dartford, Greenhithe (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Limpsfield Chart (Cockayne) ; Esher and Oxshott (V.C.H., 1902). *Semiothisa alternaria Hubn. S.17. The Sharp-angled Peacock is distinguishable from the last species by the sharper outline to the wings, across the centre of which there is a shaded band. It is even more local, being found rather sporadically over the southern English counties, also in South Wales and up to Westmorland. It is also double-brooded and its larva feeds on rather stunted sallows such 192 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 155 as occur in the bogs in the New Forest. It is only given for Goombe Wood in the 1898 list and there are two other records for Surrey from Weybridge on August 4, 1952, and again in 1956 (Messenger), also from Reigate (V.C.H., 1902). *Semiothisa liturata Clerck M.21, H.20, K.16, S.17. The Tawny-barred Angle is a well-known insect in pine clad areas over the British Isles up to the Caledonian Canal. A melanic form ab. nigroful- vata, fairly prevalent in the north, is appearing of late in the southern counties. Like the two preceding species it is on the wing in June and August. It is mentioned in the 1898 list and Suppt. from Hammersmith, Harrow, Croydon, Coombe Wood, and Wimbledon Common. Middlesex. Highgate, 1911 (Andrewes) ; Stanmore, common (Lorimer) ; Ruislip area, rare (Minnion). Herts. Totteridge, common (Lorimer) ; Bushey Heath and Hod- desdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Orpington, 1951 (Siggs) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Joyden’s Wood (D. Owen) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; Plum- stead, Greenhithe (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Brixton (Farmer) ; Tadworth, 1952 (Wheeler) ; Esher and Bookham (Gardner) ; Richmond Park, 1905 (W. Cox) ; Oxshott (V.C.H., 1902) ; Putney, one, June 1951 (H. Swain). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). Isturgia limb aria Fabr. (E2.18), (K.16). The Frosted Yellow can be truly listed among our lost species. Formerly it was known chiefly from the eastern counties, from Suffolk and Essex where it affected old broom, its foodplant. It was last reported in numbers from that area in 1912, though there are still occasional rumours of its reappearance in those parts. It has also been recorded from the Highlands and also in bygone days from the London Area where it was mentioned as occurring near Grays in Essex in 1869 by Dr. Gill (V.C.H., 1903) and also that it was formerly abundant at Greenhithe in Kent (V.C.H., 1908). *Itame wavaria Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The V-Moth is a regular suburban insect, since its chief habitat is fruit gardens where currants and gooseberries are grown and the larvae are known to do damage to these bushes. It ranges in August all over Wales, England, most of Scotland and certainly the east of Ireland and is reported from the whole of the London Area, notably in the 1898 list from Padding¬ ton, Highgate, Hammersmith, Hackney, Clapton, Walthamstow, Woodford, Dulwich, and Wimbledon, also from all the more distant zones of the Area. *Chiasmia clathrata Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Latticed Heath is often a most abundant insect on downland in May and August in the south and east of England, though its range extends to the edge of the Highlands and it is widespread in Ireland. It is very subject to variation, almost white examples being known, while a melanic 193 156 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 form ab. nocturnata is becoming increasingly prevalent in the South. The 1898 list mentions it from Woodford, Croydon, Shirley and Harrow. Elsewhere from Middlesex. Ruislip area, common (Minnion) ; Hounslow, 1955 (Pierce) ; Mill Hill, common in 1955 (Goater) ; Southall, 1949 (J. Ward). Herts. Totteridge, common (Lorimer) ; Watford (Penrose) ; gener¬ ally distributed (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark, 1898). Kent. Joyden’s Wood, 1948 and Abbey Wood, 1952 (Hyatt) ; West Wickham, 1920 (Keywood) ; Pett’s Wood, and Chelsfield, 1951 (A. Swain) ; Shoreham, 1953 (Siggs) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; Lee, Eltham, Bexley and Dartford (V.C.H., 1908) ; Forest Hill and Shooter’s Hill (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Epsom, 1929, and Sheen Common, 1930 (D. King) ; Bookham Common (van Emden) ; Coulsdon, 1941-47 (Wheeler) ; Merton Park (Nott) ; Wimbledon Common ( Entom ., 1871, 5, 422) ; Box Hill (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Black Park, Fulmer (V.C.H., 1905). * Theria rupicapraria Hiibn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Early Moth, as its name implies, is almost the first geometer to appear in the year, often being seen on warm nights in January at rest on hawthorn whence its wingless female may be dislodged by tapping. It is found all over England to the Lowlands and is also widely distributed in Ireland. It is known from most parts of the Area according to the 1898 list which gives it from Hampstead, Highgate, Harrow, Muswell Hill, Hale End, Tottenham, Chingford, Sydenham, Chiswick and Richmond Park. Middlesex. Ruislip area (Minnion) ; Mill Hill, Whitton and Harefield (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, rare (Penrose) ; generally distributed (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark, 1898). Kent. Pett’s Wood, 1949 (A. Swain) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Kidbrooke (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Bromley (Lawrence : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Surrey. Surbiton (Kaye) ; West Ewell (Gardner) ; Tadworth, Feb. 1952 (Wheeler) ; Chipstead, 1946 (Johnson) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (V.C.H., 1905). *Erannis aurantiaria Esp. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Scarce Umber somewhat belies its name, since it is a very wide¬ spread and quite common species over Great Britain up to the fringe of the Highlands. It also occurs in Ireland. It appears in the late autumn, chiefly in November when it may be found clinging to twigs. The female is almost wingless. The 1898 list gives it from Hale End, Stamford, 194 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 157 Tottenham, Hackney, Highgate, Southall, Hammersmith, Croydon, Lewisham, Richmond Park and Wimbledon Common, elsewhere from Inner London. Chancery Lane (Selwyn Image : Entom., 1897,30, 18). Middlesex. Ruislip, larvae 1950 ( J. Ward) ; Mill Hill, 1955 (Goater) ; Hampstead and Harefield (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Totteridge, common (Lorimer) ; St. Albans, Haileybury, East Barnet, Hoddesdon and Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark, 1898) ; also abundant there in 1932 (C. de W.). Kent. Pett’s Wood, 1951 (A. Swain) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Orpington, 1949 (Siggs) ; Hayes, Downe (Birchenough) ; Chislehurst and Eltham (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Claygate, Nov. 1933 (Keywood) ; Putney Heath, 1929, and Sheen Common, 1933 (D. King) ; Tadworth and Bookham, 1949 (Wheeler) ; Chipstead, 1946 (Johnson) ; Weybridge, rare (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge). *Erannis marginaria Borkh. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17 B.24. The Dotted Border is a very common insect in the early part of the year when it can be found at rest on twigs in March. It ranges all over England to the Highlands and is widespread in Ireland. In the north of England a dark brown form ab.fuscata is fairly prevalent. The moth has been taken in every part of the London Area, being recorded in the 1898 list from Earl’s Court, Hampstead, Kilburn, Ealing, Isleworth, Lewisham, Richmond and Wimbledon Common, also from Brixton (Farmer) and Epping Forest (Gardner). *Erannis leucophaearia Schiff. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Spring Usher is another very well-known moth and, as its name implies, its appearance in February in numbers usually portends that the worst of the winter has passed. It is very variable and the melanic form ab. merularia is becoming increasingly common in the South. It occurs all over England, Wales and Scotland up to the Highlands, but seems unknown in Ireland. The female, which is devoid of wings, is seldom seen, except when bred from the larvae which sometimes do much damage to oaks. The 1898 list mentions it from almost all quarters, including Highgate, Hammersmith, Southall, Chiswick, Tottenham, Dulwich, Sydenham, Richmond Park and Wimbledon Common. It is widely distributed in Epping Forest and has been noted from all the further parts of the Area. *Erannis defoliaria Clerck M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Mottled Umber is another species subject to almost unending variation, hardly two specimens being exactly similar. In some localities a fairly large proportion of the population is melanic as is the case in Epping Forest where quite 10 per cent of the individuals exhibit these tendencies, having black bands on the forewings and dusky hindwings. 195 158 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 The insect is one of the winter species with a wingless female occurring from October to January over most of the British Isles up to the northern Highlands. The larvae are liable to do great damage to tree foliage. It has been reported from all over the London Region with Clapton, Dalston, and Tooting given in the 1898 list ; also noted from Blackheath (Hyatt), Hounslow (Pierce), Enfield (Edelsten) and Wimbledon Common (van Emden). *Alsophila aescularia Schiff. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The March Moth is another very plentiful insect in the early part of the year, to be found with a wingless female in all parts of these Islands up to the middle Highlands. It too has a tendency to melanism, especially in the North. The 1898 list describes it as common everywhere, except in the more central regions, though it has been recorded from Regent’s Park (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). In the more outlying areas it has been noted from Epping Forest (Edelsten), Ruislip (J. Ward), Joyden’s Wood, 1949 (Hyatt) and Tadworth, 1954 (Wheeler). *Anagoga pulveraria Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17. The Barred Umber is by no means a common moth, although it is found in most parts of Great Britain in May and June when it is wont to come fairly freely to light. In the 1898 list it is only mentioned from Highgate Woods and as being rare in the south-eastern quarter of the Metropolitan district. Also noted from Middlesex. Northolt, larvae in 1951 (J. Ward). Herts. Bricket Wood, Haileybury, Watford, and Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Edelsten). Kent. Bred from Darenth Wood (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Bexley, Eltham and Farningham (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Ashtead, May 1953 (Greenhill) ; Reigate and Addiscombe (V.C.H., 1902). *Plagodis dolabraria Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. This pretty moth, the Scorch-wing, is sometimes very prevalent at light in late May. It has been found in almost every English and Welsh county ranging up to the Highlands and occurs in Ireland. The 1898 list and 1902 Suppt. record it from Clerkenwell, Hampstead, Highgate Woods, Mill Hill, Greenwich Park, Ham Common, Richmond Park and Wimbledon. Middlesex. Ruislip and Northolt in 1946 (J. Ward) ; Mill Hill, 1955 (Goater). Herts. St. Albans, Bricket Wood, Watford, Bushey Heath and Hoddesdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). 196 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 159 Essex. Woodford Green, 1923 (Collenette) ; Epping Forest, 1951 (Rutherford) ; also there in 1890 (Sidgwick : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) . Kent. Pett’s Wood, 1953 (A. Swain) : Abbey Wood, 1953 (Showier); Orpington, 1954 (Siggs) ; Hayes, Downe (Birchenough) ; Dartford, Bexley, Eltham and West Wickham (Y.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Tadworth and Bookham Common, June 1954 (Wheeler) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Box Hill and Oxshott (V.C.H., 1902) ; Putney, one, 1951 (H. Swain). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge) ; Black Park, Fulmer (V.C.H., 1905). The next twelve species comprise the Thorns, a group of moths with somewhat indentated wings and with larvae having a very stick-like appearance with warts along the back. *Ennomos autumnaria Werb. EL., K.16. This fine insect, the Large Thorn, has only been known in this country since 1839. During the last century it was regarded as a rarity, only to be found on the south-east point of Kent and along the Sussex coast. It has spread considerably of late, occurring all along the Kent and Sussex coast to Gosport in Hants. It is now also widespread in parts of Essex and Suffolk. The moth does not as a rule appear till well into September when it comes freely to light. It has been bred on a big scale, producing some melanic forms. There is a single record in the 1898 list of a specimen taken on a truck at Holborn Viaduct Station in 1893 (Mitchell, Ent. Rec., 3, 301). The only other records for the Area are for Kent where it has been taken regularly at Pinden (Hare'' , also from Otford where seven were obtained in 1955 (Manley). * Ennomos quercinaria Hufn. ( = angularia Borkh.). I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17. The August Thorn can be regarded as a regular Londoner, since some of the Parks in the Metropolis are its chief haunts. It is a most variable species, which produces some very beautiful forms, but it is by no means common everywhere, though it is widely spread over England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland up to the edge of the Highlands. It is usually on the wing in early August and sometimes flies freely in sunshine. For the London district, the 1898 list mentions it as common in Hyde Park and St. James’s Park, also noted from Ladbroke Square, Kensington Gardens, Ealing, Highgate, Tottenham, Walthamstow, Hornsey, Chiswick, Dulwich, Barnes and Wimbledon Common. Elsewhere from Inner London. The Zoo, Regent’s Park in 1954 (Bushby). Middlesex. Highgate, 1925 (Andrewes) ; Hounslow, a few 1954-56 (Pierce) ; Whitton and Harefield (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, rare (Penrose) ; Totteridge, common (Lorimer) ; Haileybury, East Barnet, Bushey, Hoddesdon, Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). 197 i6o THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Kent. Abbey Wood (Showier) ; Anerley, 1905 (Keywood) ; West Wickham (Birchenough) ; Orpington, 1953 (Siggs) ; Lee, Lewisham, Blackheath (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Eltham, Bexley and Chislehurst (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Brixton (Farmer) ; Putney and East Sheen, 1931 (D. King) ; Weybridge, rare (Messenger) ; Surbiton, Croydon, Sutton and Reigate (V.C.H., 1902). *Deuteronomos alniaria Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Canary-shouldered Thorn is a regular visitor to light from late August till October in almost all parts of the United Kingdom and Ireland. It has been noted from many quarters of the London Area according to the 1898 list, from Maida Vale, Wood Green, Highgate, Hale End, Forest Gate, Woodford, Bromley, Streatham, Barnes Common and Wimbledon. Middlesex. Mill Hill, few in 1955 (Goater) ; Highgate (Andrewes) ; Potter’s Bar 1953 (Odell) ; Ruislip (Minnion) ; Stanmore, common (Lorimer) ; Hampstead Heath, Hammersmith and Ealing (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, common (Penrose) ; St. Albans, Haileybury, Cheshunt, Bushey and Hoddesdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark, 1898). Kent. Orpington, 1951 (Siggs) ; Hayes, Downe (Birchenough) ; Blackheath, Shooter’s Hill (D. Owen) ; Pett’s Wood and Chelsfield, 1950 (A. Swain) ; Anerley, Oct. 1905 (Keywood) ; Lee and Greenwich (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Brixton (Farmer) ; East Sheen, 1928 and Putney, 1937 (D. King) ; Banstead (Gardner); Bookham, 1931, and Coulsdon and Tadworth, 1953 (Wheeler) ; Wimbledon, 1929 (D. King) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Surbiton, Reigate (V.C.H., 1902). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). *Deuteronomos fuscantaria Haworth I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Dusky Thorn is another of this group which appears fairly late in the year, usually in September and October. Its foodplant is normally ash and it is to be found all over England up to the Border. For the London Area the 1898 list and 1902 Suppt. give it from Clapton, Woodford, Leyton, Stratford, Crouch End, Highgate, Dulwich, Norwood, Richmond and Wimbledon Common. Inner London. The Zoo, Regent’s Park, 1954 (Bushby). Middlesex. Mill Hill, fairly common in 1955 (Goater) ; Stanmore, common (Lorimer) ; Greenford, one in 1950 (J. Ward) ; Hounslow, one in 1955 (Pierce) ; Enfield (Edelsten) ; Acton and Whitton (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, common (Penrose) ; St. Albans, East Barnet, Haileybury, Broxbourne and Hoddesdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). 198 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS l6l Essex. Epping Forest (Clark, 1898). Kent. Orpington, 1949 (Siggs) ; Abbey Wood (Showier) ; Pett’s Wood and Chelsfield, 1951 (A. Swain) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Charlton, Lee, Greenhithe, Eltham (V.C.H., 1908) ; Greenwich Park (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Barnes (Gardner) ; Ashtead (Greenhill) ; Tadworth, 1954 (WTheeler) ; East Sheen, 1931, and Putney, 1937 (D. King) ; Chipstead, a few in 1946 (Johnson) ; Peckham (Ent. Annual, 1860) ; WTybridge (Messenger) ; Worcester Park and Reigate (V.C.H., 1902). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). *Deuteronomos erosaria Borkh. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The September Thorn is a peculiar species in that it produces a generation which is on the wing in late July and early August, while a larger form appears in September and October. It is not uncommon over England and WTales ranging up to the Highlands, but is rare in Ireland. The 1898 list and Suppt. note it from Hackney, Highgate, Barnes, Eltham, Blackheath and Wumbledon Common. Middlesex. Hampstead (Ent. Annual, 1869) ; Mill Hill, 1955 (Goater) ; Ruislip, scarce (Minnion) ; Pinner (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, common (Penrose) ; Haileybury, Bushey, St. Albans, Hoddesdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark, 1898). Kent. Pett’s Wood, 1947 (A. Swain) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Bexley, Lee, Eltham (V.C.H., 1908) ; Otford, 1955 (Manley). Surrey. East Sheen, Sept. 1929 (D. King) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Epsom, Reigate, Worcester Park (V.C.H., 1902). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). *Selenia bilunaria Esp. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Early Thorn is the first of this genus to appear, being often on the wing in late March with a second brood in August. It lends itself to considerable variation, many remarkable forms having been bred with often a great tendency to melanism. It is generally distributed throughout the British Isles, except in the far north and has been reported from every region of the London Area. It was taken in the Zoo, Regent’s Park, in 1954 (Bushby), also noted in the 1898 list as common in Epping Forest and is recorded also from Hackney, Croydon, Forest Hill, Hampstead, Highgate, Finchley, Dulwich, Forest Hill, Richmond and Whmbledon Common, as well as from WTatford (Penrose), Northolt (J. Ward), and all the outlying zones of the Area. *Selenia lunaria. Schiff. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Lunar Thorn is by no means an easy insect to obtain. It is always very local, though commoner in the Highlands than in the south of England where it is wont to appear from late May to mid-June and is as a rule single-brooded. It has been taken fairly widely over the London Area, 199 1 62 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 3? notably in the 1898 list and 1902 Suppt. from Woodford, Tottenham, Highgate, Wood Green, Stratford, Southall, Forest Hill and Wimbledon Common. Also from Middlesex. Stanmore, one in May 1951 (Lorimer) ; Potters’ Bar on June 13, 1953 (Odell) ; Ruislip, rare (Minnion) ; Northwood, 1936 (Fletcher). Herts. St. Albans, Haileybury, East Barnet, Watford, Oxhey and Cheshunt (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Buxton, 1890). Kent. Darenth Wood (D. Owen) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Bexley (C. Fenn : Proc. South London Entom. Soc., 1893) ; Pinden, a few 1945-49 (Hare) ; Dartford, Lee, Bexley, Eltham (V.C.H., 1908) ; Abbey Wood (Showier). Surrey. Worcester Park (Kaye) ; Weybridge, one on May 18, 1953 (Messenger) ; Worcester Park and Redstone (V.C.H., 1902). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). *Selenia tetralunaria Hufn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. This handsome moth, the Purple Thorn, usually appears first in late April and then again in August in a smaller form. It is found all over England up to the Midlands, but is less common in the northern counties. However, it is often abundant in the Highlands. The 1898 list and Suppt. only mention it from Eltham, Hagger Lane Forest and as occurring in the south-east region of the Area. Middlesex. Ruislip, scarce (Minnion) ; Stanmore (Lorimer) ; Enfield (Edelsten). Herts. Oxhey (Fletcher) ; Totteridge (Lorimer) ; Watford, rare (Penrose) ; East Barnet, Haileybury, Broxbourne, Hoddesdon, Cheshunt (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Buxton, 1890). Kent. West Wickham (Trundell) ; Orpington, 1955 (Siggs) ; Hayes, Downe (Birchenough) ; Darenth (West, Ent. Rec ., 1906) ; Otford, 1955 (Manley) ; Dartford and Eltham (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Shirley Hills (Wild) ; Tadworth, May 1954 (Wheeler) ; Esher (Gardner) ; Chipstead, one in April, 1946 (Johnson) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Oxshott (V.C.H., 1902). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge) ; Black Park, Fulmer (V.C.H., 1905). *Apeira syringaria Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17. The Lilac Beauty is an exceedingly attractive insect which is often more freely met with as its remarkable larva which is to be found in the spring looking like a piece of twig on stems of honeysuckle and privet. The moth is out in July over the southern part of England, being less common in the northern counties and very scarce in Ireland. It is enumerated from a number of places in the 1898 list and Suppt., from Hale End, Chingford, 200 The moths of London and its surroundings 163 Woodford, Hendon, Highgate, Southgate, Ealing, Finchley, Mill Hill, Hounslow, Ham Common and Wimbledon Common. Middlesex. Ruislip (Minnion) ; Uxbridge, larvae (J. Ward) ; Mill Hill, larvae abundant on privet (South, ii, 278) ; Hampstead, Whitton and Harefield (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891) ; Enfield (Edelsten). Herts. St. Albans, Haileybury, Cheshunt, Broxbourne, Hoddesdon, East Barnet (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Chelsfield, 1953 (A. Swain) ; Lee, Bexley, West Wickham and Eltham (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Claygate, 1933 (Keywood) ; Selsdon Wood, 1950 (Birche- nough) ; Arbrook Common (Stallwood) ; Bookham Common, larvae (van Emden) ; East Sheen, July, 1929 (D. King); Chipstead, 1946 (Johnson) ; Weybridge, rare (Messenger) ; Worcester Park, Reigate and Oxshott (V.C.H., 1902). *Gonodontis bidentata Clerck EL., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Scalloped Hazel is an extremely prevalent species in May and early June throughout the British Isles, almost to the northernmost limits. It is subject to considerable variation, chiefly in the tint of its ground colour. In some of the northern counties an entirely black form is of regular occurrence. It has been recorded from almost every part of the London Area, even from the Zoo, Regent’s Park, in 1954 (Bushby), also in the 1898 list from Hampstead Heath, Highgate, Muswell Hill, Finchley, Waltham¬ stow, Hale End, Woodford, Forest Hill, Petersham and Sydenham and from all the main outlying areas. *Crocallis elinguaria Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, E1.19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Scalloped Oak is another very common insect with a range all over Great Britain, except the extreme north. It too displays a great degree of variation, chiefly as regards the intensity of the cross-band on the forewings which is sometimes absent in specimens from the Highlands. It is on the wing in August and comes freely to light. Like the last species it has been noted from nearly all areas in the London region, being recorded in the 1898 list from the centre at Paddington, also from Hackney, Islington, Highgate, Walthamstow, Woodford, Dalston, Lee, Brockley, Dulwich, Barnes, and Wimbledon Common, as well as from Epping Forest (Clark), Brixton (Farmer), Putney (D. King), and Bletchingley, 1957 (Hancock). *Colotois pennaria Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El . 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Feathered Thorn is the latest of this group to be on the wing, since it seldom appears before November when it sometimes swarms at light. It occurs all over the country up to Moray and has been recorded widely for the London Area, notably in the 1898 list and Suppt. from Clerkenwell, Highgate, Enfield, Muswell Hill, Tottenham, Hale End, Stratford, Chiswick, Forest Hill, and Dulwich and Wimbledon Common. 201 1 64 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Middlesex. Hounslow (Pierce) ; Hampstead (Ent. Annual , 1868) ; Ruislip (Minnion) ; Mill Hill, Whitton, Harefield, Ealing, Hampstead (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Totteridge, common (Lorimer) ; generally distributed (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937) ; Watford, scarce (Penrose). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark, 1898). Kent. Orpington, 1949 (Siggs) ; Pett’s Wood, Chelsfield, 1951 (A. Swain) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Blackheath and Darenth (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough). Surrey. Wimbledon Common, 1929, Epsom, 1923, Putney, 1929 (D. King) ; Coulsdon, 1946, Tadworth, 1952, also Bookham (Wheeler) ; Chipstead, 1946 (Johnson) ; Oxshott, 1930 (C. de W.) ; Weybridge (Messenger) . Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). * Ophisthograptis luteolata Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17’ B.24. The Brimstone Moth is one of the commonest and most widespread of our Geometers, being known from every quarter of these Islands from May throughout the summer. In the London Area it is also reported from almost all over the region, from the Zoo, Regent’s Park (Bushby), also in the 1898 list from Paddington, Ladbroke Square, Highbury, Highgate, Clapton, Hackney, Woodford, and Brixton (Farmer). *Cepphis advenaria Hiibn. (M.21), K.16. The Little Thorn is often abundant in May in many parts of the southern counties of England where bilberry ( Vaccinium ) flourishes. It is found sporadically up to the north as far as Yorkshire and rarely in Ireland. There is only one record in the 1898 list from Ealing and it has also been recorded from Kent at Westerham (C. Edwards). *Epione repandaria Hufn. ( — apiciaria Schiff.). M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17. The Bordered Beauty is quite a frequent species in August, mainly in marshy spots all over the British Isles up to Sutherland and has been met with in most regions of the London Area. The 1898 list and 1902 Suppt. report it from Highgate, Southall, Mill Hill, Tottenham, Buckhurst Hill, Eltham, Mitcham, Beckenham, Dulwich and Wimbledon Common. Middlesex. Enfield (Edelsten) ; Hampstead, Hammersmith, Hare- field and Whitton (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Bricket Wood, Haileybury, Cheshunt, St. Albans, Bushey and Watford (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark, 1898). Kent. Lee, Eltham, Dartford, Greenhithe (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Oxshott (Kaye) ; Esher (Gardner) ; Chertsey Meads on Oct. 1, 1953 (Bretherton) ; Weybridge (Messenger). 202 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 1 65 *Pseudopanthera macularia Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. This pretty little moth, The Speckled Yellow, is a familiar sight in wooded spots in May as it darts up from the herbage by day. It occurs in most parts of the British Isles, except the northern parts of the Highlands and sometimes produces some remarkable aberrations, all yellow specimens and also others entirely brown in colour being known. The 1898 list only notes it from Hackney, Ealing, Croydon, Shirley and Wimbledon Common. Middlesex. Ruislip and Northolt (J. Ward) ; Hampstead, Pinner and Harrow Weald (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, rare (Penrose) ; Hoddesdon, 1952 (Rutherford) ; Bricket Wood, Haileybury, Hoddesdon and Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Loughton (Gardner) ; Epping Forest, 1948 (Wheeler). Kent. Pett’s Wood, Eynsford, Chelsfield, 1949 (A. Swain) ; Sundridge Park, 1947, Darenth Wood, 1952, Shoreham, 1952 (Hyatt) ; West Wickham, 1906 (Keywood) ; Farningham (Wheeler). Surrey. Box Hill (Wheeler) ; Oxshott, 1928 (D. King) ; Claygate (V.C.H., 1902). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). *Lithina chlorosata Scop. ( = petraria Hiibn.). I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Brown Silver-line is a very prevalent species in May and June among bracken in most parts of Great Britain up to the Western Highlands. It has been widely obtained in the London Area, being noted in the 1898 list from Ladbroke Square, Hampstead, Highgate, Tooting, Ealing, Croydon, Richmond Park and Wimbledon Common, also from Inner London. City Bombed Sites, 1948 (D. Owen). Middlesex. Ruislip, Sudbury and Uxbridge, 1950 (J. Ward) ; Elstree, common (Lorimer) ; Harrow and Whitton (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, common (Penrose) ; Bricket Wood, Broxbourne, Haileybury, Northaw, Bushey Heath and Oxhey Woods (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Clark, 1898). Kent. Pett’s Wood and Chislehurst, 1950 (A. Swain) ; Hayes, 1947, Darenth and Joyden’s Wood, 1952 (Hyatt) ; West Wickham and Shooter’s Hill (West, Ent. Rec ., 1906). Surrey. Tadworth, 1954, and Bookham (Wheeler); Oxshott, 1930 (D. King) ; Richmond Park (Gardner) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (V.C.H., 1905). *Pachycnemia hippocastanaria Htibn. E2.18, K.16, S.17. The Horse Chestnut is a most peculiar insect as regards its time of appearance, since it is often seen as early as February and is apparently on 203 1 66 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 the wing most of the summer on hea thy ground in all the southern English counties, but does not seem to penetrate far north. In the 1898 list it is only named from Shirley and Addington Hills. Essex. Rochfora (Stephens, V.C.H., 1903). Kent. West Wickham and Chislehurst (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Esher, March 1936 (Keywood) ; Oxshott (Kaye) ; Bookham Common and Tadworth, August 1953 (Wheeler) ; Weybridge, rare (Messenger) ; Croydon, 1920 (Webb : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). * Ourapteryx samhucaria Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Swallow-tailed Moth is one of the most well-known of our lepidop- tera as it flits about hedges and woods in July all over England and Wales to the Western Highlands. It is v/idespread in Ireland where the form is distinctly yellower than the normal type. It has been recorded from all over the London region, notably from Paddington, Ladbroke Square, Highbury, Hammersmith, Dalston, Hackney, Dulwich, Croydon and Wimbledon Common in the 1898 list, also from Brixton (Farmer), Hounslow (Pierce), Ealing (Baynes) and Grove Park, 1948 (Hyatt). The final series of the Geometers is usually classed as the Boarmiinae. They are mostly soberly coloured and the majority are wont to sit about on tree trunks, fences, etc. Nearly all the species have a tendency to melanism. * Phigalia pedaria Fabr. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Pale Brindled Beauty is probably the first moth to appear in the new season, sometimes being taken even in December. It is fairly variable in ground colour, while the Scottish form which is on the wing in March, is distinctly larger and paler. The black ab. monacharia which is prevalent in the north of England, is becoming increasingly numerous in the South in recent years. The species is very common all over the London Area in the late winter and has been noted from Hampstead, Hammersmith, Highgate, Tottenham, Hale End, Finsbury Park, Chiswick, Barnes and Wimbledon Common in the 1898 list, as well as from Epping Forest (Clark, 1898), Shooter’s Hill (Burton) and from all the suburban districts and outlying zones. *Apocheima hispidaria Fabr. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17. The males of the Small Brindled Beauty sometimes come in great plenty to light on warm nights in late February and early March among oak in most areas of the south of England up to the northern counties. They can often, too, be found at rest on trunks and fences, but as in the last species, the wingless female is seldom seen as it runs up the oak stems at dusk. It is only recorded in the 1898 list and Suppt. from Hale End, Chingford, Richmond Park and Wimbledon Common. Middlesex. Ruislip and Northolt (J. Ward) ; Bishop’s Wood, Hampstead (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). 204 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 1 67 Herts. Watford, one only (Penrose) ; Cheshunt, St. Albans, Hoddes- don and Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Edelsten). Kent. Beckenham (Birchenough) ; Hayes Common, 1948 (Hyatt) ; Pett’s Wood, 1948 (A. Swain) ; Bexley, Shooter’s Hill, West Wickham (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Tadworth, March, 1954, and Bookham Common (Wheeler) ; Chipstead, one in 1946 (Johnson) ; Richmond Park, 1878 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Shirley Hills (Wild) ; Wimbledon Common, at rest in 1947 (C. de W.) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Ewell, Norbury and Betchworth (V.C.H., 1902) ; Putney, two (H. Swain). *Lycia hirtaria Clerck EL., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Brindled Beauty must be one of the most well-known London moths, since it is probably nowhere commoner than in the centre of the Metropolis where in early April as soon as the leaves begin to appear, it can sometimes be seen in hundreds on tree trunks in the parks. The males come readily to light. An all-black form has been recently bred extensively from this source, while in the Highlands a large and pale type is prevalent. It has been noted in the 1898 list and by other authors from nearly every part of Central London as well as from all the suburban areas. It is reported as common in' Epping Forest (Clark), and plentiful in the woods in Kent and Herts., also widespread round Wimbledon (van Emden). * Bis ton strataria Hufn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Oak Beauty is a very spectacular insect when it appears at light in March and early April. It occurs all over southern England up to the Midlands and also in Ireland. The female is seldom seen in the wild. Occasionally melanic examples devoid of the white markings are known. The 1898 list and 1902 Suppt. mention it from Highgate, Muswell Hill, Forest Hill, Eltham, Coombe Wood, Kingston Yale, Richmond Park and Wimbledon Common. Elsewhere from Inner London. The Zoo, Regent’s Park, 1954 (Bushby). Middlesex. Ruisjip, 1950, and Northolt, 1952 (J. Ward) ; Finchley and Whitton (Cockerell, Middx., 1891) ; Hampton, 1930 (Keywood) ; Mill Hill, 1955 (Goater) ; Hounslow (Pierce) ; Enfield (Edelsten). Herts. Watford, rare (Penrose) ; Totteridge, common (Lorimer) ; St. Albans, Cheshunt, East Barnet, Hoddesdon, Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Edelsten). Kent. Hayes Common, 1948 (Hyatt) ; Orpington, 1949 (Siggs) ; Pett’s Wood (A. Swain) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Joyden’s Wood (D. Owen) ; Hayes, Downe (Birchenough) ; Bexley and Eltham (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Claygate, 1934 (Keywood) ; East Sheen 1932 (D. King) ; Bookham and Tadworth, 1953 (Wheeler) ; Banstead, Box Hill, 1951 205 1 68 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 (Wheeler) ; Chipstead, 1945 (Johnson) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Worcester Park and Redhill (V.C.H., 1902) ; Putney, 1951 (H. Swain). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). *Biston betularia Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Peppered Moth is a species which has excited very special interest for a considerable time, since its melanic form ab. carbonaria is becoming more and more predominant in built-up and industrial areas, though it has not apparently reached the Highlands or Ireland where a very white form seems to prevail. Intermediate forms with a great proportion of black markings and speckling (ab. insulario ) are not uncommon. The species which seems to come out all through the summer from May onwards is a very well-known London insect, being noted in the 1898 list from Paddington, Maida Vale, Shepherds Bush, Dalston, Tottenham, Hale End, Dulwich, Chiswick, Blackheath and Ham Common and more recently from the Zoo, Regent’s Park (Bushby), Mill Hill, black form (Goater), Hounslow (Pierce), Epping Forest (Edelsten) and Wimbledon Common (van Emden). * Hemerophila abruptaria Thunb. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2. 18, El. 19, K.16, S.17 B.24. The Waved Umber is another species which haunts the inner areas of the Metropolis, since it can often be found in early May at rest or as a larva on privet or lilac round the central London squares. Again this insect shows a great tendency to melanism. The deep-brown form ab. fuscata is sometimes commoner than the type in these parts. The species occurs all over England and Wales up to Lancashire, but is hardly known in Ireland or Scotland. It has been obtained in every part of the Area, notably from Paddington, Holloway, Regent’s Park, Belsize Park, Grosvenor Square, Hammersmith, Hornsey, Chingford, Hackney, Wood¬ ford, Lewisham, and Wimbledon Common according to the 1898 list and in recent years from all the surrounding neighbourhoods. *Boarmia roboraria Schiff. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. This fine insect, the Great Oak Beauty, is our largest geometer. The males come sometimes in numbers to light in late June in big oakwoods throughout the south of England with a range up to Lancashire. The large female can often be found at rest on trunks. Again this species lends itself to melanism, frequently producing a dusky form and occasionally a very black one. Its only record in the 1898 list is from Richmond Park, but it has been taken in many other localities in the Area, notably from Middlesex. Scratch Wood, a few (Lorimer) ; Stanmore (Watkins, Entom ., 1925, 58, 190) ; Ruislip area (Minnion) ; Pinner Wood in July 1882 (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Northaw, 1952 (Rutherford) ; Oxhey, 1938 (Fletcher) ; Haileybury, Whippendell, Broxbourne, Hoddesdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (South ii, 309). Kent. Joyden’s Wood (D. Owen) ; Pett’s Wood, 1947 (A. Swain) ; « 206 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 169 West Wickham (Trundell) ; Shooter’s Hill (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Oxshott, June 1928, and Wimbledon Common, 1928 (D. . King) ; Bookham Common (Gardner) ; Selsdon Wood, common (Wild) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Redstone (V.C.H., 1902). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge) ; Black Park, Fulmer (V.C.H., 1905). *Boarmia punctinalis Scop. ( = consortaria~Fa.br.). M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Pale Oak Beauty appears at least a month before the last species, since it hibernates as a pupa. It is very prevalent in the south of England and extends up to the northern counties and is also found in south-west Ireland. A slightly melanic form ab. humperti is not uncommon. Only given in the 1898 list and Suppt. from Eltham, Coombe Wood, Richmond Park, and Wimbledon Common. Middlesex. Scratch Wood (Lorimer) ; Ruislip (Minnion) ; Uxbridge (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, one (Penrose) ; Bricket Wood, Hoddesdon, Brox- bourne, St. Albans (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Biggin Hill, Eynsford, Darenth, 1947 (Hyatt) ; Orpington, 1952 (Siggs) ; Pett’s Wood (A. Swain) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; Joyden’s Wood (D. Owen). Surrey. Putney Heath, East Sheen (D. King) ; Oxshott (D. King) ; Esher and Richmond (Gardner) ; Chipstead, one in May 1946 (Johnson) ; Wimbledon Common (Kidner) ; Redhill and Godstone (V.C.H., 1902). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). Cleora ribeata Clerck ( = abietaria Hiibn.). H.20, E2.18, El. 19, S.17, B.24. The Satin Beauty is sometimes a very frequent visitor to light among yew and spruce in July in some of the southern English counties, though it appears to be hardly known in the more easterly ones. This fine geometer can also be found at rest on tree trunks and in some areas a melanic form predominates. It is not mentioned in the 1898 list and has apparently only been recorded for Herts. Watford, one in 1948 (Penrose). Essex. Epping Forest (V.C.H., 1903). Surrey. Box Hill, 1905 (Kaye) ; also there (van Emden) ; Mickleham Down, larvae obtained on yews (C. de W.) ; also there in 1904 (Sidgwick : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford) ; Redhill and Godstone (V.C.H., 1902). Bucks. Black Park, Fulmer (V.C.H., 1905). Cleora lichenaria Hufn. M.21, H.20, K.16, S.17. The Brussels Lace is a very pretty member of this group, appearing in July in woods where occurs the special lichen ( Usnea barbata) on which the larva feeds. It is to be found over most of southern England up to the North as well as in parts of Scotland and the south-west of Ireland. Again 207 170 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 this insect is not enumerated in the 1898 list, but has been widely recorded from Middlesex. Pinner Woods (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Haileybury, East Barnet, Cheshunt, Oxhey, and Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. West Wickham [Ent. Annual, 1867) ; Hartford (V.C.H., 1908). Surrey. Addington, bred (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Ashtead, Redhill, Box Hill (V.C.H., 1902). Cleora cinctaria Schiff. E2.18. The Ringed Carpet is one of the first of this genus to appear, since it is on the wing in late April when it can be readily found at rest, chiefly on fir trunks or rocks. It seems to have a broken range in these Islands, as it exists in only a few of the southern counties, such as Hampshire, Sussex and Surrey, also in Berks as well as in West Wales and right up to Perthshire and near Fortwilliam where a very bright arid large form occurs as it also does in the south-west of Ireland. Its chief claim to the London list is an old record from Epping Forest (V.C.H., 1903). Cleora rhomboidaria Schiff. (= gemmaria Brahm). I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Willow Beauty is a very well-known species in July throughout most of the British Isles. It produces many forms, chiefly showing a variation of the ground colour, while a melanic type ab. rebeli, is quite frequent in the London Area. The moth has been noted in the 1898 list from Paddington, Ladbroke Square, Hammersmith, Bedford Park, Stamford Hill, Clapton, Dalston, Woodford, Bromley and Streatham, also from Epping Forest (Clark, 1898), Brixton (Farmer), Battersea Park (Baynes), Highgate (Andrewes), Hampton, 1929 (Keywood), Wimbledon Common (van Emden), and as well from all the more distant parts of the Area. Cleora repandata Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Mottled Beauty is among the most variable moths on our list, since it differs in type from one locality to another. The form occurring in the eastern Highlands is grey, while that in the western parts of that region is deep brown. Again the Irish forms are lightly speckled, while in all areas there appears a form with a transverse pale band, ab. conversaria and also a melanic type which is especially prevalent in the north of England in July. For the London district it has been reported in the 1898 list from Highgate, Hampstead, Finchley, Harrow, Southgate, the Isle of Dogs, Croydon, Brockley and Wimbledon Common. Middlesex. Highgate (Andrewes) ; Mill Hill, 1955 (Goater) ; Scratch Wood, common (Lorimer) ; Stanmore (Fletcher) ; Ruislip, Northolt and Uxbridge, 1952 (J. Ward) ; Enfield (Edelsten). Herts. Watford, rare (Penrose) ; generally distributed (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Edelsten). 208 ♦ THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 100 Yards ZOO I Zoo —i _ IfOO ! zoo boo _ I _ 7 oo i 800 {ft % THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS I7I Kent. Orpington, 1953 (Siggs) ; Grove Park and Hayes, 1948 (Hyatt) ; Pett’s Wood, 1951 (A. Swain) ; Joyden’s Wood (D. Owen) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Blackheath (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Esher, Ashtead, Banstead (Gardner) ; Selsdon, 1953 (Barnett) ; Chipstead, a few in 1946 (Johnson) ; Tadworth and Bookham, 1954 (Wheeler) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge). Cleora jubata Thunb. ( = glabraria Hiibn.). K.16. The Dotted Beauty is a very localized little moth which is sometimes abundant in August in its restricted haunts where the lichen Usnea barbata , its larval foodplant, grows in profusion. It seems to inhabit mainly the English counties from Sussex westwards, then to occur in Wales and north¬ west England, while in the south-west of Scotland, especially in Galloway and up to Argyllshire, it is widespread and the local form is larger and brighter than in the South. Sometimes it produces very remarkable aberrations. There appears to be only one authentic record for the London Area, of a larva obtained in West Wickham woods (Mannering, Entom., 1910, 43, 204). Selidosema plumaria Schiff. ( = ericetaria Vill). S.17. The Bordered Grey is a denizen of heathland from early August with a range mainly in the western half of England up to North Wales and the Lake District. It also occurs in the Western Highlands and is common in the West of Ireland, mainly along the rocky coastline. It can often be flushed in the daytime. It is not in the 1898 list and the only records for the Area seem to be from Surrey where it has been noted from Esher (Gardner) and from Oxshott in 1904 (Kaye), also there and at Wisley (V.C.H., 1902). *Ectropis bistortata Goeze ( = biundularia Borkh.). M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. There has been a great deal of controversy about the true identity of this species, the Engrailed, and that of the next one. For a long time they were considered as one insect with generations following one another. Most recent authors recognize them as distinct species, separating them by the dates of their respective appearance. The insect under review is usually on the wing in late March with a second generation of smaller size in August and sometimes a third brood in October. It varies very greatly in ground colour, according to its habitat, all over the British Isles, while melanic examples occur, but are not so numerous as in the next species. The London 1898 list gives it only from Dulwich and Croydon. Elsewhere from Middlesex. Ruislip, 1951, and Northolt, 1952 (J. Ward) ; Hounslow two in 1954 (Pierce). Herts. Totteridge, common (Lorimer) ; Watford, common (Penrose) ; Bricket Wood, Bushey Heath, St. Albans, Northaw, Hoddesdon (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). 209 172 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Essex. Epping Forest (Edelsten). Kent. West Wickham (Trundell) ; Keston, March 1948, Darenth, March 29, 1948, and Shoreham, July 9, 1952 (Hyatt); Pett’s Wood, 1951 (A. Swain) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; Abbey Wood and Shooter’s Hill (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Arbrook Common, April 1934 (Keywood) ; Tadworth, Bookham, Oxshott and Chipstead (Wheeler) ; Weybridge, scarce, with one in October, 1956 (Messenger) ; Addington, April 1896 (Sidgwick : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter (Ansorge). *Ectropis crepuscularia Hiibn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. This species known as the Lesser Engrailed, seems to appear in late April and throughout May and only to produce one generation. It is as a rule paler in ground colour in normal examples than the last species and does not occur as far north, probably not reaching Scotland. Like the last species, this insect also sits on trunks, very largely those of larch. A deep grey form ab. delamerensis is often fairly common even in the South. The 1898 list reports it from Highgate, Hale End, Forest Hill, Croydon and Wimbledon Common, with other records from Middlesex. Ruislip area (Minnion) ; Pinner Woods (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Watford, rare (Penrose) ; same as for the previous species (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (V.C.H., 1903) ; also there in May, 1904 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Kent. Orpington, 1955 (Siggs) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; Greenwich Park (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Bookham, 1951 (Wheeler) ; Oxshott, 1934, Wimbledon, May 9, 1930, and Richmond Park, May 29, 1930 (D. King); Chipstead, 1946 (Johnson) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1957 (Ansorge). *Ectropis extersaria Hiibn. ( = luridata Borkh.) . M.2 1 , H.20, E2. 1 8, E 1 . 1 9, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Brindled White-spot is a very steady visitor to light in June in most parts of the south of England where there is oak or birch. Its range does not seem to extend further north than the Midlands. It is mentioned in the 1898 list from Hampstead Heath, Eltham, Croydon, Coombe Wood, and Richmond Park. Middlesex. Ruislip district (Minnion) . Herts. Bricket Wood, Haileybury, Broxbourne, Aldenham, Hoddes- don (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (E. N. Buxton, 1890). Kent. Darenth {Ent. Annual , 1868) ; Pett’s Wood, 1950 (A. Swain) ; West Wickham {Entom., 1910, 43, 204) ; Abbey Wood (West, Ent. Rec., 1906) ; Bexley, Dartford, West Wickham (V.C.H., 1908). 210 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 173 Surrey. Addington (Birchenough) ; Esher (Gardner) ; Bookham Common, 1952 (Finnigan) ; Wimbledon Common (D. King) ; Wey- bridge (Messenger) ; Bookham Common (Wheeler). Bucks. Black Park, Fulmer (V.C.H., 1905). *Ectropis consonaria Hiibn. H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Square Spot is another familiar geometer to be found at rest on trunks, mainly pines and spruce during May. It is very local over southern England and through Wales to the Lake District, while it is prevalent in the south-west of Ireland, chiefly around Killarney. An all-black form occurs in a few restricted localities, while in the Wye Valley there is a superb form ab. waiensis , with the outer border black and the inner area white. It is only noted in the 1898 list from Croydon. Herts. Broxbourne Woods (Foster, Lep. Herts ., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (V.C.H., 1903). Kent. Pett’s Wood, 1951 (A. Swain) ; Blackheath, West Wickham and Shooter’s Hill (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Box Hill, 1906 (Meldola : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Buciils. Black Park, Fulmer (V.C.H., 1905). *Aethalura punctulata Schiff. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Grey Birch is a further very common insect on tree trunks from late April to June in all parts of England and Scotland up to the Caledonian Canal, while it is also widespread in Ireland. But the 1898 list and Suppt. only give it from Croydon, Coombe Wood, Richmond Park and Wimbledon Common. Elsewhere from Middlesex. Ruislip and Northolt (J. Ward) ; Elstree, fairly common (Lorimer) ; Pinner, 1915 (Tautz : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Herts. Northaw (Rutherford) ; also there and in Broxbourne Woods (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Edelsten). Kent. Darenth Wood, May 1952, and Joyden’s Wood, 1948 (Hyatt); West Wickham, 1920 (Keywood) ; Pett’s Wood and Chislehurst (A. Swain) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; Shooter’s Hill and Brockley (West, Ent. Rec., 1906). Surrey. Esher (Gardner) ; Oxshott, 1931, and East Sheen, 1930, and Wimbledon Common, 1928 (D. King) ; Banstead, 1952, and Bookham, 1952 (Wheeler) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Epsom, 1895 (Sidgwick : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). *Ematurga atomaria Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Common Heath is one of our most abundant geometers, since it is to be found in May on almost every piece of heathland throughout Great Britain, except perhaps in the Shetlands. It lends itself to a good deal of variation. Melanie specimens are fairly prevalent in the North, while occasionally an almost white one is reported. The 1898 list gives it from 211 174 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Ealing, Forest Gate, Croydon, Abbey Wood, Shirley and Wimbledon Common. Middlesex. Hounslow in 1954 (Pierce). Herts. Bricket Wood and Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Epping Forest (Edelsten). Kent. Hayes Common, 1948 (Hyatt) ; Pett’s Wood, 1951 (A. Swain) ; Dartford Heath (D. Owen) ; West Wickham (Trundell). Surrey. Wolaingham, 1949 (Birchenough) ; Coulsdon, 1944, and Box Hill, 1952 (Wheeler) ; Oxshott, 1931 (D. King) ; Epsom, 1895 (Sidgwick : Hope Dept. Collection, Oxford). Bucks. Black Park, Fulmer (V.C.H., 1905). *Bupalus piniaria Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Bordered White is a very common day flier during May and June among pine trees throughout England, Wales and Scotland, as well as local in Ireland. Its larvae can be extremely destructive to pines, as was the case in 1954 in Cannock Chase. The ground colour of the males is usually yellow in the South, while in the North it is white. Melanie forms are not uncommon, especially in the female, known as ab .funebris. It is recorded in the 1898 list from Lothbury, Stratford, Stamford Hill, Highgate, Ealing, Croydon and Shirley. Middlesex. Bedfont, three in 1950 (Kindred) ; Highgate (Andrewes) ; Whitton, 1887 (Cockerell, Lep. Middx., 1891). Herts. Aldenham Woods (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Orpington, 1953 (Siggs) ; West Wickham (Trundell) ; Hayes Common, numerous (D. Owen) ; Keston (Birchenough). Surrey. Woldingham and Tadworth (Wheeler) ; Selsdon and Addington Hills (Birchenough) ; Esher (Gardner) ; Oxshott, plentiful in 1934 (Keywood) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Bucks. Black Park, Fulmer (V.C.H., 1905). HEPIALIDAE This group of Moths, known as the Swifts, is usually classified as among the most primitive in existence. They comprise quite a large Family occurring in all parts of the world with some huge species to be found in Australia and South Africa. The larvae are almost all root feeders and in certain species do a tremendous lot of damage to crops and grass land. Of nine species known from Europe five occur in the British Isles and all are recorded from the London Area. * Hepialus lupulina Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, El. 19, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Common Swift is an abundant species all over the United Kingdom, appearing on the wing in late May and the males flying just at dusk when they will come to light. The 1898 list records it as common all over the Metropolitan Area, while it has been noted more recently from the Zoo, Regent’s Park (Bushby), from Grove Park (Hyatt), Stanmore (Lorimer) and Hounslow in 1955 (Pierce), also from all outlying parts of the Area. 212 I III, MO'JIIS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 1 75 * Hepialus hecta Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.10, S.17. The Gold Swift flies freely among bracken-covered areas in June in most parts of the British Isles, though it is not seen so often as the last species. It has been widely reported in the 1898 list and the 1902 Suppt. from Hampstead, Highgate, Ealing, Walthamstow, Hackney Marshes, Forest Gate, Clapton, Croydon, Dulwich, Sydenham, Chiswick, Barnes and W i m bl ed on Corn rn on . Middlesex. Enfield (Edelsten). Herts. Kenton and Oxhey (Fletcher ) ; St. Albans, Bricket Wood, Haileybury, Bushey Heath, Watford and Broxbourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. Joyden’s Wood, July 1952 (Hyatt) ; Lett’s Wood and Ghisle- hurst, 1949 (A. Swain). Surrey. Ashtead and Bans lead (Gardner) ; Coulsdon, 1943 (Wheeler) ; Selsdon Wood and Addington (Birchenough) ; Weybridge (Messenger). Hepialus Jus conebulos a Deg. ( — velleda Hiibn.). M.21, If. 20, K.10, S.17. The Map-winged Swift is the least common of this family, though it is to be found in most parts of these Islands, even up to the ShetlandLs. It is prevalent among bracken in June and July and varies a good deal in size and markings. It is not in the 1898 list and there appear to be only a few records for the Area which are from Middlesex. Greenford, June 1950 (J. Ward;. Herts. Aldenham, June 1940 (Fletcher) ; St. Albans and Watford (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. West Wickham (Birchenough). Surrey. Box Hill (van Emden) ; Selsdon Wood (Birchenough). * Hepialus sylvina Linn. M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.10, S.17. The Orange Swift is fairly numerous in August and September through¬ out England and Wales and the southern half of Scotland, though only doubtfully recorded for Ireland. It has been noted in the 1898 list arid Suppt. from Finchley, Hampstead, Highgate, Ealing, Forest Cate, CJapton, Flan well, Crouch End, Norwood, Lewisham, Chiswick, Croydon, Dulwich, Barnes and Wimbledon Common. Also from Middlesex. Stanrnore, common (Lorimer) ; Hounslow, J 955 (Pierce) ; Greenford and Southall, 1950 (J. Ward). FIerts. Totteridge (Lorimer) ; Watford, common (Penrose) ; St. Albans, Hertford, Gheshunt, Haileybury, East Barnet, Watford and Brox¬ bourne (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Essex. Woodford Green, 192 5 (Collenette). Kent. Orpington, 1949 (Siggs; ; Lett’s Wood, 1950 (A. Swain ; ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) ; West Wickham (Trundcll). Surrey. Sheen Common, 1931, and Richmond Park, August 1932 176 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 (D. King) ; Barnes, West Ewell, Banstead (Gardner) ; Coulsdon, 1941, and Tadworth, 1950 (Wheeler) ; Weybridge (Messenger). *Hepialus humuli Linn. I.L., M.21, H.20, E2.18, K.16, S.17, B.24. The Ghost Swift is a most spectacular insect. Not only is it the largest of this group, but it is one of the few moths in existence in which the big orange female flies in search of the all white male as it hovers to and fro in the summer dusking. It is also most remarkable that in the very northerly latitudes such as the Shetlands where there is virtually no darkness at midsummer, the male takes on the female coloration, ab. hethlandica. It has been noted from nearly every part of the London region and in the 1898 list, from Shepherds Bush, Hampstead, Bloomsbury, Highgate, Woodford, Hackney, Tottenham, Blackheath, Croydon, Dulwich, Bedford Park and Barnes. Middlesex. Hounslow, common in 1954 and 1955 (Pierce) ; Green- ford and Southall (J. Ward) ; Enfield (Edelsten). Herts. Totteridge (Lorimer) ; generally distributed (Foster, Lep. Herts., 1937). Kent. West Wickham (Trundell) ; Joyden’s Wood, 1948, Blackheath, 1946, and Grove Park (Hyatt) ; Hayes and Downe (Birchenough) . Surrey. Roehampton, 1928, and Putney Heath, 1931 (D. King); Bookham, 1951, and Tadworth, 1953 (Wheeler); Barnes, Ewell and Banstead (Wheeler) ; Weybridge (Messenger) ; Merton, 1919 (Coulsdon). Bucks. Chalfont St. Peter, 1956 (Ansorge). [ Concluded ] It is hoped to publish in due course a Supplement to the Butterflies and the Moths of the London Area ending with a chart showing the number of species of Moths in each Family recorded from each of the Vice-Counties of the Region, together with the totals. Since this work was begun the following additional recorders have kindly sent in much valuable information about their captures in the Area for which I am extremely indebted to them. Sir Eric Ansorge, Mr. A. Aston, Mr. J. Bell, Mr. J. D. Bradley, Mr. C. de Mornay, Mr. H. M. Edelsten, Mr. R. Eldon Ellison, Mr. B. Goater, Mr. B. Hancock, Mr. H. C. Hards, Mr. C. N. Hawkins, Dr. H. E. Hinton, Mr. W. J. Kaye, Mr. A. D. Kindred, Lt.-Col. W. B. L. Manley, Capt. D. G. Marsh, Mr. W. E. Minnion, Mr. J. M. K. Saunders, Mr. L. Wakely, Mr. J. Ward, Mr. E. H. Wild. I would also like to express my warm thanks to Prof. G. C. Varley and his colleagues for allowing me full access to the extensive collections of Lepidoptera in the Hope Museum at Oxford from which many interesting records were gleaned. I am alike equally grateful to the Staff of the Insect House at the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, for permitting me to go through many of the captures of lepidoptera made in the mercury vapour light trap run there between 1 95 1 and 1 954 under the direction of the late Mr. L. C. Bushby. 214 THE MOTHS OF LONDON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS 177 REFERENCES (1 ) Works and Papers by individual Authors : ANDERSON, E., 1882, The Lepidoptera of Hackney Marshes. Entom., 15, 271-274. BARRETT, C. G., 1893-1907, Lepidoptera of the British Islands, Vols. i to xiii. BEIRNE, B. P., 1952, The Origin of the British Fauna. BONHOTE, J. L., and ROTHSCHILD, N. C., 1897, Harrow Butterflies and Moths. BRETHERTON, R. F., 1951, Our Lost Butterflies and Moths. Ent. Gazette, 2, 211-240. - , 1957, A List of the Macrolepidoptera and Pyralidina of North-West Surrey. Proc. S. Lond. ent. nat. Hist. Soc., 1955, 94-151. BUCKELL, Dr. J. F., and PROUT, L. B., 1898-1901, Fauna of the London District : Lepidoptera. Trans. City of London ent. nat. Hist. Soc., 1897-8, 8, 51-63 ; 1899, 9, 66-80 ; 1900, 10 62-74 ; 1901,11,55-68. BUCKLER, W., 1885-1899, Larvae of British Butterflies and Moths. BUXTON, E. N., 1890, Epping Forest. COCKERELL, T. D. A., 1891-1892, A Preliminary List of the Insect Fauna of Middlesex : Lepidoptera. Entom., 24, 29-33 ; 64-69 ; 119-121 ; 139-143 ; 156-160 ; 280-283 • 25,115-118; 130-134; 182-185; 203-207. CURTIS, John, 1824, British Entomology. de WORMS, C. G. M., 1 95 1 , New Additions to British Macrolepidoptera during the past half- century. Ent. Gazette, 2, 153-168. DICK, C., 1935, Lepidoptera of Wandsworth. Ent. Rec., 47, 26-27. DONOVAN, E., 1820, A Natural History of British Insects. FITTER, R. S. R., 1945, London’s Natural History {New Naturalist series, No. 2). FORD, E. B., 1945, Butterflies {New Naturalist series, No. 1). - , 1955, Moths {New Naturalist series, No. 30). FOSTER, Dr. A. H., 1937, List of the Lepidoptera of Hertfordshire. Trans. Herts, nat. Hist. Soc. xx, part 4, 157-279. FROHAWK, F. W., 1914, A Natural History of British Butterflies, Vols. i and ii. HARRIS, Moses, 1766, The Aurelian : A Natural History of English Insects : Moths and Butterflies. HAWORTH, A. H., 1803, Lepidoptera Britannica. London. HUMPHREYS, H. N., and WESTWOOD, J. O., 1841, British Butterflies and their Transforma¬ tions. KETTLEWELL, H. B. D., 1955, Selection Experiments in Industrial Melanism in the Lepidoptera Heredity, 9, 323-342. LANKTREE, P. A. D., 1951, Lepidoptera in a London House during 1951. Ent. Rec., 63, 237-241 MORRIS, The Rev. F. O., 1872, Natural History of British Moths. NEWMAN, Edward, 1869, An Illustrated Natural History of British Butterflies and Moths. OWEN, D. F., 1949, Macrolepidoptera of the Moorgate, London, Bombed Sites. Entom., 82, 59-62 - , 1949a, Nymphalis polycloros in S.E. London and N.W. Kent. Entom., 82, 88-89. - , 1951, Bombed Site Lepidoptera. Entom., 84, 265-272. - , 1952, The Lepidoptera of Cripplegate. L.N., 31, 84-88. - , 1954, A Further Analysis of the Insect Records of the London Bombed Sites. Ent. Gazette 5, 51-60. ' RENDALL, Dr. P., 1887, Notes of Lepidoptera observed in London. Entom., 20, 198-202. ROBBINS, R. W., 1940, Lepidoptera of Limpsfield Common, 1937-39. L.N., 29, 27-29. SHOWLER, A. J., 1956, Macrolepidoptera of Abbey Wood. Ent. Rec., 68, 124-129, 165-168, 199- 200. . - , 1955, The Distribution of Sterrha rusticata Schiff. in the British Isles. Ent. Rec., 67 45-47. SOUTH, Richard, The Butterflies of the British Isles (1921 ed.). — - , The Moths of the British Isles (1939 ed.). STEPHENS, J. F., 1828-1844, Illustrations of British Entomology : Haustellata, Vols. i to iv. SWAIN, H. D., 1952, A List of Lepidoptera (Macros) found in the Putney District of London. Ent. Gazette, 3, 109-117. TURNER, H. J., 1935, Macrolepidoptera in S.W. London. Ent. Rec., 47, 116-118. TUTT, J. W., 1899-1909, Natural History of British Lepidoptera, Vols. i to x. WEST, W., 1906, The Lepidoptera of the South-eastern District of London. Ent. Rec., 18 141-143 • 170-173 ; 198-201 ; 229-236. WHEELER, A. S., 1954, A Preliminary List of the Macrolepidoptera of Bookham Common L.N., 34, 28-36. - , 1957, Lepidoptera in the City of London. Ent. Rec., 69, 262-264. WILLIAMS, H. B., 1931, Ten Years in North-east Surrey. Ent. Rec., 43, 42-49. (2) Natural History Journals consulted : The Amateur Entomologist The Entomologist (1842). The Entomologist's Annual, 1855-1874. The Entomologist's Gazette (1950). The Entomologist's Monthly Magazine (1864). The Entomologist' s Record and Journal of Variation (1890) The Entomologist's Weekly Intelligencer, 1856-1861. The Zoologist, 1843-1916. (3) Proceedings, Transactions and Records of Local Natural History Societies : The Essex Naturalist. The Journal of the Ruislip Natural History Society. The London Naturalist, comprising the Transactions of the London Natural History Society. The Proceedings of the Croydon Natural History Society. 215 178 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 The Proceedings of the South London Entomological and Natural History Society (1872). The Proceedings of the Wimbledon Natural History Society. The Transactions of the City of London Entomological and Natural History Society. The Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. (4) Victoria County Histories consulted : Victoria County History' of Buckinghamshire, 1905. Victoria County History of Essex, 1903. Victoria County History of Hertfordshire, 1902. Victoria County History of Kent, 1908. Victoria County History' of Surrey, 1902. Collection of Marble and Serpentine Specimens By R. E. Butler MARBLE and similar types of rocks are widely used in almost all parts of London for building and decorative purposes. Without suitable references it is sometimes difficult to identify accurately many of the types. Literature on marble is scarce and collections of reference samples are even more scarce. It was suggested some time ago that the Geology Section could perhaps sponsor a collection of samples of marble used in London, and consequently a collection was started in February, 1 957. It soon became clear that something much bigger was being formed, as some seven hundred specimens were obtained during the first six months of collecting. By February, 1958, the collection had grown to twelve hundred and fifty specimens from over forty countries. There are few other collections in this country, the best known being in the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge. This collection is still the best accessible to the public, but many types represented in it are out of produc¬ tion. John Watson’s catalogue of it, published in 1916, is now unfortun¬ ately out of print but even so it is one of the most informative of all handbooks on marble. The Sedgwick Museum very kindly lent the Society a copy of this handbook, and I would like to offer our appreciation of this kind help as without it there would have been a much greater difficulty in getting the Society’s collection together. The other well-known collection, which is to be seen in the University Museum at Oxford, contains over one thousand specimens of marble used in classical times. Exchanges of duplicates have been made by the Society with both Museums. The best method of collecting specimens was obviously in the form of commercial samples, which are usually prepared for architects and other persons directly concerned with the use of marble. Contacts made with firms in London produced a ready response to help, whilst the trade agents in London of large overseas producers also gave a great deal of advice and assistance. The search for specimens in some cases extended direct to overseas firms and many very willingly sent examples of their products. In some cases help and advice was sought from British Embassies abroad and this has been of very great value indeed. It would be quite impossible to obtain a sample of every type of marble that has been produced as the number of specimens needed would be prohibitive. Moreover, the source of many marbles used in antiquity is no longer known, though some have been rediscovered and the stones produced again in recent times. The changing pattern of production resulting from the exhaustion of old sources of supply and the opening up of new sources also adds considerably to the difficulty of forming a COLLECTION OF MARBLE AND SERPENTINE SPECIMENS 179 comprehensive collection ; so does the troubled state of some of the marble producing countries, as in the case of Algeria where production has been severely restricted. It has been impossible to obtain examples of the marble from Java because of the troubled conditions there. The term “ marble ” (from an ancient word meaning “ shining stone ”) originally meant any stone capable of taking a polish, and from a commer¬ cial point of view the term is used in a very broad sense. Geologically, it is restricted to limestones which have been recrystallized by metamorphic processes (by high temperature and pressure at depth). Geologists do, however, extend the term in practice to cover certain limestones which, though not metamorphosed, are hard enough to take a polish. Serpentines have also been included in the collection because they resemble hard limestones in their physical properties and are used for the same purposes as some marbles. The following scientific classification has been adopted : — (i) True marbles ; i.e. metamorphic limestones. These rarely contain recognizable organic remains which, if originally present, have been destroyed in the course of recrystallization. (ii) Other hard limestones ; these may be either of organic or of chemical origin. Those of organic origin comprise chiefly crinoidal and coral limestones such as are found in the Devonian and Carboniferous systems in this and other countries. Limestones of chemical origin consist of rocks formed by the precipitation of calcium carbonate from lime-rich waters. They include {a) Travertine, formed in rivers, springs and lakes, and ( b ) Stalagmitic limestones formed in caves. Travertine is a term recognized commercially and quite a number of countries produce this material commercially for decorative purposes. Stalagmitic limestones are hard and usually take a very fine polish ; they are sold commercially as “ onyx marble.” (iii) Ophicalcites and Serpentines. Ophicalcites or serpentinous marbles are really impure metamorphic limestones with more or less serpentine, and grade into pure marbles. Some are formed by the metamorphism of impure dolomites, of which the calcium carbonate has recrystallized as calcite and the magnesium carbonate has reacted chemically with silica to form olivine (forsterite), which by subsequent hydration has become serpentine. It is now thought, however, that most ophicalcites, like pure serpentines, are of igneous origin, the calcite being derived from other calcium minerals such as augite and the serpentine forming from the olivine present in the original rock. It must be stressed that no small sample of marble can give a true indication of colour and veining since a marble is likely to vary somewhat, but an approximate idea is given and can be of great help in identifying a certain particular marble. Some marbles such as Connemara from Ireland and the Swedish Green vary very much and for this reason several specimens are necessary in the collection as far as such types are concerned. It is desirable that this collection should be made readily available for reference, and if possible put on permanent exhibition, at least in part. Consideration is now being given to this and enquiries are proceeding to discover a suitable place for this purpose. l8o THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Cyperus fuscus in Middlesex By Douglas H. Kent THE discovery by Mr. T. W. J. D. Dupree of a colony of Cyperus fuscus L. on wet muddy ground by a pond in the Staines area of south-west Middlesex on August 10, 1957, restored to the flora of the London Area a species last recorded there in 1865. C. fuscus belongs to the order Cyperaceae, and is a miniature edition of the tall, handsome C. longus L., which is occasionally planted by lakes and streams in the Area. In Britain it is an extremely local species confined to damp areas, especially bare muddy ground left by the drying-up of ponds and ditches, and it is also very uncertain in appearance, fluctuating in quantity from year to year. It was first recorded as a British plant from Eel Brook Common, Little Chelsea, by A. Haworth in 1819. Here it was found growing in some abundance on the sides of a ditch in association with Juncus bufonius , Bidens cernua , Ranunculus sceleratus and Polygonum minus (Hooker, 1819). The plant survived there in varying quantity from year to year until 1865 when the habitat was destroyed by drainage operations (Trimen and Dyer, 1869). Babington (1839) records C. fuscus from Jersey on the authority of Professor La Gasca, and Dr. F. H. Perring informs me that there is a specimen, collected from St. Peter’s Marsh by W. W. Newbould in 1842, in Herb. Cantab. There do not appear to be any recent records of the plant from the Channel Islands. During 1846 it was discovered growing in great plenty on the margins of a pond near Godaiming, Surrey (Salmon, 1847), a locality at which it may still be found from time to time. In 1871 J. E. Gray published a note in the Journal of Botany stating that the plant had been deliberately sown at Little Chelsea from seed from Swiss specimens, and suggesting that it may also have been introduced near Godaiming. This was strongly repudiated by A. Irvine and H. Trimen who believed it to be truly native (Trimen, 1871), while A. W. Bennett (1871) was of the opinion that it may have been introduced at Little Chelsea, but was truly native near Godaiming. During 1893 it was discovered near Ringwood, S. Hampshire (Linton, W. R., 1893) and Bere Regis, Dorset (Linton, E. F., 1893), and its status as a British native established beyond doubt. E. F. Linton (1893) writing on the plant in the last two vice-counties stated “ The European distribu¬ tion is so general that the wonder is, not to find it in these islands, but to find it so rarely. A plant that is spread over nearly the whole Continent, from middle and south Russia to Portugal ; and from Sweden, Denmark and Belgium to the shores of the Mediterranean and the Levant, may well be expected to occur in more than two or three southern counties of England ; and further research, in warm dry seasons especially will be very likely to justify the expectation.” Linton’s prophecy was in part fulfilled for in 1900 the plant was discovered growing abundantly in shallow water at the bottom of ditches near Clevedon, N. Somerset (Coley, 1900), and six years later was found in considerable quantity on the mud of a partly dried-up pond on Dorney Common, Bucks (Druce, 1907), a locality in which I saw it last about 1942. Finally, it was discovered in very small quantity at Suleham, Berks., in 1911 (Druce, 1918). The British vice-comital distribution is thus v.cc. 6, 11, 17, 21, 22, 24 and [S., Jersey]. Cyperus fuscus in Middlesex i 8 i The plant has also been erroneously recorded from Yorkshire. When Mr. Dupree discovered the plant in the new Middlesex locality in early August he noted many small plants growing on an area of dry mud measuring 2-3 square yards, with a number of larger plants growing near the edge of the pond. The latter part of August was very wet and the water level of the pond rose considerably, inundating most of the plants ; thus when I visited the pond on September 3 only a solitary large plant was visible growing in about one inch of water ; a further visit was made a few days later and the water level had dropped slightly leaving the plant standing on wet mud. Shortly afterwards Messrs. R. A. Graham and R. M. Harley visited the area and reported that two more plants were visible. Species associated with C. fuscus were Polygonum persicciria — a., P. amphibium — f., Ranunculus sceleratus — r., R. aquatilis — r., Lemna minor— f., Ly copus europaeus — r., Solanum dulcamara — r., S. nigrum — f., Apium inundatum — r., Mentha aquatica — r., Chenopodium polyspermum — r., Poa annua — r., Stellaria media — r., Rorippa islandica — r., and Equisetum palustre — o. The pH of the mud at the roots of C. fuscus was 6'8 (Johnson’s Test Papers). REFERENCES BABINGTON, C. C., 1839, Primitiae Florae Sarnicae. BENNETT, A. W., 1871, Cyperus fuscus. /. Bot., 9, 212. COLEY, S. J., 1900, Cyperus fuscus in N. Somerset. J. Bot., 38, 446. DRUCE, G. C., 1907, Rep. Bot. Soc. and E. C., 2, 245. - , 1918, Additions to the Berkshire Flora. Rep. Bot. Soc. and E. C., 5,443-480. GRAY, J. E., 1871, Cyperus fuscus not a native. J. Bot., 9, 148. HOOKER, W. J., 1819, Flora Londinensis, vol. 4. LINTON, E. F., 1893, Cyperus fuscus in Dorset and Hants. J. Bot., 31, 369. LINTON, W. R., 1893 Cyperus fuscus in Hants. J. Bot., 31, 308. SALMON, J. D., 1847, Cyperus fuscus. Phyt., 2, 609. TRIMEN, H., 1871, Cyperus fuscus. J. Bot., 9, 148. TRIMEN, H., and DYER, W. T. T., 1869, Flora of Middlesex. Botanical Records for 1957 Compiled by J. Edward Lousley THE present report is the first to appear after completion of publication of A Hand List of the Plants of the London Area, which included records of no less than 1835 species accumulated by the Society to the end of 1956. In spite of the intensive work recorded in that volume, addi¬ tional information about the plants in our Area is still coming in at a very rapid rate, and in order to keep the annual reports to a reasonable length only real additions to the Hand List will be printed. These will include species, varieties and hybrids, and records for vice-counties not included in that work. Other records contributed by members will be entered in the card-index maintained by the Recorder. The long-established basis for recording the distribution of British plants has been the system of vice-counties introduced by H. C. Watson. This was used in the Hand List, but since publication commenced a new system based on the National Grid as shown on Ordnance Survey maps has been adopted by the B.S.B.I. Maps Scheme, and is now familiar to most botanists. The new system is likely to receive general acceptance for many purposes, and it has been adopted for several proposed new Floras of counties falling partly within our Area, but the vice-county THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 l82 system has certain advantages and is by no means obsolete. It is therefore important that our records should give both the Grid square and vice¬ county concerned. In the London Area the 10-kilometre squares represented are as follows : 51 (TQ) / 05, 06, 07, 08, 09, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 56, 57, 58, 59, 66, 67, 68, 69 52 (TL) / 00, 10, 11, 20, 21, 30, 31, 40, 41, 50. Of some of these squares, the parts within the Area (i.e. within twenty miles of St. Paul’s Cathedral) are small — a few where the portions are so very small that it would be difficult to identify them in the field are omitted. It will be seen that although two 100-kilometre squares (51 and 52) are involved, none of the numbers for 10-kilometre squares are duplicated. By adding these after each locality mentioned the grid-square concerned will be identified. Thus, “ Godstone (35) ” means that Godstone is in Grid-square 51/35 which covers the area shown on the 2\" to the mile Ordnance Survey Map of the same number (or TQ/35 of current Ordnance Survey use). In response to a request from the Council, English names have been added for some plants. To attempt to do this consistently would greatly increase the length of the report by printing many fabricated names unlikely to help anyone, but it is hoped that the compromise adopted will assist beginners without greatly detracting from the scientific value. The weather of 1957, after a good start, repeated many of the unfavour¬ able characteristics of the previous year. It was the mildest March on record at Kew and frosts were almost completely absent, with soil as well as air temperatures about 6-7 degrees above average. By mid-April spring flowers were well advanced, and on Good Friday (19th) bluebells were in full flower in Surrey. The first half of May was rather cold, with some heavy storms, and then at the end of the month a warm dry spell set in which lasted until the second week in July. During this time ponds sunk to a very low level and commons became parched. Most of the remainder of the season was cold and very wet, with occasional warmer days. The rainfall for August recorded at Kew was 3-85 inches — the average is 2-2. The autumn was little better for botanical work and the best that can be said for it is that there were no heavy early frosts. The plants of the London area during the season of 1957 were handicapped first by drought, and then by cold and lack of sun. In spite of the weather, members contributed about 1,500 records, of which all that are new have been entered in the card index. Those of exceptional interest included the discovery of a small sedge, Cy perus fuscus, which had not been seen in our Area since about 1865, and the finding by Mrs. L. M. P. Small of vast quantities of danewort, Sambucus ebulus, at Stratford. Amongst the valuable lists contributed special mention should be made of those from R. C. Wingfield for the Mitcham district, A. W. Jones for various commons, and R. A. Boniface from Langley Park. V.-c. 16, West Kent. Fringed water-lily, Nymphoides peltata (S. G. Gmel.) Kuntze, was found by Mrs. W. I. Brewer in a pool of the River Cray near Crayford (57). H. M. Pratt contributed his usual excellent list, which included the cut¬ leaved blackberry, Rubus laciniatus Willd. from Dartford Heath (57), BOTANICAL RECORDS FOR 1 95 7 183 Cotoneaster horizontal is Decne. from a chalkpit near Swanscombe (67), and strawberry clover, Trifolium fragiferum L. from Swanscombe Marshes (67). He found a few plants of star thistle, Centaurea calcitrapa L. on rough ground at Northfleet. On the sandy verge of A.2Q at Ruxley in June, Miss Poulter found Ornithopus compressus L. in quantity, and a second generation flowered in October when D. McClintock found it still plentiful. V.-c. 17, Surrey. R. C. Wingfield has contributed a list of about 500 records from Grid square 51/26. These include Barbarea intermedia Boreau (det D. P. Young) from Green Lane, Lower Morden, Sagina filicaulis Jord (det. D. P. Young) from The Grange, Wallington and Beddington Lane Dump, knotted pearlwort, Sagina nodosa (L.) Fenzl. from Banstead Downs (the only locality in the London Area from which we have records, and these are old), Mentha X piperita var. citrata (Ehrh.) Briq (det’ R. A. Graham) from by the Wandle at Hackbridge, and Carex polyphylla Kar. and Kir. (det. A. Melderis), from a roadside at Malden. On Mitcham Common he showed me Oenanthe lachenalii C. C. Gmel in two places, and pennyroyal, Mentha pulegium L. in a hollow where I knew it twenty years ago but had forgotten the exact spot. Pennyroyal is a decreasing species in the south of England and is to be found now in very few of its old localities. ^ Mr. Wingfield also showed me eight large patches of galingale, Cyperus longus L. in depressions in a rough wet field in Morden Hall Park, and Polygonum mite Schrank grew nearby. On Mitcham Common he showed me Lagarosiphon major (Ridley) Moss in a pond on Ciicket Green ; this rapidly increasing aquarist’s introduction has also been found by Mrs. B. Welch in Richmond Park (17). Mr. Wmgneid s records irom other squares include Lysimachia punctata L from a stream entering the Hogsmill at Surbiton (16), Veronica catenata Penned from Waddon Ponds (36), and marsn mallow, Althaea officinalis L., from a roadside near Croydon Power Station (36). This is the first time that marsh mallow has been recorded by the Society from the London Area and, although this maritime species must be regarded as introduced here, it is interesting that there is an old record in Salmon’s Flora of Surrey from “ between Croydon and Mitcham Common.” In allotments near Claygate (16), Mrs. J. E. Smith found weasel’s snout, Misopates orontium (L.) Raf. and Avena fatua L. (det. A. Melderis)! A. W. Jones reports Polystichum aculeatum (L.) Roth from Gatton Park (25). His record (L.N., 33, 36), and the record of C. P. Castell (L.N., 34, 19), for Myriophyllum alterniflorum DC. from Bookham Common (15) were accidentally omitted from the Hand List— a specimen confirmed by Dr. A. Melderis is in the herbarium of the Natural History Museum. R. A. Boniface found flea sedge, Carex pulicaris L. on Ashtead Common (15), apple-scented mint, Mentha rotundifolia (L.) Huds. abundant in AshKaci Park (15), and, like R. C. Wingfield (see above), pennyroyal Mentha pulegium L. on Mitcham Common (26). D. P. Young has added an alien bur-marigold, Bidens vulgata Greene to the British list from Croydon (36) ( Proc . B.S.B.I., 2, 240, 1957). Dr. F. Rose reports Rhinanthus calcar eus Wilmott from Boxhi’ll (15) Valerianella carinata Lois, from Juniper Hall (15), and he has found, or confirmed, alternate-leaved golden saxifrage, Chrysosplenium alternifolium L. m the following four localities : — north-east of Oxted Mill (35), an THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 184 alderswamp south of Godstone (35), Littleton Bridge, Reigate (24), and near Dungate’s Farm, Buckland (25). W. H. Spreadbury contributed a specimen of a curious cristate form of lady-fern, Athyrium filix-femina (L.) Roth from Banstead Wood (25), and R. Clarke reports tuberous comfrey, Symphytum tuberosum L. from Godstone (35) which R. C. Wingfield found also at Ravensbury, Mitcham (26). My own observations include alexanders, Smyrnium olusatrum L. abundant by the Thames near Sunbury Ait (16), Anthemis mixta L. near a refuse tip near Walton-on-Thames (16) white mignonette, Reseda alba L. in abundance on cinder-covered waste ground at Willow Lane, Mitcham (26) and Rumex triangulivalvis (Danser) Rech.f. on Wimbledon Common (27). In July my attention was attracted by a dock conspicuous by its very yellow fruits which occurred in abund¬ ance by the Wandle and streams from Morden Hall Park to Merton (26). This proved to be R. obtusifolius subsp. transiens (Simonk.) Rech.f., an alien from central Europe, and it may have spread down the river from a refuse tip near Beddington Corner where I found it earlier. From a copse near Kenley Station, H. Britten reported Allium paradoxum (Bieb.) Don and Geranium versicolor L. as thoroughly natural¬ ized. The following ferns recorded from Beddington Churchyard and attributed to D. P. Young in the Hand List pp. 327, 328, 330 and 331 should be credited to R. C. Wingfield :—Phyllitis scolopendrium, Asplenium trichomanes, Poly podium vulgar e, and Ceterach officinarum. V.-c. 18, South Essex. In June, Mrs. L. M. P. Small reported that she had found danewort, Sambucus ebulus L. in quantity on Stratford Marshes, where there were other interesting plants such as sweet flag, Acorus calamus L. This, like previous by-products of her most useful habit of exploring apparently uninviting parts of the metropolis, proved to be the introduction to a very interesting and neglected area. Amongst other plants noticed on two visits I made in the company of B. T. Ward, were Angelica archangelica L. abundant from Marshgate Lane to Hackney Marshes, Bermuda grass, Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., well established on a rubbish tip, Astragalus odoratus Lam. (which is established near Bath, Burton-on-Trent and Newark, but not previously recorded from London) in a patch 6 by 6 yards on the canal bank, and deadly nightshade, Atropa belladonna L. on an old tip near Marshgate Lane. Rumex patientia L. subsp. orientalis (Bernh.) Danser we found in a timber yard in Carpenter’s Lane, and subsp. patientia on an old refuse tip between the Pudding Mill and City Mill rivers. R. patientia was also found by Mrs. Small at Silvertown (48). Near Hackney Marshes (38) Ward and I found Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. and he showed me Indian balsam, Impatiens glandulifera Royle. We also recorded Potamogeton perfoliatus L. from Walthamstow Reser¬ voirs (38). Mrs. Small found Hieracium brunneo-croceum Pugsley on Bell Common (49) and on a railway bank near Theydon Bois Station (49). In a dry ditch at Coxtie Green, Brentwood (59), P. J. Wanstall noticed elecampane, Inula helenium L. The small patch of Essex chalk within the London Area has produced many plants of interest and to these Mrs. A.G.Side has added tuberous pea, Lathy rus tuber osus L., which she found in a chalk pit at Grays in 1952 and again in 1957, and kidney vetch, Anthyllis vulneraria L., in the same pit. BOTANICAL RECORDS FOR 1 957 185 V.-c. 19, North Essex. The only additional record contributed during the year is of hoary cinquefoil, Potentilla argentea L. found by Mrs. L. M. P. Small in a gravel pit at Fisher’s Green (40) and confirmed by E. B. Bangerter. V.-c. 20, Herts. Amongst the records sent in, two aliens whicn are becoming increasingly established in Britain are of special interest. Allium paradoxum (Bieb.) Don was found established on the roadside from Rickmansworth to Moor Park (09) by F. M. Day, and his specimens confirmed by J. G. Dony. Bunias orientalis L. was found in quantity in a disused sandpit near Cole Green (21) by T. G. and M. Collett and D. H. Kent. Other Hertford¬ shire records include Koeleria gracilis Pers. from Cheshunt Marsh (30) by Mrs. L. M. P. Small and midland hawthorn, Crataegus oxyacanthoid.es Thuill. from Barnet Gate (29) by J. G. Dony and D. H. Kent. V.-c. 21, Middlesex. The important discovery of Cyperus fuscus L. (07) by T. W. J. D. Dupree is the subject of a separate paper (see p. 180). Another little sedge which has not been recorded from Middlesex for many years _ in this case since 1884 — is Eleocharis multicaulis (Sm.) Sm., and this was found by J. E. Lousley in the small detached part of the county on the south side of the river at Walton Bridge (06). The habitat was rather an unusual one for this bog plant and it is assumed that acid conditions had developed very locally in this Thames-side marsh. Prof. E. H. Warmington reports a large patch of lily-of-the-valley, Convallaria majalis L., on Stanmore Common (19), and R. A. Graham a mint, X Mentha gentilis var. gentilis from a ditch bordering the recreation ground at Northwood (09). Hieracium lepidulum (Stenstrbm) Omang var haematophyllum Dahlst. has been determined by P. Sell and C. West from material I gathered in the grounds of Buckingham Palace (28) in 1956. Great burnet-saxifrage, Pimpinella major (L.) Huds., has been found in three new places— in Hendon Wood Lane, near Barnet Gate (29) by D. H. Kent, and near Clare Hall, and at the side of Mimm’s Wash, South Mimms (20), by D. H. Kent and J. G. Dony. Near Hadley Common (29) they found Hieracium strumosum (Ley) Ley, which D. H. Kent and C. West also collected from railway banks at Uxbridge (08) — specimens from both places determined by Sell and West. R. S. R. Fitter reported several large clumps of sea club-rush, Scirpus maritimus L., from the east end of the Brent Reservoir (28). H. C. Holme found Rhynchosinapis cheiranthos (Vill.) Dandy and Sagina pallida (Dumort.) Pire in Regent’s Park (28) _ specimens of both plants were confirmed by D. H. Kent. It must also be put on record that J. W. Donovan reports that sweet cicely, Myrrhis odorata (L.) Scop, has been deliberately sown on the banks of the canal at Harefield (09). V.-c. 24, Bucks. In spite of special efforts which have been made from time to time the small part of this county falling within our Area has remained under¬ recorded, but in 1957 there was a most welcome increase in records From Langley Park (08) R. A. Boniface reports the following dog violet, Viola canina L., heath milkwort, Poly gala serpyllifolia Hose, bog St. John’s wort, Hypericum elodes L., petty whin, Genista anglica L., bird’s foot, Ornithopus perpusillus L., Gaultheria shallon Pursh., lesser reedmace. 1 86 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Typha angustifolia L., Carex demissa Hornem., C. caryophyllea Latour., C. pilulifera L., C. ovalis Good., and Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) Trin., and water horsetail, Equisetum fluviatile L. He also found Carex binervis Sm. at the north end of Black Park (08). On an L.N.H.S. excursion, Rorippa sylvestris (L.) Besser, wart cress, Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm., an evening primrose, Oenothera erythrosepala Borbas, and hart’s tongue fern, Phyllitis scolopendrium (L.) Newm. were found near Colnbrook (07). From Couser s Wood, Denham (08), I. G. Johnson reports marsh valerian, Valeriana dioica L. We are grateful to the following for their contributions during the year M. E. Ashburner, E. B. Bangerter, R. A. Boniface, Mrs. W. I. Brewer, Mrs. E. H. Briggs, H. Britten, C. P. Castell, R. Clarke, M. Collett, T. G. Collett, F. M. Day, J. W. Donovan, Dr. J. G. Dony, T. W. J. D. Dupree, R. S. R. Fitter, R. A. Graham, V. F. Hancock, D. J. Hinson, H. C. Holme, C. E. Hubbard, I. G. Johnson, A. W. Jones, D. H. Kent, M. Kent, D. E. Kimmins, Miss B. A. Kneller, G. F. Lawrence, J. E. Lousley, D. McClintock, Dr. A. Melderis, H. M. Pratt, Dr. F. Rose, P. Sell, Mrs. A. G. Side, Mrs. L. M. P. Small, Mrs. J. E. Smith, W. H. Spreadbury, P. J. Wanstall, B. T. Ward, Prof. E. H. Warmington, Mrs. B. Welch, Dr. C. West, R. C. Wingfield, F. E. Wrighton, Dr. D. P. Young. Devilsden Wood Survey : Birds Some comparisons with other woodlands By E. M. Hillman T^HE survey of birds in Devilsden Wood was begun in January 1957. A An area of mixed woodland of approximately 40 acres was chosen, maps were prepared, and by the spring and early summer it was possible to plot the positions of singing males, and from these to draw up territory maps in the manner described for the Bookham Common Survey (Beven 1951). Territory numbers have been obtained for two other areas and it is interesting to compare the results. These areas are Eastern Wood, Bookham Common (the Ecology section’s survey area) and a 13-acre area of Chislehurst Common, Kent, where counts have been made by the writer on the journey to work in the mornings. To make comparison easy, the figures have been expressed as a density per 10 acres. The following facts must be borne in mind. The three areas have certain characteristics in common, namely, canopy, shrub and herb layers, with a considerable proportion of oak and hawthorn. Checklists of birds present in each area show very few differences. The main differences in the three areas will now be stated. Eastern Wood, Bookham, is a damp oakwood surrounded on all sides by further woodland of the same type. It is fairly dense, and is the least frequented by man of the three. Chislehurst Common is a drier oakwood, and the 13-acre area contains an open patch of gorse. It is flanked by large quiet gardens and busy roads, and the wooded parts are much intersected by paths, which bear witness to the fact that it is used by more people than the other areas. DEVILSDEN WOOD SURVEY 18? Dgns&y of 8ictt Territories per I acres. Eastern, fkblekursi XWdsden Wood, Dookham Common. C40ae) 195^-5. Common. Cl3 ac.) Wood, Cbui&don (40 ac) (jfvafc Tit. Willow Warbler ^3 2.J 1 *'4 fl'£ M 1*6 <9 30, 30 i Chaj^nck 14\ 3-81 T3\ 2Sa The columns for Eastern Wood and Chislehurst Common show the lowest and highest numbers of bird territories per 10 acres which have occurred during the years shown at the head of the diagram, 1 88 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Devilsden Wood contains no open areas but one small part is devoid of shrub layer. This wood has a greater variety of trees : yew, beech, cherry, ash and elm being quite common, and the ground flora is different. The wood is on a fairly steep slope and is surrounded by areas of hawthorn scrub, open downland and farmland. The conditions under which counts were made show some differences. The time of day does not seem to affect results greatly, when morning and afternoon counts are compared, but it is possible that some blackbirds are missed when counts of singing birds are made at the mid-day times below. Bookham : once or twice monthly. 4-6 observers to 40 acres. 11 a.m. — 1 p.m. Chislehurst : at least once a week. 1 observer to 13 acres. 8.00 — 8.30 a.m., and some afternoons. Devilsden : once a month. 2 observers to 40 acres. 11 a.m.— 1 p.m., and some afternoons. It will be seen that up to the present Devilsden Wood has not been covered as thoroughly as the other two areas. The results : 1 . The years chosen for comparison are those for which results are available for all eight species shown in the figure. In each year the number of territories is the minimum number, and any positions of singing males not adequately confirmed are discarded from the totals. The lower density of observers at Devilsden has meant that some of this confirmation has been lacking, and in six of the eight species the numbers for Devilsden, 1957, are nearer the lowest than the average figures for the other areas. This may reflect lack of observers rather than of birds. As can be seen, however, the relative populations of these component species are much alike in the three areas. The higher proportion of Blackbirds at Chislehurst may be only apparent and due to the timing of the counts, or it may be real, as in the case of the Willow Warbler, and due possibly to the proximity of gardens and open areas. 2. The diagram shows the highest and lowest figures which have occurred in the years chosen. Thus for Bookham and Chislehurst the comparative size of the fluctuations in numbers can be seen, and it will be noticed that (except for the Chiffchaff whose numbers are too small to consider here) the amount of variation is never as large as the lowest number of territories ; in other words, over the 4-year or 5-year period respectively the increases have never reached 100 per cent. Nor are any decreases as much as 50 per cent. These remarks apply, of course, only to the years in question. The highest and lowest figures for the Blue Tit, and for the Chaffinch at Chislehurst, occur in two consecutive years and it may be that in the period 1954-1957 greater fluctuations would be observed for these species, or indeed, for any. Only by continuing counts for many years could it be determined whether the magnitude of the variation in relation to the total numbers of each species is contained within the limits suggested here (assuming that there are no great changes in the habitat), but only a few more years, especially one including a hard winter, may suffice to demonstrate that it is not so confined. 3. The fact that Chislehurst is the area most subject to disturbance by man does not seem to have adversely affected the distribution of the commoner species of birds, and to those given in the figure may be added Whitethroats, Hedge Sparrows, and Song Thrushes in numbers roughly equal to those of the Chaffinch. This disturbance is no doubt offset by DEVILSDEN WOOD SURVEY I 89 the access to open areas and a more varied habitat, and additional sources of food in rubbish bins and gardens. 4. The number of Chiffchaffs at Bookham is always less than half the number of Willow Warblers in the same year, and at Chislehurst the ratio is much less than this. At Devilsden this year their numbers were equal. Future inquiry must first seek to discover whether this higher ChiffchafT- Willow warbler ratio is a regular feature of this wood. Future work at Devilsden Wood . Work has begun on the feeding of Tit flocks and allied species. It is felt that the ecology of the adjacent Farthing Down would repay study, as interesting observations were made this autumn, such as the attraction of the mile-long line of yews for many Blackbirds, Song Thrushes and Mistle Thrushes in late September, and the use made of the heads of Knapweed ( Centaurea nigra), a plant which covers large areas of the down, for feeding by flocks of Goldfinches, Greenfinches, Yellowhammers, and at least two flocks of about twenty Blue Tits. I should like to thank all those who have helped with the Bird Survey, namely : Miss M. E. Kennedy, Miss E. Phillips, Miss D. A. Rook and H. Greenfield, and also Dr. G. Beven whose work on the Bookham Common Survey which I have been allowed to quote has inspired further study on the same subject. REFERENCES BEVEN, G., 1951, London Naturalist, 30, 57-22. - , 1956. London Naturalist, 35, 22-24. The Flora of the City of London Bombed Sites By A. W. Jones THE AREAS SURVEYED THE areas surveyed are as shown in the sketch map (which omits all disused roads within the survey areas) : — 1 . Finsbury Area. Five acres of rather shallow basements including Finsbury Square garden (used for air-raid shelters during the war). It has been divided into seven sites for recording purposes. 2. Bunhill Area. A single site of three acres, much at ground level. 3. Cripplegate Area. The largest area and the one selected by the Society for its main survey. It is roughly p mile from east to west and i mile from north to south ; 39 acres of sites. It is continuous, with only a few isolated buildings standing and a few used roads running through it. A varied area which is divided into 50 sites. 4. Gresham Area. Eight acres. A fairly varied area divided into ten sites. 5. Queen Victoria Area. Eleven acres of mostly rather deep basements. Divided into twelve sites. 6. Tower Area. Three acres of very scattered basements some being deep. Divided into five sites. The Cripplegate and Gresham areas were exhaustively surveyed in 1952, the Finsbury, Bunhill, Queen Victoria and Tower areas in 1953. In 1955 the Cripplegate area was re-surveyed. 190 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 As will be seen, all areas have been sub-divided into “ sites ” which are very roughly of equal size and have clear boundaries, such as roads. These sites are purely for recording purposes and have no ecological significance. HABITATS After the air-raids of 1940 and 1941 all unsound buildings were demolished and the basements (which most City buildings had) were cleared of rubble, leaving only basement floors and walls standing up to ground level. It is very difficult to describe different habitats on the sites as they consist primarily of the same materials. It is possible, however, to distinguish the following “ formations ” although it may be doubted whether they are all different habitats and the most abundant plants (see Table 23) are often frequent on many of them indiscriminately : — 1. Paths and Roads, which may be used (and support no flora) or unused, in which case they may become very overgrown, chiefly at the edges with Dactylis glomerata, Chamaenerion angustifolium and Cirsium arvense. 2. Basement Floors. If a soil accumulates, grasses become abun¬ dant but Epilobium cf obscurum can maintain itself on the thinnest of soils. 3. Cracks in Basement Floors. Chamaenerion angustifolium, Artemisia vulgaris and other deep-rooted perennials colonize these. 4. Walls. Here Senecio squalidus predominates with Artemisia vulgaris and Diplotaxis tenuifolia frequent. At the bases Sisymbrium orient ale and A triplex has tat a are usually found. 5. Screes of Fine Materials are often bare but Cirsium arvense or grasses may colonize if the slope is not too steep. 6. Screes of Bricks usually occupied only by Pteridium aquilinum. This plant found a suitable habitat for germination amongst damp bricks in early years. The apparent anomaly with its heathland or woodland habitat, where it seems only to spread vegetatively, is thus explained. Sporelings used not to be uncommon amongst screes of bricks and sometimes on walls, but, as the years have passed, soil has accumulated amongst the bricks and they have become overrun by grasses. 7. Piles of Fine Materials previously covered with Erigeron canadensis and Tussilago farfara, but the former has now been almost completely ousted by grasses. 8. Piles of Bricks, often very bare as earth gets washed out and seeds far down are not able to develop without light. The drainage may also prevent plants developing. 9. Basements filled with bricks and fine materials have now largely become overgrown with grasses. 10. Wall Ledges. Where a pavement is still used and adjoins base¬ ments with cellars under the pavements, as is commonly the case, rubble was piled in and against the cellars to stop the pavement subsiding. There was thus a ledge of rubble at pavement level and scree down to the basement floor. A 3' 6" wall keeps the public away from the basement. The ledges by the walls are an important habitat in connection with the colonization from horse dung as mentioned later, THE FLORA OF THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 1 9 1 1 1 . Ramps which are in many of the larger basements and were used by lorries taking away the rubble. Sagina procumbens was an abun¬ dant plant on these but they are becoming overgrown with grasses. 12. Excavations by Archaeologists after the war. These are of little importance and were only noteworthy for a short period after being dug when the walls of many were covered with Pteridium aquilinum sporelings. 13. Tips, usually very small ones, on which a few species of the genera Chenopodium and Polygonum appear. 14. Gardens. (a) Cultivated with a few weeds. (b) Derelict, e.g. St. Giles’s Churchyard in which very rarely does anything of pre-war cultivation remain, except trees and shrubs. Saponaria officinalis probably originated from St. Giles’s. 15. Wastes arising from making of car parks, in three places yielded a few wasteland species. It would seem, however, that many of the plants normally appearing on dumped soil come from surrounding areas and little is brought in the soil. 16. Basements containing water are very few and of no importance. One near the Coach House in the Cripplegate area has supported sticklebacks (no doubt introduced) but no aquatic vegetation. There is a brick-built reservoir on both Bunhill and Queen Victoria areas and another near Cannon Street Station. Each of these reservoirs had one genuine aquatic. COLONIZATION It must always be remembered when considering the Bombed Sites that unlike many waste places there was removal of most of the surface material and no dumping of materials. In addition the nearest sources of colonization are some distance away, small in size and have no great variety of flora. There are still some gardens in the City including large areas like those around the Tower or the lawns of the Royal Artillery grounds by Bunhill Row but these appear to be quite inadequate for the provision of the varied flora of 342 species recorded in this paper. An attempt is being made here to indicate the sources and methods of colonization and the species involved. It must be realized, however, that the groupings are necessarily speculative and that one species may really fall under several headings. In each of Tables 1-20 is given the aggregate frequency over all the sites surveyed, followed by the numbers of sites in each area in which the species has been recorded. The number of sites in each area is shown in brackets at the head of each table. The nomenclature and the order in which the species appear in all tables is taken from Clapham, Tutin and Warburg (1952) unless otherwise indicated. The English names are taken from Rayner (1927) except for garden plants. The following abbreviations are used in the tables : — r = rare 1 = local(ly) o = occasional f = frequent a = abundant v = very F = Finsbury Area B = Bunhill Area C = Cripplegate Area G = Gresham Area Q = Queen Victoria Area T = Tower Area 192 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Wind Species dispersed by wind fall into three classes : — (a) Those with minute seeds or spores which are very light and may be carried by the slightest breeze. Three ferns and one horsetail are the only species involved here. (b) Those with winged seeds— Ailanthus altissima, Acer pseudo- platanus, Betula verrucosa and Fraxinus excelsior come under this head. ( c ) Those with seeds having a feathery attachment, i.e. the bulk of the wind-dispersed species. Groups ( a ) and ( b ) are not well represented in the British flora and it is not surprising that so few species have arrived on the sites. In addition group (b) does not reach maturity for many years whereas most of group (c) can seed in the first or second year and release vast numbers of seeds within a short time. Senecio squalidus, Chamaenerion angustifolium and Erigeron canadensis were thus able to monopolize the sites in the early years. Table 1 lists the 53 species with wind-dispersed seeds or spores. Table 1 Wind-dispersed Plants F B C G Q T Total Equisetum arvense (Field Horsetail) (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) vr 2 2 Pteridium aquilinum (Bracken) a 7 1 49 10 12 4 83 Phyllitis scolopendrium (Hartstongue Fern) Dryopteris filix-mas agg (Male Fern) Clematis vitalba (Wild Clematis)* ... vr 1 1 o 1 45 8 11 1 66 vr Tamarix sp. (Garden Tamarisk) . vr 1 • 1 Ailanthus altissima (Tree of Heaven) vr 1 2 1 4 Acer pseudo-platanus (Sycamore) ... r 1 1 12 5 6 2 27 Chamaenerion angustifolium (Rosebay) Epilobium hirsutum (Great Hairy Willow- a 7 1 50 9 12 5 84 herb) . o 6 1 43 10 11 3 74 E. parviflorum (Small-flowered Willowherb) r 1 11 2 1 15 E. montanum (Broad-leaved Willowherb)... 1 19 1 20 E. cf. obscurum (Dull-leaved Willowherb)... a 5 1 47 10 12 2 77 Betula verrucosa (Common Birch) f 3 31 7 10 3 54 Populus alba (White Poplar) r 6 1 1 8 P. tremula (Aspen) . vr 2 1 3 P. cf. nigra (Black Poplar) . r 1 5 1 2 9 Salix alba (White Willow) ... r 5 1 1 7 5. fragilis (Crack Willow) . r 2 1 13 2 2 1 21 S. viminalis (Osier) ... r 4 3 1 8 S. caprea (Sallow) . vf 3 1 46 8 12 3 73 S. atrocinerea (Grey Sallow) . f 1 1 30 8 6 2 48 S. caprea x viminalis vr 1 1 Fraxinus excelsior (Ash) vr 1 1 1 3 Senecio jacobaea (Common Ragwort) vr 1 1 S. squalidus (Oxford Ragwort) a 7 1 50 10 12 5 85 S. viscosus (Sticky Groundsel) vr 1 3 2 2 8 S. vulgaris (Common Groundsel) . r 1 10 1 12 Tussilago farfara (Coltsfoot) a 7 1 49 10 11 5 83 Inula conyza (Ploughman’s Spikenard) vr 1 1 Solidago canadensis (Garden Golden Rod) o 4 1 25 7 6 3 46 Aster spp. (Michaelmas Daisy) o 5 1 38 8 6 3 61 Erigeron acris (Blue Fleabane) . vr 1 1 THE FLORA OF THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 193 F B C G Q T Total (7) 0) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) n. canadensis (Canadian Fleabane) a 7 50 10 12 5 84 Cirsium vulgar e (Spear Thistle) f 7 1 50 10 12 5 85 C. arvense (Creeping Thistle) vf 7 1 50 10 12 5 85 hypochaeris radicata (Long-rooted Catsear) Leontoclon autumnalis (Autumnal Hawkbit) f 6 1 47 8 12 1 75 vr 1 1 4 6 Pier is echioides (Prickly Oxtongue) ... vr 1 2 1 4 Tragopogon pratensis (Goatsbeard) 0 3 1 33 3 3 1 44 Lactuca serriola (Prickly Lettuce) ... f 3 1 45 6 1 3 59 L. virosa (Wild Lettuce) vl 5 5 Sonchus arvensis (Corn Sowthistle) 1 2 1 13 3 5 1 25 S. oleraceus (Common Sowthistle)... f 3 1 49 10 12 5 80 S. asper (Rough Sowthistle) . Hieracium — Section Sabauda (Broad-leaved vr 1 1 Hawkweed) Hieracium — Section Euvulgata (Wood vr 4 4 Hawkweed) r 9 2 11 H. cf. maculatum (Spotted Hawkweed) ... vr 2 1 3 H. pilosella (Mouse-ear Hawkweed) vr 2 2 Crepis taraxacifolia (Beaked Hawksbeard) o 4 1 36 3 3 2 49 C. capillaris (Smooth Hawksbeard) vr 4 4 Taraxacum sp. (Dandelion) . f 6 1 50 10 11 5 83 Phragmites communis (Reed) vr 1 1 2 * Near Cannon St. Station Notes on Species : Single plants only were observed of Phyllitis scolopen- drium , Clematis vitalba, Tamar ix sp., Salix caprea x viminalis, Senecio jacobaea, Inula conyza and Erigeron acris. Dryopteris filix-mas agg was present almost everywhere that it could receive rain but not sunshine, e.g. near the bases of north-facing walls and in very deep basements. Horses There were until recently a fair number of horses in the City. When the roads were swept it was the practice of roadsweepers to throw the dung on to the nearest site. Along many streets are the wall ledges des¬ cribed earlier and here more than anywhere else seeds of hayfield plants such as grasses, Trifolium spp. and Plantago lanceolata found nourishment. In the late 1940’s when the sites were barer than they are now, many of these plants were to be found only in abundance along these ledges. Some may have come direct from the horses’ nosebags but opportunity for the seeds to get on to the sites is not so great : it has however been observed in one spot where horses were tethered. The food of the horse so far as it concerns us here is hay, usually cut up for use in nosebags and often mixed with oats, barley and wheat. The hay may come from one of two kinds of hayfield : — (a) permanent ley or meadow, where grasses and other meadowland plants are allowed to grow tall and are then cut (either once or twice a year), (b) one-year ley often with mixed crops included and in which many weeds of cultivation would naturally appear. Table 2 gives 42 plants that are often found in meadows and other hayfields excluding 30 weeds of cultivation which are given in Table 3. 194 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Table 2 Hayfield Plants Ranunculus acris (Meadow Buttercup) R. repens (Creeping Buttercup) . Medicago sativa (Lucerne) . M. lupulina (Black Medick) Trifolium pratense (Red Clover) T. hybridum (Alsike Clover) . T. repens (White Clover) T. dubium (Lesser Yellow Trefoil) . . Lotus corniculatus (Common Birdsfoot Tre¬ foil) ... • ; • . . Onobrychis sativa (Sainfoin) Vida cracca (Tufted Vetch) V. angustifolia (Narrow-leaved Vetch) Lathyrus pratensis (Meadow Pea) ... Fagopyrum esculentum (Buckwheat) Rumex acetosa (Dock Sorrel) Plant ago lanceolata (Ribwort Plantain) ... Galium verum (Lady’s Bedstraw) ... Beilis perennis (Daisy) Achillea millefolium (Milfoil) . Chrysanthemum leucanthemum (Ox - eye Daisy) . . . Cichorium intybus (Chicory) Festuca pratensis (Meadow Fescue) F. arundinacea (Tall Fescue) F. rubra (R.ed Fescue) F. ovina (Sheep’s Fescue) ... Lolium perenne (Perennial Rye Grass) L. multiflorum (Italian Rye Grass) Poa pratensis (Smooth Meadow Grass) ... P. trivialis (Rough Meadow Grass) Dactylis glomerata (Cocksfoot) Cynosurus cristatus (Crested Dogstail Grass) Bromus mollis agg (Soft Brome) Triticum sp. (Wheat) Hordeum sp. (Barley) Triset um flavescens (Yellow Oat) . Avena sp. (Oat) Holcus lanatus (Tufted Soft Grass) Agrostis tenuis (Fine Bent Grass) ... A. alba agg (White Bent Grass) Phleum pratense agg (Catstail Grass) Alopecuruspratensis (Meadow Foxtail Grass) Anthoxanthum odoratum (Sweet Vernal Grass) F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) vr 1 2 1 4 vr 1 4 3 1 9 vr 1 4 1 1 7 o 3 1 28 5 3 1 41 f 6 1 43 6 9 5 70 vr 3 1 4 f 5 1 38 9 7 5 65 vr 1 1 vr 1 1 1 1 4 vr 1 1 vr 3 3 vr 2 2 vr 3 3 vr 1 1 vr 5 2 1 8 o 5 1 24 6 6 4 46 vr 1 1 vr 1 1 2 o 5 1 23 6 10 3 48 vr 1 1 5 7 vr 3 3 6 vr 1 1 vr 5 1 1 1 8 r 1 14 1 3 19 vr 1 2 3 a 7 1 50 10 12 4 84 r 1 12 3 5 4 25 a 6 1 49 8 8 4 76 a 7 1 48 10 8 74 a 7 1 49 10 12 5 84 vr 1 1 1 3 o 2 1 24 1 28 vr 4 2 1 7 vr 2 5 1 8 vr 1 1 r 3 1 15 4 4 1 28 a 3 1 44 9 11 2 70 vr 1 1 a 3 1 49 10 7 5 75 r 4 1 7 2 7 1 22 vr 1 1 4 6 vr ’ 2 2 Notes on Species : Both Phleum pratense and P. nodosum occurred on the sites, but it was not possible to separate the bulk of specimens due to limited material. Species appearing to be Agrostis stolonifera and A. gig ant ea have been included under A. alba agg, both species probably being frequent. THE FLORA OF THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 195 Table 3 Weeds of Cultivation Papaver rhoeas (Corn Poppy) Brassica nigra (Black Mustard) Sinapis arvensis (Charlock) Raphanus raphanistrum (Wild Radish) Capsellci bursa-past oris (Shepherd’s Purse) Erysimum cheiranthoides (Treacle Mustard) Stellaria media (Common Chickweed) Chenopodium polyspermum (Many-seeded Goosefoot) . C. album agg (White Goosefoot) . C. rubrum (Red Goosefoot) . A trip lex panda (Spreading Orache) A. hastata (Halberd-leaved Orache) Scandix pecten-veneris (Shepherd's Needle) Aethusa cynapium (Fool’s Parsley)... Mercurialis annua (Annual Mercury) Euphorbia helioscopia (Sun Spurge) E. peplus (Petty Spurge) . Polygonum persicaria (Common Persicaria) P. lap athi folium (Pale Persicaria) . P. convolvulus (Climbing Buckwheat) Urtica urens (Small Nettle) Anagallis arvensis (Scarlet Pimpernel) Solanum nigrum (Black Nightshade) Veronica persica (Buxbaum’s Field Speed¬ well) V. agrestis (Green Field Speedwell) Galinsoga parviflora (Peruvian Galinsoga)... G. ciliata Matricaria maritima (Scentless Mayweed) ... M. chamomilla (Wild Camomile) ... Alopecurus myosuroides (Slender Foxtail Grass) . F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) vr 1 2 3 vr 1 1 1 3 r 3 7 2 1 2 15 r 1 3 1 1 6 f 5 1 34 3 7 3 53 1 1 13 1 1 16 a 7 1 50 10 10 5 83 vr 1 1 0 5 1 7 8 5 3 29 r 2 11 4 2 2 21 vr 1 4 2 7 f 5 1 46 9 3 4 68 vr 1 1 2 vr 1 3 2 6 vr 1 1 7 1 10 vr 1 1 2 vr 4 3 1 8 0 5 19 9 6 3 42 vr 1 1 0 5 1 17 4 7 3 37 vr 2 2 4 vr 1 1 vr 8 5 2 15 vr 1 1 2 vr 1 1 vr 1 3 2 2 8 vr 1 1 2 r 2 1 13 3 2 1 22 r 2 1 7 1 1 12 vr 2 1 1 4 Notes on Species : Erysimum cheiranthoides was locally frequent on sites to immediate east and south of Whitbread’s Brewery but rare else¬ where. Veronica agrestis occurred only as a weed in a florist’s garden in Moorfields. Birds The five species given in Table 4 have berried seeds and were possibly introduced in the droppings of birds which had eaten berries. Ilex aquifolium could easily have come from a piece of holly used in Christmas festivities in a City office. Table 4 Plants with Berries Ilex aquifolium (Holly) ... ... ... vr Crataegus sp. (Hawthorn) . vr Sorbus intermedia agg (Intermediate White- beam) . vr S. aucuparia (Mountain Ash) . vr Sambucus nigra (Elder) ... ... ... o F (7) 1 1 6 B C G Q T Total (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) 1 1 3 2 6 1 1 7 3 2 13 1 38 8 10 4 67 196 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Three strictly aquatic species given in Table 5 have occurred in war-time brick reservoirs and fragments of the plants of the first two or seeds of the third may have come on the feet of Mallards which were occasionally seen in the immediate post-war years in them. Typha latifolia may have been wind-borne. Table 5 Strictly Aquatic Plants F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) Elodea canadensis (Canadian Waterweed)... vr 1 1 Lemna minor (Lesser Duckweed)* ... vr Typha latifolia (Broad-leaved Reedmace) ... vr 11 * Near Cannon St. Station Human Food It has become the custom for many City workers to eat their sand¬ wiches and fruit on the sites at mid-day and Table 6 shows 12 species which were probably introduced in this way. Table 6 Plants with Edible Fruits Citrus aurantiacum (Orange) Rubus idaeus (Raspberry) . R. fruticosus agg (Bramble) . Fragaria x ananassa (Garden Strawberry) Prunus domestica (Plum) P. avium (Cherry) . P. persica (Peach) . Pyrus communis (Pear) Malus sylvestris (Apple) . Ribes rubrum agg (Red Currant) ... Corylus avellana { Hazel) Lycopersicon esculentum (Tomato)... F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) .. vr 1 1 .. vr 3 3 .. 0 3 1 16 3 2 25 .. vr 3 3 .. r* 10 10 .. 0* 4 1 31 6 9 4 55 .. vr* 1 1 .. vr* 8 8 .. o* 33 33 .. vr 1 1 .. vr 1 1 .. r 10 3 2 3 18 * In the surveys of 1952 and 1953 most of these fruit trees were not considered easy to distinguish in the field, but in 1955 notes were made on them in the re-survey of the Cripplegate Area. The Cripplegate distribution is probably a fair indication of their distribution in the other areas. Notes on Species : Single plants only were observed of Citrus aurantiacum, Ribes rubrum agg and Corylus avellana. In addition 1 3 species grown by man for food appear from time to time and are given in Table 7. It is difficult to explain how these reached the sites. Humulus lupulus appropriately appeared very near Whitbread’s Brewery. Table 7 Crops Brassica oleracea agg (Cabbage) ... ... r Armoracia rusticana (Horse-radish) ... vr Beta vulgaris (Beet) . vr Pisum sativum (Pea) . . . . vr F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) 2 1 8 2 3 1 17 1 1 112 4 1 2 115 1 THE FLORA OF THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 1 97 Petroselinum crispum (Parsley) Carum carvi (Common Caraway) Pastinaca sativa (Garden Parsnip) Daucus carota (Carrot) Humulus lupulus (Hop) Solanum tuberosum (Potato) Mentha spp. (Mints) Lactuca sativa (Lettuce) Allium cepa (Onion) F B c G Q T Total (V) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) .. vr 2 1 3 .. vr 2 2 .. 1 3 7 2 1 13 .. vr 1 4 1 6 .. vr 1 1 .. o 3 1 15 6 4 4 33 .. vr 1 1 3 1 6 .. vr 1 1 .. vr 2 1 3 Notes on Species : The garden form of Pastinaca sativa is thoroughly naturalized on sites to the west of St. Giles’s Church and is locally abundant on one site. Single plants, only, were observed of Armor acia rusticana, Humulus lupulus and Lactuca sativa. Burs Table 8 lists six species distributed by contact with animals and man. Table 8 Plants with “ Burs ” Circaea lutetiana (Common Enchanters nightshade) . Cynoglossum officinale (Common tongue) . Galium aparine (Cleavers) . . . Arctium sp. (Burdock) Anisantha sterilis (Barren Brome) Hordeum murinum (Wall Barley) Notes on Species : A number of plants of Cynoglossum officinale occurred on a site to the south of St. Giles’s Church and appear to be thriving. F B C G Q T Total (7) 0) (50) (10) (12) (5) OO r . vr c 1 3 4 o . vr 1 1 . r 5 7 1 1 14 . r 2 1 6 1 1 11 . a 3 1 39 5 6 3 57 . a 6 1 42 9 8 4 70 Species Already Present The 15 species given in Table 9 are planted trees and shrubs present in gardens or elsewhere. Only Ficus carica and Platanus acerifolia have appeared on the sites proper. At least one Platanus acerifolia (in Gresham Area) was a seedling as it was growing out of the wooden floor of a build¬ ing ; normally it does not germinate in this country. Table 9 Pre-existing Garden Species Tilia x vulgaris (Common Lime) Vitis sp. (Vine) . Parthenocissus cf. quinquefolia Planch (Vir¬ ginia Creeper) Rosa sp. (Rose) Pyracanthus sp. Morus sp. (Mulberry) Ficus carica (Fig) Platanus acerifolia Willd (London Plane) Hedera helix ( Ivy) Laurus sp. (Laurel) . vr vr vr vr vr vr vr r vr vr F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4 2 3 8 3 3 1 1 3 1 6 3 4 7 1 1 2 7 20 3 3 198 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) . vr 1 1 . vr 1 1 . vr 1 1 2 . vr 2 3 1 6 . vr 1 1 In addition Table 10 shows Poa annua which must have occurred in the City before the war and Parietaria diffusa about which a little is known. Parietaria diffusa occurred before the war at St. Alphage’s in London Wall (Fitter and Lousley 1953). In 1946 it occurred m a number of base¬ ments along London Wall (the street) in the Cripplegate Area. It con¬ tinued to spread south but was neld up in the north by the Metropolitan Railway. By 1952 it had overcome this obstacle and reached as far as the west side of Whitbread’s Brewery. In 1953 it was also found (in small quantities) in the Gresham and Queen Victoria Areas. By 1955 it had spread to the four extreme corners of the Cripplegate Area. Table 10 Ulmus glabra (Wych Elm) . U. procera (Common Elm) Syringa vulgaris (Lilac) Ligustrum ovalifolium (Oval Privet) L. japonicum Thunb. (Japanese Privet) Other Pre-existing Species Parietaria diffusa (Pellitory) Poa annua (Annual Meadow Grass) F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) ... la 36 4 3 43 a 7 50 10 12 5 84 Probably various wasteland plants led a wandering existence from one building site to another before the war. Other Sources There now remain a large collection of species whose method of colonization is doubtful. To facilitate comment on these, th^ wild plants have been grouped according to their habitats under normal conditions. Table 11 gives 62 species associated with waste places. Table 11 Plants of Waste Places Diplotaxis muralis (Sand Rocket) D. tenuifolia (Wall Rocket) Lepidium ruderale (Narrow-leaved Pepper- wort) ... ... ••• Coronopus squamatus (Swine’s Cress) Cardaria dr aba (Whitlow Pepperwort) Bunias orientalis Rorippa islandica (Marsh Yellow Water Cress) ... . . . ... ... • • . Alliaria petiolata (Garlic Mustard)... Sisymbrium officinale (Hedge Mustard) 5. irio (London Rocket) . S. orientate (Oriental Rocket) . S. altissimum (Tall Rocket) S. loeselii * ... Reseda luteola (Dyer’s Rocket) Hypericum perforatum (Perforate St. John’s Wort) . F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) 1 9 9 a 3 37 5 11 1 57 vr 1 1 4 6 vr 1 2 *■> 5 vr 1 1 2 vr 1 1 1 9 1 1 11 vr 1 2 3 r 1 1 12 3 17 vr 1 1 a 2 1 43 9 4 2 61 vr 1 3 4 vr vr 1 2 3 vr 2 2 THE FLORA OF THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 199 Silene cucubalus (Bladder Campion) Melandrium album (White Campion) Cerastium vulgatum (Narrow-leaved Mouse ear Chickweed) ... Sagina cf. ciliata (Fringed Pearlwort) S. procumbens (Procumbent Pearlwort) Arenaria serpyllifolia (Thyme-leaved Sand wort) . Malva sylvestris (Common Mallow) Geranium dissectum (Cut-leaved Cranesbill G. molle (Dove’s-foot Cranesbill) . Impatiens glandulifera (Indian Balsam) Medicago falcata (Sickle Medick) ... Melilotus cf. officinalis (Yellow Melilot) M. alba (White Melilot) Potentilla anserina (Silverweed) P. reptans (Creeping Cinquefoil) . Coriandrum sativum ( Coriander) ... Foeniculum vulgar e (Fennel) Heracleum sphondylium (Hogweed) H. mantegazzianum (Giant Hogweed) Polygonum aviculare (Knotweed) ... P. cuspidatum (Giant Knotweed) . P. sachalinense Rumex crispus (Curled Dock) R. obtusifolius (Broad-leaved Dock) Urtica dioica (Common Nettle) Convolvulus arvensis (Field Bindweed) Calystegia sepium (Hedge Bindweed) C. sylvestris (Bladder Bindweed) ... Solanum dulcamara (Bittersweet) ... Datura stramonium (Thorn-apple) Linaria vulgaris (Yellow Toadflax) . . Ballota nigra (Black Horehound) . Lamium album (White Deadnettle) Plantago major (Greater Plantain) Dipsacus fullonum (Wild Teasel) . Knautia arvensis (Field Scabious) ... Matricaria matricarioides (Rayless May¬ weed) . Chrysanthemum parthenium (Feverfew) ... Artemisia vulgaris (Mugwort) A. verlotorum A. absinthium (Wormwood) Centaur ea nigra (Black Knapweed) Lapsana communis (Nipplewort) ... Desmazeria rigida (Hard Fescue) ... Cynosurus echinatus (Rough Dogstail Grass) Agropyron repens (Common Couch) Arrhenatherum elatius (False Oat) ... * Near Cannon St. Station F B C G Q T Tota, (7) 0) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) .. r 4 1 5 3 4 17 ,. 0 1 4 1 22 2 4 3 36 vf 1 1 41 8 4 2 57 . vr 3 3 . vf 2 1 42 9 12 5 71 . vr 1 1 2 . vr 1 1 4 1 7 ) vr 1 1 2 . vr 1 1 . vr 1 1 . vr 1 1 . r 8 1 1 3 13 . vr 2 1 3 . vr 1 1 . vr 1 2 2 5 . vr 1 1 . vr 1 2 3 . 0 1 13 2 4 20 . vr 1 1 2 . 0 3 1 17 2 2 5 30 . vr 2 2 1 1 6 . vr 1 1 . vf 7 1 40 4 9 1 62 . vf 5 1 35 8 4 4 57 . 1 1 1 15 7 2 1 27 . r 1 1 5 1 8 . vr 1 2 3 . vr 1 1 1 3 . r 2 1 11 3 5 22 . vr 1 1 . vr 3 3 . r 1 1 3 2 2 5 14 . vr 2 1 3 . vf 6 1 36 7 8 4 62 . vr 1 1 . vr 1 1 . r 3 9 4 2 2 20 , vr 1 2 1 1 5 . a 7 1 50 10 11 4 83 , vr 1 1 . vl 5 1 6 . vr 1 5 1 7 . vr 6 1 7 , vr 1 1 2 l vr 1 1 r 1 6 3 1 2 13 r 2 16 1 1 20 Notes on Species : Single plants only were observed of Bunias orientale, Geranium molle, and Impatiens glandulifera. There was only one clump of the unusual Medicago falcata but this was approximately 6 feet across — it flowered so profusely that the vivid mass of yellow was visible from passing trains some distance away. Sisymbrium irio 200 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 occurred on the sites not far away from the old locality for it at the Tower of London. Dipsacus fullonum occurred as far back as 1946 on a single wall ledge at the junction of London Wall and Coleman Street and has been present at that spot every year since, but has been unable to establish itself elsewhere. Coriandrum sativum occurred on soil dumped for a car park. Table 12 gives nine species associated with the Chalk. Table 12 Plants of the Chalk F B C G Q T Total (7) 0) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) Reseda lutea (Wild Mignonette) . vr 1 1 Anthyllis vulneraria (Kidney Vetch) vr 1 1 Pastinaca sati va (Wild Parsnip) vr 1 1 2 Echium vulgar e (Viper’s Bugloss) . vr 2 2 Verbascum nigrum (Dark Mullein) vr 3 3 Origanum vulgare (Marjoram) . vr 1 1 Plantago media (Hoary Plantain) . vr 1 1 Centaurea scabiosa (Greater Knapweed) . . . vr 1 1 1 3 Zerna ere eta (Upright Brome) vr 3 3 Other species dealt with in earlier tables are Clematis vitalba, Cyno- glossum officinale. Inula conyza, Erigeron acris and Desmazeria rigida. Table 13 gives two species with large seeds. The first may have been introduced by boys. Pallis (1954) records acorns being carried by large birds. Table 13 Species with Large Seeds F BCG Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) Aesculus hippocastanum (Common Horse Chestnut) . vr 4 2 6 Quercus robur agg (Oak) . vr 1 2 1 4 Four woodland plants are given in Table 14. Table 14 Woodland Plants F BCG Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) Melandrium rubrum (Red Campion) ... vr 2 2 Rumex sanguineus (Red-veined Dock) ... vr 1 2 3 Scrophularia nodosa (Knotted Figwort) ... vr 1 1 Digitalis purpurea (Foxglove) ... ... 1 4 4 Notes on Species : At the corner of London Wall and Coleman Street, Melandrium album occurs with apparent hybrids (in colour at any rate) with M. rubrum. Digitalis purpurea is in some abundance on a site to immediate east of Whitbread’s Brewery. Table 15 Hedgerow Plants F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) Anthriscus sylvestris (Wild Chervil) ... vr 1 1 2 Torilis japonica (Upright Hedge-parsley) . . . vr 11 2 Stachys sylvatica (Hedge Woundwort) . . . vr 2 2 THE FLORA OF THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 201 Table 16 Wall Plants F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) Cymbalaria muralis (Ivy-leaved Toadflax)... r 5 16 Cymbalaria muralis occurred only on a scree and the following plants which are often found on walls, although recorded on the sites (see other tables) were not noticed on walls : Phyllitis scolopendrium, Dryopteris filix-mas agg, Corydalis lutea, Cheiranthus cheiri, Sagina procumbens, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Sedum acre, Kentranthus ruber. Chrysanthemum parthenium. About the only plants seen on walls were Diplotaxis tenuifolia, D. muralis, Parietaria diffusa, Senecio squalidus and Artemisia vulgaris. Table 17 Heathland Plants F B C G Q T Total T . ^ , (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (7) (85) Lotus tenuis (Narrow-leaved Birdsfoot Tre¬ foil) . vr 1 1 Rumex acetosella (Sheep Sorrel) . r 1 612 10 Table 18 Plants of Wet Places F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (7) (85) Lycopus europaeus (Gipsywort) . vr 112 Stachys palustris (Marsh Woundwort) ... vr 1 12 Jurcus inflexus (Hard Rush) . vr 1 1 Carex hirta (Hairy Sedge) . vr 11 C. muricata (Prickly Sedge) . vr 1 1 Deschampsia caespitosa (Tufted Hair Grass) vr 4 12 7 A strange feature of the sites is the presence of species usually associated with wet places. Apart from the species in Table 5 (which occurred in semi-permanent water) there are those given in Table 1 8 and also Rorippa islandica, Impatiens glandulifera, Epilobium hirsutum, E. parvifforum, E. montanum , E. cf. obscurum, Salix alba, S. fragilis, S. viminalis, S. caprea, S. atrocinerea, S. caprea x viminalis, Solanum dulcamara, Phragmites communis. It may be that : — 1. Parts of the sites may contain more moisture than is generally supposed ; the cracks in the basement floors for example may allow water to seep in but possibly do not dry out very easily in summer. 2. The lack of competition may be more important to the plant than moisture (at some stage or other of its existence). Many of these plants can, in more natural habitats, be found on bare mud and the bare areas of the sites may be a suitable alternative. The differences in habitats cannot be too underrated, however, as the sites are veritable suntraps in summer and the vegetation becomes scorched up long before its counterpart in the open countryside. It might be mentioned here that in the spring Pteridium aquilinum fronds and Tussilago farfara flowers appear earlier because of this extra warmth. 202 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Table 19 Known Introductions F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) Ranunculus bulbosus (Bulbous Buttercup)... vr 1 1 Primula xeris (Cowslip) Luzula campestris (Field Woodrush) Phalaris canariensis (Canary Grass) vr vr vr vr 1 1 1 1 1 1 The first three were introduced in the turf for florists’ gardens and Phalaris canariensis came from emptyings of a bird cage. Table 20 gives 68 garden plants not already dealt with. These garden plants may be : — (a) Mere casuals which fail to produce seed after arrival and not being perennials are not present the following year. (b) Certain annuals probably arising from packets of seeds thrown over the sites which may come up the next year but then die out. (c) Plants established because they are perennials and last for many seasons without their seeds being able to colonize. (d) Plants truly naturalized on the sites, although not necessarily very common. 21 species. Some of the ways in which these may have arrived are : — 1. Throw-outs from office window-boxes ( Hyacinthus sp. and Endymion cf. non- script us were certainly of this origin). 2. Scattering of seeds by persons wishing to beautify the sites. This practice was prevalent shortly after the war and two definite cases of such dissemination are known to the writer. 3. Escapes from gardens. A large garden (started during the war) is tended in the Gresham Area and two small florists’ display gardens were set up near Moorgate Station. Some may even have survived from pre-war|gardens. Table 20 Garden Plants Naturalized — Papaver atlanticum (Orange Poppy) Lunaria annua (Honesty) Lobularia maritima (Sweet Alison) Arabis caucasica (White Rockcress) Matthiola incana (Hoary Stock) Cheiranthus cheiri (Wallflower) ... Lychnis coronaria (Rose Campion) Dianthus barbatus (Sweet William) Saponaria officinalis (Soapwort) Cerastium tomentosum (Snow-in-Summer) Althaea rosea (Hollyhock) Lathyrus latifolius (Broad-leaved Ever¬ lasting Pea) . Sedum acre (Biting Stonecrop) ... Oenothera spp. (Evening Primrose) Buddleja davidii (Butterfly Bush) Verbascum thapsus (Great Mullein) Antirrhinum majus (Greater Snapdragon) F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) 1 7 2 9 vr 1 4 1 2 8 vl 3 3 r 6 1 7 r 1 5 1 7 1 1 15 2 2 20 r 6 1 2 1 10 r 8 1 9 If 1 1 12 2 1 17 r 10 1 11 o 1 18 6 5 30 r 1 7 3 11 vr 1 5 1 1 8 la 33 10 6 49 If 13 7 9 29 1 17 8 3 28 r l 7 4 8 20 THE FLORA OF THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 203 Linaria purpurea (Purple Toadflax) ... la Calendula officinalis (Pot Marigold) ... o Asparagus officinalis (Asparagus) ... r Alstroemeria aurantiacum (Peruvian Lily) vr F B C G Q T Total (7) (1) (50) (10) (12) (5) (85) 25 16 6 2 6 7 1 3 7 2 34 1 33 9 2 Not naturalized — Delphinium cf. orientale (Larkspur) Delphinium sp. (Delphinium) Anemone japonica Aquilegia spp. (Columbine) . Papaver somniferum (Opium Poppy) Papa ver sp. (Poppy) Eschscholtzia californica (Californian Poppy) . Corydalis lutea (Yellow Corydalis) lberis amara (Candytuft) I. umbellata Aubrietia deltoidea Malcolmia maritima (Virginian Stock) ... Hesperis matronalis (Dame’s Violet) Dianthus caryophyllus (Carnation) D. deltoides (Maiden Pink) Linum grandiflorum (Crimson Flax) Geranium sanguineum (Blood-red Cranes- bill) . Tropaeolum majus (Nasturtium) ... Oxalis sp. (Wood Sorrel) Lupinus polyphyllus (Lupin) Laburnum anagyroides (Laburnum) Galega officinalis (Goats Rue) ... Colutea arborescens (Bladder Senna) Sedum cf. telephium Sedum spp. Clarkia sp. Polygonum baldschuanicum (Russian Vine) Armeria maritima (Thrift) Primula sp. (Primrose) . Lysimachia nummularia (Creeping Jenny) Phlox cf. paniculata Anchusa sp. Physalis alkekengi (Chinese Lantern) Kentranthus ruber (Red Spur Valerian) Rudbeckia sp. Tagetes patula (French Marigold) Cosmos pinnatus (Mexican Aster) Chrysanthemum maxima (Gt. Ox- Daisy) . C. indicum (Chrysanthemum) Gaillar dia aristata Tanacetum vulgar e (T ansy) Centaurea cyanus (Cornflower) ... Endymion cf. non-scriptus (Bluebell) Hyacinthus sp. (Hyacinth) Muscari racemosum (Grape Hyacinth) Narcissus sp. (Daffodil) ... Iris cf. germanica (Flag) r vr vr r r vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vr vl vr vr vr vr vr vr vr 5 1 5 8 2 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 2 2 1 1 4 2 1 1 2 1 3 1 3 2 1 1 1 2 3 10 2 1 1 10 1 16 5 3 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 1 6 1 8 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 ... vr 1 1 ... vr 1 1 ... vr 1 1 ... vr 2 2 ... vr l 6 5 1 13 ... vr 1 1 ... vr 1 1 eye ... r l 1 2 2 3 9 ... vr 1 1 2 1 5 ... vr 1 1 ... vr 1 1 ... vr 2 2 ... vr 2 1 3 ... vr 1 1 1 ... vr 1 1 ... vr 1 2 3 ,.. r 1 9 2 12 204 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Notes on Species : Both long-spurred yellow and wild short-spur deep blue forms of Aquilegia noticed. Matthiola incana occurs in some abundance high up on the wall of a building near Aldersgate Street and seems to be as at home as on its natural habitat of chalk cliffs. In addition Tamarix sp., Ailanthus altissima, Solidago canadensis, Aster sp., plants with edible fruits in Table 6, crops in Table 7 and pre-existing garden trees and shrubs in Table 9, occur. Other possible agents in carrying seeds of plants in Tables 11 -20 may be : — 1. Wheels of lorries, etc., when clearing rubble in the early 1940’s. 2. Turn-ups of men’s trousers (not excluding naturalists’ during surveys). The custom of City workers of using the sites to have their lunches has been referred to, but they also play football and cricket and stroll about. 3. Occasionally materials are tipped on to the sites (only small quantities) and this must add species. 4. Wind may play a greater part in distribution than is suggested earlier. Wind might carry any small seed even if not specially adapted. Some such as various Compositae {Artemisia vulgaris is the most important) have fringes of hairs on the seed which assist wind-dispersal to some extent, as does Buddleja davidii. 5. Birds may eat types of seeds other than berries which might pass through the alimentary canal. 6. Almost any seed might be present in the food of a horse, e.g. weeds occurring at edges of meadows and hayfields from which the hay was taken — Knautia arvensis and Stachys sylvatica for example. Table 20 concludes the systematic lists of species present and methods of colonization which may be summarized : — Table 1. Wind-dispersed Plants . . Horses : 2. Hayfield Plants 3. Weeds of Cultivation Birds : 4. Plants with Berries . . 5. Strictly Aquatic Plants Human Food : 6. Plants with Edible Fruits 7. Crops 8. Plants with “ Burs ” 9. Pre-existing Garden Species 10. Other Pre-existing Species Other Sources : 11. Plants of Waste Places 12. Plants of the Chalk 13. Plants with Large Seeds 14. Woodland Plants 15. Hedgerow Plants 16. Wall Plants 17. Heathland Plants No. of Species 53 42 30 5 3 12 13 6 15 2 62 9 2 4 3 1 THE FLORA OF THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 205 Table 18. Plants of Wet Places .. 19. Known Introductions 20. Garden Plants No. of Species 6 4 68 342 Sixty-seven families are represented thus : Compositae 55 species ; Gramineae 33 ; Cruciferae 30 ; Papilionaceae 22 ; Rosaceae 15 ; Caryophyllaceae 14 ; Umbelliferae and Polygonaceae 13 ; Scrophul- areaceae 10 ; Salicaceae 9 ; Ranunculaceae and Onagraceae 8 ; Labiatae 7 ; Chenopodiaceae, Solanaceae and Liliaceae 6 ; Papaveraceae 5 ; Geraniaceae, Primulaceae and Oleaceae 4 ; Polypodiaceae, Crassulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Urticaceae, Boraginaceae, Convolvulaceae and Plantagin- aceae 3 ; Resedaceae, Malvaceae, Vitaceae, Moraceae, Ulmaceae, Rubiaceae, Dipsaceae, Juncaceae and Cyperaceae 2 ; Equisetaceae, Fumariaceae, Hypericaceae, Tamaricaceae, Tiliaceae, Linaceae, Rutaceae, Simarubaceae, Oxalidaceae, Balsaminaceae, Aceraceae, Hippocastanaceae, Aquifoliaceae, Plantanaceae, Grossulariaceae, Araliaceae, Lauraceae, Cannabinaceae, Betulaceae, Corylaceae, Fagaceae, Polemoniaceae, Plum- baginaceae, Loganaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Valerianaceae, Hydrocharitaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Iridaceae, Lemnaceae and Typhaceae only one each. SUCCESSION The first plants to colonize the sites, as has been mentioned, were those with wind-dispersed seeds. Wind-dispersal was doubly effective in that it enabled a plant to come to the sites from remote places and once arrived albeit only a few seeds were then, the next season, able to distribute seeds over the whole of the sites. Other plants abundant in the early years (Wrighton, 1948-1953) were of the genera Chenopodium and Atriplex which normally exist in loose soil. Their methods of dispersal are not clearly known but they were possibly introduced on wheels of vehicles clearing away the rubble. When the ground became consolidated they began to disappear. Fitter and Lousley (1953) record Senecio vulgaris and S. viscosus abundant shortly after the sites had been cleared but these plants seem to have suffered the same fate. Although the wind-dispersed plants had a flying start, the advance of the grasses was inexorable. This was for three reasons : — (a) The colonization by grasses chiefly from the wall ledges was slow but very sure as the ledges were so widespread. After some years the advance gained momentum. (b) Mosses were abundant and often dominant as a mat on the base¬ ment floors at first, but as a thin layer of humus formed grasses gained a hold, spreading over their floors their tangled roots, enabling dust to be collected and added to the soil. (c) Most of the grasses are perennials, and evergreens and other plants dying down for the winter had to push up through the grasses in the spring. Seedlings were unable to grow and annual species like Erigeron canadensis at first so abundant are now quite 206 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 uncommon. Even plants like Senecio squalidus which may exist for several years, as individuals, have to replenish themselves by seed and have to resort to areas the grasses cannot colonize, e.g. walls. This applied to many robust plants where individuals die off and are not replaced — e.g. Chamaenerion angustifolium which must lose ground slowly. Pteridium aquilinum which appeared as an early colonizer is now at a standstill requiring protection from frost and is not able to exist on the thin soil on the basement floors. The screes of bricks where sporelings used to germinate have collected dust and have become overgrown by grasses and other plants. The spread, if any, now has to be confined to vegetative growth. Artemisia vulgaris started to appear in abundance in 1950 and is still spreading, ousting many plants by its large size and thick rootstock. Its spread has been slow as, like the grasses, wind does not play a very great part in its dispersal. It cannot invade areas occupied by the grasses because of the germination. It is unlikely that with the present rate of building, we shall see much more of the succession. Clearing for building purposes has already devoured more than a third of the Cripplegate Area, nearly all the Gresham Area, and more than three-quarters of the Queen Victoria Area. If we could foresee further development it would most likely take the form of all flat areas and gentle slopes becoming overgrown with grasses. The changes shown in Table 21 have taken place since 1947-9 (per Wrighton 1950) on the Cripplegate sites. Table 21 Changes in Frequency Dryopteris filix-mas agg 1947-9 1952-5 o Sagina cf. ciliata or apetala la vr Chenopodium polyspermum ... la vr C. album va o C. rubrum la r A triplex patula o vr Polygonum persicaria ... — o Solidago canadensis ... . . . — o Aster spp . r o Hypochaeris radicata r f Crepis taraxacifolia ... . . . — o Anisantha sterilis . o a Agropyron repens f r Trees and Shrubs The climax of vegetation over much of Britain is woodland, but on the sites the trees and shrubs are not very prominent. Until a good depth of humus and soil have accumulated they cannot make any progress. During 1952 and 1953 a survey of trees was made. During the survey the numbers and heights of each species was noted and Table 22 summar¬ izes these. Those in gardens have been omitted, THE FLORA OF THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 207 Table 22 Census of Trees Number of Trees on Sites Heights in Feet up to and including Total F B C Citrus aurantiacum 1 Ailanthus altissima 6 Acer pseudo-platanus ... 1 2 14 Aes cuius hippocastanum 5 Ilex aquifolium 1 Laburnum anagyroides . . . 1 Fruit Trees . 43 8 122 Crataegus sp. 3 Sorbus intermedia agg. . . 1 S. aucuparia 2 7 Ficus carica 1 Plat anus acerifolia 5 Betula verrucosa 5 51 Corylus avellana 1 Quercus robur agg 1 2 Populus alba ... 5 P. tremula 2 P. cf. nigra 9 Salix alba 5 S.fragilis 2 1 10 S. viminalis 4 S. caprea 3 4 147 S. atrocinerea ... 2 2 53 S. caprea x viminalis . . . Buddleja davidii 22 Fraxinus excelsior Sambucus nigra 27 3 95 86 21 572 G Q T 1 3 6 10 over 1 1 2 4 6 12 17 2 21 16 11 48 2 6 1 7 1 1 1 1 39 107 28 173 139 29 6 347 1 3 1 4 1 1 3 1 7 5 1 13 1 1 2 1 3 2 2 3 2 7 25 34 5 6 40 42 25 7 120 1 1 1 4 4 1 1 3 3 1 7 1 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 6 2 12 1 1 1 2 2 2 7 2 2 6 9 1 1 17 2 1 3 3 1 7 67 52 5 13 55 108 93 9 278 21 18 12 3 29 43 32 1 108 1 1 1 7 46 14 25 21 14 1 75 1 1 1 47 35 20 78 54 61 29 5 227 >29 323 76 337 396 336 211 27 1307 During the 1952-3 survey the various fruit trees were not distinguished, but from the re-survey of the Cripplegate Area in 1955 it would appear that Prunus avium and Malus sylvestris are the most frequent with Prunus domestica, P. persica and Pyrus communis much less so. It will be noted that this is a case where introduction of seeds is plentiful and they do germinate, but find conditions for further growth unsuitable : hence a large number of young plants but few older ones. Sambucus nigra bushes are often broad in proportion to height and are more important than the figures would suggest. It will be seen that there are very few young Salices but many older ones. It would appear that colonization took place when the soil was much less consolidated than it is now. Although the trees may still be growing, fresh colonization is not taking place, despite abundant seed being produced. Salix caprea and S. atrocinerea are by far the two most abundant Salices, Salix caprea being most characteristic of the sites. As the trees get old many die although they have not reached maturity — it seems probable that in dry summers a tree cannot find sufficient moisture in the crevices in floors or walls. The most hard hit species is S. atrocinerea which is rapidly disappearing. 208 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 In addition to natural hardships the trees have to contend with having branches broken off (the Salices in spring for “ Palm ”) or wanton destruction. The following are known to have flowered on the sites : Primus avium, Betula verrucosa, Salix viminalis, S. caprea, S. atrocinerea, Buddleja davidii and Sambucus nigra. The Most Successful Plants The real success of colonization can be judged by Table 23 which is an attempt to express the frequencies of the plants numerically. In 1952 during the survey, the abundance of each species on each Cripplegate and Gresham site was noted. These frequencies were then weighted, for example : — Senecio squalidus on Cripplegate Area : Very frequent (weighting 1,500) on 39 sites = 1,500 x39 = 58,500 Frequent (weighting 1 ,000) on 9 sites = 1 ,000 x 9 = 9,000 Occasional (weighting 100) on 1 site = 100 x 1 = 100 Rare (weighting 1) on 1 site =1x1 = 1 67,601 This arithmetical frequency was worked out for each species, the aggre¬ gate being approximately 1,200,000 for the Cripplegate Area and 270,000 for the Gresham Area. The figure for each species was then expressed as a percentage of the total for all species. In the above example Senecio squalidus on the Cripplegate Area was 67,601 x 100 - % = 6% 1,200,000 It is not pretended that this figure gives a very accurate figure for the proportion of the total vegetation each species represents ; the weightings are arbitrary and the estimates of frequency must be subject to vagaries of human judgment. The figures for each species are probably within 50 — 150% of the correct figure which even if it sounds very wide is not so in estimating frequencies over a large heterogeneous area. They cer¬ tainly show the species which are most abundant as apart from widespread. Table 23 The Most Abundant Plants Cripplegate Gresham Sites °/ / O Sites °/ /o Pteridium aquilinum (Bracken) (50) 49 4 (10) 10 6 Diplotaxis tenuifolia (Wall Rocket) ... 32 3 5 — Sisymbrium orient ale (Oriental Rocket) 40 1 9 3 Cerastium vulgatum (Narrow-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed) ... 39 2 8 1 Stellaria media (Common Chickweed) 50 2 10 1 Sagina procumbens (Procumbent Pearlwort)... 41 3 9 4 Trifolium repens (White Clover) 31 2 9 1 Chamaenerion angustifolium (Rosebay) 50 4 9 4 Epilobium cf. obscurum (Dull-leaved Willowherb) ... 46 4 10 5 Oenothera sp. (Evening Primrose) 29 1 10 4 Parietaria diffusa (Pellitory) ... 30 2 4 1 Linar ia purpurea (Purple Toadflax) ... 18 1 6 1 Sambucus nigra (Elder) 37 - — - 8 2 THE FLORA OF THE CITY OF LONDON BOMBED SITES 209 Cripplegate Gresham Sites °/ / O Sites V / 0 (50) (10) Senecio squalidus (Oxford Ragwort) ... 50 6 10 5 Tussilago farfara (Coltsfoot) . 49 5 10 5 Erigeron canadensis (Canadian Fleabane) . 50 3 10 5 Artemisia vulgaris (Mugwort) 49 3 10 3 Cirsium vulgare (Spear Thistle) . 50 1 10 1 C. arvense (Creeping Thistle) . 50 3 10 4 Hypochaeris radicata (Long-rooted Catsear) 45 2 8 1 Lolium perenne (Perennial Rye Grass) . 48 4 10 3 Poa annua (Annual Meadow Grass) . 49 5 10 3 P. pratensis (Smooth Meadow Grass) . 46 3 8 4 P. trivialis (Rough Meadow Grass) . 35 2 10 3 Dactylis glomerata ( Cocksfoot) 48 4 10 A Anisantha sterilis (Barren Brome) 33 3 5 1 Hordeum murinum (Wall Barley) 37 2 9 1 Holcus lanatus (Tufted Soft Grass) . 35 3 9 4 Agrostis alba agg (White Bent Grass) . 48 5 10 5 83 83 It will be seen that approximately plants with wind-dispersed seeds accounted for 30 % of the vegetation, grasses originating from horse dung 25 % and other abundant species 25 %, a total of 80% by 29 plants. Table 24 shows plants, none of which constitute as much as 1 % of the vegetation but which occurred on half or more of the sites. Table 24 Other Widespread Plants Dryopteris filix-mas agg (Male Fern) Cripplegate (50) 45 Gresham (10) 8 Capsella bursa-pastoris (Shepherd’s Purse) ... 34 3 Chenopodium album (White Goosefoot) 7 8 A triplex hastata (Flalberd-leaved Orache) . 46 9 Medicago lupulina (Black Medick) ... 28 5 Trifolium pratense (Red Clover) 43 6 Prunus avium (Cherry) 31 6 Polygonum persicaria (Common Persicaria) . . . 19 9 Rurnex crispus (Curled Dock)... 40 4 R. obtusifolius (Broad-leaved Dock) ... 35 8 Urtica dioica (Common Nettle) 15 7 Betula verrucosa (Common Birch) 31 7 Salix caprea (Sallow) ... 46 8 S. atrocinerea (Grey Sallow) ... 30 8 B addle j a davidii (Butterfly Bush) 13 7 Solanu.m tuberosum (Potato) ... 15 6 Verbascum thapsus (Great Mullein) ... 17 8 Plantago major (Greater Plantain) 36 7 P. lanceolata (Ribwort Plantain) 24 6 Calendula officinalis (Pot Marigold) ... 16 7 Solidago canadensis (Garden Golden Rod) 25 7 Aster spp. (Michaelmas Daisy) . 38 8 Achillea millefolium (Milfoil) 23 6 Lactuca serriola (Prickly Lettuce) 45 6 Sonchus oleraceus (Common Sowthistle) 49 10 Crepis taraxacifolia (Beaked Hawksbeard) ... 36 3 Taraxacum sp. (Dandelion) . 50 10 2lO THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 SUMMARY 1. The sites were created in the early 1940’s and consist largely of the open basements of buildings. 2. Plants with wind-dispersed seeds were able to colonize the whole area quickly and abundantly. 3. These plants were later challenged by the grasses originating from horse dung and becoming the most successful. 4. A few other species achieved prominence with the above and 29 species constitute 80% of the vegetation. 5. More than 300 other species colonized the areas, by various means, much less successfully. 6. The principles of successful colonization may perhaps be sum¬ marized : — (a) The seeds must get there. ( b ) The seeds must germinate. (c) The plants must be able to grow to maturity. (d) The plants must be able to compete with others. REFERENCES CLAPHAM, A. R., TUTIN, T. G., and WARBURG, E. F., 1952, Flora of the British Isles. FITTER, R. S. R., and LOUSLEY, J. E., 1953, The Natural History of the City (this gives a list of plants recorded by Mr. Lousley, their frequency and approximate date of arrival together with a bibliography). PALLIS, M., 1954, A Note on Acorn Distributing Birds. The School Nature Study Journal, Vol. 49, 49-50. RAYNER, J. F., 1927, A Standard Catalogue of English Names of our Wild Flowers. WRIGHTON, F. E., 1948-53, Plant Ecology at Cripplegate, 1947-52. London Naturalist, 27-32 Books Man as an Animal by W. C. Osman Hill. 176 pp., 11 figs. Hutchinson University Library, 1957. 10s. 6d. Here we have in simple terms a clear and short summary of the evidence that man has evolved from ape-like ancestors. Although there is mention of those aspects of physiology, endocrinology, pathology, parasitology, comparative psychology and genetics which have a bearing on this subject, the main emphasis is on comparative anatomy, especially that pointing to man’s arboreal descent and the development of the erect posture. There are also interesting chapters on the fossil “ missing links ” and on the emergence of the various races of man. It might be said in criticism that many aspects are discussed too briefly. However, this treatment does emphasize the mass of evidence that is now available and makes this book a good introduction to the subject. On the whole the production is quite good but some of the line drawings are far from clear. G.B. Supplement by David McClintock [to the “ Pocket Guide to Wild Flowers ”]. 89 pp. and a Preface. 1957. Price 6s. including postage ; obtainable from Miss C. M. Rob, Catton Hall, Thirsk, Yorks. This is a completion of the Pocket Guide with descriptions of about 450 more species, mainly established aliens and garden plants now apparently “ wild,” including a number not in C.T.W. It is packed with information in untechnical language. There are lists of hybrids, albinos, BOOKS 21 1 etc., and of plants grouped by Communities. These lists are both useful and interesting. Of the greatest value are the descriptions of so many seldom-seen aliens, particularly non-European plants, in one book, and the mention of localities for some of the rarest is helpful and would afford a clue to the name, say, of an ericaceous shrub found in a bog near Chobham, Surrey, or a Cytisus on a railway bank near Dorking. The author has recently travelled round England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland, from the Shetlands to the Channel Islands, to check that each plant is really established and there now. The emphasis on English names demands great feats of memory, so many being more unfamiliar than the Latin names. Need one remember which Ammi is False Bishops Weed and which is the Toothpick Plant ? The Index includes both English and Latin names, and the amount of information included and the low price are both amazing. B.W. V Homme contre ? V Animal, by R. Fiasson, pp. 128. Collection “ Que sais-je ? ” No. 737. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris. 1957. Paper covers. No price stated. This little book is an admirable summary of the problems involved in the conservation of the world’s wild animal life, especially the mammals. The author discusses the natural causes of the disappearance of wild faunas, such as the Ice Age, parasites and mass migrational suicide ; he goes on to man’s responsibility — the clearance of primitive forests with the resulting drying up of rivers and soil erosion, the slaughter of game in connection with tsetse fly control — and gives a horrifying picture of the wholesale slaughter in the past, with its extinction and near extinction of many species. He discusses the right of wild animals to live and in the final chapter considers how to preserve them, concluding with an account of famous national parks and with a good word for the educational value of some of our modern films. C.P.C. British Herbaria, compiled by D. H. Kent with the assistance of E. B. Bangerter and J. E. Lousley. Published by The Botanical Society of the British Isles ; Feb., 1958. Price 15s. (unglazed “ Linson ”) or £1 (buckram). The sub-title ol this book is “ An Index to the location of Herbaria of British Vascular Plants with biographical references to their collectors.” It is to the latter that most of the text is devoted and in which it is so interesting to browse, being full of information accumulated by the compiler during the last ten years. This section is followed by two classified indexes to the location of collections, one, of those with strong representa¬ tion of local floras, the other of critical groups and genera. There is also a bibliography and a list of the Universities, Museums, etc., possessing herbaria, including that of the L.N.H.S. (some 3,000 sheets) formed by members of the Society, largely between 1900 and 1930. No such guide has hitherto been available, and it is very welcome. B.W. A Key to the British Species of Freshwater Cladocera, by D. J. Scourfield and J. P. Harding, pp. 55, 111 figures. Freshwater Biological Association (Scientific Publication No. 5), 1958. Price to non¬ members 4s. 6d. 212 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 This is a revised and improved edition dealing with Daphnia and related species found in our freshwaters. Although primarily a key to species, brief distribution accounts and notes on habitats are included. These details record several species from the London Area. The distribution in the Lake District is given in greater detail. A Key to the Adults and Nymphs of British Stoneflies ( Plecoptera ), by H. B. N. Hynes, pp. 87, 43 figures =219 drawings, 30 distributional maps. Freshwater Biological Association (Scientific Publication No. 17), 1958. Price to non-members 5s. 6d. An enriched and much improved new edition has appeared, based on the research work of the author helped by many students who have used the 1940 edition to good effect. The keys deal with our 34 species. Distribution is briefly mentioned being almost confined to the maps. Habitat data is slight. The drawings of adult genitalia, etc., are much as before, but to these are added a whole series devoted to the nymphs accompanying the keys to the early stages. The introduction and list of references are both enlarged and a number of changes of names and corrections of earlier mis-identifications have been made to bring the work up to date. L.P. Instructions to Young Geologists, by D. H. Dalby, pp. 144, 9 pis., 36 text- figs. Museum Press Ltd., London. 1957. 10s. 6d. Here at last is a book I can enthusiastically recommend to the beginner. It is well balanced and well written, with a useful glossary and an adequate index. As well as introducing, in a readable way, all the aspects of geology you will find so uninspiringly treated in the average text-book, there is an excellent chapter linking geology with archaeology and another on soils which stresses the importance of geology to the botanist. Most of the photographs are good and the text-figures simple, making their points without waste of line. The exceptions are the drawings of common fossils, especially the brachiopod on figure 22, which is dreadful : a good photograph of these fossils might well replace the sombre plate 8. Full marks to the author who heads his list of equipment with “ a pair of observant eyes, a notebook . . If the Londoner feels that hard rocks and the hammerget too much of the limelight and is hurt by the dismissal of his beloved Tertiaries as “ sands and gravels in the main,” a rapid glance at the sketch map on page 91 will remind him that there are other Formations. With so useful a little book it is worth making suggestions that might be considered in a new edition. A little guidance in the field is so useful to the beginner in geology that more prominence should be given to the Geologists’ Association and natural history societies which, in this respect, can be more helpful than museums. Is it wise to use the terms “ granitic ” and “ basaltic ” for acidic and basic rocks ? This may lead to confusion later on. There is certainly confusion in the statement (p. 20) “ granitic and basaltic rocks produce two types of magma.” On page 85 is another curious twist that obscures the meaning : “a certain species of short-lived ammonite ” does not convey the idea intended of a species of ammonite with a short time-range. These are, however, minor criticisms of a very readable book. H.A.T. BOOKS 213 The following books have also been added to the Library during 1957: W. J. Arkell, The Geology of Oxford. C. A. Arnold, Introduction to Paleobotany. F. G. Bawden, Plant Diseases. A. d A. Bellairs, Reptiles. F. Bouliere, The Natural History of Mammals (1955). Bruce Campbell, Finding Nests (1953). Bruce Campbell, Bird Watching for Beginners (1952). H. G. Carter, Glossary of the British Flora. J. D. Carthy, Animal Navigation. G. M. Davies, The Dorset Coast. H. L. Edlin, Trees, Wood and Man. C. Ellis, Pebbles on the Beach. E. A. R. Ennion, The British Bird. E. A. R. Ennion, The Lapwing. F. Finn, Eggs and Nests of British Birds. J. Fisher, Bird Recognition (3). R. S. R. Fitter and J. E. Lousley, The Natural History of the City (1953). R. S. R. Fitter and R. A. Richardson, Pocket Guide to British Birds. Fraser, Birds of the Middle Thames (1954). Fraser, The Mammals of the Middle Thames (1955). D. Grose, The Flora of Wiltshire (1957). V. A. Hochbaum, Travels and Tradition of Waterfowl. E. Hosking and S. Smith, Birds Fighting. P. Irwin, British Bird Books, 1481-1948 (1951). A. King, The Observer's Book of Garden Flowers. D. Lack, Swifts in a Tower. London Natural History Society, Birds of the London Area, since 1900. J. E. Lousley, Progress in the Study of the British Flora. G. V. Matthews, Bird Navigation. G. W. Meates, Lullingstone Roman Villa. H. Mellamby, Animal Life in Fresh Water. C. E. Moss, Vegetation of the Peak District. G. Mountfort, The Hawfinch. Observer’s Book of British Grasses, Sedges and Rushes. J. H. Parker, Golden Treasury of Natural History. J. Prestwich, A Geological Enquiry re Water-bearing Strata around London. J. Raven and M. Walters, Mountain Flowers. Rintoul and Baxter, A Vertebrate Fauna of Forth. Ross Craig, Drawings of British Plants, Parts IV-IX. R. E. A. Simmons, Studies in Great Crested Grebes. A. E. Smith, The Birds of Lincolnshire. Worthington G. Smith, Synopsis of British Basidiomycetes (1908). L. D. Stamp, An Introduction to Stratigraphy. A. H. Uggla, Linnaeus. U. Venables, Tempestuous Eden. J. Watson, Cements and Artificial Stones. J. Watson, British and Foreign Building Stones. E. I. White, Vertebrate Fauna of the English Eocene (1931). Woodward, Catalogue of British Species of Pisidium (1913). C. W. Wooldridge and G. E. Hutchings, London's Countryside. Reference Atlas of Greater London, Bartholomew. Geological Survey, Ten Mile Map. Check List of Birds of Great Britain and Ireland. B.O.U. Birds in Inner London. Bird Banding, 1955, 1956. Past and Present Status of Buzzard in Britain. Status of Rarer Birds of Prey. Notes on British Mammals. 214 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Proceedings of Geologists ' Association, Vol. 66 and 67 (1955, 56). British Birds, Vols. 48 and 49 (1955 and 56). The Entomologist, Vol. 88 and 89 (1955 and 56). The Entomologist' s “ Gazette ,” Vols. 5 and 6 (1954 and 55). The Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, Vols. 90 and 91 (1954 and 55). The Entomologist' s Record, Vols. 62 and 63 and 67 and 68. The Vasculum , Vols. 1-25. and many County and Local Societies’ Reports. Official Reports Council’s Report for 1957 THE campaign to increase membership launched last year continued to show results, and by the end of the financial year, October 31, there were 1 ,550 members, a net increase of 1 50 on last year. The number of members in arrears was, at the same time, the lowest on record. Although we are still gaining steadily through the personal efforts of members we owe much to Mr. Eric Hosking who arranged for us to have a publicity stand at the Kodak Exhibition of his photographs. The many members who worked so cheerfully there deserve our grateful thanks for a most successful effort. Over 5,000 Christmas Cards were sold for a profit of about £50 and thanks to the mention of them in The Observer orders came from many places including the U.S.A. and Kenya. The artists were two young members, Miss M. Mathews (now Mrs. Makepeace) and Mr. P. Griffiths, and they certainly made a great contribution to our financial success in this venture. The Treasurer’s report unfortunately shows clearly that even more effort is needed, as in spite of all the hard work of this year we have only cleared expenses by a little over £30. Our printing costs will probably rise again with the transfer of the printing of the London Naturalist to the London printer already dealing with the rest of our work, but we hope this policy will be justified. We have received £40 from the Royal Society’s grants-in-aid to scientific publications for the papers by Dr. Beven and Dr. Rose. The series on the Moths of the London Area by Baron de Worms is completed in this issue and adds yet one more important systematic list to our publi¬ cations. By September, 1957, 2,250 copies of our book Birds of the London Area since 1900 had been sold, following its publication in March, and it is now out of print. If demand is sufficient, and we hope that members will make it so, the book may be reprinted. The royalties have not only completely repaid to the Society the expenses involved in its production but have provided the Ornithological section with a nest-egg for a suitable project. The London University lectures proved very popular. Mr. D. Owen gave a second-year course on “ The Ecology of Birds ” for former students of Dr. Stonehouse. Unfortunately the University were unable to run a similar course for beginners owing to the departure of Dr. Stonehouse to the South Atlantic. The botany course, held for the first time at Chelsea Physic Garden, was a great success and the students who took it continued for a second year and another first-year course was also run. OFFICIAL REPORTS 215 The necessity for re-printing the rules which have remained virtually unchanged since pre-war days led to a decision to revise them drastically. It has been decided not to alter the subscription in general but the system has been simplified. The categories of “ School and Country Associates ” have disappeared and all who join now are members. National Service¬ men and students have been helped by being accepted as junior members, regardless of age. Partly to compensate for this, young members in full employment pay full subscription rates from the age of eighteen. The entrance fee has been raised to five shillings to cover the increased postal costs of enquiries and initial membership. During the year Mr. R. Hale, for many years our Librarian, has been chosen to fill a Vice-Presidential vacancy. 1958 is our Centenary year and the sections are making a great effort to provide especially good meetings. The Society’s main celebration was a film show and buffet supper at Church House, Westminster, on March 1 1 . At the invitation of the Chief Librarian, our Centenary Exhibition will be opened by Professor Munro Fox, F.L.S., at Stoke Newington Public Library on October 4. It will then go to the Royal Exchange for a fortnight from November 4 and Lord Hurcomb will perform the opening ceremony. From November 23 it will be at Wandsworth and Eric Simms has agreed to open it there. We hope that this will enable most of our members to see the exhibition. Oliver Pike, one of our Honorary Vice-Presidents, has given us some of his large collection of nature photographs which he has exhibited. P. S. Hayward, a former member who died on October 31, has left the Society his library of ornithological books. The General Secretary wishes to acknowledge with thanks the help of many members during the year and in particular of Mr. L. Baker, Mrs. H. Braddick, Miss D. Hayes, Mrs. A. Horton, Miss G. Robson, and Mrs. M. Waller. We have to record with regret the deaths of the following members : G. W. Avery, E. J. Bryce (an Hon. Member), A. G. Davis, P. S. Hayward, and C. F. Jones. Curator’s Report Botanical Section The herbarium has been examined and found free of insect pests, but there is continued slight damage to some sheets owing to the damp stale air present during the winter months. A fine collection of mosses has been presented by Mr. R. A. Boniface ; these it is hoped to catalogue and make available for consultation by members shortly. The Section is greatly indebted to Mr. T. G. Collett who kindly arranged for the herbarium cupboards to be repaired and rendered dust-proof. Ecological Section There have been no additions to the ecological collections this year. Work is in progress in rearranging the shell collection. Entomological Section Progress has been made on the collections of Lepidoptera. A con¬ siderable number of useless specimens have been disposed of with a view to finally making one collection instead of two. The Syrphidae have been completely rearranged and work continues on the Coleoptera. 21 6 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Ornithological Section The only addition to the skin collection this year is a Swift which is a new species to us. Additions to the wing collection are Red-throated Diver, four species of duck, Brent Goose, five species of gull, Common Tern, Little Owl and Cuckoo. About forty copies of the catalogue of skin and egg collections remain to be sold. Arrangements have been made for a key to the ornithological collections to be kept in the Librarian’s drawer so that should the Curator be absent on Library and Collections evenings or on Ornithology Informal evenings members may have access to the collections. Members are making good use of the collections on Informal Meeting evenings, but those wishing to study specimens in more detail are recom¬ mended to come on Library and Collections evenings. K. H. Hyatt, Curator. Report of Curator for Lantern Slides During 1957, there has been an addition of 100 slides to the Society’s collection of Lantern Slides. These were a gift from Miss Longfield, and are the illustrations to her lecture “ The St. George Expedition to the South Sea Islands.’* The total number of slides is now 2,420. I have received only one request from members for the loan of lantern slides. The job of “ rearrangement ” is proceeding slowly with the limited time available, but is not yet completed. H. W. Payton, Curator. Librarian’s Report I took over the Library from Mr. Hale in November, 1956, and desire to pay tribute to the help and advice I have received from him since then. The attendance at the Library has shown a welcome increase, amounting to 192 compared with 136 in the previous year, whilst the number of books borrowed has increased from 194 to 257. Books borrowed from the Ornithological Section exceed all the other sections put together and it is hoped that members of other sections will make more use of the Library. Sectional indexes are now available for all sections. Some 100 new volumes and reports, pamphlets, etc., have been added to the Library and binding of periodicals has been kept up to date. The Library Committee appreciate the action of the Council in increasing the grant to £25 for the coming year. In conclusion I should like to thank the Sectional Librarians and members of the Library Rota for their work in the Library and attendance at the fortnightly meetings. J. B. Foster, Librarian. South West Middlesex Group Report The group membership continues to increase steadily. The present total is 87, made up of 67 ordinary members, 18 associates and two affiliated Societies. Indoor Meetings These are arranged monthly at Hounslow Town Hall. The lectures are of the same high standard as those at the London centres, but are not OFFICIAL REPORTS 217 so well supported as they should be. The lectures are open to any members of the Society and, as a poor attendance is a discourtesy to the lecturer, it is hoped that better support will be forthcoming in the future. Field Meetings An attractive programme is being arranged to celebrate the Society’s Centenary year. One feature will be the monthly informal field meetings at different localities in the Group’s Area. In this way the Officers and Committee hope to make closer contact with members of the Group and encourage a useful exchange of interests and observations. If the informal meetings prove successful small field study projects may be attempted. Nature Conservation The Group objected officially through the Town Clerk, Hounslow, at the recent public enquiry on the extension of gravel workings on Hounslow Heath. Langley Park, Buckinghamshire, has been visited by members of the Group in order to study its possibilities for preservation. Further visits are planned for 1958. The Group Nature Conservation Secretary would welcome offers from a few actively interested people to visit this and other places in the Group’s Area ; also information about threats to local flora and fauna. Group Recorders Observations of birds, insects or plants in the Area should be sent to the recorders, whose names and addresses are shown in the programme, by early October in order that the correlated information may be given in the Annual Reports of the Group. A few short notes on the habitat will add interest to the observation. E. Everitt, Secretary. Report of the Epping Forest Field Section The aim of this Section has been to cover as large a part as possible of the north-east of the Society's Area, thus offering a variety of terrain to its members. The great variety of flora and fauna recorded and studied attracts an ever-increasing number of newcomers, who are impressed by the beauty of the open countryside and rivers, as well as by the sylvan delights of the Forest itself. Over 100 plants or over 50 species of birds is not a rare recording for one outing, and mammals, reptiles and amphibians are all to be seen in the area. The Section would, however, appreciate the co-operation of one or two more experts to help us add to our knowledge, some of whom are known to visit our area. As a proof of enthusiasm, at a recent field meeting of the Ecology Section 12 of the 17 people present were members of our Section. During the coming year the more popular meetings will be repeated, and requested new routes added. The only indoor meeting was the A.G.M. when our new Chairman, Mr. A. Leutscher, ably replaced at very short notice the lecturer, Mr. F. Speakman, who was ill. Mr. Leutscher’s talk, illustrated by slides, was on the reptiles and amphibians of Great Britain. J. Jones, Secretary, 218 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Statement of Accounts GENERAL 1956 Receipts £1,117 15 3 Subscriptions — Current ...£1,224 15 3 41 13 6 Arrears 21 7 6 20 16 0 Advance 34 8 6 31 7 6 Entrance Fees . 40 10 0 £ 1,211 12 3 £1,321 1 3 — — — Life Membership . ... ... 50 0 0 10 6 10 Interest on Post Office Account ... ... • 1 10 0 8 15 9 „ „ Deposit Account ... ... 21 16 2 2 12 6 „ „ £75 War 3i% Stock ... ... 2 12 6 5 8 0 ,, „ £180 Savings 3 % Stock, 60/70... 5 8 0 4 14 6 Hire of Rooms . ... ... 3 0 0 12 0 0 Donations ... ... . 29 2 0 — — — Return of expenses of Birds of London Area 55 12 3 — — — Balance at 31st October, 1956, brought forward . 2 10 9 £1,255 9 10 £1,492 12 11 * PUBLICATIONS £48 17 1 Sales of Publications . ... ... £58 5 1 35 8 7 „ „ Christmas Cards 1956 ... 52 16 3 50 0 0 1957 55 55 55 55 ^ ! ... ... 15 0 0 49 0 0 Grant — Royal Society — London Naturalist 40 0 0 16 7 0 Advertisements— London Bird Report ... 4 4 0 5 0 0 Donation — London Naturalist ... . . . — — — London Bird Report — 1956 Grant ... £220 0 0 — Printing 200 18 8 19 1 4 474 8 9 Balance from General Account . • . ... 542 0 1 £679 1 5 £731 6 9 Audited and found correct. 27th November , 1957, J. H. G. Peterken, Hon. Auditor. G. T. Messervy- Whiting, Hon. Auditor. V. F. Hancock, Hon. Treasurer , STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS 219 Year Ending October 31, 1957 ACCOUNT 1956 Payments £191 13 4- /Hire of rooms and halls with gratuities ... \25 Eccleston Square, rent and upkeep ... £153 78 7 5 0 3 — — — Library and Collections . 40 0 0 113 17 3 Programme . ... 153 6 9 59 14 9 Printing and Stationery . ... 101 19 9 — — — Printing revised Pviiles . 23 14 0 42 13 10 Postages — Secretaries and Treasurer 46 1 7 4 8 6 Insurance . 4 3 6 10 12 0 Subscriptions to other Societies . 13 14 0 60 11 6 Sectional Expenses . 61 14 8 5 0 0 South-West Middlesex Group Expenses ... 14 5 0 136 12 7 General Secretary’s Honorarium and Expenses ... 143 6 8 4 3 10 Sundry Expenses . 6 5 8 — — — Centenary Celebration advance bookings . . . 28 16 0 474 8 9 Publications Account . ... 542 0 1 — — — Life Composition Account . 50 0 0 28 18 2 Birds of London Area Expenses . . . — . — . — 120 4 7 Deficit brought forward . . . . — ■ — — 2 10 9 Balance at 31st October, 1957 . 31 13 0 £1,255 9 10 £1,492 12 11 ACCOUNT £382 9 5 London Naturalist — Printing and Postages • • • £455 10 10 220 0 0 London Bird Report — Grant • • • • • • • • • 220 0 0 46 12 0 Christmas Cards 1956 — Printing ... £46 6 11 — Grant 30 0 0 16 6 11 „ ,, 1957 — Printing • . • ... • • • 9 9 0 30 0 0 — Reserve towards Printing 30 0 0 £679 1 5 £731 6 9 The Life Composition Account has increased from £350 to £400 while the Legacies and Reserve Accounts remain at £93 7s. 6d, and £75 respectively. 220 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 3 7 Sectional Reports Archaeological Section Our 1957 indoor meetings opened with a lecture by Mr. C. W. Phillips entitled “ The Third Edition of the Ordnance Survey Map of Roman Britain.” Mr. Phillips is a lecturer with rare gifts for he held us enthralled throughout his lecture and there were many murmurs at what seemed to be its shortness, so quickly did the time fly. We next braved the elements of middle January on an outdoor meeting around Stepney Church and Green, led by Miss Darlington. It is superfluous to remind members that a field meeting conducted by Miss Darlington is always full of little known facts and is an outstanding success. My next happy memory is still in the chill of winter when we visited the L.C.C. Library and Record Office and once -again had the pleasure of being conducted by Miss Darlington. The party was a very large one and sometimes had to be divided. Miss Darlington and her staff went to a great deal of trouble to display many of the treasures of the Record Office and to make this meeting one of memorable interest. The second half-year began with a visit to Morden College in September. The Custodian of the Muniments Room, who was a retired naval officer with the traditional charm and fund of stories associated with the Royal Navy, was our guide. We were privileged to make a thorough tour of this College, including one of the private flats and, on being shown a new extension to the main building, many smiles were raised when it was pointed out how like a railway station this was — the architect who designed it specialized in such buildings ! Our visit to the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings in November was passed in the cosy Committee Room of the Society where we listened to the Secretary, who was obviously in love with her job. Her enthusiasm when a condemned building was saved at little cost was heart-warming and the end of her lecture came all too swiftly. Our final indoor meeting was an informal one held on the Library premises and, in some respects, is the most memorable one of the year. Informal meetings are popular with the Section in that members can get down to real archaeology. This year, as last, we had the pleasure of the company of Mr. F. J. Collins of the Architects’ Dept, of the L.C.C. whose knowledge of pottery is bottomless, as indeed were some of the pieces of pottery he brought with him ! However, this informal meeting was very enjoyable for Mr. Collins produced many pieces of pottery beautifully labelled and dated ; then after giving members time to examine each piece, he held up another unlabelled sample and asked us to date it. Each piece offered for dating had its likeness in another piece previously handed to us. Members were quick to recognize the various types and dates and the crowning memory for the Section came when Mr. Collins donated a magnificent collection of pottery dating from the Roman period to 1880 to be kept at the Library for use of the Section. Such is the report on meetings for 1957 and we hope to have an even more interesting year in 1958. All members who are interested in archaeology are very welcome to join us both at our indoor and outdoor meetings. SECTIONAL REPORTS 221 Finally, may I ask all members of the Society who are interested in archaeology to send a postcard with their name and address to the Section Secretary, Miss E. M. Wilson ? As you will have seen in the 1958 programme, we are proposing to try our hand at “ digs ” and it would be useful for Miss Wilson to know of those interested, so that they may be circulated when something extra is arranged after the printing of the programme. C. L. Regan, Acting Secretary. Botanical Section The membership of the Section is now 452, an increase of 74 during the year. As in previous seasons a wide variety of outdoor excursions has been held, with venues in all of the counties included in the Society’s area. The annual rambles for bryophytes and fungi were again interesting and popular events outside the usual season for flowering plants. A number of excursions were devoted to plant recording for the B.S.B.I. Maps Scheme. Dr. J. G. Dony, who is now engaged in writing the county Flora for Herts, led a profitable one in that county. Another trip, using the Ramblers’ Special Train, this time to Glynde in Sussex, was enjoyed by many members. Such diverse subjects as “ The construction and use of botanical keys ” and “ The growth of Natural History Societies ” were dealt with at indoor meetings, in addition to lectures on the more usual aspects of botany. Among the guest speakers Mr. H. L. Edlin of the Forestry Commission payed us his first visit, and Mr. R. A. Graham of Kew, the leading authority on British mints, again gave a highly informative and interesting lecture. The experiment of holding informal meetings at Eccleston Square has proved quite successful, and discussions on herbarium technique and the identification of flowers and fungi have been enjoyed by the members concerned. Much remounting work is required to put our herbarium into good order and it is hoped that this may be achieved by the co-opera¬ tion of keen members at informal meetings. Thanks are due to Mr. T. G. Collett for his excellent services in repairing our cupboards, ready to house the collections. As readers will know, the Hand List of Plants of the London Area is now complete for flowering plants and ferns ; we congratulate the com¬ pilers, D. H. Kent and J. E. Lousley, on their achievement. The Section’s records will continue to grow, however, and members are asked to co-operate by sending in details of new plants or habitats to the Recorders. Mr. J. H. G. Peterken has promised to consider the production of a Hand List of Bryophytes and would welcome the help of all interested members in building up from records in his own and the Society’s possession. We feel confident that our colleagues on the Committee who are responsible for B.S.B.I. Maps Scheme recording will continue to be as active in 1958, both in and out of the field, as they have been in the past. This is the final season of the work, and we should like to thank the many members who have helped the Section to fulfil its obligations in this matter. We should like also to express our cordial thanks to Mr. P. C. Hall, to whom is due the credit for much of the success of our Programme. He resigns from the office of Programme Secretary this year and we extend 222 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 a warm welcome to Miss G. W. Dalby, his successor. To Miss J. Small, also, who volunteered to fill a long-felt want in the position of Sectional Lanternist, we are most grateful. E. B. Bangerter, Chairman. F. E. Wrighton, Secretary. Ecological Section Surveys 1. Bookham Common. — There continues to be a regular attendance at meetings on the second Sunday of each month. During the year Dr. G. Beven gave a short talk on recent work on the birds there. Since the survey started in 1941 more than 300 pages of the London Naturalist have been occupied by papers on almost every aspect of the natural history of this area, which must be one of the most thoroughly documented commons in the country. 2. City Bombed Sites. — As mentioned in the previous report, this survey has now been discontinued because of building, but individual members continue to investigate the now vanishing flora and fauna. Mr. A. W. Jones gave a short talk during the year on “ The Flora of the City Bombed Sites.” 3. Coulsdon. — Visits are now being made every month (on either a Saturday or a Sunday) to Devilsden Wood and nearby downs, and maps have been prepared by botanists and ornithologists for the survey work they have started. The entomologists have also commenced organized work. Mr. H. Britten gave a short introductory talk on the area to members. Devilsden Wood is within easy reach of London and is specially suitable for members living in Croydon and district. It is an attractive area rich in plants (including many orchids) and insects, and is part of the area recommended for nature conservation by the Society. 4. Headley Heath. — A further visit was led by Mr. C. P. Castell during the year to Headley Heath to examine the regeneration of the heath from the war-time tank manoeuvres. This annual survey com¬ menced in 1951 and a great deal of information has since been obtained on the factors involved in the very slow recovery of bare heathland. Mammals The recently formed Mammals Study Group arranged a lecture by Mr. H. N. Southern on “ Small Mammals,” and short talks on “ Diet of a pair of Suburban Tawny Owls ” by Dr. G. Beven and “ Bat-banding in Devon ” by Mr. J. D. Hooper. In addition, informal meetings were held on such subjects as “ Grey Squirrels,” “ Rabbits and Hares,” and “ Mammal Traps and Trapping,” at most of which live mammals, reptiles or amphibians were exhibited. Visits were made to Godstone Caves for bats and Nor Island in the Medway for voles, and there were two general visits to Epping Forest. Nature Conservation In Hertfordshire the spread of towns continues to be the main threat to nature together with all too numerous gravel workings, which in Middlesex were to be started on Hounslow Heath and are the subject of an enquiry. In Essex reports were made to the Nature Conservancy on a gravel pit proposed for preservation in the Lea valley, and on the Walthamstow Heronry. Field meetings were held to examine the flora and fauna of Chertsey Mead and Langley Park. Mr. C, P. Castell SECTIONAL REPORTS 223 represented the Society at a conference on Fires on Heaths and Commons arranged by the Nature Conservancy. General Dr. J. M. Lambert gave a talk on “ Problems of the Norfolk Broads,” showing how she discovered the origin and development of the Broads by means of borings, and Dr. D. H. Dalby in his talk “ Ecology of Saltmarshes ” showed us what work could be done on this habitat by the amateur. The Secretary is always pleased to hear of work being done on local surveys, and to answer enquiries about the Section’s surveys. Membership of the Section (in common with the Society as a whole) continues to rise and now stands at about 350. G. Beven, Chairman. A. W. Jones, Secretary. Entomological Section One hundred years of entomology in the London area organized by this Society is completed this year. The Haggerston Entomological Society came into being in 1858. It later changed its name to the City of London Entomological and Natural History Society and in 1914 amalga¬ mated with the North London Natural History Society to become the London Natural History Society. The sectional system was introduced into the Society in 1917 and the Entomological Section was formed under the guidance of Dr. E. A. Cockayne and Dr. H. B. Williams, Q.C. Past members of the Society included such world famous entomologists as Lord Avebury, A. W. Bacot, Rev. C. R. N. Burrows, Dr. T. A. Chapman, H. St. J. K. Donisthorpe, Dr. N. H. Joy, Edward Newman, L. B. Prout, A. Sich, A. E. Tonge, J. W. Tutt and Lord Walsingham. These, like many other members of this Society, were also fellows of the Entomological Society of London, now the Royal Entomological Society, founded in 1833. There had been earlier entomological societies in London and the first of these, actually the first in the world — The Aurelian Society — was in existence in 1 745 and met at the Swan Tavern, Change Alley, off Cornhill. The formation of the South London Entomological and Natural History Society in 1872 catered for the “ southerners ” in the days when meetings of the London societies commenced late in the evening, 8 p.m., and finished after 10 p.m. Our members have always been found in the ranks of these other societies helping to increase entomological knowledge and also keeping our own members in touch with the progress in the study of insects. In 1957, at the end of a century, our Section has gathered 79 new members and despite some losses has increased its membership to 290, the highest on record. Indoor Meetings The indoor meetings have been well attended and many and varied exhibits were shown. The aim of these meetings is to introduce experts on the various orders to our members, to hear of the present progress in entomological studies and to enable members to exhibit specimens to others and report their observations on the habits and distribution of the insects, especially those in our London area. Our lecturers were : — Mr. T. G. Howarth, B.E.M., F.R.E.S., on “ An Introduction to the British Lepidoptera,” Mr. D. F. Owen on “ British Butterflies and Their 224 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 Ecology,” Mr. L. Parmenter, F.R.E.S., on “ Flies and their Relations with Plants,” Mr. S. Beaufoy, F.R.P.S., F.R.E.S., on “ Some Life Histories of Butterflies, Moths, and Dragonflies,” and G. Owen Evans, M.Sc., Ph.D., on “ Some Aspects of the Ecology of Mites.” In addition, a series of lectures on “ The Natural History of Insects ” under the University of London extension scheme for the Society was attended by 43 and given by Professor O. W. Richards, Dr. P. T. Haskell and Dr. T. R. E. Southwood. More intimate meetings held informally in our Library at Eccleston Square, where the collections as well as the library books are available, included discussions on “ Making Microscopic slides, mounting genitalia, etc.,” “ The Study of British Coleoptera ” opened by A. A. Allen, B.Sc., A.R.C.S., “ Structure of Insects ” opened by J. F. Shillito, B.Sc., “ Hibernation of Insects,” “ Experimental Entomology ” opened by J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.E.S., “ The Coulsdon Survey,” “ The Preparation of Specimens for the Collection.” The technical demonstrations at these meetings proved as useful to many others as to the beginners for whom they were originally planned. Field Meetings These are organized to enable members to visit a variety of habitats around London, especially within our Area. In these days of rising costs of travel it is unfortunate but understandable that members tend to confine their appearances to those meetings most conveniently located. It is at these open country gatherings of entomologists of all grades and of varied special interests that beginners are helped and the more experienced widen their knowledge. This year over a hundred members and friends attended the meetings held at All Hallows on Sea, Bookham Common, Burnham Beeches, Byfleet, Coulsdon, Epping Forest, Farningham, Horsley, Otford, Ranmore Common, Shoreham, Swanscombe, Watford, Wytham Woods (Oxford). The Ecological Section’s surveys have been well supported in the past by this section’s members and the Bookham Common and Coulsdon surveys are particularly recommended for those wishing to study small areas intensively and acquire knowledge of the food-plants of insects from the expert botanists present. There are tasks for beginners and experts, simple and complex. Helpers will always be welcome. The Section is also steadily progressing in its accumulation of data on the distribution of insects, spiders and related arthropoda in the Society’s area, and it continues to publish its summaries each year. Every member is urged to send distribution notes to our Recorder, Mr. E. W. Groves, 143 Carshalton Park Road, Carshalton, Surrey. Especially useful are summaries of the status of species of a particular area. Library and Collections These have been extended, especially by gifts from Miss C. E. Longfield, Dr. C. H. Andrewes, F.R.S., Dr. J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson, Dr. F. R. Irvine, Messrs. H. Britten, D. F. Owen and J. Sneyd Taylor amongst others. C. G. M. de Worms, Chairman. L. Parmenter, Secretary. Geological Section The year was a busy one for the Section. In all twenty-nine meetings were held and most of them well supported by a record membership. SECTIONAL REPORTS 225 Highlight of our activities was undoubtedly the Easter field meeting to the Devizes district of Wiltshire. For the third successive year the programme was arranged by Mr. R. E. Butler, who provided a full and varied programme. An enjoyable feature was the linking up of our Society with the Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society, and the Swindon Geological Society, each of whose members participated in the excursions as well as providing leaders for the party. The geological programme included visits by coach to four counties where exposures ranging from Silurian to Cretaceous times were examined, many of them for the first time by the Section. Archaeological interests were served with a look at the classic stone circle at Avebury, and a visit to the Devizes Museum which was specially opened for us. The last day of the holiday was spent on the edge of the Salisbury area and was devoted to botany in particular, though one member found several flint implements belonging to the early inhabitants of the Plain. Among the other field meetings were two coach trips to the Oxford and Cambridge districts. Though nearly eighty miles apart the geology is a little similar, and it was especially interesting to compare the different facies of rocks of the same formations. The geology about London was not neglected and it is pleasing to note that one of the nearest exposures to London is perhaps the most interesting to the fossil collector. This is at Abbey Wood where a small pit yields many fossils from the Blackheath Beds. A meeting held there in the summer resulted in the collection of many hundred of the impressive sharks’ teeth. During the winter months the Section arranged a series of conducted visits to places of special interest. One of these was to the Hydrographic Chart Department of the Admiralty. Here members were taken, stage by stage, through the detailed processes of chart compilation in, so it seemed, every navigable channel in the world. Some of the earlier charts examined by members were surveys undertaken by such famous Sea- Captains as Cook and Bligh. Another similar visit worthy of special mention was to the Laboratory of the Precious Stone Section of the London Chamber of Commerce, who literally unbolted their doors in Hatton Gardens to us and demonstrated the testing procedures of precious stones and pearls. Most of the indoor meetings seemed to dwell upon some aspect of London. Mr. C. P. Castell discussed the life and work of William Whittaker, F.R.S., a great cockney geologist of the past, and this was followed by Dr. S. Buchan who spoke on the history of London’s water supply in the last thousand years. Fortunately, however, the talk by Dr. A. T. J. Dollar on earthquakes in Britain was well outside the Society’s Area, being chiefly concerned with the Midland earthquake of February, 1957. It is with some interest to record, and not a little relief, Dr. Dollar’s prediction that if Britain experiences another minor earthquake it would probably take place about Hereford. It appears that Hereford is next along a line of crustal instability from which can be traced all previous earth tremors of the past. The Field Research investigation into the London Clay of Oxshott Brickworks Ltd. has continued, but recent reports suggest that excavation on the main site appears to be ceasing. This is to be regretted, but in the past six years the Section has made a detailed study of the pit and, besides publishing reports in the London Naturalist, has presented a sizeable collection of fossils to the Natural History Museum. It is intended to display this collection of Oxshott fossils at the Centenary Exhibition. R. g Butler, Chairman. R. J. Parsons, Secretary . 226 THE LONDON NATURALIST NO. 37 Ornithological Section During a year that saw its membership exceed one thousand the Ornithological Section intensified its efforts to provide a continuous and varied programme of indoor and outdoor events. Aware that a fairly large proportion of its members can only occasionally attend indoor meetings, the Committee have endeavoured to include several items that should have a special appeal to those living on the fringe of the London Area, or even outside it. Such members have undoubtedly benefited from the new-style Bulletin which is now available through a postal subscription service. Under the editorship of R. P. Cordero, this publication is topical, attractive and of more frequent appearance than before. Members living at a distance from the centre of our Area can also make a valuable contribution to the various surveys carried out by the Section, including those into the status of the Lapwing and Meadow Pipit, inau¬ gurated last year, and to the national surveys in which the Society partici¬ pates. The value of “ getting together ” at indoor meetings is far from being overlooked and 1958 will see the fruition of the Section’s plans for a series of regular, joint meetings with neighbouring societies, to be held, where possible, in the outer zone of our Area, so that they are easily accessible to members living in the outer suburbs. It is to be hoped that such meetings will become an established feature of our programme ; emphasis, however, must obviously be on meetings in the Central Area, of which thirteen were provided in 1957. They covered a wide range of subjects, including Behaviour, Studies of Individual Species, Identification, Bird-watching Experiences at Home and Abroad, Man’s Influence on Birds and various specific items of Research. A number of these lectures were given by members of our Society and it is particularly gratifying that these were well-attended. The range of field meetings has continued to be as wide and varied as ever and, in the main, the meetings have been quite well supported. It cannot be stressed too strongly, however, that these meetings are of the utmost value both to beginners and experts. Many of the visits are to habitats on the outskirts of our Area and should, therefore, have special appeal to those living in those localities. It is appropriate, here, to record our thanks to A. H. Betts who, up to the end of last year, carried out with singular conscientiousness the unenviable task of arranging the field meetings programme. Ringing, always an important part of the Section’s activities, came on to a new footing last year, following the introduction by the British Trust for Ornithology’s Ringing Committee of a new set of rules. It was decided to facilitate the operation of co-operative ringing ventures, which must now form the basis of the Section’s ringing scheme, by dividing the Area into four regions, each with an appointed representative to act as a focal point for group ringing within his region. In this way we hope to encourage group ringing activities such as those already flourishing at Beddington where, in 1957, B. S. Milne and his team achieved quite remarkable results. The Dungeness Bird Observatory, in the management of which the Society shares, continued last year to attract many of our members, particularly ringers, and there, also, results were extremely satisfying. This is not the place to dilate on the numerous field records submitted by members or on the survey reports and kindred items that, together, make up the London Bird Report . The appeal and value of this publica- sectional reports 227 tion have never been greater, and special thanks are due to the Editor, F. H. Jones, Recorders, H. P. Medhurst and W. G. Teagle, and the Records Committee for their work in 1957, carried out in the face of quite abnormal difficulties. Re-organization by Miss N. Goom of the Library and by K. H. Hyatt of the Collections has considerably increased the efficiency of these services, with the result that they are now being used by a greater number of mem¬ bers. Miss E. P. Brown has reported favourably on the support given by members to the various Reading Circles she organizes for the Section. By far the most important single event of 1957 was the publication of the Society’s book, “The Birds of the London Area since 1900.” The outcome of many years’ diligent, painstaking work, involving an enormous amount of research, the book is one of which any society could be proud. Proof of its excellence was demonstrated by the fact that, before the end of the year, the whole of the first printing was sold out. To the thanks expressed elsewhere to the Editor, R. C. Homes, the Book Committee, contributors and helpers, we should like to add our own appreciation for a very fine achievement, which will be of lasting value to the Society. In conclusion, we should like to express our sincere appreciation for the support received from all Sectional Officers and Committee Members. We are pleased to welcome two new Committee Members, Mrs. M. Waller and P. J. Hayman, who were elected at the General Meeting in 1957, and Mr. J. Brock who was appointed Junior Committee Member a few weeks later. There has been a change in recording personnel. Mr. H. P. Medhurst, who, up to the end of last year, was Recorder for both North and South of the Thames, continues to be recorder for the South, the recordership for North of the Thames being taken over by J. L. F. Parslow. W. G. Teagle continues as Recorder for Inner London ; R. H. May is the new Field Meetings Secretary. Our thanks are also due to Miss L. B. Langham who, for several years, has co-ordinated the sale of Field Lists — a task now taken over by Mrs. Waller — and to R. H. Ryall who, for many years, looked after the sale of publications, now handled by Misses J. Pattison and J. Grant. S. Cramp, Chairman . A. V. Pettit, Secretary. Ramblers’ Section The membership of the Section continues to increase. Three indoor and sixteen outdoor meetings were held during the year. Of the general meetings the first was an extremely interesting and lively discourse on “ Elephants ” by that well-known authority on the subject, Lt.-Col. J. H. Williams (author of “ Elephant Bill ”). It was held at the College of Preceptors and concluded with refreshments. The second, which gave us a new angle on Natural History, was entitled “ Natural History and Designs in Chinese Art ” and was given by Mr. G. Witcher, who brought a most interesting and valuable collection of specimens to examine. At the Sectional Annual General Meeting, Miss Hilary B. Newman gave an illustrated talk on a “ Ride to Rome.” The rambles have been pleasantly varied, and the districts visited have included Hertford, Chislehurst, Steyning, Sevenoaks and Abinger Hammer. There was an evening excursion on the Thames to see the Docks, when 228 THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 37 43 members and friends were present. Places of interest visited in London drew good numbers and included “ Indoors at Kew,” The Victoria and Albert Museum for some Art Treasures, Cadby Hall and Chandos House. We would like to thank Miss H. Franks for her past services to the Section as in turn Secretary, Chairman and Committee member, and for her work as Lanternist, which office she is continuing to fill for us. The Countryman is still being circulated. G. E. Lawrence, Chairman. L. J. Johns, Secretary. PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY London Naturalist, 1921-31, each Is. (1926-28 out of print) ; 1932-46, each Is. 6d. (1933 and 1937 O.P.) ; 1947-52, each 3s. ; 1953-56, each 7s. 6d. London Bird Report, 1936-46, each 6d. ; 1947-52, each Is. 3d. ; 1953-55, each 3s. 6d. ; 1956, 5s. Transactions of the London Natural History Society, 1916-20, each Is. Map of the Society’s Area, 6d. “ LONDON NATURALIST ” REPRINTS Note. — Dates in brackets refer to issue of L.N. and are not dates of publication. 21, 22, 25, 30. Survey of Limpsfield Common : 1939, 3d. ; 1940, 2d. ; 1942 2d. ; 1943, Id. 24. Randolph William Robbins (1871-1941), (1941), 3d. 29, 33, 35, 44, 46, 51, 60, 67, 71, 75, 81, 87, 99, 103, 117. Survey of Bookham Common : 2, 1943, with maps, 2d. ; 3, 1944, with map, 5d. ; 4, 1945, 3d. ; 5, 1946, with map, 5d. ; 6, 1947, 6d. ; 7, 1948, 6d. ; 8, 1949,1s. ; 9, 1950, 9d. ; 10, 1951, 9d. ; 11, 1952, 9d. ; 12, 1953, Is. 6d. ; 13, 1954, Is. 6d. ; 14, 1955, Is. 6d. ; 15, 1956, Is. 6d. ; 16, 1957, Is. 6d. 34, 36, 45, 47. Epping Forest Survey : 3, 1944, with maps, 6d. ; 4, 1945, 3d. ; 5, 1946, 3d. ; 6, 1947, with map, 5d. 34a. Docks and Sorrels of the London Area, by J. E. Lousley (1944), 3d. 37. William Curtis (1748-1799), by J. E. Lousley (1945), 3d. 38. Neuroptera of the Home Counties, by E. B. Pinniger (1945), 6d. 42. The Brambles of Middlesex, by C. Avery and W. C. R. Watson (1946), 3d. 43. Coenagrion scitulum Rambur, a Dragonfly New to Britain, by Edward B. Pinniger (1946) (with plate), 2d. 48. Hymenoptera Aculeata of Hampstead Heath (with map), by K. M. Guichard and I. H. H. Yarrow (1947), 9d. 49, 72, 76, 82, 83. City Bombed Sites Survey : 1947, 3d. ; (1948 O P ) (1949 O.P.) ; 1950, 3d. ; 1951, 3d. ; 1952, 3d. ; 1953, 9d. ; 1954, 9d. 55. The Story of our Society, by L. G. Payne (Part I, 1947, Part II, 1948), 6d. 66. Mammals, etc., of the London Area, Additional Records, by R S R Fitter (1949), 9d. 62. Butterflies of the London Area, by C.. G. M. de Worms (1949), Is. 6d. 63. 69. Report on the Temporary Geological Sections (1949), 6d. ; (1950), Is. 64. Kent Plant Records, by F. Rose (1949), 5d. 65. Hepatics of the London Area, by R. A. Boniface (1949), 5d. 70, 73, 77, 83, 90, 100, 104. Hand List of the Plants of the London Area, by D. H. Kent and J. E. Lousley, Part I (1950), 2s. 6d. ; Part II (1951) 2s. 6d. ; Part III (1952), 2s. 6d. ; Part IV (1953), 2s. 6d. ; Part V (1954), 2s. 6d. ; Part VI (1955), 2s. 6d. ; Part VII (1956), 2s. 6d “ LONDON NATURALIST ” REPRINTS (Contd.) 74, 92, 101. The Flies of the London Area, I, Conopidae, by L. Parmenter (1951 O.P.) ; II, Culicidae, sub-family Culicinae (Mosquitoes), with key to species of Culex, by E. R. Nye, 1954, Is. 6d. ; III, Trypetidae, by M. Niblett (1955), Is. 78. Habitats of the London Area, by J. H. G. Peterken (1952), 6d. 79. Ecology and Distribution of the Satyridae in West Kent, by D. F. Owen (1952), 9d. 80. A Subject Index of the Society’s Journals, 1914-51, by R. S. R. Fitter (1952), 6d. 84, 89, 102, 105, 115. The Moths of London and its Surroundings, by C. G. M. de Worms, Part I (1953), with map, 2s. ; Part II (1954) 2s. ; Part III (1955), 2s. ; Part IV (1956), 2s. ; Part V (1957), 2s. 85, 91. Post-war Progress in Nature Conservation in the London Area, by C. P. Castell (1953) and Correction and Additions (1954), Is. 86, London Clay of Oxshott, by M. M. Brown and C. P. Castell (1953), 6d. 93. An Exposure of Chalk Rock near Westerham, Kent, by J. S. Hampton (1954), 9d. 94. Additions to the London Clay Fauna of Oxshott, Surrey, by M. M. Brown and C. P. Castell (1954), 6d. 95. The Butterflies of the North-West Kent Marshes with special reference to the 1953 Floods, by J. F. Burton (1954), Is. 96. Notes on the Butterflies of Wimbledon Common, by A. W. Jones (1954), Is. 97. Some Aspects of Dispersal and Succession of Plants in some Epping Forest Ponds, by C. H. Selby (1954), with plate, Is. 98. The Bryophytes of Boxhill, by E. C. Wallace (1954), Is. 106. The Arachnida of London, by T. H. Savory and A. E. Le Gros (1956), Is. 6d. 107. The Distribution of the Grey Squirrel in the London Area (1953-6), by G. Beven (1956), Is. 6d. 108. Vegetation History and Environmental Factors in the London Area, by F. Rose (1956), Is. 6d. 109. Changes in the Bird Life of the London Area since 1900, by R. C. Homes (1957), Is. 110. Changes in the Flora of the London Area since 1858, by J. E. Lousley (1957), Is. 111. The Fishes of the London Area, by A. C. Wheeler (1957), Is. 6d. 112. The Distribution of Grasshoppers and Allied Insects in the London Area, by R. M. Payne (1957), Is. 113. Flies (Diptera) and their Relations with Plants, by L. Parmenter (1957), Is. 114. The Gall Wasps of the London Area, by M. Niblett (1957), Is. 116. The Flora of the City of London Bombed Sites, by A. W. Jones (1957), Is. 6d. All publications of the Society may be obtained from the General Secretary. 4