Madagascar An environmental profile Compiled by IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre lO6D_ MADAGASCAR AN ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE 219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL U.K. fen’ : Go) Ky gs UNEP WWE IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is a network of governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), scientists and other conservation experts, joined together to promote the protection and sustainable use of living resources Founded in 1948, IUCN has more than 500 member governments and NGOs in over 100 countries. Its six Commissions consist of more than 3000 experts on threatened species, protected areas, ecology, environmental planning, environmental policy, law and administration, and environmental education. 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INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME MADAGASCAR AN ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE Edited by M.D. Jenkins Prepared by The IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre Cambridge, U.K. Published by IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. A contribution to GEMS - The Global Environment Monitoring System 1987 Prepared and published by IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K. in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme, and with financial support from the World Wide Fund For Nature. A CONTRIBUTION TO GEMS - THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT MONITORING SYSTEM. Copyright Citation: ISBN Printed by Cover Design Cover Photos Available from: LEK. ® E im Y ee y we WWE 1987 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources/United Nations Environment Programme/World Wide Fund for Nature. This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes, without special permission from the copyright holders provided acknowledgement of the source is made. No use of this publication may be made for resale or other commercial purpose, without the prior written permission of the copyright holders. IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1987). Madagascar, an environmental profile. Edited by M.D. Jenkins. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. No 2-88032-607-9 Unwin Brothers Ltd, The Gresham Press, Old Woking, Surrey. James Butler LANDSAT image of north-west Madagascar showing Nosy Bé and adjacent coast: NASA/UNEP. Baobab Adansonia za: M. Pidgeon. Rice paddies at Eminiminy, south-east Madagascar: S. O’Connor. Indri /ndri indri: WWF/J.J.Petter IUCN Publications Services, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, U.K. The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN, UNEP and WWF concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. CONTENTS Introduction Acknowledgements A note on place names Maps PART I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1.1. Geology 1.2. Relief 1.3. Soils 1.4. Climate Temperature Rainfall Bioclimates Cyclones 1.5. Hydrography River systems Lakes Hydrology PART II. HUMAN GEOGRAPHY II.1. Population estimates and growth rates II.2. Distribution of population 11.3. Ethnic divisions 11.4. Agriculture Land use and farm structure Crop production Livestock PART III. FLORA, VEGETATION AND FOREST COVER IlI.1. Flora Diversity Endemism Affinities of the flora Origins of the flora III.2. Vegetation Eastern region Western region Secondary formations III.3. Forest cover and destruction Eastern forests (inc. Sambirano domain) Western forests Southern forests Central highlands Montane vegetation III.4. Forest exploitation Timber Other forest products III.5. Reafforestation III.6. Ethnobotany Introduction The potential value of the Madagascan flora Previous studies of ethnobotany in Madagascar Page number An environmental profile of Madagascar PART IV. MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYTEMS IV.1. Relief IV.2. Mangroves IV.3. Coral reefs Distribution of reefs Conservation of reefs Grand Récif proposed Marine National Park Nosy Bé Offshore sand cays PART V. FAUNA V.1. Birds V.2. Mammals V.3. Amphibians and reptiles V.4. Fishes V.5. Lepidoptera: rhopalocera (butterflies) V.6. Terrestrial molluscs V.7. Freshwater molluscs V.8. Marine molluscs V.9. Nonmarine crustaceans V.10. Marine crustaceans V.11. Other invertebrates PART VI. PROTECTED AREAS Introduction Legislation Administration Total area under protection Information sheets Montagne d’Ambre National Park Isalo National Park Betampona Natural Reserve Zahamena Natural Reserve Tsaratanana Natural Reserve Andringitra Natural Reserve Lokobe Natural Reserve Ankarafantsika Natural Reserve Tsingy de Namoroka Natural Reserve Tsingy de Bemaraha Natural Reserve Lake Tsimanampetsotsa Natural Reserve Andohahela Natural Reserve Marojejy Natural Reserve Ambohitantely Special Reserve Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve Nosy Mangabe Special Reserve Périnet-Analamazoatra Special Reserve Analabe Private Reserve Berenty Private Reserve PART VII. OTHER IMPORTANT AREAS Rain forest areas Forests of Maroantsetra Masoala Peninsula Sihanaka Forest Ranomafana Non rain forest areas Ankarana Massif / Ambilobe Karst Ankaratra Massif Lake Ihotry Zombitse Forest ave APPENDIX 1. ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION A. Species legislation B. International agreements APPENDIX 2. FAUNAL LISTS Birds Mammals Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Butterflies (except Hesperidae) Nonmarine molluscs Nonmarine crustaceans APPENDIX 3. SPECIES ACCOUNTS A. Birds Tachybaptus pelzelnii Tachybaptus rufolavatus Ardea humbloti Anas bernieri Aythya innotata Haliaeetus vociferoides Eutriorchis astur Mesitornis variegata Mesitornis unicolor Monias benschi Sarothrura watersi Amaurornis olivieri Charadrius thoracicus Coua delalandei Tyto soumagnei Brachypteracias leptosomus Brachypteracias squamiger Atelornis crossleyi Uratelornis chimaera Neodrepanis hypoxantha Phyllastrephus apperti Phyllastrephus tenebrosus Phyllastrephus cinereiceps Xenopirostris damii Xenopirostris polleni Monticola bensoni Crossleyia xanthophrys Newtonia fanovanae B. Mammals (lemurs) Allocebus trichotis Cheirogaleus major Cheirogaleus medius Microcebus coquereli Microcebus murinus Microcebus rufus Phaner furcifer Ayahi laniger Indri indri Propithecus diadema Propithecus verreauxi Daubentonia madagascariensis Hapalemur griseus Hapalemur simus Lemur catta -Vii- Contents An environmental profile of Madagascar Lemur coronatus Lemur fulvus Lemur macaco macaco Lemur macaco flavifrons Lemur mongoz Lemur rubriventer Lepilemur ruficaudatus Lepilemur dorsalis Lepilemur edwardsi Lepilemur leucopus Lepilemur mustelinus Lepilemur microdon Lepilemur septentrionalis Varecia variegata C. Reptiles Geochelone radiata Geochelone yniphora Pyxis planicauda Pyxis arachnoides Erymnochelys madagascariensis Eretmochelys imbricata Chelonia mydas Lepidochelys olivacea Caretta caretta Crocodylus niloticus D. Lepidoptera Papilio grosesmithi Papilio morondavana Papilio mangoura APPENDIX 4. PLANT SPECIES LISTS Succulents APPENDIX 5. ETHNOBOTANY DATABASE Taxonomic table Medicinal usage table References -Viil- INTRODUCTION Madagascar, with its wide range of natural ecosystems, unique and varied fauna and flora, largely rural human population and often severe environmental problems, is universally recognized as a high priority for conservation action. This report aims to provide information on which decisions affecting the environment of the country can be made, and to give indications of areas in which further research is necessary. It is essentially bibliographic in nature and represents a distillation of available sources of information, both published and unpublished. Bibliographies and reference lists are provided for each section. The principal subject areas covered are physical and human geography, vegetation, forest cover and loss, ethnobotany, marine and coastal ecosystems (in particular coral reefs), fauna, protected areas and sites of biological importance. With respect to fauna, emphasis has been laid on endemic and threatened taxa. All native vertebrate groups are discussed, but the sheer number and variety of invertebrates, particularly arthropods, has precluded their being treated in a similar fashion - it is evident that any attempt to cover all invertebrate groups in a single volume would result in extremely superficial treatment. Discussion has thus been confined to groups identified as of particular interest, notably crustaceans, molluscs and butterflies (Rhopalocera). Work on the volume began in 1983 and has continued intermittently until the present (early 1987), with the most recent incorporation of new information being in January 1987. The report was compiled and edited by Martin Jenkins and authored by the following: Nigel Collar, Mark Collins, Tim Dee, Stephen Droop, Diana Evans, Brian Groombridge, Jerry Harrison, Martin Jenkins, Jane Thornback, Sue Wells, Lissie Wright. The sections on Ethnobotany (Part III.6 and Appendix 5) are taken from: Ethnobotany in Madagascar. Overview/ Action Plan/ Database. (1985). A report to WWF/IUCN prepared by Mark Plotkin, Voara Randrianasolo, Linda Sussman and Nina Marshall. pet ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have helped in many ways in the compilation of this report, by provision of information, by advice and by commenting on and reviewing parts of the text. In particular we would like to thank the following: R. Albignac, L. Allorge, J. Andriamampianina, C. Blanc, R. Blommers-Schlésser, Q. Bloxam, P. Bouchet, P. Brinck, D.S. Brown, A.C. van Bruggen, E.R. Brygoo, C. Carter, A. Crosnier, D. Curl, J. Dransfield, L. Durrell, B. Dussart, E. Fischer, D.G. Frey, J.T. Hardyman, H.H. Hobbs, L. Holthuis, A. Jolly, M. Keech, A. Kiener, P. Lake, O. Langrand, K. MacKinnon, R. Mittermeier, J and N. Moore, J. Moreau, M. Nicoll, S. O’Connor, R. Paulian, J.-J. Petter, M. Pichon, M. Pidgeon, J. Pollock, H.D. Rabesandratana, B. Rakotosamimanana, C. Raxworthy, A. Richard, Y. Rumpler, B. Salvat, P. Thompson, S. Tillier, B. Vaohita, B. Verdcourt, P. Viette, D. Vukidanovic, W. Weiss, J. Wilson, P. Wright. Errors and omissions remain the responsibility of the editor. A NOTE ON PLACE NAMES Seven of the principal port-towns of Madagascar, along with the capital and Ile Sainte-Marie, have recently changed their names; in almost all the available literature the old, French names are used. Every effort has been made in this report to use the current names, though some discrepancies may exist. New Old Antananarivo Tananarive Antseranana Diégo-Suarez Fenoarivyo Atsinanana Fénérive Mahajanga Majunga Nosy Borah Ile Sainte-Marie Taolanaro Fort Dauphin Toamasina Tamatave Toliara Tuléar Vohimarina Vohémar There is also some variation in the spelling of other place-names (e.g. Marojejy/Marojezy, Ihotry/Iotry, Sihanaka/Sianaka, Analamazoatra/Analamazaotra), though there should generally be no possibility of confusion. Finally, while the Malagasy term for ’island’ has generally been spelt in the currently accepted form ’Nosy’ (e.g. Nosy Bé, Nosy Mangabe), in some instances the alternative Nossi- or Nosi- has been used; again there should be no possibility of confusion. MOZAMBIQUE CHANNEL Morondava Taolanaro Toamasina INDIAN OCEAN MADAGASCAR Principal towns, rivers & reefs 150 km -xi- Map 2 VEGETATION OF MADAGASCAR after White (1983) y 7 Dry deciduous = ee f f t 11b Mosaic of rainfores = and secondary grass pH 4 22bMosaic of deciduous Ga forest and grassland AH 5 Moist montane forest | ~318 Secondary vegetion == of highlands : \'0'4'8'4]19c Undifferentiated ww mont v ntane forest SS Nal ses \ 41 Dry thorn scrub @S pS 46 Mosaic of thorn scrub Sie and secondary grass | Copies beret 77 Mangroves SONS WS -Xil- Map 3 PROTECTED AREAS OF MADAGASCAR Foret d'Ambre@ 5 Forest cover c.1950 UW Diadie atampre “f, & wRAnalamerana ae 1G) oA Lokobe@&\ A i, paravanata Manongarivo WwW? i 4 Gy /, Cy <¥ Lieto Biy < 4 a ib x ye Sonia i oe Os v4 “gy ia Vi at ih g ae A ket Bi é Met etsa Joe y.') rOkes, d‘Ahalamaitso Bemarywe aG\ E ° & ok asily vi 5 Mahingozo ~ veo 3 9 BS ® —) / Zah " Marotandrano f Y) 4 Ambohitantely PU / q * emponuanekary Ye mf susteivci ingy de Jo j Bemaraha aw Pe per? f \ ant vi Q 4 = ase of Ss ge 5 Ny) a » —— NESS eae wae 4 A “ @ Bluey eS Andringttr AZAD ~F2 | EA Zig 8 G07 ll ay 7 ee Pic Yvahiby } KEY iy eS Y Isalo es 4 Oo Integral Reserve foes L ode) Ss @ Special Reserve Z e f Kalambatritay/ QD Forest cover 0 [Ny fe) 100 200 300 400km. Cap Sainte Marie (i Sp ri ae Shy -xili- wit a'y afih. wre ene (Rt & <3 a . Da . _ I . ee ! at $ ee: pe 4 i ee Foner’. Ee | . calmer Fes > : Pots oe :* : a7 | ee Secs Pie a es, i é . ” ae a, 1 Rls db lids Andie ie ‘ be ; iv} it > Mate b teatal : pais he SP i fe ae map ity ores veo a PART I. PHYSICAL BACKGROUND The island of Madagascar extends from 11°57’S to 25°35’S and 43°14’E to 50°27’E in the Indian Ocean; it is separated from the African continent by the Mozambique Channel, only some 300 km wide at its narrowest point. With a north-south length of 1600 km and a maximum width of 580 km, Madagascar has a surface area of 587 000 sq km and is the fourth largest island in the world, after Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo. Relief is complex and variable though nowhere rises higher than 3000 m and climate, though also highly variable, is predominantly tropical, despite the southern part of the island extending below the Tropic of Capricorn. I.1. GEOLOGY Four main geological features of Madagascar have combined to produce the island’s relief; these are: oo A Precambrian basement covering the eastern two-thirds of the island (excepting some small coastal areas which are sedimentary in origin). ii. A sedimentary region along the west coast, dating from Permian to recent. iii. Widespread volcanic intrusions, mainly Upper Cretaceous and_ secondarily late-Tertiary/Quaternary. iv. An extensive lateritic mantle, principally overlying the Precambrian basement. i. The Precambrian basement is much folded and entirely metamorphic; it outcrops over the eastern two-thirds of the island, an area of some 400 000 sq km. Knowledge of the mineralogy and petrography of the basement is generally reckoned good, though its stratigraphy and structure are still relatively poorly understood. The basement has been divided into three *systems’, or stratigraphic subdivisions, originally based primarily on the distribution of useful minerals: a. The Androyan system, covering some 55 000 sq km in the extreme south, characterised by intense metamorphism, a prevalent sedimentary origin, a high frequency of magnesian and calcic rocks and the widespread presence of workable deposits of phlogopite mica and thorianite. The system apparently has a very rich assembly of highly metamorphic rocks and minerals. b. The Graphite system, which overlies the Androyan. This extends for some 250 000 sq km, or most of the Precambrian basement and nearly half the land area of Madagascar. It is characterised by the widespread presence of graphite gneiss but is very complex and is regarded as the least well known of the systems, the category acting as something of a general repository. Metamorphism is average to strong, rarely intense, though almost the entire system has been migmatised which further hampers stratigraphic study. It outcrops from sea level to 2600 m. c. The Vohibory system. This covers a total area of around 55 000 sq km, split into relatively small areas scattered over the Graphite system. It is characterised by moderate to slight metamorphism and by the marked importance of metamorphosed basic volcanic formations. ii. The sedimentary region consists principally of slightly folded sedimentary formations along the west coast, west of the Precambrian basement. These form a continuous zone 30-200 km wide. The oldest strata are Permian and above these are Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments of very variable facies. Much of this belongs to the continental sedimentary system known as the Karroo system (essentially equivalent to the Karroo in southern Africa), starting in the Lower Permian and continuing to the Middle Jurassic, though with many marine incursions (often Zile An environmental profile of Madagascar forming massive reef limestones and marls). The Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous formations are largely marine. Tertiary marine deposits outcrop in the Antseranana region in the north and then along the coast in a discontinuous strip from the Ampasindava peninsular to the Menarandra in the south. Superficial recent continental or marine deposits, sometimes very extensive, overlie much of this. The sedimentary region does not rise over 1300 m and is generally of gentler relief than the basement area. iii. Volcanic formations. The two main periods of volcanic activity are Upper Cretaceous and late-Tertiary/Quaternary. The most extensive volcanic formations are Upper Cretaceous, found both in the Precambrian basement and the sedimentary areas where they can be dated by their relationships to identifiable sedimentary layers; they derive from extensive basaltic flows (from fissure-type volcanic activity) and locally from sheets of rhyolitic ignimbrites. The later volcanic intrusions are of much lesser extent and are often difficult to date precisely as they occur largely in the Precambrain basement area; however they play a locally important role in relief and are discussed in J.2.iv below. iv. Weathering residues. Most of the Precambrian basement is mantled by a layer of lateritic clays or clayey laterites (produced by chemical weathering of plutonic, metamorphic or sometimes volcanic feldspars). Strictly speaking these are soils, but they are often so thick (10-15 m, sometimes up to 60-80 m) that they play an important geological and groundwater role. Laterisation has probably been going on since the Pliocene and is one of the principal causes of the accelerated erosion which is a major environmental problem in the country. 1.2 RELIEF The island shows an extremely varied and often rugged topography, although it does not rise above 3000 m in elevation, (the highest point, Mt. Maromokotra in the Tsaratanana Massif, is 2876 m). The main axis of the island extends in a north-north-east to south-south-west direction, with the main lines of relief along this, though there is marked asymmetry about the central axis. The eastern coastline, which is almost straight for a large part of its length (some 650 km), gives way to a narrow but continuous coastal plain. From this an escarpment (occasionally double) rises to a plateau of between 800 and 1500 m altitude which slopes down to the north and south and has many massifs of up to 2500 m altitude rising out of it. The westward slope is much gentler, though interrupted by cliffs, with the western regions consisting of plains and plateaux with extensive delta areas. A division can be made between the relief of the Precambrian basement and that of the sedimentary region to the west. i. The Precambrian basement has been considerably uplifted and faulted; this and the subsequent erosion explain the great variety of landscape forms. In general the gneiss outcrops have been profoundly affected by lateritic weathering and have formed a jumble of hills on which the characteristic ‘lavakas’! form as a result of accelerated erosion. The granites and 1 The term *lavaka’ is applied to the most prominent accelerated erosion forms which develop in the deep laterites of the Precambrian basin; these generally have the form of fan-shaped openings or cirques in hillsides. Individual lavaka may coalesce to form compound lavaka which may be several tens of metres deep and several hundred metres wide (for further discussion see Le Bourdiec, 1972). Physical background quartzites which are much more resistant to erosion usually form the high points of the landscape, often as rounded massifs such as Andringitra, which contains the second highest summit on Madagascar. Also important in this region are the ’tampoketsa’ which are the levelled off remains of ancient erosion surfaces at high elevation, generally forming plateaux bordered by steep escarpments. The most important of these are in the north-west: at Fenoarivo, Ankazobe, Kamoro, Beveromay and Anaiamahitsy; these are assumed to be late-Cretaceous in origin (see below). ii. The sedimentary region in the west contains the two main sedimentary basins on the island - Mahajanga and Morondava, one south, the other north of Cap Saint André. The region consists mainly of alternating hard and soft beds dipping gently towards the sea (normally at an angle of some 3 to 5°, occasionally decreasing to 2° and rarely exceeding 10°). Erosion has led to the formation of a landscape of cuestas. In the sandstone cuestas such as the Isalo in the south-west, the reverse (steeper) slopes tend to be dissected by a labyrinth of deep canyons or to be cut into ruiniform relief. The limestone cuestas tend to be subjected to karst processes, often leading to a highly dissected, block-like topography (as in parts of the Bemaraha and Ankarana karsts) and the presence of dolines and extensive cavern systems. There are estimated to be some 33 000 sq km of karst, the most important of these being: Bemaraha; Kelifely plateau; Ankara plateau; Sitampiky; Ankarana; Mahafaly; Mahajanga and the Narinda peninsula. Two other factors contribute to the landscape across both regions: ili. Erosion surfaces. The earliest of these, attributed to the late-Cretaceous, affects the Precambrian basement and has been alluded to above. Two others of importance have been identified, corresponding to the mid- and late-Tertiary. The former, below the level of the late-Cretaceous surface, is believed responsible for many of the medium-sized hills in the landscape in the central plateau, particularly around Antananarivo; it has also levelled off parts of the sedimentary cover in the west: the summit plateaux between 900 and 1000 m in the sandstone Isalo massif are thought to result trom it. The late-Tertiary erosion cycle has resulted in vast pediplains in both the basin and sedimentary areas, for example north of the Androy and Mahafaly massifs in the far south, the Zomandao plain and the reverse slope of the Isalo massif. It also appears at the base of the principal basins of the central highlands, where it has been dissected into a system of small hills of 50 to 100 m relative height. iv. Volcanic forms. These constitute many of the major massifs on the island and occur principally in the following areas: a. In the north the massifs of Ankaizina and Tsaratanana. The latter is the highest massif on Madagascar; both areas have necks of phonolite, with relief determined by differential erosion. The Ankaizina also has trachytes and two series of recent basalt eruptions, the first heavily eroded, the second well-preserved with many small volcanic cones, some with crater lakes. b. The Itasy and Ankaratra massifs in the central highlands around Antananarivo; these are the most extensive volcanic regions. The Itasy is a 750 sq km assemblage of cones and domes with well preserved forms, produced by volcanic emissions in a gneissic depression; most of the domes are below 1600 m, though the gneiss is often higher than this. The Ankaratra is much larger (some 4000 sq km) and can be divided into three main regions: the first, in the north-east, consists of a strong line (running NNE-SSW) of volcanos dating from the end of the Pliocene or early quaternary with compact lava (ankaratrites); several summits exceed 2400 m (the Tsiafajavona is the third highest massif on island, reaching 2643 m). The second is in the western and central southern region of the massif, consisting of old rhyolitic and trachyitic Pliocene domes on which are superimposed huge, more recent, basalt flows which have resulted in barrage lakes and waterfalls on the watercourses. The third, situated in the south and south-west of Betafo and Antsirabe, represents the most recent volcanic activity, with numerous broken cones and crater lakes. An environmental profile of Madagascar c. The Androy in the far south consists of a stack of superimposed flows, alternating basalt and rhyolite, dating from the end of the Cretaceous; relief results from differential erosion, with the basalt eroding easily, while the rhyolites have formed a large cuesta which encircles the massif (reaching 600 m). In the centre of the massif is a table of subhorizontal rhyolites of 700 m altitude. 1.3. SOILS As with relief, there are marked differences between the soils of the Precambrian basement and the western sedimentary region. i. The Precambrian Basement. Over the great part of the Precambrian basement, the soils are composed of lateritic clays; these are found in both forested and savanna regions and have virtually no surface humus. Hydroxides of aluminium and iron in them are mixed with a high proportion of clay and there is little surface concretion. Studies (cited in Guilcher and Battistini, 1967) have shown that although these soils are poor, they are not absolutely infertile, though leaching has led to impoverishment of alkaline and alkaline earth elements, and of silicates. Lateritic clays are the soils currently under formation in most areas. There are also far less widespread lateritic hardpans which are Pliocene or earlier in origin; these are considerably more prone to laterisation than the recent clays. Above 2000 m, the clays are replaced by shallow grey arenaceous soils, or in the small basins of the quartzite crests by quartz sands. In the south and south-west of the Precambrian basin are found soils particular to the region: one is a soil of the calcareous crust, especially on gneiss, where cipolines and amphibolites provide calcareous elements for the soil (these can be cultivated if adequately irrigated); the others are variable red non-lateritic soils, sometimes skeletal and leached, sometimes deep and rich. There is a very sharp dividing line between these and the characteristic lateritic clays west of the principal Anosyenne chain in the south-west of the island. The lateritic clays, which are essentially climatic soils, are found almost entirely over the crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Precambrian basement; far fewer lateritic soils are found on most of the recent volcanic rocks. In the Itasy and Ankaratra massifs are found mostly black soils very rich in humus; these are analagous to the chernozems found in valley bottoms in the Androy in the western sedimentary region where they are derived from basalts (the rhyolites in the higher reaches do not produce them). These are relatively rich soils, whether they are forested or denuded. Alluvions are also found in the Precambrian basement region; their fertility is a function of their consituent elements and their age. They are mainly developed on the high plains, and those of the Ankaizina, for example, are generally rich. However the older alluvions, which are usually found at higher levels in drainage basins, have normally undergone laterisation and are consequently impoverished; this is particularly notable in the region of the Alaotra basin. The recent alluvions of the lower regions are often degraded by massive influxes of sandy elements from leaching of the lateritic clays originating in lavakas in the surrounding areas (e.g. in the Antanetibe plain in the upper Betsiboka). All in all the soils of the Precambrian basin are of average quality for tropical soils; they are often deficient in phosphoric acids but their nitrogen content is often good. However, all these soils except the lateritic and calcareous hard-pans are highly erodable, especially the lateritic clays. ii. The sedimentary region. There is a wide variety of soils in the western sedimentary region, though the two most notable features are the virtual absence of true lateritic clays and the very wide surface cover of a ’sand-clay carapace’ (carapace does not imply hardness, but simply an overlying of the bedrocks) - this latter is a collective term which covers a considerable variety of conditions. Physical background Although there are no true lateritic clays, there are three types of red soils: decalcified clays on calcareous rocks (terra rossa), found widely on the limestone karsts; red soils on cretaceous basalts; reddish soils of the semi-arid regions, notably silicaceous sands coloured by iron hydrates, found in the Androy region (these are not necessarily infertile). The marls and clays of the west never laterise. They form grey soils which have essentially the same composition as the bedrock, though with a higher organic content. In the recent volcanic massifs (Nosy Bé, Mt d’Ambre) are found the same humus-rich dark soils as in the recent volcanic regions of the Precambrian basement. The sand-clay carapace, often very thick, can be a soil or a superficial geological formation according to circumstances; it covers large areas of a variety of rocks, especially sandstones or their surrounds. It is principally found in littoral or sublittoral zones, especially in the southern part of the island, though is also found in the interior, notably south of the Mangoky river. There are also soils of the recent alluvial plains, notably in the large western deltas. Overall, deforestation has led to somewhat less active erosion than in the Precambrian basement. This is doubtless because of the much higher frequency of flat or nearly flat areas (especially in the immense sub-littoral plains from Cap Saint André to the extreme south, but also elsewhere) and the permeability of the sand-clay carapace and of the karst plateaux (when the latter are not covered by terra rossa). However, although lavakas tend not to form, several erosive features which may have analagous effects are found in areas of deforestation - e.g. gully erosion on the reverse slope of the Isalo cuesta, between Ranohira and Sakaraha, and hemicyclic erosion in red soils on basalt, such as on the Radama peninsula - the latter implies that deforestation may have as drastic effects on red soil basalts as on the lateritic clays. I.4. CLIMATE Temperature In the lowlands the mean annual temperature is fairly uniform, though decreases from north to south, ranging from ca 27°C (Antseranana) to 23°C (Taolanaro) with mean annual range increasing from around 3°C in the north to 7.5°C in the dry south-west region. In the west this is often masked by local conditions and moderated by the Mozambique channel, a warm sea with very little circulation, and the Féhn effects of the trade winds descending from the central plateau. Altitude has a significant effect on temperatures, with an average lapse rate of around 0.6°C for every 100 m change in level. Generally lapse rate is below average on the eastern slopes, where the high humidity damps out the temperature variations, and above in the west. On the central plateau, mean annual temperatures usually lie between 16° and 19°C. Frost sometimes occurs above 1500 m though snow is virtually (but not completely) unknown. The mean annual range is between 5° and 6°C in the north and 7°C in the south; diurnal range is greater, being for example between 6° and 16°C in Antananarivo (1381 m., latitude 18°56’S). Rainfall Rainfall in Madagascar is governed by a double gradient: the annual amount decreases from east to west and from north to south, while seasonality increases in the same directions. Thus travelling westward and southward the dry season becomes longer and more marked - in the extreme south-west the climate is sahelian or semi-desert while the eastern coastal area is a subequatorial region of high rainfall and humidity throughout the year. Where seasonality is marked the dry and cool seasons are coincident (roughly June - October), making the whole An environmental profile of Madagascar island characteristically tropical in climate despite the south being below the Tropic of Capricorn. The major factor affecting rainfall is the interaction of the south-east trade wind (the predominant wind at all seasons), produced by the Indian Ocean anticyclone, with the direction of the principal lines of relief on the island (running NNE-SSW). North and north-west *monsoon’ air currents which are a continuation of the north-east trade wind exert an important secondary effect. Orographic ascent, along the eastern coast and escarpment, of unstable moisture-laden air carried by the south-east trade wind leads to extensive cloud formations and heavy rainfall in this region. In summer the trade wind is somewhat attenuated by the withdrawal of the Indian Ocean anticyclone to the south and east, the effect being much more marked in the north than in the south. Above the moist convective trade wind layer there is a much drier stable air mass whose lower level is indicated by a subsidence inversion, also moving westwards. This inversion is most marked and at its lowest altitude in winter, from July to September, and at this time limits cumulus cloud formation and rainfall in areas away from the eastern coast. This combines with warming and drying Fohn effects of the trade wind descending the western slope of the plateau, to lead to generally dry and clear weather in western and southern parts in winter when the south-east trade wind dominates weather conditions. In summer a zone of intertropical low pressure affects the island and brings with it north or north-westerly ’monsoon’ air currents, which are a continuation of the north-east trade wind. These are also heavily moisture-laden and bring a large amount of rain, though their effect decreases markedly eastwards and southwards. In winter the intensification of the Indian Ocean anticyclone and consequent south-east trade winds tends to drive the intertropical low pressure zone and monsoon air away to the north, considerably reducing the rainfall from this source. Bioclimates Rainfall and temperature variations combine to produce a number of ’bioclimatic regions’ on the island. The boundaries between these are to some extent arbitrarily designated, though it is worth noting that in parts of the island (such as the south-east) the climate can change dramatically in character over the distance of a few kilometres. a. On the east coast, the climate is subequatorial with rainfall exceeding 1500 mm and sometimes 3000 mm, with no ecologically dry month and high temperatures throughout the year. b. On the eastern slopes of the plateau, the rainfall still exceeds 1500 mm witha dry season of 1 to 4 months and a mean temperature in the coldest months of between 10° and 15°C. c. On the western slopes of the plateau the dry season is longer, up to 5 or 6 months, rainfall is likely to be less than 1500 mm, though humidity in the dry season is still high through the dominating effects of the trade wind at this time of year. d. On the western plains, the dry season lasts 7 or 8 months in southern regions, somewhat less further north. Rainfall is around 1500 mm in the north, 500 to 1500 mm in the south. e. In the extreme south, rainfall is sparse and highly irregular in occurrence, being stormy and very localised. Some areas may not have any precipitation for 12 to 18 months. There is an absence of detailed climatic data for this region, making characterisation particularly difficult. Physical background These divisions correspond well with Humbert’s phytogeographical divisions of the island based largely on the concept of a natural climatic plant climax community. Cyclones A factor of some considerable environmental importance in Madagascar is the prevalence of cyclones. Donque noted in 1972 that since 1848, 155 cyclones had hit the island, representing just under one quarter of all cyclones in that time in the south-western Indian Ocean. They occur in summer only, with the great majority between mid-January and mid-March; most hit the island along the north-eastern coast, travelling south-west and curving south-east across the island, though others hit the island from the Mozambique channel. They can cause great devastation, with winds of up to 300 km/hr and rainfall of 600 to 700 mm in four or five days, often resulting in large-scale flooding and massive destruction of crops and forests. 1.5. HYDROGRAPHY River systems Following Aldegheri (1972), Madagascar is divided into five hydrographic regions of very unequal size: The slopes of the Montagne d’Ambre in the extreme north; The slopes of the Tsaratanana Massif; The eastern slopes which run into the Indian Ocean; The western and north-western slopes whose waters run into the Mozambique channel; The southern slopes. enogPp a. The Montagne d’Ambre region covers only some 11 200 sq km or barely 1.8% of the land area of the island, in the extreme north. The volcanic massif is drained by narrow torrents with few tributaries running in beds littered with blocks of basalt. The major rivers are the Irodo, the Saharenana and Besokatra; the waters of the last are used to the supply the town of Antseranana. b. The drainage area of the Tsaratanana Massif covers around 20 000 sq km; rivers are characterized by having very steep gradients (30 or 40 m/km) in the upper reaches, levelling off to only a few m/km on the coastal plains, both on the western and eastern slopes. There are four major rivers: the Mahavary (160 km long), the Sambirano (124 km) and the Maevarano (203 km) all flow into the Mozambique Channel, while the Bemarivo (140 km) flows east into the Indian Ocean. c. The eastern slopes cover around a quarter of the land area, or ca 150 000 sq km, extending in a strip some 1200 km long and averaging 100 km wide (ranging from 50 km along Beampingaratra north of Taolanaro to 190 km at the latitude of the Ankaratra Massif). Watercourses are comparatively short, with steep profiles. Because of the prevalence of secondary hill chains running parallel to the coast, linked by faults perpendicular to the coast, the watercourses are often many times longer than the direct distance from source to coast. The rivers meander in the narrow coastal plain and feed a chain of lagoons separated from the sea by sand dunes. These lagoons have been artificially joined along the central part of the coast to form the 400 km Canal des Pangalanes. There are five main rivers in this region: the Mananara, Mangoro, Rianila, Maningory and Mananjary. The Mananara is the longest of these at 418 km (though the source is only 50 km from the coast) while the Mangoro is the largest in terms of size of drainage basin (17 175 sq km) and volume of water carried. The Alaotra basin (discussed in more detail below) feeds into the Maningory. An environmental profile of Madagascar d. The western slopes cover almost 365 000 sq km or over 60% of the land area; watercourses here are divided by Aldegheri into two groups: large rivers which flood widely over the Hauts Plateaux, having roughly triangular drainage basins with the apex towards the coast; and coastal streams located between these whose sources are on the western edge of the Hauts Plateaux. In the first group seven major basins are identified including the five largest basins in Madagascar. From north to south they are: the Sofia with a drainage basin of 27 315 sq km and major tributaries the Anjobony and the Bemarivo; the Betsiboka-Mahajamba system which covers 63 450 sq km, making it the largest basin in Madagascar; the Mahavavy, covering an area of 16 475 sq km; the Manambolo at 13 970 sq km; the Tsiribihina at 49 800 sq km; the Mangoky, the longest river on the island (821 km) with a basin of 55 750 sq km; and the Onilahy at 32 000 sq km. The numerous small coastal rivers all have basins of less than 8000 sq km. e. The southern slopes are divided into three parts: - The Mandrare basin in the east, which covers some 12 570 sq km. The Mandrare River rises in the Beampingaratra Massif, running for some 270 km; it is the only Madagascan river with a longitudinal profile very close to the equilibrium profile. - Three rivers, the Manamboro, Menarandra and Linta make up most of the Androy region in the extreme south, although here there are also several closed basins with no outlet to the sea, the largest of these being the Ampamabora bowl north of Amborombe. - The Mahafaly plateau in the west which has virtually no surface water or rivers. Lakes Keiner (1963) has provided an inventory of waterbodies (lakes, lagoons and large ponds) in Madagascar of over 20 ha in extent, listing over 530. The majority of these are small (less than 100 ha), and only 18 exceed 1000 ha in area. Of the five largest lakes, two are in the Hauts Plateaux region (Alaotra and Itasy) and three in the west (Kinkony, Tsimanampetsotsa and Ihotry). a. Lake Alaotra is the largest lake on Madagascar; its minimum extent (i.e. during the dry season) is some 22 000 ha, though during the height of the flood an additional 35 000 ha of marsh to the south and west are entirely under water. The lake is very shallow, having a maximum depth of around 2 m during the dry season and 4 m at highest water. The lake is at 750 m altitude and is in an area which has suffered considerable deforestation and subsequent erosion; soil run-off results in the lake waters being highly turbid and brown in colour. b. Lake Kinkony (17°09’-18°04’S, 48°15’-48°40’E), the second largest lake, covers an area of ca 10 000 ha at low water and 14 900 ha at high water; maximum recorded depth at high water is 4m. The lake lies in the basin of the lower Mahavavy and is formed from a natural alluvial impoundment. c. Lake Ihotry (21°50’S, 43°30’E) is a closed lake in the region of the lower Mangoky; it shows great variations in surface area, ranging from a minimum of 865 ha to around 9 400 ha. Salinity varies accordingly, being higher than that of sea water at lowest water but over ten times less than this at high water. Maximum depth is 3.8 m. d. Lake Itasy (19°07’S, 46°45’E) is a 3500 ha lake situated in the volcanic Itasy Massif in the centre of the island; it is not strictly a crater lake, but rather a lake blocked by a lava outflow. It lies at a mean altitude of 1221 m and has a maximum depth of 6.5 m. e. Lake Tsimanampetsotsa, situated on the edge of the Mahafaly Plateau, is a shallow, saline lake of ca 20 by 3 km (its surface area ranges from ca 1600 to 2900 ha), saturated with calcium Physical background and magnesium sulphates; in areas on the east shore freshwater rises to the surface. The lake forms part of the Reserve Naturelle Intégrale de Tsiminampetsotsa (R.N.I. No 10) (see Part VI). Hydrology All rivers show high discharge, often in the form of sudden violent spates during the rainy season (November to March-April) and particularly after cyclones (mostly mid-January to mid-March). Response to rainfall is usually almost instantaneous and in many areas there are daily flood peaks during the rainy season, usually at night. In the north and east rainfall is high throughout the year and low water dishcarge is correspondingly high; water flow is thus generally abundant throughout the year. Flood waters are violent, especially on the east coast, because of the rugged relief and the direct exposure to cyclones from the Indian Ocean. In the west a distinction can be drawn between large and small watercourses. There is very little rain in the dry season and at this time of year the volume of water in small watercourses usually decreases downstream, being gradually lost by seepage to the water table; most of these streams are thus dry in their lower reaches from April/May to November. Spate waters generally appear very suddenly and are of short duration (often only a few hours). The larger rivers, however, have catchment areas which extend over the Hauts Plateaux region; here there is usually some rain during the dry season which, combined with the relatively high retention of the predominant lateritic soils, ensures that low waters are generally well sustained, though still considerably lower than on the east coast. This effect carries over into the western region and these rivers thus continue flowing throughout the year. Dry season discharge rates are still much lower than those in the wet season, with a relative decrease from north to south as the extent and severity of the dry season increases - thus the Mangoky has specific low water discharge values about 10 times less than those of the Betsiboka some 600 km further north. In the south, with a very marked dry season and erratic rainfall in the wet season, rivers can show very rapid spate and extreme variations in water level - Aldegheri reports a case on the Menarandra of a rise of almost 3 m in water level in under 20 minutes. During the dry season flows decrease to such an extent that few rivers carry water as far as the sea throughout the year. However there is usually an underground supply in the riverbed sand which is used by local people. PRINCIPAL REFERENCES Aldegeheri, M (1972). Rivers and streams on Madagascar. In: Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (Eds), Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. Battistini, R. (1972). Madagascar relief and main types of landscape. In: Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (Eds), Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. Brenon, P (1972). The geology of Madagascar. In: Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (Eds), Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. Donque, G. (1972). The climatology of Madagascar. In: Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (Eds), Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. Guilcher, A. and Battistini, R. (1967). Madagascar - géographie régionale. *Les cours de Sorbonne’, Centre de documentation universitaire, Paris. Humbert, H. (1954). Les territoires phytogéographiques de Madagascar. Leur cartographie. Les divisions ecologiques du monde. CNRS 195-204. Humbert, H. and Cours-Darne, G. (1965). Carte internationale du tapis végétal, Madagascar. French Institute of Pondicherry. An environmental profile of Madagascar Jolly, A., Oberlé, P., and Albignac, E.R. (Eds) (1984). Key Environments - Madagascar. Pergamon Press, Oxford. Keiner, A. (1963). Poissons, péche et pisciculture a Madagascar. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne. Le Bourdiec, P. (1972). Accelerated erosion and soil degradation. In: Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (Eds), Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. Moreau, J. (in press). Region 9. Madagascar. In: Burgis, M.J. and Symoens, J.J. (Eds), African Wetlands and Shallow water bodies. Vol 2. Directory, ORSTOM, Paris. Rossi, G. (1976). Karst et dissolution des calcaires en milieu tropical. Z.Geomorph. N.F. Suppl.-Bd. 26: 124-152. i) PART Il. HUMAN GEOGRAPHY II.1. POPULATION ESTIMATES AND GROWTH RATES The most recent population census, in 1974/75, gave a figure of 7 603 790 (Thompson, 1982). UN mid-year population estimate for 1985 is 10 012 000. Growth rates are extremely high: the UN estimate for average growth rate over 1980-85 is 2.8% per annum, giving a population doubling time of 25 years. In 1974/75 over half the population was under 20 years old (Thompson, 1982). In 1972 registered birth rate was 37.4/1000 and death rate 11.1/1000, though birth registration was estimated to be only 70% complete, death registration 50%, this giving real figures of 53.4/1000 and 22.2/1000 respectively. II.2. DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION Regional breakdown of population is given in Table 1. The population is very largely rural; Battistini and Verin noted in 1972 that 86% of people lived in villages of fewer than 2000, only 14% of the population living in agglomerations of 2000 or over, and 8% in towns of over 20 000. The population is very unevenly distributed over the island with population growth rates also varying regionally. Average density in 1981 was around 15 per sq km. Regions of higher population density are mainly in the central highlands and eastern coastal plain. Battistini and Verin (1972) noted that high local densities of over 50 per sq km (with patches of over 150 per sq km) (presumably outside towns), were coincident with regions of intensive rice cultivation, mainly in the central highlands: around Antananarivo (Betsimitatatra region), Antsirabe (Vakinankaratra) and in the Betsileo country around Ambositra, Ambohimahasoa and Fianarantsoa, but also on the eastern coastal plain, notably in the Farafangana, Manakara, Mananjary and Fenoarivo Atsinanana regions. In large areas of the west and south, population densities are very low, from 2 to 5 per sq km., with the inhabitants largely pastoralists. Areas of shifting cultivation, such as much of the eastern escarpment slopes, and some rice growing areas (e.g. the Tsimihety highlands) have intermediate densities (5 to 15 per sq km). These variations and the widely differing land-use patterns in different parts of the island lead to marked regional differences in environmental impacts and problems. 11.3. ETHNIC DIVISIONS The origins of the Madagscan people are complex and incompletely understood, though appear to be based on successive waves of migration from both Indonesia and Africa (most importantly the former), with Arab influences from the twelfth century onwards and contact with Europeans dating from the sixteenth century. There is no evidence for human occupation earlier than 2500 years ago. There is now essentially a single, though diverse, culture and a predominantly Indonesian language of which several mutually understandable dialects exist. At present, around 20 tribes are generally recognized, though these are based more on old kingdoms than on genuine ethnic groupings. Continuous migration and _ increased communication in the present century, along with a marked cultural unity, has tended to break down many geographic and ethnic barriers. However strong fidelity to traditional homelands persists, and the custom of endogamy remains widespread, militating against intertribal marriage. Historical tensions still manifest themselves, in particular between the peoples of the Hauts Plateaux, especially the traditionally elite Merina, and the coastal tribes, collectively known as ’cotiers’. ahi An environmental profile of Madagascar TABLE 1. REGIONAL BREAKDOWN OF POPULATION (1978) Province Area Sq km Population Mean density Chief Town Population Antseranana 42 725 620 228 14.5 Antseranana 48 000 Mahajanga 152 165 857 610 5.6 Mahajanga 57 500 Toamasina 72 212 1 254 639 17.4 Toamasina 59 100 Antananarivo Seis 2 322 109 40.2 (33.3)* Antananarivo 400 000 Fianarantsoa 100 326 1 908 465 19.0 Fianarantsoa 55 500 Toliara 162 283 1 084 083 6.7 Toliara 34 500 # Figure in parentheses excludes Antananarivo. Source: Bulletin mensuel de Madagascar (from 1971) continuation of the trimestrial Bulletin de Statsitique générale de Madagascar (1949-71), Service de Statistique Générale, Antananarivo. TABLE 2. ETHNIC GROUPS IN MADAGASCAR (1972) Ethnic group Number Merina 1 934 765 Betsimisaraka 1 106 991 Betsileo 892 352 Tsimihety 533 289 Sakalava 434 315 Antandroy 396 820 Antaisaka 377 110 Tanala 283 908 Antaimoro 255 161 Bara 250 261 Sihanaka 182 948 Antanosy 172 797 Mahafaly 120 620 Antaifasy 88 899 Makoa 80 069 Bezanozano 56 588 Antakarana 44 852 Antambahoaka 29 481 Other Madagascans 80 245 Source: Area Handbook for the Malagasy Republic (1973). S12 Human geography Merina Inhabit the central highlands around Antananarivo, the city being 95% Merina; the region itself is called Imerina. The tribe is divided into three castes: Andriana (Nobles), Hova (Free-men), Andevo (descendants of former slaves). There is much rice cultivation by irrigation. The Merina formed the last and most powerful of the Madagascan kingdoms, which by the nineteenth century controlled most of the island; they were the first tribe to develop any skill in architecture and metallurgy and were the first to use a metal bladed ’angady’, the long-handled Malagasy spade which is still the principal agricultural tool. Betsimisaraka The second largest tribe, living on the east coast in the Toamasina - Antalaha region. Some practice slash-and-burn cultivation on hillsides, growing mountain rice and maize, others practice irrigated high-density rice cultivation in scattered patches, often at the mouths of the principal rivers; there is also large scale production of cash crops, in particular coffee. The inhabitants of Nosy Borah (Ile Ste Marie) are sometimes considered Betsimisaraka. Betsileo Centred in the south of the Hauts Plateaux around Fianarantsoa but about 150 000 live in the Betsiboka in the north-west (Mahajanga province). Much rice growing, often on hillside terraces, and some scanty pastureland. Tsimihety Descendants of the Sihanaka, inhabiting the north-central area, spreading west. Generally rice-growers, though they live in a region of low population density, with extensive thinly populated grazing lands between rice growing areas. Cattle are of very great social importance. Sakalava Occur in the west between Toliara and Mahajanga. The Sakalava were the first important Madagascan kingdom, founded at the end of the sixteenth century, but were largely conquered by the Merina in the nineteenth century. Essentially cattle raisers, with large herds grazing over enormous areas. Dry crops occupy a small amount of land around the villages. Near some of the rivers through the area there are considerable rice-growing areas, though these are apparently mainly the work of the Betsileo and Antaisaka immigrants south of Cap Saint-André, and the Betsileo and Merina on the lower Betsiboka. 60 000 inhabitants of the Mangoky delta, sometimes called ’Masikoro’ are generally included in the Sakalava; the Veza fishermen (qv) are also sometimes considered Sakalava. Antandroy Nomadic, living in the arid south around Ambovombe. Dark skinned, different from other tribes. Primarily pastoral. Very little rice is grown, mostly millet, maize, cassava and beans. Antaisaka An offshoot of the Sakalava tribe, though now largely of mixed descent (e.g. with Bara and Tanala elements), centred south of Farafangana on the south-east coast. The poverty of the region and the high population growth rate has led to much migration, both seasonal and permanent. By 1970 nearly 40% of Antaisaka lived outside their homeland. They principally cultivate coffee, bananas and rice. Antaimoro Live in the south-east around Vohipeno and Manakara. They are of Islamic extraction and, unusually, have written records dating back to 1335, when they arrived on the island, they being one of the most recent peoples to arrive. Principally rice-growers. Bara Nomadic cattle-raisers, originating in the south-west near Toliara, they now live in the south-central area around IJhosy and Betroka. Tanala Forest people living inland from Manakara, occupying about half of the eastern mountain escarpment. They practice slash-and-burn but are also skilled hunters, gatherers and woodsmen. Increasingly, improved cultivation methods have been adopted, especially in the growing of coffee and the irrigation of rice. Sihanaka Inhabit the central plateau region north-east of the Merina, in the region around Lake Alaotra. They have much in common with the Merina and live principally by fishing, growing rice and raising poultry; they inhabit one of the best regions for agricultural development, with large scale rice growing projects taking place around Lake Alaotra. S32 An environmental profile of Madagascar Antanosy Live around Taolanaro in the south-east and are principally rice-cultivators. Mahafaly Inhabit the extreme south-west. Here, along the coastal strip, there are densely populated rural regions where almost all the land, especially that on the Karimolian dune sands, is occupied by contiguous plots of land (’vala’) enclosed by aloe hedges; in these dry land crops such as manioc, sorghum, sweet potato and beans are grown. No rice is cultivated. Cattle raising is of secondary importance and is carried out inland on the crystalline pediplain in the north of the Mahafaly region. Antaifasy Live in the south-east around Farafangana; they cultivate rice and also practice fishing in lakes and rivers. Makoa Originally spread along the north-west coast, many have now moved south to the area of the Onilahy River. They are believed to be descended from African slaves and are the only true negroid peoples on the island. Antankarana An offshoot of the Sakalava dynasty, now a heterogenous group of mixed Sakalava, Betsimisaraka and Arab ancestry living in the north-west around Antseranana; mainly cattle raisers, they also grow dryland crops such as maize, rice and cassava. Bazanozano One of the first tribes to arrive, these live between the Betsimisaraka lowlands and the Merina highlands. They are predominantly herders and woodsmen, though they also grow some rice. Antambahoaka The smallest tribe, they are rice cultivators who live around Mananjary on the south-east coast. These are of the same Islamic descent as the Antaimora. Also recognized are: Vezo A clan of the Sakalava living in the west from Morondava to Faux Cap; they live by fishing and do not cultivate rice. Zafimaniry Live in ca 100 villages between the Betsileo and Tanala, are descended from high plateau people who migrated to the region early in the nineteenth century. Mikea These are hunter-gatherers whose existence as a separate ethnic entity has been questioned. They are found in the south-west, in the Mikea forest between Manombo and Morombe north of Toliary where they live in very tight groups of up to 15, having no contact with other tribes. Battistini and Verin aver that these people are Sakalava-Masikoro, also stating that on the Mahafaly plateau south of the Onilahy river there are Mahafaly with a ’Mikea’ lifestyle. *St Marians’ Live on Nosy Borah (formerly the Ile Sainte Marie) off the east coast; the population is mixed though originally Indonesian, later influenced by Arabs and pirates. The island was ceded to the French in 1750 and became the first enduring French settlement. 1.4. AGRICULTURE Agriculture is by far the most important activity on the island and the great majority (over 80%) of the population are either pastoralists or farmers. Agriculture supplies most of the raw materials for industry, ca 80% of revenues, and 34% of G.N.P. In common with almost all other countries, however, the proportion of the population engaged in agriculture is declining - FAO quote estimates of 89.4% in 1970, 83.7% in 1980 and 80.1% in 1984. Cultivation is the dominant form of agriculture and provides most of the national diet as well as the bulk of exports; stockraising is the chief activity in parts of the southern and western regions but is of more limited economic importance because of its low productivity. Sie Human geography In 1972 it was estimated that 56.6% of crop production and 73% of livestock production was for subsistence consumption, with some 80% of the nation’s farmers engaged primarily in subsistence production, though most sold some portion of their crop for cash. Agriculture on the island is characterized by a high diversity of production, made possible by the wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions. It is however beset with problems at present, brought about partly by this very diversity of conditions, and also by the fragmentation and dispersal of arable land, the distance between producing areas and internal and external markets, low monetary return to farmers, lack of modern techniques and capital, and the vagaries of a tropical climate, prone to cyclones and drought. Rural communications are a severe problem, with only some 6300 km of road motorable throughout the year out of a total of around 40 000 km, much of which is dry-season tracks and trails. Food output has increased to some extent since the mid 1970s, but has been outstripped by the population increase, and with general stagnation of agricultural production in the 1970s, farmers have given more attention to feeding their families than to export crops or agro-industry. Rapid population growth, particularly in the Hauts Plateaux region, coupled with lack of adequate fertilizers has led to unsustainable crop rotation and soil degradation. Irrigation networks have not been maintained. Information is lacking and responsibility for agriculture is dispersed between various ministries and para-statal organizations. The 1978-79 development plan allocated 55 400 million F.M.G. to agricultural development. This had limited success for a variety of reasons, including delay in redistribution of requisitioned land, insecurity of rural regions (increase in cattle thefts), failure to eradicate share-cropping, and the relatively disappointing performance of the rural Fokonolona co-operative societies as vehicles for participation in and promotion of rural revival. Climatic conditions were also particularly difficult in the early 1980s, with four cyclones in January 1982, following a long period of drought which had itself depressed agricultural production, and a further four cyclones in early 1984 which destroyed an estimated 40 000 ha of rice-fields, mainly in the provinces of Toliara and Fianarantsoa. A document on agricultural policy circulated in February 1983 outlined many of the prevailing difficulties and proposed solutions, emphasising particularly the ironing out of structural and organizational problems and aiming in the short term at the rehabilitation of the existing farm economy. Agrarian reform, an essentially political issue complicated by centuries of tradition, will aim at settling under-used land, ensuring a minimum of viability on small farms (average holding is 1-1.5 ha) and usefully channelling internal emigration. Mechanization was to take second place to the encouragement of artisanal techniques and the better use of traditional hand-tools. Consequent on this, a three-year plan for the agricultural sector announced in June 1984 laid most emphasis on restoring and developing the island’s rice production with the aim of restoring self-sufficiency in rice by 1988. Other areas emphasised were livestock, tree-planting and fisheries. Land use and farm structure In 1972, some 5 000 000 ha or 9% of the total land area was considered to be suitable for cultivation without extensive reclamation measures, though other estimates put the extent of arable land at as much as 15% of the land area. FAO estimates for 1982 gave some 3 011 000 ha as under cultivation or fallow, a small increase over a 1968 estimate of 3 000 000 ha. In 1965 land use (of cultivable land) was estimated as: 35% fallow; 25% under irrigated crops (mainly rice, also sugar and cotton); 10% under tree crops (e.g. coffee, cloves); 30% planted to dryland crops (e.g. mountain-rice, cassava, maize, groundnuts, sisal and tobacco). s15= An environmental profile of Madagascar Trees were grown primarily in the east and north, irrigated crops in the Hauts Plateaux and river basins of the west; dryland crops were more evenly distributed, accounting for around 37% of cultivated areas in the east, 46% in the Hauts Plateaux, 53% in the north and 58% in the west. In 1971 there were estimated to be around 940 000 farms on the island. The great majority of these were small private (family) holdings, the average size having been estimated at from | ha, excluding forest and right of way, to 1.7 ha in all. This size does not appear to vary much from region to region. Only 3% of holdings exceed 4 ha. Most family holdings were divided into a number of separate fields or plots (e.g. rice paddy, kitchen garden and field for dryland crops). Pastureland is usually communal. Crop Production Crop production, derived from FAO figures, is given in Table 3. Crops grown principally as cash crops include: coffee, cloves, vanilla, sugar, groundnuts, cotton, soya, coconut (for copra), sisal, tobacco, and cocoa; the remainder are apparently mainly grown for subsistence consumption.. Of cash crops, coffee accounted for 35% (in value) of all exports in 1981, cloves 23% and vanilla 8.8%. a. Rice is the single most important crop and is the dietary mainstay of the Madagascan people. Average yearly consumption per head was put at ca 135 kg in 1972 (thus ranking as the world’s fifth largest per capita consumer). Rice was originally a prestige food, its use has now spread throughout the island, replacing in most areas the traditional diet of cassava and other tubers. Only the people of the south (e.g. Antanosy, Antandroy) still feed mainly on these, and in 1972 it was noted that rice was increasing in popularity even here. Rice is grown on around | million ha and accounts for 40 to 50% of the total annual value of the island’s agricultural produce. Annual production up to 1982 (when severe flooding had a disastrous effect) was more or less static at just over 2 million tonnes despite the considerable governmental efforts to improve rice production in the ’fight for rice’; moreover a decreasing proportion of the crop was reaching the open market: normally some 88% is retained by the growers for domestic consumption, but this had increased to perhaps 96%, as a result of increasing population pressure and the deterioration of both irrigation systems and trade and transportation networks in most areas. A 27% price rise imposed by the government in 1982 appears to have helped alleviate this. Up to 1972 Madagascar was a net exporter of rice, by 1982 the country had to import 15% of its needs. The 1981 import of 170 000 tonnes absorbed 8.5% of the country’s revenues. In 1965 an estimated 85% of riceland was in irrigated paddies (’tanim-bary’), the remaining 15% was rain fed (horaka’) or cultivated by the ’tavy’ method of slash-and-burn. About half of the country’s irrigated rice production was in the Hauts Plateaux including the Alaotra basin, this last area is the site of a massive agricultural development project for rice cultivation. In the early 1960s four sub-prefectures produced a substantial amount of rice surplus to their needs. Three of these were in the Hauts Plateaux: two in the Alaotra basin and one on the Antananarivo plain. The fourth was on the swampy Marovoay plain along the Betsiboka River on the western coast, an area where a modern agricultural station and a large-scale French private firm had been promoting the cultivation of high quality rice varieties for export to France and Mauritius. At this time the densely populated Imerina and Betsileo regions of the highlands tended to be in overall balance of rice production and consumption, though by the early 1970s the situation had already started to deteriorate. Other areas roughly in balance were largely those with a relatively low population density or a strong production of export crops, such as the north-central region and the sedimentary riverain areas of the western coast. Yields are generally very low compared with other countries - the average for the country in 1970 was a mere 1.7 tonnes per ha, with rain-fed rice producing around 1.2 tonnes and tavy PGs TABLE 3. PRINCIPAL CROPS (000 tonnes) Year Rice Cassava Sugar cane Sweet Potatoes Potatoes Bananas Mangoes Maize Taro Coconuts Oranges Green coffee Pulses Pineapple Beans (dry) Ground nuts (+ shell) Cottonseed Sisal Avocados Cotton (lint) Copra Cocoa Palm kernels Cashew Tobacco Palm oil Castor beans 1974-76 1982 1970 1898 ™ TI 1983 2g} '| Human geography Figures for cloves, vanilla and pepper have not been located for these years. F = FAO estimates Source: FAO Production Yearbook 1984. Shy An environmental profile of Madagascar method 1.5 tonnes. Even irrigated paddies produced results far below those obtained elsewhere - in the Antananarivo district in 1970, the average yield was 4.2 tonnes per ha, though some producers were obtaining 5-7 tonnes per ha in fields of 1 to 2 has, while in the large-scale mechanized Alaotra project up to 7.4 tonnes per ha had been obtained by the mid-1960s. ‘This compares with Japanese yields at that time of 50 to 60 tonnes per ha on | to 2 ha fields. Attempts to increase rice production have been a major thrust of the government’s agricultural policy for many years and have centred on both increasing production (through increasing yields and the area under cultivation) and improving net distribution, especially to town dwellers; these have however met with only limited success. Official measures include forming state companies (SINPA) to collect rice for milling and marketing (1973), issuing ration cards for rice and controlling sale and price to consumers (1975), inducing change from rice to wheat in diet (1976), creating more farmer’s co-operatives (1977), improving irrigation over 20 000 ha by building 1500 small dams (1978), decreasing consumption with one riceless day per week (1979-1980) and increasing price to paddy producers by 17% (1981), and again by 27% in 1982. The effectiveness of these measures has been variable, though in general the campaign has had limited success. This has been ascribed to a number of causes, including drought, especially in the south, problems in the running of SINPA, and changing food habits of the Malagasy, with rice becoming ever more popular. Efforts to eliminate middle-men and usurers have reportedly been relatively successful, though the effects of this do not appear to have been completely beneficial - in large measure the state companies which have replaced them (SINPA) have run into serious financial and managerial problems. Although farmers may have previously been exploited by the traditional middlemen, these people also brought goods into the villages, maintaining internal trade circuits. There are now virtually no consumer goods, and incentive to sell produce and increase output beyond the needs of the producer’s family is correspondingly low. From 1975 to around 1982, only 25 000 ha of new rice fields were under cultivation, the goal of the government for one million new hectares between 1978 and 2040 was already falling behind. However the 1983 and 1984 harvests were considerably higher than the 1982, being 2147 and 2132 million tonnes respectively, compared with 1723 million tonnes in 1982; improvements such as the construction of dozens of small dams each year are thus having an effect. Increasing yield has been gained by increasing the area under cultivation rather than yield per hectare, which decreased from 1983 to 1984 and is still below that achieved in the period 1974-76. A Swiss backed campaign against pests (grain borers) has begun in the important rice-growing area of Lake Alaotra which could increase yields there by about 500 kilos per ha. b. Cassava (manioc). In 1972 this was stated to be the second food crop after rice in terms of area planted and probably in quantity consumed, though it rated low in consumer preference. FAO production figures for 1980 note an unofficial yield estimate of 1 450 000 tonnes, placing it third after rice and sugar cane. This represents around a fourfold increase over estimated total production in 1962 of 327 000 tonnes, though this may be accounted for by a change in type of estimate i.e. from consumption to production (see below). However Thompson and Adloff quoted a figure of 800 000 tonnes harvested in 1961 from 202 600 ha. In the 1960s it was grown in every part of the island except the interior grazing lands of the west and the uncultivable mountain ranges of the east. Production was greatest in the far south, where it was a staple of subsistence consumption, and around Lake Alaotra and the Sambirano River, where it was grown for industrial processing into tapioca, starch and flour at the chief processing centres in the provinces of Antananarivo, Mahajanga and Toamasina. Exports were declining and not considered to have much potential, and were apparently insignificant by 1980. Fiig- Human geography In 1962, some 100 000 tonnes out of total production of 327 000 tonnes were fed to livestock, especially in the Hauts Plateaux, where it was often used as fodder for penned cattle. Elsewhere it was likely to be used primarily as a reserve against famine, so that potential resources in cassava in an average year were thought to be about double the amount actually consumed for subsistence or marketed. Often plots would be left unharvested as a sort of domestic larder, either because commercial demand and price were too low in the locality or because subsistence consumption was directed by preference to rice and vegetables - often for both reasons. In 1972 it was stated that no increase in the area of cassava was recommended, instead better utilization of areas already planted was advocated. c. Other tubers. Sweet potatoes, potatoes and taro are produced in large quantities (see Table 3); the increase in production of these, and maize, has partially compensated for the short-fall in rice production, although rice remains the greatly preferred foodstuff. Wild roots and tubers are also harvested, although no reliable figures for consumption are available. d. Coffee is the single most important Madagascan export and is grown along the east coast and in the north-west (in the lower Sambirano region and on Nosy Bé). In 1983 it was reported to cover an area of around 220 000 ha along the east coast and its production is said to involve about 25% of the island’s population. Production has been relatively stable at around 80 000 tonnes per annum, though is noted to have peaked in 1979 at 81 000 tonnes and to have declined since. Most of the bushes are now well past their best and the government launched a scheme ’Operation Café arabica’ in 1979 to replace them, improve cultivation techniques and increase the price paid to producers; although this has resulted in the planting of some 425 000 new coffee bushes in 1981 and an increase in price to the growers of around 50% since 1979, it is still said to be behind schedule. Under IMF terms the government is currently committed to exporting 60 000 tonnes of coffee a year. Collection from outlying areas has been hampered by the deterioration of the secondary road network. e. Vanilla is grown mainly in the north-east, also in the north-west. Thompson and Adloff (1965) quote a figure of 5000 ha planted to the crop, with 4700 ha of this in the region of Antseranana. Madagascan vanilla accounts for 90% of the world’s sales of that commodity, in 1983 apparently all to USA; however it faces strong competition from synthetic subsitutes. Production fell during the 1970s partly because of poor plantation maintenance, from around 8000 to 2000 tonnes per annum. Prices to the producer were more than doubled between 1979 and 1982 and output was reportedly increasing again. f. Cloves are reportedly grown almost exclusively on the eastern coastal plain, on Nosy Borah and around Fenoarivo Atsinanana; in 1965 the crop was said to cover around 35 000 ha. Clove production follows a 3-4 year cycle which was reportedly at a low in 1983. Production decreased from 11 000 tonnes in 1979 to 8000 in 1980 (presumably this could be part of natural cycle), as did the Malagasy share in a joint marketing venture with Tanzania, started in 1977. All exports are apparently to Malaysia. However it was noted that the area under cultivation had been steadily increasing and producer prices raised, which could give good results in 1985/1986. g. Sugar is grown on four government estates and many small-holdings; production in 1981 was estimated at 1.4 million tonnes. However yields from the small-holdings are low and mostly go into rum, with production of refined sugar having reportedly declined. A few thousand tonnes are exported. h. Cotton is grown for local processing; in 1967 it was noted that important areas of cotton existed in the region of Toliara in the deltas of the Fiheranana and Mangoky Rivers and around Ankazoabo. It was hit by drought in 1980, with yields of seed cotton dropping from around 35 000 tonnes in 1979 to 25 000 tonnes in 1980; by 1983 production had recovered to around 30 000 tonnes and producer prices have doubled over the past few years. =19= An environmental profile of Madagascar i. Sisal is grown principally in the arid regions of the south and south-west (together producing four fifths of the country’s total), but also around Antseranana and on the lower Betsiboka. Areas conceded to sisal companies in 1960 covered 25 000 ha of which 16 000 ha had been planted to the crop. Production of sisal in 1965 was given as 24 300 tonnes while estimates for 1979-80 were 22 000 tonnes per annum; production of this long-established crop has thus remained relatively stable. It was noted in 1967 that international competition made export difficult. j. Oil crops. Groundnut production has decreased, but the government was reported in 1983 as encouraging soya bean planting (on 70 000 ha) and copra from coconuts (3000 ha) and groundnuts (60 000 ha) and had plans to build another oil-mill. k. Tobacco. Production has remained relatively stable and stood at around 4000 tonnes in 1981. Livestock Estimates for livestock numbers and products are given in Tables 4 and 5. a. Cattle are by far the most important form of livestock and traditionally there is one head of cattle per person in Madagascar. In 1981 the registered herd numbered 7.3 million; estimates of the true number vary widely, though it is almost certainly higher than this (as reflected in FAO estimates quoted above). The principal cattle producing areas are the provinces of Toliara and Mahajanga in the west and the prefectures of Alaotra, in the Hauts Plateaux, and Vohimarina in the north-east. These areas in total hold some 2/3 of the national herd, and in 1972 had a reported surplus production of 11-13%. Cattle tend to be valued more in social than in economic terms and official slaughtering was only 2.5% of the herd in 1981. In principle, cattle in the traditional pasturage areas of the south and west are only slaughtered on ceremonial occasions; however, such occasions are frequent enough that meat consumption is high - in 1972 per capita consumption of beef in such areas reportedly averaged 66 pounds (30 kg) each year. Most of the Hauts Plateaux and eastern region constitutes an area of net cattle consumption, with 8-12% (in 1972) of the herd being imported from cattle producing regions. Some meat is also exported. Overall, however, 75% of total output (in 1972) was consumed as subsistence, with only 25% entering the money exchange economy. Money from sales tends to go into replacing the herds; the livestock sector is thus something of a closed circle economically. In 1982 less than 20% of the current export quota was being met and a recent study showed that the country may need to import by 1985. Supply was not a problem but commercial networks - rounding-up, slaughtering, veterinary care and transport - posed organizational difficulties which raised costs above prices. In 1972, cattle taxes were abolished as an encouragement to stock-raising, yet the need to pay such taxes had obliged farmers to sell some cattle and thereby kept something of a monetary circuit going. Government policy is now tending towards the suppression of agricultural subsidies. Permits to move cattle across country may also soon require payment. Vaccination has been free, but may now be charged to farmers, although in 1982 the World Bank, FAO and the Madagascan Government began joint financing of an immunization campaign and other measures in Mahajanga province to improve stock-rearing and increase the income of the estimated 120 000 herders in the province. The country is looking for export markets and hopes to sell meat this year to the EEC, North Africa and within the Indian Ocean. Cattle are generally free-roaming and subject to minimal husbandry; the burning off of pasture to provide new growth for grazing during the start of the dry season is probably the major cause of deforestation in western regions (see Part III.4.). b. Pigs can be raised in all parts of the island; however, Thompson and Adloff noted in 1965 that commercial hog-raising was widespread only in the Hauts Plateaux region, one of the principal reasons for this being that pigs and pork were ’fady’ (taboo) for many of the coastal =—90= TABLE 4. LIVESTOCK (’000 HEAD) Year 1974-76 Cattle 8543 Goats 1308 Pigs 607 Sheep 632 Chickens 13 000 Ducks 2000 Turkeys 1000 F = FAO estimates TABLE 5. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS (TONNES)? Year 1974-76 Beef and veal 108 Poultry meat 36 Pigmeat 23 Goat meat 3 Mutton and lamb 2 Milk (whole, fresh) 30 Hen eggs# 9808 Eggs (excl. hens)# 3012 Honey 11 Silk (raw and waste) 1S 1982 10 281 1730 1240 740 18 000 4000 F 3000 F 1982 1 All figures for 1982-84 are FAO estimates # Number of eggs (’000). Source: FAO Production Yearbook 1984. dif 1983 10 322 1750 F 1300 F 630 F 18 000 5000 F 3000 F 1983 Human geography 1984 10 400 F 1800 F 1350 F 700 F 18 000 5000 F 3000 F An environmental profile of Madagascar tribes, including any with Arabic influence. FAO estimate that pigmeat production increased by just under 50% from 1974 to 1984 (Table 5). c. Sheep. In the early 1960s the only important area of sheep production was in the Androy region in the extreme south-west, although other areas were climatically suitable and the Hauts Plateaux region had previously supported significant numbers of sheep. As with pigs, sheep were considered ’fady’ by several of the coastal tribes. According to FAO estimates (see Table 4), the number of sheep decreased in the period 1982-84, although the 1984 estimate showed a 10% increase over the 1974-76 population. d. Goats increased in number from 1974 to 1984 at approximately the same rate as pigs. Thompson and Adloff (1965) noted that these were found very largely on the west coast and, like sheep, mostly in the extreme south-west, despite large areas of the rest of the island being climatically suitable for rearing them. e. Poultry, especially chickens, are ubiquitous and provide an important source of protein, both as eggs and as meat. REFERENCES Anon. (1983). Madagascar - the ’taxi-brousse’ changes gear. The Courier 80: 7-26. Battistini, R. and Verin, P. (1972). Man and the environment in Madagascar. In: Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (Eds), Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. FAO (1985). FAO Production Yearbook 1984. FAO Statistics Series No. 61, Vol. 38. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome. Guilcher, A. and Battistini, R. (1967). Madagascar - géographie régionale. ’Les cours de Sorbonne’, Centre de documentation universitaire, Paris. Jolly, A. (1980) of rough timber exploited in 1979 (probably based on the number of permits in force in that year). From the same source, the return per ha was around 30 m° for eastern forests and 10 m> for western forests, giving 9100 ha of exploited eastern forest, 4200 ha of western forest and 700 ha of southern forest. Most exploitation uses traditional methods: felling is by axe, and wood is extracted and cut into planks or cross-sections with a long-saw or axe. Yield is very low (ca 20%). There is little mechanised exploitation. Here, felling is carried out either with axes or chain-saws, and trimming with chain-saws. Timber is extracted, as rough logs, which are cut up either on site or at the saw-mill. Use of chain-saws is not general but is spreading. The use of tractors for clearing and wood-peeling as much as for creation of tracks, is now fairly widespread on mechanised sites. Most of the relatively accessible forest has already had the best timber systematically removed and there are virtually no remaining areas where the standing crop is economically viable. Since 1975 no valuable unworked wood (e.g. of Dalbergia) can be exported; only worked timber (de-barked, cut into planks) is allowed to leave. Most of the forestry industries (especially timber-mills) are in the private sector; timber-mills, numbering 60 at the end of 1975, are scattered throughout the island with a heavy 236% Flora, vegetation and forest cover concentration in the province of Antananarivo. Their capacity varies from 500 m? per year to 3000 m?, with 80% having a capacity lower than 1500 m? per year. Other forest products The rural population exercises rights of usage which allow them to freely obtain wood for the construction and preparation of dwellings, firewood and other products for their own use. Theoretically, these should be under the control of permits issued without charge though in practice exploitation is often carried out without them. FAO (1978) estimated 400 000 m?” of *bois de service’ (timber for building), 5 200 000 m> of firewood and charcoal (wood equivalent). A 1980 Direction des Eaux et Foréts report gave annual production of 2 520 000 tonnes of fire-wood and 71 000 tonnes of charcoal. Honey, beeswax, resins and raphia (4225 tonnes according to the above) are important mincr forest products. 1.5. REAFFORESTATION Reafforestation projects have been undertaken for several decades, especially in the Hauts Plateaux. One of the earliest on any scale apparently was the establishment of broadleaves, especially eucalyptus, along the railway from Antananarivo in 1910 to provide fuel-wood for the locomotives (since the introduction of diesels, these plantations have been used for other purposes). Most plantations have been of eucalyptus for firewood and local building, though conifers have been increasingly used since the 1950s following success with Pinus patula. FAO/UNEP (1981) distinguishes between industrial and non-industrial plantations: i. Industrial plantations - estimated 112 000 ha These are very largely based on pines, some for the production of industrial timbers, others for pulp-wood. Species used include Pinus patula, P. kesiya, P. pinaster and Cupressus lusitanica. There are some plantations of mixed pines and cypress and of pines and eucalyptus, and also very limited areas of other timber trees such as Afzelia bijuga, Terminalia superba, Cedrela odorata, Tectonia grandis, Eucalyptus spp. and other species. In 1980 it was envisaged that 35 000 ha of industrial plantations would be planted between 1981 and 1985, of which 85% would be conifers and 15% broadleaf trees. ii. Other plantations - estimated 154 000 ha These are principally for firewood and ’bois de service’. Different Eucalyptus species are used, including E. grandis, E. camaldulensis, E. saligna, E robusta, E. viminalis, E. racemosa, E. citriodora, E eugenioides and the hybrid E. 12 ABL, either in monocultures or mixed with Acacia mearnsii, A. dealbata, A. melanoxylon, Casuarina equisetifolia, Terminalia superba, Afzelia spp, Tectonia grandis or conifers. In 1980 it was envisaged that 25 000 ha of non-industrial plantations would be planted between 1981 and 1985, of which 20% would be conifers and 80% broadleaf trees. According to the 1981 FAO report about three quarters of plantations are state owned; 15% belong to local communes and 10% are private. These figures are based on a questionnaire sent out in 1973 and can be expected to be approximate at best. Important reafforestation projects undertaken since 1968 by the Direction des Eaux et Foréts et de la Conservation des Sols include: =8i/- An environmental profile of Madagascar - Industrial plantations in the Haute Matsiatra, covering in 1976 an area of around 35 000 ha, almost totally planted with Pinus patula; - Industrial plantations in the Haut Mangoro, covering in 1976 nearly 50 000 ha of Pinus kesiya; - Manankaso, where plantations of Pinus patula totalling some 10 000 ha were planned; several hundred hectares had been planted by the end of 1976; - Plantations in the Vakinankaratra, a region which could be joined to that of the Haut Mangoro to supply the same industry; in 1969, 1200 ha of Pinus patula were planted. - Planting of cashew Anacardium occidentale in Mahajanga and Antseranana provinces. The objective, apparently attained by 1981, was the planting of 40 000 ha of cashews to supply factories processing the nuts. By 1969, 11 000 ha had been planted around Mahajanga, 10 000 ha at Ambilobe, and around 9000 ha scattered through the two provinces. - A scheme in the Morarana area which envisaged the planting of softwoods to supply a match factory at Moramanga as well as other industries. The final aim was the creation of 1500 ha of poplars, of which 350 ha had been planted in 1969 (in 1984 it was reported that the factory had closed (Jolly et al., 1984)). - A scheme to provide wind-breaks in the south of the island which aimed to plant some 100 km per year. No significant replanting using native species has been undertaken, though small scale experimental planting has been undertaken at some forest stations. Ill.6. ETHNOBOTANY Introduction Madagascar is currently a net importer of pharmaceuticals (World Bank figures of 3664.5 million Madagascan Francs for 1977, equivalent to ca U.S.$14 500 000). In 1977, the World Health Assembly of the World Health Organization (WHO) adopted a resolution urging governments to promote interest and research on their traditional medical systems. The rationale behind this was that, where proven effective, traditional medicine could provide an important health care resource in developing countries since it is both culturally acceptable and economically feasible (Akerele, 1984). Furthermore, medicinal plants of proven effectiveness could theoretically be cultivated and exported, thereby reducing import expenditures while increasing employment opportunities and generating foreign exchange (Plotkin, 1982). WHO has established Collaborating Centres for Traditional Medicine in Ghana, Mali, Nigeria, Sudan, India, China, Italy, Mexico, and the United States (Gyllenhaal, 1985). Appreciating the richness and uniqueness of its cultural heritage as well as its flora, the Malagasy government has expressed a strong interest in research on traditional medicine and medicinal plants, and has established a Department of Ethnobotany within the Centre National de Recherche Pharmaceutique (C.N.R.P.). The potential value of the Madagascan flora The Madagascan Rosy Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) belongs to the family Apocynaceae, whose species are often rich in alkaloids. C. roseus is the source of over 75 alkaloids, two of which are used to treat childhood leukemia and other cancers with a high rate of success. Other experimental pharmacological activities - diuretic, hypoglycaemic and antiviral - have also been associated with alkaloids extracted from this species (Svoboda and Blake, 1975). It 238 Flora, vegetation and forest cover should be noted that C. roseus was first subjected to laboratory investigation because of its use by local peoples as an oral hypoglycaemic agent (Cordell and Farnsworth, 1976)”. Sales of these anti-cancer drugs worldwide in 1980 were estimated to be worth approximately $50 million wholesale prior to 100% retail mark-up (International Marketing Statistics, 1980, quoted in Myers, 1984; Svoboda, 1981; Myers, 1984). Myers (1984) forecasts that demand for these drugs will increase by 15% by a year. It is indeed significant that Madagascar received nothing in royalties from these sales, since the drugs are currently extracted from Rosy Periwinkles cultivated in other countries (Myers, 1984). Furthermore, there are several other species of Catharanthus on the island and one of these, C. coriaceous, is considered to be in "utmost danger" of extinction (Thompson, 1984). The actual and potential utility of the Madagascan flora is not limited to the field of medicine. Two of the important agricultural commodities on the island are coffee (Coffea arabica) and vanilla (Vanilla planifolia). In 1980, Madagascar produced 80 000 tons of coffee, which amounted to 35% of the dollar value of the country’s entire exports for 1981 (see Part II). Coffee exports in 1982 were worth 34.91 billion Madagascan francs (International Monetary Fund, 1985). Although C. arabica originated in Ethiopia, Madagascar is home to a number of wild species, perhaps as many as fifty (Guillaumet and Mangenot, 1975). Some of these species may have potential in commercial breeding since they produce beans with little or no caffeine (Guillaumet, 1984). As far as we could ascertain, none of the Madagascan Coffea germplasm has been collected to conserve them for future genetic work. Next to petroleum, coffee is one of the most important commodities in international trade and is a mainstay of the economies of several tropical countries (Imle et al., 1977). | Nonetheless, commercial coffee (primarily Coffea arabica) is rather susceptible to certain fungal diseases. The spores of these fungi are very short lived, yet rapid modes of transportation have already resulted in at least one introduction of the disease from the Old World to the New World tropics (R.E. Schultes, pers. comm.). As a result, both Central American and Brazilian coffee crops were attacked by a rust disease in the 1970s. Fortunately, a rust-resistant strain from Ethiopia was introduced with successful results. Not only is the continued success of commercial coffee cultivation dependent on the conservation of wild relatives, but coffee germplasm must also be maintained in living collections, since prolonged seed storage is not feasible (Ferwerda, 1976). Guillaumet (1984) reported finding five different coffee species within a 2 km area in a lowland rain forest reserve, and he claimed that most Coffea species in Madagascar exist only in reserves and protected areas. Artificial pollination of commercial vanilla (Vanilla planifolia was first developed in the late 1800s, making cultivation possible in many areas, including Madagascar (Correll, 1953). Vanilla plantations were first established on Nosy Borah (Ile Ste Marie) and Nosy Bé, and were then initiated on the mainland (Koechlin et al., 1979). Today, Madagascar produces most of the world’s commercial vanilla: in 1982, vanilla exports were worth 16.76 billion Madagascan francs (International Financial Statistics, 1985). Despite the fact that cultivated vanilla has a very narrow genetic base (G. Wilkes, pers. comm.) and that commercial vanilla plantations on the island are periodically ravaged by fungal diseases (Guillaumet, 1984), we were unable to learn of any attempts to collect, preserve, or otherwise employ the germplasm of the 5-6 species of wild Vanilla endemic to Madagascar. Madagascan fibre plants like the Raphia palm should also be investigated for their commercial potential. Rattan from South-east Asia is the basis of a multimillion dollar industry, yet overcollecting has severely reduced available stands in some areas (Dransfield, 1981; Myers, 1984). 3 Interestingly, its use was originally reported from Jamaica; nevertheless, records of its use as a folk medicine in Madagascar exist as well (see Appendix 5). =—So— An environmental profile of Madagascar Previous studies of ethnobotany in Madagascar More than seventy books and papers dealing with at least some aspect of the useful flora of Madagascar have been published to date. As far as we are able to ascertain, only one of these publications (Debray ef al., 1971) was based on field study which included collection of voucher specimens. The great majority of the works are either taxonomic or anthropological and demonstrate a paucity of first-hand ethnobotanical information. This statement does not intimate, however, that there are not many useful data available. Excellent compilations on the ethnobotany of Madagascar (e.g. Heckel, 1910; Pernet and Meyer, 1957; Boiteau, 1974; etc.) contain information on the utility of hundreds of local species. Vernacular and scientific names as well as actual uses are presented, but there are no voucher specimens, no methodologies and sometimes no method of preparation given. The most useful works on the ethnobotany of Madagascar include (in chronological order): 1) Heckel, 1910 - Heckel presents a compendium of ethnobotanical data from various peoples of Madagascar. Although most of the information seems to be based on the use of plants by the Merina, utilization of species by other tribes (including the Betsileo, Betsimisaraka, and the Sakalava) are also presented. This book contains data on names and/or uses of over 700 species of plants, and entries are cross-referenced by both scientific and vernacular names. 2) Dandouau, 1922 - This paper on the charms and remedies of the Sakalava and Tsimihety notes that these tribes believe that all sickness is caused by spirits. Treatments are specified for all of the maladies listed, although unfortunately the plants are for the most part referred to only by vernacular name. The author notes, however, that Aphloia theaeformis and Cassia occidentalis were being prescribed by medical doctors at that time to treat both common and hepatic fevers. 3) Linton, 1933 - Linton’s monograph on the Tanala contains a section on alcohol and narcotics employed by members of the tribe. 4) Dubois, 1938 - This monograph of the Betsileo contains an important contribution to Madagascan ethnobotany. The study features a section on the plant medicines of the tribe, including alphabetical listings of both the illnesses and the plants employed in their treatment. Fifty of the plants discussed are identified by their scientific name. 5) Terrac, 1947 - Terrac’s thesis represents the second major compilation of the medicinal plants of Madagascar. The work includes data on some 800 phanerogamic and 30 cryptogramic species. 6) Robb, 1957 - A little known paper which presents an excellent overview of the use of ordeal poisons in both Africa and Madagascar. The author lists three species employed in Madagascar: a) "Tanghin" - Tanghinia venenifera (Apocynaceae). "Tanghin" was employed as an ordeal poison in the judgement of all crimes, especially sorcery. The nut or kernel of this tree of the eastern forests is highly toxic, containing a cardiac glycoside, the physiological properties of which are similar to those of strophanthin and ouabain, the active principles of an ordeal poison employed in West Africa. The use of "tanghin" to find and kill sorcerers once resulted in the death of 6000 people. It is still employed in some areas for the purposes of assassination (D. Gade, pers. comm.). b) "Ksopo" - Menebea venenata (Asclepiadaceae). "Ksopo" was the ordeal poison of the Sakalava and is found in their arid tribal homeland in the west/north-western part of the island. Like the aforementioned "Tanghin", the toxicity of "Ksopo" is attributed to the presence of a powerful cardiac glycoside. -40- 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) Flora, vegetation and forest cover c) "Couminga" - Erythrophleum couminga (Leguminosae). The toxic bark of "Couminga" was employed as an ordeal poison throughout Madagascar and the Seychelles. So poisonous did the locals consider this species, that they claimed that the fragrance of its flowers, the rain water that washed the leaves, and the smoke from burning parts of the plant all would be fatal; this is reminiscent of the stories told of the “upas" tree (Antiaris toxicaria) of tropical Asia (R.E. Schultes, pers. comm.). As in the two preceding examples, the active principles of "couminga" were cardiac glycosides. Although the article concludes that the use of ordeal poisons was not practised after 1920, current reports suggest that these rituals may still persist in some of the more remote areas of the island. Pernet (1957, 1959) - These works are regarded as the forerunner of the pharmacopeia of Madagascar. They draw on the research conducted at the Laboratoire de Chimie Vegetale in Madagascar between 1954 and 1959. Pernet and Meyer, 1957 - The Pharmacopée de Madagascar presents an excellent compilation of ethnomedical uses of plants. Drawing on 58 references, this work contains data on 1171 uses of over 450 species. Although no information is provided on vernacular names, use by particular tribe or chemical composition, data are cross-referenced by taxonomy and ethnomedicinal use. Decary, 1964 - An overview of the useful palms of Madagascar, this paper contains information on 31 local species and on two introduced palms. Data are presented on local distribution, scientific and vernacular names, fibre, fruit, edible starch, vegetable salt, palm hearts, and palm wine. Specific mention is made of palms used by the Sakalava and Betsimisaraka. Boiteau ef al., 1968a,b - These papers furnish data on bitter barks used for ethnomedical purposes by various peoples in Madagascar. Information is offered on practical and economic uses, etymology of vernacular names, and particular species employed. Ratsimamanga ef al., 1969 - This work represents the initial effort to publish an official Madagascan Pharmacopeia along the lines of the Codex Francais -- the Pharmacopeia of France. Unfortunately, it covers only the first 39 elements (i.e., it does not go beyond the letter "A"), and no subsequent portions appear to have been published. DeBray et al., 1971 - Published by ORSTOM, this book represents the single most important primary reference yet published on the ethnomedicine of Madagascar. The first section deals with the plants of the south-west and their use by the Bara, Mahafaly and Sakalava. Section two offers data on the plants of the east coast -- those employed by the Antaimoro and the Betsimisaraka. The last section is the largest of the three and details the plants of the plateau employed by the Merina. The importance of this work is multifold: it is all based on original fieldwork; it features exact collecting localities and voucher specimens; it offers vernacular and scientific names; and it gives the results of chemical analyses of the useful species. On the negative side, it makes virtually no reference to earlier works on the ethnobotany of the peoples or the plants. Furthermore, none of the tribes studied (with the possible exception of the Merina) was examined in depth. Nevertheless, this work represents a benchmark for future field and laboratory research on the ethnobotany of Madagascar. Rarafindrambao, 1973 - A study of Buxus madagascarica, a plant which is employed for a variety of purposes in Madagascar. Taylor and Farnsworth, 1975 - Although much has _ been written on the genus Catharanthus, this book offers one of the best overviews available, featuring data on the botany, distribution, taxonomy, chemistry, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and synthesis of Catharanthus alkaloids. Chapters include: Ay An environmental profile of Madagascar 15) 16) 17) 18) 19) 20) 1. A Synopsis of the Genus Catharanthus (Apocynaceae) by William T. Stearn 2. The Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. by G. Svoboda and D.A. Blake 3. The Phytochemistry of Minor Catharanthus species by M. Tin-Wa and N.R. Farnsworth 4. Structure Elucidation and Chemistry of the Bis Catharanthus Alkaloids by Ronald J. Parry 6. Tissue Culture Studies of Catharanthus roseus by David P. Carew 7. Biochemistry of Dimeric Catharanthus Alkaloids by William A. Creasey 8. Clinical Aspects of the Dimeric Catharanthus Alkaloids by R.C. DeContin and W.A. Creasey Boiteau, 1974-79 - Boiteau was a French agronomist who founded the botanical garden and zoo at Tsimbasasa, currently under the Directorship of one of the co-authors of this report. In 1974, Boiteau began publishing the Dictionnaire des Noms Malgaches des Végétaux in serial parts in the Italian journal Fitoterapia. The entries were filed alphabetically by vernacular name, and it was originally envisioned that this work would include virtually all of the available information on the useful species of the island. Unfortunately, Boiteau died in 1980 and the Dictionnaire reached only the letter "L." Boiteau’s wife and daughter assembled the data posthumously, and the second half of the work still exists in typescript. Since the journal Fitoterapia is of limited distribution and as the Dictionnaire is of rather limited use in its current half-published form, it is strongly suggested that the entire manuscript be published as a complete work with financing from an international conservation organization or botanical garden. Boiteau and Potier, 1976 - A general overview of the importance of ethnomedical knowledge, this article cites examples from Madagascar (such as_ the anti-cancer Catharanthus roseus and the biodynamically active species of Evodia employed in circumcision rites). Ratsimamanga, 1977 - A general overview by the noted Madagascan ethnobotanist Rakoto Ratsimamanga of the potential of ethnomedical species for the production of local pharmaceuticals. Boiteau, 1979 - Information on Madagascan plants specifically organized for doctors wishing to use local resources for medicinal purposes. This work contains a breakdown of useful plants by category of use (insecticide, purgatives, febrifuge, etc.) with over 90 categories, a list of simple tisanes and their uses, and other recommended preparations and their uses. Scarpa, 1980 - This paper is yet another overview of the importance of traditional medicine, offering a number of examples from Madagascar. The author concludes that traditional treatments should not be discarded but rather blended with modern scientific knowledge, hopefully with holistic results. Rabesa, 1985 (unpublished) - Dr Zatera Antoine Rabesa, Minister of Scientific Research, recently completed an ethnobotanical study of the people living near Lac Alaotra (Sihanaka?); it has not yet been published. Dr Rabesa is currently in the process of initiating a similar study of the Sakalava living near Mahajara. It is this type of research, conducted by local scientists, that bodes well for the future of ethnobotany in Madagascar, and that should be financially and logistically supported by international conservation organisations, pharmaceutical companies, and botanical gardens and museums. 24) Flora, vegetation and forest cover Appendix 5 contains a preliminary ethnobotany database for Madagascar, detailing plants and their medicinal uses, classified both by plant species and by use. REFERENCES Akerele, O. (1984). WHO's traditional medicine programme: progress and _ perspectives. WHO Chronicle 38(2): 76-81. Axelrod, D.I. and Raven, P.H. (1978). Late Cretaceous and Tertiary vegetation history of Africa. In: Werger, M.J.A. (Ed.), Biogeography and ecology of southern Africa. Junk, the Hague. Pp. 77-127 Bastian, G. (1964). La forét d’Ambohitantely. Madagascar, Revue de Géographie 5: 1-42. Battistini, R. and Verin, P. (1972). Man and the environment in Madgascar. 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(1981). The Vinca Alkaloids. Eli Lilly, Indianapolis. Taylor, W. and Farnsworth, N. (Eds) (1975). The Catharanthus_ Alkaloids. Dekker, Inc., New York. Terrac, M.L. (1947). Contribution a l'étude des Plantes Médicinales de Madagascar, de la Réunion et de I’Ile Maurice. Imprimerie Polyglotte Vuibert. Thompson, D. (1984). Report of the Oxford University botanical expedition to Madagascar. (Unpublished report). White, F. (1983). The Vegetation of Africa. A Descriptive Memoir to Accompany the Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa. Natural Resources Research 20, Unesco, Paris. 356 pp. -45- An environmental profile of Madagascar Wild, H. (1975). Phytogeography and Gondwanaland position of Madagascar. Boissiera 24: 107-117. World Bank (1980). Madagascar -- Recent Economic Developments and Future Prospects. Washington. -46- PART IV. MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS IV.1. RELIEF Littoral and coastal relief is characterized by marked east-west asymmetries in the same manner as the continental relief (Battistini, 1972; Guilcher and Battistini, 1967); these have strong influence on the distribution of coral reefs and mangroves, Madagascar possessing significant areas of both. The continental shelf is very narrow on the east coast, with the 100 m depth contour 3 to 5 km offshore and the 1000 m contour 15 to 30 km offshore; by contrast, on the west coast the 100 m contour is 30 to 80 km offshore, the 1000 m contour 40 to 150 km. The shelf is notably wide between Cap d’Ambre and Mahajanga, between Soalala and Morondava, and between Taolanaro and Androka. Tidal amplitude differs considerably - on the east coast high-tide level is very low (some 50 cm), while on the west it commonly reaches 3 to 5 m. This (and the very wide extent of the western coastal plain) allows the development of extensive brackish water areas in the west, while in the east the transition from sea to fresh water is usually very rapid. Following Battistini (1972), littoral relief can be divided into four main regions: i. The north-west between Cap d’Ambre and Cap Saint-André shows a characteristic submerged continental relief and has the most indented coastline of the island, with many bays and capes (often of relatively high elevation) and large numbers of offshore islands. ii. Along the west and south-west between Cap Saint-André and Cap Sainte-Marie, the coastline is low-lying and monotonous in appearance, being more or less without indentations and having very long sandy beaches, with mangrove swamps behind. There are many large deltas, only the largest of which (e.g. Mangoky and Tsiribihina) extend for a short distance out to sea; others are aborted to a greater or lesser degree by ocean swell shaping a straight coastline. This contributes to the formation of a large, low-lying littoral plain. iii. The extreme south is characterised by considerable quaternary dune accumulations; the oldest of these are sandstone with cross bedding, and lead to a rocky coast in many regions. Elsewhere (such as along the Mahafaly coastline in the south-west) there are vast sandy beaches. No mangrove swamps of any size are found. iv. The east coast between Taolanoro and Foulpointe is more or less straight for over 700 km and is low lying with a continuous offshore sandbar, behind which is a string of lagoons linked together by the artificial Canal des Pangalanes. North of Foulpointe relief is more varied, and becomes quite high in the Mananara region, in Antongil Bay and around Cap Masoala. 1V.2. MANGROVES Madagascar possesses the largest areas of mangrove in the western Indian Ocean. In 1972 Keiner estimated there to be ca 330 000 ha of mangroves on the island; at least 321 000 ha of this was along the western coast. On the east there were only eleven mangrove sites of any size, the largest of these being ca 2220 ha in Rodo bay. On the west coast mangroves could be divided into some 29 separate areas. Seven of these were over 20 000 ha in extent, with the largest, in the Bay of Bombetoka, covering some 46 000 ha. In total, there were 320 000 ha of mangroves in areas of over 1000 ha with an additional 10 000 ha of small or very small areas of mangrove often at the mouths of streams or in small bays. Of particular note are the 18 000 ha of mangrove in the Loza, a very large lagoon in the north-west of the island. -47- An environmental profile of Madagascar Floristic composition and zonation are typical of Indian Ocean mangrove systems. The following widespread species reportedly occur: Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia marina, Sonneratia alba, Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Xylocarpus granatum, X. moluccensis, Lumnitzera racemosa and Heritiera littoralis. The Ceriops is sometimes considered an endemic species, C. boiviniana. Economic importance Mangroves are very important for inshore fisheries, serving as nursery areas for many species of fish and crustacea. There are otherwise few data on utilization of mangroves, though it is noted that generally the most extensive mangrove areas are in regions of low population density which are inaccessible for part of the year (Keiner, 1963, 1965, 1972). Amongst crustacea, Penaeid shrimps (especially the large species Penaeus monodon and P. indicus) and the crab Scylla serata are important (see Part V.10), and among fish the families Carangidae, Carcharinidae, Mugilidae, Serranidae, and Sparidae. Fisheries of sharks and saw-fish are important in all mangrove areas; salted-dried meat is the object of many transactions, especially in the region of Mahajanga. IV.3. CORAL REEFS Reefs on Madagascar are extensive and numerous and include good examples of almost all of the main classical reef types. Some of these have been very well studied; the barrier reef at Toliara (see separate account) has probably been studied more than any other reef in the Indian Ocean, while others, particularly on the east coast, remain largely undescribed. Most of the work done on Madgascan reefs has been from the French group led by Battistini, Pichon and Picard, and much of the following is derived from the extensive bibliography of this group (see ’References’). Most information is taken from Battistini (1960 and 1964), Clausade et al. (1971), Pichon (197la, 1972a, 1972b, 1974 and 1978b) and UNEP (1982b). Bibliographies of marine studies up to the early 1970s are given in ORSTOM (1973 and 1975). Most research has been carried out at Nosy Bé in the north-west and Toliara in the south-west where the French authorities maintained research stations. Research still continues in these areas, the stations having been handed over to the Madagascan authorities. Regional variations in water conditions influence the distribution of reefs. Tidal amplitude differs considerably. On the east coast high-tide level is very low (some 50 cm), while on the west it commonly exceeds 3 m at spring-tide. Western tides are regular semi-diurnal, with low tides at noon and midnight. Currents also vary regionally. They are predominantly southerly on the east coast, where they are derived directly from the South Equatorial Current; on the west coast they are usually northerly, derived from either the South Equatorial Current as it flows around the south of the country or from a counterflow to the Mozambique Current. On reefs which have been well studied, local current patterns have been found to be complex because of the large and irregular expanse of many of the reef areas and the large tidal range. Surprisingly, the temperature differences between north and south (between which there is a difference in latitude of 10°) do not appear to have any influence on the richness of the coral fauna. At Toliara (Tuléar) stony corals disappear at a depth of about 30 m; off Nosy Bé they extend to depths of 45-60 m. At Toliara temperatures in the lagoon average 21.5°C in July/August and 30°C in January/February. Sixty-three genera of reef-building corals have been found in the Nosy Bé region and sixty-two at Toliara where the waters are colder. Distribution of reefs Reefs of the east coast are least known. There are rudimentary but extensive fringing reefs behind which run a chain of shallow lagoons. Behind the reefs and a series of coastal dunes the lagoons were once connected to form an inland waterway called the Pangalanes Canal. This -48- Marine and coastal ecosystems was once navigable for about 700 km but much of it is now colonized by herbaceous plants (UNEP, 1982b). In the north-eastern part around Antseranana there is an emergent reef with a channel up to 8 metres deep (Pichon, 1972a). South of Antseranana are two superimposed emergent reefs, the older elevated to 16 m and partly covered by dunes. Nearer the coast this system becomes fragmented, and has the appearance of a chain of coral islets connected to the land. This series of structures includes the Leven Islands (Pichon 1972a) which are bordered at their outer edge by a discontinuous fringe of coral. Such coral reefs are numerous amongst the small islands of the east coast (Rabesandratana, 1984). Further south, Nosy Borah (lle Sainte-Marie) has fringing coral growth, while in the Toamasina region there is a submerged and fragmented barrier reef. This also has coral growth on the seaward periphery, with a reef flat covered with seagrasses. The sand bar to the south which runs for 700 km is considered by Pichon (1972a) not to have reef formations, although a few coral communities may be found which are isolated and not true reefs. The west coast has the main reef formations covering a distance of more than 1000 km (Pichon, 1972a; Rabesandratana, 1985). These are located in the north-west (from Cap d’Ambre to Narendy Bay), and south-west, separated by a central region with relatively sparse reef growth between the Mangoky delta and Androka. In the far north-west, the coast is bordered by emergent fossil reefs up to 10 metres above present sea level. Living fringing reefs are well developed along the mainland coast and around offshore islands, except in the vicinity of deltas and their adjacent bays. Fringing reefs are well developed between Cap d’Ambre and Narendy Bay; narrow reefs occur between Courrier and Bejotaka Bays; small reefs are found off Cap Sebastien. Fringing reef is found on either side of Ambavatoby Bay and along the west coast of Ampasindanva Peninsula from the Kakamba estuary to the Bay of Rafaralahy. There is a long fringing reef between Ramanetaka Bay and Ansatramahavelona and on the west coast of Nosy Lava. Further south there are a few small isolated reefs, in particular north of the entrance to Mahajamba Bay, at the entrance to Mahajunga Bay, north-east of Boina Bay, on either side of Baly Bay and between the latter and Antaly Bay. No detailed studies have been made south of Narendy Bay. Fringing reefs are found around some of the small volcanic islands along this coast such as Nosy Vahila, Nosy Mananono, Tanykely, the Radama Islands, Nosy Saba, etc. Extensive coral formations are found in some of the bays along the coast where there is little sedimentation, e.g. Lotsoina Bay, Ampanasina Bay. The more exposed reefs, notably some around the island Nosy Bé (see separate account), have typical well-developed structures, including boulder zones and spur and groove systems. The Baie d’ Ambaro, also in the north-west, has been studied: in detail because of its rich shrimp stocks (Daniel et al., 1970; Daniel, 1972). Off shore in this area, coral formations occur on the Banc du Leven (Daniel et al., 1972). Octocorals from north-western Madagascar are described by Verseveldt (1973). In addition to these inshore and fringing reefs, there is a rise in the sea floor 10-60 km further off shore, at the edge of the continental shelf (Pichon 1972a). This rise may be a submerged barrier reef or a cuesta formed during an emergent phase. Much of it lies 5-15 metres deep or less in places, but is cut by several channels opposite large river deltas. At its northern extent parts are emergent, forming reefs which support the sand cays of Nosy Anambo, Nosy Fasy, Nosy Faty and Nosy Foty. Elsewhere the surface of the barrier is covered with vast sandy plains and has a coral cover of only 10% in most places; it is likely the reef is not growing, though no explanation is available for this. The central section of the west coast has no reefs or has poor fringing reef, although off shore there are two groups: the Pracel Shoal and reefs around the Barren Islands. The former are separated over 100 km, but only two parts, Chesterfield Island and Nosy Vato, are permanently above water and in both cases the island is in the north-east of the reef flat, which shows the influence of the dominant seas from the south-west (Pichon, 1972a). The Barren Islands support a greater number of emergent reefs and sand cays and extend over 50 km. It is possible that these are the southernmost extent of the offshore barrier described for the north-west part of Madagascar. Little work has been done on the reefs of the central sector, and further study is required. -49- An environmental profile of Madagascar Reefs of the south-west sector are well developed and the best known (Clausade ef al., 1971; Pichon, 1972a, 1972b, 1978a, 1978b, Thomassin, 1978b; Vasseur, 1981; Weydert, 1973a, 1973b). Fringing reef, barrier reefs and reefs with sand cays are all represented, together with intermediate types. Due to the narrowness of the continental shelf, the reef often changes from barrier to the fringing type. Winds and wave energy come from the south-west with enough strength to allow crustose coralline algae to dominate in shallow water. Sand cays are particulary numerous in the northern part of this sector, between the Bay of Assassins and the Mangoky delta. Two kinds of cay exist: those which rest on isolated parts of a barrier well offshore and are separated from it by up to 30 metres of water, and those located on a fringing reef situated behind the barrier. Both exhibit adaptation to the prevailing south-westerly seas, with a clearly marked succession of spur and groove system to seaward, an algal flat and a boulder tract and an inner reef flat with corals before the island. To leeward of the islands are seagrass patches, before a leeward slope with spurs and grooves. From the Mangoky delta there is almost continuous reef to the Onilahy River (Pichon 1972a). The first part of the Bay of Assasins has a series of small fringing reefs. South of this, the fringing reef becomes 2-3.5 km wide, extending for almost 80 km. It is interrupted by occassional passages, and contains a channel between it and the shore which is 10 metres deep in the north, shallowing to 1.5-5 metres in the south, and disappearing at Manombo. South of Manombo, the coral reefs move offshore opposite Ranobe Bay and Toliara Bay, although between these there is a fringing reef adjacent to the mainland. The reefs of Ranobe Bay are described by Clausade et al. (1971). Opposite Toliara is the Grand Récif which extends for 18 km, and is up to 3 km wide (see separate account). From the Onilahy River, a fringing reef extends southwards almost unbroken for nearly 100 km although it is rather depauperate in comparison with more northern reefs. Its width varies greatly from 0.5 to 3.5 km in the northern part because of a very embayed shoreline. This reef disappears at Lanivato. A small fringing reef appears south of this at Itampolo and then at Androka. South of the latter, reefs only exist offshore around the sand cay of Nosy Manitsa and the Etoile Shoal (Pichon, 1972a). The latter are the highest parts of another submerged barrier reef on the edge of the continental shelf which runs for about 50 km. Conservation and utilisation of reefs A general description of marine and coastal resources is given in Anon. (1985). Reef areas, cays and lagoons are important habitats for many groups of animals which are epxloited locally, or in some cases for national or international markets, including marine turtles, the Dugong Dugong dugon, molluscs, crustaceans and fishes. Reef fish on the west coast are described by Fourmanoir (1963); other groups are fully discussed in the relevant sections of Part V and in Appendix 3. The impact of current human activities on the reefs is virtually unknown. A threat of possible importance to Madagascan reefs is sediment accumulation as a result of the massive erosion and concomitant soil runoff which affects much of the island (Pichon, 1984, and see Parts I and III). Sediment accumulation is acute in many areas, as illustrated by the loss of use of the port of Mahajanga due to the deposition of 100 million cubic metres of silt in 25 years. Elsewhere, in the north, river deltas have expanded and sediments have reportedly been deposited on beaches and reefs, changing lagoonal current patterns and having potentially adverse effects on local fisheries. However, there appear to be no concrete data on the effects of sediment on Madagascan reefs. Over-fishing is reportedly becoming a serious problem, especially on the Grand Récif (see separate account). Pollution on the western coast, where most reefs occur, appears to be of minor importance at present and dynamiting for fish, which is a common practice in many countries, is not a major threat (Pichon, 1984). Corals have reportedly been used in the past for building materials (Rabesandratana, 1984), though it is not clear if this continues. -50- Marine and coastal ecosystems There is at present no legislation to protect coral reefs, though the Grand Récif at Toliara has twice been proposed as a Marine Park (see separate account). It is recommended that surveys of the more accessible reef areas, particularly Nosy Bé, Toliara and Nosy Borah, should be carried out to determine their status and the establishment of marine parks should be seriously considered (Anon., 1985). Randrianarijaona and Razafimbelo (1983) stress the need to take into consideration socio-economic factors in any such areas. Multiple use Marine Parks might be suitable, to ensure that the economic benefits to be gained from tourism are not overlooked. A series of projects concerning coastal zone management were presented at a conference on Conservation des Ressources Naturelles au Service du Développement held in Antananarivo in November 1985. These included a study to evaluate coral reef resources, the establishment of the Parc National du Grand Récif de Toliara, and a number of projects relating to fisheries and pollution (Anon., 1985). Data for three reefs or groups of reefs of particular interest are provided below. This information is taken from the forthcoming Directory of Reefs of International Importance. Details, where available, are provided under the following headings: Name; Geographical location; Area, depth, altitude; Physical features; Reef structure and corals; Noteworthy fauna and flora; Scientific importance and research; Economic value and social benefits; Disturbances or deficiencies; Legal protection; Management; Recommendations. NAME Grand Récif proposed Marine National Park GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION South-west Madagascar, near Toliara. 23°25’S, 43°40’E. AREA, DEPTH, ALTITUDE Grand Récif is over 15 km long from north to south, and up to 3 km wide. Depths on the seaward slope exceed 50 m. PHYSICAL FEATURES The following is derived principally from the work of Clausade ef al. (1971) and Pichon (1971a, 1972a and 1978b), Thomassin (1978b), Vasseur (1981) and Weydert (1973a, 1973b). The reefs of Toliara, including Grand Récif, are protected from the south-east trade wind by the mainland. South-west winds blow for much of the year but are stronger and more persistant in winter, and are reinforced by thermic wind effects. These raise a rough sea, even in the lagoon area behind the barrier reef. In the absence of this wind, a heavy swell of remote origin can be detected. Cyclones in the Mozambique channel can also create a disturbed sea state for several days. Tides are semi-diurnal, with a maximum range of 3.2 m. This is a lower range than occurs in the north of Madagascar, though it is fairly substantial for coral reef areas. Low spring tides at noon and midnight have a strong controlling influence on the biota of the reef flat; the tidal amplitude is such that there are strong localised currents during ebb and flow. Rainfall is sparse in this area, but sufficient rainfall in the interior results in permanent rivers and a marked terrigenous component to the sediments near the coast. Surface water temperatures vary seasonally from 22.5°C to 27.5°C. Sediments in the reef area are described by Thomassin and Cauwet (1985). The Bay of Toliara (Tuléar) is connected to the sea by two channels, Passe Nord and Passe Sud, which dissect Grand Récif, a barrier reef 18 km long and 1100-2900 m wide. Nosy Tafara is an islet situated to the south of the Grand Récif. In the southern part of the bay there are three lagoon reefs - Beloza, Dimadimatsy, and Norinkazo, which are separated from the shore by a littoral channel 1 km wide with maximum depth 2 m. These reefs (about 1000 x 1000 m) are separated from each other by passes about 300 m wide and 4-5 m deep, with strong currents. North of the inner reefs lie two sandstone banks, Mareana and Ankilibe, which have a scattering of isolated coral heads (Clausade et a/., 1971). On the south of the bay, there is a fringing reef on the west side of the sandy Sarodrana peninsula, 3500 m x 450-1000 m wide (Pichon, 1978b). a5 An environmental profile of Madagascar REEF STRUCTURE and CORALS There have been numerous ecological and descriptive studies of the Toliara reefs (Clausade et al., 1971; Harmelin-Vivien ef al., 1982; Jaubert and Vasseur, 1974; Pichon, 1972a, 1972b, 1978a, 1978b; Peyrot-Clausade, 1977; Thomassin, 1978b, 1983; Thomassin and Cauwet, 1985; Vasseur, 1974, 1977, 1981, 1984; Weydert, 1973a, 1973b). Several distinct zones on the Grand Récif have been described in detail by Pichon (1972a, 1978b). The ’frontorecifal ensemble’, or seaward reef slope, is very steep but rarely vertical. Scleractinian corals are abundant, extending to at least 30 m deep, depending on local reef profiles and sedimentary conditions. The deep seaward slope, 300-400 m wide, gives way to a gently sloping terrace which drops from 20 to 50 m, with an average depth of 20 m. The morphology of this ’20 m terrace’ is characterised by large furrows at right angles to the reef, the floors of which are sand-filled, with ridges covered with corals. The terrace extends up to the edge of the reef flat, which it joins in a short but vertical wall of corals. This wall consists of a groove and spur system aligned with the coral ridges on the deeper terrace. The grooves are part filled with coral debris; the spurs are constructed of corals and abundant calcareous red algae. Numerous tunnels are formed by grooves which have coalesced at the top. Some of these caverns communicate with the reef flat by blowholes, while others become blocked with sediments. This network of overhangs, grooves and tunnels houses a diverse cryptic community of ahermatypic corals and other sessile invertebrates which has been described by Jaubert and Vasseur (1974) and Vasseur (1974, 1977). The spur and groove structures are best developed on parts of the reef most exposed to the south-westerly seas. On the deeper part of the seaward slope below the terrace, coral diversity decreases with depth, and there is a simultaneous decline in abundance (Pichon, 1978b). The dominant coral family is the Pectiniidae, in particular the genera Echinophyllia and Oxypora; Pectinia is less common. Other common genera are the agariciids Leptoseris and Pachyseris, a Pocillopora species and the mussids Cynarina lacrymalis and Blastomussa sp. Gorgonia and the ahermatypic coral Dendrophyllia are also common, with antipatharians and alcyonarians. On the terrace, coral diversity is greater on shallower parts of the terrace and species characteristic of the deeper part become less abundant. Common genera are Acropora, Porites, Lobophyllia and several faviids. On the buttresses, these species decrease in shallower, more turbulent water, and are replaced by encrusting species from the genera Pavona, Hydnophora, Montipora and Acropora. The tops of the buttresses support numerous Pocilloporidae, and a high cover of calcareous red algae. In the most exposed parts, Acropora is the principal genus, but coralline algae may be dominant, although there is no true algal ridge either here or in any other part of Madagascar (Pichon, 1972a). The vast plateau of the reef flat of Grand Récif is exposed by a few decimetres at low spring-tides and has been termed the ’epirecifal ensemble’. On the outer reef flat there is an upper platform of spurs, dominated by crustose coralline algae. Shoreward of this is an outer moat with algae and corals, followed by an outer pavement with encrusting coralline algae but few corals. A boulder tract is then reached, consisting of corals and blocks of limestone deposited by strong sea conditions. This provides the highest elevation on the reef flat, reaching 1 m above the surrounding level. Several corals, zoanthids and algae grow on the boulder surfaces while beneath them is a very rich mollusc, crustacean and echinoderm fauna. Inside this there is an inner moat remaining covered at low spring-tides, which is flat and covered by sandy patches, with many corals whose growth is truncated by the low water level. Microatolls are common, as are groups of corals whose growth is peripheral only. The reef flat at this point is friable and irregular. Corals become less abundant as a third zone of seagrass beds is reached which lie on a slightly raised part, occupying half of the reef flat. Large accumulations of sediments are found here with a typical seagrass-sediment fauna, notably echinoderms (Clausade et al., 1971; Pichon, 1978b). Behind the Grand Récif, the reef flat gives way to a ’postrecifal ensemble’ (Clausade ef al., 1971; Pichon, 1978b), the reef slope descending to a lagoon floor with a maximum depth of 20 m. Currents mostly run parallel to the shore, and the sediments have an increasing terrigenous component as shore is approached. A variety of seagrasses characterize the area, with abundant coral patches and pinnacles, particularly near the reef. These are formed largely by massive faviid corals, with Acropora, several foliaceous species, and Millepora. Such reefs 35). Marine and coastal ecosystems also occur adjoining the mainland, where their tops support seagrasses which grade into the littoral zone. Altogether, 62 hermatypic coral genera have been reported (Pichon, 1978). Amongst the corals, the genus Horastrea appears to be fairly common. Thomassin (1969, 1973, 1978a, 1978b) and Thomassin et al. (1976) have described the sandy bottom communities of the area. NOTEWORTHY FAUNA and FLORA The marine fauna has been extensively studied. For example, the fish fauna of the outer slope of the Grand Récif is described by Harmelin-Vivien (1977). The mollusc fauna on the boulder tracts is described by Thomassin and Galenon (1977); sponge distribution is described by Vacelet and Vasseur (1977). Mangroves are found around Saradrano. SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE and RESEARCH More research has been done on the reef morphology and coral communities of the Grand Récif than on any other single reef in the Indian Ocean. Accompanying this is a wide range of marine studies with direct relevance to the reef and its communities, resulting in a very substantial body of detailed literature. For this reason, the reef is of great importance to comparative and temporal studies of reef systems in general. The marine station of the University of Madagascar is situated at Toliara. Up until 1955, the work carried out there was conducted almost exclusively by French researchers (generally from the Station Marine d’Endoume, Marseille). Currently, research is carried out by Madagascans and visiting scientists. Productivity of the reef has recently been studied by Pichon and Morrissey (1985). ECONOMIC VALUE and SOCIAL BENEFITS Commercial harvesting of fish and invertebrates takes place, the former at least, on an increasingly large scale. The Toliara reefs are the main area of exploitation of reef fish, local consumption exceeding 100 tonnes annually. Rabesandratana (1985) provides further details. Prawns are collected on the inner slope of the lagoon where littoral mangroves grow in proximity to the reefs. The Spiny Lobster Panulirus penicillatus is collected for local consumption (see Part V.10). Scylla serrata is occasionally caught on seagrass beds on the Grand Récif. Molluscs collected include Charonia tritonis, Cypraeacassis rufa, and Pinctada (Meleagrina) margaritifera (Rabesandratana, 1984, 1985 and see Part V.8). The massive coral Porites somaliensis is collected from the Grand Récif for use in septic tanks and cesspools. Branching corals are also collected for sale to tourists in the shell market at Toliara. Corals were exported until at least 1980, when an export figure of 4.1 tonnes was recorded by the Toliara customs office (Rabesandratana, 1985). Shells are exported in large quantities for the ornamental shell trade from the Toliara region, and certain species are considered to be coming rare (Rabesandratana, 1985). The area has a high potential for tourism, as yet largely unrealized. A French-run hotel caters for the few SCUBA divers who visit the area and an underwater trail has been set up (Pichon, 1983). DISTURBANCE or DEFICIENCIES Corals, such as Porites somaliensis, have in the past been collected for building purposes (Rabesandratana, 1984), though it is unclear to what extent the practice continues. Over-fishing is becoming a serious problem. Pichon reported in 1983 that up to 200 boats used the Grand Récif daily; in the early 1970s the area was virtually unfished. Populations of benthic fishes had been noticeably depleted, though pelagic fish populations were as yet apparently largely unaffected (Pichon, 1983). Fishing is carried out with nets, often with mesh below the legal size, with harpoons and with toxins extracted from plants (e.g. Euphorbia). This last method is noted as being particularly destructive as it kills indiscriminately. Amongst invertebrates, Pinctada (Meleagrina) margaritifera has reportedly been overharvested to the point of virtual extinction and Cypraeacassis rufa has become noticeably rarer; concern has also been expressed for Charonia tritonis, of which large numbers, including small specimens, are reportedly on sale in Toliara; minimum size regulations, where these exist, are largely ignored (Rabesandratana, 1984). LEGAL PROTECTION There is at present no legal protection for the reefs. =53'= An environmental profile of Madagascar RECOMMENDATIONS The Grand Récif has been proposed as a National Marine Park; this designation has been refused twice by the Ministry of Animal Production and Forests (Rabesandratana, 1984). The proposal is for the creation of two reserves: an integral reserve, containing the Grand Récif de Toliara (within the area 23°20’-23°38’S, 43°30’-43°42’E), and an adjacent partial reserve, containing the ’postrecifal channel’, the mangrove area of Sarodrano, and the reefs fringing the coastline of Barn-Hill Point. The proposal aims to assure conservation of the reef, while developing its potential for scientific research and tourism (both national and international) and managing fisheries resources to allow sustained harvests by local fishermen. Under the proposed decree, access to the integral reserve will be limited to authorised personnel, though this will include tourists accompanied by officials. Licensed artisanal fishermen will also be permitted, though fishing will be under strict control (e.g. all underwater fishing and use of toxins, explosives and monofilament nets banned). Access to the partial reserve will be uncontrolled, though again fishing will be controlled and limited to licensed artisanal fishermen. The importance of a local education programme to demonstrate the value of such conservation measures is stressed (Rabesandratana, 1984). NAME Nosy Bé GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION Island off north-west coast; 13°20’S, 48°15’E. PHYSICAL FEATURES Nosy Bé is a volcanic island on the continental shelf of Madagascar (Battistini, 1960). Its coast is a very embayed, low Quaternary plain, and reef flats are found around much of the island. Seaward of the reef flats, the reef slopes are extensive, reaching to at least 20 m deep, and sometimes to 45 m. Deeper slopes exist, but these are sedimented (Pichon, 1971a). Dominant seas come from the north-west or north-north-west, while in winter the south-east trade winds occur, from which Nosy Bé is protected to a great extent by the Madagascan mainland. Rain is abundant in the southern summer, and infrequent in the cooler season. In common with other reefs near Madagascar, this results in a relatively high proportion of terrigenous sediment mixed with the limestone sediments, and turbidity is always high. Surface temperatures are relatively stable, ranging from 24° to 29°C. The area is subjected to cyclones (UNEP, 1982b), but the swell is usually weak. The reefs experience a tidal amplitude of 4.2 m (Pichon, 1972a). REEF STRUCTURE and CORALS The geology of the reefs has been described by Battistini (1960), and their biology by Pichon (197la and _ 1972a). The morphological and sedimentological characteristics of Nosy Bé, as well as the reef communities, are characteristic of a low energy regime. Common corals are fungiids, and crustose coralline algae are lacking. Approximately 63 genera have been recorded (Pichon, 1978b). The most typical reefs are Andilana Reef on the north-west coast, and Amphoraha and Navetsy Reefs on the north coast. These have developed on the most exposed parts of the island and exhibit typical spur and groove structures with well developed boulder tracts. On the eastern coast, the reefs Antsatrabevoa, Antafianambitry and Befefiky are exposed only to a local breeze which blows from the south-east and which therefore has a small fetch. These reefs may have extensive reef flats up to 1.5 km wide, a rudimentary spur system, and a small boulder tract both of which are thickly covered with corals with typical genera such as Caulastrea. Other anthozoans and calcareous red algae are not extensive. On the outer flats is a seagrass bed of Thalassodendron ciliatum and Syringodium isoetifolium which forms a 20 m wide, uninterrupted strip just in front of the boulder zone, on a layer of sand of skeletal origin 15-25 cm thick. Seagrass beds are also extensive on the inner parts of the reef flats (Pichon, 1972a). On the west and south-west, the reefs are poorly developed and not very active; reef flats are absent, but their place may be taken by accumulations of broken coral fragments. Reef slopes of the fringing reefs extend to only 8 or 10 m depth. A rudimentary spur and groove system is discernible only at low tides on the more exposed reefs (it is absent from sheltered reefs) and appears to be formed from an alignment of corals rather than substantial S54 Marine and coastal ecosystems algal constructions. Coral species are diverse, composed of massive and foliaceous forms, but few Acropora species. A notable antipatharian, Eucirripathes, is a constant element on these reefs. At 8-10 m depth the rough alignments of corals disappear, and the grooves become filled with sediment. On the sedimented slope below the reef slope, communities of the corals Heteropsammia michelini and Heterocyathus aequicostatus exist, with some Trachyphyllia geoffroyi. In general terms, these reefs are regarded as ‘inner reefs’ analogous to the inner reefs of Toliara to the south (see separate account) (Pichon, 1972a), while the muddy bottom coral community is analogous to that of a lagoon floor. In this case, the ’lagoon’ extends from the base of the fringing reefs out to the reefs of an outer barrier, which is submerged. Reef slopes of the outer, submerged barrier formation, which lies to the west, extend deeper than those which fringe the island itself. There are two principal types of slope: gentle slopes (up to 45°) with rich scleractinian communities, notably tubular Acropora corals to about 45 m deep, with abundant Peyssonnelia and Halimeda algae; and near-vertical slopes, which support abundant coral to about 20 m, below which diversity is much poorer. At 50-70 m depth, these walls are covered with a fine sediment composed of Halimeda fragments. NOTEWORTHY FAUNA and FLORA Mangroves are abundant in many of the bays and estuaries. Eretmochelys imbricata is reportedly present, though it is not known whether it nests here. Cypraea species are abundant and species recorded include C. nucleus, C. diluculum, C. onyx, C. oweni, C. lamaki and C. chinensis (Magnier, 1981). The Tropic bird Phaethon lepturus lepturus breeds on nearby islands (Cooper et al., 1984). ECONOMIC VALUE and SOCIAL BENEFITS Nosy Bé is one of the few important tourist centres in Madagascar (Jolly, 1980; Magnier, 1981); coral reefs appear to be a significant tourist attraction, though it is unclear to what extent their full potential has been developed. Pinctada margaritifera has reportedly been heavily exploited, to the point of virtual extinction, having formerly been abundant in the area (Rabesandratana, 1984). Ornamental shells are collected in the Nosy Bé area (Randrianarijaona and Razafimbelo, 1983). SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE and RESEARCH Previously ORSTOM had a research station at Nosy Bé which carried out fishery studies. A National Oceanographic Institute is based at Nosy Bé. Projects have reportedly been funded on fisheries and pollution, though the latter does not appear to be a serious problem in this part of Madagascar at present (Pichon, 1983). DISTURBANCE or DEFICIENCIES Overexploitation of P. margaritifera (see above). LEGAL PROTECTION The small island Nosy Tanikely, about 8 km south of Nosy Bé, is protected for its terrestrial fauna, and the surrounding waters are considered a Marine Reserve but have no legal protection (Rabesandratana, 1984). The 740 ha Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de Lokobé (R.N.I. no. 6) is situated in the south-east corner of Nosy Bé. The coast line forms the southern edge of the reserve (See Part VI); Pichon (1972a) indicates that at least part of this has a reef front, though it is not clear whether protection extends offshore. NAME Offshore sand cays: Nosy Foty, Nosy Anambo, Nosy Fasy, Nosy Faty, Nosy Faho, Nosy Langna GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION North-west continental shelf; between 12° and 13°20’S, 48 and 49°E. PHYSICAL FEATURES Data for these small islands are taken primarily from Pichon (1972a). Low islands with surrounding reef, some (Nosy Fasy and Nosy Faty) emergent only at low tide. Nosy Langna also has an outcrop of Cretaceous pre-coralline basement at the level of the reef flat. The direction of the swell affecting the reefs is predominantly from the north-west 55% An environmental profile of Madagascar and north-north-west, with only gentle seas along the sides facing the Madagascan mainland. Temperatures range from about 24°C to 29°C. REEF STRUCTURE and CORALS The reefs of Nosy Anambo, Fasy, Faty and Foty represent emergent parts of the offshore barrier reef structure (see "Introduction’). The coral structures topped by these sand cays show marked adaptations to the dominant north-west seas. The cays generally lie on the leeward edges of the reef flats. Facing the direction of maximum exposure, the reef flat is edged by a spur and groove structure which is dominated by calcareous red algae, behind which is a boulder tract. Most of the flats have sandy expanses alternating with coral formations. On the leeward sides of the cays is a sandy shore, followed by large expanses of corals with alcyonarians and Millepora, followed by deeper beds of the seagrass Thalassodendron ciliatum (Pichon, 1972a). Acknowledgements We are very grateful to Dr M. Pichon for assistance with this section. REFERENCES Anon. (1985). Ressources halietiques et cotiéres. Document de Base de Il’Atelier. 3. Conférence de Madagascar sur la Conservation des Ressources Naturelles au Service du Développement. Antananarivo, November, 1985. Battistini, R. (1960). Description géomorphologique de Nossi Bé, du delta du Sambirano et de la baie d’Ampasindava. Mem. I.R.S.M. ser F. III, Pp. 121-143. Battistini, R. (1964). Etude géomorphologique de l’extréme sud de Madagascar. Cujas. Paris. Pp. 1-536. Battistini, R. (1972). Madagascar relief and main types of landscape. In: Richard-Vindard, G. and Battistini, R. (Eds). Biogeography and ecology of Madagascar. Monogr. biol. Junk, The Hague. Pp. 367-410. Clausade, M., Gravier, N., Picard, J., Pichon, M., Thomassin, B., Vasseur, P., Vivien, M. and Weydert, P. (1971). Coral reef morphology in the vicinity of Tuléar (Madagascar): Contribution to a coral reef terminology. Tethys Supp. 2: 74. Cooper, J., Williams, A.J. and Britton, P.L. (1984). Distribution, population size and conservation of breeding seabirds in the afrotropical region. In: Croxall, J.P., Evans, P.G.H. and Schreiber, R.W. (Eds), Status and Conservation of the World’s Seabirds. CBP Technical Publication No. 2, Cambridge. Daniel, J., (1972). Etude bathymétrique et sédimentologique d’une baie tropicale, la baie d’Ambaro. Thesis, Université de Paris VI. 85 pp. Daniel, J., Dupont, J. and Jouannic, C. (1970). Etude de la relation entre le carbone organique et l’azote dans les sediments de la Baie d’Ambaro. ORSTOM Nosy Bé Doc. 16: 1-20. Daniel, J., Dupont, J. and Jouannic, C. (1972). Relations Madagascar - Archipel des Comores (Nord-Est du Canal de Mozambique). Sur la nature volcanique du Banc du Leven. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris 274 D: 1784-1787. Fourmanoir, P. (1963). Distribution écologique des poissons de récifs coralliens et d’herbiers de la céte ouest de Madagascar. La Terre et la Vie |: 81-100. Guilcher, A. and Battistini, R. (1967). Madagascar - géographie régionale. ‘Les cours de Sorbonne’, Centre de documentation universitaire, Paris. Harmelin-Vivien, M.L., (1977). Ecological distribution of fishes on the outer slope of Tuléar reef (Madagascar). Proc. 3rd Int. Coral Reef Symp., Miami: 289-295. Jaubert, J. and Vasseur, P. (1974). Light measurements: duration aspect and_ the distribution of benthic organisms in an Indian Ocean coral reef, (Tuléar, Madagascar). Proc. 2nd. Int. Coral Reef Symp., Brisbane 2: 127-142. Jolly, A. (1980). A world like our own - man and nature in Madagascar. Yale University Press, New Haven. S56 Marine and coastal ecosystems Keiner, A. (1963). Poissons, péche et pisciculture a Madagascar. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne. Keiner, A. (1965). Contribution a l’étude des eaux suamatres malgaches. Les poissons euryhalins et leur role dans le développement des péches (Thése Fac. Sciences Paris). Vie et Milieu 16(2-c): 1013-1149. Keiner, A. (1972). Ecologie, biologie et possibilités de mise en valeur des mangroves malgaches. Bull. Madagascar 308: 49-84. Magnier, Y. (1981). Merveilles sous-marines. In: Oberlé, P. (Ed.), Madagascar. un sanctuaire de la nature. Lechevalier, Paris. ORSTOM (1973). Publications de Centre ORSTOM de Nosy Bé. Liste mise 4 jour au 31.12.71. Doc. Sci. Centre ORSTOM Nosy Bé 33. 104 pp. (lists 408 publications). ORSTOM (1975). Publications de la Mission ORSTOM de Nosy Bé du 1.1.1972 au 31.12.1974. Doc. Sci. Centre ORSTOM Nosy Bé 51. 45 pp. Pichon, M. (197la). Comparative study of the main features of some coral reefs of Madagascar, La Reunion and Mauritius. In: Stoddart, D.R. and Yonge, C.M. (Eds) Regional variation in Indian Ocean coral reefs. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 28. Academic press, London. Pp. 185-216. Pichon, M. (1971b). Horastrea indica n.gen., n.sp., a new hermatypic scleractinian coral from the south-west Indian Ocean (Cnidaria, Anthozoa, Madreporaria). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 33: 165-172. Pichon, M. (1972a). The coral reefs of Madagascar. In: Richard-Vindard, G. and Battistini, R. (Eds). Biogeography and ecology of Madagascar. Monogr. biol. Junk, The Hague. Pp. 367-410. Pichon, M. (1972b). Les peuplements a base de scleractinaires dans les récifs corallians de la baie de Tuléar (Sud-ouest de Madagascar). Proc. Symp. Corals and Coral Reefs (1969). J. mar. biol Ass. India 1972: 173-181. Pichon, M. (1974). Free living scleractinian coral communities in the coral reefs of Madagascar. Proc. 2nd Int. Coral Reef Symp., Miami. 2: 261-267. Pichon, M. (1978a). Recherches sur les peuplements 4 dominance d’anthozoaires dans les recifs coralliens de Tuléar (Madagascar). Atoll Research Bull. 222: pp. XXXV, 477. Pichon, M. (1978b) Quantitative benthic ecology of Tuléar reefs. In: Stoddart, D.R. and Johannes, R.E. (Eds). Monographs on Oceanic Methodoloy 5 Coral Reefs: Research Methods. UNESCO: 163-174. Pichon, M. and Morrissey, J. (1985). Premieres mesures de bilan métabolique dans V’écosystéme récifal de Tuléar (Madagascar). C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris 300 Series 3(3):99-101. Rabesandratana, H.D. (1984). Letter to C. Sheppard / IUCN with enclosures including documentation on submission of proposals to establish a Marine Park at Tuléar and data on collection of molluscs in Madagascar. Rabesandratana, H.V. (1985). About some reef utilizations in Madagascar. Proc. Sth Int. Coral Reef Cong., Tahiti 6: 661-668. Randrianarijaona, P. and Razafimbelo, E. (1983). Rapport national pour Madagascar. Report prepared for UNEP Regional Seas East Africa Programme. Thomassin, B. (1969). Les peuplements de deux biotopes de sables coralliens sur le Grand Récif de Tuléar, S.O. de Madagascar. Rec. Trav. Stn. mar. Endoume Suppl. 9: 59-133. Thomassin, B. (1973). Peuplements des sables fins sur les pentes internes des récifs coralliens de Tuléar (S.O. de Madagascar). Essai d’interpretation dynamique des peuplements de sables mobiles infralittoraux dans un complexe récifal soumis ou non aux influences terrigénes. Téthys Suppl. 5: 157-220. Thomassin, B. (1978a). Soft bottom communities. In: Stoddart, D.R. and Johannes, R.E. (Eds). Monographs on Oceanographic Methodology 5. Coral Reefs: Research Methods. UNESCO: 263-298. Thomassin, B. (1978b). Les peuplements des sédiments coralliens de la région de Tuléar (SW de Madagascar). Leur insertion dans le contexte cdtier indo-pacifique. Thesis, Université Aix-Marseille II. 494 pp. Thomassin, B.A. (1983). Successions of faunistic assemblages in coral reef soft bottom biotopes according building evolutional stages in the Tuléar region (Madagascar). J5th Pac. Sci. Cong. Dunedin Abs. 2: 235-236. Thomassin, B.A. and Cauwet, G. (1985). Organic matter distribution in sediments of the Tuléar coral reef complexes. Proc. 5th Int. Coral Reef Cong., Tahiti 3: 377-382. 7 An environmental profile of Madagascar Thomassin, B. and Galenon, P. (1977). Molluscan assemblages on the boulder tracts of Tuléar coral reefs (Madagascar). Proc. 3rd Int. Coral Reef Symp., Miami: 113-117. Thomassin, B., Vivier, M.H. and Vitiello, P. (1976). Distribution de la meiofaune et de la macrofaune des sables coralliens de la retenue d’eau épirécifale du Grand Récif de Tuléar (Madagascar). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 22: 31-53. UNEP (1982a). Environmental problems of the East African region. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 12. UNEP (1982b). Marine and coastal area development in the East Africa region. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 6. Vacelet, J. and Vasseur, P. (1977). Sponge distribution in coral reefs and related areas in the vicinity of Tuléar (Madagascar). Proc. 3rd Int. Coral Reef Symp., Miami: 113-117. Vasseur, P. (1974). The overhangs, tunnels and dark reef galleries of Tuléar (Madagascar) and their sessile invertebrate communities. Proc. 2nd Int. Coral Reef Symp., Brisbane 2: 143-159. Vasseur, P. (1977). Cryptic sessile communities in various coral formations on reef flats in the vicinity of Tuléar (Madagascar). Proc 3rd Int. Coral Reef Symp., Miami 1: 95-100. Vasseur, P. (1981). Recherches sur les peuplements sciaphiles des récifs coralliens de la région de Tuléar (SW de Madagascar). Thesis, Université Aix-Marseille II. 348 pp. Vasseur, P. (1984). Les peuplements sessiles sciaphiles des récifs coralliens de la région de Tuléar (SW de Madagascar): résultats synthétiques. Oceanis 10(1): 51-83. Verseveldt, J. (1973). Octocorallia from north-western Madagascar. Koninkl. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam Proc. 76. Weydert, P. (1973a). Les formations récifales de la région de Tuléar (Céte Sur de Madagascar). Apercu de leurs aspects morphologiques, sédimentologiques et de leur évolution. Ass. Sénégal et Quatern. Ouest Afr. Bull. liaison 37-38: 57-83. Weydert, P. (1973b). Morphologie et sédimentologie des formations récifales de la région de Tuléar, SW de Madagascar. Thesis, Université Aix-Marseille II. 646 pp. -~58- PART V. FAUNA The fauna of Madagascar is unique. The large size of the island, its geological history and varied climate and topography have resulted in a diverse fauna with a remarkable degree of endemicity, both at species and higher taxonomic levels. In general, individual faunal groups are less diverse than in equivalent (tropical) continental areas - this applies to, for example, birds, mammals, freshwater fish and butterflies (qv); however other groups, such as reptiles and terrestrial molluscs, show relatively high species diversity, well comparable with continental areas. The great majority of native terrestrial species, in all faunal groups, appear to be dependent on forested or wooded areas, lending support to the contention that originally (that is before human settlement) much of the island was forested - this in contrast to present-day conditions whereby only 20-30% of the land area bears woody cover (see Part III.4). The following section provides summaries for: birds; mammals; amphibians and reptiles; freshwater fish; lepidoptera; freshwater, terrestrial and marine molluscs; non-marine and marine crustacea; other non-arthropod invertebrates. Data sheets for individual species for some of these groups, extracted from the relevant IUCN Red Data Book, are provided in Appendix 3 and annotated species lists in Appendix 2. Preliminary faunal lists for each reserve are included in Part VI. Reference lists are provided at the end of each of the following sections; in addition extensive references are provided with the data sheets on individual species in Appendix 3. The most important reference work for animal species on Madagascar is the on-going Faune de Madagascar (1956- ). Of the 64 volumes published to date, one concerns birds (vol. 35), two deal with mammals (vols 36,44), three with reptiles (vols 33,36,47), one with zoogeography (vol. 13) and the remainder with invertebrates [in French]. The volume Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar (1972, Monographiae biologicae 21, edited by R. Battistini and G. Richard-Vindard, Junk Publishers, the Hague), contains chapters on the following groups: arachnids, terrestrial molluscs, insects, freshwater and euryhaline fish, reptiles, birds, insectivores, rodents, carnivores, and primates [part English, part French]. Madagascar, un sanctuaire de la nature (1981, edited by P. Oberlé, Lechevalier, Paris) also has (more generalized) chapters on invertebrates, reptiles and amphibians, birds, and mammals [in French]. Key environments: Madagascar (1984, edited by A. Jolly, P. Oberlé, and R. Albignac, Pergamon Press, Oxford) also has introductory chapters on invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals with separate chapters for insectivores, carnivores and lemurs (the chapters on invertebrates, birds, reptiles and mammals are English translations of the equivalent chapters in Madagascar, un sanctuaire de la nature). 450- An environmental profile of Madagascar V.1. BIRDS The avifauna of Madagascar, as much of the rest of the fauna, is characterised by two factors - a relative poverty in number of species (compared with equivalent continental areas), and a high degree of endemism at family and lower taxonomic levels. Forbes-Watson et al. (1974) listed 250 species in the avifauna of Madagascar, including 2 introductions, 53 non-breeding visitors, and 197 native breeding species. Of these 197 residents, 106 are endemic (a further 25 are shared only with the Comoros). Among these 106 species, there are 32 endemic genera (a further eight are shared only with the Comoros). An annotated list of bird species recorded in Madagascar, based on Forbes-Watson ef al. (1974) and Dee (in press) is provided in Appendix 2. The following five families are endemic to the Madagascar Region: Mesitornithidae (Mesites) 3 spp. Brachypteraciidae (Ground-rollers) 5 spp. Leptosomatidae (Cuckoo-roller) l sp. (also occurs on the Comoros;) Philepittidae (Asitys) 4 spp. Vangidae (Vangas) 14 spp. (one species also occurs on the Comoros) One subfamily is also endemic to the region: Couinae (Cuculidae) (Couas) 10 spp. (one probably extinct) The Leptosomatidae and Brachypteraciidae have been considered subfamilies of the Coraciidae but are now generally recogised as distinct families. Status One species - Coua delalandei - is regarded as (probably) recently extinct; 27 others are currently considered threatened or probably so,* all of which are endemic to Madagascar (Collar and Stuart, 1985). Four species are considered ’endangered’, comprising one grebe, Tachybaptus rufolavatus, one duck, Aythya innotata and two raptors, Haliaeetus vociferoides and Eutriorchis astur, the second of which is in a monotypic genus. Of the remaining species, one is ’vulnerable’, twelve are ’rare’, five ’indeterminate’, and five classified as “insufficiently known’. In addition, a further fourteen species are identified as near-threatened, although two of these, Ardeola idae and Circus maillardi, are not endemics. The endemic families Mesitornithidae and Brachypteraciidae are of particular note - all three species of the former are assigned categories, two as ’rare’ (Mesitornis variegata and Monias benschi) and one as “insufficiently known’ (Mesitornis unicolor); four of the five ground-rollers are Classified as ’rare’, with Atelornis pittoides being considered near-threatened at present. Threatened or possibly threatened bird species in Madagascar are: K = Tachybaptus pelzelnii Madagascar Little Grebe E Tachybaptus rufolavatus Alaotra Grebe K = Ardea humbloti Madagascar Heron V_ Anas bernieri Madagascar Teal E Aythya innotata Madagascar Pochard E 4Haliaeetus vociferoides Madagascar Fish Eagle E Eutriorchis astur Madagascar Serpent Eagle 3 Full explanations of threatened species (RDB’) categories are provided in Appendix 3. 560= Fauna R= Mesitornis variegata White-breasted Mesite K = Mesitornis unicolor Brown Mesite R= Monias benschi Subdesert Mesite I Sarothrura watersi Slender-billed Flufftail K = Amaurornis olivieri Sakalava Rail R= Charadrius thoracicus Madagascar Plover Ex Coua delalandei Snail-eating Coua I Tyto soumagnei Madagascar Red Owl R_ Brachypteracias leptosomus Short-legged Ground-roller R_ Brachypteracias squamiger Scaly Ground-roller R= Atelornis crossleyi Rufous-headed Ground-roller R_ Uratelornis chimaera Long-tailed Ground-roller I Neodrepanis hypoxantha Yellow-bellied Sunbird-asity R= Phyllastrephus apperti Appert’s Greenbul R= Phyllastrephus tenebrosus Dusky Greenbul R_ Phyllastrephus cinereiceps Grey-crowned Greenbul R= Xenopirostris damii Van Dam’s Vanga I Xenopirostris polleni Pollen’s Vanga K Monticola bensoni Benson’s Rockthrush I Crossleyia xanthophrys Madagascar Yellowbrow I Newtonia fanovanae Red-tailed Newtonia Full data sheets are provided in Appendix 3 (taken from Collar and Stuart, 1985). Geographical distribution The geographical distribution of the 106 endemic bird species of Madagascar can be analysed on a very simple level by dividing the country into four regions, east, north, south and west, corresponding roughly to the major phytogeographic divisions of eastern rainforest, sambirano, western deciduous forest and southern thorn bush. From this the following figures emerge: No. spp. No. spp. confined in region to region East 83 (20) 30 (12) North 49 (5) 0 West 52 (12) 2 (2) South 42 (7) 10 (5) Total 106 (28) Figures in parentheses indicate number of species assigned RDB categories in each group. These figures highlight the over-riding importance of the eastern region of the island in terms of the number of species supported - 79% of endemics are found in at least part of the eastern region, while 29% are confined there on current knowledge, 40% of which are currently considered to be under some degree of threat. The second most important of the four domains is the south, which has ten species not known to occur elsewhere on the island - half of these are assigned RDB categories at present (Collar and Stuart, 1985). REFERENCES N.B. An extensive bibliography on the Madagascan avifauna is provided in Appendix 3. Benson, C.W. (1981). Les oiseaux: des espéces uniques au monde. In Oberlé, P (ed) Madagascar, un sanctuaire de la nature. Lechevalier, Paris. 26 1,- An environmental profile of Madagascar Collar, N.J. and Stuart, S.N. (1985) Threatened birds of Africa and related islands: the ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book, 3rd edition, part 1. I1CBP and IUCN, Cambridge. Dee, T.J. (in press). The status and distribution of the endemic birds of Madagascar. ICBP, Cambridge. Forbes-Watson, A.D., Keith, G.S. and Turner, D.A. (1974). Madagascar bird list. Unpublished typescript. Milon, P., Petter, J.-J., Randrianasolo, G. (1973). Faune de Madagascar XXXV. Oiseaux. ORSTOM and CNRS, Antananarivo and Paris. 469 Fauna V.2. MAMMALS The living native land mammals of Madagascar are confined to five orders: Primates; Chiroptera; Insectivora; Carnivora and Rodentia. A single representative of the order Artiodactyla is also present - Potamochoerus larvatus - though this is thought likely to have been introduced by man, and there is a recently extinct (subfossil) hippopotamus Hippopotamus lemerlei. One member of the order Sirenia - Dugong dugon - occurs in inshore coastal waters. The taxonomy of some of these groups, notably the Primates, Insectivores and Rodents, is uncertain, and the number of species contained in them is a matter of contention, though the great majority are endemic. Insectivora The insectivores on Madagascar comprise representatives of two families - the Soricidae, of which two widespread species are present (Suncus murinus and Suncus etruscus, though the Madagascan form of the latter is sometimes considered a separate, endemic species - Suncus madagascariensis) and the Tenrecidae, a family which has been considered endemic to the Madagascan region, though the African genera Potamogale and Micropotamogale are now generally included, though in a separate subfamily, the Potamogalinae. The taxonomy of the Tenrecidae is unstable and many taxa are poorly known, often from only one or two specimens; however some 30 species in 9 genera are generally recognized. One species Tenrec ecaudatus has been introduced to the Comores, Réunion, Mauritius and the Seychelles; all others are confined to Madagascar and its offshore islands. Chiroptera Some 28 species of bats have been recorded on Madagascar, nine of these endemic (though one, Triaenops humbloti, may only be a colour variant of another, T. rufus), with an additional three nearly endemic (one also occurs on the Comores, one on Aldabra and one on Réunion). One endemic species Myzopoda durita is in its own monotypic and hence endemic family, the Myzopodidae; all other species are in non-endemic genera. Primates The number of extant species of Madagascan primates depends on the classification adopted. This report recognizes 28 species in four different families - the Cheirogaleidae, Lemuridae, Indriidae and Daubentoniidae; the first two families are sometimes lumped together in the Lemuridae, while conversely the genera Lepilemur, Hapalemur and Varecia are sometimes split off into a separate family, the Lepilemuridae. The taxonomy of Lepilemur is highly complex, with recent classifications varying from a single species with five subspecies to seven species, one with five subspecies; in this report seven species are recognized. Two species of the genus Lemur are found on the Comores as well as on Madagascar, all other species are endemic to Madagascar and its offshore islands. Carnivora There are seven indigenous species of carnivore in Madagascar, each in its own monotypic genus in the family Viverridae and all endemic. As well as feral dogs and cats, the palm civet Viverricula indica has been introduced, though is reported to live predominantly in savanna regions near villages and to be generally absent from true forest. Rodentia Ten species of native rodents in seven genera are currently recognized on Madagascar, all are endemic and are ascribed to the same endemic subfamily, the Nesomyinae, of the family Cricetidae. Little is known of the distribution or status of these species: one (Eliurus myoxinus) is apparently widespread; two (Hypogeomys antimena and Macrotarsomys ingens) have restricted ranges in parts of the west; one (Macrotarsomys bastardi) is widespread in the west; the others occur in the eastern forests and have generally been rarely recorded though at least some are likely to be fairly widely distributed in this region (Nesomys rufus is also known from one specimen collected at Maintirano on the west coast though this individual is distinctive and may represent a separate species). 463- An environmental profile of Madagascar The following lemurs have been assigned threatened species categories, following the 1986 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals: Lepilemur mustelinus Lepilemur ruficaudatus Lepilemur septentrionalis Varecia variegata Allocebus trichotis Microcebus coquereli Phaner furcifer Avahi laniger Indri indri Propithecus diadema Propithecus verreauxi Daubentonia madagascariensis Hapalemur griseus Hapalemur simus Lemur catta Lemur coronatus Lemur macaco flavifrons Lemur macaco macaco Lemur mongoz Lemur rubriventer Lepilemur dorsalis Lepilemur edwardsi Lepilemur leucopus Lepilemur microdon ARAKR << KAAMA MASMAKRANTMAKRA Five of the Madagascan viverrids have been assigned categories as follows: V = Cryptoprocta ferox K_ = Galidictis fasciata K_ Eupleres goudotii K_ Salanoia concolor K Fossa fossa Insufficient information is available at present to assign categories to mammal species from other groups, although amongst insectivores, the aquatic Limnogale mergulus is believed to present most cause for concern. An annotated list of all non-marine mammal species is given in Appendix 2 and data sheets for all lemurs and the Dugong are provided in Appendix 3. PRINCIPAL REFERENCES N.B. Full references for the lemurs are provided with the data sheets in Appendix 3. Albignac, R. (1972) The carnivora of Madagascar. In Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (eds) Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. Albignac, R. (1973) Mammiféres carnivores. Faune de Madagascar 36: 1-209. Eisenberg, J.F. and Gould, E. (1984) The insectivores. In Jolly, A., Oberlé, P., and Albignac, R. (eds) Key Environments - Madagascar. Pergammon Press, Oxford. Eisenberg, J.F. and Gould, E. (1970) The tenrecs, a study in mammalian behavior and evolution. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 27: 1-127. Gould, E. and Eisenberg, J.F. (1966) Notes on the biology of the Tenrecidae. Journal of Mammalogy 47(4): 660-686. Heim de Balsac, H. (1972) Insectivores. In Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (eds) Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. Honacki, J.H., Kinman, K.E. and Koeppl, J.W. (Eds) (1982) Mammal species of the world. Allen Press, Inc. and the Association of Systematics Collections. Lawrence, Kansas, U.S.A. Meester,J. and Setzer, H.W. (Eds) (1971) The mammals of Africa. An _ identification manual. Smithsonian Insititution Press, City of Washington. Morrison-Scott, T.C.S. (1948) The insectivorous genera Microgale and Nesogale (Madagascar). Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 118: 817-822. Petter, F. (1972) The rodents of Madagascar: the seven genera of Malagasy rodents. In Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (eds) Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. Petter, J.-J. (1972) Order of primates: sub-order of lemurs. In Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (eds) Biogeography and ecology in Madagascar. Monographiae biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. B64 Fauna Petter, J.-J., Albignac, R. and Rumpler, Y. (1977) Mammiféres lémuriens. Faune de Madagascar 44: 1-543. Schliemann, H. and Maas, B. (1978) Myzopoda aurita. Mammalian species No 116. American Society of Mammalogists. Tattersall, I. (1982) The primates of Madagascar. Columbia University Press, New York. Thomas, O. (1918) On the arrangement of the small Tenrecidae hitherto referred to Oryzorictes and Microgale. Annals and Magazine of natural History (9)1: 302-307. -65- An environmental profile of Madagascar V.3. AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES The herpetofauna of Madagascar is of very great interest in several respects. 1. With about 144 amphibians and 257 reptiles, Madagascar is, for its size, relatively rich in species (the reptiles are particularly numerous). Many species, including nearly 40 amphibians, have been described since 1970; doubtless a number remain to be discovered. Several recent descriptions are based on material collected some years ago but only recently studied. 2. The great majority of species (over 90%) are endemic to the island; this includes all but two of the 144 amphibians. 3. There is a distinct contrast between:- a. a small group of species-poor genera, usually endemic and often monospecific, apparently relict forms representing archaic lineages present since the first fragmentation of Gondwanaland. Examples: Erymnochelys, the boas Acrantophis and Sanzinia, the seven malagasy iguanids. b. a group of very species-rich genera, some endemic, apparently representing separate adaptive radiations from several chance immigrations (eg. by rafting from the African mainland) subsequent to the geographic isolation of Madagascar. Examples: Chamaeleo and Brookesia among chamaeleons (Madagascar has two-thirds of the world’s species), Scelotes among scincids, Boophis and Mantidactylus among frogs. 4. The affinities of the reptile fauna are mainly with Africa, while those of the amphibians are with Africa and the Orient. However, the zoogeographic relationships of certain forms are especially noteworthy. For example, the pelomedusid turtle Erymmnochelys is most closely related to the South American genus Podocnemis; similarly the boid genera Acrantophis and Sanzinia are most closely related to boas in South America (in both these examples related fossil material is known from intervening sites in Africa and/or Europe, but no extant forms are present in these areas). The seven malagasy iguanids, very distinct from all other iguanids, contribute in large measure to the highly enigmatic distribution of the family (present in Madagascar, Fiji-Tonga, and the New World; the family is unknown in Africa). 5. The microhylid genus Pseudohemisus (a monotypic form endemic to Madagascar) has recently been shown to be precisely intermediate in regard to tadpole anatomy between the families Ranidae and Microhylidae. The taxonomic position of the Scaphiophryninae, to which Pseudohemisus (and Scaphiophryne, tadpole unknown) are assigned therefore remains unclear (the possibility that Pseudohemisus is in some sense a link between ranoid and microhyloid lineages cannot be discounted since the discovery of ’living fossils’ is more likely on an island such as Madagascar where ancestral populations, possibly competitively inferior, can be isolated from their descendants). The taxonomic composition of the herpetofauna is as follows:- CLASS: AMPHIBIA species (genera) Family: Hyperoliidae 8/9 (1) Family: Microhylidae Subfamily: Cophylinae (endemic) 33 (9) Dyscophinae (endemic ?) 3/4 (1) Scaphiophryninae (endemic) 51(2) Microhylinae 1 (1) Family: Ranidae Subfamily: Mantellinae (endemic) 60 (3) Raninae 3i(3)) Family: Rhacophoridae 30 (2) 2Ga= Fauna CLASS: REPTILIA Family: Testudinidae 5 (3) Family: Cheloniidae 4 (4) Family: Dermochelyidae 1 (1) Family: Pelomedusidae 4 (3) Family: Crocodilidae 1 (1) Family: Gekkonidae 63 (12) Family: Iguanidae 7 (2) Family: Chamaeleontidae 53) (2) Family: Scincidae 47 (10) Family: Cordylidae 12 (2) Family: Typhlopidae 9 (2) Family: Boidae 31(2) Family: ’Colubridae’ 48 (15) (plus 2 sea snakes) All the amphibians present are frogs; there are no caecilians, newts or toads. Most of these are forest-living treefrogs; there are few savannah forms and very few burrowers. Around 10% of the 144 species present can persist or thrive in open and/or human-dominated landscapes; 30% live in one of the three high mountain areas; but 60% are restricted to low-medium altitude moist forest. A few forest forms appear to be restricted to single localities, but probably most are widely distributed in the eastern escarpment rainforest; many are obligate tree-axil dwellers. This distribution pattern is not repeated among the reptiles. Presumably due to their much greater tolerance of non-humid conditions, many species occur in the seasonal western forests and in the truly arid south. It has been suggested that the herpetofauna is highly sensitive to human modification of the environment; this is presumably of minimal concern to the small number of wide-ranging forms abundant in various marginal or secondary habitats, but is likely to be important to the many highly localized species and perhaps to rainforest species in general. Examples of the former are the ranid frog Ptychadena madagascariensis (occurs throughout, especially in rice fields), the hyperoliid Heterixalus betsileo (common in cleared forest) and the scincid Mabuya gravenhorsti (favours secondary ’savoka’ vegetation); examples of the latter are the tortoise Geochelone yniphora (at Cape Sada), the ranid Mantella aurantica (in the Périnet forest), and two Lygodactylus geckos at the summit of Mt Bity. Loss of habitat is probably the predominant factor adversely affecting the malagasy herpetofauna; other factors include relaxing of traditional tribal taboos (fady’) protecting certain forms (eg. tortoises, boid snakes, crocodiles at some localities), and persecution or over-exploitation (eg. Nile Crocodile, freshwater turtles). Overall it must be stressed that the distribution, ecology and conservation status of most elements of the herpetofauna are inadequately known. Only one species, the ’Angonoka’ Geochelone yniphora, is known to be critically threatened at present; it is currently the subject of a conservation project. There are, however, many other poorly-known forms of special concern, often known only from a single specimen: for example, the colubrid snake Liophidium apperti, known by one specimen collected in 1968 in deciduous forest near Befandriana-sud; this forest has now been cleared but for a few isolated trees and the survival of the snake must be in question. The sea turtles, terrestrial tortoises, the freshwater turtle Erymnochelys madagascariensis, and some larger frogs are utilized for food (or trade material, ie. tortoiseshell, in the case of Hawksbill Eretmochelys); the condition of these resources should be investigated and appropriate management applied. The tortoises Geochelone yniphora and G. radiata, and the boid snakes Acrantophis and Sanzinia are nominally protected by law (decree of 16 February, 1961). Export of all wild animals, or parts thereof, is nominally controlled. “6 An environmental profile of Madagascar Some 22 species of amphibians and 70 species of reptiles, listed below have been assigned IUCN threatened species categories or are being considered for inclusion in a category. The many Insufficiently Known species (’K’ in the annotated lists, Appendix 2) do not appear below. Those already categorized consist of nine members of the order Testudines and Crocodylus niloticus. With these exceptions (marked by an asterisk in the list below), the designations are those suggested by the one or two competent authorities, but CMC do not yet have the requisite corroborative data, thus these should not be regarded as ’official’ IUCN designations. In the case of taxa not restricted to Madagascar, the designations refer to the world range. AMPHIBIA Hyperoliidae R_ ’Hyperolius’ nossibeensis Cophylinae R_ Paracophyla tuberculata R_ Platypelis milloti Dyscophinae I Dyscophus antongili Mantellinae R_~ Laurentomantis horrida R= Laurentomantis malagasia R= Laurentomantis ventrimaculata V = Mantella aurantica R= Mantidactylus argenteus V_= Mantella laevigata R= Mantidactylus domerguei R= Mantidactylus eiselti R= Mantidactylus glandulosus R= Mantidactylus grandisonae R= Mantidactylus klemmeri R = Mantidactylus peraccae R= Mantidactylus punctatus R= Mantidactylus pseudoasper R= Mantidactylus webbi Rhacophoridae R_ Boophis albilabris R_~ Boophis leucomaculatus R_~ Boophis microtis REPTILIA Testudinidae V* Geochelone radiata E* Geochelone yniphora I* Pyxis arachnoides I* Pyxis planicauda Cheloniidae V* Caretta caretta E* Chelonia mydas E* Eretmochelys imbricata E* Lepidochelys olivacea Pelomedusidae I* Erymnochelys madagascariensis Crocodilidae V* Crocodylus niloticus Chamaeleonidae R_ Brookesia decaryi R_ Brookesia ebenaui R_ Brookesia nasus R_ Brookesia tuberculata I Chamaeleo antimena R= Chamaeleo balteatus R= Chamaeleo bifidus R= Chamaeleo boettgeri I Chamaeleo campani R= Chamaeleo cucullatus I Chamaeleo fallax R= Chamaeleo gallus I Chamaeleo gastrotaenia R= Chamaeleo globifer R= Chamaeleo malthe R = Chamaeleo minor I Chamaeleo parsonii R= Chamaeleo willsi Scincidae R Amphiglossus splendidus E Amphiglossus stumpffi R_ Androngo trivittatus R Mabuya boettgeri R_ Paracontias brocchii R_ Paracontias holomelas R= Pygomeles braconnieri R_ Scelotes ornaticeps -68- Fauna Colubridae R_ Alluaudina bellyi R= Alluaudina mocquardi V = Geodipsas heimi V = Geodipsas infralineata R= _—Heteroliodon torquatus V = Ithycyphus goudoti VY Ithycyphus miniatus V_— Langaha alluaudi VV Langaha nasuta I Liophidium apperti VV Liophidium rhodogaster VY -Liophidium torquatus 2R Liophidium trilineatum 2R Liophidium vaillanti 2E Liopholidophis grandidieri I Liopholidophis pinguis R_ Lycodryas arctifasciatus R_ Lycodryas betsilineatus R_ Lycodryas gaimardi R_ Lycodryas guentheri R_ Lycodryas inornatus R= Lycodryas maculatus R= Lycodryas variabilis R= Micropisthodon ochraceus I Pararhadinea albignaci R= Pararhadinea melanogaster R= Pseudoxyrhopus ambreensis I Pseudoxyrhopus dubius R = Pseudoxyrhopus heterurus R Pseudoxyrhopus imerinae R = Pseudoxyrhopus microps R= Pseudoxyrhopus occipitalis V = -Pseudoxyrhopus tritaeniatus I Pseudoxyrhopus quinquelineatus An annotated list of Madagascan Amphibian and Reptile species is provided in Appendix 2, and data sheets for those species marked * above in Appendix 3. REFERENCES Angel, F. (1942). Les Lézards de Madagascar. Pls. 1-22. (Distribution data for lizards) Blanc, Ch.P. (1972). Les Reptiles de Madagascar et des Iles Voisines. Pp 501-614 in Battistini, R., and Richard-Vindard, G. (Eds), Biogeography and Ecology in Madagascar. The Hague: W. Junk. (Major source of species list). Mém. Acad. Malgache. 36. Pp. 1-190, Blanc, Ch.P. (1977). Reptiles. Sauriens Iguanidae. Faune de Madagascar, 45, 197 pp., Paris, Orstom/CNRS. Blanc, Ch.P. (1981). Batraciens et Reptiles: formes et couleurs insolites. Chap. 4, pp. 57-62, in Oberlé, P. (Ed), Madagascar, un sanctuaire de la nature. Paris, Lechevalier S.A.R.L. Blommers-Schlésser, R.M.A. (1979). Biosystematics of the Malagasy frogs. I. Mantellinae (Ranidae). Beaufortia No. 352, Vol. 29:1-77. Blommers-Schlésser, R.M.A. (1979). Biosystematics of the Malagasy frogs. II. The genus Boophis (Rhacophoridae). Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde 49 (2):261-312. Blommers-Schlésser, R.M.A. (1982). Observations on the Malagasy frog genus Heterixalus Laurent, 1944 (Hyperoliidae). Beaufortia 32(1):1-11. Bohme, W., & Meier, H. (1980). Revision der madagassischen Homopholis(Blaesodactylus)Arten (Sauria: Gekkonidae). Senck. biol. (Frankfurt) 60(5/6): 303-315. Bour, R. (1978). Les tortues actuelles de Madagascar (République malgache): liste systématique et description de deux sous-espéces nouvelles (Reptilia-Testudines). Bull. Soc. Et. sci. Anjou, N.S., 10:141-154. Brygoo, E.R. (1969). Chamaeleo guentheri Boulenger, 1888, synonyme de C. pardalis Cuvier, 1829. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér 2, 41(1): 119-121. Brygoo, E.R. (1971). Reptiles. Sauriens Chamaeleonidae. Genre Chamaeleo. Faune de Madagascar, 33, 318 pp., Paris, Orstom/CNRS. Brygoo, E.R. (1974). Notes sur les Chamaeleo de Madagascar, XII, Caméléons du Marojezy. C. peyrieresi n.sp. et C. gastrotaenia guillaumeti n.subsp. (Reptilia, Squamata, Chamaeleonidae). Bull. Acad. malgache 51(1):151-166. Brygoo, E.R. (1978). Reptiles. Sauriens Chamaeleonidae. Genre Brookesia_ et complément pour le genre Chamaeleo. Faune de Madagascar, 47, 174 pp., Paris, Orstom/CNRS. Brygoo, E.R. (1979). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. I. Scelotes trivittatus (Boulenger, 1896) nov. comb. synonyme de Scelotes trilineatus Angel, 1949. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, sér. 4, 1, sect. A, N° 4: 1115-1120. -69- An environmental profile of Madagascar Brygoo, E.R. (1980). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. II. Amphiglossus astrolabi Duméril et Bibron, 1839; Gongylus polleni Grandidier, 1869; Gongylus stumpffi Boettger, 1882 et Scelotes waterloti Angel, 1930. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, sér. 4, 2, sect. A, N° 2:525-539. Brygoo, E.R. (1980). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. III. Les "Acontias" de Madagascar: Pseudacontias Barboza du Bocage, 1889, Paracontias Mocquard, 1894, Pseudacontias Hewitt, 1929, et Malacontias Greer, 1970. IV. Amphiglossus reticulatus (Kaudern, 1922) nov. comb., troisieme espéce du genre; ses _ rapports avec Amphiglossus waterloti (Angel, 1920). Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4© sér., 2, 1980, section A, n° 3 : 905-918. Brygoo, E.R. (1980). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. V. Scelotes praeornatus Angel, 1938, synonyme de Scelotes s.l. frontoparietalis (Boulenger, 1889). Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4© sér., 2, 1980, section A, n° 4: 1155-1160. Brygoo, E.R. (1981). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. VI. Deux Scincinés nouveaux. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4° sér., 3, 1981, section A, n° 1 : 261-268. Brygoo, E.R. (1981). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. VII. Révision des genres Voeltzkowia Boettger, 1893, Grandidierina Mocquard, 1894, et Cryptoscincus Mocquard, 1894. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4© sér., 3, 1981, section A, n° 2: 675-688. Brygoo, E.R. (1982). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. IX. Nouvelles unités taxinomiques pour les Scelotes s. 1. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4° sér., 3, 1981, section A, n° 4: 1193-1204. Brygoo, E.R. (1983). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. XI. Les Mabuya de Madagascar. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4th ser., 5, sect. A, No. 4: 1079-1108. Brygoo, E.R. (1984). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. XII. Le groupe d’espéces Gongylus melanurus Gunther, 1877, G. gastrostictus O’Shaughnessy, 1879, et G. macrocercus Gunther, 1882. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4th ser., 6, sect. A, No. 1: 131-148. Brygoo, E.R. (1984). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. XIII. Les Amphiglossus du sous-genre madascincus. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4th ser., 6, sect. A, No. 2: 527-536. Brygoo, E.R. (1984). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. XV. Gongylus igneocaudatus A. Grandidier, 1867, et Scelotes intermedius Boettger, 1913. Les Amphiglossus du groupe igneocaudatus. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4th ser., 6, sect. A, No. 3: 779-789. Brygoo, E.R. (1984). Systématique des Lézards Scincidés de la région malgache. XVI. Les Amphiglossus du groupe ornaticeps. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4th ser., 6, sect. A, No. 4: 1153-1160. Brygoo, E.R., Blanc, C.P., and Domergue, C.A. (1970). Notes sur les Brookesia de Madagascar. VII. Brookesia karchei n.sp. du Massif du Marojezy. Annales Univ. Madag. (sér. sci.) 7: 267-271. Brygoo, E.R., Blanc, C.P., and Domergue, C.A. (1972). Notes sur les Chamaeleo de Madagascar. 10. Deux nouveaux caméléons des hauts sommets de Madagascar: C. capuroni n.sp. et C. gastrotaenia andringitraensis n.subsp. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 2, 42: 601-613. Brygoo, E.R., Bourgat, R., and Domergue, C.A. (1972). Notes sur les Chamaeleo de Madagascar. C. tuzetae n.sp., nouvelle espéce du sud-ouest (Reptilia, Squamata, Chamaeleonidae). Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 3, 21: 133-140. Brygoo, E.R., and Domergue, C.A. (1967(1968)). Description d’un Caméléon nouveau de Madagascar, Chamaeleo tsaratananensis n.sp. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 2, 39(5): 829-832. Brygoo, E.R., and Domergue, C.A. (1968). Les Caméléons 4 rostre impair et rigide de louest de Madagascar. Mém. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, N.S., sér A, 52(2): 1-110. Brygoo, E.R., and Domergue, C.A. (1968). Description d’un nouveau Brookesia de Madagascar: B. vadoni n.sp. (Chamaeleonidés). Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 2, 40(4): 677-682. 270 Fauna Brygoo, E.R., and Domergue, C.A. (1969). Un Brookesia des foréts orientales de Madagascar, B. thieli n.sp. (Chamaeléonidés). Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 2, 40(6): 1103-1109. Brygoo, E.R., and Domergue, C.A. (1969). Chamaeleo balteatus Dum. et Bib. (dans C. et A. Duméril, 1851) n’est pas synonyme de C. bifidus Brogniart, 1800. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 2, 41(1): 104-116. Brygoo, E.R., and Domergue, C.A. (1969). Notes sur la Brookesia de Madagascar. IV. Une série de petits Brookesia de Nosy Mangabé (Chamaeléonidés). Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 2, 41(4): 833-841. Brygoo, E.R., and Domergue, C.A. (1970). Notes sur les Brookesia de Madagascar. Description de deux espéces nouvelles: B. l/ambertoni n.sp. et B. therezieni n.sp. (Chamaeleonidae). Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 2, 41(5): 1091-1096. Brygoo, E.R., and Domergue, C.A. (1970). Notes sur les Chamaeleo de Madagascar. C. belalandaensis n.sp., Caméléon du Sud-Ouest. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 2, 42(2): 305-310. Brygoo, E.R., Blanc, C.P., and Domergue, C.A. (1974). Notes sur les Chamaeleo de Madagascar, 12. Caméléons du Marojezy. C. peyriersi n.sp. et C. gastrotaenia guillaumeti n.subsp. (Reptilia, Squamata, Chamaeleonidae). Bull. Acad. malgache. 51(1): 151-166. Busse, K. (1981). Revision der Farbmuster-Variabilitat in der madagassischen Gattung Mantella (Salientia: Ranidae). Amphibia-Reptilia 2: 23-42. Domergue, C.A. (1983). Notes sur les Serpents de la région malgache III. Descriptions de trois espéces nouvelles rapportées au genre Liophidium Boulenger, 1896. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, ser. 4, 5 (4): 1109-1122. Domergue, C.A. (1984). Notes sur les Serpents de la région malgache IV. Descriptions d’une espéce et d’une sous-espéce nouvelles. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, ser 4, 6(1): 149-157. Domergue, C.A. (1984). Notes sur les Serpents de la région malgache V. Le genre Alluaudina Mocquard, 1894. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat., Paris, 4th ser., 6., sect. A, No. 2: 537-549. Domergue, Ch.A. (1970). Notes sur les Serpents de la région malgache. Lycodryas maculatus (Gunther, 1858), espéce des Comores. Description de deux femelles. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 2, 42(3): 449-451. Domergue, Ch.A. (1972). Etude de trois Serpents malgaches: Liopholidophis lateralis (Dum. & Bib.), L. stumpffi (Boettger) et L. thieli n. sp. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 3, 103, Zool. 77: 1397-1422. Guibé, J. (1958). Les Serpents de Madagascar. Mém. Inst. Sci. Madag. Sér. A, XII: 189-260. (Major source for snake distribution data) Guibé, J. (1978). Les Batraciens de Madagascar. Bonner Zoologische Monographien 11, pp. 1-144, plus plates 1-82. Pasteur, G. (1967). Note préliminaire sur les Geckos du genre Lygodactylus rapportés par Charles Blanc du Mont Ibity (Madagascar). Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris, sér. 2, 39(3): 439-443. Pasteur, G., and Blanc, C.P. (1967). Les Lézards du sous-genre Malgache de Lygodactyles Domerguella (Gekkonidés). Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 92 (3): 583-597. Pasteur, G., and Blanc, C.P. (1973). Nouvelles études sur les Lygodactyles (Sauriens Gekkonidés), I. Données récentes sur Domerguella et sur ses rapports avec la phytogéographie Malgache. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 98(1): 165-174. aie An environmental profile of Madagascar V.4. FISHES This account has largely been drawn from Kiener (1963), Kiener and Richard-~Vindard (1972), Moreau (1979,1983a,1983b,1984), and FAO (1980,1983). The native freshwater fish fauna of Madagascar is relatively depauperate, presumably in part as a result of the early geographical isolation of the island. It consists largely of representatives of euryhaline groups and contains few of the characteristic major families inhabiting the freshwaters of Africa or Indo-Malaya. However, a high proportion of the freshwater fish species are endemic, also probably as a result of the early isolation of Madagascar; these include all the freshwater atherinids and the nine native cichlids, some of which may be among the most primitive in the family. Some species, such as Oxylapia polli and Rheocloides pellegrini, are endemic to isolated river basins within the island, apparently thus restricted by physical barriers, often the saline water at the mouth of the rivers. This is particularly so on the eastern side of the island where the steep river profiles, narrow coastal plain and low tidal amplitude give rise to sharp salinity gradients at the river mouths. On the west coast river profiles are much shallower with a far broader coastal plain and continental shelf, and much higher tidal amplitude; salinity changes in rivers and estuaries are correspondingly more gradual, favouring the development of a euryhaline fauna. Habitat diversity is generally greater along this coast, with extensive mangrove and coral reef development (see part IV). There is also a greater chance of colonization from African continental waters in the west. Information on the present status and distribution of the native fish fauna is scanty and further research is desirable. Given the size of the island and the variety of aquatic biotopes, it is possible that several species remain as yet undiscovered (T. Roberts, pers. comm.). Threats Given the sparsity of recent information on the fish fauna, it is difficult to discuss the manner in which it is threatened other than in a general and speculative way. The increasing human population has led to increasing pressure on the land and, in particular, to a decline in the extent of the forest cover, principally through clearance for ’tavy’ (slash-and-burn) cultivation (see Part IJI.3). In turn, this is likely to have had serious effects on the fish fauna as the forests exert significant control over the water regime in their catchment areas. Thus, for example, deforestation tends to lead to an increase in the volume of water passing to rivers as runoff; large discharges are liable to remove soil from denuded banks leading to an increase in turbidity and loss of habitat for many species. The Betsiboka River has been cited in this regard, as have many high altitude and forest streams which now become turbid following only slight rainfall. Waterborne silt may cover the substrate and aquatic vegetation, thus reducing the availability of food. Water temperature may rise when tree cover is removed (particularly in the headwaters of a catchment), and this may affect the lifecycle of both fish and aquatic invertebrates by reducing the viability of eggs and the survival of the young. Introduced species, both animal and plant, also pose problems. The water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) has invaded many lakes and rivers in Madagascar and has blocked several of them. Consequent reduction in water flow can lead to increased siltation and reduction of visibility; the latter is particularly likely to affect active predatory species which hunt by sight. Introduced fish species, several of which are now of great economic importance, have almost certainly had considerable impact on the native fish fauna, either as competitors or predators. These include Oreochromis spp. which are predominantly herbivorous and have _ high reproductive rates; these could have adverse effects on habitats by reducing vegetation cover and thus removing breeding and feeding sites for fish, invertebrates and birds. Paretroplus kieneri, for example, typically found in heavily vegetated areas, could be so affected. Few native Madagascan fish are currently of interest to the aquarium trade, an exception being Bedotia geayi. However, difficulties in transporting fish may have hindered development of the trade. Overall, inland fisheries effort appears to have declined in recent years, although over-fishing has almost certainly occurred in easily accessible sites; however 275 = Fauna most fishing effort appears to be aimed at introduced species and no native species are thought to be threatened with extinction as a direct result of fishing. Threatened species The following species have been identified as likely to be threatened by Kiener (1983). His categories should be regarded as provisional and not as official IUCN designations. *Highly threatened’ Oxylapia polli Ptychochromoides betsileanus *Rare’ Acentrogobius therezieni Oryzias madagascariensis Pachypanchax playfairi Rheocloides pellegrini Typhleotris madagascariensis Typhleotris pauliani *Vulnerable’ Paratilapia polleni Paretroplus dami Paretroplus kieneri Paretroplus maculatus Paretroplus petiti Ptychochromis oligacanthus An annotated list of all endemic species is included in Appendix 2. FISHERIES Inland The inland fisheries of Madagascar account for 80% of total fish harvest. Approximately 550 000 ha of the 600 000 ha of waterbodies present on the island may be _ potentially exploitable for fisheries (Kiener and Richard-Vindard, 1972). Freshwater fisheries research is carried out by the Division des Recherches Piscicoles (Department of Fisheries Research) which has two principal research stations supported by a number of secondary units. The principal species caught at present are introduced tilapias and carp. This is in contrast to former years when the native Paratilapia polleni was most important. Principal target groups in order of importance are: 1. Cichlidae (primarily introduced tilapias since 1950, although prior to this native cichlids were important). 2. Musgilidae (both marine and freshwater). 3. Cyprinidae (an introduced group). 4. Anguillidae (most widely distributed group in the island). In addition the Ariidae, Chandidae, Gobiidae and Eleotridae are all important. Aquaculture: 25 000 ha of rice fields are now used for fish production; there are also ca 1000 ha of freshwater fish ponds (FAO, 1983). Formerly, over 85 000 ponds existed, mainly concentrated around Antananarivo and Fianaratsoa; this total is now nearer to 10 000 (Moreau, 1984). Aquaculture could be substantially increased, perhaps by 480 000 ha, by including further rice fields and mangrove areas, although the construction of hatcheries is likely to be a constraint to future development. Carp and tilapia are the most widely used fishes and Chanos chanos has been successfully cultured in brackish water. A project, financed by FAO/UNEP, designed to assist with inland fisheries and aquaculture ended in 1982. Fishing: As in many African countries, inland fishing tends to be a part-time activity undertaken when time is available away from other agricultural activities. The small size of the canoes used has resulted in a concentration of activity near to the lake shores where fish Abe An environmental profile of Madagascar stocks (particularly juveniles) are now being overexploited. This problem is thought to be particularly serious in the Pangalanes, Lake Alaotra, Lake Itasy, lower Betsiboka River, and around Toamasina, Antananarivo, and Taolanaro, where there are large numbers of fishermen. Elsewhere there is a high potential for fishing, but few fishermen. Moreau (1983a) considers that there has been a gradual change from commercial fishery towards subsistence fisheries, largely as a result of difficulties with transport and obtaining and repairing equipment. Fewer fish are now reaching the large markets which are apparently experiencing shortages. Fish consumption is reportedly declining overall. Most fish (75%) is consumed fresh; salting is rarely used for preservation and fish are generally smoked if they are to be taken any distance for sale. Production: Production figures in 1972 are as follows (Kiener and Richard-Vindard, 1972): 25 000 tons/annum (25 400 tonnes/annum) in natural waters (45 kg/ha/year) 2000 tons/annum (2032 tonnes/annum) in fishponds (1 tonne/ha/year) 160 tons/annum (162 tonnes/annum) in rice fields (400 kg/ha/year) Total 27 160 tons (27 594 tonnes)per annum. These differ from the FAO catch statistics for 1975-1980, where the annual catch for cyprinids, cichlids and other freshwater species was estimated at 13 000, 23 000 and 5000 tonnes respectively, totalling 41 000 tonnes for each year. These estimates will be approximate at best: collection of fisheries statistics is extremely difficult as fishing is a very widespread, generally low level activity, largely for local subsistence. The following observations on inland fisheries in different parts of Madagascar have been located. River Fisheries: These are generally for subsistence rather than for commercial purposes and are poorly quantified. Recruitment in certain areas may be poor, and breeding that normally occurs in flooded areas will not take place in drought years. The introduction of trout at sites over 1700 m altitude does not appear to have benefitted river fisheries. Fishing in rivers used to occur on a larger scale than at present; more use is currently made of artificial water bodies and lakes (Moreau, 1983b). North West: Commercial eel fisheries are important here, particularly for Anguilla mossambica. In the lower part of the Betsiboka River, tilapia and carp had a potential fishery of around 2000 tonnes/year, but the catch today is not known. There is little information for the remainder of the region (Moreau, 1983b). Pangalanes: these artificial channels could be highly productive for a large variety of fishes. However, in 1979, with relatively low fishing effort, production was only ca 8 kg/ha. Migrating fish, such as the mugilids, are present; some, such as Liza macrolepis, have declined (Moreau, 1983b). Masianka lagoon: This 15 sq. km lagoon, south of the Pangalanes, has a potential production of 140 tonnes. However, there is currently low fishing effort soley for subsistence use (Moreau, 1983b). Taolanaro: A series of separate lagoons of 2500 ha has been providing a catch of around 30 tonnes annually with relatively low fishing effort (Moreau, 1983b). Lake Alaotra: P. polleni, C. carpio and tilapia are the major species caught. Eels are also taken. In 1963-1967 a peak catch of around 3000 tonnes per annum was reached, decreasing by 1976 to approximately 2000 tonnes. This was a similar figure to those of the mid-1950s although the fishing effort had greatly increased. Catches have probably since decreased (Moreau, 1983b). Lake Kinkony: Projected maximum sustainable yield is ca 700 tonnes per annum; possibly half of this is currently being caught, principally tilapia. The lake is too far from Antananarivo for easy marketing (Moreau, 1983b). “4 Fauna Lake Ihotry: Projected maximum sustainable yield is 150 tonnes per annum. There is, however, no fishery as the use of fishing equipement is proscribed by a ’fady’ (Moreau, 1983b). Lake Itasy: Ptychochromoides betsileanus has declined due to the introduction of the water hyacinth. Oreochromis niloticus is the main fish caught at present. However, recruitment has substantially declined and catches decreased to 275 tonnes in 1976. This lowered catch may also be attributed to difficulties in obtaining new nets and other equipment (Moreau, 1983b). Marine Traditional subsistence marine fisheries are limited to coastal lagoons and shallow inshore waters protected by coral reefs. Some 80% of the artisanal fleet works off the west coast. The east coast and north and south extremities of the island are difficult to work due to poor weather, currents and difficult bottom substrates. The artisanal marine catch is about 8000 tons/year (8,128 tonnes). The boats are simple wooden outrigger canoes, 4-8 m long, propelled by oars or sails. Vessels only carry one or at the most two fishermen using hook and line, gill nets, beach seines or traps. Approximately half the marine catch is marketed fresh locally in the towns, absence of a distribution system generally preventing internal marketing of smoked, dried or frozen marine fish. Freshwater fishes are cheaper than marine fishes which are usually more expensive than meat. Experimental fishing in the early seventies encouraged industrial exploitation by foreign enterprise and in 1974, 10 000 tons (10 60 tonnes) of skipjack tuna were landed. Agreements with Japanese, Russian and East German fishing interests have been reached; the resultant fishing is thought to have seriously depleted the stocks. International fishing has now ceased due to internal problems and the international economic crisis. The marine waters are not thought to be particularly rich in fish resources, the total available potential (excluding tuna) being about 150 000 tonnes per year, although not all of this would be economically exploitable. The most promising demersal species are the Sparidae and the Lutjanidae. However, catch rates in exploratory fishing have not been high. Areas where pelagic shoaling fishes may be found appear to be highly localised, with very few on the western side south of 16°S. North of this, anchovy and sardinella shoals appear to be more frequent. FAO/UNDP assisted the marine sector until 1974. A guide to the commercial fishes of Madagascar has been produced by FAO (Bauchot and Bianchi, 1984). REFERENCES Arnoult, J and Bauchot, R. (1963). Compte rendu de Mission de Madagascar. Bull. Mus. Nat. d’Hist. nat. 1963: 219-227. Arnoult, J. (1959). Poissons des eaux douces. Faune de Madagascar IRSM, Tananarive 10°169 pp. Arnoult, J. (1963). Un oryziiné (Pisces, Cyprinodontidae) nouveau de Test de Madagascar. Bull. Mus. Nat. d’Hist. nat. 2e Sér. 35(3): 235-237. Bardin, T. (1983). A la recherche des cichlides endemiques de Madagascar. Revue Francaise des Cichlidophiles 29: 21-34. Bauchot, M.L. and Bianchi, G. (1984). Guides des poissons commerciaux de Madagascar (espéces marines et d’eaux saumdatres). Fiches FAO d’identification des espéces pour les besoins de la péche. FAO, Rome. 135 pp. Boulenger, G.A. (1909-1916). Catalogue of the freshwater fishes of Africa in the British Museum. British Museum (Natural History), London 4 vol. Daget, J. and Moreau, J. (1981). Hybridation Introgressive entre deux espéces de Sarotherodon (Pisces: Cichlidae) dans un lac de Madagascar. Bull. Mus. Nat. d’Hist. nat. 4e Sér. A. Zool. 3(2): 689-703. FAO (1980). Yearbook of fishery statistics. Vol. 50. FAO Rome. FAO (1983). Fishery country profile. FID/CP/MAG/Rev 3. 4 pp. Gunther, A. (1859-1870). Catalogue of fishes in the British Museum. 8 vol. British Museum. Hse An environmental profile of Madagascar Hoese, D.F. and Winterbottom, R. (1979). A new species of Lioteres, Pisces, Gobiidae from Kwazulu with a revised checklist of South African Gobies and comments on the generic relationships and endemism of west island ocean goboids. Royal Ontario Museum Life Sciences Occasional Paper 31: 1-13. Kiener, A. (1960-1961). Poissons malgaches. Liste de noms malgaches de poissons d’eau douce, d’eaux saumatres et d’espéces euryhalines. Bull. Madag. mai et juin. Au total 117 pp. Kiener, A. (1960-1961). Afrique - Madagascar sous le signe des grands lacs (Mission Rhodésie, aotit 1960). Bull. Madag. dec. et janv. 175-176: 52 pp. Kiener, A. (1963). Poissons, péche et pisciculture a@ Madagascar. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical Pub 24. Nogent sur Marne. 245 pp. Kiener, A. (1964). Gobioidei (Pisces) nouveaux ou rares a Madagascar. Bull. Mus. Nat. d’Hist. nat. 35(4): 328-333 Kiener, A. (1966). Contribution a la biogéographie de quelques espéces ichtyologiques malgaches. Compte Rendu Sommaire des Séances de la Société de Biogéographies). 373-374: 3-18. Kiener, A. (1983). Jn litt. 31-3-83. Kiener, A. and Mauge, M. (1966). Contributions a l’étude systematique et écologique des poissons cichlidae endemiques de Madagascar. Mém. Mus. Nat. d’Hist. nat. Ser A. Zool. 49: 49-99. Kiener, A. and Richard-Vindard, G. (1972). Fishes of the continental waters of Madagascar. pp 477-499. In Biogeography and Ecology in Madagascar. (Eds) Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. Monographie Biologicae 21. W. Junk, The Hague. 765 pp. Losse, G.F. (1968). A mew record of the anchovy Stolephorus heterolobus (Ruppell) from the coast of Madagascar. Cah. ORSTOM sér Oceanogr. 6(2): 117-119. Maugé, A.L. (1984). Diagnoses préliminaires d’Eleotridae des eaux douces de Madagascar. Cybium 8(4): 98-101. Moreau, J. (1979). Le lac Alaotra a Madagascar: cinquante and d’aménagement des péches. Cah. ORSTOM sér Hydrobiol 8(3-4): 171-179. Moreau, J. (1983a). Jn litt. 9 September. Moreau, J. (1983b). Pers comm. Moreau, J. (1984). Jn litt., 13 December. Pellegrin, J. (1914). Sur une derniére collection de poissons recueillie 4 Madagascar par feu F. Geay. Bull. Mus. Nat. d’Hist. nat. 1914(3): 111-113. Pellegrin, J. (1914). Sur une collection de poissons de Madagascar. Bull. Soc. zool. France 39: 221-234. Pellegrin, J. (1919). Sur les Eleotris des eaux douces de Madagascar, description d’une espéce nouvelle. Bull. Soc. zool. France 44: 266-271. Pellegrin, J. (1932a). Poissons de Madagascar recueillis par M. Decary. Description d’une variété nouvelle. Bull. de la Société Zoologique de France 57: 291-297. Pellegrin, J. (1932b). Poissons nouveaux de Madagascar recueillis par M. Catala. Bull. Soc. zool. France 57: 424- 425. Pellegrin, J. (1932c). Poissons de Madagascar recueillis par M. Waterlot. Description d’une variété nouvelle. Bull. de la Société Zoologique de France 58: 225-228. Pellegrin, J. (1933). Les poissons des eaux douces de Madagascar et des iles voisins. Mém. Académie Malgache, Tananarive, 14: 224 pp. Pellegrin, J. (1934). La faune ichtyologique des eaux douces de Madagascar. Paris Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. 18: 425-432. Pellegrin, J. (1935). Poissons de Madagascar recueillis par M. Catala, description d’un Sicydium nouveau. Bull. Soc. zool. France 60: 69-73. Roberts, T. (1981). Jn litt. to A. Wheeler. 1/10/81. Sauvage, H. (1891). Histoire Naturelle des Poissons. Collection Histoire Physique, Naturelle, Politique de Madagascar. Impr. Nationale. 543 pp. Smith, J.L.B. (1965). Fishes of the family Atherinidae of the Red Sea and the Western Indian Ocean with a new freshwater genus and species from Madagascar. Rhodes Univ. Dept. Ichthyology, Ichthyol. Bull. 31: 601-632. Smith, M.M. (1983). Common and scientific names of fishes of S. Africa. PEM il Marine Fishes. JLB Institute of Ichthyology, Rhodes University Special Publication 14. 178 pp. EG Fauna V.5 LEPIDOPTERA: RHOPALOCERA (BUTTERFLIES) The island of Madagascar is separated from mainland Africa by straits which are nowhere less than 400 km wide. Madagascar has been separated from the mainland for at least 60 million years and probably much longer (Owen, 1971). The island is rich in flowering plants but relatively poor in animals, especially when compared with other large islands like New Guinea. Nevertheless, there are some striking endemic groups of animals, including butterflies (Owen, 1971). The Malagasy subregion became isolated before any major evolutionary development of butterflies had occurred, and probably before butterflies had properly diverged from their ancestors. The ancestors of the present Malagasy fauna must therefore have flown or travelled in other ways across the ocean, most of them probably from Africa (Owen, 1971). Colonization from the distant African mainland must occur infrequently and rather randomly, and this is presumably why the Malagasy butterfly fauna is rather poor in species but at the same time rich in endemics (Owen, 1971). The biogeographical affinities of the butterfly families are strongly Afrotropical, as is the case for most Malagasy arthropods. For the Papilionidae at least, dispersion to Madagascar seems to have been from eastern rather than southern Africa. Hancock (1982) states that there is no evidence of dispersal from Madagascar back to the African mainland, but Owen (1971) notes that Graphium evomber of Madagascar is replaced by a very similar species, Graphium junodi, in a narrow strip along the African coast facing Madagascar. There are some important exceptions to the generalization that the Malagasy fauna has its origins in Africa. Atrophaneura antenor, a swallowtail in the otherwise Oriental and Neotropical tribe Troidini, appears to have evolved from an Indian ancestor before that genus reached Asia proper (Hancock, 1982). The genus Euploea (Danaidae) is essentially Oriental and Australasian in distribution and, although not found on Madagascar, E. euphon is endemic to the Mascarenes, and E. mitra to the Seychelles. A chain of mountains runs from north to south in Madagascar; the eastern side is wet and forested, the western side is relatively dry with a variety of woodland and savanna ecosystems. Species richness and endemicity tend to be high in the highland and forested areas, and low in lowland and more arid regions. However, for some butterfly families forests are not the preferred habitats (e.g. many Hesperiidae, Lycaenidae and Pieridae). The southern, and particularly south-western, regions are rather poor in species while the deciduous and evergreen forests of the western, northern and eastern regions are richer. Some Papilionidae are confined to the deciduous western forests (Papilio morondavana, P. grosesmithi), which are clearly important ecosystems for protection. Other species and genera are confined to the rain forests (e.g. Graphium endochus (Papilionidae) and Charaxes species (Nymphalidae)). The central highlands and eastern rain forests probably include the most important localities of all. High altitude areas in central and northern Madagascar include important localities, such as Montagne d’Ambre and the Massif de Tsaratanana. The butterfly fauna is strongly endemic at the generic, specific and subspecific levels, although many other lesser-known insect groups exhibit even higher levels. There are over 300 species of butterflies distributed in over 80 genera in the Malagasy subregion (Madagascar, Comoros, Mascarenes and Seychelles), of which 233 are endemic (Owen, 1971). At least 17 genera are endemic to Madagascar (see Table 6). The levels of species endemism in Madagascar itself are: Papilionidae 77% (10 out of 13 species), Pieridae 34% (10 out of 29 species), Nymphalidae 78% (133 out of 170 species), Libytheidae 50% (1 out of 2 species), Riodinidae 100% (3 species) and Lycaenidae 58% (25 out of 43 species). In addition, there are many endemic subspecies within these families. There are relatively few Lycaenidae in Madagascar because the Lipteninae are absent. The Hesperiidae have not been considered here but are well represented in the area. Seven of the seventeen genera endemic to the Malagasy subregion are in the Hesperiidae (Owen, 1971). An annotated list of Butterfly species, in all families except the Hesperidae, occurring in Madagascar is included in Appendix 2. The conservation status of the Papilionidae, iim An environmental profile of Madagascar Charaxidinae, Acraeinae, Danainae and Nymphalidae has been assessed, but it has not yet been possible to assess the threats to the Pieridae, Satyrinae, Libytheidae, Riodinidae or Lycaenidae. Conclusions The main findings are summarized in Tables 6 and 7. If the relative numbers of species identified as threatened in the families considered are extrapolated to the entire butterfly fauna of Madagascar, then about 45-50 species may be assumed to be threatened. Those species in the families Papilionidae and Nymphalidae identified as threatened in Madagascar are: Papilio grosesmithi* Papilio mangoura* Charaxes cowani Neptis sextilla Smerina manoro Neptis metella} Graphium endochus Papilio morondavana* Euxanthe madagascariensis Neptis decaryi Apaturopsis kilusa Acraea sambayae AAAA<7 AAD "AAA IPanafrican but very scarce in Madagascar. * Data sheets for these species are provided in Appendix 3; notes for all species considered are given in Appendix 2. TABLE 6. ENDEMIC BUTTERFLIES FROM THE MALAGASY SUB-REGION Genus Family Number of species Genera in which all species are Malagasy sub region endemics Gideona Pieridae 1 Smerina Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae 1 Houlbertia Nymphalidae: Satyrinae 8 Masoura 5 Admiratio * 1 Heteropsis y 2 Strabena ; 41 Saribia Riodinidae 3 Trichiolaus Lycaenidae 2 Rysops " 1 Hovala Hesperiidae 5 Fulda iy 4 Arnetta 4 3 Malaza ; 3 Miraja 4 9 Perrotia . 6 Ploetzia ¥ 1 Other genera with five or more Malagasy sub region endemic species Papilio Papilionidae 7 Charaxes Charaxidinae 8 Acraea Acraeinae 13 Henotesia Satyrinae 45 Hemiolaus Lycaenidae 3 Lepidochrysops q 5 (from D’Abrera, 1980; Owen, 1971; Viette, 1956) -9R- Fauna TABLE 7. THREATENED MADAGASCAN BUTTERFLIES Family Number of Madagascar Subregional Number % of total species endemics endemics threatened threatened Papilionidae 13 10 1 4 Bi Pieridae 29 10 5 ? ? Nymphalidae Danainae 3 1 1 1 33 Charaxidinae 9 8 0 2 22 Nymphalinae 4) 17 4 4 10 Acraeinae 17 9 4 2 12 Satyrinae 100 98 1 hy LE Libytheidae 2 1 0 ? ? Riodinidae 3 3 0 z ? Lycaenidae 43 25 3 ? ? Totals 260 182 19 (13) - REFERENCES D’Abrera, B. (1980). Butterflies of the Afrotropical Region. Lansdowne’ Editions, Melbourne. 593 pp. Hancock, D.L. (1982). Classification of the Papilionidae (Lepidoptera): a phylogenetic approach. Smithersia 2: 1-48. Owen, D.F. (1971). Tropical Butterflies. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Paulian, R. (1951). Papillons Communs de Madagascar. L’Institut de Recherche Scientifique, Tananarive-Tsimbazaza. 90 pp. Paulian, R. (1956). Insectes Lépidoptéres Danaidae Nymphalidae, Acraeidae. Faune de Madagascar 2, 102 pp. Publ. Inst Rech. Scient., Tananarive-Tsimbazaza. Paulian, R. and Viette, P. (1968). Insectes Lépidoptéres Papilionidae. Faune de Madagascar 27, 97 pp., 19 pl. ORSTOM, CNRS, Paris. Viette, P. (1956). Insectes Lépidoptéres Hesperiidae. Faune de Madagascar 3, 83 pp. Publ. Inst Rech. Scient., Tananarive-Tsimbazaza. =79= An environmental profile of Madagascar V.6. TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS Since 1949, Professor Fischer-Piette has been studying the snails of Madagascar at the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle Paris, where there is now a collection of some 10 000 lots, comprising what is probably the most important Madagascan shell collection. The collection consists mainly of shells with a few preserved specimens. More than 30 papers were published during 1949-1977 by Fischer-Piette. New species continue to be described from this collection (Tillier, 1979). In 1980, van Bruggen published a preliminary checklist of the terrestrial molluscs of Madagascar, which has been used as a basis for the accompanying list (van Bruggen, 1980b). The fauna has been recently revised by Professor Fischer-Piette, and the revision will be published in the Faune de Madagascar (Fischer-Piette et al., in press). Madagascar has a land snail fauna currently considered to consist of about 380 species (130 prosobranchs and 248 pulmonates, but future revisions will probably change these figures considerably), which is considered one of the most interesting in the world. Twenty-five families (6 prosobranch, 19 pulmonate) and 56 genera (15 prosobranch, 41 pulmonate) are known. There are 361 endemic species (127 prosobranch, 234 pulmonate), 11 endemic genera (4 prosobranch, 7 pulmonate) and no endemic families. The country has a relatively large number of terrestrial prosobranchs (34% of the species present, 27% of the genera, 24% of the families) compared to neighbouring South Africa, and the rate of endemism in this group is particularly high (35% of all species and 36% of all genera) (van Bruggen, 1980b). The dominant families are entirely different from those found in Africa, where the Streptaxidae, Urocyclidae, Subulinidae and Achatinidae are most important. Although all these families occur on Madagascar, they are generally sparingly represented, and the dominant families are Cyclophoridae, Pomatiasidae, Acavidae and Ariophantidae. Accounts of the biogeography of the fauna can be found in Fischer-Piette and Blanc (1972), and Verdcourt (1972) mentions the fauna in the context of East Africa. Not surprisingly, since these are easiest to collect, the best known genera are those containing large species, such as Tropidophora, Ampelita, Helicophanta and Clavator. It is to be expected that further survey work will considerably alter the relative importance of different families and genera, as the smaller species found in habitats such as forest soils become better known (Fischer-Piette and Salvat, 1972; Fischer-Piette and Blanc, 1972). Species in the north tend to have the flattest shells, and those in the south the most pointed shells. Many of the rain forest species are slug-like, and new species are certainly still awaiting discovery. At least 82 (23%) of the endemic species are known only from their type localities. In general, the calcareous areas of the north, west and south have the richest mollusc fauna. Little is known of the ecology of the Madagascan malacofauna but usually terrestrial snails prefer a humid habitat. The great majority of species which have been collected come from the primary forests, particularly in the north. Using the sparse data given in the original descriptions, it has been calculated that of the 142 endemics for which some form of habitat description is given, 91 (64%) species are forest dwellers, 34 (24%) are associated with caves, and 27 come from other habitats. Many of those for which there are no habitat data can be deduced to be forest dwellers by reason of the collection locality. Most species are found along or not far from the coast. Tropidophora and many other genera are not found in the centre of the island, possibly because these species are not adapted to grassland habitats (Fischer-Piette, 1948). Méillot (Fischer-Piette, 1947) commented that snails were not even found in primary forest in the centre of the island (e.g. forét de la Mandraka, forét de Manjakatompo on the slopes of Ankaratra, woods of Ambohimanga, forests of Marovatro and Ankaroaka near Lake Alaotra), although some surveys have shown that at least some species are found there (see Appendix 2). The northern quarter of the island, the most diverse in terms of climate, physical and geological features and vegetation, is strikingly important for molluscs, with the greatest number of endemic snails, and over 56% of known species, occurring there. The Massif de Tsaratanana is of major interest, with a very particular fauna including many species in the endemic genera Ampelita and Acroptychia (Fischer-Piette, 1952). Montagne d’Ambre exhibits a remarkable microendemism for plants, probably associated with the climate and physical -80- Fauna features of the area, and probably linked to the mollusc endemism (comment by Heim in Fischer-Piette, 1947). Certain species survive in habitats ostensibly unsuitable for molluscs. Species of the genus Clavator, which is found in the southern part of Madagascar, remain under several centimetres of sand in dry weather. After rain they appear one or two hours later, sometimes very abundantly, to feed among bushes (Fischer-Piette and Salvat, 1963). Other species have an unusual relationship with spiders. The spider Olios coenobita, found in the bush on the plateau of Mahafaly, uses snail shells for shelter. Empty shells, sometimes 20 times the weight of the spider, are carried up into the bushes and attached by silk threads (Griveaud 1981). Ampelita chlorozona, for example, was described from a shell collected hanging from a bush in Beloha. The Snail-eating Coua Coua delalandei, known from and likely to have been endemic to Nosy Borah but probably now extinct (see Appendix 3.A), fed principally on snails; it is not known which species were preferred but they may have been Achatinidae rather than any of the endemics. Endemic genera (Number in parentheses indicates approximate number of species) Acroptychia (11) Ampelita (65) Contains many abundant and large species. At least 37 of the species have very localised distributions (about 17 in the north); one is known to be widespread. Used to be eaten in large quantities by the people of Lake Alaotra (Griveaud, 1981). Bathia (1) Boucardius (8, probably about 40 in new revision) Clavator (12) This genus, with elongated shells, is one of the most characteristic of the island. It is known as a fossil from Africa and has been used for geological dating (Griveaud, 1981). Helicophanta (15) Includes several species with large and attractive shells. Kalidos (52) At least 25 species are very localised (13 in the north), 3 are more dispersed and 4 are widespread. Leucotaenius (7) Species in this genus have medium-sized, unusually shaped shells, elongated and heavy. Madecataulus (2) Malarinia (1) Malagarion (1) The following genus, although not endemic, is of particular importance in Madagascar: Tropidophora 89 species, of which 87 are endemic. The largest genus on Madagascar, containing species with comparatively large shells, exceeding 2 cm. The genus Tropidophora is also found in the Comoros, Seychelles, and south-east Africa, but has undergone its main radiation in Madagascar where species are most numerous, largest and most varied. Almost all the species found there are endemic and = An environmental profile of Madagascar very few are found throughout the island. The species found on Madagascar have been extensively studied and more is probably known about them than about any other genus. They have been divided into a number of groups on the basis of their shape (Fischer-Piette and Millot, 1949): . cuvierana group (includes occlusa, deliciosa): shells have two very distinct keels. . deshaysiana group (includes moulinsii, vittata, virgo): shells are sculpted and very flattened. . aspera group (includes fulvescens): globose, spiral stripes. . semidecussata group (includes macareae, pyrostoma). . sikorae group (includes filostriata, balteata): shells are elongated. . philippiana group (includes coguandiana): shells are conical and smooth, aperture small. . formosa group (includes pulchella, deburghiae, reticulata): shells are very variable. . tricarinata group: many varieties, although ¢ricarinata itself is rare. T. lineata group (includes goudotiana, consocia, vesconis, johnsoni, virgata): shells are small, group least well known as little collected. [Sense Some species, e.g. 7. tricarinata, show remarkable polymorphism, thought to be linked to habitat. At least 55 species are highly localised (30 in the north), at least ten of the others are more dispersed and a further ten, at least, are very widespread. Their distributions fall into four main groups (Fischer-Piette, 1947,1948), which fit in well with those areas established by Perrier de la Bathie for climate and vegetation (see Part III.2): a. East from Midongy, south of Ambohivoangy. A narrow, uniform band where 7. bicarinata is dominant. Tropical humid climate, and relatively abundant primary forest. Due to the similar climate on Nosy Bé and Nosy Komba, these islands have similar fauna. Two magnificent species, formosa and deburghiae, are found in the Mananara region at Foulpointe and Fenoarivo Atsinanana (Fischer-Piette, 1948). b. South and south-west from Taolanaro to north of Toliara. T. philippiana and T. coquandiana are dominant (also balteata). These are species with shells with the highest spires. Subdesert. c. West, from Toliara to Ambongo and Sambirano. TJ. macareae is dominant. Long dry season, calcareous soil; most of forest destroyed. d. A small area in the extreme north including Port Leven, Antseranana, Montagne d’Ambre, Ankara and Nosy Bé. No one species is dominant but the highest number of species are found there. Many of the species have very flattened shells ranging from_ the giant cuvieriana to the tiny /amarcki, and very localised distributions (Fischer-Piette, 1948). Threats to molluscs a. Habitat destruction Humidity is particularly important to molluscs which is why primary rain forest tends to be a favourite habitat. Opening up of the forest exposes snails to the danger of desiccation, particularly as many of the species are slug-like and cannot retract completely into their shells. This is discussed in more detail in the IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book (Wells ef al., 1983), where several examples are given of species in other parts of the world which have become extinct or are now endangered as a result of loss of their forest habitat. It has become clear that much of the Madagascan forest has already been lost or is in the process of disappearing through a variety of factors (see Part III.4); this is undoubtedly the main threat to most Madagascan land snails. b. Introduced species A major threat to terrestrial molluscs in the Pacific has been the introduction of the carnivorous snail Euglandina rosea from Florida to control the Giant African Snail Achatina fulica (Wells et al. 1983). In most cases, E. rosea has had little effect on A. fulica, often -82- Fauna preferring to feed on smaller native snails. In Madagascar, A. fulica is a serious pest, especially in vanilla plantations on the East coast (Ranaivosa, 1971), and in the Sambirano region where it is reported to attack cocoa trees (Griveaud, 1981). Although regarded as a delicacy in many countries, it is apparently not eaten by the local people in Madagascar. Attempts at biological control by introduced carnivorous snails were tried on a number of occasions: 1. Euglandina rosea January 1965: 5 snails introduced at Station de l’Ivoloina (Taomasina); laid eggs and six months later six specimens were recaptured at various localities in the station. November 1966-December 1968: 738 adults and 497 eggs at Ivoloina. 158 adults and 20 eggs at Antalaha (Station de la Vanille). Most of these came from breeding colonies established at Antananarivo, 250 only having been imported from Mauritius (where they had been introduced from Hawaii and Bermuda). March 1970: 122 from Trinidad released at Ivoloina. Releases were always carried out in sites which were regularly frequented by A. fulica. Eggs were released after a period of incubation in a laboratory. In 1971, specimens of E. rosea were found regularly at the station and empty shells of A. fulica were being found increasingly regularly. It was considered that these introductions were being successful. 2. Gonaxis quadrilateralis and G. kibweziensis March 1965: 110 specimens of G. quadrilateralis 21 specimens of G. kibweziensis Both species introduced from Hawaii; none survived. October 1969: 120 specimens of Gonaxis sp. were raised and laid eggs, but by March 1970 only about 40 individuals still survived; these were sent to Grande Comoro for release. From these trials it was concluded that Gonaxis were not as good biological control agents as Euglandina. 3. Edentulina ovoidea Brugiere A carnivorous species, endemic to Mayotte, which is known to be an active predator of Achatina. March 1970: 120 specimens released at Ivoloina. Further introductions were planned. Ranaivosa could draw no conclusions in his 1971 paper on the long-term success of these introductions, but was hopeful that E. rosea and Edentulina ovoidea would prove useful. Long-term studies on the introduced populations were envisaged. There is no information available on the outcome of these studies and it is quite possible that the introductions have died out, but it is most important that the danger of further introductions is made clear; these are detailed in Tillier and Clarke (1983). Surveys should be carried out to determine whether any of the introduced populations have survived. 93. An environmental profile of Madagascar c. Collecting Land snails are known locally as ’Akora’, and are not collected very much by the Madagascans. However, many species have extremely attractive shells, comparable to those from the Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Florida which are currently involved in the shell trade. For example, Ampelita viridis is particularly attractive, bright to olive-green in colour, with brown stripes and 2-3 cm high. The genus Clavator contains a number of attractive, large (over 6 cm long), yellowish-brown shells. The genus Tropidophora contains many species with attractively shaped, striped (although not particularly colourful) shells, notably the large T. cuvierana with its two keels. Other species reach up to 10 cm in size. Although the attractiveness of these species may be a useful tool in conservation publicity, it is recommended that firm measures are taken to ensure that commercial collecting does not start. Interest in terrestrial species among shell collectors has grown markedly in recent years and there would be a ready market for many of the Madagascan species. Since many of these have apparently extremely limited distributions and are still very poorly known to science, collection should currently be limited to specimens for scientific purposes. Recommendations a. Further research Almost nothing is known of the ecology of most of the Madagascan mollusc fauna and there is urgent need to determine this for some of the more important groups in order to make recommendations for their conservation (Fischer-Piette and Salvat, 1972). Since most of the work has been carried out on collections of shells, there is certainly a need for examination of whole preserved specimens for verification and clarification of some of the taxonomical problems. Although most parts of the island have been studied, the faunas of the south-east (between Ihosy-Betroka-Antaniniria and the Indian Ocean), and the area north of the lower Mangoky river are still poorly known (Paulian 1983). b. Management of reserves Many of the reserves appear to have extensive mollusc faunas (see Part VI.2). It has been estimated that about 160 of the endemic species may occur in reserves. All the reserves should be inventoried and efforts should be made to determine which species receive sufficient protection from the current system of reserves and which warrant further attention. Mount Tsaratanana requires special attention since it is the most important site for molluscs. c. Introductions and commercial exploitation See above. We are very grateful to Professor E. Fischer, Mme. D. Vukadinovic, S. Tillier, P. Bouchet, B. Salvat, C. Blanc, B. Verdcourt and A.C. van Bruggen, for their assistance with this section. REFERENCES Bruggen, A.C. van (1967). Miscellaneous notes on southern African Gastropoda. Euthyneura (Mollusca). Zool. Verh. Leiden 91: 1-34. Bruggen, A.C. van (1980a). A preliminary checklist of the terrestrial molluscs of Madagascar. Achatina 8: 147-164. Bruggen, A.C. van (1980b). Notes on the African element among the terrestrial molluscs of Madagascar. Haliotis 10(2): 32. Decary, R. (1950). La Faune Malgache, son réle dans les Croyances et les usages indigenes. Payot, Paris. 236 pp. Dupouy, J. (1966). Les Veronicellidae de Madagascar, des Comores, des Seychelles, de la Réunion et de l’ile Maurice. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris (2)37: 667-677. -84- Fauna Dupouy, J. (1966). Les Veronicellidae de Madagascar. Une espéce nouvelle: Vaginula (Imerinia) fischerii. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris (2)37: 1013-1023. Etienne, J. (1973). Inst. Recher. Agronom. Trop. Cult. Vivr., Réunion, Rapport Annuel 1973: 71-73. Fischer-Piette, E. (1945). Récolte malacologique du Professeur Humbert dans le nord de Madagascar. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris (2) 17(1): 41-46. Fischer-Piette, E. (1947). Distribution des espéces du genre Tropidophora (Moll. Gast.) 4 Madagascar. C.R. Somm. Soc. Biogéogr. 24(205): 21-22. Fischer-Piette, E. (1948). Premier essai de définition de districts malacologiques terrestres 4 Madagascar. Mém. Inst. Sci. Mad. Sér. A, 2: 161-167. Fischer-Piette, E. (1949). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar Genre Trodiphora (= Tropidophora). J. Conchyl. 89: 5,41,111. Fischer-Piette, E. (1950). Au sujet de la répartition de Pupoides coenogrictus Hutton. J. Conchyl. 90: 221. Fischer-Piette, E. (1950). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. Genre Helicophanta. J. Conchyl. 90: 82-106. Fischer-Piette, E. (1952). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. Genre Ampelita. J. Conchyl. 92: 5-60. Fischer-Piette, E. (1963). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. Genre Leucotaenius. J. Conchyl. 103: 15-23. Fischer-Piette, E. (1964). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. Famille Enidae. df. Conchyl. 104: 67-76. Fischer-Piette, E. (1965). Mise au point de nomenclature. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris 37(5): 818. Fischer-Piette, E. and Bedoucha, J. (1964). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar Famille Streptaxidae. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris 36(2): 368-376. Fischer-Piette, E. and Bedoucha, J. (1965). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. Famille Vertiginidae. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris 37(2): 145-150. Fischer-Piette and Bedoucha, J. (1965). Mollusques terrestres operculés de Madagascar. Mém. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris 33: 50-91. Fischer-Piette, E., Bedoucha, J. and Salvat, F. (1966). Mollusques_ terrestres de Madagascar. Ariophantidae. Mém. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris 40: 1-50. Fischer-Piette, E. and Blanc, F. (1972). Le peuplement de mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. In: Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard, G. (Eds), Biogeography and ecology of Madasgascar. Monographiae Biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. Fischer-Piette, E., Blanc, F. and Salvat, F. (1969). Complément aux mollusques operculés terrestres de Madagascar. Mém. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris (55): 109-144. Fischer-Piette, E., Blanc, F. and Salvat, F. (1975). Complément aux mollusques pulmonés de Madagascar. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris (3)288 (Zool. 198): 209-276. Fischer-Piette, E., Blanc, C., Blanc, F., Salvat, B., Salvat, F. and Vukadinovic, D. (in press). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. 2 volumes: I. Operculés, I] Pulmonés. Faune de Madagascar. Fischer-Piette, E., Blanc, F. and Vukadinovic, D. (1974). Additions aux mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris (3)218 (Zool. 146): 465-524. Fischer-Piette, E., Cauquin, M. and Testud, A.M. (1973). Mollusques terrestres récoltés par M. Soula dans la région d’Antalaha (Madagascar). Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris (3)122 (Zool. 94): 477-530. Fischer-Piette, E. and Garreau de Loubresse, N. (1964). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar Famille Acavidae. J. Conchyl. 104(4): 129-160. Fischer-Piette, E. and Garreau de Loubresse, N. (1964). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. Genre Propebloyetia. J. Conchyl. 104(4): 161-168. Fischer-Piette, E. and Millot, J. (1949). Iconographie et classification des principaux Tropidophora de Madagascar (Mollusques Cyclostomidae). Mém. Inst. Sci. Mad. A 3(1): 57-64. Fischer-Piette, E. and Salvat, F. (1963). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. Genre Clavator. J. Conchyl. 103(2): 53-74. Fischer-Piette, E. and Salvat, F. (1972). Originalité des mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la conservation de la nature et de ses resources a Madagascar, Tananarive. 7-11 October. YUCN Publ. N.S. Suppl. Doc. 36. -85- An environmental profile of Madagascar Fischer-Piette, E. and Testud, A.M. (1964). Mollusques terrestres de Madagascar Achatinaceae. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris (2)36: 377-383. Fischer-Piette, E. and Vukadinovic, D. (1971). Sur des mollusques terrestres de Madagascar. J. de Conchyl. 109: 29-30. Griveaud, P. (1981). Les invertébrés: un univers prodigieux. Ch. 3. In Oberlé, P. (Ed.), Madagascar: un sanctuaire de la nature. Lechevalier, Paris. Paulian de Felice, L. (1950). Oniscoides nouveaux de Madagascar. Naturaliste Malgache 2: 101-106. Paulian, R. (1983). Jn litt. 28 July. Petit, G. (1935). Enumération systématique des mollusques terrestres et fluviatiles. In: Germain, L., Etude de la réserve naturelle du lac Manampetsa. Ann. Sci. nat. Zool. 18: 421-481. Ranaivosoa, H. (1971). Sur deux opérations de lutte biologique entreprises par Il’I.R.A.M. dans l’archipel des Comores. Agr. Trop. 26: 341-347. Salvat, F... (1967). Cyathopoma_ pauliani n.sp. Mollusque operculé terrestre de Madagascar. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris (2)39: 965-967. Testud, A.M. (1965). Sur la distribution de Vitrina madagascariensis Smith. J. de Conchyl. 105: 230-231. Tillier, S. (1979). Malagrion paenelimax gen. nov., spec. nov., a new _ slug-like helicarionid from Madagascar (Pulmonata: Helicarionidae). The Veliger 21(3): 361-368. Tillier, S. and Clarke, B.C. (1983). Lutte biologique et destruction du patrimoine génétique: le cas des mollusques Gastéropodes Pulmonés dans les Territoires francais du Pacifique. Génétique, Sélection, Evolution 15(4): 559-566. Van Goethem, J. (1977). Révision systématique des Urocyclinae. (Mollusca, Pulmonata, Urocyclidae). Ann. Mus. Roy. Afr. Centr. Tervuren 8 (218). Verdcourt, B. (1972). The zoogeography of the non-marine Mollusca of East Africa. J. Conch. 27: 291-348. Wells, S.M., Pyle, R.M., and Collins, N.M. (1983). JUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge. -86- Fauna Y.7. FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS Twenty nine species of freshwater gastropod have been described in Madagascar including 21 prosobranchs and 8 pulmonate basommatophorans. Five species have been described from brackish-water or damp biotopes. Checklists are given in Brygoo (1968a), Fischer-Piette and Vukadinovic (1973), and Starmuhlner (1969). The total fauna is twice as large as that of Kenya, a country similar in area to Madagascar, but the level of endemicity is much lower than in the Madagascan terrestrial molluscs. Cleopatra and Melanatria are endemic genera; two Afrogyrus species, Bulinus obtusispira and B. bavayi are endemic species. Lake Alaotra, the largest lake in Madagascar apparently lacks any endemics. The fauna probably contains species derived from the original Gondwanaland fauna, and also species which have reached the island since its formation (Brown, 1980). Starmuhlner (1969) relates the fauna to three geographical and climatic regions: 1. The freshwaters of the central steppe-like subtropical highlands have no prosobranchs except Pila cecillei but have all the pulmonates except Bulinus mariei, including Afrogyrus which is found only in streams above 1800 m. 2. The escarpments which descend steeply to the east and north-west coasts with extensive primary forest have soft water streams and rivers where Melanatria and Cleopatra are common. Cleopatra species dominate in the smaller brooks with weaker flow whereas Melanatria, a primitive genus, is typical of strongly flowing rivers of the coastal tropical rain forest belt. 3. In the south-east and western areas, the surface waters are richer in dissolved salts. A total of nine species has been recorded from the lower Mangoky river (Degremont, 1973), of which the two commonest were Lanistes grasseti and ’Anisus’ (probably Afrogyrus crassilabrum). Melanoides tuberculatus and Radix hovarum may also be dominant. The coastal sections of streams have the neritids and Thiaria amarula, with Cerithidia decollata dominating in the brackish water zone (Starmuhlner, 1969; Brown, 1980). Conseryation No information is available on the conservation status of endemic freshwater snails. Species occurring in or near reserves are listed in Part VI.2. Since most of the endemic species, and particularly the genera Cleopatra and Melanatria, are restricted to upland forested areas it is probable that they are highly vulnerable to the current extensive deforestation. The acquisition of further data relating to the conservation status of these species should be considered a high priority. Schistosomiasis Schistosomiasis or bilharzia is considered briefly here because of its close relationship with some of the endemic freshwater snails. Its role in Madagascar is the subject of a large number of publications, produced mainly by the Institut Pasteur in Madagascar (see bibliography of publications of Inst. Pasteur Mad.). Some of the more important ones are given in the references. Brygoo (1968a) provides a detailed survey of the infection in Madagascar, and more recent discussions of the.Situation are found in Degremont (1973), Brygoo (1972) and Brown (1980). Two forms of bilharzia or schistosomiasis are found in Madagascar. Intestinal bilharzia is caused by the parasitic trematode Schistosoma mansoni, and has Biomphalaria pfeifferi (considered a separate species, B. madagascariensis, by Starmuhlner, 1969) as its intermediate host. It prevails in the east and on the plateaux; B. pfeifferi appears to be uncommon in western Madagascar (Brygoo, 1972; Pfluger, 1977). Its ecology and biology are described in Pfluger (1977a,b). In eastern Madagascar it occurs in various habitats including irrigation channels and ricefields (Brown, 1980). =972 An environmental profile of Madagascar Urinary bilharzia, which prevails in the west, is caused by S. haematobium, and is carried by the endemic snail Bulinus obtusispira which has a high infection rate (Brygoo, 1972; Wright, 1971). Unlike Biomphalaria, Bulinus does not tolerate temperatures lower than 4°C for longer than 24 hours. Bulinus obtusispira is most closely related to B. africanus but was probably isolated long ago on Madagascar. It was once thought to be synonymous with B. liratus, a species which may be a recently arrived isolate of B. tropicus from South Africa. B. obtusispira and liratus are found together in the lower Mangoky, where they have different ecological requirements, but their relative distributions elsewhere remain to be worked out (Brown, 1980). B. liratus is probably unimportant in natural transmission as it has proved resistant to S. haematobium in the laboratory (Wright, 1971), although two snails from the lower Mangoky area are reported to have shed cercariae (Degremont, 1973). It is, however, an intermediate host for Paramphistomum microbothrium (Prod’hon et al., 1968). The different temperature requirements of Bulinus and Biomphalaria are largely responsible for the general distribution of schistosomiasis throughout Madagascar. It is predominantly an infection of rural and agricultural communities and is increasing in many countries as a result of the development of water resources and the modernisation of agricultural methods. The creation of man-made lakes, the introduction of new irrigation schemes or the extension of existing ones are important factors in the spread of infection since all these activities provide suitable habitat for snail vectors (Brygoo, 1972; Webbe, 1981). Ideal habitat is often created through careless engineering or construction work. Control of schistosomiasis is the subject of intensive research in many countries. Recent progress is reviewed in Christie (1978), Hoffman et al. (1979) and Webbe and Jordan (1982) and it is concluded that elimination of the disease, rather than eradication of infection, should be the goal. A combination of control methods is likely to be most effective, but the over-riding need in most countries is the development of low cost methods. Chemical control, using molluscicides, has been used extensively and is likely to remain important, although it needs to be made more cost-effective. The majority of synthetic molluscicides are very expensive and all appear to be toxic in some way to the environment, particularly to fish. There is increasing interest in the possibility of using plants with molluscicidal properties (WHO, 1983), which are likely to be cheaper and available on a longer term. Biological control is a cheap and environmentally attractive alternative to chemical control but further work is needed. It may play an important role in the maintenance of control programmes but it is important to bear in mind that it may have an effect on non target organisms (WHO, 1981). Habitat control and appropriate agricultural engineering may be one of the most effective methods as its effect is persistent, but it has disadvantages. Removal of water may be effective but in many cases can only be considered a temporary measure, particularly as snails can survive considerable desiccation (Webbe and Jordan, 1982). Removal of natural habitat is also recommended in some instances and clearly this could have considerable bearing on the survival of non target species. Other control methods which are important in the longer term include curative drugs, and improved water supplies, sanitation and health education. Since schistosomiasis considerably slows down economic development in regions where it is endemic, it is in fact preferable to prevent its introduction. The Mangoky Irrigation Project in south-west Madagascar was one of the six major control programmes throughout the world involving the control of the snail hosts. It was set up at the same time as the Samangoky Mixed Management Company was developing a vast irrigation system to be used for cotton cultivation. The area readily lent itself to the prevention of schistosomiasis and to the development of control methods. In 1971 the project was transferred to the Madagascan government, a team having been trained to take over the project. At this time, the project was considered to have been successful, as snails had been reduced or eliminated using the molluscicide Frescon. However, the risk of reintroduction was considered to be very high unless certain preventive measures continued to be carried out (Degremont, 1973). -88- Fauna We are very grateful to D.S. Brown for providing information for this section. REFERENCES Brown, D.S. (1978). Freshwater mollusks. In: Werger, M.J.A. (Ed.), Biogeography and ecology of southern Africa. Part 1 and 2. Monographiae Biologicae 31. Junk, the Hague. Brown, D. (1980). Freshwater snails of Africa and their medical importance. Taylor and Francis, London. Brygoo, E.R. (1965). Les Bilharzioses humaines a Madagascar. Arch. Inst. pasteur Madagascar 33: 79-206. Brygoo, E.R. (1968a). Les Bilharzioses humaines 4 Madagascar. In: Santé et Développement 1°? Congrés International des Sciences Médicales de Madagascar. Pp. 1-165 Brygoo, E.R. (1968b). Temperature and the distribution of human schistosomiasis on Madagacar. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 60(5): 433-441. Brygoo, E.R. (1972). Human diseases and their relationship to the environment. In: Battistini, RR. and Richard-Vindard, G. (Eds), Biogeography and Ecology of Madagascar. Monographiae Biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. Brygoo, E.R. and Moreau, J.P. (1966). Bulinus obtusispira (Smith, 1886) hdote intermédiaire de la Bilharziose 4 Schistosoma haematobium dans le nord-ouest de Madagascar. Bull. Soc. Path. Exot. 59: 835-839. Christie, J.D. (1978). A review of factors determining the spatio-temporal dynamics of human schistosoma transmission. Draft report, WHO. Degremont, A.A. (1973). Mangoky Project. Campaign against schistosomiasis in the Lower Mangoky (Madagascar). Basle: Swiss Tropical Institute. Fischer-Piette, E. and Vukadinovic, D. (1973). Sur les mollusques fluviatiles de Madagascar. Malacologia 12(2): 339-378. Hoffman, D.B., Lehman, J.S., Scott, V.C., Warren, K.S. and Webbe, G. (1979) Control of Schistosomiasis. Am. J. Trop. med. Hyg. 28(2): 249-259. Perret, P., Egger, M. and Degremont, A.A. (1972). Essai de lutte anti-mollusque par augmentation de la biomasse planctonique. Acta Tropica 29: 175-181. Pfluger, W. (1977a). Ecological studies in Madagascar of Biomphalaria pfeifferi intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni. 1. Seasonal variations and epidemiological features in the endemic area of Ambositra. Arch. Inst. Pasteur Madagascar 45: 79-114. Pfluger, W. (1977b). Ecological studies in Madagascar of Biomphalaria pfeifferi intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni. 2. Biology and dynamics in the non-endemic area of Antananarivo. Arch. Inst. Pasteur Madagascar 46: 241-269. Prod’hon, J. Richard, J., Brygoo, E.R. and Daynes, P. (1968). Présence de Paramphistomum microbothrium Fischoeder 1901 a Madagascar. Arch. Inst. Pasteur Madagascar 37(1): 27-30. StarmihIner, F. (1962). Voyages d’études hydrobiologiques a Madagascar 1958. Naturaliste Malgache 13: 53-83. StarmihIner, F. (1969). Die Gastropoden der madagassischen Binnengewéasser. Malacologia 8: 1-434. StarmihIner, F. (1979). Distribution of freshwater molluscs in mountain streams of tropical Indo-Pacific islands (Madagascar, Ceylon, New Caledonia). Malacologia 18(1-2): 245-256. Webbe, G. (1981) The six diseases of WHO. Schistosomiasis: some advances. Brit. Med. J. 283: 1104-1106. Webbe, G. and Jordan, P. (1982). Control. Chapter 11. In: Jordan, P. and Webbe, G. (Eds) Schistosomiasis. William Heineman Medical Books Ltd., London. WHO, (1981) Data sheet on the biological control agent, Thiara granifera (Lamarck). World Health Organisation, WHO/VBC/81.833. WHO, (1983). Report of the scientific working group on plant molluscicides. _UNDP/World Bank/WHO special programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, TDR/SCH-SWG(4)/83.3. Wright, C.A. (1971). Bulinus on Aldabra and the subfamily Bulininae in the Indian Ocean area. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 260: 299-313. -89- An environmental profile of Madagascar V.8. MARINE MOLLUSCS There are a number of publications on the marine molluscs of Madagascar (see Brygoo and Brygoo, 1978; Mars et al., 1972). About 1020 species have been described. The fauna is generally considered to be typical of the Indo-Pacific although the possibility of a separate classification has been raised (Mars et al., 1972). However, consideration of the comparatively extensive studies which have been made on the genus Strombus and the family Cypraeidae suggests that there is little basis for this. Brygoo and Brygoo (1978) provide a checklist of 66 Conus species and 56 Cypraea species. Cowries are abundant around Nosy Bé and include species such as Cypraea nucleus, C. diluculum, C. onyx, C. oweni, C. lamarcki, and C. chinensis (Magnier, 1981). At least 15 families of opisthobranchs are represented in Madagascan waters, including 9 tectibranch families, 6 nudibranch families and one family of Opisthopneumones (Vicente, 1966). The only marine mollusc which appears to be endemic to the region (Madagascar to Seychelles) is Delessert’s Volute, Lyria (= Voluta) delessertiana, a small red-orange species, which is said to be found off Dzamandzar (Magnier, 1981). Ecological studies have been carried out only recently. These are outlined in Mars et al. (1972), where it is pointed out that some rare genera have recently been found in the region of Toliara: Berthelinia in the Caulerpa zone, and the commensal gastropod Caledoniella montrouzieri which parasitises the abdomen of stomatopod crustaceans. Mars et al. (1972) point out the importance of reference collections for use in future research work. An ’accord’ has been drawn up stating that specimens would be sent to the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle at Paris. Following systematic revision of each family, three reference collections would be created, one for the museum, one for the Station marine d’Endoume at Marseilles and one for the marine laboratory at Toliara. It is not known to what extent this has been carried out. Food Species Decary (1950) reported that in spite of their variety and abundance, marine molluscs were not used very much for food except in certain areas. However Rabesandratana (1985) noted that with the increasing difficulty of obtaining meat, molluscs had become more important as food items; Table 8, taken from Rabesandratana (1984 and 1985), lists over thirty mollusc taxa which are exploited as a food source in Madagascar. In the north-west, the Sakalava people occasionally eat Arca species (Kodiva) while between Antseranana and Toamasina large Nerita (Sifotro mamy) are collected at low tide when they come out of the sand. Tridacna (Hima), Turbo (Betampy) and Pleuroploca species are also eaten. Rabesandratana (1972) gives further examples on Nosy Borah. In the 1960s it was common to see children at low tide collecting a variety of molluscs (Conus, Strombus, Arca, Cardium, Venus, Tridacna) which are an important part of the local diet, often replacing meat. In the extreme south, the Antandroy people on the coast collect Cellana capensis; around Toliara the Vezo fishermen collect Pleuroploca, Cerithium, and Murex species which they eat cooked. In the region of Lamboharanana (baie des Assassins) people collect chitons for food. Mussels may not be collected less than 3.5 cm in length (Randrianarijaona and Razafimbelo, 1983). a. Oysters Oysters (Papakiny, Saja) are certainly the most important food mollusc both locally, e.g. on the coast at Androy and in the region of Taolanaro, or sent inland to the large towns. Rabesandratana (1972) provides a bibliography of species descriptions for this group. The two most important edible species are: Crassostrea cucullata (Born), the most abundant species and found on almost all coasts; has a wide Indo-pacific range and is cultured in many countries; varies in form according to habitat. Ostrea vitrefacta (Sowerby), abundant in the region of Mahajanga, may be a variety of this species. -90- Fauna Crassostrea margaritacea (Lamarck), the *huitre pied de cheval de Madagascar’; found also in South Africa; occurs mainly around Taolanaro. Natural oysterbeds in the south and south-west of Madagascar have been studied for several years. On the south-west coast, the beds of C. cucullata between Morombe and Lamboharanana which are exploited commercially have practically disappeared, and have been completely exhausted in the region between Ifaty and the Manombo estuary to the north of Toliara. South of Toliara, in the region of Sarodrano, there is an important bed which is partially protected by a provincial decree for the purposes of research and aquaculture experiments. Provincial decree no. 054-AG of 6 May 1966 prohibits collection of oysters throughout the year in the bay of Sarodrano and during the breeding season in the area around Faritany. Studies are being carried out and it has been recommended that the results should be made known widely (Randrianarijaona and Razafimbelo, 1983). The decree of 5 June 1922 prohibits collections of oysters with a diameter of less than 4 cm. To the south of the bay of Saint-Augustin, oyster population density is much higher. The only other important beds are in the region of Androy: Lavanono, Fanambosa and Ankatravitra. By the 1970s the bed at Ankatravitra had already started to decline. Beds of C. margaritacea are found only between Evatraha and Ambinanibe at Taolanaro. This species is usually collected by skin divers, and although exploitation is not as intense as if other methods were used, collectors have commented that oysters are becoming rarer. C. cucullata is usually collected with hammers and chisels. Often whole chunks of substrate are taken and the oysters are separated off later. In general, the methods used lead to great habitat destruction and prevent the settlement of juveniles, since the substrate becomes silted up and overgrown with diatoms. Such methods could result in beds disappearing within only a few years. Major action needs to be taken. Recommendations were made in 1972 but it is not known if these have been implemented: 1. A closed season should be imposed from November to the end of March, during the breeding season. 2. The size limit which was imposed under a decree in 1922 should be strictly adhered to: 4 cm longitudinal axis, a size generally reached at 3 years. 3. Aquaculture must be encouraged; trials were being carried out with C. cucullata in the early 1970s. Other uses Decary (1950) describes many other uses for marine shells. Near Maroantsetra and Mananara, the large valves of Pinna shells (lelabasy’) are used for bailing out canoes and as plates. In the 1920s Pinna nigra was collected from sea grass beds for its pearls and byssus threads which were used for making silk. Shells are used for weighting fishing nets. Many molluscs are used as fish bait, particularly Cerithium palustre. Shells are used to decorate houses, and in Mahajanga province jewellery is made from small Trochus and Gibbula shells. The ’felana’ or *fela’ is a white disc made from the spire of a Conus shell which was worn on the head by warriors in the tribes of the west and north; it is now mainly worn for decoration by women, particularly professional dancers known as Sahafatra in Farafanga province. Small cowries, (androvo’, *horohoro’) are used in games. Cypraea annulus is considered a talisman; in the past it was exported to North Africa for use as currency. In the south-west, the operculums of Pleuroploca (= Fasciolaria) and’ Murex (fimpy’) are used by the Mahafaly and Sakalava people for making a perfume used in sorcery, and shells are used in other magical rituals by the Sakalava people. The conch, Charonia tritonis (antsiva’, *lavabody’) was used as a trumpet in war and on other occasions, for example to call the wind if becalmed at sea, at burials, as a warning that locusts were spreading or a storm was coming. Pleuroploca and Cassis (‘antsiva boriborivody’) shells were also occasionally used as trumpets. Shell trumpets are still used sometimes. At Androy there are two forms of trumpet: Charonia (’antsiva lahy’) is the male, is large and gives a powerful sound; Pleuroploca (antsiva vavy’) is the female, smaller and quieter. The male LOH An environmental profile of Madagascar trumpet can be used on its own or with the female; the female can only be used with the male and never on its own. Charonia tritonis is used as a trumpet in different countries throughout the Indo-Pacific. It is also a very popular species in the ornamental shell trade. It is listed as Rare in the IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book (Wells et al., 1983) as its population density is naturally low, and there are fears that it could be threatened by intensive exploitation. Exports Madagascar exports substantial quantities of marine shells and shell products, the most important of which is mother-of-pearl from the species Turbo marmoratus and Trochus niloticus (betampy’). These species are most abundant on the west coast (both are reef dwellers) and are collected for export around Toliara. Export figures for the years 1976-84 are included in Table 10. Exports principally go to Europe (France, Italy, Spain, United Kingdom) and occasionally to India, Kenya and Japan (Rabesandratana, 1985). Before the second world war, 150-200 tonnes were collected annually with evidence of overexploitation of large specimens (Decary, 1950). In several parts of the world these species have been overfished and legislation has been introduced to control the fishery (Wells, 1980). The four important mother-of-pearl species, Trochus niloticus, Turbo marmoratus, Pinctada margaritifera and P. maxima, are categorised as Commercially Threatened. The current status of the fishery in Madagascar is not known, although reported exports have declined considerably from 1978/1979 to 1983. Second in importance to mother-of-pearl is the Bullmouth Helmet Cypraecassis rufa which is principally exploited along the south-west coast from Morombe to Anakao, south of Toliara, being rare further north. Two forms are collected, one, the ’male’ shell, is exported, principally to Italy, for the production of shell cameos, the second, the ’female’ shell, is used for making ash-trays. Export figures for the years 1976-84 are given in Table 10. Rabesandratana (1985) quotes mean weight estimates for a ’male’ shell of 0.8 kg, for a female’ shell of ca 0.3 kg. From these, the numbers exported from Toliara in the years 1979-82 would be likely to lie between 77 000 (if all ’males’) and 185 000 (if all ’females’). Considerable numbers of other species, principally gastropods, are also exported; a breakdown of the figures for 1978 and 1979 is included in Table 11; Rabesandratana (1985) considers that several species are probably being over-collected and recommends some form of control. Decary (1950) reports that pearls are occasionally found in Pinctada (Meleagrina) margaritifera, M. occa and M. irradians but since the Madagascans do not have a tradition of diving for pearls only the easily accessible specimens are taken. Sometimes pearls are exported to Sri Lanka. The decree of 23 August 1929 imposes controls on collection of pearl oysters, mother-of-pearl shells and sponges (Randrianarijaona and Razafimbelo, 1983). a. Pearl oysters (‘Meleagrina’ occa, M. irradians): 6 cm minimum size, measured from inside edge of valves across largest diameter. b. Mother-of-pearl oyster (M. margaritifera): 10 cm minimum size. c. Turbos or Bourgos (Turbo marmoratus): 55 mm minimum size; 140 mm maximum size. d. Trochus or Trochas (Trochus niloticus): 110 mm minimum size. The substrates of pearl oysters (corals, etc.) must be thrown back into the sea. The IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book (Wells ef al., 1982) points out that although most marine molluscs are unlikely to be threatened with extinction through human activities, local overexploitation can easily occur. This is particularly evident with the giant clams in the family Tridacnidae. It is recommended that commercial exploitation of any marine mollusc is carried out under an appropriate management strategy. Further information is required on the shell trade, and it might be necessary to control collection of Lyria delessertiana if this proves to be endemic. =99- Fauna TABLE 8. MOLLUSCS EXPLOITED FOR FOOD IN MADAGASCAR North- South- North- west west east GASTROPODA Patellidae Cellana capensis +4(*) Turbinidae Turbo marmoratus +44 +++ ree Turbo coronatus ++ ++ ++ Turbo argyrostomus ++ ++ ap Turbo imperialis eet re Naticidae (species not given) ++ fey. Neritidae Nerita albicilla ++ ++ Nerita undata ++ ++ Littorinidae Littorina kraussi ++ Littorina acabra ++ Conidae Conus lividus ++ +t+ Conus tessulatus ++ ice Fasciolariidae Pleuroploca trapezium tt++ +++ +++ Pleuroploca filamentosa + ++ Muricidae Murex ramosus +++ +44 +44 Drupa morum ++ Stombidae Strombus gibberulus 444 Cerithiidae Pyrazus palustris +4+ 44+ +4+ BIVALVES Arcidae Anadara natalensis +++ + ? Cardiidae Cardium sp./spp. +++ + +++ Mytilidae Septifer bilocularis ++ ++ Modiolus sp./spp. fobs + +44 Ostreidae Crassostrea cucullata +4++ +4++ ay: Crassostrea margaritacea ++4+(#) Pteriidae Pinctada margaritifera +++ +++ +++ Tridacnidae Tridacna squamosa +++ +44 Veneridae 6 Gafrarium pectinatum +4++ + +4+ CEPHALOPODA Octopus sp./spp. +++ +++ 44+ Loligo sp./spp. +++ +++ +++ Sepia sp./spp. +4+ + ++ +++ much sought after; ++ harvested; + harvested occasionally. * extreme south; # south-east (Taolanaro). Taken from Rabesandratana (1984). 93 An environmental profile of Madagascar TABLE 9. EXPORTS OF SHELLS, 1976-84 (TONNES) — pS 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 8 Turbo marmoratus Toliara® = = 89.3 46 10 37 14 5# Madagascar> 87.6 ~=— 53 062) 942 39.2 ais 42.4 14* Cypraecassis rufa Toliara® - - a 14.55 23.08 10 14 - 3# Total shells (including C. rufa, excluding T. marmoratus) Toliara® - 462 48:3 78.3° -WSS9ue25.6" Ine Madagascar? 61.4 82.4 63.9 Sigil 103.3 71.1 63.9 10.6* # = First half of year; * = figures for five months only; - = no information; a= source Bureau de Recette des Douanes de Toliara; Service Provincial de Commerce de Toliara = source Institut National de la Statistique et de la Recherche Economique (I.N.S.R.E.) TABLE 10. EXPORTS OF SHELLS FROM TOLIARA, 1979 AND 1980 (KG) Species 1979 = =1980 Cypraea spp. 1000 2950 Cypraea caputserpentis 125 - Cypraea histrio 130 110 Cypraea scurra 622 Cypraea tigris 480 200 Conus spp. 412 100 Charonia tritonis 169 101 Lambis lambis 791 448 Lambis truncata 558 766 Oliva spp. 300 Terebra spp. 2040 1000 Polynices spp. 570 500 Vasum ceramicum 100 Cypraeacassis rufa 750 2100 Murex ramosus 8660 13087 Turbo bruneus 520 200 Turbo marmoratus 1050 2600 Bursa lampas 252 Bursa bubo 591 295 Strombus lentiginosus 250 Clanculus pharaonius 20 - Pleuroploca trapezium 600 500 Atrina vexillum 76 215 Macrocallista nimbosa 100 Tridacna elongata/ gigas 710 500 Source Bureau de Recette des Douanes de Toliara; Service Provincial de Commerce de Toliara Taken from Rabesandratana (1985). -94- Fauna REFERENCES Brygoo, J. and Brygoo, E.P. (1978). Cones et porcelaines de Madagascar. Arch. de Vinstitut Pasteur de Madagascar Numéro Spécial. Decary, R. (1950). La faune malgache, son réle dans les croyances et les usages indigenes. Payot, Paris. 236 pp. Magnier, Y. (1981). Merveilles sous-marines. Chapter 7. In: Oberlé, P. (Ed.). Madagascar: un sanctuaire de la nature. Lechevalier, Paris. Mars, P., Salvat, B. and Thomassin, B. (1972). La faune malacologique littorale marine de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la conservation de la nature et de ses ressources @ Madagascar. Tananarive, 7-11 October. IUCN Publ. N.S. Suppl. Doc. 36. Rabesandratana, H.D. (1972). Evolution de quelques gisements d’huitres dans le sud et le sud-ouest de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la conservation de la nature et de ses ressources @ Madagascar. TYananarive, 7-11 October. IUCN Publ. N.S. Suppl. Doc. 36. Rabesandratana, H.D. (1984). Letter to C. Sheppard / IUCN with enclosures including documentation on submission of proposals to establisha Marine Park at Tuléar (Toliara) and data on collection of molluscs in Madagascar. Rabesandratana, H.D. (1985). About some reef utilisations in Madagascar. Proc. 5th Int. Coral Reef Cong., Tahiti 6: 661-668. Randrianarijaona, P. and Razafimbelo, E. (1983). Rapport national pour Madagascar. Report prepared for UNEP Regional Seas East Africa programme. Vicente, N. (1966). Contribution 4 l’étude des Gastéropodes opisthobranches de la région de Tuléar. Ann. Univ. Mad. 4: 97-142. Wells, S.M. (1980). The International Trade in Marine Shells. Report to TRAFFIC International (Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge). Wells, S.M. (1981). International Trade in Ornamental Shells. IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge. Wells, S.M., Pyle, R.M., Collins, N.M. (1983). The IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. YUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge. -95- An environmental profile of Madagascar V.9. NON-MARINE CRUSTACEANS The non-marine crustacea of Madagascar remains little studied, although there are known to be many endemic species. Details of some of the more interesting groups are given in Appendix 2. Several species are restricted to phreatic (groundwater) habitats including copepods (Cyclopidae, Harpactidae), ostracods and syncarids. Since rough substrates are most favourable for these species, they tend to be found mainly in the fine gravel of mountain torrents (Paulian, 1961). Fisheries Freshwater crustacea in the order Decapoda are often harvested for food; the most important families taken are the Palaemonidae (freshwater shrimps) and the Parastacidae (freshwater crayfish), although freshwater crabs (family Potamonidae) and shrimps of the family Atyidae are also taken. a. Family Palaemonidae The larger freshwater shrimps are a very popular food and are known locally as ’patsa’, ’makamba’ and ’tsivakiny’ (Decary, 1950; Griveaud, 1981) (prawns are ‘tsitsika’ (Kiener, 1963)); some of the Macrobrachium prawns are known as ’orana’ or ’camaron’ such as Macrobrachium australe, M. idae (said to be much appreciated by Europeans; with Metapenaeus monoceros and Palaemon concinnus it dominates the fishery in the Pangalanes), and M. lepidactylus (Madagascar scale prawn, Bouquet malgache, also referred to as Palaemon hilgendor fi) (Louvel, 1930; Moulherat and Vincke, 1968). In the past, freshwater shrimps were brought as gifts to women in confinement; nowadays visitors bring a small sum of money called ’vola amidy patsa’ or ’money to buy shrimps’ (Decary, 1950). Shrimp are caught in the lakes and marshes of the west and in the Pangalanes-Est. Prawns are mainly found in rocky parts of rivers at medium and low altitudes, and are caught by women using molluscs as bait. A particularly large species (scientific name not identified) found in forest streams with long claws and bright blue, green and pink in colour is called ’rangaza’, ’rakaho’ or ’rafitrako’ (Kiener, 1963). b. Family Parastacidae Astacoides madagascariensis is the only representative of the family Parastacidae in Africa, and is in a monotypic genus endemic to Madagascar, apparently most closely related to Australian and South American forms (Griveaud, 1981). It is absent from the west of the country (Decary, 1950). All subspecies of Astacoides are of a size that makes them valuable food items. In the 1950s, they were collected quite intensively to the east of Fianarantsoa and around Antananarivo but already seemed to be becoming rarer. They were either brought to the town alive for sale in the markets or cooked and sold to travellers on the railway stations on the line from Antananarivo to Toamasina. A variety of collecting methods are used (Decary, 1950). They are considered to be declining due to progressive deforestation, although at the beginning of the 1960s some areas, especially the rivers flowing down the easten scarp of the island, e.g. Mandraka (Ambatolaona) and Ankaratra (Ambatolampy), had large populations (Kiener, 1963). Known as ’oram-bokoka’ or ’orambato’ (Kiener, 1963), they are forest stream dwellers and would probably not lend themselves to artificial culture (Hobbs, 1983). However, experiments on crayfish culture using a variety of species suggest that it might be worth attempting to raise them artificially (Brinck, 1983). Threats The IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book (Wells et al., 1983) discusses the types of human activities which may threaten freshwater crustaceans, and gives several examples. Habitat alteration and pollution are probably the major threats. The species which may be most vulnerable in Madagascar are those of interstitial, subterranean and brackish water habitats (Dussart, 1983). Interstitial and subterranean forms may be threatened by pollution. There are -96- Fauna a number of interesting endemic taxa (e.g. Anopsilana, Caridina troglophila, Parisia edentata, P. macrophthalma, P. microphthalma and Typhlopatsa pauliani) restricted to small, and therefore particularly vulnerable, caves (Paulian 1983). Moss and epiphytic lichens also seems to be important habitats for crustaceans, presumably because they provide a high level of humidity during the day (Paulian, 1961). Burrowing and cave crustaceans are threatened in many parts of the world, and examples are given in the IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book. In many countries, native crayfish are coming under increasing threat through a combination of factors including overexploitation, pollution and competition with introduced species. Since there is evidence that the native Madagascan species are a valuable resource, efforts should be made to ensure that stocks are properly managed. Fishing pressure on the native species is already heavy, and certainly destructive. Regulations should be introduced to limit catches and to protect the reproductive stages, possibly through closed seasons and minimum sizes (Paulian, 1983b). We are very grateful to Dr P. Brinck, Dr B. Dussart, Dr D.G. Frey, Dr H.H. Hobbs, Dr L. Holthuis, Dr P. Lake and Dr R. Paulian for assisting with this section. REFERENCES Barnard, K.H. (1958). Terrestrial amphipods and isopods from Madagascar. Mém. Inst. Sci. Mad. A (12): 67-111. Barnard, K.H. (1960). A new. species of Calmanesia (Isopoda Terrestria) from Madagascar. Mém. Inst. Sci. Mad. A (14): 59. Bott, R. (1965). Die Siisswasserkrabben von Madagaskar (Crustacea, Decapoda). Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat., Paris Ser. 2. 37(2): 335-350. Brinck, P. (1983). Jn litt. Coutiére, (1901). Les Palaemonidae des eaux douces de Madagascar. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (8)12: Decary, R. (1950). La faune malgache, son réle dans les croyances et les usages indigenes. Payot, Paris. 236 pp. Dussart, B.H. (1982). Crustacés copépodes des eaux intérieures. Faune de Madagascar 58: 146 pp. Dussart, B.H. (1983). Jn litt. 24 March. Germain, L. (1935). Etude de la reserve naturelle du lac Manampetsa. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. 18: 421-481. Griveaud, P. (1981). Les invertébrés: un univers prodigieux. Chap. 3. In: Oberlé, P. (Ed.), Madagascar: un sanctuaire de la nature. Lechevalier, Paris. Hobbs, H.H. (1983). Jn litt. 3 May. Holthuis, L.B. (1964). The genus Astacoides Guérin (Decapoda Macrura). Crustaceana 6(4): 309-318. Holthuis, L.B. (1965). The Atyidae of Madagascar. Mém. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Serie A 33(1): 1-48. Kiener, A. (1963). Poissons, Péche et Pisciculture a@ Madagascar. Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne, France. Legendre, R. (1972). Apercgu sur quelques formes relictes et intéressantes des invertébrés terrestres et d’eaux douces de madagascar (mollusques exceptés). Comptes rendus de la Conférence Internationale sur la conservation de la nature et de ses ressources @ Madagascar, Tananarive. 7-11 Octobre. IUCN Publ. N.S. Suppl. Doc. 36. Louvel, M. (1930). L’exploitation des eaux douces de Madagascar (péche et pisciculture). Tananarive, Gouvernement général de Madagascar et dépendances, 52 pp. Monod, T. (1935). Crustacea. In: Germain, L. (1935). Etude de la reserve naturelle du lac Manampetsa. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. 18: 421-481. Moulherat, J.L. and Vincke, M. (1968). Etude en vue du développement de la péche au Pangalanes-Est (zone Tamatave-Andevoranto). Madagascar, Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, 195 pp. Paulian, R. (1961). La zoogéographie de Madagascar et des iles voisines. Faune de Madagascar 13: 1-485. Paulian, R. (1983a). Jn litt. 22 April. =972 An environmental profile of Madagascar Paulian, R. (1983b). Jn litt. 28 July. Paulian, R. and Delamare Deboutteville, C. (1956). Un Cirolanide cavernicole a Madagascar. Mém. Inst. Sci. Mad. Ser. A 11: 85-88. Paulian de Felice, L. (1950). Oniscoides nouveaux de Madagascar. Naturaliste malgache 2: 101-106. Roux, J. (1934). Macroures d’eau douce de Madagascar et des iles voisines. Faune des colonies francaises 5(8): 529-547. Ruffo, S. (1958). Amphipodes terrestres et des eaux continentales de Madagascar, des Comores et de la Réunion (Etudes sur les Crustacés, Amphipodes -L.). Mém. Inst. Sci. Mad.: 35-66. Ruffo, S. (1979). Descrizione di due nuovi anfipodi anoftalmi dell’ Iran e de Madagascar (Phreamelita paceae n. gen., n. sp., Dussartiella madegassa n. gen., n. sp.). Boll. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Verona 6: 419-440. -98- Fauna V.10. MARINE CRUSTACEANS Like most other Madagascan marine invertebrates, the marine crustaceans are mainly typical of the Indo-Pacific fauna; some groups have been fairly well studied but there is still much work to be done. Many of the publications up to 1974 are listed in ORSTOM (1973) and ORSTOM (1975). It has not been possible to review all the studies that have been carried out on marine crustaceans but a few examples are given below, and the main commercial crustacean fisheries are discussed. Seventy-three species of crabs in the family Portunidae have been described (Crosnier, 1962), collected in the course of studies on peneids. Collecting was carried out on all coasts except the east; 23 of the species found occur in South African waters, 33 in Australasian waters, 18 in Hawaii, and 33 in Japan. Five species new to science were described. The study confirmed the fact that the marine fauna of the north-west and west coasts of Madagascar and the Comoros is very rich in species and homogeneous; in the south and south-east, the waters are colder and there is a rather different and less diverse fauna. Forty-one species of crab in the family Grapsidae and 19 in the family Ocypodidae (which includes the ghost crabs Ocypode and the fiddler crabs Uca) have been described (Crosnier, 1965), but these lists are almost certainly incomplete, particularly for the smaller forms. Six new species were described. All except three species were intertidal. This study illustrated that most Madagascan marine species fall into three groups: 1. Species with Indo-Pacific distributions 2. Species with distributions extending as far as South-East Asia or India. 3. Species limited to Madagascar and the East African region. Species which are apparently endemic may only be so through lack of collection in other places. Rare exceptions concern some of the species from the region of Taolanaro and St. Lucia in the south-east; it is possible that some of these, such as Ocypode madagascariensis, are true endemics (Crosnier, 1983). Studies on the families Xanthidae, Trapeziidae, Carpiliidae and Menippidae have been carried out and will shortly be published; more than 200 species have been recorded (Seréne, in press). There are also a number of endemic marine phreatic species, revealed by samples taken from the lagoon across the ’cordon littoral’ at Maroantsetra. These may have extremely restricted distributions if they are comparable to endemic species found in similar habitats on Réunion (Paulian, 1961). The Coconut crab Birgus latro has been recorded from the Comoros (Fourmanoir 1953) and may possibly occur on some of the smaller islands off the Madagascar coast. It is listed in the IUCN Invertebrate Red Data Book as Rare, and there is evidence that it is declining in some parts of its range. Information on its presence in Madagascar is required. Lobster fishery Three reports on the lobster fishery are available (Charbonnier and Crosnier, 1961; Pichon 1964: Fourmanoir ef al., 1960). In the east, north-west and west, where the coast is mainly coralline, the following species predominate: Panulirus versicolor (Latr.) Painted Crayfish (Indo-Pacific); P. ornatus (Fabr.), the largest species, weighing up to 3 kg.); P. japonicus (Siebold) Japanese Spiny Lobster, Langouste Japonaise; in addition P. penicillatus was found to be rare on Nosy Bé (Pichon, 1964). These species are usually found at depths of less than 4 m. Their reef habitat precludes the use of nets and traps and they are taken only by divers and spear fishermen, although this is said to be illegal (see below). There is no substantial fishery. On the rocky coasts of the south and south-east, Panilurus hommarus (L.) (= P. burgeri) and P. penicillatus are found (Charbonnier and Crosnier, 1961). -99- An environmental profile of Madagascar These two species are caught easily and an artisanal fishery has developed along the coast between Cap Ranavalona and Manantenina. P. penicillatus is quite rare and constitutes more than 1% of the fishery. The principal fishing centres are the bay of Itaperina and Sainte Luce. Lobsters are caught using traps placed either by wading out or using canoes made from tree trunks. Most fishing is carried out at depths of less than 8 m; attempts at depths of 25-50 m were unsuccessful (Fourmanoir et al., 1960). Mussels are the most suitable bait, but in the more populated areas these have been depleted, and limpets (Patella sp.) and acorn barnacles (Balanus sp.) are used instead. Mussels are still abundant in areas offshore but are inaccessible here because of the sea swell. The number of fishing days per year is very small on account of winds, heavy swell and the instability of the canoes; in general, only sheltered sites are exploited. In 1958, 24.5 tonnes were produced; in 1959, 21.5 tonnes. At the beginning of the 1960s the ’Division des Péches maritimes du Service de l’élevage et l'Institut de recherches scientifiques 4 Madagascar’ carried out a survey of the Taolanoro and Sainte Luce areas to see if an extension of the fishing zone would be feasible. However it was found that the range of the lobsters is restricted to a very narrow coastal band. An increase in harvest could have been achieved by using motor boats to get to the more inaccessible sites, but in the 1960s the local markets in Madagascar were already saturated. A freezer plant would have to be installed if an export trade were to develop; this would necessitate a minimum production of 10 tonnes per month, which would be difficult to achieve. Furthermore, an increase in fishing intensity would lead to even greater depletion of the bait species. It was therefore concluded that further intensification of the lobster fishery would not be a viable proposition (Charbonnier and Crosnier, 1961). Attempts were made to improve yields using artificial shelters, but these were not successful (Pichon, 1964). Frozen tails and living lobsters have been exported to France on occasions, but quantities are not available and it is not known if exports continue. The decree of 27 December 1962 prohibits the fishing, sale, transport and processing of lobsters from 1-30 April each year (Randrianarijaona and Razafimbelo, 1983). Throughout the year it is forbidden to sell, transport or sell ovaried female lobsters and any lobsters less than 20 cm in length (measured from the end of the telson to the end of the rostrum excluding the antennae). The decree of January 1921 prohibits the use of all collecting methods apart from traps and nets. These methods permit the release of ovaried females, unlike harpooning. There is no comment on the fact that harpooning is the method used in the east, north-west and west. Studies on deep-sea Palinurus have been carried out by Plante and Moal. Crab fishery Crabs are known locally as ’foza’. Scylla serrata, the mud crab (crabe de mangrove), which has a range throughout the Indo-Pacific, has long been fished in Madagascar but a commercial fishery for export has only recently developed, mainly as a sideline by the shrimp companies. The fishery at Antseranana was studied in 1976 by Le Reste, Feno and Rameloson. Adults and very young juveniles and larvae live in shallow open water, juveniles are found in brackish estuaries and subadults in the mangroves. These habitats are found primarily on the west coast (98% of Madagascan mangroves are found here) and crab fisheries have developed at Toliara, Mahajanga and Antseranana. Young crabs move into estuarine waters at a size of 2-8 cm (cephalothorax width). On attaining a size of 10 cm they move to the mangroves where mating occurs, and then into the sea where the larvae are released. There appear to be two breeding seasons, one in the dry season and one in the wet season. Crabs feed on shrimps, crabs, fish and bivalves, and although occasionally found on mud, they usually inhabit burrows in the mangroves. Crabs are caught while they are in the mangroves, probably aged about 5 months; since the females move into the mangroves later than the males, a higher percentage of male crabs are caught. They are caught in their burrows, a method known as ’péche au trou’ which has been shown to be most efficient. In some areas, however, they are reported to be caught in sea grass beds. At Antseranana they are caught mainly in the warm and wet season (i.e. October to April, with a peak in December/January) when they are most abundant, unless rainfall is sparse when they are more abundant in the dry season and caught then. At Toliara the maximum catch is taken in April; at Mahajanga the fishing season runs from March to July. The significance of these differences is not known. At Antseranana the crabs show two peaks of abundance, one in the wet season and one in the dry, which are considered to be linked to -100- Fauna the two peaks in primary production, typical of tropical waters. Prior to export, the crabs are kept in mud but studies have shown the mortality to be fairly high. Males give the best yield of flesh and are particularly valuable on account of their large claws which are considered a delicacy. Crabs for export are cooked and their shells removed. Total production in the early 1970s was as follows: 1970 182 tonnes 1971 258 " 1972 T61) at 1973 BSS Exports have probably ceased altogether now. The decline between 1971 and 1973 was considered to be due to a decrease in fishing effort rather than overexploitation, as crabs are relatively expensive and both foreign and local markets had declined. FAO statistics do not record Madagascar as a producer for the years 1977-1980. The 1976 survey recommended that studies should be carried out on the Toliara and Mahajanga fisheries and suggested that culture of this species might be possible but would require considerable further research, and would probably present many problems (see below). It was concluded that the traditional fishing methods used would be difficult to better, that there was little likelihood of overexploitation since the crabs grow fast and are only exploited in the mangroves where there are a _ higher percentage of males, and that the large males are the most profitable specimens to take. In other countries, the mangrove crab is cultured as a subsidiary crop to milkfish in brackish ponds. The ponds are seeded with small crabs which reach marketable size within six months (Warner, 1977; Bardach et al., 1972). Shrimp fishery This is the largest crustacean fishery, and is of major economic importance; shrimp are the fifth most important export commodity. Most exports go to Japan and the USA which are the main shrimp consumers. The fishery began commercially in 1967 off the north-west coast and developed rapidly until there were more than 40 vessels involved in 1975 (Marcille 1978). Numerous publications are available on this subject as the fishery has been well studied by ORSTOM; some of these are listed in the bibliography. The following species are the most important (details from Holthuis (1980) and further details on these species are given in Marcille (1978)): Penaeus indicus Milne Edwards 1837. The Indian White Prawn, Crevette Royale Blanche, *makamba’ (Sakalava language), ’patsa’ (Hova language). Occurs thoughout Indo-West Pacific. Makes up 67% of the total shrimp catch in Madagascar, equivalent in 1974 to 3000 tonnes. P. semisulcatus De Haan, 1844. The Green Tiger Prawn, Crevette Tigrée Verte. Indo-West Pacific, and has reached eastern Mediterranean through the Suez canal. 11% of Madagascar shrimp catch. P. monodon Fabricius, 1798. The Giant Tiger Prawn, Crevette Giante Tigrée. Indo-West Pacific. 3% of shrimp catch. Metapenaeus monoceros (Fabricius, 1798). The Speckled Shrimp, Crevette Mouchetée, *patsanorana’ (name used also for other species). Indo-West Pacific and _ eastern Mediterranean. 19% of catch. P. japonicus (Bate) is fished in very small quantities. Fishing is coastal and carried out at depths of 5-25 m in sandy and muddy areas. The continental shelf of Madagascar is poorly developed except in the region of Taolanaro and -101- An environmental profile of Madagascar on the west coast where the fisheries are concentrated. The commercial fisheries are concentrated between the Mangoky estuary and cap Saint Sebastien (see map in Marcille, 1978). Two kinds of fishery have developed: An artisanal fishery consisting of shore barriers, which catches mainly immature shrimps in estuaries near mangroves in the intertidal zone. An industrial fishery operating with a trawler fleet and freezer plant which catches adult shrimps in depths of 3-10 m. The products are processed in four factories. Research has been carried out on the production of edible products using waste from the shrimp industry (Frontier Albon, 1972). The ORSTOM centre at Nosy Bé has collected statistics since the beginning of the fishery. This has permitted a study of the evolution of stocks over this period, during which there was considerable intensification of the fishery. The results are given in Marcille (1978), where models have been produced which could be used to help determine the maximum fishing effort that shrimp stocks could support. The study concludes that some form of fishery management is required, since in 1974 the catch declined despite increased fishing effort (in 1975 catches increased slightly - see figures in Marcille, 1978). The following recommendations were made: For the artisanal fishery, the size of the gaps between the lattices in the shore barriers should be increased from 7.5 mm to 11 mm to increase selectivity. For the industrial fishery, a closed season should be introduced throughout the fishing area for a short period (1-2 months) in January/February in order to protect the young. A closed season was implemented on part of the north-west coast near Mahajanga, for two months (December/February). This proved to be beneficial to fishermen and the stock and has been retained (Veillon, 1973). The closed season at the beginning of the year protects the shrimps when they are particularly small. The shore barriers are known locally as ’valakira’. Randrianarijaona and Razafimbelo (1983) report that their use is, in fact, illegal but that it has proved difficult to prohibit them since many people gain their living in this way. Fishing effort should also be limited; two methods are proposed, details of which are given in Marcille (1978). Le Reste (1978) also recommends that the minimum size limit for the commercial fishery should be 10 cm, which is anyway the smallest size of economic value. Current legislations are described under the decree of 18 May 1971 (Randrianarijoana and Razafimbelo, 1983). Shrimp boats must be licensed; fishing is prohibited from 15 December to 15 February; the mesh-size of nets is controlled; and boats with motors larger than 25 hp may not trawl within two miles of the coast. Le Reste (1978) describes the P. indicus fishery in the Baie d’Ambaron in the north-west between Cap d’Ambre and Cap St. André in detail. The larvae are shed at sea; juveniles move to the estuaries and at a size of about 4.5 cm move into the intertidal zone where they remain until they reach a size of about 6.5 cm. The annual cycle involves two generations. From October to November, a small number of eggs are spawned since the percentage of females in the population is low. High temperatures result in favourable conditions for juvenile growth. As a result, both the artisanal and commercial fisheries take large catches of this generation A between March and June. At this time of year, conditions are less favourable for juvenile growth, although there are large numbers of females in the population laying eggs, and so the catches of generation B in July and August, taken only by the artisanal fishery north of Nosy Bé, are small. It is suggested that this fishery could be extended further along the coast. It is also recommended that the fishery for generation A would ultimately need to be protected from overexploitation although at the time this study was carried out (presumably c. 1972), this was thought to be an unlikely occurrence. -102- Fauna All coastal stocks have been discovered and in 1973 the majority were already maximally exploited, and it was considered that the rest soon would be. About 5000 tonnes were produced a year and it was thought that this would increase to 8000 tonnes, but that stocks would be unlikely to sustain a higher harvest (Anon., 1973; Marcille and Veillon, 1973a). Studies made by the ORSTOM centre at Nosy Bé during the 18 years preceding 1973 showed that there was no hope of developing deep-water trawling on the continental shelf as either stocks are poor or the bottom type such as coral makes dredging impossible. Further development of the fishery will therefore necessitate the discovery of new stocks, possibly on the continental slope. In 1971, ORSTOM therefore started a programme to look at the slope between 100-1000 m depth. Details of this study are given in Crosnier and Jouannic (1973) and the species are described in Crosnier (1978). More than 250 decapod species were caught but probably only a few are of commercial value. The following were considered to be of the greatest potential value on account of their size and abundance: Hymenopenaeus sibogae = Haliporoides sibogae (De Man, 1907). The Jack-knife Shrimp, Salicoque Canif; of importance in Japanese fisheries. Plesiopenaeus edwardsianus (Johnson, 1868). The Scarlet Shrimp, Gambon Ecarlat; Eastern Atlantic where it is fished commercially by Spanish trawlers; the Madagascan form may not be the same species. Aristaeomorpha foliacea (Risso, 1827). The Giant Red Shrimp, Gambon Rouge. Eastern Atlantic, fished by commercial deep sea trawlers off Mediterranean coasts; the taxonomic status of the Indo-West Pacific form is not yet clear, and it is not yet fished commercially in this area. Aristeus virilis (Bate, 1881). The Stout Red Shrimp, Gambon Gaillard. Indo-West Pacific; does not yet appear to be fished commercially anywhere Aristeus mabahissae Ramadan, 1938. Not yet fished commercially. The langoustine Nephrops andamanicus was also considered potentially commercially valuable. The survey showed that the only suitable area for such a fishery was in the Toliara region where stocks were reasonably abundant. Hymenopenaeus sibogae madagascarinum and Nephrops andamanicus were found at depths of 425-475 m, and the other species were found at depths of 700-800 m. It was recommended that further research should be carried out in the Toliara region using a commercial deep-sea fishery vessel rather than a research vessel. Another small freshwater shrimp species known locally as ’tsivakihiny’, Acetes erythraeus (Sergestidae), which is widespread from the Red Sea down to South Africa, is fished in the muddy, shallow estuaries of the north and north-west coasts by women. The shrimps are dried and eaten in coastal villages. The quantities collected are unknown but are reported to be large (Crosnier et al., 1962; Le Reste, 1971). We are very grateful to Dr Alain Crosnier who provided the information for this section. REFERENCES Anon. (1973). L’évolution de la péche crevettiére 4 Madagascar. Bull. Madagascar 323: 498-506. Bardach, J.E., Ryther, J.H. and McLarney, W.O. (1972). Aquaculture. Wiley-Interscience, New York and London. bee -103- An environmental profile of Madagascar Chabanne, J., and Plante, R. (1969). Les populations benthiques (endofaune crevettes pénéides, poissons) d’une baie de la cote nord-ouest de Madagascar: écologie, biologie et péche. Cah. ORSTOM, sér. Oceanogr. 7(1): 41-71. Chabanne, J. and Plante, R. (1971). Etude des rendements de la péche au chalut des crevettes Pénéides sur la céte nord-ouest de Madagascar de 1966 4 1970. Doc. sci. Centre ORSTOM Nosy-bé 23, 19 pp. Charbonnier, D. and Crosnier, A. (1961). Quelques données sur la péche des langoustes a Madagascar. La Péche Maritime 994: 16-18. Crosnier, A. (1962). Crustacés Décapodes. Portunidae. Faune de Madagascar 16: 154 pp. Crosnier, A. (1965). Crustacés Décapodes. Grapsidae et Ocypodidae. Faune de Madagascar 18: 143pp. Crosnier, A. (1978). Crustacés Décapodes. Peneides Aristeidae (Benthesieyminae, Aristeinae, Solenocerinae). Faune de Madagascar 46: 197 pp. Crosnier, A. (1983). Jn litt. 27 April. Crosnier, A. and Fourmanoir, P. (1962). La ’Tsivakihiny’. Nat. Malgache 13: 87-88. Crosnier, A. and Jouannic, C. (1973). Note d’information sur les prospections de la pente continentale malgache effectuées par le N.O. Vauban. Doc. sci. Mission ORSTOM Nosy-Bé 42: 18 pp. Fourmanoir, P. (1935). Le crabe des cocotiers (Birgus latro, famille des Cénobitides). Nat. malgache 5(2): 343-344. Fourmanoir, P., Crosnier, A. and Charbonnier, D. (1960). Péche a la langouste dans la région de Fort-Dauphin (sud-est de Madagascar). Colloque de biologie marine et des péches maritimes sur les cétes orientales d'Afrique, Le Cap, Septembre 1960. Doc. mar. Biol. 60(4): 5 pp. Frontier Albon, D. (1972). Note préliminaire sur un essai de fabrication artisanale de NUOC-MAM a partir des résidus de l’industrie crevettiére. Doc. sci. Centre ORSTOM Nosy-Bé 39: 21 pp. Holthuis, L.B. (1980). FAO Species catalogue. Vol. 1. Shrimps and Prawns of the World. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome. Le Reste, L. (1970). Contribution a l’étude du rythme d’activité nocturne de Penaeus indicus et Parapenaeopsis acclivirostris (Crustacea Decapoda Natantia). Cah. ORSTOM, sér. Océanogr. 8(3): 1-10. Le Reste, L. (1971). Rythme saisonnier de la reproduction, migration et croissance des postlarves et des jeunes chez la crevette Penaeus indicus H. Milne Edwards en baie d’Ambaro, céte nord-ouest de Madagascar. Cah. ORSTOM, sér. Océanogr. 9(3): 279-292. Le Reste, L. (1971). Biologie de Acetes erythraeus (Sergestidae) dans une baie du nord-ouest de Madagascar (Baie d’Ambon). Cah. ORSTOM sér. Océanogr. 8(2): 35-56. Le Reste, L. (1973). Etude du recrutement de la crevette Penaeus indicus H. Milne Edwards dans la zone de Nosy Bé (céte nord-ouest de Madagascar). Cah. ORSTOM, sér. Océanogr. 11(2): 171-178. Le Reste, L. (1973). Etude de la répartition spatio-temporelle des larves et jeunes postlarves de la crevette Penaeus indicus H. Milne Edwards en baie d’Ambaro (cOte nord-ouest de Madagascar). Cah. ORSTOM, sér. Océanogr. 11(2): 179-189. Le Reste, L. (1973). Zones de ponte et nurseries de la crevette Penaeus indicus H. Milne Edwards le long de la cOte nord-ouest de Madagascar. Doc. sci. Centre ORSTOM Nosy Bé 32: 27 pp. Le Reste, L. (1978). Biologie d’une population de crevettes Penaeus indicus H. Méilne Edwards sur la cote nord-ouest de Madagascar. Trav. Doc. ORSTOM 99: 291 pp. Le Reste, L., Feno, L. and Rameloson, A. (1976). Etat de nos connaissances sur le crabe de vase Scylla serrata Forskal 4 Madagascar. ORSTOM, Paris. Le Reste, L. and Marcille, J. (1973). Réflexions sur les possibilités d’aménagement de la péche crevettiére 4a Madagascar. Bull. Madagascar 320: 14-27. Le Reste, L. and Marcille, J. (1976). La péche crevettiere 4 Madagascar. In: Biologie marine et exploitation des ressources de l’océan Indien occidental. Communications présentées au Colloque Commerson, La Réunion, October 1973, Travaux et Documents de V’'ORSTOM, No. 47: 221-223. Marcille, J. (1972). Les stocks de crevettes pénéides cotiéres malgaches. Bull. Madagascar 311: 387-408. Marcille, J. (1978). Dynamique des populations de crevettes pénéides exploitées a Madagascar. Trav. Doc. ORSTOM 92: 197 pp. -104- Fauna Marcille, J. and Stequert, B. (1974). La péche crevettiere 4 Madagascar en 1973. Evolution des stocks et des pourcentages des différentes espéces dans les captures. Doc. sci. Mission ORSTOM Nosy-Be, 43: 41 pp. Marcille, J. and Veillon, P. (1973a). La péche crevettiére 4 Madagascar de 1967 a 1972; evolution des stocks. Doc. sci. Centre ORSTOM Nosy-Bé 35: 28 pp. Marcille, J. and Veillon, P. (1973b). Les stocks de crevettes de Madagascar. Péche maritime 1146: 717-720. ORSTOM (1973). Publications du Centre ORSTOM de Nosy-be. Liste mise 4 jour au 31.12.71. Doc. Sci. Centre ORSTOM Nosy-Bé 33: 104 pp. ORSTOM (1975). Publications de la Mission ORSTOM de Nosy-Bé du 1.1.1972 au 31.12.1974. Doc. Sci. Centre ORSTOM Nosy-Bé 51: 45 pp. Pichon, M. (1964). Contribution a l’étude de l’écologie et des méthodes de péche des Palinuridae dans la région de Nossi-Bé. Cah. ORSTOM sér Océanogr. 2(3): 71-101. Ralison, A. (1971). Note sur le stock de crevettes de la céte nord-ouest malgache. Service des péches, Majunga, 7 pp. Randrianarijaona, P. and Razafimbelo, E. (1983). Rapport national pour Madagascar. Report prepared for UNEP Regional Seas East Africa programme. Serene, R. (in press). Crustacés Décapodes Brachyoures de |’Océan Indien Occidental et de la Mer Rouge. Xanthoidea: Xanthidae et Trapeziidae. Avec un addendum par A. Crosnier: Carpiliidae et Menippidae. Faune Tropicale. Veillon, P. (1973). Analyse des effets de la fermeture de la péche crevettiére décidée, dans certaines zones de Madagascar, du 15 décembre 1972 au 15 février 1973. Doc. sci. Centre ORSTOM Nosy-Bé 37: 16 pp. Warner, G.F. (1977). The Biology of Crabs. Elek Science, London. -105- An environmental profile of Madagascar V.11. OTHER INVERTEBRATES Marine The marine fauna in general has few endemics since the position of Madagascar in the south-west Indian ocean means that most of its fauna is common to the Indo-Pacific with, in the south, species from temperate seas (Magnier, 1981). No information is available on the conservation status of the following groups. a. Corals and other coelenterates Two hundred and twenty-two species of octocoralliens have been described from the waters around Madagascar, Seychelles, Réunion, Mauritius and Aldabra. Most are common to the whole Indo-Pacific; 62 species were known only from the waters of Madagascar and neighbouring islands (Tixier-Durivault, 1966). Coral reefs are discussed in detail in Part IV. b. Echinoderms Thirty species of sea urchin are known but these are rarely eaten by the local people, although Heterocentrotus is eaten in the north and Tripneustes gratilla in the south-west. Urchins are, however, often used as bait. Sea cucumbers are fished for sale and export to the Far East. At the beginning of the 1950s, 50-70 tonnes were being collected a year (Decary, 1950). Minimum sizes have been established for their capture and sale: 11 cm for fresh specimens and 8 cm for dried specimens (Randrianarijaona and Razafimbelo, 1983). They are collected mainly from the region between Androka and the Baie de Mangoky. Recently, it has become apparent that sea cucumbers are being over-collected in certain areas, particularly on the south-west coast (Randrianarijaona and Razafimbelo, 1983). A rich fauna of ophiuroids has been described (Charbonnier and Guille, 1978). 112 species are known, including 24 new species and 1 new genus. Most species were found in the littoral. c. Ascidians Plante and Vasseur (1966) describe three new species but there is no indication that these are necessarily endemic. Non-marine Previously unknown species of hydrozoans, bryozoans and sponges have been found in freshwaters but have not yet been fully studied. Rotifers appear to be numerous but have also not been studied (Paulian, 1961). a. Flatworms Large, brightly coloured, black and red flatworms are found in the soil of the rain forests in the east (Griveaud 1981). Apart from parasitic forms of Platyhelminthes, two aquatic planarians have been described and at least 31 terrestrial planarians, 23 in the genus Bipalium, two in Pelmatoplana, six in Rhynchodemidae. An unpigmented planarian was found in the important cave of Andranoboka, but in general planarian diversity seems to be low (Paulian, 1961). b. Nemertines At least one species is known (Paulian, 1961). -106- Fauna c. Annelida Earthworms (Hakatany or Kankana) can reach large sizes, up to 75 cm long (Decary, 1950). Leeches are known as ’linta’, ’dinta’ or ’ditamaka’ (Decary, 1950). Small forest leeches are abundant in the soil and foliage in the rain forests in the east (Griveaud, 1981). A species of Philaemon and three species in the genus Haemadipsa are known, from the rain forests of the east (Paulian, 1961). REFERENCES Charbonnier, G. and Guille, A. (1978). Echinodermes: Ophiurides. Faune de Madagascar 48: 248 pp. Decary, R. (1950). La faune malgache, son réle dans les croyances et les usages indigenes. Payot, Paris. 236 pp. Griveaud, P. (1981). Les invertébrés: un univers prodigieux. Ch. 3. In: Oberlé, P. (Ed.), Madagascar: un sanctuaire de la nature. Lechevalier, S.A.R.L., Paris. Magnier, Y. (1981). Merveilles sous-marines. Ch. 7. In: Oberlé, P. (Ed.), Madagascar: un sanctuaire de la nature. Lechevalier, Paris. Paulian, R. (1961). La zoogéographie de Madagascar et des iles voisines. Faune de Madagascar 13: 1-485. Plante, R. and Vasseur, P. (1966). Sur une collection d’Ascidies de la région de Tuléar (c6te sud-ouest de Madagascar). Ann. Univ. Mad. 4: 143-159. Randrianarijaona, P. and Razafimbelo, E. (1983). Rapport national pour Madagascar. Report prepared for UNEP Regional Seas East Africa programme. Tixier-Durivault, A. (1966). Octocoralliaires. Faune de Madagascar 21: 456 pp. 1072 "4 homies it sei Benne Secloet Ph al Aa rupee . EE. ‘ Previowsly’. uiivene, cuss alti viv thle pon freshwoters ok ee dP D ? we d ang Ae ates it A aot Bord wtoctrd aye wa” Aneualinggeinenia porate ) Matiz Vid. OTHER everson 2 i h Md 2 Boa pen ¥ anal mo tT ol sf Patce ve —* Ke oes 0 Rep a er re vo 7 ee fe CUO ated grey tie Pytte rah ah ai? Cie te NOE BORE erm AHA}. wv tn de aA: Tk. eer. . pRcaa .-£ 49 sump ewsetal, ae ovsimoynl. sot CORRE am LAS er 1 SwiiGi O. 4h FARwiorto? BS CE TARGA. of- Alrite eohi tae euge 23) yar. ™ ale "i are aoe nelead caccehilpanteliael Pang Uodigeled sb olacgesuges GL Apa’. oh, 2247, i glean Tue, mh 1 4 me) sok Masa ag Ryan UA aha eng A PeyErtlyIOROA) my aoe onl ; Bary ‘prat-dulet 3 eee wher upeurs neath ~ wes cots Wu fod Razatenfibin, 10) - A Ao ag ego, ‘lb RP YES ' apni rand Guille, 1G) hiked aw api aye. eae 4 Wet ahocies were {6 rane im or 3 Cee eee PART VI. PROTECTED AREAS VI.1. INTRODUCTION Legislation Five different categories of protected area are recognised: Réserves Naturelles Intégrales (Strict Nature Reserves). Parcs Nationaux (National Parks). Réserves Speciales (Special Reserves) Foréts Classées (Classified Forests). Perimétres de Reboisement et de Restauration (Reafforestation Zones). eae sp a. Legislation for the Strict Nature Reserves is chiefly contained in Decree 66-242 (01.06.66); the network of reserves was originally set up in 1927. These reserves are part of the national forest domain; access is strictly forbidden, other than for scientific research purposes (which in each case must be authorised by the Ministry in charge of the Direction des Eaux et Foréts). Each reserve comprises a station for a deputy forester and each station is divided into two or three sectors under the responsibility of auxiliaries. At present there are 11 Strict Nature Reserves; a twelfth, R.N.I. No 2 on the Masoala Peninsula, was de-gazetted by Decret 64-381 of 16.09.64. and is now a Classified Forest. b. National Parks legislation is contained in Decrees 58-07 (28.10.58) and 62-371 (19.07.62). Access to the Parks is controlled. Rights are accorded to neighbouring villagers for the exploitation of certain forest products; these rights are tied to duties incumbent on the beneficiaries. There are two national parks at present. c. Special Reserves have been set up by a series of decrees and are designed to protect certain animal or plant species. Access to such reserves is free, but hunting, fishing, pasturing of livestock, collection of natural products and introduction of vegetation or animal species are all forbidden; however, these areas do not generally have supervisory personnel. There are 23 Special Reserves, of which the most recently created (November 1985) is Beza Mahafaly in Toliara Province. d. Classified Forests are the subject of individual ministerial decrees; points in common are: - all forest exploitation is forbidden; - they are intended to constitute forest reserves’ in the economic sense of the term; - local inhabitants can exercise certain traditional rights of usage (limited to the collection of minor forest products such as honey and raffia); - classified forests are created under an initiative from the Minister in charge of the Direction des Eaux et Foréts on the advice of a commission composed of representatives of the administration and local inhabitants; protection is not necessarily permanent. e. Reafforestation and Restoration Zones are set up following the same procedure as for Classified Forests above. Their aim is principally stabilisation and protection of watersheds, and prevention of erosion. Land-use is regulated within these regions, and they benefit from management practices such as reafforestation, management of pasture and use of antierosion measures and devices. The original definitions for parks and reserves were based on the 1933 London Convention (which was accepted in Malagasy law on 25 January 1937), and the African Convention for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1968) is invoked for the protection and conservation of all protected areas. Administration This is the responsibility of the Administration Forestiére within the Direction des Eaux et Foréts which at the present time comes under the Ministére de la Production Animale (Elevage -109- An environmental profile of Madagascar et Péche) et des Eaux et Foréts. The Direction des Eaux et Foréts is also responsible for forests and freshwater fisheries, while other departments within the same Ministry deal with marine fisheries and agriculture. Total area under protection (hectares) National Parks Isalo (No.2) 81 540 Montagne d’Ambre (No.1) 18 200 Total 99 740 Nature Reserves Tsingy de Bemaraha (No.9) 152 000 Andohahela (No.11) 76 020 Zahamena (No.3) 73 160 Ankarafantsika (No.7) 60 520 Marojejy (No.12) 60 150 Tsaratanana (No.4) 48 622 Tsimanampetsotsa (No.10) 43 200 Andringitra (No.5) 31 160 Tsingy de Namoroka (No.8) 21 742 Betampona (No.1) 2 228 Lokobe (on Nosy Bé) (No.6) 740 Total 569 542 Special Reserves Ambatovaky (Toamasina Province) 60 050 Marotandrano (Mahajanga) 42 200 Manongarivo (Antseranana) 35 250 Analamerana (Antseranana) 34 700 Anjanaharibe-Sud (Antseranana) 32 100 Kalambatritra (Fianarantsoa) 28 250 Ambohijanahary (Mahajanga) 24 750 Kasijy (Mahajanga) 18 800 Ankara (Antseranana) 18 220 Tampoketsa d’Analamaitso (Mahajanga) 17 150 Bemarivo (Mahajanga) 11 570 Maningozo (Antseranana) 7 900 Andranomena (Toliara) 6 420 Ambohitantely (Antananarivo) 5 600 Manombo (Fianarantsoa) 5 020 Forét d’Ambre (Antseranana) 4 810 Bora (Mahajanga) 4 780 Pic d’Ivohibe (Fianarantsoa) 3 450 Cap Sainte Marie (Toliara) 1 750 Périnet-Analamazoatra (Toamasina) 810 Mangerivola (Toamasina) 800 Beza Mahafaly (Toliara) 600 Nosy Mangabe (Toamasina) 520 Total 365 500 Classified forests There are 158 of these with total area ca 2 671 000 Reafforestation areas There are 77 of these covering ca 823 978 -110- Protected areas Finally, a decree of 23 May 1923 declared the following as protected areas for the turtles Chelonia mydas and ’Chelonia imbricata’ (=Eretmochelys imbricata): Nosy Ovambo; Nosy Iranja, Chesterfield Island, Nosy Trozona, Nosy Ve and Europa (this last is now under French control). Information sheets The following section provides information on the two national parks, the eleven existing natural reserves, four special reserves (Ambohitantely, Beza Mahafaly, Nosy Mangabe and Périnet-Analamazoatra) and the private reserves at Berenty and Analabe. Format and contents are modified versions of those provided in the forthcoming IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas. A preliminary faunal list for each protected area is provided. It should be stressed that these lists are in large part incomplete, and are more a reflection of the available information for different faunal groups in each of the areas than of their relative faunal diversity. In general the birds and primates are the best-known components of the fauna, although for some areas (e.g. R.N.I. de Tsingy de Bemaraha (No.9), the largest reserve in Madagascar) information is still very incomplete even for these. For other groups, good information is available for only a very few protected areas. For some sites, records have been included if these refer to the general area of the reserve (e.g. Massif d’Andringitra (R.N.I. No.5), Montagne d’Ambre (Parc National No.1), Massif de Tsaratanana (R.N.I. No.4)), though it is possible that in some of these cases the records are from outside the reserves themselves. For a few cases, notably Lokobé (R.N.I. No.6) and Andohahela (R.N.I. No.11), some records have been included if they refer to the more extensive areas in which the reserves are situated (Nosy Bé island and the Anosyennes hills respectively), though this is made clear in each case. In general, only endemic species have been included; where exceptions have been made these are clearly indicated (birds endemic to the Malagasy region but not confined to Madagascar are denoted (R)). Species which are believed on current knowledge to be restricted to a given reserve or reserve area (see above) are marked *; doubtful records are indicated with ’?’. Much of the information quoted has been provided by recent observers; in particular we are extremely grateful to O. Langrand, M. Nicoll, S. O’Connor and M. Pidgeon for access to their extensive unpublished data, mainly on birds and mammals, and to Q Bloxam, D. Curl and C. Raxworthy for providing information on the herpetofauna of several of the protected areas. Most of the remaining records are derived from previously published data; further information and references for these are provided in Part V and Appendices 2 and 3. It should be noted that many of the published records, particularly those for the rarer bird species, are relatively old and may not have been re-confirmed more recently. PRINCIPAL REFERENCES Anon. (Direction des Eaux et Foréts et de la Conservation de Sols, Mi£nistére de l’Agriculture, de l’Expansion Rurale et du Ravitaillement) (1969). Domaine Forestier 1969. Monuments naturels et sites. Madagascar et Comores. 52 pp. Andriamampianina, J. (1981). Les réserves naturelles et la protection de la nature 4a Madagascar. In: Oberlé, P. (Ed.) Madagascar, un sanctuaire de la nature. Lechevalier S.A.R.L., Paris. Andriamampianina, J. (1984). Traditional land use and nature conservation in Madagascar. Workshop paper. World congress on National Parks, Bali, Indonesia, 11-22 October 1982. Conférence de Tananarive (1972). Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources a Madagascar. Tananarive, Madagascar. 7-11 October 1970. Publication IUCN Nouvelle Series Document supplémentaires No. 36. Griveaud, P. and Albignac, R. (1972). The problems of nature conservation in Madagascar. In: Battistini, R. and Richard-Vindard G. (Eds) Biogeography and Ecology of Madagascar. Monographiae Biologicae 21. Junk, the Hague. IUCN/WWF Project 1968. Promotion of conservation in Madagascar. IUCN/WWF Project 1951. Provision and equipping of a mobile education unit. -ll1l- An environmental profile of Madagascar IUCN/WWF Project 1952. Establishment, promotion and equipment for reserves and parks. Jolly, A., Oberlé, P. and Albignac, E.R. (Eds) (1984). Key Environments - Madagascar. Pergamon Press, Oxford. Martin, C. (1982). Rapport de la mission technique WWF/IUCN a Madagascar 1981. IUCN/WWF, Gland. Nicoll, M.E. and Langrand, O. (1987). Report on the first phase of WWF - Protected areas programme in Madagascar. Unpd. report, 62 pp. Randrianarijaona, P. and Razafimbeio, E. (1983). Inventaire des Ecosystemes: Rapport National pour Madagascar. Report to IUCN, UNEP Regional Seas Programme for East Africa. NAME Parc National de la MONTAGNE D’AMBRE (No.1) MANAGEMENT CATEGORY II (National Park). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 28 October 1958 by Decree No. 58-07. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 12°28’-44’S, 49°04’-13’E. At the northern point of Madagascar near the town of Antseranana. ALTITUDE 850-1474 m. AREA 18 200 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES The park lies within a volcanic massif which is composed essentially of basaltic rock of origin ca 14 myBP., and consists of a line of summits some 30 km _ long, oriented north-south, the tallest being the Pic d’Ambre (1475 m). The park contains a crater lake and cascades, and is a place of great beauty. The region of Antseranana has a tropical climate with a marked dry season from May to December during which a strong south-east trade wind blows (the ’Varatraza’) and a wet season from January to April with less than 1000 mm rainfall. The Montagne d’Ambre, however, has a microclimate characteristic of the eastern rainforest with very high rainfall (3585 mm per year has been measured) throughout the year, with a maximum in January - February. The area thus serves as an important rain catchment area for Antseranana. VEGETATION Vegetation is principally upland tropical moist forest, with trees reaching 30 m height and including species such as Canarium madagascariense, Gluta tourtour, Terminalia mantali and Dalbergia sp.; palms (e.g. Neodypsis and Chrysalidocarpus spp.) and tree-ferns (Cyathea spp.) are abundant in the understorey and there is a very diverse epiphytic flora, including ferns (e.g. Platycerium, Drynaria and Asplenium) orchids (e.g. Bulbophyllum, Angraecum and Aéranthes) and lichens. Around the Station Forestiére des Roussettes there are plantations of introduced species including pines, Eucalyptus and Araucaria. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The management of the park is the responsibility of the Circonscription Forestiére at Antseranana. In 1985, 23 km of the park boundary were re-cleared - previously the park’s limits had been badly marked on the ground; the path giving access to the park was renovated, as was the ’gite d’étape’ which provides accommodation at the Station Forestiére des Roussettes situated on the northern boundary of the park (Langrand and Lenormand, 1985). Reafforestation work has been undertaken at the park’s boundaries by an association for nature conservation set up be teachers in Antseranana in 1983 (ASSE), in collaboration with Eaux et Foréts agents based at the Station Forestiére des Roussettes. -112- Protected areas DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES In general the park is inadequately guarded - there is only one agent who lives too far from the park (in Antseranana) to be able to carry out effective surveillance. Bush fires threaten the edges of the national park every year, and destroy eucalyptus plantations growing at the boundaries; such fires are usually the result of uncontrolled pasture burning. Illegal forest exploitation takes place in areas where access by Eaux et Foréts agents is difficult, particularly in the south. Collection of ornamental plants such as orchids, palms, and arborescent ferns for sale in Antseranana is a problem as is poaching, particularly of lemurs (Lemur coronatus, L. fulvus) and the Crested Ibis Lophotibis cristata; such poaching was said in 1986 to be widespread and increasing. Livestock range freely, though in relatively small numbers, through the park. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH There have been numerous collecting trips to the area since 1893. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES Access is relatively easy from Antseranana (50 km north of the park) along an asphalt road. There are some 30 km of paths within the park, but their state of repair varies greatly from year to year. The ’jardin botanique’ path passes numerous different trees that have been identified and labelled for visitors. There is accomodation in the form of a ’gite d’étape’ at the Station Forestiére des Roussettes (Langrand and Lenormand, 1985). PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Langrand, O. and Lenormand, B. (1985). Montagne d’Ambre. Unpd. report, 9 pp. Nicoll, M.E. and Langrand, O. (1987). Report on the first phase of WWF - programme in Madagascar. Unpd. report, 62 pp. Presentation sommaire du Parc National de la Protected areas STAFF One Eaux et Foréts agent. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. WWF Direction 4 Madagascar has provided material and financial support for the park. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Headquarters is at Roussettes. FAUNA Birds Tachybaptus pelzelnii Ardeola idae (R) Lophotibis cristata Anas bernieri Haliaeetus vociferoides Ayviceda madagascariensis Accipiter francesii (R) Buteo brachypterus Falco newtoni (R) Margaroperdix madagarensis Turnix nigricollis Dryolimnas cuvieri Sarothrura insularis Streptopelia picturata (R) Treron australis (R) Alectroenas madagascariensis Coracopsis vasa (R) Coracopsis nigra (R) Coua cristata Cuculus rochii (R) Centropus toulou (R) Otus rutilus (R) Asio madagascariensis Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) -113- Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Ipsidina madagascariensis Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Atelornis pittoides Leptosomus discolor (R) Mirafra hova Motacilla flaviventris Coracina cinerea (R) Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Phyllastrephus zosterops Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Calicalicus madagascariensis Vanga curvirostris Leptopterus viridis Leptopterus chabert Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Copsychus albospecularis Monticola shar pei Neomixis tenella Nesillas typica Cisticola cherina Newtonia amphichroa Newtonia brunneicauda An environmental profile of Madagascar Terpsiphone mutata (R) Oxylabes madagascariensis Nectarinia souimanga (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Lonchura nana (R) Mammals Lemur coronatus Lemur fulvus Lepilemur septentrionalis Phaner furcifer Cheirogaleus major Microcebus rufus Ploceus nelicourvi Foudia madagascariensis (R) Foudia omissa Saroglossa aurata Dicrurus for ficatus (R) Cryptoprocta ferox Galidia elegans Tenrec ecaudatus Setifer setosus Pteropus rufus In addition Microgale prolixacaudata, M. parvula and M. drouhardi have locality records of *Antseranana’ and probably occur in the national park. Amphibians Cophyla phyllodactyla Mantidactylus femoralis Mantidactylus granulatus Mantidactylus ulcerosus Reptiles Homopholis boivini? *Uroplatus alluaudi *Brookesia tuberculata Amphiglossus ardouini *Paracontias brocchi *Pseudoxyrhopus ambreensis Acrantophis madagascariensis Sanzinia madagascariensis Nonmarine Molluscs Tropidophora alluaudi Tropidophora deliciosa *Tropidophora propeconsocia Tropidophora surda Tropidophora vignali Tropidophora winckworthi *Kalidos anceyanus Kalidos andapaensis *Kalidos dautzenbergianus *Kalidos fallax *Kalidos glessi Kalidos humbloti Nonmarine Crustacea Isopoda: Suarezia heterodoxa Decapoda: Hydrothelphusa agilis madagascariensis Lepidoptera Papilionidae Graphium endochus Danaidae Amauris nossima dijuncta *Mantipus laevipes Mantidactylus flavicrus Mantidactylus lugubris Lygodactylus madagascariense Uroplatus ebenaui Chamaeleo pardalis *Androngo allaudi Alluaudina bellyi Leioheterodon madagascariensis Ithycyphus miniatus Liophidium rhodogaster *Kalidos tenebricus *Ampelita alluaudi Ampelita atropos (forét des Rousettes) Ampelita dingeoni *Ampelita lamothei *Ampelita subatropos (forét des Rousettes) Clavator moreleti Edentulina alluaudi (forét des Rousettes) Edentulina nitens Macrochlamys stumpfii Edouardia rufoniger Nymphalidae Charaxes andranodorus Hypolimnas dexithea Cymothoe lembertoni Protected areas NAME Parc National de PISALO (No.2) MANAGEMENT CATEGORY II (National Park). LEGAL PROTECTION Total, except that inhabitants of Ranohira are authorized to harvest silkworm cocoons (Bocerus sp.) and Tapia Uapaca bo jeri. DATE ESTABLISHED 19-July 1962 by Decree No. 62-371. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION West of Ihosy, in the province of Fianarantsoa. 22°10’-41’S, 49°10’-21’E. ALTITUDE 514-1268 m. AREA 81 540 ha. LAND TENURE Central Government. PHYSICAL FEATURES The park encompasses the whole of the sandstone Isalo Massif and has very varied relief. The south and east of the massif has characteristically ruiniform relicf ranging in altitude from 820 to 1240 m above sea level, comprising 100-200 m _ deep, narrow-floored canyons extending for several kilometres. These have temporary or permanent watercourses. The northern and western parts of the massif are not ruiniform but also have 200-300 m high cliffs enclosing narrow, deep gorges. There are clear, fast-flowing streams which join the Malio River to the west and the Menamaty in the east, both these being tributaries of the Mangoky. Climate is dry and tropical, with a rainfall of ca 850 mm. A .- marked dry season occurs between June and August; the wet season runs from October to March with highest rainfall recorded in November and December. Average monthly temperatures are lowest in June (17.1°C) and highest in February (25.1°C). Winds (velocity 6-12 m/s) blow throughout the year. VEGETATION Much of the vegetation is very degraded. A dry deciduous forest covers ca 20% of park, largely in the north and west (Sahanafo, Ankikiky and Angodongodona). In some areas the fire-resistant Uapaca bojeri is the only canopy species. Canyon floors with watercourses support evergreen forest with Eugenia, Pandanus, Chrysalidocarpus and two fern species predominating. Rock-dwelling vegetation is very abundant and principally consists of mPachypodium rosulatum and Aloe isaloensis, both endemic to the massif. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT None at present. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES Bush fires consitute the most serious threat to the park: the pastures bordering the park are subject to annual uncontrolled burning which spreads into the surviving wooded areas. Only isolated areas such as canyons are protected from fire. The ranging of Zebus within the park has been a problem, though in 1986 was noted to have considerably decreased over the past few years owing to the extent of cattle-rustling in the region. People living around the park often enter to collect fuel wood (Uapaca) and building wood (e.g. Weinmannia), and to hunt. Poaching principally involves lemurs (Lemur catta), the bush pig Potamochoerus larvatus, guinea fowl Numida meleagris, fruit bats (Pteropus rufus or Eidolon helvum) and eels. Honey is also collected within the park. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH A historical study of the rock shelter known as the ’Grotte des portugais’ at Tenika was carried out in 1960-62; despite its name, it is believed likely to be of 11th century Arab origin. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES None, although the park is run as a tourist attraction by the agents of the Direction des Eaux et Foréts. Visitors (82 in 1985, 67 in 1986) pay an entrance fee of 1500 F.M.G. (which goes direct to the local community, not to the Direction des Eaux et Foréts) and are guided by the Eaux et Foréts agents or other local -115- An environmental profile of Madagascar guides. Ranohira, the main town bordering the reserve, lies on the Route Nationale linking Toliara to Fianarantsoa; it has shops and a hotel. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Nicoll, M.E. and Langrand, O. (1987). Report on the first phase of WWF - Protected areas programme in Madagascar. Unpd. report, 62 pp. Revue de l’Office du Tourisme de Madagascar No. 33 (La Grotte des Portugais by P. Ginther and V.C. Herbert). STAFF One agent and one auxiliary. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Administration is at Ranohira. FAUNA Birds The following species have been recorded by O. Langrand (unpublished data, in litt., 22.12.86). Tachybaptus pelzelnii Leptosomus discolor (R) Buteo brachypterus Mirafra hova Falco newtoni (R) Phedina borbonica (R) Margaroperdix madagarensis Motacilla flaviventris Turnix nigricollis Coracina cinerea (R) Pterocles personatus Leptopterus viridis Streptopelia picturata (R) Copsychus albospecularis Coracopsis nigra (R) Monticola bensoni Agapornis cana Nesillas typica Cuculus rochii (R) Cisticola cherina Centropus toulou (R) Newtonia brunneicauda Ninox superciliaris Neomixis tenella Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Terpsiphone mutata (R) Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Foudia madagascariensis (R) Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Dicrurus for ficatus (R) Mammalia Propithecus verreauxi Cryptoprocta ferox Lemur catta Tenrec ecaudatus Lemur fulvus Tenrec setifer Reptiles Acrantophis dumerilii Oplurus sp. NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de BETAMPONA (No.1). MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 31 December 1927. The area of the reserve was fixed by Decree 66-242 of June 1966. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION _ 17°51’-55’S, 49°12’-15’E. The reserve is situated 40 km to the north-west of Toamasina in Toamasina Province. -116- Protected areas ALTITUDE 275-650 m. AREA 2228 ha. LAND TENURE State land. PHYSICAL FEATURES The reserve occupies a rocky spur which dominates the coastal plain and consists of a family of ridges varying in height from 320 m to 650 m above sea level. It is a rugged zone where numerous streams have their sources. Climate is humid tropical with precipitation over 2000 mm a year and no dry months. Mean annual temperature is between 21° and 24°C, though in the colder months mean temperature can be as low as 12°C. The reserve is an example of the natural low altitude biotope of the eastern region of Madagascar. VEGETATION Betampona is the sole forested massif in‘a vast deforested area, and although the sides of the massif have been deforested, the vegetation has re-established itself to some degree (see below). The undegraded vegetation is low altitude dense evergreen rain forest which is extremely rich floristically and is the type locality for many species. It is characterised by species of Myristicaceae and Anthostema (Euphorbiaceae); other notable species are Canarium madagascariensis (Burseraceae), Sideroxylon sp., Faucherea ursii (both Sapotaceae), Rhopalocar pus sp. (Sphaerosepalaceae), Hirtella sp. (Chrysobalanaceae). Also present are members of the tribe Areceae (Palmae) and the families Rubiaceae, Araliaceae, Ebenaceae, Sapindaceae, Loraceae, Myrtaceae, Flacourtiaceae and Leguminosae. Local dominance of Uapaca thouarsii and glades of the bamboo Cephalostachyum madagascariensis occur. Much of the central southern edge of the reserve, notably along the Fontsiamavo River and its tributaries, is composed of the colonising Eugenia jambos. Secondary forest has considerably advanced, especially along the central track from Sorintsandry to Marovato, an area which had not been cleared in 1947. ZONING There was formerly a 200 m protective zone around the reserve, set up in 1935; Pollock reported in 1985 that it had recently been reclaimed by local villagers for residential and exploitative purposes. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The reserve is clearly delimited by a 3-metre wide band cleared around the perimeter and has a good internal path network. Insufficient funds and staff are available at present for further management. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES A degraded zone some 1000-1500 m wide lies within the reserve boundaries, consisting largely of 20-25 year old growth of Ravenala madagascariensis and other ’savoka’ species. This represents an area of regeneration following cultivation: the existence of tavy cultivation and the corresponding threat to the forest edges was first remarked in 1908. The situation had not markedly improved in 1931 and although the Reserve Intégrale was first declared in 1932 and the protective zone in 1935, real protection was not initiated until 1949; the regeneration presumably dates from then. Forest cover within the reserve thus totals some 1000 ha. It is surrounded by numerous villages, situated within 1 km of the reserve and often less, and there are incursions into the reserve: Pollock noted in 1984 that there were clear signs of crayfish catching in the upper Fontsiamavo River within the reserve, and that a local merchant had recently been arrested for shooting lemurs in the central part of the reserve. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH None appears to have been carried out recently. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES Access to the reserve is on foot (90 minutes walk) from the village of Fontsimavo, which is 90 minutes by car from Toamasina (Pollock, 1985). PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources 4 Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. -117- An environmental profile of Madagascar Pollock, J.I. (1985). Preliminary report on a mission to Madagascar by Dr. J.I. Pollock in August and September 1984. Unpublished report, 10 pp. STAFF One agent and two auxiliaries, full-time. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Headquarters at Rendrirendry. This village consists of the dwelling quarters of two families, the local office of the Direction des Eaux et Foréts and a ’gite d’étape’ or rest-post for the guardian of the reserve, who lives in Toamasina. FAUNA Birds Lophotibis cristata Philepitta castanea Treron australis Vanga curvirostris Alectroenas madagascariensis Terpsiphone mutata Ipsidina madagascariensis Zosterops maderaspatana Leptosomus discolor Mammals Avahi laniger Varecia variegata Hapalemur griseus Microcebus rufus Cheirogaleus major Indri indri Lemur fulvus Propithecus diadema (possibly) Lepilemur mustelinus Daubentonia madagascariensis Phaner furcifer Galidia elegans Cryprotprocta ferox Fossa fossa Eupleres goudotii Galidictis striata (reported) Amphibians *Plethodontohyla coudreaui Reptiles Ebenavia inunguis Nonmarine Molluscs Ampelita lanx Helicophanta magnifica A. sepulchralis Macrochlamys stumpfii Tropidophora tricarinata Kalidos bournei Nonmarine Crustacea Decapoda: Hydrothelphusa agilis madagascariensis NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de ZAHAMENA (No.3). MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 31 December 1927. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 17°26°-44’S, 48°56’-49°00°E; east of Ambatondrazaka in Toamasina Province, bordered to the south by the Onibe, to the east by the Ihofika River, to the west by the Vohimahery and to the north by the track from Sahatavy to Imerimandroso. -118- Protected areas ALTITUDE 500-1500 m. AREA 73 160 ha, essentially divided into two blocks. LAND TENURE State land. PHYSICAL FEATURES The reserve consists of two zones well separated by a large piece of enclosed land. Relief is very uneven with steep-sided valleys; large landslides were recorded in the 1950s. Climate varies with altitude from an equatorial or tropical humid type, to one with a two or three month dry season (August to October). Mean annual rainfall is 1500-2000 mm but may be considerably higher in the east. Average temperature of the coolest month is between 10° and 15°C at higher altitudes. VEGETATION Generally characteristic of the eastern escarpment, with primary and secondary tropical evergreen forest, changing from forest with Myristicaceae and Anthostema typical at low altitude to forest with Tambourissa and Weissmannia between 800 and 1300 m. With increasing altitude, plants with temperate affinities appear, and there are notable deciduous species and belts of bamboo; the higher altitude forest when degraded transforms into ericaceous scrub with Philippia, Agauria and Helichrysum. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT Relatively little at present as the reserve is undermanned; the 1985 University of London Expedition financed the construction of a2 km firebreak along the western edge of the reserve. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES Most of the western half and south-eastern parts of the reserve were noted in 1985 as having an unbroken canopy of good forest; a trail through the the south-centre of the reserve passed through an abandoned clearing which was reverting to forest. Other than this, only a few trees had been selectively felled. However, the north-eastern corner of the reserve (near the enclave - see below) was under greater threat: the trail there was heavily used, an area of ca 1 sq. km had been cleared for tavy and three lemur traps were found. The western edge of the reserve adjoined eucalyptus plantations and cultivated land, and faced threats from logging and fire. The central enclave was part of the reserve as it was originally gazetted; the continued presence of several villages there led to the area being degazetted in 1966 (Decree 66-242). These villages were reported in 1971 as growing in size and representing a long-term threat to the integrity of the reserve; cultivation (by tavy), livestock grazing and poaching apparently occurred around the edges of the enclave (in the north-east corner of the reserve). In 1985, it was noted that the enclave had been cleared for agriculture except for some secondary scrub and a tiny area of relict forest. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Important entomological work has been conducted in the area. In 1985 a five person expedition from the University of London spent 32 days in the reserve, primarily surveying the avifauna, though also collecting amphibians and making observations on mammals and plants (particularly pteridophytes) (Thompson ef al., in press). VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES None. Much of the reserve is virtually impenetrable and lacks trails. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources a Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. Thompson, P.M., Raxworthy, C.J., Murdoch, D.A., Quansah, N. and Stephenson, P.J. (in press). Zahamena Forest (Madagascar) Expedition, 1985. ICBP Study Report. ICBP, Cambridge. STAFF One agent and two auxiliaries full-time. -119- An environmental profile of Madagascar BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Headquarters at Manakambahiny Est. FAUNA Birds The 1985 University of London expedition to Zahamena recorded the following endemic birds. Those in parentheses were only recorded in the enclave, not in the reserve proper, but many, if not all, are thought likely to occur in the reserve. Polyboroides radiatus Calicalicus madagascariensis Accipiter madagascariensis Leptopterus chabert (Accipiter francesii (R)) Leptopterus viridis Buteo brachypterus Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Falco newtoni (R) Oriolia bernieri Dryolimnas cuvieri Euryceros prevostit Streptopelia picturata (R) Hypositta corallirostris Alectroenas madagascariensis Copsychus albospecularis Coracopsis nigra (R) Neomixis tenella Coracopsis vasa (R) Neomixis viridis Coua serriana Neomixis striatigula Coua reynaudii Hartertula flavoviridis Coua caerulea Oxylabes madagascariensis Centropus toulou (R) Nesillas typica Otus rutilus (R) Cisticola cherina (Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R)) Randia pseudozosterops Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Newtonia amphichroa Alcedo vintsioides (R) Newtonia brunneicauda Ipsidina madagascariensis Pseudobias wardi Brachypteracias leptosomus Terpsiphone mutata (R) Leptosomus discolor (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Philepitta castanea Nectarinia notata (R) Neodrepanis coruscans Zosterops maderaspatana Phedina borbonica (R) Lonchura nana (R) Coracina cinerea (R) Ploceus nelicourvi Phyllastrephus madagascariensis (Foudia madagascariensis (R)) Phyllastrephus zosterops Foudia omissa Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) (Saroglossa aurata) Tylas eduardi Dicrurus forficatus (R) Lophotibis cristata has been reported to occur in the reserve but was not observed by the 1985 expedition. Mammals Microcebus rufus Hapalemur griseus Cheirogaleus major Lemur fulvus Avahi laniger Lemur rubriventer Indri indri Lepilemur mustelinus Propithecus diadema Varecia variegata Daubentonia madagascariensis Galidia elegans Amphibians The following species were collected by the 1985 University of London Expedition. Ptychadena mascariensis Mantidactylus pliciferus? Aglyptodactylus madagascariensis Mantidactylus aerumnalis Mantidactylus guttulatus Mantidactylus betsileanus Mantidactylus majori Boophis viridis? Mantidactylus wittei Mantella cowani -120- Protected areas Mantidactylus femoralis Mantipus laevipes Mantidactylus luteus Platypelis pollicaris Reptiles Phelsuma bimaculata Mabuya gravenhorsti Phelsuma madagascariensis Amphiglossus melanopleura Ebenavia inunguis Chamaeleo nasutus Zonosaurus aeneus Sanzinia madagascariensis Non-marine molluscs Macrochlamys stumpfii Kalidos oleatus Tropidophora tricarinata Helicophanta magnifica Ampelita xystera NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de TSARATANANA (No.4). MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 31 December 1927. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 13°49’-14°05’S, 48°44’-59’E. To the south-east of Ambanja in the province of Antseranana. ALTITUDE 700-2876 m (Mt. Maromokotra, the highest summit in Madagascar). AREA 48 622 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES Large mountain group of crystalline rocks and volcanic formations of the Miocene. Mont Maromokotra, the highest mountain in Madagascar, is found in this reserve. The climate has the same characteristics as the Malagasy rain forest and is extremely wet. During summer, especially the monsoon season (end of November to the beginning of May), there are virtually daily torrential rainstorms. From May to October, the summits are covered with fog accompanied by drizzle and fine rain. October and November are relatively dry. VEGETATION In general, the vegetation consists of primary and secondary tropical evergreen forests of both high and low altitude with both lichens and ericaceous species common. The flora is rich in endemics especially at high altitude. From 1000 to 2200 m, the principal plants found are: Podocarpus madagascariensis, Canarium, Aphloia_theiformis, Ravensara, Ocotea, Beilschmiedia oppositifolia, Malleastrum, Noronhia, Erythroxylum corybosum, Dichaetanthera, Eleacarpus, Coffea tsaratananae, Gardenia, Peddiea involucrata, Buddleia, Senecio, Vernonia, Oncostemum, Panicum uvulatum, Poecilostachys tsaratananensis, Oplismenus, Leptaspis cochleata and various members of the families Acanthaceae, Labiaceae, especially Coleus, and Urticaceae, notably Pilea. Tree ferns of the family Cyatheaceae do not seem to be very abundant; however this appears to be optimum habitat for epiphytes such as Peperomia, Kalanchoe, Medinilla, Viscum, Rhipsalis and numerous ferns and orchids. From 2000 to 2200 m there is a belt of virtually pure giant bamboo. Above 2200 m there is moss forest with Araliaceae, Cunoniaceae (Weinmannia), Compositae, Ericaceae (Agauria, Philippia), Sterculiaceae (Dombeya), and Taxaceae (Podocar pus rostratus and P. madagascariensis). Chrysalidocarpus (Palmae) is also found. Ephiphytes are very common. Understorey, when it exists, is composed of small trees: Schismatoclada, Helichrysum, Philippia. Around 2600 m there is a second band of bamboos, then shrubby and herbaceous vegetation on the summits, secondary and depauperate through fire, of -121- An environmental profile of Madagascar blackened Philippia in a grassy lawn (Danthonia, Bromus, Anthoxanthum, with scattered Helichrysum). DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES Some illicit cultivation; however, apart from the burned summits, the reserve is largely intact, as the very cold winter temperatures and the steepness of the terrain limit attempts at planting. Formerly, parts of the reserve were adversely affected by illicit plantations of tobacco and indian hemp. In 1968 and 1969, a police operation was organised to destroy the plantations and arrest the miscreants. These people were sufficiently well organized to make entry to the reserve dangerous if unarmed and unaccompanied. Outside the plantations were found herds of zebu cattle belonging to the same people. It is not known if this has been a problem more recently. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Numerous collecting trips have been carried out. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES None. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Albignac, R. (1970). Mammiféres et oiseaux du Massif de Tsaratanana. Mém. ORSTOM 37: 223-229. Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources a Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. Milon, P. (1957). Etude d’une petite collection d’oiseaux du Tsaratanana. Naturaliste Malgache 3(2): 167-183. STAFF Two full-time forest agents. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Headquarters are at Ambanja with a guard post at Mangindrano. FAUNA Birds Lophotibis cristata Phyllastrephus zosterops Buteo brachypterus Phyillastrephus cinereiceps Margaroperdix madagarensis Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Turnix nigricollis Tylas eduardi Dryolimnas cuvieri Calicalicus madagascariensis Sarothrura insularis Leptopterus viridis Gallinago macrodactyla Copsychus albospecularis Streptopelia picturata (R) Monticola shar pei Alectroenas madagascariensis Neomixis viridis Coracopsis nigra (R) Hartertula flavoriridis Coua reynaudii Crossleyia xanthophrys Coua caerulea Nesillas typica Cuculus rochii (R) Dromaeocercus brunneus Caprimulgus ennaratus Dromaeocercus seebohmii Alcedo vintsioides (R) Newtonia brunneicauda Ipsidina madagascariensis Pseudobias wardi Atelornis crossleyi Terpsiphone mutata (R) Leptosomus discolor (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Philepitta castanea Nectarinia notata (R) Neodrepanis coruscans Zosterops maderaspatana Mirafra hova Lonchura nana (R) Phedina borbonica (R) Ploceus nelicourvi Motacilla flaviventris Foudia madagascariensis (R) Coracina cinerea (R) Dicrurus forficatus (R) -122- Protected areas Mammals Lemur macaco Hapalemur griseus Lemur rubriventer Lemur fulvus Cheirogaleus major Phaner furcifer Lepilemur sp. Microgale talazaci Microgale sp. Nesomys cf N. rufus Amphibians *Mantipus guentherpetersi *Platyhyla alticola Platypelis pollicaris *Platypelis tsaratananaensis Stumpf fia psologlossa Mantidactylus asper Mantidactylus elegans Mantidactylus granulatus Reptiles Lygodactylus rarus Chamaeleo guibe *Chamaeleo tsaratananensis *Amphiglossus tsaratananensis Nonmarine Molluscs This reserve is undoubtedly the most important area in Madagascar for molluscs. *Acroptychia culminans Kalidos cleamesi *Acroptychia pauliani *Kalidos decaryi *Acropytchia pauper Kalidos humbloti *Tropidophora dingeoni *Kalidos merschardti *Tropidophora puerilis *Kalidos milloti Tropidophora tricarinata *Kalidos montis *Tropidophora vuillemini Kalidos oleatus *Clavator dingeoni *Kalidos secans Clavator moreleti *Kalidos tsaratananensis *Clavator pauliani *Cyathopoma pauliani (Andamy) *Kalidos amicus Macrochlamys stumpfii Kalidos andapaensis *Ampelita bathiei *Ampelita caduca *Sitala delaportei *Ampelita culminans Sitala elevata Ampelita futura *Sitala roedereri Ampelita gaudens *Microcystis madecassina Ampelita lamarei *Microcystis nitelloides Ampelita lanxava *Microcystis tangens *Ampelita parva Vitrina madagascariensis *Ampelita pauliani Edentulina metula Ampelita perampla *Pilula excavata *Sitala acuta *Pilula madecassina *Sitala culminis NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de L;- ANDRINGITRA (No.5). MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 31 December 1927; the present boundaries were fixed by Classement 66-242, June Ist, 1966. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 22°07°-21’S, 46°47’-47°02’E. South of Ambalava in the Province of Fianarantsoa. The village of Antanifotsy is situated on the edge of the reserve. ALTITUDE 1200-2658 m. -123- An environmental profile of Madagascar AREA 31 160 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES'~ The Andringitra mountain chain which constitutes the reserve is a very hilly, granitic massif in the form of a V with unequal length branches; where these meet the massif forms a plateau at about 2500 m with very uneven relief. The massif contain the sources of many streams and has the coldest climate of any of the Madagascan mountains, with severe frosts recorded at high altitude and several snowfalls at above 2500 m in the last 40 years; lower altitudes in the reserve generally have the characteristic cool climate of the high plateaux with 3 or 4 dry months. Annual rainfall is 1500-2000 mm. On the eastern slopes, the climate is rather more equable. VEGETATION _ Several vegetation types occur within the reserve, varying principally with altitude, but also from east to west. The non-degraded vegetation is classified as follows: from 700 to 800 m are areas of eastern lowland rain forest, characterised by Dalbergia baroni; from 800-1600 m is found mid-altitude rain forest, with Eugenia, Tambourissa and Allocarpus; above this, from 1500-2000 m., is montane sclerophyll and lichen forest, characterised by Schefflera, Weinmannia and Brachylaena, and ericoid scrub with Philippia which can reach 4-5 m in height. At these altitudes there are also scattered peaty depressions (notably carrying the remarkable Restio madagascariensis) and ’xerophytic lawn’. On the crags is a xerophytic flora with Aloe, Kalanchoe and Helichrysum. The whole area is rich in endemics: 80% of the flora of the humid depressions and the rocks is endemic to the massif. Much of the natural vegetation in the western part of the reserve has been destroyed by fire, but that which survives is characteristic of the western Madagascan domain. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The boundary is marked by 33 permanent marker stones, although these are not clearly visible; the reserve is patrolled on foot by three agents of the Direction des Eaux et Foréts. There is a 30 km fire break along the western boundary of the reserve near the village of Ankazomby, although this has apparently only been partially effective. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES Fire is the principal threat to the reserve; most burning within the reserve is the result of spread of uncontrolled fires started on pasture land outside the reserve, although some are deliberately started to cause damage and others may be caused by lightning. Around 500 ha of the summit zone was burnt in 1983 as was some 44 ha on the Andohariana Plateau; in 1982 around 1250 ha in the Antombohobe area was burnt. Cattle are present within the reserve and cause damage to the natural vegetation, particularly the rock-dwelling communities. The Riantahy and Rianvavy waterfalls, two areas reportedly of great beauty and historical interest, have been damaged by watercourse management under the Mamoly management project, designed to improve irrigation and rice production in the Antanifotsy village region. Management involves regulating the water flow at the Riantahy waterfall. To this end a dam and reinforced conduit have been built, and construction of a 3 km long canal, scheduled to be completed in 1987, has begun; all this work has been carried out within the reserve. The agents of the Direction des Eaux et Foréts lack camping equipment and transport and are thus prevented from effectively patrolling the reserve. Ring-tailed Lemurs Lemur catta are captured alive to sell to people passing through the area. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Study of highland ecosystems in 1970 for RCP 225 (Paulian et al., 1971). VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES Access is difficult: there is a 50 km track from Ambalavao to Antanifotsy which is in bad condition and is damaged each wet season and a 40 km dry-season track to Ambaratra Antambohobe. There are several foot paths within the reserve, including one running 25 km from Antanifotsy to Pic Boby. -124- Protected areas PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources a Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. Nicoll, M.E. and Langrand, O. (1987). Report on the first phase of WWF - Protected areas programme in Madagascar. Unpd. report, 62 pp. Paulian, R., Betsch, J-M., Guillaumet, J-L., Blanc, C. and Griveaud, P. (1971). RCP 225. Etude des écosystems montagnards dans la région malgache. I. Le massif de l’Andringitra. 1970-1971. Géomorphologie, climatologie et groupements végéteaux. Bulletin de la Société d’Ecologie II (2-3): 189-266. STAFF 1 agent and 2 full-time auxiliaries. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Headquarters at Ambalavo and a guardpost at Ivohibe. FAUNA Birds Tachybaptus pelzelnii Anas melleri Polyboroides radiatus Buteo brachypterus Falco newtoni (R) Sarothrura insularis Streptopelia picturata (R) Cuculus rochii (R) Leptosomus discolor (R) Atelornis pitt ides Phedina borbonica (R) Motacilla flaviventris Mammals Microcebus rufus Ayahi laniger Lepilemur microdon Lemur catta Lemur fulvus Varecia variegata Cryptoprocta ferox Tenrec ecaudatus Amphibians * Anodonthyla montana Mantipus inguinalis Plethodontohyla tuberata Mantidactylus aerumnalis Mantidactylus argenteus *Mantidactylus blanci Mantidactylus decaryi Mantidactylus elegans *Mantidactylus madecassus Mantidactylus redimitus *Boophis brygooi Boophis microtympanum Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Copsychus albospecularis Monticola shar pei Acrocephalus newtoni Nesillas typica Cisticola cherina Dromaeocercus brunneus Neomixis tenella Nectarinia souimanga (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Foudia madagascariensis (R) Setifer setosus Microgale dobsoni Microgale drouhardi Leptogale gracilis Oryzorictes tetradactylus Brachyuromys betsiloensis Brachyuromys ramirohitra Eliurus myoxinus *Mantipus bipunctatus Plethodontohyla notosticta Pseudohemisus madagascariensis Mantidactylus aglavei Mantidactylus asper *Mantidactylus bourgati Mantidactylus domerguei Mantidactylus lugubris Mantidactylus microtympanum Mantidactylus tricinctus *Boophis laurenti -125- An environmental profile of Madagascar Reptiles Leioheterodon madagascariensis Nonmarine Molluscs Ampelita covani *Tachyphasis milloti Ampelita petiti Macrochlamys stumpfii *Imerinia fischeri Helicophanta gloriosa (forét d’Fivanona) Amphipoda: Austroniphargus bryophilus (Pic Boby) NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de LOKOBE (No.6). MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 31 December 1927, though the Forét de Lokobe was constituted as a reserve as early as 1913. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION On the south-eastern side of the island of Nosy Bé, with the coast forming the southern edge of the reserve. 13°23’-25’S, 48°18’-20°E. ALTITUDE 0-430 m (the highest point on the island). AREA 740 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES The island of Nosy Bé is formed of a neogenous basaltic block and marine sediments of the upper Lias. The relief is fairly tortuous in places. The reserve has an important role in the local water network. Climate is characteristic of the "Sambirano’ Domain, with a relatively well-marked dry season of 3 to 4 months, lower annual rainfall than on the east coast and fairly high temperatures (mean of over 15°C in the coldest month). VEGETATION The reserve contains much of the remaining forest on the island. This is a dense, humid forest characterised by species of the families Chlaenaceae (endemic to Madagascar), Myristicaceae and the genus Anthostema. Biologically and physionomically, it resembles the eastern rain forest but is distinguished by the presence of numerous endemics. ZONING The reserve boundaries are clearly delimited, and obviously marked. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT There are proposals to increase the effectiveness of the reserve both by increasing its size, and by providing vehicles for the staff. Use of surrounding areas for tourism could be a valuable source of income. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES ~The reserve is very vulnerable because of its small size. The proposed buffer zone, which is not formally protected, is being cut down for cultivation of rice and manioc. In 1972 it was reported that poaching of lemurs was a problem, incursions being made into the reserve by boat. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Numerous collecting expeditions have been carried out. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES The Centre National de Recherches Océanographiques owns a laboratory close to the reserve, but the work has always been orientated towards the marine fauna. -126- Protected areas PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources a Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. STAFF Only one agent. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. In 1982, a WWF Tropical Forest Campaign grant of US$ 22 000 over 2 years was allocated to buy essential equipment and assist in the protection of 150-200 ha of the planned buffer zone in the northern part of the reserve. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION At Hell-ville on Nosy Bé. FAUNA Birds The following species have been recorded by O. Langrand (in Jitt., 28.10.86). Aviceda madagascariensis Leptosomus discolor (R) Haliaeetus vociferoides Motacilla flaviventris Polyboroides radiatus Coracina cinerea (R) Accipiter francesii (R) Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Buteo brachypterus Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Falco newtoni (R) Calicalicus madagascariensis Margaroperdix madagarensis Vanga curvirostris Turnix nigricollis Leptopterus viridis Streptopelia picturata (R) Leptopterus chabert Treron australis (R) Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Alectroenas madagascariensis Copsychus albospecularis Coracopsis nigra (R) Nesillas typica Agapornis cana Newtonia brunneicauda Cuculus rochii Neomixis tenella Coua cristata Terpsiphone mutata (R) Centropus toulou (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Otus rutilus (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Lonchura nana (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Foudia madagascariensis (R) Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Dicrurus forficatus (R) Mammals Lepilemur dorsalis Lemur macaco Microcebus rufus Microcebus murinus Amphibians The following taxa are listed for Nosy Bé in general, no data are available on the herpetofauna of Lokobe in particular. Platypelis milloti is an exception; it has been recorded only in the Lokobe Reserve. Cophyla phyllodactylus *Platypelis milloti Rhombophryne testudo Stumf fia psologlossa Laurentomantis horrida Mantidactylus granulatus Boophis madagascariensis ’"Hyperolius’ nossibeensis -127- An environmental profile of Madagascar Reptiles The following taxa are listed for Nosy Bé in general, no data are available on herpetofauna of Lokobe in particular. Ebenavia inunguis *L ygodactylus heterurus Phelsuma laticauda *Paroedura oviceps Uroplatus fimbriatus Brookesia ebenaui *Brookesia minima Brookesia superciliaris Chamaeleo parsoni *Amphiglossus stumpf fi Zonosaurus boettgeri Zonosaurus rufipes *Typhlops madagascariensis Acrantophis madagascariensis Langaha nasuta Lycodryas arctifasciatus Micropisthodon ochraceus Liopholidophis stumpf fi Nonmarine Molluscs Geckolepis maculata , Phelsuma dubia Phelsuma madagascariensis Paroedura stumpf fi Uroplatus ebenaui *Brookesia legendrei Brookesia stumpf fia Chamaeleo boettgeri Amphiglossus polleni Paracontias hildebrandti Zonosaurus madagascariensis Ramphotyphlops braminus *T yphlops reuteri Ithycyphus miniatus Liophidium rhodogaster Lycodryas gaimardi Pararhadinea melanogaster Some of these species are recorded from ’Nosy Bé’ and may not occur in Lokobe. Tropidophora aspera Tropidophora cuvieriana Tropidophora deshayesiana *Tropidophora felicis Tropidophora fuscula (Lokobe) Tropidophora ligata non endemic Tropidophora milloti Tropidophora tricarinata Tropidophora vittata Clavator moreleti Helicophanta amphibulima (Lokobe) Helicophanta oviformis (Lokobe) Kalidos lamyi (Lokobe) *Sitala brancsiki (Lokobe) *Sitala filomarginata (Lokobe) Edentulina stumpfii Macrochlamys stumpfii Acmella parvula Cleopatra colbeaui Truncatella guerini Gastrocopta seignaciana Nesopupa minutalis Cecilioides mariei Ampelita galactostoma Ampelita gaudens Ampelita omphalodes (Lokobe) *Ampelita stumpfii (Lokobe) Desmocaulis subaspera Drepanocaulis plateia Drepanocaulis tetragonalis Euconulus micra Opeas soulaianus Elisolimax bella Imerinia grandidieri Imerinia sulfurea Imerinia verrucosa Clithon spiniperda the NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de L-ANKARAFANTSIKA (No.7) MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED The integral reserve was established by a decree of 31 December 1927, and updated by decree 66-242 of 30 June 1966. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION In Mahajanga Province 40 km north-west of Ambato-Boéni. 15°59’-16°22’S, 45°56’-47°12’E. -128- Protected areas ALTITUDE 75-390 m. AREA 60 520 ha, bordering the Ampijoroa Forest Station to the west which covers ca 20 000 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES Very rugged relief to the east and south, forming cliffs in places. Towards the west and north, the plateau descends gently. The soils of the plateau are very sandy. Precipitation is between 1000 and 1500 mm a year with a marked dry season of 5-6 months (May-November). Mean annual temperature is ca 26°C, with maximum 35°C and minimum 17°C. The reserve protects a sample of habitats typical of the arenaceous soils of western Madagascar, and also protects the catchment of one of Madagascar’s most important rice growing areas. Problems occur in the paddy fields downstream when sand eroded from cleared areas is carried by the rivers. VEGETATION Still largely covered in the original forest vegetation. Forest is dense and dry of the series Dalbergia-Commiphora-Hildegardia. Numerous Leguminosae and Myrtaceae. Some species adapted to dry environments such as Pachypodium, and members of the families Ampelidaceae and Passifloraceae. Numerous lianes, but epiphytes are virtually absent. The forest is deciduous, and contains a wide variety of trees and shrubs at a high density (about 170 species of 35 families). ZONING None, althuogh the reserve is bordered by six buffer zone areas. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The reserve itself is not managed at present. The forestry station has a nursery and plant growth trials area; there is a good network of trails through the forest station and part of the area is used for research projects. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES’ The reserve and forest station are being encroached by clearance to create pastures, by charcoal burning, and, to a lesser extent, by clearance for crops in river valleys and slopes on the Antananarivo to Mahajanga road. The buffer zone areas have suffered forest loss and the forest edges are being pushed back into the reserve, particularly in the north and east. Fire affected the western quarter of the reserve in 1983. Poaching appears to be low-level at present (1986) although may become more of a problem in the future. There are feral cattle within both the reserve and the forest station. The reserve is undermanned. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Some primate studies have been made in the reserve, particularly on range sizes and diet; the University of Madagascar also has study areas here. Entomological research has been carried out in the area. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES The forestry station at Ampijoroa is used by research workers in the area. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources @ Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. IUCN/WWF Project 1911. Protection and development of the Ankarafantsika Nature Reserve. Martin, C. (1982). Rapport de la mission technique WWF/IUCN a Madagascar 1981. IUCN/WWF, Gland, (contains a list of birds and mammals found within the reserve). Nicoll, M.E. and Langrand, O. (1987). Report on the first phase of WWF - Protected areas programme in Madagascar. Unpd. report, 62 pp. STAFF Two: a Chef de Station at Ampijoroa and a full-time auxilliary. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. WWF has provided funds for reserve management since 1980. -129- An environmental profile of Madagascar LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION The headquarters is at Bevazaha. FAUNA N.B. Some of the species listed below have been recorded from Ampijoroa which lies immediately adjacent to the R.N.I. Birds Tachybaptus pelzelnii Ipsidina madagascariensis Ardeola idae (R) Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Lophotibis cristata Leptosomus discolor (R) Anas melleri Philepitta castanea Aviceda madagascariensis Mirafra hova Haliaeetus vociferoides Phedina borbonica (R) Polyboroides radiatus Motacilla flaviventris Accipiter madagascariensis Coracina cinerea (R) Accipiter francesii (R) Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Buteo brachypterus Hypsipetes madagascariensis Falco newtoni (R) Calicalicus madagascariensis Margaroperdrix madagarensis Schetba rufa Mesitornis variegata Vanga curvirostris Turnix nigricollis Xenopirostris damii Dryolimnas cuvieri (R) Falculea palliata Pterocles personatus Leptopterus chabert Streptopelia picturata (R) Leptopterus viridis Treron australis Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Agapornis cana Copsychus albospecularis Coracopsis nigra (R) Acrocephalus newtoni Coracopsis vasa (R) Nesillas typica Coua gigas Cisticola cherina Coua coquereli Newtonia brunneicauda Coua ruficeps Neomixis tenella Coua cristata Terpsiphone mutata (R) Cuculus rochii (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Centropus toulou (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Otus rutilus (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Asio madagascariensis Lonchura nana (R) Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Ploceus sakalava Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Foudia madagascariensis (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Dicrurus forficatus (R) Mammals Avahi laniger Lemur mongoz Lepilemur edwardsi Microcebus murinus Cheirogaleus medius Propithecus verreauxi Lemur fulvus Cryptoprocta ferox Macrotarsomys ingens Macrotarsomys bastardi Tenrec ecaudatus Setifer setosus Pteropus rufus Quoted records of Lepilemur ruficaudatus should almost certainly be ascribed to L. edwardsi Amphibians Dyscophus insularis Pseudohemisus granulosus Mantidactylus wittei Reptiles *Brookesia decaryi *Chamaeleo angeli *Pygomeles petteri Langaha nasuta Phelsuma dubia -130- Protected areas Nonmarine Molluscs Ampelita omphalodes Helicophanta amphibulima (Bevahara) Ampelita pfeifferi Helicophanta oviformis (Bevaraha) Euconulus micra Acroptychia millotti Edentulina gaillardi Nonmarine Crustacea Isopoda: Armadillo silvivagans (Tsaramandroso) Lepidoptera Papilionidae Papilio morondavana Papilio grosesmithi NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du TSINGY DE NAMOROKA (No.8). MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 31 December 1927. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION To the south of Soalala in the province of Mahajanga. 16°19°-30°S, 45°16’-25’E. ALTITUDE 180-370 m. AREA 21 742 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES The area comprises a calcareous massif (karst) with many cliffs and numerous caves and springs. Average rainfall is between 1000 and 1500 mm a year, with a distinct dry season between May and November. Mean temperature in the coolest month is above 20°C. VEGETATION Like the Tsingy de Bemaraha (R.N.I. No.9), the reserve is a mosaic of dense dry forest, savanna and vegetation adapted to the calcareous karsts, belonging to the Dalbergia-Commiphora-Hildegardia association. The mean height of the trees is 12-15 m. Adansonia rubrostipa is especially frequent. Many xerophytic and crassulacean plants. The area has a spring-fed stream with a remarkable aquatic flora. This reserve has lower species diversity than Tsingy de Bemaraha, whilst containing essentially the same biotopes. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT Some 14 km of footpaths are delimited within the reserve as passable at all times of the year. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES Fires are frequent during the dry season. The human population around the reserve is fairly low and there is only one important village - Vilanandro. In 1972 it was noted that the local inhabitants were largely indifferent to the laws protecting the reserve, which was inadequately guarded; no fady (local taboo) protected the animals or plants of the region. Plantations of indian hemp have been found in the interior of the reserve and zebu cattle also occur within the reserve. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH No research appears to have been carried out recently. -131- An environmental profile of Madagascar VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES None. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources a Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. STAFF One agent and a full-time auxiliary. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Reserve headquarters at Vilanandro. FAUNA Birds Dryolimnas cuvieri Philepitta schlegeli Treron australis (R) Motacilla flaviventris Alectroenas madagascariensis Schetba rufa Agapornis cana Vanga curvirostris Coua ruficeps Copsychus albospecularis Coua coquereli Neomixis tenella Otus rutilus Nesillas typica Coua cristata Zosterops maderaspatana Coua gigas Ploceus sakalava Otus rutilus (R) Mammals Lepilemur edwardsi Microcebus murinus Propithecus verreauxi Lemur fulvus Reptiles *Brookesia bonsi Nonmarine Molluscs Acroptychia grandidieri Georissa aurata Kalidos aequivocus Boucardicus petiti Kalidos bournei Tropidophora semidecussata Helicophanta oviformis Ampelita namerokensis *Bathia madagascariensis NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale du TSINGY DE BEMARAHA (No.9). MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 31 December 1927. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION To the east of Antsalova in the region of Antsingy, 18°13’-19°07’S, 44°34’-57’E. ALTITUDE 75-700 m. AREA 152 000 ha, the largest natural reserve in Madagascar. -132- Protected areas LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES The reserve forms a part of the Antsingy region, a limestone karst area of very dissected relief with many caves and springs. Much of the eastern edge of the region is delimited by the Bemaraha cliff, several tens of kilometres long and 300 to 400 m high. To the east of the reserve there are three north-south flowing rivers separated by successive ridges, while the whole western region of the reserve forms a plateau with rounded hillocks which slopes away, with decreasing steepness, to the west. The climate is generally dry and there are 7 or 8 dry months. Temperatures decrease from north to south but are always above 20°C. VEGETATION Vegetation is characteristic of the calcareous karst regions of the west, with many species unique to this formation, such as Diospyros perrieri (the ebony of the west coast), Delonix regia, and other species of the genus Delonix, and Musa perrieri (the only wild banana in Madagascar). Also baobabs Adansonia, and xerophytic plants such as Aloe. Other notable families include Flacourtiaceae, Orchidaceae, Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae, Annonaceae, Bombacaceae and Moraceae. Climate and vegetation are very similar to that of the R.N.I. du Tsingy de Namoroka (No. 8), and the main vegetation types are dense, dry forest and savannah, but the much larger area and the greater height of the karst relief make the vegetation richer here. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT There appears to be no active conservation management at present. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES Access to much of the reserve is very difficult, resulting in many areas being naturally protected. However, a track crosses the reserve from east to west and accessible valleys are populated with zebu cattle; there are also reportedly illegal settlements within the reserve. Poaching has occurred, though it is not known if this continues to be a problem. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Very little. The area was apparently surveyed in the 1930s, though it is not known if the results have been published; in 1972 it was reported that a recent evaluation of the vegetation had been carried out, though further details are lacking. The reserve is of considerable archaeological interest, containing numerous ancient cemeteries. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES None. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL : Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources G4 Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. Leandri, J. (1938). La forét d’Antsingy. La Terre et la Vie: 18-27. STAFF One agent and two full-time auxiliaries. BUDGET Salaries provided by the government. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Reserve headquarters is at Antsalova with a guard post at Bekapaka. FAUNA Birds Coua ruficeps Lophotibis cristata Coua gigas Vanga curvirostris ?Tachybaptus rufolavatus (record questioned) -133- An environmental profile of Madagascar Mammals Lepilemur edwardsi Microcebus murinus Microcebus coquereli Lemur fulvus Propithecus verreauxi Hapalemur griseus Phaner furcifer Reptiles *Brookesia perarmata Lygodactylus klemmeri Nonmarine Molluscs The Gorges and grottes de Salapango are in this area, but probably not actually in the reserve. The following species occur in the Bemaraha region and may also occur in the gorges de Salapango (see below): Tropidophora bemaraensis Boucardicus petiti (near R. Nameroko) Tropidophora chavani (Salapango) Edentulina battistini Tropidophora filopura " Kalidos bournei Tropidophora petiti : Tropidophora semidecussata Tropidophora pyrostoma (near Miandrivazo) Tropidophora vignali Gorges (and grottes) de Salapango - these species are specifically recorded from this locality: Tropidophora chavani *Ampelita milloti Tropidophora filopura Ampelita namerokoensis *Tropidophora petiti Chondrocyclus mamillaris Tropidophora vignali Acroptychia bathiei Edentulina battistini Kalidos bournei Edentulina stumpfii Helicophanta oviformis NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de TSIMANAMPETSOTSA (No.10). MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 31 December 1927. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION =. 24°02’-11’S, 43°36’-51’E. 100 km south of Toliara in the province of Toliara. ALTITUDE 10-160 m. AREA 43 200 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES The western part of the reserve comprises the shallow, brackish Tsimanampetsotsa lake (20 x 3 km), saturated with sulphates of lime. The lake, which has shores of virtually unvegetated arenaceous soil, is aligned north-south and lies about 7 km from the west coast. To the east of the lake is xerophytic forest on calcareous bedrock. There are numerous underground caves. The climate is dry with precipitation below 400 mm a year and 9-11 dry months. Amount and timing of rainfall can be very variable. Other forms of precipitation are likely to have a significant impact on the vegetation. The minimum temperature in the coolest months is between 15° and 20°C. -134- Protected areas VEGETATION Xerophtyic scrub on the calcareous plateau, and typical south-western brush formation on the arenaceous soils. The vegetation is a remarkable assembly of Didiereaceae (an endemic family of trees or shrubs with the habit of cacti or cactiform euphorbias) and Euphorbiaceae. Tree species 10-12 m high dominate a stratum of impenetrable scrub, rich in lianas. The ground stratum is sparse. The reserve covers a part of the very restricted distribution of Alluaudia montagnacii. Plants show a wide variety of adaptations to xerophytic conditions. Numerous species of Leguminosae, Combretaceae, Tiliaceae and Liliaceae are found. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The boundaries are not marked on the ground, though the reserve was apparently, at least up to 1972, still well respected, as a local ’fady’ (taboo) acted on local villagers in conjunction with the official protection, and the villagers did not like accompanying visitors into the reserve. The particular characteristics of the site (calcareous plateau surrounded by very rocky hillsides covered with an uninflammable xerophytic bush and lakesides of practically bare soil) also shelter it from bush fires. The reserve is reportedly the only one without feral zebu cattle as there is apparently no, or very little, fresh water. There being no fish in the lake, there is no human disturbance for fishing. Overall, the reserve is therefore reported to be little disturbed and in good condition. The area in which it is situated is one of very low population density, and efficient surveillance could easily be carried out by controlling the exit to Androka and that to Toliara. The plateau which borders the lake should be included in the reserve and it would be advisable, for example, to protect the potholes facing Itampolo in which lives Typhleotris madagascariensis, a legally protected blind fish. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES Apparently relatively few (see above). SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Little recent research appears to have been carried out. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES None. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources @ Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. Germain, L. (1935). Etude du reserve naturelle du lac Manampetsa [sic]. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. XVII: 421-481. Milon, P. (1950). Deux jours au lac Tsimanampetsoa [sic]. Observations ornithologiques. Naturaliste Malgache 2(1): 61-67. STAFF One full-time auxiliary. BUDGET None. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION None. FAUNA Birds Accipiter madagascariensis Agapornis cana Buteo brachypterus Cuculus rochii (R) Falco newtoni (R) Coua cursor Turnix nigricollis Coua cristata Charadrius thoracicus Coua ruficeps Pterocles personatus Coua verreauxi Streptopelia picturata (R) Centropus toulou (R) Coracopsis vasa (R) Otus rutilus (R) Coracopsis nigra (R) Ninox superciliaris -135- An environmental profile of Madagascar Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Leptosomus discolor (R) Mirafra hova Phedina borbonica (R) Coracina cinerea (R) Vanga curvirostris Xenopirostris xenopirostris Falculea palliata Leptopterus viridis Leptopterus chabert Monticola imerina Neomixis tenella Neomixis striatigula Mammals Lepilemur leucopus (probably) Propithecus verreauxi Nesillas typica Thamnornis chloropetoides Cisticola cherina Newtonia amphichroa Newtonia brunneicauda Newtonia archboldi Terpsiphone mutata (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Foudia madagascariensis (R) Lonchura nana (R) Ploceus sakalava Dicrurus forficata (R) Lemur catta Microgale pusilla has been found in owl pellets in the region (M. Nicoll, in /itt., 28.10.86). Reptiles ?Pyxis arachnoides Nonmarine Molluscs Geochelone radiata Many of the following species were collected at lac ">Manampetsa’: *Microcystis bathiei Kalidos lapillus Kalidos chastelli Clavator grandidieri Subulina manampetsaensis Leucotaenius favannii Leucotaenius procteri Georissa petiti Tropidophora philippiana Tropidophora semidecussata (fossil) The following species were recorded in the reserve during a survey in the 1930s (Petit, 1935; see also Part V.9. and Appendix 2). Names of some of these species have since been changed. Clavator favannei non endemic Subulina octona Subulina ferriezi Planorbis trivialis Planorbis crassilabrum Ligatella philippi Nonmarine Crustacea Amphipoda: Grandidierella mahafalensis Segmentina angusta Melania tuberculata Georissa petiti Truncatella teres Orchestia ancheidos An expedition carried out in the 1930s, as part of a series to inventory the reserves, recorded the following crustaceans (Monod, 1935): Ostracoda: Acoccypris capillata (not endemic) Tanaid?: Apseudes thaumastocheles (n.sp., blind, in chalky mud, ?endemic) Isopoda: Aphiloscia annulicornis (not endemic) Pyrgoniscus petiti (n.sp.) Amphipoda: Grandidierella megnae (not endemic) Protected areas To the north of this reserve is found the cave of Mitoho. This is an extremely important cave faunistically, and in 1935 it was reported that some measures had been taken for its conservation (Germain, 1935). It contains a remarkable collection of cave species of marine origin, as well as diurnal soft water species. The cave is on the edge of an ancient cliff near the plateau of Mahafaly and is connected with the water table circulating under the plateau (Paulian & Delamare Deboutteville, 1956). Since the cave is the only source of fresh water in the area, its fauna may easily become threatened (Paulian. 1983). The following endemic crustaceans are found there: Isopoda: Anopsilana poissoni Decapoda: Typhlopatsa pauliani Fish The blind cave fish, Typhleotris madagascariensis, is found in the limestone potholes near Itampolo; it has been recommended that the reserve be extended to cover this area. NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale d ANDOHAHELA (No.11) MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 11 June 1939. The area of the reserve was increased from 30 000 ha on | June 1966 by Decree 66-242. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 24°30’-58’S, 46°32’-52’E. 40 km north-west of Taolanaro in the extreme south of the country. ALTITUDE 100-1956 m AREA _ 76 020 ha, in three noncontiguous blocks, one (Parcel 1) 63 100 ha, one (Parcel 2) 12 420 ha and the third (Parcel 3) 500 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES Parcel | varies in altitude from 100 m to 1956 m (Pic d’Andohahela); Parcel 2 from ca 110 m to 1005 m (Pic de Vohidagoro); Parcel 3 is at ca 125 m. Climate in parcel | is humid, with rainfall of 1500-2000 mm, no dry season and mean annual temperature of about 23°C; that in parcel 2 is much drier, with rainfall usually lower than 500 mm _ per annum and a dry season of 5-6 months. Parcel | is an important watershed, containing the source of over ten rivers, including the Mananara, rising at Anpamosira and flowing westward and the Manampanihy flowing east from Vohibe (O’Connor ef al., 1985). The Mananara, which flows along the northern boundaries of Parcel 2, is the only permanent water source for that part of the reserve. VEGETATION Each of the three parcels has a distinct vegetation type. Vegetation in Parcel 1 is typical of submontane tropical rainforest, of which it constitutes the southernmost extension in Madagascar. Buttressed trees of up to 35 m occur, though generally tree height does not exceed 25 m. Genera characteristic of this forest type include Tambourissa, Symphonia and Dalbergia, with members of the families Lauraceae, Compositaceae and Rubiaceae represented on the higher slopes. The endemic family Humbertaceae is found within the reserve. Orchidaceae and Cycathaceae are common, and the epiphytic cactus Rhipsalis occurs. Epiphytes in general are abundant, and at higher altitudes mosses and lichens are found. -137- An environmental profile of Madagascar Parcel 2 consists mainly of spiny thorn forest with some bush and scrub and also some gallery forest along the Menanara River in the northern part of the reserve. The highest hills have no forest cover and are generally covered with tussock grass and other herbaceous vegetation, with Aloe and Pachypodium spp. In the thorn forest, the endemic genera Alluaudia and Didierea are well represented; one species of the former (A. ascendens) is endemic to the Mandrare region, as is the baobab Adansonia za (Bombaceae). Species of Euphorbiaceae, Leguminosae and Crassulaceae are also abundant. Parcel 3 has a high density of the endemic palm Neodypsis decaryi and was originally set up specifically to protect this species. It also has a belt of vegetation transitional between the spiny forest and the eastern rain forest. Leguminosae, particularly Acacia spp., are well represented as are Cucurbitaceae and Euphorbiaceae. There is some deciduous forest with Tamarindus indica along one of the non-permanent rivers, the Andehamara, and introduced Eucalyptus has become established along the eastern end of the parcel. ZONING None apart from the three defined areas. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT Principal management at present is in the north-east of Parcel 1, near the village of Vohibaka, where a scheme to prevent fires spreading into the reserve has been started by the Chef de Cantonnement Forestier. Villagers have been using back fires to clear a 20 m wide firebreak which also deliniates the boundary of the reserve. Payment for this work up to the present has been in the form of food provided personally by the Chef de Cantonnement Forestier. O’Connor et al. have made several suggestions for improving management of the reserve: 1. Review of the present boundaries; there are large areas of the reserve which are devoid of forest and it is suggested that these be excluded from the reserve in exchange for equal areas of forest. This is particularly advocated for the thorn forest, of which there are considerable intact areas around parcel 2, as it is perceived as under increasing pressure for charcoal production and exploitation of Al/uaudia wood. The boundaries of parcel 1 are in question at present as the original markers were incorrectly placed. 2. Clear delineation of boundaries, involving extension of the firebreak scheme around Vohibaka. The possibility of fencing parcel 3 should be investigated - its small size makes fencing feasible and its proximity to the main road makes it desirable. 3. An increase in the number of guards to ten, preferably employing local villagers, and provision of uniforms. 4. Provision of transport for the Chef de Cantonnement Forestier. 5. Promotion of local agricultural development schemes to alleviate pressure on the reserve. The critical need for funding for these activities is stressed. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES All three parcels have deforested areas; in parcel | these are presumed to be largely the result of bush fires, in parcel 2 a product of wood-cutting and in parcel 3 a combination of the two. The lower, flat areas are used to cultivate rice while the higher areas are used as cattle pasture, and are burned annually to provide new growth for grazing. In parcels 1 and 2 these areas are extensive, though few are of recent origin; in parcel 1, however, bush fires are likely to be a problem near border villages, particularly near Eminiminy on the eastern side of the reserve. Slopes within the reserve here were noted by O’Connor et al. (1985) to be devoid of forest and it was thought likely that the villagers no longer considered them part of the reserve. There was also some evidence that the extent of cultivated land in the reserve was expanding in the southern end of parcel 1, north of the village of Isaka Ivondro; houses were noted within the reserve and new clearings were observed along the Ambahibe River. Fires have been recorded in the vicinity of Parcel 3 and could pose a serious threat to the area if not controlled. Livestock habitually graze within the reserve boundaries and wood-cutting is a problem where villages occur near to forested parts of the reserve. Wood taken from Parcel | is used mainly for fuel in homes whereas that taken from Parcel 2 is used for fuel and house building and is also taken for sale to markets in Ambovombe, Amboasary and Taolanaro. There is, however, as yet no evidence for large-scale logging within the reserve. Hunting is generally not a major problem, though may be of some importance in the north and east of Parcel 1 where cattle thieves hide and in parcel 3 where the Lemur catta population has been reduced as a result of hunting for food. Elsewhere such hunting as occurs appears to be mainly as a pastime rather than to provide a significant supply of proteim. It is thought likely that some animals, particularly lemurs, are caught alive for sale -138- Protected areas as pets. The reserve is seriously understaffed, with only two guards and a Chef de Réserve covering over 76 000 ha. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH The area has been surveyed in the past (Paulian et al., 1973); Propithecus has been the subject of a brief study by Richard at Hazafotsy (Parcel 2). There area is at present the subject of study by O’Connor. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES None. Access to Parcel 1 is difficult, although a road runs from Ranomafana to Isaka Ivondro on the eastern boundary. There are four paths, three of which follow the boundaries of the parcel with the fourth cutting through from east to west (Andonabe to Evasia). Parcel 2 is more accessible, from the road from Amboasary to Hazofotsy which continues to Ambatoabo, crossing the northern boundary of the parcel; this road is passable for most of the year and from it a path cuts south to Bevilany. Parcel 3 is easily accessible from R.N. 13 which runs from Fort Dauphin to Amboasary. There isa hut at Hazafotsy owned by the government agronomy service which has been used by visiting scientists. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources a Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. O’Connor, S., Pidgeon, M., and Randria, Z. (1985). A conservation program for the Andohahela Reserve (Réserve Naturelle No. 11). Paper given at ’Seminaire Scientifique international sur l’etat de recherche sur l’equilibre des ecosystémes forestiers de Madagascar.’ Antananarivo, October 1985. Paulian, R., Blanc, C., Guillaumet, J-L., Betsch, J-M., Griveaud, P. and Peyrieras, A. (1973). Etude des écosystemes montagnards dans la région malagache. II Les chaines Anosyennes. Géomorphologie, climatologie et groupments végéteaux. Campagne RCP 225 1971-1972. Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. Paris 3° sér. no. 118 Ecol. 1: 1-40. STAFF A Chef de Réserve (i.e. the Chef de Cantonnement Forestier et Poste R.N. 11), a Chef de Poste Est and a second guard, posted at Hazafotsy (see below). BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Protection of the reserve is coordinated by the Chef de Cantonnement Forestier et Poste R.N. 11, who is located at Amboasary-Sud. There are two guardposts, one at Eminiminy on the eastern side of Parcel 1 (Poste Est), the other at Hazafotsy on the northern boundary of Parcel 2. FAUNA Birds The following species have been recorded by O’Connor et al. (1985) in their surveys of all three parcels of the reserve; it is not regarded as a complete avifaunal list. Lophotibis cristata Coracopsis vasa (R) Ayviceda madagascariensis Agapornis cana Polyboroides radiatus Coua gigas Accipiter madagascariensis Coua reynaudii Buteo brachypterus Coua cursor Falco newtoni (R) Coua cristata Margaroperdix madagarensis Coua caerulea Turnix nigricollis Centropus toulou (R) Pterocles personatus Otus rutilus (R) Streptopelia picturata (R) Ninox superciliaris Treron australis (R) Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Alectroenas madagascariensis Alcedo vintsioides (R) Coracopsis nigra (R) Ipsidina madagascariensis -139- An environmental profile of Madagascar Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Leptosomus discolor (R) Motacilla flaviventris Coracina cinerea (R) Phyllastrephus sp Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Tylas eduardi Schetba rufa Vanga curvirostris Xenopirostris xenopirostris Falculea palliata Leptopterus viridis Hypositta corallirostris Copsychus albospecularis Neomixis viridis Cisticola cherina Newtonia brunneicauda Terpsiphone mutata (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Zosterops maderspatana Lonchura nana (R) Ploceus nelicourvi Ploceus sakalava Foudia madagascariensis (R) Dicrurus forficatus (R) In addition there is a nineteenth century record of Brachypteracias squamiger, and Atelornis pittoides has been recorded from the Anosyennes hills. Mammals The following species have either been recorded by O’Connor and co-authors or identified by forest guards or villagers in the reserve. Numbers in parentheses indicate the parcel(s) in which the species has been recorded. A question mark indicates occurrence expected from known distribution of the species but not confirmed. Cheirogaleus medius [2,?3] Cheirogaleus major [\] Microcebus murinus [2,?3] Microcebus rufus [1] Phaner furcifer [?2] Avahi laniger [1] Lepilemur mustelinus [1] Lepilemur leucopus [2,73] Cryptoprocta ferox [1,2,?3] Galidia elegans [1] Salanoia concolor [1] Amphibians Propithecus diadema [1] Propithecus verreauxi [1,2,?3] Daubentonia madagascariensis [1] Hapalemur griseus [1] Lemur fulvus [1] Lemur catta [1,2,3] Fossa fossa [1] Galidictis fasciata [?1] No specific data, but the following amphibians are recorded from the Anosyennes chain of hills, the southern end of which comprises the R.N.I. d’Andohahela Anodontohyla boulengeri *Madecassophryne truebae Mantidactylus bertini *Mantidactylus grandisonae Mantidactylus redimitus *Boophis microtis * Anodontohyla rouxae *Microhyla palmata Mantidactylus elegans Mantidactylus microtympanum Mantidactylus tricinctus Information used in this account has been kindly provided by Sheila O’Connor and Mark Pidgeon. NAME Réserve Naturelle Intégrale de MAROJEJY (No.12). MANAGEMENT CATEGORY I (Strict Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. Protected areas DATE ESTABLISHED 3 January 1952. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 14°18’-39°S, 49°33’-52’E. To the north-west of Andapa in the province of Antseranana. ALTITUDE 90-2137 m. AREA 60 150 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES _ The reserve includes the massif of Marojejy, and its principal foothills, notably Ambatosoratra, Ambodilahitra and Beondroka. The area comprises a very rugged massif chiefly composed of gneiss, which is divided into three main blocks. At around 1100 m, the mid-slopes become increasingly steep, leading up to narrow quartzite ridges which precede the rocky escarpments encircling the west slopes of the massif. There is a wide range of microclimates. Rainfall on the eastern and south-eastern slopes is thought to reach or exceed 3000 mm a year, which would be the highest rainfall in Madagascar; measured rainfall at Andapa and Sambava is ca 2000 mm a year. Average temperatures at the lowest altitudes on the eastern side are approximately 22.3°C in July and 26.9°C in February. Winter temperatures on the summit of Marojejy (2133 m) are ca 1.5°C. VEGETATION Overall, plant species diversity is very high, with over 100 genera and 2000 species recorded, several apparently endemic to the massif. Humbert (1955) has given a detailed description of the vegetation of the Marojejy Massif, divided into four altitudinal zones. The lowest zone, from 50 m to ca 800 m is high, dense, closed canopy rainforest, with a canopy height of 25-30 m and relatively clear horizontal stratification. Species diversity is very high. The most commonly represented families in the canopy are: Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, Araliaceae, Ebenaceae (Diospyros), Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae, Anacardiaceae, Elaeocarpaceae (Echinocarpus), Lauraceae (Ocotea, Ravensara), Clusiaceae (Ochrocarpus), Myrtaceae, Burseraceae (Canarium), Moraceae, Bignoniaceae, Apocynaceae, Tiliaceae, Malpighiaceae, Monimiaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Loganiaceae. The intermediate stratum consists of small trees and large shrubs, mostly of the families Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Ochnaceae, Erthryoxylaceae, Myrsinaceae, Celastraceae, Violaceae, Flacourtiaceae. The ground layer is generally patchy, consisting of grasses and herbs, generally of the families Labiaceae, Acanthaceae, Gesneraceae, Melastomaceae, Balsaminaceae. Epiphytes are abundant. Transition from this stage to mid-altitude rainforest is made gradually, at around 800-900 m. This zone is characterised by a lower canopy height (18 to 25 m), with canopy trees generally branching lower down their trunks; the intermediate stratum tends to disappear, while the ground layer becomes denser and more varied. Although the species represented are generally different from those in the lower altitude forest, the families, and to some extent the genera, tend to be the same. Trees which are notably abundant or considered characteristic include species of Weinmannia, Apodocephala, Brachylaena and Podocarpus. Pteridophytes, particularly members of the Cyathaceae, are also abundant. Lichen or moss forest is best developed between 1450 and 1850 m, although it can be found as low as 1200 m altitude. Tree height is up to 6-10 m (max. 12 m), with trees often branching extensively from their bases. There is no intermediate stratum, but a dense and varied ground layer. Trees and shrubs mostly belong to the families Compositae (Vernonia, Senecio, Apodocephala, Psiadia), Lauraceae, Rubiaceae, Cunoniaceae (Weinmannia), Araliaceae (Cussonia), Euphorbiaceae (Uapaca, Acalypha, Croton), Rutaceae, WVerbenaceae (Vitex, Clerodendron), Ericaceae (Agauria, Philippia), Sterculiaceae (Dombeya), Taxaceae (Podocarpus), Myricaceae (Myrica). Virtually monotypic stands of the bamboo Arundinaria marojejyensis are found on the least developed soils. Mosses and lichens are very abundant, both as ground cover and festooning trees and shrubs. Other epiphytes include ferns, species of Peperomia and orchids such as Bulbophyllum. Above 1850 m altitude is found vegetation which, depending on soil conditions and microclimate, has the appearance either of maquis or of heath. Shrubs chiefly belong to the ~14t- An environmental profile of Madagascar families Compositae, Ericaceae, Rubiaceae, Melastomaceae, Clusiaceae, Araliaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Myrtaceae; less numerous are members of the Cunoniaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Sapotaceae, Pittosporaceae, Sterculiaceae, Rutaceae, Verbenaceae, Vacciniaceae. Arundinaria marojejyensis forms scattered dense stands and tree ferns (Cyatheaceae) are found to ca 2000 m altitude. Herbaceous plants consist largely of sedges (Cyperaceae) and grasses (Gramineae) and there are small marshes and swampy depressions with a distinctive flora. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The entire perimeter is marked by boundary stones connected by a largely overgrown footpath. There are four guards who each patrol a given sector of the boundary at about four-monthly intervals; however the guards lack equipment for prolonged foot patrols within the reserve. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES The reserve is undermanned. Some _tavy (slash-and-burn) cultivation is carried out in valleys which are rarely patrolled. The areas surrounding the reserve in the south and much of the west have been deforested to the boundary; the state of the northern and eastern boundaries is unknown. Before the reserve was created, coffee was grown at 400-500 m within the reserve boundaries; these areas are now slowly regenerating to native forest. The frequency of rain and storms provides effective protection of the reserve at higher altitudes. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH One of the best studied massifs, first surveyed in 1933. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES None; there are no tourist paths or trails within the reserve, although a tractor track from Andapa to Doany provides access to the reserve in the west between 500 and 1000 m. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Andriamampianina, J. and Peyrieras, A. (1972). Les réserves naturelles intégrales de Madagascar. In: Comptes rendus de la Conférence internationale sur la Conservation de la Nature et de ses Ressources @ Madagascar, Tananarive, Madagascar 7-11 octobre 1970. IUCN, Switzerland. Guillaumet, J-L., Betsch, J-M., Blanc, C., Morat, P., Peyrieras, A. and Paulian, R. (1975). Etude des ecosystémes montagnards dans la region malgache. III. Le Marojezy. IV. L’Itremo et l’Ibity. Géomorphologie, climatologie, faune et flore (Campagne RCP 225, 1972-1973). Bull. Mus. Natn. Hist. Nat. (3). 309. (Ecol. generale): 25, 27-67. Humbert, H. (1955). Une merveille de la nature 4 Madagascar. Premiére exploration botanique du Massif de Marojejy et de ses satellites. Mém. Inst. sci. de Madagascar. Série B. Tome VI. P.271. Nicoll, M.E. and Langrand, O. (1987). Report on the first phase of WWF - Protected areas programme in Madagascar. Unpd. report, 62 pp. STAFF An agent and 4 auxiliaries full-time. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Headquarters at Andapa, and guardposts at Doany and Ambalamanasy. FAUNA Birds Lophotibis cristata Buteo brachypterus Aviceda madagascariensis Falco newtoni (R) Eutriorchis astur Falco zoniventris Polyboroides radiatus Margaroperdix madagascarinus Accipiter henstii Turnix nigricollis Accipiter madagascariensis Dryolimnas cuvieri Accipiter francesii (R) Mentocrex kioloides -142- Sarothrura insularis Sarothrura watersi Streptopelia picturata (R) Treron australis (R) Alectroenas madagascariensis Agapornis cana Coracopsis vasa (R) Coracopsis nigra (R) Coua caerulea Cuculus rochii Coua reynaudii Coua cristata Centropus toulou (R) Otus rutilus (R) Asio madagascariensis ?Ninox superciliaris Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Ipsidina madagascariensis Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Leptosomus discolor (R) Brachypteracias leptosomus Brachypteracias squamiger Atelornis crossleyi Philepitta castanea Neodrepanis coruscans Phedina borbonica (R) Motacilla flaviventris Coracina cinerea (R) Mammals Hapalemur griseus Propithecus diadema Lemur fulvus Lemur macaco Varecia variegata reported Cryptoprocta ferox Amphibians *Mantipus minutus Plethodontohyla notosticta Rhombophryne testudo Stumpf fia psologlossa *Stumpf fia tridactyla Laurentomantis horrida Mantidactylus bicalcaratus Mantidactylus lugubris Mantidactylus redimitus Reptiles Zonosaurus aff. rufipes *Brookesia griveaudi Chamaeleo gastrotaenia Chamaeloe nasutus Brookesia betschi Chamaeleo aff. malthe Pararhadinea melanogaster -143- Protected areas Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Phyllasterphus zosterops Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Schetba rufa Vanga curvirostris Xenopirostris polleni Leptopterus chabert Leptopterus viridis Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Oriolia bernieri Euryceros prevosti Hypositta corallirostris Tylas eduardi Monticola sharpei Nesillas typica Newtonia brunneicauda Neomixis viridis Neomixis tenella Terpsiphone mutata (R) Oxylabes madagascariensis Nectarinia souimanga (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Lonchura nana (R) Ploceus nelicourvi Foudia madagascariensis (R) Foudia omissa Saroglossa aurata Dicrurus forficatus (R) Galidia elegans Hemicentetes semispinosus Microgale talazaci Tenrec ecaudatus Microcebus rufus Pteropus rufus *Mantipus serratopalpebrosus Plethodontohyla ocellata *Stumpf fia grandis *Stumpf fia roseifemoralis Dyscophus insularis Mantidactylus asper *Mantidactylus klemmeri *Mantidactylus pseudoasper *Brookesia karchei Chamaeleo peyrierasi Chamaeleo globifer Chamaeleo bifidus Chamaeleo aff. brevicornis Brookesia aff. minima Liopholidophis stumpf fi An environmental profile of Madagascar Nonmarine Molluscs Those marked + have definitely been recorded within the reserve. Acroptychia metablata + Ampelita gaudens + Tropidophora tricarinata *Ampelita globulus + Tropidophora zonata Ampelita lamarei + Helicophanta amphibulima + Ampelita perampla + Kalidos oleatus + *Malagrion paenelimax Macrochlamys stumpfii + NAME Réserve Special Botanique d AMBOHITANTELY. MANAGEMENT CATEGORY IV (Managed Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Protection of all resources within the reserve is total. Access is not restricted by the establishing decree. DATE ESTABLISHED 12 February 1982, upgraded from Forét classée to a Réserve Spéciale Botanique. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION Ca 18°08’-18°13’S, 47°18’-47°21’E; on the Tampoketsa d’Ankazobe some 80 km north of Antananarivo. ALTITUDE 1200-1650 m. AREA 5600 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES The reserve consists of ’tampoketsa’, that is levelled off remains of ancient erosion surfaces at high altitude, generally forming highly dissected plateaux bordered by steep escarpments. The formation is assumed to be late Cretaceous in origin. Altitude of the tampoketsa is 1600 m, though the forest descends to around 1450 m. Rainfall averages around 1500 mm per annum, with a marked wet season from November to March. Mean maximum temperature is 26°C, minimum 12°C. VEGETATION The area contains one of the few remaining vestiges of the central plateau forest. In 1964, the forest consisted of a single tract of ca 2000 ha on the eastern slope of the tampoketsa, with an additional 1000 ha of small scattered fragments mainly at the heads of valleys on the tampoketsa itself. The forest has very close floristic affinities with the eastern rain forest, especially at lower altitudes, where it appears to be more or less primary. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT Ambohitantely is the focus for IUCN/WWE Project 1912, Protection and Management of Ambohitantely Forest Reserve. The reserve was first set up on the initiative of the Direction des Eaux et Foréts with the support of WWF. This project, under the responsibility of the Plant Biology and Biochemical Service of Antananarivo University, is mainly scientifically orientated in support of management. Work is in progress on an inventory of the flora. The Plant Biology and Biochemical Service made two visits to the area in 1982 and three in 1983, with the aid of the WWF Representation, which provided the vehicle and fuel. WWF will also support the development of this newly established reserve. The area could be particularly valuable as a training area because of its proximity to Antananarivo. Studies made here will help in developing plans to reafforest the tampoketsa region using native trees, and will form the basis of a public conservation education campaign. -144- Protected areas DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES The most serious danger is fire, but boundaries also need to be marked, guards installed, access controlled, and paths maintained. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Studies of the fauna and flora, carried out by Antananarivo University, under IUCN/WWF Project 1912, concentrate on plants of medicinal, ornamental, or possible economic use, and on endangered or rare species. Studies also concentrate on the effect of fire on the vegetation. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES There are no facilities within the reserve, but there are nearby facilities at Antananarivo. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL IUCN/WWE Project 1912. Protection and Management of Ambohitantely Forest Reserve. Bastian, G. (1964). La forét d’Ambohitantely, Madagascar. Revue de Géographie 5: 1-42. STAFF No information. BUDGET The reserve has received funding from the WWF direction 4 Madagascar. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION There is a forest station at Manankazo. FAUNA Mammals Lemur fulvus Reptiles The following records were provided by C. Raxworthy (in Jitt., 4.12.86). Chamaeleo nasutus Phesluma lineata Chamaeleo parsonii Amphibians Mantidactylus peraccae Platypelis pollicaris Mantidactylus punctatus Plethodontohyla laevis Nonmarine Molluscs Vitrina madagascariensis Nonmarine Crustacea Decapoda Hydrothelphusa humbloti NAME Réserve Speciale de BEZA MAHAFALY MANAGEMENT CATEGORY IV (Managed Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Total. DATE ESTABLISHED 1979. Inaugurated November 1985. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION Just west of the Sakamena River, about 35 km north-east of Betioky-Sud; ca 23°30’S, 44°40’E. The reserve is divided into two non-contiguous parcels, one lying along the Sakamena River, the second some 5 km west of the Sakamena. ALTITUDE Ca 100-200 m. aus An environmental profile of Madagascar AREA 600 ha in two parcels, one of 100 ha, the second of 500 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. PHYSICAL FEATURES The first (100 ha) parcel borders the Sakamena River, which normally contains water during the rainy season, from November or December to March; for the rest of the year it is a dry sandy river bed (Richard et al., 1985). VEGETATION ~The first parcel consists of low gallery forest, dominated by Tamarindus indica; the second consists of spiny forest dominated by Alluaudia procera with other members of the Didiereacae and Euphorbiaceae (Richard et al., 1985). ZONING None apart from the two defined areas. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The smaller parcel is bounded by a barbed-wire fence, erected in 1979; the larger has a 3 m swathe cut around it to delineate the boundaries. Opuntia has been planted to provide an effective barrier. Grids of trails have been cut within the reserve, these being 100 m-to-a-side in the smaller parcel and 500 m-to-a-side in the larger (Richard et al., 1985). DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES The reserve appears to be well protected at present. Cattle and goats formerly ranged throughout the forests at Beza Mahafaly; since 1979 these have been excluded from the smaller parcel by the boundary fence, though it is not clear if they still enter the larger (Richard et al., 1985). SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH The Beza Mahafaly project is based on an Inter-University Accord between the University of Madagascar, Yale University and Washington University. One of its principal roles is to provide a site for research on the flora and fauna of the south-west of Madagascar, and on the relations between the Madagascan people and the natural environment. The importance of baseline survey work as a preliminary to more detailed studies has been emphasised (Richard et al., 1985). Up to the present, more or less detailed inventories of primates, insectivores and rodents, birds and insects, particularly Hymenoptera, have been carried out (see Fauna below) along with a study of the structure and composition of the vegetation inside and outside the reserve. This last study is intended to give information on the regeneration of the natural vegetation and the impact of livestock grazing on this, with the reserve, being fenced, effectively acting as a large scale exclosure. A more detailed study of the demography and behaviour of Propithecus verreauxi in the larger parcel of the reserve was begun in 1984. Plans for further research include: a study of the ethnomedicine of the region, to be expanded to a general ethnobotanical survey of the area; extending the study of forest structure, diversity and regeneration to the second parcel; establishment of an on-site herbarium; exploration of the phenology and pollination ecology of dominant tree and shrub species in the two parcels; a study of the behavioural ecology of Lemur catta; research on the reptile community of the reserve with a detailed study of Geochelone radiata (Richard et al., 1985). VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES Huts for equipment and cooking. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Rakotomanga, P., Richard, A.F. and Sussman, R.W. (1985). Beza Mahafaly. Formation et Mesures pour la conservation. Paper given at ’Seminaire Scientifique international sur letat de recherche sur l’equilibre des ecosystémes forestiers de Madagascar.’ Antananarivo, October 1985. Richard, A.F., Rakotomanga, P. and Sussman, R.W. (1985). Beza Mahafaly: recherches fondamentales et appliquées. Paper given at ’Seminaire Scientifique international sur l’etat de recherche sur l’equilibre des ecosystemes forestiers de Madagascar.’ Antananarivo, October 1985. STAFF One chief warden, five permanent guards plus auxiliary guards. -146- Protected areas BUDGET The Beza Mahafaly project has received financial support from WWF-US since 1980. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION Reserve headquarters are at Betioky-Sud. FAUNA Birds The following species have been recorded by Randrianasolo and Pidgeon (fide Richard et al., 1985) and updated by Pidgeon (pers. comm., 1986). Polyboroides radiatus Accipiter madagascariensis Accipiter francesii (R) Buteo brachypterus Falco newtoni (R) Margaroperdix madagarensis Turnix nigricollis Dryolimnas cuvieri Streptopelia picturata (R) Coracopsis nigra (R) Coracopsis vasa (R) Agapornis cana Coua gigas Coua cursor Coua cristata Centropus toulou (R) Otus rutilus (R) Ninox superciliaris Alcedo vintsioides (R) Mammals Propithecus verreauxi Lepilemur leucopus Lemur catta Microcebus murinus Cryptoprocta ferox Leptosomus discolor (R) Coracina cinerea (R) Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Vanga curvirostris Xenopirostris xenopirostris Falculea palliata Leptopterus chabert Leptopterus viridis Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Copsychus albospecularis Neomixis tenella Neomixis striatigula Newtonia brunneicauda Terpsiphone mutata (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Ploceus sakalava Foudia madagascariensis (R) Dicrurus forficatus (R) Echinops telfairi Setifer setosus Geogale aurita Tenrec ecaudatus Suncus madagascariensis Cheirogaleus medius has been recorded within | km of the reserve. This is the only known site where Geogale aurita is common (M. Nicoll, in Jitt., 28.10.86). Reptiles The following species have been recorded by C. Raxworthy (in. Jitt., 4.12.86) and M. Pidgeon and S. O’Connor (pers. comm., 10.10.86). Mabuya elegans Mabuya aureopunctata Chamaeleo verrucosus Leioheterodon geayi Leioheterodon madagascariensis Ithycyphus miniatus Acrantophis dumerilii Chalaradon madagascariensis Erymnochelys madagascariensis Geochelone radiata Hemidactylus mabouia Homopholis sakalava Phelsuma mutabilis Geckolepis typica Paroedura bastardi Paroedura pictus Tracheloptychus madagascariensis Mabuya gravenhorsti Much of the information in this account has been kindly provided by Sheila O’Connor and Mark Pidgeon. -147- An environmental profile of Madagascar NAME Réserve Speciale de NOSY MANGABE MANAGEMENT CATEGORY IV (Managed Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Protection of all resources within the reserve is total. Access is not restricted by the establishing decree. DATE ESTABLISHED 14 December 1965 by Decree No. 65-795. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 15°25’S, 49°45’E. A small island situated to the east of Maroantsetra, 6 km off the coast of Madagascar in the Bay of Antongil. ALTITUDE From sea level to 331 m. AREA 520 ha (the whole island). LAND TENURE Government owned. PHYSICAL FEATURES Cretaceous limestone island, with very rugged topography. VEGETATION The island has a typical east coast rainforest vegetation including species of Canarium, Ocotea and Ravensara, along with many palms and ferns. Much of the forest is secondary. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT Aye-aye Daubentonia Madagascariensis were introduced onto the island in 1966. Other than this, relatively little active management appears to have been carried out, although the island does not appear to be unduly disturbed. A boat with outboard motor is available for patrols and there is a building which could serve as a laboratory on the island. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES The island can only support limited tourism and _ this must be more strictly controlled. It has been suggested (IUCN Project 1953) that no more buildings be constructed on the island. Planned staff housing should be built on the adjacent mainland. Any manipulation of the habitat should be strictly minimised. There is a fishermen’s hut at one end of the island which is in constant use. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH A study of Varecia variegata was due to begin in autumn 1986. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES A one room laboratory. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL IUCN/WWF Project 1953. STAFF Two agents and two auxiliaries. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. WWF has provided funds for management. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION No information. FAUNA Birds Records are from O. Langrand (unpublished data, in /itt., 28.10.86). Accipiter francesii (R) Coracopsis nigra (R) Buteo brachypterus Cuculus rochii (R) Dryolimnas cuvieri Centropus toulou (R) Streptopelia picturata (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Mae. Ipsidina madagascariensis Leptosomus discolor (R) Motacilla flaviventris Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Leptopterus chabert Copsychus albospecularis Nesillas typica Mammals Daubentonia madagascariensis Microcebus rufus Lemur fulvus Protected areas Newtonia amphichroa Terpsiphone mutata (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Ploceus nelicourvi Dicrurus forficatus (R) Varecia variegata Setifer setosus Oryzorictes sp. Pteropus rufus is present on islands 1 km distant (M. Nicoll, in /itt., 28.10.86). Amphibians ?* Mantella laevigata * Boophis leucomaculatus Reptiles ?* Mantidactylus webbi Dyscophus antongili The following species, excepting Liopholidophis thieli, have been recorded by Q. Bloxam (in litt., 23.07.86) and C. Raxworthy (in litt., 4.12.86). The record for Pseudoxyrhopus heterurus is the first definite locality record for this species. Sanzinia madagascariensis Liopholidophis thieli Pseudoxyrhopus heterurus Homopholis antongilensis Phelsuma guttata Paroedura androyensis Ebenavia inunguis Uroplatus fimbriatus Chamaeleo oustaleti Chamaeleo pardalis Brookesia peyrierasi Zonosaurus aeneus Zonosaurus madagascariensis Amphiglossus sp. NAME Réserve de faune de PERINET-ANALAMAZOATRA. MANAGEMENT CATEGORY IV (Managed Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION All resources within the reserve are totally protected. Access is theoretically not controlled by the decree setting up the reserve, although a permit, issued by the Direction des Eaux et Foréts, is required for entry. DATE ESTABLISHED 21 June 1970. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 18°28’S, 48°28’E. ALTITUDE 930-1040 m. AREA 810 ha. LAND TENURE Government land. 100 km east of Antananarivo to the east of Moramanga; PHYSICAL FEATURES The reserve lies within a crystalline massif with rugged topography; soils are principally lateritic. Annual rainfall is ca 1700 mm, with most in January and least in October. Mean monthly temperature varies from 14°C in August to 24°C in January; cyclones may occur between November and March. -149- An environmental profile of Madagascar VEGETATION Medium altitude tropical moist forest; characteristic canopy genera include Weinmannia, Tambourissa, Symphonia, Dalbergia, Ravensara and Vernonia. The understorey strata are particularly dense and include representatives of Cyathea, Dypsis, Plantago, Smilax, Rubus, Alchemilla and Sanicula. Epiphytes, including orchids (especially Bulbophyllum) and Rhipsalis, are abundant. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The reserve is well marked on the ground and there are numerous well-used trails. The reserve is generally left undisturbed apart from path clearing activities; patrols are carried out on an ad hoc basis and only occasionally penetrate the furthest reaches of the reserve. A private organization, the Friends of the Reserves of Andasibe (Périnet), has recently been formed and could play an active role in assisting in the maintenance of the reserve. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES The reserve is too small to protect this forest type adequately. Tavy (slash-and-burn) is the principal cultivation technique used in the region; with the increasing human population it is becoming unsustainable and poses a severe long-term threat. The reserve is being encroached from the south and east by tavy, though is still buffered to the north and west by native and plantation forests. There is evidence of hunting and exploitation of hardwoods within the reserve. There is also substantial collection of animals to supply both the national and overseas pet trades; animals involved include Phelsuma, Chamaeleo and Mantidactylus spp, Sanzinia madagascariensis, Microcebus rufus, Hapalemur griseus and Lemur fulvus. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Many studies have been carried out on the fauna and flora of the reserve. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES The reserve is easily accessible from Antananarivo and Toamasina, either by rail or by road; the latter passes alongside the reserve. The forest station associated with the reserve has accomodation, though this is in a poor state of repair. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Nicoll, M.E. and Langrand, O. (1987). Report on the first phase of WWF - Protected areas programme in Madagascar. Unpd. report, 62 pp. STAFF The Chef de Station Forestiére is responsible for the reserve; there are also two labourers. BUDGET Salaries paid by the government. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION The reserve is under the responsibility of the Service de la Protection de la Nature, Direction des Eaux et Foréts, B.P. 243, Antananarivo. Local responsiblity lies with the Chef de Station Forestiére d’Analamazoatra. FAUNA Birds Records are from Dee (in press) (see part V.1.), amended by M. Pidgeon, O. Langrand, P. Thompson, J. Thorsen, J. Ganzhorn and T. Moermond (unpublished data). Tachybaptus pelzelnii Accipiter francesii (R) Ardeola idae (R) Buteo brachypterus Lophotibis cristata Falco newtoni (R) Anas melleri Falco zoniventris Aviceda madagascariensis Margaroperdix madagarensis Eutriorchis astur Mesitornis unicolor (probable) Polyboroides radiatus Dryolimnas cuvieri Accipiter madagascariensis Canirallus kioloides Accipiter henstii Sarothrura insularis -150- Sarothrura watersi Streptopelia picturata (R) Treron australis (R) Alectroenas madagascariensis Coracopsis vasa (R) Coracopsis nigra (R) Cuculus rochii Coua cristata Coua caerulea Coua serriana Coua reynaudii Centropus toulou (R) Tyto soumagnei Otus rutilus (R) Asio madagascariensis Caprimulgus enarratus Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Ipsidina madagascariensis Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Brachypteracias leptosomus Atelornis pittoides Atelornis crossleyi Leptosomus discolor (R) Philepitta castanea Neodrepanis coruscans Neodrepanis hypoxantha Motacilla flaviventris Coracina cinerea (R) Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Phyllastrephus zosterops Phyllastrephus tenebrosus Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Tylas eduardi Calicalicus madagascariensis Protected areas Vanga curvirostris Xenopirostris polleni Leptopterus chabert Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Leptopterus viridis Hypositta corallirostris Copsychus albospecularis Monticola shar pei Neomixis viridis Neomixis striatigula Neomixis tenella Hartertula flavoriridis Oxylabes madagascariensis Mystacornis crossleyi Acrocephalus newtoni Crossleyia xanthophrys Nesillas typica Cisticola cherina Dromaeocercus brunneus Dromaeocercus seebohmi Randia pseudozosterops Newtonia amphichroa Newtonia brunneicauda Newtonia fanovanae Pseudobias wardi Terpsiphone mutata (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Lonchura nana (R) Ploceus nelicourvi Foudia madagascariensis (R) Foudia omissa Saroglossa aurata Dicrurus forficatus (R) Neodrepanis hypoxantha has been recorded just outside the reserve. Mammals Cheirogaleus major Microcebus rufus Ayahi laniger Indri indri Daubentonia madagascariensis Hapalemur griseus Lemur fulvus Lemur rubriventer Lepilemur microdon Hemicentetes semispinosus Microgale taiva Microgale thomasi Microgale talazaci Microgale melanorrhachis Microgale pusilla Microgale gracilis Oryzorictes hova Setifer setosus Tenrec ecaudatus Suncus madagascariensis Brachytarsomys albicauda Eliurus myoxinus Eliurus minor Gymnuromys roberti Nesomys rufus Varecia variegata has been recorded in the vicinity, although there are no records from the reserve itself; Propithecus diadema previously occurred in the reserve but no longer does so, although it is still present in the area. -151- An environmental profile of Madagascar Amphibians Anodontohyla boulengeri *Paracophyla tuberculata Platyhyla grandis Platypelis pollicaris Platypelis tubifera *Mantella aurantica ?*Mantidactylus acuticeps Mantidactylus blommersae *Mantidactylus eiselti Mantidactylus flavobrunneus Mantidactylus liber Mantidactylus opiparis Mantidactylus pulcher Mantidactylus tornieri Boophis dif ficilis Boophis erythrodactylus Boophis granulosus Boophis hilleni Boophis idae Boophis miniatus Boophis paulianus Boophis rappoides *Boophis reticulatus Boophis untersteini *Boophis viridis Reptiles Several of the following are records provided by C. Raxworthy (in litt., 4.12.86). *Lygodactylus guibei Chamaeleo willsii *Phelsuma flavigularis Amphiglossus melanopleura Phelsuma lineata Pararhadinea albignaci Uroplatus fimbriatus Pararhadinea melanogaster Brookesia theili Micropisthodon ochracheus *Brookesia therezieni Liopholidophis stumpf fi Chamaeleo nasutus Liopholidophis thieli Chamaeleo parsonii Nonmarine Crustacea Isopoda: Suarezia dif ferens Didima humilis Philoscia reducta Armadillo otion Bethalus bipunctatus Akermania hystrix Calmanesia erinaceus NAME Réserve d’ANALABE MANAGEMENT CATEGORY IV (Managed Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION Private land. Status unknown. DATE ESTABLISHED Reserve management and status under revision since 1984. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION The centre of the reserve is at 19°29’S, 44°34’E; 60 km north of Morondava. The reserve is bounded to the north by sisal plantations around the village of Beroboka sud; there is no other clearly defined limit. The eastern edge of the reserve is close to a permanent lake and marsh system. ALTITUDE Entirely below 100 m above sea level. AREA Unclear; somewhere in the range 2000 to 12 000 ha. LAND TENURE Private land owned by the de Heaulme family. PHYSICAL FEATURES The reserve lies on the Morondava coastal plain; the land is flat with depressions forming seasonal or permanent marshes or lakes. Soil is sandy and water retention following rains is low. Annual rainfall is in the region of 700-1500 m, almost all of which falls from November to February, with most in January. Mean annual maximum temperature is -152- Protected areas 31.1°C, mean annual minimum temperature 18.9°C. The reserve extends to the Mozambique Channel and includes some mangrove and beach features. There is evidence of many seasonal stream beds. VEGETATION Mainly dry western deciduous forest. Notable trees include baobab Adansonia grandidieri and tamarind Tamarindus indica. There is also thorny and succulent bush and scrub. There are many lianes and the undergrowth can be very dense. Average tree height is low, with the canopy generally at 10-13 m, though baobabs can reach 15 m. ZONING The reserve is split by the remains of a sisal plantation. Plans have been drawn up by the owner, J de Heaulme, to divide the reserve into three parcels. One would be a Strict nature reserve, the second a parcel for scientific research and the third for tourism. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT A reserve manager was present until early 1986; currently (1987) there is no effective management. DISTURBANCES OR DEFICIENCIES The reserve is unprotected at present. Incursions for tavy cultivation are being made and there is a high risk of damage from bush fires which burn surrounding forest annually. Tracks for oil exploration have been cut through the forest on a 5 km grid system; these have made the reserve very vulnerable to exploitation, particularly for fuel wood. Fuel wood collection does not appear to be very extensive at present but is expected to increase. Hunting, principally for Tenrec ecaudatus and Hypogeomys antimena, occurs throughout the reserve; its current impact is unknown, though may not be very great (D. Curl in litt. to S. O’Connor, 27.7.86). There is evidence of burning along the roads and burned patches for small agricultural plots were seen 100 m off the road; wood is taken out of the reserve. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Little at present. VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES Under consideration. Plans exist to renovate existing houses and plantation buildings to provide lodges and a conservation education centre; a research centre may also be included in the development plans. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Nicoll, M.E. and Langrand, O. (1987). Report on the first phase of WWF - Protected areas programme in Madagascar. Unpd. report, 62 pp. STAFF None at present. BUDGET Unknown. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION None; the reserve is owned by J. de Heaulme, B.P. 37, Taolanaro. FAUNA Birds Records are from O. Langrand (unpublished data, in /itt., 28.10.86) and S. O'Connor and M. Pidgeon (pers. comm., 10.10.86). Lophotibis cristata Margaroperdix madagarensis Anas bernieri Mesitornis unicolor Aviceda madagascariensis Turnix nigricollis Haliaeetus vociferoides Dryolimnas cuvieri Polyboroides radiatus Charadrius thoracicus Accipiter francesii (R) Pterocles personatus Buteo brachypterus Streptopelia picturata (R) Falco newtoni (R) Treron australis Falco zoniventris Coracopsis vasa (R) ~153- An environmental profile of Madagascar Coracopsis nigra (R) Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Agapornis cana Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Cuculus rochii Vanga curvirostris Coua gigas Falculea palliata Coua coquereli Leptopterus viridis Coua cristata Leptopterus chabert Coua ruficeps Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Centropus toulou (R) Copsychus albospecularis Otus rutilus (R) Acrocephalus newtoni Ninox superciliaris Nesillas typica Asio madagascariensis Cisticola cherina Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Newtonia brunneicauda Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Neomixis tenella Alcedo vintsioides (R) Terpsiphone mutata (R) Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Leptosomus discolor (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Mirafra hova Ploceus nelicourvi Phedina borbonica (R) Ploceus sakalava Motacilla flaviventris Lonchura nana (R) Coracina cinerea (R) Dicrurus forficatus (R) Mammals Lemur fulvus Propithecus verreauxi Lepilemur ruficaudatus Phaner furcifer Microcebus murinus Cheirogaleus medius Microcebus coquereli Hypogeomys antimena Mungotictis striata Cryptoprocta ferox Tenrec ecaudatus Reptiles Pyxis planicauda Leioheterodon madagascariensis Erymnochelys madagascariensis ?Leioheterodon geayi Oplurus cuvieri Chamaeleo verrucosus Acrantophis dumerilii Chalaradon madagascariensis NAME BERENTY Reserve MANAGEMENT CATEGORY IV (Managed Nature Reserve). LEGAL PROTECTION The reserve is privately owned, though is held in a trust which should ensure long-term protection. DATE ESTABLISHED 1930s; precise date unknown. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 24°50°S, 46°20°E. Near Amboasary and 80 km from Taolanaro (Fort Dauphin). ALTITUDE Ca 0-30 m. AREA Berenty Reserve is composed of 5 parcels, comprising some 250-265 ha in total. Parcel 1 (known as Malaza) is 200 ha, parcel 2 ca 20 ha, parcel 3 ca 12 ha, parcel 4ca 2 ha, parcel 5 (Anjapolo) is 20-30 ha. In addition the 97 ha forest of Bealoka some 7 km north of Berenty is to be incorporated into the reserve system. | LAND TENURE Owned by the de Heaulme family. -154- Protected areas PHYSICAL FEATURES The reserve is situated in a sisal plantation and is bordered by the Mandrare River. VEGETATION Parcel | consists of a corridor of spiny forest dominated by Euphorbiaceae, Didiereacae and crassulids, with gallery forest with Acacia and Tamarindus close to the river; parcels 2 and 5 consist of spiny forest; parcel 3 is a planted forest of Pithecelobium dulce mixed with old Acacia and Tamarind trees; parcel 4 is a 2 ha sacred spiny forest with tombs. Bealoka consists of degraded gallery forest. ZONING None. CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT Reportedly well protected, being fenced and guarded. Little active management takes place at present. DISTURBANCES AND DEFICIENCIES Principal problems are: river flooding and river bank erosion, with areas of river bank up to 20 m wide having been lost from parts of the reserve since the 1960s; mature tree die-off, mainly affecting Tamarindus, Acacia and Nestina, the causes of which are unknown; poor regeneration in many parts of the forest, due to invasion of the rubber vine Cissus quadrangularis. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Work has been carried out on the lemurs since the early most recently by O’Connor. 1960s, VISITOR AND SCIENTIFIC FACILITIES There are guest houses and a museum. A small entrance fee is charged. PRINCIPAL REFERENCE MATERIAL Jolly, A. (1966). Lemur behavior. Chicago University Press. Jolly, A., Oliver, W.L.R. and O’Connor, S.M. (1982). Population and troop ranges of Lemur catta and Lemur fulvus at Berenty, Madagascar: 1980 census. Folia primatologica 39(1-2): 115-123. Mertl-Millhollen, A.S., Gustafson, H.L., Budnitz, N., Dainis, K. and Jolly, A. Population and territory stability of the Lemur catta at Berenty, Madagascar. primatologica 31: 106-22. (1979). Folia STAFF The whole reserve is under the control of the manager of the sisal concession in which it is situated. There are four guards in parcel 1, two in parcel 2, one each in parcel 3 and 5, and two at Bealoka. BUDGET Not known. LOCAL PARK OR RESERVE ADMINISTRATION ‘See ’staff’ above. FAUNA Birds Most of the following species were recorded at Berenty during the period September 1983 - May 1986 by M.S. Pidgeon; additional records were provided by O. Langrand (unpublished data, im Jitt., 28.10.86). Pterocles personatus Streptopelia picturata (R) Treron australis Ardea humbloti ?Aviceda madagascariensis Polyboroides radiatus Accipiter madagascariensis Accipiter francesti (R) Buteo brachypterus Falco newtoni (R) Falco zoniventris Turnix nigricollis Dryolimnas cuvieri -155- Coracopsis nigra (R) Coracopsis vasa (R) Agapornis cana Cuculus rochii Coua gigas Coua cristata Centropus toulou (R) An environmental profile of Madagascar Otus rutilus (R) Ninox superciliaris Caprimulgus madagascariensis Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Ipsidina madagascariensis Leptosomus discolor (R) Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Mirafra hova Phedina borbonica (R) Motacilla flaviventris Coracina cinerea (R) Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Calicalicus madagascariensis Xenopirostris xenopirostris Vanga curvirostris Falculea palliata Leptopterus chabert Mammals Lepilemur leucopus Microcebus murinus Lemur fulvus Pteropus rufus Setifer setosus Reptiles Acrantophis dumerilii Dromicodryas bernieri Leptopterus viridis Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Copsychus albospecularis Acrocephalus newtoni Neomixis tenella Neomixis striatigula Nesillas typica Cisticola cherina Newtonia archboldi Newtonia brunneicauda Terpsiphone mutata (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Lonchura nana (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Ploceus sakalava Foudia madagascariensis (R) Dicrurus forficatus (R) Lemur catta Propithecus verreauxi Cheirogaleus medius Tenrec ecaudatus Eliurus sp Leioheterodon madagascariensis Leioheterodon sp. Captive colonies of Geochelone radiata and Pyxis arachnoides. Information used in this account has been kindly provided by Sheila O’Connor and Mark Pidgeon. -156- VII. OTHER IMPORTANT AREAS The diversity and degree of endemism of the fauna and flora of Madagascar are such that almost all areas of undegraded natural vegetation on the island will be of considerable biological interest and value. Any selection of areas outside the Réserves Naturelles Intégrales and the National Parks as sites of particular importance will thus to some extent be arbitrary, especially as knowledge of all these sites (as indeed of the protected areas themselves) is more or less incomplete. In terms of diversity of both animal and plant species, the most important areas are undoubtedly those with surviving low to mid-altitude rain forest; these are most extensive in the north-east of the island, from around 14°S to 18°S, although rain forest still persists along the length of the eastern escarpment to the far south. Identification of areas of particularly high diversity requires further study: Perrier de la Bathie noted (in La végétation malgache 1921, Marseille and Paris) that the whole of the eastern rain forest, to an altitude of ca 800 m, formed a single highly complex formation with essentially the same facies. Vegetatively the forest varied very little from north to south, but somewhat more so from east to west, this latter being almost certainly a reflection of increasing altitude. Floristic composition did appear to change somewhat, with gradual replacement of species by equivalent congeners, which however left the appearance and structure of the forest unchanged; the implication is that species diversity also remains relatively unchanged. Variations in faunistic composition are less clear; although, for example, more bird species appear to have been recorded in the northern half of the rain forest belt than in the southern half, this may well be a product of greater observer effort - the diverse avifaunas recorded recently at ca 21°S at Ranomafana (q.v.) and at ca 24°S in R.N.I. No.11 (Andohahela) tend to bear this out. The following sites or regions have, however, had attention drawn to them in the literature or have emerged in the compilation of this report as areas of particular richness or interest; they should still be considered as examples or indicators. RAIN FOREST AREAS FORESTS OF MAROANTSETRA Forests in this area (the Antongil Bay region) include those of Ambohitsitondrona, Beanana and Ambohivoangy. Records cited from ’Ahitsitondrona’ are thought to refer to Ambohitsitondrona. Strict protection of remaining forest areas here was advocated in the Proceedings of the 1970 Conference on Conservation in Madagascar. FAUNA Birds Ardeola idae (R) Alectroenas madagascariensis Lophotibis cristata Coracopsis vasa (R) Aviceda madagascariensis Coracopsis nigra (R) Eutriorchis astur Agapornis cana Circus maillardi (R) Coua delalandei (Ex) Accipiter madagascariensis Coua serriana Accipiter francesti (R) Coua reynaudii Falco zoniventris Otus rutilus (R) Mesitornis unicolor Asio madagascariensis Canirallus kioloides Caprimulgus enarratus Sarothrura insularis Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Actophilornis albinucha Ipsidina madagascariensis Glareola ocularis Brachypteracias leptosomus -157- An environmental profile of Madagascar Brachypteracias squamiger Atelornis pittoides Leptosomus discolor (R) Philepitta castanea Neodrepanis coruscans Phedina borbonica (R) Coracina cinerea (R) Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Phyllastrephus zosterops Phyllastrephus tenebrosus Tylas eduardi Calicalicus madagascariensis Schetbha rufa Vanga curvirostris Xenopirostris polleni Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Oriolia bernieri Euryceros prevostii Hypositta corallirostris Mammals Propithecus diadema Hapalemur griseus Indri indri Copsychus albospecularis Monticola shar pei Neomixis tenella Neomixis viridis Neomixis striatigula Oxylabes madagascariensis Mystacornis crossleyi Acrocephalus newtoni Nesillas typica Randia pseudozosterops Newtonia amphichroa Newtonia brunneicauda Pseudobias wardi Terpsiphone mutata (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Lonchura nana (R) Foudia omissa Saroglossa aurata Phaner furcifer Oryzorictes talpoides Microgale talazaci Varecia variegata Reptiles Brookesia thieli *Typhlops ocularis Lycodryas betisleanus Chamaeleo linotus Geodipsas injralineata Nonmarine Molluscs Boucardicus beananae (Maroantsetra) *Boucardicus nanus (Ambohivoangy) Ampelita cerina (Maroantsetra) Ampelita fulgurata (Ambohitsitondrona) Ampelita lamarei (Ambohitsitondrona, Ambohivoangy) Ampelita lanx (Ambohivoangy) Ampelita stragulum (Maroantsetra, Ambohivoangy) Kalidos fenerif fensis (Maroantsetra) Kalidos hestia ( Ahitsitondrona’) Kalidos humbloti (Ambohivoangy) Kaliella ahitsitondronae (’ Ahitsitondrona’) Clavator moreleti (Maroantsetra) Helicophanta amphibulima (Maroantsetra) Fauxulus millotti (Ambohitsitondrona) Acroptychia aequivoca (Ambohivoangy) *Cyclotus millotti (Ambohivoangy) Macrochlamys stumpfi (Ambohivoangy) Tropidophora goudotiana (Ambohitsitondrona, Ambohivoangy, Beanana) Tropidophora perinetensis (Ambohivoangy) Tropidophora pulchella (Ambohitsitondrona) Tropidophora tricarinata (Ambohitsitondrona, Ambohivoangy, Beanana) Trochonanina millotti ( Ahitsitondrona’) *Omphalotropis arbusculae (Ambohivoangy) -158- Other important areas MASOALA PENINSULA The Masoala Peninsula lies to the east of Antongil Bay and is contiguous with the preceding area. Réserve Naturelle Intégrale No. 2 was situated in the north-eastern part of the peninsula, covering an area of 27 682 ha within the limits 15°17’-15°24’S and 50°13-50°30’E; it was de-gazetted in 1964. FAUNA Birds Most of the following species have been recorded by O. Langrand (in litt., 28.10.86). Lophotibis cristata Aviceda madagascariensis Eutriorchis astur Polyboroides radiatus Accipiter henstii Accipiter madagascariensis Accipiter francesii (R) Buteo brachypterus Falco newtoni (R) Falco zoniventris Margaroperdix madagarensis Mesitornis unicolor Turnix nigricollis Dryolimnas cuvieri Canirallus kioloides Sarothrura insularis Streptopelia picturata (R) Treron australis (R) Alectroenas madagascariensis Coracopsis vasa (R) Coracopsis nigra (R) Agapornis cana Cuculus rochii (R) Coua serriana Coua reynaudii Coua cristata Coua caerulea Centropus toulou (R) Tyto soumagnei Otus rutilus (R) Asio madagascariensis Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Caprimulgus enarratus Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Ipsidina madagascariensis Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Brachypteracias leptosomus Brachypteracias squamiger Atelornis pittoides Atelornis crossleyi Leptosomus discolor (R) Philepitta castanea Neodrepanis coruscans Phedina borbonica (R) Motacilla flaviventris Coracina cinerea (R) Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Phyllastrephus zosterops Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Calicalicus madagascariensis Schetba rufa Vanga curvirostris Xenopirostris polleni Leptopterus viridis Leptopterus chabert Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Oriolia bernieri Euryceros prevostti Hypositta corallirostris Tylas eduardi Copsychus albospecularis Monticola sharpei Nesillas typica Newtonia brunneicauda Neomixis tenella Neomixis viridis Neomixis striatigula Pseudobias wardi Terpsiphone mutata (R) Oxylabes madagascariensis Mystacornis crossleyi Nectarinia souimanga (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Ploceus nelicourvi Foudia madagascariensis (R) Foudia omissa Lonchura nana (R) Saroglossa aurata An environmental profile of Madagascar *STHANAKA FOREST’ This is the name given .by explorers to that part of the eastern rain forest, from the eastern coast to the Mangoro valley, east and south of Lake Alaotra, and in particular in the hinterland of Toamasina, especially between the towns of Didy and Fito. As discussed in the data sheet for Eutriorchis astur, (see Appendix 3.A), this name is technically a misnomer as the Sihanaka people live to the west of the rain forest proper, which is inhabited by the Betsimisaraka. As with the forests of Maroantsetra, this term cannot be applied precisely to a geographical entity, but rather to remaining areas of forest in the region. A number of threatened rain forest birds are best known from this region, and preservation of the remaining forest here is strongly advocated as a vital step in the conservation of these species. FAUNA Birds Lophotibis cristata Aviceda madagascariensis Eutriorchis astur Accipiter henstii Falco zoniventris Mesitornis unicolor Sarothura insularis Gallinago macrodactyla Coracopsis nigra (R) Coua serriana Coua reynaudi Tyto soumagnei Otus rutilus (R) Asio madagascariensis Caprimulgus enarratus Ipsidina madagascariensis Brachypteracias leptosomus Brachypteracias squamiger Atelornis pittoides Atelornis crossleyi Leptosomus discolor (R) Philepitta castanea Neodrepanis coruscans RANOMAFANA Ranomafana (21°16’S, 47°28°E) Neodrepanis hypoxantha Phyallastrephus zosterops Phyllastrephus tenebrosus Phyllastrephus cinereiceps Tylas eduardi Schetba rufa Xenopirostris polleni Oriola bernieri Hypositta corallirostris Copsychus albospecularis Monticola shar pei Neomixis tenella Neomixis viridis Hartertula flavoriridis Oxylabes madagascariensis Mystacornis crossleyi Crossleyia xanthophrys Dromaeocercus brunneus Newtonia amphichroa Newtonia fanovanae Pseudobias wardi Zosterops maderaspatana is situated ca 45 km north-east of Fianarantsoa in central-eastern Madagascar. A 1969 inventory of the forest domain of Madagascar quotes a forested area of 22 730 ha shared by the adjacent cantons of Ranomafana and Tsaratanana. This forest was not accorded any protected status at that time and the extent of surviving forest is unclear. This is the only site where Hapalemur simus is definitely known to survive, and the otherwise rarely recorded Lemur rubriventer has been described as abundant’ here (P. Wright in litt. to S. O'Connor and M. Pidgeon, 22.08.86). Six threatened bird species have been recorded here since 1984 and for several Ranomafana marks a southern extension of the known range. N.B. There are at least two other localities named Ranomafana in eastern Madagascar. The following records were provided by O. Langrand and M. Nicoll (per O. Langrand, in litt., 24.12.86). -160- Other important areas FAUNA Birds Aviceda madagascariensis Polyboroides radiatus Accipiter henstii Phyllastrephus cinereiceps Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Buteo brachypterus Falco newtoni (R) Mesitornis unicolor Dryolimnas cuvieri Canirallus kioloides Sarothrura insularis Streptopelia picturata (R) Treron australis (R) Alectroenas madagascariensis Coracopsis vasa (R) Coracopsis nigra (R) Cuculus rochii (R) Coua reynaudii Coua caerulea Centropus toulou (R) Otus rutilus (R) Asio madagascariensis Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Caprimulgus enarratus Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Ipsidina madagascariensis Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Brachypteracias leptosomus Atelornis pittoides Atelornis crossleyi Leptosomus discolor (R) Philepitta castanea Neodrepanis coruscans Phedina borbonica (R) Motacilla flaviventris Coracina cinerea (R) Phyllastrephus zosterops Mammals Cheirogaleus major Microcebus rufus Ayahi laniger Propithecus diadema Hapalemur simus Lemur fulvus Lemur rubriventer Lepilemur sp Fossa fossana Amphibians Heterixalus alboguttatus Anodonthyla boulengeri Plethodontohyla notostica Reptiles Zonosaurus aenus Chamaeleo nasutus Phelsuma lineata -161- Calicalicus madagascariensis Schetba rufa Vanga curvirostris Xenopirostris polleni Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Leptopterus viridis Leptopterus chabert Tylas eduardi Copsychus albospecularis Monticola shar pei Acrocephalus newtoni Nesillas typica Cisticola cherina Dromaeocercus brunneus Dromaeocercus seebohmi Newtonia brunneicauda Neomixis tenella Neomixis viridis Neomixis striatigula Pseudobias wardi Terpsiphone mutata (R) Oxylabes madagascariensis Crossleyia xanthophrys Mystacornis crossleyi Nectarinia souimanga (R) Nectarinia notata (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Ploceus nelicourvi Foudia omissa Foudia madagascariensis (R) Lonchura nana (R) Dicrurus forficatus (R) Galidia elegans Galidictis fasciata Cryptoprocta ferox Hemicentetes semis pinosus Setifer setosus Tenrec ecaudatus Microgale thomasi Nesomys rufus Brachytarsomys albicauda Mantidactylus liber Mantidactylus blommersae Boophis hillenii Zonosaurus sp Chamaeleo brevicornis Sanzinia madagascariensis An environmental profile of Madagascar NON RAIN FOREST AREAS ANKARANA MASSIF/AMBILOBE KARST This area, in the far north of the island (ca 13°S, 49°E) is sometimes known as the Ankara, under which it has been declared a special reserve of 18 220 ha, set up in 1956 (not to be confused with the Namoroka- Kelifely-Ankara karst in Mahajanga province, part of which is R.N.I. 8). The area, the northernmost sizeable karst area on the island, has the longest known cave system in Madagascar - the Grotte d’Andrafiabé, which has been extensively surveyed’. FAUNA Birds Ardeola idae (R) Mesitornis variegata Lophotibis cristata Actophilornis albinucha Anas bernieri Pterocles personatus Polyboroides radiatus (R) Nesillas typica Streptopelia picturata (R) Mammals Lemur fulvus Lemur coronatus Fossa fossana Reptiles Homopholis boivini *L ygodactylus expectatus Lygodactylus rarus *Phyllodactylus homalorhinus *Chamaeleo petteri Amphiglossus waterloti Androngo allaudi Androngo elongatus Ramphotyphlops braminus Pseudoxyrhopus microps Liophidium therezieni The area is also an important refuge for the Nile Crocodile Crocodylus niloticus. Nonmarine Crustacea Nine species of amphipods were collected in the area by the 1981 Southampton University Expedition, four of them new to science: Amphipoda Caridina parvocula sp nov. Caridina crurispinata sp nov. Caridina unca sp nov. Caridina norvestica Caridina nilotica Caridina isaloensis Parisia dentata sp nov. Parisia macrophthalma Parisia microphthalma Nonmarine Molluscs Tropidophora cuvieriana Tropidophora milloti Tropidophora deliciosa Tropidophora surda siana Tropidophora deshayesiana Helicophanta socii Tropidophora humberti Kalidos humbloti I Southampton University Madagascar Expedition 1981 Final Report. Unpd, 136 pp.; Radofilao, T. (1977). Ann. Univ. Madagascar Serie Sci, Nat. and Math, 14: 195-204. -162- Other important areas ANKARATRA MASSIF The Ankaratra is a volcanic massif situated about 70 km south of Antananarivo (see Part I.2.iv.). As early as 1950, much of the primary forest which originally covered the massif had already disappeared, and the rest was going fast. In view of the importance of this area, both botanically and zoologically, and the urgent need for a zoological inventory, efforts were being made between 1947 and 1958 by the staff of I.R.S.M. to collect material from the remaining wooded areas. Within the massif is situated the Manjakatompo forest station, which contains a vestige of natural high altitude forest, a pinetum, and clear streams (populated with introduced trout) and lakes. There are all-year tracks, one leading to the summit of Tsiafajavona, at 2643 m the highest point in the massif. FAUNA Birds Anas melleri Dromaeocercus seebohmi Buteo brachypterus Newtonia brunneicauda Margaroperdix madagarensis Terpsiphone mutata (R) Leptosomus discolor (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Mirafra hova Zosterops maderas patana Motacilla flaviventris Lonchura nana (R) Monticola shar pei Foudia madagascariensis (R) Nesillas typica Foudia omissa Mammals Microgale dobsoni Amphibia (those marked (M) recorded at Manjakatompko) Plethodontohyla tuberata (M) *Pseudohemisus pustulosus Tomopterna labrosa Mantidactylus aerumnalis Mantidactylus domerguei (M) Mantidactylus pauliani (M) Boophis erythrodactylus (M) Boophis microtympanum Boophis williamsi (M) Reptiles *Millotosaurus mirabilis Phelsuma barbouri Phyllodactylus homalorhinus Mabuya madagascariensis Pseudoxyrhopus imerinae Nonmarine molluscs (all from Manjakatompo) Clavator bathiei Macrochlamys stumpfii Sitala amabilis Vitrina madagascariensis Sitala gaudens Acroptychia aequivoca Clavator moreleti Crustacea (blind endemic species, recorded at Manjakatompo) Isopoda: Styloniscus albidus Suarezia dif ferens Didima humilis Ankaratridium caecum Microcercus rotundifrons Armadillo ankaratrae Microcercus mascarenicus Bethalus carinatus Akermania sylvatica also recorded: Brycoyclops ankaratranus (forest of Ambahona) Astacoides madagascariensis caldwelli -163- An environmental profile of Madagascar LAKE IHOTRY This lake, situated at 21°59’S, 43°36’E, just south of the Mangoky River, is cited as an area of considerable importance for waterbirds. Four threatened birds occur here, two, Tachybaptus pelzelnii and Ardea humbloti associated with the lake, and two, Monias benschi and Uratelornis chimaera, occurring in subdesert habitat adjacent to the lake. FAUNA Birds Tachybaptus pelzelnii Ardea humbloti Lophotibis cristata Anas bernieri Aviceda madagascariensis Polyboroides radiatus Circus maillardi (R) Accipiter henstii Accipiter madagascariensis Accipiter francesii (R) Buteo brachypterus Falco newtoni (R) Falco zoniventris Monias benschi Turnix nigricollis Actophilornis albinucha Pterocles personatus Streptopelia picturata (R) Treron australis (R) Coracopsis nigra (R) Coracopsis vasa (R) Agapornis cana Coua gigas Coua cursor Coua ruficeps Coua cristata Centropus toulou (R) Ninox superciliaris Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Ipsidina madagascariensis Uratelornis chimaera Leptosomus discolor (R) Phedina borbonica (R) Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Hypsipetes madagascariensis Calicalicus madagascariensis Xenopirostris xenopirostris Leptopterus chabert Copsychus albospecularis Neomixis tenella Neomixis striatigula Acrocephalus newtoni Thamnornis chloropetoides Newtonia brunneicauda Newtonia archboldi Terpsiphone mutata (R) Nectarinia souimanga (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Ploceus sakalava Dicrurus forficatus (R) ZOMBITSE FOREST The Zombitse Forét Classée covers 21 500 ha on gently undulating hills which form the western slopes of a sandstone dome. Soils are sandy with a very thin humus layer. There are no water courses in the forest although it acts as an important watershed, feeding springs that form tributaries of the Tehaza River which supplies extensive rice paddies 25 km south of Sakaraha. Climate is dry tropical with annual rainfall of ca 750 mm (maximum in December) and a dry season from May to October characterised by morning fog and heavy dew. The forest is the southernmost western domain dry deciduous forest. Canopy is dense, around 15-20 m tall, and is dominated by Securinega seyrigii, Cedrelopsis grevii, Commiphora arofy, Khaya madagascariensis and Euphorbia anterophora. Herbaceous strata are very weakly developed. Illegal forestry was carried out from 1974 to 1981, using modern techniques and materials; all exploitable timber species were taken and Hazomalanga Hernandia voyroni (Hernandiaceae) has completely disappeared from the canopy. Exploitation has continued using traditional techniques to produce charcoal and building planks. Route Nationale 7 crosses the forest and most disturbance appears to be concentrated here. The Zombitse Forest holds one of only two or three known tiny populations of Phyllastrephus apperti and Monticola bensoni has been recorded there in the non-breeding season. The gecko Phelsuma standingi is also confined to the region. -164- Other important areas FAUNA Birds Ayiceda madagascariensis Mirafra hova Accipiter francesii (R) Phedina borbonica (R) Buteo brachypterus Motacilla flaviventris Falco newtoni (R) Coracina cinerea (R) Falco zoniventris Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Margaroperdix madagarensis Phyllastrephus apperti Turnix nigricollis Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R) Dryolimnas cuvieri Calicalicus madagascariensis Pterocles personatus Vanga curvirostris Streptopelia picturata (R) Falculea palliata Treron australis Leptopterus viridis Coracopsis vasa (R) Leptopterus chabert Coracopsis nigra (R) Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Agapornis cana Copsychus albospecularis Cuculus rochii Nesillas typica Coua gigas Cisticola cherina Coua ruficeps Newtonia brunneicauda Coua cristata Neomixis tenella Centropus toulou (R) Neomixis striatigula Otus rutilus (R) Terpsiphone mutata (R) Ninox superciliaris Nectarinia souimanga (R) Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Zosterops maderaspatana Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Foudia madagascariensis (R) Alcedo vintsioides (R) Saroglossa aurata Eurystomus glaucurus (R) Dicrurus for ficatus (R) Leptosomus discolor (R) Mammals Microcebus murinus Cryptoprocta ferox Phaner furcifer Tadarida sp. Propithecus verreauxi Tenrec ecaudatus Lemur catta Setifer setosus Lemur fulvus Echinops tel fairi Lepilemur ruficaudatus Geogale aurita Reptiles Phelsuma standingi The above information is taken from the report on the first phase of WWF - Protected areas programme in Madagascar, by M.E. Nicoll and O. Langrand. -165- (BARK TARVIN HALES 0! Mae 210 LARS u@rTRY Thee latin, sbeueiaad a, 21" 599K, Ai e Tn! FI Solty Of fhe Meteo y Biwor, is o nee igngortance for seit: # thecziepud bids ban ioeltin apd Arden ery wp tak yal Fem ra & PURITAN’ ix wd ; ae ; a Mente Seven wh th: pice rAUuMA CR preps aioe) Te Soho Tego iiall ad Peegeyen. guetieggetasn v4 ajerrmgoham pb eqewgee me: mit Ai tai tan esq ageh T\tooi gies ibe heaahnse aimee > eeBieiisen Prey Beneath: 7 coe ne Log, CSOD eye" eds iu he Fanboy ince the — sa aid pailan tapos i “sree Aire, ‘Hide? ‘9 om ra 424 } ; Avcodea ned om _ aa ‘tort : oo ane sore S oeillaev Alin: PRP ate) ach by alot +7 ay Med i oicy tel ie Sich SPhewared tiiowrn'A ents Mal geen Cadets bray sv: allows 2) xenon, ss reel Aa Falea veivonl i ‘shabiintte, atv: iY eta oa sees why eee econ ae bayirer : 2 papariwes olnirodiey, heduah> ' Pireie tien 3 : Ba hhast tONSLHOS ‘egy ti iM gobo w . ee Py boa wii hinegl fom) A Riba cakes st] : si Sa Savatgonnd ) he “CHV bnb\olnmtty og ta ah Fret ceursid ontetinds'.s Aram ppsils tt a wgoets wig ee hy Servitte ore? AMBP HT. Wis RE mines ea? tinh 0 ions nes, AO oW i" Stee 2 SbiwhsT as Bada ; iwinhuass yu't Sage Ty liraee easeoiwn vs\ined Win\tsl eqontio’d tenn ae: SRO) 2HRBEPSE PORTS bien Serre Paptt Clsise covers 4 ¥ Yrs Pi C . PARAE Laredo ‘ i sents ca Fore Wines of the Tah Rivir | pale ahs Etbet is de» apical with aby ¢ aS wel». Ars pace ee eet a Se Say rant SOG Otek seathercaiest western genie P29, ard ts oomibaies by Se ; « deus ea acm hee Righy Bip irardonn. on 7) S ahguity gs carried sa tv , ase ave ue He hese Ga 34 pire ia) Wee Oe ia De oqus ae ‘ APPENDIX 1. ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION Legislation concerning the environment and natural resources both terrestrial and marine in Madagascar has been covered by the Rapport National pour Madagascar by Randrianarijaona and Razafimbelo (1983) prepared under the United Nations Environment Programme Regional Seas Programme; only a summary of such legislation will therefore by presented here. N.B. Protected area legislation is covered in detail in Part VI.1., regulations covering forestry in Part III.6. A. SPECIES LEGISLATION. This is based primarily on the 1933 London Convention and on Ordonnance no. 60-126 of 03.10.60. The fauna has been divided into three categories (protected, game, vermin) and is now constrained under a series of dispositions controlling hunting and fishing. It is not clear if these have replaced the original tripartite classification or have merely amended it - there seems to have been no repeal of this earlier legislation. Some species can be captured for commercial ends, others only under ’exceptional circumstances’; such exploitation is controlled by Decrees (mainly no 61-093), which lay down the means, time and area of capture. Capture for scientific ends is generally authorized under the payment of a tax proportional to the scientific value of the species concerned (law 71-006). Some threatened species cannot be captured for any reason. In particular lemurs benefit from special restrictions on their being kept in captivity (Decree no 62-020). i. Protected Species All lemuriens Dugong dugon Egretta gazetta dimorpha Egretta alba melanorhynchus Bubuculus ibis ibis Phoenicopterus ruber Phoenicopterus minor Lophotibis cristata Testudo yniphora Testudo radiata Acrantophis madagascariensis Acrantophis dumerili Typhleotris madagascariensis Typhleotris pauliani All newly introduced species, notably deer. ii. Vermin All Falco, Buteo, Astur Milvus migrans Milvus parasitus Foudia madagascariensis Ardea cinerea Ardea purpurea Corvus albus Coracopsis Crocodylus niloticus Felis ocreata’ Galidictis striata Galidictis vitata Viverricula schlegeli Potamochaerus larvatus Pteropus rufus N.B. Nomenclature follows that given in relevant ordonnances -167- An environmental profile of Madagascar B. INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS Madagascar has affiliated to the following international treaties and conventions, concerned with the environment: World Heritage Convention 6 Feb 1983 (Ratified) [As of 1986, no Madagascan sites had been formally proposed for inclusion as World Heritage Sites.] Bonn Convention on Migratory Species Signed but not ratified 1933 African Convention 9 Oct 1969 (Ratified) 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 18 Nov 1975 (Ratified) The following species and groups of species which occur in Madagascar are listed in the Appendices to the CITES conventions. Trade in Appendix 1 species (or their products) is subject to strict regulation by ratifying nations, with trade for primarily commercial purposes banned; trade in Appendix 2 species is subject to monitoring by ratifying nations. APPENDIX I APPENDIX II MAMMALIA All Lemurs Cryptoprocta ferox Dugong dugon Eupleres goudotii Eupleres major Fossa fossa AVES Anas bernieri All Falconiformes All Psittaciformes Tyto soumagnei Strigiformes (except that on Ap I) REPTILIA Geochelone radiata Testudinidae (except those on Ap I) Geochelone yniphora All Cheloniidae Crocodylus niloticus Acrantophis spp Phelsuma spp Sanzinia madagascariensis Chamaeleo spp PLANTS Pachypodium spp. Cactaceae Cyatheaceae Cycadaceae Didieraceae Euphorbia spp Aloe spp Orchidaceae -168- APPENDIX 2. FAUNAL LISTS Annotated lists of species for the following groups are provided: Birds, divided into endemics (country and regional) and non-endemics; Mammals (all native non-marine species); Reptiles (all native species); Amphibians (all native species); Fish (endemic species and subspecies); Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera except family Hesperidae); Molluscs (freshwater and endemic terrestrial species); Nonmarine Crustacea (selected groups); These lists serve (together with data sheets for individual species in Appendix 3) as adjuncts to Part V, where the references used in their compilation can be found. Slightly different formats have been adopted for each group, though this, and any abbreviations used, are explained at the beginning of each list. -169- An environmental profile of Madagascar MADAGASCAR BIRDS 1. ENDEMIC (R) indicates endemic to Madagascan region; all others are Threatened species are treated in endemic to Madagascar. detail in Appendix 3. Family PODICIPEDIDAE Tachybaptus pelzelnii Madagascar Little Grebe INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN: Common and widepread in recent past, suffered considerable decline around Antananariavo, Lake Alaotra, Lake Ihotry. Widespread but no longer common anywhere. Sealevel - 1800 m; absent only from subdesert in south. Tachybaptus rufolavatus Alaotra Grebe ENDANGERED: Known chiefly from Lake Alaotra in north-east; also from west, although validity of many records away from L. Alaotra is questionable. Is in irreversible process of disappearing through hybridisation with T. ruficollis. Family ARDEIDAE Ardeola idae (R) Madagascar Pond-heron Occurs throughout; generally considered commoner in west than east. Winters in East and Central Africa; massive recent decline in only well known breeding area (ca 1500 birds in 1945, 50 in 1974) may also have occurred elsewhere. Also on Seychelles. Ardea humbloti Madagascar Heron INDETERMINATE: Very thin distribution in west, chiefly in coastal and adjacent areas; rarely in east. Only 4 breeding sites found: north, central west, south-west, off south-west coast. Family THRESKIORNITHIDAE Lophotibis cristata Madagascar Crested Ibis Widespread species; western subspecies widespread and common, eastern subspecies shows adaptability: recorded from secondary forest and plantations. Recorded from at least six protected areas. Family ANATIDAE Anas bernieri Madagascar Teal VULNERABLE: Little known, much persecuted, known from few sites on west coast only, total numbers probably very low. Anas melleri Meller’s Duck Most frequently recorded east (from Vondrozo north to Andapa and on central plateau), though also recorded in west. Often hunted. Common in some localities but has suffered an apparent marked decline recently. Introduced Réunion and Mauritius. Aythya innotata Madagascar Pochard ENDANGERED: Poorly known, confined to lakes of north-central plateau, especially Lake Alaotra (but no records from there since 1930s). Also Lake Itasy, Lake Ambohibao, near Antsirabe, Ambatomainty, and Betsileo country. Family ACCIPITRIDAE Aviceda madagascariensis Madagascar Cuckoo-falcon Widely distributed in a variety of habitats; umcommon though probably overlooked. Nestlings eaten and adults snared at nest. Haliaeetus vociferoides Madagascar Fish-eagle ENDANGERED: Central west coast to North. Main areas: between Antseranana and Nosy Bé, Lake Kinkony, Antsalova, coastline between Mangoky and Fierenana rivers. Population most recently estimated at around 30 pairs. -170- Eutriorchis astur Madagascar Serpent Eagle ENDANGERED: Very poorly known, last seen by ornithologist 50 years ago. Humid east, dense rain forest. Ampa Simanavy (in Mangoro Valley), Rogez, Maroantsetra, Farafangana, Marojejy Reserve (possible records only). Extremely rare. Polyboroides radiatus Madagascar Harrier-hawk Widely distributed in variety of wooded habitats and open country. Fairly common except centre, extreme north, south, and south-west. Adapted to degraded/secondary woodland. Circus maillardi (R) Madagascar Harrier Rare; marshes and grassland of east and west; reported as locally fairly common (Lake Ihotry, near Vohimarina). Also Réunion and Anjouan. Accipiter hensti Henst’s Goshawk Widely distributed in variety of habitats but uncommon and in decline. Treated as harmful species under government decree, still in force. Accipiter madagascariensis Madagascar Sparrowhawk Largely confined to areas below 1000 m; extremely rare in east, uncommon in west, somewhat commoner in subdesert south-west. Forest, open woodland, wooded savanna. Accipiter francesii (R) Frances’s Sparrowhawk Common in dry and humid and even degraded forest throughout. Most common in north-east. Also on Comoros. On government list of harmful species. 0-1800 m. Madagascar Buzzard Common throughout, most records from east, locally abundant. Prefers savanna, forest edges, adapted to exploited/degraded forest. 0-1800 m. Buteo brachypterus Family FALCONIDAE Falco newtoni (R) Madagascar Kestrel Reasonably common throughout especially central plateau; prefers open areas to dense forest; found in degraded habitat and cultivated areas. Commonest raptor. Also on Aldabra. On government list of harmful species. 0-2000 m. Falco zoniventris Banded Kestrel Widely distributed but rare, may be commonest in north-east and south-west. Probably overlooked. Treated as harmful species under government decree, still in force. Forest, wooded savanna, cultivated areas. Insectivorous. Family PHASIANIDAE Margaroperdix madagarensis Madagascar Partridge Widely distributed except dense forest, south-west and south. Up to 2500 m in Tsaratanana Massif. Rice, savanna, afforestation areas, secondary woodland. Common but diminishing through hunting. Introduced Réunion and Mauritius (now extinct on latter). Family MESITORNITHIDAE Mesitornis variegata White-breasted Mesite RARE: Terrestrial forest bird, currently known from only two sites: Ankarafantsika, which is, however a protected area, and north-east of Morondanva. near Tsarakibany and perhaps in the Haut-Sambirano. Analalava and Mesitornis unicolor Brown Mesite INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN: Rainforest, perhaps wider distribution than known, possibly throughout East. Most reliable records from circle with diameter Antananarivo to Toamasina and from south-east corner. Monias benschi Subdesert Mesite RARE: Terrestrial, restricted range in (south-west) between Mangoky and Fierenana rivers. Sea level to 130 m. Common over much of range, at times abundant. In past known from — subdesert ——— Family RALLIDAE Mentocrex kioloides (= Canirallus kioloides) East from Manombo north to the north-west (Sambirano); reaches central high plateau (1450 m). Common in humid forest (1 pair per km: Périnet). Can adapt to secondary woodland. Grey-throated Rail Sarothrura insularis Madagascar Flufftail East, north-west (Sambirano), north (Mt. d’Ambre). Secondary brush/grassland on forest edge. 0-2300 m. Commonest in East. Sarothrura watersi Slender-billed Flufftail INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN: Recorded from 3 widely separated areas: south-east Betsileo (south-centre), Andapa (north-east), Antananarivo. Small swamps (association with Cyperus). Dryolimnas cuvieri White-throated Rail Rather common throughout in forests. 0-1800 m, but rare above 1100 m. Edges of marshes and streams. Commonest north-west and humid eastern forest. Rarer on central plateau. Rallus madagascarienesis Madagascar Rail East, north-east (Andapa) and central plateau. 0-1800 m. Commoner at higher altitudes. Few records. Amaurornis olivieri Sakalava Rail INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN: Rare and localised; known from only three widely separated areas in the Sakalava country in west. Recorded from Antsalova, Ambaratabe, Tsiribahina River, Nosy Ambositra. Marshes and streams. Family TURNICIDAE Turnix nigricollis Madagascar Buttonquail Widespread and common in variety of open habitats, especially high plateau. 0-1900 m. Introduced to Mauritius and Réunion. Family JACANIDAE Actophilornis albinucha Madagascar Jacana Centre-east (from Mahanoro north); north-east, north-west, west down to Tuléar; north-central plateau. Commonest in west, north-west and north-east; less recorded from forested east, where it occurs in forest clearings and rice-cultivation areas. Family GLAREOLIDAE Glareola ocularis Madagascar Pratincole East from Fianarantsoa to north-east, north-west, northern savanna and west (Bekipay and Mangoky). Migratory to Africa. Rocks on perennial rivers, beaches, river edges. Family CHARADRIIDAE Charadrius thoracicus Madagascar Plover RARE: Restricted to coastal grassy areas of south-west though first described in east. Population probably under 1000. Family SCOLOPACIDAE Gallinago macrodactyla Madagascar Snipe East, central plateau (as far west as Sakay), north _ (Tsaratanana) up to 2700 m. Common (2 pairs per hectare _ at Tampoketsa d’Ankazobe) but status needs watching since habitat disturbed by rice growing. Family PTEROCLIDIDAE Pterocles personatus Madagascar Sandgrouse West: common from Taolanaro (south-east) to north-west. Extends beyond Sambirano (between Amabanja and Antseranana). Sandy dry plains, savanna, sparsely wooded regions. -171- Appendix 2: faunal lists Family COLUMBIDAE Alectroenas madagascariensis Madagascar Blue Pigeon Most records from north (Sambirano, Tsaratanana, Andapa and Mt. d’Ambre). Also from length of the east. Common in dense forests, commoner in east than west where it migrates March-July. Numbers at Périnet reduced by hunting. Streptopelia picturata (R) | Madagascar Turtle Dove Throughout east, west, subdesert (south-west), common in forest, brushland, plantations; less so in open areas. 0-2000 m. Also on Comoros, Aldabara, Chagos. Introduced Seychelles, Mauritius, Réunion, Amirantes. Treron australis (R) Madagascar Green Pigeon Very common in wooded areas, 0-1000 m. Absent from high plateau. Hunted. Also Comoros. Family PSITTACIDAE Agapornis cana Grey-headed Lovebird Very wide distribution in a variety of habitats. Common throughout, but particularly in lower and less arid areas. Uses cultivated areas, rice fields, degraded forest. Coracopsis vasa (R) Greater Vasa Parrot Widespread. Woodland east, west, south, including degraded. Prefers coastal plains 0-1000 m. Visits cultivated areas. Common. Also Anjouan, Réunion. On government list of harmful species. Coracopsis nigra (R) Lesser Vasa Parrot Common throughout; woodland (including degraded) preferring denser forest and brush than C. vasa, thus less common in west than C. vasa. 0-2050 m. Also Comoros, Seychelles. On government list of harmful species. Family CUCULIDAE Coua caerulea Blue Coua East from Taolanaro to Sambirano (north-west) with relict population in dry wood at Bora (Antsohihy). Rain forest but also mangroves. 0-1800 m. Coua cristata Crested Coua Wide distribution in variety of habitats; predominance of records from west and centre, less from humid east where its presence marks a south- ward extension coinciding with rain forest destruction. Coua verreauxi Verreaux’s Coua Highly restricted, only in dry south-west, between Fierenana and Menarandra rivers, but fairly common; occurs within Lake Tsimanampetsotsa Nature Reserve. Confined to area of thick coastal scrub on coral rag. Coua reynaudii Reynaud’s Coua Common in eastern rainforest from Manombo north to north-east and Sambirano as far west as Mandraka in centre. Relict population in dry forest; at Bora (Antsohihy). Up to 2500 m. Coua serriana Red-breasted Coua Northern part of humid east (one old record from south-east) from Sihanaka to Sambava. Common in its limited range. 0-1000 m. Coua ruficeps Red-capped Coua West from Faux Cap north to Mampikony in 2 discrete populations; south-west and west around Mahajanga. Less common in extreme south. Adaptable to degraded regions. Also in dry forest, savanna, sandy areas. Coua cursor Running Coua West from Morondava south to Cap Ste. Marie. Desert brush, dry forest. 0-160 m. Coua coquereli Coquerel’s Coua West from Sakaraha north to Maromandia. Incursions into south-west sub-desert and Sambirano. Rarely in degraded forest. Common but local. An environmental profile of Madagascar Coua gigas Giant Coua West: Toliara north to Mampikony. Recent records extend range to Berenty and Andohahela in south-east, west of Taolanaro. 0-700 m. Dry forest areas. Primary habitat only, not in degraded zones. Rather common in some areas. Coua delalandei Snail-eating Coua EXTINCT: Known chiefly from Nosy Borah (lle Sainte-Marie) (north-east); mo precise records from mainland. Forest dweller, subsisting on molluscs. Cuculus rochii Madagascar Little Cuckoo Widespread and quite common, only absent from driest part of south; wooded areas savanna and marshes, 0-1800 m. Migrates from east to west (and on to Africa) during rainy season. Centropus toulou (R) Madagascar Coucal Common and widespread in wooded and brush areas throughout except for treeless central plateau regions where less recorded (though common at Sahavondronina). 0-1800 m. Prefers less dense wooded areas; also in marshland and degraded woodland. Also on Mayotte, Aldabra. Family TYTONIDAE Tyto soumagnei Madagascar Red Owl INDETERMINATE: Known with certainty from humid rainforest only in centre-East; seen only once in past 50 years. Recorded from circle whose diameter runs between Toamasina and Antananarivo. Family STRIGIDAE Otus rutilus (R) Madagascar Scops Owl Reported as common, scattered records from a wide area in forest /brushlands including partially exploited forest. Also on Comoros. 0-1800 m. Ninox superciliaris White-browed Owl All records from west and south-west between Ampotaka and Morondava except one from Marojejy. Not rare, forest and wooded savanna. Asio madagascariensis Madagascar Long-eared Owl Mostly in centre-east forest, as far west as Antananarivo. Also recorded west savanna (Tabiky) and Maromandia. 0-1800 m. Rather rare but probably overlooked. Family CAPRIMULGIDAE Caprimulgus enarratus Collared Nightjar All records except two (Taolanaro and unknown locality in south-east) from centre-east and north-west (Sambirano) from dense evergreen forest. 0-1800 m. Quite common. Caprimulgus madagascariensis (R) Madagascar Nightjar East from Ambodiasy north to Antseranana. Records also from Antananarivo area, Mampikony and Toliara, Sakaraha, Lac Ihotry (west). Can adapt to degraded areas; forest and open brush. Also on Aldabra. Family APODIDAEB Collocalia francica (R) Mascarene Swiftet Rare; East coast. Also on Mauritius and Réunion. Zoonavena grandidieri (R) Madagascar Spinetail Widely distributed forest dweller. 0-1000 m, common especially at lower altitudes. South-east, north-east, west, south-west; commonest in east. Also on Grand Comoro. Family ALCEDINIDAE Alcedo vintsioides (R) Madagascar Malachite (= Corythornis vintsioides) Kingfisher Common east and west (and recorded from subdesert). No strict association with water. 0-1800 m. Found in degraded woodland, afforestations and on tideline. Also on Comoros. -172- Ipsidina madagascariensis Red and White Kingfisher (= Ceyx madagascariensis) Widely distributed except extreme south-west; largest concentrations of records in centre. Quite common in east, rarer in west. Common on Mt. d’Ambre and Sambirano. 0-1800 m. Family LEPTOSOMATIDAE Leptosomus discolor (R) Courol Widely distributed. Common in east in forests and secondary brush; in west and subdesert only found in denser savanna and wooded plains. 0-2000 m. Uses degraded areas of forest. May migrate to west during humid season. Also Mayotte, Anjouan. Family BRACHYPTERACIDAE Eurystomus glaucurus (R) _Broad-billed Roller Found throughout, September to April, migrates to Africa for remainder of year. Plentiful even in east. Also on Comoros, Aldabra, vagrant to Réunion and Rodrigues. Brachypteracias leptosomus Short-legged Ground-roller RARE: Occurs in 2 discrete areas: north-east (Marojejy to around Maroantsetra) and centre-east (chiefly Sihanaka forest). Deep rainforest. Like all Ground-rollers probably overlooked. Brachypteracias squamigera Scaly Ground-roller RARE: Deep rainforest in centre and north-east: Marojejy, Andapa, Maroantsetra, Masoala, Soamiana, Sihanaka forest, Périnet, Rogez and perhaps in South-east. 0-1800 m. Atelornis pittoides Blue-headed Ground-roller Formerly regarded as rare, now known to be widespread from Mt. d’Ambre in north to Chaines Anosyennes in south and as far west as Mandraka. Occurs in several reserves. Dense evergreen forest. Atelornis crossleyi Rufous-headed Ground-roller RARE: Confined to deep rainforest in east, with records scattered from Tsaratanana Massif south to Vondrozo region. Rarest and least known Ground-roller. Uratelornis chimaera Long-tailed Ground-roller RARE: Restricted range within subdesert (South-west) between Mangoky and Fierenana rivers, ranging up to 80 m; distribution coincides with that of Didierea woodland, within which it may be locally abundant. Family PHILEPITTIDAE Philepitta castanea Velvet Asity Common throughout east from Taolanaro north to north-west (Sambirano). As far west as heights of Mandraka where not rare. 0-1800 m. Can adapt to secondary/exploited woodland. Philepitta schlegeli Schlegel’s Asity Confined to west (from Tsiandro north) and Sambirano; old north-east record. Dense forest, localised, but common in Sambirano. Neodrepanis coruscans Sunbind Asity East from Vondrozo north to Tsaratanana. Locally common in many places. 0-1800 m. Favours higher altitudes. Moves out into dense secondary brush. Neodrepanis hypoxantha Yellow-bellied Sunbird Asity INDETERMINATE: East, centre in forests east and perhaps south of Antananarivo and the Sihanaka forest. Known only from 13 specimens collected before 1930, and records of breeding in 1973 and 1976. Family ALAUDIDAE Mirafra hova Madagascar Bush Lark Widespread and common especially south-west and centre uplands in open ground, into forest clearings, degraded forest. 0-2500 m. Family HIRUNDINIDAE Phedina borbonica (R) Mascarene Martin Fairly common but irregular distribution throughout east, west, subdesert. Breeding up to 2200 m (Tsaratanana). Forest, including degraded and afforestation areas. Also Réunion, Mauritius, vagrant to Seychelles. Migratory north to south. Family MOTACILLIDAE Motacilla flaviventris Madagascar Wagtail Widespread, except for south and south-west. Especially common on high plateau up to 2600 m. Cultivated ground, exploited forest, paddy fields. Possibly seasonal migrant. Family CAMPEPHAGIDAE Coracina cinerea (R) Madagascar Cuckoo-shrike Common throughout in a variety of habitats, including degraded areas, up to 2300 m. Occurs in mixed species foraging groups. Also on Comoros. Family PYCNONOTIDAE Hypsipetes madagascariensis (R)Madagascar Bulbul One of commonest birds, found in forest and brush throughout. 0-2500 m. Uses degraded habitat, afforestation areas. Also on Mayotte, Anjouan, Moheli, Aldabra, Seychelles. Phyllastrephus cinereiceps Grey-crowned Greenbul RARE: Possibly occurs throughout rainforests of east but known from only a few scattered sites. Inhabits ground cover of deep rainforest. Recorded from Fianarantsoa, Sihanaka forest, Fanovana, Ranomafana. Phyllastrephus tenebrosus Dusky Greenbul RARE: Recorded from only 3 areas in the east (Sihanaka forest, Périnet-Analamazaotra and Maroantsetra). May be overlooked. Probably confined to primary rainforest. Phyllastrephus zosterops Short-billed Greenbul East from near Vondrozo north to Mt. d’Ambre (including Tsaratanana). Dense humid forest plus secondary woodland. Variable in abundance throughout range. Phyllastrephus apperti Appert’s Greenbul RARE: Known from only one locality (Zombitsy forest south-east of Ankazoabo) in south-west. Local and sparse within known range. Dense dry forest. Phyllastrephus madagascariensis Long-billed Greenbul Widespread: east from Taolanaro to Antalaha; west from Vohemar to Toliara (including Sambirano). Common. Uses secondary woodland. Absent from central massif. Family VANGIDAE Calicalicus madagascariensis Red-tailed Vanga East, Tsaratanana, north-west (Sambirano), south-west: common (less so in west); forest and woodland including partially exploited. Occurs in mixed species foraging groups. 0-2050 m. Schetba rufa Rufous Vanga East (from Vondrozo north to Andapa), west (from Sakaraha to Mahajanga area). Forest bird, locally common but absent from many places. Greatest density in primary forests. Vanga curvirostris Hook-billed Vanga Widespread and fairly common throughout east and west in wooded areas/forest into degraded/secondary growth, mangroves in north-west, plantations. Occurs in mixed species foraging groups. Xenopirostris xenopirostris Lefresnaye’s Vanga Restricted to south-west subdesert where not uncommon in undergrowth of limestone collines on coast, especially with Didierea bush and Euphorbia. =1734 Appendix 2: faunal lists Xenopirostris damii Van Dam’s Vanga RARE: Known this century only from Ankarafantsika (south-east of Mahajanga) which is however a protected area and where it occurs in fairly good numbers. Previously collected in north-west. Primary deciduous forest. Xenopirostris polleni Pollen’s Vanga INDETERMINATE: Wide variety of localities in east primary rainforests (although type is from north-west coast). Suspected sight record from Marojejy; all other records from central part of east. Wider range than often stated. Falculea palliata Sicklebill Primarily west distribution, but including Berenty (near Taolanaro in South-east), Mt. d’Ambre and Sambava in north-east. Largest concentration of records is from west and south-west. Common, occurs in mixed species foraging flocks. 0-900 m. Leptopterus viridis White-headed Vanga (= Artamella viridis) Widespread in a variety of habitats: woodland, primary humid and dry forest, coastal mangroves, brush, subdesert. Common. Leptopterus chabert Chabert’s Vanga Widespread throughout east and west (except extreme north and Sambirano). Occurs in secondary/exploited forest, rice paddies and mangroves. Leptopterus madagascarinus (R) Blue Vanga (= Cyanolanius madagascarinus) Common in forest and brush in east, Mt d’Ambre, Sambirano; less common in west, rarer in south ranging into edge of subdesert. Uses degraded habitat. 0-1800 m. Occurs in mixed species foraging groups. Also on Comoros (Moheli). Perhaps locally migratory. Oriolia bernieri Bernier’s Vanga Treated as Indeterminate in previous Red Data Book but widely distributed in rain-forests. Probably overlooked in tree tops. Occurs in mixed species foraging groups. 500-1000 m. Euryceros prevostii Helmet Bird Local, total population may be low: primary forest in humid east from Fanovana to Andapa; never in degraded areas. Tylas eduardi Tylas Vanga Occurs in the east from Vondrozo north to Tsaratanana (west to Andrangolsaka). Discrete western population found around Morondava south to south-east of Ankazoabe; rare in west, perhaps a mangrove dweller. In east in dense forest. Nowhere common. Hypositta corallirostris Coral-billed Nuthatch-Vanga Occurs in the east from Taolanaro north to Marojejy. Not rare, evergreen rainforest, near sea level - 1800 m. Possibly commoner at higher altitudes. Family MUSCICAPIDAE Copsychus albospecularis Madagascar Magpie Robin Common throughout, especially in wooded areas/forest edges, neighbouring brush, even in interior of evergreen forest, and exploited/degraded areas. Monticola sharpei Forest Rockthrush (= Pseudocossyphus sharpei) Found in the east from Ivohibe north to Mt. d’Ambre, west to Massif d’Itremo and Tsaratanana. Locally common: dense forest including secondary woodland, also high plateau grassland. 100-2200 m. Monticola imerina Littoral Rockthrush (= Pseudocossyphus imerina) Local south-west (Mangoky) to Taolanaro (south-east). Common. Dunes, dry grassland with Euphorbia and Didierea, not in forest. An environmental profile of Madagascar Monticola bensoni Benson’s Rockthrush (= Pseudocossyphus bensoni) INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN: probably quite widespread but as yet known only from a few dry rocky areas in south-west: Mangoky river region and north of Isalo massif. Keeps mostly to rocks/cliff faces. Neomixis striatigula Stripe-throated Jery East (north to Andapa) and South-west. Two subspecies: forest from Fanovana north to Andapa in upland areas, 800-1800 m. More common southern subspecies extends as far east as Fianarantsoa. Neomixis viridis Green Jery East from Ivohibe north to Tsaratanana. All records from inland areas 1000-2050 m. Often in damp, mossy forest. Not very common. Neomixis tenella Common Jery Widespread and common. Records from all areas (few in central plateau) and variety of habitats, wooded subdesert, rainforest, severely degraded secondary woodland. 0-1200 m. Hartertula flavoriridis Wedge-tailed Jery Uncommon, east rainforests, stronghold Sihanaka forest; other records Vondrozo, Lakata (presumably Lakato), Périnet-Analamazaotra Special Reserve, Bejofo-Bealanan, Tsaratanana Nature Reserve. Oxylabes madagascariensis Yellow-browed Oxylabes Rather common east, north-east, north (Mt. d’Ambre) from Manombo (with old record from Taolanaro). Most records from within circle whose diameter is Antananarivo-Toamasina. Dense rainforest. 0-1800 m. Mystacornis crossleyi Crossley’s Babbler East from Manombo north to Andapa. Common, especially away from coast and at higher altitudes in dense humid forest. 0-1800 m. Occurs in foraging parties of mixed species. Acrocephalus newtoni Madagascar Swamp Warbler Widespread and rather common east, north-west, west, central massif; marshes, mangroves, rivers. 0-1800 m. Crossleyia xanthophrys Madagascar Yellowbrow INDETERMINATE: Confined to rainforest in centre-east with one record from north (Tsaratanana). Seen only twice in past 50 years but possibly overlooked. Nesillas typica Madagascar Brush Warbler Widespread and common; absent only from extreme South-east. Most records are from East, North, North-west. Variety of habitats; primary forest, brush, severely degraded secondary forest. 0-2750 m. Thamnornis chloropetoides Kiritika Restricted to south-west subdesert but common. Cap Sainte-Marie north to Lake Ihotry. Shrub, brush, small trees, often Euphorbia and Didierea in sandy, arid area. Cisticola cherina Madagascar Cisticola Common and widespread through variety of habitats. Most records are from east between Faroany river and Mohambo and from central massif. 0-2000 m. Savanna, partially exploited primary forest, swamp, cultivated areas, shoreline. Dromaeocercus seebohmi Grey Emu-tail Humid east from Ankaratra to Tsaratanana at altitude, 900-2600 m. Common. Bushes, marshes, rivers. Dromaeocercus brunneus Brown Emu-tail Centre-east rainforest. Fairly common in Périnet-Analamazaotra Special Reserve; locally abundant in Sihanaka forest, Fierenana forest and even partially exploited forest at Nangarana. -174- Randia pseudozosterops Rand’s Warbler Rainforest. Originally considered very rare, now known to be commoner and fairly widespread. Also occurs in secondary woodland. Occurs in mixed species foraging groups. Newtonia brunneicauda Common Newtonia Widespread and common. Occurs in east from Manombo to Mt. d’Ambre and in west down to Ampotaka (south-west). Uses degraded woodland. 0-2000 m. Newtonia amphichroa Dark Newtonia Humid east from Ivohibe north to Mt. d’Ambre (two specimens from south-west were perhaps wrongly labelled). Not common. Dense forest. 500-1800 m. Newtonia archboldi Archbold’s Newtonia Restricted to south-west and not common; Ampotaka north to Lake Ihotry in brush, low forest; often found in Euphorbia and Didierea brush. Newtonia fanovanae Red-tailed Newtonia INDETERMINATE: Known only from single specimen from humid forest, now cleared, in east-centre. If it is not an invalid taxon based on an aberrant bird, it is either overlooked, genuinely rare or extinct. Pseudobias wardi Ward’s Flycatcher Occurs in east from Ivohibe north to Tsaratanana. Only a few records but reported as not uncommon. Dense humid forest. 170-1800 m. Madagascar Paradise Flycatcher Widespread and common in all areas and variety of woodland habitat (included exploited forest). 0-2000 m. Also on Comoros, Seychelles, Mascarenes and Réunion. Terpsiphone mutata (R) Family NECTARINIIDAE Nectarinia notata (R) Madagascar Green Sunbird Fairly common east and west forest and brush, including degraded woodland and central plateau. Less common in south-west. Prefers coastal plain to forested mountain slopes but found up to 1800 m. Less common than N. souimanga. Also Comoros. Nectarinia souimanga (R) Souimanga Sunbird Common in east and west in forest and brush, including degraded woodland. High altitudes bushes (2300 m_ in Tsaratanana massif) to subdesert undergrowth. Also on Aldabra, Iles Glorieuses. Family ZOSTEROPIDAE Zosterops maderaspatana Madagascar White-eye Widespread and abundant in wooded areas throughout including exploited/degraded forest and afforestation areas. Family ESTRILDIDAE Lonchura nana (R) (= Lepidopygia nana) Widespread and common, most records from east, north of Sahavandronina (Fianarantsoa) to Tsaratanana. Also in west as far south as Toliara. O-2000 m. Primary forest, exploited, cultivated areas. Also on Mayotte. Madagascar Mannikin Family PLOCEIDAE Ploceus nelicourvi Nelicourvi Weaver East from Manombo north to north-west (Sambirano) and north-east; evergreen forest: unexploited, partially exploited and exploited. Fairly common. 0-1800 m. Foudia sakalava Sakalava Weaver Three discrete populations; localised, often absent from apparently suitable areas. South-west, north-centre (around Mahajanga), north-east (Antseranana): forest and wooded savanna, mangroves. Locally very common. Foudia madagascariensis (R) Madagascar Fody West, east, subdesert. Common. 0-2000 m Especially in open brushy ground, remnant woodlands, clearings, 5 afforestation areas. On government list of harmful species because of rice damage. Hybridizes with F. omissa. Also on Réunion and Mauritius, Rodrigues. Foudia omissa Forest Fody Restricted to humid east as far as Manombo and north (Antseranana); hybridizes with F. madagascariensis. Extends to central plateau (Manjakatompo); forest, sometimes degraded, rice fields. 0-1800 m. Family STURNIDAE Saroglossa aurata (= Hartlaubius auratus) East, north, west as fas as Tsiandra; common, occurring in forest, secondary woodland, wooded savanna, wood edges, near cultivated areas. 0-1800 m. More common on coastal plain than inland. Madagascar Starling Family DICRURIDAE Dicrurus forficatus (R) Crested Drongo Widespread throughout wooded areas. Rather common even in open country, uses degraded woodland. Rare above 1000 m, absent central plateau. Also Comoros. II. NON-ENDEMIC BIRD SPECIES (B) indicates breeding species (1) indicates introduced species Podicipedidae Tachybaptus ruficollis (B) Little Grebe Common throughout and expanding. Diomedeidae Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris Very rare accidental to South. Procellariidae Macronectes giganteus Giant Petrel Accidental to east, south-east, south. Pachyptila vittata Broad-billed Prion Very rare accidental to east, north-east. Puffinus pacificus (B) Wedge-tailed Shearwater Rare breeder (on islands near Morombe); visitor to north-east. Hydrobatidae Oceanites oceanicus Wilson’s Petrel Visitor to south, south-east and east; common Apr-July. Indian Ocean Black-bellied Petrel Accidental to south, south-east and east. Fregatta tropica Phaethontidae Phaethon aethereus Very rare accidental. Red-billed Tropicbird Phaethon lepturus (B) White-tailed Tropicbird Rare in south, south-east and west. Breeds Antseranana. Phaethon rubricauda Fairly regular accidental. Red-tailed Tropicbird Sulidae Sula sula Red-footed Booby Rare visitor; breeds Iles Glorieuses, Europa, Tromelin. Sula leucogaster Brown Booby Rare visitor; breeds Iles Glorieuses. Appendix 2: faunal lists Anhingidae Anhinga rufa (B) African Darter Rather common throughout; 0-1400 m. Pelecanidae Pelecanus rufescens (B)? Occasional in west; may breed. Pink-backed Pelican Fregatidae Fregata minor Visitor to east and west coasts. Great Frigatebird Fregata ariel Lesser Frigatebird Very rare, accidental north, north-west and east. Ardeidae Ixobrychus minutus (B) Little Bittern Occurs throughout but rather rare. 0-1000 m. Nycticorax nycticorax (B) Night Heron Rather common, throughout but localised. 0-1500 m. Butorides striatus (B) Green-backed Heron Rather common throughout. 0-750 m. Less common in west, becoming rarer in south. Ardeola ralloides (B) Squacco Heron Rather common throughout, particularly in west. 0-1800 m. Bubulcus ibis (B) Cattle Egret Common, found throughout. 0-1800 m. Egretta ardesiaca (B) Black Egret Rare and localised, north and centre. Egretta gularis (B) Western Reef Heron Widespread other than in dense forest or extensive savanna. Egretta alba (B) Great White Egret Rather rare though widespread breeder. 0-800 m. Ardea cinerea (B) Grey Heron Rather common throughout, except for east. 0-1400 m. Ardea melanocephala Black-headed Heron Rare straggler to West. Ardea purpurea (B) Purple Heron Common breeder, 0-1800 m. Normally away from coast. Ardea goliath Goliath Heron Very rare straggler to west. Scopidae Scopus umbretta (B) Hamerkop Common breeder throughout, 0-1800 m. Numbers declining for no obvious reason. Ciconiidae Anastomus lamelligerus (B) Openbill Rather common throughout except in east. 0-1200 m. Mycteria ibis (B) Yellow-billed Stork Mainly west and south-west, also centre (especially Lake Alaotra). Threskiornithidae Plegadis falcinellus (B) Glossy Ibis Common throughout but numbers declining. 0-1500 m. Threskiornis aethiopica (B) Sacred Ibis Rather rare, rivers south-west, west, north-west. Platalea alba (B) African Spoonbill Rare breeder in west and north. Phoenicopteridae Phalacrocoracidae Phoenicopterus ruber (B) Greater Flamingo (B) Phalacrocorax africanus (B) Long-tailed Cormorant Localised in west. Breeds in L. Tsimanampetsotsa and L. _ Rather common throughout; 0-1500 m. Thotry. 4p75- An environmental profile of Madagascar Phoeniconaias minor (B) Lesser Flamingo (B) Rather common south-west and west, breeds L. Ihotry. Anatidae Dendrocygna bicolor (B) Fulvous Tree Duck Rather common but localized; declining through hunting. Dendrocygna viduata (B) White-faced Tree Duck Common throughout, 0-1500 m; commonest duck on Madagascar. Sarkidiornis melanota (B) Knob-billed Goose Rather common especially in west. 0-1200 m. Declining throughout. Nettapus auritus (B) Dwarf Goose Rather common throughout. Anas erythrorhynchos (B) _Red-billed Teal Common throughout, 0-1500 m. Anas hottentota (B) Hottentot Teal Rather common througout, 0-1800 m. Thalassornis leuconotus (B) White-backed Duck Rather rare though found throughout (except at altitude), 0-1000 m. Lakes, marshes. Accipitridae Milvus migrans (B) Yellow-billed Kite Common throughout especially centre and west, less so east and south-west. 0-2000 m. Macheiramphus alcinus (B) Bat-eating Hawk Throughout forests but rather rare. Wooded savanna, dense forest with cliffs. Falconidae Falco eleonorae Eleanora’s Falcon Uncommon, winter visitor. Records from wide area. Falco concolor Sooty Falcon Rather rare migratory visitor, (December-April) mostly in west and south-west. Falco peregrinus (B) Peregrine Resident, rare but throughout. 0-1000 m. Small endemic subspecies. Phasianidae Coturnix coturnix Common Quail Local, north, north-west, centre, east. 0-1500 m. Migrates from Africa, no definite evidence of breeding. Coturnix delegorguei (B) Harlequin Quail Breeds; common in north savanna, west and south-west. Open grasslands. Numididae Numida meleagris (I) Helmeted Guineafowl Common in west and south-west; somewhat less so in east. Declining through hunting. Rallidae Porzana pusilla (B) Baillons Crake Breeds, elusive and uncommon though found throughout in humid areas 0-1800 m. Porphyrio porphyrio (B) Purple Swamphen Widespread in wetlands and marshes. Porphyrio alleni (B) Allen’s Swamphen Fairly common breeder in larger marshes, 0-750 m. Gallinula chloropus (B) Moorhen Common throughout, 0-1800 m. Fulica cristata (B) Red-knobbed Coot Rather common throughout. 0-1800 m. -176- Rostratulidae Rostratula benghalensis (B) Painted Snipe Rather common breeder, though rare in South-west. 0-1200 m. Recurvirostridae Himantopus himanotpus (B) Black-winged Stilt Rather common throughout, 0-750 m. No breeding colony yet located. Recurvirostra avosetta Common Avocet Accidental visitor. Dromadidae Dromas ardeola (B)? Crab Plover Rather common west, north-west and north coasts, found throughout year, probably breeds. Charadriidae Charadrius hiaticula Accidental migrant, Oct-Mar. Common Ringed Plover Charadrius pecuarius (B) Kittlitz’s Plover Common breeder, west and south-west, less so in east. 0-950 m. Charadrius marginatus (B) White-fronted Plover Rather common breeder. Charadrius tricollaris (B) Three-banded Plover Rather common throughout, 0-1800 m. Charadrius mongolus Lesser Sand Plover Rare accidental. Charadrius leschenaultii Greater Sand Plover Fairly common migrant. Pluvialis dominica Lesser Golden-Plover Accidental visitor. Pluvialis squatarola Grey Plover Fairly common migrant, Sept-Apr. Scolopacidae Calidris alba Sanderling Fairly common migrant, Sept-Apr. Calidria alpina Dunlin Rare visitor to coasts. Calidris minuta Little Stint Vagrant. Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper Fairly common migrant Oct-Mar. Philomachus pugnax Ruff Rare migrant. Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit Rare visitor, recorded north of Antananarivo. Limosa lapponica Bar-tailed Godwit Rare migrant Nov-Mar. Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel Common migrant Sept-April. Numenius arquata Eurasian Curlew Uncommon migrant Nov-April, has been seen throughout year. Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper Uncommon migrant to freshwater. Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank Rare migrant, usually Nov-March, has been recorded June-Aug. Tringa ochropus Green Sandpiper Vagrant. Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper Rare migrant in West, Oct-Mar. Xenus cinereus Terek Sandpiper Fairly common migrant Oct-April. Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Common migrant Aug-Mar. Arenaria interpes Ruddy Turnstone Fairly common migrant Sept-May, some remain through year. Stercorariidae Stercorarius parasiticus Rare, west coast. Arctic Skua Stercorarius skua Great Skua No information. Laridae Larus cirrocephalus (B) Rare and local. Grey -headed Gull Larus novaehollandiae Silver Gull No information. Larus dominicanus Southern Black-backed Gull Rather common South-west coast. Gelochelidon nilotica Gull-billed Tern No information. Sterna caspia (B) Caspian Tern Widespread though rare and localised. Sterna bergii (B) Swift Tern Rather common on all coasts except east. Breeds on coastal islands. Sterna bengalensis (B)? ?Lesser Crested Tern Commonest tern on Madagascar. Probably breeds. Sterna dougallii (B) Roseate Tern Erratic visitor to north, north-east and south-west, often in considerable numbers. Breeds Toamasina, Toliara. Sterna hirundo Common Tern Visitor Dec-Jan. Sterna anaethetus (B) Bridled Tern Rare accidental. Sterna fuscata (B) Sooty Tern Breeds Toamasina, Toliara and Iles Glorieuses. Sterna saundersi Saunder’s Tern Rather common visitor, Nov-Mar. Chlidonias hybrida (B) Whiskered Tern Rather common but localised, breeds Oct-Nov. Chlidonias leucopterus White-winged Black Tern Migrant visitor to lakes, Dec-Jan. Anous tenuirostris Lesser Noddy Rather common on coasts. Anous stolidus (B) Brown Noddy Rather common on coasts, breeds south of Toamasina and Ties Glorieuses. Gygis alba White Tern Found occasionally on coasts. 1772 Appendix 2: faunal lists Columbidae Oena capensis (B) Long-tailed Dove Common breeder throughout except East, population and distribution. 0-1500 m. fluctuating Cuculidae Pachycoccyx audeberti (B) Thick-billed Cuckoo Known only from 5 specimens all from East forest Sihanaka - Bay d’ Antongil in most densely forested areas. Always uncommon, last collected June 1922. African counterpart can be easily overlooked, so it may still survive. Tytonidae Tyto alba (B) Barn Owl Rather common, east, north-east, also in west, subdesert. 0-1800 m Asio capensis (B) Marsh Owl East, west into edge of subdesert. 0-1800 m. Quite common but local. Apodidae Apus melba (B) Alpine Swift Throughout, wide ranging and reasonably common, commonest in north-east. 0-1300 m. Apus barbatus (B) African Black Swift Breeds throughout. Cypsiurus parvus (B) African Palm Swift Rather common, except high plateau and heavy forest. 0-1100 m. Meropidae Merops superciliosus (B) Bee-eater Common throughout except high plateau and dense forest. Breeds. Upopidae Upupa epops (B) Hoopoe Distinctive endemic subspecies (U. e. marginata); widespread except dense forest. Hirundinidae Riparia riparia Winter vagrant. Sand Martin Riparia paludicola (B) African Sand Martin Rather common breeder in east and High Plateau, especially at high altitude (500-2400 m). Hirundo rustica Swallow Irregular west coast winter visitor. Muscicapidae Saxicola torquata (B) Stonechat Common throughout, especially at altitude. Breeds. 0-2400 m. Sturnidae Acridotheres tristis (I) Indian Mynah Introduced, common and increasing. Competes with Upupa epops. Avoids altitude and forest; its expansion is an indication of deforestation. Corvidae Corvus albus (B) Common throughout. Pied Crow An environmental profile of Madagascar MADAGASCAR MAMMALS All species are endemic unless otherwise indicated. Lemurs are treated in detail in Appendix 3. INSECTIVORA Family TENRECIDAE Echinops telfairi Apparently widespread and abundant in the drier, western and southern parts of the island. Hemicentetes semispinosus Apparently relatively widespread in the eastern forested regions; apparently occurs at lower altitude than the following species. Hemicentetes nigriceps Eastern forests, apparently at higher altitude than the preceding. Setifer setosus Apparently widespread and abundant over much of the island. (The two specimens from the eastern rain forest, named as ’Dasogale fontoynonti’ are now known to be aberrant Setifer setosus (M. Nicoll in litt., 28.10.86)) Tenrec ecaudatus Widely distributed on the island; catholic habitat preferences; introduced to the Comoros, Seychelles, Réunion and Mauritius. Geogale aurita Recorded from the north-east (Fenoarivo Atsinanana) and south-west (Toliara and Morondava); Common at Beza Mahafaly. Limnogale mergulus Recorded from freshwater streams in eastern Madagascar, including Vohitra, Andranotobaka, Amborompotsy and Antsampandrono. Rare. Microgale brevicaudata Known from Mananara (Mahanara) on the north-east coast, 75 km south of Vohemar; possibly a very localized species. Microgale cowani Recorded from the Ankafina forest in the eastern Betsileo region and at Andasibe (Analamazaotra). Microgale crassipes Known only from the type from Antananarivo (possibly collected from the region of Andrangoloaka, 70 km east of the capital). Microgale decaryi Known from near the cave of Andrahomana near Taolanaro. Microgale drouhardi Collected from the Antseranana region of northern Madagascar and the Andringitra area in the south-east. Microgale longicaudata Recorded from Ankafina, in eastern Betsileo. Microgale longirostris Known from Ampitambé in the south-east. Microgale majori Known from the Ankafina forest in eastern Betsileo. Microgale (Paramicrogale) occidentalis Maintirano, western Madagascar Microgale parvula Known from the type specimen collected on the Montagne d’Ambre. -178- Microgale principula Recorded from Midongy-du-Sud, south-eastern Madagascar. Microgale proxilicaudata Antseranana, northern Madagascar (may be a subspecies of M. longicaudata). Microgale pusilla Described from Ikongo forest near Vinanitelo; apparently not rare in museum collections, though reportedly only known from the type locality. Microgale sorella Recorded from Beforona forest, near Andevorante in northern Madagascar. Microgale taiva Collected in the south-east at Ambohimitombo forest in the Tanala region, north-eastern Betsileo; also known from Périnet and Vondrozo. Microgale thomasi Collected from Ampitambé forest, northeastern Betsileo, Ivohimanitra forest (Ambohimanga) in southeastern Madagascar, Périnet, Vondrozo and the forest of Antrangolonka. Microgale melanorrhachis Recorded from Perinet and Ivohibe in the east. Microgale (Nesogale) dobsoni Collected in Nandesen forest, central Betsileo, also Manjakatompo (Ankaratra massif), Andringitra, Ambohimitambo, Ampitambe and Vinanintelo. Microgale (Nesogale) talazaci Collected in forest of Ikongo near Vinanitelo (south of Fianarantsoa) and from Périnet, Maroantsetra, Analapa, Vondrozo and Andapa. Microgale (Leptogale) gracilis Reputedly rare, though possibly widespread in central eastern forests. Specimens from the forest of Ambohimitambo (eastern Betsileo), Ankeramadinika, Périnet and Andringitra. Oryzorictes hova Recorded from Ankaye and Antsianaka in central Madagascar; also Périnet and the Maroansetra region. Considerable confusion exists between this species and the following. Oryzorictes talpoides Recorded from the north-west (the Marovoay plain near Mahajanga) and from the east (Maroantsetra and Périnet); believed not to be rare, and to live in proximity to human habitations. Oryzorictes (Nesoryctes) tetradactylus Recorded from Vinanitelo south-east of Fianarantsoa, the high plateaux region, Antsirabé and Andringitra. Suncus etruscus (=madagascariensis) NON-ENDEMIC. North African coast and Ethiopia; possibly also West Africa. Madagascan form (also on Comoros) may be separate species. Suncus murinus NON-ENDEMIC. North-east coast of Africa from Egypt to Tanzania, also Zanzibar and Comoros. Also widespread in Asia, where probably introduced. CHIROPTERA Family PTEROPODIDAE Eidolon helyum NON-ENDEMIC. Widespread in the Afrotropical region. Pteropus rufus Madagascar; abundant in coastal regions, though otherwise localised (M. Nicoll, in litt., 28.10.86). Rousettus madagascariensis Madagascar, apparently from the east; has been included in the widespread R. lanosus though its status as a separate species has been affirmed. Family EMBALLONURIDAE Emballonura atrata Eastern and central Madagascar. The sole member of the genus outside its range in south-east Asia, Malaysia and the South Pacific. Taphazous mauritianus NON-ENDEMIC. Widespread in the Afrotropical region. Family NYCTERIDAE Nycteris madagascariensis Madagascar. This may be the Madagascan representative of the widespread Nycteris thebaica. Family HIPPOSIDERIDAE Hipposideros commersoni NON-ENDEMIC. Widespread in the Afrotropical region. Triaenops furculus North and western Madagascar, also Aldabra. Triaenops humbloti Eastern Madagascar; may be only a colour variant of T. rufus. Triaenops persicus NON-ENDEMIC. Afrotropical region and Iran. Triaenops rufus Eastern Madagascar. Family MYZOPODIDAE Myzopoda aurita An endemic species in a monotypic family known from few specimens, mostly collected before 1900 and apparently from widely scattered localities mostly in the east of Madagascar (from Taolanaro north to Maroantsetra), though there is a record from Mahajanga in the west. Family VESPERTILIONIDAE Eptesicus capensis NON-ENDEMIC, widespread in the Afrotropical region. Myotis goudoti Madagascar, also Anjouan in the Comoros. Pipistrellus nanus NON-ENDEMIC, widespread in the Afrotropical region. Scotophilus nigrita NON-ENDEMIC, widespread in the Afrotropical region. Scotophilus robustus Madagascar. Considered by Hayman and Hill to be perhaps the Madagascan representative of the widespread S. nigrita, though its validity as a separate species has been reasserted. Scotophilus dinganii NON-ENDEMIC, widespread in the Afrotropical region; has been included in S. nigrita. Scotophilus barbonicus Madagacar and Reunion. Has been stated by Hayman and Hill to perhaps belong to the widespread S. leucogaster, _though its validity as a species has been reasserted. Miniopterus minor NON-ENDEMIC, widespread in the Afrotropical region. : -179- Appendix 2: faunal lists Miniopterus schreibersi NON-ENDEMIC; very wide distribution from southern Europe through Africa and Asia to Australia. Family MOLOSSIDAE Otomops martiensseni NON-ENDEMIC, occurs in eastern Africa from Djibouti to Angola and South Africa. Mormopterus acetabulosus NON-ENDEMIC, also known from Ethiopia, Réunion, Mauritius and South Africa. Mops condylurus NON-ENDEMIC, widespread in the Afrotropical region. Mops midas NON-ENDEMIC, widespread in the Afrotropical region. Tadarida fulminans NON-ENDEMIC, known from east Africa, as far west as eastern Zaire. Mormopterus jugularis Madgascar. Genus has been included in Tadarida. Chaerophon pumila NON-ENDEMIC, widespread in the Afrotropical region. PRIMATES Family CHEIROGALEIDAE Allocebus trichotis Known only from four specimens collected from the eastern forests, most recently in 1965. Cheirogaleus major Reportedly fairly abundant in eastern rainforests. Cheirogaleus medius Still widespread in the dry, deciduous western and southern forests from the Bay of Narinda to Taolanaro. Microcebus (Mirza) coquereli Restricted range in the forests of the west principally between the Onilahy and Fierenana rivers, and also on the Ampasindava Peninsula and the adjoining region. Microcebus murinus The most abundant lemur, along with M. rufus, occurring throughout the forested areas of the west, south and south-west from Taolanaro to the Sambirano region; also on Nosy Bé. Microcebus rufus Occurs throughout the forests of the eastern region, from Fort-Dauphin to the Montagne d’Ambre. Has _ been considered a subspecies of M. murinus. Phaner furcifer A specialized gum-feeder, occurring principally in the west, though with small populations in the north, east and south. Family INDRIIDAE Avahi laniger Occurs in the eastern and north-western forests. Indri indri Restricted to coastal and montane rainforest from sea level to around 1800 m in north-eastern Madagascar, from Antongil Bay in the north to the Masora River in the south. The largest lemur. Propithecus diadema Found in forests of the north-east and east. Propithecus verreauxi Has a wide distribution in the north-west, west, south-west and south. An environmental profile of Madagascar Family DAUBENTONIIDAE Daubentonia madagascariensis Believed to be more widespread than previously thought in the eastern forests; introduced to Nosy Mangabe where still survives. Family LEMURIDAE Hapalemur simus Apparently known only from humid forest in the Fianarantsoa region, where recently recorded at Ranomafana. Hapalemur griseus Found in eastern and north-western forested regions, occurring over a wide altitudinal range. Lemur catta Occurs in the dry forests of the south and south-west where it is considered still relatively abundant. Lemur coronatus Found in the extreme north of the island as far south in the west as the Ankarana limestone karst and in the east to the Fanambana River. Lemur fulvus Widespread in forested regions of the island other than in the extreme south; has been considered conspecific with L. macaco but populations of the two are now known to exist in sympatry in the north and specific distinction is generally upheld. Lemur macaco Found in humid forests of the north-west (including the Tsataratanana Massif) and the coastal islands of Nosy Bé and Nosy Komba. Lemur mongoz Occurs in north-western Madagascar and on the Comorian islands of Moili and Ndzouani, to which it has almost certainly been introduced. Lemur rubriventer Appears to occur throughout the forested interior of the east from the Tsaratanana Massif in the north to the Andringitra massif in the south. Lepilemur mustelinus Found in the northern part of the eastern forests between Toamasina and Antalaha. Lepilemur microdon Occurs in the southern part of the eastern forests from Périnet to Taolanaro. Lepilemur leucopus Found in the dry southern forests from Taolanaro westwards possibly as far as the Onilahy River. Lepilemur septentrionalis Occurs in the extreme north, north of Ambilobé and to the south and east of the Montagne d’Ambre. Lepilemur ruficaudatus Occurs in the western forests, though limits of range are ill-defined; to the south it occurs at least as far as the Onilahy River and to the north the boundary with L. edwardsi appears to be the Tsiribihina River. Lepilemur dorsalis Occurs in the Lokobé forest on Nosy Bé Island and the forests on the north-western coast of Madagascar facing this. Lepilemur edwardsi Confined to western Madagascar, from the Bay of Mahajamba south at least as far as Antsalova and possibly to the Tsiribihina River. Varecia variegata Occurs in the humid eastern rainforests. -180- CARNIVORA Family VIVERRIDAE Fossa fossana Apparently widely distributed though at low density in wooded or forested areas in the east. Eupleres goudotii Rarely recorded and little known, though reported from the eastern coastal region and the north of the island; known to occur at Périnet. Galidia elegans Apparently occurs in wooded areas in the east and west. Mungotictis lineatus Inhabits deciduous woodlands on sand in the west and south-west of Madagascar; it is apparently relatively common, even in somewhat degraded areas. Galidictis striata Occurs in the eastern rainforests where it is apparently very little known, though according to reports not uncommon. Salanoia concolor Known from the eastern rainforests, where it is thought to be rather rare. Cryptoprocta ferox Widespread in Madagascar, though apparenly very rare on the central plateau. RODENTIA Family CRICETIDAE Hypogeomys antimena Known only from the sandy coastal area in the region of Morondava. Burrows and is largely nocturnal. Macrotarsomys bastardi Found in dry regions in most of the western part of Madagascar; seems to be limited by the 20° isotherm. Macrotarsomys ingens Known from the forest of Ankarafantsika in the north-west of Madagascar; also represented by fossil remains in the south-west of the island. Nesomys rufus Eastern rainforests; one specimen was caught in 1928 at Maintirano on the western coast. Diurnal. Eliurus minor Eastern rain forests. Originally described from Ampitambe forest in northeastern Betsileo; recently collected at Périnet and in the Maroansetra region. The Eliurus complex is highly variable and probably contains more than two species (M. Nicoll in litt., 28.10.86). Eliurus myoxinus Apparently widespread; believed likely to inhabit most of the residual forests in the west and centre of the island as well as the eastern rainforest. Gymnuromys roberti Eastern rain forests; originally described from Ampitambe forest in northeastern Betsileo. Seldom caught where Rattus rattus is locally abundant. Brachytarsomys albicauda Eastern forest species; strictly arboreal. Brachyuromys betsiloensis Recorded from the south-eastern part of the Betsileo region, where it is known from some dozen specimens, and from the Andringitra massif. Brachyuromys ramirohitra Recorded from Ampitambe forest in the Betsileo region and from the Andringitra massif. MADAGASCAR REPTILES NB. Provisional IUCN categories are cited (see Part V.3); those with an asterisk are quoted from a published IUCN Red Data Book - these species are treated in detail in Appendix 3. Cardinal points are abbreviated N, S, E, W and C (central). Madagascan names, where known, are quoted in single inverted commas. For references see Part V.3. TESTUDINES Family TESTUDINAE Geochelone radiata Shaw, 1802 V* ENDEMIC. Restricted to Didierea forest occurring in a Narrow arc across southern Madagascar; has been recorded from near Amboasary in the south-east to near Morombe in the south-west. ’Sokake’. Geochelone yniphora Vaillant, 1885 E* ENDEMIC. Restricted to three forest ‘islands’ in the vicinity of Baly Bay, including Cape Sada, in northwest Madagascar. ’Angonoka’. Kinyxis belliana Gray, 1831 Introduced; acclimatised in the northwest, also recorded near Amboasgary in the southeast. Pyxis arachnoides Bell, 1827 I* ENDEMIC. Restricted to coastal areas (10-20km inland) in the south and south-west, from Morombe in the south-west to Amboasary in the south-east. Pyxis planicauda (Grandidier, 1867) I* (prob E) ENDEMIC. Apparently restricted to the Andranomena forest, an area of approximately 100 sq km situated 20km northeast of Morondava on the central-west coast. *Kapidolo’. Family CHELONIIDAE Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758) V* Nesting occurs particularly in the southeast, around Taolanaro, and with some nesting along the west coast as far north as Morondava. Annual nesting numbers estimated at less than 300. Under pressure from exploitation. ‘Ampombo’. Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758) E* Small scale nesting occurs. Exploited, mainly for domestic consumption. ’Fanonjato’. Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus, 1766) E* Good numbers still nest, mainly in the northern third of the island and in the southwest, but is heavily exploited and populations have declined to a remnant of former size. An estimated 2500 Hawksbills are taken annually, mainly by the Vezo people of the southwest. ’Fano’. Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz, 1829) E* Nesting has been recorded in the northwest although other reports suggest presence of a feeding population only. Family DERMOCHELYIDAE Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli, 1761) E* Rare, accidental in Madagascar waters. Family PELOMEDUSIDAE Erymnochelys madagascariensis (Grandidier, 1867) I* ENDEMIC. Present in freshwater habitats at low to Moderate altitude in the west and northwest, from the Mangoky River in the southwest, northward to the Sambirano basin west of the Massif de Tsaratanana. Exploited for food by the riverine Sakalava people and others around Lake Kinkony, possibly affected by habitat loss. ’Réré’. Pelomedusa subrufa (Lacépéde, 1788) Present almost throughout Madagascar. Not eaten. Widespread in Africa. ’Kapika’. -181- Appendix 2: faunal lists Pelusios castanoides Hewitt, 1931 Almost throughout the western half of Madagascar and along coastal areas in the southeast and east. Eaten locally. Widespread in eastern Africa. Pelusios subniger (Lacépéde, 1788) Occurs along the eastern littoral; possibly an ancient introduction. Eaten locally. Widespread in south-central and eastern Africa. CROCODYLIA Family CROCODILIDAE Crocodylus niloticus (Laurenti 1768) V* Reported common in most waters during the nineteenth century, now very diffuse and rare due to persecution and over-exploitation. Widespread in Africa. "Voay’ or *Mamba’. SAURIA Family GEKKONIDAE Ailuronyx trachygaster (Duméril, 1851) ENDEMIC. Locality unknown. Ebenavia inunguis Boettger, 1878 NE, E, SE, SW, St. Marie, Nosy Bé, Nosy Mangabe (etc); also on Comoros and Mauritius. In Réserve du Betampona (Toamasina region). On coastal rocks, under bark, in forests, to 800m. Common on St. Marie. Geckolepis anomala Mocquard, 1909 ENDEMIC. S. Geckolepis maculata Peters, 1880 NW, E, W, Nosy Bé; also Comoros. Found in huts, cracks in tree trunks. Geckolepis petiti Angel, 1942 ENDEMIC. Andranovaho, Mahafaly Prov. Type locality only. Geckolepis polylepis Boettger, 1893 ENDEMIC. NW, SW, W, St.Marie. Geckolepis typica Grandidier, 1867 ENDEMIC. NE, SE, SW. Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann, 1835) E; very widespread outside Madagascar. Well known for frequenting human habitation. Hemidactylus mabouia (Moreau de Jonnés, 1818) Common throughout; very widespread outside Madagascar. In huts, on coast, low mountains. Hemidactylus frenatus Duméril et Bibron, 1837 Common throughout; very widespread outside Madagascar. ’Hemidactylus gardinieri’ Boulenger, 1909 Listed as synonym of H. mercatorius Gray 1842 in Das Tierreich Gekkonidae checklist; widespread outside Madagascar. Homopholis antongilensis Bohme & Meier, 1980 ENDEMIC. Antongil Bay area, including Nosy Mangabé. Homopholis boivini (Dumeril, 1856) ENDEMIC. Extreme north, between Ambilobe and Antseranana (Diego Suarez). (Removed from synonymy of H. heterolepis, Bohme & Meier, 1980.). Homopholis sakalava (Grandidier, 1867) ENDEMIC. Arid SW and W, Ampanihy to Mahajanga. (Removed from synonymy of H. heterolepis (sensu Russell, 1978), Béhme & Meier, 1980; includes in synonymy H. heterolepis Boulenger, 1896. An environmental profile of Madagascar Lygodactylus arnoulti Pasteur, 1964 ENDEMIC. C - Montagne de I’Ibity, 25km S of Antsirabé, 2150m. Type locality only. Under stones. Lygodactylus blanci Pasteur, 1967 ENDEMIC. C - Mt. Ibity. Lygodactylus cowani ENDEMIC. SW, C, S-C. Synonym: Microscalabotes bivittis (Peters, 1883). Lygodactylus decaryi Angel, 1930 ENDEMIC. SE - Massif de l’Angavo, Taolanaro Prov. Single specimen only, collected under bark, 400m. Lygodactylus expectatus Pasteur & Blanc, 1967 ENDEMIC. Ambilobé karst (Ankarana massif), 12km NNW of Ankarana also Antseranana area. Among masses of fallen debris at foot of karst cliffs, in dry vegetation, on rocks. Partly or totally non-arboreal. Lygodactylus guibei Pasteur, 1964 ENDEMIC. E - Périnet, between Toamasina-Antananarivo. Arboreal. In humid forest. Lygodactylus heterurus Boettger, 1913 ENDEMIC. Nosy Bé. Lygodactylus klemmeri Pasteur, 1964 ENDEMIC. NW - Forét de l’Antsingy. Lygodactylus madagascariensis (Boettger, 1881) ENDEMIC. NE, E, SE., inc. Mt. d’Ambre & Sambirano. Arboreal, in humid forest, to 1000m, also rocks, scrub. Lygodactylus miops Giinther, 1891 ENDEMIC. E, SE. East of Antalaha. Arboreal. In humid forest. Lygodactylus montanus Pasteur, 1964 ENDEMIC. SE-C - summit of Mt. Ivohibe. Three specimens only. Lygodactylus ornatus Pasteur, 1964 ENDEMIC. NW - Mt. Mandritsara. Known by holotype only. Lygodactylus rarus Pasteur & Blanc, 1973 ENDEMIC. Eastern cliffs of Ambilobé karst (extreme NE of Ankarana massif) and Mangindramo, and edges of Tsaratanana forested massif 1350m. Lygodactylus robustus Boettger, 1913 ENDEMIC. S, SE, S-C. Lygodactylus spinulifer ENDEMIC. NE, £, SE. Forest species, to 1000m. Lygodactylus tolampyae (Grandidier, 1872) ENDEMIC. W,NW. Lygodactylus tuberifer Boettger, 1913 ENDEMIC. SW, W. Lygodactylus tuberosus Mertens, 1965 ENDEMIC. Localities unknown. Lygodactylus verticillatus Mocquard, 1895 ENDEMIC. SE, S, SW. On calcareous littoral rocks, scrub, bushes. Millotisaurus mirabilis Pasteur, 1962 ENDEMIC. Mt. Tsiafajavona, 2300-2500m. Single locality. Paragehyra petiti Angel, 1929 ENDEMIC. Lavenombato in Toliara Prov., at foot of calcareous cliffs in Mahafaly area. Single locality? -182- Phelsuma barbouri Loveridge, 1942 ENDEMIC. E - Forest between Toamasina-Antananarivo, also Tsiafajavona (main summit of Ankaratra massif, SSW of Antananarivo). Arboreal, also on & among rocks on Tsiafajavona. Feeds on small invertebrates. Phelsuma bimaculata Kaudern, 1922 ENDEMIC. E. Phelsuma dubia (Boettger, 1881) NW, SW, W, S-C, Nosy Bé; also in Tanzania. ’Sasaka’. Phelsuma flavigularis Mertens, 1962 ENDEMIC. E - Peérinet (950m) c 100km E of Antananarivo. Type locality only. Phelsuma guttata Kaudern, 1922 ENDEMIC. NE, £, S. Phelsuma laticauda (Boettger, 1880) NW, SE, S, SW, W, Nosy Bé; also Comoros and Seychelles. Phelsuma lineata Gray, 1831 ENDEMIC. NW, NE, E, SE, C, S-C. Moderately common forest species, found in coastal areas & up to 1100 m, on Agave leaves around Toamasina. Maximum density along east coast. ’Antsiantsy’. Phelsuma madagascariensis Gray, 1831 NW, N, NE, E, S, SW, W, St. Marie, Nosy Bé; also Seychelles. Very common in Antseranana, common in east and north generally. Enters huts, along littoral in SE, frequent in NW forests. Phelsuma mutabilis (Grandidier, 1869) ENDEMIC. NW, SE, S, SW, W, C. Very common in forest along River Onilahy. Found under bark, also in arid scrub. One of smallest Phelsuma, only 3cm snout-vent. '’Tsatsake’. Phelsuma quadriocellata (Peters, 1883) ENDEMIC. §, C. Phelsuma serraticauda Mertens, 1963 ENDEMIC. E - Ivoloina, 12km N of Toamasina. Type locality only. Phelsuma standingi Methuen et Hewitt, 1913 ENDEMIC. SW: Maroamalona, forests along R. Onilahy. Phelsuma trilineatum Gray, 1842 ENDEMIC. SW. Locality unknown. Phyllodactylus androyensis Grandidier, 1867 ENDEMIC. SE, SW, St. Marie. Sunny rocks on coast. Phyllodactylus barbouri Angel, 1936 ENDEMIC. 'Madagascar’, no precise locality. Phyllodactylus bastardi (Mocquard, 1900) ENDEMIC. SE, S, SW, W. On sunny rocks on coast, arid scrub, subdesert, to 350m. After P. pictus is most frequently seen species of genus. Phyllodactylus gracilis (Boulenger, 1896) ENDEMIC. SW. Phyllodactylus homalorhinus Angel, 1936 ENDEMIC. N - Ankaratra, Ambilobe Dist., Antseranana Prov. Type locality only. Phyllodactylus oviceps Boettger, 1881 ENDEMIC. Nosy Bé, Sakatia (islet W of Nosy Bé). Phyllodactylus pictus (Peters, 1854) ENDEMIC. SE, S, SW, W. Most frequently seen species of genus. On calcareous rocks on coast, etc. Phyllodactylus porphyreus (Daudin, 1803) Rarely reported, localities unknown, presence requires confirmation; occurs in southern Africa. Phyllodactylus stumpffi Boettger, 1878-79 ENDEMIC. N, Nosy Bé. Uroplatus fimbriatus (Schneider, 1797) ENDEMIC. NE, E, SE, C, S-C, W-C, Ste. Marie, Nosy Mangabe, Nosy Bé. Forest species, eats insects, 300-1100m. *Taha-fisaka’. Uroplatus lineatus Duméril et Bibron, 1836 ENDEMIC. E - Toamasina region. ’Taha-fisaka’. Uroplatus giintheri Mocquard, 1908 ENDEMIC. Locality unknown. Single specimen. Uroplatus alluaudi Mocquard, 1894 ENDEMIC. N - Mt. d’Ambre. Two specimens only. Uroplatus phantasticus (Boulenger, 1888) ENDEMIC. E, SE, S-C. Uroplatus ebenaui (Boettger, 1879) ENDEMIC. N, E, Nosy Bé. Inc. Mt. d’Ambre. Family IGUANIDAE Chalarodon madagascariensis Peters, 1854 ENDEMIC. SE, S, SW, W. Especially in S, less frequent in W. Very common in Ambovombe area and elsewhere. Sunny areas, on sand, in clearings in scrub forest. *Dangalia’, ’Dangara’. Oplurus cuvieri (Gray, 1831) NW, W; also Comoros. Common throughout NW. In savannah, in very dry regions, bushes. Formerly known as Oplurus sebae Duméril et Bibron, 1837 - see Savage 1952. *Sitry’, ’Androngo’. Oplurus cyclurus (Merrem, 1820) ENDEMIC. SE, S, SW. ’Sitry’, ’Androngo’, ’Androngohazo’. Oplurus fierinensis Grandidier, 1869 ENDEMIC. SW - Mahafaly area. ’Sitry’, ’Androngo’. Oplurus grandidieri Mocquard, 1900 ENDEMIC. E - Vinanitelo forest & Massif de l’Ikongo. *Sitry’, ’Androngo’. Oplurus quadrimaculatus Duméril, 1851 ENDEMIC. SE, S, SW. In sunny areas, rock, scrub, coast to 1800m. ’Sitry’, ’Androngo’. Oplurus saxicola Grandidier, 1869 ENDEMIC. SE, S, SW, S-C. Habitat inc. arid scrub. *Sitry’, ’Androngo’. Family CHAMAELEONTIDAE NB: categories in this family fide Brygoo (in litt., 20.5.83.). Brookesia bonsi Ramanantsoa, 1980 K ENDEMIC. NW - In réserve naturelle No. 8, Tsingy de Namoroka, sub-prefecture of Soalala. Brookesia decaryi Angel, 1938 R ENDEMIC. W - coast, forests on Ankarafantsika massif. Brookesia dentata Mocquard, 1900 ENDEMIC. NW - Suberbieville, S of Maevatanana. Apparently known by Type only. Brookesia ebenaui (Boettger, 1880) R ENDEMIC. NW,N, NE, E, C, S-C, Nosy Bé. Brookesia griveaudi Brygoo, Blanc & Domergue, 1974 K ENDEMIC. NE. - Marojejy. Brookesia karchei Brygoo, Blanc & Domergue, 1970 K ENDEMIC. NE - Mt Marojejy (in Reserve Naturelle). 700m, dense shady high forest of the east region, on the ground on dead leaves, in areas of permanent humidity. -183- Appendix 2: faunal lists Brookesia lambertoni Brygoo & Domergue, 1970 ENDEMIC. Fito, in Sihanaka country. Type locality only. Brookesia legendrei Ramanantsoa, 1980 K ENDEMIC. Nosy Bé, réserve naturelle No. 6. Brookesia minima Boettger, 1893 K ENDEMIC. Nosy Bé. Brookesia nasus Boulenger, 1887 R ENDEMIC. E, SE, S-C. Brookesia perarmata (Angel, 1933) K ENDEMIC. Antsingy region, Menabé Prov., 300m. Brookesia peyrieresi Brygoo & Domergue, 1975 K ENDEMIC. NE - Nosy Mangabe, Antongil Bay. Brookesia ramanantsoai Brygoo & Domergue, 1975 K ENDEMIC. C - Ambohiboataba forest, east of Mantasoa. Brookesia stumpffi Boettger, 1879 nt ENDEMIC. NW, N, E, SW, W, Nosy Bé. In forests, under dry leaves, on old rotten tree trunks. Brookesia superciliaris (Kuhl, 1820) nt ENDEMIC. NW, NE, E, SE, E-C, S-C, Nosy Bé. Brookesia therezieni Brygoo & Domergue, 1970 K ENDEMIC. E, Périnet, Moramanga sub-prefecture. Type locality only. Brookesia thieli Brygoo & Domergue, 1969 K ENDEMIC. E. Moramanga and Maroantsetra sub-prefectures, inc. Périnet. A forest species, 900-1500m, on the ground or among lichens on bushes, diurnal. Brookesia tuberculata Mocquard, 1894 R ENDEMIC. N - Mt. d’Ambre. Brookesia vadoni Brygoo & Domergue, 1968 K ENDEMIC. NW. Valley of the Iaraka River, near Masoala. 600-1000m. On branches of bushes. Chamaeleo angeli Brygoo & Domergue, 1968 K ENDEMIC. NW. On RN 4, N of Tsaramandroso (forét de l’Ankarafantsika). Chamaeleo antimena Grandidier, 1872 I ENDEMIC. SW. Recently removed from synonymy of C. rhinoceratus (Brygoo & Domergue, 1968). Chamaeleo balteatus Duméril & Bibron, 1851 R ENDEMIC. Type locality unknown. Five new specimens from forest region between Ifanadiana and Fort Carnot. Recently removed from synonymy of C. bifidus (Brygoo & Domergue, 1969). Chamaeleo belalandaensis Brygoo & Domergue, 1970 ENDEMIC. SW. Belalanda, 4 km N of Toliara. Single specimen. Chamaeleo bifidus Brongniart, 1800 R ENDEMIC. E, S-C. Chamaeleo boettgeri Boulenger, 1888 R ENDEMIC. N, Nosy Bé. Chamaeleo brevicornis Giinther, 1879 nt ENDEMIC. GC, S-C. Chamaeleo campani Grandidier, 1872 I ENDEMIC. C, E-C. Chamaeleo capuroni Brygoo, Blanc & Domergue, 1972 K ENDEMIC. Chamaeleo cucullatus Gray, 1831 R ENDEMIC. E. An environmental profile of Madagascar Chamaeleo fallax Mocquard, 1900 I ENDEMIC. E, SE, C, S-C. Chamaeleo furcifer Vaillant et Grandidier, 1880 ENDEMIC. E, C. Known by holotype only. Chamaeleo gallus Giinther, 1877 R ENDEMIC. E, S-C. Chamaeleo gastrotaenia Boulenger, 1888 I ENDEMIC. NE, NW,E, C, S-C. Chamaeleo globifer Giinther, 1879 R ENDEMIC. C, S-C. Chamaeleo guibei Hillenius, 1959 ENDEMIC. NE Tsaratanana and C-E "Sihanaka". Known by types only. Chamaeleo labordi Grandidier, 1872 K ENDEMIC. SW. Locally common along the Ihotry. Recently removed from synonymy of C._ rhinoceratus (Brygoo & Domergue, 1968). Chamaeleo lateralis Gray, 1831 nt ENDEMIC. NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, C, S-C. ’Tanala’, ’Tanalahy’, ’Sangorita’. ’Tanata’, Chamaeleo linotus Miiller, 1924 K ENDEMIC. NE - Ambatodradama, 1000m, Maroantsetra Prov. Chamaeleo malthe Giinther, 1879 R ENDEMIC. N, NE, E, SE, C, S-C. Chamaeleo minor (Giinther, 1879) R ENDEMIC. S-C. Chamaeleo monoceras Boettger, 1913 ENDEMIC. NW - Betsako near Mahajanga. Taxonomic status uncertain. Known by holotype only. Chamaeleo nasutus Duméril et Bibron, 1836 nt ENDEMIC. N, NE, E, SE, C, S-C, St. Marie. Chamaeleo oshaughnessyi Giinther, 1881 K ENDEMIC. NE, E, S-C. Chamaeleo oustaleti Mocquard, 1894 nt (ENDEMIC). NW, N, NE, SW, C; & introduced to Ngong Forest near Nairobi, Kenya. ’Tana’, ’Sangorita’. Chamaeleo pardalis Cuvier, 1829 nt (inc. C. guentheri (Boulenger, 1888)). (ENDEMIC). NW, N, E, inc Mt. d’Ambre; & introduced on Reunion. Chamaeleo parsonii Cuvier, 1824 I ENDEMIC. E, C, S-C, St. Marie, Nosy Bé. Chamaeleo petteri (Brygoo & Domergue, 1966) ENDEMIC. N - Ankarana massif (cf Ramanantsoa, 1978). Chamaeleo peyrieresi Brygoo, Blanc & Domergue, 1974 K ENDEMIC. Chamaeleo rhinoceratus (Gray, 1843) K (inc. C. voeltzkowi (Boettger, 1893)). ENDEMIC. NW, SW, Ww. Chamaeleo tsaratananensis Brygoo & Domergue, 1968 K ENDEMIC. N. Tsaratanana massif. Chamaeleo tuzetae Brygoo, Bourgat & Domergue, 1972 ENDEMIC. SW - Andrenalamivola, near Ambiky, canton of Befandriana S. Known by holotype only. Chamaeleo verrucosus Cuvier, 1829 nt ENDEMIC. NW,N, E, SE, S, SW, W. 164 Chamaeleo willsi Giinther, 1890 R ENDEMIC. C, E-C. Family SCINCIDAE NB: categories in this family fide Brygoo in litt., 20.5.83. Cryptoblepharus boutonii (Desjardins, 1831) nt Widespread; also very widespread outside Madagascar. Formerly assigned to Ablepharus, see Fuhn 1961. Amphiglossus andranovahensis (Angel, 1933) ENDEMIC. SW. Known by holotype only. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1984. Amphiglossus ankodabensis Angel, 1930 ENDEMIC. SE. Only two specimens known. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1984. Amphiglossus ardouini (Mocquard, 1897) K ENDEMIC. N - Antseranana and Ambilobe. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1982. Amphiglossus astrolabi Duméril et Bibron, 1839 K ENDEMIC. NE, E, S-C. Amphiglossus decaryi (Angel, 1930) ENDEMIC. SE. On littoral rocks. Known by holotype only. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1985. Amphiglossus frontoparietalis (Boulenger, 1889) K ENDEMIC. NE, E, SE. Synonym (Brygoo 1980): Scelotes praeornatus Angel, 1938. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo 1981. Amphiglossus gastrostictus (O’Shaughnessy, 1879) K ENDEMIC. E. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1984. Amphiglossus igneocaudatus (Grandidier, 1867) nt ENDEMIC. S, Centre. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1984. Amphiglossus intermedius (Boettger, 1913) K ENDEMIC. N, W, S. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1984. Amphiglossus macrocercus (Giinther, 1882) K ENDEMIC. C, E, SE. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1984. Amphiglossus macrolepis (Boulenger, 1888) ENDEMIC. SE - Taolanaro. Only two specimens known. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1981. Amphiglossus melanopleura (Giinther, 1877) K ENDEMIC. N, E. In forest. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1982. Amphiglossus melanurus (Giinther, 1877) nt ENDEMIC. Widespread, C, E, S. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1984. ’Matahotandro’, ’Ankotofotsy’. Amphiglossus mouroundavae (Gradidier, 1872) K ENDEMIC. N, W. In humid areas, under stones, in tree trunks. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1984. Amphiglossus ornaticeps (Boulenger, 1896) R ENDEMIC. S, E. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1984. Amphiglossus poecilopus (Barbour & Loveridge, 1928) K ENDEMIC. Widespread, E, S, W. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1984. Amphiglossus polleni (Grandidier, 1869) K ENDEMIC. NW, E, SW, W, Nosy Bé. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1982. Amphiglossus reticulatus (Kaudern, 1922) ENDEMIC. NW. Known by type only. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1980. Amphiglossus splendidus (Grandidier, 1872) R ENDEMIC. NW, NE, E, SE, C. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1982. Amphiglossus stumpffi (Boettger, 1882) E ENDEMIC. Nosy Bé. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1982. Amphiglossus tsaratananensis Brygoo, 1981 ENDEMIC. N - Tsaratanana Mtns. Known by types only. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1982. Amphiglossus waterloti (Angel, 1930) K ENDEMIC. N - Ambilombe, Antseranana area; also Bora, Antsohihy area. Androngo allaudi (Brygoo, 1981) ENDEMIC. N. Mt d’Ambre, Ankarana, Antseranana. Known by types only. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1982. Androngo crenni Mocquard, 1906 ENDEMIC. E. Only two specimens known. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1982. Androngo elongatus Angel, 1933 K ENDEMIC. N - Ambilombe, Antseranana area, Nosy Bé. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1982. Androngo trivittatus (Boulenger, 1896) R ENDEMIC. S. A species of the hot dry extreme south. Synonyms (Brygoo, 1979): Pygomeles_trivittatus, S. trilineatus Angel, 1949. Removed from Scelotes: Brygoo, 1982. Cryptoposcincus minimus Mocquard, 1906 ENDEMIC. ’Madagascar’ - locality unknown. Known by holotype only. Mabuya aureopunctata (Grandidier, 1867) nt ENDEMIC. S, W. Im arid scrub. Mabuya betsileana Mocquard, 1906 ENDEMIC. C - Betafo in Betsileo Prov. Known by type only. Validity of taxon uncertain, geographic error possible. Mabuya boettgeri Boulenger, 1887 R ENDEMIC. C, E-C. Mabuya elegans (Peters, 1854) nt ENDEMIC. Throughout except C and S-C. One of commonest lizards in NW. Along littoral, arid scrub, under stones in subdesert areas. Includes in synonymy: M. sakalava (Grandidier, 1872), Brygoo 1983, in press. Mabuya gravenhorsti (Duméril et Bibron, 1839) nt ENDEMIC. Very common, found throughout, 0-1000m, on coastal rocks, scrub, wooded hills. Favoured by extension of *savoka’ secondary vegetation. Mabuya madagascariensis Mocquard, 1908 K ENDEMIC. Type specimen ‘Madagascar’ - no locality, recently rediscovered on Tsiafajavona (Ankaratra massif). Paracontias brocchii Mocquard, 1894 R. ENDEMIC. N - Montagne d’Ambre. Paracontias hildebrandti (Peters, 1880) K ENDEMIC. NW, Nosy Bé. Paracontias holomelas (Giinther, 1877) R ENDEMIC. E - Anzahamaru, near Mahanoro (terra typica). Paracontias milloti Angel, 1949 ENDEMIC. Nosy Mamoko, Ambariotelo Archipelago. Known by holotype only. Paracontias rothschildi Mocquard, 1905 ENDEMIC. ’Madagascar’ - locality unknown. Known by types only. Pseudoacontias madagascariensis Barboza du Bocage, 1889 ENDEMIC. Locality unknown. Known only from Holotype, recently (1979) destroyed by fire at the Bocage Museum, Lisbon. -185- Appendix 2: faunal lists Pygomeles braconnieri Grandidier, 1867 R ENDEMIC. SW - Toliara area. Fossorial, in sand. Pygomeles petteri Pasteur et Paulian, 1962 ENDEMIC. NW - Ankarafantsika. Known by types only. Voeltzkowia fierinensis (Grandidier, 1869) K ENDEMIC. SW - S of Toliara on Fiherenana River. Voeltzkowia lineata (Mocquard, 1901) K ENDEMIC. S,SE,SW. In SW appears not to occurN of R. Fiherenana. Most northerly point Sakaraha (note on habitat in Brygoo 1981). Voeltzkowia mira Boettger, 1893 K ENDEMIC. NW. Mahajanga region. Holotype found in rotten trunk of ’Sabra’ Palm Hyphaene coriacea, other specimens in sand. Voeltzkowia petiti (Angel, 1924) ENDEMIC. SW - Scrub dunes at Tsivono, 24 km of Toliara. Two specimens only. Voeltzkowia rubrocaudata (Grandidier, 1869) K ENDEMIC. SW (Fierin: Toliara). N of Toliara and the R. Fiherenana. Beroboka between Morondava and Belo Tsiribihina. Family CORDYLIDAE (GERRHOSAURINAE) Tracheloptychus madagascariensis Peters, 1854 ENDEMIC. N (Nasatra), E, SE, S, W. Tracheloptychus petersi Grandidier, 1869 ENDEMIC. SW - Morombe, Tsivanoha. Zonosaurus aeneus (Grandidier, 1872) ENDEMIC. E, W,S-C. Wooded hilly areas, littoral areas. Zonosaurus boettgeri Steindachner, 1891 ENDEMIC. NE, Nosy Bé. Zonosaurus karsteni (Grandidier, 1869) ENDEMIC. W, SW, S-C. Zonosaurus laticaudatus (Grandidier, 1869) ENDEMIC. NW, E, SE, S, SW, C. Zonosaurus madagascariensis (Gray, 1845) NW, NE, E coast, SW, Nosy Bé, St. Marie; also Glorieuse. Littoral, wooded areas to 1000m, including primary forest. Zonosaurus maximus Boulenger, 1896 ENDEMIC. SE, E-C, S-C, C. Forest species, also found along rivers and watercourses. Frequent on banks of the Faraony. Found above all in dense leaf litter of mango trees where it seeks earthworms. One of the largest Malagasy lizards, to 67cm. Zonosaurus ornatus (Gray, 1845) ENDEMIC. NW, N-C, E, SE, SW, S-C, C. On rocks, in forest. ’Antsiantsy’. Zonosaurus quadrilineatus (Grandidier, 1867) ENDEMIC. SW. Zonosaurus rufipus (Boettger, 1881) ENDEMIC. E, Nosy Bé. Zonosaurus trilineatus Angel, 1939 ENDEMIC. Ambovombe. An environmental profile of Madagascar SERPENTES NB Status designations and other comments from Domergue (in litt., rec 27.6.83). Family TYPHLOPIDAE Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) Nossi-be (NW), Ambilobe (NW), Betsako (NW), Toamasina (E), Ambatolampy (C), Mandraka forest (C), Ambovombe (S); worldwide. Typhlops arenarius (Grandidier, 1872) ENDEMIC. Morondava, Mahajanga (W), Menabe (W), Toliara (W), Andrahomana (S). Typhlops decorsei Mocquard, 1901 ENDEMIC. Ambovombe (type), southwest around Toliara. Typhlops grandidieri Mocquard, 1905 ENDEMIC. "Madagascar". Typhlops madagascariensis Boettger, 1877 ENDEMIC. Nosy Bé. Typhlops microcephalus Werner, 1909 ENDEMIC. "Madagascar". Typhlops mucronatus Boettger, 1880 ENDEMIC. ? Typhlops ocularis Parker, 1927 ENDEMIC. Known only by the type from Antongil forest, Maroantsetra region (NE). Typhlops reuteri Boettger, 1881 ENDEMIC. Nosy Bé. Family BOIDAE Acrantophis dumerilii Jan, 1860 ENDEMIC. South and southwest. Still moderately common. Localities include: Amboasary (S), Belo (W), Mahabo (W), Morondava (W), Andranolava (C), Toliara (S). Frequents the humid edges of pools and water-courses. Do’. Acrantophis madagascariensis (Duméril et Bibron, 1844) ENDEMIC. West (north of the Tsiribinina), north, northeast, east. Still moderately common. More rare than Sanzinia. Localities include: Mahajanga (W), Amboasary (W), Ste. Marie de Marovoay (S), Nosy Bé. Frequents the humid edges of pools and water-courses. ’Do’ (in general) or ’*Ankoma’ (in East). Sanzinia madagascariensis (Dumeril et Bibron, 1844) ENDEMIC. Occurs throughout Madagascar, but especially in the north and the eastern forests. Still moderately common. Localities include: Ankafana (E), Mont de Francais (E), Southeast of Betsileo, Emininy (E), Frandrarazana (E), Mananjary (E), Mandotra (E), Toamasina (E), Tampina (E), Androhinaly (S), Toliara-Tsihombe-Morondava. The smallest malagasy boa, arboreal. ’Manditra’ (in east). Family COLUBRIDAE Alluaudina bellyi Mocquard, 1894 R ENDEMIC. Until recently known only by type from Mt d’Ambre (Diégo-Suarez)(N); four new specimens comprise two from Mt d’Ambre, one from Sambava, one from Ambatonutatao. A small secretive species. Alluaudina mocquardi Angel 1939 R ENDEMIC. Known from type only found in Ankara cave. Dromicodryas bernieri (Dumeéril et Bibron, 1854) nt ENDEMIC. Widespread, found throughout the island, very common. Includes in synonymy: Liopholidophis pseudolateralis Guibé, 1956 (fide Domergue, in litt., 27.06.83). -186- Dromicodryas quadrilineatus (Duméril et Bibron, 1854) nt ENDEMIC. Widespread, found throughout the island, less common than D. bernieri. Geodipsas heimi Angel, 1936 V ENDEMIC. Known from type, from Tsihanovoka on the river Sahandrata, also the Zafimanirihy area (forests east of Ambositra), Geodipsas infralineata (Giinther, 1882) V ENDEMIC. Occurs on the plateau and in eastern forests, localities include: Moramanga (E), Maroantsetra (NE) Heteroliodon torquatus Boettger, 1913 R ENDEMIC. Until recently known only by the type, from Andranohinaly (near Toliara) (W); two new specimens are from north of Toliara and Kinkony Forest, south of Morondava. NB. The genus Ithycyphus is in course of revision, there appear to be several undescribed forms (Domergue, in litt., 27.06.83). Ithycyphus goudoti (Schlegel, 1854) V ENDEMIC. Moderately widespread in NE, E and S, also known from the east coast. Ithycyphus miniatus (Schlegel, 1837) V ENDEMIC. Nosy Bé (NW), Andrahomana (S), Andranolava (C), Fandrazana (E). 'Fandrefiala’. Langaha alluaudi Mocquard, 1901 V ENDEMIC. Occurs throughout the island in forest areas, localities include: Andrahomana (S), Behara (S), Menabe (W), Ambovombe (S), Taolanaro (SE), Bemamanga. ’Fandrefiala’. Langaha nasuta Shaw, 1790 V ENDEMIC. Occurs throughout the island in forest areas, localities include: Nosy Bé (NW), Antongil Bay (NE), Ambatomainty (O), Ankarafantsika (O), Imerina (C), Betroka (C), Befanany (SW), Morondava (E). Leioheterodon geayi Mocquard, 1905 nt ENDEMIC. Occurs throughout the south, south of the Tsiribihina River, localities include: Fiherana plain (type), Ambovombé (S), Toliara (SW), Betioky (SW), Androka (SW). Leioheterodon madagascariensis Duméril et Bibron, 1854 nt ENDEMIC. Rather common and widespread, occurs throughout the island but especially the north and east. *Menarana’. Leioheterodon modestus (Giinther, 1863) nt ENDEMIC. Found throughout the island, especially the west and north, also the south as far as Antsirabe. ’Bemavo’, "Le Fompoty’. Liophidium apperti Domergue, 1983 K ENDEMIC. Known by a single specimen collected in 1968, in deciduous forest 7km north of the village of Befandriana-sud, 2km east of RN 9 (Toliara~-Morombe). This forest has now been cleared; only a few baobabs, ’kily’ and 'sakoas’ remain. Liophidium rhodogaster (Schlegel, 1837) V ENDEMIC. Known from forest regions of the east and north, localities include: Antananarivo (C), Ikongo massif (SE), Ambatomainty, Beforona (E), Nosy Bé. Liophidium chabaudi Domergue, 1983 K ENDEMIC. Known from three specimens; the holotype from Ankorongo (near Toliara airport), the second from a dozen km N of Toliara (between Belalanda and Tsongoritela), the third from Bevato (south of Morombe). A _ sub-fossorial form, occurring in somewhat swampy and saline areas, behind coastal dunes in the littoral zone. Liophidium therezeni Domergue, 1983 K ENDEMIC. Known by two specimens collected in 1966 and 1969; the former (holotype) from Anatelo forest bordering the Ankarana massif (Ambilobe sub-prefecture), the latter from Antseranana (Antsiranana). Liophidium torquatus (Boulenger, 1888) V ENDEMIC. In humid forest. Localities include: Antongil Bay (NE), Mananjary (E), Anamalazoatra (E), Toamasina (E), Ambositra (C), Ambatodratino (C), Ankirika (C), Ste. Marie de Marovoay (NW), Taolanaro (SE), also the banks of the River Mangoky (SW). Liophidium trilineatum Boulenger, 1896 R (K) ENDEMIC. Type from SW, also known from Tsimanampetsotsa and several new specimens from other parts of the south. Liophidium vaillanti (Mocquard, 1901) R (K) ENDEMIC (?). Ambovombe (S), Betroka (S-C), Maevatanana (NW), (also reported from Reunion, but this is extremely improbable). Liopholidophis grandidieri Mocquard, 1904 E (K) ENDEMIC. Until recently known from the holotype only, from the mouth of the River Saint Augustin (SW), three new specimens are now known from the eastern forests. Liopholidophis lateralis (Duméril et Bibron, 1854) nt ENDEMIC. Known from almost the entire island, absent from coastal regions to the south of Toliara. Common on the high plateau, frequently found in parks and gardens (including Tsimbazaza). Liopholidophis pinguis Parker, 1925 I ENDEMIC. Antisihanaka (type), also Moramanga and/or (?) Alaotra. Liopholidophis sexlineatus (Giinther, 1882) nt ENDEMIC. Occurs mainly on the east coast and the plateau, localities include: Betsileo area (C), Imerina (C), Ambatomainty (W), Toamasina (E). A semi-aquatic form, abundant in rice cultivation. Liopholidophis stumpffi (Boettger, 1881) ENDEMIC. Most specimens are from Périnet; six other localities are known, mostly along the east coast (including on Marojezy), also Nosy Bé. A humid forest form, typically found in the morning along forest tracks, basking in patches of sunlight. Liopholidophis thieli Domergue, 1972 ENDEMIC. A humid forest form, found at several localities in the east region, including Périnet (where the type was found in fish culture ponds), also on Nosy Mangabe. Lats amphibians. ’Menamaso’. NB. The genus Lycodryas is in the course of revision (Domergue, in litt., 27 June 1983). Lycodryas arctifasciatus (Duméril et Bibron, 1854) R ENDEMIC. Antananarivo (C), Moramanga (CE), Nosy Bé (NW). Lycodryas betsileanus (Giinther, 1880) R ENDEMIC. Betsileo area (C), also one new specimen from Maroantsetra (Antongil Bay). Lycodryas gaimardi (Schlegel, 1837) R L.g. gaimardi, Taolanaro (SE), Imerina (C), Nosy Bé (NW). L.g. granuliceps, Toliara (SW), Fiherana valley, Befaisitra. Also Comoro Islands (one specimen ’L.g. comorensis’. Lycodryas guentheri (Boulenger, 1896) R ENDEMIC. Ambovombe (S), + SW. Lycodryas inornatus (Boulenger, 1896) R ENDEMIC. Only three specimens known, two of unknown origin, one from the Didierea forest of Ampotaka (south of the Menarandra river in the Beloha-Androy area). -187- Appendix 2: faunal lists Lycodryas maculatus (Giinther, 1858) R Known from type, source unknown, and three specimens from the Comoros. Lycodryas variabilis (Boulenger, 1896) R ENDEMIC. ’Madagascar’, no details. Madagascarophis colubrinus (Schlegel, 1837) nt ENDEMIC. Found throughout the island. Several geographic forms. Still fairly common. Found most frequently in termitaria. Malagasy name: ’Renivitsika’ or Mere de Fourmis (= Mother of Ants). Mimophis madagascariensis Giinther, 1868 nt ENDEMIC. A plateau species. Mimophis mahfalensis (Grandidier, 1867) nt ENDEMIC. Widespread, especially the south and southwest. Still common. Feeds on snakes. Micropisthodon ochraceus Mocquard, 1894 R ENDEMIC. Nosy Bé, second specimen from unknown locality and a few new specimens from Périnet (Analamazaotra). Probably arboreal. Pararhadinea albignaci Domergue, 1984 K ENDEMIC. Known by holotype only, from R.S. 19 Analamazaotra (Périnet); found in January 1970, dead on road after heavy rain, between the village of Périnet and the forest station. Pararhadinea melanogaster Boettger, 1898 R ENDEMIC. Nosy Bé, also two new specimens from Périnet and Marojezy. A small secretive species. Pseudoxyrhopus ambreensis Mocquard, 1894 R ENDEMIC. Known only from type, from Montagne d’Ambre. Pseudoxyrhopus dubius Mocquard, 1904 I ENDEMIC. Occurs in the eastern forests, localities include: Ikongo (SE), Ambatomainty. Several specimens recorded during the last two decades. A nocturnal species, probably terrestrial. Pseudoxyrhopus heterurus (Jan, 1893) R ENDEMIC. Nosy Mangabe (Bloxam in litt. 23.07.86); no other locality records or recent records. Pseudoxyrhopus imerinae (Giinther, 1888) R ENDEMIC. Imerina (C), other specimens from Mt Ibity and Mt Tsiafajavony (central plateau). Pseudoxyrhopus microps Giinther, 1881 R ENDEMIC. Betsileo region, Ankarana. No recent records. Pseudoxyrhopus occipitalis Boulenger, 1896 R ENDEMIC. Known from type, from SW, not found again. Pseudoxyrhopus quinquelineatus (Giinther, 1881) V ENDEMIC. Betsileo region, east coast, northwest, one specimen from the Mahafaly Plateau (S). Pseudoxyrhopus tritaeniatus Mocquard 1894 I ENDEMIC. Known only from type, from Betsileo region. Also two widespread sea snakes (Hydrophiidae), Pelamis platurus and Enhydrina schistosa, are recorded in coastal waters. Two nominal species, Compsophis albiventris Mocquard, 1894, from the Montagne d’Ambre, and Geodipsas boulengeri (Peracca, 1892) from near Androngoloaka, are probably based on mis-identified Geodipsas heimi (Domergue, in litt., 27 June 1983): An environmental profile of Madagascar MADAGASCAR AMPHIBIA (T) = Type locality. Geographic distribution of several species apparently not known in full, or published data not available. References are provided in Part V.3. Blommers-Schlésser has been abbreviated to B.-S. Family HYPEROLIIDAE *Note: there are probably no true Hyperolius species in Madagascar; species listed’ by Guibé, 1978, appear to be assignable to either Heterixalus (Hyperoliidae) or Boophis (Rhacophoridae) (B.-S., 1979 II, and 1982). *Hyperolius’ arnoulti Guibé, 1975 Manompana (T), east coast, opposite Nosy Borah. Probably a Heterixalus species, B.-S., 1982. "Hyperolius’ friedrichsi Ahl, 1930 "Madagascar’ (T). Probably a Boophis species, B.-S., 1982. *Hyperolius’ nossibeensis Ahl, 1930 R Nosy Bé (T). Heterixalus alboguttatus (Boulenger, 1882) South-east Betsileo (T), also dunes at Mananjary (east coast) and Ranomafana (highroad R.N.25). Heterixalus betsileo (O. Boettger, 1881) Imerina (T), centre of Madagascar, Andanolava. A very common sedge frog, in savannah like areas and cleared forest in the central plateau and west. Synonym: H. renifer, fide B.-S., 1982. Heterixalus boettgeri (Mocquard, 1902) ? Removed from synonymy of H. tricolor, B.-S., 1982. Heterixalus madgascariensis (Dum. et Bib., 1841) "Madagascar’ (T), Salavaratse. Heterixalus mocquardi (O. Boettger, 1913) Taolanaro (T), another specimen collected on leaf in Taolanaro. Heterixalus rutenbergi O. Boettger, 1881 Imerina (T), also collected in grassland 20 km west of Antananarivo. Removed from Hyperolius, B.-S., 1982. Heterixalus tricolor (O. Boettger, 1881) Nosy Bé (T), Isaka, and east coast. A very common sedge frog, in dunes, savannah-like areas and cleared forest on the east coast. Family MICROHYLIDAE: (endemic). Anodonthyla boulengeri F. Miiller, 1892 Madagascar, Anevoka. Known from the East Region, the Anosyennes chain including Andohahela. Also collected near Fenoarivo Atsinanana, Périnet, Ranomafana (Fianarantsoa), Foulpointe and 25km north of Toamasina. Many of these were collected in hollow leafstalks of young Ravenala, which often harboured antnests; ants were the only food items recovered from these specimens. Larval development similar to other Cophylines. Subfamily COPHYLINAE Anodonthyla montana Angel, 1925 Andringitra mountains (T), abundant at altitude. Anodonthyla rouxae Guibé, 1974 K Anosyenne chain (T), in bamboos (poss. type loc. only). Cophyla phyllodactyla O. Boettger, 1880 K Nosy Bé (T), known from Nosy Bé, Nosy Komba and Mt. d’Ambre. Madecassophryne truebae Guibé, 1974 K Anosyenne chain (T), known only from the type locality. Mantipus bipunctatus Guibé, 1974 Forest of Fivahona (T), Andringitra mountains (prob. type loc. only). -188- Mantipus guentherpetersi Guibé, 1974 Tsaratanana mountains (T), 2600m (prob. type loc. only). Mantipus inguinalis (Boulenger, 1882) East Betsileo (T), known from east and _ north-east Madagascar, including the Andringitra mountains. Mantipus laevipes (Mocquard, 1895) Montagne d’Ambre (T), type locality only. Mantipus minutus Guibé, 1975 Marojejy mountains (T), (prob. type loc. only). Mantipus serratopalpebrosus Guibé, 1975 Marojejy mountains (T) (prob. type loc. only). Paracophyla tuberculata Millot & Guibé, 1951 R Périnet Forest (T); where reported in leaf axils of Pandanus and Crinium firmifolium. *Platyhyla alticola (Guibé, 1974) Tsaratanana mountains (T) (poss. type loc. only). *Guibé considers Platyhyla a synonym of Platypelis. Platypelis barbouri Noble, 1940 Fanovana Forest (T). Platypelis cowani Boulenger, 1882 East Betsileo (T). Platypelis grandis (Boulenger, 1889) Madagascar (Taolanaro, Sakana), known from East Region and mountain massifs. Recently collected near Anjozorobe (alt 1300m, 60km north of Manjakandriana); near Peérinet (alt. 900m); and near Ampasinambo (alt 500m, 55km west of Nosy Varika). Specimens were collected in pairs in water holes in tree trunks (Ficus sp.) and a water filled axil of Ravenala. A resting male was collected beneath rotting wood in the forest. Calling males, always hidden in tree holes, are heard at night from September to October. Eggs are laid in water inside these holes, the female leaves the nest several days after oviposition but the male remains until the brood have developed into froglets. It is possible that the nursing father provides the larvae with fungicidal protection. Platypelis milloti Guibé, 1950 R Nosy Bé (T), known only from Lokobe Forest on Nosy Bé (where it lives in leaf axils of Typhonodorum lyndleianum). Platypelis pollicaris Boulenger, 1888 Madagascar, known from East and Centre Regions and Tsaratanana mountains. Collected by B.-S. near Périnet and near Tampoketsa d’Ankazobe in leaf axils. May feed on ants. Platypelis tsaratananaensis Guibé, 1974 Tsaratanana mountains (T) in bamboo forest 2600m, (prob. type loc only). Platypelis tuberculata (Ahl, 1929) North-west Madagascar (T). Platypelis tuberifera (Methuen, 1920 (1919)) Ambatoharanana (T). Later collected at Périnet, Fenoarivo Atsinanana and Foulpointe. All specimens were found in water-filled axils of Pandanus. Food items recovered include ants. Larval development likely to be similar to other Cophylinae described. Plethodontohyla alluaudi (Mocquard, 1901) Taolanaro (T). Plethodontohyla brevipes Boulenger, 1882 East Betsileo (T), a pair were collected by Peyrieras under decaying wood in forest near Ampasinambo. The stomachs contained beetles. Plethodontohyla coudreaui Angel, 1938 Betampona Reserve (T). Plethodontohyla laevis (O. Boettger, 1913) Sakana (T), (Tsihanovoha Forest); a specimen was collected by Peyrieras near Tampoketsa d’Ankazobe (alt. 1600m) from a burrow. Plethodontohyla notosticta (Giinther, 1877) Mahanoro and Anzahamara, known from forest areas in East Region and at low altitude in the Andringitra and Marojejy mountains. Collected by B.-S. near Ranomafana, Fenoarivo Atsinanana and Foulpointe. Larval development similar to that of Platyhyla grandis. Plethodontohyla ocellata Noble & Parker, 1926 Antsihanaka (T), known from the East Region and Marojejy mountains. One gravid female collected by Peyrieras under decaying wood in forest near Ampasinambo (alt. 500m, 55km west of Nosy Varika). The stomach contained a large beetle. Plethodontohyla tuberata (Peters, 1883) ’Madagascar’ (T), (Manjakatompo). Found on the high plateaus, common at 1500-2000m in the Andringitra and Ankaratra mountains. A fossorial form inhabiting forest humus. ’Sahondokoro’. Rhombophryne testudo O. Boettger, 1880 Nosy Bé, Marojejy and Réunion. Stumpffia grandis Guibé, 1974 Marojejy mountains (T) 1300m, (possibly type locality only). Stumpffia psologlossa Boettger, 1881 Nosy Bé (T). Known from East Region, also Sambirano and Tsaratanana and Marojejy mountains. Stumpffia roseifemoralis Guibé, 1974 Only known from Marojejy mountains (T), 1300m. Stumpffia tridactyla Guibé, 1975 Marojejy mountains (T). Family MICROHYLIDAE: Subfamily DYSCOPHINAE (Dyscophus is endemic genus). Dyscophus antongili Grandidier, 1877 I Antongil Bay (T), localised at Antongil Bay (Moroantsetra, Foizana) and south of Toamasina (Andevoranto). A well known species, dull red-orange in colour, growing to large size (c 9cm). ’Sahongongona’, derived from the distinctive call. Dyscophus guineti (Grandidier, 1875) Sambava (T), known from Soalala (north-west), Sambava (north-east) and Antsihanaka (centre). Dyscophus insularis Grandidier, 1872 Antsouhy (T) near Trabouzy, (south-west Madagascar, Belo, Soalala). Reported from the west and south-west, specimens recently received from the Marojejy massif (300 m), others from Ankarafantsika. Includes in synonymy: D. quinquelineatus. Family MICROHYLIDAE: Subfamily SCAPHIOPHRYNINAE (endemic) (NB., sometimes placed in RANIDAE) Pseudohemisus calcaratus (Mocquard, 1895) Madagascar, south-west, Ambongo, West Region. Pseudohemisus granulosus Guibé, 1952 Andranoboka, Mahajamba Bay north of Mahajanga, also near Ampijora in the Ankarafantsika forest, west Madagascar. Adult specimens collected on the forest floor, tadpoles have been found in shallow temporary pool in the shade of large mango tree in January. Pseudohemisus madagascariensis (Boulenger, 1882) East Betsileo, Andringitra mountains. One of the most strikingly coloured Malagasy frogs; bluish to olive green with sinuous brown dorsal stripes. Pseudohemisus pustulosus Angel et Guibé, 1945 Madagascar, Ankaratra mountains. -189- Appendix 2: faunal lists Scaphiophryne marmorata Boulenger, 1882 East Betsileo, Foizana, forest species in East Region. Family MICROHYLIDAE: Subfamily MICROHYLINAE Microhyla palmata Guibé, 1974 Ambana (T) (90m), Anosyenne chain. Family RANIDAE *Ptychadena mascareniensis (Dum. & Bib., 1842) NON-ENDEMIC, occurs elsewhere in East Africa. [Ile Bourbon (T); very common in all regions, notably in modified habitats (e.g. rice fields). *Rana tigrina Daudin, 1803 NON-ENDEMIC, an asiatic species introduced to north-west coastal Madagascar from the Indian region. Increasingly invading the high plateau. Tomopterna labrosa Cope, 1868 Madagascar (T); A fossorial form, absent from the eastern forests. Known from the west (regions of Mahajanga, Belo, Soalala, Antseranana) and the south (around Toliara and Taolanaro). Has been found on the foothills of the Ankaratra range. Family RANIDAE: Subfamily MANTELLINAE (endemic). Laurentomantis horrida (O. Boettger, 1880) R Nosy Bé (T). Found since in Marojejy mountains. Laurentomantis malagasia (Methuen & Hewitt, 1913) R Folohy (T). Laurentomantis ventrimaculata (Angel, 1935) R Isaka Ivondro (T), Taolanaro area. N.B. The above three species formerly assigned to the genus Trachymantis. Mantella aurantiaca Mocquard, 1900 V Madagascar, only known from the forest of Périnet (Antaniditra). Occurs in distinctive swamp rain forest with Pandanus species. The species has been collected for many years for zoos and terrarium-keepers (B.-S., in _litt., Jan. 1983). Orange-red, probably poisonous, active during the day when great numbers may be seen jumping on the forest floor. (See Arnoult 1966 and Oostveen 1978 for ecology, also B.-S., 1975.) Mantella betsileo (Grandidier, 1872) Betsileo (T), (Nosy Bé), forested regions of the east. (Widespread; map of localities in Busse 1981). Mantella laevigata Methuen & Hewitt, 1913 V Folohy (T), east Madagascar. (NB., map in Busse 1981 indicates Nosy Mangabe as only site). Mantella madagascariensis (Grandidier, 1872) Incl. M. cowani Boulenger, 1882 (part) plus M. pulchra Parker, 1925. Three ssp., widespread (Busse 1981). Mantidactylus acuticeps Ahl, 1929 ’Central Madagascar’ (T); type lost. Found at Périnet (highroad R.N.2) alt. 900-1100m, in the evening in dense thicket in forest, far from water. Mantidactylus aerumnalis (Peracca, 1893) Andrangoloaka (T)(type lost); Andringitra. Known from central region and Andringitra and Ankaratra mtns. Found in forest beside brooks and in more open areas beneath shrubs near forest. Tadpoles found in quiet parts of the same streams. Mantidactylus aglavei (Methuen et Hewitt, 1913) Anamalazotra (T); Moramanga, ndringitra and Moramanga forest, East Region. Tree frogs. Males found calling in trees in the evening. Tadpoles found in a shallow brook in open land near forest. An environmental profile of Madagascar Mantidactylus albofrenatus (F. Miiller, 1892) ‘Madagascar’ (T); known from the eastern forests, Foulpointe, also found in the West Region (forest of Mohajeby, region of Morafenobe). Found along a brook in the forest during the day, the males calling in dense vegetation. Surface-feeding tadpoles found in the same brook adhere to the surface by the tail in dense aquatic vegetation. Mantidactylus alutus (Peracca, 1893) Andrangoloaka (T); East Region, Central Region. Collected in and along rice fields and pools. Tadpoles were in nearby ditches and pools. Also found in small brooks in open land. Mantidactylus ambohimitombi Boulenger 1919 Ambohimitombi forest (T); East Region. A specimen was found on the bank of a clear brook with a stony bottom in forest. Mantidactylus argenteus Methuen, 1920 (1919) R Folohy, east Madagascar (T); Andringitra mountains. Mantidactylus asper (Boulenger, 1882) East Betsileo (T); Known from the eastern region and the Marojejy, Andringitra and Tsaratanana mountains. Occurs in well-developed forest and dense shrubwood. Adults climb like tree-frogs, but are also found on the ground. Most active at dusk and in early morning. Eggs deposited singly or in pairs; direct development. Reproductive season probably limited to a few months (end Oct. - early Jan.) in the wettest period of the year (the egg needs a permanently damp atmosphere and the tiny froglet a choice of small prey, these conditions are only met in the rainy midsummer). Mantidactylus bertini (Guibé, 1947) Isaka Ivondro (T); known from East Region and Anosyenne chain. Mantidactylus betsileanus (Boulenger 1882) Betsileo (T); west Madagascar. Common in all areas except the south. Common in boggy places in open degraded forest, sometimes mixed with M. biporus. Tadpoles found in shallow pools, often with those of M. liber. Egg mass found fixed to a leaf on ground in wet grassland. Mantidactylus bicalcaratus (Boettger, 1913) Nosy Borah (T). Apart from type locality the species is known from the Marojejy mountains and Taolanaro. Also 25km north of Toamasina, sea level; Foulpointe (60km north of Toamasina), sea level; midway between Foulpointe and Fenoarivo Atsinanana, sea level; Ambila-Lemaitso (near Brickaville), alt. 7m; Mananjary, alt. 13m. Very abundant on the east coast. Adults found in the leaf axils and leaves of Pandanus dauphinensis in dunes near the sea and around lagoons, and in Typhonodorum lindleyanum in coastal swamps. Tadpoles in leaf axils. Mantidactylus biporus (Boulenger, 1889) ‘Madagascar’ (T). A forest species from the East Region. Occurs in small shallow muddy pools, slow flowing water in open land adjacent to forest, gutters of roads, shallow water between Rapphia palms and small pools along streams. Mantidactylus blanci Guibé, 1974 Andringitra (T); Known only from Andringitra mtns. Mantidactylus blommersae (Guibé, 1975) Moramanga and Périnet forests (T). Known from type localities, also Périnet (highroad R.N.2) alt. 900-1100m, Mandraka Valley (highroad R.N.2 at km 69), rivulet Vokanatezandava and adjacent ponds, nursery garden of the city of Antananarivo, alt. 1200m., between Ranomafana and Ifanadiana (highroad R.N.25) alt. 800m. Adults collected in November - April at breeding sites near sunlit pools (often temporary) lcm - Im deep, together with egg masses (attached to leaves a few feet above the water) and tadpoles. At other times adults were captured on the ground in forest. -190- Mantidactylus brevipalmatus E. Ahl. 1929 North-west Madagascar (T) - type lost. There is some doubt over the validity of this species since the type has been lost. Mantidactylus boulengeri Methuen, 1920 (1919) Folohy (T), (Fort Carnot). Common in forests in the East Region. Occurs on the forest floor in dense vegetation. Males do not form choruses when calling but are widely dispersed. This may indicate direct development of the egg and possibly parental care. They are particularly vulnerable to exposure to the sun. Mantidactylus bourgati Guibé, 1974. Andringitra (T). Known only from the type region, including:- Boby basin (2500m), Marositry stream (2000m), Amparabatosoa plateau (2100m), Antanfotsy village (1450m), Ampanasana River; Ambohambatomanara col (2100m); Ambalamaisinjo plateau: Riambouy River (2000m); Akiseasea (1500m); Ambalamarovandana (1500m). Mantidactylus curtus (Boulenger, 1882) East Betsileo (T). Known from the East Region and mountain areas. Adults are found in and along streams, mainly in open areas but sometimes in forest. Tadpoles are found in the lentic sidepools of the same streams. Mantidactylus decaryi (Angel, 1930) South Midongy and Andringitra mtn., Befotaka. Known from the East Region and mountain areas. Mantidactylus depressiceps (Boulenger, 1882) Betsileo (T); Sahembendrana, Akkoraka. Known from the eastern region. Rests during the day and the dry cool season on leaf axils of Pandanus, Typhonodorum_lindleyanum, Musa and tree ferns. Egg masses are attached to leaves 1-2 metres above pools. Mantidactylus domerguei (Guibé, 1974) R Andringitra (T). Also found at Manjakotompo forest station (near Ambatolampy), Ankaratra mountains, alt 1800-2400m. Ground dwelling. Found on forest floor near temporary pools. Mantidactylus elegans (Guibé, 1974) Massif de l’Andringitra (T); known from the Andringitra and Tsaratanana mountains. (Mantidactylus elegans (Guibé, 1974)) * NB., replacement name: Mantidactylus guibei, B.-S., in press. Anosyenne chain (T). Mantidactylus eiselti Guibé, 1975 R Périnet Forest (T); known only from type locality. Calling males found during the day in brushwood in hillside forest, sitting on small branches just above the ground; heard calling only during the rainy season, always singly and metres apart, far from open water. Particularly vulnerable to exposure to the sun. Wide dispersal of calling males and distance from water may indicate direct development of the eggs and possibly parental care. Mantidactylus femoralis (Boulenger, 1882) East Betsileo (T), (Mt. d’ Ambre); region de Rogez, Isaka-Ivondro. Common in the eastern forests. Always found on the ground or in shrubs, along clear forest brooks, tadpoles found in side pools. Mantidactylus flavicrus (Boulenger, 1889) Madagascar (T); known from the eastern regions, Sambirano and Montagne d’Ambre. Mantidactylus flavobrunneus B.-S., 1979 On the road from Moramanga to Anosibe at km 25, alt 900m.; Périnet (highroad R.N.2) alt. 900-1100m. Rainforest on eastern escarpment. Found in water in Pandanus axils. Mantidactylus glandulosus Methuen & Hewitt, 1913 R Folohy (T); known only from type locality, type lost. NB., M. pseudasper is probably a synonym, (B.-S., in litt). Mantidactylus grandidieri Mocquard, 1895 East coast (T). Collected in and along brooks in open land next to forest. Ground dwelling. Tadpoles unknown. Mantidactylus grandisonae Guibé, 1974 R Ambana (T), Anosyenne chain; known only from type locality, alt. 1000m, low altitude forest. Mantidactylus guttulatus (Boulenger, 1881) South-east Betsileo (T); East Madagascar, Ikongo forest. Eastern region. Mantidactylus granulatus (O. Boettger, 1881) Nosy Bé (T); Found in the eastern forests, Montagne d’Ambre, Tsaratanana mountains. Also known from Mayotte, Comores. Mantidactylus inaudax (Peracca, 1893) Andrangoloaka (T); East Region. Mantidactylus klemmeri (Guibé, 1974) R Marojejy mountains (T); known only from type locality. Mantidactylus liber (Peracca, 1893) Widely distributed in the central highlands, at 800-1300m; this area is characterised by medium altitude rainforest, now (1975) confined to isolated patches and a fringe on the steep escarpments on the east side of the highlands. Most of the collections were made in more or less degraded forest of this type. In Tampoketsa d’Ankazobe some of the last vestiges of high altitude forest are preserved. M. liber was found in no other region. Localities: Andrangoloaka, near Manjakandriana, Périnet, Itremo, along the road from Ranomafana to Ifanadiana at 5km, along the road from Moramanga to Anosibe at 25km, Périnet at an altitude of 900-1100m, Mandrake valley along the road _ from Antananarivo to Moramanga at 69km, Anjozorobe alt. 1300m, and Tampoketsa d’ Ankazobe alt. 1600m. Annual rainfall 1500-2000mm, falling almost entirely in the hot season, between the end of October - beginning of December until the end of March - mid May. The aridity of the dry season is moderated by abundant dew _ formation, condensation and frequent fogs. An arboreal frog, inactive during the day. Rests in axils of the larger Pandanus, Typhonodorum__lindleyanum (Araceae), Banana and Ravenala_ madagascariensis (Musaceae), as well as some Amarillidaceae (Crinium firmifolium), palms (Rapphia) and arborescent ferns. The axils nearly always contain some water, even in the dry season. Specimens are found in quantity when resting sites near water, together with M. methueni and M. pulcher. Becomes active at dusk, feeds primarily on small insects such as mosquitoes and flies. Apparently breeds from November to May. Exhibits unusual mating behaviour which may extend to other members of the genus. Eggs are deposited in a gelatinous mass on leaves overhanging shady shallow pools, in which the hatching larvae develop. Mantidactylus lugubris (A. Duméril, 1853) *Madagascar’ (T); Betsileo. Common in the eastern region and the mountain ranges (Andringitra, Marojejy, Montagne d’Ambre). Always found on banks of faster flowing currents, or on boulders in rapids. Mantidactylus luteus Methuen & Hewitt, 1913 Folohy, east Madagascar (T). Forest species from the eastern region. Found on the forest floor, probably also climbs. Mantidactylus madecassus (Millot & Guibé, 1950) Andringitra (T). Described from the Cirque Boby in the Andringitra massif, has been found since at the same site. Mantidactylus majori Boulenger, 1896 Ivohimanita (T). A forest form from the eastern region. Mantidactylus microtympanum Angel, 1935 Isaka-Ivondro (T). Known form the eastern region (Isaka forest, Taolanaro region) and has recently been found in the Andringitra massif and the Anosyennes mountains. -19]- Appendix 2: faunal lists Mantidactylus opiparis (Peracca, 1893) Andrangoloaka (T), near Moramanga. Also Périnet (highroad R.N.2 at km 142), alt 900-1100m, Mandraka Valley (highroad R.N.2 at km 69), rivulet Vokanatezandava and adjacent ponds, nursery garden of the city of Antananarivo, Tampoketsa d’Ankazobe, forest station alt. 1600m. Collected in or near forest. Adults jump strongly. Tadpoles collected among debris in quiet corners of streams. Mantidactylus pauliani Guibé, 1974 Ankaratra massif:- Nosiarivo & Betay forest, Manjakotompo (a forest station nr. Ambatolampy), alt 2200 m, under boulders in rapids. So far only known from the type region. Mantidactylus peraccae (Boulenger, 1898) R Ivohimanita (T); also at Tampoketsa d’Ankazobe, forest station, alt 1600m; captured from the axil of Pandanus. Related to M. depressiceps. Tree frogs, rest in leaf axils. Not observed in open water. Mantidactylus pliciferus (Boulenger, 1882) East Betsileo (T). Common in mountain ranges. Mantidactylus pulcher (Boulenger, 1882) Betsileo (T); Andrangoloaka, Ambila & Lake Aloatra, Périnet Forest, Itremo. Wery common in all forest regions. Inhabits leaf axils. Eggs deposited in one mass above the water, in leaf axils. Mantidactylus punctatus B.-S.,1979 R All specimens collected in axils of Pandanus at Tampoketsa d’ Ankazobe, forest station alt. 1600m in the relict forest in the gulleys of the Tampoketsa. Mantidactylus pseudoasper Guibé, 1974 R Massif du Marojejy (T). Found in low altitude forest (300m). NB., probably a synonym of M. glandulosus, B.-S., in litt. Mantidactylus redimitus (Boulenger, 1889) "Madagascar’ (T). Known from the eastern region and the massifs of Andringitra, Marojejy and the Anosyenne chain. Mantidactylus tornieri (Ahl, 1928) Anhoraka, Sahambendrana, central Madagascar, also Périnet (highroad R.N.2 at km 142), alt. 900-1100m, Foulpointe (60km north of Toamasina), sea level. Use axils of plants such as Ravenala and Typhonodorum lindleyanum. In the evening they emerge onto the leaves. Egg masses are attached to leaves 30cm - 3m above permanent pools. Mantidactylus tricinctus (Guibé, 1947) Befotaka and Vondrozo. Known from the eastern forest, in the Andringitra mountains and the Anosyenne chain. Mantidactylus ulcerosus (Boettger, 1880) Nosy Bé (T); Montagne d’Ambre, Akkoraka. A very common species in all forest areas. Found in shallow pools and slow running water in marshy land or forest. Mantidactylus webbi (Grandison, 1953) R Nosy Mangabe, Antongil Bay (T). Two individuals from the Farankariana forest station have been assigned to this species. Mantidactylus wittei Guibé, 1974 Surroundings of d’Ambanja (T); also Nosy Bé, Ampijora, Ankarafantsika forest and other western sites. Adults found on the forest floor, and in low vegetation near temporary pools. Egg masses attached to leaves overhanging water. Ground dwelling. Family RHACOPHORIDAE Aglyptodactylus madagascariensis (A. Duméril, 1853) ‘Madagascar’ (T); Anzahamaru, north-west Madagascar. Very common, found in all forested regions. Ground dwelling. B.-S. (1979a) excludes this monotypic genus from the Mantellinae. An environmental profile of Madagascar Boophis albilabris (Boulenger, 1888) R East Imerina (T). Known from the eastern forests. Boophis brygooi (Guibé, 1974) Andringitra mountains (T); known only from type region. An altitude form, appears very common in the Andringitra mountains, where it was collected in abundance as adults and at various stages of metamorphosis in Nov, Dec, and Jan. Boophis callichromus (Ahl, 1928) North-west Madagascar, central Madagascar. Boophis difficilis (Boettger, 1892) Foizana, east Madagascar (T), also Périnet. Never heard or seen during daytime. Males were found on rainy evenings in forest, calling in vegetation beside brooks. Boophis erythrodactylus (Guibé, 1953) Forest of Mahajeby (T), close to Morafenobé, west Madagascar. Also collected in Mandraka Valley, Manjakotompo forest station, Ankaratra Mts, and near Périnet. Males call from leaves of shrubs and trees alongside rapids, in the evening. Boophis goudoti Tschudi, 1838 ‘Madagascar’ (T). Geographically variable, distributed over the whole island. Found in or near stagnant or slow running water in forests and ricefields. Pairs in axillary amplexus found in August. Tadpoles found in slow running water and adjacent pools. Feed on large prey e.g. grasshoppers, moth and beetle larvae. Also found in trees although in general a poor climber. Eggs are deposited in clumps of 30, attached to rocks in water. Reproduction starts at the end of November. Valued as a dietary item. ’Sahabakaka’. Boophis granulosus (Guibé, 1975) Moramanga Forest (T). Young and tadpoles have been collected near Périnet, at 900m and 1100m altitude. Adults found on leaves of shrubs and trees around a pool, near forest; tadpoles found in same pool. Boophis hillenii B.-S., 1979 Near Peérinet (T); also near Ranomafana. Males found calling during a rainy night in shrubbery around temporary pool in forest. Tadpoles found in a temporary pool. Sympatric with B. granulosus and B. idae. Boophis hyloides (E. Ahl. 1929) Central Madagascar (T). Known only from type region. Boophis idae (Steindachner, 1867) Madagascar, (east Betsileo, Fianarantsoa). Known from East Region, Also Mandraka Valley, and near Périnet. Males were heard calling in October and November in the evening, near stagnant sunlit pools. Boophis laurenti Guibé, 1947 Andringitra (T), Cirque Boby. Known only from Andringitra mountains. Uncommon. Boophis leucomaculatus (Guibé, 1975) R Nosy Mangabe, Antongil Bay. Known only from type specimen. Boophis luteus (Boulenger, 1882) Ankafana, Betsileo, (Moramanga, Antsihanaka). Not rare in forests in the East Region. During rainy nights males are heard calling from the leaves of trees & shrubs beside rapids in the forest. Tadpoles occur in swiftly flowing waters. Boophis madagascariensis (Peters, 1874) Madagascar, (Nosy Bé, Akkoraka), East Region. Males call in the evening in low vegetation less than 1m above small shallow muddy streams. During the day occasionally found in leaf axils of large plants. A true forest species. Boophis majori (Boulenger, 1896) Ambohimitombi forest (T). A forest species of the East Region. -192- Boophis mandraka B.-S., 1979 Mandraka Valley (T), probably type locality only. Altitude 1200m. Males were caught calling in shrubbery alongside rapids, on rainy nights. Tadpoles found in flowing water. Boophis microtis (Guibé, 1974) R Anosyenne chain (T). Known only from type locality. Boophis microtympanum (Boettger, 1881) Imerina (T), east Betsileo, known from mountain areas - Ankaratra, Andringitra. Collected in clear mountain brooks with stony bottoms, in wooded country with ericoid bushes. Jumps and climbs poorly. Tadpoles and eggs found in the same brooks as the adults. Eggs (clutch of about 100) are attached to a twig in fast flowing stream. Axillary amplexus. Boophis miniatus (Mocquard, 1902) Forest between Isaka and valley of Ambobo near Taolanaro, south Madagascar. Also near Périnet. Alt. 900m. Not observed during the day. Males found calling in the evening in the vegetation beside forest brooks. Boophis opisthodon (Boulenger, 1888) ‘Madagascar’ (T); forest areas in East Region. A large species, probably breeds in temporary pools. Males found calling in shrubbery 30-50cm above shallow pools in February (these pools had disappeared by July). Calling males were around 10m apart. Boophis pauliani (Guibé, 1953) Forest of Moramanga and Périnet. Boophis rappiodes (Ahl, 1928) Sahambendrana (T); also near Périnet, Mandraka Valley, Moromanga-Anosibe road. Stream breeding. Boophis reticulatus B.-S., 1979 Near Périnet (T), probably type locality only. Males were found on rainy evenings, calling on leaves of shrubs and trees by running water in open woodland. Boophis rhodoscelis (Boulenger, 1882) East Betsileo (T), (Andrangoloaka, Madagascar), East Region. north-west Boophis tephraeomystax (A. Dumeéeril, 1853) Madagascar. Very common in forest areas in the East Region. Common in all coastal areas. Probably the only Boophis sp. occurring in the south-west (the driest part of island) where it is found in the irrigated area around Toliara. A secretive species, sheltering in leaf axils of plants during the dry season. Has the greatest tolerance of drought and heat of all Boophis spp., but is also very prominent in the humid eastern forests. Tadpoles are found in sunlit temporary rainpools with abundant vegetation. Boophis untersteini (Ahl, 1928) Central Madagascar (T), also north-west Madagascar, Mandraka valley, near Périnet, forest station, Tampoketsa d’Ankazobe and the road from Moramanga to Anosibe. Tadpoles collected in slow running water near forest. Boophis viridis B.-S., 1979 Near Périnet (T), probably type locality only. Males were found on a rainy evening, calling on leaves of shrubs and trees, beside running water, in forest. Boophis williamsi (Guibé, 1974) Ambohimirandana (T), Ankaratra mountains. Known only from type localities. Also Manjakotompo forest station, Ankaratra mounatins altitude 2200 m. Tadpoles were collected in clear mountainous brooks with stony bottoms in wooded country. Development may take 2 years as in other montane spp. ENDEMIC FISHES OF MADAGASCAR * = Freshwater species A. ENDEMIC SPECIES Family ARIIDAE *Ancharius brevibarbis Boulenger, 1911. Found in the eastern coastal region and rivers at low altitude, the type specimen comes from Ambohimanga. Particularly common in rivulets of the eastern escarpment, especially around’ Fort Carnot, Ifanadiana and Ambohimanga du Sud. Prefers warm waters. *Ancharius fuscus Steindacher, 1880. Found in the eastern coastal region and rivers at low altitude preferring small riffles and rocky zones. Type specimen found at Tohizona. There are also records from Fenoarivo Atsinanana, the rivers Vohitra and Rianila near Brickaville, River Ranafotsy near Toamasina, Ambanambalo and Tohizona (Baie d’Antongil). Little is known about reproduction or the ecology of this fish. Easily captured by line, the flesh, containing little fat, is widely acclaimed. Arius madagascariensis Vaillant, 1894. Found more or less throughout the coastal regions, but particularly abundant in the lakes and rivers of the west. Type locality is Morondava R., W. Madagascar, other records being Lake Kinkony and St. Augustin, near Tulear. Numerous in lakes and rivers of the west from Sambirano to Onilahy, this fish is known from the following water courses: Betsiboka within the region of Maevatanana, lakes of the central-west coastal region (Sahapy, Tsianaloka, Bemamba), the Mahajanga region and St Augustin near Toliara. Known also from the Pangalanes. On the east coast, it is much rarer and is usually caught singly. A. madagascariensis apparently mounts water courses but is often stopped by the first waterfalls. Biology: Anadromous, entering freshwater to breed, although a period in salt water is necessary for maturation. Migrations are not as regular as some other species and take place in large clean western rivers. Mature fish measure 25-30cm. A mouth brooder which only breeds once a year, producing 45-80 spherical eggs from October to the end of November. Fishing takes place using fixed and movable traps, nets and occasionally by line. Very important fishery, catches may be smoked or sold fresh but are rarely salted. Markets in Antananarivo are an important outlet for smoked fish. In 1983, the sale price was about Mg F 1000/kg. The fishery is decreasing. Family CYPRINODONTIDAE *Pachypanchax homolonotus (Dumeril, 1861). Found in small streams and the ’matsabory’ of the central west and north-west of the island. Considered rare, it is localized in the west from Antseranana and Nosy Bé to Morondava. Records exist from Lac Kinkony, River Maroparosy by Mevatanano, a brook at Andrafiavilo, Manitrano, freshwaters at Ankarana, brook at Antikotozo, marsh at Mihilaka, marsh at Ankirihitra, Maevatanana. Aquarium species (11). *Pantanodon madagascariensis (Arnoult, 1963). Formerly Oryzias. Found in a few forested hill streams around Mahambo, Tampolo-Fenoarivo Atsinanana, and the east coast in acid water of pH 6. It is likely to be more widely distributed than this in the eastern coastal forest region without being anywhere abundant. Considered rare. Family ATHERINIDAE *Bedotia geayi Pellegrin, 1907. Has a wide distribution from the north to the south of the island on the eastern side between the coast and 600 m altitude. Specific records include: Fort Carnot (River Sandranata) Befotaka, (600 m altitude), Karianga (500 m altitude), Toamasina, Mahambo, Taolanaro, River Mananana (100 m altitude) and the mountain streams of Mananjory. It is thought to prefer acid waters. An attractive and sought after aquarium species, which is also eaten locally. Possibly conspecific with B. tricolor. -193- Appendix 2: faunal lists *Bedotia longianalis Pellegrin, 1914. Found in similar regions to B. geayi, although preferring higher altitudes, ca 450-750 m; recorded from Mahambo to Fenoarivo Atsinanana. It generally prefers fresher water than B. geayi. Fished in freshwater and brackish water. *Bedotia madagascariensis Regan, 1903. Freshwater but no type locality known. Found in regions of low-mid altitude on the east coast. Records exist for Maroansetra and Ambodivoangy. Thought to be rare, this fish has a limited distribution. Kiener lists it from the coasts of the east-central region, although Arnoult and Bauchot found it in abundance in the north-east of the island. *Bedotia tricolor Pellegrin, 1932. Regions of low-mid altitude on the east coast. Recorded from rivulets flowing into the River Faraony (Mahakara Province). Attractive species - may be caught for aquarium specimens. Possibly conspecific with B. geayi. *Rheocles alaotresis (Pellegrin, 1914). Found in the shallow basin of Alaotra, high Maningory the Ambatondrazaka basin, Mangoro and the region of Anjozorobe. It reproduces in the spring, females producing 100-200 eggs. Formerly fished in the Lake Alaotra basin, in particular the rivers in the north and northwest of the basin during the wet season; this fishery has since collapsed. This fish was not eaten fresh and is usually dried. *Rheocles sikorae (Sauvage, 1891). Central Madagascar and mountain streams in eastern Madagascar including the forested region of Périnet. Also freshwaters around Mangoro. Caught in baskets and occasionally by line but it does not play an important economic role. *Rheocloides pellegrini Nichols and La Monte, 1931. Monotypic genus. Considered rare, it is found in the Andapa basin in north-east Madagascar, Lake Alaotra and the district of Ambatondrazaka. Family AMBASSIDAE *Ambassis fontoynonti Pellegrin 1932. Relatively uncommon, found in a limited geographical location in the central/east and south-east coastal region of Madagascar. Known from the region of Manakara, Faraony, Rianila and coastal rivulets. Family CICHLIDAE *Oxylapia polli Kiener & Mauge, 1966. Very limited distribution at Marolambo, Toamasina province at about 450 m. Strict ecological niche. Considered likely to be threatened due to its very restricted distribution. An archaic cichlid in a monotypic genus. *Paratilapia polleni Bleeker, 1868. The most widely distributed native cichlid of Madagascar. It exists throughout Madagascar except A) extreme south; B) Isalo and plateau of Horombe; C) above 1400-1600 m altitude; D) some semi permanent rivers of the southwest and certain western zones. There are probably several geographical races. Records exist for Toamaisna, Mahanova, Imerina, Morafena, Befotako (600 m altitude), Midongy au sud (700 m altitude), River Manampetra (500-900 m altitude), Karianga (500 m altitude), Antananarivo (1000-1100 m altitude), Lake Alaotra, Ankarana, Mantasoa, Antsirabé and Rasaobe. Its range has been increased by introductions to waters where it would otherwise have been extirpated by exceptional cold spells e.g. Lake Itasy, although it has since disappeared from the latter. Quite common, but not prolific, it is considered to be vulnerable. Habitat: The most widespread endemic cichlid and most euryhaline, this fish can be found in semi-permanent watercourses, streams and rivers, lakes, lagoons and marshes, in fresh and brackish waters although it does not approach the mouths of rivers. Biology: An adaptable species which can cope with large changes in climate and water chemistry. In mountainous areas, it is limited by temperature, not An environmental profile of Madagascar Paratilapia polleni (contd.) living in waters below 12-13°C. Sexually dimorphic, males have blue and green/yellow colouring. Slow growers, they may reach a maximum of 30 cm and 800 grammes. At the first spawning, 800-900 eggs are produced and on subsequent spawnings this may rise up to a maximum recorded of 3610. Guarded by the parents, incubation is controlled by temperature and lasts for 12 days at 22°C. The nest may be a hollow dug out of the bank. Young fish become independent 4-5 weeks after hatching. Parents may cannibalize the young. Its diet comprises plankton when young, later becoming omnivorous and taking mainly insects and aquatic larvae as well as algae. Fisheries: Prized food fish which was dominant in fisheries of the past, but now of reduced importance as new introduced species compete. Notable fisheries were at Alaotra and around Antananarivo. Experimental aquaculture has taken place in the paddy fields. It is a luxury fish well received in the markets. Introduced tilapias have reduced the numbers of this fish. *Paretroplus dami Bleeker, 1868. Occurs in the north-west at low altitudes. The type specimen was collected from Imerina and records exist for River Sambirano, Ampombilava, Mahanaro and Ambalomainty, Betsiboka, Kamoro, and Mahajamba, Nosy Bé and Lake Ambanga. In the north, the distribution overlaps with P. petiti and in the centre with P. kieneri and P. maculatus. Considered vulnerable. Biology: Little known, likely to be similar to its congeners. Fisheries: In the north-west region this fish does not form an appreciable part of the catch. Some smoked fish were exported to Antananarivo. *Paretroplus kieneri Arnoult, 1960. Fairly widespread being abundant in Lake Kinkony and also found in the regions of Maevatanana, Ambato-Boeni, Tsaramandroso and Kamoro. Overlaps with P. maculatus and P. petiti in Kamoro. Less common than P. petiti in Lake Kinkony. Considered vulnerable. Habitat: Typically freshwater species. In Lake Kinkony it is largely found in areas where vegetation is encroaching or where the lake is very deep. Biology: Thought to reproduce several times per year, the eggs are laid on aquatic vegetation. A tough species, it is surviving where P. petiti has disappeared. Fisheries: Important fisheries in Lake Kinkony, taken by net and occasionally line. Regulated throughout the course of the year. Most of the catch is smoked at Méitsinjo, Mahajanga and Antananarivo and then will keep up to two months. Attempts have been made at aquaculture in the west and in warm interior regions, but it is probable that clean water, a large space and abundant natural food are required. *Paretroplus maculatus Kiener & Mauge, 1966. The most localised member of this genus, being found in the central north-west. Currently known from the region of Lake Amparihibe-Sud (where it was abundant in 1966), Tsaramdroso, Betsiboka and Kamoro. Overlaps in the north of its range with P. dami and with P. kieneri and P. petiti in Kamoro. Considered vulnerable. *Paretroplus petiti Pellegrin 1933. This fish has a wide fragmented range, being known from the north-west coastal area down almost as far south as the Iles Barrren. Type from the River Maintimaso (Mahajanga Province). Records from Maintirano, in Ambanja and in the interior of the country around Tsamandroso, in particular in the small lake of Ampijoroa. It is absent however from several intermediate zones eg. Lake Sahapy, Lake Amparihy, and Matsabory south of Soalala. In Kamoro, P. petiti may previously have been common but is now absent from many lakes and rivers. This is probably due to the degradation of the water by the lateritic mud carried from the Hauts Plateaux as they become increasingly degraded by fire. Abundant in Lake Kinkony, neighbouring lakes and in the region of Tsaramandroso. Overlaps with P. kieneri and P. maculatus in the Kamoro. Considered vulnerable. Habitat: Has a preference for thickly vegetated areas and the edges of lakes. Typically freshwater. Biology: Grows rapidly, reaching 35 cm and exceptionally 40 cm. -194- Paretroplus petiti (contd.) Reproduces prolifically; a female of 25 cm may produce 2000 eggs which are pink and are laid in aquatic vegetation. Breeding occurs during most of the year and fishermen think that the females lay 2-3 times a year. Parents care for the young over two to three months. An omnivore, P. petiti feeds on plankton, algae, insects and small crustaceans as well as the pulp of the tubercles of waterlilies. *Paretroplus polyactis Bleeker, 1878. Limited to an extensive coastal band from Antseranana to Taolanaro and is more common in the canals of the Pangalanes. Occupies freshwater except in the rainy season when it may enter littoral zones. Type collections were made in Toamasina and Imerina. Common in freshwater and estuaries. Habitat: Only species of this genus found on the east coast where it occurs in rivers, streams, coastal lakes and lagoons but rarely enters into the mouths of rivers which are too saline. P. polyactis does not range above an altitude of 250-300 m. Found in fresh and brackish waters, preferring warm, clean, still waters. Biology: Grows rapidly and may attain 40 cm in length. Reproducing throughout November to March, adults make a hollow depression beneath a stump, branch or other object and eggs are laid on the underside. The diet is based on plankton, molluscs and small shrimps. This probably explains the pink colour of the fish flesh. Fisheries: A full bodied good food fish, it is much sought after, especially in the markets of Toamasina which are supplied by fisheries in Ivoloina, Ivondro, Mahatsara and the Pangalanes. In the Pangalanes this fish plays a definite economic role. However, the methods of capture never bring in large hauls - possibly best as the fish appears to have a limited resistance to overfishing. May be raised in ponds and many attempts have been made at Ambila-Lemaitso. It is likely that this clean water fish, which requires space and abundant, natural food, may not be suitable for intensive aquaculture. *Ptychochromoides betsileanus (Boulenger, 1899). Confined to the central and southern central parts of Madagascar, this fish is named after the site of its discovery in Betsileo. It is also known from Lake Itasy, Ambalavao-Fianarantsoa, Mandoto, Haut Matsiatra, Ampamaherana, Mananantanana, Zamandao and Ivohibe. Abundance: Reportedly in decline. In 1933 it was reported that this fish constituted 40% of the species in Lake Itasy but has now effectively disappeared as a result of competition with introduced tilapine fishes Declines are also occurring elsewhere following introductions of tilapia. a este Enea Fibs -e~ sale Boyes mee. eanbargnadt colinpell Aiveo® pitcn Pn ieee? choy cet SAGAS yan t techs) ig adam RNS roe: iieastecstel “es aerwh Antracieete vel posers e it) soils ObOLAN ope aennees uc sileposdxs nieaons iad Aveeriias vo’ TERRE Som Fe pdapyre ens. eau ? Lady, awa Sas xt Lapoee heatett Seiverraneen Cate ol ih: wnphgirented, rasg 3a pi ie on pepe ne ag vdunet . gol aten Preily TRICROMIRCTOAR (ONEELTAR ee =a Madtonionite Lerpotitens* wacqinnt Rp rat, ihe « Bact: forest of Tamer! ~ habs Wy De an rn at pone “ah larwilie’ gateree ot Wane: Rado iui teat Sandadertes 2 renczt ys ; . (4481 oot 3.9) Slemnrabs ue eondmaieatad iercila Dalermdogn De iihis t Penanctvo Atskaaare (NOG ssp aes satan amm® posite ane 8 Baroned, Wor A ACLIIOM qlee ¥ Foca of WA age abavompe | Ae opie ri Piatt 2 eS Pasinet, ii int 03 thea COBL obredotfl * ‘eon ‘gt sid So ‘gulch M dere n> Titer Bardi Tot s+- tare, ‘ae daa abgowh! ehipwatie wy wi? piletimhe eiogoie) Ami aneeerieo, devant cl Man joieetomgia, f hasten (Beet wot) | Satelite erig tamer? Sve rénead- . (wer, nsec a ke Since seberiaasl , Asm oom ' Arras Semarivet Sartore | Caer ean & sdtsia gee Woréed iit | Farcatey > or veeraomees - s/0'6 siily Arras os Trent shina Be ‘Svan Artie basins areal Siceat of tin pbalanne, (0m any ‘ > psacingtes Bote ys lo Wry we x Jide he satrap iS u 1 *—s 4 » hp p Herne! OER é ei ms Ae t ad eh ‘et = Te aie 0 ira qedac* ; ¢ 7 = ~ Dees Tikacens Beeeed GRR 2) -eiaer hin Safe ehlacs = ' % taceegade tows : ‘cas Seresct, (aR Bivge ee ya meets " o ty A a nian’ ooniver paint hanged 4 e Maakan, } SahekD, A , wa siete Wied tn Cnet a: MH tye ou bile Muna QPF8:s a ; Po 2 Pe _ ous 2091) emally — D201 sto ddiott jpaligenes ahaha wera sed ig) sagem tite — Piatt . * «cream lies } i @ysart i 4 5 Rettig Loman my tring( Oe “Piste oly AUETID ASS a= & ei Te nin ht rhe eee -» toe, im =F . 1 12" DAP (ONT saitoad She * pips Ts Liptng ok yeirl.y Baer Gaiety yer & “xo wet | cn oh aepeit, 16 i ry det Dur tt Hy @ Pune, with down \ co precy ME arn arya her, its tL eO, ‘Anire roasy 2 } at 4 up Be Eggs rh aves APPENDIX 3. SPECIES ACCOUNTS This appendix contains individual accounts for selected groups of Madagascan animal species, most of them threatened or possibly so. Classifications of degree of threat follow the IUCN definitions set out below, though it should be noted that in some cases designations are preliminary and should not be taken as official IUCN categories. The categories are defined as follows: Extinct (Ex) Species not definitely located in the wild during the past 50 years (criterion as used in The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora - CITES). Endangered (E) Taxa in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors continue operating. Included are taxa whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that they are deemed to be in immediate danger of extinction. Also included are taxa that are possibly already extinct but have definitely been seen in the wild in the past 50 years. Vulnerable (V) Taxa believed likely to move into the Endangered category in the near future if the causal factors continue operating. Included are taxa of which most or all of the populations are decreasing because of over-exploitation, extensive destruction of habitat or other environmental disturbance; taxa with populations that have been seriously depleted and whose ultimate security has not yet been assured; and taxa with populations which are still abundant but are under threat from severe adverse factors throughout their range. Rare (R) Taxa with small world populations that are not at present Endangered or Vulnerable, but are at risk, These taxa are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are thinly scattered over a more extensive range. Indeterminate (I) Taxa known to be Endangered, Vulnerable, or Rare but where there is not enough information to say which of the three categories is appropriate. Insufficiently Known (K) Taxa that are suspected but not definitely known to belong to any of the above categories, because of lack of information. Out of Danger (O) Taxa formerly included in one of the above categories, but which are now considered relatively secure because effective conservation measures have been taken or the previous threat to their survival has been removed. N.B. In practice, Endangered and Vulnerable categories may include, temporarily, taxa whose populations are beginning to recover as a result of remedial action, but whose recovery is insufficient to justify their transfer to another category. Og. An environmental profile of Madagascar APPENDIX 3.A. BIRDS Data sheets for the following species are provided, extracted from: Collar, N.J. and Stuart, S.N. (1985) Threatened birds of Africa and related islands: the ICBP/IUCN Bird Red Data Book, 3rd edition, part 1. ICBP/IUCN, Cambridge. Tyto soumagnei Brachypteracias leptosomus Brachypteracias squamiger Atelornis crossleyi Uratelornis chimaera Neodrepanis hypoxantha Phyllastrephus apperti Phyllastrephus tenebrosus Phyllastrephus cinereiceps Xenopirostris damit Xenopirostris polleni Monticola bensoni Crossleyia xanthophrys Newtonia fanovanae K Tachybaptus pelzelnii E Tachybaptus rufolavatus K Ardea humbloti V_ Anas bernieri E_ Aythya innotata E Haliaeetus vociferoides E Eutriorchis astur R_ Mesitornis variegata K_ Mesitornis unicolor R_ Monias benschi Sarothrura watersi K Amaurornis olivieri R_ Charadrius thoracicus Ex Coua delalandei TT ATAAAATAAAAR A full reference list is provided at the end of this section. MADAGASCAR LITTLE GREBE INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN Tachybaptus pelzelnii (Hartlaub, 1861) Podicipediformes: Podicipedidae SUMMARY This endemic Madagascar waterbird, common and widespread in the recent past, is known to have suffered a considerable decline in certain areas and, in view of the variety of threats it faces, it is treated here as a case requiring precautionary or preventive measures. DISTRIBUTION The Madagascar Little Grebe is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread from sea-level to 1800 m, and absent only from the subdesert region in the south, including Lake Tsimanampetsotsa (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936, Milon et al. 1973), although there is a specimen in NHMW from the south-west coast (H. Schifter per Z. J. Karpowicz in litt. 1983). POPULATION The species was considered common, 1929-1931 (Delacour 1933, Rand 1936), and locally common, 1942-1944 (van Someren 1947). In 1973 it was still described as common except for at least 15 km around Antananarivo, where it was rare (Milon ef a/. 1973), but other evidence suggests that it was probably no longer common anywhere at that stage and is likely to be less so now. Thus it was found to be abundant at Lake Jhotry in the south-west in December 1929 (Rand 1936) but was extremely rare there, 1960-1966 (Appert 1971b), though 100-150 were present on it in August 1983 (O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984); and, although birds were common at Lake Alaotra, 1929-1931 (Delacour 1932a), in a three-month study of grebes in north-central Madagascar ranging from south and west of Antananarivo to north of Lake Alaotra, 1960, only 10 of this species were seen (at Lake Alaotra and around Andilamena 30 km to the north) and it was "definitely the rarest" of the three species seen and had "considerably decreased in numbers" (Voous and Payne 1965). Despite a report that at least 100 were present at Lake Itasy and on nearby crater-lakes around 1970, this species along with the Madagascar Pond-heron Ardeola idae was then regarded as in complete collapse around Antananarivo (Salvan 1972a). The factors apparently causing the decline at Lakes Ihotry and Alaotra and around Antananarivo are reportedly widespread in Madagascar (e.g. Salvan 1970,1972b, Appert 1971b), and it seems likely that the species will have declined everywhere and may well now be threatened. That it has generally declined has been confirmed. by occasional observations spanning the past 15 or so years (D. A. Turner in /itt. 1983). -218- Appendix 3: species accounts ECOLOGY It inhabits lakes, pools and slow stretches of rivers (Rand 1936), preferably those most richly vegetated with aquatic plants and notably the water-lily Nymphaea stellata, occurring much less often on vegetation-free water (Appert 1971b). The species is considered to be less exclusively piscivorous than either of its congeners in Madagascar, the Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis (with which it is often seen: O. Langrand in litt. 1984) and the Alaotra Grebe T. rufolavatus (Voous and Payne 1965, Appert 1971b) (see relevant account); of eight stomachs of birds collected, 1929-1931, all held aquatic insects, four also feathers (Rand 1936): of five stomachs, 1960, feathers were in four, fish in two, insects in two, a crustacean in one (Voous and Payne 1965). Breeding appears to occur chiefly at the end of the rainy season (February to April), when water-levels are highest and aquatic plants most developed; in favourable conditions it evidently also occurs in the austral spring (August to October) (Appert 1971b; also Rand 1936). In BMNH there is a downy chick from Namoroka (north-west) in March and a female ready to lay from Iampasika (south-east) in August (NJC). Clutch-size is three to four (Milon et al. 1973); nests may be close to each other (see Appert 1971b). The species is forced to move around because many waterbodies annually dry out while others shrink greatly in size (Appert 1971b). THREATS Apart from the pollution of waters around Antananarivo (Salvan 1970,1972b), two major and two less immediately certain threats can be identified, the first three of which are interrelated. Introduced exotic fish The introduction of herbivorous tilapia into many waterbodies throughout Madagascar has apparently resulted in a massive reduction in their vegetation (Appert 1971b), e.g. Lake Ihotry had been rich in water-lilies in 1929, but very few were seen in 1960-1966 (Appert 1971b) although it was only in October 1960 that the lake was successfully stocked with tilapia (Griveaud 1960a). These fish are able to colonise sites away from the release area during the rainy season; only very isolated pools or ones which dry out every year escape (Appert 1971b). All waters found to hold grebes in north-central Madagascar, 1960, had abundant small fish, mainly tilapia (Voous and Payne 1965). The black bass Micropterus salmoides is regarded as both a food-competitor and a predator on downy young of this and other waterbird species (Salvan 1972a). Competition with the Little Grebe The spread through Madagascar of T. ruficollis is outlined in Threats under Alaotra Grebe. Its post-1945 increase in abundance appears to be related to the conditions created by the introduction of exotic fish, since ruficollis 1s more piscivorous than pelzelnii and occurs widely on vegetation-free waters (Voous and Payne 1965, Appert 1971b). "As the structural characters of the invading ruficollis more closely resemble pelzelnii than rufolavatus, it is not unlikely [see Remarks] that the decline of pelzelnii is caused by the recent colonisation of ruficollis. The structure and ecology of these species make it not improbable that the decline will continue" (Voous and Payne 1965). Hybridisation with the Little Grebe A possible hybrid ruficollis x pelzelnii has been described (Benson 1971a) and an apparent pair-bond between birds of these species has been observed in the wild (Benson et al. 1976). This evidence, though at present slight, suggests that as ruficollis spreads and multiplies while pelzelnii contracts and declines, further interbreeding could lead to genetic swamping by the former of the latter. Reduction of wetlands Various factors over the past 50 years have resulted, in the Mangoky region at least, in less water in rivers and lakes and a lowering of the water-table, so that overall there is less grebe habitat (Appert 1971b). Marshes throughout the island have been transformed into rice-fields and fish-farms (Salvan 1970,1972b). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN None is known. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED A modern evaluation of the plight of the Madagascar Little Grebe is required before appropriate measures can be proposed; nevertheless it seems clear that such measures should include the safeguarding of a network of vegetation-rich lakes and pools from the introduction of exotic fish. -219- An environmental profile of Madagascar REMARKS In the passage (from Voous and Payne 1965) quoted under Threats, the original has "likely" for the obviously correct "unlikely": this misprint has been confirmed (K. H. Voous in /itt. 1983). ALAOTRA GREBE ENDANGERED Tachybaptus rufolavatus (Delacour, 1932) Podicipediformes: Podicipedidae SUMMARY This endemic Madagascar waterbird, known chiefly from Lake Alaotra, is in the irreversible process of disappearing through hybridisation with the Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis. DISTRIBUTION The Alaotra Grebe is known primarily from Lake Alaotra (40 km _ by 3-5 km) and adjacent marshes, at c. 700 m in north-eastern Madagascar (Delacour 1932a, Lavauden 1937, Voous and Payne 1965). A prediction that it would be reported from Lake Itasy and other marshes in central Madagascar (Lavauden 1937) has been partially fulfilled, with records from Ankazobé (80 km north of Antananarivo) in December 1947 (Salvan 1971), a crater-lake north of Analavory (80 km west of Antananarivo) on an unknown date (but apparently around 1970) (Salvan 1972a), “Mianinarivo" (correctly, Miarinarivo: J. T. Hardyman in /itt. 1984) (one town of this name is near Analavory and just north of Lake Itasy, another is 100 km north of Lake Alaotra) on an unknown date (Voous and Payne 1965), and Lake Kazanga (just south of Lake Itasy) in July 1971 (when at least 10 were seen) (Salvan 1972a). Moreover, the species has been collected as far south as the Isalo massif, in January 1963, and as far west as Mahajanga in November 1969 (see map in Salvan 1971), and it was seen between the Antsingy massif and Antsalova (near the coast due west of Antananarivo) in July 1970 (Salvan 1971) and in the Antsingy reserve (R.N.I. no. 9 du Tsingy de Bemaraha) itself on an unknown date (but apparently around 1970) (Salvan 1972b) (this and the previous record may perhaps be the same). However, it is to be observed that, since hybridisation with the longer-winged, dispersive Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis has been taking place from at least 1929, and had seemingly intensified by 1960 (see under Threats), and since many hybrids can be extremely difficult to distinguish as such (see Voous and Payne 1965), the validity of many - if not all - of these records away from Lake Alaotra (which remains the only known breeding site) must be doubtful. POPULATION Numbers are unknown, but certainly very small. At Lake Alaotra in May 1929, when 15 specimens were first collected, it was found breeding in fair numbers (Delacour 1932a); in May/July 1960, when 13 more specimens were collected, the estimated total number of birds seen at the lake was 50 (Voous and Payne 1965) (this presumably includes the 13 collected). More recently it has been stated that this species "seems in expansion" (Salvan 1972a), presumably as much in terms of numbers as of range; however, the records that are evidently the basis of this view, apart from the doubt cast on them under Distribution above, can be interpreted in much less encouraging ways, e.g. that they only represent the true but hitherto unrecognised distribution of the species, or even that they reflect an unprecedented dispersal from Lake Alaotra in the face of deteriorating conditions there. However, 12 birds were seen on Lake Alaotra in December 1982 (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). ECOLOGY Lake Alaotra is a large but shallow water-body, in 1929 fringed with dense vegetation (dominated by papyrus and reeds) and dotted with water-lilies (Rand 1936). The Alaotra Grebe is almost exclusively piscivorous (Voous and Payne 1965), breeding April to June in 1929 (Rand 1936), January to March in 1960 (Voous and Payne 1965). Its short wing is considered an indication of highly sedentary behaviour (Voous and Payne 1965), but subsequent records away from Lake Alaotra have been seen to call this assumption in question (Salvan 1972a). THREATS. The species is threatened by hybridisation with the far more widespread and numerous Little Grebe, and by alteration of habitat in its only known breeding area. Although only first noted in any numbers in Madagascar in 1945 (Milon 1946), the Little Grebe was -220- Appendix 3: species accounts evidently fairly widespread in the island in the nineteenth century (up to 17 skins in museum collections), with the earliest record in 1837 and a breeding record from 1895 (Schlegel and Pollen 1868, Hartlaub 1877, Oberholser 1900, Delacour 1933, Milon 1951, Benson 1971a). Despite reports that ruficollis disappeared from near Antananarivo around 1955 (Salvan 1972a, Milon et al. 1973), it was "by far the commonest species" of grebe at and around Antananarivo and Lake Alaotra in 1960 (Voous and Payne 1965) and had also become widespread in the Mangoky river region by this time (Appert 1971b). Its post-1945 increase in abundance appears to be related to the conditions created by the introduction of exotic fish, especially tilapia, into many lakes and pools throughout Madagascar (Appert 1971b). Hybridisation by the Little Grebe with the Alaotra Grebe, though first recognised in the 1960s (Voous and Payne 1965), has been recorded at least as far back as the 1920s (the type-specimen and up to four others of the original series of 15 appear hybrid) (Voous and Payne 1965), and even a specimen from 1862 seems suspect (Benson 1971la). Of 39 grebes collected in north-central Madagascar in 1960, 13 were rufolavatus, 13 ruficollis, and 13 hybrids or suspected hybrids of the two; although there was a bias towards collecting birds that proved to fall into this last category, it seemed likely on this evidence that the pure rufolavatus strain was "doomed to vanish" (Voous and Payne 1965). Observations at Lake Alaotra in April 1971 confirmed that hybridisation with ruficollis was on a large scale (D. A. Turner in /itt. 1983). Tilapia were already in Lake Alaotra in 1960 (Voous and Payne 1965), and while this may not have been directly injurious to the population of the piscivorous rufolavatus (indeed, if rufolavatus 1s truly "in expansion" this may well be due to tilapia) it may have provided greater attraction to the more mobile ruficollis and thus accelerated the rate of genetic swamping, and may equally have reduced cover needed by rufolavatus for breeding. By 1972 Lake Alaotra was said to be of limited interest only, owing to developments there for rice-growing and fish-farming (Salvan 1972b), a view confirmed by recent observations (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN None is known. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Nothing can be done to prevent the extermination of the Alaotra Grebe in the wild; however, a survey to assess its present condition would be most valuable for, if sufficient numbers of "pure" birds survive, it might be feasible to devise a programme of captive propagation for them. MADAGASCAR HERON INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN Ardea humbloti Milne Edwards & Grandidier, 1885 Ciconiiformes: Ardeidae SUMMARY Mostly at best uncommon, this large but very little known Malagasy waterbird was reported in 1973 to have declined alarmingly and to face extinction unless completely protected, although it appears still to be safe in parts of the west coast of Madagascar. DISTRIBUTION The Madagascar Heron occurs thinly throughout western Madagascar, chiefly in coastal and adjacent areas, but apparently rarely in the east. Records of this species are relatively few and many appear to involve wandering individuals. Only three breeding sites appear to have been found, in the extreme north (locality not specified), in the extreme south-west (locality not specified), and on Nosy Manitra off the south-west coast, west of Pointe Fenambosy (Pointe Barrow) (Milon ef al. 1973), although a specimen in BMNH from Lake Ihotry, collected on 8 December 1929, is labelled "breeding" and another in MNHN from Toliara, 18 May 1948, had well developed testes (NJC). Other localities from which birds have been reported are chiefly in the north-west around Mahajanga, including Mahajanga itself (Muddiman 1983), Ampijoroa in the Ankarafantsika area (Milon et al. 1973), Ambato-Boeni (Salvan 1970), along the Betsiboka River between Ambato-Boeni and Mahajanga (O. Langrand in litt. 1984), and Lake Kinkony (Rand 1936); birds have also been found further north on the coast opposite Nosy Bé (Rand 1936), and well to the south at Berevo on the Tsiribihina River (Bangs 1918), at Lakes Masama and Bemamba near Antsalova (O. Langrand in litt. 1984), at Lake Ihotry (Rand 1936) and on a marsh between Lake Ihotry and Morombe (Muddiman 1983). In the central part of Madagascar there have been three records -221- An environmental profile of Madagascar from Antananarivo (Milon 1949, Milon et al. 1973), two from Lake Itasy (Salvan 1970,1972, H. A. W. Payne per K. H. Voous in litt. 1983), one at the lake near Antsimangana, north of Lake Alaotra towards Andimalena, 20 June 1960 (H. A. W. Payne per K. H. Voous in litt. 1983), and an unspecified number (but more than three) from Lake Alaotra itself (Milon et al. 1973, H. A. W. Payne per K. H. Voous in litt. 1983). Although the type-specimen was from the "east coast" (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1885), the only other record from the east is of an immature that stayed near Maroantsetra from December 1982 to April 1983 (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). Individuals have thrice been recorded from the Comoro Islands: Moheli in September 1958 (Benson 1960), Mayotte in October 1965 (Forbes-Watson 1969), and again on Mayotte in July and August 1974 (D. A. Turner in /itt. 1983, A. D. Forbes-Watson pers. comm. 1984). POPULATION Numbers are evidently rather small, and perhaps localised. The colony on Nosy Manitra consisted of five to eight nests, July 1948 (Milon 1948); the other colony in the south-west consists (or consisted) of "several nests each year" (Milon et al. 1973); at the site in the far north it is not clear if more than one nest was found (see Milon e¢ al. 1973). Thirteen birds were collected by the Mission Franco-Anglo-Américaine, 1929-1931 (Delacour 1932a), which appears to be all or almost all of the birds seen during that period of study (reported as three to four opposite Nosy Bé, "a few" at Lake Kinkony, four at Lake Ihotry: see Rand 1936). All other records appear to concern single individuals only. In 1973 it was reported that recent observations had indicated an alarming decline (Milon et al. 1973), but further details were not and have not subsequently been given. Despite all this, two independent observers in the 1970s and 1980s provide more encouraging information, the species being thought "not uncommon" in some areas of the west coast between Mahajanga and Morondava, though rare elsewhere (D. A. Turner in litt. 1983, O. Langrand in litt. 1984); it has also been found "very common" in two areas, along the Betsiboka River, where 40 were counted between Ambato-Boeni and Mahajanga, April 1982, and at Lakes Masama and Bemamba, date unspecified (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). ECOLOGY The ecology of this species is probably much as other large herons Ardea, although the large bill, sombre colouring and observed adroitness in mandibulating prey are considered evidence of specialisation for feeding on large mobile fish rather than on a wider range of aquatic prey (Hancock and Elliott 1978). Both small and large fish (including a 48 cm eel) are recorded as food (Rand 1936, Benson 1960, Forbes-Watson 1969); it feeds in shallow water in lakes and along river banks and on the seashore (e.g. on reefs, at fish-weirs and in estuaries), and is recorded also from rice-fields (Rand 1936, Benson 1960, Forbes-Watson 1969, O. Langrand in /itt. 1984). Although apparently solitary, it nests in mixed heronries; at one site (in the far north of Madagascar) it has been found nesting at ground level in a vegetation-swathed coral hollow (Milon ef al. 1973). Breeding (clutch-size three) has been reported in July (Milon et al. 1973) and is considered likely (from gonad condition) in December (Rand 1936). Natural predators may include the Madagascar Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides, since a bird has been seen to be attacked by one of these raptors, escaping by diving under water (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). THREATS The species is perhaps naturally uncommon and localised, and very possibly in competition with the more numerous Grey Heron Ardea cinerea and Purple Heron A. purpurea. The species’s large size and relative tameness were considered in 1973 to expose it to risk, presumably from native hunters, and it was asserted that, having recently suffered an alarming decline, it would soon become extinct unless completely and carefully protected (Milon ef al. 1973). In 1961, however, under Decree no. 61-096, both Grey and Purple Herons - although represented by endemic Malagasy subspecies - were classified as harmful animals, a situation which still obtained in 1973 (Forbes-Watson and Turner 1973): to the untrained eye the Madagascar Heron is so like these species that it cannot have escaped any persecution of them that may have been - and perhaps still is - officially encouraged. Ardeid colonies commonly suffer exploitation by locals for eggs (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). Rice-growing is reportedly beginning to alter Lake Bemamba (O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN None is known; however, in 1948 the wood which held the colony on Nosy Manitra was protected through a local taboo (Milon 1948, Milon et al. 1973). -222- Appendix 3: species accounts CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Studies are needed to determine the number and distribution of colonies of this species, its ecological requirements and long-term trends: such work might be linked with similar work on the Madagascar Pond-heron Ardeola idae, and on the endangered Madagascar Fish Eagle. Complete and active protection for it (including the banning of further collection of specimens) and for its breeding sites is essential (Milon ef al. 1973, Hancock and Elliott 1978). The prohibition of the taking by locals of colonial waterbirds’ and seabirds’ eggs would be a great step forward for conservation in Madagascar (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). For the need for a general ornithological survey of both west and east coast wetlands in Madagascar, and for the possible importance of wetlands around Cap St.André and of a proposed faunal reserve in the Antsalova region, see Conservation Measures Proposed under Madagascar Teal Anas bernieri. REMARKS "This and perhaps Swinhoe’s Egret [Egretta eulophotes, treated in King 1978-1979} may claim to be the two heron species which are most in need of every care and protection if they are to survive" (Hancock and Elliott 1978). MADAGASCAR TEAL VULNERABLE Anas bernieri (Hartlaub, 1860) Anseriformes: Anatidae SUMMARY This little known and evidently much persecuted duck, endemic to Madagascar, has been recorded from a few sites along the west coast and its total numbers must be very low. DISTRIBUTION Apart from an apparently unsubstantiated assertion that it occurs on the east coast (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1885) and a specimen in Grenoble collected by L. Lavauden at Lake Alaotra on 5 September 1932 (O. Langrand in litt. 1984), the Madagascar Teal is known only from localities close to the western coast of Madagascar, from the far north as far south as Lake Ihotry. There are four specimens, dated 1934, from Montagne d’Ambre (far north) in MNHN, Paris (SNS). The species was collected in June 1969 at Ambilobe (far north-west) (Salvan 1970) and in the last century from the "north-western coast" (Schlegel 1866), this presumably referring to the undated specimen in RMNH from "Bonbetak Baai", i.e. the Baie de Bombetoka at Mahajanga (NJC). A pair was seen in September 1983 on Lake Kinkony (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). Two birds were collected in July/August 1930 in the western savannas near Maintirano (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936); one was seen at Bekopaka around this time (Delacour 1956), and a possible sight-record of a pair in July 1929 at Ankavandra (Rand 1936) would constitute the most inland record for the species (up the Manambolo river east of Antsalova), although subsequently the Antsalova region (especially Lake Bemamba) was shown to be a major area for it in the 1970s (Salvan 1970,1972b, Scott and Lubbock 1974): Lake Bemamba is a shallow saline lake drying up in September/October, when the species is thought to disperse either to the Soahanina estuary or to the remaining small freshwater pools and lakes in the forests and rice-fields (Scott and Lubbock 1974). The species has also been recorded in the last century from around Morondava (Grandidier 1868; two specimens in RMNH: NJC) and in 1957 (but apparently not subsequently: see Threats) from Lake Ihotry (south-east of Morombe) (Griveaud 1960a). These data confirm (but slightly extend) the species’s range, anticipated and mapped as from Ambilobe to north of Morombe on the basis of apparent habitat requirements within the 500 to 1,500 mm isohyets (see Salvan 1970 and under Ecology). POPULATION Although not considered rare on the west coast in the last century (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1885) it was described as very rare and localised by around 1930 (Delacour 1932a,b); and although it has more recently been judged probably less rare than records suggest (Milon et al. 1973) the only evidence of this is from the Lake Bemamba region, where 13 birds were shot in 1970 (Salvan 1970,1972b) and, on Lake Bemamba itself, 81 birds were seen (10 pairs on the eastern shore, 61 individuals maximum on the western) and no more than 120 estimated for the whole lake, August 1973 (Scott and Lubbock 1974); this concentration was considered probably "the largest for hundreds of miles" (Scott and Lubbock 1974). -223- An environmental profile of Madagascar ECOLOGY In the nineteenth century the Madagascar Teal was reported as occurring in small flocks on estuaries, marshes or pools (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1885), but at least in July and August the species appears to occur in rather isolated pairs (Salvan 1970, Scott and Lubbock 1974; see also records from 1929 and 1930 above). It appears to occur on marshes where recent alluvia and pliocene soils mingle, in herbaceous savanna (with Hyparrhenia and Heteropogon), mangrove, and dense deciduous forest (Salvan 1970). Birds feed in shallow water or on mud at the water’s edge, but have not been observed to drink or fly to fresh water (Scott and Lubbock 1974). From courtship activities seen in August, birds were expected to breed from mid-September; natives reported breeding in November and April, with clutch-size variously claimed as 2-4 and 8-10 (Scott and Lubbock 1974). THREATS'7 The hunting of waterfowl in Madagascar was, at least until recently, very widespread and very intense (Salvan 1970,1972b, Forbes-Watson and Turner 1973). Although hunting pressure at Lake Bemamba did not appear to be great in August 1973, there was some poaching (Scott and Lubbock 1974) and the area had been recently opened up for hunting by the building of an airport at Ambereny (Salvan 1972b), such that by the early 1980s many hunters were coming there by private airplane from (e.g.) Mahajanga and Antananarivo (O. Langrand in /itt. 1984); moreover, locals have reported that they hunt the Madagascar Teal with dogs and plunder nests for eggs (Scott and Lubbock 1974). The impact of such depredations elsewhere in Madagascar is not known. The importance to the species of habitat free of the influence of tilapia and black bass Micropterus salmoides is also unknown, but the absence of records from Lake Ihotry after 1957 may indicate that introduced fish pose a threat to the species (for details see Threats under Madagascar Little Grebe Tachybaptus pelzelnii). At least in the southern part of the Teal’s range (in the Mangoky region), various factors over the past 50 years have resulted in less water in rivers and lakes and a lowering of the water-table, so that overall there is less habitat for aquatic birds (see Appert 1971b). Marshes throughout the island have been transformed into rice-fields and fish-farms (Salvan 1970,1972b), and rice-growing is now reportedly beginning to alter Lake Bemamba (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN Hunting is supposed to be banned on Lakes Bemamba and Masama in the Antsalova region, also on parts of Lakes Kinkony and_ Ihotry (Andriamampianina 1976). The species is listed on Appendix II of CITES, to which Madagascar is a party. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED The area west of the north-south line between Antsalova and Bekopaka is so rich ornithologically - but particularly because of its population of Madagascar Teal - that a faunal reserve there has been urged, if only at least for Lake Bemamba (Salvan 1972b; also Salvan 1970), formally recommended (IUCN 1972) and supported (Milon et al. 1973, Scott and Lubbock 1974), but no action appears to have been taken; such a reserve would form a valuable westwards extension of the existing reserve at Antsingy (R.N.I. no. 9 du Tsingy de Bemaraha), and would be likely to provide a major sanctuary for several other threatened bird species, notably the Madagascar Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides, Madagascar Heron Ardea humbloti and Sakalava Rail Amaurornis olivieri (see relevant accounts), and also perhaps the Madagascar Pond-heron Ardeola idae. Reassessment of the Lake Bemamba situation is now urgent, especially given that there were 70% more waterfowl in the 1940s than in 1973 (Scott and Lubbock 1974). In general, this species deserves a detailed study at one site to determine its annual requirements and a survey throughout western Madagascar to determine its remaining populations and strongholds. Some of this work could be coupled with attempts to locate populations of the Sakalava Rail, and with survey work on the Madagascar Fish Eagle, Heron, and Pond-heron. In this respect it is to be noted that the extensive wetlands (as shown in IGNT 1964) that lie between Ankasakasa/Cap St.André and Tambohorano appear to have been wholly unstudied by ornithologists and merit inclusion in any future survey. Moreover, the wetlands and associated shorelines along the east coast, from Sambava northwards and Toamasina southwards, have been similarly neglected at least in this century, and in view of nineteenth century records from the east for no fewer than four threatened "west coast" birds (Madagascar Heron, Teal, Fish Eagle and Plover Charadrius thoracicus) and of the likely importance of these wetlands for many other bird species, a general ornithological survey is clearly needed along the coastlines indicated above. -224- Appendix 3: species accounts REMARKS Only one specimen of this duck appears ever to have been kept in captivity; it proved hardy (Delacour 1956). MADAGASCAR POCHARD ENDANGERED Aythya innotata (Salvadori, 1894) Anseriformes: Anatidae SUMMARY This freshwater diving duck, endemic to Madagascar, is extremely poorly known and since 1930 it has become increasingly rare, but nothing appears to have been done to help it. DISTRIBUTION The Madagascar Pochard is apparently confined to lakes and pools in the northern central plateau of Madagascar. The main site for the species is Lake Alaotra (Delacour 1932a,b, Rand 1936, Lavauden 1937, Milon et al. 1973), although there have been no published records from there since the 1930s. However, two flocks (of five and three birds) were seen in the south-east part of the lake between Andreba and Ambatosoratra, 26 May 1960, a flock of 20 (one shot, now in ZMA) was seen at Ambatosoratra, 9 June 1960, and a flock of five was seen on the north-east side near Imerimandroso, 5 July 1960 (H. A. W. Payne per K. H. Voous in itt. 1983); but a recent two-week search of Lake Alaotra failed to locate the species (O. Langrand in /itt. 1984). In the 1930s Lake Itasy (west of Antananarivo) was identified as another locality (Lavauden 1937) but there are no subsequent records despite visits in 1969-1971, when the single record for the Antananarivo area was of a pair on Lake Ambohibao, 18 March 1970 (Salvan 1970,1972a). Around 1930 the species was seen on a small pond near Antsirabe (Rand 1936; see Remarks) and it was recently noted that three were collected in 1915 at Ambatomainty, near Maevatanana (Benson ef al. 1976). On the 15 June 1960 two were seen at a barrage near Ambadivato, in the Andilamena region 70 km north of Lake Alaotra (H. A. W. Payne per K. H. Voous in litt. 1983). The type-specimen is from Betsileo country (Warren 1966), i.e. the southernmost named area for the species (Betsileo people mapped in Deschamps 1960, also Locamus 1900). POPULATION Numbers are probably at best extremely small. Around 1930 the species was common and bred at Lake Alaotra, and 27 were collected (Delacour 1932a,b, Rand 1936). The lake was revisited several times in the 1930s and live birds were captured (Webb 1936,1954). Since then it has become increasingly rare (Milon ef al. 1973). Indeed, since this time the only published record is of the pair seen in 1970 (see Distribution). Two independent observers in Madagascar during the 1970s and 1980s are united in the belief that this bird is on the brink of extinction (D. A. Turner in Jitt. 1983, O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984). ECOLOGY The Madagascar Pochard is (or was) found on lakes, pools and freshwater marshes with open water, where it feeds by diving; it is rather solitary, otherwise in pairs, and not easy to observe; it nests in a large tuft of reeds or aquatic vegetation, March/April, clutch-size being two (Milon et al. 1973). THREATS Large-scale duck-shooting has been blamed for the evidently disastrous decline of this species (Forbes-Watson and Turner 1973). The introduction of black bass Micropterus salmoides and other exotic fish (e.g. tilapia) into the lakes and pools of the high central plateaus has certainly had a serious impact on native wildlife (see Salvan 1970) and may be responsible for the loss of food and/or destruction of young of this species. Gill-net fishing of exotic fish may also take a heavy toll of adults (A. D. Forbes-Watson pers. comm. 1984). By 1972 Lake Alaotra was said to be of limited interest only, owing to developments there for rice-growing and fish-farming (Salvan 1972b), a view confirmed by recent observations (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN None is known. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Legal protection for this species (and many others endemic to Madagascar) was urged in a letter to the Director, Service des Eaux et -225- An environmental profile of Madagascar Foréts, Chasse et Péche, over 10 years ago (see King 1978-1979). It is not known if any measures were adopted. A survey is now urgently needed to determine its distribution and numbers, and to provide information from which its conservation can be planned and implemented. This is one species that ought to be savable through captive breeding (see below). REMARKS The species was frequently bred in captivity prior to World War II, but it is not known to be currently represented in captive collections (Delacour 1959). The locality Antsirabe is assumed (and almost certain) to be that at 19°51’S 47°01’E, not that at either 17°11’°S 45°OV’E or 13°59’S 49°59’E (in TAW 1980). MADAGASCAR FISH EAGLE ENDANGERED Haliaeetus vociferoides Desmurs, 1845 Falconiformes: Accipitridae SUMMARY This little known Madagascar raptor, now confined to rivers and shorelines of the west coast north of Morondava, has declined to a point where it may be close to extinction, yet a project first proposed in early 1979 to survey the species and determine its needs has consistently failed to receive funding. DISTRIBUTION The Madagascar Fish (or Sea) Eagle is confined to the west coast of central to northern Madagascar, from Morondava north to Diego Suarez. It was formerly reported from the east coast (Grandidier 1867, Hartlaub 1877, Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1879), but these records all appear to be repetitions of each other and based on a single somewhat insubstantial reference to its occurrence near Toamasina in 1862 (Vinson 1865). However, a male was collected on 25 December 1879 at Ampahana (specimen in RMNH: NJC), the only locality of this name (in Office of Geography 1955) being at 14°45’S 50°13’E, with an adjacent coastal lake of the same name, i.e on the north-east coast between Antalaha and Sambava; moreover, five days later the same collector (J. Audebert) obtained another male at "Andrimpona" (specimen in RMNH: NJC), this presumably being the "Andempona" that is marked as the next village (a few kilometres) north of Ampahana, rather than the "Andempona" marked as just north of Sambava (in Locamus 1900). In 1891 it was reported as "all along the western coast and on the numerous small islands off the north-west of the mainland" (Sibree 1891) and this is probably close to the true situation at that time, although evidence of its occurrence in the southern half of the west coast is extremely feeble. Four main general regions have been identified (although these may merely reflect ornithological activity): Nosy Bé and the coastline opposite, the Lake Kinkony region, the Antsalova region, and the coastline between the Mangoky and Fiherenana Rivers, the species apparently being extinct now in this last region. In the first of these regions, eight specimens were collected in two weeks around 1930 on the mainland opposite Nosy Bé (Rand 1936) and there are recent reports of the species from Nosy Bé itself (Thiollay and Meyburg 1981, D. A. Turner in /itt. 1983). In the second region, there are records from Mahajanga (Kaudern 1922), Lake Kinkony itself, Ambararatabe and Soalala (Rand 1936); in August 1969 the area in the Soalala - Namakia - Lake Kinkony triangle was identified as a major stronghold, at least 11 birds being seen in three days between Mahajanga and Lake Kinkony (D. A. Turner in litt. 1983), and a pair was seen there in 1980, east of Mitsinjo along the Mahavavy River (Thiollay and Meyburg 1981). In the third region, eight birds were seen over Lake Masama and the Manambolo River in July 1970 (Salvan 1971, Milon et al. 1973, Langrand and Meyburg 1984) and there have been more recent records (Thiollay and Meyburg 1981), including four adults and two juveniles over Lake Masama in June 1982 (Langrand and Meyburg 1984), so that the rectangle of the lakes and marshes between Antsalova, Bekopaka and the sea is now regarded as the last likely area offering hope for the species’s survival (Meyburg 1979a, Langrand and Meyburg 1984). In the fourth region, the species was reported from near Morombe around 1930 (Rand 1936) and as frequent in one area around 1960, but not to be found a decade later (Milon et al. 1973); there were in fact seven sightings of single birds in the Morombe region, 1959-1975 (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). It is probable that the species was recorded at several unnamed sites along the north-west coast around 1930, given that 27 specimens were collected there "from west of Montagne d’Ambre" (specimen in BMNH: NJC) "to Lake Kinkony" (Delacour 1932a); it was -226- Appendix 3: species accounts reported near Antsohihy in the 1940s (van Someren 1947), and there are specimens in BMNH and MNHN from Anorontsangana, north of Maromandia (NJC,SNS). Breeding was reported in the early 1970s from Lake Ampijoroa (Ankarafantsika), well inland from Mahajanga (Salvan 1971, Milon et al. 1973), but the pair involved was reported not to have produced young for several years prior to 1978 (Meyburg 1979a, B.-U. Meyburg pers. comm. 1983; see Remarks under Van Dam’s Vanga Xenopirostris damii). Nesting has also recently been recorded on a small island c. 30 km west of Diego Suarez, and there is a recent record from north of Maintirano, five birds being reported shot in this region (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). There appear to be two or three old records from Mauritius (Benson 1970). POPULATION In the last century the species was not rare and was often seen in the north-west (Schlegel and Pollen 1868), was still fairly common there around 1930 (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936) but was considered scarce in the 1940s (van Someren 1947). Despite the fairly recent records from Lakes Kinkony and Masama (see above), at the end of the 1970s it was estimated that only 10 pairs survived (Meyburg 1979a, Thiollay and Meyburg 1981). More recently, this estimate has been raised to 30 pairs (O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984). Nevertheless, the species is still to be considered one of the rarest birds of prey in the world (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). ECOLOGY It is largely a coastal species, inhabiting estuaries and mangrove-bordered bays where shallow waters facilitate fishing, but also lakes and rivers (Grandidier 1867, Schlegel and Pollen 1868, Rand 1936). It takes fish from water in a plunge-dive (Grandidier 1867, Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1879, Rand 1936), though attacks on large waterbirds (Spoonbill Platalea alba and Madagascar Heron Ardea humbloti) have been witnessed (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). It is commonly found in pairs at traditional sites (Grandidier 1867, Rand 1936), and builds a large nest in the highest tree of forest along the coast or up a river (Schlegel and Pollen 1868), though the nest near Diego Suarez (see Distribution) was on a cliff 6-8 m high (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). It breeds in the dry season (Milon ef ai. 1973), towards the start of the rains (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1879), but not in November/December (Rand 1936). Only one young is raised (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1879, Milon et al. 1973) though two eggs are laid (Milon et al. 1973, Langrand and Meyburg 1984). Age of first breeding is put at four or five years (Milon et al. 1973). The records from Mauritius (and also perhaps from the east coast) suggest a powerful dispersive ability. THREATS The reasons for the decline of this species are unclear (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). Shooting by amateur hunters was suspected to have caused its disappearance between the Mangoky and Fiherenana Rivers (Milon et al. 1973), and five birds have been reported shot in recent years in the Maintirano area (Langrand and Meyburg 1984); deliberate destruction of nests is also stated to occur (Thiollay and Meyburg 1981). Rice-growing is reportedly beginning to alter Lake Bemamba (O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN A leaflet has been produced to increase public awareness of the species’s plight (Fonds d’Intervention pour les Rapaces no. 9 [1983]: 44, Langrand and Meyburg 1984). Along with all Falconiformes, it is included on Appendix II of CITES, to which Madagascar is a party. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Full protection for this bird is merited (Milon et al. 1973). A faunal reserve has been urged for the Antsalova region, identified above (under Distribution) as perhaps this species’s last stronghold (see Conservation Measures Proposed under Madagascar Teal Anas bernieri). Since early 1979, a proposal to survey and census it from the air, as a first step to determining further conservation action, has languished for lack of financial support, despite repeated inclusion in the annual ICBP programme. It is to be noted that a similar problem exists for the Madagascar Serpent Eagle Eutriorchis astur and that these two raptors, among the world’s rarest and yet without any conservation action on their behalf, remain the highest priorities for such action at present (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). For the need for a general ornithological survey of east coast wetlands in Madagascar, and for the possible importance of wetlands around Cap St.André, see Conservation Measures Proposed under Madagascar Teal. -227- An environmental profile of Madagascar REMARKS It is to be hoped that in the course of the proposed survey and resulting research and action for this species it will be possible to accommodate the study and conservation of three other birds of considerable importance, the Madagascar Teal, the Madagascar Heron Ardea humbloti (see relevant accounts) and the Madagascar Pond-heron Ardeola idae. MADAGASCAR SERPENT EAGLE ENDANGERED Eutriorchis astur Sharpe, 1875 Falconiformes: Accipitridae SUMMARY This very poorly known Madagascar rainforest raptor was last seen by an ornithologist over 50 years ago, and hopes for its survival are largely pinned on the conservation of adequate areas of primary forest in the central-east and north-east of the island. DISTRIBUTION The Madagascar Serpent Eagle is confined to the eastern rainforests of Madagascar, and known from only eight specimens, all collected more than 50 years ago (four in MNHN, two in AMNH, one in BMNH and one in Grenoble) (A. Fayaud in Jitt. 1983, G. S. Keith in litt. 1983, NJC); a further specimen reportedly in Berlin (Lavauden 1937) cannot be traced (B.-U. Meyburg in litt. 1984). The species was first described from a single specimen collected (presumably around 1874) "in the southern portion of Madagascar" (Sharpe 1875) though the locality was later identified as "Ampasimanavy", a hamlet in the forest a day’s march from Andakana village, in the Mangoro valley between Antananarivo and Mahanoro (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1879; see Remarks). A second bird, dated 1883 and labelled simply "Madagascar", was collected by L. Humblot (specimen in MNHN: NJC). In April 1924 a male was obtained in forest at Fito, i.e. Sihanaka forest (specimen in AMNH: G. S. Keith in litt. 1983). The Expédition Citroenen en Afrique obtained a bird at an unknown date and from an unknown locality (specimen in MNHN: NJC), although it is known that the Citroen team arrived in Antananarivo in June 1925 (R. D. Etchécopar in Jitt. 1984). Four specimens were collected in the period 1928-1930, one from Rogez at 900 m in eastern central Madagascar (18°50°S_ 48°35°E), December 1928 (Lavauden 1932, Benson et al. 1976), one from Analamazaotra near Périnet (i.e. also near Rogez), 11 June 1930 (specimen in Grenoble: A. Fayaud in litt. 1983), and two from around Maroantsetra (one at sea level at Bevato, 40 km north-west of Maroantsetra up the Vohémar River, 8 May 1930, the other at 600 m at “Ambohimarahavary" [see Remarks under Short-legged Ground-roller Brachypteracias leptosomus], two days’ march north-east of Maroantsetra, 6 July 1930) in the north-east of the island (Rand 1932,1936). The species has been reported to occur as far south as Farafangana (Lavauden 1937), although there appears to be no evidence for this other than that a bird, either this species or Henst’s Goshawk Accipiter henstii (see Remarks), was seen at Vondrozo (inland from Farafangana), June or July 1929 (Rand 1932). A forestry official reported making four or five sightings of a raptor closely answering this species’s description over the period 1964-1977 in the Marojejy Reserve, north-west of Andapa in north-eastern Madagascar (Meyburg and Meyburg 1978, Meyburg 1979b, Thiollay and Meyburg 1981). There have been no other reports since 1930 though it is hoped the species may also survive on the Masoala peninsula in the north-east (Meyburg and Meyburg 1978, Meyburg 1979b). POPULATION Numbers are unknown, but the species was repeatedly described as very rare fifty years ago (Delacour 1932a, Lavauden 1932, Rand 1936), so presumably it is very much more so at present: indeed it is authoritatively considered one of the six rarest birds of prey in the world (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). However, since it has also been said to be very shy (Lavauden 1932) it has conceivably avoided detection in several areas, although the forestry official who claimed to have seen it in the Marojejy Reserve (see above) considered it relatively fearless (B.-U. Meyburg in /itt. 1983). At any rate, to treat the species as extinct (Day 1981) is on present information irresponsibly pessimistic. ECOLOGY This bird inhabits primary rainforest, although it has also been recorded in secondary growth at the edge of dense forest (Lavauden 1932, Rand 1936). Its short wings and long tail are considered adaptations for flight below the canopy (Lavauden 1932,1937), although it is also considered a bird of the tree-tops (Lavauden 1937). One of the birds -228- Appendix 3: species accounts collected near Maroantsetra contained part of a very large chameleon (Rand 1936), but the species is also reported to attack lemurs and even poultry belonging to forest guards (Lavauden 1932) and to feed chiefly on mammals (Lavauden 1937). There appears to be no direct evidence that it eats snakes (see Remarks). There are no breeding data (Lavauden 1937). THREATS Destruction and disturbance of primary rainforest is the single most serious threat to this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar. "The present wholesale destruction of the forest" (i.e. rainforest) was being lamented almost 100 years ago (Baron 1890) but has continued unabated throughout the present century (Humbert 1927, Heim 1935, Rand 1936, Swingle 1937, Louvel 1950, Chauvet 1972, McNulty 1975, Guillaumet 1981) and is now proceeding so "incredibly fast" that "good places four or five years ago are already destroyed" and "within the next five years ... all the good [i.e. rich, lowland] forests will vanish" (B.-U. Meyburg in /itt. 1983). It is estimated that in the years 1981-1985 loss of primary forest in Madagascar will be 35,000 ha per year, most of this in the eastern rainforests and most of it as a result of slash-and-burn ("tavy") cultivation. The de-gazetting of the Masoala Forest Nature Reserve (R.N.I. no. 2) is highly regrettable (see Conservation Measures Proposed). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN The species’s reported presence in the Marojejy Reserve (R.N.I. no. 12), which covers 60,150 ha (Andriamampianina 1981), reinforces the importance of this protected area; however, it has been pointed out that only the lower parts of the reserve provide suitable habitat, the higher-lying areas lacking sufficient vegetation (Meyburg 1979b). A "Special Reserve" also exists at Périnet-Analamazaotra, where the Madagascar Serpent Eagle was once recorded (see Distribution), but only covers 810 ha (Andriamampianina 1981) and the species evidently does not now occur there. Along with all Falconiformes it is included on Appendix II of CITES, to which Madagascar is a party. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Immediate and effective protection of as much remaining rainforest as possible would almost certainly guarantee the survival of this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar: this was formally recommended in 1970 (IUCN 1972). Complete protection of the intact parts of "Sihanaka forest" is of extreme importance, being the single most important tract of unprotected bird habitat at present known in Madagascar: with the reasonable exception of the Snail-eating Coua Coua delalandei and the Red-tailed Newtonia Newtonia fanovanae (see relevant accounts), all Madagascar rainforest birds here treated as threatened have been recorded there, namely the Brown Mesite Mesitornis unicolor, Madagascar Red Owl Tyto soumagnei, Short-legged Ground-roller, Scaly Ground-roller Brachypteracias squamiger, Rufous-headed Ground-roller Atelornis crossleyi, Yellow-bellied Sunbird-asity Neodrepanis hypoxantha, Dusky Greenbul Phyllastrephus tenebrosus, Grey-crowned Greenbul P. cinereiceps, Pollen’s Vanga Xenopirostris polleni and Madagascar Yellowbrow Crossleyia xanthophrys (see relevant accounts). "Sihanaka forest" is technically a misnomer, since the Sihanaka people are to the west of the central rainforest belt, which is inhabited by the Betsimisaraka people (J. T. Hardyman in Jitt. 1984); the name appears to have been imposed by explorers to stand crudely for the broad belt of humid forest from the coast to the Mangoro valley, east and south of Lake Alaotra and in particular in the Toamasina hinterland, notably between the towns of Didy and Fito (see, e.g., the map in Delacour 1932a). Proposals for a comprehensive ornithological survey of Madagascar’s rainforests, to feature studies of the Sihanaka forest, the adjacent Zahamena Nature Reserve (R.N.I. no. 3), and other protected areas of rainforest, with particular emphasis on the Serpent Eagle, are to be drawn up as part of an overall plan for bird conservation and research on the island. A proposal in 1979 to search for this species in the Marojejy Nature Reserve and later on the Masoala peninsula (Meyburg 1979b) was adopted as WWF Project 1368, and the required sums were raised; however these sums were not released and the project did not proceed (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). It is to be noted that a similar problem has existed for the Madagascar Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides and that these two raptors, among the world’s six rarest and yet without any conservation action on their behalf, remain the highest priorities for such action at present (Langrand and Meyburg 1984). The re-gazetting of the Masoala Forest Nature Reserve (R.N.I. no. 2) was formally recommended in 1970 (IUCN 1972). REMARKS This species is the only one in its genus (see Sharpe 1875). Concerning the type-locality, Andakana is at 19°22’S 48°05’E on the Mangoro River (Office of Geography 1955, IGNT 1964); neither "Ampasimanavy" nor "Ampasmonhavo" (the name given apropos -229- An environmental profile of Madagascar other species in Sharpe 1875) can be traced (Office of Geography 1955, IGNT 1964), but there is an "Ampasimaneva" a few kilometres to the south of Andakana (see IGNT 1964) which must surely be the site (19°24’S 48°04’E). This is also the type-locality of the Rufous-headed Ground-roller (Sharpe 1875) and it is therefore of considerable importance to establish whether good forest still stands in that part of the Mangoro valley. Concerning the name "serpent eagle", confusion may arise in field studies since one French name for the Madagascar Harrier-hawk Polyboroides radiatus is “serpentaire" (A. D. Forbes-Watson pers. comm. 1984): possibly "crested eagle" or "forest eagle" would be a more appropriate name for E. astur. It has been remarked that there is great similarity between specimens of the Madagascar Serpent Eagle and those of Henst’s Goshawk (A. Fayard in litt. 1983), and the AMNH specimen from Fito was originally labelled as the latter species (G. S. Keith in /Jitt. 1983): given the importance of museum material in clarifying the range of the former, a check needs to be made of skins of Henst’s Goshawk to confirm their identity, and details of any Serpent Eagles thus (or otherwise) discovered are requested to be forwarded to ICBP. Not having been seen with certainty in the wild for over 50 years, by CITES criteria this species would now be considered extinct. WHITE-BREASTED MESITE RARE Mesitornis variegata (1. Geoffroy Sainte-Hilaire, 1838) |Gruiformes: Mesitornithidae SUMMARY This rail-like terrestrial forest bird is currently known from only two sites in Madagascar, one of which is, however, a protected area. DISTRIBUTION’ Although the White-breasted Mesite was first found in 1834 at an unspecified locality in Madagascar, almost a century passed (during which all records of this species are attributable to the Brown Mesite Mesitornis unicolor: see Lavauden 1931) before it was rediscovered: an adult female was collected on 12 July 1929 in Ankarafantsika forest (110 km south-east of Mahajanga), north-west Madagascar, and a nest with two eggs was found there in October that year (Lavauden 1931,1932). A year later, on 10-11 November 1930, two males and a gravid female were collected at Ankarana cliffs, 25 km south-west of Tsarakibany, in the far north of the island (Rand 1936). A few were seen in 1971 at Ankarafantsika (Forbes-Watson et al. 1973) and further visits there through the 1970s consistently resulted in sightings (D. A. Turner pers. comm. 1983), but there appear to be no other records for this species. Nevertheless it has been speculated that birds may occur in the region between the two known localities, "notably in the Analalava and in the Haut-Sombirano [sic]" (Lavauden 1932), and that the Betsiboka River may mark the southern boundary of its distribution (Lavauden 1937). The statement that it occurs "in all western Madagascar" (Milon et al. 1973) is patently unsubstantiated. However, recently published information records the species from north-east of Morondava (specifically: 10 km south-west of Marofandilia, 15 km north-north-west and 9 km south of Beroboka and 3 km south of Ampamanmrika lake), several hundred kilometres south of the only other site (Appert 1985). POPULATION Observations through the 1970s suggest that the species is common at Ankarafantsika (D. A. Turner pers. comm. 1983). ECOLOGY At Ankarafantsika the species is a ground-dweller in dry forest (Lavauden 1932), likewise at Ankarana cliffs, where a pair was found "running about together in rather low dry forest, somewhat clear of underbrush" (Rand 1936). Food probably consists of insects and fruit (Rand 1951); birds live in pairs on the ground, walking or running with frequent stops and changes of direction, but flying poorly (only if threatened by a predator) (Lavauden 1931, Rand 1936); the nest is placed low in a bush (60-80 cm above ground), evidently October/November (Lavauden 1932, Rand 1936). An association appears to exist between this species and the Rufous Vanga Schetha rufa, exactly as for the Subdesert Mesite Monias benschi -230- Appendix 3. species accounts (see relevant account) and Lafresnaye’s Vanga Xenopirostris xenopirostris (A. D. Forbes-Watson pers. comm. 1984). THREATS The highly restricted range of this species must be a source of permanent concern and vigilance for its welfare. Deforestation is likely to have affected many areas where it might have been searched for in north-west Madagascar. Introduced rats, widespread in the eastern forests in the 1930s and presumably therefore present in the west, may affect the bird adversely (see under Brown Mesite). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN The only area where it is currently known to occur falls within the Ankarafantsika Nature Reserve (R.N.I. no. 7) (see Andriamampianina 1981). CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED A study of the status and ecology of this bird at Ankarafantsika would help determine where else it might be searched for and what management it might require. Ankarana cliffs merit revisiting and careful survey. All such work should be undertaken in conjunction with studies recommended under Conservation Measures Proposed for Van Dam’s Vanga Xenopirostris damii. REMARKS The importance of the Ankarafantsika Nature Reserve as the only locality currently known for this species and Van Dam’s Vanga cannot be overstated. BROWN MESITE INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN Mesitornis unicolor (Desmurs, 1845) Gruiformes: Mesitornithidae SUMMARY This cryptic and retiring terrestrial rail-like bird of Madagascar rainforest apparently possesses a much wider distribution than has previously been appreciated, but may be at risk from both forest destruction and introduced mammalian predators. DISTRIBUTION The Brown Mesite evidently occurs throughout much of eastern Madagascar, although most records are from the circle whose diameter lies between Antananarivo and Toamasina. One usually reliable authority gave its range as from Vohimarina (high north-east) to Farafangana (south-east) (Lavauden 1932) but there appear to be no records to support the choice of these extremes and indeed the same authority later speculated whether the species reached even as far south as Mananjary (Lavauden 1937). Reports of the bird from the "north-east" (Humblot 1882), the Masoala peninsula (Lavauden 1937) and south of Maroantsetra (Lavauden 1932,1937), though in themselves too vague to be regarded with confidence, are supported by specimens collected by J. Audebert at Mananara (Antongil Bay), 17 August 1876, "Savary" in February and April 1878 and "Maintinbato" in May 1878 (specimens in RMNH: NJC; also Fisher 1981): "Savary" cannot be traced (e.g. in Office of Geography 1955, IGNT 1964) but a letter from the collector to H. Schlegel, dated 4 March 1878, is headed "Savary, Antongil Bay, west of Mananara, Ancay border, seven days’ journey into the interior" (G. F. Mees in Jitt. 1983), which clearly suggests that the "Maintinbato" (i.e. Maintimbato) in question is that just south of Rantabe on the shore of Antongil Bay. The type-specimen was described as from the "north-east" (Delacour 1932a) but this was later refined to "around Tamatave" (Lavauden 1937). There is a specimen in MRAC labelled as from "Brickaville district", February 1928 (NJC). The species occurs in the Sihanaka forest, where four birds were taken in 1925, three in April, one in November (specimens in SMF: NJC), where an adult female was collected in May 1930 (Lavauden 1932) and whence six further specimens were obtained by purchase around this time (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936). The species is known from the forest between Rogez and Fito (Lavauden 1937), was seen at Périnet in 1939 or 1940 (Webb 1954), and collected in "Lakato forest" in 1924 (two specimens in MRAC: NJC). Four further specimens (in MRAC, SMF and RMNH) are from "Vohibazaha forest, Anivorana district", October 1923 (two) and "Marovato", November 1922 and March 1923 (NJC): Vohibazaha, at 18°48’S 48°33’E, is close to Périnet and Rogez, while of at least 34 localities named "“Marovato" in Madagascar (see Office of Geography 1955) three, at 18°57’°S 48°49’E, 18°41’S 48°36’E, and 18°27°S_ 48°41’E, all lie within the general area of forest between Antananarivo and -231- An environmental profile of Madagascar Toamasina. The species was collected on the "south-east coast" around 1876 (Bartlett 1877,1879), and this otherwise anomalous record was vindicated when nesting birds were found at "Bemangidy" north of Taolanaro (Rand 1951; see Remarks). It is to be observed that the taboo on this species (see Conservation Measures Taken) extended even to speaking its name (Lavauden 1931), so that its existence may often have remained unreported to explorers in certain areas; elsewhere, where no taboo applied, its existence had gone undetected even by natives (Rand 1951). For these reasons, the assertion that the species did not occur at Fanovana (Rand 1936), which may have compounded the judgement that it is highly localised in distribution (e.g. Rand 1951, King 1978-1979), is open to doubt (although the forest at Fanovana is now all cleared - see under Red-tailed Newtonia Newtonia fanovanae); and on present evidence it would seem very possible that the bird may be found at many other localities to the north of Toamasina or to the south of Lakato. POPULATION The species was not considered rare in the last century (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1885) and in Sihanaka forest it is apparently not very rare (Lavauden 1932). Its wariness and keen senses have been likened to those of pittas (Pittidae) so that it "may be common without being seen" (Webb 1954); nevertheless, it is recently reported as very scarce throughout its range (D. A. Turner pers. comm. 1983). ECOLOGY The Brown Mesite inhabits the floor of the thickest and remotest parts of rainforest, slipping swiftly on foot through thick vegetation (Lavauden 1931,1932). A_ bird observed by a seated observer "alternately ran rapidly and then remained motionless, its colours so harmonizing with the background that it was exceedingly difficult to see when stationary" (Webb 1954). Food is probably insects and fruit (Rand 1951); in another account "insects, ants" are mentioned (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1885). The species flies poorly (only if threatened by a predator) (Lavauden 1931). Both nests found in the south-east in 1948 (on 24 November and 25 December) were in rainforest where a thin cover of shrubs and a few herbs grew below the trees; both were low (1 and 2 m above ground) in the fork of a sloping tree which had lower branches possibly used by the bird to hop up from below; both held one egg, and in both cases the incubating female was caught by hand (Rand 1951). THREATS Destruction and disturbance of primary rainforest is the single most serious threat to this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar (see Threats under Madagascar Serpent Eagle Eutriorchis astur). The hilly country in the south-east where nesting was proven in 1948 was evidently in the process of being cleared of forest (see Rand 1951). The brown rat Rattus norvegicus and black rat R. rattus may affect mesites adversely (Forbes-Watson and Turner 1973), and attention has been drawn to the observation, dating from around 1940, that "the eastern forests are now swarming with them, even in the most isolated regions where the precipitous nature of the country is unfavourable to human habitation" (Webb 1954). It is also speculated whether competition from the Madagascar Wood-rail Canirallus kioloides affects the species (D. A. Turner pers. comm. 1983). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN The species has been recorded from the area now established as the Périnet-Analamazaotra Special Reserve, which covers 810 ha (Andriamampianina 1981). The strong taboo amongst the Malagasy people in the central part of the eastern forests was based on the fact or belief that when the young are captured the adult follows the hunter right back into the village, exhibiting parental concern so like that of a human being as to render the species sacred (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1885); it is considered that such a taboo must have helped conserve the bird, at least in the past (Forbes-Watson and Turner 1973), and indeed at Périnet the taboo still persists (O. Langrand per A. D. Forbes-Watson pers. comm. 1984). CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Immediate and effective protection of as much remaining rainforest as possible would almost certainly guarantee the survival of this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar; and at least, on current knowledge, complete protection of the intact parts of Sihanaka forest is of extreme importance (see Conservation Measures Proposed under Madagascar Serpent Eagle). Any ornithological work in the other areas from which the species is known, or where it might be expected, should where possible be extended to include searches to locate it. -232- Appendix 3: species accounts REMARKS The locality of the two nests found to date was given as "Bemangidy, Poste Mananteina, Fort Dauphin (=Taolanaro) district" with the addition that "Bemangidy is 72 kilometres north of Fort Dauphin and is about five miles west of the Indian Ocean" (Rand 1951). However, the correct names appear to be "Bemangily" and "Manantenina" and the correct distances 55 km and 5 km respectively (see IGNT 1964). It should also be noted that the view, first aired in the original description (Desmurs 1845), that the Brown Mesite might be or was only the female of the White-breasted Mesite Mesitornis variegata has resulted in considerable confusion; virtually everything written about the latter in Milne Edwards and Grandidier (1885) does in fact refer to the Brown Mesite; the view that two species were involved was accepted by Hartlaub (1877) and entertained by Lowe (1924) before being confirmed by Lavauden (1931,1932,1937). SUBDESERT MESITE RARE Monias benschi Oustalet and G. Grandidier, 1903 Gruiformes: Mesitornithidae SUMMARY This rail-like terrestrial bird of restricted range within the subdesert region of south-west Madagascar, although numerically safe at present, appears to enjoy no protection whatever. It is of exceptional biological interest. DISTRIBUTION The Subdesert Mesite is restricted to a coastal strip roughly 70 km wide between the Mangoky and Fierenana Rivers, south-west Madagascar, ranging from sea-level to 130 m (Lavauden 1937, Appert 1968, Milon et a/. 1973). Within this area its distribution was thought "extremely local" (Rand 1936) but other evidence suggests it is widespread (Appert 1968, Turner 1981). Nevertheless it has not been found north of the Mangoky, despite apparently suitable habitat (Appert 1968), and there is no evidence of its occurrence south of the Fierenana, despite records at and near Toliara (Hartert 1912, Bangs 1918): the type-specimen is from Vorondreo, "25 km east of Tuléar (=Toliara)" (Oustalet and Grandidier 1903), but this locality proves to be on the north bank of the Fierenana (i.e. north-east of Toliara) at 23°17’S 43°51’E (Office of Geography 1955). The limit of its range inland up the Fierenana has been given as Fativolo (Lavauden and Poisson 1929), at 23°02’S 44°10’E (in Office of Geography 1955). POPULATION The species has been reported as common and at times abundant over much of its range (Turner 1981), but the experience of a very recent observer was much less encouraging, though birds were "rather common" at Ihotry village in September 1983 (O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984). ECOLOGY The Subdesert Mesite is a ground-dwelling bird, reasonably catholic in choice of habitat, primarily requiring areas with dense leaf-litter, at least in patches: thus it is found in both sparse and dense brush woodland with or without Didierea, and in open sandy scrub with isolated trees and bushes, etc., but it avoids shadeless areas and those where vegetation is so close to the ground that passage is obstructed (Rand 1936, Appert 1968). It feeds with occasional pecks as it walks along, but mainly by digging in leaf-covered soil (Appert 1968). Stomachs have been found to contain caterpillars, beetles, millipedes, cockroaches, grasshoppers, seeds, and pieces of shell and sand (Lavauden and Poisson 1929, Rand 1936, Appert 1968: also specimen-labels in MNHN: NJC). Parts of certain orchids are reported by natives to be favoured, and damage to orchids has been noted (Appert 1968). Birds are gregarious, generally in groups of four to six, occasionally up to ten, rarely alone; two together always represents a pair, at whatever season (Appert 1968). A report of groups up to 30-40 (Lavauden 1931) has apparently not been corroborated. "Territorial fighting" has been witnessed (Steinbacher 1977), but it is unclear if birds are group-territorial. Females are bolder than males (Rand 1936, Appert 1968). Although in one set of observations males were found to predominate numerically, and this was cited in support of the species possibly being polyandrous (Rand 1936), lengthier field study established no rule in the sexual composition of groups (Appert 1968). On the basis of a male and two females with a nest with two eggs, an instance of polygyny was assumed (Appert 1968), but this conclusion - though perhaps correct -233- An environmental profile of Madagascar - does not take consideration of other possibilities. Nests (one or two eggs) are placed 1-2 m up in trees or on broken-off tree-trunks, accessible without need of flight (Lavauden 1931, Rand 1936, Appert 1968). Males were reported by natives to incubate and care for the young (Rand 1936) and observations have partially supported this (Rand 1936, Appert 1968), but a female has been found incubating and a pair seen feeding young, though with the female playing more the role of lookout (Appert 1968). Nesting seems mainly to occur within the period of spring rains, October to December, but it may occur earlier or later and two young were even obtained in June, in the middle of the extended dry period (Lavauden 1932, Rand 1936, Appert 1968). The species has been stated not to fly (Delacour 1932a) but it was reported to do so at the sound of a dog barking (Lavauden 1931) and there are two recent and very similar eye-witness accounts (Appert 1968, Turner 1981); moreover, in structure this bird is more adapted for flight and life in trees than the other two mesites (Lowe 1924). An association appears to exist between this species and Lafresnaye’s Wanga MXenopirostris xenopirostris, since birds of the latter species are often found above parties of the former: the Mesites possibly flush insect prey for the Vangas and benefit in turn from the Vangas’ greater vigilance (A. D. Forbes-Watson pers. comm. 1984); for a similar association between a vanga and a mesite, see Ecology under White-breasted Mesite Mesitornis variegata. THREATS The restricted range of this species must be a source of permanent concern and vigilance for its welfare. The Subdesert Mesite shares an identical range with the Long-tailed Ground-roller Uratelornis chimaera and occupies the latter’s more restricted habitat (Appert 1968); this habitat has been reported as being destroyed (see Threats under Long-tailed Ground-roller). The birds are eaten by dogs and trapped by local villagers (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN None is known. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED A study to determine the extent and type of habitat destruction reported in this species’s range (see under Threats) is urgently needed. A detailed biological study of the bird would appear likely to yield important new information in the realm of behavioural ecology, given its existence in groups and at least partial sex-role reversal. Both this and the equally remarkable Long-tailed Ground-roller, whose ranges are exactly coincident, merit conservation by means of a protected area. REMARKS This extraordinary bird occupies a monotypic genus in an endemic Madagascar family of little obvious affinity, both of whose other members are under threat (see relevant accounts). SLENDER-BILLED FLUFFTAIL INDETERMINATE Sarothrura watersi (Bartlett, 1879) Gruiformes: Rallidae SUMMARY This small marsh rail is known only from four well separated areas in central and east Madagascar, but is likely to be more widespread, and possibly more at risk from natural causes than from man. DISTRIBUTION The Slender-billed Flufftail was first described from "south-east Betsileo", i.e. south-central Madagascar, from which four specimens (one undated, three in December 1875) are known (Keith et al. 1970). One of these specimens, in BMNH, is labelled "Fangalathova" (NJC) but this is not a locality but evidently a local name for the bird (since such a name is also given for the Madagascar Flufftail Sarothrura insularis in Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1885; see Remarks). An early map marks the south-east of "Betsileo province" as the region north-east and south-west of Ikongo (Locamus 1900; see also map in Deschamps 1960). In April 1928 an immature male was collected by L. Lavauden at Analamazoatra near Périnet in eastern Madagascar (specimen in Grenoble: O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984). The species was subsequently found at 1,800 m near Andapa, north-east Madagascar, where 10 specimens were brought in by native hunters between 23 August and 7 September 1930 (Delacour 1932a, -234- Appendix 3: species accounts Rand 1936, Keith et al. 1970). Another two specimens are known, labelled simply "Madagascar" without date or name of collector (Keith et al. 1970). In 1970-1971 it was found in the 1,200 km area around the capital, Antananarivo, central Madagascar, at three sites at least, and was suspected of breeding in all Cyperus marshes in this area, which is all above 1,250 m (Salvan 1972a); however, a search around Antananarivo in the mid-1970s by three ornithologists (A. D. Forbes-Watson, G. S. Keith and D. A. Turner) wholly failed to rediscover this species, raising doubts about the validity of the records from this area (D. A. Turner in litt. 1983). It has been speculated that this species may replace the common Madagascar Flufftail at higher altitudes and that it could occur on the Itremo massif (Benson ef al. 1976); also that temperature may control its montane distribution (Rand 1936). However, Ikongo and _ its surrounding area appears to be or have been on the upper edge of the eastern rainforest belt and if the species was indeed collected there, and if the records from Antananarivo are in fact mistaken, there is a strong possibility that its distribution is determined by the distribution of rainforest in Madagascar. POPULATION Numbers are unknown. On the basis of uncorroborated observations (see above), density has been estimated at one pair per 2 ha of marsh, and the species perhaps breeds in small numbers around Antananarivo (Salvan 1972a). If these records are invalid, however, it is to be noted that the species has not been seen in the wild for over 50 years. ECOLOGY This rail inhabits small swamps (an association with Cyperus is indicated) and adjacent grassy areas, keeping to dense vegetation though occasionally flying short distances (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936, Salvan 1972a). Food is unrecorded (Keith et al. 1970). A male and female in breeding condition, Andapa, September, suggest the species may be a rainy season breeder at that locality (Rand 1936, Keith et al. 1970). An adult with a juvenile was reported near Antananarivo, May (Salvan 1972a). There is no evidence of migration (Keith et al. 1970). THREATS Prior to its (uncorroborated) discovery around Antananarivo, this species was considered rare (Delacour 1932a) and possibly "a relict on its way to early extinction" (Keith et al. 1970). Antananarivo being in the most densely populated and disturbed part of Madagascar (Salvan 1972a), the bird may prove to be more resilient than suspected. The Laniera marshes, where the species has apparently bred (record of adult with juvenile, above), have been turned into rice-fields, and this is implied to be an ornithological disaster (Salvan 1972a); but it is not clear if the breeding record was made before or after this development. CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN The species has been recorded from the area now established as the Périnet-Analamazaotra Special Reserve, which covers 810 ha (Andriamampianina 1981); birds might occur in the 60,150 ha Marojejy Reserve (R.N.I. no. 12) (see Andriamampianina 1981), since it lies immediately north of Andapa. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED A detailed survey of marshes near Antananarivo is needed to establish whether this species is present, and at what densities; protection of selected sites might then be given. Searches also need to be made in the three other areas where birds have been found. REMARKS This is the least typical member of the genus Sarothrura, evidently owing to long isolation in Madagascar, and a genus of its own, Lemurolimnas, has been proposed, though regarded as unnecessary (Keith et al. 1970). Failure to confirm its presence around Antananarivo need not totally invalidate records from this area, since the species possibly shows a volatility of site-usage akin to that shown by the White-winged Flufftail S. ayresi (see relevant account). Although given as quoted under Distribution, the native name of this species is correctly "fangalatrovy" (= "stealer of yams") (J. T. Hardyman in /itt. 1984). -235- An environmental profile of Madagascar SAKALAVA RAIL INSUFFICIENTLY KNOWN Amaurornis olivieri (G. Grandidier and Berlioz, 1929) Gruiformes: Rallidae SUMMARY This marsh-dwelling rail is known from only three widely separated areas in the Sakalava country of western Madagascar, and is generally regarded as rare and localised. DISTRIBUTION The Sakalava Rail was first described from a single specimen (apparently undated) from Antsalova, west Madagascar (Grandidier and Berlioz 1929), i.e. at about 18°40’S 44°37°E, (contra "18°28’S 44°45’E" in Benson and Wagstaffe 1972). In recent years the species has been seen again in the region of Lakes Masama and Bemamba by G. Randrianasolo but a later search of these lakes was unsuccessful (O. Langrand in /itt. 1984). Soon after its first discovery in this region the species was found c. 300 km to the north-east at Ambararatabe near Soalala, roughly 16°19’S 46°04’E, where seven specimens were collected in March 1931, six of them along the Tsiribahina (Tsiribehino) River (Rand 1936, Benson and Wagstaffe 1972). The only subsequent record is of a female taken from a nest at Nosy-Ambositra on the Mangoky River, 21°55’S 44°00’E, some 360 km to the south of the type-locality, on 9 March 1962 (Benson and Wagstaffe 1972). This record has done nothing to modify the description of the species, over 50 years ago, as strictly localised (Delacour 1932a), which clearly implied that it had been looked for in other areas and found absent. From its behaviour (see Ecology below), it would seem less easy to overlook than, e.g., the Slender-billed Flufftail Sarothrura watersi (see relevant account), and new localities for it may prove to be few. However, large areas of apparently suitable but inaccessible habitat do exist (D. A. Turner pers. comm. 1983). POPULATION Numbers are unknown. ECOLOGY Birds along the Tsiribahina River at Ambararatabe were found standing on or running over floating vegetation on a narrow, deep stream bordered with tall coarse grass locally called "bararata" (apparently the reed Phragmites communis: see Benson and Wagstaffe 1972); though not very shy or active, the birds kept close to the "bararata" and retreated there for shelter (Rand 1936). A bird was also seen on a floating log in a flooded valley clearing; on 26 March a male and female were seen with two well-grown young (Rand 1936). The nest at Nosy-Ambositra was some 50 cm above ground level in bulrushes Typha angustifolia near water, in a marshy area with stretches of open water, with bulrushes, water-lilies Nymphaea stellata and Phragmites communis dominant (Benson and Wagstaffe 1972). The nest held two eggs, probably a complete clutch (Benson and Wagstaffe 1972). THREATS The species’s very restricted distribution, as currently known, exposes it to a variety of potential threats. The eggs of the only recorded nest were eaten by local people (Benson and Wagstaffe 1972) and it is possible that populations could suffer locally from systematic exploitation for food. Rice-growing is reportedly beginning to alter Lake Bemamba (O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN None is known. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED A faunal reserve has been urged for the Antsalova region, this species’s type-locality; for information on this proposal and on the possible importance of wetlands around Cap St.André, see Conservation Measures Proposed under Madagascar Teal Anas bernieri. Research on the Teal’s distribution could incorporate fieldwork to locate populations of this rail and to determine the threats it may face. REMARKS Although commonly placed in the genus Porzana, the Sakalava Rail has been found to show close affinity to the African Black Crake Amaurornis (Limnocorax) flavirostris (Benson and Wagstaffe 1972). -236- Appendix 3: species accounts MADAGASCAR PLOVER RARE Charadrius thoracicus (Richmond, 1896) Charadriiformes: Charadriidae SUMMARY This shorebird is apparently restricted to coastal grassy areas of south-west Madagascar where it is greatly outnumbered (and possibly outcompeted) by Kittlitz’s Plover Charadrius pecuarius. DISTRIBUTION The Madagascar Plover is now (largely or exclusively) confined to coastal south-west Madagascar. It was, however, first described from Loholoka (21°44’S 48°12’E) and the Fanantara estuary (20°51’S 48°28’E) on the east coast of Madagascar (i.e. between Mahanoro and Manakara), when other specimens from the south-east coast were also mentioned (Richmond 1896,1897; coordinates in Office of Geography 1955); there is also a specimen collected by A. Lantz and received by MNHN in 1882 labelled as from the south-east coast (NJC). In the present century it has only been reported with certainty - other than an anomalous inland record of four 60 km from Antananarivo in January 1971 (Salvan 1971) - from the south-west coast between Morondava and Androka. The species has recently been reported without comment from Morondava (O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984), though this is much the most northerly coastal record, birds not otherwise being known to extend beyond the Maintapaka estuary (north of the Mangoky River) (Appert 197la). Thirteen sites were mapped for the species in the Morombe/Mangoky delta area in the 1960s (Appert 1971a) and several more were found between Morombe and Lake Tsimanampetsotsa, July/August 1972 (Dhondt 1975). Previous records are from Toliara airstrip (Milon 1950), Lake Tsimanampetsotsa (Bangs 1918, Milon 1950), "Nosy Asatra to Beheloka" (Bangs 1918; see Remarks), Androka (Ilinta estuary) (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936) and Nosy Mborono (Nosimborona), off Androka (Milon 1948). The species is not found at Lake Ihotry or near Antsalova (Dhondt 1975). POPULATION There are no estimates, but on published evidence the total number must be low, possibly under a thousand. The largest flocks reported are of 33 (Appert 197la) and 16 (Dhondt 1975); the relatively few other records are all in (usually low) single figures, e.g. only three were found by the Mission Franco-Anglo-Américaine, 1929-1931, after which the species was judged very rare (Delacour 1932a). A two-day survey of the area between Morombe and Befandefa, July 1972, recorded a total of seven birds at four sites; 76 Kittlitz’s Plover Charadrius pecuarius were found in the same places (Dhondt 1975). A two-day survey at Lake Tsimanampetsotsa, August 1972, recorded a total of 39 Madagascar Plovers at eight sites; at one of these, where several hundred plovers were probably present, 37 were pecuarius and only seven thoracicus (Dhondt 1975). The species is, however, reported to be "rather common" in the Morombe region (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). ECOLOGY It inhabits short-grass areas near the coast, also flat margins of saltwater expanses and pools, occurring less often on sand- or mudflats (Appert 1971la). At least in July and August, it appears to prefer drier areas than Kittlitz’s Plover and even to avoid flooded grassland (Dhondt 1975). The stomach of a specimen in MNHN held large and small insects ("not grasshoppers") (NJC). Eggs have been recorded in November (Appert 1971a) and January (Milon 1950), young in December (Appert 1971la) and August (Bangs 1918, Milon 1950). Breeding and general biology is evidently close to Kittlitz’s Plover (see Appert 197la, Keith 1980; for Kittlitz’s, see Cramp and Simmons 1983). THREATS The reasons for this species’s rarity are unclear. What is certain is that Kittlitz’s Plover is more recent in Madagascar (Keith 1980), and its relative numerical superiority and much wider distribution suggest that it may compete successfully with thoracicus. Hybridisation has not been recorded. CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN The species occurs in the Lake Tsimanampetsotsa Nature Reserve (R.N.I. no. 10) (Andriamampianina 1981). CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED A study of the status, distribution and year-round ecological requirements of this species is clearly essential in order to determine the measures needed for its survival. Any such study should include a survey of the east coast of Madagascar from Toamasina southwards. For the need for a general ornithological survey of -237- An environmental profile of Madagascar this coast and its wetlands, see under Conservation Measures Proposed for Madagascar Teal Anas bernieri. REMARKS Birds with black breast-bands were not recognised as a species distinct from Kittlitz’s Plover until 1896 (see Richmond 1896), and it is possible that museum collections hold specimens of thoracicus from before that date whose locality data would be of value in determining the extent of its (at least former) distribution. Neither "Nosy Asatra" nor "Beheloka" are gazetteered (in Office of Geography 1955), but it is clear (from Agassiz 1918 and Bangs 1918) that they must lie between Toliara and Lake Tsimanampetsotsa, along the coast, and indeed a Nosy Satrana and Pointe de Beheloka are marked in this stretch of coastline (in IGNT 1964), at 23°43’S 43°38’E and 23°55’S 43°40’E respectively. SNAIL-EATING COUA EXTINCT Coua delalandei (Temminck, 1827) Cuculiformes: Cuculidae SUMMARY This large terrestrial cuckoo is the only bird (other than the elephantbirds Aepyornithidae) in Madagascar generally believed to have become extinct. There is a very remote possibility that it survives. DISTRIBUTION - The Snail-eating Coua is known chiefly from Nosy Borah (Ile de Sainte-Marie) off the northern east coast of Madagascar (Sganzin 1840, Ackerman 1841). The species is also repeatedly stated to have occurred on the mainland opposite Nosy Borah, especially on the immediately adjacent Pointe-a-Larrée (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1879, Milon et al. 1973; also Hartlaub 1877, Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936) and, perhaps owing to its reported survival in the deepest forests of the region between Fito and Maroantsetra (Lavauden 1932), its mainland range has been guessed as "from the head of Antongil Bay southward to Tamatave (=Toamasina)" (Peters 1940). However, it has been pointed out that "there are no exact records of the provenance of mainland specimens" (Greenway 1967), and indeed it is nowhere clear that any specimen is known to have come from anywhere other than Nosy Borah. At least 13 specimens (two each in BMNH and MNHN, one each in MCZ, AMNH, ANSP, RMNH, SMNS, NHMW, Liverpool, Antananarivo and IRSNB: see Remarks) are known to exist (Hartlaub 1860, Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936, Greenway 1967, Benson and Schiiz 1971, Schifter 1973, Morgan 1975, NJC), the origin of many of which seems likely to have been Nosy Borah, as it is recorded that specimens from there were dispersed to various museums (Sganzin 1840). Nevertheless, plate 65 in Milne-Edwards and Grandidier (1876) maps the distribution of this species as the eastern rainforest from the latitude of Toamasina north to that of Nosy Borah (but not Nosy Borah itself); the authority for such a distribution is not given. A record of the species as a "waterbird" at Lake Alaotra (Baron 1882) is presumably in error. POPULATION The extinction of this species is probable (as judged in Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936, Milon 1952, Greenway 1967) but not certain (contra Day 1981). None has been reported with certainty since 1834 (Greenway 1967), although the dates of Ackerman’s three-year stay (see Ackerman 1841) are not clear and there are three specimens which could have been collected after this date, though not later than 1837, 1840 or 1850 respectively (Benson and Schiiz 1971, Schifter 1973, Morgan 1975). The species was "not very rare" on Ile de Sainte-Marie in 1831-1832 (Sganzin 1840), which may perhaps be the source of the statement in 1860 that it was "not rare on the east coast" (Hartlaub 1860); however, no trace of it could be found during six month’s exploration in 1865 and it was therefore judged very rare (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1879; also Jouanin 1962). Following the failure of the Mission Franco-Anglo-Américaine to find it in 1929-1931, and the failure of the offer of a large reward to the procurer of a specimen in 1932 (see Greenway 1967), it was pronounced probably extinct (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936). Nevertheless, at just this time a "very reliable native who knew exactly what bird was being referred to" reported that the species still survived on the mainland but was very rare and very shy (Lavauden 1932). Much of the area in question was not visited by the Mission Franco-Anglo-Américaine, and has not apparently -238- Appendix 3: species accounts been searched subsequently, and it is accepted that the species might conceivably survive in a few remote undisturbed patches (Greenway 1967, Milon et al. 1973). Survival on Nosy Borah is ruled out as all the original forest has long since been cleared (Lavauden 1932, Daumet 1937, Petter 1963, Keith et al. 1974). ECOLOGY This bird is or was a ground-haunting rainforest-dweller, subsisting on molluscs (Sganzin 1840). An account of its method of breaking snail shells, based on observations in an aviary and apparently also in the wild, has been provided along with brief details of its behaviour and voice (Ackerman 1841). THREATS Habitat destruction was clearly the chief cause of its disappearance from Nosy Borah (Lavauden 1932, Petter 1963, Keith et al. 1974), and was identified as the chief threat to its existence on the mainland as long ago as 1932 (Lavauden 1932): most of the lowlands between Toamasina and Maroantsetra were devoid of forest at the end of the 1960s (Keith et al. 1974). Occasional snaring by natives was reported (Lavauden 1932) and this was presumably quite easy at a time when the species was more numerous, and may have played a part in its decline; it was reportedly hunted as much for feathers as for food (Keith et al. 1974). Shell remains at certain localities within the forest may have betrayed the presence of birds to hunters (A. D. Forbes-Watson pers. comm. 1984). A recent account gives a cause of extinction as "introduced rodents" (Day 1981): while there appears to be no direct evidence for this, it is conceivable that rats critically reduced the mollusc fauna in key areas and _ this indirectly contributed to the species’s disappearance. For evidence of rats in eastern forests, see Threats under Brown Mesite Mesitornis unicolor. CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN None is known. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED It needs to be properly established, through a reexamination of museum material and records, whether the species occurred on mainland Madagascar. Even if this cannot be done, the ornithological surveys that are needed for other reasons in the Sihanaka and other remaining forests between Fito and Maroantsetra (see Conservation Measures Proposed under Madagascar Serpent Eagle Eutriorchis astur) should certainly be weighted towards tracking down evidence of this bird’s survival. REMARKS It is to be observed that if the White-breasted Mesite Mesitornis variegata went unknown from 1834 to 1929 (see relevant account) and the Yellow-bellied Sunbird-asity Neodrepanis hypoxantha from 1929 almost to the present day (but is not extinct: see relevant account), it is certainly conceivable - if less likely - that the Snail-eating Coua could have survived undetected over the same 150-year period. The specimen in IRSNB, whose existence has not previously been announced, was acquired by the museum in 1839 and according to the catalogue it was captured or collected in "Madagascar" in 1832 (P. Devillers pers. comm. 1983), this date perhaps rendering it likely to have come from Sganzin on Nosy Borah (see Distribution). MADAGASCAR RED OWL INDETERMINATE Tyto soumagnei (Milne Edwards, 1878) Strigiformes: Tytonidae SUMMARY This owl is known with certainty from rainforest only in eastern central Madagascar, and has been seen only once in the past 50 years. DISTRIBUTION The Madagascar Red Owl inhabits the eastern region of Madagascar in the circle whose diameter runs between Toamasina and Antananarivo. It does not occur "throughout Madagascar" (contra Burton 1973). The type-specimen was collected in 1876 on the east coast near Toamasina (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1879) and a specimen from around Antananarivo (no date) came to the British Museum in 1879 (Sharpe 1879); as this specimen is catalogued as being collected by "Lorimer" (NJC) it presumably cannot be the bird sent back, also in 1879, by Humblot but which is not listed as going to MNHN (Humblot 1882) -239- An environmental profile of Madagascar and indeed cannot be found there (NJC,SNS). There are two other nineteenth century specimens (in BMHN), one from "the upper forest of Eastern Imerina" in March 1893, one from "Merimitatra" (the label also states "between the two forests"), east Madagascar, January 1895 (Wills 1893, NJC); the former area has been cleared of forest (D. A. Turner pers. comm. 1983), but a place bearing the latter name is marked (in Locamus 1900) as a comparatively large settlement (now abandoned or re-named: not in Office of Geography 1955 or on recent maps) east of Anjozorobe, at roughly 18°25’S 48°0S5’E, on the upper western slopes of the Mangoro valley and thus between the two belts of forest bordering the valley (Sihanaka forest in the east, Angavo escarpment forest in the west). One collector obtained only three birds of this species in 40 years on Madagascar (two of these specimens were destroyed in 1927) (Lavauden 1932); all three were found in Sihanaka forest (Delacour 1932a). Two specimens (a pair) were shot in March 1930 at Analamazoatra, near Périnet (Lavauden 1932), and another was taken near Fito, Sihanaka forest, on 15 February 1934 (Allen and Greenway 1935). The only subsequent record has been of a bird in deep mountainous rainforest (1,200-1,800 m) a day’s walk from the nearest motorable road, Fierenana district (c. 65 km north of Périnet), in 1973 (King 1978-1979, J. I. Pollock in litt. 1983). The species is also reported as occurring on the Masoala peninsula (Milon et al. 1973) but evidence for this - although it seems likely - has not been traced. POPULATION Numbers are unknown, but the species has always appeared to be extremely rare (e.g. Delacour 1932a, Lavauden 1932, Milon et al. 1973). ECOLOGY This owl inhabits humid rainforest and is strictly nocturnal, reportedly living in isolated pairs and feeding on frogs caught in clearings (Lavauden 1932). There are no other data, but it is to be observed that at least three specimens have come from _ localities (Toamasina, Antananarivo and Merimitatra) apparently outside heavily forested areas; however, it is not known to occur in grassland (contra Burton 1973). THREATS Destruction and disturbance of primary rainforest is the single most serious threat to this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar (see Threats under Madagascar Serpent Eagle Eutriorchis astur). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN The species has been recorded from the area now established as the Périnet-Analamazoatra Special Reserve, which covers 810 ha (Andriamampianina 1981). The Madagascar Red Owl is listed on Appendix I of CITES, to which Madagascar is a party. CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Immediate and effective protection of as much remaining rainforest as possible would almost certainly guarantee the survival of this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar; and at least, on current knowledge, complete protection of the intact parts of Sihanaka forest is of extreme importance (see Conservation Measures Proposed under Madagascar Serpent Eagle). Any ornithological work in the other areas from which the species is known, or where it might be expected, should where possible be extended to include searches to locate it. REMARKS Although originally placed in its own genus (Heliodius), this species is clearly a small, dark reddish-orange barn owl Tyto (Lavauden 1932, Allen and Greenway 1935; also Sharpe 1879). SHORT-LEGGED GROUND-ROLLER RARE Brachypteracias leptosomus (Lesson, 1833) Coraciiformes: Brachypteraciidae SUMMARY This roller is confined to deep rainforest in the centre and north-east of Madagascar, and is widely considered rare. It is threatened by forest destruction. -240- Appendix 3: species accounts DISTRIBUTION On current limited knowledge, the Short-legged Ground-roller occurs in two discrete general areas of Madagascar, in the north-east (Marojejy to around Maroantsetra) and central-east (chiefly Sihanaka forest). Records from the north-east are from the Marojejy Nature Reserve, September 1972 (Benson et al. 1976), around Antanombo Manandriana, one day’s march west of Andapa, 1930 (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1932,1936), around "Ambolumarahavany" (see Remarks), two days’ march north-east of Maroantsetra, 1930 (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1932,1936), and around Bevato, 40 km north-west of Maroantsetra, 1930 (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1932,1936), Maroantsetra (specimen in SMF: NJC), Mananara, November 1876, and Savary (for location of which see Distribution under Brown Mesite Mesitornis unicolor), November 1877 to April 1878 (specimens in RMNH: NJC), and from the Masoala peninsula (Turner 1984). In the central-east, the species is known from Sihanaka forest (Delacour 1932a), Périnet, August 1982, at 950 m (O. Langrand in itt. 1984), the Toamasina region, September 1913 (specimen in SMF: NJC), Fanovana (Delacour 1932a) and the east Imerina forest (Wills 1893, Oberholser 1900), these last two areas having now been cleared (D. A. Turner pers. comm. 1983) as presumably has that around Toamasina. There is also a record from near Ampasimbe (Newton 1863; see Remarks), and a skin in BMNH, undated and labelled "Sambririna": no such locality can be traced (in Office of Geography 1955), but the possibility that "Sambirano" is intended - i.e. the area of humid forest in the far north-west - cannot be ignored. Two other localities, "Ambore" and "Ankoraka Sahambendrana" (specimens in ZFMK and MNHN respectively: NJC) cannot be traced. POPULATION This species has been considered commoner than the largely sympatric Scaly Ground-roller Brachypteracias squamiger (see relevant account), and over two years 42 specimens were collected or acquired as against 20 of the latter (Delacour 1932a,b). Nevertheless the Short-legged Ground-roller has a somewhat more restricted range and within this has consistently been regarded as rare in some degree (Hartlaub 1877, Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1881, Rand 1936, Lavauden 1937, Milon et a/. 1973). A recent study has suggested that all ground-rollers have been thought rarer than they are, since their silence and secretive behaviour lead them to be "completely overlooked"; this species is considered "shy though not uncommon" (Turner 1984). ECOLOGY It inhabits heavy rainforest, "frequenting low, wet places where the trees cast a continual shade and the ground-cover of spindly saplings leaves the damp forest floor nearly bare" (Rand 1936). Although it is considered terrestrial, one observation was of a bird that perched on horizontal strands of vines and in small trees, remaining immobile for minutes on end, with short fast flights between perches (Benson et al. 1976), another was of a bird which, when flushed from the ground, flew up to a tree and hid behind branches (Dresser 1893), while a recent study suggests it is in fact much the most arboreal of the ground-rollers (Turner 1984). It has been reported to scratch at moss and dead leaves with its feet like a gallinaceous bird, to uncover beetles, ants, larvae, millipedes, pill-millipedes, ant-lions, worms and small reptiles (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1881; hence Milon et al. 1973). Of eight stomachs, one held a snake; two, chameleons; one, beetles; two, caterpillars; four, other insects; one, a snail (Rand 1936). Two other stomachs held large ants plus beetle remains (Milon et al. 1973) and tenebrionid beetles (Benson et al. 1976) respectively. Natives reported it to be a night-feeding bird (Sharpe 1871) and it is said to be at least partly nocturnal (Hildebrandt 1881) and locatable in the early morning and evening (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1881). It is solitary except in breeding season, when it occurs in pairs (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1881). Birds breed in December, excavating the nest in a tunnel (c. 1 m) in a bank (Milon et al. 1973); they are also reported to nest in holes in trees (Dresser 1893). THREATS Destruction and disturbance of primary rainforest is the single most serious threat to this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar (see Threats under Madagascar Serpent Eagle Eutriorchis astur). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN The species occurs in the Marojejy Nature Reserve (R.N.I. no. 12), which covers 60,150 ha, and in the Périnet-Analamazaotra Special Reserve, which covers 810 ha (Andriamampianina 1981). CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Full protection for all ground-rollers has been called for (Salvan 1970). Immediate and effective protection of as much remaining rainforest ~242- An environmental profile of Madagascar as possible would almost certainly guarantee the survival of this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar; and at least, on current knowledge, complete protection of the intact parts of Sihanaka forest is of extreme importance (see Conservation Measures Proposed under Madagascar Serpent Eagle). Any ornithological work in the other areas from which the species is known, or where it might be expected, should where possible be extended to include searches to locate it. This species requires study to determine the basic aspects of its ecology and whether or not it is migratory: in view of native reports that it hibernates (Dresser 1893), it seems likely that some movement takes place, and an understanding of this may be crucial to its long-term conservation. REMARKS From context, Ampasimbe is evidently the locality on the main road from Antananarivo to Andevoranto, at 18°58’S 48°40’E, well outside the main rainforest block (see Office of Geography 1955, IGNT 1964); however, an earlier map indicates that a small belt of forest, named Madilo, crossed the road near Ampasimbe (see Locamus 1900), though this is presumably now all cleared. "Ambolumarahavary" is presumably’ identical to "Ambohimarahavary" (see Distribution under Madagascar Serpent Eagle) and is probably, correctly, "Ambolomirahavavy" (J. T. Hardyman in litt. 1984), though in fact none of these names can be traced. SCALY GROUND-ROLLER RARE Brachypteracias squamiger Lafresnaye, 1838 Coraciiformes: Brachypteraciidae SUMMARY This roller is confined to deep rainforest in the centre and north-east of Madagascar, and is widely considered rare. It is threatened by forest destruction, by village dogs and by human exploitation for food. DISTRIBUTION The Scaly Ground-roller occurs throughout the eastern rainforests of Madagascar. Records are from (north to south) Marojejy (Benson ef al. 1976), Andapa (Rand 1936), around Maroantsetra (Rand 1936, O. Langrand in litt. 1984; see Remarks), "Mointenbato" (Fisher 1981), i.e. Maintimbato, and Savary (for location of both see Distribution under Brown Mesite Mesitornis unicolor), December 1877 to April 1878 (specimens in RMNH and MNHN: NJC), the Masoala peninsula (B.-U. Meyburg pers. comm. 1983, Turner 1984), the Soamianina (= "Semiang", "Tsimianona") River (type-locality, opposite Nosy Borah) (Hartlaub 1877, Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1881), Sihanaka forest (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936), Périnet (Webb 1954), Analamazoatra (specimen in Grenoble: O. Langrand in litt. 1984), Rogez (Benson et al. 1976), the Toamasina region, July 1912 and October 1913 (specimens in MNHN and SMF: NJC) and south-east Madagascar (Dresser 1893). Its occurrence in the south-east has been entirely overlooked this century, but was substantiated by four specimens (see Dresser 1893). One specimen in BMNH is labelled "Voolaly, S. E. Madagascar" (untraceable) and dated February 1872 (NJC); another in SMF was collected on 8 October 1931 at Eminiminy, south-east Madagascar (NJC), gazetteered as at 24°41’S 46°48’E (Office of Geography 1955) and mapped as on the eastern boundary of the Andohahela Nature Reserve (in IGNT 1964). Of two specimens in BMNH collected by J. Audebert and dated February 1879, one has an illegible label (see Remarks), while the other is from "Antsondririna" (NJC): the only gazetteered locality of this name is in the far north-east, at 13°00’S 49°41’E (Office of Geography 1955), and thus much the most northerly record (if correct) for the species. POPULATION This species has been widely considered rare in some degree: "very rare" (Sganzin 1840), "quite rare" (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1881), "everywhere rare" (Rand 1936; also Delacour 1932a). Nonetheless, a recent study has suggested that all ground-rollers have been thought rarer than they are, since their silence and secretive behaviour leads them to be "completely overlooked" (Turner 1984). The species was seen almost daily on the Masoala peninsula in October 1980 (B.-U. Meyburg pers. comm. 1983). ECOLOGY The Scaly Ground-roller is a ground-adapted bird of heavy, deep-shaded rainforest with sparse undergrowth (Rand 1936; also Hartlaub 1877, Benson et al. 1976), 2048. Appendix 3: species accounts considered the terrestrial counterpart of the somewhat arboreal Short-legged Ground-roller Brachypteracias leptosomus (see relevant account); when disturbed, it either flies a few yards or runs a few steps, then stands quietly watching the intruder (Turner 1984). Native reports that it is nocturnal (Sharpe 1871) have not been proven; and though several ground-rollers appear to be most active at dusk (Turner 1984), recent observations on this species suggested it to be active throughout the day (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). Of five stomachs, four contained large terrestrial insects, one a spider (Rand 1936): another held ants and scarabaeid beetles (Benson et al. 1976). Prey seen taken includes ground-beetles, ants, caterpillars, centipedes, earthworms, snails, small frogs; Lepidoptera and Diptera are also hawked in flight; whether or not the Short-legged Ground-roller scrapes at the leaf-litter with its feet to uncover its prey, as reported (see relevant account), the Scaly Ground-roller only ever uses its bill for such purposes (O. Langrand in /itt. 1984). Breeding evidently occurs in September (see Benson et al. 1976); a nest-hole probably of this species consisted of a tunne! less than a metre long, with a chamber lined with dead leaves and earthy pellets, built into a bare, sloping bank in deep forest (Benson ef al. 1976). A nest with young was found on 4 November 1982, 50 km north-west of Maroantsetra at 350 m (O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984). THREATS Destruction and disturbance of primary rainforest is the single most serious threat to this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar (see Threats under Madagascar Serpent Eagle Eutriorchis astur). The species is also threatened by young villagers, who trap birds and catch them in the nest, and by village dogs which also catch birds (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN The species occurs in the Marojejy Nature Reserve (R.N.I. no. 12), which covers 60,150 ha, and presumably in the Périnet-Analamazaotra Special Reserve, which covers 810 ha, and the Andohahela Nature Reserve (R.N.I. no. 11), which covers 76,020 ha (Andriamampianina 1981). CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Full protection for all ground-rollers has been called for (Salvan 1970). Immediate and effective protection of as much remaining rainforest as possible would almost certainly guarantee the survival of this and all _ other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar; and at least, on current knowledge, complete protection of the intact parts of Sihanaka forest is of extreme importance (see Conservation Measures Proposed under Madagascar Serpent Eagle). Any ornithological work in the other areas from which the species is known, or where it might be expected, should where possible be extended to include searches to locate it. REMARKS For exact localities where the species has been found around Maroantsetra, see Rand (1932). The illegible locality on the Audebert label (see Distribution) is possibly "Ampirina", but no such name has been traced (on Locamus 1900 or in Office of Geography 1955), although it must be fairly close to Antsondririna to have been visited in the same month in 1879. RUFOUS-HEADED GROUND-ROLLER RARE Atelornis crossleyi Sharpe, 1875 Coraciiformes: Brachypteraciidae SUMMARY This roller is confined to deep rainforest in the centre and north-east of Madagascar, and is widely considered rare. It is threatened by forest destruction. DISTRIBUTION On current limited knowledge, the Rufous-headed Ground-roller occurs in two discrete general areas of Madagascar, in the north-east (Tsaratanana massif, Marojejy Reserve, and Andapa) and central-east (in a circle whose diameter runs from Antananarivo to Toamasina); it has also been recorded in two more southerly general forest areas in south-central Madagascar. Records from the north-east appear to be based on only three specimens, one from Tsaratanana massif at 1,500 m in 1966 (Albignac 1970), one from Ambodifiakarana, in the Marojejy Nature Reserve, at 1,600 m in 1958 (Griveaud 1960b, -243- An environmental profile of Madagascar Benson et al. 1976), and one from Antanombo Manandriana, one day’s march west of Andapa, at around 1,800 m in 1930 (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1932,1936). The bird is next recorded some 400 km to the south from the Sihanaka forest (Delacour 1932a, Rand 1936), including Didy (Milon et al. 1973) and Fito (Benson et al. 1976; specimens in MNHN: NJC). Birds have also been seen, collected or acquired from natives in "Forét Ruanaka" (untraceable: possibly a mistake for "Sianaka") in the Brickaville district, Wohibazaha forest and Lakato forest (specimens in MRAC: NJC), Analamazaotra, and near Périnet (Lavauden 1932, O. Langrand in litt. 1984, A. D. Forbes-Watson pers. comm. 1984; see Conservation Measures Taken), Fanovana (Delacour 1932a) and the east Imerina forest (Dresser 1893, Rothschild 1895, Oberholser 1900), though this and the forest at Fanovana are now cleared (D. A. Turner pers. comm. 1983). The type-locality, first reported as "Ampasmonhavo" (Sharpe 1875), then "Ampasimanavy" (Milne Edwards and Grandidier 1881), is almost certainly therefore Ampasimaneva, on the Mangoro River, at 19°24’S 48’04’E (see Remarks under Madagascar Serpent Eagle Eutriorchis astur). The most southerly records are from south-central Madagascar in "the forest land that lies between the Betsileo and Tanala...[which] covers the eastern side of the mountains along the edge of the central plateau...[and] is thick and dense, about fifteen or twenty miles in width" (Deans Cowan 1882) and, in 1984, from the Vondrozo region (O. Langrand pers. comm. 1984). POPULATION’ The species is widely considered rare in some degree (Richmond 1897, Lavauden 1932, Rand 1936, Griveaud 1960b) but, from the number of skins in one local collection around 1930, it was evidently then "not uncommon" in Sihanaka forest (Rand 1936; also Delacour 1932a) and indeed "not rare" at Didy, presumably around 1970 (Milon et al. 1973). It was listed as common in the Betsileo/Tanala border forest a century ago (Deans Cowan 1882). A recent study has suggested that all ground-rollers have been thought rarer than they are, since their silence and secretive behaviour lead them to be "completely overlooked"; however this is considered the rarest and least known species (Turner 1984), a view endorsed by recent observations (O. Langrand in Jitt. 1984). ECOLOGY "This bird probably frequents the ground in the heavy forest; one stomach examined contained insect remains" (Rand 1936). It is reported to nest in holes in the ground (Dresser 1893). A not fully grown bird collected in late March (specimen in MNHN: NJC) suggests a December/January breeding season. In central-east Madagascar, the species seemingly disappears during the winter months (May/August) (Dresser 1893), though there are in fact specimens (in BMNH, MNHN and SMNS) from Sihanaka taken in May and August (NJC). There appears to be no other information specifically on this bird, although it has been listed as characteristic of secondary forest dominated by Ravenala madagascariensis, such forest mostly occurring from sea-level to 500 m (Lavauden 1937); the basis and validity of this assertion are unknown. THREATS Destruction and disturbance of primary rainforest is the single most serious threat to this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar (see Threats under Madagascar Serpent Eagle). Two areas of forest where it was known to occur have been felled (see Distribution). CONSERVATION MEASURES TAKEN The species evidently occurs in both the Marojejy Nature Reserve (R.N.I. no. 12), which covers 60,150 ha, and the Tsaratanana Nature Reserve (R.N.I. no. 4), which covers 48,622 ha (Andriamampianina 1981), although its status in both (one record each) appears precarious. Observation of this ground-roller several kilometres from and c. 100 m higher than the Périnet-Analamazaotra Special Reserve has been taken to suggest that the reserve may be too low to be of great value in helping to preserve this species (A. D. Forbes-Watson pers. comm. 1984). CONSERVATION MEASURES PROPOSED Full protection for all ground-rollers has been called for (Salvan 1970). Immediate and effective protection of as much remaining rainforest as possible would almost certainly guarantee the survival of this and all other rainforest-dependent species in Madagascar; and at least, on current knowledge, complete protection of the intact parts of Sihanaka forest is of extreme importance (see Conservation Measures Proposed under Madagascar Serpent Eagle). Any ornithological work in the other areas from which the species is known, or where it might be expected, should where possible -244- Appendix 3: species accounts be extended to include searches to locate it. This species requires study to determine the basic aspects of its ecology, particularly in relation to its apparent migrations (see Ecology above), an understanding of which is probably crucial to its long-term survival. LONG-TAILED GROUND-ROLLER RARE Uratelornis chimaera Rothschild, 1895 Coraciiformes: Brachypteraciidae SUMMARY This remarkable terrestrial bird of restricted range within the subdesert region of south-west Madagascar, although numerically safe at present, appears to enjoy no protection whatever. DISTRIBUTION The Long-tailed Ground-roller is restricted to a coastal strip between the Mangoky and Fiherenana rivers, south-west Madagascar, ranging up to 80 m altitude (Appert 1968, Milon et al. 1973). Most sites known for the species within this area up to 1966 have been listed (see Appert 1968, but also Oustalet 1899, Ménégaux 1907, Bangs 1918), with the conclusion that its distribution coincides with that of Didierea woodland (Appert 1968). It therefore has stricter habitat requirements and a lower altitudinal tolerance than the closely sympatric Subdesert Mesite Monias benschi (see relevant account). If the altitudinal limit quoted above is accurate, even only roughly, it cannot occur much more than 30 km inland in the southern half of its range (see 100 m contour in Army Map Service 1968), while in the northern half it has not been recorded east of Lake Ihotry (Appert 1968) other than at Mamono village near Ankida (O. Langrand in litt. 1984). Moreover, the revelation that some seasonal movement may occur (see Ecology below) suggests that birds range beyond the currently known limits or that they occupy only parts of their known range at any given season. Evidence of its presence beyond the confines of the Mangoky and Fiherenana, e.g. on Montagne de la Table south of Toliara (Rand 1932; see Remarks), is lacking, and the report that it occurs south to Cap Sainte-Marie (Lavauden 1937) is in error. POPULATION In the south between Toliara and Manombo, at the turn of the century, it was found in good numbers mainly at Ambolisatra (Ménégaux 1907), and this area is obviously still important (see Appert 1968). It was found to be fairly common around Lake Ihotry in 1929 (Rand 1932,1936) but was apparently becoming rare there in the 1950s (Griveaud 1960a) and was judged to be "extremely rare" from second-hand information in the early 1960s (Petter 1963). In 1968 it was described as "one of the rarest birds in the world" (Appert 1968). eres II. NON-ENDEMIC CHELONIANS AND NILE CROCODILE HAWKSBILL TURTLE ENDANGERED Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus 1766) Testudines: Cheloniidae Overall range and status A circumtropical species, nesting on beaches of tropical seas in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. The species is still widespread but exists in only low density almost throughout the extensive range. Most populations are known or thought to be severely depleted. Moderate population levels appear to persist around the Torres Straits islands, in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, and probably around the Arnavon Islands (Solomons), northern Australia, Palau group, Persian Gulf islands, Oman, parts of the Seychelles, possibly the Maldives and northwest Madagascar. Often nests on small islands but sometimes on mainland coasts. Threatened primarily by long-term and intensifying trade in ’tortoiseshell’, continuing demand in international trade having raised shell prices to the point where Hawksbills are pursued even when only rarely encountered. Hawksbill eggs are eaten by man in most parts of the range and adults are also eaten widely. Highly effective spearguns are replacing less efficient nets as hunting equipment in some areas, notably the Caribbean. Range and status in Madagascar Good numbers still nest, mainly along the northern third of the island and in the south-west, but these appear to represent only a remnant of former numbers. Tortoiseshell was exported in great quantitiy from at least the early 17th century until a sudden decline in the 1920s attributed to overexploitatin. In the mid 1800s exports reached 4000 kg of shell, representing a kill of about 1600 adult hawksbills, this level continued for around 100 years. Most Hawksbills are taken by the Vezo people in the south-west, hunting also occurs in the north-east, but north-west populations may suffer less exploitation. It is estimated that over 2500 hawksbills are killed annually, mostly juveniles of less than 40 cm length, but about one quarter being adults. -325- An environmental profile of Madagascar Ecology Feeds largely on benthic invertebrates associated with coral reefs; may be largely sedentary though tag records show that at least some long-distance movements occur. Nesting is generally diffuse, often with only single females emerging on any one beach during any one night; at several localities fewer than ten females may emerge in one night, and very exceptionally larger numbers have been recorded. Clutch size varies between populations, correlated with size of female, range from 73 to 182. Between two and four clutches per season, females may re-migrate to nest mainly at three-year intervals (few data available). Conservation measures in Madagascar Legally protected and there are apparently some turtle-nesting beaches where all exploitation is forbidden. GREEN TURTLE ENDANGERED Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus 1758) Testudines: Cheloniidae Overall range and status A circumtropical species, nesting mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. Only about a dozen large populations with around 2000 or more nesting females per year are known at present; these occur on Ascension, around western and northern Australia, Costa Rica (Tortuguero Beach), Europa and nearby islands in the Mozambique Channel, Pacific Mexico, Oman, Pakistan, and possibly the Philippines, Sabah and Sarawak. In a good year over 10 000 females may nest on Europa, and up to 80 000 at Raine Island (Australia); these appear to be the only stable populations not heavily exploited. Although very many nesting locations are known worldwide, most populations are depleted and many are declining, some have already been extirpated (e.g. in the Caribbean). Heavily utilized in most of the range; adults and eggs for food, juveniles for curios, and adults also for hide and oil. Incidental catch causes much mortality. Range and status in Madagascar Small scale nesting occurs on the mainland and offshore islands. Ecology Predominantly herbivorous, feeding on sea grasses and algae. Highly migratory, with well-developed homing abilities. females appear to nest on their ancestral nest beach, and mating occurs offshore from this nest beach; thus each nesting colony behaves as a_ separate reproductive unit. There is considerable difficulty in applying the traditional species concept in such a situation. Average clutch size 110, females can lay 3-7 clutches per season, and some have been shown to re-migrate at 2-4 year intervals. Females may not attain maturity in the wild for 15-50 years. Conservation measures in Madagascar Legally protected (though apparently largely unenforced); there are apparently four turtle nesing beaches which are specifically protected. -326- Appendix 3: species accounts OLIVE RIDLEY ENDANGERED or PACIFIC RIDLEY Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz 1829) Testudines: Cheloniidae Overall range and status A circumglobal species, present in tropical regions of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. Typically nests on mainland beaches; there is little nesting on islands of the Indian Ocean, southeast Asia or Oceania, and no nesting in the Caribbean. Overall, although the Olive Ridley remains relatively widespread and numerous, most nest sites support only small or moderate-scale nesting (up to around | 000 females per year), and most populations worldwide are known or thought to be depleted, often severely so. Where population densities are high enough, females emerge to nest in synchronised aggregations ("arribadas"), sometimes comprising up to 150 000 turtles. Very large arribadas now occur in only two areas; at two beaches in Orissa State (India) and at two beaches in Pacific Costa Rica. Of the several former major arribada sites in Pacific Mexico only La Escobilla (Oaxaca) retains mass nesting, but even this population is reported to have declined severely due to over-exploitation. Threatened by legal and illegal commercial harvest of adults (mainly for food or skin for the leather trade), incidental catch in shrimp trawls and massive harvest of eggs from nest beaches. Nominally protected by legislation in much of the range, including India and Mexico, often ineffectually. Range and status in Madagascar No large-scale nesting known; nesting has been recorded in the northwest, although other reports indicate presence of a feeding population only. Ecology A small-sized sea turtle, mean carapace length to around 68 cm, foraging in tropical neritic waters and feeding mainly on benthic crustaceans, sometimes at considerable depth. There is very little information on the biology of Olive Ridleys away from the nesting beach, but there is evidence that some groups make moderately extensive post-nesting migrations, in the east Pacific for example, from nest sites in Mexico and other parts of central America southward to feeding grounds off Ecuador. Sexual maturity possibly attained at 7-9 years. Mean clutch size from 105 to 116. Females may nest twice in a season, sometimes three times. Most remigrating females return to nest at either one or two year intervals. LOGGERHEAD SEA TURTLE VULNERABLE Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758) Testudines: Cheloniidae Overall range and status A circumglobal species, nesting mainly in temperate and subtropical regions. Populations are still widespread, although some are known to have declined and others are suspected to have declined. The largest known nesting populations are those on Masirah Island (Oman), with a minimum of 30 000 females annually, and in Florida (U.S.A.), with between 6000 and 15 000. Good numbers nest in Australia. Elsewhere numbers are either unknown, or low to moderate. In the Indian Ocean there is large scale nesting in southern Africa, notably on Paradise Island, Mozambique, mainland Mozambique, and on the Tongaland coast of South Africa. Tag returns from Tongaland indicate that Mozambique and Tanzania are important feeding grounds for the nesting populations in southern Africa. Three major threats affect populations: Loggerheads are caught in trawl nets, particularly bottom trawlers fishing for shrimp and demersal fish, and often drown or are battered to death; loss of nesting habitat to coastal development severely affects some populations and has been particularly significant in the United States and the -327- An environmental profile of Madagascar Mediterranean; Loggerheads are exploited for meat, eggs and tourist curios - the meat is generally regarded as less palatable than Green Turtle but is sought after in some areas. Nominally protected by legislation in much of the range, but nesting occurs on relatively few protected beaches. Range and status in Madagascar Important nesting sites occur on Madagascar particularly in the southeast around Fort Dauphin with some nesting on the west coast as far north as Morondava. Annual nesting females are estimated at around 300, but despite protective legislation, all marine turtles are under pressure from exploitation. Ecology A carnivorous species, feeding mainly on benthic invertebrates, especially molluscs and crustaceans, also sponges. Most nesting beaches are north or south of the tropics, in subtropical or temperate zones, although the species does feed within the tropics. Nesting generally occurs in late spring and summer, usually at night. Eggs 40-42 mm diameter, mean clutch size from 101 (Masirah) to 126 (S. Carolina). Females typically nest 4-5 times a season, and can remigrate at 2-3 year intervals. There is some evidence that nesting Caretta show less site fixity, between or within seasons, than Green Turtles. Primarily a neritic species; although long-distance movements are known, these often appear to take place along coastlines, not over open sea. Tagging programmes have demonstrated several apparently regular dispersal routes. Turtles from the Tongaland (South Africa) population move northward after nesting, to Mozambique and Tanzania (with a few tag returns from Madagascar and South Africa). There is evidence that very young Loggerheads may spend the first several months of life associated with mats of Sargassum weed. Conservation measures in Madagascar Legally protected, though exploitation still apparently occurs; although there are no marine reserves, some turtle beaches are apparently specifically protected. NILE CROCODILE VULNERABLE Crocodylus niloticus Laurenti, 1768 Crocodilia: Crocodilidae Overall range and status Widely distributed in Africa south of the Sahara (and Madagascar), though absent from arid regions of the north-east and much of the south-west. Range has reduced in historic times; the species has been subject to many years of intensive hide-hunting and populations are widely depleted, often severely so. Range and status in Madagascar Now reportedly very diffuse and rare; during the nineteenth centry reported very common in most waters, especially the Betsiboka River, and still widespread and reasonably abundant up to at least the mid 1950s. Ecology A large crocodilian species, typical adult length c 3.5 m, very occasionally to around 5 m. Present in a variety of mainly freshwater habitats, notably larger rivers, lakes and freshwater swamps, though also recorded from river mouths, estuaries and mangrove swamps. Fish, often those predatory on human food fishes, form a major part of the diet of animals over 1 m in length though as individuals increase in size larger mammals and birds are often taken; smaller -328- Appendix 3: species accounts individuals feed mainly on a wide variety of invertebrates and amphibians. Sexual maturity attained at around 12-15 years, length 2-3 m. A hole-nesting species, clutch size 16-80. The female attends the nest, opens the nest at hatching time and carries the hatchlings to water. Both parents defend their creche of hatchlings for 6-8 weeks. Conservation measures in Madagascar 1962 legislation classifies the Nile Crocodile as a vermin species (see Appendix 1). This legislation does not appear to have been repealed; it is recommended that the species is reclassified as a protected species. Supplementary note: At the 1985 CITES meeting in Buenos Aires the Nile Crocodile population in Madagascar (with those in eight other countries) was transferred from Appendix I to Appendix II of CITES, thus facilitating legal trade. Trade is subject to an export quota of 1000 skins per year. -329- An environmental profile of Madagascar APPENDIX 3.D. LEPIDOPTERA Data sheets for the following three Papilionid species are included, taken from: Collins, N.M. and Morris, M.G. (1985) Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. The IUCN Red Data Book. IUCN, Cambridge. V Papilio grosesmithi R= Papilio morondavana R_ Papilio mangoura All three are members of the subfamily Papilioninae in the tribe Papilionini. Papilio (Princeps) grosesmithi Rothschild, 1926 RARE SUMMARY Papilio grosesmithi has a slightly wider distribution than P. morondavana in the deciduous forests of western Madagascar. The two species are often confused by collectors. Commercial collecting needs to be monitored, but the main threat is habitat destruction. For description see (3). DISTRIBUTION Papilio grosesmithi, like P. morondavana, is endemic to western Madagascar, but is found over a slightly wider area. Its known range extends from Mahajanga (Majunga) in the north, to Sakaraha, Toliara and the Lambomakondro forest in the south. HABITAT AND ECOLOGY PP. grosesmithi was first collected in the deciduous forests of north-western Madagascar and is now known from the Ankarafantsika forest (Majunga Province), the Marofandilia forest near Morondava, the Lambomakandro forest in the Sakaraha region, the Zombitsy special reserve, the banks of the Fiherenana, and in the Androvonory forest east of Toliara (2). P. grosesmithi is in the demoleus group, as is P. morondavana. Comments under that species also apply here. In some of its localities P. grosesmithi may be seasonally relatively abundant but its globally restricted range in an area subject to extremely rapid alteration by man is cause for concern. THREATS Since the range of P. grosesmithi is virtually sympatric with that of P. morondavana, the threats from agriculture and forest clearance are similar. The two species are not usually distinguished by local collectors, although they are by commercial outlets, so monitoring and perhaps local control should apply to both species (1). CONSERVATION MEASURES’ No specific measures have been taken to conserve this butterfly and no data are available on the level of commercial collecting of the demoleus group in Madagascar. As stated in the review of P. morondavana, biological studies are needed to ensure a sustainable yield of these species (1). Protected areas which probably contain this species are listed under P. morondavana. It seems that extra resources may be needed to ensure the long-term integrity of these areas. REFERENCES 1. Paulian, R. (1983). Jn litt., 10 May. Paulian, R. and Viette, P. (1968). Faune de Madagascar. XXVII Insectes Lépidopteres Papilionidae. O.R.S.T.O.M. and C.N.R.S., Paris. 97 pp. 3. Rothschild, W. (1926). On some African papilios, with descriptions of new forms. Annals and Magazine of Natural History (9)17: 112-114. -330- Appendix 3: species accounts Papilio (Princeps) morondavana Grose-smith, 1891 VULNERABLE SUMMARY Papilio morondavana, the Madagascan Emperor Swallowtail, is an attractive swallowtail found in the deciduous forests of western Madagascar. Commercial collecting needs to be monitored, but the main threat is habitat destruction. For description see (1,6,7). DISTRIBUTION Papilio morondavana is confined to the forests of western Madagascar. Its known range extends from the region around the towns of Morondava and Mahabo north towards Mahajanga (Majunga) and Ambato-Boeny and south to Andranovory and Toliara (3,6). HABITAT AND ECOLOGY PP. morondavana is recorded from the Ankarafantsika forest in Mahajunga Province to the Andronovory forest in Toliara Province (4,6). These forests are deciduous and increasingly arid towards the south. Ankarafantsika is a dense, dry forest with the characteristic trees Dalbergia, Commiphora and Hildegardia, numerous Leguminosae and Myrtaceae and many lianas. Some plants are adapted to survive aridity, e.g. Pachypodium, Ampelidaceae and Passifloraceae. Papilio morondavyana is in the demoleus species group (3), which generally use Rutaceae and Umbelliferae as hosts, rarely other plants. There are no published records of the host-plants of P. morondavana, or of the young stages. The butterfly may be locally common, and has its main brood in November (8). THREATS' The area occupied by P. morondavana is subject to forest destruction for agriculture by local people (2), a process which eliminates a large proportion of the insect fauna (9). In addition, the species is increasingly popular with commercial collectors (4), a situation which requires monitoring and perhaps local control. The Ankarafantsika forest and other western forests are reported to suffer from uncontrolled burning. The lack of resources to ensure the long-term integrity of these areas is a cause for international concern. CONSERVATION MEASURES’ No specific measures have been taken to conserve this butterfly. There are four established reserves in western Madagascar. P. morondavana is certainly found in the Réserve Naturelle Integrale de l’Ankarafantsika (60 520 ha), it may occur in the R.N.I. du Tsingy de Namoroka (21 742 ha) and the R.N.I. du Tsingy de Bemaraha (152 000 ha), but is unlikely to be found in the R.N.I. du lac de Tsimanampetsotsa (43 000 ha, mostly water). These reserves are not open to the public but are closed to any human interference except official scientific activities (5). However, there is some concern that the reserves are not adequately policed. The level of commercial exploitation may be a matter for concern. It is important that any commercially useful insect should be the subject of a careful biological study. Only then can the species be managed and exploited in a way that will ensure a sustainable local industry without a decline in butterfly populations. REFERENCES 1. D’Abrera, B. (1980). Butterflies of the Afrotropical Region. Lansdowne Press. xx + 593 pp. 2. FAO/UNEP (1981). Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. Forest Resources of Tropical Africa. Part 1: Regional Synthesis. FAO, Rome, 108 pp. 3. Munroe, E. (1961). The classification of the Papilionidae (Lepidoptera). Canadian Entomologist Supplement 17: 1-51. 4. Paulian, R. (1983). Jn litt., 10 May. 5. Paulian, R. (1983). Jn litt., 1 July. 6. Paulian, R. and Viette, P. (1968). Faune de Madagascar. XXVII Insectes Lépidopteres Papilionidae. O.R.S.T.O.M. and C.N.R.S., Paris. 97 pp., 19 pl. (2 col.), 34 figs. 7. Smart, P. (1975). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Butterfly World. Hamlyn, London. 275 pp. Turlin, B. (1983). Jn Jitt., 1 July. Viette, P. (1983). Jn litt., 22 March. songe -331- An environmental profile of Madagascar Papilio (Princeps) mangoura Hewitson, 1875 RARE SUMMARY Papilio mangoura flies only in the eastern rain forests of Madagascar. Only one quarter of these forests are still untouched and with rapid population growth and deforestation the status of this and many other forest butterflies should be monitored. DISTRIBUTION Papilio mangoura is found in eastern Madagascar, from Maroantsetra in the north to Taolanaro in the south. A list of localities is given by Paulian and Viette (7). HABITAT AND ECOLOGY This butterfly is a species of the eastern rain forests of Madagascar and is closely related to the much more common P. delalandei. No details of their biology have been published and the early stages of both species are unknown (3). THREATS The main threat to this and any other creature endemic to Madagascar’s rain forests is the alarming rate at which degradation of the vegetation and soils is occurring (2). Madagascar has 10.3 million hectares of closed canopy broad-leaved forest, but only one quarter of this is believed to be primary (2). The rate of deforestation during the period 1981-85 has been estimated at 150 000 hectares per year, a slight lowering from 165 000 hectares per year in 1976-80 (2). The main pressure is from population growth and the rapid spread of shifting cultivation (tavy’), but timber exploitation adds to the problem (2). About 650 000 hectares of former forest is now too degraded to be utilized for further timber exploitation (2). Fortunately about 1.75 million hectares of forest are on land too steep to be exploited, and approximately a further one million hectares are for various reasons legally protected from exploitation (2,#6). It therefore seems likely, but by no means certain, that most forest butterflies will survive in protected areas and relict forest patches. However, this is no cause for complacency and does not detract from the enormous difficulties facing conservationists in Madagascar. Other butterflies possibly threatened in a similar way include the rare danaid Amauris nossima (locally common in Montagne d’Ambre (8)), the nymphalids Euxanthe madagascariensis, Charaxes cowani, C. phraortes, C. andranodorus, Neptis decaryi, N. metella gratilla, N. sextilla and Apaturopsis kilusa, A. pauliani and the acraeids Acraea sambarae and A. hova (5). Graphium endochus, another forest papilionid, is apparently well distributed at present but may require monitoring as deforestation progresses. Other families have not been assessed, but would undoubtedly add to this list of threatened butterflies. CONSERVATION MEASURES Control of population growth and shifting cultivation are the basic requirements of programmes for rational land use, development and conservation in Madagascar. In addition, the system of national parks and natural reserves in eastern Madagascar is inadequate for the protection of the flora and fauna of lowland forest and requires considerable expansion. The Réserves Naturelles de Tsaratanana, Marojejy and Andringitra include mostly montane vegetation (4), although the latter has some excellent forest at medium altitude (6). However, R.N. de Zahamena has rainfall of 1500-2000 mm per year and includes a fine stand of rich lowland rain forest (8). R.N. d’Andohahela includes an area of forest, but this is virtually the southern extremity of this vegetation type. The Réserve Spéciale de Périnet-Analamazaotra apparently includes good rain forest in which the Indris (Indri indri) lives, but the reserve is too small (810 ha) to be significant (4). In addition there are a number of small reserves on the east coast. Possibly the only large expanse of rain forest is in the Masoala peninsula, once a reserve of 76 000 ha, but given over to forest exploitation in 1964. If managed on a sustainable basis this forest could still be an important refuge for wildlife (6). There is too little information on any of the rain forest butterflies, including Papilio mangoura, to make specific conservation recommendations. Clearly, more surveys and a great deal more biological study are needed in order that the very high endemicity of the forest fauna may be properly conserved. On an optimistic note, if butterfly foodplants are able to survive on steep ground then relict forest patches on the eastern slopes of the central massif and in the Masoala peninsula may effectively prevent wholesale extinctions. -332- Appendix 3: species accounts REFERENCES meen D’Abrera, B. (1980). Butterflies of the Afrotropical Region. Lansdowne Editions, Melbourne. xx + 593 pp. FAO/UNEP (1981). Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. Forest Resources of Tropical Africa Part II: Country Briefs. FAO, Rome. 586 pp. Hancock, D.L. (1983). Classification of the Papilionidae (Lepidoptera): a phylogenetic approach. Smithersia 2: 1-48. Oberlé, P. (Ed.) (1981). Madagascar, un Sanctuaire de la Nature. Le Chevalier, Paris. 118 pp. Paulian, R. (1956). Insectes Lépidoptéres Danaidae, Nymphalidae, Acraeidae. Faune de Madagascar 2. ORSTOM, CNRS, Paris. 102 pp. Paulian, R. (1984). Jn litt., 16 February. Paulian, R. and Viette, P. (1968). Insectes Lépidoptéres Papilionidae. Faune de Madagascar 27. ORSTOM, CNRS, Paris. 97 pp. Viette, P. (1984). Jn litt., 23 February. -333- ; oreo teed City, rep hottaion (6). hereterd jens Wie Bet ee % “fhe @ arate [tamed coees YR ch the oan over, Vomlity Gerventc [peg egy OE we, ayneeegan tus wnat athe. a ee, could AiO he 90 Wagantant i wiht Mabe 4 “ ; ad 5 we) a , fr é UY Le rremrerromrtedasyney aitonegta oe, war al ; Papilio ( Prints ps pmmngonse Hewinon. 23, = RABY 23 Dirt tih y oonaghbnd der sawigsBchomgawterhty of Ad anita, ot{O8Otiy Mv caatite of ehese’ formas art otf] watenched aa! wi a1) swe¥ al sheostininnp? ny aestagn Goth (1890) Ub) 4 bined : RASITAT AND £CDLOGY This bettersy @ > eperig of the emstere anit a R : M@n daqecths vagbinertrks onblledgmy thasabinend-w si qodicr 5 deta: 26) we —~ have p beta peitichod ated tbe eatty gag Ott Sai iO VO ReD Som > ittewsdet Ob, .31-i (DBO D> $1, neh “Treabiooilics oes stqabs abs! setaonal. sy (BORK) sr onted (cba egtkns Soreiey is the mlerming mare at which deurntge SR. thre 2M MOIZIO, TS Mudagestee tex 189 millinn hectares of choad coeeipurda tds yah s\ OBO OE . aeara: OC dim & jeaghie vs a. sine C3. The rate. of daforestazion during » Mic PrSiA55 fen ter acini A PTTL NTN Ca RD igh nat y Heelies Ger your te E976<29 (2) The male peerpav wi fron p ation grow ‘soread af shal ing ued sivarhvn (ter o; et Thetis ‘Waepiotaterr. adc 40 «Ja! 40. 00). hectares Of former fuapet is mom: Re degrnied w be find fi Je Gieithied (2h Fortunately stage 1.75 mitoses meomerne o fast a ERDinMed) dnd: ayrproximscnty w, Thether oda walhow Rocthies Ars reset Compe tagttetfties wid sapeliee-i8 prvteded teat word TRL! Pores (“Latuber, = ie passe ise pain pte EA wat dies moy Artvact Jone: wie ores beiceadie ain ey Masta auewe; Wher ae PNET ureate Ree; m8 elles +ny Dotmle Oey -o foneid Anam dersity Auboy Ww Myre ars (aveen 8)), the “Setrphaliag cee. nodapd tag (irda (ont ©, slain © itewcnaclti Me lt dete ey ai se sroistta. ths S eo aoa: eva. 4 swine sede ‘crate Aon hapyae ant. a a & poet 95 hittin tuk. tart real pape) Mm weyertentg <2 cy Gea tareelie wedwiter esas (ef gst preg te Owe tureliies © es ox ED todo Bites Pa 14 ts ret ho pC Reeth! + er Mer, ONE CHM SAAR Contre of pe’ ee gamut on tae >, rherels gtatsge 44 pipancoss TOF ratios! Jen). age, by abengs ets My ee 4S, the cette Of aera Wiehe ae! se ; : oblige ebay me aegommre To Sreavop 0 tie Oba ahi faur> ¢ Yaotland ‘fore ene rua WA meni View Roweres Natupetion- da Bextor ea a Aaror Aire ate Pel wey ert vegecnim (4), wrhoug’ dap htgnres nas a Eel ae ie Tt EH GS Nowevty, RN de Zeupnene, to iat of 1500-28 ida Gare oes § Tie steed af ie feriant ain (ico (4). BN Was oxfoiee abe afte et focuak rs + viety mly he Wutherns ¢xvemity of Ga tation types , a ee ae Be Fecthed gates etre apparcaly | telat wh yor anita a whith st tiadet pela. ipa tu) che nemeree is toccmatl (00 bate be begiificant (In adem tJ fe tha Nanay athe aR, Good a teserve of % ur i, Pet cyere Over oe terfest , eS ae yeep rv Nagra fi) oa ayia tigen Ok RO . teal, wa ogre bpie. wiattetong Gab the eg Tee Sein. ce “is ¥, ve hs } a 4 Pa 4 APPENDIX 4 This appendix contains lists of the succulents and palms of Madagascar with preliminary IUCN categories. Succulents *Succulents’ do not form a natural taxonomic plant grouping, consisting rather of taxa from a variety of genera and families which may contain many non-succulent species. They are, however of considerable horticultural interest; this has resulted in more information being available on their wild status than for other groups. Some 424 endemic taxa (species and varieties) of succulent plants are listed for Madagascar; of these, 64 are considered definitely threatened, 24 are definitely not threatened while insufficient data are available to determine whether the remaining 336 are threatened or not. Palms The palms are represented in Madagascar by 117 species in 21 genera; 13 of the genera and all but 4 of the species are endemic, and so botanically they are one of the more significant families on the island. Of the non-endemic genera, two are also found in Africa and Asia; one is also found in Africa, Asia and Malaysia (in a botanical sense); one also in Asia and Malaysia, and one also in the Comoros and Pemba. Madagascan palms are of exceptional interest both in terms of evolution and geography and are crucial to understanding the family as a whole; yet they are still incompletely known. The flora is much richer and more diverse than that of Africa. Ravenea and Louvelia are members of a relatively unspecialized tribe, Ceroxyleae, with other members in S. America and Australasia. Beccariophoenix appears to be a primitive member of the tribe Cocoeae, which consists almost entirely of New World palms except for Jubaeopsis in S. Africa and the coconut itself. Most of the Madagascan palms, however, belong to tribe Areceae, very diverse in Madagascar and Asia, and also in S. America, but with only one species in Africa. It appears that the Madagascan palm flora has probably been isolated for a very long time. Palms are one of Madagascar’s most highly threatened plant groups; many are rainforest species and are vulnerable to forest destruction. Also, virtually all Madagascan palm species are utilized in some way or other, and are therefore selectively destroyed, especially for the edible terminal bud. Several species are known only from few collections: Beccariophoenix, for example, was described in 1915 as being on the verge of extinction through the overexploitation of its fibre; the last undisputed record of its occurrence was in 1947 - only two undoubted collections have ever been made. An even more extreme example is Louvelia which is represented by three species; each one has only ever been collected once! CMC would like to acknowledge the help of Dr J. Dransfield of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for help in compiling this appendix. -335- An environmental profile of Madagascar MADAGASCAR SUCCULENTS ENDEMIC TAXA CATEGORY APOCYNACEAE Pachypodium ambongense L.Poisson Pachypodium baronii Costantin & Bois var. baronii Pachypodium baronii var. windsori (L.Poisson) Pichon Pachypodium brevicaule Baker Pachypodium decaryi L.Poisson Pachypodium densiflorum Baker var. densiflorum Pachypodium densiflorum var. brevicalyx H.Perrier Pachypodium geayi Costantin & Bois Pachypodium horombense Pichon Pachypodium lamerei Drake var. lamerei Pachypodium lamerei var. ramosum (Costantin & Bois) Pichon Pachypodium rosulatum Baker var. rosulatum Pachypodium rosulatum var. drakei (Costantin & Bois) Markgraf Pachypodium rosulatum Baker var. gracilius H.Perrier Pachypodium rutenbergianum Vatke var. rutenbergianum Pachypodium rutenbergianum var. meridionale (M.Pichon) H.Perrier Pachypodium sofiense (L.Poisson) H.Perrier ~HD AOA MDH < A AA A OM ASCLEPIADACEAE Ceropegia albisepta Jum. & H.Perrier var. albisepta Ceropegia albisepta var. truncata H.Huber Ceropegia albisepta var. viridis (Choux) H.Huber Ceropegia ampliata E.Meyer ssp. madagascariensis Lavranos Ceropegia armandii Rauh Ceropegia bosseri Rauh & Buchloh Ceropegia dimorpha Humbert Ceropegia leroyi Rauh & Marn.-Lap. Ceropegia racemosa N.E.Br. ssp. racemosa Ceropegia racemosa ssp. glabra H.Huber Cynanchum ampanihense Jum. & H.Perrier Cynanchum aphyllum (Thunb.) Schltr. Cynanchum compactum Choux var. compactum Cynanchum compactum var. imerinse Descoings Cynanchum cucullatum N.E.Br. Cynanchum decaisnianum Descoings Cynanchum helicoideum Choux Cynanchum implicatum (Jum. & Perr.) Jum. & Perr. Cynanchum luteifluens (Jum. & H.Perrier) Descoings Cynanchum macrolobum Jum. & H.Perrier Cynanchum madecassum Descoings Cynanchum mahafalense Jum. & H.Perrier Cynanchum marnieranum Rauh Cynanchum messeri (Buchenau) Jum. & H.Perrier Cynanchum napiforme Choux Cynanchum nodosum (Jum. & Perr.) Descoings Cynanchum pachylobum Choux Cynanchum perrieri Choux Cynanchum pycnoneuroides Choux Cynanchum rauhianum Descoings Cynanchum rossii Rauh Folotsia aculeatum (Descoings) Descoings Folotsia floribundum Descoings Folotsia grandiflorum (Jum. & Perr.) Jum. & Perr. Folotsia madagascariense (Jum. & H.Perrier) Descoings Folotsia sarcostemmoides Costantin & Bois Karimbolea verrucosa Descoings Sarcostemma decorsei Costantin & Gallaud Sarcostemma insigne (N.E.Br.) Descoings Sarcostemma madagascariense Descoings Stapelianthus arenarius Bosser & Morat Stapelianthus decaryi Choux Stapelianthus hardyi Lavranos Stapelianthus insignis Descoings Stapelianthus keraudrenae Bosser & Morat Stapelianthus madagascariensis (Choux) Choux Stapelianthus montagnacii (Boiteau) Boiteau & A.Bertrand Stapelianthus pilosus (Choux) Lavranos & Hardy — SS SASK SKARARABAARAR SAAS AADANAAAANAAAARAAAA -336- BALSAMINACEAE Impatiens tuberosa H.Perrier BOMBACACEAE Adansonia alba Jum. & H.Perrier Adansonia fony Baillon var. fony Adansonia fony var. rubristipa (Jum. & H.Perrier) H.Perrier Adansonia grandidieri Baillon Adansonia madagascariensis Baillon Adansonia suarezensis H.Perrier Adansonia za Baillon var. za Adansonia za var. boinensis H.Perrier Adansonia za var. bozy (Jum. & H.Perrier) H.Perrier BURSERACEAE Commiphora madagascariensis Jacq. CACTACEAE Rhipsalis baccifera (J.Miller) Stearn Rhipsalis fasciculata (Willd.) Haw. Rhipsalis horrida Baker COMPOSITAE Senecio antandroi Scott Elliot Senecio antitensis Baker Senecio baronii Humbert Senecio barorum Humbert Senecio boiteaui Humbert Senecio canaliculatus Bojer ex DC. Senecio capuronii Humbert Senecio cedrorum Raynal Senecio crassissimus Humbert Senecio decaryi Humbert Senecio descoingsii (Humbert) H.J.Jacobsen Senecio hildebrandtii Baker Senecio hirto-crassus Humbert Senecio kalambatitrensis Humbert Senecio leandrii Humbert Senecio longiflorus (DC.) Schultz-Bip. var. longiflorus Senecio longiflorus var. madagascariensis (Humbert) Rowley Senecio madagascariensis Poir. Senecio marnieri Humbert Senecio melastomaefolius Baker var. melastomaefolius Senecio melastomaefolius var. longibracteatus Bojer ex DC. Senecio mesembryanthemoides Bojer ex DC. Senecio meuselii Rauh Senecio navicularis Humbert Senecio neobakeri Humbert Senecio neohumbertii Rowley Senecio quartziticolus Humbert Senecio saboureaui Humbert Senecio sakalavorus Humbert Senecio sakamaliensis (Humbert) Humbert CRASSULACEAE Crassula cordifolia Baker Crassula fragilis Baker Crassula humbertii Descoings Crassula micans Vahl ex Baillon Crassula nummulariifolia Baker Kalanchoe adolphi-engleri Raym.-Hamet Kalanchoe ambolensis Humbert Kalanchoe arborescens Humbert Kalanchoe aromatica H.Perrier Kalanchoe beauverdii Raym.-Hamet var. beauverdii Kalanchoe beauverdii var. guignardii Raym.-Hamet Kalanchoe beauverdii var. parviflora Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe beharensis Drake var. beharensis Kalanchoe beharensis var. aureo-aeneus H.J.Jacobsen Kalanchoe beharensis var. subnuda H.J.Jacobsen Kalanchoe bergeri Raym.-Hamet var. bergeri Kalanchoe bergeri var. glabra Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe bitteri Raym.-Hamet Kalanchoe blossfeldiana Poelln. Kalanchoe boissii Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe bouvetii Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe bracteata Scott Elliott AADAARARKR AA tal eal AAA AAAAARART TH AMAR RAR AAAARAR TM ARAAR AARAARDDARARARAAAARAAA CRASSULACEAE (contd.) Kalanchoe campanulata (Baker) Baillon var. campanulata Kalanchoe campanulata var. orthostyla Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe daigremontiana Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe ebracteata Scott Elliott Kalanchoe eriophylla Hils. & Bojer Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier var. fedtschenkoi Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi var. isalensis Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe gastonis-bonnieri Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe gentyi Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe globulifera H.Perrier Kalanchoe gracilipes (Baker) Baillon Kalanchoe grandidieri Baillon Kalanchoe heckelii Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe hildebrandtii Baillon Kalanchoe integrifolia Baker Kalanchoe jongmansii Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier var. jongmansii Kalanchoe jongmansii var. ivohibensis Humbert Kalanchoe laxiflora Baker var. laxiflora Kalanchoe laxiflora var. stipitata Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe laxiflora var. subpeltata Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe laxiflora var. violacea Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe linearifolia Drake Kalanchoe macrochlamys H.Perrier Kalanchoe manginii Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe marnierana H.J.Jacobsen Kalanchoe millotii Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe miniata Hils. & Bojer var. miniata Kalanchoe miniata var. andringitrensis H.Perrier Kalanchoe miniata var. anjirensis H.Perrier Kalanchoe miniata var. confertifolia H.Perrier Kalanchoe miniata var. peltata Baker Kalanchoe miniata var. sicaformis Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe miniata var. subsessilis H.Perrier Kalanchoe mortagei Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe nadyae Raym.-Hamet Kalanchoe orgyalis Baker Kalanchoe peltata (Baker) Baillon var. peltata Kalanchoe peltata var. mandrakensis H.Perrier Kalanchoe peltata var. stapfii (Perr.) Raym.-Hamet & H.Perr. Kalanchoe poincarei Raym.-Hamet Kalanchoe porphyrocalyx (Baker) Baillon var. porphyrocalyx Kalanchoe porphyrocalyx var. sambiranensis Humbert Kalanchoe porphyrocalyx var. sulphurea Baker Kalanchoe prolifera (Bowie) Raym.-Hamet Kalanchoe pseudocampanulata Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe pubescens Baker var. pubescens Kalanchoe pubescens var. alexiana Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe pubescens var. brevicalyx Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe pubescens var. decolorata Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe pubescens var. grandiflora Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe pubescens var. Kalanchoe pubescens var. Kalanchoe pumila Baker Kalanchoe rhombopilosa Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe rolandi-bonapartei Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe rosei Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier var. rosei Kalanchoe rosei var. seyrigii Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe rosei var. varifolia Guill. & Humbert Kalanchoe rubella (Baker) Raym.-Hamet Kalanchoe schizophylla (Baker) Baillon Kalanchoe serrata Manning & Boit. Kalanchoe streptantha Baker Kalanchoe suarezensis H.Perrier Kalanchoe synsepala Baker Kalanchoe tetraphylla H.Perrier Kalanchce tomentosa Baker Kalanchoe trichantha Baker Kalanchoe tuberosa H.Perrier Kalanchoe tubiflora (Harvey) Raym.-Hamet Kalanchoe uniflora (Stapf) Raym.-Hamet var. uniflora Kalanchoe uniflora var. brachycalyx Manning & Boit. subsessilis Manning & Boit. subglabrata Manning & Boit. BAZAAR AAAAAAAANAAAN AKAAAAAAAAAAAN AK AAAAAAAAAAARAAAAAA AAA AAA OK OM OF -337- Appendix 4: plant species lists CRASSULACEAE (contd.) Kalanchoe viguieri Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Kalanchoe waldheimii Raym.-Hamet & H.Perrier Sedum madagascariense H.Perrier CUCURBITACEAE Seyrigia bosseri Keraudren Seyrigia gracilis Keraudren Seyrigia humbertii Keraudren Seyrigia multiflora Keraudren Xerosicyos danguyi Humbert Xerosicyos decaryi Guillaumin & Keraudren Xerosicyos perrieri Humbert Xerosicyos pubescens Keraudren DIDIEREACEAE Alluaudia ascendens (Drake) Drake Alluaudia comosa Drake Alluaudia dumosa Drake Alluaudia humbertii Choux Alluaudia montagnacii Rauh Alluaudia procera Drake Alluaudiopsis fiherensis Humbert & Choux Alluaudiopsis marnierana Rauh Decaryia madagascariensis Choux Didierea madagascariensis Baillon Didierea trollii Capuron & Rauh EUPHORBIACEAE Euphorbia alcicornis Baker Euphorbia alluaudii Drake ssp. alluaudii Euphorbia alluaudii Drake ssp. oncoclada (Drake) Friedm. & Cremers Euphorbia analalavensis Leandri Euphorbia ankarensis Boit. Euphorbia arahaka H.Poisson ex Humbert & Leandri Euphorbia beharensis Leandri Euphorbia biaculeata Denis Euphorbia boinensis Denis ex Humbert & Leandri Euphorbia boissieri Baillon Euphorbia boiteaui Leandri Euphorbia bosseri Leandri Euphorbia brachyphylla Denis Euphorbia cap-saintemariensis Rauh var. cap-saintemariensis Euphorbia cap-saintemariensis var. tulearensis Rauh Euphorbia capuronii Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia caput-aureum Denis Euphorbia commersonii (Baillon) Denis Euphorbia croizatii Leandri Euphorbia cylindrifolia Marn.-Lap. & Rauh ssp. cylindrifolia Euphorbia cylindrifolia ssp. tuberifera Rauh Euphorbia decaryi Guillaumin Euphorbia decorsei Drake Euphorbia delphinensis Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia denisiana Guillaumin Euphorbia didieroides Denis & Leandri Euphorbia duranii Ursch & Leandri var. duranii Euphorbia duranii var. ankaratrae Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia enterophora Drake ssp. enterophora Euphorbia enterophora ssp. crassa Cremers Euphorbia famatamboay Friedm. & Cremers ssp. famatamboay Euphorbia famatamboay ssp. itampolensis Friedm. & Cremers Euphorbia fianarantsoae Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia fiherensis L.Poiss. Euphorbia francoisii Leandri Euphorbia genoudiana Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia guillauminiana Boit. Euphorbia guillemetii Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia hedyotoides N.E.Br. Euphorbia horombensis Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia intisy Drake var. intisy Euphorbia intisy Drake var. maintyi (Decorse) L.Poiss. Euphorbia isaloensis Drake Euphorbia laro Drake Euphorbia leandriana Boit. Euphorbia leucodendron Drake AA AAAZBAARA AAAS BTR AAAKRAAANTAR AW BAAR KH AKRASZ MAAR ARK RARE BD =] — An environmental profile of Madagascar EUPHORBIACEAE (contd.) Euphorbia leuconeura Bois Euphorbia lophogona Lam. Euphorbia mahafalensis Denis var. mahafalensis Euphorbia mahafalensis var. xanthodenia (Denis) Leandri Euphorbia mainty Denis ex Leandri Euphorbia mangokyensis Denis Euphorbia milii Des Moul. var. milii Euphorbia milii var. betsiliana Leandri Euphorbia milii var. bevilaniensis (Croizat) Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia milii var. bosseri Rauh Euphorbia milii var. breonii (Nois.) Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia milii var. hislopii (N.E.Br.) Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia milii var. imperatae (Leandri) Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia milii var. longifolia Rauh Euphorbia milii var. roseana Marn.-Lap. Euphorbia milii var. splendens (Bojer ex Hook.) Ursch & Lean. Euphorbia milii var. tananarivae Leandri Euphorbia milii var. tulearensis Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia milii var. vulcanii Leandri Euphorbia millotii Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia moratii Rauh Euphorbia neohumbertii Boit. var. neohumbertii Euphorbia neohumbertii var. aureo-viridiflora Rauh Euphorbia orthoclada Baker ssp. orthoclada Euphorbia orthoclada ssp. vepretorum (Drake) Leandri Euphorbia pachypodioides Boit. Euphorbia pauliani Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia pedilanthoides Denis Euphorbia perrieri Drake var. perrieri Euphorbia perrieri var. elongata Denis Euphorbia plagiantha Drake Euphorbia platyclada Rauh var. platyclada Euphorbia platyclada Rauh var. hardyi Rauh Euphorbia primulifolia Baker Euphorbia quartziticola Leandri Euphorbia ramipressa Croizat Euphorbia razafinjohanii Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia rossii Rauh & Buchloh Euphorbia salota Leandri Euphorbia stenoclada Baillon ssp. stenoclada Euphorbia stenoclada ssp. ambatofinandranae (Leandri) Cremers Euphorbia tardieuana Leandri Euphorbia tsimbazazae Leandri Euphorbia viguieri Denis var. viguieri Euphorbia viguieri var. ankarafantsiensis Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia viguieri var. capuroniana Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia viguieri var. tsimbazazae Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia viguieri var. vilandrensis Ursch & Leandri Euphorbia zakamenae Leandri GERANIACEAE Pelargonium caylae Humbert LABIATAE Coleus spicatus Benth. Perrierastrum oreophilum Guillaumin LILIACEAE Aloe acutissima H.Perrier var. acutissima Aloe acutissima var. antanimorensis G.Reyn. Aloe albiflora Guillaumin Aloe andringitrensis H.Perrier Aloe antandroi (Decary) H.Perrier Aloe bakeri Scott Elliot Aloe bellatula G.Reyn. Aloe betsiliensis H.Perrier Aloe boiteaui Guillaumin Aloe buchlohii Rauh Aloe bulbillifera H.Perrier var. bulbillifera Aloe bulbillifera var. pauliana G.Reyn. Aloe calcairophila G.Reyn. BAAR ARAL D AAS ADDU AAS DWARAAR AAR KR AAR ARARAR ARR AAALZA val Aw SAAAAAARSAAARAZ -338- LILIACEAE (contd.) Aloe capitata Baker var. capitata Aloe capitata var. cipolinicola H.Perrier Aloe capitata var. gneissicola H.Perrier Aloe capitata var. quartziticola H.Perrier Aloe capitata var. silvicola H.Perrier Aloe compressa H.Perrier var. compressa Aloe compressa var. rugosquamosa H.Perrier Aloe compressa var. schistophila H.Perrier Aloe conifera H.Perrier Aloe cremersii Lavranos Aloe cryptoflora G.Reyn. Aloe decaryi Guillaumin Aloe decorsei H.Perrier Aloe deltoideodonta Baker var. deltoideodonta Aloe deltoideodonta var. brevifolia H.Perrier Aloe deltoideodonta var. candicans H.Perrier Aloe descoingsii G.Reyn. Aloe divaricata A.Berger var. divaricata Aloe divaricata var. rosea (Decary) G.Reyn. Aloe ericetorum Bosser Aloe erythrophylla Bosser Aloe fievetii G.Reyn. Aloe guillaumetii Cremers Aloe haworthioides Baker var. haworthioides Aloe haworthioides var. aurantiaca H.Perrier Aloe helenae Danguy Aloe humbertii H.Perrier Aloe ibitiensis H.Perrier Aloe imalotensis G.Reyn. Aloe isaloensis H.Perrier Aloe itremensis G.Reyn. Aloe laeta A.Berger var. laeta Aloe laeta var. maniaensis H.Perrier Aloe leandrii Bosser Aloe macroclada Baker Aloe madecassa H.Perrier var. madecassa Aloe madecassa var. lutea Guillaumin Aloe mayottensis A.Berger Aloe millotii G.Reyn. Aloe parallelifolia H.Perrier Aloe parvula A.Berger Aloe perrieri G.Reyn. Aloe rauhii G.Reyn. Aloe schomeri Rauh Aloe silicicola H.Perrier Aloe suarezensis H.Perrier Aloe subacutissima G.Rowley Aloe suzannae Decary Aloe trachyticola (H.Perrier) G.Reyn. Aloe vaombe Decorse & L.Poisson var. vaombe Aloe vaombe var. poissonii Decary Aloe vaotsanda Decary Aloe versicolor Guillaumin Aloe viguieri H.Perrier Lomatophyllum antsingyense Leandri Lomatophyllum citreum Guillaumin Lomatophyllum occidentale H.Perrier Lomatophyllum oligophyllum (Baker) H.Perrier Lomatophyllum orientale H.Perrier Lomatophyllum prostratum H.Perrier Lomatophyllum roseum H.Perrier Lomatophyllum sociale H.Perrier Lomatophyllum viviparum H.Perrier MORACEAE Dorstenia cuspidata Hochst. MORINGACEAE Moringa drouhardii Jum. PASSIFLORACEAE Adenia epigea H.Perrier Adenia firingalavensis (Drake) Harms Adenia olaboensis Claverie Adenia peltata Schinz Adenia refracta Schinz =] + ca “HARTA A TROD A AAAS DARE AAAADMDUARAR FARA AAAAARAAS AB AMSABAAAAARSAARAAAARAR a te) AAKAA PEDALIACEAE Uncarina abbreviata (Baillon) Ihlenf. & Straka Uncarina decaryii Humbert Uncarina grandidieri (Baillon) Stapf Uncarina leandrii Humbert Uncarina leptocarpa (Decne.) Ihlenf. & Straka Uncarina peltata (Baker) Stapf Uncarina perrieri Humbert Uncarina sakalava Humbert Uncarina stellulifera Humbert VITACEAE Cyphostemma cornigerum Descoings Cyphostemma coursii Descoings Cyphostemma echinocarpum Descoings Cyphostemma elephantopus Descoings Cyphostemma laza Descoings var. laza Cyphostemma laza var. parviflora Descoings Cyphostemma montagnacii Descoings Cyphostemma roseiglandulosa Descoings Cyphostemma sakalavense Descoings AAKRAARARA AAAI AAA CATEGORY CATEGORY NON-ENDEMIC TAXA COUNTRY WORLD BOMBACACEAE Adansonia digitata L. K CUCURBITACEAE Telfairia pedata (Smith) Hook.f. K EUPHORBIACEAE Euphorbia pyrifolia Lam. K LILIACEAE Sansevieria canaliculata Carriere K MORINGACEAE Moringa hildebrandtii Engl. R PEDALIACEAE Pedalium murex L. -K VITACEAE Cissus quadrangularis L. K K =339- Appendix 4: plant species lists An environmental profile of Madagascar MADAGASCAR PALMS ENDEMIC TAXA PALMAE Antongilia perrieri Jumelle Beccariophoenix madagascariensis Jumelle & H.Perrier Bismarckia nobilis Hildebr. & H.Wendl. Borassus madagascariensis Bojer Borassus sambiranensis Jumelle & H.Perrier Chrysalidocarpus acuminum Jumelle Chrysalidocarpus ankaizinensis Jumelle Chrysalidocarpus arenarum Jumelle Chrysalidocarpus auriculatus Jumelle Chrysalidocarpus brevinodis H.Perrier Chrysalidocarpus canescens Jumelle & H.Perrier Chrysalidocarpus decipiens Becc. Chrysalidocarpus fibrosus Jumelle Chrysalidocarpus lutescens H. Wendl. Chrysalidocarpus madagascariensis Becc. var. madagascariensis Chrysalidocarpus madagascariensis var. lucubensis Becc. Chrysalidocarpus madagascariensis var. oleraceus Jumelle & H.Perrier Chrysalidocarpus mananjarensis Jumelle & H.Perrier Chrysalidocarpus midongensis Jumelle Chrysalidocarpus onilahensis Jumelle & H.Perrier Chrysalidocarpus paucifolius Jumelle Chrysalidocarpus pilulifera Becc. Chrysalidocarpus rivularis Jumelle & H.Perrier Chrysalidocarpus ruber Jumelle Chrysalidocarpus sahanofensis Jumelle Dypsis angusta Jumelle Dypsis boiviniana Becc. Dypsis fasciculata Jumelle Dypsis forficifolia Mart. var. forficifolia Dypsis forficifolia var. reducta Jumelle & H.Perrier Dypsis glabrescens Becc. Dypsis gracilis Bory ex Mart. Dypsis hildebrandtii Becc. Dypsis hirtula Mart. Dypsis humbertii H.Perrier var. humbertii Dypsis humbertii var. angustifolia H.Perrier Dypsis lanceana Baillon Dypsis linearis Jumelle Dypsis littoralis Jumelle Dypsis longipes Jumelle Dypsis louvelii Jumelle & H.Perrier Dypsis mananarensis Jumelle Dypsis masoalensis Jumelle Dypsis mocquerysiana Becc. Dypsis monostachya Jumelle Dypsis plurisecta Jumelle Dypsis procera Jumelle Dypsis sambiranensis Jumelle Dypsis viridis Jumelle Halmoorea trispatha J.Dransf. & N.Uhl. Louvelia albicans Jumelle Louvelia lakatra Jumelle Louvelia madagascariensis Jumelle & H.Perrier Marojejya darianii J.Dransf. & N.Uhl. Marojejya insignis Humbert Masoala madagascariensis Jumelle Neodypsis baronii Jumelle Neodypsis basilongus Jumelle & H.Perrier Neodypsis canaliculatus Jumelle Neodypsis ceraceus Jumelle Neodypsis compactus Jumelle Neodypsis decaryi Jumelle Neodypsis heteromorphus Jumelle Neodypsis lastelliana Baillon Neodypsis ligulatus Jumelle Neodypsis lobatus Jumelle Neodypsis loucoubensis Jumelle Neodypsis nauseosus Jumelle & H.Perrier Neodypsis tanalensis Jumelle & H.Perrier Beelics Pe et et et et et ey = _ Cli Mle Mallen Me Me Mela MaMa lc oll 3c > Meee Mell > me Mees ce Me Mell > [ce ell «> ame Ma MM Me Me lll eo oe ee le eee oe eel oeee lonlle -340- PALMAE (contd.) Neodypsis tsaratananensis Jumelle Neophloga affinis Becc. Neophloga bernieriana Becc. Neophloga betamponensis Jumelle Neophloga brevicaulis Guillaumet Neophloga catatiana Becc. Neophloga commersoniana Baillon Neophloga concinna Becc. var. concinna Neophloga concinna var. triangularis Jumelle Neophloga corniculata Becc. Neophloga curtisii Becc. Neophloga digitata Becc. Neophloga heterophylla Becc. Neophloga humbertii Jumelle Neophloga integra Jumelle Neophloga lanceolata Jumelle Neophloga linearis Becc. var. linearis Neophloga linearis var. distachya Jumelle Neophloga littoralis Jumelle Neophloga lucens Jumelle Neophloga lutea Jumelle var. lutea Neophloga lutea var. transiens H.Perrier Neophloga majorana Becc. Neophloga mananjarensis Jumelle & H.Perrier Neophloga mangorensis Jumelle Neophloga montana Jumelle Neophloga occidentalis Jumelle Neophloga oligostachya (Becc.) H.Perrier Neophloga pervillei Becc. Neophloga poivreana Becc. Neophloga procumbens Jumelle & H.Perrier Neophloga pygmaea Pichi-Serm. Neophloga rhodotricha Becc. Neophloga scottiana Becc. Neophloga simianensis Jumelle Neophloga thiryana Becc. Orania longisquama (Jumelle) J.Dransf. & N.UhlI. Phloga gracilis (Jumelle) H.Perrier Phloga polystachya Noronha ex Mart. var. polystachya Phloga polystachya var. stenophylla Becc. Ravenea amara Jumelle Ravenea glauca Jumelle & H.Perrier Ravenea latisecta Jumelle Ravenea madagascariensis Becc. var. madagascariensis Ravenea madagascariensis var. monticola Jumelle & H.Perrier Ravenea rivularis Jumelle & H.Perrier Ravenea robustior Jumelle & H.Perrier var. robustior Ravenea robustior var. kona Jumelle Ravenea sambiranensis Jumelle & H.Perrier Ravenea xerophila Jumelle Vonitra crinita Jumelle & H.Perrier Vonitra fibrosa (C.H.Wright) Becc. Vonitra nossibensis (Becc.) H.Perrier Vonitra utilis Jumelle Leal > cc Men Oc i Me ce ce ne cn ee Be ee on Be Bn ee ee APPENDIX 5. ETHNOBOTANY This appendix contains tables on Madagascan plants and their uses, taken and adapted from information supplied in: Plotkin, M., Randrianasolo, V., Sussman, L. and Marshall, N. (1985). Ethnobotany in Madagascar. Overview/Action Plan/Database. Report to IUCN/WWF. Unpd, 653 pp. Table 1 lists plant species taxonomically (alphabetically by family and within each family by species); for each species the local Madagascan name (where known) is listed along with the uses of the plant or its derivatives and the parts of the plant specified for each usage. Numbered references are given; these are detailed in full at the end of Table 2. Table 2 is organized alphabetically by categories of use; for each use a list of relevant plants is provided, arranged alphabetically by family. In this table several of the family names have been abbreviated; full family names (arranged alphabetically) are given in table one and there should thus be no possibility of confusion. Both tables can be fully cross-referenced. These tables should be regarded as draft outputs - for example considerable further work needs to be done to rationalise and systematise the categories of use in table 2; at present they are largely listed alphabetically as they appear in the literature. Terms which have not been translated from the original French are given in inverted commas. =341- An environmental profile of Madagascar ETHNOBOTANICAL DATA BASE OF MADAGASCAR TABLE 1: alphabetically by taxon Key: FAMILY Genus species Authority, any infraspecific taxa [Vernacular name (Dialect)] Use: Part used (References) References are given at the end of table 2. (LICHEN) Parmelia perforata Ach. Scurf: ? (41a,21) Syphilitic chancres; ? (41a,21) ACANTHACEAE Justicia gendarussa Burm. Chronic rheumatism: Leaves, Roots, Flowers (41a,21) Dysentery, Depurative: Roots (41a,21) Emetic: Roots (41a,3) Jaundice: Roots (41a,21) Justicia sp. [Voanalakely] Antiseptic: ? (41a) Neuralgia: ? (12a) Rhinacanthus aspera L. Impetigo: Roots, Leaves (41a,21) Rhinacanthus osmospermus Boj. Anti-spasmodic: Stem leaves (41a) Aphrodisiac: Roots (41a,21) Herpes: Roots, Leaves (41a,21) ADIANTACEAE Acrostichum aureum Willd. [Saro (Mah.)] Stomach ache: Leaves (12a) AIZOACEAE Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Anaemia: Entire plant (41a) Anti-spasmodic: Antitussive: ? (12a) Cardiac tonic: Entire plant (41a) Chronic enteritis: Entire plant (41a,21) Coughs: ? (12a) Coughs, Whooping cough: Entire plant (41a,1,16) Stomach cramps: Leaves (41a,21) Tonic: ? (41a,53) Vermifuge: ? (41a) AMARANTHACEAE Achyranthes aspera L. Bronchitis: Roots (41a) Dropsy, Diuretic: ? (41a,3,21) Ophthalmia: ? (41a,21) Puerperal ailments: Roots (41a,21) Pyrosis: Entire plant (41a) Rheumatism: Fruits (41a,21) Skin maladies: ? (41a,21) Syphilis: Roots (41a,21) Alternanthera sessilis R.Br. Galactogogue: ? (41a,21) Itching: ? (41a,21) Amaranthus spinosus L. Blennorrhagia, Chancre: Roots (41a,21) Diuretic: Roots (41a,21) Cyathula prostrata Blume Venereal ailments: ? (41a,21) Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad) Schinz [Tangogo (Merina)] Stomach/Liver: ? (12a) Henonia scoparia Mog. [Kifafa (Sak.)] Children’s headaches/Diarrhoea: Leafy stems (12a) Diuretic: Stem leaves (41a) Flatulence: ? (41a) AMARYLLIDACEAE Crinum firmifolium Bak. Condyloma: ? (41a,42) Ear troubles: Leaf sap (41a) Emetic: Bulb (41a,21) Inflamation: Bulb (12a) Leprosy: Bulbs (41a,21) Resolutive: Bulb (41a,3) Scabies, Burns, Anthrax, "Panaris": ? (41a,21) 2342- AMARYLLIDACEAE (contd.) Crinum modestum Bak. Resolutive: Bulb (41a,3) ANACARDIACEAE Gluta tourtour March. Vesicant, Corrosive: Resin (55) Mangifera indica L. Blennorrhagia: Leaves (41a,33) Depurative: Fruits (41a,21) Depurative: Leaves (41a,3) Dysentery: Bark (41a) Febrifuge: Fruits (41a,21) Liver congestion: Wood, Bark (41a,56) Scabies: ? (41a) Sore throat: Green fruits (41a) Vermifuge: Seeds (41a,21) Operculicarya hyphaenoides H.Perr. [Zabe (Mah.)] Tonic/Childbirth: Bark, Leaves (12a) Operculicarya monstruosa H.Perr. [Talaby (Mah.)] Haemostatic: ? (12a) Poupartia caffra Perr. Antiseptic: ? (41a) Pains: Leaves (41a) Poupartia minor (Boj.) L.Marchand [Talaby (Mah.)] Diarrhoea: ? (12a) Rhus taratana (Bak.) H.Perr. [Taratana (Merina)]| Malaria: Leaves (41a,1) Stomach/ Witchcraft antidote: Leafy stems/ (12a) Vermifuge: ? (41a,53) ANNONACEAE Annona muricata L. [Senasena (Merina)] Antitussive: Seeds (12a) Uvaria catocarpa Diels Antiseptic: Fruits (41a,9) Astringent: Fruit (41a,9,3) Coughs, Whooping cough: Fruits (41a,9) Purgative: Bark and roots (41a,9,3) Tonic, Aperitif: Fruits (41a,9) Toothache: Roots (41a,9) Vermifuge: Fruits (41a,9) Uvaria manjensis Cav. & Ker. [Lambo (Sak.)] Rheumatic pains: Leaves (12a) APOCYNACEAE Cabucala madagascariensis Pich. Blennorrhagia: Stem leaves (41a) Diseases of the spinal marrow: Stem leaves (41a) Gout: Stem leaves (41a) Rheumatism: ? (41a) Stomach troubles: Leaves (41a,21) Tonic: ? (41a,53) Vermifuge: Leaves (41a,21) Carissa edulis Vahl Dysentery: Leaves, Roots (41a,12) Febrifuge: Roots (41a) Tonic: Syem and leaves (41a) Catharanthus lanceus Pich. Congestion of the breasts: 41a Diuretic: Aerial parts (41a) Fever/Ocytocic : Roots/ (12a) Haemostatic: ? (41a,21) Neuralgia: Aerial parts (41a) Purgative, Emetic: ? (41a) Scurf: ? (41a,21) Tonic: ? (41a,53) Toothache: Roots (41a,4) Vermifuge: Roots (41a) APOCYNACEAE (contd.) Catharanthus roseus G.Don Galactogogue: Leaves (41a,21) Haemostatic: ? (41a,21) Liver congestion: ? (41a,3) Purgative, Emetic, Depurative: Roots, Leaves (41a) Scurf: ? (41a,1) Tonic: ? (41a) Toothache: Roots (41a) Vermifuge: Roots (41a,21) Catharanthus trichophyllus Pich. Aphrodisiac: ? (41a) Haemostatic: ? (41a,54) Purgative, Emetic: ? (41a) Scurf: ? (41a,1) Toothache: Roots (41a) Vermifuge: ? (41a) Cerbera venenifera (Poir.) Steud. Wounds: Berrie (41a,21) Cardiac tonic, Palpitations: Seeds (41a,21,53) Charm/Vomitory/Poison antidote: Leaves/Berries/ Berries (12a) Trembling, Paralysis: Fruits (41a,21) Urinary incontinence: Fruits (41a,21) Craspidospermum verticillatum Boj. [Vandrika (Merina)] Syphilis: Aerial part (12a) Echitella lisianthiflora Pich. Anthrax: Leaves (41a,55) Hazunta modesta (Bak.) Pich. subvar methuenii Mef. [Feka (Mah.)] Suppurating sores, Wounds/Tonic: Roots/Stem Pachypodium rosulatum Bak. Boils: ? (41a,1) Resolutive: ? (41a,1) Plectaneia elastica Jum. & Perr. Enlarged spleen: ? (41a) Roupellina boivini (H.Bn.) Pich. [Lalondo (Sak.); Lalondo (Mah.); Hiba (Bar.)] Cardiac tonic: ? (41a,3) Poison/ Anti-itch: Entire plant/Bark (12a) Voacanga thouarsii Roem. & Schult. Heart troubles: ? (41a) Tonic: ? (41a,53) AQUIFOLIACEAE Ilex mitis Radlk. Skin ailments: ? (41a) ARACEAE Colocasia esculenta Schott Haemostatic: Petiole sap (41a,21) Pothos chapelieri Schott. [Ramatsatso (Merina)] Stomach/Diabetes/Tobacco substitute/Poison antidote/ Alcoholism: Leaves and stems / Leafy stems/Leaves (12a) ARALIACEAE Cussonia bojeri Seem. Diarrhoea: Leaves (41a,1) Liver/Digestion/Stomach/Neuralgia: Leafy stem/Leaves (12a) Syphilis: Stem leaves (41a) Cussonia sp. [Tsingila (Merina)] Liver: Entire plant (12a) Pain and stiffness: ? (12a) Polyscias sp. [Voatsevana (Merina)] Liver: Entire plant (12a) ARISTOLOCHIACEAE Aristolochia acuminata Lamk. Malaria: Roots (41a,3) ASCLEPIADACEAE Asclepias curassavica L. [Treniombilahy (Betsim.)] Cicatrizant: ? (12a) Cryptostegia madagascariensis Boj. Cardiac tonic: ? (41a,3) Fractures: ? (41a,12) Toothache: Roots (41a,55) Ulcers, Dermatoses, Scabies: Latex (41a,21) Cynanchum aphyllum Schlechtr. [Ranga (Mah.)] Coughs/Children’s stomach ache: Stem (12a) Cynanchum sp. [Tadilava (Merina)] Syphilis: ? (12a) -343- Appendix 5: ethnobotany ASCLEPIADACEAE (contd.) Folotsia sarcostemmoides Const. & Bois. [Folotse (Mah.)] Rickets: Roots (12a) Gomphocarpus cornutus Decne. Purgative: ? (41a,3) Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. [Fanoro, Fanory, Poaka (Mer.); Matsivina (Bs.); Tandemy (B1.)] Asthma: Leaves (41a,21) Cardiac tonic: Stem leaves (41a) Emetic: Leaves, Roots (41a,38,53) Neuralgia: Stem leaves (41a) Otitis: Latex (41a,47) Teeth/Coughs/Stiffness/Swelling: Latex/Seeds/ (12a) Toothache: ? (41a,47) Gymnema sylvestre R.Br. Blennorrhagia: Stem leaves (41a) Hypoglycemia: Leafy stems (12a) Harpanema acuminatum Decne. Coughs, Whooping cough: Stem leaves (41a,21) Leptadenia madagascariensis Decne. [Mojy (mah.)] Childbirth/Aperitif: Stem (12a) Menabea venenata H.Bn. Cardiac tonic: ? (41a,3) Liver ailments: Roots (41a,19,20) Purgative, Stomach troubles: Roots (41a,21) Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. Anthrax: Leaves, Roots (41a,55) Coughs/Toothache: Aerial part/ (12a) Febrifuge: ? (41a,21) Gout: ? (41a,2) Haematuria: Leaves (41a,3) Haemostatic: Leaves (41a) Jaundice, Biliousness: Leaves (41a,3) Rheumatism: ? (41a) Syphilis: Stem leaves (41a,53) Pentopetia sp. [Vahilava (Merina] Anodyne: Leafy branches(12a) Coughs: ? (12a) Sarcostemma viminale R.Br. Blennorrhagia: Stem leaves (41,55) Secamone ligustrifolia Decne. Galactogogue: ? (41a,21) Lactation: Aerial part (12a) Syphilis: Wood (41a) Secamone obovata Decne. Gonorrhoea: ? (12a) Secamone sp. [Vahilahikely (Merina)] Stomach/Anodyne: ? (12a) Throat: Entire plant (12a) Secamonopsis madagascariensis Jum. Anthrax: Leaves (41a,55) Sores: ? (33) AZOLLACEAE Azolla pinnata L. Depurative, Haemorrhoids: Entire plant (41a) BALSAMINACEAE Impatiens baroni Bak. "Eutocique": Leaves, Roots (41a,21) Blennorrhagia: ? (41a,1) Diuretic: ? (41a,3) Impatiens emirnensis Bak. "Butocique": Leaves, Roots (41a) Diuretic: ? (41a,2) Impatiens madagascariensis Wight & Arn. "Eutocique": Leaves, Roots (41a) BIGNONIACEAE Colea fusca H.Perr. Head colds: Leaves (41a) Kigelia pinnata D.C. Rheumatism: Leaves, Roots (41a,55) Ophiocolea floribunda H.Perr. Eczema: ? (41a,53) Neuralgia/Fever/Witchcraft: Leafy stems/ (12a) QOphiocolea sp. Stomach/Neuralgia: ? (12a) Phyllarthron bernierianum Seeman [Lavaraviny, Tohiravy (Sak.); Tailoravy (Mah.)] Febrifuge/Nerve sedative: Leaves (12a) An environmental profile of Madagascar BIGNONIACEAE (contd.) Phyllarthron madagascariensis K.Schum. [Zahana (Merina); Tokandilana (Merina)] Condyloma: Leaves (41a,42) Stiffness /Gonorrhoea/Coughs: ? (12a) Syphilitic sores: ? (412,38) Rhodocolea telfairiae Perr. Hysteria: Leaves (41a,21) Stereospermum arcuatum H.Perr. Anthrax: Leaves (41a,55) Stereospermum euphorioides D.C. Haemostatic: ? (41a) Stereospermum variabile H.Perr. [Mahafangalitsy (Mah.)] Aid growth/Strengthen newborns: Leaves and stems (12a) Anthrax: Leaves (41a,55) BIXACEAE Bixa orellana L. Scabies: Seeds (41a,3) Stimulant: Leaves (41a,1) BOMBACACEAE Adansonia digitata L. Dysentery: Leaves (41a,21) Febrifuge: Leaves (41a,21) Haemoptysis: Fruit pulp (41a,21) Urogenital ailments: Fruits (41a) Adansonia madagascariensis H.Bn. Dysentery: Leaves (41a) Epilepsy: Bark (412,55) Febrifuge: ? (41a) Adansonia za H.Bn. bie BORAGINACEAE Heliotropium indicum L. Diuretic: ? (41a,3) Emmenagogue: Leaves (41a,21) Paralysis: ? (41a,21) BROMELIACEAE Ananas sativus Schult. Vermifuge: Leaves (41a,56) BURSERACEAE Canarium madagascariense Engl. Antiseptic: Roots (41a,21) Blennorrhagia: Leaves, Resin (41a) Rheumatism: Resin (41a) Toothache: Resin (41a,49) Tumours: Resin (41a,21) Commiphora pterocarpa H.Perr. [Daro] Vulnerary for ulcerated sores: Trunk bark (12a) BUXACEAE Buxus madagascariensis Baill. [Mandakolahy (Bara)] Purgative/Ocytocic agent /Abortifacient: Bark/Bark w/ Malleastrum sp./Bark w/ Malleastrum sp. (12a) CACTACEAE Opuntia dillenii Haw. Anti-abortifacient: Roots (41a,55) CAMPANULACEAE Dialypetalum floribundum Benth. [Paokaty (Merina)] Dandruff/Vomitive property: ? (12a) CANELLACEAE Cinnamosma fragrans H.Bn. Biliousness: Aerial parts (41a) Diuretic: Aerial parts (41a) Stomachic: Bark (41a,21) Syphilis: ? (41a,49) Taenifuge: Bark (41a,21) Whooping cough: ? (41a,49) Cinnamosma madagascariensis Dang. Coughs: Bark (41a) Dysentery: Bark (41a) CANNABACEAE Cannabis sativa L. Stimulant, Narcotic: ? (41a,42,53) CAPPARACEAE Capparis chrysomeia Boj. [Rohavitse (Mah.); Bepako (Sak.)] Headaches: Decoction of leaves and roots (12a) Physena madagascariensis Steud. & Thou. Blennorrhagia: Roots (41a,21) Cathartic: Roots (41a,53) Febrifuge: ? (41a,1) -344- CAPPARIDACEAE Maerva filiformis Drake [Somangy (Mah.)] Edible/Headaches & nosebleed: Fruits/Leaves (12a) CARICACEAE Carica papaya L. Diptheria: Fruits (41a,1) Dyspepsia: Fruits (41a,1) CARYOPHYLLACEAE Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Roem. & Schult. [Anatarika (Merina)] Stimulant: ? (12a) Stellaria emirensis P.Danguy [Voananjananjana (Merina)] Vermifuge: ? (12a) CELASTRACEAE Celastrus madagascariensis Loes. [Tandrokosy (Merina)] Fever/Stomach: Leaves and stems/ (12a) Evonymopsis longipes H.Perr. [Tsihonjonina (Merina)] Headaches: ? (12a) Gymnosporia polyacantha (Sond.) Szyszyl. [Filofilondranto (Bara); Tsingilofilofilo] Expel placenta and treat rheumatism: Decoction of leaves and roots (12a) Hippocratea bojeri Tul. Syphilis: Entire plant (41a) Hippocratea sp. [Fanolehana (Merina)] Neuralgia/Syphilis/Sores: ? (12a) Hippocratea urceolus Tul. [Vahipendy] Oral antiseptic: ? (12a) Maytenus fasciculata Loes. Kidney stones: ? (41a,1) Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. Anti-spasmodic: Stem leaves (41a) Stomach/Hypertension/Liver/Albuminuria/Neuralgia/ Diuretic/ Tonic: ? (12a) CHENOPODIACEAE Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Cardiac tonic: Stem leaves (41a) Febrifuge, Enlarged spleen: Oil (41a,1) Hookworm, Ascaris, Taenifuge: Leaves (41a,42,55) Measles, smallpox: ? (41a,1, 38,48) Syphilis: ? (41a,38) CLUSIACEAE Calophyllum inophyllum L. Ophthalmia: Leaves (41a,21) Orchitis: Bark (41a,21) Poison/Haemorrage: Berries/Kernels (12a) Rheumatism: Oil, Seeds (41a,21) Ulcers, Scabies: Seed oil (41a,21) Vulnerary: Resin (41a,21) Wounds, Cicatrizant: Resin (41a,21) Calophyllum parviflorum Boj. Ulcers: Roots (41a,21) Wounds, Cicatrizant: Roots (41a,21) Ochrocarpos orthcladus H. Perr. [Andriapitoloha (Merina)] Syphilis/Back pains: Leafy stems/ (12a) Symphonia fasciculata Benth. & Hook. Contusions: Seeds (41a,21) Leprosy: Seeds (41a,21) Rheumatism: Seeds (41a,21) Scabies, Ulcers: Seeds (41a,21) COMBRETACEAE Calopyxis grandidieri H.Perr. Vermifuge: Seeds (41a,29) Calopyxis phaneropetala H.Perr. Ascaris, Vermifuge: Bark, Fruits, Roots (41a,29) Calopyxis subumbellata Bak. Hiccups: Bark (41a,29) Hookworm, Ascaris, Taenifuge: Bark (41a,29) Calopyxis villosa Tul. Vermifuge: Fruits (41a,29) Poivrea coccinea D.C. Vermifuge: Bark, Fruits, Roots (41a,29) Poivrea sp. [Voatamenaka (Merina)] Vermifuge: ? (12a) Terminalia catappa L. Blennorrhagia: Leaves (41a,33) Sores: Leaves (41a,33) Appendix 5: ethnobotany COMMELINACEAE COMPOSITAE (contd.) Commelina benghalensis L. Erigeron naudinii E.Bonnet [Kelivoloina (Merina); Malaria: Entire plant (41a,42) Maitsoririnina (Merina)] Sprains: Entire plant (41a) Coagulant/Coughs: Leaves/ (12a) Commelina madagascarica Clarke [Nifinakanga (Merina)] Ethulia conyzoides L. [Keliomandra, Tangentsahona Galactogogue: Leaves (41a,53) (Mer.)] Facial pimples: Stem (12a) Asthma, Haemoptysis: Entire plant (41a,21) COMPOSITAE Scabies: ? (41a,21) Ageratum conyzoides L. Etulia conyzoides L. Bruises: Leaves (41a,21) ?: Leaves (41a,21) Cirrhosis: Stem leaves (41a) Chancre, Syphilis: Leaves (41a,21) Diaphoretic: ? (41a,53) Gerbera elliptica H.Humb. [Fotsiavadika (Merina)] Leprosy: Leaves, Stems (41a,21) Vermifuge/Stomach/ Antidote to Cerbera venenifera: Ophthalmia: ? (41a,21) Leaves/ (12a) Stomach/Coughs: Flowers/Aerial parts (12a) Grangea maderaspatana Poir. Bidens pilosa L. [Tsipolotra (Merina)] Anti-spasmodic: Leaves (41a,21) Sores: Leaves (12a) Gynura rubens Muscher Bojeria speciosa D.C. ?: Leaves (41a,1) Syphilis: Leaves (41a,21) Antifungal agent: ? (41a,21) Brachylaena perrieri Humb. Eczema, Scabies: ? (41a,1) Blennorrhagia: Stem leaves (41a) Kidney ailments: ? (41a,22) Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. [Hazotokana (Merina); Gynura sarcobasis D.C. Mananitra (Merina)] Facial sores of venereal origin: Entire plant (41a) Epilepsy: Wood (41a,53) Helichrysum benthami R.Vig. & H.Humb. [Tsimonomonina Febrifuge, Malaria: ? (41a,3) (Merina)] Low blood pressure/Constipation/Stomach/Fever/Urine Albuminuria: ? (12a) inconsistency /Gonorrhoea/Diabetes/Ulcerous Diseases of the spinal marrow: Aerial! parts (41a) sores/Ocytocic agent ? (12a) Syphilis, Blennorrhagia: Aerial parts (41a) Vermifuge: Leaves (41a,53) Helichrysum bracteiferum Humb. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Stimulant: ? (41a,53) Biliary stones: Aerial parts (41a) Helichrysum cordifolium D.C. [Fotsiavadika (Merina); Diuretic, Kidney ailments: ? (41a,22) Tsimanandrana (Merina)] Febrifuge, Malaria: Entire plant (41a,3) Colic/ Witchcraft /Cicatrizant after circumcision: ? Gout, Anaemia: Entire plant (41a) (12a) Haemostatic: Sap (41a,1) Helichrysum emirnense DC. Tonic: ? (41a,2) ?: Stem leaves (41a,12) Toothache: ? (41a,21) Diuretic: ? (41a,53) Whooping cough, Pneumonia: Entire plant (41a) Helichrysum faradifani Sc. Ell. Conyza garnieri Klatt. [Miandramiondrika (Merina)] Cicatrizant: Stem leaves (41a) Toothache: Leaves (12a) Gonorrhoea/Coughs/Fever/Stomach/Decontracturant: ? Hepatic fever: Aerial parts (41a) (12a) Crassocephalum bojeri (DC) Robyns [Vahavandana Helichrysum fulvescens D.C. (Merina)] Jaundice: ? (12a) Syphilis: Entire plant (12a) Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. Crassocephalum sarcobasis (DC) Moore [Anadrambo Angina: ? (41a,21) (Merina)] Antiseptic: ? (41a,37) Leprosy: Aerial part (12a) Aphrodisiac, Galactorrhoea, Amenorrhea, Dichrocephala latifolia DC. Dysmenorrhea: ? (41a,21) Boils: Leaves (41a,22) Goiter, Rickets: ? (41a,21) Dichrocephala lyrata DC. Headaches: Aerial parts (41a,4,49) Adenitis: ? (41,47) Herpes: Leaves (41a) Conjunctivitis: Leaves (41a,11,21) Stimulant: ? (41a,53) Ear troubles: Leaves (41a,11) Ulcers: ? (41a) Dichrosephala lyrata DC. Helichrysum mutisiaefolium H.Humb. [Ahitrorana (Merina); Wounds: ? (41a,21) Kelilimeladia (Merina)] Eclipta erecta L. Haemostatic/"Tambavy": Juice (12a) Dermatoses: ? (41a) Helichrysum rusillonii Hochr. Elephantopus scaber L. Cicatrizant, Antiseptic: ? (41a,22) Anaemia, regulates bleeding: Leaves (41a,22) Gout: Aerial parts (41a) Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: ? (41a,53) Rheumatism: ? (41a) Diuretic: ? (41a,3) Helichrysum sp. [Tsatsambaitra (Merina)] Stomach/Dysentery /Haemostatic: ? (12a) Ocytocic agent/Diabetes/Coughs: ? (12a) Vermifuge: ? (12a) Haemostatic: ? (12a) Emilia amplexicaulis Bak. Urine inconsistency /Syphilis/Diuretic/: Entire plant Condyloma: ? (41a,1) (12a) Emilia citrina D.C. Inula speciosa (DC) O.Hoffm. [Lelanomby (Merina); Scabies: ? (41a,1,2) Salakanny mpiosy (Merina)] Condyloma: Leaves (41a,1,42) Gonorrhoea/Liver/Coughs: Leaves/Leaves/Leaves (12a) Burns/Haemostatic/Eczema/Ulcerous sores: Leaves, Juice Lactuca welwitschii Sc. Ell. from fresh plant/ (12a) Febrifuge: ? (41a,22) Syphilis: ? (412,53) Laggera alata Sch. Bip. Emilia graminea D.C. Antiseptic: ? (41a,38) Chancre, Syphilis: Leaves (41a,1) Diseases of the nervous system: ? (41a,47) Scabies: Leaves (41a,1) Dizziness/Headaches: Leaves? (12a) Emilia humifusa D.C. Febrifuge: ? (41a) Condyloma: Leaves (41a,22) Flu, Head cold: ? (41a,47) Epallage dentata D.C. [Angeha (Merina); Trakamena Scabies: Leaves (41a,11) _ (Merina)] Melanthera madagascariensis Bak. Ocytocic agent /Syphilis: Aerial part/ (12a) Wounds: ? (41a,53) -345- An environmental profile of Madagascar COMPOSITAE (contd.) Parthenium hysterophorus L. Anti-spasmodic: ? (41a,2) Malaria: ? (41a,3) Psiadia altissima Benth. & Hook. Condyloma: Leaves (41a,1,22) Scabies, Eczema: Stem (41a) Sores/Diarrhoea: ? (12a) Syphilis: Ashes (41a,21) Ulcers: Leaves (41a,53) Psiadia salviaefolia Bak. [Kijitina (Merina)] Liver/Diabetes/Boils: ? (12a) Psiadia sp. [Dingadingana (Merina)] Pneumonia: Leaves (12a) Pterocaulon decurrens Moore Diaphoretic: ? (41a,53) Leprosy: ? (41a,42) Senecio adscendens Boj. Scabies: Leaves (41a,22) Syphilis: Leaves (41a,22) Senecio canaliculatus Boj. ex. DC. [Ramijaingy (Merina)] "Tambavy"/Syphilis: ? (12a) Senecio cochlearifolius Boj. [Fotsiavadika (Merina)] Liver: ? (12a) Senecio erechtitoides Bak. Asthma, Consumption: ? (41a,21) Measles: ? (41a,21) Syphilis: Leaves (41a,53) Senecio faujasioides Bak. [Anadraisoa (Merina); Kiboiboy (Merina)] Condyloma: Leaves (41a,1) Sores/Syphilis/Facial pimples: ? (12a) Syphilis: Leaves (41a,49) Wounds, Abcesses, Chapped feet: Leaves (41a,58) Senecio longiscapus Boj. ex DC. [Tsiavaramonina (Merina); Manavitrana (Merina)] "Tambavy"/Syphilis/Sores/: ? (12a) Senecio myricaefolius DC. Condyloma: Leaves (41a,22) Syphilis: Leaves (41a,53) Senecio resectus Boj. ex. DC. [Tsimonina avaratra (Merina)] Syphilis: ? (12a) Senecio sp. [Fiandry vava ala (Merina)] Abnormally obese children: Entire plant (12a) Gonorrhoea/Syphilis: Entire plant/ (12a) Stomach/Neuralgia/Syphilis: Aerial parts (12a) Syphilis/Eczema/Boils/ Anthrax: ? (12a) Siegesbeckia orientalis L. Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: Entire plant (41a) Gout: Entire plant (41a) Haemostatic: Entire plant (41a) Stimulant: Entire plant (41a) Vulnerary: ? (41a,3) Spilanthes acmella Murr. Galactogogue: Leaves (41a,21) Diuretic: ? (41a,21) Tonic: ? (41a,21) Toothache: ? (41a,31) Stenocline aricoides DC. [Mahaibe (Merina)] Sores: ? (12a) Stenocline inuloides D.C. Febrifuge, Malaria: Leaves (41a,22) Tagetes patula L. Enlarged spleen: Capitulum (flowers) (41a,2) Vernonia appendiculata Less. Chicken pox, Measles: ? (41a,48) Febrifuge: Leaves (41a,11) Nervousness/Fever: ? (12a) Wounds: Fruit pulp (41a,21) Vernonia diversifolia Boj. [Mangatovo (Merina)] Coughs: Leaves (12a) Coughs, Consumption: Stem leaves (41a,21,49) Wounds: Leaves (41a) Vernonia eriophylla Drake Diseases of the nerves: Aerial parts (41a) Vernonia exserta Bak. [Sakatavilotra ala (Merina)] Coughs/Vermifuge/"Tambavy": Entire (12a) Vernonia garnieriana Klatt. [Ramanjavona (Merina)] Fatigue/Childbirth: ? (12a) -346- COMPOSITAE (contd.) Vernonia glutinosa DC. [Ninginingina (Merina); Kanda (Merina)] Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: Entire plant (41a,21,49) Syphilis/Neuralgia/Back pains/"Tambavy": Aerial part (12a) Urethritis: ? (41a,22) Vernonia moquinoides Bak. [Hazomavo (Merina)] Swollen stomach: ? (12a) Vernonia pectoralis Bak. Coughs, Consumption: Leaves, Tops (sommites) (41a,21,49) Malaria: ? (41a,1) Tonic: ? (41a,53) Vernonia polygalaefolia Less. [Tsialaina-alakamisy (Merina); Nanginangina (Merina)] Anodyne/"Tambavy”": ? (12a) Vernonia secundifolia Boj. ex DC. [Ranendohazo (Merina)] Haemostatic: Leaves or roots (12a) Vernonia sp. [Ahibolo (Merina)] Diarrhoea: Aerial part (12a) Gonorrhoea: ? (12a) Stomach: ? (12a) Vernonia trichodesma Bak. Coughs: ? (41a,21,49) Malaria: Leaves (41a) Vernonia trinervis Boj. ex DC. [Kijejalahy (Merina); Longolongo: (Merina)] Neuralgia/Head problems/Gonorrhoea/Coughs/: Leaves/ Leaves/ (12a) CONNARACEAE Agelaea lamarckii Planch. Nerve tonic: Entire plant (41a) Tonic: Entire plant (41a) Cnestis polyphylla Lamk. Rabies: ? (41a,45) Tonic: ? (41a) CONVOLVULACEAE Ipomoea pescaprae (L.) Sweet [Lalanda (Antaimoro)| Gonorrhoea: Leaves (12a) Ipomoea sp. [Marovelo] Fractures, Dislocations: ? (41a,42) Ipomoea wrightii Choisy Gout: ? (41a,21) CORNACEAE Kaliphora madagascariensis Hook. [Ranendo (Merina)] Nervousness/Headaches/Convulsions/Fainting: ? (12a) CRASSULACEAE Kalanchoe crenata Ham. Febrifuge: ? (41a,21) Vermifuge: Leaves (41a,21) Kalanchoe laxiflora Bak. Diuretic: Entire plant (41a) Febrifuge: ? (41a) Ophthalmia: ? (41a) Ulcers: Entire plant (41a) Kalanchoe prolifera Ham. Abcesses: Entire plant (41a) Burns, Contusions: Entire plant (41a) Coughs, Whooping cough: ? (41a,55) Gout: ? (41a,38) Rheumatism, Periostitis: Leaves (41a,42) Kalanchoe sp. [Tsikotroka (Merina)] Stomach: ? (12a) CRUCIFERAE Nasturtium barbareaefolium Bak. Abcesses: Leaves (41a,1) CUCURBITACEAE Adenopus breviflorus Benth. Scabies: Roots (41a,21) Benincasa cerifera Savi Vermifuge: Fruits and leaves (41a,1,38) Citrulus vulgaris Schrad. Vermifuge/Taenifuge: Seeds (41a,3) Cucumis sativus L. Vermifuge: Fruits (41a,21) Cucurbita maxima Duch. Diuretic, Haemoglobinuria: ? (41a,47) Jaundice: ? (41a,47) Taenifuge: Seeds (41a,55) CUCURBITACEAE (contd.) Momordica charantia L. Emmenagogue: ? (41a) Vermifuge: Seeds (41a) Raphidiocystis brachypoda Bak. [Vavorakala (Merina)] Neuralgia: ? (12a) CUNONIACEAE Weinmannia rutenbergii Engl. [Hazoboangory (Merina)] Headaches: ? (12a) Weinmannia sp. Constipation: ? (12a) CYPERACEAE Carex albo-viridis Clarke Aphrodisiac: ? (41a,21) Cyperus aequalis Vahl Bruised wounds: ? (41a,21) Cyperus esculentus L. Aphrodisiac: Tubercles (41a,21) Cyperus rotundus L. Scabies: Roots (41a,21) Kyllingia polyphylla Kunth. [Ahipolaka (Merina)] Fever: Entire (12a) Kyllingia sp. Fever: ? (12a) DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea bulbifera L. [Hofika (Merina)] Wounds and sores/Boils/Swelling: Bulbil (12a) Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax. Anthrax: Bulbil (41a,56) Antiseptic, Contusions, Wounds: Bulbil (41a) Dioscorea sp. [Orovy] Febrifuge: Roots (41a) DROSERACEAE Drosera madagascariensis D.C. Condyloma: Entire plant (41a,42) Anaemia: Entire plant (41a) Anti-spasmodic: ? (41a,2) Coughs: Leasf stems (41a,1) Syphilis: Entire plant (41a) Drosera madagascariensis DC. [Mahatanando (Merina)] Diuretic/Urine inconsistency: ? (12a) EBENACEAE Diospyros graceilipes Hiern. Irritant: Bark (12a) Diospyros humbertiana H.Perr. [Hazonta (Mah.)] Febrifuge and headaches: Cataplasm of roots and stems (12a) Diospyros megasepala Bak. Smallpox: Leaves and roots (41a,12) Taenifuge: Leaves (41a,12) Ulcers: Leaves (41a,21) Diospyros sp. [Tsilaitia (Merina)] Neuralgia/Strengthener: ? (12a) EQUISETACEAE Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. [Tsitoitoina (Merina)] Anorexia: ? (12a Conjunctivitis: ? (41a,11) Diuretic, Retention of urine, Nephritis, Cystitis: Entire plant (41a,21) Dysmenorrhea, Leucorrhea: ? (41a) Liver congestion: ? (41a,2) Pneumonia: Entire plant (41a) ERICACEAE Agauria polyphylla Bak. [Angavodiana (Merina)] Itching/Syphilis: Leaves/ (12a) Rheumatism: Leaves (41a,21) Ulcers, Eruptions: Leaves, Seeds (41a,1,4) Wounds: Leaves (41a,1) Agauria salicifolia Hook. [Angavodiandrano (Merina)] Ulcerous sores/Syphilis/Neuralgia: ? (12a) Philippia goudotiana Klotz. Scabies, Eczema, Ulcers, Nettle rashes: ? (41a,1,47) Wounds: ? (41a,53) Philippia sp. [Anjavidy (Merina)] Syphilis: Leafy stems (12a) ERIOCAULACEAE Mesanthemum rutenbergianum Koern. [Savory (Merina)] Anti-abortifacient: ? (41a,53) Childbirth: ? (12a) WaT Appendix 5. ethnobotany ERYTHROXYLACEAE Erythroxylum ferrugineum Cav. Blennorrhagia: Stem leaves (41a) Diuretic: Stem leaves (41a) Kidney colic: Leaves (41a,21) Erythroxylum retusum Baill. ex O.E.Schulz. [Montsao (Sak.)] Vermifuge: Leaves (12a) Erythroxylum sp. [Taimboalavo (Merina)] "Tambavy"/Breathlessness: ? (12a) Fever: Entire (12a) EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha radula Bak. Syphilis: Stem leaves (41a) Acalypha spachiana H.Bn. 2:7? Aleurites triloba Forst. Rheumatism: Leaves (41a,21) Antidesma petiolare Tul. Swollen fontanelles in children: Stem leaves (41a) Bridelia pervilleana H.Bn. Syphilis: Stem leaves (41a) Croton cf. noronhae Baill. [Fotsiavadika (Betsim.)] Anodyne: Leaves (12a) Croton jennyanum Gris. Syphilis: Stem leaves (41a) Croton sp. [Tsiandrikandrinina (Merina)] Adenitis/Swelling: ? (12a) Anorexia/Fortifier: ? (12a) Antitussive: ? (12a) Antitussive/Post-partum stomach pains: ? (12a) Cicatrizant/Tooth cavities: ? (12a) Febrifuge: ? (12a) Gonorrhoea/Intestinal troubles: ? (12a) Lactation: ? (12a) Laxative: ? (12a) Nervous children/Headaches: ? (12a) Sedative: ? (12a) Stomach/Dandruff: ? (12a) Dalechampia clematidifolia Boj. Detersive, Wounds: Roots, Leaves (41a,21) Euphorbia bojeri Hook. Blennorrhagia: Leaves, Roots (41a,1) Euphorbia erythroxyloides Bak. Lumbago: Roots (41a,21) Euphorbia hirta L. Bronchitis, Asthma: Entire plant (41a,1) Ulcers: Entire plant (41a) Vermifuge: ? (41a,46) Euphorbia laro Drake. [Laro (Mah.)] Fish poison/Gonorrhoea: ? (12a) Euphorbia milii Des Moulins Blennorrhagia: Leaves, Roots (41a,1) Neuralgia: Aerial parts (41a) Vesicant: Latex (41a,42) Euphorbia sp. [Matahotrantsy (Merina)] Stomach: ? (12a) Ulcerous sores: ? (12a) Euphorbia trichophylla Bak. Purgative: ? (41a,21) Fluggea microcarpa Blume Malaria: ? (41a,1,38) Gelonium sp. [Hazombalala (Sak.)] Sores: Leaves (12a) Givotia madagascariensis H.Bn. Leprosy: Bark (41a,53) Hura crepitans L. Intestinal pains: Aerial parts (41a) Strong purgative: Seeds (41a,3) Jatropha curcas L. Detersive, Wounds: Latex (41a,21) Angina: Latex (41a,21) Baldness, Boils: Leaves (414,47) Emetic: Roots (41a,21) Herpes: Leaves (41a,47) Jaundice fever: ? (41a,55) Malaria: ? (41a) Purgative: Seeds (41a,21) Wood: Astringent (41a,21) An environmental profile of Madagascar EUPHORBIACEAE (contd.) Jatropha mahafalensis Jum. & Perr. Haemostatic: Latex (41a,21) Kill lice/Reconstituent: Seed oil/Roots (12a) Macaranga sp. [Mokaranandoha] Blennorrhagia: Bark (41a) Burns: ? (12a) Manihot utilissima Pohl. Adenitis, Boils, Ulcers: Leaves (41a,1,47) Diarrhoea, Dysentery: Roots (41,47) Malaria: Leaves (41a,47) Pneumonia: Leaves (41a,47) Wounds, Burns: Leaves (41a,1) Phyllanthus casticum Soy. Will. Detersive, Wounds: Bark (41a,1) Aphrodisiac: Roots (41a,21) Astringent, Dysentery: Bark (41a,53) Jaundice: Aerial parts (41a) Venereal ailments: Sap (41a,21) Phyllanthus distichus Muell. Arg. Asthma, Bronchitis: Tiges feuille (41a) Phyllanthus madagascariensis Muell. Arg. Detersive, Wounds: Bark (41a,1) Astringent: ? (41a,53) Phyllanthus niruri L. Asthma, Bronchitis: Stem leaves (41a) Astringent: Bark (41a,3) Blennorrhagia: ? (41a,21) Parasitic diseases of the skin: Stem leaves (41a) Phyllanthus sp. [Masombero (Merina)]} Childbirth: ? (12a) Eczema/Sprains and swellings/Dizziness and fainting: Leaves/Leaves/Roots (12a) Neuralgia/Syphilis: ? (12a) Pneumonia: Stem leaves (41a) Ricinus communis L. Galactogogue: Young leaves (41a) Angina: Leaves, Young shoots (41a,49,38) Purgative, Emetic: Seeds (41a,1,33) Rheumatism: Leaves (41a) Stomach ache: Leaves (41,49) Securinega capuronii J.Leandr. [Hazomena (Sak.)] Diarrhoea: Stem bark (12a) Uapaca bojeri H.Bn. Dysentery: Bark (41a) FLACOURTIACEAE Aphloia theaeformis Benn. "Osmeomalacie": Leaves (41a,21) Albuminuria, Diuretic, Dropsy: Leaves (41a,42,53,56) Blennorrhagia: Stem leaves (41a) Diarrhoea, Astringent: Branch leaves (41a,53) Emetic: Bark (41a,3) Haematuria, Haemoglobinuria: Young leaves (41a) Jaundice, Biliousness, Haemoglobinurique: Stem leaves (41a,15) Rheumatism: Leaves (41a,21) Wounds, Bruises, Fractures, Sprains: Stems, Leaves (41a,21) Wounds, Ulcers: Stems (41a,21) Calantica grandiflora Jaub. Ophthalmia: Leaves (41a,55) Calantica sp. [Andriamanamora (Merina)] Childbirth: ? (12a) Casearia sp. [Hazomalefaka (Merina)] Sedative/Ocytocique: ? (12a) Flacourtia ramontchi L’Her. Diuretic, Kidney colic: Berries, Seeds (41a,21,53) Madness: Berries (41a,21) Homalium sp. [Hazomby (Merina)] "Tambavy"/Diabetes: ? (12a) Kidney pain: ? (12a) Scolopia sp. [Hazondrano lahy (Merina)] Rheumatism: ? (12a) FLAGELLARIACEAE Flagellaria indica L. Otitis: Young shoots (41a,55) -348- GENTIANACEAE Tachiadenus carinatus Griseb. Nerve disorders: ? (41a,21) Purgative, Stomachic: Entire plant (41a,21) Scalp ringworm: ? (41a) Skin ailments: Entire plant (41a) Urethritis: ? (41a,21) Tachiadenus longifolius Sc. Ell. Jaundice, Biliousness, Hemoglobinurique: Aerial parts (41a) Laxative/Dyspepsia: ? (12a) Pyrosis, Stomachic: Roots (41a,3) Rheumatism: ? (41a) Tonic: Entire plant (41a,53) GERANIACEAE Geranium simense Hochst. Scabies: Leaves (41a,1) GRAMINEAE Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. Depurative: ? (41a,3) Neuralgia: Leaves (41a) Cymbopogon plicatus Stapf. [Ahibero (Sak.)] Diarrhoea/Jaundice: Leaves (12a) Cynodon dactylon Pers. Anti-abortifacient: Entire plant (41a,38,55) Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: Underground parts (41a) Diuretic, Cystitis: Roots (41a,53) Gout: Entire plant (41a,38,55) Rheumatism: Entire plant (41a,38) Sprains: Roots (41a) Ahidrindrina (Merina)] Sprains/Stomach: Juice/ (12a) Imperata cylindrica (L.) PB [Fakatenina (Merina)] Angina/Neuralgia: ? (12a) Oryza sativa L. Diarrhoea, Dysentery, Gastralgia, Flatulence, Dyspepsia: Graines (41a,53) Stomach cramps: Entire plant (41a) Panicum maximum Jacq. [Fataka (Merina)] Cicatrizant: ? (12a) Phragmites communis Tun. [Bararata (Merina)] Heart/Ears: Culm/ (12a) Phragmites mauritianus Kunth. Malaria: ? (412,38) Otitis: Young shoots (41a,55) Saccharum officinarum L. Chancre: ? (41a) Diuretic: Roots (41a,3) Zea mays L. Cardiac edema: Stigmates (41a,3) Diuretic: Stigmates (41a,3) HAMAMELIDACEAE Dicoryphe noronhae Tul. Amenorrhea: Fruits (414,53) Dicoryphe retusa Bak. Leprosy: Bark (414,55) HERNANDIACEAE Hernandia voyroni Jum. Headaches, Stimulant: ? (41a) Jaundice: Bark (41a) Stimulant: Leaves (41a) HYDROSTACHYACEAE Hydrostachys imbricata A.Juss. Eczema/Boils: ? (12a) HYPERICACEAE Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Amenorrhea, Emmenagogue: Leaves (41a,21) Blennorrhagia: Leaves (41a,21) Dysentery, Diarrhoea: Leaves, Young shoots (41a,1,38,58) Febrifuge: Leaves (41a,21) Haemorrhoids: Bark, Leaves (41a,54) Intellectual stimulant: Leaves (41a,49) Intestinal debility: Leaves (41a,49) Scabies, Eczema, Scurf, Ailments of the skin and scalp: Gum-resin (41a,1,53) Tuberculosis, Asthma, Angina: Leaves (41a,21) Wounds: Stems plus leaves (41a) HYPERICACEAE (contd.) Harungana madagascariensis Choisy [Har ngana (Merina)] Asthma/Coughs with blood: ? (12a) Hypericum japonicum Thunb. Haemostatic: ? (41a,21) Stomach troubles, Dysentery: Stem leaves (41a,21) Psorospermum androsaemifolium Bak. [Tsifady (Merina); Fanera (Merina)]} Antidote/Neuralgia: ? (12a) Diseases of the fontanelles: Leaves (41a,55) Eczema, Scabies, Ulcers: Leaves, Roots (41a,1,21) Wounds: Leaves (41a,21) Psorospermum fanerana Bak. Diuretic: ? (41a,47) Psorospermum ferrovestitum Bak. [Andriambolamena (Merina)] Miscarriage: ? (12a) Psorospermum sp. [Harongapanihy (Merina)] Diarrhoea: ? (12a) ICACINACEAE Cassinopsis madagascariensis Baill. [Hazomafaitra vavy (Merina)] Constipation/Syphilis: ? (12a) Malaria: Leaves, Bark (41a,27) IRIDACEAE Geissorhiza bojeri Bak. Stomachic: Bulb (41a,21) Syphilis: Bulbs (41a,21) Ulcers: ? (41a,21) Wounds: Bulbs (41a,21) Gladiolus garnieri Klatt. [Fodilahimena (Merina)] Anthrax, Adenitis: Bulbs (41a,21) Mental: ? (12a) Purgative: Bulb (41a,12) Tumours: Leaves (41a,21) LABIATAE Coleus bojeri Benth. [Ranofarita (Merina); Ramifaritra (Merina)] Eczema/Eyes/Syphilis: Juice/ (12a) Coleus sp. [Amparimaso (Merina)] Diarrhoea: ? (12a) Urethritis: ? (41a) Wounds: ? (41a) Hyptis pectinata Poit. [Afolava (Merina)] Angina: Tops (41a,53) Anti-spasmodic: Leaves (41a,53) Emmenagogue: ? (412,53) Febrifuge, Malaria, Diaphoretic: Flowering tops (41a,21,53) Stomach troubles: ? (41a,21) Tonic: ? (41a,53) Vermifuge: ? (41a,21,53) Whooping cough: ? (12a) Whooping cough, Coughs, Colds: Entire plant (41a) Hyptis sp. [Sangasanga (Merina)] Stomach/"Tambavy": ? (12a) Hyptis spicigera Lamk. Colds: Entire plant (41a,1) Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. Anti-spasmodic, Narcotic: Stem leaves (41a,21) Emmenagogue, Amenorrhea: ? (41a,21) Purgative: ? (41a,21) Skin ailments: ? (41a) Ocimum basilicum L. Anti-spasmodic: ? (41a,53) Ocimum canum Sims [Rombiromby] Accelerate hardening of fontanelles in infants: Decoction with Hazunta modesta (12a) Blennorrhagia: Leaves (41a,54) Dyspepsia, Antiemetic: ? (41a,53) Ear ailments: Leaves (41a,21) Febrifuge: Seeds (41a,49) Migraines, Paralysis, Neuroses: Leaves, Seeds (41a,21) Nephritis: Leaves (41a,21) Rheumatism: Leaves (41a,21) Appendix 5: ethnobotany LABIATAE (contd.) Ocimum gratissimum L. Angina: Leaves (41a,21) Anti-spasmodic, Headaches: Leaves (41a,49,53) Antiemetic, Dyspepsia, Depurative: Flowers (41a,53,21) Coughs, Whooping cough, Pneumonia: Entire plant (41a) Diarrhoea with mucus: Seeds (41a,21) Headaches/Albuminuria/Sprains/Disinfectant: ? (12a) Uterine colic: Leaves (41a,21) Plectranthus cymosus Bak. Syphilis: ? (41,21) Plectranthus sp. [Manitrady (Merina)] Head: ? (12a) Pycnostachys coerulea Hook. [Mangavony (Merina)] Neuralgia/Syphilitic stigmates/Sedative: ? (12a) Syphilis: Stem leaves (41a) Tetradenia fruticosa Benth. ?: Leaves, Sap and Roots (41a,12,21) Antiseptic: Leaves {41a,21) Diarrhoea, Dysentery, Emetic: Leaves (41a,1,38) Scabies, Ulcers, Abcesses: Leaves, Roots (41a,21) Syphilis: Entire plant (41a) LAURACEAE Cassytha filiformis L. Rickets: Aerial parts (41a,21) Baldness, Scalp ailments: ? (41a,21) Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: ? (41a,21) Diuretic: ? (41a,21) Dysentery: ? (41a,21) Gonorrhoea/ Witchcraft: ? (12a) Cinnamomum camphora Sieb. [Ravitsara (Merina)] Diabetes: ? (12a) Malaria, Febrifuge: Leaves (41a,1) Ravensara aromatica Gmel. Febrifuge: Leaves (41a) Stimulant: Bark (41a,3) Ravensara sp. [Molaliambo (Merina)] Coughs: ? (12a) LECYTHIDACEAE Barringtonia racemosa Roxb. Vermifuge: Amandes (41a,21) Barringtonia speciosa L. Sedative: ? (41a,53) LEGUMINOSAE Abrus aureus R. Vig. [Voamentilana (Betsim.)] Coughs/Bronchitis: ? (12a) Abrus precatorius L. [Voamentilano (Betsim.)] Coughs: Leaves (12a) Coughs, Bronchitis, Asthma, Whooping cough: Roots (41a,3) Genital edema: Stems plus leaves (41a,21) Malaria: Leaves (41a,1) Aeschynomene laxiflora Boj. Whooping cough: Leaves, Stems (414,55) Albizia adianthifolia (Schum.) W.F.Wight [Sambala (Betsim.); Volomborona (Betsim.)] Dysentery: Leaves (12a) Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Diaphoretic: Bark (41a,53) Diarrhoea: Leaves (41a,1,58) Sores/Coughs/Asthma/Fractures/Syphilis/Neuralgia: Leaves/ (12a) Syphilis: Leaves (41a,21) Wounds, Antiseptic: Leaves (41,55) Albizia gummifera C.A.Smith Blennorrhagia: Stem leaves (41a) Consumption, Colds, Coughs: Tiges feuille (41a) Diarrhoea: Wood, Leaves (41a,21) Nerve diseases: Stem leaves (41a) Albizia lebbek Benth. Angina: ? (41a,21) Syphilitic tumors: ? (41a,1,38) Cadia sp. Whooping cough: Stem leaves (41a,55) -349- An environmental profile of Madagascar LEGUMINOSAE (contd.) Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming [Vatolalaka (Merina)] "Eutocique": Seeds (41a,21) Ocytocic agent/Abortifacient: Seeds/ (12a) Antihelminthic: Seeds (41a,21) Blennorrhagia: Leaves, Seeds, Roots (41a,38,55) Emmenagogue: Bark, Roots, Leaves (41a,21) Laxative, Dysentery: Seeds (41a,38) Malaria: Seeds (41a,21) Paralysis, Anti-spasmodic: Stems and leaves (41a) Tonic, Aperitif: Roots, Seeds (41a,38,1) Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. Amenorrhea: Wood (41a,21) Blennorrhagia: Wood, Leaves, Roots (41a,21,55) Gonorrhoea/Syphilis: Entire plant/ (12a) Cajanus indicus Spreng. Cardiac tonic: Tiges feuille (41a) Diuretic: Leaves (41a) Laxative: Leaves (41a,21) Calliandra alternans Benth. [Hazomahery (Merina); Ambilazo (Merina)] Neuralgia: ? (12a) Scurf: ? (41a,21) Calliandra sp. [Ambilazo;] Syphilis: Stem leaves (41a) Cassia alata L. Hypertension: ? (12a) Skin ailments, Impetigo: Leaves (41a,1) Cassia fistula L. Laxative, Depurative: Fruits (41a,3) Cassia laevigata Willd. [Anjanjana (Merina); Maroatovy (Merina)] "Tambavy" for children/: Leaves (12a) Biliousness: Leaves (41a,21) Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: Stem leaves (41a) Laxative, Depurative: Leaves (41a,3) Cassia mimosoides L. [Kely manjakalanitra (Merina)] Eyes: ? (12a) Cassia occidentalis L. Biliousness: Leaves (41a,21) Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: Stem leaves (41a) Diuretic, Cystitis: Roots (41a,21) Gout, Anaemia: Tops, Stems, Leaves (41a) Hysteria: ? (41a) Laxative, Depurative: Leaves (41a,21) Malaria: Leaves (41a,21) Malaria/Diuretic/Coffee substitute: Root /Leaves/Berries (12a a oe Scurf: Seeds (41a) Sciatica: ? (41a) Tonic: Roots (41a,21) Whooping cough, Bronchitis: Leaves (41a,55) Cassia occidentalis Sond. [Tsatsinangatra (Merina); Tsotsorinangatra (Merina)] Jaundice/Malaria/Hypertension/Prostate/Rheumatism/ Stomach (baby) /Gonorrhoea: Legume/Root/Leaves/ Leaves/Seeds/Root/ (12a) Cassia tora L. Antihelminthic: ? (41a,3) Hysteria: ? (41a,21) Scurf, Impetigo, Scabies: Leaves, Seeds (41a,1) Stomachic: Leaves (41a,1) Clitoria lasciva Boj. Chancre phagedenique: ? (41a,21) Clitoria ternatea L. Articular pains: ? (41a) Diuretic, Bladder irritation: Roots (41a,21) Gastralgia: Roots (41a,21) Purgative: Seeds (41a,21) Urethritis: Roots (41a,21) Crotalaria cytisioides Hilsenb. Dysentery: Stem leaves (41a) Crotalaria fulva Roxb. "Tumeurs blanches": ? (41a,21) Scabies, Tumeurs blanches: ? (41a,21) Crotalaria spinosa Hochst. Malaria: ? (41a,1) Crotalaria striata D.C. Wounds: Leaves (41a,1) -S50- LEGUMINOSAE (contd.) Crotalaria uncinella Lamk. Dysentery: Stem leaves (41a) Desmodium barbatum Benth. & Oerst. Dysmenorrhea: ? (41a,53) Desmodium latifolium D.C. Diabetes: Stem leaves (41a) Wounds: Stem plus leaves (41a,55) Desmodium ramosissimum G.Don Dysmenorrhea: ? (41,53) Pneumonia: Roots (41a) Dichrostachys sp. [Famahotra (Merina)] Fainting: ? (12a) Dolichos biflorus L. Syphilis: ? (41a,55) Erythrophleum couminga H.Bn. Cardiac tonic: Stem leaves (41a,3) Ulcers: ? (41a,21) Wounds: ? (41a,21) Glycine lyallii Benth. Wounds: Stem plus leaves (41a,55) Indigofera depauperata Drake [Hazomby (Mah.)] Postpartum reconstituent: ? (12a) Indigofera lyallii Bak. Headaches: ? (41a,21) Indigofera pedunculata Hils. & Boj. Epilepsy, Anti-spasmodic: ? (41a,35) Indigofera tinctoria L. Asthma: ? (41a,21) Children’s convulsions: ? (41a,21) Mimosa latispinosa Lamk. Infant cholera: Stem leaves (41a) Mimosa pudica L. Children’s convulsions: ? (41a,21) Dysmenorrhea: ? (41a,21) Vermifuge: ? (41a,21) Mucuna pruriens DC. Aphrodisiac: Seeds (41a,21) Diuretic: ? (41a,21) Haemorrhoids: ? (41a,21) Intestinal worms, Ascaris: Pods (Cosse) (41a,1) Stimulant, Hemiplegia: ? (41a,21) Mundulea pungens R.Viguier [Taivositra (Mah.)] Postpartum disinfectant: Stem & root bark (12a) Mundulea scoparia R.Viguier [Sofa sofa (Mah.)] Infant maladies: Leaves & stems (12a) Neobaronia phylanthoides Bak. Stomach troubles: ? (41a,21) Phylloxylon sp. [Salama] Tonic: Leaves & stem bark (12a) Piptadenia chrysostachys Benth. Abdominal pains: ? (41a,38) Rhynchosia caribaea D.C. Whooping cough: ? (41a,55) Rhynchosia sp. [Vahiataka] Aphrodisiac: Stem leaves (41a) Sarcobotrya strigosa (Benth.) R.Vig. Angina: Fruit pulp (41a,21) Vermifuge: Aerial parts (41a) Smithia chamaecrista Benth. Headaches: Stem leaves (41a) Tamarindus indica L. [Kily (Southwest)] Laxative/Coughs: Fruits/Fruit pulp/Inner bark (12a) Amenorrhea: Bark (41a,21) Asthma: Bark (41a,21) Biliousness: Leaves (41a,1) Laxative, Stomach problems: Fruits (41a,1,3) Sedative: Leaves (41a,1) Urinary ailments: Leaves (41a,1) Vermifuge: Leaves (41a,1) Wounds: Leaves (41a) Tephrosia linearis Pers. Wounds: Stem leaves, Sap (41a) Tetrapterocarpon geayi H.Humb. [Voaovy (Sak.)] Sores/Toothache: Plaster of root bark/Decoction of root bark (12a) Voandzeia subterranea Thou. Ear discharge: ? (41a,53) LEMNACEAE Lemna paucicostata Hegelm. Boils: ? (41a,21) Syphilitic eruptions: ? (41a,21) LILIACEAE Aloe capitata Bak. Cathartic, Purgative: Leaf sap (41a,42) Dropsy: Entire plant (41a,21) Aloe divaricata Berger. [Vohandranjo (Mah.)] Purgative/Fractures/Ocytocique: Leaves/Leaves & sap/ (12a) Aloe macroclada Bak. Dropsy: Entire plant (41a,21) Purgative: Leaf sap (41a,13,42) Aloe sp. [Vahona (Merina)] Dandruff: ? (12a) Asparagus greveanus Perr. Diuretic: Entire plant (41a,3) Asparagus schumanianus Schlecter Diuretic: Entire plant (41a, 3) Asparagus simulans Bak. Diuretic: Entire plant (41a) Neuralgia/Stomach: ? (12a) Asparagus vaginellatus Boj. Chancre: ? (41a,21) Diuretic: Entire plant (41a,3) Gout: Entire plant (41a,3) Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redoute [Voamasonomby (Merina); Vazahanakampo (Merina)] Back pains/ Stomach/ Vermifuge/ Gonorrhoea/ Nervous system stimulant: ? (12a) Dianella ensifolia Red. Blennorrhagia: ? (41a) Dipcadi cowani H.Perr. Articular pains: Bulbs (41a,3) Gout: Bulbs (41a) Dracaena angustifolia Roxb. Febrifuge: ? (41a,21) Dracaena elliptica Thunb. 2:2 Dracaena reflexa Lamk. Diuretic: Branch leaves (41a) Dysentery, Diarrhoea: Stem leaves (41a) Dysmenorrhea: Tops (41a) Febrifuge: ? (41a,21) Haemostatic: ? (41a,21) Rhodocodon madagascariensis Bak. Purgative: ? (41a,2) Smilax kraussiana Meissn. [Avoatra (Merina)] "Tambavy"/Neuralgia/Syphilis: ? (12a) Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: Roots, Bark (41a,21) Depurative, Stomachic: Roots (41a,21) Diuretic: Stem leaves (41a,3) Eczema, Scabies, Ulcers: ? (41a,47) Gout, Diaphoretic: ? (41a,3,58) Promote fertility: Leaves (41a,21,58) Wounds: ? (41,47) LOGANIACEAE Anthocleista amplexicaulis Bak. [Landemy vavy (Merina)] Constipation/Nervousness: ? (12a) Diarrhoea, Dysentery: Bark (41a,33) Malaria: ? (41a,1) Anthocleista madagascariensis Bak. [Landemy lahy (Merina)] Constipation/Nervousness: ? (12a) Anthocleista rhizophoroides Bak. Depurative, Laxative: Bark, Roots (41a,58) Diuretic/Antiseptic/Gonorrhoea: Bark/Bark/Bark (12a) Febrifuge, Malaria: Bark and roots, Leaves (41a,42,58) Hepatitis: Bark (41a,21) Anthocleista sp. [Dendemilahy] Diuretic: Bark (41a) Purgative: Bark (41a,21) Buddleia madagascariensis Lamk. [Sevafotsy (Merina)] Adenitis: Flowers (41a,21) Asthma, Coughs, Bronchitis: ? (41a,21) Depurative: Roots (41a,21) Dysentery: ? (12a) Gaertneria obovata Bak. Febrifuge: ? (41a,21) -351- Appendix 5: ethnobotany LOGANIACEAE (contd.) Gaertneria phanerophlebia Bak. 2? Nuxia capitata Bak. [Valanirana (Merina)] Gonorrhoea/Neuralgia/Stomach/Fortifier: ? (12a) Nuxia sp. [Lambinana (Merina)] Fortifier for children: ? (12a) Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. [Ampenina (Sak.- Bara); Hampeny] Scabies: Leaves (41a,21) Tonic/Edible fruits: Powdered bark/Fruits (12a) Strychnos spinosa Lamk. Scabies: Leaves (41a,21) LORANTHACEAE Loranthus sp. Anti-spasmodic, Hypotensive: ? (41a,3) Viscum sp. 2. LYCOPODIACEAE Lycopodium cernuum L. [Anatrandraka (Merina); Tongo-tsokina (Merina)] Neuralgia: ? (12a) Lycopodium clavatum L. [Tanatrandraka (Merina)] Lips/Pregnant women: ? (12a) LYTHRACEAE Pemphis madagascariensis Perr. Diseases of the fontanelles: Leaves (41a,55) Woodfordia fruticosa S.Kurtz Aphrodisiac, Urethritis: ? (41a,30) Cystitis: Entire plant (41a) Gout: Aerial parts (41a) MALPIGHIACEAE Mascarenhasia arborescens D.C. Anthrax: Leaves (41a) Tristellateia sp. [Andriamaneto (Merina)] Pain: ? (12a) MALVACEAE Abelmoschus esculentus Moench. Dysuria: Fruits (41a,1) Hoarseness, Colds: Fruits (41a,1) Syphilis: Roots (41a) Abelmoschus moschatus Medic. Coughs: ? (41a) Gossypium arboreum L. Diuretic, Haematuria: Roots (41a,3) Dysentery: ? (41a,21) Dysentery, Uterine hemorrhage: ? (41a) Haemostatic: Roots (41a,3) Scabies: ? (41a,12) Syphilis: ? (41a,55) Hibiscus diversifolia Jacq. Coughs: Roots (41a,3) Kosteletzkya velutina Garcke Boils: Roots (41a,1) Syphilitic chancres: Roots (41a,21) Malva verticillata L. Boils, Abcesses: Roots (41a) Choking (Etouffements): Leaves (41a,1) Haemorrhoids: Flowers (41a,47) Laxative: Flowers (41a,3) Rectal prolapsis: Flowers (41a,47) Sore throat (mauxdegorge): Roots (41a,1,38) Sprains: Roots (41a,1) Pavonia bojeri Bak. Purgative: Roots (41a,21) Pavonia urens Lass. Fractures: ? (41a,21) Sida cordifolia L. Diuretic, Haematuria: Roots (41a,3) Sida rhombifolia L. [Tsindahoro (Merina); Tsimatipangady (Merina)] Antiseptic: ? (12a) Boils: Roots (41a,1) Choking: Leaves (41a,1) Coughs: Roots (41a,3) Dysentery: Roots (41a,21) Febrifuge: ? (41a,1) Open abcesses: Leaves (41a,4) Stimulant: ? (12a) Tumours: ? (41a,49) An environmental profile of Madagascar MALVACEAE (contd.) Thespesia populnea Soland. Depurative, Chronic dysentary: Bark (41a,21) Skin ailments: Bark (41a,21) Urena lobata L. Blepharitis: Roots (41a,11) Bronchitis, Coughs: ? (41a,3) Syphilis: Roots (41a) MELASTOMATACEAE Antherotoma naudini Hook.f. Diabetes, Albuminuria: ? (41a,47) Clidemia hirta D.Don [Tsitotroko (Betsim.)] Haemostatic: ? (12a) Dichaetanthera crassinodis Bak. Neuralgia: Leaves (41a) Dichaetanthera oblongifolia Bak. [Felabarika (Merina)] Dysentery/Diarrhoea: ? (12a) Medinilla sp. [Matavikely (Merina)] Contusions: Leaves and roots (12a) Vermifuge: Stems, Leaves (41a) Tristemma virusanum Comm. [Voatsingotroka (Merina)] Stomach/Neuralgia: ? (12a) MELIACEAE Khaya madagascariensis Jum. & Perr. Febrifuge: ? (41a) Malleastrum sp. [Maharaoky (Bara)] Abortifacient: ? (12a) Melia azedarach L. Febrifuge: Root bark (41a,3) Vermifuge: Roots (41a,3) Neobeguea mahafalensis Leroy [Handy (Southwest)] Rheumatic pains/Aphrodisiac: Bark (12a) Turraea sp. [Lafara] Diptheria: ? (41a) Neuralgia: Bark (41a) Sore throat, Angina: ? (41a) MENISPERMACEAE Burasaia congesta Decne. Febrifuge: ? (41a,3) Burasaia gracilis Decne. 2:7 Burasaia madagascariensis D.C. Dysentery: Roots (41a) Febrifuge: ? (41a,3) Cissampelos madagascariensis Miers. 7:2 Cissampelos pareira L. Abcesses, Boils: Leaves (41a,42) Diuretic, Bladder stones: Roots (41a,21) Emmenagogue: Roots (41a,21) Febrifuge, Malaria: Roots (41a,21) Cissampelos sp. [Voriravina (Merina)] Heart /Liver: ? (12a) MONIMIACEAE Tambourissa boivinii D.C. Angina, Loss of voice: Flowering tops (41a,21) Scabies, Skin ailments: ? (41a,21) Tambourissa parvifolia Bak. Emmenagogue, Uterine hemorrhage: Bark, Roots (41a,21) Flowering tops: ? (41a,21) Scabies, Skin ailments: ? (41a,21) Tambourissa purpurea D.C. Angina, Loss of voice: Flowering tops (41a,21) Emmenagogue: Bark, Roots (41a,21) Scabies, Skin ailments: ? (41a,21) Tambourissa religiosa DC. [Ambora (Merina)] Emmenagogue: Bark, Roots (41a,21) Gums/Mouth/Neuralgia/"Tambavy"/Syphilitic stigmates/Mental: Leaves/ (12a) Scabies, Skin ailments: ? (41a,21) Tambourissa spp. Amenorrhea: Bark (41a) Tambourissa trichophylla Bak. [Amboralahy (Merina)] Emmenagogue: Bark, Roots (41a,21) Scabies, Skin ailments: ? (41a) Sickness in children: Entire (12a) MORACEAE Artocarpus integrifolia L. Asthma: Roots (41a,21) Hepatic colic: Seeds (41a,1) -352- MORACEAE (contd.) Chlorophora greveana (Baill.) Leandri [Vory (Bara)] Tonic/Vermifuge: Bark (12a) Ficus baroni Bak. Sores: Leaves (41a,21) Ulcers: Roots (41a,21) Ficus cocculifolia Bak. Diseases of the fontanelles: Bark (41a,55) Dysentery: Leaves (41a) Ficus megapoda Bak. Angina: Stem leaves (41a) Coughs: Stem leaves (41a) Diarrhoea, Dysentery: Leaves (41a) Sneezing/Coughs: Leaves/ (12a) Sores: Latex (41a,53) Ulcers: Latex (41a,54) Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Anaemia, Faiblesse: Leaves (41a,53) Bruises, Fractures: Roots (41a,14) Coughs, Pneumonia: Leaves (41a,21,58) Dysentery: Leaves (41a,38) Febrifuge: ? (41a,58) Labor pains: Leaves (41a,38) Stimulant, Neuroses: Young stem leaves, Leaves (41a,21) Tonic: ? (41a) Wounds, Sores: Leaves (41a,33,58) Ficus soroceoides Bak. [Andriambololon-kazo (Merina)] Intestine: ? (12a) Vermifuge, Liverflukes: Bark, Fruits (41a,21) Ficus sp. [Nonoka (Merina)] Fainting spells: ? (12a) Jaundice: ? (12a) Neuralgia/Syphilis: ? (12a) Sprains/Swelling: ? (12a) Syphilis: ? (12a) Ficus trichopoda Bak. Wounds: Latex (41a,21) Pachytrophe dimepate Bur. Retention of urine: Stem leaves MORINGACEAE Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Anti-spasmodic: ? (41a,2) Asthma: Flowers (41a,21) Dropsy, Diuretic: Root bark (41a,21) Febrifuge, Enlarged spleen: Bark, Roots (41a,21) Gangrene: Leaves, Bark, Roots (41a,21) Gout: Roots (41a,21) Hysteria, Anti-spasmodic, Epilepsy, Paralysis: Leaves, Bark, Roots (41a,21) Otitis: Leaves (41a,21) Revulsive: Roots (41a,3) Ulcers, Abcesses: Entire plant (41a,21) Vermifuge: Leaves (41a,21) MUSACEAE Musa paradisiaca L. Burns, Ulcers: ? (41a,21) Diabetes: Stems, Leaves (41a,21) Diarrhoea: Leaves (41a,21) Diuretic, Haematuria, Dropsy: Inflorescences, Leaves, Shoots (41a,21,53) Ulcers and a type of anthrax: Leaves, Fruit pulp (41a, 21,55) Muza perrieri Clav. [Tsiroroka] Eye problems: ? (12a) MYRICACEAE Myrica spathulata Mirb. [Tsilakana (Betsim.); Laka (Betsim.)] Teeth: Bark (12a) MYRISTICACEAE Brochoneura acuminata Warb. Cicatrizant: Fruits (41a,21) Rheumatism: Seed oil (41a,21) Scabies, Skin ailments, Affections pediculaires: ? (41a,53,54) MYROTHAMNACEAE Myrothamnus meschaius Baill. [Maimbelona (Merina)] Vomiting/ Witchcraft: ? (12a) MYRSINACEAE Ardisia fusco-pilosa Bak. Abdominal troubles: Leaves, Bark (41a,3,21) MYRSINACEAE (contd.) Embelia concinna Bak. Abdominal troubles: ? (41a) Articular pains: Leaves (41a,12) Burns, Ulcers: ? (41a,21) Constipation/Vermifuge/Eczema/Swelling/Weakness/ Syphilis/ Neuralgia: ? (12a) Diseases of the spinal marrow, Neuralgia, Neuritis: Stem leaves (41a,12) Gout: Stem, Leaves (41a) Syphilis, Blennorrhagia: Roots (41a,48) Vermifuge: Roots (41a,21) Embelia madagascariensis DC. Abdominal troubles: ? (41a) Burns, Ulcers: ? (41a,21) Neuralgia, Neuritis: ? (41a,12) Vermifuge: Roots (41a,48) Embelia sp. [Takasina (Merina)] Stomach/Vermifuge: ? (12a) Maesa lanceolata Forsk. Chicken pox, Measles: ? (41a,48) Stinging rash: Leaves and stems (12a) Syphilis, Blennorrhagia: Roots (41a,21) Vermifuge: Fruits, Leaves (41a,21,48) Wounds: ? (41a,53) Oncostemon botryoides Bak. [Fanonobe (Merina)] Convulsions (infants): ? (12a) Oncostemon fusco-pilosum Mez. Abdominal troubles: Leaves (41a,48) Oncostemon leprosum Mez. Abdominal troubles: Bark (41a,48) Choking/Liver: ? (12a) Oncostemon sp. [Tanterakala vavy (Merina)] Fortifier/Diuretic: ? (12a) Laxative/Stomach ailments: Bark/Bark (12a) Nervousness: ? (12a) Neuralgia: ? (12a) Sores: ? (12a) MYRTACEAE Eugenia aromatica H.Bn. Stimulant: ? (41a,3) Eugenia emirensis Bak. Astringent, Dysentery: Leaves, Bark (41a,34) Delirium tremens: Stem leaves (41a) Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Diabetes: Fruit sap (41a,2) Diarrhoea, Dysentery: Bark (41a,34) Diuretic: Fruits (41a) Leucorrhea: Bark (41a) Neuralgia/Swelling/Sprains/Diarrhoea: ? (12a) Eugenia jambos L. [Zamborozano (Merina)] Coughs: ? (12a) Eugenia parkeri Bak. Diarrhoea, Dysentery: Leaves, Bark (41a,34) Eugenia sp. [Rotran ala (Merina)] Fortifier: ? (12a) Insomnia: Entire (12a) Neuralgia: ? (12a) Eugenia tapiaka H.Perr. Asthma: Bark, leaves (41a,28) Psidium cattleyanum Sabine [Goavitsinahy (Merina)] Colic/Diarrhoea: ? (12a) Psidium guajava Berg. Astringent, Diarrhoea, Dysentery: Leaves Bark (41a, 21,33) Cicatrizant: ? (12a) NEPENTHACEAE Nepenthes madagascariensis Poir. Bladder ailments: ? (41a,33) NYCTAGINACEAE Mirabilis jalapa L. Purgative: Roots (41a,3) NYMPHAEACEAE Nymphaea stellata Willd. Amenorrhea, Aphrodisiac: Rhizomes (41a,21,3) Erysipelas: Leaves (41a,21) Haemorrhoids: ? (41a,21) OLACACEAE Anacolosa pervilleana H.Bn. [Tanjaka (Bara)] Tonic: Leaves (12a) Appendix 5. ethnobotany OLACACEAE (contd.) Olax cf. andronensis Bak. [Bareraka (Mah.)] Diarrhoea/Edible fruits: Stem & leaves (12a) Ximenia perrieri Cay. & Ker. [Korro (Mah.)] Conjunctivitis/Edible fruits: Leaves (12a) OLEACEAE Jasminum kitchingii Bak. [Tsilavondrivotra (Merina)] Stiffness: ? (12a) ONAGRACEAE Jussiaea repens L. [Kitondratondra (Merina)] Eczema/Boils: ? (12a) Jussiaea suffruticosa L. Retention of urine: Stem leaves (41a) Ludwigia jussiacoides Desr. Dysmenorrhea: ? (41a,53) OPILIACEAE Rhopalopilia cf. umbellulavo Engl. [Araty (Bara); Maleny] Jaundice: Leaves/Root and stem bark (12a) Rhopalopilia sp. [Malainavotsa (Mah.)] Cicatrizant & disinfectant: Stem bark (12a) ORCHIDACEAE Cynosorchis sp. [Sirika (Merina)] Burns: ? (12a) Vanilla madagascariensis Rolfe [Vahinamalo (Sak.); Amalo] Reputed aphrodisiac: ? (12a) Vanilla planifolia Andrews Stimulant: ? (41a,3) OXALIDACEAE Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. [Modimodia (Merina)] Hypnotic/Fever/Sedative: Aerial parts/ (12a) Stomach troubles: ? (41a,21) Vermifuge: ? (41a) Oxalis corniculata L. [Kidiadiavorona (Merina)] Coughs: ? (12a) Vermifuge: Leaves (41a,53) PALMAE Cocos nucifera L. Haematuria: Roots (41a,3) Raphia ruffia Mart. Laxative: Liquid (sap?) from spathe (41a,21) Toothache: Roots (41a,21) PASSIFLORACEAE Passiflora caerulea L. Insomnia: Flowers (41a,3) Passiflora incarnata L. Anti-spasmodic: Stem leaves (41a) Laxative, Emetic: Leaves (41a,3) PEDALIACEAE Uncarina stellulifera Humb. [Farehetsy (Mah.); Farehitra (Sak.)] Dandruff/Baldness: Leaves (12a) PHYTOLACCACEAE Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. Articular pains: Seed oil (41a,12) Cholagogue: Roots plus leaves (41a) Dropsy: Leaves (41a,21) Emetic, Vomitive: Roots, Fruits (41a,1) Leprosy: ? (41a,12) Narcotic: Leaves (41a) Rabies: Leaves (41a,21) Tonic: Rots (41a) PIPERACEAE Piper pachyphyllum Bak. Asthma: Internodes (41a,21) Blennorrhagia: ? (41a) Febrifuge: Fruits (41a,21) Haematuria: Leaves (41a,21) Neuralgia: Internodes (41a,21) Stomachic: Fruits (41a,21) Piper pyrifolium Vahl Asthma: Internodes (41a,21) Blennorrhagia: Fruits (41a,21) Febrifuge: Fruits (41a,21) Neuralgia: Internodes (41a,21) Stomachic: Fruits (41a,21) Piper umbellatum L. Wounds: Leaves (41a,21) An environmental profile of Madagascar PITTOSPORACEAE Pittosporum ochrosiaefolium Boj. Abdominal troubles: Stem leaves (41,31) Blennorrhagia: Leaves (41a,31) Febrifuge: ? (41a,38) Vermifuge: Bark (41a,31) PLUMBAGINACEAE Plumbago aphylla Boj. [Motimoty (Mah.)] Diarrhoea: ? (12a) Plumbago zeylanica L. Vesicant: Roots (41a,3) POLYGALACEAE Polygala ankaratrensis H.Perr. Coughs: Roots (41a,3) Polygala bojeri Chodat Syphilis: Aerial parts (41a) Polygala macroptera D.C. Galactogogue: ? (41a,6) POLYGONACEAE Polygonum senegalense Meissn. Astringent: ? (41a,3) Chronic rheumatism, Sciatica: ? (41a,21) Gout: ? (41a,2) Syphilis, Blennorrhagia: ? (41a) Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Dysentery: Stem leaves (41a) Scabies: Roots (41a,21) Syphilitic sores: Leaves (41a,38) Vermifuge: Entire plant (41a) POLYPODIACEAE Pellea viridis Prantl. Diuretic: Aerial parts (41a) PORTULACACEAE Portulaca oleracea L. Diuretic: Leaves (41a,21) Emmenagogue: Seeds (41a,21) Jaundice: ? (41a,1) POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton spp. Eczema: ? (414,53) PTAEROXYLACEAE Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. Anaemia: Bark (41a,21) Febrifuge: Bark (41a,21) Headaches: Stem leaves (41a) Headaches/Fractures/Tonic/Aphrodisiac/Stomach ache: Bark (12a) Stomach illnesses: Bark (41a,21) Toothache: ? (41a) Vermifuge: Bark (41a,21) PUNICACEAE Punica granatum L. Diarrhoea, Dysentery: Fruits, Leaves, Bark (41a,4) Taenifuge: Bark (41a,3) RANUNCULACEAE Clematis ibarensis Bak. Vesicant: ? (41a,3) Clematis mauritiana Lamk. Asthma, Consumption: Leaves (41a,21) Diuretic: ? (41a,53) Leprosy: ? (41a,1,38) Malaria: ? (41a,1) Paralysis: Entire plant (41a) Rheumatism: Leaves (41a,21) Syphilis: ? (41a,21) Vesicant: ? (41a,3) Clematis trifida Hook. Cauterisant: Sap (41a,1) Ranunculus pinnatus Poir. Dysentery, Abdominal troubles: Entire plant (41a) Headaches: Leaves (41a,1,12) Leprosy: ? (41a,12) Scabies, Desquamation: Leaves (41a,21) RHAMNACEAE Berchemia discolor Klozch [Losy (Mah.)] Toothache/ Anesthetic: Bark (12a) Ziziphus spina-christi Willd. [Tsinero (Mah.)] Diarrhoea: ? (12a) ROSACEAE Amygdalus persica L. Stomach troubles: Leaves (41a,1) Vermifuge: Leaves (41a,1) Rubus apetalus Poir. Angina, Stomatitis, Gingivitis: Leaves (41a,21) Chronic diarrhea: Leaves (41a,21) Diuretic: ? (41a,3) Urethritis: Roots (41a,21) Rubus myrianthus Bak. Angina, Stomatitis, Gingivitis: Leaves (41a,21) Chronic diarrhea: Leaves (41a,21) Rubus pauciflorus Bak. Angina, Stomatitis, Gingivitis: Leaves (41a,21) Chronic diarrhea: Leaves (41a,21) Diuretic: ? (41a,3) Rubus rosaefolius Sm. Angina, Stomatitis, Gingivitis: Leaves (41a,21) Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: Leaves (41a) Diarrhoea, Dysentery: Stem leaves (41a) Diuretic: ? (41a,3) Ear troubles: ? (41a) RUBIACEAE Anthospermum emirnense Bak. Toothache: ? (41a) Breonia boivini Havil. Jaundice fever: Bark (41a) Breonia madagascariensis A.Rich. Sedative: ? (41a,53) Cephalanthus spathelliferus Bak. Malaria: Leaves (41a,1) Danais fragrans Gaertn. Febrifuge: Roots (41a,21) Skin ailments: Bark (41a,21) Tonic: Entire plant (41a) Danais gerrardi Bak. Febrifuge: Roots (41a,21) Danais sp. [Vahivoraka] Nerve tonic: Stem leaves (41a) Treatment for sterility: ? (41a) Danais verticillata Bak. Hepatic depurative: Stem leaves (41a) Malaria: ? (41a,3) Nephritis: Leaves (41a,21) Enterospermum sp. [Masaka (Bara)] Tonic: ? (12a) Vermifuge: Leaves (12a) Gaertnera obovata Bak. Wounds: ? (41a,21) Gaertnera phanerophlebia Bak. 2-2 Mussaenda arcuata Poir. General tonic: ? (41a,21) Paralysis: ? (41a,21) Purgative: Roots (41a,21) Rheumatism: ? (41a,21) Scurf, Eczema, Psoriasis: Young leaves (41a,21) Tonic, Stimulant: ? (41a,21) Oldenlandia lancifolia D.C. Calms irritability: ? (41a,21) Scabies: Leaf sap (41a,1) Wounds: ? (41a,1) Oldenlandia sp. [Tsinopoka] Blennorrhagia: Stems, Leaves (41a) RUBIACEAE Paederia bojeriana Drake Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: ? (41a,53) Depurative: ? (41a,53) Dermatoses, Ulcers: ? (41a,53) Diuretic: ? (41a,53) Payeria excelsa H.Bn. Febrifuge: Leaves (41a) Jaundice: Stem leaves (41a) Randia talangninia DC. Colds: Resin (41a,21) Febrifuge: ? (41a,3) Santalina madagascariensis H.Bn. Blennorrhagia: ? (41a) Lumbago, Aching bones: ? (41a,21) RUBIACEAE (contd.) Triainolepis emirnensis Breme Wounds: Wood (41a,21) Urophyllum lyallii Bak. Colds: Branches (41a) RUTACEAE Citrus medica L. Diaphoretic: Leaves (41a,53) Tonic: ? (41a,53) Citrus spp. Bronchitis, Head colds: Leaves, Fruits (41a,55) Teclea punctata Verdoorn Syphilis: Stems, Leaves (41a) Teclea sp. [Ampoly] Powerful vermifuge: Leaves (12a) Toddalia aculeata Pers. ?: Bark (41a,21) Abdominal pains: Leaves (41a,21) Blennorrhagia, Syphilis: ? (41a) Bronchitis, Pneumonia: Bark (41a,21) Cardiac tonic: Roots (41a) Emmenagogue: Leaves, Bark (41a,3) Febrifuge, Malaria: Leaves, Bark, Roots (41a,3) Headaches: Stem leaves (41a) Tonic: Leaves (41a) Zanthoxylum thouvenotii H.Perr. Parasites of the scalp: Stem leaves (41a) SANTALACEAE Santalum album L. Wounds: Wood (41a,21) SAPINDACEAE Allophylus bieruris Radlk. Coughs: Tiges feuille (41a,3) Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Rickets, Hypertension: ? (41a,2) Amenorrhea: Leaves, Roots (41a,21) Blennorrhagia: Roots, Leaves (41a,21,55) Cholagogue: Flowering tops (41a,3) Cirrhosis: Flowers, Roots (41a,21) Diuretic, Nephritis: Roots, Stem leaves (41a,21) Emetic, Laxative, Haemorrhoids: Roots (41a,21) Erysipelas: Roots, Leaves (41a,21) Rheumatism: Roots plus leaves (41a,21) Vermifuge: Roots, Leaves (41a,21) Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Febrifuge: Leaves (41a,21) Gout: Stem leaves (41a,2) Ulcers: ? (41a,3) Vulnerary: ? (41a) Litchi sinensis Radlk. Haematuria: Roots (41a) Paullinia pinnata L. Rickets: Stem leaves (41a) Abcesses: Stem leaves (41a) Anti-abortifacient: ? (41a) Lumbago: ? (41a) Wounds, Haemostatic: Stem leaves (41a) SARCOLAENACEAE Leptolaena pauciflora Bak. [Hatsikana (Merina)] Syphilis: Aerial part (12a) SCHIZAEACEAE Lygodium lanceolatum Desv. Liver ailments: Stem leaves (41a) Stomach ailments: Stem leaves (41a) Mohria cafforum Desv. Malaria: ? (41a,1) SCROPHULARIACEAE Rhaphispermum gerardioides Benth. Syphilis: ? (41a,21) Scoparia dulcis L. Gastralgia: ? (41a,21) SIMAROUBACEAE Samandura madagascariensis Gaertn. Burns, Wounds: ? (41a,21) Dysentery: ? (41a,21) Febrifuge: ? (41a,21) Stomachic: Bark (41a,3) -355- Appendix 5: ethnobotany SOLANACEAE Capsicum annuum L. Excitant: Fruits (41a,21) Stomachic: Fruits (41a,21) Ulcerative angina: Fruits (41a,21) Capsicum minimum Roxb. Epithelioma: Fruits (41a,21) Granular endometritis: Fruits (41a,21) Neuralgia: Fruits (41a,21) Scabies: Fruits (41a,21) Datura stramonium L. Foot ailments: Leaves (41a,3) Asthma: Leaves (41a,3) Narcotic, Sedative, Anti-spasmodic: ? (41a,21,42) Otitis: Seeds (41a) Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. Ophthalmia: Roots (41a,1) Nicandra physaloides Gaertn. Asthma, Whooping cough: Stem leaves (41a) Dermatoses, Affections pediculaires: ? (41a,47) Gout: Entire plant (41a) Sedative: ? (41a,3) Toothache: ? (41a) Nicotiana tabacum L. Sedative, Narcotic: ? (41a,53) Physalis peruviana L. Diarrhoea: Leaves (41a,42) Dysuria: ? (41a,21) Jaundice: Entire plant (41a) Solanum annuum L. Antiseptic: Fruits (41a,21) Solanum asphanathum Bak. Headaches: Leaves (41a,21) Solanum auriculatum Ait. Scabies: ? (41a,21) Syphilis: Berries (41a,1) Solanum erythracanthum Boj. "Eutocique": ? (41a,6) Boils: Stems, Roots (41a,1) Haematuria: Roots (41a,21) Ophthalmia: ? (41a,1) Toothache: Roots (41a,21) Tumours: Stems and roots (41a,1) Solanum indicum L. Bronchitis, Ague: Leaves (41a,4) Febrifuge: Entire plant (41a,21) Neurasthenia, Hypnotic: Leaves, Berries (41a,21) Stomachic: Leaves (41a,21) Solanum macrocarpum L,. Febrifuge: Roots, Fruits (41a,21) Solanum nigrum L. Asthma, Whooping cough, Coughs, Haemoptysis: Leaves (41a,1,48) Dysentery: ? (41a,1) Narcotic, Anti-spasmodic: ? (41a,21) Rabies: Sap (41a,1) Scabies, Ulcers: Leaves (41a,21,53) Vermifuge: Aerial parts (41a) STERCULIACEAE Buettneria voulily H.Bn. Diseases of the fontanelles: Leaves (41a,55) TACCACEAE Tacca pinnatifida Forst. Anaemia, Faiblesse: Roots (41a,58) TILIACEAE Grewia barorum [Malimatsa (Sak.)] Purgative: Leaves (12a) Grewia triflora Walp. Epilepsy, Headaches: Leaves (41a,1,55) Febrifuge: ? (41a,1) Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Boils: Roots (41a,21) Burns: Leaves (41a,38) Coughs: Roots (41a,3) Eye ailments: Roots (41a,1) Tumours: Leaves (41a,38) TYPHACEAE Typha angustifolia L. Epilepsy: Leaves (41a,55) An environmental profile of Madagascar ULMACEAE Celtis madagascariensis Boj. Febrifuge: Bark (41a,21) Trema orientalis Blume Anaemia, Cachexie, Debilite: ? (41a,47) Coughs: Tiges feuille (41a) Dysentery, Diarrhoea, Stomachic: Bark (41a,21) Gingivitis, Stomatitis: Bark (41a,4) Haematuria: Leaves (41a,21) Malaria, Enlarged spleen: ? (41a,47) Syphilis: Roots, Shoots (41a,21) Ulcers: ? (41a,21) Wounds and sores: Leaves (41a,54) UMBELLIFERAE Caucalis sp. [Madinidravina (Merina)] Constipation: ? (12a) Centella asiatica Urb. [Korokorona (Merina); Talapetraka (Merina)] "Tambavy" for children: ? (12a) Hydrocotyle asiatica L. Leprosy: ? (41a,18) Scabies, Ulcers, Adenitis: ? (41a,1) Secondary syphilis: ? (41a,1) Tonic: ? (41a,1) Hydrocotyle superposita Bak. Diarrhoea, Dysentery: Leaves (41a,21) Hydrocotyle tussilaginifolia Bak. 2:2 Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. Chlorosis: ? (41a,21) Disinfectant: ? (41a,21) Facial pimples/Itching/Gonorrhoea/Stomach/Whooping cough: Leaves/ (12a) Gastralgia: ? (41a,21) Headaches, Hysteria, Anti-spasmodic: ? (41a,1,21) Sanicula europaea L. Haemostatic: ? (41a,21) Leucorrhea: ? (41a,21) URTICACEAE Urera acuminata Gaudich. Granular endometritis: ? (41a,21) Urera longifolia Wedd. Haemostatic: Sap (41a,3) Urera oligoloba Bak. ‘ane Pneumonia: Leaves (41a) Stomach troubles: Leaves (41a) VERBENACEAE Clerodendron heterophyllum R.Br. Dysentery: Leaves plus roots (41a,21) Febrifuge: ? (41a,21) Syphilis: Leaves (41a,21) Vermifuge: Leaves (41a,21) ZINGIBERACEAE Aframomum angustifolium K.Schum. Ophthalmia: Stem sap (41a,21) Stomachic, Dysentery: ? (41a,42) Curcuma longa L. Amenorrhea: ? (41a) Bronchitis, Coughs, Consumption: Rhizome (41a,21) Dysentery, Diarrhoea, Dyspepsia, Gastralgia, Stomachic: Rhizomes (41a,47) Febrifuge: Leaves (41a,21) Jaundice: ? (41a,47) Jaundice: Rhizome (12a) Purulent ophthalmia, Conjunctivitis: Rhizomes (41a,2) Rabies: ? (41a,47) Syphilitic ulcers: Rhizomes (41a,21) Ulcers, Anthrax: Rhizomes (41a,21) Wounds, Sprains, Antiseptic: Rhizomes (41a,21) Hedychium coronarium Koen. Anthrax: Roots (41a,55) Emmenagogue, Aphrodisiac: Rhizomes (41a,21) Gout: ? (41a,47) Haematuria: Rhizomes (41a,21) Rheumatism, Pleurodynia: ? (41a,53) Severe constipation, Stomachic: ? (41a,21) Toothache: Rhizomes (41a,49) -356- ZINGIBERACEAE (contd.) Zingiber officinale Rose. Aphrosdisiac, Emmenagogue: Rhizomes (41a) Headaches: Rhizomes (41a,12) Stimulant: ? (41a,53) Zingiber zerumbet Rose. Pulmonary inflammations: Rhizome (41a,38) ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Tribulus terrestris L. Aphrodisiac: ? (41a) Key: Use FAMILY Genus, species, Authority. any infraspecific taxa Abcesses COMPOS. CRASSUL. Appendix 5: ethnobotany ETHNOBOTANICAL DATA BASE OF MADAGASCAR TABLE 2: alphabetically by use Senecio faujasioides Bak. Kalanchoe prolifera Ham. CRUCIFERAE Nasturtium barbareaefolium Bak. LABIATAE Tetradenia fruticosa Benth. MALVACEAE Malva verticillata L. MALVACEAE Sida rhombifolia L. MENISP. MORING. SAPIND. Abdominal pains LEGUM. RUTACEAE Cissampelos pareira L. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Paullinia pinnata L. Piptadenia chrysostachys Benth. Toddalia aculeata Pers. Abdominal troubles MYRSIN. PITTOS. RANUNC. Abortifacient BUXACEAE LEGUM. MELIACEAE Adenitis COMPOS. EUPHOR. IRIDACEAE LOGAN. UMBELL. Ague SOLANAC. Albuminuria CELAST. COMPOS. FLACOUR. LABIATAE MELAST. Alcoholism ARACEAE Amenorrhoea COMPOS. HAMAM. HYPERIC. LABIATAE LEGUM. MONIM. NYMPHA. SAPIND. ZINGIB. Anaemia AIZOACEAE COMPOS. DROSER. LEGUM. MORACEAE PTAEROX. TACCACEAE ULMACEAE Anaesthetic RHAMN. Ardisia fusco-pilosa Bak. Embelia concinna Bak. Embelia madagascariensis DC. Oncostemon fusco-pilosum Mez. Oncostemon leprosum Mez. Pittosporum ochrosiaefolium Boj. Ranunculus pinnatus Poir. Buxus madagascariensis Baill. Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming Malleastrum sp. Dichrocephala lyrata DC. Croton sp. Manihot utilissima Pohl. Gladiolus garnieri Klatt. Buddleia madagascariensis Lamk. Hydrocotyle asiatica L. Solanum indicum L. Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. Helichrysum benthami R.Vig. & H.Humb. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Ocimum gratissimum L. Antherotoma naudini Hook.f. Pothos chapelieri Schott. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. Dicoryphe noronhae Tul. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. Tamarindus indica L. Tambourissa spp. Nymphaea stellata Willd. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Curcuma longa L. Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Elephantopus scaber L. Drosera madagascariensis D.C. Cassia occidentalis L. Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. Tacca pinnatifida Forst. Trema orientalis Blume Berchemia discolor Klozch Angina COMPOS. EUPHOR. GRAMINEAE HYPERIC. LABIATAE LEGUM. MELIACEAE MONIM. MORACEAE ROSACEAE Anorexia EQUISET. EUPHOR. Anthrax AMARYLL. APOCYN. ASCLEP. BIGNON. COMPOS. DIOSC. IRIDACEAE MALPIG. MUSACEAE ZINGIB. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. Jatropha curcas L. Ricinus communis L. Imperata cylindrica (L.) PB Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Hyptis pectinata Poit. Ocimum gratissimum L. Albizia lebbek Benth. Sarcobotrya strigosa (Benth.) R.Vig. Turraea sp. Tambourissa boivinii D.C. Tambourissa purpurea D.C. Ficus megapoda Bak. Rubus apetalus Poir. Rubus myrianthus Bak. Rubus pauciflorus Bak. Rubus rosaefolius Sm. Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Croton sp. Crinum firmifolium Bak. Echitella lisianthiflora Pich. Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. Secamonopsis madagascariensis Jum. Stereospermum arcuatum H.Perr. Stereospermum variabile H.Perr. Senecio sp. Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax. Gladiolus garnieri Klatt. Mascarenhasia arborescens D.C. Musa paradisiaca L. Curcuma longa L. Hedychium coronarium Koen. Anti-abortifacient CACTACEAE ERIOCAU. GRAMINEAE SAPIND. Anti-itch APOCYN. Anti-spasmodic ACANTH. AIZOACEAE CELAST. COMPOS. DROSER. LABIATAE LEGUM. LORANTH. MORING. PASSIFL. SOLANAC. UMBELL. Antidote HYPERIC. Opuntia dillenii Haw. Mesanthemum rutenbergianum Koern. Cynodon dactylon Pers. Paullinia pinnata L. Roupellina boivini (H.Bn.) Pich. Rhinacanthus osmospermus Boj. Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. Grangea maderaspatana Poir. Parthenium hysterophorus L. Drosera madagascariensis D.C. Hyptis pectinata Poit. Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. Ocimum basilicum L. Ocimum gratissimum L. Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming Indigofera pedunculata Hils. & Boj. Loranthus sp. Viscum sp. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Passiflora incarnata L. Datura stramonium L. Solanum nigrum L. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. Psorospermum androsaemifolium Bak. Antidote to Cerbera venenifera COMPOS. Gerbera elliptica H.Humb. An environmental profile of Madagascar Antiemetic LABIATAE Anti-fungal COMPOS. Antihelminthic LEGUM. Antiseptic ACANTH. ANACARD. ANNON. BURSER. COMPOS. DIOSC. LABIATAE LEGUM. LOGAN. MALVACEAE SOLANAC. ZINGIB. Antitussive AIZOACEAE ANNON. EUPHOR. Aphrodisiac ACANTH. APOCYN. COMPOS. CYPER. EUPHOR. LEGUM. LYTHR. MELIACEAE NYMPHA. ORCHID. PTAEROX. ZINGIB. ZYGOPH. Articular pains LEGUM. LILIACEAE MYRSIN. PHYTOLAC. Ascaris CHENOP. COMBRET. LEGUM. Asthma ASCLEP. COMPOS. EUPHOR. HYPERIC. LEGUM. LOGAN. MORACEAE MORING. MYRTACEAE PIPER. RANUNC. SOLANAC. Astringent ANNON. EUPHOR. Ocimum canum Sims Ocimum gratissimum L. Gynura rubens Muscher Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming Cassia tora L. Justicia sp. Poupartia caffra Perr. Uvaria catocarpa Diels Canarium madagascariense Engl. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. Helichrysum rusillonii Hochr. Laggera alata Sch. Bip. Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax. Tetradenia fruticosa Benth. Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Anthocleista rhizophoroides Bak. Sida rhombifolia L. Solanum annuum L. Curcuma longa L. Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Annona muricata L. Croton sp. Rhinacanthus osmospermus Boj. Catharanthus trichophyllus Pich. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. Carex albo-viridis Clarke Cyperus esculentus L. Phyllanthus casticum Soy. Will. Mucuna pruriens DC. Rhynchosia sp. Woodfordia fruticosa S.Kurtz Neobeguea mahafalensis Leroy Nymphaea stellata Willd. Vanilla madagascariensis Rolfe Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. Hedychium coronarium Koen. Zingiber officinale Rose. Tribulus terrestris L. Clitoria ternatea L. Dipcadi cowani H.Perr. Embelia concinna Bak. Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Calopyxis phaneropetala H.Perr. Calopyxis subumbellata Bak. Mucuna pruriens DC. Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. Ethulia conyzoides L. Senecio erechtitoides Bak. Euphorbia hirta L. Phyllanthus distichus Muell. Arg. Phyllanthus niruri L. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Harungana madagascariensis Choisy Abrus precatorius L. Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Indigofera tinctoria L. Tamarindus indica L. Buddleia madagascariensis Lamk. Artocarpus integrifolia L. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Eugenia tapiaka H.Perr. Piper pachyphyllum Bak. Piper pyrifolium Vahl Clematis mauritiana Lamk. Datura stramonium L. Nicandra physaloides Gaertn. Solanum nigrum L. Uvaria catocarpa Diels Phyllanthus casticum Soy. Will. -358- FLACOUR. MYRTACEAE POLYGON. Back pains CLUSIA. COMPOS. LILIACEAE Baldness EUPHOR. LAURACEAE PEDAL. Biliary stones COMPOS. Biliousness ASCLEP. CANELL. FLACOUR. GENTIAN. LEGUM. Bladder ailments NEPENTH. Bladder irritation LEGUM. Bladder stones MENISP. Astringent (contd.) Phyllanthus madagascariensis Muell. Arg. Phyllanthus niruri L. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Eugenia emirensis Bak. Psidium guayava Berg. Polygonum senegalense Meissn. Ochrocarpos orthcladus H. Perr. Vernonia glutinosa DC. Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redoute Jatropha curcas L. Cassytha filiformis L. Uncarina stellulifera Humb. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. Cinnamosma fragrans H.Bn. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Tachiadenus longifolius Sc. Ell. Cassia laevigata Willd. Cassia occidentalis L. Tamarindus indica L. Nepenthes madagascariensis Poir. Clitoria ternatea L. Cissampelos pareira L. Bleeding, regulates COMPOS. Blennorrhagia AMARANTH. ANACARD. APOCYN. ASCLEP. BALSAM. BURSER. CAPPARA. COMBRET. COMPOS. ERYTHR. EUPHOR. FLACOUR. GRAMINEAE HYPERIC. LABIATAE LAURACEAE LEGUM. LILIACEAE MYRSIN. PIPER. PITTOS. POLYGON. ROSACEAE RUBIACEAE RUTACEAE SAPIND. Elephantopus scaber L. Amaranthus spinosus L. Mangifera indica L. Cabucala madagascariensis Pich. Gymnema sylvestre R.Br. Sarcostemma viminale R.Br. Impatiens baroni Bak. Canarium madagascariense Engl. Physena madagascariensis Steud. & Thou. Terminalia catappa L. Brachylaena perrieri Humb. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Elephantopus scaber L. Helichrysum benthami R.Vig. & H.Humb. Siegesbeckia orientalis L. Vernonia glutinosa DC. Erythroxylum ferrugineum Cav. Euphorbia bojeri Hook. Euphorbia milii Des Moulins Macaranga sp. Phyllanthus niruri L. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Cynodon dactylon Pers. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Ocimum canum Sims Cassytha filiformis L. Albizia gummifera C.A.Smith Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. Cassia laevigata Willd. Cassia occidentalis L. Dianella ensifolia Red. Smilax kraussiana Meissn. Embelia concinna Bak. Maesa lanceolata Forsk. Piper pachyphyllum Bak. Piper pyrifolium Vahl Pittosporum ochrosiaefolium Boj. Polygonum senegalense Meissn. Rubus rosaefolius Sm. Oldenlandia sp. Paederia bojeriana Drake Santalina madagascariensis H.Bn. Toddalia aculeata Pers. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Blepharitis MALVACEAE Boils APOCYN. COMPOS. DIOSC. EUPHOR. HYDROST. LEMNACEAE MALVACEAE MENISP. ONAGR. SOLANAC. TILIACEAE Bones, aching RUBIACEAE Breathlessness ERYTHR. Bronchitis AMARANTH. EUPHOR. LEGUM. LOGAN. MALVACEAE RUTACEAE SOLANAC. ZINGIB. Bruised wounds CYPER. Bruises COMPOS. FLACOUR. MORACEAE Burns AMARYLL. COMPOS. CRASSUL. EUPHOR. MUSACEAE MYRSIN. ORCHID. SIMAROU. TILIACEAE Cachexia ULMACEAE Calmative RUBIACEAE Cardiac edema GRAMINEAE Cardiac tonic AIZOACEAE APOCYN. ASCLEP. CHENOP. LEGUM. RUTACEAE Cathartic CAPPARA. LILIACEAE Cautery RANUNC. Chancres AMARANTH. COMPOS. Urena lobata L. Pachypodium rosulatum Bak. Dichrocephala latifolia DC. Psiadia salviaefolia Bak. Senecio sp. Dioscorea bulbifera L. Jatropha curcas L. Manihot utilissima Pohl. Hydrostachys imbricata A.Juss. Lemna paucicostata Hegelm. Kosteletzkya velutina Garcke Malva verticillata L. Sida rhombifolia L. Cissampelos pareira L. Jussiaea repens L. Solanum erythracanthum Boj. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Santalina madagascariensis H.Bn. Erythroxylum sp. Achyranthes aspera L. Euphorbia hirta L. Phyllanthus distichus Muell. Arg. Phyllanthus niruri L. Abrus aureus R.Vig. Abrus precatorius L. Cassia occidentalis L. Buddleia madagascariensis Lamk. Urena lobata L. Citrus spp. Toddalia aculeata Pers. Solanum indicum L. Curcuma longa L. Cyperus aequalis Vahl Ageratum conyzoides L. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Crinum firmifolium Bak. Emilia citrina D.C. Kalanchoe prolifera Ham. Macaranga sp. Manihot utilissima Pohl. Musa paradisiaca L. Embelia concinna Bak. Embelia madagascariensis DC. Cynosorchis sp. Samandura madagascariensis Gaertn. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Trema orientalis Blume Oldenlandia lancifolia D.C. Zea mays L. Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Cerbera venenifera (Poir.) Steud. Roupellina boivini (H.Bn.) Pich. Cryptostegia madagascariensis Boj. Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. Menabea venenata H.Bn. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Cajanus indicus Spreng. Erythrophleum couminga H.Bn. Toddalia aculeata Pers. Physena madagascariensis Steud. & Thou. Aloe capitata Bak. Clematis trifida Hook. Amaranthus spinosus L. Emilia graminea D.C. Chancres (contd.) GRAMINEAE LILIACEAE Appendix 5. ethnobotany Etulia conyzoides L. Saccharum officinarum L. Asparagus vaginellatus Boj. Chancres, phagedenic LEGUM. Chapped feet COMPOS. Charm APOCYN. Chicken pox COMPOS. MYRSIN. Childbirth ANACARD. ASCLEP. COMPOS. ERIOCAU. EUPHOR. FLACOUR. Chlorosis UMBELL. Choking MALVACEAE MYRSIN. Clitoria lasciva Boj. Senecio faujasioides Bak. Cerbera venenifera (Poir.) Steud. Vernonia appendiculata Less. Maesa lanceolata Forsk. Operculicarya hyphaenoides H.Perr. Leptadenia madagascariensis Decne. Vernonia garnieriana Klatt. Mesanthemum rutenbergianum Koern. Phyllanthus sp. Calantica sp. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. Sida rhombifolia L. Oncostemon leprosum Mez. Choking ("Etouffements") MALVACEAE Cholagogue PHYTOLAC. SAPIND. Cicatrizant ASCLEP. CLUSIA. COMPOS. EUPHOR. GRAMINEAE MYRTACEAE MYRIST. Malva verticillata L. Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Asclepias curassavica L. Calophyllum inophyllum L. Calophyllum parviflorum Boj. Helichrysum faradifani Sc. Ell. Helichrysum rusillonii Hochr. Croton sp. Panicum maximum Jacq. Psidium guayava Berg. Brochoneura acuminata Warb. Cicatrizant after circumcision COMPOS. Helichrysum cordifolium D.C. Cicatrizant & disinfectant OPILIAC. Cirrhosis COMPOS. SAPIND. Coagulant COMPOS. Coffee substitute LEGUM. Colds LABIATAE LEGUM. MALVACEAE RUBIACEAE Colic COMPOS. MYRTACEAE Condyloma AMARYLL. BIGNON. COMPOS. DROSER. Rhopalopilia sp. Ageratum conyzoides L. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Erigeron naudinii E.Bonnet Cassia occidentalis L. Cassia occidentalis Sond. Hyptis pectinata Poit. Hyptis spicigera Lamk. Albizia gummifera C.A.Smith Abelmoschus esculentus Moench. Randia talangninia DC. Urophyllum lyallii Bak. Helichrysum cordifolium D.C. Psidium cattleyanum Sabine Crinum firmifolium Bak. Phyllarthron madagascariensis K.Schum. Emilia amplexicaulis Bak. Emilia citrina D.C. Emilia humifusa D.C. Psiadia altissima Benth. & Hook. Senecio faujasioides Bak. Senecio myricaefolius DC. Drosera madagascariensis D.C. Congestion of the breasts APOCYN. Conjunctivitis COMPOS. EQUISET. OLACACEAE ZINGIB. Catharanthus lanceus Pich. Dichrocephala lyrata DC. Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Ximenia perrieri Cav. & Ker. Curcuma longa L. An environmental profile of Madagascar Constipation COMPOS. CUNON ICACIN. LOGAN. MYRSIN. UMBELL. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Weinmannia sp. Cassinopsis madagascariensis Baill. Anthocleista amplexicaulis Bak. Anthocleista madagascariensis Bak. Embelia concinna Bak. Caucalis sp. Constipation (severe) ZINGIB. Consumption COMPOS. LEGUM. RANUNC. ZINGIB. Contusions CLUSIA. CRASSUL. DIOSC. MELAST. Convulsions CORNACEAE Hedychium coronarium Koen. Senecio erechtitoides Bak. Vernonia diversifolia Boj. Vernonia pectoralis Bak. Albizia gummifera C.A.Smith Clematis mauritiana Lamk. Curcuma longa L. Symphonia fasciculata Benth. & Hook. Kalanchoe prolifera Ham. Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax. Medinilla sp. Kaliphora madagascariensis Hook. Convulsions (children) LEGUM. Indigofera tinctoria L. Mimosa pudica L. Convulsions (infants) MYRSIN. Corrosive ANACARD. Coughs AIZOACEAE ANNON. ASCLEP. BIGNON. CANELL. COMPOS. CRASSUL. DROSER. LABIATAE LAURACEAE LEGUM. LOGAN. MALVACEAE MORACEAE MYRTACEAE OXALID. POLYGAL. SAPIND. SOLANAC. TILIACEAE ULMACEAE ZINGIB. Oncostemon botryoides Bak. Gluta tourtour March. Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Uvaria catocarpa Diels Cynanchum aphyllum Schlechtr. Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. Harpanema acuminatum Decne. Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. Pentopetia sp. Phyllarthron madagascariensis K.Schum. Cinnamosma madagascariensis Dang. Ageratum conyzoides L. Erigeron naudinii E.Bonnet Helichrysum faradifani Sc. Ell. Helichrysum sp. Inula speciosa (DC) O.Hoffm. Vernonia diversifolia Boj. Vernonia exserta Bak. Vernonia pectoralis Bak. Vernonia trichodesma Bak. Vernonia trinervis Boj. ex DC. Kalanchoe prolifera Ham. Drosera madagascariensis D.C. Hyptis pectinata Poit. Ocimum gratissimum L. Ravensara sp. Abrus aureus R.Vig. Abrus precatorius L. Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Albizia gummifera C.A.Smith Tamarindus indica L. Buddleia madagascariensis Lamk. Abelmoschus moschatus Medic. Hibiscus diversifolia Jacq. Sida rhombifolia L. Urena lobata L. Ficus megapoda Bak. Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Eugenia jambos L. Oxalis corniculata L. Polygala ankaratrensis H.Perr. Allophylus bieruris Radlk. Solanum nigrum L. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Trema orientalis Blume Curcuma longa L. Coughs with blood HYPERIC. Harungana madagascariensis Choisy -360- Cystitis EQUISET. GRAMINEAE LEGUM. LYTHR. Dandruff CAMPAN. EUPHOR. LILIACEAE PEDAL. Debility ULMACEAE Delirium tremens MYRTACEAE Depurative ACANTH. ANACARD. APOCYN. AZOLL. GRAMINEAE LABIATAE LEGUM. LILIACEAE LOGAN. MALVACEAE RUBIACEAE Dermatoses ASCLEP. COMPOS. RUBIACEAE SOLANAC. Desquamation RANUNC. Detersive EUPHOR. Diabetes ARACEAE COMPOS. FLACOUR. LAURACEAE LEGUM. MELAST. MUSACEAE MYRTACEAE Diaphoretic COMPOS. LABIATAE LEGUM. LILIACEAE RUTACEAE Diarrhoea AMARANTH. ANACARD. ARALIAC. COMPOS. EUPHOR. FLACOUR. GRAMINEAE HYPERIC. LABIATAE LEGUM. LILIACEAE LOGAN. MELAST. Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Cynodon dactylon Pers. Cassia occidentalis L. Woodfordia fruticosa S.Kurtz Dialypetalum floribundum Benth. Croton sp. Aloe sp. Uncarina stellulifera Humb. Trema orientalis Blume Eugenia emirensis Bak. Justicia gendarussa Burm. Mangifera indica L. Catharanthus roseus G.Don Azolla pinnata L. Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. Ocimum gratissimum L. Cassia fistula L. Cassia laevigata Willd. Cassia occidentalis L. Smilax kraussiana Meissn. Anthocleista rhizophoroides Bak. Buddleia madagascariensis Lamk. Thespesia populnea Soland. Paederia bojeriana Drake Cryptostegia madagascariensis Boj. Eclipta erecta L. Paederia bojeriana Drake Nicandra physaloides Gaertn. Ranunculus pinnatus Poir. Dalechampia clematidifolia Boj. Jatropha curcas L. Phyllanthus casticum Soy. Will. Phyllanthus madagascariensis Muell. Arg. Pothos chapelieri Schott. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Helichrysum sp. Psiadia salviaefolia Bak. Homalium sp. Cinnamomum camphora Sieb. Desmodium latifolium D.C. Antherotoma naudini Hook.f. Musa paradisiaca L. Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Ageratum conyzoides L. Pterocaulon decurrens Moore Hyptis pectinata Poit. Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Smilax kraussiana Meissn. Citrus medica L. Henonia scoparia Mog. Poupartia minor (Boj.) L-Marchand Cussonia bojeri Seem. Psiadia altissima Benth. & Hook. Vernonia sp. Manihot utilissima Pohl. Securinega capuronii J.Leandr. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Cymbopogon plicatus Stapf. Oryza sativa L. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy -Psorospermum sp. Coleus sp. Tetradenia fruticosa Benth. Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Albizia gummifera C.A.Smith Dracaena reflexa Lamk. Anthocleista amplexicaulis Bak. Dichaetanthera oblongifolia Bak. Diarrhoea (contd.) MORACEAE MUSACEAE MYRTACEAE OLACACEAE PLUMBAG. PUNIC. RHAMN. ROSACEAE SOLANAC. ULMACEAE UMBELL. ZINGIB. Ficus megapoda Bak. Musa paradisiaca L. Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Eugenia parkeri Bak. Psidium cattleyanum Sabine Psidium guayava Berg. Olax cf. andronensis Bak. Plumbago aphylla Boj. Punica granatum L. Ziziphus spina-christi Willd. Rubus rosaefolius Sm. Physalis peruviana L. Trema orientalis Blume Hydrocotyle superposita Bak. Hydrocotyle tussilaginifolia Bak. Curcuma longa L. Diarrhoea (chronic) ROSACEAE Rubus apetalus Poir. Rubus myrianthus Bak. Rubus pauciflorus Bak. Diarrhoea with mucus LABIATAE Digestion ARALIAC. Diptheria CARIC. MELIACEAE Disinfectant LABIATAE UMBELL. Dislocations CONVOLV. Diuretic AMARANTH. APOCYN. BALSAM. BORAG. CANELL. CELAST. COMPOS. CRASSUL. CUCURB. DROSER. EQUISET. ERYTHR. FLACOUR. GRAMINEAE HYPERIC. LAURACEAE LEGUM. LILIACEAE LOGAN. MALVACEAE MENISP. MORING. MUSACEAE MYRSIN. MYRTACEAE Ocimum gratissimum L. Cussonia bojeri Seem. Carica papaya L. Turraea sp. Ocimum gratissimum L. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. Ipomea sp. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthus spinosus L. Henonia scoparia Mogq. Catharanthus lanceus Pich. Impatiens baroni Bak. Impatiens emirnensis Bak. Heliotropium indicum L. Cinnamosma fragrans H.Bn. Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Elephantopus scaber L. Helichrysum emirnense DC. Helichrysum sp. Spilanthes acmella Murr. Kalanchoe laxiflora Bak. Cucurbita maxima Duch. Drosera madagascariensis DC. Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Erythroxylum ferrugineum Cav. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Flacourtia ramontchi L’Her. Cynodon dactylon Pers. Saccharum officinarum L. Zea mays L. Psorospermum fanerana Bak. Cassytha filiformis L. Cajanus indicus Spreng. Cassia occidentalis L. Clitoria ternatea L. Mucuna pruriens DC. Asparagus greveanus Perr. Asparagus schumanianus Schlecter Asparagus simulans Bak. Asparagus vaginellatus Boj. Dracaena reflexa Lamk. Smilax kraussiana Meissn. Anthocleista rhizophoroides Bak. Anthocleista sp. Gossypium arboreum L. Sida cordifolia L. Cissampelos pareira L. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Musa paradisiaca L. Oncostemon sp. Eugenia jambolana Lamk. -361- Diuretic (contd.) POLYPOD. PORTUL. RANUNC. ROSACEAE RUBIACEAE SAPIND. Dizziness COMPOS. Appendix 5: ethnobotany Pellea viridis Prantl. Portulaca oleracea L. Clematis mauritiana Lamk. Rubus apetalus Poir. Rubus pauciflorus Bak. Rubus rosaefolius Sm. Paederia bojeriana Drake Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Laggera alata Sch. Bip. Dizziness and fainting EUPHOR. Dropsy AMARANTH. FLACOUR. LILIACEAE MORING. MUSACEAE PHYTOLAC. Dysentery ACANTH. ANACARD. APOCYN. BOMBAC. CANELL. COMPOS. EUPHOR. GRAMINEAE HYPERIC. LABIATAE LAURACEAE LEGUM. LILIACEAE LOGAN. MALVACEAE MELAST. MENISP. MORACEAE MYRTACEAE POLYGON. PUNIC. RANUNC. ROSACEAE SIMAROU. SOLANAC. ULMACEAE UMBELL. VERBEN. ZINGIB. Phyllanthus sp. Achyranthes aspera L. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Aloe capitata Bak. Aloe macroclada Bak. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Musa paradisiaca L. Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. Justicia gendarussa Burm. Mangifera indica L. Carissa edulis Vahl Adansonia digitata L. Adansonia madagascariensis H.Bn. Cinnamosma madagascariensis Dang. Elephantopus scaber L. Manihot utilissima Pohl. Phyllanthus casticum Soy. Will. Uapaca bojeri H.Bn. Oryza sativa L. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Hypericum japonicum Thunb. Tetradenia fruticosa Benth. Cassytha filiformis L. Albizia adianthifolia (Schum.) W.F.Wight Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming Crotalaria cytisioides Hilsenb. Crotalaria uncinella Lamk. Dracaena reflexa Lamk. Anthocleista amplexicaulis Bak. Buddleia madagascariensis Lamk. Gossypium arboreum L. Sida rhombifolia L. Dichaetanthera oblongifolia Bak. Burasaia madagascariensis D.C. Ficus cocculifolia Bak. Ficus megapoda Bak. Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Eugenia emirensis Bak. Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Eugenia parkeri Bak. Psidium guayava Berg. Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Punica granatum L. Ranuncuius pinnatus Poir. Rubus rosaefolius Sm. Samandura madagascariensis Gaertn. Solanum nigrum L. Trema orientalis Blume Hydrocotyle superposita Bak. Hydrocotyle tussilaginifolia Bak. Clerodendron heterophyllum R.Br. Aframomum angustifolium K.Schum. Curcuma longa L. Dysentery (chronic) MALVACEAE Dysmenorrhoea COMPOS. EQUISET. LEGUM. LILIACEAE ONAGR. Dyspepsia CARIC. GENTIAN. Thespesia populnea Soland. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Desmodium barbatum Benth. & Oerst. Desmodium ramosissimum G.Don Mimosa pudica L. Dracaena reflexa Lamk. Ludwigia jussiacoides Desr. Carica papaya L. Tachiadenus longifolius Sc. Ell. An environmental profile of Madagascar Dyspepsia (contd.) GRAMINEAE Oryza sativa L. LABIATAE Ocimum canum Sims Ocimum gratissimum L. ZINGIB. Curcuma longa L. Dysuria MALVACEAE Abelmoschus esculentus Moench. SOLANAC. Physalis peruviana L. Ear ailments AMARYLL. Crinum firmifolium Bak. COMPOS. Dichrocephala lyrata DC. LABIATAE Ocimum canum Sims ROSACEAE Rubus rosaefolius Sm. Ear discharges LEGUM. Voandzeia subterranea Thou. Ears GRAMINEAE Phragmites communis Tun. Eczema BIGNON. COMPOS. Ophiocolea floribunda H.Perr. Emilia citrina D.C. Gynura rubens Muscher Psiadia altissima Benth. & Hook. Senecio sp. ERICACEAE Philippia goudotiana Klotz. EUPHOR. Phyllanthus sp. HYDROST. Hydrostachys imbricata A.Juss. HYPERIC. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Psorospermum androsaemifolium Bak. LABIATAE Coleus bojeri Benth. LEGUM. Cassia occidentalis L. LILIACEAE Smilax kraussiana Meissn. MYRSIN. Embelia concinna Bak. ONAGR. Jussiaea repens L. POTAMOG. Potamogeton spp. RUBIACEAE Mussaenda arcuata Poir. Emetic ACANTH. Justicia gendarussa Burm. AMARYLL. Crinum firmifolium Bak. APOCYN. Catharanthus lanceus Pich. Catharanthus roseus G.Don Catharanthus trichophyllus Pich. ASCLEP. Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. EUPHOR. Jatropha curcas L. Ricinus communis L. FLACOUR. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. LABIATAE Tetradenia fruticosa Benth. PASSIFL. Passiflora incarnata L. PHYTOLAC. Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. SAPIND. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Emmenagogue BORAG. Heliotropium indicum L. CUCURB. Momordica charantia L. HYPERIC. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy LABIATAE Hyptis pectinata Poit. Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. LEGUM. Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming MENISP. Cissampelos pareira L. MONIM. Tambourissa parvifolia Bak. Tambourissa purpurea D.C. Tambourissa religiosa DC. Tambourissa trichophylla Bak. PORTUL. Portulaca oleracea L. RUTACEAE _ Toddalia aculeata Pers. ZINGIB. Hedychium coronarium Koen. Zingiber officinale Rose. Enteritis (chronic) AIZOACEAE Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Epilepsy BOMBAC. Adansonia madagascariensis H.Bn. COMPOS. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. LEGUM. Indigofera pedunculata Hils. & Boj. MORING. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. TILIACEAE Grewia triflora Walp. TYPHACEAE Typha angustifolia L. Epithelioma SOLANAC. Eruptions ERICACEAE Agauria polyphylla Bak. Capsicum minimum Roxb. -362- Erysipelas NYMPHA. SAPIND. "Eutocique" BALSAM. LEGUM. SOLANAC. Excitant SOLANAC. Expel placenta CELAST. Eye ailments MUSACEAE TILIACEAE Eyes LABIATAE LEGUM. Facial pimples COMMEL. COMPOS. UMBELL. Nymphaea stellata Willd. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Impatiens baroni Bak. Impatiens emirnensis Bak. Impatiens madagascariensis Wight & Arn. Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming Solanum erythracanthum Boj. Capsicum annuum L. Gymnosporia polyacantha (Sond.) Szyszyl. Musa perrieri Clav. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Coleus bojeri Benth. Cassia mimosoides L. Commelina madagascarica Clarke Senecio faujasioides Bak. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. Facial sores of venereal origin COMPOS. Fainting CORNACEAE LEGUM. Fainting spells MORACEAE Fatigue COMPOS. Febrifuge ANACARD. APOCYN. ASCLEP. BIGNON. BOMBAC. CAPPARA. CELAST. CHENOP. COMPOS. CRASSUL. CYPER. DIOSC. EBENACEAE ERYTHR. EUPHOR. HYPERIC. LABIATAE LAURACEAE LILIACEAE LOGAN. MALVACEAE MELIACEAE MENISP. Gynura sarcobasis D.C. Kaliphora madagascariensis Hook. Dichrostachys sp. Ficus sp. Vernonia garnieriana Klatt. Mangifera indica L. Catharanthus lanceus Pich. Carissa edulis Vahl Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. Ophiocolea floribunda H.Perr. Phyllarthron bernierianum Seeman Adansonia digitata L. Adansonia madagascariensis H.Bn. Adansonia za H.Bn. Physena madagascariensis Steud. & Thou. Celastrus madagascariensis Loes. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Helichrysum faradifani Sc. Ell. Vernonia appendiculata Less. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Lactuca welwitschii Sc. Ell. Laggera alata Sch. Bip. Stenocline inuloides D.C. Vernonia appendiculata Less. Kalanchoe crenata Ham. Kalanchoe laxiflora Bak. Kyllingia polyphylla Kunth. Kyllingia sp. Dioscorea sp. Diospyros humbertiana H.Perr. Erythroxylum sp. Croton sp. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Hyptis pectinata Poit. Ocimum canum Sims Cinnamomum camphora Sieb. Ravensara aromatica Gmel. Dracaena angustifolia Roxb. Dracaena elliptica Thunb. Dracaena reflexa Lamk. Anthocleista rhizophoroides Bak. Gaertneria obovata Bak. Gaertneria phanerophlebia Bak. Sida rhombifolia L. Khaya madagascariensis Jum. & Perr. Melia azedarach L. Burasaia congesta Decne. Burasaia gracilis Decne. Burasaia madagascariensis D.C. Appendix 5: ethnobotany Febrifuge (contd.) Gingivitis (contd.) Cissampelos madagascariensis Miers. ULMACEAE Trema orientalis Blume Cissampelos pareira L. Goitre MORACEAE Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. COMPOS. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. MORING. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Gonorrhoea OXALID. Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. ASCLEP. Secamone obovata Decne. PIPER. Piper pachyphyllum Bak. BIGNON. Phyllarthron madagascariensis K.Schum. Piper pyrifolium Vahl COMPOS. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. PITTOS. Pittosporum ochrosiaefolium Boj. Helichrysum faradifani Sc. Ell. PTAEROX. Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. Inula speciosa (DC) O.Hoffm. RUBIACEAE Danais fragrans Gaertn. Senecio sp. Danais gerrardi Bak. Vernonia sp. Payeria excelsa H.Bn. Vernonia trinervis Boj. ex DC. Randia talangninia DC. CONVOLV. Ipomaea pescaprae (L.) Sweet RUTACEAE Toddalia aculeata Pers. EBENACEAE Diospyros humbertiana H.Perr. SAPIND. Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. EUPHOR. Croton sp. SIMAROU. Samandura madagascariensis Gaertn. Euphorbia laro Drake. SOLANAC. Solanum indicum L. LAURACEAE Cassytha filiformis L. Solanum macrocarpum L. LEGUM. Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. TILIACEAE _ Grewia triflora Walp. Cassia occidentalis Sond. ULMACEAE Celtis madagascariensis Boj. LILIACEAE Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redoute VERBEN. Clerodendron heterophyllum R.Br. LOGAN. Anthocleista rhizophoroides Bak. ZINGIB. Curcuma longa L. Nuxia capitata Bak. Fertility, promotion of UMBELL. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. LILIACEAE Smilax kraussiana Meissn. Gout Flatulence APOCYN. Cabucala madagascariensis Pich. AMARANTH. Henonia scoparia Moq. ASCLEP. Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. GRAMINEAE Oryza sativa L. COMPOS. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. Flu lineariloba DC. COMPOS. Laggera alata Sch. Bip. Helichrysum rusillonii Hochr. Fontanelles, diseases of Siegesbeckia orientalis L. HYPERIC. Psorospermum androsaemifolium Bak. CONVOLYV. Ipomea wrightii Choisy LYTHR. Pemphis madagascariensis Perr. CRASSUL. Kalanchoe prolifera Ham. MORACEAE Ficus cocculifolia Bak. GRAMINEAE Cynodon dactylon Pers. STERCUL. Buettneria voulily H.Bn. LEGUM. Cassia occidentalis L. Fontanelles, swollen LILIACEAE __ Asparagus vaginellatus Boj. EUPHOR. Antidesma petiolare Tul. Dipcadi cowani H.Perr. Fontanelles (acclerate hardening of in infants) Smilax kraussiana Meissn. LABIATAE Ocimum canum Sims LYTHR. Woodfordia fruticosa S.Kurtz Fortifier MORING. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. EUPHOR. Croton sp. MYRSIN. Embelia concinna Bak. LOGAN. Nuxia capitata Bak. POLYGON. Polygonum senegalense Meissn. MYRSIN. Oncostemon sp. SAPIND. Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. MYRTACEAE Eugenia sp. SOLANAC. Nicandra physaloides Gaertn. Fortifier for children ZINGIB. Hedychium coronarium Koen. LOGAN. Nuxia sp. Granular endometritis Fractures SOLANAC. Capsicum minimum Roxb. ASCLEP. Cryptostegia madagascariensis Boj. URTIC. Urera acuminata Gaudich. CONVOLV. Ipomea sp. Growth promoter FLACOUR. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. BIGNON. Stereospermum variabile H.Perr. LEGUM. Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Gums LILIACEAE Aloe divaricata Berger. MONIM. Tambourissa religiosa DC. MALVACEAE Pavonia urens Lass. Haemoglobinuria MORACEAE Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. CUCURB. Cucurbita maxima Duch. PTAEROX. Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. FLACOUR. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Galactogogue GENTIAN. Tachiadenus longifolius Sc. Ell. AMARANTH. Alternanthera sessilis R.Br. Haemoptysis APOCYN. Catharanthus roseus G.Don BOMBAC. Adansonia digitata L. ASCLEP. Secamone ligustrifolia Decne. COMPOS. Ethulia conyzoides L. COMMEL. Commelina madagascarica Clarke SOLANAC. Solanum nigrum L. COMPOS. Spilanthes acmella Murr. Haemorrage EUPHOR. Ricinus communis L. CLUSIA. Calophyllum inophyllum L. POLYGAL. Polygala macroptera D.C. Haemorrhoids Galactorrhoea AZOLL. Agolla pinnata L. COMPOS. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. HYPERIC. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Gangrene LEGUM. Mucuna pruriens DC. MORING. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. MALVACEAE Malva verticillata L. Gastralgia NYMPHA. Nymphaea stellata Willd. GRAMINEAE Oryza sativa L. SAPIND. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. LEGUM. Clitoria ternatea L. Haemostatic SCROPHUL. Scoparia dulcis L. ANACARD. Operculicarya monstruosa H.Perr. UMBELL. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. APOCYN. Catharanthus lanceus Pich. ZINGIB. Curcuma longa L. Catharanthus roseus G.Don Genital oedema Catharanthus trichophyllus Pich. LEGUM. Abrus precatorius L. ARACEAE Colocasia esculenta Schott Gingivitis ASCLEP. Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. ROSACEAE ~~ Rubus apetalus Poir. BIGNON. Stereospermum euphorioides D.C. Rubus myrianthus Bak. COMPOS. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Rubus pauciflorus Bak. Elephantopus scaber L. Rubus rosaefolius Sm. -363- An environmental profile of Madagascar Haemostatic (contd.) COMPOSITE EUPHOR. HYPERIC. LILIACEAE MALVACEAE MELAST. SAPIND. UMBELL. URTIC. Haematuria ASCLEP. FLACOUR. MALVACEAE MUSACEAE PALMAE PIPER. SAPIND. SOLANAC. ULMACEAE ZINGIB. Head colds BIGNON. COMPOS. RUTACEAE Head problems COMPOS. LABIATAE Headaches CAPPARA. CELAST. COMPOS. CORNACEAE CUNON EUPHOR. HERNAN. LABIATAE LEGUM. PTAEROX. RANUNC. RUTACEAE SOLANAC. TILIACEAE UMBELL. ZINGIB. Emilia citrina D.C. Helichrysum mutisiaefolium H.Humb. Helichrysum sp. Siegesbeckia orientalis L. Vernonia secundifolia Boj. ex DC. Jatropha mahafalensis Jum. & Perr. Hypericum japonicum Thunb. Dracaena reflexa Lamk. Gossypium arboreum L. Clidemia hirta D.Don Paullinia pinnata L. Sanicula europaea L. Urera longifolia Wedd. Urera oligoloba Bak. Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Gossypium arboreum L. Sida cordifolia L. Musa paradisiaca L. Cocos nucifera L. Piper pachyphyllum Bak. Litchi sinensis Radlk. Solanum erythracanthum Boj. Trema orientalis Blume Hedychium coronarium Koen. Colea fusca H.Perr. Laggera alata Sch. Bip. Citrus spp. Vernonia trinervis Boj. ex DC. Plectranthus sp. Capparis chrysomeia Boj. Evonymopsis longipes H.Perr. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. Laggera alata Sch. Bip. Kaliphora madagascariensis Hook. Weinmannia rutenbergii Engl. Croton sp. Hernandia voyroni Jum. Ocimum gratissimum L. Indigofera lyallii Bak. Smithia chamaecrista Benth. Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. Ranunculus pinnatus Poir. Toddalia aculeata Pers. Solanum asphanathum Bak. Grewia triflora Walp. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. Zingiber officinale Rose. Headaches (children) AMARANTH. Henonia scoparia Mog. Headaches & nosebleed CAPPARID. Heart GRAMINEAE MENISP. Heart troubles APOCYN. Hemiplegia LEGUM. Hepatic colic MORACEAE Maerva filiformis Drake Phragmites communis Tun. Cissampelos sp. Voacanga thouarsii Roem. & Schult. Mucuna pruriens DC. Artocarpus integrifolia L. Hepatic depurative RUBIACEAE Hepatic fever COMPOS. Hepatitis LOGAN. Herpes ACANTH. COMPOS. EUPHOR. Hiccups COMBRET. Hoarseness Danais verticillata Bak. Conyza garnieri Klatt. Anthocleista rhizophoroides Bak. Rhinacanthus osmospermus Boj. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. Jatropha curcas L. Calopyxis subumbellata Bak. MALVACEAE Abelmoschus esculentus Moench. -364- Hookworm CHENOP. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. COMBRET. Calopyxis subumbellata Bak. Hypertension CELAST. Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. LEGUM. Cassia alata L. Cassia occidentalis Sond. LORANTH. Loranthus sp. Viscum sp. SAPIND. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Hypnotic OXALID. Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. SOLANAC. Solanum indicum L. Hypoglycaemia ASCLEP. Gymnema sylvestre R.Br. Hysteria BIGNON. Rhodocolea telfairiae Perr. LEGUM. Cassia occidentalis L. Cassia tora L. MORING. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. UMBELL. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. Impetigo ACANTH. Rhinacanthus aspera L. LEGUM. Cassia alata L. Cassia tora L. Infant cholera LEGUM. Mimosa latispinosa Lamk. Infant maladies LEGUM. Mundulea scoparia R.Viguier Inflamation AMARYLL. Crinum firmifolium Bak. Insomnia MYRTACEAE Eugenia sp. PASSIFL. Passiflora caerula L. Intellectual stimulant HYPERIC. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Intestinal debility HYPERIC. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Intestinal pains EUPHOR. Hura crepitans L. Intestinal troubles EUPHOR. Croton sp. MORACEAE Ficus soroceoides Bak. Intestinal worms LEGUM. Mucuna pruriens DC. Irritant EBENACEAE Diospyros graceilipes Hiern. Itching AMARANTH. Alternanthera sessilis R.Br. ERICACEAE Agauria polyphylla Bak. UMBELL. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. Jaundice ACANTH. Justicia gendarussa Burm. ASCLEP. Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. COMPOS. Helichrysum fulvescens D.C. CUCURB. Cucurbita maxima Duch. EUPHOR. Phyllanthus casticum Soy. Will. FLACOUR. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. GENTIAN. Tachiadenus longifolius Sc. Ell. GRAMINEAE Cymbopogon plicatus Stapf. HERNAN. Hernandia voyroni Jum. LEGUM. Cassia occidentalis Sond. MORACEAE Ficus sp. OPILIAC. Rhopalopilia cf. umbellulavo Engl. PORTUL. Portulaca oleracea L. RUBIACEAE Payeria excelsa H.Bn. SOLANAC. Physalis peruviana L. ZINGIB. Curcuma longa L. Jaundice fever EUPHOR. Jatropha curcas L. RUBIACEAE Breonia boivini Havil. Kidney ailments COMPOS. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Gynura rubens Muscher Kidney colic ERYTHR. Erythroxylum ferrugineum Cav. FLACOUR. Flacourtia ramontchi L’Her. Kidney pain FLACOUR. Homalium sp. Kidney stones CELAST. Labor pains MORACEAE Lactation ASCLEP. EUPHOR. Laxative ANNON. ASCLEP. EUPHOR. GENTIAN. LEGUM. LOGAN. MALVACEAE MYRSIN. PALMAE PASSIFL. SAPIND. Leprosy AMARYLL. CLUSIA. COMPOS. EUPHOR. HAMAM. PHYTOLAC. RANUNC. UMBELL. Leucorrhoea EQUISET. MYRTACEAE UMBELL. Lice EUPHOR. MYRIST. SOLANAC. Lips LYCOP. Liver ailments AMARANTH. ARALIAC. ASCLEP. CELAST. COMPOS. MENISP. MYRSIN. SCHIZAC. Liver congestion ANACARD. APOCYN. EQUISET. Liver flukes MORACEAE Loss of voice MONIM. Maytenus fasciculata Loes. Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Secamone ligustrifolia Decne. Croton sp. Uvaria catocarpa Diels Leptadenia madagascariensis Decne. Croton sp. Tachiadenus longifolius Sc. Ell. Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming Cajanus indicus Spreng. Cassia fistula L. Cassia laevigata Willd. Cassia occidentalis L. Tamarindus indica L. Anthocleista rhizophoroides Bak. Malva verticillata L. Oncostemon sp. Raphia ruffia Mart. Passiflora incarnata L. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Crinum firmifolium Bak. Symphonia fasciculata Benth. & Hook. Ageratum conyzoides L. Crassocephalum sarcobasis (DC) Moore Pterocaulon decurrens Moore Givotia madagascariensis H.Bn. Dicoryphe retusa Bak. Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. Clematis mauritiana Lamk. Ranunculus pinnatus Poir. Hydrocotyle asiatica L. Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Sanicula europaea L. Jatropha mahafalensis Jum. & Perr. Brochoneura acuminata Warb. Datura stramonium L. Nicandra physaloides Gaertn. Lycopodium clavatum L. Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad) Schinz Cussonia bojeri Seem. Cussonia sp. Polyscias sp. Menabea venenata H.Bn. Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. Inula speciosa (DC) O.Hoffm. Psiadia salviaefolia Bak. Senecio cochlearifolius Boj. Cissampelos sp. Oncostemon leprosum Mez. Lygodium lanceolatum Desv. Mangifera indica L. Catharanthus roseus G.Don Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Ficus soroceoides Bak. Tambourissa boivinii D.C. Tambourissa purpurea D.C. Low blood pressure COMPOS. Lumbago EUPHOR. RUBIACEAE SAPIND. Madness FLACOUR. Malaria ANACARD. ARISTOL. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Euphorbia erythroxyloides Bak. Santalina madagascariensis H.Bn. Paullinia pinnata L. Flacourtia ramontchi L’Her. Rhus taratana (Bak.) H.Perr. Aristolochia acuminata Lamk. -365- Malaria (contd.) COMMEL. COMPOS. Malaria EUPHOR. GRAMINEAI< ICACIN. LABIATAE LAURACEAE LEGUM. LOGAN. MENISP. RANUNC. RUBIACEAE RUTACEAE SCHIZAC. ULMACEAE Measles CHENOP. COMPOS. MYRSIN. Mental IRIDACEAE MONIM. Migraines LABIATAE Miscarriage HYPERIC. Mouth MONIM. Narcotic CANNAB. LABIATAE PHYTOLAC. SOLANAC. Nephritis EQUISET. LABIATAE RUBIACEAE SAPIND. Nerve diseases COMPOS. LEGUM. Nerve disorders GENTIAN. Nerve sedative BIGNON. Nerve tonic CONNAR. RUBIACEAE Nervous children EUPHOR. Appendix 5: ethnobotany Commelina benghalensis L. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Parthenium hysterophorus L. Stenocline inuloides D.C. Vernonia pectoralis Bak. Vernonia trichodesma Bak. Fluggea microcarpa Blume Jatropha curcas L. Manihot utilissima Pohl. Phragmites mauritianus Kunth. Cassinopsis madagascariensis Baill. Hyptis pectinata Poit. Cinnamomum camphora Sieb. Abrus precatorius L. Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming Cassia occidentalis L. Cassia occidentalis Sond. Crotalaria spinosa Hochst. Anthocleista amplexicaulis Bak. Anthocleista rhizophoroides Bak. Cissampelos pareira L. Clematis mauritiana Lamk. Cephalanthus spathelliferus Bak. Danais verticillata Bak. Toddalia aculeata Pers. Mohria cafforum Desv. Trema orientalis Blume Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Senecio erechtitoides Bak. Vernonia appendiculata Less. Maesa lanceolata Forsk. Gladiolus garnieri Klatt. Tambourissa religiosa DC. Ocimum canum Sims Psorospermum ferrovestitum Bak. Tambourissa religiosa DC. Cannabis sativa L. Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. Datura stramonium L. Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanum nigrum L. Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Ocimum canum Sims Danais verticillata Bak. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Laggera alata Sch. Bip. Vernonia eriophylla Drake Albizia gummifera C.A.Smith Tachiadenus carinatus Griseb. Phyllarthron bernierianum Seeman Agelaea lamarckii Planch. Danais sp. Croton sp. Nervous system stimulant LILIACEAE Nervousness COMPOS. CORNACEAE LOGAN. MYRSIN. Nettle rashes ERICACEAE Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redoute Vernonia appendiculata Less. Kaliphora madagascariensis Hook. Anthocleista amplexicaulis Bak. Anthocleista madagascariensis Bak. Oncostemon sp. Philippia goudotiana Klotz. An environmental profile of Madagascar Neuralgia ACANTH. Justicia sp. APOCYN. Catharanthus lanceus Pich. ARALIAC. Cussonia bojeri Seem. ASCLEP. Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. BIGNON. Ophiocolea floribunda H.Perr. Ophiocolea sp. CELAST. Hippocratea sp. Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. COMPOS. Senecio sp. Vernonia glutinosa DC. Vernonia trinervis Boj. ex DC. CUCURB. Raphidiocystis brachypoda Bak. EBENACEAE Diospyros sp. ERICACEAE Agauria salicifolia Hook. EUPHOR. Euphorbia milii Des Moulins Phyllanthus sp. GRAMINEAE Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. Imperata cylindrica (L.) PB HYPERIC. Psorospermum androsaemifolium Bak. LABIATAE Pycnostachys coerulea Hook. LEGUM. Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Calliandra alternans Benth. LILIACEAE Asparagus simulans Bak. Smilax kraussiana Meissn. LOGAN. Nuxia capitata Bak. LYCOP. Lycopodium cernuum L. MELAST. Dichaetanthera crassinodis Bak. Tristemma virusanum Comm. MELIACEAE Turraea sp. MONIM. Tambourissa religiosa DC. MORACEAE Ficus sp. MYRSIN. Embelia concinna Bak. Embelia madagascariensis DC. Oncostemon sp. MYRTACEAE Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Eugenia sp. PIPER. Piper pachyphyllum Bak. Piper pyrifolium Vahl SOLANAC. Capsicum minimum Roxb. Neurasthenia SOLANAC. Solanum indicum L. Neuritis MYRSIN. Embelia concinna Bak. Embelia madagascariensis DC. Neuroses LABIATAE Ocimum canum Sims MORACEAE Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Obesity in children COMPOS. Senecio sp. Ocytocic agent APOCYN. Catharanthus lanceus Pich. BUXACEAE Buxus madagascariensis Baill. COMPOS. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Epallage dentata D.C. Helichrysum sp. FLACOUR. Casearia sp. LEGUM. Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming LILIACEAE Aloe divaricata Berger. Ophthalmia AMARANTH. Achyranthes aspera L. CLUSIA. Calophyllum inophyllum L. COMPOS. Ageratum conyzoides L. CRASSUL. Kalanchoe laxiflora Bak. FLACOUR. Calantica grandiflora Jaub. SOLANAC. Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. Solanum erythracanthum Boj. ZINGIB. Aframomum angustifolium K.Schum. Oral antiseptic CELAST. Hippocratea urceolus Tul. Orchitis CLUSIA. Calophyllum inophyllum L. "Osmeomalacie" FLACOUR. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Otitis ASCLEP. Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. FLAGELL. Flagellaria indica L. GRAMINEAE Phragmites mauritianus Kunth. MORING. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. SOLANAC. Datura stramonium L. -366- Pain ASCLEP. COMPOS. EUPHOR. MALPIG. Pain and stiffness ARALIAC. Pains ANACARD. Palpitations APOCYN. Paralysis APOCYN. BORAG. LABIATAE LEGUM. MORING. RANUNC. RUBIACEAE Periostitis CRASSUL. Pleurodynia ZINGIB. Pneumonia COMPOS. EQUISET. EUPHOR. LABIATAE LEGUM. MORACEAE RUTACEAE URTIC. Poison APOCYN. CLUSIA. Poison antidote APOCYN. ARACEAE Pentopetia sp. Secamone sp. Vernonia polygalaefolia Less. Croton cf. noronhae Baill. Tristellateia sp. Cussonia sp. Poupartia caffra Perr. Cerbera venenifera (Poir.) Steud. Cerbera venenifera (Poir.) Steud. Heliotropium indicum L. Ocimum canum Sims Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Clematis mauritiana Lamk. Mussaenda arcuata Poir. Kalanchoe prolifera Ham. Hedychium coronarium Koen. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Psiadia sp. Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Manihot utilissima Pohl. Phyllanthus sp. Ocimum gratissimum L. Desmodium ramosissimum G.Don Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Toddalia aculeata Pers. Urera oligoloba Bak. Roupellina boivini (H.Bn.) Pich. Calophyllum inophyllum L. Cerbera venenifera (Poir.) Steud. Pothos chapelieri Schott. Post-partum stomach pains EUPHOR. Croton sp. Postpartum disinfectant LEGUM. Mundulea pungens R.Viguier Postpartum reconstituent LEGUM. Pregnant women LYCOP. Prostate LEGUM. Psoriasis Indigofera depauperata Drake Lycopodium clavatum L. Cassia occidentalis Sond. RUBIACEAE Mussaenda arcuata Poir. Puerperal ailments AMARANTH. Achyranthes aspera L. Pulmonary inflammations ZINGIB. Purgative ANNON. APOCYN. ASCLEP. BUXACEAE EUPHOR. GENTIAN. IRIDACEAE LABIATAE LEGUM. LILIACEAE LOGAN. MALVACEAE NYCTAG. Zingiber zerumbet Rose. Uvaria catocarpa Diels Catharanthus lanceus Pich. Catharanthus roseus G.Don Catharanthus trichophyllus Pich. Gomphocarpus cornutus Decne. Menabea venenata H.Bn. Buxus madagascariensis Baill. Euphorbia trichophylla Bak. Jatropha curcas L. Ricinus communis L. Tachiadenus carinatus Griseb. Gladiolus garnieri Klatt. Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. Clitoria ternatea L. Aloe capitata Bak. Aloe divaricata Berger. Aloe macroclada Bak. Rhodocodon madagascariensis Bak. Anthocleista sp. Pavonia bojeri Bak. Mirabilis jalapa L. Purgative (contd.) RUBIACEAE Mussaenda arcuata Poir. TILIACEAE Grewia barorum Purgative (strong) EUPHOR. Hura crepitans L. Purulent ophthalmia ZINGIB. Curcuma longa L. Pyrosis AMARANTH. Achyranthes aspera L. GENTIAN. Tachiadenus longifolius Sc. Ell. Rabies CONNAR. Cnestis polyphylla Lamk. PHYTOLAC. Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. SOLANAC. Solanum nigrum L. ZINGIB. Curcuma longa L. Reconstituent EUPHOR. Jatropha mahafalensis Jum. & Perr. Rectal prolapsis MALVACEAE Malva verticillata L. Relaxant COMPOS. Helichrysum faradifani Sc. Ell. Resolutive AMARYLL. Crinum firmifolium Bak. Crinum modestum Bak. APOCYN. Pachypodium rosulatum Bak. Retention of urine EQUISET. Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. MORACEAE Pachytrophe dimepate Bur. ONAGR. Jussiaea suffruticosa L. Revulsive MORING. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Rheumatic pains ANNON. Uvaria manjensis Cav. & Ker. MELIACEAE Neobeguea mahafalensis Leroy Rheumatism AMARANTH. Achyranthes aspera L. APOCYN. Cabucala madagascariensis Pich. ASCLEP. Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. BIGNON. Kigelia pinnata D.C. BURSER. Canarium madagascariense Engl. CELAST. Gymnosporia polyacantha (Sond.) Szyszyl. CLUSIA. Calophyllum inophyllum L. Symphonia fasciculata Benth. & Hook. COMPOS. Helichrysum rusillonii Hochr. CRASSUL. Kalanchoe prolifera Ham. ERICACEAE Agauria polyphylla Bak. EUPHOR. Aleurites triloba Forst. Ricinus communis L. FLACOUR. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Scolopia sp. GENTIAN. Tachiadenus longifolius Sc. Ell. GRAMINEAE Cynodon dactylon Pers. LABIATAE Ocimum canum Sims LEGUM. Cassia occidentalis Sond. MYRIST. Brochoneura acuminata Warb. RANUNC. Clematis mauritiana Lamk. RUBIACEAE Mussaenda arcuata Poir. SAPIND. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. ZINGIB. Hedychium coronarium Koen. Rheumatism (chronic) ACANTH. Justicia gendarussa Burm. POLYGON. Polygonum senegalense Meissn. Rickets ASCLEP. Folotsia sarcostemmoides Const. & Bois. COMPOS. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. LAURACEAE Cassytha filiformis L. SAPIND. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Paullinia pinnata L. Scabies AMARYLL. Crinum firmifolium Bak. ANACARD. Mangifera indica L. ASCLEP. Cryptostegia madagascariensis Boj. BIXACEAE Bixa orellana L. CLUSIA. Calophyllum inophyllum L. Symphonia fasciculata Benth. & Hook. COMPOS. Emilia citrina D.C. Emilia graminea D.C. Ethulia conyzoides L. Gynura rubens Muscher Laggera alata Sch. Bip. Scabies (contd.) COMPOS. CUCURB. CYPER. ERICACEAE GERAN. HYPERIC. LABIATAE LEGUM. LILIACEAE LOGAN. MALVACEAE MONIM. MYRIST. POLYGON. RANUNC. RUBIACEAE SOLANAC. UMBELL. Scalp ailments HYPERIC. LAURACEAE Scalp parasites RUTACEAE Scalp ringworm GENTIAN. Sciatica LEGUM. POLYGON. Scurf (LICHEN) APOCYN. HYPERIC. LEGUM. RUBIACEAE Sedative EUPHOR. FLACOUR. LABIATAE LECYTH. LEGUM. OXALID. RUBIACEAE SOLANAC. Appendix 5; ethnobotany Psiadia altissima Benth. & Hook. Senecio adscendens Boj. Adenopus breviflorus Benth. Cyperus rotundus L. Philippia goudotiana Klotz. Geranium simense Hochst. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Psorospermum androsaemifolium Bak. Tetradenia fruticosa Benth. Cassia occidentalis L. Cassia tora L. Crotalaria fulva Roxb. Smilax kraussiana Meissn. Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. Strychnos spinosa Lamk. Gossypium arboreum L. Tambourissa boivinii D.C. Tambourissa parvifolia Bak. Tambourissa purpurea D.C. Tambourissa religiosa DC. Tambourissa trichophylla Bak. Brochoneura acuminata Warb. Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Ranunculus pinnatus Poir. Oldenlandia lancifolia D.C. Capsicum minimum Roxb. Solanum auriculatum Ait. Solanum nigrum L. Hydrocotyle asiatica L. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Cassytha filiformis L. Zanthoxylum thouvenotii H.Perr. Tachiadenus carinatus Griseb. Cassia occidentalis L. Polygonum senegalense Meissn. Parmelia perforata Ach. Catharanthus lanceus Pich. Catharanthus roseus G.Don Catharanthus trichophyllus Pich. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Calliandra alternans Benth. Cassia occidentalis L. Cassia tora L. Mussaenda arcuata Poir. Croton sp. Casearia sp. Pycnostachys coerulea Hook. Barringtonia speciosa L. Tamarindus indica L. Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. Breonia madagascariensis A.Rich. Datura stramonium L. Nicandra physaloides Gaertn. Nicotiana tabacum L. Sickness in children MONIM. Skin ailments AMARANTH. AQUIFOL. GENTIAN. HYPERIC. LABIATAE LEGUM. MALVACEAE MONIM. MYRIST. RUBIACEAE EUPHOR. Tambourissa trichophylla Bak. Achyranthes aspera L. Ilex mitis Radlk. Tachiadenus carinatus Griseb. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br. Cassia alata L. Thespesia populnea Soland. Tambourissa boivinii D.C. Tambourissa parvifolia Bak. Tambourissa purpurea D.C. Tambourissa religiosa DC. Tambourissa trichophylla Bak. Brochoneura acuminata Warb. Danais fragrans Gaertn. Skin diseases (parasitic) Phyllanthus niruri L. An environmental profile of Madagascar Smallpox CHENOP. EBENACEAE Sneezing MORACEAE Sore throat ANACARD. MALVACEAE MELIACEAE Sores ASCLEP. CELAST. COMBRET. COMPOS. DIOSC. EUPHOR. LEGUM. MORACEAE MYRSIN. ULMACEAE Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Diospyros megasepala Bak. Ficus megapoda Bak. Mangifera indica L. Malva verticillata L. Turraea sp. Secamonopsis madagascariensis Jum. Hippocratea sp. Terminalia catappa L. Bidens pilosa L. Psiadia altissima Benth. & Hook. Senecio faujasioides Bak. Senecio longiscapus Boj. ex DC. Stenocline aricoides DC. Dioscorea bulbifera L. Gelonium sp. Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Tetrapterocarpon geayi H.Humb. Ficus baroni Bak. Ficus megapoda Bak. Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Oncostemon sp. Trema orientalis Blume Spinal marrow, diseases of APOCYN. COMPOS. MYRSIN. Cabucala madagascariensis Pich. Helichrysum benthami R.Vig. & H.Humb. Embelia concinna Bak. Spleen, enlargement of APOCYN. CHENOP. COMPOS. MORING. ULMACEAE Sprains COMMEL. FLACOUR. GRAMINEAE LABIATAE MALVACEAE MORACEAE MYRTACEAE ZINGIB. Plectaneia elastica Jum. & Perr. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Tagetes patula L. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Trema orientalis Blume Commelina benghalensis L. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Cynodon dactylon Pers. Eleusine indica Gaertn. Ocimum gratissimum L. Malva verticillata L. Ficus sp. Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Curcuma longa L. Sprains and swellings EUPHOR. Stiffness ASCLEP. BIGNON. OLEACEAE Stimulant BIXACEAE CANNAB. CARYOPH. COMPOS. HERNAN. LAURACEAE LEGUM. MALVACEAE MORACEAE MYRTACEAE ORCHID. RUBIACEAE ZINGIB. Stinging rash MYRSIN. Stomach AMARANTH. ANACARD. APOCYN. ARACEAE ARALIAC. ASCLEP. Phyllanthus sp. Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. Phyllarthron madagascariensis K.Schum. Jasminum kitchingii Bak. Bixa orellana L. Cannabis sativa L. Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Roem. & Schult. Helichrysum bracteiferum Humb. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. Siegesbeckia orientalis L. Hernandia voyroni Jum. Ravensara aromatica Gmel. Mucuna pruriens DC. Sida rhombifolia L. Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Eugenia aromatica H.Bn. Vanilla planifolia Andrews Mussaenda arcuata Poir. Zingiber officinale Rose. Maesa lanceolata Forsk. Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad) Schinz Rhus taratana (Bak.) H.Perr. Cabucala madagascariensis Pich. Pothos chapelieri Schott. Cussonia bojeri Seem. Secamone sp. Menabea venenata H.Bn. -368- Stomach (contd.) BIGNON. Ophiocolea sp. CANELL. Cinnamosma fragrans H.Bn. CELAST. Celastrus madagascariensis Loes. Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. COMPOS. Ageratum conyzoides L. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Elephantopus scaber L. Gerbera elliptica H.Humb. Helichrysum faradifani Sc. Ell. Senecio sp. Vernonia sp. CRASSUL. Kalanchoe sp. EUPHOR. Croton sp. Euphorbia sp. GENTIAN. Tachiadenus carinatus Griseb. Tachiadenus longifolius Sc. Ell. GRAMINEAE Eleusine indica Gaertn. HYPERIC. Hypericum japonicum Thunb. IRIDACEAE _ Geissorhiza bojeri Bak. LABIATAE Hyptis sp. Hyptis pectinata Poit. LEGUM. Cassia tora L. Neobaronia phylanthoides Bak. Tamarindus indica L. LILIACEAE _ Asparagus simulans Bak. Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redoute Smilax kraussiana Meissn. LOGAN. Nuxia capitata Bak. MELAST. Tristemma virusanum Comm. MYRSIN. Embelia sp. Oncostemon sp. OXALID. Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. PIPER. Piper pachyphyllum Bak. Piper pyrifolium Vahl PTAEROX. Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. ROSACEAE Amygdalus persica L. SCHIZAC. Lygodium lanceolatum Desv. SIMAROU. Samandura madagascariensis Gaertn. SOLANAC. Capsicum annuum L. Solanum indicum L. ULMACEAE Trema orientalis Blume UMBELL. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. URTIC. Urera oligoloba Bak. ZINGIB. Aframomum angustifolium K.Schum. Curcuma longa L. Hedychium coronarium Koen. Stomach (baby) LEGUM. Cassia occidentalis Sond. Stomach ache ADIANT. Acrostichum aureum Willd. EUPHOR. Ricinus communis L. PTAEROX. Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. Stomach ache (children) ASCLEP. Cynanchum aphyllum Schlechtr. Stomach cramps AIZOACEAE Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. GRAMINEAE Oryza sativa L. Stomach, swollen COMPOS. Vernonia moquinoides Bak. Stomatitis ROSACEAE ~~ Rubus apetalus Poir. Rubus myrianthus Bak. Rubus pauciflorus Bak. Rubus rosaefolius Sm. ULMACEAE _ Trema orientalis Blume Strengthen newborns BIGNON. Stereospermum variabile H.Perr. Strengthener EBENACEAE Diospyros sp. Suppurating sores APOCYN. Hazunta modesta (Bak.) Pich. subvar methuenii Mgf. Swelling ASCLEP. Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. DIOSC. Dioscorea bulbifera L. EUPHOR. Croton sp. MORACEAE Ficus sp. MYRSIN. Embelia concinna Bak. MYRTACEAE Eugenia jambolana Lamk. Syphilis AMARANTH. Achyranthes aspera L. APOCYN. Craspidospermum verticillatum Boj. ARALIAC. Cussonia bojeri Seem. ASCLEP. Cynanchum sp. Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. Secamone ligustrifolia Decne. Cinnamosma fragrans H.Bn. Hippocratea bojeri Tul. Hippocratea sp. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Ochrocarpos orthcladus H. Perr. Bojeria speciosa D.C. Crassocephalum bojeri (DC) Robyns Elephantopus scaber L. Emilia citrina D.C. Emilia graminea D.C. Epallage dentata D.C. Etulia conyzoides L. CANELL. CELAST. CHENOP. CLUSIA. COMPOS. Helichrysum benthami R.Vig. & H.Humb. ° Helichrysum sp. Psiadia altissima Benth. & Hook. Senecio adscendens Boj. Senecio canaliculatus Boj. ex. DC. Senecio erechtitoides Bak. Senecio faujasioides Bak. Senecio longiscapus Boj. ex DC. Senecio myricaefolius DC. Senecio resectus Boj. ex. DC. Senecio sp. Siegesbeckia orientalis L. Vernonia glutinosa DC. Drosera madagascariensis D.C. Agauria polyphylla Bak. Agauria salicifolia Hook. Philippia sp. Acalypha radula Bak. Acalypha spachiana H.Bn. Bridelia pervilleana H.Bn. Croton jennyanum Gris. Phyllanthus sp. Cynodon dactylon Pers. Cassinopsis madagascariensis Baill. Geissorhiza bojeri Bak. Coleus bojeri Benth. Plectranthus cymosus Bak. Pycnostachys coerulea Hook. Tetradenia fruticosa Benth. Cassytha filiformis L. Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. Calliandra sp. Cassia laevigata Willd. Cassia occidentalis L. Dolichos biflorus L. LILIACEAE Smilax kraussiana Meissn. MALVACEAE Abelmoschus esculentus Moench. Gossypium arboreum L. Urena lobata L. DROSER. ERICACEAE EUPHOR. GRAMINEAE ICACIN. IRIDACEAE LABIATAE LAURACEAE LEGUM. MORACEAE Ficus sp. MYRSIN. Embelia concinna Bak. Maesa lanceolata Forsk. POLYGAL. Polygala bojeri Chodat POLYGON. Polygonum senegalense Meissn. RANUNC. Clematis mauritiana Lamk. ROSACEAE Rubus rosaefolius Sm. RUBIACEAE Paederia bojeriana Drake RUTACEAE Teclea punctata Verdoorn Toddalia aculeata Pers. SARCOL. Leptolaena pauciflora Bak. SCROPHUL. Rhaphispermum gerardioides Benth. SOLANAC. Solanum auriculatum Ait. ULMACEAE Trema orientalis Blume VERBEN. Clerodendron heterophyllum R.Br. Syphilis (secondary) UMBELL. Hydrocotyle asiatica L. Syphilitic chancres (LICHEN) Parmelia perforata Ach. MALVACEAE Kosteletzkya velutina Garcke -369- Appendix 5: ethnobotany Syphilitic eruptions LEMNACEAE Lemna paucicostata Hegelm. Syphilitic sores BIGNON. Phyllarthron madagascariensis K.Schum. POLYGON. Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Syphilitic stigmates LABIATAE Pycnostachys coerulea Hook. MONIM. Tambourissa religiosa DC. Syphilitic tumors LEGUM. Albizia lebbek Benth. Syphilitic ulcers ZINGIB. Curcuma longa L. Taenifuge CANELL. Cinnamosma fragrans H.Bn. CHENOP. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. COMBRET. Calopyxis subumbellata Bak. CUCURB. Citrulus vulgaris Schrad. Cucurbita maxima Duch. EBENACEAE Diospyros megasepala Bak. PUNIC. Punica granatum L. "Tambavy" COMPOS. Helichrysum mutisiaefolium H.Humb. Senecio canaliculatus Boj. ex. DC. Senecio longiscapus Boj. ex DC. Vernonia exserta Bak. Vernonia glutinosa DC. Vernonia polygalaefolia Less. ERYTHR. Erythroxylum sp. FLACOUR. Homalium sp. LABIATAE Hyptis sp. LILIACEAE Smilax kraussiana Meissn. MONIM. Tambourissa religiosa DC. "Tambavy" for children LEGUM. Cassia laevigata Willd. UMBELL. Centella asiatica Urb. Teeth ASCLEP. Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. MYRIC. Myrica spathulata Mirb. Throat ASCLEP. Secamone sp. Tobacco substitute ARACEAE Pothos chapelieri Schott. Tonic AIZOACEAE Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. ANACARD. Operculicarya hyphaenoides H.Perr. ANNON. Uvaria catocarpa Diels APOCYN. Cabucala madagascariensis Pich. Carissa edulis Vahl Catharanthus lanceus Pich. Catharanthus roseus G.Don Hazunta modesta (Bak.) Pich. subvar methuenii Megf. Voacanga thouarsii Roem. & Schult. CELAST. Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. COMPOS. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Spilanthes acmella Murr. Vernonia pectoralis Bak. CONNAR. Agelaea lamarckii Planch. Cnestis polyphylla Lamk. GENTIAN. Tachiadenus longifolius Sc. Ell. LABIATAE Hyptis pectinata Poit. LEGUM. Caesalpinia bonducella Fleming Cassia occidentalis L. Phylloxylon sp. LOGAN. Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. MORACEAE Chlorophora greveana (Baill.) Leandri Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. OLACACEAE Anacolosa pervilleana H.Bn. PHYTOLAC. Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. PTAEROX. Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. RUBIACEAE Danais fragrans Gaertn. Enterospermum sp. Mussaenda arcuata Poir. RUTACEAE Citrus medica L. Toddalia aculeata Pers. TACCACEAE Tacca pinnatifida Forst UMBELL. Hydrocotyle asiatica L. Tooth cavities EUPHOR. Croton sp. An environmental profile of Madagascar Toothache ANNON. APOCYN. ASCLEP. BURSER. COMPOS. LEGUM. PALMAE PTAEROX. RHAMN. RUBIACEAE SOLANAC. ZINGIB. Uvaria catocarpa Diels Catharanthus lanceus Pich. Catharanthus roseus G.Don Catharanthus trichophyllus Pich. Cryptostegia madagascariensis Boj. Gomphocarpus fruticosus R.Br. Pentopetia androsaemifolia Decne. Canarium madagascariense Engl. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. garnieri Klatt. lineariloba DC. Spilanthes acmella Murr. Tetrapterocarpon geayi H.Humb. Raphia ruffia Mart. Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. Berchemia discolor Klozch Anthospermum emirnense Bak. Nicandra physaloides Gaertn. Solanum erythracanthum Boj. Hedychium coronarium Koen. Treatment for sterility RUBIACEAE Trembling APOCYN. Tuberculosis HYPERIC. Danais sp. Cerbera venenifera (Poir.) Steud. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy "Tumeurs blanches" LEGUM. Tumours BURSER. IRIDACEAE MALVACEAE SOLANAC. TILIACEAE Ulcerative angina SOLANAC. Ulcerous sores COMPOS. ERICACEAE EUPHOR. Ulcers ASCLEP. CLUSIA. COMPOS. CRASSUL. EBENACEAE ERICACEAE EUPHOR. FLACOUR. HYPERIC. IRIDACEAE LABIATAE LEGUM. LILIACEAE MORACEAE MORING. MUSACEAE MYRSIN. RUBIACEAE SAPIND. SOLANAC. ULMACEAE UMBELL. ZINGIB. Ulcers MUSACEAE Urethritis COMPOS. GENTIAN. LABIATAE LEGUM. Crotalaria fulva Roxb. Canarium madagascariense Engl. Gladiolus garnieri Klatt. Sida rhombifolia L. Solanum erythracanthum Boj. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Capsicum annuum L. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Emilia citrina D.C. Agauria salicifolia Hook. Euphorbia sp. Cryptostegia madagascariensis Boj. Calophyllum inophyllum L. Calophyllum parviflorum Boj. Symphonia fasciculata Benth. & Hook. Helichrysum gymnocephalum Humb. Psiadia altissima Benth. & Hook. Kalanchoe laxiflora Bak. Diospyros megasepala Bak. Agauria polyphylla Bak. Philippia goudotiana Klotz. Euphorbia hirta L. Manihot utilissima Pohl. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Psorospermum androsaemifolium Bak. Geissorhiza bojeri Bak. Tetradenia fruticosa Benth. Erythrophleum couminga H.Bn. Smilax kraussiana Meissn. Ficus baroni Bak. Ficus megapoda Bak. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Musa paradisiaca L. Embelia concinna Bak. Embelia madagascariensis DC. Paederia bojeriana Drake Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Solanum nigrum L. Trema orientalis Blume Hydrocotyle asiatica L. Curcuma longa L. Musa paradisiaca L. Vernonia glutinosa DC. Tachiadenus carinatus Griseb. Coleus sp. Clitoria ternatea L. -370- Urethritis (contd.) LYTHR. ROSACEAE Urinary ailments LEGUM. Woodfordia fruticosa S.Kurtz Rubus apetalus Poir. Tamarindus indica L. Urinary incontinence APOCYN. Cerbera venenifera (Poir.) Steud. Urine inconsistency COMPOS. DROSER. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Helichrysum sp. Drosera madagascariensis DC. Urogenital ailments BOMBAC. Uterine colic LABIATAE Adansonia digitata L. Ocimum gratissimum L. Uterine hemorrhage MALVACEAE MONIM. Venereal ailments AMARANTH. EUPHOR. Vermifuge AIZOACEAE ANACARD. ANNON. APOCYN. BROMEL. CARYOPH. COMBRET. COMPOS. CRASSUL. CUCURB. ERYTHR. EUPHOR. LABIATAE LECYTH. LEGUM. LILIACEAE MELAST. MELIACEAE MORACEAE MORING. MYRSIN. OXALID. PITTOS. POLYGON. PTAEROX. ROSACEAE RUBIACEAE RUTACEAE SAPIND. SOLANAC. VERBEN. Vesicant ANACARD. EUPHOR. PLUMBAG. RANUNC. Gossypium arboreum L. Tambourissa parvifolia Bak. Cyathula prostrata Blume Phyllanthus casticum Soy. Will. Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Mangifera indica L. Rhus taratana (Bak.) H.Perr. Uvaria catocarpa Diels Cabucala madagascariensis Pich. Catharanthus lanceus Pich. Catharanthus roseus G.Don Catharanthus trichophyllus Pich. Ananas sativus Schult. Stellaria emirensis P.Danguy Calopyxis grandidieri H.Perr. Calopyxis phaneropetala H.Perr. Calopyxis villosa Tul. Poivrea coccinea D.C. Poivrea sp. Brachylaena ramiflora Humb. Elephantopus scaber L. Gerbera elliptica H.Humb. Vernonia exserta Bak. Kalanchoe crenata Ham. Benincasa cerifera Savi Citrulus vulgaris Schrad. Cucumis sativus L. Momordica charantia L. Erythroxylum retusum Baill. ex O.E.Schulz. Euphorbia hirta L. Hyptis pectinata Poit. Barringtonia racemosa Roxb. Mimosa pudica L. Sarcobotrya strigosa (Benth.) R.Vig. Tamarindus indica L. Dianella ensifolia (L.) Redoute Medinilla sp. Melia azedarach L. Chlorophora greveana (Baill.) Leandri Ficus soroceoides Bak. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Embelia concinna Bak. Embelia madagascariensis DC. Embelia sp. Maesa lanceolata Forsk. Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. Oxalis corniculata L. Pittosporum ochrosiaefolium Boj. Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Cedrelopsis grevei H.Bn. Amygdalus persica L. Enterospermum sp. Teclea sp. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Solanum nigrum L. Clerodendron heterophyllum R.Br. Gluta tourtour March. Euphorbia milii Des Moulins Plumbago zeylanica L. Clematis ibarensis Bak. Vesicant (contd.) RANUNC. Vomiting Clematis mauritiana Lamk. MYROTHAM Myrothamnus meschaius Baill. Vomitive PHYTOLAC. Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. Vomitive property CAMPAN. Vomitory APOCYN. Vulnerary CLUSIA. COMPOS. SAPIND. Dialypetalum floribundum Benth. Cerbera venenifera (Poir.) Steud. Calophyllum inophyllum L. Siegesbeckia orientalis L. Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Vulnerary for ulcerated sores BURSER. Weakness MYRSIN. Whitlow AMARYLL. Whooping cough AIZOACEAE ANNON. ASCLEP. CANELL. COMPOS. CRASSUL. LABIATAE LEGUM. SOLANAC. UMBELL. Witchcraft BIGNON. COMPOS. Commiphora pterocarpa H.Perr. Embelia concinna Bak. Crinum firmifolium Bak. Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Uvaria catocarpa Diels Harpanema acuminatum Decne. Cinnamosma fragrans H.Bn. Conyza aegyptiaca Ait. var. lineariloba DC. Kalanchoe prolifera Ham. Hyptis pectinata Poit. Ocimum gratissimum L. Abrus precatorius L. Aeschynomene laxiflora Boj. Cadia sp. Cassia occidentalis L. Rhynchosia caribaea D.C. Nicandra physaloides Gaertn. Solanum nigrum L. Phellolophium madagascariense Bak. Ophiocolea floribunda H.Perr. Helichrysum cordifolium D.C. LAURACEAE Cassytha filiformis L. MYROTHAM Myrothamnus meschaius Baill. Witchcraft antidote ANACARD. Wood EUPHOR. Wounds APOCYN. CLUSIA. COMPOS. DIOSC. ERICACEAE EUPHOR. FLACOUR. HYPERIC. IRIDACEAE LABIATAE LEGUM. LILIACEAE Rhus taratana (Bak.) H.Perr. Jatropha curcas L. Cerbera venenifera (Poir.) Steud. Hazunta modesta (Bak.) Pich. subvar methuenii Mef. Calophyllum inophyllum L. Calophyllum parviflorum Boj. Dichrosephala lyrata DC. Melanthera madagascariensis Bak. Senecio faujasioides Bak. Vernonia appendiculata Less. Vernonia diversifolia Boj. Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscorea sansibarensis Pax. Agauria polyphylla Bak. Philippia goudotiana Klotz. Dalechampia clematidifolia Boj. Jatropha curcas L. Manihot utilissima Pohl. Phyllanthus casticum Soy. Will. Phyllanthus madagascariensis Muell. Arg. Aphloia theaeformis Benn. Haronga madagascariensis Choisy Psorospermum androsaemifolium Bak. Geissorhiza bojeri Bak. Coleus sp. Albizia fastigiata Oliv. Crotalaria striata D.C. Desmodium latifolium D.C. Erythrophleum couminga H.Bn. Glycine lyallii Benth. Tamarindus indica L. Tephrosia linearis Pers. Smilax kraussiana Meissn. -371- Wounds (contd.) MORACEAE MYRSIN. PIPER. RUBIACEAE SANTAL. SAPIND. SIMAROU. ULMACEAE ZINGIB. Appendix 5. ethnobotany Ficus pyrifolia Lamk. Ficus trichopoda Bak. Maesa lanceolata Forsk. Piper umbellatum L. Gaertnera obovata Bak. Gaertnera phanerophlebia Bak. Oldenlandia lancifolia D.C. Triainolepis emirnensis Breme Santalum album L. Paullinia pinnata L. Samandura madagascariensis Gaertn. 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Etude sur les ressources de la forét d’Analamazaotra. Notes, Reconnaissances et Explorations. IV, 2, 21e livraison, p. 1184-1208. -374- Prepared and published by IUCN in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and with financial support from the World Wide Fund for Nature. A contribution to GEMS — THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT MONITORING SYSTEM This book is an IUCN/UNEP/WWEFE publication and is a part of THE IUCN CONSERVATION LIBRARY For a free copy of the complete catalogue please write to: : IUCN Publications Services, -.219¢ Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, U.K. ~_==or Avenue du Mont-Blanc, CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland