MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT.

THE EDIBLE MOLLU^ds^OF THE
MADRAS PRESIDENCY

BY ^ ^ '■ ^ ^ ^

JAMES HORNELL, f.l.s.,

Government Marine Biologist, Madras

Report No. I (1917),
Madras Fisheries Bulletin, Vol. XI, pages I to 51 .

MADRAS:
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS.

I 9 I 7 .
Price, 6 annas.'] [6 fence.

LIST OF CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS BULLETINS.

BUL,
NO. PAGES

1. Papers from 1899 relating chiefly to the development of

THE Madras Fisheries Bureau.

2. Note on Fisheries in Japan —

Deals with Japanese methods of fishing, the condition of the fisher-
folk, the assistance given by Government and by local associa-
tions, the fishery laws and regulations, etc. (Pages 105.)

3. The Preservation and Curing of Fish —

Describes the difficulties and methods of preserving fish from taint
whether by refrigeration, desiccation, pickling, smoking, can-
ning, etc. (Pages 119.)

Exhausted ; revised edition under preparation.

4. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1908 —

I. Report on the suitability of Pulicat Lake for oyster-culture

(one sketch-plan)

II. Note on an attempt to ascertain the principal determining

factor in oyster-spawning in Madras backwaters (one plate). 35

III. Report on the feasibility of operating deep-sea fishing boats

on the coasts of the Madras Presidency, with special refer-
ence to the selection of fishing centres and harbours of
refuge (illustrated with three plates) ... ... ... 33

IV. The results of a fishery cruise along the Malabar coast and

to the Laccadive Islands in 1 908 (illustrated with 27 photo-
graphs and text-figures) 71

5. The Practice of Oyster-culture at Arcachon and its lessons

for India—

I. Introduction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... l — 4

II. The physical conditions characterising Arcachon basin ... 4 — 7

III. The origin and development of oyster-culture at Arcachon ... 7 — 19

IV. Present methods and conditions ... ... 19 — 74

V. Principal characteristics of other European systems of cultiva-
tion •.. 75—79

VI. Applicability of French methods to oyster-culture in India ... 79 — 9°

6. Marine Fish-farming for India —

(1) Introductory I — 3

(2) French fish-farming at Arcachon 4 — 20

(3) The communal fish-farms of Comacchio 21 — 62

(4) The scope for marine fish-farming in India ... 63 — 83

7. The Sacred Chank of India —

Introductory 1-2

I. The chank fisheries of India and Ceylon 3 — 40

II. The chank bangle industry 41 — tl6

III. The role played by the chank in Indian religion and life ... 117 — 172

IV. Appendix 173— 181

.^

Report No. I (1911).

9 0 iW

THE EDIBLE MOLLUSCS OF
MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

C

/^ '<«».•'«.

LU LIBRARY^

V<^/S^At

^>

THE'

JAMES HORNELL FX.S.,

GOVERNMEM MARINE BlOLOGIST, MADRAS.

Except in Malabar the utilization of shellfish properly so-called
has comparatively little economic importance at the present moment
in the Madras Presidency. If Cephalopods, which are specialized
and highly developed molluscs, be included, then Palk Bay may be
added as a second locality, as several species of Octopus, Squid and
Cuttlefish rise there to a position of considerable value in the econ-
omy of the lives of our fisherfolk. Except in these two localities
the molluscan resources of our seas are largely neglected and undeve-
loped. Apart from the poorer classes of coast dwellers, shellfish
as an article of food is generally despised, and except in the
instance of oysters in Madras City, of mussels in Malabar, and squid
in Ramnad district, none is ever seen exposed for sale in South
Indian fish markets. When one remembers the important position
occupied by various species of shellfish in the littoral fishing
industries of other countries — Britain, France, the United States,
and Japan are instances — this fact is much to be regretted, and it
behoves the Fisheries Department to do everything possible to
remove prejudice against the inclusion of shellfish in the general
dietary of our towns and to increase the quantity and quality of
those kinds which are both suitable from the food standpoint as
well as susceptible by cultivation of extended increase in the
amount available for distribution. It may also be found necessary
to supplement our indigenous supplies by the introduction of larger
and more prolific species and varieties from other countries ; the
discovery and introduction of such improved kinds should be kept
steadily in view in all attempts to increase and improve our
supplies of shellfish.

In this connexion it is notable that some shellfish highly valued
in other parts of the world and occurring there in great abundance,
are scarce and usually of small size in India. Four of the most

389;!t

2 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

notable are the scallops or pectens, the ear-shell (Haliotis), the true
cockle (Cardiiim) and the limpet (Patella). Examples of all these
occur on our Indian coasts but all are extremely scarce and in the
case of the very valuable Haliotis, the size seldom exceeds I^ inch
in length, as compared with the British, Japanese and Californian
species which vary from 4 to 6 inches in length. Several species
of Indian Cardium are larger than the British forms, but they are
seldom found alive, though dead valves are not uncommon on
Coromandel beaches.

The need to protect the sources of supply from sewage contami-
nation must also receive careful attention; many shellfish from
their habits are liable to ingest bacteria from the water flowing
over the beds, and whenever this be heavily charged with sewage,
certain kinds, oysters in particular, which are often eaten either
raw or lightly cooked, may transmit the infection and cause enteric
fever and possibly other forms of bacterial disease. This point
will receive further attention when treating of the edible oyster.

The following list and notes are not to be regarded as complete
and exhaustive ; lack of adequate skilled assistance has limited my
tours largely to the southern section of the Presidency and this has
prevented me from obtaining intimate acquaintance with many
important fishing localities on the Madras seaboard, particularly
with those northward of Pulicat Lake. To facilitate the identifi-
cation of the forms mentioned below, text-figures of the more
important are given. These are all original and drawn from life.
For the care taken in their delineation, much commendation is due
to Mr. M. Ramaswami Nayudu, B.A., my Shellfish Sub-Assistant,
who is responsible for the whole series.

Catalogue of Madras Edible Molluscs.

A. — Species in common use.
Pelecypoda or Lamellip.ranchiata.

Species. English. Tumii.

Mytilus smaragdinus ... ... Green mussel ... Kallikai ; Pach-

chai uM.
Mytilus sp. ... ... ... P>rown mussel ... Kallikai.

Area granosa ... ... ... Ark-shell... ... Vari matti.

Ostrea virginiana ... ... Backwater edible

oyster. )> Ali ; Piltti.

Ostrea cucuUata ... ... ... Rock oyster

No. I (191 7)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

Pelecvpoda or Lamet.li branch iata — conl.

Species.
Meretrix casta

Meretrix casta ovum

Meretrix meretrix

Velorita cochinensis

Donax cuneata ...

Circe gibba
Donax scortum ...
Mactra corbiculoides
Mesodesma glabratum
Tapes ceylonensis
Lamellidens marginalis

Turbinella pyrum
Pterocera Iambi s...

Turbo margaritaceus
Oliva gibbosa

Purpura rudolphi
Conus spp.
Strombus canarium
Patella spp.
Ampullaria sp. ...
Vivipara sp.

Loligo spp.
Sepia spp.

Octopus sp.

Do. sp.

Knglish.
Backwater clams..

Tamil.

Cockle clam

Matti.
Panjamatti.

Mural, and Vazhi

matti.
Vari matti.

Sevala matti.
Kakkamatti.
Vazhukkumatti.

Fresh-water mussel.

Gastropoda.

Chank

Sangu.

Five-fingered

Aiviral sangu.

chank.

... Turban shell

Nathai.

... Olive

Kovanji

Sangu.

Rock whelk

Par attai.

... Cone

Semman utti.

...

Viranjan.

... Limpets ...

Unai,

> Fresh-water snails.

f Nathai.
lUmachchi.

Cephalopoda.

Squid

jEekki kanavai
1 Kundal „

... Cuttlefish

Ottu

rPey

Small devilfish ...

<Sa

V Sangu ,,

■ •• Large

Kundal

and

B. — Species not utilized at present as food.
Margaritifera vulgaris ... ... Pearl oyster ... Mutthu chippi.

Modiola spp. ... ... ... Weaving mussel...

Pinna sp. ... ... ... ... Akku.

4 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

B. — Species not utilised at present as food — cont.

Species. English. Tamil.

Barl)atia harbata Hairy ark-shell ...

Parallelopipedum tortum ... 'I'wisted ark-shell.

Solen sp. ... ... ... Razor-shell ... Pul akku.

Potamides (Telescopium) fuscum. Horn-shell

Potamides (Pyrazus) palustris ... Do.

Melongena vespertilio ... ... Knobbed whelk ... ...

Helix spp. ... ... ...\

Ariophanta spp. ... ... ... I

Land snails

MUSSELS (MYTILID^).

Tamil — Kallikai (^wrerfliaruj) in the south; Pachchai ali {ua^eu^^
^sr^) at Pulicat.

Malayalam — Kadiika and Kadnlkai in South Malabar; Kalliima-'
kai in North Malabar; Nilakdkka in Cochin.

Kanarese — Pacile.

Tulu (North Kanara) — AJeer.

Two species only of true Mussels (Mytilidse) grow to a consi-
derable size in the waters of this Presidency. One of these is the
very handsome Green Mussel {Mytilus smaragdiniis Chem.), readily
recognized because of the handsome green coloration of the horny
membrane or periostracum investing the exterior surface of its
valves ; the other is an even larger species, less elegant in contour,
coated with a coarse brown periostracum that looks commonplace
when contrasted with the vivid tint of the green. The former
species is distributed widely upon the Madras coasts, extending as
it does almost continuously from South Kanara on the west coast
to the borders of Orissa on the east. The brown form, on the other
hand, is confined, so far as I am aware, to the extreme south of
Travancore and of the Tinnevelly district.

No representatives of the closely related genus Modiola are
eaten, although several species are found, particularly in Palk Bay,
where the sea-bottom is frecjuently carpeted over hundreds of acres
with vast multitudes of Modiola harbata, M.japonica, and allied forms.
These seldom grow more than an inch in length and live generally
at a depth of three to five fathoms, hence their non-utilization as
food. Could they be cheaply collected in quantity, they would form
both an excellent food and, when dried and pulverized, a first-class
manure.

NO. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

5

Throughout South Malabar the ^reen mussel is usually termed
Kadiika which appears to be a corruption of Kadalkai (" sea-fruit ")
by which name it is known amongst better educated people ; in
Cochin this same shellfish is known as Nilakdkka, the " long kakka,"
in contradistinction to the ordinary Kakka which is the common
backwater clam {Mcretrix casta ovum).

Mytihts swaragdi)ius, although so widely distributed, is found
in large quantity only on the west coast from South Kanara to the
northern part of Travancore. Within these boundaries, wherever
rocks are found inside of the three-fathom line, the green mussel

Fig. I. — Tjik Grekn Musskl. Xf.

usually finds conditions favourable and covers all exposed rocky
surfaces and the walls of all crannies with its closely set
multitudes. Wherever it is found, it is accompanied by edible
oysters — chiefly Ostrea virgiiiiana ; we can clearly distinguish an
O. virgi)iiana — M. sniaragdiiius formation in such situations on both
the east and west coasts. The rocky coast of South Kanara from
Gangoli to Kap, and that stretch of the Malabar coast from Eli
Mala to Kadalundi are the two localities where conditions are most
favourable for its growth ; these localities produce the great bulk
of the mussels consumed in these two districts. The south section
of Malabar is too sandy and rockless to give foothold and few
mussels are fished there.

The collection of mussels is a minor marine industry of some
importance at several places, especially in the neighbourhood of
Cannanore, Tellicherry, Mahe and Calicut, and also in Travancore.

6 MADRAS FISHERIES BL'LLETIN VOL. XI.

The flesh is highly esteemed and is eaten by Muhammadans and
Christians and by all Hindu castes inferior to the Nayars; in Malabar
I understand however that even the last named consider mussels as
a delicacy, although those of Travancore will not partake of them.
Kitchen-middens composed largely of these shells, are often to be
seen near huts as the train passes along the coast line between
Calicut and Cannanore.

As the higher range of these mussels extends just above the
low water level of spring tides, the greater quantity is got by collec-
tion from rocks exposed or awash at spring tides ; a considerable
number is however obtained from deeper water by divers. Both at
Cannanore and at Tellicherry there are a few Mappillas who prose-
cute this industry for a few months in the year. The diver carries
with him a coir bag and a bamboo stick sharpened at each end.
With the latter he separates the mussels from the rocks and then
brings them to the surface in the bag. They are fished only during
the dry months from December to May by which time they have
attained edible dimensions. During the south-west monsoon it is
impossible to gather any owing to the violence of the sea and for a
few months thereafter they are too small in size to be worth taking.

Cannanore, Tellicherry and Mahe are the only towns in Malabar
where mussels are exposed for sale in the public markets. About
half a dozen basketsful may be sold per day during the season.
The demand is particularly active when fish is scarce and dear_
In Calicut, Beypore, Badagara and some other large towns they are
occasionally hawked through the streets. In other places there is
no regular trade ; the fisherfolk and other coast people living in
the neighbourhood of mussel rocks, gather supplies at low tide for
their own use and sometimes sell any surplus they have. A basket-
ful weighing from 40 to 50 lb. fetches from 8 to 12 annas. The
retail price when fish is scarce and mussels are in good demand in
consequence, runs to about 30 to 40 for one anna.

Methods of Cooking. — In Malabar cuisine mussels are usually
either made into curries or else are fried. In both cases the shells
are first boiled just long enough to cause the valves to open, when
the flesh is extracted and washed, and either cooked with curry
stuff or fried in coconut oil after rolling in a curry batter, called
massala paste.

Among the Mappillas a much more refined method prevails.
After removing the flesh from the shells, each body is stuffed with

No. I (1917) EDIBLE MOLLUSCS ^

rice dough and steamed in a most ingenious and effective manner;
a cooking vessel is half filled with water, a cloth is tied over the
mouth, the stuffed mussels are laid on the cloth, and then another
earthen vessel is inverted over the mouth of the first and the whole
placed over a fire till it be judged the steaming is complete. Of
the three methods described this last appears to be the most
satisfactory ; the frying method is probably the worst for people
with poor digestion though it is doubtless the most tasty. Mussels
are often furnished in coast toddy shops to customers who find
them a good relish.

There is some question as to whether the demand for mussels on
the Malabar coast is sufficiently great as to outstrip supply ; a
satisfactory method of cultivation whereby the supply could be
largely increased and cheapened might be of much value to the
coastal population. The exposed nature of the coast during the
south-west monsoon would however render such an undertaking
exceedingly difficult except at a prohibitive cost. Demand would
probably be greater if the methods employed to cook them were
more appropriate. Some of those employed, notably frying in oil,
are likely to make them indigestible.

When the subject of framing regulations for the protection of
immature fish throughout this Presidency becomes ripe for treatment,
the question of the desirability of imposing a minimum size limit
for mussels should also be included, as there is evidence that
in some localities collection is occasionally so intensive as to reduce
the average marketed size to objectionably small dimensions.

On the East Coast, the green mussel is comparatively rare ;
nowhere is it found in thickly stocked beds as in Malabar and
Kanara. Yet almost everywhere along the coast occasional strag-
glers are found and in several estuarine backwaters where beds of
the edible oyster (6>. virginiaini) occur, they become comparatively
numerous. In the Government Oyster Farm in Pulicat Lake, about
a couple of score can usually be collected in a day by one man from
among the oyster clumps. At Pulicat where they are known as
Pachchai dli or green oysters, they are occasionally utilized by
Pariahs who eat the flesh cooked with curry-stuffs.

In the Sonapur backwater in Ganjam district this mussel is fairly
abundant, considerably more so than at Pulicat. As in the latter
locality, its habitat is on the oyster patches in the deeper parts of
the backwater. Particularly numerous is it in the deep main

8 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

channel near the Fish-curing Yard at Revu Sonapur village. Here
occurs a deposit of large oysters living in great clustered clumps ;
in the angles and crevices of these masses the green mussels find
suitable lodgment. They vary from single individuals to groups of
three or four ; seldom do they exceed this number ; they never form
a massive deposit nor do they ever cover their habitat with a living
carpet as they do in Malabar. At Sonapur they have economic
value but not as food. Owing to certain characteristics of this back-
water these mussels are largely infected with the larvae of parasitic
worms, and, induced by the irritation thus produced, pearl formation
is frequent. For many years past this peculiarity of the Sonapur
mussels has persisted and those of the local fishermen who can dive,
devote considerable attention to the mussel fishery at times when
the water in the channel is low. The pearls found are moderate in
size and of poor colour, usually pinkish, but as the mussels yield
them fairly abundantly, the beds are well exploited. I saw a few of
these mussel pearls when at Sonapur in May 1915, and I was
informed that the price paid by the local dealers to the fishermen
ranges between Rs. 5 and Rs. lO per tola.

From the observations made (which I hope to amplify shortly)
these pearls are found to have a related origin to that of the pearls
sometimes produced in quantity by the common mussel {Mytiliis
edulh L.) of France and England. The Sonapur backwater is the
haunt of myriads of seagulls and waterfowl and it is from the adult
parasites contained in the alimentary canals of these birds that the
flat-worm larvae found in the adult mussels are derived. Under
certain circumstances occasional larvae induce the formation of
pearls in the mantle of the mussel, the dead body of the parasite
persisting as the nucleus of the pearl. The life-history of the
Sonapur pearl-inducing parasite has yet to be worked out.

THE Brown Mussel (Mytilus sp.).

Tamil — Kallikai in South Travancore.

This mussel is the largest and stoutest species found in South
India, attaining commonly a length of 4 inches. It is distinctly
larger than the green mussel, but unlike the latter its distribution
is limited to a comparatively short length of coast in South
Travancore, where it displaces the green species. The coast there
is exposed to exceptionally heavy seas during the monsoon, but in
spite of this it thrives in great abundance on rocks from low tide
level to a depth of about 2^^^ or 3 fathoms. Annually large quantities

No. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

are taken from the rocks by divers. They form an important food
item among fishermen and coast Muhammadans.

The Ribbed Ark-shell (Arca gkanosa, Linn.).

Tamil— Vari matti {enSta^i^).

This fine shell is nowhere common. In appearance it looks
like a very rugose cockle ; the flesh is distinctively coloured red, due
to the blood being of this hue, an exceptional condition among
molluscs where the blood is generally colourless or tinted pale
bluish green.

Fig. 2. — a. Ribbed Ark-shell. X i.

B. Common matti or clam, x t.

C. Backwater oyster {O virgi/naiia) X h'

It occurs sparingly distributed in sandy backwaters on the East
Coast. In Pulicat Lake it is not uncommon.

The flesh is tough, but because, presumably, of its red colour,
some shore dwellers have the idea that it has specially nutritious
and strengthening qualities; on this account it is often given to
women during pregnancy.
2

10 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

In size it seldom exceeds 53 mm. in length by a thickness of
42 mm.

It is noteworthy that this species is reported to be the subject of
very profitable cultivation in Japan, where from one culture area of
830 acres between 75,000 and 100,000 bushels are obtained annually.
The methods employed are simple; they depend for success upon
the fact that the fry of Area, after quitting the free-swimming
stage, tend to settle in definite areas in great quantities. Once these
are discovered the young ark-shells can be raked up in thousands —
usually when they are about 3 mm. long — and transplanted to
culture grounds where they are strewn and left to burrow into the
bottom. As they grow larger, from time to time they are redistri-
buted in order that overcrowding and food shortage may be avoided.
They are said to attain a marketable size in their third year. The
bulk of the produce is exported to China.

OYSTERS (OSTREID^).

Tamil— /!//■ (S'^'O, Pulicat; Pdtti {u/nluf-)^ Tuticorin.

Malayalam — Miiriuga in Travancore and Cochin ; Muni in
Calicut.

The edible oysters of Madras Presidency are two in number, the
backwater or mud oyster {Ostrea virginiaiia Gmelin) and the rock-
oyster {O. cucuUata Born). The former is the one specially
valued and the one which lends itself to cultivation ; the second,
whilst good flavoured, is rather tougher as well as smaller than
the other and is seldom eaten except at one or two places on the
Kanarese coast where it is specially abundant.

The Madras backwater oyster is extremely variable in form and
has passed under many names. Among the more recent under
which it has been described is that of O. )fiadrnsensis by Preston ^
It has however no outstanding differences from the common
American species and I agree with Vredenburg in believing
it to be in nowise separable from this widely distributed form.
It is appropriate to say here that very little is known at present
concerning the number and relationship of the different Ostreids of
Indian waters, and their nomenclature is in a state of considerable
confusion. A review of the species is urgently needed. To this
end I am accumulating material and I shall be very grateful for

^ Preston, H. B.— Report on a collection of Mollusca from the Cochin and Enaur
backwaters. Records of the Indian Museum, Vol. XII, part i, Calcutta, 1916.

No. I (191 7) EDIBLE MOLLUSCS II

any representative specimens from different parts of India, Ceylon,
Burma, and the Persian Gulf, that any one in a position to help, may
be kind enough to send. No less than half a dozen shells should
be sent from each locality and these should comprise as great a
variety of form as possible. The typical or most common form
assumed in each locality, should be distinctively indicated, wherever
possible.

This species of oyster under notice is very hardy and can
sustain considerable fluctuations in the salinity of the water it lives
in. Hence it thrives in nearly every estuary and backwater on both
the coasts of the Presidency ; only exceptionally, as on some rocks
situated near estuaries on the Malabar coast, does it form consider-
able deposits in the open sea, although odd individuals are often
met with wherever rocks occur upon the littoral. Young oysters of
this species are also often met with on shells in water up to
8 fathoms in depth, but these do not thrive and seldom survive to
maturity.

Backwater oysters have considerable value to the poorer popula-
tion living in the neighbourhood ; the chief centres on the west
coast are the backwaters at Tellicherry and Beypore in Malabar,
Cochin and Azhikode in Cochin State and Vembanad backwater in
Travancore. On the east coast the backwaters at Cuddalore,
Covelong, Ennur and Pulicat are famed for the abundance of
their oyster beds, while further north there are extensive beds in
the deltas of the Kistna and Godavari and in the backwaters of
Vizagapatam and Ganjam. The oyster beds of Sonapur backwater
in Ganjam are the most extensive of these latter.

Unfortunately the better classes of Indians do not appreciate
oysters and none will make use of this excellent food-supply.
Among Hindus, only the lower classes of shore dwellers eat
oysters, together with some Muhammadans and Indian Christians-
The only better class trade in oysters is that supplying the require-
ments of Europeans and Anglo-Indians in a few of the larger coast
towns, as Madras, Calicut, Cochin and Mangalore. Many of the
sources of supply are however under grave suspicion of possible
sewage contamination. Because of this and in order to provide a
supply of good quality oysters free from any danger of being
disease carriers, Government in 1910 permitted the Fisheries
Department to form a model oyster park in Pulicat Lake where
oysters are cultivated under hygienic conditions and thence
distributed throughout the length and breadth of the Presidency.

t2 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

The most extensive oyster beds in South India are those in
Cochin harbour and in Vembanad backwater in Travancore. In
both localities oysters are exceedingly numerous, the flesh finding
a ready sale among the lower classes. In the Vembanad villages,
the flesh, called Moringa irachi, is said to be regularly exposed for
sale in the fish market. In Cochin it is not seen in the markets,
being hawked about the streets in small-mouthed chatties. The
beds in Cochin harbour chiefly lie within what are claimed to be
Cochin State limits and the right to fish oysters is let annually by
the Darbar for a small sum, seldom if ever exceeding Rs. lOO per
annum. In practice, the lessee sublets the right to individual divers
who pay him a small sum for each day's fishing. The divers are
usually Roman Catholic Christians. As the water over the beds
varies from one to three fathoms the men require to dive for the
oysters ; when the current is strong the assistance of a pole thrust
into the bottom is resorted to, the diver using this to prevent himself
being carried away. As the oyster clumps are collected they are
piled into a small attendant dug-out canoe and as soon as this is
full, a matter of some three hours' work, the spoil is taken to the
shore where women purchase it at the rate of from 10 annas to I
rupee per lot — a quantity usually averaging about 8oo, or a rate of
l^ to 2 annas per hundred. The buyers proceed to open them,
putting the flesh into an earthen pot containing a little water.
This flesh they hawk through the town at from 2 to 4 annas the
hundred. Surplus oysters are sometimes kept alive in the canals
till wanted — an extremely insanitary proceeding.

Oyster flesh is never eaten uncooked by Indians ; the common
method of preparation on this coast is to fry the flesh in ghee after
flavouring with salt and condiments. The trade is of considerable
volvmie in Cochin in spite of the fact that many of the largest beds
are subject to sewage contamination. The fact that the flesh is
never eaten except after cooking appears to be an effective safe-
guard. It is noteworthy that the discarded oyster shells, in the
absence of any local rock, are put to extensive use in reclaiming
swamp land and as foundations for buildings.

In the Beypore, Elattur and Tellicherry backwaters, oysters
abound wherever rocks occur and good quantities are taken
annually by the womenfolk of the local Hindu fishing communities,
who collect oyster flesh at low tide, breaking open the shells with
short iron knives as they occur /;/ situ and transferring the flesh to
small chatties which they take with them.

No. I (1917) EDIBLE MOLLUSCS 13

On the east coast, in the backwaters in the neighbourhood of
Madras, a certain amount of oyster flesh is collected and eaten by
the local Pariah population. Sometimes Muhammadans will have
some, but this appears to be done in imitation of the European
custom. In these places the bulk of the oysters consumed, as
already mentioned, is by the Europeans and Anglo-Indians of the
large towns.

Further north, in Ganjam district, certain sections of the fishing
population make a limited use of the local oysters, particularly
those in the Sonapur backwater where the Bairavi women are
accustomed to visit the beds at low water, break open the shells
and carry away the flesh in chatties to use in their own curries.

Seasons aud spawning. — The season when oysters are in market-
able condition depends upon the time of spawning and this in
turn is controlled by rainfall and sunshine. Heavy rains causing
flood water to enter backwaters in such amount as to greatly lower
the salinity of the water over the beds, invariably entail wide-
spread and immediate emission of the reproductive products in all
oysters where the gonads are well filled. Hence as the rainy
season differs on the two main coasts of India, there is a correspond-
ing divergence in the spawning maxima and in the marketable
season in these two localities.

On the Malabar coast the chief spawning maximum occurs
about midsummer or even earlier, at the onset of the south-west
monsoon and the oysters are not again in condition till October or
November. From this time onwards they improve in quality till
about the end of March ; thenceforward till the final and complete
spatting at the end of May or early in June, there is a good deal of
irregular spatting induced by the hot weather then prevailing,
emphasized by the exposure and semi-drying of many of the oyster-
covered rocks during low water of the major spring tides.
Between March and June a considerable percentage of spent
oysters are always found in any number examined ; the gonads of
those that spawned early in March will be partly full again when
the floods arrive in June and these, after enduring the lowered
salinity of the water for a while, will at last emit their spawn though
perhaps only half mature. Long continued floods cause very
extensive mortality on the beds, and few survive except the small
number living on the bottom of deep channels. In these places
saline conditions appear to last much longer than on the surface,

14 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

the lighter gravity of flood water causing it to pass over the deeps
without clearing out completely the saline water which was there
before the onset of the floods. Spawning in the case of these few
surviving oysters appears to be deferred till about the end of August
when the floods have partly subsided and tidal conditions are re-
established. Much variation exists however in this cycle of events,
for under normal conditions the common Indian oyster is a most
irregular spawner; except when the floods are on, some individuals
with ripe gonads can always be found ; hence there is no definite
and universal spawning season as the case of the English oyster
{0. ediilis). Mortality amongst oysters during the rains is confined
to those living well within the backwaters ; those close to the mouth
sufl'er less and many survive, except in exceptional years when the
floods are very long continued. Much, too, depends on the physical
conformation of the backwater. In such a one as that at Cochin, the
oysters on the beds in the harbour usually survive, the considerable
(relative) depth of water over the beds constituting a protection.

On the Coromandel coast, as the floods take place generally
from the end of August until November, the season runs from
December to the middle of August, with a partial break about
April when a large proportion of oysters spawn. August and
September constitute the main spawning maximum, induced in
part by the hot weather prevailing then and in part by the lowering
of salinity due to flood water. In a wet season the latter is the
main factor; in exceptionally dry ones or when the rains are long
deferred, the former is the effective factor. A second maximal
spawning takes place in March and April, and between this time
and August, spawning individuals can always be found.

The reproductive habits of this oyster are similar to those of the
Indian Pearl-oyster ( Mnr,^aritifcr(i viil,i>'/ii'is) and closely akin to
those of the Portuguese oyster f'O.s/nv/ (Uigulata). In all these species
the sexes are separate; the ripe ova and spermatozoa are poured
forth freely into the surrounding water when a sufficient stimulus is
experienced. Fertilization takes place in the water outside the
parents' bodies, trochophore and veliger forms being in turn as-
sumed during the growth of the fertilized ova. The free-swimming
stages last for several days and in this time they may be carried by
currents for considerable distances, thus ensuring wide dispersion
throughout the neighbouring coasts. The free-swimming spat when
ready to attach is easily obtained in any suitable estuary or back-

No. I (1917) EDIBLE MOLLUSCS 1 5

water by the employment of spat collectors ; experience shows that
ordinary country roofing tiles, arranged in low piles of several rows,
are the most suitable form to use. During our first experiments at
Pulicat, we arranged these collectors with a view to catch the spat
produced during the September spawning season ; experience shows
that it is preferable to aim at obtaining the necessary spat during
spring (.first half of April), as the parent oysters are in much better
health then ; the results obtained are altogether better, for opera-
tions can then be carried out with greater facility, the water level
in the parks being lower than it is in September.

Fig. 3. — The Rock Oyster (Oslrea cnadlala). Natural size.

The rock Oyster— Ostrea cucullata (Born).

This oyster differs greatly from the backwater oyster. Its main
distinguishing characters are as follows : —

Outline roughly oval ; the left valve extensively attached, deep
and cup-shaped, with a sacciform extension into the hollow beak
region of the hinge, which is moderately elongate in freely-grown
individuals ; the edges of this valve have a distinct tendency to
grow upwards. Externally the left valve is folded into deep ridges
passing radially outwards from the hinge and ending in a strongly
dentate edge which tightly interlocks with the edge of the
upper or right valve. The latter is flattened and opercular in form.
The muscle scar of both valves is usually dark purplish-black in
tint, rarely white. Very characteristic is a row of closely set
elongated denticulations seen a short distance inwards from the
margin on the inner surface of the upper valve ; these fit into a

16 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

corresponding series of furrows in the lower valve. Externally
the shell is tinted an opaque pinkish purple. Internally it is white,
margined with purple or black. The size is generally smaller than
that of the ordinary backwater or mud-oyster and seldom exceeds
three inches in length.

The habitat of rock oysters is a narrow band between tide
marks ; during ordinary spring tides, these oysters are entirely
uncovered at low tide. They are purely a marine species, never
forming beds in backwaters or estuaries, though an occasional
dwarfed individual is occasionally to be seen among backwater
oysters.

Under favourable conditions they form densely crowded colonies
upon rocks between tide marks ; the finest example of such beds
which I know, is on the rocky shores of St. Mary's Isles, off Malpe,
in South Kanara. They are of excellent flavour, but on account of
their small size, both natural and often further reduced by over-
crowding, as well as the difficulty experienced in opening them by
reason of their interlocking edges, they are not of any economic
importance.

BACKWATER CLAMS.

At least four estuarine clams of value as food are found in the
Presidency, namely : —

Mcrctrix nicretrix, M. casta, M. casta var. ovum, and Vclorita
cochinensis. (See Fig. 4).

The first of these is comparatively scarce, and the third, which
is of chief importance in Malabar, is not found on the east coast
where M. casta takes its place as the most abundant of backwater
clams.

THE Small Clams (Meretrix casta and M. casta var.

OVUM).
Tamil^ — Matti (ujtlia.).

Malayalam — Eninthti at Calicut ; Kakka at Cochin.

Everywhere along the coast from South Kanara in the west
round to Ganjam in the east, with the exception of the Gulf of
Mannar and Palk Bay, either one or other of these little clams is
found abundantly in muddy sand in estuaries and connected back-
waters wherever the water remains saline throughout the greater
part of the year. Suitable conditions prevail over more extensive
areas on the west coast, and it is there, par excellence, that these
clams attain their greatest importance.

No. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

V

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5X

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I8 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

Meretrix casta van ovum (Hanley). The valves of this sub-
species or variety are described as usually ovate to oblong, sub-
eciuilateral, covered with a thin greyish-yellow periostracum and
either with or without two narrow brown bands radiating from the
hinge region ; the umbones centrally disposed and often corroded ;
the posterior margin stained greenish grey ; length seldom exceed-
ing 40 mm.

Such a description serves well for the species found in great
abundance in west coast backwaters, although when overfished
as in the Beypore River, the average size becomes considerably
reduced, as few individuals have an opportunity to reach maturity^
The two dark rays thought faint and easily overlooked, are very
characteristic of this variety ; only occasionally in the adult can
these rays be traced back to the umbo ; they are usually best marked
towards the ventral margin where they often terminate in two small
reddish brown colour patches on the extreme edge. The periostra-
cum is well developed and persistent ; it varies from a distinct pale
cream to a rufous yellow or even brown, the darker tints being
largely of stain origin. The posterior margin usually appears of a
greenish tinge in shells from Beypore River until the periostracum
be removed, when it is revealed as actually greyish blue in tint.

This clam is probably the most important food mollusc of the
Presidency. Its flesh is of good flavour, tender and nutritious. To
the poorer classes of shore dwellers, wherever it is obtainable in
quantity, it often takes the place of fish in their curries when this is
dear or scarce and is esteemed both for its cheapness and tastiness.
On the Malabar coast these clams are largely collected by low
caste people who hawk canoe-loads along the backwaters and
canals. The usual retail rate varies from one to two pies per seer,
indeed a pie's worth is considered in Malabar sufficient to make a
curry for a whole household. The Malabar clam fishers usually use
very small dugout canoes, which are anchored when the fishing
ground is reached. Men, women, and lads all engage in the fishing ;
the feet are used to locate and dislodge the clams when these occur
in shallow water. In deep channels diving has to be resorted to.

Amongst the common sights in Malabar are heaps of discarded
cniuthii shells forming miniature kitchen middens in the neigh-
bourhood of many huts ; these are sold eventually to lime-burners,
as the shell of this clam, being exceptionally massive, is valued

Ko. I (191 7) EDIBLE MOLLUSCS I9

highly as a source of high-class lime, particularly suitable for
white-washing purposes.

On the east coast, the place of M. Ciista ovum is taken by the
type form oi Mcrctrix casta (Gmelin), a rather larger and stouter
shell of the same habits, known generally as niatti in Tamil districts.
Its valves are thick and massive, the exterior covered with a strongly
adherent brownish yellow periostracum, dull in appearance, that
varies much in tint even in one locality. A dark purplish black
band margins the posterior edges of the shell to a depth of about a
quarter of an inch, extending from the hinge to the posterior angle
of the shell ; unlike the yellowish colouring of the rest of the shell,
this purple pigment permeates the substance of the valves and
shows equally upon both the inner and the outer surface. The
shell exhibits none of the radial banding of the sub-species, nor
any of the diverse colour schemes of spots and chevrons so often
found on the umbones of M. mcrctrix.

Although often very abundant it is generally less common than
the corresponding species on the west coast and is held in less
esteem by the people. It is however eagerly sought for wherever
it abounds. At Pulicat, for instance, as many as 30 women may
often be seen collecting this shellfish in the shallows opposite the
town. Unlike the custom in Malabar, men here seldom engage in
this work ; Pariah women and girls alone carry it on. They work for
preference during low tide when the depth of water is reduced over
the beds. From time to time as they gather the clams, they pile
them in heaps on an adjacent sandbank. When they judge it time
to drop fishing, they adjourn to the sandbank, and there proceed
to smash the clams one by one by striking them against a heavy
stone. As each is broken open they deftly extract the meat with a
push of the thumb, dropping it into a small earthen pot containing a
little water. In this way in a short time each woman has emptied
the whole of her catch, amounting to several hundreds. The broken
shells are left behind for the lessee who has bought the right to the
shells for lime-making, and who permits these women to collect
them on this condition.

Women's wages at Pulicat average 2% to 3 annas per day and
the value of the catch of clams made in a day by one woman
working hard, is usually valued at this amount. The bulk of the
clam meat obtained is however generally used to supply the needs
of the woman's own family; if any surplus is left, it is often

20

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

exchanged for paddy, bulk for bulk, 1 am informed. At times
when specially large quantities are obtainable, the surplus flesh is
sundried to serve as stock for use during the rainy season when the
collection of clams is interrupted owing to increase in the depth of
water over the beds.

Pariahs and Pallans and some of the Muhammadans and
Christians of coast hamlets are the only people who eat these
clams in Tamil districts.

On the east coast, spawning appears to take place twice in
each year, the first during April and May, the second about Sep-
tember. The busiest fishing season at Pulicat and the neighbour-
hood is the hot dry season from June to August when the level of
the backwaters and canals becomes much reduced, facilitating
greatly the work of collection. At this season the condition of
these clams is at its best, the bodies fat and swollen with repro-
ductive products.

The Great Clam— Meretrix meretrix (Linn.).

Tamil — Panjamatti {udr^s^miLu^), Tuticorin.

This is a nearly related species to the common matti (M. casta).

It is distinguished by its greatei size and by the smoothness and

delicacy of the periostracum covering the valves. Its average size

when adult ranges between 74x60 mm. and 75"x62"5 mm. with a

weight (empty) of about 3^ ounces. So long as the periostracum is

intact the valves have a beautifully polished appearance due to the

smoothness of this membrane, which is thin, delicate, and either

grey or a pale straw colour in tint. Along the postero-dorsal

margin of the shell there is a dark band of greyish blue in some

and bluish brown in others; this colouring occupies precisely the

same region as in the common clam (M. casta). This is a very

beautiful shell and the pity is that it is not more abundant. I

have found it in the Silavathurai fish-farm at Tuticorin, in the

seaward part of Pulicat Lake, and in a sub-fossil condition at Surla

in Ganjam district. At Tuticorin it is fairly abundant, as a woman

can easily collect from 30 to 40 in a tide. These clams are esteemed

as food by the Valayans and Pallans who collect them and who

use the empty shells for lime-burning. The flesh is considered less

delicate than that of the common clam ; the species seems less

hardy ; as a consequence its distribution is more local and

No. I (191 7) EDIBLE MOLLUSCS 2\

restricted — it requires a cleaner habitat than M. casta and a strong
tidal current over the bed where it lives. Hence it is usually found
near the entrance to lagoons, where the tidal flow is great.
Spawning occurs about the beginning of September at Tuticorin,
probably also about May.

The shell exhibits considerable variation in colouring ; usually,
apart from the postero-dorsal and umbonar regions, it exhibits
no banding, but in a few (Tuticorin) there are very broad ill-defined
radiating bands of a somewhat livid brown colour extending
from the ventral margin to half way to the umbo. The umbo
nearly always shows considerable colouring but this is extremely
variable and no two shells are exactly alike in this respect. Most
frequently a minute brownish speckling can be made out, either
alone or associated with a more conspicuous and extensive zoning
in a livid tint; in others this speckling resolves itself into a more
distinct colouring of chevron-shaped chestnut markings, which
may coalesce either into short rays or into concentric zones, never
spreading far beyond the umbo.

The Black Clam— Velorita cochinensis (Hanley).

Malayalam — Kar cntiit/iii.

This small thick-shelled clam is found only in west coast
estuarine backwaters, where it is associated with the common
clani (Mcretrix casta ovum). Its shell is ribbed concentrically and
covered by a coarse thick black periostracum which is frequently
worn away by corrosion at the umbo, showing the whitish
shell beneath. The interior is characteristically pale pink in
tint. This clam can survive the prevalence of fresh-water con-
ditions longer than the common clam ; it was originally, I believe,
a fresh-water species, and its presence in quantity in estuarine
backwaters, subject during a considerable portion of the year to
brackish water conditions, indicates a marked change in its habits
and an acquired tolerance for saline conditions. It is used bj* the
same people as eat the common clam and its valves are also employed
in lime-burning in Malabar. It is not nearly so abundant as
Mcretrix casta ovum ; its habitat is usually further distant from the
sea than that of the latter species.

The shell seldom exceeds 40 mm. in length.

11

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

Fu;. 5. — The Muuai, (Dona.'-
ciiHcata Linn). x i|.

Mural (Donax cuneata Linn.).

1-^x\\\\\— Mural (g/J/t^J', Palicat Lake; Vashi niatti {ovai^]LniLuj.),

Pa m ban.

This small, much compressed bivalve is roughly wedge-shaped
in outline, the posterior part of the shell being obliquely truncate.

It is abundant between tide-marks
and for some short distance below
low-water level. It never enters
backwaters and is essentially a
marine form. In size it seldom
exceeds 40 mm. in length.

On the east coast, the mural
usually abounds in great numbers,
particularly on surf beaten sand
flats. On the Malabar coast it is
also plentiful but is usually smaller.
In Tamil districts, especially on the Coromandel coast, the mural is
chiefly valued by the fisherfolk (Pattanavars, etc.) whose lads are
accustomed to collect it when rough weather cuts off the usual
supplies of sea fish. The mural serves largely to meet such an
emergency. It is seldom collected for sale.

The mural lives in the surface layer of sand ; the boys who
collect it turn over the wet sand with their feet as the tide recedes.
As usual with Indian fishermen the flesh of the mural is used in
curries ; sometimes it is put in whole, but in the neighbourhood of
Madras it is more frec^uently ground into a paste after being boiled
and incorporated with other ingredients of the curry.

Like so many other Indian molluscs, two maximal spawning
periods can be made out, April — May and September, respectively.

The Cockle Clam (Circe gibba Lamk.).

Tamil — Vari matti (surflLOLli^),

This shell is particularly plentiful in Palk Bay and the Gulf of
Mannar where, especially in the former area, its collection is
important to the Kadayans, Valayans and allied coast castes.

It is a strongly ribbed white shell with a superficial
resemblance to the European cockle (Cardium cdiih') — the ridges
running radially from the umbo to the margin — and of about the
same average size. Its dimensions average when fully grown
45 ^ 37 rnm. with a thickness of about 33 mm. It spawns about
the beginning of September at Tuticorin. It frequents muddy sands

No. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

23

near low-tide level both along the open coast and in backwaters
and estuaries. The flavour is good and the flesh tender.

Collection takes place at low water during spring tides, when
the poorer women of the coast villages devote themselves to this
work for two or three hours daily. In this time each can gather
between 300 and 400 shells.

Fir.. 6.— ClR(.'E Gir.nA Lamk. Natural size.

The muddy flats between Pamban and Kundagal Point are
rich collecting grounds and many women may be often seen there
engaged in the search at spring tide. Very frequently a couple of
shells are kept in one hand and rubbed or struck against one
another to produce a clicking sound. When questioned the
women say that this has the effect of attracting the clams to the
surface ; they watch for a slight movement wherever they see
clam burrows and scoop up the sand where this occurs, generally
getting one or two shells. lam inclined to think that in reality the
clicking sound has an opposite effect to that believed by the
clammers ; it really alarms the clam and causes it suddenly to
retract its siphons and close its valves. In so doing a slight
movement of the mud at the entrance to its burrow is necessarily
caused and it is this that reveals its presence. Alphseids— the
so-called "clicking prawns"— are common on these flats and
possibly the noise made by striking two shells together is mistaken
by the clams for the clicking of Alphseids.

The flesh is used either to form a curry, a soup, or a savoury,
this considerable variety betokening the high esteem in which it
is held. In all cases the preparatory operation is to steam the
shells open and extract the flesh. This may then be made forthwith
into a curry with the usual condiments, or it may be ground fine
with coconut and spices, and boiled to form a highly tasty and
nutritious soup, or, lastly, it may be ground to a paste, and fried in
ghee or in sesamum oil and eaten with other food. The last mode

24

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

of preparation is a strong favourite with those who habitually
utilize this food.

Probably no other bivalve is so universally valued on the shores
of Palk Bay as is this cockle-clam — everybody seems fond of it
with the exception of the higher caste Hindus.

The empty shells are used for lime-burning on the shores of
Palk Bay, where it is the most abundant littoral mollusc. Along
the Coromandel coast, Circe .§/Ww is scarce and does not seem to
be used there as food. It is not found on the Malabar coast.

Fig. 7. — DONAX SCORITM. xlj.

Miscellaneous Marine Clams.

Malay alam — Oraikai, Calicut.

Besides Circe gibba and Donax ciiiieata, a number of other marine
bivalves, chiefly Mactrids and species.of related families are taken
for food when met with in the search for the first named. Among
the principal of these are Donax scortuni,a fine purple tinted species

Fig. S. — Kakkama iri ( Mesodesma ^lahratiun).
The figure on ihc right shows the structure of the hinge

growing to a length of 60 mm., strongly sculptured with coarse
concentric ridges, and several species of Mactra and Mcsodesma
One of the latter, called Kakkamatti (Mcsodesma glabraium, Lamk.A

No. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

25

is pretty frequent along the island beaches near Pamban and is
fished and treated for food in the same way as Circe gibha ; it grows
to a length of 34 mm. ; the shell, sculptured with bold concentric
ridges, is white in colour, covered partially with a dirty yellow
skin of periostracum (Fig. 8). The pretty little Sevala-matti
(Mactra corbiculoides Desh.) tinted a deep violet colour within, is
equally common in the same localities ; its smooth shell is distinctly
trigonal in outline, usually about 30 mm. in length, with deeply
concave valves which are thus able to give accommodation to a
body relatively much larger than is contained within the shallower
valves of the Kakkamatti. Its colour is most distinctive ; exter-
nally a bluish-grey with purplish blue colouring showing through
at the umbo and usually another similar colour band within the
margin ; internally the whole surface is characteristically tinted
violet. When partially bleached, the colour fades to a warm pink,
whence the local name of Scvala matti (red matti). Like all
Mactrids a portion of the ligament is contained in a centrally
placed deep pit or fossette within the hinge and immediately
under the umbo (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9. — Sf.vala matti (Mactra corbkiiloides).
Inner view of hinge on the right.

A handsome inflated form of Tapes (Tapes ceylonensis Sow.),

called Vazhukkumatti in the neigh-
bourhood of Pamban is fished with
the foregoing. It has a superficial
resemblance to the backwater clam
Meretrix easta, being about the same
size, shape and colour (Fig. 10); it
differs however in having pale
radiating bands of darker tint on
each valve running from the umbo
Fig. ic-Vazhikkumatti (7a/.^s ^^ margin and instead of having

26

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

a very small pallial sinus it has one well-marked, deep, and angular
Average length 44 mm.

Fresh-water Mussel (Lamellidens marginalis Lamk.).

Although this common Indian species, identical with the text-
book type so well known to biological students under the name

Fig. II. — Lamellidens marginalis, var. corianus (Lea).

of Unio, is very widely distributed throughout the Presidency, it
finds little favour as food. Only low castes care to eat it, but in
Ganjam, Tinnevelly and some other districts considerable quanti-
ties are consumed when obtainable in abundance.

Both in Ganjam and Vizagapatam districts, the valves are used
extensively as instruments for peeling mangoes. To prepare one
a hole is made in the convex umbonar region by rubbing this part
of a valve — usually a right one — upon a stone till a hole of the
right size is obtained ; to use the peeler thus formed, it is grasped
in the hand with the hollow side towards the palm, and then one
edge of the hole is used to peel off strips of skin. The advantage
claimed for this implement over a knife is that the mango does not
become stained from contact with steel.

It seems probable that the valve of a fresh-water mussel, having
a large hole in the centre, figured in Bruce Foote's "Catalogue
of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities," Madras, 1915, under
the number 234-129, from Narsipur-Sangam, Mysore, is a mango
scraper of this kind, and not part of a shell necklace as surmised
by the author named.

No. I (191 7) EDIBLE MOLLUSCS 2/

This species, altliough its shell is usually too thin to be of any
use in pearl button manufacture, sometimes produces pearls in
considerable quantity of fair value. Occasionally they are offered
in the Surada Bazar (Ganjam) ; these are obtained from a great
irrigation reservoir in the neighbourhood wherein these mussels
flourish, growing to a length of about three inches. The pearls
have a reddish tint and less lustre than those from the marine pearl
oyster.

GASTROPODS.

Compared with bivalves, gastropod molluscs are of restricted
and purely local importance. None seem to be used as food on the
Malabar littoral and one only upon the Coromandel coast. Only
on the Ramnad and Tinnevelly coasts are several species used to
any extent. Neither is the list a long one, limited as it is to the
common chank ( Ttirbinella pynim), the five-fingered chank fPterocera
latnhis), the olive (Oliva gihbosa), the turban shell (Turbo margari-
tacciis), as the ones in common use, with Strombiis, Conns and Mnrex
occasionally. The reason is that, with the exception of the
common chank and the olive, few gastropods are found in quantity
outside of Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar; on the Malabar
coast, except rarely and very locally, no species abounds in shallow
water, and the same may be said of the shores of Vizagapatam and
Ganjam.

The Sacred Chank (Turbinella pyrum Linn.).

Tamil — Sangii {3'iei(^), Tinnevelly and Ramnad districts ; Palsangu
(uirevs^EiQ,), Chingleput district.

The common or sacred chank, fished in hundreds of thousands
for sale to the shell-bangle workers of Bengal, is the most abund-
ant large Gastropod in the Presidency. It brings in a large
annual revenue, now amounting to close upon half a lakh of rupees
(net) to the Madras Government, and promises to yield a largely
increased sum as the organization of the fishery progresses.

As an article of food the flesh has come into local prominence
only since the great famine of 1877 when the families of Parawa
chank divers of Tuticorin first made systematic use of it. On the
run home from the fishing grounds, the divers extract the foot and
head region from the shell, using a strong iron skewer for the

28

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

purpose. The whole of the glandular tissue in the "tail" of the
mollusc is left within the shell. The part extracted is chiefly
muscular tissue and carries the large horny operculum. This meat,
called saiigu sathai (ff^din^ s^"?!"^), is collected in little palmyra leaf

Fig. 12.— Taii Sacred Chank ( 7'iirbi>ieUa pyrum Linn.), x J.

baskets and taken home as soon as the shells have been handed
over to the Government officers. In preparing it, the flesh is boiled,
cooled, and then, after pulling off the operculum, cut into thin
transverse slices which are sun-dried. In this condition they keep
indefinitely— hard and horny slices looking like very thin chipped
potatoes. In cooking, the slices are fried in ghee or gingelly oil.
The quantity consumed must be considerable, for at Tuticorin —
where alone a systematic use of the flesh is made — the number of
shells so treated amounts to an average of over 250,000 yearly.
The bulk of the flesh is consumed by the divers' own families ; any
surplus is readily saleable within the limits of the caste ; none i-"'

No. I (IQI7)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

2C

ever seen in the markets. The value of the flesh is 12 annas per

measure.

In the chank fishery carried on off Rameswaram a small quantity

of the shells are treated in the same way by Muhammadan divers,

who saw some of the Tuticorin men treating the shells thus at the

191 5 fishery and who are now
beginning to use the flesh similarly.
As yet comparatively few chanks
have their flesh extracted at Rames-
waram but the practice will prob-
ably gradually become general as a
taste for the article is acquired.

The Pattanavars of the Pulicat
fishing hamlets occasionally catch
chanks in their thuri nets ; the
village youngsters are said to be
fond of the flesh, eating it after
boiling. So few shells are found
that the flesh has no market value.

The operculum (Tamil, iiaganam
or navanaiii, ^/rsssnh^ nrrisdssrih) of
the chank has considerable value,
being in demand for use as a glue
in the composition of incense
sticks. Large quantities are col-
lected from the shells at Tuticorin
and Rameswaram and sold at the
rate of from Re. i~2-o to Re. 1-6-O
per pound.

At Rameswaram some of the
Muhammadan divers make a speci-
ality of this work; they go round
during the time of counting and
gauging the shells, tearing off the
opercula of all those that they can

get permission to handle. They use a pair of home-made flat-nosed

pliers for the purpose.

For a description of the Chank and its varied uses see "The

Sacred Chank of India," constituting Bulletin No. 7 of the Madras

Fisheries Department (Government Press, Madras, 1915)-

Fig, 13. —Egg capsule of the
Sacred Chank. x |.

50

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

The Five-fingered Chank (Pterocera lambis Linn.).

Tamil — Aiviral saiigii (gffl?ir-« <9=e)@), Ramnad district.
This species of Pterocera, the most common of the genus, is
very abundant in the faunistically rich shallows of the south-
western angle of Palk Bay. From low water to two fathoms, this
shell is often numerous, particularly along the coast between
Pamban and Tondi. Some are collected by the shore people
wading in the sea at low tide, but the great majority are taken
either by the Kadayan and Muhammadan beche-de-mer divers or
accidentally in nets set for crabs, whereof many miles length are

shot daily during the season.
The shells serve a variety of
purposes ; as food they are
broken open and the flesh
extracted, and used for cur-
ries ; as net sinkers they have
the "fingers "broken off, the
shell perforated and then are
tied at intervals along the
ground rope of nets ; by
burning, whitewash lime is
made ; lastly they are used
as octopus traps. To fit
them for the last-named use,
the apex of each shell is
broken off together with the
fingers, and are then attach-
ed at intervals of 5 or 6
feet along a rope to which
as many as 30 shells may
be thus fastened. A number
of ropes are tied end to end and laid in shallow water over-
night; when raised next morning a number of small octopus are
found sheltering in the cavities of the shells. These are used
as bait when lining for such fish as seer, parai, dogfish and
rays. Hundreds of these shell-trap lines are in use on the Ramnad
coast from Devipatam northwards. In Japan a device on the same
principle is used for a similar purpose ; in place of Pterocera shells,
the Japanese use narrow-necked vase-shaped earthenware pots,
tied at inte-vals by the neck to a strong line.

Fig. 14. — The Fivr-fingered Chank
(Pterocera lambis Linn.).

NO. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

31

The Turban Shell (Turbo margaritaceus Linn.).

Tamil — Nathai (/F^sem^), Pamban.

This small species of Turbo, allied to the well-known mother-of-
pearl shell called " Green Snail " in trade, is found in abundance
on the surf-washed rocky shoals found here and there on the
coral reefs near Pamban. The island women collect the shells

Fig. 15. — The Common Turban shell (T. margaritaceus) with outer

AND INNER VIEWS OF THE OPERCULUM. x I.

during spring tides when the shoals uncover for a short time ; they
employ all the available minutes in turning as many stones as
possible, this being the favourite habitat of Turbo. The flesh
is used in the same way as that of the cockle-clam.

Besides the value of the flesh, Turbo is esteemed for its oper-
culum. This is a stout, disc-shaped stony body, flat on the inner
surface, strongly convex on the outer ; it serves as a defensive
stopper when the animal is attacked, the soft body being retracted
wholly within the snail-shaped shell and the aperture closed
by the hard body of the operculum. All sorts of shells and
marine objects are stocked in several booths within the main
entrance to the Rameswaram temple, for sale to the thousands of
pilgrims who travel thither from all parts of India, and among
these objects the opercula of Turbo find place. The best ones are
retailed at 8 annas per hundred, sea-worn ones collected on the
beach at considerably less. The island women (Valayans chiefly)
get about 8 annas per measure from the Rameswaram shopkeepers.
The Tamil name for them is ambiliman {'S^^iSisSiintT'ssi) signifying the
disk of the moon,

32

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

The Top Shells (Trochus spp.).

Tamil — Thalappaikatli {^svuutriu -s'—u^), Pamban.

Several species of top-shells but chiefly T. radiatiis Gmel.,
are occasionally fished along with Turbo in the neighbour-
hood of Pamban. The flesh is not valued owing to the small size
of the shells and the difficulty of extracting the body. Sometimes
when there is nothing else to be had for their curry and Trochus is
abundant, Valayan women collect the shells at low water, and cook
the flesh in the same way as that of Turbo. A small incentive to
the collection of these shells is the fact that the shell dealers in
Rameswaram temple give two annas a measure for the shells.

The Olive Shell (Oliva gibbosa Born).
T^imW—Kovanji {(^ -sir an (^9)^ Palk Bay ; Sangii (<^s^), Pulicat.
This small spindle-shaped shell, noted for its high polish and
the beauty of its marbled colouring, is very
common about low-water level on all sandy
shores on the east coast ; it is rarely seen
in Malabar. On the Coromandel coast it is
extensively used as food by the Pattanavar
or sea-fishermen caste. On the Ramnad
coast it has less importance as a minor food
item ; while utilized, chiefly by Valayans,
in the same way as other shellfish whenever
found, it is in some cases sought for sepa-
rately on account of the price the shells
fetch when sold to the shell dealers in
Rameswaram temple, who give an anna per
hundred for the shells.

On the Coromandel coast, the chief
collecting season is at the times of spring
tides during the fine weather period from
February to April. Towards the end of the ebb tide Pattanavar
women and lads then engage in the search, from about extreme
low water to a depth of a couple of feet. They find the shells by
turning the sand over with the foot or in the case of those in the
uncovered sand by marking the trail made as the Olive travels
about.

The Pattanavars boil their catch in fresh water, extract the flesh
and then either use it in their curry or fry it in oil.

Fig. i6. — The Common
Olivf. (Oliva gibbosa). x i

NO. I (1917)

RDIBLF MOLLUSCS

33

The size of these Olives runs from 50 to 60 millimetres in length.
In the sea-fishing hamlets or kuppams in the neighbourhood
of Pulicat Lake, their shells, with those of Donax, contribute
no inconsiderable bulk to the kuppam kitchen middens there
accumulating.

Rock Whelks (Purpura rudolphi, Lamk. and P. bufo,

Lamk.).

Tamil— Par attai (u/r ir ^ilemu^), Fcxmban.

These shells measuring about 50 millimetres in length, are
found along with Turbo on the shingle and stone strewn shoals of
the islands and mainland of Ramnad district. They are not

Fig. 17. — Purpura rudolphi, Lamk., and Purpura kufo, Lamk. x i.

specially collected, but any found during the search for Turbo are
kept and cooked along with the latter by the Valayans who are the
chief inhabitants of the Ramnad islands. Other castes are said
not to eat these species.

Strombus and Conus.

None of these shells is ever regularly collected for food pur-
poses, but on the Ramnad coast and the adjacent islands, the
poorer shore people when gathering other shells take any they find
and cook them with the rest.

The shells of the mottled Wing-shell (Strombus canariiim) have
some value independent of food purposes ; large numbers are used
annually at Kilakarai by shell-ring makers in their trade. These
men who are all Muhammadans, pursue the most primitive methods,
such as we can understand prehistoric men employing. The two
ends of the shell are first broken down by means of a hammer
5

34

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

and chisel and then the resultant middle section is ground down
laboriously upon a stone.

Except a hammer, a chisel, and a lile used to smooth the edges,
no other tool is employed. These rings, known as stifign modiram,

Fig. iS. -A Cone-Shkli.

Fig. iq. -The moitled Winc;-
SHEI.I. {StroDihns canariiuii) x i.

are extensively used as finger rings throughout the Tamil country
as a specific against skin eruptions. In the Malabar and South
Kanara districts certain classes of the poor population — Pulayas,
Holayas and some Mukkuvans — use these rings in the making of
necklaces for their women and children.

Fig. 20.- a LiMl'ET AllACHED TO A KOCKY SUUEACK.

Limpets— (Patella spp.).
Tamil — Unai (e^^w), Covelong, Chingleput district.
Wherever fairly smooth-surfaced rocks are exposed to surf

No. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

35

action between tide marks on the east coast, small limpets can
usually be found. The rocks off the beach at Covelong, Chingleput
district, are where I have seen them most numerous and there some
of the poorer among the fisher people are accustomed to collect
them for food. They are also to be seen on the rocks at Mandapam
but no use seems to be made of them. The available suitable
ground is too limited in this Presidency to permit this shell-fish to
be put to extensive use.

Fresh-water Snails (Ampullaria and Vivipara).

Tamil — Natluii (/5.i«OT«) for Ampullaria ; Uinachclii {smlls^^)
for Vivipara.

Large brown water-snails belonging to the genus Ampullaria are
abundant in fresh-water marshes and ponds, as well as in paddy

fields where they are often seen in
great numbers and up to I^" dia-
meter as a usual size. Throughout
the Presidency they are collected
after the paddy has been harvested
and the fields run dry, by low caste
women who use them to help out
their ordinary meals. They are also
used medicinally for sore eyes.

Scale states that in Manila and
other Philippine towns large
quantities are sold at an average
price of l^ anna per kilogramme.
Vivipara, another common but
much smaller fresh-water snail, is also used to some extent as food in
the Southern Tamil districts, being gathered in ponds, marshes and
paddy fields in company with the larger Ampullaria. It is less
esteemed than iiat/iai, being both smaller and less succulent.

In preparing all fresh-water snails for food, it is essential to
remember that care should be taken to cook them thoroughly, as
some species in other countries are known to harbour larvae of
certain parasitic worms which cause dangerous diseases if they
pass alive into a new host. In England and elsewhere the small
pond-snail Liniuaca is often infested with the young of the liver-
fluke, a parasitic flat worm which causes much disease among sheep

Fi

, 21. — The brown water-snail
{Ampidlaria). Natural size.

36 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

when pastured in marshy meadows, whilst in Egypt a common and
dangerous human disease induced by the presence of the parasitic
worm Bilharzia, has recently been traced to the infection of another
fresh-water snail belonging to the genus Planorbis. Parallel
cases of disease transmitted to man through the agency of fresh-
water snails have not yet been traced in India, but whether this is
due to lack of attention to this possible source of disease or
whether to the excellent custom prevailing generally throughout
India of eating no animal food except it be cooked, it is not yet
possible to say.

CEPHALOPODA.

Octopus, Squid and Cuttlefish.

Three species of Cephalapods have considerable economic
importance in the Presidency but the locality where they are
caught in abundance, is much circumscribed, and is limited
virtually to the confines of Palk Bay. The two most abundant and
most valuable forms belong respectively to the genera Loligo and
Octopus, a medium-sized species of Squid {Loligo) being caught in
Kreat quantities in nets and by jigging, while a small species of
Octopus (Polypus) is taken largely in shell traps. The third is a
Cuttlefish (Sepia) not caught in abundance but of some value for its
" bones " which are thrown ashore in considerable quantity. A
trade opening probably exists for the introduction of methods of
cure which will enhance the selling value of these highly nutritious
and tasty marine products.

Besides these, at least two other kinds of Octopus are occa-
sionally caught and eaten.

The Common Squid— (Loligo sp.).

Tamil — Kuucial Kauavai {3i^ii^i>i 3iBsr<avff-iLi)^ Rameswaram Island ;
Eekki Kauavai (ff^Q ^sssreuiTuii)^ west coast of Palk Bay.

The species represented under these vernacular names is the
only large Squid found in abundance in Palk Bay. Shoals appear
in shallow water off Rameswaram Island about April and during the
month preceding the burst of the monsoon — about 15th June — the
shoals reach their maximum, and then consist of immense assem-
blages of individuals sheltering under the lee of the land, to feed
upon the smaller fry that seek similar shelter, and to deposit their
egg capsules among the weeds common in the places favoured.

No. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

37

Two methods of fishing are employed, the one a wholesale
netting in which thousands are caught at a haul ; the other, where
the skill of the fishermen is exercised in catching the Squid singly
by means of a jigger.

Fig. 22. — The Common Simud. x \.

The first method is largely practised in Rameswaram Bay
during the early part of the south-west monsoon ; a seine is used
having a large close-meshed bag in the centre, with long wings and
with wing ropes closely set with strips of palm leaf (olai) to serve
as scare lines, and so to herd the Squid into the bunt of the net. In
the season there are usually four sets of these Squid seines — called
olai-valai locally — in daily use at Rameswaram. When shoals are
about catches may occasionally range up to 5,000 a haul. The bulk
of the Squid caught are sold to fish runners who come from Pamban

3B

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

at rates varying from Re. I-I2-0 to Rs. 2 8-0 per TOO; the balance
is consumed locally. When demand is weak and little is sold for
consumption fresh, the Squids are sundried and sold eventually at
Ramnad and other inland markets at about Rs. 3 per TOO.

FlC. 23.— FiSHINi; I'LAIKOKM I'SRO AT RaMESWARAM WHEN JlGGINi: FOR SQt'ID.

Jigging for Squid is practised chiefly for home requirements by
individual fishermen, who sun-dry any surplus they may have.
This method is largely employed along the northern coast of
Rameswaram Island, especially at Rameswaram and at Arya-
kundu, near Thangachimadam, during the Squid season. To carry
it on the fisherman erects a small outlook in shallow water a form
of machan (Fig. 23). The main portion of the structure consists
of a stout bifurcated tree branch of Y-shape, the main stem

No. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

^

embedded firmly in the sea-bottom ; across the ends of the two
arms which project upwards several feet above the surface of the
water, a strong pole is fixed horizontally to serve as a rest for the
fishermen. The height of this seat above the sea-bottom is
generally about 6 feet; 8 feet at the utmost. A pile of leaves is
tied or anchored at the foot of the staging to attract the squid;
the fisherman when ready, takes his stand on his outlook armed
with a slender pole 12 to 15 feet long, furnished at one end with 5
or 6 stout hooks set grapnel fashion, thus (Fig. 24) : —

Fig. 25. — Egg Capsulks ok a Squid
attached to a submerged rope.
Fig 24. — Squid Jigger. Half natural size

Watching the bottom intently, the fisherman waits till he sees
a squid approach to investigate the heap of leaves. As soon as it
comes within range he cautiously moves his jigger into a favourable
position and with a deft jerk imbeds the jigger hooks in its flesh
and lifts it from the water. The reason why the Squid seek shelter
amid the leaves set as a lure, seems, on the part of the female, to
be for the purpose of laying her eggs therein, as she requires such

40

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

objects whereto to attach the great gelatinous candle-like capsules
in which the ova develop (Fig. 25). The male is said to follow the
female at this time, so that sometimes both fall a prey to the
fisherman's jigger. What is not used or sold immediately is split
open, washed and sundried ; it makes a very clean and attractive-
looking product.

This method of fishing is generally carried on in the morning, the
fisherman occupying his outlook for four or five hours at a stretch.
The branched post employed is cut generally from a babul thorn,
the one tree that manages to thrive well on this sun-scorched sandy
coast. At Rameswaram there are often as many as one hundred
of these Squid machans in use.

Cuttlefish (Sepia).

TamW—Ottii Kanavai (gp(-® ^swau/r^), Palk Bay.
Cuttlefish are far less abundant than Squid in Palk Bay and are

not the object of any special
fishery, though some are occa-
sionally taken in the casting
net {vichchu valai) and in drift
net and shores seines. Their
" bones " are however thrown
up in large quantities on the
southern and south-western
shores of Palk Bay during the
north-east monsoon, and at
this period of the year, numbers
of Kadayan women scour the
littoral in their search. After
long continued northerly
winds, the supply is often very
abundant during November
and December at Rameswaram,
and after easterly winds
(March and April) at Tirupala-
gudi and Tondi ; a woman can
Kn;. 26 ~A Cur 1 i.kmsh (.v./Zr/). x .', collect several hundreds in a
day. These are eventually sold to agents of Kilakarai, Devakottai
and Pamban merchants who tour the coast to buy up the stocks
available. A gunny bag full of cuttle bone of all sizes fetches from
ten annas to Re. I 4 0; sometimes they are sold by number and

No. 1 (1917) KDIBLE MOLLUSCS 4I

size, the price varying from two to eight annas per 100; a common
price is one pie (one-twelfth anna^ for large bones and two or
three per pie for small ones. A regular price cannot be said to
exist; rates vary with the needs of the seller and of the purchaser.

On the south coast of Rameswaram and other islands near
Pamban, cuttle bones come ashore during the south-west monsoon
but not nearly so plentifully — only about one-tenth the quantity— as
they do on the north coast of Rameswaram during the north-east
monsoon. In a single season the collection of cuttle bones from
Rameswaram Island alone amounts to from 10 to 14 cwt., a quantity
representing a very large number of bones. The total Indian
export amounts to a considerably larger quantity. Several fishing
villages on the mainland, such as Morepanai near Uppur, report an
annual collection of 20 to 50 bags each per annum. A consider-
able quantity is also obtained from the Travancore and Malabar
coasts; most of this is exported through Tuticorin. From Kila-
karai 14^ cwt. were shipped to Colombo during 1914-15.

A considerable demand exists in Europe for cuttle bone, especi-
ally for large sizes. From information received from a London
dealer in this product, it is readily saleable there at £2-16-0 per
cwt. delivered c.i.f. in London, in the case of large selected bones
(8 to 12 inches long and above) and £1-8-0 per cwt. for bones of
mixed sizes from 12 inches down to small pieces of about 2 to 3
inches, with at least half the bulk between 6 and 12 inches long.
Care should be taken to ensure the bone being perfectly dry when
packed, in order to prevent mould appearing.

Palk Bay fishermen cherish the belief that cuttlefish cast their
bones annually at the season when they are thrown ashore in great
quantity. Strangely enough no shoals of cuttlefish are ever caught
in nets— only stray individuals ; that large shoals do abound is
evident, for it occasionally happens after a severe storm that very
great numbers are thrown up on the beach, dead but quite fresh.
The village women collect them, cure them in the sun and take to
market where they generally find a ready sale.

The small Devilfish (Octopus sp.).

Tamil— Sa Kanavai {•^/r sessratfruj)^ Rameswaram Island ; Pcy Kana-
vai {Quiu ssssrsuinij) and Sanou Kamroni (^ey^ <%^ssrajrr\u)^
west coast of Palk Bay.
This is a small species caught solely for use as bait. It swarms

in the weedy shallows of Palk Bay. It is in keen demand by line
6

42

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI.

fishermen as it makes thie best bait known to them — its flesh firm
and not easily pulled from a hook and its odour tempting beyond
measure to the fish sought after.

To capture it, long lines are prepared having some hundreds of
a large Pterocera shell (P. lambis) attached at short intervals, after
having the apices and " fingers " broken off. These lines are
sunk on the bottom in places which this Octopus frequents, and
when lifted each morning many of the shells are tenanted by
Octopods that have sought concealment therein.

Fig. 27.— The smai.i. Devii.iish {Oilopts sp.). Natural size.

Every village on the Ramnad mainland fronting Palk Bay
possesses these octopus lines, and the number of octopus thus
caught is very great indeed ; the industry is an important one both
in itself and because of the dependence thereon of the line fisher-
men, who find it difficult to get other suitable bait if it be
wanting. This bait fishery is said to have existed at Rameswaram
a decade ago, being given up when line fishermen abandoned this
occupation, because, according to some, their boats being small
and unseaworthy, fishing on the offshore banks was found to be
too dangerous for these timid and unenterprising souls.

No. I (1 91 7) EDIBLE MOLLUSCS 43

The number of shell traps used on a Devilfish long line usually
run to upwards of 800. The crew of a line-fishing boat on the
Tirupalagudi coast consists normally of five men, and each of them
when he joins brings 5 or 6 short lines, each armed with from 25 to 30
shells, say a total of 1 50 to 180 per man, or a grand total of 25 to
30 lines carrying 700 to 900 shells in all. The lines tied end to
end are laid out in a depth of 2^ to 3 fathoms of water, one end
being buoyed with a large wooden float. Each morning the fisher-
men haul the lines and the attached shell-traps ; so common are
these small Devilfish that a considerable number of the shells
are tenanted by them. Enough for the day's requirement of bait
are removed, the line and its traps are relaid, and the fishermen
proceed to bait their fish hooks with the captured octopus.

Every third week or thereabouts the lines are brought ashore
and dried for a day to prevent rotting and then relaid for a further
active period. At the beginning of the rainy season, lines are
brought ashore, dried, and stored till the rains are over.

The most frequent name used for this creature is Pey Kanavai —
literally " Devil squid " — the exact equivalent indeed of "Devil-
fish," the popular English name of the Octopus. The fishermen
say they call it so, because of the devilish restlessness which it
exhibits when taken from the water and the impression of concen-
trated malignity which its appearance and habits make upon them.
Often on the Pearl Banks, I have come across small ones hiding in
empty pearl oyster shells ; they certainly do appear uncanny in
their activity when attempting to escape ; they dash hither and
thither like some great fleshy spider of the sea, their arms writhe
and twist with a speed the eye cannot follow ; small as these are,
the play of the little suckers closely set over the arms is unpleasant
on the skin and to restrain them is as difficult as to hold a globule
of quicksilver. Their eyes, huge for their size, are too human to be
pleasant, and it is no wonder the fishermen think they have a
devil's malevolence and ingenuity. They credit them too with a
great deal of sagacity ; amongst other clever tricks attributed to
them, is that when they enter an empty shell, they are careful to
close the entrance with a shell or piece of stone, as a screen
against their enemies, the crabs. I cannot vouch for the truth of
this story, but I think it may quite probably be true. They are
also said to sham death when they realize that they are finally
cornered.

44 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

The Poisonous Devilfish (Octopus sp.).

Tamil — Visha humvai {<c^ei% semeu/nij).

Another species of small Octopus called Visha kanavai (literally
"poisonous kanavai ") is occasionally caught in shell traps in the
relative proportion of one or two per cent to the number of the
Pcy kanavai. The fishermen make no use of it as they say no fish
will take it as bait. I have not seen it alive, but from dead speci-
mens it is seen to be a slender-armed Octopus, looking very much
like an immature example of the larger Octopod called Kundal
kanavai at Tirupalagudi.

The common belief is strong that it is endowed with marked
poisonous qualities ; when caught it is usually thrown overboard at
once. The fishermen say that it is equally active as the Pcy
kanavai and if it has the chance will fasten on a man's leg or
foot and bite through the skin. The sensation is likened to the
sting of a scorpion and if a remedy is not quickly applied, the
limb will swell and a feeling of giddiness will be experienced.
The accepted remedy is a curious one; betel juice is expectorated
upon the place or chunam (slaked lime) smeared over the wound
as soon as possible. Then, when shore is reached, jaggery (palm
sugar) is rubbed over the place bitten and a dog being brought, is
induced to lick the jaggery off ; in so doing, it is believed that the
poison will also be removed. In spite of this curious and com-
plicated treatment, the effects of the poison are said sometimes
to be experienced for several months afterwards, the usual com-
plaint being that of a continued swelling of the leg bitten.

Although the bite of the Visha kanavrd is esteemed so poison-
ous, the flesh is considered innocuous and when accidentally
brought ashore with other species, it is cooked and eaten together

with them.

UNUTILIZED SPECIES.

Besides the kinds of shellfish above enumerated, which are
themselves only partially utilized for food supply on the Madras
coasts, there are several others, often occurring in considerable
abundance, that are not eaten in this Presidency although they
are all wholesome, highly nutritious and freely used as food in
other parts of the world. This difference in habit appears to have
a racial significance, for, of the Asiatic races, it is those of Mongo-
lian stock which exhibit real and keen liking for such food. The
Dravidians of India appear to have no innate liking for shellfish .

No. I (1917) EDIBLE MOLLUSCS 45

wherever they do use it, such employment seems to spring either
from an acquired taste or to be due to the compulsion of poverty
directing attention to a cheap source of food supply. In China,
Japan, the Philippine Islands and generally throughout the Malay
Archipelago, the markets of all large seaboard towns abound daily
with many kinds of shellfish, and in numerous towns, such as
Manila, the labouring classes depend largely upon this source for
their daily food. It may be noted here that, so far as I know, there
are no poisonous species found on the Indian coasts ; all are edible
and when gastric troubles do occur it is due almost entirely either
to individual and abnormal susceptibility or intolerance, or, much
more frequently, to unsuitable methods of cooking whereby the food
is rendered tough and difficult of digestion. Light steaming is on
the whole the most digestible method of preparation for bivalves ;
they may either be eaten without further preparation or else stewed
for a prolonged time with appropriate flavourings. To those with
good digestion, they may be made into more high seasoned dishes,
such as curries, or fried or baked in butter or ghee (preferably) or
in vegetable oils.

The Pearl Oyster (Margaritifera vulgaris).
TamW—Miitt/iii c/iifypi (G/^,i^ i^uiSl).

Hitherto the local pearl oyster has been esteemed solely for the
pearls it occasionally produces. At a pearl fishery the feverish
eagerness of the search for these prizes is so intense that the food
value of the flesh is forgotten. This however is very considerable,
for it is both tender, well-flavoured and highly nutritious ; in these
(lualities it is about on a par with the Scallops (Pectinidas) of
Europe and may appropriately be cooked by the same methods.

The shell grows to a sufficiently large size to accommodate a
body ample enough to repay a cook's attention. The size usually
attained is 75 millimetres in length by an equal depth from hinge
to ventral margin. The glandular tissues (gonads and digestive
glands) are greatly developed in healthy individuals and make the
flesh highly nutritious and tonic. Its food value may be considered
fully equal to that of the edible oyster ; it is however rather richer
in fat content and in the cooked condition sweeter and more like
in flavour to the scallop. It is most excellent whether scalloped,
stewed, baked, or curried, and in my opinion is the finest of Indian
shellfish. If ever a fish cannery be established on the shores of the
7

46 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

Gulf of Mannar, I believe that in those years when pearl oysters
are poor in pearls though abundant numerically, the canning of
their flesh would prove a remunerative undertaking. For details
of the anatomy, see Herdman and Hornell in Ceylon Pearl Fishery
Reports, volume II, page 37.

Fig. 28. — TiiK Indian Pearl-Ovster. Natural size.

Its permanent habitat in Indian waters seems to be the shallows
of Palk Bay where extensive beds, comparatively thinly populated,
exist in several localities. The pearl banks in the Gulf of Mannar,
both on the Indian and Ceylon sides, are not continuously occupied
by pearl oyster deposits ; their occurrence is irregular and roughly
cyclic, short series of productive years alternating with longer
series of blank years when the beds are either very poorly stocked
or absolutely barren. These banks appear to be repopulated at
intervals by spat from the permanent or mother beds in Palk Bay.
When this happens, the resultant beds are often exceedingly
extensive, aggregating even as much as a hundred square miles in
area in some years. The quantity that comes to maturity is com-
paratively small, but even then a favourable year may yield
anything up to 40 or even 80 millions of oysters during a fishery.
To harvest pearls the fishers must wait till the oysters are over three
years old, but if they are required for canning purposes they may
be fished profitably when two years old. At this age they are very
delicate and more tender than when they are a year or more older.

No. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

4;

Pinna.
Tamil — Akkii (#«^).
In shallow water from half to five fathoms, a large species of
Pinna is sometimes found in great abundance. In some places, as
for example in the south-west of Palk Bay, they occur so close
inshore that bathers run great risk of cutting their feet on the
projecting knife-like edges of these shells. The common species
is our largest bivalve, running to a length of 13 inches. It is of

Fig. 29. — The Common Pinna, x i-
elongated wedgeform, and lies buried in sand with its apex down-
wards, showing an inch or two only of the wide ventral margin
projecting above the bottom. In the 1905 Ceylon pearl fishery,
several milli©ns of pearl oysters were found in one area utilizing
the projecting edges of living Pinna shells as foothold.

48

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XL

No one eats Pinna on the Indian coasts, but in China it is in
great demand, and in Japan large quantities of the great adductor
muscles, circular discs of white flesh measuring l^ to 1% inch in
diameter, are cut out and dried for export to China, in the same
manner as they treat the foot of Haliotis (the abaloiic of the Cali-
fornian coast).

Razor-shells (Solenidae).

Tamil — Pid dkkii {lj'sv ^s(&,).

In shallow sandy bays, several species of Razor-shell are
common but the size is much smaller than the average attained
by British species. They are long scabbard-shaped shells living
buried upright just beneath the surface. In most countries they
are highly esteemed as a tasty marine delicacy, but no one collects
them in India, as no demand exists.

Ark-shells other than Arca granosa.

Besides Area granosa, there are two other related forms which
though not used at present, are potential sources of food supply.

Fu;.

-The TWISTED ARK-.siir:i,i,. (/'. loiiuiii,') X

They are the hairy ark-shell (Barbatia harbata) and the twisted ark-
shell, Parallelopipcdnm tortiini, so called because whilst the opposite
sides are roughly parallel, none of the angles are right angles.
Both of these are fairly numerous in certain parts of Palk Bay and
were shellfish more widely appreciated by our Indian populations
they would find their place in the market supply.

The habitat of both is between the 4^ and 6 fathom lines on a
bottom of dirty muddy sand. They do not form continuous beds
but occur scattered singly over large areas. Their shells often
give foothold to pearl oysters on the banks north-cast of Tondi.

No. I (1917)

EDIBLE MOLLUSCS

49

THE Weaving Mussels (Modiola spp.).

Several medium-sized species of the we^iving mussels exist in
our seas and in Palk Bay; one is so abundant that I have seen
several square miles of sea-bottom covered continuously with a
carpet of their shells, felted together in a tangle of byssal threads.
The average size is not too small and were there any demand, tons
of them could easily be dredged in Palk Bay. The larger ones are
excellent eating, while the smaller would make, if dried and
pulverized, an excellent manure.

Fig. 3

f A. rotainiJes flu-dialiUs
I. — Horn shells < B. Potaniides palustris.

C. Polamides Jusciim.

Horn Shells (Potamides spp.).

Except for lime-making the great Horn shells, Potamides (Telcs-
copiitin) fusciDn and P. (Pyrazus) palustris, often to be found in
abundance in the mangrove swamps of the Kistna and Godavari
deltas, are not utilized for any purpose. Among the Malays both
are esteemed as food; they throw them on wood fires, and when
they are sufficiently cooked, break off the top of the spire and suck
the animal out through the opening.

50 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

In the Philippines they are regarded as good food and are
frequently sold in the local market. Numerous other related
smaller forms {Ccrithium spp.) are also sold, the price averaging 5
centavos per kilogram, or about 6 to 7 pies per pound (200 centavos
= one U.S. Dollar).^

The Knobbed Whelk (Melongena vespertilio Lamk.).

This large whelk-like shell is not uncommon in saltwater
lagoons and shallow bays on the east coast, where it attains a
length of from 8 to 10 centimetres. Its pretty, regularly knobbed
shell, deep chestnut in tint, is often to be seen along the margin of
Ennur and Pulicat backwaters, but in many of these cases the
actual inhabitant is a hermit crab which has appropriated the shell
after the death of the original owner.

Melongena is eaten freely in the Malay Archipelago according
to Seale ; ^ it is also to be seen exposed for sale in the Suez
markets, being common in the canal and neighbouring lagoons.^

[Since writing the above I find that the Knobbed-Whelk is
caught in considerable numbers along with the common chank
{Turbiiiella pyruni) \n thuri nets off the Tanjore and South Arcot
coasts, and that the flesh of both is eaten after boiling by the
Pattanavar villagers. Indeed the fisherfolk of these coasts are
accustomed to boil and eat the flesh of any large gastropods they
may catch in their nets ; among others the great Tun-shell {Dolium)
and the equally large Melon-shell {Melo indica) when caught — both
are rare — are placed in boiling water, the flesh extracted and eaten,
and the empty shells sold to the chank-shell lessee, who sells them
as curiosities in Madras and other large towns. The shells of the
knobbed-whelk are used in lime-burning to make whitewash lime.]

Land Molluscs.

For some reason which I have failed to penetrate, land molluscs
are not utilized for food except in the single instance of the great
king-snail, Ariot>li(Hita basileus, a denizen of the Cochin teak forests,
which is occasionally used by the semi-wild tribes that live on
forest produce. With this exception none of the Indian land-snails

1 Alvin Seale— '•' Notes on Philippine Kdibk Molluscs" Philippine Journal of
Science^ Vol. VII, No. 4, p. 279, Manila, 1912.

2 Alvin Seale, loc. cit., p. 279.

^ Camliridge Natural History, Vol. " Molluscs", p. 102

No. I (1917) EDIBLE MOLLUSCS 5I

are eaten so far as I can learn. This is not due to any lack of
species of adequate size, if we take the apple-snail, Helix pomatia,
so highly esteemed by the ancient Romans and the modern French,
as a standard, or the more common English garden snail (H. aspersa),
utilized very abundantly by the French when the former species is
unobtainable. In Madras gardens two clean-looking snails are
found, smaller indeed than Helix aspersa, but still large enough for
culinary use ; one is the single-banded Ariophanta ligulata, the other
the two-banded A. biscrialis. Larger than these are several species
found in the Anamalai, Palni, Nilgiri and other hill tracts. Among
the more notable are the Ariophantas. A. hasileiis, already men-
tioned as occasionally eaten in the Cochin teak forests, is also found
in the Anamalai and Nelliampathi hills ; it is a magnificent species
often measuring 2^ inches in diameter. A. madcraspatana, a
smaller species, inhabits the Palni hills, while another, A. kadapaen-
sis, fully equal in size to Helix aspersa, is found in the Anamalais,
together with Helix ampulla of about the same dimensions.
A. seniinigata is another fair-sized snail found in the Coimbatore
and adjacent districts. Finally from Mysore comes a slightly
larger snail, Cycloplwrus )iilghericus. It will be noted that most of
these are hill species, found chiefly in the jungle tracts that clothe
the lower slopes and creep up sheltered ravines. Taken generally
land-snails are not plentiful on the plains, being replaced there by
the pond-snails (Anipiillaria and Vivipara) found in abundance
wherever paddy cultivation is of importance.

In dry sandy tracts where babul thorns abound, especially in
Tinnevelly and Ramnad districts, a small white Helix is often
exceedingly numerous, but although one would expect this to be
of some food importance at least in times of famine, I cannot trace
any utilization even in years of direst distress. A inafnitl pre-
judice prevails against the use of any land-snails.

BUL.
NO, PAGES

8. Marine Fishery Investigations in Madras, 1914-15—

I. A note on the edible oyster ... ... i — 10

II. An explanation of the irregularly cyclic character of the pearl

fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar ... ... ... 11 — 22

III. Notes upon two exploring cruises in search of trawl grounds

off the Indian and Ceylon coasts .. ... 23 — 41

IV. Report on the pearl fishery hel J at Tondi, 1914 43—92

V. Professor Huxley and the Ceylon pearl fishery, with a note

on the forced or cultural production of free spherical pearls. 93 — 1 04
VI. The utilization of coral and shells for lime-bUrning in the

Madras Presidency ... ... ... lo5 ^26

9. Fishery Statistics and Information, West and East Coasts,

Madras Presidency —
(i) Introduction ••• ^ 3

(2) West Coast. Section I— Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-

holders, markets, etc. ... •• • • 7 9

(3) Do. Section II— Number of boats engaged in

fishing ...

(4) Do. Section III— Various kinds of nets, etc., in

use 15--30

(5) Do. Section IV— Methods of curing fish ... ... 31—44

(6) Do. Section V— Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers ... •.. ■•• 45'~"^2

(7) East Coast. Section I— Fish-curing yards, number^of ticket-

holders, etc 65 — 71

(8) Do. Section II— Boats and catamarans 72 — 79

(9) Do. Section III— Nets, etc., in use ... ... 78—104

(10) Do. Section IV— Methods of curing 105—120

(11) Do. Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers ... " 121 — 140

10 — 14

AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF MADRAS GOVERNMENT
PUBLICATIONS.

IN INDIA.

A. C. Barraud & Co. (Late A. J. Combridge & Co.), Madras.
BuTTERWORTH & Co. (Ltd.), 6, Hastings Street, Calcutta.

R. Cambray & Co., Calcutta.

E. M. Gopalakrishna Kone, Pudumantapam, Madura.

HiGGiNBOTHAMS (Ltd.), Mount Road, Madras.

V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Esplanade, Madras.

G. C. LoGANATHAM BROTHERS, Madras.

.S. Murthy & Co., Madras.

G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras.

The Superintendent, Nazair Kanun Hind Press, Allahabad.

P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras.

D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay.
Thacker & Co. (Ltd.), Bombay.

Thacker, Spink & Co., 3, Esplanade East, Calcutta.

S. Vas & Co., Madras.

S.P.C.K. Press, Vepery, Madras.

IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

B. H. Bi-ACKWELL, 50 and 51, Broad Street, O.vford.

Constable & Co., lo. Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C.

Deighton, Bei-l & Co, (Ltd.), Cambridge.

T. Fisher Unwin (Ltd.), 1, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C.

Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W.

Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. (Ltd.), 68—74, Carter Lane, London,

E.C. and 25, Museum Street, London, W.C.
Henry S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, London, E.C.

P. S. King & Son, 2 and 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W.
LuzAC & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C,
B. QuARiTCH, II, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, London, W.
W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, London, E.C.
Oliver and Bovd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh.

E. PoNSONBY (Ltd.), 116, Grafton Street, Dublin.
W. Wesley & Son, 28, Essex Street, Strand, London.

ON THE CONTINENT.

Ernest Leroux, 28, Rue Bonaparte, Paris.
Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland.

MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT.

A NEW PROTOZOAN CAUSE OF WIDESPREAD
MORTALITY AMONG MARINE FISHES

BY

JAMES HORNELL, f.l.s.,

Governnient Marine Biologist, Madras.

Report No, 2 (19/7),
Madras Fisheries Bulletin, Vol. XI, pages 53 to 66.

MADRAS:
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVErNMENT PRESS,

1917.
Price, 2 annas.^ [2 p£. <■(.

LIST OF CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS BULLETINS.

BDL.
NO,

1. Papers from 1899 relating chiefly to the development of

THE Madras Fisheries Bureau.

2. Note on Fisheries in Japan —

Deals with Japanese methods of fishing, the condition of the fisher-
folk, the assistance given by Government and by local associa-
tions, the fishery laws and regulations, etc. (Pages 105.)

3. The Preservation and Curing of Fish—

Describes the difficulties and methods of preserving fish from taint
whether by refrigeration, desiccation, pickling, smoking, can-
ning, etc. (Pages 119.)

Exhausted ; revised edition under preparation.

4. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1908 —

I. Report on the suitability of Pulical Lake for oyster-culture

(one sketch-plan)

II. Note on an attempt to ascertain the principal determining
factor in oyster-spawning in Madras backwaters (one plate).

III. Report on the feasibility of operating deep-sea fishing boats

on the coasts of the Madras Presidency, with special refer-
ence to the selection of fishing centres and harbours of
refuge (illustrated with three plates) ...

IV. The results of a fishery cruise along the Malabar coast and

to the Laccadive Islands in 1908 (illustrated with 27 photo-
graphs and text-figures)

5. The Practice of Oyster-culture at Arcachon and I're lessons

FOR India—
I. Introduction

II. The physical conditioiu characterising Arcachon basin ...

III. The origin and development of oyster-culture at Arcachon ...

IV. Present methods and conditions ...

V. Principal characteristics of other European systems of cultiva-
tion ... ... ... ...

VI. Applicability of French methods to oyster-culture in India ...

*5

33

71

1—4

4—7

7—19

19—74

75—79
79—90

6. Marine Fish-farming for India—

(1) Introductory i — 3

(2) French fish-farming at Arcachon ... ... 4 — 20

(3) The communal fish-farms of Comacchio ... 21 — 62

(4) The scope for marine fish-farming in India 63 — 83

7. The Sacred Chank of India—

Introductory i-a

I. The chank fisheries of India and Ceylon 3 — 40

II. The chank bangle industry 41 — ti6

III. The role played by the chank in Indian religion and life ... 117—173

IV. Appendix 173— »8i

Report No. 2 (1917).

A WIW PROTOZOAN CAUSE OF WIDESPREAD MORTAirFY
AMONG MARINE FISHES*

BY
JAMES HORNELL, F.L.S.,

Government Marine Biologist, Madras,

Widespread fish mortality is a well known phenomenon on the
Malabar and South Kanara coasts ; its recurrence yearly along
certain stretches of the coast line is regular, though its intensity
varies within wide limits. In certain seasons it is local in occur-
rence and affects only a few species close inshore ; at others, by
no means of annual or regular occurrence, many and diverse kinds
are involved, and it may affect large shoals both close in and at
several miles distance from the land.

Until the present, I believe no detailed investigation of this
phenomenon has been attempted; neither has any satisfactory
explanation been given, although various hypotheses have been
advanced. My attention has been given to the subject intermit-
tently for several years past, but till last year I was never able to
spare the time necessary for a continuous investigation at a period
coincident with the occurrence of the phenomenon.

Before detailing my own observations and the conclusions
arrived at, I may note that all Malabar fishermen whom I have
questioned agree in saying that every year after the passing of the
rainy season and the subsidence of the south-west monsoon, if
there be a continuance of fine weather for a week or ten days,
with plenty of sunshine, and a weak coastal current, the water
inshore becomes turbid and discoloured, brownish or reddish in
tint ; that this water has such poisonous effects upon fish that large
numbers become affected and eventually die. The first effect of
the poison is to make the fish sluggish and at this stage, as I have
myself seen, boys and men crowd to the shore and make great
hauls of the dying fish. Fishermen further state that if favourable
conditions continue, the colour of this foul water changes and
becomes distinctly redder, and emits a stench so strong as to be

* A paper read before the Zoological section of the Jndian Science Congress held
at Bangalore, January 191 7.

54 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

almost unbearable ; when this occurs they state that the poisonous
influence increases and fishes of kinds not afl"ected during the first
onset of the poison, die and are cast ashore. They agree fairly
generally instating that sardines are seldom affected in any quan-
tity, but some men have told me that on two or three occasions,
separated by long intervals, they have seen widespread sardine
mortality from this cause ; in these cases the sea was covered for
miles with dead and dying sardines in enormous multitudes.

The men's explanation of the cause of this foul and poisonous
water, which they term indifferently Karanir (shore-water) and
Sen-nir (red-water) in North Malabar, and Karanir, Se/i/iir and
Kediinir (bad-water) at Calicut, is simple and unvarying. One
man's statement as taken down at the time is characteristic of all ;
according to him, Kcdioiir is the product of freshwater brought down
by rivers; it runs into the sea and as it will not mix with sea-
water, it stagnates in the heat of the sun, and gradually becomes
stinking and of a red {sic) colour, something like brandy or tea
without milk. Like brandy, too, it intoxicates all fish that drink
it and after a time they die. All fish that enter the Kcdiinir first
become stupefied and then die ; if the Kcdunir beats upon rocks the
fish and crabs that live there will also die. Even big bamin
{Polyncmiis spp.) and Kora {Sciacna spp.) have been affected, but
those that usually die are small fish such as young kora (jew-fish),
manthal (soles), malan (mullet) and etta (catfishes), also crabs.
Sardines die during certain seasons but generally they are careful
to avoid coming into this Kcdii/iir. From this belief that the latter
is consequent upon the mingling of river with saltwater, is due the
name sometimes applied of Iriiuir or " double water."

Among Europeans various hypotheses have been current, based,
so far as I know, upon no solid ground of serious investigation —
mere guesses in fact. Among the more plausible of these may be
mentioned {a) sufi'ocation by excessive mud in suspension in the
water, and (/;) the emission into the sea by rivers of large volumes
of putrid water derived from the pits wherein coconut husks are
soaked for long periods preparatory to the extraction of fibre, and
also by the emptying or overflowing of rice fields in which
vegetable matter is allowed to putrefy for manure.^

My investigation disproves all these theories. That of the
fishermen is easily negatived, for in every case (and they were

' Day, F, " Land of the Perumauls," p. 417.

No. 2 (1917) FISH MORTALITY 55

many) where Karafiir and Kedunir were indicated to me, the
specific gravity of such water was found to be fully as high as that
of ordinary sea-water in the vicinity. The density of the water in
which the dying fish were found on several occasions was also
that of normal sea-water. As to mud being a cause, that was
early seen to be out of court as no mud was in suspension in any
Kedunir pointed out by fishermen nor in that in which fish were
found dead and dying. On the contrary this mortality takes place
not in rough weather when mud banks are disturbed, but in calm
sunny weather when the sea is usually free from sediment. The
fish most commonly found dying at the beginning of the phenom-
enon are bottom fish such as soles and cat-fish, and these I have
found by direct experiment can live and thrive in water in which
such mud is kept artificially in suspension. There remains the
theory of foul water from rivers ; this is negatived id) by the lack
of foul odour in the water when it first occurs, {h) by its density
being that of nearly normal sea-water, {c) by the absence of vege-
table debris in suspension in the water called Kedunir or Sennir,
and lastly, {d) by the fact that it is as frequent in bays into which
no great river empties as in those where one does.

After this short review of facts and theories, I shall now state
my own observations and conclusions.

My first experience of poison water was in November 1908 when
on a fishery cruise along the west coast of the Madras Presidency.
On that occasion I was so fortunate as to witness one of those
specially widespread cases of mortality which affect whole shoals
of fish and cover comparatively great areas, but which are said by
fishermen to be infrequent and not of annual occurrence.

In this instance great stretches of water off the Mangalore coast
were thick with dead sardines in various stages of putrefaction.
The area affected was over fifteen miles in length and lay gen-
erally from one to two miles off shore. No organisms except
bacteria were present in quantity in the water. The stench was
intolerable. Details are recorded in Fisheries Bulletin No. 4.'

The next occasion when I met with poison water was on 8th
November 1912, when my attention was drawn to a dirty and
malodorous condition of the water lapping the beach at Calicut.
The colour of the water was distinctly brownish, a clear yellowish

2 Hornell, J. " Report on the Results of a Fishery Cruise along the Malabar
Coast," Madras Fisheries liiiileti/i. No. 4, p. loi : Madras, 1910.

56 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

brown not unlike brandy but with a suggestion of olive in it.
This the fishermen told me was Kedimir, a water that would kill
fishes if it were thicker as it would become if calm weather and a
hot sun were to continue two or three days longer, I saw no fishes
or crabs dead then but as I was busy with canning experiments at
the time I had no opportunity to search carefully. I did however
examine the water microscopically and to my surprise found it to
be full of myriads of brownish yellow Euglenids to the virtual
exclusion of all other organisms. The Euglenids were filled with
very granular protoplasm, had a large colourless nucleus, and
contained many minute dirty yellow chloroplasts and usually
several fairly large oil globules. Unlike the typical Euglenid of
fresh water, this species had no red eye-spot. A long flagellum
emerged from a well marked pit at the blunt end of the body.
The most remarkable feature of the organism was seen, however,
after the water had stood for half an hour- By that time, many of
the Euglenids had sunk to the bottom of the vessel and were seen
to have become embedded and semi-quiescent in a delicate colour-
less jelly of relatively enormous bulk, obvious to the naked eye as
it formed a distinct dirty brownish yellow layer at the bottom
equal to fully one-twelfth the volume of water present. In those
individuals which had not settled to the bottom, a well defined
firm cuticle could be observed, but in those in the jelly no sign of
this was seen ; the surface of the body was rough and almost wart-
like through the protuberance of granules of the body substance.
Hence it is clear that the jelly-like matrix in which the Euglenids
were embedded had been formed at the expense of the cuticular
layer.

At this stage the matter remained till September 1916 when I
was able to visit the Malabar coast with more favourable oppor-
tunities for the study of this problem.

In the beginning I made Cannanore my headquarters. To my
disappointment I was told on arrival that an occurrence offish mor-
tality had already taken place and had passed away. As nearly as
I could fix the date it had occurred during the last week of August.
According to my informants, there had then been a week's break
in the monsoon with calm sea and a sunny sky. Knrnnir had
appeared after a few days and coincident with it, many crabs and
soles had died. Rain and strong wind set in again shortly after
and the mortality ceased. For several days after my arrival no

No. 2(1917) t^lSH mortalitV 57

sign of Kedunir appeared, but on 20th September I sighted several
bright red patches moving northward at about half a mile from
the shore. Procuring a boat, the patches were found after a long
search, a mile off shore and samples obtained. The water of the
patch was found to be 1023 S.G. at 80° F., that of normally coloured
sea- water close by being identical. On examining the samples,
the organisms colouring them were found to consist of a nearly
pure gathering of Noctiluca ; in the containing jar they kept close
to the surface and there formed a dense layer nearly a quarter of
an inch thick, coloured a distinct pink. Fishermen called it Pun-
A'<7ra or " flower water" and asserted that it was a sign of the
early reappearance of poison water (Soinir, Karanir, or KcdiDiir).
While alive this scum of Noctiiiica gave out a strong and unpleasant
odour; with death, the smell decreased markedly.

For some days thereafter heavy rain and overcast skies pre-
vailed and no sign of poison water appeared, then a transient
interval of fine weather supervened, and on 25th September news
was brought to me that Karanir had appeared and that dead crabs
and fish were coming ashore. Sure enough I found the beach
south of Cannanore littered with dead crabs (chiefly Neptunus pcla-
gicus) but the Karanir had disappeared with a sudden change of
weather. The specific gravity of the shore-water when examined
was found to be IO23 at 85° F. and contained a considerable
number of greenish Pm^/^/mw^ of two species {Gynniodiiiiuni spp.)
and a smaller number of brownish Euglenids- The former I thought
might possibly be the cause of the poison water, as " red-water "
containing hordes of a brownish Peridinian ( Gony aid ax poly gram ma)
is known to cause widespread mortality in Japan among fishes
and molluscs, and as I had seen Peridinian red-water at Tuticorin
causing limited mortality. The fishermen, however, asserted that
the true Karanir had disappeared and subsequent events showed
that Peridinians are not (at least usually) the cause of fish
mortality on the Malabar coast.

A few days later we had another spell of fine sunny weather
and on 2nd October Kedunir was again reported, and this time
I was able to watch the whole sequence of events from the
commencement. As soon as I saw the water lapping on the
beach I recognized the olive-brown water I had seen in 1912 at
Calicut ; examination showed it to be swarming with the same
brownish yellow Euglenid to the exclusion of all else except a

58 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

comparatively few green Peridinians and a very few Diatoms.
Dead crabs (chiefly Neptiinus pclagicus, with a few Thalamita, Scylla,
Nephmus sangiiinolentus and Matuta) were abundant in the wash of
the tide and along tide-mark and crowds of men and boys were
busily engaged in netting and spearing crabs and fish in the shal-
lows. The fish were chiefly soles (Plagusia bilineata) and small
jewfishes (Sciaenids), together with smaller numbers of catfishes,
nonthal (Sillago) and Konippa)! ( Platycephalus). Several fairly large
shore seines were being operated and these made great captures.
Two penivalas, each used from two canoes nearer the rocks at the
south end of the bay, made even greater hauls-and in these were
to be seen larger jewfishes and numerous large crawfishes ( Panu-
linis) and many Ncptitnus; the catches, however, consisted princi-
pally of soles and I was told that several of these large nets had
been torn the night before because of the immense weight of soles
captured. All the live fish seen were evidently in a state of
exhaustion, varying in degree from a slight lack of ordinary vigour
to one of marked stupefaction or coma. In the latter the gills had
the appearance characteristic of asphyxiation and in the case of
the crabs, the stomach and intestine were empty. Over the whole
area affected, the water was olive-brown, the sea being calm with
no apparent current within the bay. The mortality continued
during the next three days, the affected area moving slowly north-
wards along the shore in response apparently to an eddy-drift
within the bay. With this continuance of the poisonous condition,
an extension of the mortality became apparent. On the first day a
few Hippa were seen thrown up but upon the third day, thousands
of dead of the two species found here, together with a few of the
rarer Albunea, accumulated on the level beach adjacent to the Old
Town. The great majority were dead, but a few were seen feebly
and unsuccessfully trying to burrow. Littoral molluscs were also
greatly affected; Donax cuncata was thrown up dead in quantity
near the mosque, and still larger numbers were seen washing to
and fro on the bottom. A small Pholas and some Mytilids were
also seen dead in considerable quantity, together with occasional
dead individuals of Donax scortum, a large Mactra and other
bivalves.

Along with the stranded Hippa were found over a dozen indi-
viduals of the fine Alcyonarian, Cnvernularia obesa, still alive but
evidently in an advanced stage of asphyxiation, as the polyps

No. 2 (1917) FISH MORTALITY 59

were all in a state of expansion and did not retract or respond
readily upon irritation.

Wherever rocks are found within the bay, it was notable that
many small hermit crabs were found washed up dead and dying in
the vicinity. It was most significant that the majority of these
had no sheltering shell. They had obviously become so enfeebled
and stupefied as to be unable to retain a grip on the columella of
their house and had slipped out and been carried ashore. The few
still within shells, Trochus and Turbo chiefly, were either dead or
could be pulled out without resistance. This instance, together
with that offered by the dying off of Hippa, Donax and Cavermilaria,
appears to furnish the clearest evidence of the correlation of this
mortality with the presence of the Euglenid-infected water, as
all these are not vagrant forms such as the swimming crabs and
fishes generally ; the latter might conceivably have been poisoned
elsewhere and have drifted ashore into the Euglenid water, but
such a possibility is impossible in the case of Cavcrnularia, Hermit-
crabs, Hippa and burrowing Molluscs.

On the fourth dav the mortality had decreased markedly ; men
no longer found it profitable to net the inshore water and the
number of Euglenids had sensibly decreased. This change coin-
cided with an alteration in the weather ; the wind had freshened
and it was clear that the poisonous water was being dispersed by
the roughness of the sea and the stronger inshore current. The
next day conditions had become practically normal. Later in the
month (9th October) similar Euglenid-infected water was seen at
Calicut accompanied by mortality amongst soles and ///'/j/'rt ; the
extent of the trouble was however insignificant and it appears that
the open character of the coast, with the absence of any embayment,
is an adverse and limiting condition against severe concentration
of poison water along the shore in this particular locality.

In the bays in the neighbourhood of Quilandi and Tikkotti, a few
miles north of Calicut, more favourable physical conditions prevail
and from 9th to l6th October the presence of Euglenid water and
concurrent fish and crab mortality were noted, less severe but
otherwise similar in character to that which occurred atCannanore
earlier in the month.

The specific gravity of the olive-brown affected water on 2nd and
3rd October when the mortality was most intense was 1026 at 81° F. ;
water taken on October 3rd a quarter of mile from the shore, which

60 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

contained comparatively few Euglenids, was slightly higher, being
I026"5 at the same temperature. On 5th October when the water
in the bay had begun to clear, a distinct rise in the specific gravity
of the inshore-water was noticed, being 1026*5. Off shore-water
was undoubtedly coming in and driving out the foul water, for coin-
cident with the rise in density, the number of Euglenids were now
comparatively few, their place being taken by several species of
diatoms common to ordinary sea-water on this coast.

The Euglenid-infected water noted at Calicut and Quilandj
from 9th to l6th October, ranged in density from 1025 to I026'5 at
82° F. The Euglenids appear to flourish equally at the higher as
at the lower density.

On the evening of l6th October a break of weather occurred, the
fine sunny conditions of the preceding week giving place to heavy
rain and cloudy sky. On 17th October sea-water from near the
shore showed an almost entire disappearance of Euglenids and a
fall in density to I024'5 at 8o° F. No further swarms of Euglenids
were noted during the remainder of the month which was charac-
terised by a continuance of rainy weather.

There can now be no question that the prodigious multiplication
of Euglenids in shallow water on the Malabar coast causes extensive
recurrent local mortality amongst the inshore fauna ; whether
other organisms also cause mortality and the precise way in which
stupefaction and death are brought about remain uncertain.

With regard to the former question, it is to be noted that never
before has fish mortality been attributed to the superabundance of
flagellate infusorians such as the Euglcua above described ; all
other observations point either to the group of Peridiniales or Dino-
flagellata or to the cysto-flagellate Noctiluca as being the organisms
involved in those cases where fish mortality has been traced to the
occurrence of the phenomenon termed " Red-water " in other parts
of the world. The phenomenon is by no means unique. Nishikawa
has recorded interesting cases from Japan ' while Gilchrist has
recorded others from South Africa.*

Nishikawa records that in September IQOO, "streaks and
patches of brownish yellow water emitting an unpleasant odour

^ Nishikawa, T. " Gonyaulax and the discoloured water in the Ba\- of Agu,"
Aimoialioiu's Zoologicu Japomnses, Vol. IV, part i, pp. 31-34, Tokio, 1901.

•• Gilchrist, J.D.F. "An enquiry into fluctuations in fish supply on the South African
coast," Marine Biological Reports (Union of South Africa), No. 2, Cape Town, 1914.

NO. 2 (1917) FISH MORTALITY 6I

were observed by fishermen in the Bay of Agu . . . As this
'red tide' (sic) is said to have been in former times highly
destructive to the beds of the pearl oysters which form one of
the principal productions of the Bay, great alarm was felt for the
molluscs. Fortunately on 28th of the month, a heavy storm arose
and cleared the waters of the bay so that very little damage was
actually done." When Nishikawa. went to Agu to investigate, the
discolouration of the water had almost disappeared and in conse-
quence his enquiry was incomplete. He was able to show however
that the discoloured water was due to the presence of a superabun-
dance of a Peridinian, Gonyaulax polygramma Stein, so numerous
that he estimated the Peridinian population of a drop of this water
at from 800 to 3,000 at the densest area. Nishikawa remarks that
" usually the appearance of discoloured water is accompanied by a
great mortality of fishes, molluscs, and shrimps. According to the
observation of a pearl-oyster culturist, in the latter part of August
1899, large streaks and patches of yellowish-red water floated
about with the tide in the Bay of Toba. Fishes which were kept
in baskets floating on the surface of the sea were damaged by
them. Fishermen easily caught the littoral fishes by spearing, for
the fishes had become very sluggish in the discoloured water.
Even Haliotis seemed to suffer,"

Owing to the incompleteness of his observations Nishikawa was
uncertain whether the presence of the peridinians per se was the
immediate cause of the mortality. He noted as significant that
other forms of plankton abundant in neighbouring uncontaminated
water were practically absent from the discoloured water, a fact
similar to that which I noticed in the euglenid water off Malabar.
He inferred that water fitted for the propagation of peridinians
and unsuitable for the existence of the usual plankton is probably
also unsuitable for other fish life, or else the dead bodies of enor-
mous numbers of peridinians sinking to the bottom and putrefying
there, may eventually become injurious to other organisms.

Mr. Nishikawa, whom I had the pleasure of meeting when in
Japan in 1907, informed me further that when "red water " runs
into a bay fishes float to the surface stupefied. He added that in
Omura Bay, near Nagasaki, the farmers of the district welcome the
appearance of this poison water as they can then catch quantities
of fish with ease.

He mentioned that truly red or pink water is also found in
Japan, also yellow water. The former is due to a superabundance
9

62 MADRAS FISHERIES BQLLETIN VOL. XI,

of Noctiliica, the latter to myriads of diatoms, chiefly Rhizosoma ;
he held that neither exercise harmful effects upon fish life even
when in vast superabundance.

This latter opinion is directly opposed by Gilchrist who states
that ^ :—

" Red water is a phenomenon observed not infrequently in South
African seas. It consists of masses of red-coloured water some-
times a mile or two in extent, at other times occurring only in small
patches. In False Bay it may be seen usually several times
during the summer months, and presents a very remarkable
appearance, being frequently of an almost blood-red colour. It
consists of multitudes of Noctiliica, normally present in sea water
nearly everywhere. At certain times, however, they increase
enormously in numbers, when they can be seen to consist of minute
egg-like bodies, which in mass present the conspicuous red colour
referred to. Such crowding together of these minute organisms
appears to pollute the water, for when examined microscopically
most were found to be dead ... It has been observed that
fish seem to avoid the red water and fishermen do not care to
fish in its vicinity. It is said that mullet caught in it, decay very
quickly, becoming quite decomposed if left ungutted overnight.
One or two instances are known in which fish and other marine
animals have been killed apparently by such polluting of the
water. I am indebted to an old resident in Saldanha Bay for some
particulars of such an occurrence at that place. He stated that on
one occasion, the only one in his experience, about the year 1907,
the bay, which is almost landlocked, became filled with red water,
known locally as ' flower water.' At the time there had been a
north-west wind for some days previously. The fish in the bay
were seen floating belly upwards in a disabled condition. Some
of them were cast on shore in quantities at the end of the bay, in
such numbers that they were 'taken away in cartloads.' Even the
shell-fish, such as Mussels {Donax scrra probably), Klip-koes
{Haliotis) were killed off in large numbers, apparently on account
of the presence of large quantities of decaying organic matter."

Gilchrist is also of opinion^ that when diatoms occur in vast
swarms, under certain circumstances they may decay and cause
the death of fishes by suffocation.

Loc. cii., p. 17. ^ Loc. cit., p. 19.

NO. 2 (1917) FISH MORTALITY 63

Prior to my Malabar experience last year, my attention had
been drawn to this subject by a small occurrence of bright red
water at Tuticorin. In this case the colour was due to the presence
of immense quantities of a bright pink peridinian of very minute
size. A few small fish were seen dead where this water settled,
but the swarm passed away quickly and was of too small extent to
cause serious harm. This bright red water (not the brownish-
yellow of the Japanese " red-water ") emitted an intolerable stench,
a blend seemingly of sulphuretted hydrogen with the smell of
decomposing fish oil. Accompanying this red water was a dense
scum of a sage green tint due to the presence of vast quantities of
an extremely large species of a green Paranweciiini, which appeared
to be preying upon the peridinians.

From this experience and remembrance of Mr. Nishikawa's
Japanese observations, I began the Malabar investigation on the
hypothesis that the cause of fish mortality was to be sought in an
undue abundance of some peridinian. As my first samples of
water taken at Cannanore, from a place where discoloured water
with accompanying fish mortality had been seen a fortnight previ-
ously, contained considerable numbers of two species of yellowish
green Peridinians ( Gymnodiniiim spp.), my belief was strengthened
but, as above detailed, I had to abandon this in face of the repeated
conjunction of euglenid-infested water with widespread mortality
of fishes, crustaceans and molluscs within the same area.

The immediate cause of death in the case of fishes, crabs and
shell-fish caught in the foul water seen periodically on the Malabar
coast is undoubtedly some form of suffocation in the wide sense
of a poisoning of the blood of the animals concerned by some
asphyxiant present in the surrounding medium — the water of the
sea. The symptoms are distinctively those of this form of death —
the gills dark and livid and movements sluggish. Especially
marked was the comatose condition of affected crustaceans.
Exactly how the asphyxiation is brought about is uncertain ; it
may either be by exhaustion of oxygen in the sea water or by
poisoning due to the excretion of waste products on the part of the
euglenids or it may be semi-mechanical in cases where bottom-
loving animals have come within an area where vast masses of the
euglenids have settled to the bottom and have there passed into
the jelly-forming resting stage. The first suggestion is the least
likely, as the euglenids are possessed of chloroplasts and are more
10

64 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

likely to set free oxygen in quantity than to absorb it. On the
other hand poisoning of the water by the excretions of myriads of
individuals and by the decomposition products liberated through
the death of the short-lived generations of these organisms is
sufficient cause for much of the mortality noted; the third, or
mechanical factor, has, I believe, particularly harmful influence
upon burrowing and sedentary organisms, as these are unable to
escape its blanketing effects.

Fishermen aver that the phase of mortality which I witnessed
last year is by no means the climax ; they hold that with a conti-
nuation of favourable weather — calm seas and an abundance of
sunshine — the trouble increases, being characterized by a thicken-
ing of the water and emission of an intolerable stench, entailing
an extension of widespread death among larger fishes and occa-
sionally among shoals of sardines. As I have not had an opportu-
nity to watch this further progress and enhancement of the trouble,
I cannot say definitely how it is caused. I have, however, seen
the ultimate result of such an extended death in the case of sar-
dine shoals as already mentioned.^ I am inclined to the opinion
that these more extensive instances of mortality owe their origin
primarily to the same cause as induces the more limited and
localized cases described above, that is, to the superabundant
multiplication of immense swarms of euglenids. The extension of
the area covered and the increase in the numbers of fish involved
may be explained by (a) simple increase in the extent of the
euglenid swarms, reinforced by (b) a progressive intensification of
the evil influence due to the putrefaction of ever-increasing quanti-
ties of dead fish. Many of the patches of putrefying sardines seen
in November 1908 off Mangalore (loc. cit.) were reduced to mere
frothy ochreous yellow bacterial scums. These patches were often
as much as half a mile in length by half that in width. The
atmosphere was horribly contaminated by an intolerable stench of
oily decomposition ; the water contamination must have been
intense. Healthy fish wandering into these areas of decomposition
quickly became affected, rushing hither and thither aimlessly and
in evident distress, coming gasping to the surface and finally
turning on their sides and dying. With each accession of material
to the putrefying mass, the area of contamination continues to

llorncU, J., Madras Fisheries Buleltin, No. 4, pp. 101-105.

NO. 2(1917) FISH MORTALITY 65

increase gradually till rough weather supervenes when the mass
becomes broken up and scattered and thus ceases to be a focus of
death.

So far as my observations go, they favour the view held by
Mr. Nishikawa already referred to, that Noctilitca is not an active
agent in causing fish mortality. I have seen it in great profusion
colouring considerable areas bright pinkish red both off Cannanore
and in Palk Bay and in neither locality did I find any associated
with fish mortality nor would any of the fishermen accuse it of
evil influence ; they agreed in declaring it to be innocuous. At
Cannanore it is called Punkara (" flower-water "), while at Tirupala-
kudi it is known as Valkarai (" stain-streaked water ").

On several occasions both at Cannanore and at Calicut, there
were great numbers of Noctiluca present, especially near the
surface ; in one instance only did I find it reproducing actively by
sporulation and it is noteworthy that in this instance the
individuals were ingesting the accompanying euglenids in great
numbers.

The masses of jelly-cased resting euglenids which accumulate
on the bottom form an important food source of the oil sardine
(C. lougiceps) and hence possess an important economic value as an
offset to the mortality they occasionally entail among fishes.

I should mention that unlike Noctiluca and Peridinians gene-
rally, these euglenids do not emit any appreciable bad odour
while alive.

Incidentally this enquiry furnished a satisfactory explanation
of a curious incident in the siege of Cannanore in 1507 that has
long puzzled historians. In the year named, the Portuguese, not
long arrived in India, were besieged in the fort of San Angelo by
the Kolattiri Raja and the Zamorin of Calicut with an army of
60,000 Nayars. After a lengthy siege the garrison were reduced
to the greatest straits and lived on lizards, rats, cats and other
animals. "On the 15th August, however, a miraculous event
occurred, seemingly in answer to the prayers of the besieged to the
Queen of Heaven, whose feast day it chanced to be, for the sea
sent forth shoals of crabs and prawns, and the garrison again
lived in plenty." So says Logan in his "Manual of Malabar,"^
an explanation which is undoubtedly correct, in spite of the fact

** Logan, \\\, Malabar, 2nd edition, page 316, Madras, 1906.

66 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI, NO. 2 (iQI/^)

that the date given is earlier than that at which dead fish and
crabs usually appear. This apparent discrepancy vanishes when
we remember that the date given is old style : to bring it into
agreement with the present calendar ten days must be added, thus
bringing the date to 15th August; last year abnormally fine
weather prevailed during the last week of August, with the result
that kedunir and dead fish and crabs were noticed at Cannanore
during that week, thereby reproducing almost to the day the
phenomenon of 1507-

Addendum.
The above account was written in November 1916 immediately
after my return from Cannanore in October. I brought away a
small bottle containing a quantity of euglenid jelly with a view
to ascertain the odour it would give out when dead and undergoing
decomposition. The jelly has refused however to decompose.
The bottle has stood upon my desk from October till now (17th
March 1917), and under the microscope the jelly shows almost
precisely the same appearance it did when first the free-swimming
euglenids passed into this resting condition. The one difference
I note is that the chloroplasts are now distinctly more green than
when the jelly-stage was entered upon ; the colour then was a
distinct olive brown in the mass, now it is a dark olive green.
The gelatinous matrix seems also somewhat reduced. 1 propose
devoting attention during its next seasonal appearance to a further
elucidation of its life-history.

BOL
NO,

8

PAGES

Marine Fishery Investigations in Madras, 1914-15—

I. A note on the edible oyster 1— 10

II. An explanation of the irregularly cyclic character of the pearl

fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar ... 11—22

III. Notes upon two exploring cruises in search of trawl grounds

off the Indian and Ceylon coasts .. ... ... ... 23 — 41

IV. Report on the pearl fishery held at Tondi, 1914 43 — 9^

V. Professor Huxley and the Ceylon pearl fishery, with a note

on the forced or cultural production of free spherical pearls. 93 — 104
VI. The utilization of coral and shells for lime-burning in the

• Madras Presidency I05— 126

9. Fishery Statistics and Information, West and F^ast jCoasts,
Madras Presidency —

(1) Introduction ... i— 3

(2) West Coast. Section I —Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-

holders, markets, etc. ... •• ••• 7 9

(3) Do. Section II— Number of boats engaged in

fishing •• 10—14

(4) Do. Section III— Various kinds of nets, etc., in

use ... ... 15—30

(5) Do. Section IV — Methods of curing fish ... ... 31 — 44

(6) Do. Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers ... ■.. 45 — ^^

(7) East Coast. Section.!— Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-

holders, etc. .. . ... ... 65 — 71

(8) Do. Section II — Boats and catamarans 72 — 79

(9) Do. Section IIT— Nets, etc., in use ... .. 78—104

(10) Do. SectioJi IV— Methods of curing 105 — 120

(11) Do. Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers izl — 140

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ON THE CONTINENT.

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MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT.

A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

OF THE

FISHING INDUSTRY OF TUTICORIN

(SOUTH INDIA)

BY

JAMES HORNELL. f.l.s.,

Government Marine Biologist, Madras,

Report No. 3 (1917),
Madras Fisheries Bulletin, Vol. XI, pages 67 to 117.

MADRAS:
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS.

I 91 7-
Price, 8 «««oj.] [9 P«"t*,

LIST OF CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS BULLETINS.

BUL.
NO. PAGES

1. Papers from 1899 relating chiefly to the development of

THE Madras Fisheries Bureau.

2. Note on Fisheries in Japan —

Deals with Japanese methods of fishing, the condition of the fisher-
folk, the assistance given by Government and by local associa-
tions, the fishery laws and regulations, etc. (Pages 105.)

3. The Preservation and Curing of Fish—

Describes the difficulties and methods of preserving fish from taint
whether by refrigeration, desiccation, pickling, smoking, can-
ning, etc. (Pages 119.)

Exhausted ; revised edition under preparation.

4. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1908—

I. Report on the suitability of Pulicat Lake for oyster-culture
(one sketch-plan)

II. Note on an attempt to ascertain the principal determining

factor in oyster-spawning in Madra'S backwaters (one plate). 35

III. Report on the feasibility of operating deep-sea fishing boats
on the coasts of the Madras Presidency, with special refer-
ence to the selection of fishing centres and harbours of
refuge (illustrated with three plates) ... 33

IV. The results of a fishery cruise along the Malabar coast and
to the Laccadive Islands in 1908 (illustrated with 27 photo-
graphs and text-figures) 71

5. The Practice of Oyster-culture at Arcachon and its lessons

^OR India—

I. Introduction I — 4

II. The physical conditions characterising Arcachon basin ... 4— -7

III. The origin and development of oyster-culture at Arcachon ... 7 — 19

IV. Present methods and conditions 19 — 74

V. Principal characteristics of other European systems of cultiva-
tion 75—79

VI. Applicability of French methods to oyster-culture in India ... 79— 9°

6. Marine Fish-farming for India—

(i) Introductory i — 3

(2) French fish-farming at Arcachon 4 — 20

(3) The communal fish-farms of Comacchio 21 — 62

(4) The scope for marine fish-farming in India 63 — 83

1-3

7. The Sacred Chank of India—

Introductory

I. The chank fisheries of India and Ceylon 3—40

II. The chank bangle industry ... 4i — ti6

III. The role played by the chank in Indian religion and life ... 117—172

IV. Appendix 173— »8l

Report No. 3 (19/7).

A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE FISHING INDUSTRY
OF TUTICORIN (SOUTH INDIA).

BY

JAMES HORNELL, F.L.S.,

Government Marine Biologist, Madras.

INTRODUCTORY.

When I first engaged in fishery duty in the Madras Presidency
I found that no adequate data existed concerning the statistical
condition of the fishing industry- Tlie only figures available were
those contained in the census reports, and those existing in the
records of the fish-curing yards conducted by the Salt and Abkari
Department. The former were of little or no use as they dealt
only with the numbers of the population engaged in the industry,
while the latter took account only of fish brought to the yards for
curing — no notice was taken of the fresh-fish trade, which in
populous centres is usually the more important branch.

Without a fairly accurate knowledge of the relative value and
quantities of the different kinds of fishes caught and of the relative
and absolute importance of the methods employed, I felt that no
real progress could be possible in initiating new fishing methods
or in introducing improvements in existing ones; in other words
an investigation upon scientific lines must precede any experi-
mental innovations conducted empirically. Unfortunately the
means at my disposal for such an enquiry were so scanty that I
had to confine it to a single port in the first instance. That port
had necessarily to be Tuticorin where alone I could improvise the
necessary organization for the purpose. The enquiry was com-
menced in October 191 1 and was carried on without interruption
throughout the ensuing four years.

Those who are acquainted only with the methods employed in

collecting fishery statistics in Great Britain can have little idea of

the difficulty experienced in organizing and carrying through such

an enquiry in India. A British fishery statistician would probably

II

68 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

appoint, in the case of a small port, an agent from the ranks of the
fish-trading community of the place, who, for a small fee, would
collect daily from the fish salesmen of the port accounts of the fish
they had handled, together with such other details as could be
obtained readily from the owners of the local fishing fleet and
from the carrying companies serving the port.

In an Indian port like Tuticorin anything like this is impossible.
There is no wholesale fish market except the beach, there are no
companies or large owners controlling each a number of boats,
and while there are certainly some fish salesmen and traders, these
men seldom or never keep any accounts, and if they did would
probably refuse to acknowledge the fact or else would falsify them
lest a demand for income-tax should ensue. Worse still, the fish
are seldom sold by weight, measure or number. The catch is
usually thrown in a heap on the beach and the ' lot ' as it lies is
sold by auction — the buyers must appraise its value by the eye,
and make their bids accordingly. Accordingly the only way to
obtain fairly reliable statistics at Tuticorin was to depute two men
to attend respectively at the two main fish landing places and to
ascertain as best they could the catch of each fishing boat as it
was landed and sold. To arrive at an approximately correct idea
of the weight in the case of larger fishes, these were counted and
average individuals weighed by means of a spring balance; in the
case of small ones, the number of standard basketsful were ascer-
tained as best might be, and by reference to the weight capacity
of these standard baskets, the weight of the fish was estimated.
I cannot pretend that the results are absolutely accurate, but I
believe they are fully as reliable as the generality of British
fishery statistics. To prevent errors due to the personal equation,
the same enumerators were employed throughout, thereby eliminat-
ing one very fruitful source of error In such an enquiry. Constant
supervision was also employed and wherever possible any
exceptional catches were specially tested and verified. The only
figures of which I have any reasonable doubt concerning their
accuracy are those collected during the first three months; the
enumerators were then gaining experience and probably were not
so expert in estimating quantities and separating species as they
eventually became. Still I see no adequate reason to exclude these
particular statistics and I believe that the tables and summaries
given below are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes and

NO. 3 (1917)

TL'TICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY

69

precise enough for the purpose of generalization. Any minor
errors there may be, will be consistent throughout the enquiry and
the relative accuracy of the figures will be nowise impaired thereby.

In the main I shall use either the local Tamil names or else
their English equivalents when these can be employed without
danger of misapprehension. To prevent any possibility of confu-
sion, I append a list of the local vernacular names with the English
equivalents which I employ in the text and in the tables, together
with the scientific name for each species as used by Day in his
Fishes of British India (1889)—" Fauna of British India " series.

During the four years the enquiry continued, October 1911 to
September 1915, the annual wholesale values of fish landed at
Tuticorin were respectively Rs. 40,256, Rs. 42,179, Rs. 49,053 and
Rs. 45,146 giving an average per annum of Rs. 44,158.

Not to overload these notes with figures I shall, wherever
possible, work upon the average annual figures for this period
rather than analyse each year separately.

Adopting this principle the average yearly weight and value of
the 36 most important fishes are as follows : —

Names.

Valai

Sardines

Jew-lishes

Sea-perches ...

Rock-cod

Seer

Sea-breams ...

Sharks and Rays

Red Mullet ...

Anchovies

(Gerridae)

Horse-mackerel

Whiting

(Chorinemus)

Bonito

Cat-fish

(Lactarius) ...

(Otolithus)

Grunter

Veight in

Value in

pounds.

rupees.

213-525

16,681

68,114

4,257

59.049

5,115

54,568

4,613

36,155

3,954

24,050

4,509

23,626

2,215

22,840

1,427

14,893

679

14,486

930

10,868

509

9,169

1,145

9,041

989

8,412

1,051

6,900

862

6,152

288

6,076

759

4,748

296

3.526

165

iTIN

VOL. XI,

Veight in

Value in

pounds.

rupees.

3»457

loS

3>272

409

2,921

182

2,785

261

2,524

473

2,505

313

2,235

209

2,130

89

1,011

125

977

91

915

114

706

44

631

49

530

33

348

32

129

6

129

6

70 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

Names.

Ribbon fish ...

Barracuda

Indian Herring

Grey Mullet ...

Pomfrets

Hilsa ... ...

(Diagramma)

Trigger-fish ...

Butter-fish

Spotted Dory

Bamin

Dolphin

Mackerel

Sword-fish

(Lobotes)

Garfish

Soles

«

The values of these fishes are calculated according to the rates

given in the table on page 85 and are rather higher than the

actual prices obtained on the beach.

Vdlai fishery. — From the above it is seen at a glance that by far

the most important fishery carried on from this centre is that of

the Valai ( Chirocentrus dorab). This fish, the only species of its

genus known in Indian waters, is caught in thin cotton drift nets

having a mesh of 1 54 inch from knot to knot. So important is

the fishery that this net, the one most largely employed here, is

termed the vala valai or valai net. Each valai fishing boat carries

a fleet of seven nets, each measuring 24 fathoms along the head

rope with a depth of about 5 fathoms when set. The upper edge

is buoyed with large wooden floats, the lower edge is weighted

with small stones and sometimes partly with shells. The nets are

never barked, as the fishermen allege that poor catches are made

if they be barked. They believe that the brown tint which results

makes the nets too readily visible to the fish. As the sea on the

fishing grounds is generally very clear, this is probably an

adequate reason. I am endeavouring to meet the difficulty by

introducing a green preservative dip for the nets, but even on this

the fishermen look askance and its utility has not yet been

No. 3 (1917)

TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY

71

sufficiently proved to persuade them to adopt it. Being unbarked
the nets have a short life, not extending beyond a single year.

The boats used are converted dug-out canoes ; the sides are
first " spread " or forced outwards by an ingenious but tedious
method of wedging, then ribs of naturally grown curve are bolted
on and a deep weather board added along each gunwale. The
length of valai boats ranges from 28 to 30 feet. A single mast
with a broad low lug-sail is carried and with a strong favouring
breeze they can make 5 to 6 knots through the water. Their great
defect is the lack of a keel ; being smooth bottomed they have no
grip on the water and make far too much leeway wlien beating
against the wind. The one remedy would be to fit them with a
centre board or drop keel or better still to instal a small motor and
so render them independent of sails.

^"V

—^^

Fig. I. — Valai (Chirocenirus dorab). X r-

They carry 5 to 6 men of a crew, this large number being
necessitated by the frequent need to propel the boat by oars when
the wind is adverse or a calm prevails. Fitted with a motor, a
crew of 4 men would be ample, while some increase in the size of
the boat would be possible, and this in turn would make the boat
more profitable, as it would enable a very considerable increase in
the quantity and length of nets carried. The valai is a fish highly
esteemed by the Indian public and a great increase in the supply
would readily be absorbed by the market at remunerative rates.
On the east coast it occupies the place that the herring does in
England — a tasty morsel within the reach of the purse of the great
mass of the people. Hence I propose to devote special attention
in future to the development of this industry and particularly to
the improvement of the nets and boats used; the life history of the
fish, whereof we know little, is also receiving attention.

Unlike the French sardine and the oil-sardine of Malabar
(Clupca lougiccps), the valai does not harass the fishing industry
by failing to appear in due season in certain years. There is

72

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

considerable irregularity in the catch of any particular month,
from year to year, but what is short in one month in a particular
year is frequently made up wholly or in part in another month.
There are certainly years comparatively poor, but none can be
said to be years of absolute dearth ; curiously enough in the four
years" statistics here presented, very rich years alternated with
comparatively poor ones— in 1911-12 the catch was 269,000 lb.
against 185,000 lb. in the following year, succeeded by a splendid
total of 275,000 lb. in 1913 14 with the disappointing amount of
only 125,000 lb. in 1914-15.

The following table gives month by month the catches made in
the four years named together with the average monthly catch in
pounds.

Monthly catches in lb. of Valai (Chirocentrus dorab) during

four years.

-c

^

c

2

2

.a

rt

0

Q

>

■— >

fc.

^_"

J

»

>^

tt)

3

■— >

t« 1

1911

5,667

7>909

1
4,680 1912 25,215 17,366

4,490

8,240

129,598 29,462 18,784

12,522

1
4,770 263,703

1912

15s

3P76

12,401,1913 21,042 13,851

13,200

36,463

35.418

26,214 19,066

2.133

2,064 '85,083

1913 ...

1,991

ii433

2,8121914 17,716 6,538

8,145

",451

22.435

176,169 20,214

5.652

513 275,069

1914

594

2,616

3,507 1915

18,162 18,145

4,743

1,551

20,568
52.005

12,123 33.857

7,413

1,964 125,243

Average
over the

2,102

3.759

5,850

20jS33 13,975

7,645 14,426

60,992' 22,980

6,930

2,328; 213,525

4 years.

1

.- 1

Vdlai seasons. — Valai fishing proceeds throughout the whole
year, but except from January to July inclusive (with a break of
poor catches in March when the sea is particularly calm and the
water crystal clear) fishing is not of much importance; the two
periods {a) January and February and {b) April to July inclusive
constitute the true valai season. Particularly good is the trimester
May, June and July, when catches may range as high as 176,000 lb.
(nearly 80 tons) for a single month. Examination of the tables
shows great fluctuations in the catch during these three months ;
this is due largely, if not entirely, to variability in the weather
conditions dependent on the onset and character of the south-west
monsoon in different years. How the valai fishery overshadows
all the other fisheries is graphically depicted in Table IX.

No. 3 (191 7)

TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY

n

Offshore lining. — Next in importance to the valai fishery is
lining for sea-perch, rock-cod and jew-fishes. This is carried on
upon rocky banks more or less covered with Sargasso and various

Fiu. 2. — Kai.awa or Indian Rock-Cod (Serranus undulosus). X e-

brown and red sea-weeds, forests of the branched tubes of Eunice
tiibifex, frequent solitary coral colonies, varied and numerous
massive sponges and many showy Alcyonarians and tree-like
Gprgonids. On such a rough bottom long-lining is not possible
and the men have perforce to use hand lines.

Its importance in bulk of fish caught and in value, together with
the fluctuations experienced from month to month, is shown
in the following tabulation : —

Offshore lining at Tuticorin.
Averages over four years — weight and value.

Month.

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

Average annual total

Quantity in

Value in

pounds.

rupees.

15,129

1,044

3,211

235

2,171

166

6,000

493

7,959

632

10,841

830

10,854

978

8,753

840

3,823

416

5,608

790

17,966

1,485

25,149

2,214

117,464

10,023

74

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

Fig. 3. — Vf.lamin (Lethrinus nebulosus). X ^.

^XJ

Fig. 4. — Clirci'i'ii.l (Luijanus annularis). X k-

No. 3 (1917) TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY 75

From these particulars it is seen that this fishery, like that
for valai, is an all-year-round one ; the fishes concerned are
not migratory under ordinary circumstances and the fishery is
controlled in the main by weather conditions, being best in the light
wind seasons between the monsoons. The better one lasts from
the middle of August to the end of October ; it begins as the
strength of the south-west monsoon dies down in August and
continues till strong and steady north-east winds set in towards the
end of October. A second good fishing season occurs during the
calm weather period of March, April and May, but this favourable
weather is largely offset by the perfect clearness of the water —
always a serious drawback in bottom fishing.

The fishes caught consist in the main of Kalawa (Sernmiis
iDiditlosus), Cheppili (Liitjamis annularis), Cheri (Sciaena miles),
Moonjan (Serrauus hexagouatiis), Thambuvan (Serranits polleni),
Tholan (Diagramma punctatum), Velamin (Lethriniis nehiilosiis),
Panna (OtoJithiis ruber), Karumuthal ( Chrysophrys herda), with
occasional rays and dogfishes. Generally the majority of the
round fish caught by offshore lining may be grouped as rockfishes
from their habit of frequenting rocky ground ; the three families
of Serranidae, Sciaenidae and Sparidae contribute the bulk of
these fishes.

The bait used consists chiefly of small fishes, the most valued
being the Kola or Anchovy fEugrauUs dussumieri), Thondai
(Dnssnmieria aeuta), Chalai (Clupca atrieauda and Clupea sindensis),
Sudai ( Clupea Jimhriat a ), and pieces of Valai ( Chirocentriis dorab).

The following table shows the contributions made respectively
by the nine most abundant rockfishes to the spoils of this method
of fishing : —

76

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

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NO. 3(1917'

TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY

17

During the two special seasons for offshore lining the number
of boats employed rises to l8 ; when the weather is adverse, as
during the height of the south-west and north-east monsoons, a
number of the lining fishermen resort to other methods of fishing
or take up lighterage work, but there are seldom less than five
canoes employed even in the height of the monsoon. It has to be
remembered that in July for example, when the south-west monsoon

\'\v,. 5. — Cheri (Sciaena miles). x \.

is at its height, wind and sea are not continuously violent as text-
books would have us believe. There are many interludes of
comparatively quiet weather and of these the line fishermen take
ample opportunity. Their craft are excellent sea-boats not to be
compared for a moment with the dug-out canoes and crank slab-
sided punt-like fishing boats of the Malabar coast. They are
really boats and not canoes ; their crews are expert sailors in the
true sense of the word and despise the slaves of the oar. Their
boats are of the same type as those of the valai drift-netters but of
slightly smaller size. They run to about 28 feet overall, with a
beam of 4 feet and depth of 3 to 3/^ feet. Each crew consists of
from five to eight men according to the size of the boat.

Inshore Lining. — A second important group of line fishermen
concern themselves with inshore fishing for a smaller class of
fish than those that frequent the rocky pearl bank areas. These
men number about 40 and work 13 small boats manned each by two
to three men. The boats are the smallest of those engaged in the
Tuticorin fisheries, but except in size are similar to the larger ones
already described. They range between 14 and 16 feet in length,
with an extreme breadth at the gunwale of 3 to 3^ feet, depth 2

78 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

to 2}/i feet. They carry one small mast furnished with the usual
squarish lug-sail.

This inshore lining is prosecuted with greatest success from
November to March inclusive, i.e., during the period of the north-
east monsoon when the water of Tuticorin bay is always more or
less turbid. Another and probably more potent factor making for
good catches during the north-east monsoon period is that this
season and particularly the months from November to February
inclusive, coincides with the rains ; the great bulk of flood water
from the Tambraparni River and the local streams is then emptied
into the sea. This land drainage causes a notable increase of
organic matter in the inshore water, which, too, is banked up into
the Tinnevelly bays and coast indentations by the off-sea winds
then prevailing. As a direct consequence the neritic or inshore
plankton increases enormously ; firstly, filamentous algse, diatoms,
peridinians, and other protista, and then, feeding upon them, a
whole host of the smaller crustaceans — copepods, schizopods and
prawns. These small fry are the normal food of the small fishes
caught by the inshore liners, and the increase and local concen-
tration of these are the direct consequences of this superabundance
of foodstuff in shallow water. From the following table it will be
seen however that a fairly good second fishing season occurs in
June and July. The cause for this is more than a little obscure, but
lam inclined to think it is due in part to freshets that then come
down the Tambraparni from the Travancore hills and provide a
second though smaller supply of organic matter for the sustenance
and increase of the neritic plankton and the consequent attraction
of small fish.

Quantity and value of small fishes caught month by month by

inshore lining based on statistics for the four years

1911 -15-

,, ., VVeiirht in Value in

Month. -^ J

pounds. rupees.

October ... ... ... i>953 127

November ... ... 14,760 955

December ... ... i5,4^\> 1,046

January ... ... ... 25,772 1.766

February ... ... ... 15.876 970

March ... ... ... 10,515 695

April ... ... ... 984 77

May 339 24

No. 3 (1917)

TUTICORIM FISHING INDUSTRY

79

Month.

June
July

August
September

Total

Weight in

X'alue in

pounds.

rupees.

4,335

276

3,344

284

340

26

93,681

6,236

The chief species caught are Kathalai (Sciaena maculata), Kuru-
min (Pristipoma maculatiun), Kelakkan (Sillago sihamaj, Nagarai
(Upc)ieoidcs sppj. Kili (Tlicrapon piita), Kuthippii (Lactarius dclica-
tiihis) and Karal (Eqiuda spp. and Gazza spp J.

The following table gives the quantities in pounds of the seven
principal fish caught by this method of fishing throughout the
year: —

0

>.

.a

Name.

0

6

>
0

S

c

.0

n

a

a

c

if

3

I:
0

a

o-S

0

2

0

b-

^

<

<

■—1

►— 1

< Ii

H

Kathalai

1,901

7.448

9.471

l8,200

10,668

5,507

756

18

2,030

1,608

216

LB.
57.823

Kurumin

447

496

713

553

335

210

94

2

75

119

29

3.073

Kelaklcan

767

1,993

1,442

1,933

1 ,060

862

"3

16

412

314

93

9,005

Nagarai . .

1,456

S16

3'^4

154

^92

1,219

644

12

II

27

1,502

6,237

Kili

i>340

4,287

2,653

3,896

2,448

1,837

245

113

1,577

886

97

19.379

Kuthippu

2,326

62 s

97

196

136

397

182

167

202

216

161

4.705

Karal

2,106

1.443

902

462

594

2,042

812

46S

21

69

380

9,299

The bait used in this handline fishing consists almost ex-
clusively of Penseid prawns belonging to the three species Pcnacus
indicus, Penaeus carinatus and Penacus a^nis. The catching ( f this
bait is the special occupation of about 20 men who obtain it by a
small hand seine called Vangu valai, worked by two men. For-
merly the line fishermen often experienced much delay in obtain-
ing their supply of bait as they had to wait idle ashore each
morning till a sufficient supply had been caught by the Vangu
valai men. This delay is now largely avoided by the introduction
by this department of prawn store baskets, wherein prawns caught
overnight can be kept alive till required by the line fishermen.

Trolling. — Until 1912 this fishery was in the hands of Sinhalese
fishermen who came across annually from Ceylon with their out-
rigger canoes or kullas, at the beginning of the north-east monsoon
and who returned home in March. The year named was character-
ized by an exceptionally severe outbreak of cholera in Tuticorin ;
this, combined with the restrictive quarantine measures adopted by
the Ceylon authorities ngainst passengers coming from Tuticorin,

So

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL XI,

had such a deterrent effect that no Sinhalese fishermen came that
season and, once broken, the custom has not been resumed.

As trolling provides the bulk of the fish (seer) most esteemed
by Europeans and as the market price in consequence is better
than for any other fish, there was distinct inducement to the local
fishermen to supply the want caused by the defection of the
Sinhalese men. For the first year little progress was made, and
the catch for the year October 1912 to September 1913 fell by
50 per cent compared with the preceding year's catch (11,835 lb.
as against 24,438 lb.). But a year's experience revealed to the
local men, that, contrary to their own belief, no special virtue is
inherent to the Sinhalese outrigger as against their own boats ;
the latter sail quite fast enough with a good wind to make trolling
for seer a success. The success of the pioneer boats was so
obvious that the number engaged in this branch of fishing rapidly
increased and if Sinhalese fishermen ever come again to Tuticorin,
they will find themselves supplanted, and with strong competition
to face.

The following table shows the quantity and value of fish
obtained by this method during a four years' period, viz. : —

Near.

October 191 1 to September 1912
October 1912 to September 191 3
October 1913 to September 1914
October 191 4 to September 191 5

Averacre annual total.

Quantiiy.

Value.

LB.

RR.

... 24,438

2,294

... 11,835

1,220

... 33,673

3,519

... 24,866

3,291

... 23,703

2,581

To show how the catches are distributed throughout the different
months, the following tabulation has been prepared : —

Average monthly weight of fish obtained by Trolling based
upon the four years' statistics, 1911 — 1915.

Afonlh,

Weight.

Month.

Weight

-

T-l!.

I.K.

October

1,067

April

Nil.

November

10,367

May

177

December

6,886

June

49

January

3,647

Uily

34

February

961

August ...

Nil.

March

)rth-east
season.

467
23,395

September

Total for south-west
monsoon season.

48

Total for nc
monsoon

30S

No. 3 (1917)

TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY

81

The reason for the vastly better catches (hiring the north-east
monsoon is that then the sea is clear and the wind just strong
enough to give the boats sufficient speed through the water and yet
carry full sail. In the south-west monsoon poor fishing results
partly from the frequent turbidity of the water and partly (more)
from the fact that wind and sea are then usually too high to permit
the local boats to carry full sail ; it is at these times that the out-
rigger canoes of Ceylon and Palk Bay come to the front by reason
of their greater power to stand up to heavy weather.

Madi Valai. — This fishery ranks fourth at Tuticorin in order of
importance, both in value and in weight of fish landed on the
beach. It is carried on entirely by catamaran fishermen belonging
to neighbouring fishing villages, chiefly Pinnacoil, Sippikulam and
Vaipar. These men, when weather conditions are favourable,
resort to Tuticorin as being a much better market for fresh fish than

Fig. 6. — Suuai (Clupea timbriata). x 3.

their own villages. In the height of the season, October to March,
as many as 20 catamarans make Tuticorin their fishing head-
quarters. These catamarans are of special type, and differ entirely
from those used on the Coromandel coast. Instead of being con-
structed in raft shape of five comparatively slender logs as the latter
usually are, these Tinnevelly catamarans consist of three massive
logs, kept permanently tied together ; the centre one is fitted at a
lower level than the two side ones, and in this way a distinct
trough-shaped hollow is formed, imparting to the catamaran the
suggestion of a primitive boat. Each is manned usually by two
men. Catamarans are worked in pairs in madi valai fishing, the
net employed being a primitive trawl worked much as an otter
trawl is, with the substitution of catamarans in place of otter
boards. Each end of the net is aboard one catamaran ; in working
it, the two catamarans sail on a parallel course at an appropriate

82

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

distance apart, closing in as the men haul the net. The contents
are miscellaneous round fish ; among the chief species taken are
Chalai ( CJupca atricauda and Clupca sindensis), Sudai ( Clnpca fim-
briata), Thondai (Diissumieria acuta), Venganai ( Pell on a indica),
Karal ( Eqiiula spp. and Gazza spp.A and Nagarai ( Upcncoidcs spp..).

The best catches are made during the north-east monsoon and
the intermonsoon periods of variable weather; in the height of the
south-west monsoon the weather is too rough to permit of regular
and effective work.

The weight and value of the catches made during the four
years 1911 — 191 5 were as follows : —

Weight in pounds.

Value in rupees.

Year.

Brought

ashore by

fishing boats.

Bought at

sea by

middlemen

I'.rought in

by fishing

boats.

Brought in
by middle-
men.

October 191 1 to September 1012
October iqi2 to September 1913 ...
Octoljer 1913 to Se])tember 1914 ...
October 1914 to September 1915 ...

98,658
71,222
41,087
37.258

30,818 j 5.492 1,838

65,395 3.307 3.394
40,064 i 2,827 2,838
33.399 j 2,523 2,505

Average annual total ...

62,056

42,419

3.537

2,644

The average catch per month is shown in the following tabu-
lation based upon four years' statistics (1911 — 1 5) : —

Month.

Weight.
LB.

Month.

Weight.

LB.

October

13,450

April

9,538

November

15,388

May

1,358

December

10,091

June

118

January

14,799

July ... ...

173

February

12,185

August

4,375

March

Drth-east

13,202

September

Total for south-west

9,798

'I'otal for n

79,115

25,360

monsoon

season.

monsoon season.

Kola ValaL—TlxQ Kola net is a small-meshed drift net employed
in catching sardines and anchovies, kola being the local name for
one of the anchovies (Engraiilis dussuinicri). These fishes are in
great demand among the lower classes because of their tastiness
and low price.

So. 3 (191 7)

TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY

83

About twelve boats are employed in this fishery which is in full
swing from the beginning of September till the middle of February
when it begins rapidly to diminish. From April to July inclusive
the fishery is unproductive, with March and August both very
poor months.

During the season about twelve boats are employed. Each runs
to a length of from 17 to 18 feet, and carries a fleet of 8 to 9 nets,
measuring (each) 13 to 14 fathoms in length by 3^ to 4 fathoms
deep. The mesh is ^ inch from knot to knot and is made of No. 14
cotton. The nets are never barked. The crew of each boat consists
of three or four men.

^fiii^^^^^l^^^^^^^q

Fig. 7. — Indian Anchovy (Engraulis dussumieri). x if

Value in rupees.

1,350
1,618

3,828
1,834
2,157

The catches for the four years 1911 — 15 amounted to the follow-
ing (juantities, valued as shown, viz. : —

Year,

October 191 1 to September 191 2
October 191 2 to September 191 3
October 1913 to September 19 14
October 1914 to September 1915
Average per annum
The distribution of the catch throughout the year averaged
as follows, the figures being based on four years' statistics,
1911— 15:—

Month. Weight.

LB.

October ... ... 8,540

November ... ... 4,662

December ... ... 1,497

January ... ... 8,808

February ... ... 3,543

March ... ... 1,297

Total for north-east 28,347

monsoon period.

13

Month.

Weight
LI5.

April
May

774
12

Tune

July

146

August

1,^15

September

8,272

Total for south-

•west

10,819

monsoon period.

84 MADRAS -FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

Minof fishivg methods. — The foregoing methods are the only
ones of importance employed at Tuticorin, the others practised
being of minor economic value. The chief of these latter are the
Pachu valai, the Vangu valai and the Kalla valai.

The first named is a small drift net of mesh l^ inch
from knot to knot, employed in catching Puvali ( Pellona clongata)'
Kurumin ( Pristipoma maciilatum), Karal (Eqiinla spp. and Gazza
spp.), Sudai (Clupea fimbriata), Chalai (Cliipea atricauda and Clupea
sindensis), and Venganai (Pellona indica). The season runs from
February to April. The catch in 1914 15 amounted to 4,771 lb.
of a value of Rs. 374.

The Vangu valai is of greater importance as the inshore liners
depend upon the produce of this net for their bait. It is a small
hand seine worked by two men in lagoons and in the shallows of
the harbour. Its chief catch consists of prawns (Penaeids) and
fish fry. In regard to the latter it is most destructive and some
restriction upon its employment will probably be necessary when
the time be ripe for the introduction of regulative fishery measures.

The average annual catch of prawns and fish fry is estimated to
be over 35,000 lb. having a value of Rs. 2,500. Were the catch to
consist wholly of prawns the value would be considerably greater,
as the line fishermen willingly give l^ anna per pound for
them as bait ; fish fry sell at much less than this rate — from six
to nine pies per lb. only — thereby reducing the average to about
eight pies per lb.

The Kalla valai or " thief net," is a net used by four men in
breast-high water. It is held upright by two men as a semicircular
wall against which the fish are driven by the other two men, the
two ends being brought together quickly at the same time. Mullet
are caught in some quantity by this method which produced in
1914-15 a weight of 8,403 lb. of fish, valued at Rs. 739.

Fish bought at sea. — In addition to the fish caught by boats
working from Tuticorin as their headquarters, a considerable quan-
tity is bought at sea by boats which go out specially to purchase
fish from fishermen working from Pinnacoil and other neighbouring
villages.

During the four years 1911 — ^15, an annual average of 42,419 lb.
of fish was brought into Tuticorin by these carriers, the value
being estimated at Rs. 2,644.

NO. 3 (1917^

TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY

85

Wholesale rates.- O-wmg to the fact that no fish is sold either
wholesale or retail by weight or by measure, and that all is sold
singly or by the heap according to the judgment of the eye, a fair
average valuation by weight has been difficult to fix, especially as
there are marked fluctuations according to demand and variations
in supply. The list given below is, I believe, a fairly accurate
approximation to the mean price for each kind of fish quoted; it
enables us also to judge of the relative value put upon the different
species locally. The forty-one rates quoted are all per pound
avoirdupois, and the qualities are tabulated according to price,
beginning with the most expensive.

Average wholesale prices ruling at Tuticorin for forty-one
species of fishes. Rates quoted are per pound avoirdupois : —

English name.

Tamil.

Rate in annas

Seer

Seela ...

2i-3

Pomfret

Vaval ...

2i-3

Hilsa ...

Ullam

2 2|

(Chorinemus) ...

Katta

lf-2

Barracuda

Ulli

a— 2

Bonito ...

Surai ...

li-2

Tunny ...

Keluvalai

1^—2

Butter-fish

Kadavula

lf-2

Bamin ...

Kalai

1^—2

Horse-mackerel

Parai ... ... ... ..

li-2

(Lactarius)

Kuthippu

li-2

Indian Whiting

Kelakkan

a— if

Soles

Ada] ...

f-if

Rock Cod

Kalawa

li-if

Sea Perches

Bhandari, Thambuvan. Moon-
jan, Cheppili, Kili.

li

(Diagramma) ...

Tholan, Mathanam ...

li

Sea Breams

Velamin, Karumuthal, Thee-
nan.

ii-i|

(Lobotes)

Sadayan

i-ii

Grey Mullet ...

Athumin, Manalai

i-H

Spotted Dory ...

Painthai

i-H

Valai

Valai

li-if

Indian Herring

Puvali

i-ii

Jew-fishes

Seri, Kathalai ...

i-ii

Mackerel

Ailai ...

i-ii-

86 MA

DRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

English name.

Tamil.

Kate in annas

Sardines

Chalai, Sudai, Thondai

i"l

(Otolithus)

Panna ...

l-l^

Red Mullet ...

Xagarai, Lomian

f-I

Grunter

Kurumin

f-I

Sharks ...

Sura

l-I

Saw-fish

Vela

^-I

Plough-fish

Uluvai, Mattiamichael

f-I

Rays ...

Thirukkai

l-I

Sword-fish

Thalapathu

I

Dolphin

Ailis ...

I

Rate in jiies.

Anchovies

Kola ...

6-9

White-bait

Nethili

6-9

Gar-fish

Muthal

6-9

(Gerridae)

Karal, Udagam

6-9

Cat-fish

Keluthu, Thedu

8-9

Trigger fish

Kilathi

6—8

Ribbon fish

Savalai

6

NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE
FISHERMEN, ETC.

The fishermen of Tuticorin are almost exclusively Parawas by
caste, and Roman Catholics in religion. A few Muhammadans
occasionally work as paid hands. The Parawa fishers total about
520 men, divided as follows into sub-sections according to the
method of fishing they practise principally :—
Drift net fishermen : —

Vala valai fishers ... ... ... ... ... 180

Kola and Pachu valai fishers ... ... ... 72

Vangu valai fishermen ... ... ... ... ... 20

Line fishermen :

Offshore liners ... ... ... ... ... ... 126

Inshore liners ... ... ... ... ■•• ■•. 4°

Trollers ... ... ... •■• ••• ■•• 82

Ota I

No figures are given above for Madi valai men as none of these
belong to Tuticorin.

No. 3 (T917) TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY ^7

The numbers given represent the average of men working
when the respective fisheries are in vigorous prosecution ; they
fluctuate considerably however from time to time, as they use
different nets at different seasons and because a certain number of
the men take up other work either when fishing is poor, or when the
counterattraction is great. For example when the port is busy
with exports or imports and the demand for lighterage is great, a
certain proportion of the fisher class find it more profitable to act
as lighter crews. Or again they may quarry coral on the reefs,
or enlist as chank divers. A pearl fishery in Ceylon causes a great
exodus of fishermen and lightermen as nearly all are fairly expert
divers. At such a time fish become scarce in theTuticorin market
and the discharge and loading of steamer cargoes a matter of
much difficulty, owing to the consequent shortage of labour.

The men are by no means thrifty, but a living wage is easily
made, sufficient to ensure an adequate dietary and to keep their
families in comparative comfort, judging this by the ordinary
standard of the labouring classes of the neighbourhood. On an
average I calculate that they earn about 12 annas per head per
working day. Apart from food and clothing, a considerable
portion of their earnings goes in the purchase of toddy and this
undoubtedly is the principal cause preventing a considerable
improvement in their economic condition. Taken generally they
are a fine sturdy race with a marked sense of independence ;
inclined to be quarrelsome and noisy but easy to control if they
be treated with sympathy and firmness. They are happy in being
largely 'freemen ' in the financial sense. Their catches are sold
by auction immediately they come to land — there is no sowcar
middleman who, because of money advanced, is able to take their
catch at his own rates and keep them in perpetual penury as
happens so often on the Ramnad coast. They work on a fair share
system whereby in the case of net fishermen, the proceeds are
divided thus :— half the total to the owner of the nets for their
upkeep and replacement and the other half in equal shares to each
fisherman and to the boatowner who ranks in this division of pro-
ceeds on an equal basis with a fisherman. If they consider the
auction rates too low, due usually to some attempt at combination to
depress rates on the part of the dealers, I have several times found
the fishermen decline to sell at such rates and rush the fish off to
the market to sell direct to the public. The life is however a

^8 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

hand-to-mouth existence, and it is the exception to find that any of
them save money. Those who do are usually the men who own
the boats and nets.

How far improvements are possible in the local industry it is
difficult to determine. Longer fleets of nets in the case of the
drift netters seem the most promising line of advance, but at
present this is barred by the fact that the size of boat now in use
is the largest which oar-power can manage during calms and head
winds — these boats carry as many nets as the accommodation will
permit. As suggested above, motor power instead of oars would
give greater net accommodation and would save several men's
labour and wages. Against this at present is the difficulty
experienced in finding men able to work and care properly for a
marine motor upon a low wage. The only remedy I see is the
establishment of a marine motor school where men of the fisher
class shall be taught the mechanism and working of a simple type
of marine internal combustion engine. Nothing of this at present
exists and fishery progress is hampered directly and most seriously
by this want. Given a supply of fishermen mechanics, I am
convinced there are moneyed men in the ranks of the fisher castes
who would be willing to put motor fishing boats into commission.
At present the average marine motor driver knows just enough
to spoil his engine besides having an inordinate idea of his own
value.

TUTICORIN,

7th Septombcr 1916. JAMES HORNELL.

No. 3 (1917) TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY 89

LIST OF TABLES ANNEXED.

I. List of the principal food fishes caught at Tuticorin,
arranged alphabetically under their vernacular names,
together with their English and scientific synonyms and
the families to which they belong respectively.
II. Detailed tabulation of the monthly catches of 61 kinds of
fish landed at Tuticorin during the four years 1911 — 15.

III. Detailed tabulation of the weight and value of the catches

of fish landed month by month at Tuticorin during the
four years 1911 — 15, classified according to the method of
capture.

IV. Summary of the annual weight and value of fish landed at

Tuticorin for the four years 1911 — 15, classified according
to the method of capture.
V. Average monthly and annual quantity of the produce of
the chief fishing methods employed at Tuticorin over the
four years' period 1911 — 1 5.
VI. Average monthly and annual value of the produce of the
chief fishing methods employed at Tuticorin over the
four years' period 1911 — 1 5.
VII. Diagram showing graphically the relative monthly
importance of the ten principal food fishes landed at
Tuticorin over an average of four years ending September

1915-
VIII. Diagram showing graphically the comparative weight
and value per annum of 36 kinds of food fishes landed at
Tuticorin based on the averages of four years' records,

1911—15.
IX. Diagram showing graphically the seasons and relative
productive value of the seven principal methods of
fishing practised off Tuticorin, based on the average of
four years' records, 1911 — 15.

No. 3 (191 7) TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY

91

Table I. — List of the principal food fishes caught at Tuticorin
arranged alphabetically under their vernacular names, together
with their English and scientific synonyms, which latter are
according to the nomenclature given in Day's " Fishes of
British India," London, 1889.

V^ernacular names.

Scientific names.

English popular
names.

Family.

1

Adal

Cynoglossus spp. ...

Sole

Pleuronectitlae.

Ailai

Scomber microlepidotu.s .

Indian Mackerel ..

Scombridae

Ailis

Coryphaena hippurus

Dolphin ...

Coryphaenidae.

Athumin ...

Miigil borneensis and M.
speigleri.

Grey Mullet

Mugilidae.

Bhandari

.Serranus gilberti ...

Sea-perch .

Serranidae.

Chalai

Clupea sindensis and C.
atricauda.

Sardine

Clupeidae.

Cheppili ...

Liitjanus annularis

Serranidae.

Cheri

Sciaena miles

few -fish

Sciaenidae.

Pristipoma hasta ...

Grunter ...

Pristipomatidae.

Chevani

Psettus argenteus and Tra-
chynotus ovatus.

Carangidae,

Elathi

Scatophagus argus

Banded Dory

Squamipinnes.

Iranian

Lutjanus gibbus ...

Serranidae.

Kalar

Chatoessus chacunda, Ch.
nasus and Clupea kana-
gurta.

Sardines ..

Clupeidae.

Kalawa

Serranus undulosus and S.
semipunctatus.

Indian Kock-cod.

Serranidae.

Kalvetli

Platycephalus scaber and
P. insidiator.

Flat head .

Couidae.

Kannadikaral

Mene maculata

Coryphaenidae.

Karal

Equula spp. and Gazza
spp.

Gerridae.

Karuvalan thiruk-

Trygon walga

Stingray

Trygonidae.

kai.

Karumuthal

Chrysopbrys berda

Silver bream

Sparidae.

Katta

Chorinemus lysan and C.
tala.

Carangidae.

Katti Kalai

Polynemus spp. ...

Indian Salmon,
Bamin.

Polynemidae.

Kattikaral

Equula daura

Gerridae,

Kelakkan

Sillago sihama

Indian Whiting ...

Sillaginidae.

Keluthu and

Arius spp. ...

Cat-fish

Siluridae.

Thedu.

Keluvalai ..

Thunnus thynnus ..

Tunny

Scombridae.

Kilathi

Balistes spp.

File-fish, Trigger-
fish.

Sclerodermi.

Kili

Therapon puta, T. jarbua
and T. quadrilineatus.

Serranidae.

Kilinjan ...

Julis lunaris, Platyglossus
dussumieri and Pseudo-
scarus dussumieri.

Parrot fishes

Labridae.

Kirimin Chalai ...

Clupea leiogaster

Sardine

Clupeidae.

Koimin

Clupea ilisha (juv. )

Hilsa

Clupeidae.

Kola

Engraulis dussumieri, E.

Anchovies

Clupeidae.

taty and E. setirostris.

14

92

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XI,

Vernacular names.

Scientific names.

English popular
names.

Family.

Koliamuthal

Belone strongylura and
Hemirhamphus spp.

Gar-fishes

Scombresocidae.

Komariansura

Ginglymostoma concolor.

Scyllidae.

Kombansura

Zygaena blochii

Hammer-headed
shark.

Carchariidae.

Kopparaikulla

Histiophorus brevirostris.

Swordfish .

Xiphiidae.

Koppulisura

Triaenodon obtasus

Carchariidae.

Koppulhirukkai

Dicerobatis eregoodoo ...

Ox-ray

Myliobatidae.

Kosura

Carcharias melanopterus ..

Carchariidae.

Kothalai ..

Lethrinus miniatus

Sparidae.

Kurangansura

Chiloscyllium indicum

Dogfish

Scyllidae.

Kurumin

Pristipoma guoraca

Grunter ...

Pristipomalidae.

Kurungai .. j

Clupea ilisha (juv.)

Clupeidae.

Chatoessus chacunda

Ivutha

Engraulis dussumieri

Anchovy & White-
bait.

Clupeidae.

Rural

Sciaena sp.

Jew-fish . .

Sciaenidae.

Kunivalai ..

Lutjanus rivulatus

Serranidae.

Kuthippu

Lactarius delicatulus

Lactariidae.

T 5

Upeneoides sp. ...

Red Mullet

Mullidae.

Lomian ... <

Synagris tolu

Percidae.

Manalai

Mugil speigleri ...

Grey Jvlullet

Mugilidae.

Manja Kill

Pristipoma dussumieri

...

Pristipomalidae.

Mapillaithambuvan.

Serranus miniatus. . .

Serranidae.

Mathanam

Diagramma crassispinum
and D. griseum.

...

Pristipomatidae.

Maitia-michaei

Rhyncobatus ancylostonuis.

Rhinobatidae.

Menna

Elops saurus

Clupeidae.

Moonjan ..

Serranus hexagonatus

Sea-perch

Serranidae.

Muthal

Hemirhamphus xanthop-
terus.

Half-beak

Scombresocidae.

Nagarai

Upeneoides vittatus

Red Mullet

Mullidae.

Neduvalithirukkai.

Myliobatis maculata

Myliobatidae.

Metheli

Engraulis purava ...

Anchovy & White-
bait.

Clupeidae.

Nevada]

Psettodes erumei

Pleuronectidae.

Oramin

Teuthis oramin

Teuthididae.

Orandai

Acantburus lineatus

Spine-tail...

Acanthuridae.

Orattukapi)ul!i

Lethrinus miniatus

Sea-bream

Sparidae.

Oriavelamin

Lethrinus harak

Sea-bream

Sparidae.

Otavaikaral

Gazza equulaeformis

Gerridae.

I'ai Chalai

Clupea longiceps

Oil-sardine

Clupeidae.

Fainthe

Drepane punctata

Spotted Dory

Drepanidae.

Palamin ...

Elops saurus and Chanos
salmoneus

Clupeidae.

Pal sura

Mustelus nianazo

Carchariidae.

I'amuttan ..

Scolopsis bimaculatus

Sparidae

I 'anna

Otolithus ruber.

Sciaenidae.

I'annan Thondai ...

Dussumi.'-ria hasseltii

Sardine ..

Clupeidae.

I'annikilathi

Balistes stellaris

Trigger-fish

Sclerodermi.

Parai

Caranx carangus, C.
hippos, C. djedaba and
C. leptolepis.

Horse-mackerel ...

Carangidae.

ParuHam

Myripristis murdjan and
Jlolocentrum rubrum.

...

Berycidae.

Paitani Kili

Lutjanus (]uinquelinearis.

...

Serranidae.

Poovali ...

Pellona elongata & P.

Indian Herring.

Clupeidae.

filigera.

1

NO. 3 (1917)

TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY

93

Vernacular Names.

Scientific names

Puchikaral ..

Piillikalawa

rullikalh:ilai

Pullikurumin

Pullithirukkai

Rajalikurungan-

sura,
Sadavalanthirukkai.
Sadayan ...
Savalai
Seela

Seenathambuvan .
Senjikilalhi
Sudai

Sukkankiri Parai ..
Sumbaki lathi
Sura

Surai

Thalapathu
Thambuvan
Tharalai
Theenan ...
Thirukkai

Tholan
Thondai ..
Thotta

Udagam
U dagam
Ulla and Ulli

Ullam
Uluvai

Do.

Do

Uru

Valai

Val-netheli

Valvadi thirukkai
Varikaral ...
Vaval thirukkai .
Vaval

Velamin ...
Vengadai ..

Venganai ...

Vela
Veunetheli

Equula insidialrix and E

ruconius.
Serranus angularis
Sciaena maculata
Pristipoma maculatum
Trygon uarnak
Stegostoina tigrinuni

Trygon sephen
Lobotes surinamensis
Trichiurus savala
Cybium commersonii
Serranus miniatus
Balistes erythrodon
Chipea fimtiriata ..
Caranx galius
Triacanthus brevirostris .
Selachoidei

Thunnus pelamis
Xiphias gladius
Serranus polleni ...
Ephippus orbis
Lethrinus rostratus

Vilangu

Diagranima puQctatum ...
Dussumieria acuta
Engraulis mystax, E. taty

and Opisthopterus tar-

toor.
Sphaerodon grandoculis...
Gerres filamentosus
Sphyraena jello and

S. obtusata.
Clupeailisha
Gobius sp.
Rhinobatus

Rhyncobatus djeddensis...
Echcneis naucrates
Chirocertrus dorab
Coilia spp ...

Rbinoptera javanica

Equula lineolata ...

Aetiobatis narinari

Stromateus spp- ...

Lethrinus nebulosus

Caranx rottleri

,, „ indica

Pellona

brachysoma

Pristis cuspidatus

Engraulis commersonianus

and E. indicus.
Muraena, Muraenesox,

Uroconger and Anguilla.

Spotted sea-perch.
Spotted jew-fish ..
Grunter
Stingray ...
Zebra shark

Ribbon-fish
Seer

Sardine
Horse-mackerel ...

Sharks

Bonito

Sword-fish

Sea-perch

Pig-faced bream...
Stingrays and

Eagle rays.

Sardine

Barracud.a

Hilsa
Goby
Plough-fish

Do.
Sucker-fish
Dorab
Anchovy and

Whitebait.
Oyster-eating ray

Bat Ray

Pomfret ...
Sea-bream
Horse-mackerel ...

Saw-fish .,
Anchovies

Gerridae.

Serranidae.
Scienidae.
Pristipomalidae.
Trygonidae.

Scyllidae.

Trygonidae.

Lobotidae.

Trichiuridae.

Sconibridae.

Serranidae.

Scleroderml.

Clupeidae.

Carangidae.

Scleroderma

Sub-order Sela-
choidei.

Sconibridae.

Xiphiidae.

Serranidae.

Squamipinnes.

Sparidae.

Trygonidae and
Myliobatiiae.

Pristipomalidae.

Clupeidae.

Ckipeidae.

Sparidae.
Gerridae.
Sphyraenidae.

Clupeidae.

Gobiidae.

Rhinobatidae.

Do.
Sconibridae.
Chirocenlridae.
Clupeidae.

Myliobatidae.

Gerridae.

Myliobatidae.

Stromateidae.

Sparidae.

Carangidae.

Clupeidae.

Pristidae.
Clupeidae.

Muraenas and Eels. ! Muraenidae.

94

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1-1

No. 3 (1917)

TUTICORIN FISHING INDUSTRY

97

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Table VIL— Diagram showing graphically the relative monthly importance of the ten principal food-fishes landed at Tuticorin over an average of four years ending September 1915.

February.

*

Ii6

Table VIII. — Diagram showing giaphically the comparative weight and
value per annum of 36 kinds of food-fishes landed at Tuticorin,
based on the averages of four years' records, 1911 — 15.

110,000 lb.
27,500 Rs.

TOO, 000 lb.

25,oco Rs.

90,000 lb.
22,500 Rs.

80,000 lb,
20,000 Rs.

70,000 lb.
17,500 Rs.

60,000 lb.
15,000 Rs.

50,000 lb.
12,500 Rs.

40,000 lb.
10,000 Rs.

30,000 lb.
7,500 Rs.

20,000 lb.
5,000 Rs.

10,000 lb.
2,500 Rs.

2.000 lb.
500 Rs.

00
00
00
00
00
00

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00

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OOoO

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♦♦:oo4oo
♦♦^♦♦oo

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♦♦♦♦♦♦♦

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oo.

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oooo

oooo^

►oooo

♦♦♦

♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦0005
♦♦♦♦♦♦♦,♦♦000

♦♦♦♦♦♦♦'♦♦♦Oo

♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦¥

. !> .

in j; u o

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S > »f u

^ !> ?? n

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♦♦♦^o^o^vs<
♦♦♦♦¥>¥¥Vi

0^>;^^<.>

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▼¥^^¥¥v'^'*'

L-C -fi

■a ? ^ c • .c rn ,£ S c 3
1* ?;_c_ci3-^Mi:3^i-'

-^ -^ ""^ J3 _
4JJ3 1* '^CS'.S^C) =■ =«LJr^ '-'•- t«

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D .

,.5 >^^

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IJ M O C

.H?r; o a

Q S

[i! in .

ii Jix: «;

¥

J

^'*!«:^

lOc^

OOOO Weight in pounds.

^^^^ Value in rupees.

Table IX. — Diagram showing grapliically the seasons and relative productive value of the seven principal methods of fishing practised
off Tuticorin, based on the averages of four years' records, 1911 — 15.

00000000 Wdght in poumls.

♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦ Valu.

BUL.

NO. PAGES

8. Marine Fishery Investigations in Madras, 1914-15 —

I. A note on the edible oyster ... ... I — 10

II. An explanation of the irregularly cyclic character of the pearl

^fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar II — 22

III. Notes upon two exploring cruises in search of trawl grounds

off the Indian and Ceylon coasts ... ... ... 23 — 41

IV. Report on the pearl fishery held at Tondi, 1914 ... . . 43 — 92
V. Professor Huxley and the Ceylon pearl fishery, with a note

on the forced or cultural production of free spherical pearls. 93 — 104
VI. The utilization of coral and shells for lime-burning in the

Madras Presidency I05 — 126

$. Fishery Statistics and Information, West and East jCoasts,
Madras Presidency —

(1) Introduction ". i— 3

(2) West Coast. Section I —Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-

holders, markets, etc. ... 7 — 9

Section II— Number of boats engaged in

fishing -. 10—14

Section III — Various kinds of nets, etc., in

use ... ... ... 15--30

Section IV — Methods of curing fish ... ... 3I — 44

Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers ... ... 45 — 62

(7) East Coast, Section I— Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-
holders, etc. ... .. ... 65 — 71

(8) Do. Section II — Boats and catamarans 72 — 79

(9) Do. Section III — Nets, etc., in use ... .. 78 — 104

(10) Do. Section IV— Methods of curing 105— 120

(11) Do. Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk
and curers 121 — 140

(3)

Do.

(4)

Do.

(5)
(6)

Do.
Do.

AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF MADRAS GOVERNMENT
PUBLICATIONS.

IN INDIA.

BuTTERWORTH & Co. (Ltd), 6, Hastings Street, Calcutta.

R. Cambrav & Co., Calcutta.

E. M. GoPALAKRiSHNA KoNE, Pudumantapam, Madura.

HiGGiNBOTHAMS (Ltd.), Mouflt Road, Madras.

V. Kalyanarama Iyer & Co., Esplanade, Madras.

G. C. Loganatham Brothers, Madras.

S. MuRTHY & Co., Madras.

G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras.

The Superintendent, Nazair Kanun Hikd Press, Allahabad.

P. R. Rama Iyer & Co., Madras. =.

D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay.

Thacker & Co. (Ltd.), Bombay.

Thacker, Spink & Co , 3, Esplanade East, Calcutta.

S. Vas & Co., Madras,

S.P.C.K. Press, Vepery, Madras.

IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

B. H. Blackwell, so and 51, Broad Street, Oxford.

Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C.

Deighton, Bell & Co. (Ltd.), Cambridge.

T. Fisher Unvvin (Ltd.), i, Adelphl Terrace, London, W.C.

Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W.

Kegan Paul, Trench, Tr'ubner & Co. (Ltd.), 68—74, Carter Lan«, Loiid«n,
E.G. and 25, Museum Street, London, W.C.

Henry S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, London, E.G. ^

P. S. King & Son, 2 and 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W.

Luzac & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C.

B. QOARITCH, II, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, London, W.

W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, London, E.G.

Oliver and Bovd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh.

E. Ponsonby (Ltd.), 116, Grafton Street, Dublin.

W. Wesley & Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London.

ON THE CONTINENT.

Ernbst Lbroux, a8, Rue Bonaparte, Paris.
Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland.

MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT.

THE INDIAN BECHE-DE-MER INDUSTRY:

ITS HISTORY AND RECENT REVIVAL

BY

JAMES HORNELL, f.l.s.,

Government Marine Biologist, Madras.

Report No.4 (f9I7),
Madras Fisheries Bulletin, Vol. XI, pages / 19 to 150,

MADRAS:

PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS.

1917.
Pricb, 4 onnat.j [4 pettfe.

AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF MADRAS GOVERNMENT
PUBLICATIONS.

IN INDIA.

BUTTBRWORTH & Co. (Ltd), 6, Hastings Street, Calcutt*.

R. Cambrav & Co., Calcutta.

E. M. GoFALAKRiSHNA KoNE, Pudumantapam, Madura.

HiGGiNBOTHAMS (Ltd.), Mouflt Road, Madras.

V. Kalyanarama Iver & Co., Esplanade, Madras.

G. C. LoGANATHAM BROTHERS, Madras.

S. MuRTHV & Co., Madras.

G. A. Natesan & Co., Madras.

The Superintendent, Nazair Kanuk Hind Prbss, Allahabad,

P. R. Rama Iver & Co., Madras.

D. B. Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay.

Tmacker & Co. (Ltd.V Bombay.

Thacker, Spink & Co , 3, Esplanade East, Calcutta.

S. Vas & Co., Madras.

S.P.C.K. Press, Vepery, Madras.

IN THE UNITED KINGDOM.

B. H. Blackwell, so and 51, Broad Street, Oxford.

Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W.C.

Dbighton, Bell & Co. (Ltd.), Cambridge.

T. Fisher Unwin (Ltd.), i, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C.

Grindlay & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W.

Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. (Ltd.), 68— 74, Carter Lane, Londan,
E.C. and 25, Museum Street, London, W.C,

Henry S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, London, E.C.

P. S. King & Son, s and 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W.

LuzAC & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C.

B. Quaritch, II, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, London, W.

W. Thacker & Co., a. Creed Lane, London, E.C.

Oliver and Boyd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh.

E. PoNSONBV (Ltd.), 116, Grafton Street, Dublin.

W. Wesley & Son. a6, Essex Street, Strand, London.

ON THE CONTINENT.

Ernest Lekoux, aS, Rue Bonaparte, Paris,
Martikus Nijhoff, The Hague, Holland.

Report No. 4 (1917).

THE INDIAN BECHE-DE-MER INDUSTRY: ITS
HISTORY AND RECENT REVIVAL,

BY
JAMES HORNELL, F.L.S.,

Government Marine Biologist, Madras.

Beche-de-mer, also known widely as trepang, is the commercial
name of a marine food product held in great esteem among the
Chinese. It consists of the dried body-wall of certain species of
large Holothurians, a group of animals known popularly in
England as sea-cucumbers owing to their characteristic cylindrical
or sausage-like shape, and intimately related to sea-urchins and
starfishes in spite of the great dissimilarity in outward form.
Hence the group belongs to that assemblage of animals known
zoologically as Echinodermata.

The term heche-dc-mer is the French rendering of the Portuguese
name hicho-do-mar, signifying sea-slug; in Tamil it is known as
attai or leech, this being more familiar to Indians than the slug.

HISTORY OF THE TRADE IN INDIA.
The cured product has been from time immemorial a valued
Chinese delicacy; strangely enough appreciation of its flavour has
never spread to the epicures of other races, and all but an infinites-
imal amount of the total production is consumed by the Chinese
at home and abroad. In its quest the Chinaman has penetrated
alike to the shores of Southern India and to the lagoons of
Polynesia, and from Japan in the north to Australia in the south he
has pioneered the trade and introduced appropriate curing methods.
We know that the Chinese had constant trade with Southern
India and with Ceylon a full thousand years ago, maintained by
junks of large size and fine equipment; so numerous and large
were the vessels of their trading fleet that on one occasion it
transported a Chinese army to Ceylon which defeated the Sinhalese
17

120 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

and captured the Kiny.^ With traffic maintained by means of the
annual trade fleet it may be presumed with tolerable certainty that
beche-de-mer as well as pearls figured among the Indian products
received at the Pandyan port of Kayal in exchange for the porce-
lain, silks, and sweetmeats of the Middle Kingdom. Coming to
British days the earliest definite reference to the trade which I have
found is an offer to Government made in i8i6 by a certain
Mr. Wilkins for the whole of the beche-de-mer fished off Mannar in
Ceylon.- Doubtless the Dutch records in India and Ceylon contain
more definite information, but these are not readily available to me.
Tradition affirms that formerly the trade was much greater than
at present and the statistics supplied by the Customs Department
bear this out generally as will be seen from the table given
opposite.

' The Sinhalese chronicle Ra/awaliya, gives the date as 1958 of the Buddhist era,
equivalent to I415 A.D.

' Boake, W.J.S., " Mannar, a monograph," p. 52, Colombo, 1888.

No. 4 (1917)

INDIAN BKCHR-DE-MER

121

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122 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

In this table considerable confusion exists however and the value
of the statistics is discounted by very obvious errors in the state-
ment of the country of origin of the goods exported. From these
returns it is seen that prior to 1910--II a large proportion of the
Ceylon produce was sent to India for re-export to China, but in
almost all cases exporters have failed to classify properly the
goods shipped from India. Thus from 1901-02 to 1903 04, the
whole export was described as " Foreign produce," whereas froiii
1904-05 to 1909 10 inclusive the imported Ceylon produce has been
lumped with the home produce as "Indian produce " ; in the latter
period of six years 107,954 lb. weight was imported into India
from Ceylon, but the Customs tables show only 336 lb. of
foreign produce exported from India, an evident absurdity, seeing
that not an ounce of this material is consumed in India. The
missing 107,618 lb. have been undoubtedly included in the exports
of 206,628 lb. of so-called Indian produce shown by the Customs
tables. We are consequently unable to ascertain the actual
annual production and export of the Indian-cured product during
the years 1898 — 1910. Only from 1910 have we accurate annual
data as no Ceylon produce has been imported (for re-export) into
India since that year. Without the above explanation the
Customs returns prior to 1910 give an altogether misleading record
of the condition of this trade, one more instance of the unsatis-
factory nature of such statistics when not prepared and checked
by trade experts.

The only useful result we can arrive at by analysis is to note
that the total exports (including re-exports) from India for the
twelve years from 1898 amounted to 371,324 lb. ; deducting the total
imports for this period of 225,227 lb. we get a balance, represent-
ing approximately the actual Indian home production of 146,097 lb.
giving an average of 12,175 lb- per annum for the twelve years in
question. Since 1910 the annual Indian export has diminished to
2,991 lb., a very great falling off.

The knowledge of this great diminution in the production
coupled with information obtained in 1915 that the local merchants
were suspending their operations, owing partly to difficulties and
uncertainties induced by war conditions, and partly by alleged
reduction in the wholesale rates ruling in the Straits— Penang
being the port to which the local merchants usually ship their
goods — caused me to undertake an enquiry into the condition and

No. 4 (1917) INDIAN BECHE-DE-MER 123

prospects of the industry. The result, while confirming the
exporters' statements of poor prices prevailing for their goods,
revealed the fact that the main reason lay in a deterioration in
quality, due to a fault very prevalent I am sorry to say among
Indian manufacturers, to wit, the scamping of essential processes
in over-eagerness for immediate large profit and in a gradual
deviation from the original methods of preparation introduced by
Chinese curers. The history of the trade so far as I can see is one
of definite fluctuations. First comes a Chinese merchant-curer who
establishes a curing-station on the Palk Bay coast of the Ramnad
district, engages labour and buys the raw product from the local
divers. He works conscientiously in Chinese fashion, giving
constant supervision and insisting on approved methods being
followed, and, where need be, improving upon them. His product
is first-class, obtains good prices in Penang, Singapore or China,
and he begins to wax prosperous and extend his enterprise. Here
after a few years enters the Muhammadan merchant of Kilakarai ;
he has watched the Chinaman develop (or revive the trade), has
obtained knowledge of the curing methods pursued and the
general course of the trade, and forthwith determines to oust the
Chinaman and appropriate his business. So the next season the
Chinaman finds a rival curing-station opened ; he finds his trade
gone in a day and has no alternative but to seek some other stage
for the exercise of his talents. But why, it may be asked, does he
give in without a struggle ? Why ! because his rival has such
effective methods of influencing the divers of the local coast
villages that an outlander has no chance. The divers are pro-
bably already heavily in debt to this merchant or to one of his
relatives or friends for advances made for work in the Chank
Fishery which is usually carried on concurrently with the beche-de-
mer fishery, and a gentle turn of the debt-screw is all that is
necessary to enforce compliance with any boycott that may be
ordered against the stanger. Upon the departure of the Chinese
curer, the curing staff", being the same men as he employed, carry
on according to his methods and all goes well for a few years.
Then little by little carelessness and deviation in detail creep into
the conduct of the work and deterioration in the quality of the
product begins to be found by the Chinese buyers in the consign-
ments received. The Indian product falls in estimation and
eventually into such bad odour (figuratively and actually) that the

124 MAiDRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. Xt,

prices given prove unremunerative to the Indian exporter and the
trade dies out or languishes. Then after a longer or shorter
period another Chinese curer appears on the scene who revives the
trade and sets it on its feet again by the employment of honest
and careful methods.

The last time a Chinaman operated on the Ramnad coast was
some 30 years ago according to my informants. He passed duly
through the experience I have outlined above and the trade had
reached its ebb in 1916 when I came on the scene as a variant
of the periodical Chinaman. I had already some knowledge of
the curing processes and I was soon in a position to put my finger
upon the irregularities which had caused the Indian product to
become unsaleable at remunerative prices. Before enumerating
these I shall furnish some details of the species esteemed and of
the approved methods evolved by Chinese curers for the proper
preparation of the Indian raw material.

THE CHIEF SPECIES CURED.

The only species of Holothurian found by the Chinese
suitable and sufficiently abundant for conversion into beche-de-
mer on the Ramnad coast is the one known locally as vellai aitai
or white beche-de-mer. This I have identified as the species
known to zoologists as Holothiiria scabra, Jaeger. It grows to a
large size, often 12 to 15 inches long, with a girth of 6 to 7 inches.
Although nearly cylindrical, there is a slight flattening of the
side upon which it lies habitually, and this part is snowy white
dotted with many minute black specks; the upper side or back is
crossed by irregular light bands and bars — white, pale-yellow, or
grey — outlined in dark grey upon a ground colour of paler grey.
In its skin are enormous numbers of minute limy spicules scarcely
visible when extracted even as very fine dust except with the aid
of the microscope. The only other species sufficiently abundant
to be commercially dealt with are the " green prickly-fish " {mul
attai, i.e., thorn-attai) and the " black-fish." The latter is very
numerous on the reef-flats of the coral islands along the Ramnad
and Tinnevelly coast, but owing to the thinness of its body-wall it
shrinks so greatly in curing as to be difficult to handle commer-
cially, particularly as its intrinsic value is very low even when sold
by weight. This species I identify as HolotJiuria atra, Jaeger, while
the " green prickly-fish " is the well-known SticUopns chloronotus,

No. 4 (1917) INDIAN BECHE-DE-MER 125

Brandt. It is not so abundant as either the white or the black
species but is fairly common on weedy bottom in Rameswaram
bay. It has no present commercial value, owing to the gelatinous
nature of the body-wall, which dissolves into a glutinous mass
soon after death.

Saville-Kent in TJtc Great Barrier Reef of Australia, page 239,
has suggested that this and other similar soft-bodied species might
possibly be susceptible of cure if placed in strong brine or other
astringent immediately after capture. Experiments have recently
been made in this direction at Rameswaram, and I am able to
report that I have found it possible to carry the material success-
fully through the boiling process. Unfortunately this does not
help, for the subsequent dryage reduces even large animals to
microscopic proportions. The final verdict . confirms the current
opinion that this species has no commercial value. Curiously
enough, the most valued of the Australian species of beche-de-
mer is the closely allied " red prickly-fish " (•S"//r//6>/'»5 variegatus,
Semper), with a market value that once varied between £130 to
£150 (Rs. 1,950 to Rs. 2,250) per ton.

With the white beche-de-mer fished off the Ramnad coast are a
very few " red-fish " (Holot/mria spinifera, Theel). This is mixed
with the former in curing. Its quality and appearance are first-
class and were it obtainable in quantity and could be sold sepa-
rately, it would fetch a much higher price than the " white-fish."

THE CHINESE CURE OF THE INDIAN WHITE
BECHE-DE-MER.

For practical purposes Holothuria scabra, otherwise vollai attai
or white beche-de-mer, is the only Indian species that counts in
the eyes of the Chinese curers, as being both abundant and capable
of being converted into a satisfactory product. It appears however
not to be a species in any esteem in the Malay Archipelago where
it also occurs and where other species monopolise commercial
attention.^ The reason is that it requires special methods of cure
and these appear to have been evolved and practised only in India,
as already mentioned. This species has an enormous abundance
of limy spicules in its skin and unless these be removed the prod-
uct when dried appears as if caked with chalk ; indeed it is to all

* It is not recorded by Saville-Kent in his list of Australian species unless it be his
Holothuria epulis. {Great Barrier Reef of Australia, London, 1893.)

126 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

intents a chalky coat as it consists wholly of calcareous spicules.
In other countries the coating being left on the product renders it
of very low market value. Saville-Kent {loc. cit., page 233) says of
the Australian " sand-fish " (his Holothuria fiisco-cinerea, H. ediiUs
and H. impatiens) that in these this chalky coat is so abundantly
developed that it is possible to utilize the dried bodies, like chalk,
for marking purposes. He adds that when mixing these " sand-
fish " with other more valuable species the subterfuge is not
infrequently resorted to of dyeing their bodies a deep red-brown
in a decoction of the bark of the red mangrove, Rhizophora
mucronata. Thus treated they are not easily detected, when mixed
in bulk, from the poorer descriptions of ordinary red-fish.

It is one of these disparaged species with which we have to
deal in India ; the following is the method of preparation as
worked out by the Chinese curers : — The animals as soon as
possible after they are brought to the curing station are heaped up
in shallow cauldrons supported on mud walls over fires fed with
leaf-butts of palmyra leaves. No water is added as it is found the
animals expel a sufficiency from within their bodies as they feel
the heat and contract. A furious fire is kept going and in about
fifty minutes the animals have shrunk to about one-half their
original length and have begun to give out a distinctive cooked
odour. At this stage they are removed and buried in a shallow
pit dug in the sand close to the water's edge. Sand is heaped over
and a plentiful amount of sea-water thrown on the sand in order
that the buried material may be kept moist and run no risk of
drying up. Here the beche-de-mer remains usually 12 to 18 hours
or even more according to size. When judged sufficiently " ripe,"
the bodies are disinterred and removed to a large basket about 2Y2
feet in depth by about the same diameter. As they are lifted one by
one the curer's thumb is run over the surface, loosening and dislodg-
ing much of the chalky encrustation. If the material has not been
buried sufficiently long, this coat adheres too strongly and will not
yield a satisfactory result when dried. As soon as the basket is
half filled a curer jumps in and proceeds to tramp upon the filthy-
looking mass, the while an assistant pours in successive bucketsful
of sea-water. If the period of burial has been judged aright, the
surface layer containing the chalky spicules is sufficiently decom-
posed to peel off readily and leave the underlying thick connective
tissue layers free from the original chalky deposit, After a final

No. 4 (1917) INDIAN BECHE-DE-MER 12/

rinse the cleaned product is put a second time into the boilers with
enough sea-water to cover it and once again brought to boiling
point. Thereafter it is laid out on mats and either dried wholly
in the sun, or after partial drying it may be transferred to a
very primitive and wasteful form of smoke-house and dried to
completion over wood smoke. I should here mention that eviscera-
tion is effected naturally, the animals doing so after the approved
Holothurian fashion through the vent, either when lying on the
beach awaiting the curer's attention or when heated en masse
in the boiler. No slitting open of the body is practised or
needful.

Now this is not the method in use in Australia and Malaysia.
There the process as described by Saville-Kent {he. eit., page 226)
is as follows : —

" Immediately on their arrival at the depot or curing station,
they are placed in large iron cauldrons and boiled for twenty
minutes. They are next taken out ; split up longitudinally with a
long, sharp-pointed knife ; gutted; and exposed on the ground in
the sun until the greater portion of the moisture has evaporated.
The largest specimens, such as prickly and teat-fish, are frequently
spread-open, so as to dry more readily, with small transversly-
inserted wooden splints. The greater amount of moisture having
been got rid of, the fish are transferred to the smoke-house. This
is usually composed of corrugated iron 10 or 12 feet high and
fitted in its upper half with two or three tiers of wire netting upon
which the beche-de-mer are laid. The wood most in favour for
the smoking process is that of the red mangrove. Twenty-four
hours is the usual period for which beche-de-mer are left in the
smoke-house. By the end of that time they have for the most part
shrunk to a length of six inches or less, and in aspect they may be
likened to charred sausages. They are then ready for bagging up
and despatch to the nearest market."

The Chinese who evolved the method now practised in India,
showed great resource in adapting their methods to the treatment
of a refractory subject and rendering valuable a material which
otherwise would have been unprofitable to fish and cure. As
showing how local the practice of this ingenious method is and
how unknown it is further east, we have not only Saville-Kent's
account as quoted above, but also the following extract of a letter
received by me this year (1917) from Mr. Alvin Scale, lately
18

128 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

Director of the Fisheries Section of the Bureau of Science, Philip-
pine Islands :—

"In reading your interesting lecture on the Minor Marine
Industries, I was greatly astonished by the method you gave for
preparing beche-de-mer. You state ' no water is added ' (in
boiling) ' as they contain sufficient fluid within their bodies.
When removed from the pan they are placed within a basket and
well tramped in order to remove their skin.' "

" Now I have seen thousands of commercial trepang but I
never have seen one with the skin removed — none are prepared in
the Philippines or in Japan, or in Australia in this way, as I have
watched the process very carefully in these places. I have also
prepared quite a quantity myself, so I would like a little more
detail regarding your method."

It is probable therefore that with the further particulars which
I have supplied and the publicity that will follow upon the
publication of this report, that the Indian method of treatment will
be adopted in other beche-de-mer producing countries and so
enable species hitherto considered valueless to become of import-
ance in the trade, and so form a small contribution to the extension
of the food resources of the East.

DEFECTS IN CURE AND TRADE IRREGULARITIES.

When I began the investigation of this product in 1914, I found
that the perfected Chinese methods were not being followed with
precision ; the product in consequence was inferior in quality.
Further, the curers and exporters had evolved several clever but
shortsighted sharp practices in the sophistication of the product,
with the idea partly to increase the weight illegitimately and
partly to pass considerable quantities of inferior quality into bags
containing better grades.

The chief of these departures from proper practice and honest
work were : —

(a) Faulty evisceration,

(b) Imperfect removal of the chalky dermal coating,

(c) Careless drying, entailing a dirty-looking product, much
coated with sand,

(d) Reluctance to smoke the product in order to save the
expense of fuel,

(f) The mixing of improper quantities of small stuff with the
larger grades, and

No. 4 (1917) INDIAN BECHE-DE-MER 129

(/) Storage for long periods, entailing deterioration while
waiting for a good market.

The first three were the most productive of harmful conse-
quences, but taken all together the cumulative effects were so
serious that the reputation of the Indian cure had fallen so low that
prices in 1914 were so unsatisfactory that the Kilakarai curers
virtually retired from the trade.

Improper evisceration was probably the most potent factor in
the discredit of this trade. It was by no means the result of care-
lessness, but was a deliberate move to increase the final weight.
The present species of Holothurian feeds almost in the same way
as earthworms ; it has a series of somewhat scoop-shaped tentacles
arranged around the mouth which is near the front end of the
body, but turned downwards for convenience in sucking up the sand
with the assistance of the scooping action of the tentacles. For
nutriment these creatures depend upon the live organisms or other
organic matter contained in the sand ingested, such as diatoms,
foraminifera, radiolaria, fragments of seaweed and the like. Hence
the intestines are always crammed with sand and if these be not
fully removed by natural or by forced evisceration, a considerable
quantity of sand remains within the body, adding to the weight — a
well-known trade device in other Indian trades besides this. The
imperfect removal of the outer chalky coating was perhaps not done
intentionally ; probably it was the result of carelessness and lack of
supervision. Anyway it also added to the final weight and the
dodge was occasionally resorted to of putting some black Holo-
thurians {H. atra) into the pan during the second boiling in order
that the dark purplish pigment contained in their skin might stain
the chalky encrustation and render it inconspicuous. Compare
the parallel dodge mentioned by Saville-Kent {loc. cit., p. 233) prac-
tised in Australia of dyeing the chalk-coated " sand-fish " with
mangrove bark decoction.

Another common trade trick was to slit open large animals and
insert small ones in the cavity within. In a country where labour
is cheap, such a method may be practised with great profit for a
limited time as the trick is not readily detected until the article
comes finally into the cook's hands.

Another great mistake tending to give the product a bad repu-
tation was reluctance to expend fuel upon smoking. The chief, if
indeed it be not the sole raison d'etre for smoking is to sterilize the

130 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

product, partly by impregnation and partly by covering it with an
antiseptic coating whereof the effective agent is creosote contained
in the wood smoke. The importance of this operation as affecting
the keeping qualities of the product is not properly appreciated by
Indian curers ; consequently in the desire to make a maximum of
profit, they smoke the stuff only when compelled to do so by a
continuance of rainy weather and then only in order to get the
material dry. They make the mistake of considering the smoke house
as an artificial dryer and not as a sterilizing chamber. They look
on smoking as an expensive substitute for sun drying. This defect
in itself would not be serious, as I have proved commercially, if
frequent periodical examination of the stored material be made, if
it be spread out in the sun whenever any dampness be apparent,
and if it be shipped to its destination in frequent parcels imme-
diately enough be accumulated. But this is not the business method
of local merchants. They will not send small lots for sale at fre-
quent intervals owing to the somewhat higher ratio of charges
involved thereby ; they prefer to accumulate comparatively large
quantities and to sit on this indefinitely — even for several years —
waiting for advice from their Penang correspondents of the advent
of high prices. During this lengthy storage, in spite of the general
dryness of the climate on the Ramnad coast, the material sooner or
later absorbs moisture and in the congenial conditions of damp and
darkness, fermentative micro-organisms establish themselves in the
material and rapidly entail marked deterioration. I have seen
long-stored material dissolving into a black glutinous mass.
When this happens, the owner reboils the material, thereby arrest-
ing fermentation and temporarily sterilizing the mass. Each re-
boiling reduces the weight and impairs the outward appearance, as
the fermented portions dissolve in boiling water and leave ugly
abscess-like cavities, which must tell their tale quite plainly to
expert buyers.
THE STORY OF THE GOVERNMENT EXPERIMENTAL

FACTORY.
Consequent upon the conclusions come to from my preliminary
investigation of the industry in 1914-15, I felt that here was an
industry, brought to discredit and ruin by careless work and short-
sighted trade trickery, whereto Government effort might with
propriety be devoted with the three-fold aim of reviving a decadent
local industry, of perfecting the methods hitherto employed, and

No. 4 (191 7) INDIAN BECHE-DR-MER 131

of providing additional remunerative employment to the chank
divers of the Ramnad district.

Accordingly I outlined proposals for the establishment of an
experimental factory to be located at Tirupalakudi, the chief settle-
ment of chank divers on the Palk Bay coast of the Ramnad
district. Government sanctioned the scheme in G.O. No. 2739,
Revenue, dated 9th December 191 5, and as soon after as circum-
stances allowed, I constructed a store and a boiling shed to
accomodate three cauldrons. I also designed a special smoke-
kiln to hold eight trays made of expanded metal, at appropriate
intervals one above the other. On August 6, I916, actual opera-
tions began, after settling the rates to be paid with the divers of
the place. The latter were very pleased with the step thus taken,
for it gave them an additional string to their bow ; on certain parts
of the ground where they fish chanks, beche-de-mer are also found
and although the price provisionally fixed was low in view of the
uncertainty prevailing as to the eventual sale proceeds of the
cured material, it was sufficiently remunerative to mean an appre-
ciable and welcome addition to their earnings. Then on certain
days when diving was not possible in the deep-water beds, the men
were able to make a living wage by fishing specifically for the
smaller sizes found in great abundance in certain shallow water
areas. Usually a few chanks were also found in these inshore
beds and these were an additional source of profit both to the men
and to Government. They would have remained unfished had
no beche-de-mer fishery been started.

The methods previously in vogue, stripped of their more obvious
defects, were employed during the first season's work. Great care
was exercised in denuding the animals of their chalky coat, and
scrupulous cleanliness was enforced, particularly in the drying
process. Further, in place of permitting the boiled material to be
dried on mats, laid on sandy and often dirty ground, drying plat-
forms raised 2^^ feet above the ground level were erected, and
on these were spread expanded-iron trays whereon the material
was laid to dry. By this simple device, the drying period was
considerably shortened and the animals were kept clean and free
from the adherence of sand and dirt. The product in consequence
was improved greatly in appearance, being obviously brighter
and cleaner than material prepared after the more primitive
method.

132 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

The importance of complete evisceration was not fully
appreciated during the first season's work and as a consequence
a certain portion of the material was dried with considerable
quantities of sand enclosed within the body walls ; this undoubtedly
affected adversely the value to some extent when put upon the
market. Even with this partial defect, local opinion was emphatic
that the cure was a marked improvement upon the quality turned
out of recent years by the Kilakarai curers. This opinion received
confirmation from the comparatively high prices eventually realized.
During the current season special means are being taken to do
away entirely with this defect by means of a partial slitting open
of the body-wall before boiling, whereby perfect evisceration is
obtained. The dried weight will be considerably reduced, but I
have little doubt that purchasers will appreciate this improvement
by paying higher rates. That the produce of the Government
factory may be readily recognizable, a special trade brand has
been adopted, and it is hoped that this will soon come to be
known as a guarantee of prime quality and so become an asset of
considerable importance.

During the initial season's working only a small quantity of mate-
rial was smoked as the kiln was not ready at the beginning. This
had no adverse financial consequence, for the Singapore brokers
reported that it so happened at the time of the consignement's
arrival that the market was bare of unsmoked material and as this,
when of good quality, is preferred for purely local consumption,
excellent prices were obtained as the buyers found the consign-
ment clean, well-dried and generally to their liking. From this it
would appear that so long as the consignments are small there is
no objection — ^sometimes even an advantage — in a proportion of
the material being sun-dried if in good condition otherwise; such
supplies the local markets of the Malay Peninsula, whereas smoked
material, owing to its better keeping quality, is more suitable for
re-export to China. It follows therefore that as the Singapore
home consumption is limited, the larger be the consignments and
the more frequent they be, will necessitate a larger proportion being
sent in the smoked condition.

A point the beche-de-mer curer must note carefully is that the
boiled body juice of the material is exceedingly corrosive in its
effect upon metal ; hence the boilers must be most carefully
emptied and rinsed out with clean water at the end of each day's

No. 4 (i9U)

INDIAN BFXHE-DE-MER

133

operation. Any boiled juice left overnight in the pans, if this
happens frequently, will quickly eat into the iron and destroy the
pan in a short time. For the same reason copper or brass vessels
and utensils must be rigorously avoided. A case is on record
where a copper pan being used as a boiler, the beche-de-mer boiled
in it took up so much copper salts that several deaths resulted
from its consumption in China and the particular grade fell in
niarket value enormously from the discredit that thereby attached
to it.'

The total outturn weights of the material cured from August
to October 1916 were as follows : —

Large and medium sizes (Nos. I and II) ... 1,997 lb.

Small (No. Ill), including smoked ... ... 799 „

Total

2,796 lb.

COSTS AND CHARGES.
To descend to exact financial particulars, the operations at
Tirupalakudi during the three months from August to October
1916, which may be reckoned as the first half-season, entailed
expenditure as follows : —

Capital expenditure : —

RS.

A.

p.

Cost of temporary buildings ... ... 77

5

3

„ of pans, trays, utensils, etc. ... 55

10

0

Total capital expenditure ... 132

15

3

Running e barges : —

RS. A. P.

No. I quality, 493 animals at 2 pies each

5 2 2

No. II quality, 43,797 animals at i pie each ..,

228 I 3

No. Ill quality, 36,016 animals at 3 for i pie

62 4 3

295 7 8

Labour (curer's and assistant curer's wages, etc.) .. 79 3 2

Fuel 70 7 9

Sundries ... 31 12 10

Supervision (half of the chank gumastah's wages for 6

months) ... 60 o o

Total running charges

536 15 5

^ Saville-Kent, toe cH., p. 239.

134 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

In addition, freight, insurance, and shipping charges amounted
to Rs. 51-12-6. Against the total cost and charges amounting
thus to Rs. 588-II-II, exclusive of capital expenditure, we
received net sale-proceeds of Rs. 1,074-12-9, giving an apparent
profit of Rs. 486-0-10 upon the operations ; from this however
must be deducted depreciation on buildings and apparatus, say
50 per cent upon the capital expenditure of Rs. 132-15-3 ; this
being Rs. 66-7-8, we get as a final net profit the sum of
Rs. 419-9-2, equal to a little over 63 per cent on the expenditure,
which must be considered very satisfactory in view of the compa-
ratively small quantity of material treated. With larger quantities,
the percentage of profit would be substantially increased.

The selling rates obtained in January 1917 were as follows,
c.i.f. Singapore : —
Unsmoked : —

Per picul. Per ton.

Large and medium sizes (the ") $36 (Rs. 60-5-0)= Rs. i,oi;?-4-o

Nos. I and II qualities of } ( = ;^67|).

Indian trade).

Small size (the No. Ill qualityl $28 (Rs. 46-14-5)= Rs. 817-15-0
oflndian trade). / ( = ^54i).

Smoked : —

Mixed sizes ... ... ... $30 (Rs. 5o-'4-o) = Rs. 844-6-0

Note. — Exchange was at Rs. 167^ to $100 and the picul is taken as 133^ lb.

Fourteen years ago Savil!e-Kent quoted the following rates as
then ruling for the principal kinds exported from Australia and
these may be usefully quoted here for comparison and reference.
Local name (Australia). Value per ton.

Teat-fish, black and ordinary £'^Ao to ;^i5o

Do. White 40

Red-fish, ordinary and deep-water 100 to no

Do. surf ... 80 to 90

Black-fish, deep-water ... 100

Do. ordinary and Caledonian ... 80 to 90

Large Lolly-fish ... ... 35

Prickly-fish or prickly-red ... 30 to 40

Sand-fish ... 20 to 30

It is most significant to note that the species with which we
dealt last year and which sold at Rs. 1,013-4-0 and Rs. 817-15-O
(£67^ to £54^2) per ton for large and small sizes respectively is

No. 4 (1917) INDIAN BECHE-DE-MER 135

quoted in the above table (" Sand-fish ") at the much lower figures
of £30 to £20 per ton, a difference due apparently to the more
satisfactory treatment of the same class of raw material evolved
in India.

As indicating the considerable importance of this industry
on the Australian coast, we may note that the annual exports
from Queensland, including re-exports of New Guinea produce
between the years 1880 and 1889 (the only years for which I have
statistics) ranged between 3,757 cwt., valued at £14,529 and
6,841 cwt., valued at £31,581 ; practically all of this went direct to
China. For much of the material collected in Borneo and the
Dutch Indies, Singapore is the clearing-house; in 1915, the imports
of beche-de-mer amounted to the exceptionally large quantity of
9,379 cwt., valued at $215,061. Practically all of this was re-exported
to China.

From these figures it will be seen that the Indian and Ceylon
production is at present a negligible proportion of the total con-
sumption and that we need have no fear of ever experiencing any
difficulties in disposing of our production, however greatly we may
expand the industry.

As I believe the trade ramifications of this industry are very
little known, I append (Tables I, II, III and IV) tabulated statistics
of the imports into and exports from Penang and Singapore, of
beche-de-mer, for the past ten years. From these, several interest-
ing facts emerge. We see that Borneo and the Philippines between
them produce nearly 50 per cent of the total imports into Singapore
on an average of ten years, while in some seasons fully three-fourths
of the total comes from these islands. South Africa is a late comer
into the trade, her exports beginning in 1915. The large imports
into Singapore from Hongkong and China in some years are
puzzling and seem larger than local consumption can require. It
is to be noted that Ceylon produce goes almost entirely to Penang
for sale and that no exports to that port have taken place since
1914, a fact largely due, I believe, to deterioration in methods.
(Information recently received shows that the methods pursued
by some important curers in Ceylon are even worse than those
formerly practised in India — the material is sometimes boiled once
only, the limy coating imperfectly removed and the material dried
on the sand without mats.)
19

136 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

The variations in the values placed by the Ceylon exporters
upon their produce are remarkable and appear to indicate that the
rates given bear in some years little or no relation to the real
market value of the produce.

The tables given are compiled from statistics kindly supplied
by the Registrars of Imports and Exports of Singapore and Penang
to whom I am greatly indebted for this courtesy.

THE PROSPECTS OF THE INDUSTRY IN INDIA.

We have already seen that the Chinese market will absorb all we
can possibly produce, and that the only limitations are those of the
natural supply in our littoral waters.

I have not as yet been able to examine that part of the northern
half of Palk Bay and Strait which from its depth and probable
faunistic conditions is likely to be productive of the only valu-
able species at present available, but so far as the southern half is
concerned I have located the chief beds. These lie principally in
the south-west angle, where large areas of sandy bottom are found,
extending from Tirupalakudi in the north to Pillaimadam and
Mandapam in the south-east. This appears to be the richest
ground as on several occasions over 10,000 of these animals have
been collected in a single day by a small diving force varying
between 23 and 31 men.

Another centre is Pamban where a good deal of white attai is
obtained by diving and by wading over the sand-flats at low tide.
Rameswaram Bay has also yielded sufficient to keep a small
factory busy in former years but at present the divers report a
scarcity of material there. White attai is also met with, but
generally in small quantities, in depths of I to 3 fathoms in the
inner passage between the mainland and the Ramnad and
Tinnevelly Islands as far south as Tuticorin.

At present the Government factory at Tirupalakudi is the only
one in operation. The small private concern at Pamban closed
down last year, and this locality may be worth attention when the
Krusadai Island Station be built, as a curing station could then be
supervised with a minimum of trouble and expense. In the mean-
while the most likely situation for a second station is Vedalai,
where is located a small community of divers already working in
the Government Chank Fishery. It has to be borne in mind that
under present conditions the beche-de-mer fishery is not sufficiently

No. 4 (191 7) Indian beche-de-mer 137

remunerative to induce divers to devote their whole time to it ; it
has to be worked as an auxiliary to the chank fishery, and
as already explained the conjunction is a welcome one to the
divers.

Any large increase in the industry in any locality where the
animals are fairly abundant, will depend chiefly upon whether any
substantial increase in the rates paid, can be given. Last year
very low rates prevailed as the cost of preparation had to be
ascertained, and the general impression among the coast people
was that the market was abnormally low. Accordingly the divers
agreed to meet Government in this situation by accepting consider-
ably lower rates than prevailed when the trade was flourishing.
The prices agreed upon were Rs. 10-6-8 per 1,000 for No. 1 quality,
Rs. 5-3-4 per 1,000 for No. II and Rs. I-II-9 for No. III.

With the favourable experience of last year as a guide and
according to my promise to the divers, the rates fixed for this year's
transactions have been increased to Rs. 6-8-2 in the case of the
larger grades (Nos. I and 11 which are now to be treated as a single
grade), and to Rs. 2-9-8 per 1,000 in that of the smaller size
(No. Ill) to which it is necessary to give special encouragement. If
the results of the present season's work again show a large margin
of net profit, it will be necessary to consider what further increase
can be given in the following year, as every enhancement of the
rate will make the divers more willing to devote increased attention
to this section of their work, and with larger catches, the cost of
curing, etc., will be reduced and the turn-over much augmented.
It will also tend to attract a larger number of divers and this will
not only benefit the beche-de-mer fishery but will prove of much
value in assisting recruitment for the chank fishery.

Black attai (Holothuria atra) is exceedingly abundant and
although it is reputed to have been used occasionally to adulterate
and colour parcels of white attai, it does not appear to have been
fished specifically for its own sake.

Accordingly I instituted a number of experiments and found
that while there is no difficulty in curing this species, the weight
of the dried product is so insignificant (approximately half that of
average No. Ill grade of white attai) and its quality is considered
so poor by the Chinese, that the price quoted in Singapore for the
sample sent, about Rs. 7 per picul, makes it impossible to cure this
species at a profit.

138 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. Xl,

In regard to white attai, evisceration prior to boiling while
desirable is not absolutely necessary ; in the case of the black
kind it is essential because whereas the former eviscerate through
the vent during the boiling process, the black ones if not eviscerated
by slitting open, burst irregularly midway along their length,
eviscerate through this opening and end by drying in contorted and
ugly shapes. If slit open for a short distance from the posterior
end, the viscera come out freely and when subsequently boiled
the animal does not contort, but remains straight and natural
looking.

The only localities on the mainland of India where commercial
kinds of beche-de-mer are available or can be fished are Palk Bay
and the south Ramnad coast. On the Malabar coast the bottom
is too muddy, while on the Coromandel coast the absence of a
diving element in the fisher population would prohibit it, even
were beche-de-mer to occur in quantity there, a point not at present
ascertained.

But if the prolific mainland area be restricted, there is consider-
able prospect of the insular region of the Laccadives proving worth
attention and exploitation. When I was at Kiltan atoll in 1908, I
found the islanders preparing small quantities and judging from,
this fact and by analogy in regard to the faunistic character of the
great reef-flats of Bitra, Cherbaniani, Perumal and Byramgore with
Polynesian reefs where beche-de-mer is very abundant, it is desir-
able that Government should take an early opporunity of having this
region explored thoroughly by officers of the Fisheries Department
with a view to test the potentialities of this archipelago in regard
not only to general fishing development and to this product in
particular, but also in respect of mother-of-pearl-producing shells
as green snaW (Turbo), trocas {Troc hits), and even the true pearl-
oysters {Margaritifera spp.).

As the method employed in the Laccadives is different from
that followed in Palk Bay and Ceylon, it will be useful to put the
particulars on record of what I learnt during my visit to the islands
in 1908. So far as I could learn the industry had then but recently
been introduced. I was informed indeed that it had been brought
to the attention of the islanders only three years before by a
Cannanore Mappilla who stayed in the island for some time super-
vising the collection and curing of the product. As taught by this
man the process is carried on as follows.

No. 4 (191 7) INDIAN BECHE-DE-MER I3O

Each holothurian is first slit open longitudinally and the
viscera removed ; the thick fleshy body-wall remaining is
washed in sea water and then boiled for about half an hour. As in
the Palk Bay curing operations, the time when the material should
be removed from the cauldron is judged by the odour given out.
After removal from the boiler the pieces are pinned open by
the insertion of short wooden skewers in order to prevent curling,
and are then exposed for drying to the full glare of the sun upon a
cadjan platform raised 2Y2 feet from the ground. When dried
thoroughly they are stored till enough be accumulated to send to
Mangalore. The price received from the middlemen of the latter
port was reported to be from Rs. 3 to Rs. 5 per tolam of 28 lb.,
equivalent to Rs. 240 to Rs. 400 per ton, far too low a price if the
quality of the product approaches that produced by like-circum-
stanced coral atolls in the Pacific, asl have little doubt is the case.

The species of beche-de-mer available in quantity at Kiltan are
three : — (a) Vdla kokd, mottled grey and dirty brown, {b) Karrtakoka,
black in colour, and (r) Soganna kokd, of reddish-brown hue. The
animals are collected by wading in the lagoon and on the reef-flat
at low tide and also by spearing from boats.

At Androth, I noticed abundance of large holothurians in the
shallows, but here no curing is carried on, as the elders of this
particular island are strongly opposed to any development of such
an industry from religious or rather from superstitious reasons. A
venerated mullah now deceased had fulminated against any traffic
in such scaleless inhabitants of the sea, and had banned with
threat of misfortune any who should take it up, a prophecy which, I
was told, duly came true in several instances. Hence although the
people admit that the trade can be made to give a good return they
will have nothing to do with it. This attitude need not hamper
any prospective attempt to develop a large trade in the islands, as
it is only the inhabitants of Androth who take up this attitude.

If steps be taken to extend the beche-de-mer trade in the
Laccadives, the result should be of considerable benefit to the
islanders, for at present the industry is so restricted as to be of no
commercial importance — the main sources of supply being untapped
— while the prices obtained appear to be inadequate, the islanders
being entirely at the mercy of the middlemen, who impose any rate
they like to fix, trading as they do upon the islanders' ignorance of
the true market value of the product.

140 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

SUMMARIZED RECAPITULATION.

The beche-de-mer industry in India depends upon a single
species. Holotlmria scabra, called vcllai attai (white leech) in Tamil.
Two other species are abundant, the black and the prickly-green
(//. atra and Stichopus chloronotiis). The former is common on coral-
reef flats, but has little commercial value as it shrinks to very small
size and has little weight — less than half the weight of the poorest
quality of vellai attai — when cured. The prickly-green species is
too gelatinous to cure; and is found in fair quantities in Rames-
waram Bay only.

The " white-fish " as we may call,//, scabra, is akin to the " sand-
fish " of Australian trade, where it is held in low esteem (Rs. 300 to
Rs. 450 per ton) owing to the presence of a thick chalky coat on the
exterior. In India this coating is removed by an ingenious and
simple device and in consequence the product has ready sale and
fetches good prices when well cured. No endeavour is made to
remove the chalky layer in Australia and the Malay Archipelago,
hence the introduction there of the Indian method should be of
considerable benefit to the trade.

This industry in India is probably of considerable antiquity,
introduced, improved, and periodically revived by immigrant
Chinese curers.

The Chinese were careful and conscientious workers ; they pro-
duced an excellent product and were prosperous till local men,
chiefly Kilakarai Labbais, ousted them by boycott. The local
curers invariably allowed their methods to deteriorate after a few
years, with the result that the market value of the produce became
unremunerative and the trade lanquished and died out until again
revived by the advent of another Chinese curer who reorganized
methods and re-established the reputation of the Indian product.

The Customs statistics show that in the twelve years from 1898
to 1910 the average annual export of beche-de-mer was 12,175 lb. ;
during the ensuing six years the annual export fell to an average
of 2,991 lb. only. In 191 5 the industry had virtually died out.
The trade was in one of its periodical collapses in 1914-15 when
first investigated.

Many abuses were found to have crept into the curing methods,
the chief being {a) faulty evisceration, (b) imperfect removal of the
chalky external coat, (c) careless and dirty sun-drying, (d) imperfect

No. 4 (1917) INDIAN BECHE-DE-MER I4I

Sterilization by smoking, (e) too prolonged storage, (/) trickery in
mixing inferior stuff with good.

To attempt a revival of the industry and thereby to increase the
earnings of the local chank divers, the Madras Government in
G.O. No. 2739, Revenue, dated 9th December 191 5, authorized the
establishment of a beche-de-mer curing station at Tirupalakudi
on the south-west coast of Palk Bay. Work was commenced in
August 1916 and the first parcel of cured material was shipped
to Singapore in the following December. The quality was found
so satisfactory that it sold at the following high rates : —

Unsmoked : —

RS, A. p.

Large and medium sizes ..

• 1.013 4 o(;^67i) per ton.

Small size ...

.. 817 15 0(;^S4i)

Smoked : —

Mixed sizes

■• 844 6 0(^56)

After allowing for depreciation of buildings and plant, together
with supervision charges, the net profit on the first half season's
work was equal to over 63% upon the expenditure, a rate which has
justified a substantial increase in the rates now being paid to the
fishermen. The curing methods at present in operation are as
follows : —

{a) Thorough evisceration before or during boiling.

(b) Boiling without the addition of water till the animals
shrink to half their length and emit a distinctive odour (40 to 50
minutes from time of applying heat to the pans).

(c) Burial under damp sand for 12 to 18 hours.

(d) Removal of the chalky external coat, first by hand mani-
pulation and then by foot trampling in a basket.

(e) A second boiling for 20 minutes ; this time sea water
sufficient to cover is added.

(/) Either full drying upon wire-net trays raised above the
ground or half sun drying and then finishing off in a smoke-house.
In the latter case the product should become very dark red in
colour.

Constant care has to be maintained to keep the material
thoroughly dry during storage by means of occasional re-exposure
to sunshine.

The best markets for Indian produce are Singapore and Penang,
shipment being made by mail steamer from Negapatam. No

142 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

shipment should be made during the rainy season, lest the material
get wet or damp on the journey.

Unsmoked sun-dried beche-de-mer is preferred for local
consumption in the Straits Settlements ; for re-export to China, the
better keeping smoke cure is required.

The only commercially workable areas producing beche-de-mer
off the Indian mainland appear to be the south-west angle of Palk
Bay, the Pamban Pass neighbourhood and Rameswaram Bay. It is
contemplated to open new curing stations as circumstances justify
at Vedalai (near Mandapam), at Kmsadai Island (Pamban), and
possibly at Rameswaram.

The Laccadive Islands urgently require investigation as to their
beche-de-mer producing resources. Great reef-fiats exist there
which by analogy, faunistic and physical, with other reef areas in
the Pacific, appear very promising. In 1908 the writer saw a small
quantity of beche-de-mer being dried in the island of Kiltan. Three
species of commercial value were observed. The methods of cure
adopted were different from those practised in Palk Bay ; they
approximated closely to those of Australia and Polynesia.

TUTICORIN,
2WiJunc 1917- JAMES HORNELL.

NO. 4(1917)

INDIAN B CHE-DE-MER

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LIST OF CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS BULLETINS.

BUL.
NO. PACKS

I. Papers from 1899 relating chiefly to the development of
THE Madras Fisheries Bureau.

3. Note on Fisheries in Japan —

Deals with Japanese methods of fishing, the condition of the fisher-
folk, the assistance given by Government and by local associa-
tions, the fishery laws and regulations, etc. (Pages 105.)

3. The Preservation and Curing of Fish—

Describes the difficulties and methods of preserving fish from taint
whether by refrigeration, desiccation, pickling, smoking, can-
ning, etc. (Pages 119.)

Exhausted ; revised edition under preparation.

4. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1908—

I. Report on the suitability of Pulicat Lake for oyster-culture

(one sketch-plan)

II. Note on an attempt to ascertain the principal determining

factor in oyster-spawning in Madras backwaters (one plate). 25

III. Report on the feasibility of operating deep-sea fishing boats

on the coasts of the Madras Presidency, with special refer-
ence to the selection of fishing centres and harbours of
refuge (illustrated with three plates) 33

IV. The results of a fishery cruise along the Malabar coast and

to the Laccadive Islands in 1908 (illustrated with 27 photo-
graphs and text-figures) ... ... 71

5. The Practice of Oyster-cultdre at Arcachon and its lessons

FOR India —

I. Introduction I — 4

II. The physical conditions characterising Arcachon basin «.. 4 — 7

III. The origin and development of oyster-culture at Arcachon ... 7 — 19

IV. Present methods and conditions 19 — 74

V. Principal characteristics of other European systems of cultiva-
tion , ,, 75 — 79

VI. Applicability of French methods to oyster-culture in India .., 79 — 90

6. Marine Fish-farming for India—

(1) Introductory , i — 3

(2) French fish-farming at Arcachon 4 — 20

(3) The communal fish-farms of Comacchio ... si— 62

(4) The scope for marine fish-farming in India ... 63 — 83

7. The Sacred Chank of India—

Introductory » 1-2

I. The chank fisheries of India and Ceylon 3 — 40

II. The chank bangle industry 41 — 116

III. The role played by the chank in Indian religion and life ... 117 — 172

IV. Appendix „ , 173— 181

BUL.

NO. FAOBS

8. Marxnb Fishrry Investigations in Madras, i9I4-i5~

I. A note OD the edible oyster t— 10

II. An explanation of the irregularly cyclic character of the pearl

fisheries of the Gal f of Mannar II— sa

III. Notes upon two exploring cruises in search of trawl grounds

off the Indian and Ceylon coasts ... 33—4]

IV. Report on the pearl fishery heldlat Tondi, 1914 43 — 9a

V. Professor Huxley and the Ceylon pearl fishery, with a note

on the forced or cultural pr^r^.-ction of free spherical pearls. 93 — 104
VI. The utilization of coral and shells for lime-burning in the

Madras Presidency 105 — 136

9. FisHBRv Statistics and Information, West and East [Coasts,

Madras Presidency —

(l) Introduction 1— 3

Section I— Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-
holders, markets, etc. 7 — 9

Section II — Number of boats engaged in

fishing 10 — 14

Section III — Various kinds of nets, etc., in

use 'M* 15—30

Section IV — Methods of curing fish 31 — 44

Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers 45 — 62

Section.I— Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-
holders, etc 65 — 71

Section 11 — Boats and catamarans 72 — 79

Section IIT — Nets, etc., in use 78 — 104

Section IV — Methods of curing 105 — lao

Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers ... 121— 140

(2) West Coast.

(3)

Do.

(4)

Do.

<5)
(6)

Do.
Do.

(7)

East Coast.

(8)

(9)

(10)

(")

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.

MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

CARP-GROWING IN GERMANY

BY

Sir F. a. NICHOLSON,

Honorary Director of Fisheries, Madras.

Report No. 5 (i9f 71
Madras Fisheries Bulletin, Vol. XI, pages 15/ to 160.

MADRAS:
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS.

1917.
Price, i anna 6 />'«;.] [a pente.

AGENTS FOR THE SALE OF MADRAS GOVERNMENT
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Constable & Co., 10, Orange Street, Leicester Square, London, W,C.

Deighton, Bell & Co. (Ltd.), Cambridge.

T. Fisher Unwin (Ltd.), i, Adeljihi Terrace, London, W.C.

Grindlav & Co., 54, Parliament Street, London, S.W.

Kegan Paul, Trench, Trobner & Co. (Ltd.X 68—74, Carter Lane, London,
E.C. and 25, Museum Street, London, W.C.

Henry S. King & Co., 65, Cornhill, London, E.C.

P. S. King & Son, 2 and 4, Great Smith Street, Westminster, London, S.W.

LuzAC & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C.

B. Quaritch, II, Grafton Street, New Bond Street, London, W.

W. Thacker & Co., 2, Creed Lane, London, E.C.

Oliver and Bovd, Tweeddale Court, Edinburgh.

E. Ponsonby (Ltd.), 116, Grafton Street, Dublin.

W. Wesley & Son, a«, Essex Street, Strand, London.

ON THE CONTINENT.

Ernest Lerodx, 28, Rue Bonapiarte, Paris.
Martinub Nijhofk, The Hague, Holland.

Refjort No. 5 (/9/7).

CARP-GROWIXG IX GERMANY.

BY

Sir F. a. NICHOLSON,

Honorary Dirkctor ok Fisheries, W auras.

The paper printed below was contributed in 1908 to the Madras
Mail and is now republished by kind permission. It should have
found place in bulletin No. I but was accidentally omitted.

Its origin accounts for the merely popular form in which it is
written, but it appears to embody useful facts and suggestions. The
intelligent iadustry of the ordinary German peasantry yields a
remarkable lesson for our own folk, but the methods are not con-
fined to Germany or even to Europe, but are very highly developed
in China and Japan.

While carp have been solely dealt with in this paper, it should
be noted that better fish, yielding as good results in weight and
better results as food, will shortly be available ; this Department
has, since the paper was written, introduced tench and gourami
{Osphromenus olfax) to our low-country waters, and when these have
sufficiently increased they may be issued for private culture.

The curing yards will also probably be able to supply cheap food
for artificial feeding, since there is considerable refuse from all
classes of fish-curing, whilst masses of manurial fish (sardines and
" podimin ") caught in excess can frequently be dried, ground up,
and sold at extremely low rates. But in most cases the local sources
of refuse and wild foods, as additions to those found in the ponds
themselves, must be relied on for the artificial feeding of fish.

Some of the most pleasant days of a recent tour in FAirope were
spent in visiting peasant holdings in Bavaria where the farmers
grow crops of cereals and of fish, mostly carp, alongside of one
another. There are many thousands of these carp ponds in this
small kingdom and, as one farmer said, they are more profitable
than an equal area of good land. The ponds visited which are
typical, are purely natural drainage ponds lying in low bottoms

152 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN [vOL. XI,

and fed by the melting of the snow, etc., and by the drainage from
the fields. They lie nearly empty throughout the winter, so as to
kill off noxious animal life and useless vegetation. Once in every
ten years or oftener, the ponds are kept dry throughout the summer,
and cultivated with cereals (oats), which then produce a heavy
crop. This process sweetens the pond beds and destroys noxious
growths. It is usual to dig out during winter a quantity of the pond
mud, and this mixed with lime, is an admirable manure for the
arable land. The pond vegetation is, in general, natural, such as
" water roses " (lotuses and lilies), Vallisneria, Fcstuca ffidtans
(water rice), various sedges, etc. Shade in Germany is not gene-
rally desirable, for the one aim of the carp grower is to get and keep
the water as warm as possible during the summer. A very few
degrees of heat make a vast difference in the crop. Yet in parts of
Germany, as in France, it is found necessary to temper the extreme
heat which in shallow ponds sometimes raises the water almost to
blood heat, by properly selected and encouraged vegetation. This
not only shelters the fish but oxygenates and purifies the water and
the bed. In India owing to the great heat, external shade would pro-
bably be desirable while the droppings from the marginal trees
would provide useful food. The first farm visited comprised an
area of about l8o acres, of which half was shallow water, half
somewhat poor light sand. The homestead contained a neat house
and excellent farm buildings (everywhere in Germany one is struck
with the completeness of the latter), while the cow stable had about
a score of cows in splendid condition, as clean as washing could
make them, and floors of wood lightly covered with litter and
sloping gently to a central drain. The litter is daily removed with
solid excreta to the manure pit and fresh litter is put in; most of
the fluids, however, are intentionally drawn off by a central drain
through a pipe direct to the main pond of about 50 or 60 acres, in
order to assist in the growth of fish food. The merit of these
Bavarian carp growers is that they utilize land habitually covered
by water in the bottom of valleys too wet for ordinary cereal growth,
and that they assist the growth of the fish by manuring the water^
just as they would manure the land, and occasionally by giving
small quantities of boiled or raw cereal food or domestic refuse.
The ponds are in general surrounded by and receive the drainage
from the cultivated lands, which whether pasture or arable, are all
manured; hence a considerable quantity of the manure is used
indirectly by the fish and not by the grass or cereal crops. All

No. 5 (1917) CARP-GROWING IN GERMANY 1 53

agree that the droppings of cattle are among the best foods for carp,
not in general directly but because they promote small life abund-
antly, both animal and vegetable, and on these the carp feed. On
testing such ponds with a dipper it was found that the water,
especially at the margin and near the inlet from the farm-stead, was
fairly alive with " water fleas " and various animalculae, while the
water of unmanured ponds was far less prolific.

Taking this and other farms together, the general practice is
that in April and May a few reproductors, usually one female to 2,
3 or 4 males, are placed in special small breeding ponds in which
branches, especially those of juniper, or other simple arrangements
for the attachment of the adhesive eggs, are placed. These can
either be removed at once with the adherent eggs or allowed to
remain till the eggs hatch. The arrangement is similar to that in
Japan as described in a note on Japanese Fisheries. If the pond
owner has no spawners he can either buy them for spawning in
his pond, or he can buy the ova, or fry ready hatched. There is a
regular trade with carefully designed casks or vessels for the trans-
port of spawners, ova, or fry. When the fry are about a fortnight
old the breeding ponds are slowly drained, fine meshed baskets or
nets in which the fry are caught being placed at the outlet ; these
are then transferred to the main ponds. In more .scientific arrange-
ments small rectangular ponds have nicely figured beds sloping to
a central ditch from which it is easy to net out the small fry so
that they are not crushed in the basket by the rush of the water.
The removal of the fry is necessary in order both to prevent the
parent carp from devouring them and to give them room and food
to develop. By November they have reached the fingerling stage,
weighing one or two ounces and are then retained in deep wintering
ponds. At the end of the next summer, they may be I lb. or more
and at the eml of the third summer, 2^^ to 3 lb. They are usually
sold at this age as the larger and older ones are coarse ; spawners
(females) are kept up to 10 years, but are then worth less than half-
price as food. A little cereal food such as maize, boiled or raw, is
sometimes given if available, or any house refuse, etc., carp being
omnivorous; lupin seed or cake is a favourite food of carp and is
not only cheap but contains about one-third of albuminoids. But
in the Bavarian ponds food is not in general given to any great
extent, the owners relying chiefly on the natural or acquired
resources of the ponds. It will be observed that the main ponds
contain, in each year, a number of first, second, and third year fish

154 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL XI,

of which the first have been newly hatched in separate ponds
while the others have been retained from previous years, hibernat-
ing during the winter. In November of each year the ponds are
almost entirely drained and the pools are then netted for their
contents ; the marketable ones are culled out and sold to contractors
from the cities and towns, while the others are returned to the pools
for the winter; those purchased for consumption are stored by the
contractors in reservoirs or special pools till needed ; and since
carp hibernate they need no food, and practically lose no weight,
while in storage.

The price at present is comparatively low, viz., a little over 7^
annas per pound. The produce per acre is smaller than I expected,
though the owners do not seem dissatisfied. My chief informant
wished that all his land were water as giving more profit and less
trouble than arable land. His live weight produce on 88 acres
averages lOO German centners or 11,000 lb. English or 125 lb.,
worth Rs. 60 per acre, which is slightly better than the general
Bavarian average of IIO lb. per acre. On another set of ponds the
outturn of 200 acres was 22,000 lb. worth 14,000 marks, of which
4,000 are allowed for cultivation expenses ; net profit 10,000 marks,
or 50 marks (Rs. 37-8-0) per acre, but from this must be deducted
an allowance forbad years (owing to drought, floods, disease, etc.)
and so forth. Still the average net profit is obtained with some
certainty and a minimum of trouble. In India it is believed, as will
hereafter be shown, that the outturn per acre of available water
may be far greater.

In another part of Germany a visit was paid to a leading carp
and trout culturist, who courteously showed not only his own
establishment but a large experiment now in progress for utilizing
a large area of waste and barren heath land of no present value for
cereal crops ; a similar and successful experiment was seen in
Belgium, This low lying marshy land has been fashioned into
ponds fed from a navigation canal which borders them; the system
is similar to that known as Dubisch's system, the spawning taking
place in very small breeding ponds whence, after a few days, the
fry are collected and placed in larger ponds (nurseries) and thence
transferred, after about six weeks, to the growing ponds. The
object in this treble and even quadruple transference is to appor-
tion the food to the number and growth of the fish ; only a certain
number of fry in the alevin stage are placed in the nurseries at the
rate of about 12,000 to the acre. After a few weeks the food

No. 5 (I917) CARP-GROWING IN GERMANY 155

remaining in the pond is insufficient for the growing survivors, and
they are therefore turned into larger and deeper ponds at the rate
of about 500 per acre, and thence again into larger ponds. The
system is desirable only where the waters are not incessantly and
largely under renewal, are not rich in natural food, and are not
supplied with artificial food ; otherwise the periodical transference
is unnecessary, since it is merely adopted to regulate the food
supply which enables the fish under this system to grow twice as
quickly as they do in ponds under the ordinary system, and to be
more healthy, since they are not starvelings crowded promiscuously
together, but well fed carplets with plenty of room and nutriment.
In Geeste where the waters are naturally very poor, this method is
essential ; the soil in which the ponds are dug is of the poorest, and
the ponds are merely filled occasionally with canal water and are
not continually changed by a continuous flow.

The object of the construction is to reclaim hitherto useless
heath land by alternately growing carp and oats or other hardy
cereals or grass. The dry bed of a pond is manured in the usual
way and a crop taken ; it remains more or less dry (frozen) during
the winter, after which the water is let in and a crop of carp taken.
These subsist on the fish food in the water, which is rendered more
prolific by the balance of the unassimilated manure and the
leavings of the cereal crop ; the next crop of oats is benefited by the
excreta, etc., of the animal crop ; gradually the soil is enriched,
and with it the successive crops.

The ponds are nicely arranged to avoid undue labour; the
breeding and nursery ponds are rectangular with proper sluice
arrangements and with central and cross ditches in which, when
the ponds are drained, the fry or fish collect and are therefore
easily netted, while the growing ponds are just large expanses of
water of irregular shape. The canal water is let in by a main
sluice, and to prevent predaceous fish from entering with it, the
water is strained by having to pass through a semi-circular wall of
road metal, which effectually filters it of anything so large as fish
fry. From April to November operations continue as above
described ; a little artificial food is occasionally given such as dry
fish powder from' Gesstemunde, etc., but this is not relied upon.
The resulting fry as seen in July were remarkably vigorous and
healthy and gave every promise of a successful crop ; they were
certainly much better than those of similar age seen two weeks
earlier in Bavaria. In November the ponds are drained and the

22

156 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

young fish placed in deep winter ponds for hibernation ; in the
following spring they are placed in large ponds where they mature
till fit for market.

In one pond an experiment was being conducted in the method
of leaving the fry and the parent fish in the same pond throughout
the season, natural vegetation being encouraged for the protection
of the fry. While, on the one hand, the parents probably eat a
certain proportion of the fry, on the other hand they destroy a vast
number of noxious insects, beetles, etc., which kill an immense
number of the fry ; moreover the expense of transferring the fry is
saved. It is a question of comparative advantages. Apparently the
one advantage that this particular experiment has over the ordinary
Bavarian method is that only a given number of spawners, and
consequently a given quantity of fry, are allowed to a given area.

The results both in gross outturn and net profits are consider-
able ; the balance sheets including all charges, cost of manure, etc.,
etc., show a very useful net profit, which is surprising when the
waste and wretched nature of the land is considered.

The giving of artificial food has been mentioned and it is obvious
that since the success of the Dubisch system depends mainly on its
proportioning the fish under cultivation to the amount of food
naturally available, it is possible by supplying extraneous food
to increase the weight of fish grown per acre and per annum,
especially as carp respond readily and rapidly to high feeding.

Dr. Hofer of Munich has shown by actual experiment that it is
possible so to feed carp that specimens weighing lYz lb. in spring
weighed 5 lb. by the end of July, while Prof. Zuntz of Berlin
found that a three-year old carp can be made to triple its weight
during one summer. In the hotter parts of America such as
California, Mexico, Texas, etc., where the water is warm and full of
fish food, carp have attained the weight of 15 lb. in 3 years and
have increased at the rate of I lb. per month. In China a weight of
30 lb. in 5 years is obtained by supplying abundant food, and in
Japan it is common to sell large carp in their second summer, while
carp hatched in April grow to 10 inches in length by October when
placed in the rich paddy fields in June. The growths obtained by
Messrs. Hofer and Zuntz are abnormal being in non-tropical
climates and of fish not ordinarily growing to large size; the vora-
city and excellent digestion of the carp were taken advantage of to
stuff them, and they were as unhealthy as Strasbourg geese and
died, or would have died, of liver and fatty heart. In tropical

No. 5 (I917) CARP-GROWING IN GERMANY I57

climates, however, carp naturally grow large and fast with the
abundant food found in warm waters.

Now artificial feeding can only be resorted to if the prices of
the food and of the resulting fish permit, and since it requires 5 to
7 lb. of artificial food, plus any natural food in the water, for every
pound of live carp, the food must be exceedingly cheap. Still it is
found possible to use some foods and the experiences of Wittingau
in Bohemia are interesting. This royal establishment has nearly
200 ponds covering about 25,000 acres, worked mainly under the
Dubisch system plus that of artificial feeding. It is here found
that carp which, under the ordinary system, weigh I lb. at the end
of the second summer, weigh 2^ lb. when artificial feeding is
added. The food supplied is at the rate of about 6 lb. per pound
of carp fished, nearly 60 per cent being lupin seed and 35 per cent
meat powder, chiefly waste from Liebig factories. In Bavaria I
found that the seed of the yellow lupin was frequently given ; it is
usually steeped in water for a day or two and then used. Maize
cake boiled, steeped or raw — in which last case it is roughly
pounded up — was also given. In Geeste I found an excellent pre-
paration of sea fish (undersized haddock, etc., which it is illegal to
place as such in the market) which are ground up, bone and all,
into a fine meal and desiccated ; this was supplied at just over I
penny per pound, but being too costly is seldom used except for
trout. Potatoes, edible oil cakes of various sorts such as groundnut,
bran and rice poundings (tavidu), pounded fish scrap, i.e., the flesh
of herring, etc., after expression of the oil, vegetables unfit for table
use, and so forth, are largely used ; as has been already mentioned,
the drainage of cattle stalls and manure heaps and the miscellane-
ous scraps of farms and households are all acceptable to carp, as
well as the worms, insects, small molluscs and Crustacea found in
the fields and in the ponds and ditches.

One is led to enquire whether there is scope for carp growing
operations in the Madras Presidency similar to those conducted in
Germany. Is there water .? Will carp grow successfully in these
waters? What methods are available? Will people take the
trouble ? Well, there is plenty of water, even neglecting the rivers,
in the canals, tanks, village ponds, irrigation wells, and paddy
fields. True that most of it is non-permanent and dries up in the
hot weather ; but even this is not a bar to the production of a great
crop of food ; the rains last only six or seven months, from June to
December, but this suffices to grow cereal crops or even two of

158 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

them, and with knowledge and some care carp can be grown of
marketable size in a few months, with the certainty that whereas a
cereal crop is almost useless and unproductive if a severe drought
happens, the fish crop will be of material value at any stage, while
its in-gathering is even facilitated by the dryage of ponds. The
public waters of this class are now engaging attention in view to
their better utilization, but there are many which should be dealt
with by village bodies or by private effort, such as the village
irrigation tanks, village ponds, irrigation wells, and even paddy
fields. There are more than 25,000 irrigation tanks in the Presi-
dency, many of great size and some of almost permanent character.
The majority have water for a period sufficient to raise a paddy
crop and, being mainly fed by surface streams from the cultivated
fields, are more or less manured and are known to be full of fish
food. The village ponds in many districts are of considerable
number, size, and permanence. Half a dozen, ranging from I to 3
or 4 acres, were noticed on a short road journey in a district of
the Northern Circars almost full of water at the end of last February,
and since they adjoin the village-site and cattle stand and are the
drinking and bathing sources for cattle, they are full of fish food
and literally swarm with small life. In these cases fish would not
only grow with rapidity but would greatly improve the character
of the water and vastly minimize the growth of mosquitoes.

The permanence of such ponds would be greatly increased by a
small expenditure of village hot-weather labour, at present un-
employed, in deepening the ponds by afoot or so annually for three
or four years, the rich mud, full of vegetable and animal debris,
being utilized, as in Germany, for the surrounding fields. The same
method is equally applicable to irrigation tanks all of which are
heavily silted with washings from the arable area of their catch-
ment basins, further enriched by the exuviae of tank life. In both
cases the double benefit is obtained of increasing the tank capacity
and of returning to the fields the loamy and humic matters which
have been washed out of them. Irrigation wells aggregate a large
area of permanent or semi-permanent water and might be largely
utilized for household use. The paddy fields of this Presidency
are of vast area, and in many cases contain a good supply of water
for many months together. These waters are rich with food, and
in Japan the practice of stocking them with carpling is common,
the carp being hatched for the purpose in April, transferred in June
when I inch or 2 inches long to the fields — often many miles distant

No. 5 (1917) CARP-GROWING IN GERMANY 1 59

— and marketed at a size of 8 inches to 10 inches in October when
the paddy crop is over, the rapidity of growth being due to the
warmth and abundant supply of fish food in the well manured fields.
As a matter of fact, there are many places which, already
swampy or damp, as under canal banks or at the tail end of the
irrigation sources, might be converted with little expense into fish
ponds, thus turning useless and even miasmatic areas into profit-
able and wholesome food-producing waters. Travelling recently
along the Kurnool canal for about TOO miles, many places were
noted below the artificial bank which were quite unutilized for
crop growing, being too marshy for dry crops and unsuited,
without much preparation, for paddy. Very slight excavation and
banking would turn these into permanent ponds, more productive
in food and money than the best paddy lands. In areas bordering
other canals, e.g., in Kistna, the ground-water level even in areas
not actually commanded for irrigation purposes by the canals, is
often so high that almost permanent water may be reached at 4 or
5 feet, and the supply could be readily increased by a very low
lift, e.g., by cheap windmills, either from the canals or from wells.
In Bengal water is occasionally bought for fish ponds from irriga-
tion sources. Where mere percolation-water is not available this
plan is often possible under our canals and tanks either by flow or
low lift according to the nature of the ground. There is then
already plenty of water in this Presidency which may be cultivated
with fish instead of merely growing, at best, a haphazard wild
crop of fish, and which can be increased in area and permanence
by the expenditure of slight capital and labour, and in production
by the adoption of simple methods of cultivation.

The remarks just off"ered as to the nature of jMadras waters
themselves dispose of the second question, viz., whether carp will
grow successfully in such waters. To some extent they are there
already, but they merely grow and are not cultivated, while
predaceous fish unduly predominate. The waters are precisely
those most suited for omnivorous carp. They are full of the
matters which, as already mentioned, are those deliberately
introduced into German, Chinese, and other fish ponds, while under
tropical conditions rapidity of growth is even more probable than
in Japan and China. The carp of tropical countries are usually
larger and grow far more rapidly than those of European waters.
Carp of a single summer may easily exceed I lb. in weight since
in the warm parts of the United States of America 3 lb. or 4 lb.

l60 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI, No. 5 (1917)

per year is a general rate and they have been known to grow I lb.
in a month. In China 4 to 5 lb. per annum is common, and in
Madras water I lb. in 70 days is on record. Again, Mr. Thomas
has recorded steady takes of 4,000 lb. per annum, without any
artificial feeding, from a pond of 4 or 5 acres that had been wholly
dried and emptied of all life and restocked with a couple of
measures of fry. Hence the chances of really large carp returns
from protected areas of the classes mentioned, are excellent. This
subject has been treated more at length in paragraphs 179 to 184,
196 to 209, and 232 to 234 of a " Note on Japanese Fisheries " and is
engaging the attention of the Fisheries office.

The main point for consideration is what methods of aquiculture
are best adapted for such waters. But this would demand a small
treatise, which is now under preparation. Meanwhile references
may be made to previous articles and to the "Note on Japanese
Fisheries " for some indications. Suffice it to say that after a
pond has been cleared, as far as possible, of predaceous fish, a few
spawners may be introduced and left to themselves or the fry may
be bred in separate ponds and introduced in numbers proportioned
to the area.

In the case of village or private ponds and wells, growth may
be assisted by additions of cheap and available food, viz., leaves
and grass such as carp will eat, the berries of the wild fig and
other edible fruits such as those of the prickly-pear, the chaff of
grain (tavidu), insects collected from the fields and trees by
children, silkworm pupae if available, any cheap edible oil-cake,
surplus grain or food from the homestead, spare cattle manure, etc.,
while a few water plants are valuable as shelters both for fish and
for the small life on which fish feed.

Will private enterprise take the trouble to improve existing
waters, to form new ponds, to utilize water not merely for irriga-
tion and drinking but incidentally and additionally for indirect
food production ? Capital is not needed to any appreciable extent
even where private persons form ponds for the purpose. A little
energy and personal labour, a little trouble in practising a new
business, a little patience and intelligence, are the main factors of
success in India as in Germany and Japan. The returns in each in-
dividual case may not be very great, but neither will be the expense
nor the trouble, and the enterprise will not only be purely swadeshi
but a distinct and valuable addition to the industries, to the food
production, and to the wealth of the country.

LIST OF CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS BULLETINS.

BUL.
NO. PAGES

1. Papers from 1899 relating chiefly to the development of

THE Madras Fisheries Bureau.

2. Note on Fisheries in Japan —

Deals with Japanese methods of fishing, the condition of the fisher-
folk, the assistance given by Government and by local associa-
tions, the fishery laws and regulations, etc. (Pages 105.)

3. The Preservation and Curing of Fish—

Describes the difficulties and methods of preserving fish from taint
whether by refrigeration, desiccation, pickling, smoking, can-
ning, etc. (Pages 119.)

Exhausted ; revised edition under preparation.

4. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1908 —

I. Report on the suitability of Pulicat Lake for oyster-culture

(one sketch-plan)

II. Note on an attempt to ascertain the principal determining

factor in oyster-spawning in Madras backwaters (one plate). 25

III. Report on the feasibility of operating deep-sea fishing boats

on the coasts of the Madras Presidency, with special refer-
ence to the selection of fishing centres and harbours of
refuge (illustrated with three plates) 33

IV. The results of a fishery cruise along the Malabar coast and

to the Laccadive Islands in 190S (illustrated with 27 photo-
graphs and text-figures) 71

5. The Practice of Oyster-culture at Arcachon and its lessons

FOR India—

I. Introduction I — 4

II. The physical conditions characterising Arcachon basin ... 4 — 7

III. The origin and development of oyster-culture at Arcachon ... 7 — ig

IV. Present methods and conditions 19 — 74

V. Principal characteristics of other European systems of cultiva-
tion ... 75—79

VI. Applicability of French methods to oyster-culture in India ... 79 — 90

6. Marine Fish-farming for India —

(1) Introductory I — 3

(2) French fish-farming at Arcachon 4 — 20

(3) The communal fish-farms of Comacchio 21 — 62

(4) The scope for marine fish-farming in India ... 63 — 83

7. The Sacred Chank op India —

Introductory 1-2

I. The chank fisheries of India and Ceylon 3 — 40

II. The chank bangle industry 41 — 116

III. The role played by the chank in Indian religion and life ... 117 — 172

IV. Appendix « 173— 181

BOL.

NO. PAGES

8. Marine Fishery Investigations in Madras, 1914-15—

I. A note on the edible oyster I — 10

II. An explanation of the irregularly cyclic character of the pearl

fisheries of the Gal f of Mannar II — 22

III. Notes upon two exploring cruises in search of trawl grounds

off the Indian and Ceylon coasts ... 23 — 41

rV. Report on the pearl fishery heldiat Tondi, 19I4 43 — 92

V. Professor Huxley and the Ceylon pearl fishery, with a note

on the forced or cultural production of free spherical pearls. 93 — 104
VI. The utilization of coral and shells for lime-burning in the

Madras Presidency I05 — 126

9. Fishery Statistics and Information, West and East [Coasts,

Madras Presidency —

(i) Introduction 1 — 3

(2) West Coast. Section I — Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-

holders, markets, etc. 7 — 9

(3) Do. Section II — Number of boats engaged in

fishing 10 — 14

(4) Do. Section III — Various kinds of nets, etc., in

use ... m 15—30

(5) Do. Section IV — Methods of curing fish 31 — 44

(6) Do. Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers ... 45 — 62

(7) East Coast. Section I— Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-

holders, etc. 65 — 71

(8) Do. Section II — Boats and catamarans 72 — 79

(9) Do. Section III — Nets, etc., in use 78 — 104

(10) Do. Section IV — Methods of curing 105 — 120

(n) Do. Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and carers 121 — 140

n.i

MADRAS FISHERIES BUREAU

NOTE ON TREATMENT OF SWAMPS,

STREAM BEDS, PONDS, WELLS, POOLS,

AND OTHER MOSQUITO-INFESTED

AREAS FOR THE DESTRUCTION

OF THEIR LARV^

BV

HENRY C. WILSON,

Piscicultural Expert to the Government of Madras.

Report No. 6 (19/7),
Madras Fisheries Bulletin, Vol. XI, pages 161 to 112.

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Report No. 6 {1 9 1 7),

A NOTE ON TREATMENT OF SWAMPS, STREAM

BEDS, PONDS, WELLS, POOLS, AND OTHER

MOSQUITO-INFESTED AREAS FOR THE

DESTRUCTION OF THEIR LARVAE

BY
HENRY C. WILSON,

PiSClCULTURAL ExPERT TO THE GOVERNMENT OF MADRAS.

THE UTILITY OF FISH AS LARVICIDES.

When we come to consider that the great majority of fresh
water fry rely for their sustenance chiefly on aquatic larvas it
seems surprising at first that any larvee remain to come to maturity
in waters stocked with fish.

Immediately after the absorption of the yolk sac the fry com-
mence feeding on minute organisms, such as microscopic Crusta-
cea, and, later, on the eggs and larvas of aquatic diptera.

That they play an important part in keeping down fly pests,
such as mosquitos, etc. is an undoubted fact and, if it were not for
their presence, we would have millions of mosquitos where we have
hundreds now. There is of course a limit to their usefulness in this
respect, for, so many mosquito-breeding places exist that are
unsuitable for fish, and even in suitable waters surface weeds,
etc. protect the larvae from their enemies.

Chiefly owing to this latter reason the practical utility of fish as
larvicides has been decried. The absurdity of this opinion is
evident as the fish are not likely to abstain voluntarily from eating
the most important item of their natural diet and consequently must
take a continuous and heavy toll of larvae. If the waters are con-
served, then a greater percentage of larvae would be destroyed-
Even in the foulest of ill-kept waters they do a certain amount of
good, and a careful observer will often see them searching the
weed and debris for larvae and seldom unsuccessfully.

23

l62 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

To go to the opposite extreme (which I learn has been done in
some cases) of putting oil and cresol into ponds where fish existed,
is most unwise and fatal to other small life as well as larvae. In
the first place you not only destroy the fish, but also all small
under-water life including other valuable (minute) larvicides, and
secondly the effect of cresol and oil is only of a temporary nature
and, if not regularly repeated, the pond, etc. so treated becomes a
doubly dangerous mosquito-breeding ground.

From a piscicultural point of view the introduction of poisonous
substances into waters where fish can be used should be strictly
prohibited. The trouble of clearing surface weeds or conserving
ponds,, etc. is infinitely less than repeated cresoling and oiling and
the benefit of the former has the advantage of being more perman-
ent. The cresol and oil treatment is most excellent for, and should
be confined to, small isolated puddles or pools too small or of too
temporary a character to stock with fish.

SUGGESTED TREATMENT FOR PONDS.

When introducing fish into ponds for purposes of destroying
mosquito larvse, it is necessary to conserve such waters by the
removal of surface weeds and floating debris near the margins and
draining or filling in isolated pools near the foreshore. The value of
this conservancy became apparent to me during my earliest experi-
ments with fish as larvicides. The ponds which were selected for
the first experiments were comparatively clear of surface weeds and
floating debris and mosquito larvae could be found near the margin.
They were stocked with larvce-eating fish and after a few days
were thoroughly examined with the result that no larvae could be
traced excepting above some patches of surface weed ; this weed was
promptly removed and a further search was made the following
day with a negative result.

The margin of ponds, etc. should be trimmed and over-hanging
plants that reach to the surface of the water should be cut back, as
these tend to hold up debris and protect the larvae. All small
isolated puddles should be filled in or drained. It is just as easy
to keep a neat margin to a pond as a neat border to a garden.

BURROW PITS.
The depressions formed when constructing the bunds of irriga-
tion tanks, railways, etc. in India form extensive breeding grounds
for mosquitos. The best method I think of dealing with these

No. 6 (1917) A NOTE ON TREATMENT OF SWAMPS, ETC. 163

burrow pits where it is impossible to drain them, is either to fill
them in or treat them similarly to ordinary ponds by clearing
weeds, etc. and stocking with suitable fish. Fortunately at the
present time a large number of small fish find their way into some
of the pits and help to keep the larvae down. In some districts
however, these fish are netted out wholesale by fishermen using
casting nets of the smallest mesh. I would suggest that Govern-
ment adopt the following methods of dealing with these pits: —

(1) If the levels permit, drain the pits off; if not,

(2) fill in or, where they are extensive and hold water for
long periods,

(3) link up each burrow pit by digging an open trench
between ihem, taking care that the sides of the trench are suffi-
ciently sloped to prevent the top soil falling in and blocking them.
Clear all pond weeds and debris and stock with suitable fish.
These trenches will permit the free access of fish to all the pits
and should any of the higher level depressions dry for a short
period re-stocking when they fill again, would occur naturally.

(4) Prohibit all fishing in these pits.

(5) When new tanks are being constructed or repairs being
made to old bunds make it compulsory to take the earth for the
bund from the bed of the tank and not from outside the bund.

SHALLOW SWAMPS, ISOLATED POOLS, ETC.

In dealing with shallow swamps, isolated pools, etc. in malaria-
infected districts, I would suggest that the best method would be
to trench the entire areas and drain off wherever possible. If it is
found impossible to drain a swamp in a malarial tract owing to
the nature of the country, then construct a pond at its lowest
level and drain the swamp by open trenches into the pond. This
pond would have to be kept clean similar to the others mentioned
above and stocked with suitable fish. It may be necessary to cross-
trench to get at all the little puddles of water held up ; but if
properly done and kept in order, it would, I think, certainly pay
in the long run. Many isolated pools which form from percolation
or from heavy rains could in most cases be drained off by these

open trenches.

OPEN WATER CHANNELS.

Where water is taken by small open channels for irrigation
purposes, etc. in malaria-infected areas its course should be clearly

l64 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

defined and all obstructions which form little backwaters, removed ;
the sides should be protected by stone slabs throughout the
malarial zone. If this is done the odds against the larvas in their
struggle lor existence are enormous and very few are likely to
survive. Where cross-channels are taken off the main, care should
be taken to avoid the formation of pools, and properly constructed
culverts should be adopted. The channel can be made entirely
harmless, but generally in the case of a garden supply there is a
receptacle for storing small quantities of water ; these are some-
times just hollows dug out of the earth, but in many cases small
concrete tanks are built; all these should be abolished.

WELLS.

All wells should be kept clear of debris and weed and stocked
with suitable fish. In the town of Cuddapah, for example, 50 per
cent of the wells were found infested with larvae of the malaria-
carrying mosquito A. step/icnsi. The stocking of these wells with
fish larvicides had a very decided and immediate result ; heavily
infested wells were found free from larvse three days after the
introduction of suitable fish (Haplochilus).

LARGE TANKS.

Mosquitos seldom lay eggs in large, open or wind-swept

stretches of water, but select secluded shallows where the wave

action is absent. The danger of these tanks generally lies in the

unevenness of the foreshore and as the water recedes puddles are

left which are inaccessible to fish larvicides. These depressions,

where possible, should be drained by trenches into the tank ; if the

levels tlo not permit of this, they should be filled in. In fact the

whole of the foreshore in the malarial zone should be conserved

and all debris or floating matter in the sheltered bays cleared. If

stocked with suitable fish when the tank first starts to fill, they will

have time to multiply and be of great value in keeping the larvee

down.

PADDY FIELDS.

The destruction of small fish by basket traps of minute mesh
should be prohibited in all paddy fields in malarial districts and if
larvae are found after this the fields should be re-stocked with
suitable fish. If the above suggestions are carried out the field
can be kept comparatively free from larvae. The paddy fields

No. 6 (1917) A NOTE ON TREATMENT OF SWAMPS, ETC. I65

form splendid feeding grounds for the small Haplochilus and
these can be found in large numbers where not interfered with by
basket traps, etc. In the Tanjore district and up the West Coast
where fish food is plentiful and the paddy fields are not trapped,
they simply swarm with small larvae eating fish, especially
Haplochilus.

ESTUARIES, BACKWATERS, SALT AND BRACKISH
POOLS NEAR THE COAST.

A careful search should be made along the shores of the
estuaries and backwaters and all isolated pools within the malarial
area should either be filled in (if small) or an open trench dug into
the estuary or backwater to enable fish to have clear access. All
sea-weed and decomposing debris should be removed from these
pools. Fish will soon discover the larvse and rapidly destroy
them. At Ennore where most of the breeding places inside a
prescribed area were filled in by Major Ross, I discovered a salt
water pool on the shores of the backwater with one living mass of
larvae. As their breeding areas had been restricted the mosquitos
had evidently bred in this small pool in thousands. It was
shallow, not more than 6 to 8 inches at the deepest part, but was
cut off from the backwater by a small sandbank. I divided this
pond into sections and cut a channel from one into the backwater
deep enough to allow small fish a clear passage. I removed all
sea-weed and debris from both sections and examined the follow-
ing morning. Fish were found in the one section and most of the
larvae were destroyed, only a few remaining in the shallowest
portion ; whereas in the other isolated section they were teeming.
The sides of the former were sloped to make it deeper round the
margins and the same evening an examination proved the fish
had cleared the lot of larv^ out of the section opened to the back-
water. Backwaters as a rule when open to the sea contain an
abundant supply of larvicides in the way of small fish, and an
examination along the shores where fish have free access will
prove that there are very few larvae ; but, on the other hand, when
the bars of the backwaters are closed and netting is carried on
along the margins by men using small mesh nets, you will find
numerous mosquito larvae. The supply of fish larvicides is
depleted and no fresh supply can come in from the sea. In the
case of brackish isolated pools where it is either too expensive or
24

I66 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

difficult to fill them in, they should be drained and attended to
similarly to fresh water ponds or stocked with suitable fish as per
list given below.

STREAM BEDS.

All stream beds should be conserved where they pass through
malarial zones. To carry this out effectively the banks require to
be given a gentle slope to the normal bed of the stream where the
channel should be clearly defined throughout its course within the
malarial area. Where the natural flood banks are very wide apart
and where hollows exist between them and the normal channel
holding water for considerable periods, these should be, if the levels
permit, linked up by trenches and drained into the main channel or
filled in. If the normal bed of the river is swampy and overgrown
with reeds and grass, these should be cleared and an uninterrupted
defined course given to the normal stream. Where there is a ten-
dency for the river to form a subsidiary deep course during floods,
permanent sections to be formed about every lOO feet to prevent
future scouring and to facilitate the recovery of the sections of bed
if erosion ever occurs. The waters should be stocked with suitable
fish larvicides and fishing strictly prohibited.

Hollows formed by the action of running water and stones on
the surface of rocks in river-beds form ideal breeding grounds for
mosquitos, where the larvae are free from most of their enemies.
These places can often be found black with mosquito larvae, and I
would suggest where they exist in malaria-infected areas to have
their water holding capacity destroyed. This could be done either
by filling in or by dynamite or in most cases with a stone mason's
chisel and hammer by simply knocking a drainage channel into
each hollow. As it takes many years for these to form, the above
measures need not be repeated for a long period. To fill them in,
Portland cement would be advisable.

CASUARINA PLANTATIONS.

Holes dug for the purpose of obtaining water for young
casuarina trees form most dangerous mosquito-breeding places
and these can be found in every plantation along the coast. The
water from these pits is only required during the dry months of
the first two years after planting, and the holes containing water
remain for many years afterwards untouched and unused. There
is not the slightest reason why these should be allowed to remain

No. 6 (1917) A NOTE ON TREATMENT OF SWAMPS, ETC. lb/

forming as they do dangerous mosquito-breeding grounds. In the
interests of public health the Government might compel the
owners of plantations to fill up all such pits, but in any case these
danger zones should be abolished.

COCOANUT PLANTATIONS.

In many cocoanut plantations especially on the West Coast it
has been the custom to dig trenches about four feet deep and
extending a considerable distance among the trees. The water in
these trenches appears to be used largely for soaking cocoanut
leaves for purposes of making thatties and consequently becomes
very foul. Mosquito larvae can always be found in these places in
large numbers.

It is useless stocking them with fish for the following reasons,
viz. : —

(1) It is impossible for the fish to destroy the larvae owing to
the presence of the soaking cocoanut leaves and other debris.

(2) After a time owing to the foulness of the water the fish
become sick and eventually die.

As these trenches do not serve any very useful purpose they
should be filled in.

STREET DRAINS.

Badly constructed street drains where water is held up, are
always infected with mosquito larvae. The constant cleaning of
drains that have a natural earth bottom causes inequalities or
depressions which hold water for periods sufficiently long for
mosquito larvae to come to maturity.

If sufficient fall can be obtained, then it is best to build a pucca
drain with concrete sides and bottom. If it is impossible to get
rid of all water, then kerosine oil should be used freely at least
once a week.

DRAINAGE CHANNELS ON THE SEA COAST.

All drainage channels which are subject to tidal influence are
generally found free of larvae and well stocked with larvae eating
fish. But wherever these are obstructed by cross bunds they form
dangerous mosquito-breeding grounds. All obstnictions should be
removed and the highest reaches possible brought under tidal
influence.

I68 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

MOST SUITABLE GROUNDS FOR MOSQUITO LARV^ AND
THEIR NATURAL ENEMIES.

The places selected by malaria-carrying mosquitos for deposit-
ing their eggs are very numerous and vary from large swamjjs,
ponds, etc., down to the small collection of water in the hollow of
a tree or broken chatti pot.

During Major T. S. Ross's inspections in Southern India on
special malarial duty he generally found the malaria-carrying
anophelines under the following conditions, viz. : —

A. ciilicifacics is most ubiquitous in its selection, but generally
prefers clear water.

A. barbirostris in tanks, shady pools, pot holes in rocks,
stagnant waters, etc.

A. fnUiginosus in marshes, swamps, paddy fields, etc.

A. stephensi in wells, puddles, cisterns, etc.

A. willmori in hill streams and marshes.

NATURAL ENEMIES.

Where tall reeds (jambu grass) exist, not many anopheline or
other larvae can be found and I put this down either to the small
fish or to the presence of minute crustaceans. Some years ago
(1909) I observed some of these crustaceans {Daphnid(r-i'd.n\.)
attacking the eggs of a species of Yellow dun {Ephemcridcc) very
common in the Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal. Again when hatching
experiments were being carried out with the eggs and fry of
Ophiocephalus striatus both were attacked and destroyed by these
minute crustaceans. I identified the most persistent of these
as " Daphne pulex," and the method of attack on the fry was to
bite into the embryonic caudal fin and tap the caudal vein. The
little fish soon died from loss of blood. Mosquito larvae were intro-
duced into the tank and they were promptly attacked and killed.
The method adopted in this case appeared to consist in nipping off
or pulling out the long lateral hairs until the larvae were unable to
regain the surface and so dropped to the bottom where they were
seized and evidently their vital juices extracted. That they are
valuable larvicides is undoubted as they swarm amongst the reeds
of most tanks.

The larvae and full grown beetles of the Dytiscidce are also useful
enemies of mosquito larvae.

No. 6 (1917) A NOTE ON TREATMENT OF SWAMPS, ETC. 169

Another larvicide common in stagnant waters is the Notonecta
glauca.

The young of most of the fresh water indigenous fishes of India
attack and destroy mosquito larvje : but as some grow to a large
size they are only useful during the fry stage. In selecting the best
of the larvicides it is only necessary to include those that rely
chiefly on the larvee for their food supply it being their natural
diet. The following selection will be found a very useful one, the
geographical distribution of each genus being widespread: —

For TANKS, BIG PONDS AND SWAMPS THE FOLLOWING ARE

MOST SUITABLE, VIZ.—

Genus-Chela.

Desc/'il>tioii of grniis (Dr. Day) — Body elongate and compressed :
abdominal edge cutting. Mouth directed somewhat upwards with
the lower jaw prominent. Barbels absent. Pharyngeal teeth
hooked and slender, in two or three rows. Dorsal fin short, without
any osseous ray, situated principally or entirely opposite the anal,
which latter has an elongated base. Pectorals long. Caudal
forked. Scales of moderate or small size. Lateral line concave.

Geographical distribufioi (Dr. Day) — Sind, Continent of India,
Burma, and extending to Malay Archipelago.

These fish are surface feeders and their chief diet consists of

flies and larvse. (All species good, the smaller ones being the

best.)

Genixs-Rasbora.

Description of genus. — Abdomen rounded. Cleft of mouth obli-
que, lower jaw slightly prominent, having one central and on either
side a lateral prominence, fitting into corresponding emarginations
in the upper jaw. Barbels two (rostral) or none. Eyes with free
lids. Pharyngeal teeth. Dorsal fin without any osseous ray and
few branched ones, inserted posterior to the origin of the ventral,
but not extending to above the anal, which latter is short. Scales
large or of moderate size. Lateral line concave continued to the
middle or lower half of the caudal fin. Gill rakers short.

Geographical distribution. — Africa, India, Ceylon, Burma to the

Malay Archipelago.

All species.

Genus-Barilius.

Description of genus. — Abdomen rounded. Mouth anterior, some-
times oblique, having a moderate or deep cleft. Jaws compressed.

170 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

the lower usually with a knob above the symphysis, and an
emargination to receive it in the upper jaw. Barbels four, two or
none : occasionally very rudimentary ones are present. Pharyngeal
teeth in two or three rows, hooked. Dorsal fin without osseous
ray, of moderate length, inserted posteriorly to the ventrals, some-
times e}<tending to above the anal, which latter is somewhat
elongated. Scales of moderate or small size. Lateral line concave,
continued on the middle or lower half of the caudal or incomplete
or absent. Gill rakers very short or even absent.

Geographical distribution. — India, Ceylon, Burma, Malay Archi-
pelago : also found in the Nile and East Africa.
Small species best.

Genus-Ha/yhc/iiliis.

Descriptio/i of genus. — Body somewhat elongated and compressed.
Upper surface of head and nape broad and depressed. Teeth
villiform in the jaws, present or absent in the palate. Dorsal fin
short, commencing behind the origin of anal, which latter has an
elongated base. Scales cycloid and of medium size. Lateral line
absent. A white occipital spot invariably present.

Noth;. — This occipital spot is under control and if the small fish is frightened <jr for
other reasons it can render it invisible.

Geographical distribution. — India to the Malay Archipelago and
beyond, tropical Africa, Madagascar and islands in the Indian
Ocean : also temperate and tropical America.
All species good.

Genwi-Barbus.

Description of ^r;///.<^.— Mouth arched and anterior or inferior.
Jaws closely invested by the lips, which may have leathery lobes
but no horny covering. Barbels four: or two: or none. Eyes
without adipose lids. Pharyngeal teeth. Dorsal fin rather short,
commencing nearly opposite the root of the ventral : its last
undivided ray being eitlier ossified and serrated or entire or arti-
culated and not osseous: and ratlier short in some species its
second ray ossified or its last undivided ray may even be serrated.
Scales large, of moderate or small size, anal scales not enlarged.
Lateral line may be complete or incomplete, when the former it is
continued to opposite the centre of the base of the caudal fin.

Geographical distribution. — Throughout Europe, Asia and Africa.
The small species of this extensive genus are most valuable
larvae destroyers.

no. 6 (1917) a note on treatment of swamps, etc. 17i

For paddy fields, wells and small ponds, etc.—

All species of Chcljs, Hut^lochilus and Polyncanthus.

For salt or brackish water ponds, etc.—

Ge n us- Therapon .

Description a/ ^^<v///5.— Branchiostegals six. Eyes of moderate
size. Opercle with spines. Preopercle and sometimes preorbital
serrated. Teeth villiform in both jaws, the outer row being some-
times the larger : deciduous ones on the vomer and palatines.
Dorsal fin single but more or less notched, having from eleven to
thirteen spines : anal with three. Scales of moderate or small size.
Air vessel divided by a constriction.

Geographical distribution. — From the Red Sea and East Coast of
Africa through the seas and estuaries of India to the Malay Archi-
pelago and north coast of Australia.

" Therapon jarbna " is a most useful species andean be found
in all backwaters and will live and thrive in brackish and fresh
water ponds.

Gen\.\%-Polyaca)ithus.

Description of genus. — Body oblong, compressed. Mouth small
and but little protractile. Opercles spineless. Teeth small and
fixed in the jaws, palate edentulous. Dorsal fin single, the spinous
portion of much greater extent than the soft : the anal of a similar
description : ventral with one spine and five well developed rays,
some of which are usually elongated. Scales rather large, ctenoid.
Lateral line interrupted and may be partially or even entirely
absent.

Geographical distribution. — Fresh waters and estuaries along the
coast of India and Ceylon.

" Polyacanthus cupanus " is a most valuable larvag destroyer
for both fresh and brackish water, and can be carried any distance
with the greatest of ease without change of water, as it obtains
oxygen direct from the atmosphere.

DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FRY AND USEFUL LARVICIDES.

The practice of trapping streams by inserting fixed engines
(basket traps Plates 7-9) from bank to bank and the use of fine
mesh nets the strands or meshes of which would not allow the
smallest fish to pass through, is a most destructive method of fishing.

1/2 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI, No. 6 (191 7)

As it is in tlie interest of public health to preserve as many of the
small fish larvicides as possible, some action to prevent their
wholesale destruction is absolutely necessary. If such fishing
cannot be abolished altogether the mesh of nets or interstices of
basket traps should be regulated and the users licensed. In
districts where this is carried on to a large extent mosquitos are
naturally most prevalent.

H. C. WILSON,
(Camp) KurNOOL, Piscindtural Expert to the

Dated 6th February 191 4. Government of Madras.

d

Plate No 1

25

Plate No 2,

I'l.AllC No. 3.

HAPLOCHILUS LlNKAlU.M.

Pl.ATlC No 4.

Barki's TicTO.

Plate No. 5.

TniiKAi'ON Jarbua.

Plate No 6.

POLYACANTHUS CUPANUS

Plate No. 7.

Basket 1'rap.
Largely used for capture of small Flsh.

Plate No. 8.

Plate No 9

Plate No 10.

LIST OF CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS BULLETINS.

BUL.
NO. PACKS

I. Tapers from 1899 relating chiefly to thk development op
THE Madras Fisheries Bureau.

a. Note on Fisheries in Japan —

Deals with Japanese methods of fishing, the condition of the fisher-
folk, the assistance given by Government and by local associa-
tions, the fishery laws and regulations, etc. (Pages 105.)

3. The Preservation and Curing of Fish —

Describes the difficulties and methods of preserving fish from taint
whether by refrigeration, desiccation, pickling, smoking, can-
ning, etc. (Pages 119.)

Exhausted ; revised edition under preparation.

4. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1908 —

I. Report on the suitability of Pulicat Lake for oyster-culture

(one sketch-plan)

II. Note on an attempt to ascertain the principal determining

factor in oyster-spawning in Madras backwaters (one plate). 25

III. Report on the feasibility of operating deep-sea fishing boats

on the coasts of the Madras Presidency, with special refer-
ence to the selection of fishing centres and harbours of
refuge (illustrated with three plates) ... 33

IV. The results of a fishery cruise along the Malabar coast and

to the Laccadive Islands in 1908 (illustrated with 27 photo-
graphs and text-figures) 71

5. The Practice of Oyster-culture at Arcachon and its lessons

FOR India—

I. Introduction ... ... ... ... ... 1—4

II. The physical conditions characterising Arcachon basin ... 4 — 7
ill. The origin and development of oyster-culture at Arcachon ... 7 — 19
IV. Present methods and conditions 19 — 74

V. Principal characteristics of other European systems of cultiva-
tion 75 — 79

VI. Applicability of French methods to oyster-cultnre in India .. 79 — 90

6. Marine Fish-farming for India—

(1) Introductory I — 3

(2) French fish-farming at Arcachon 4 — 20

(3) The communal fish-farms of Comacchio ... ... ... ... 21 — 62

(4) The scope for marine fish-farming in India ... ... 63 — 83

7. The Sacred Chank of India—

Introductory 1-2

I. The chank fisheries of India and Ceylon 3 — 40

II. The chank bangle industry 41 — ti6

III. The role played by the chank in Indian religion and life ,.. 117 — 172

IV. Appendix ... .,. ... .., ., 173— 181

BUL.

NO. PAGES

8. Marine Fishery Investigations in Madras, 1914-15—

I. A note on the edible oyster .. I — lo

II. An explanation of the irregularly cyclic character of the pearl

fisheries of the Gal f of Mannar il — 22

III. Notes upon two exploring cruises in search of trawl grounds

off the Indian and Ceylon coasts 23— 41

IV. Report on the pearl fishery held' at Tondi, 1914 43—92

V. Professor Huxley and the Ceylon pearl fishery, with a note

on the forced or cultural production of free spherical pearls. 93 — 104
VI. The utilization of coral and shells for lime-burning in the

Madras Presidency I05 — 126

9. Fishery Statistics and Information, West and East [Coasts,

Madras Presidency —

(1) Introduction . . . 1—3

(2) West Coast. Section I —Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-

holders, markets, etc. ... 7 — 9

Section II — Number of boats engaged in

fishing ... ... ... . 10 — 14

Section III— Various kinds of nets, etc., in

use ... .M IS — 30

Section IV~Methods of curing fish 31 — 44

Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers ... ... ... ... ... 45 — 62

Section I— Fish-curing yards, number of ticket-
holders, etc 65 — 71

Section II— Boats and catamarans 72—79

Section III — Nets, etc., in use 78—104

Section IV— Methods of curing ... ... 105—130

Section V — Economic condition of fisherfolk

and curers « 121 — 140

(3)

Do.

(4)

Do.

(5)
(6)

Do.
Do.

(7)

East Coast.

(8)
(9)

(ID)

(u)

Do.
Do.
i:>o.
Do.

MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

ADMINISTRATION REPORT

FOR THE YEAR

1917-18

BY

Sir F. a. NICHOLSON, k.c.i.e.
Honorary Director of Fisheries

Report No. VII of 19/7
Madras Fisheries Bulletin, Vol. XI , pages 173 to 207

MADRAS
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bookseller.

MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

ADMINISTRATION REPORT

FOR THE YEAR

1917-18

BY

Sir F. a. NICHOLSON, k.c.i.e.
Honorary Director of Fisheries

Report No. VI! of 19/7
Madras Fisheries Bulletin, Vol. X/, pages 173 to 207

MADRAS
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS

1931

CONTENTS

PAGE

I Staff ... ... 173

II. Distribution of work ... ... ... ... ... ... 173

I. Director's branch —

(a) Oil and guano operations ... ... ... ... 175

(d) Inshore fishing experiments ... ... ... ... 175

{c) Socio-economic work ... ... * ... ... ... 176

(d) Temperance ... ... ... ... ... ... 177

(e) Education ... ... ... ... ... ... 177

(/) Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... ... ... 179

{g) Finance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 179

III. Report of the Marine Biologist —

i. Financial results ... ... ... ... ... 183

ii. The Tinnevelly Chank Fishery ... ... ... ... 184

iii. Recruitment ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 184

iv. The Ramnad Chank Fishery ... ... ... ... 184

V. Acquisition of land sites ... ... ... ... ... 185

vi. Tirupalakudi Chank Fishery ... ... ... ... 185

vii. Chank Fishery in Ceylon ... ... ... ... ... 186

viii. New chank contracts ... ... ... ... 187

ix. Beche-de-mer industry ... ... ... ... 187

X. Pearl fishery ... ... ... ... ... ... 188

xi. Tuticorin fish farm ... ... ... ... ... ... 188

xii. Pulicat oyster park .. ... ... ... ... ... 189

xiii. Zoological specimen supply ... ... ... ... ... 189

xiv. Research ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 190

XV, Deputation to Barpda ... ... ... ... ... 191

xvi. Socio-economic work ... ... ... ... ... 191

xvii. Loans for the purchase of boats ... ... ... ... 191

xviii. Temperance work ... ... ... ... ... ... 192

xix. Recruitment for the Overseas Forces ... ... ... 192

IV. Report of work done in the Piscicultural Branch — ■

i. Staff ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ,,. 193

ii. Tours ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 193

iii. Sunkesula fish farm ... ... ... ... ... ... 193

iv. Pudur scheme ... ... ... ... 19J

174 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

Marine Biologist's branch {Mr. James Horuell, F.L.S.). — The
Tuticorin fish-farm, the edible oyster farm at Pulicat, the prepa-
ration of marine zoological specimens for educational work, beche-
de-mer preparation, scientific and practical investigations, and the
writing of bulletins.

Pearl and chank branch {Mr. James Horncll, F.L. S.). — Pearl and
chank work over the whole coast from Madras to Cape Comorin, and
miscellaneous.

Piscicultiirisfs branch {Messrs- V. Govindan, B.A., F.Z.S., and
B. Sundara Raj, M.A.). — The Sunkesula fish-farm, that at Ippur,
larvicidal work, the breeding of fish new to inland waters, such as
gourami, etroplus, tench, the stocking of tanks, the conservancy of
various waters, the beginnings of a very detailed and systematic
survey of the waters of the Presidency in view to systematic stock-
ing and culture, the preparation of several distinct schemes such
as the piscicultural utilization of the great new irrigation reservoir
at Mopad, the cultural and sanitary development of the Chingle-
put Fort moat, and a similar scheme at Vellore Fort, and the
beginnings of investigation into the better fishing of deep water
and quasi-permanent tanks in the Presidency. During the year
the soap works were separated from "Fisheries" and handed
over to "Industries," remaining however forthe present under the
general supervision of the Honorary Director in his individual
capacity and not as the Honorary Director of Fisheries.

5. Director's branch. — Technical work at Tanur and the Cannery
proceeded on normal lines, and there is nothing to need special
mention; cannery operations were somewhat larger than in the
previous year but quite insufficient for the general demand, and
the net profit, as shown below, considerably greater. The motor
sea-going laanch " Leverett," built andengined by Messrs. Brunton
of Cochin and an excellent boat, was delivered towards the close
of the canning season and was then sent to Tuticorin, where she
was of great service and effected considerable economy in towing
chank canoes. The work of the fishing machwas (Ratnagiri
pattern boats) belonging to the department was very unsatisfac-
tory, and will have to be reorganized.

A scheme for the refrigeration of cheap shoal fish (sardines,
mackerel, catfish, etc.), was elaborated and freezing tanks have
been built at Tanur ; the scheme, which is purely experimental,
will be put in operation at once. The idea is to see whether

No. 7 (1917) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-18 I75

operating on cheap but good fish, fresh fish can be successfully
placed in distant markets by sharp freezing in ice and salt, and
in an extended zone of adjacent markets by simple chilling.

6. Oil and .<>ii(iiio o[>cratioits. — As reported in previous years there
are some 253 private oil and guano factories on the West Coast,
which have sprung up since and in consequence of the depart-
ment's operations in 1908-09. Owing to the war and consequent
absence of freight, and in part also to short distribution and
lessened fat contents in the fish, many of the factories,
especially in Malabar, have had very bad times either from
want of products or from inability to sell them. The absence
of freight led to such cessation of sale that where products
were fairly abundant, guano, ordinarily priced at R9. 70 per
ton was unsaleable at Rs. 30, and oil ordinarily worth Rs. 1 50
was unsaleable at Rs. 40. Fortunately, the Controller of Munitions
made requisitions upon the Department for oil for military
purposes, and this, coupled with a sudden demnnd by the jute
mills, brought prices back to normal and greatly benefited the
industry ; this Department supplied about 50,000 gallons of oil.
Not only so, but since certain Military departments require
superior oil, the manufacturers were in many cases induced to
prepare and supply these better qualities, and under direct depart-
mental instruction and stimulation, have produced and can
produce very superior oil even beyond the requirements of the
customers. This matter is now being followed up.

7. As regards guano this department, through Mr. V. Govindan
stimulated the formation of groups of producers, and acting as
intermediary with large customers obtained sales to a considerable
amount which have sent up the prices to normal. It is hoped to
make these groups permanent and bind them in a completer
union by forming them into co-operative societies. Doctor
Anstead, Deputy Director of Agriculture for Planting Districts
has earnestly pressed upon me the need for bringing producer
and planter into direct touch, and the matter will be specially dealt
with during the coming season.

8. Inshore fishing experiments, Madras. — On the initiative of
Mr. V. Govindan who also took charge of the matter, a very useful
experiment was made in bringing two West Coast canoes, nets, and
14 men over to Madras to fish Madras waters with the harbour (by
special permission) as base. The experiment was for a year and

176 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

began in June 19 17 and lasted till June I918. It was then closed l)y
the Honorary Director, perhaps prematurely, and Government have
now been moved to sanction a revival of operations on a three-year
term and on a wider basis. For though the experiment, like most
novel experiments, did not fully pay for itself yet (l) a large
amount (53,000 lb.) of fish was caught, some under circumstances
when catamarans could do nothing in the way of capture of
valuable shoal fish for which the agile Malabar canoes and large
nets are specially fitted ; (2; it was the cost of bringing over the
boats and men, the very high pay, rations, and house-rent neces-
sarily given to induce West Coast men to come to Madras and
remain away from their families, and a considerable sickness of the
crews due to the unaccustomed " water " of Madras, that prevented
full financial success. With wages charged at Madras rates, that is
such as would be payable to local men hired by local enterprise
there would have been substantial profit. Hence and because the
experiment created local interest (though at first regarded and
treated with hostility) a more thorough testing of the experiment is
desirable, local crews being recruited if possible, and other boats,
nets, lines, and methods tried. The experiment cost, all told,
Rs. 4,406-6-11, and the fish caught realized Rs. 3,044-12-0.

9. Socio-economic work. — Mr. V. Govindan, as usual, has been
busy in stimulating progress, and has visited in his propaganda,
most of the important villages on the coast, some of them several
times. At the beginning of the year there were, in existence on the
West Coast, seven credit societies all based on thrift : during the
year three credit and one productive society were registered, while,
eight credit societies and one productive society applied for regis-
tration. Of the three new credit societies one opened at Raya-
puram (Madras), being the first started on the East Coast by direct
departmental work. Three are reported by Mr. Hornell to have
been opened among fishermen on the Ramnad coast by the Regis-
trar for co-operation. Of the productive societies one has been
formed by oil and guano producers in the Mangalore taluk, and it
is hoped that its formation will lead not only to increased produc-
tion and better sales, but to better classes of goods, since, like the
Japanese guilds, the society will refuse products not up to standard.
The other productive society waiting registration, is that at
Thalayi, and is to be a society of curers which Government is
aiding [G.O. No. 742, Financial (Separate Revenue), dated 4th
September 1917].

No. 7 (1917) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 19I7 18 177

10. The nine societies at work (exclusive of Rayapuram for
which figures are not available) had, on 30th June 1918, 884
members of whom 187 were females, holding 1,103 shares and with
"own " funds, actually collected, of Rs. 10,265; loans were issued
for Rs. 18,209, of which Rs. 4,058 were for the paying oft' of prior
(often usurious and enslaving) debts.

An encouraging feature of the year's work was that fisherfolk
have begun to invite Mr. Govindan to visit the villages and
organize societies.

11. In the matter of co-operation in general among the fisher-
folk, fairly definite proposals have been made to Government, as
read in GO. No. 2049, Revenue, dated 27th May 1918, in which
Government have laid down that the development of the communi-
ties is a primary duty of the Department and hope that the spread
of co-operative methods among the fisherfolk may be accelerated.

12. Temperance. — Two societies continue to do good work and to
progress, notwithstanding factious troubles; out-members have
been recruited from villages where there were not enough to form
independent societies. Mr. Govindan mentions as a reason for
intemperance additional to those formerly adduced, that the
fishermen's cults require offerings of drink to their deities and that
consequently what is good for gods cannot be bad for men a
belief which has classical warrant but does not excuse or explain
the intemperance of Christian fishermen as so often mentioned by
Mr. Hornell. There is much to be done in this way, and Mr.
Hornell mentions the good effect of coftee and tea shops for the
men employed in his branch of work. On many parts of the West
Coast tea and warm drinks (temperance) are sold on the beach or
close by, to the fishermen so that the idea, being in indigenous
practice may be spread by a diligent propaganda and practical
example. J have been favoured with an important letter from the
Board of Revenue (Salt and Abkari) desiring to enlist our aid in
the provision of " coffoe shops " in place of toddy shops, a philan-
thropic suggestion of the highest importance and interest.

13. Education. — Not much new work has been done, but in the
papers read in G.O. No. 2048, Revenue, dated 27th May 1918,
general proposals have been made and concurred in by the Director
of Public Instruction (the Hon'ble Mr. Stone) whose sympathy with
the proposals is of the highest value. Government have generally
accepted the suggestions and have ordered definite proposals,
which are now occupying attention. It is quite certain that the

-I^S MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

people themselves are beginning to wake up to the need for edu-
cation, and that it will be welcomed, especially in the somewhat
wide form which has been suggested, both on literary, technical,
practical, and social lines.

14. Mr. HonicWs work. — As Mr. Hornell's report both as Marine
Biologist and as Superintendent of Pearl and Chank Fisheries,
is printed almost in full, repetition here is needless. Owing
to financial exigencies the projected Krusadai Pearl Oyster Farm,
where pearls are to be "induced "and grown under complete
control has had to be postponed " forthe duration "; the biological
station and new aquarium at Madras with headquarters therein for
fisheries, has similarly been postponed, and still more regrettably,
the exploration of the deep sea by a special vessel.

The chank fishery yielded good results and profits, though the
number of shells fished was much smaller than expected, owing to
various reasons. A trial expedition to fish the Ceylon chank beds
which are free to all comers resulted favourably, and is being
repeated. Statement I annexed to this report gives an abstract of
expenditure and receipts in the Marine branch and Statement III
gives details for the chank fisheries. For further details the
report may be consulted.

15. Inland waters. — Similarly the pisciculturist's report is printed
almost in full.

It may be noted that the gourami obtained from Mauritius and
Java have now bred successfully, so that a considerable stock of
ihese very valuable food fish is in hand; so also of Etroplus; the
tench. introduced from the Nilgiris have not yet bred.

Certain important items are briefly mentioned in paragraph 4
supra; more details will be found in the report.

An important experiment in fishing deep water tanks was at
last initiated. In this Presidency, the irrigation tanks in general
are exhausted of water in a few months when, of course, all fish in
the tanks would perish except those which, like murrel, aestivate
deep down in the mud. Hence the universal method of fishing is
to await the fall of the water almost to exhaustion when, by a
general battue, practically all the fish are captured. But if the
tank is deep and contains permanent water or obtains supplies
which keep up the level for a year or so, the tank remains unfished
for want of any fishing material or method; in other words, pre-
cisely when conditions are favourable for the growth of a large
head of fish, such fish are left uncaptured, so that the food supply

No. 7 (19I7) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-18 I79

obtained is a minimum and the rentals fall to nil. There is a
good number of such tanks, and experiments were made to ascer-
tain the best methods of fishing them; boats, nets, and men were
engaged and our own staff supervised operations, which, however,
have not yet been concluded; unexpected difficulties cropped up»
e.g., in the way of weeds, the opposition of persons interested in
keeping off outsiders, and so on, but it is obvious that on tanks
which, like some of the Sangam tanks, Mopad, etc., contain large
bodies of water permanent or practically so, common sense
methods must eventually succeed. Statements I and I {(i) give an
abstract and details respectively of expenditure and receipts in
this branch.

16. Miscellaneous. — It was found impossible to take over from
the Salt department any of the fish-curing yards for direct depart-
mental control, as sanctioned by G.O. No. 752, dated lOth Septem-
ber 1917 ; that will be a main item of work in 1918-19.

Bulletins Nos. 10 and II were published, the former containing
annual reports, 190S — 1917 (pages 179), and the latter containing
the Madras Fishery Investigations, 1917 (pages 172).

The department exhibited at the Madras Exhibition of Indus-
tries, 1917-18, and was awarded a gold medal and diploma of
excellence for canned and cured fish.

There were several useful inquiries from outside during the
year; one by the Hon'ble Mr. Godbole of the Bombay Legislative
Council regarding oil and guano factories ; on my reply a council
resolution in favour of further inquiry and support of such factories
was accepted by Government subject to the report of the Industries
Commission; Mr. Mead, I.C.S., Director of Industries, Bombay,
also investigated our fishery and soap industries, and in June
Mr. Christie, I.C.S., of Burma was placed on special duty by his
Government for a similar inquiry now proceeding, in view to the
establishment of similar work in Burma.

17. Finance .—^Y G.O. No. 2614, Revenue, dated nth July 1918,
receipts and charges are to be classified under five heads, viz. v- —

I. Supervision and research ;
II. Marine fisheries ;

III. Inland fisheries ;

IV. A. Factories,
B. Vessels ;

V. Capital expenditure ;
in view to ascertain "the profit or loss under head of work ",

l80 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

By this Government Order while the main portion of all salaries,
establishment allowances, travelling allowance and contingencies,
is debited to "I. Supervision and Research " a considerable portion
(one half in the factories) is debited to the specific operations on
which the staff are employed. This conveniently distributes the
total cost of the staff so that while an equitable amount is debited
to quasi commercial work (i.e., factories), that due to " Experiment
and Research", which necessarily bulks large in such a depart-
ment, is debited accordingly. Similarly with regard to IV-B.
" Vessels ", the total running cost of the boats owned by the depart-
ment (other than the " Lady Nicholson " and other boats of the
pearl and chank branch) is debited to " Vessels ", and anything
earned by them, e.g., in supplying fish to the cannery and to
Tanur, is credited to that head. Pearl and chank fisheries are now
included under "II. Marine Fisheries " instead of forming a sepa-
rate head of account and report.

18. Statement I in the appendix gives in one view an abstract
under all five heads, and shows that on tallying current expendi-
ture (Rs. 2,20,049) with income (Rs. 2,26,230) there is a net credit
balance of Rs. 6,l8o. Considering that a sum of Rs. 59,100 forms
the expenditure on " Supervision and Research " plus a considerable
proportion of salaries, etc., debited to and entered under the other
heads, the result is very satisfactory and is due to the net profits
on chanks, fishery rentals, and experimental factory operations,
such net profits being almost entirely due to departmental work in
the initiation or development of resources and operations.

Moreover when comparing expenditure and receipts it should
be noted that whereas the heavy amount under item I is for fifteen
months, receipts such as rentals whether of chanks or of inland
waters, are mainly for one year only, so that item I which is wholly
an item of expenditure, is disproportionately heavy when compared
with receipt ; the credit balance would be still greater if item I
were taken for twelve months only.

19. It should be noted, however, that the actual cash outlay of
the year was Rs. 2,42,478, or Rs. 22,429 larger than that entered
(Rs. 2,20,049) as current expenditure ; this mostly represents capital
expenditure (Rs. 19,399) of which, by Government Order only 10
per cent is entered (being depreciation) as current expenditure ;
hence Rs. 1,939 are entered under current account instead of
Rs. 19,399. The capital expenditure is given in detail in the first
column of Statement I {a) and includes Rs. 3,750 for a motor-car,

No. 7 (19I7) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-18

181

subsequently however resold for Rs. 3,800 (not yet collected and
therefore not included in "receipts "), Rs. 7,821 as the total cost of
the motor launch "Leverett", and Rs. 3,560 for new sheds and
plant at the cannery. Capital outlay, minus depreciation, remains
of course as an asset, and merely represents the transmutation of
cash into property.

20. Statements I {<?) and I {b) give details under the several
heads. Statement II is the list, ordered by Government, showing
tanks at present istocked and leased by the department. State-
ment III gives the result of the chank fisheries for the year.

21. Statement IV gives the trading and profit and loss accounts
for the cannery. The expenditure side in these accounts differs
from that in Statement I which only shows drawings from the
treasury, whereas Statement IV gives on one side the expenditure
cash and of materials from stock, and on the other the receipts
inclusive of stock in hand (taken at cost price) at the close of the
year. This of course is the usual manufacturing method and gives
a true account of results. The profit and loss account shows a net
l-irofit of Rs. 8,151 on cannery operations after deducting all charges
for staff, operations, depreciation and interest.

22. Statement V is similar for Tanur and shows a net loss of
Rs. 997. This is due to the small output of a factory carrying on
a series of comparatively small operations, which though techni-
cally and commercially successful, were insufficiently large to
cover the disproportionate cost of establishment. Moreover the
year in Malabar was very bad for oil and guano operations ; a few
extra tons of fat sardines would have converted the deficit into a
profit. The loss is really debitable to research as the factory is
mainly experimental.

23. Notwithstanding then the heavy expenditure for " Super-
vision and Research " and for experimental work, and the fact that
these objects cover fifteen months' expenditure as against only
twelve months' receipts in certain large items, the departmental
balance sheet for 1917-18 is not unsatisfactory. Moreover, in
perhaps the current and certainly in subsequent years, the net
income should be considerably increased by operations already
begun or beginnmg, such especially as the fishing of existing deep
water tanks, e.g., those of the Sangam and Nellore works and the
new Mopad reservoir. It is further to be noted that the income of
the department is obtained without raising a single anna by

• i

l82 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

taxation, licences, or other charges on the fishing folk or on the
public.

24. Nevertheless I desire here to disclaim any idea either of
measuring the success of the department by its balance sheet, or of
narrowing its scope and objects by considerations of immediate
departmental profit and loss. Its primary object is not revenue but
development and progress ; revenue is incidental and while wel-
come as a fiscal contribution and as a fund providing for further
expenditure, is not a direct object save as an evidence of success in
concrete fishery operations. Even as such evidence it is imperfect ;
e.g., Tanur shows a loss on the whole yard, yet, as stated in
paragraph 22, the several curing operations were successful in
themselves both technically and commercially, and needed only to
be larger to show financial profit ; these operations and investi-
gations are the basis of future curing operations throughout the
Presidency and, in the matter of fish oil and guano, have already
resulted in nine years in 253 private factories and a great and
developing industry and trade. The department is one which, for
the good of the consuming public in general and of the fishing
classes in particular, must be primarily a spending department,
spending State funds on well considered plans for improvement
and development, and the right questions are, in fact, how money
can most usefully be expended, on what objects, and to what
extent. The department is mainly concerned with service, and the
profits sought are not departmental cash profits but the introduc-
tion of improvements, the progress and profit of the fisherfolk with
the fishing and allied industries, and the economic benefit of the
State in general.

ENCLOSURES.

(I)

Letter — from J. Hornell Esq., f.l.s., Government Marine Biologist
and Superintendent, Pearl and Chank Fisheries, Tuticorin.

To — the Honorary Director of Fisheries, Madras.

Dated — Tuticorin, the 2nd/8th June 1918.

I have the honour to submit the following summary of the work done in
the Marine section of this department for the year ending 30th June 1918
in respect of the Pearl and Chank Fisheries and for the fourteen months'
period ending 31st May 1918 in respect of the other branches of this
section, ThQ usual annexures are appended.

No. 7 (1917) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-18

1S3

2. Operations were carried on upon the same general lines as in the
preceding year. No new developments could be taken in hand in conse-
quence of the stagnation of progress due to the effects of the war.

3. Financial results. — The year's work has been most satisfactory, espe-
cially in that connected with the Chank Fishery. The expenditure, revenue
and net profits of the various sections of this industry are as follows : — ■

Expenditure.

Receipts.

Profit.

RS. A.

p.

RS. A.

p.

RS. A.

p.

(I) Tinnevelly Pearl and Chank

Fisheries ...

(2) Ramnad Chank and Beche-de-

19,926 7

0

16,689 13

I

-3.236 9

II

mer Fisheries

(3) Sivaganga Chank Fishery

(4) Tanjore Chank Fishery

(5) South Arcot Chank Fishery ...

(6) Chingleput and Nellore Chank

28,813 3
246 13

7
6

71,069 5

269 13

4,890 0

900 0

8

5
0
0

42,256 2

22 15

4,890 0

900 0

1

II

0

0

Fisheries

600 0

0

600 0

0

(7) Ceylon Chank Fishery

3.029 s
52,015 13

5
6

4.577 6

3

1,548 0

10

Grand total ...

98,996 6

5

46, 980 8

II or

Rupees 39,278-5-9 deducting supervision charges, viz., Rs. 7,702-3-2.

4. For the purpose of comparison with figures given last year, the total
net profit should be taken as Rs. 57,121-12-9, excluding the charges under
" Pearl Fisheries " such as maintenance of the Motor Inspection Schooner
" Lady Nicholson," etc., as the same were not included last year. This
total net profit compares satisfactorily with that for the preceding year,
Rs. 53,247-4-8 as the substantial increase of Rs* 3,874-8-1 has been
made. The chief advance is in the Ramnad fishery due to an increase in
the catch of shells, 264,760 in 1917-18 as against 254,221 in 1916-17.

5. The financial aspect of the m.inor branches of semi-commercial
work is shown as under : —

Expenditure.

Receipts.

Profit

RS. A. P.

RS. A. P.

RS. A.

P.

Marine Fish farm ...

684 6 7

1,496 7 0

812 0

5

Pulicat Oyster farm.

1,124 5 9

843 6 6

280 15

3 (Loss)

Zoological supply ...

302 II II

735 II 0

432 15

I

Total

2,111 8 3

3>o7S ^ 6

964 0

3

All these items compare satisfactorily with those of last year and show
an increase, but comparison is difficult a§ these figures are for fourteen
months as against twelve months of last report.

I84 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

6. The Tinnevelly Chank Fishery. --^\^^ total number of shells jjaid
for was 126,377 excluding 240 Idintakarai chanks which remain unsold as
compared with 163,527 in 1916-17. Quality was again most excellent
and these shells well maintain their reputation as the first in all round size
and quality yielded by any fishery in India and Ceylon. The drop in
yield was in great part due directly to the unfavourable nature of the
weather from the beginning of January till the middle of March ; the
adverse factor was unusually strong and chilly winds, which rendered
regular work difficult and unpleasant. Had it not been that the weather
during November and December (191 7) was milder than usual, the result
would have been disastrous. In some as yet not understood way the
weather conditions also affected adversely the worms which constitute the
food of the chank, causing a scarcity on many of the beds. This in turn
resulted in the scattering of the chanks in search of food instead of the
usual concentration wherever the worms abound.

The men had poor earnings over the season as a whole, and this has
had a very discouraging effect upon their morale. Every step was taken
by means of towage and camping facilities, payment of batta on days of
very small catches, and the like, to hearten them and induce them to
preserve. The number of divers employed was rather better than in the
preceding year at the commencement, but the poor earnings in February
and March caused a serious diminution which in turn adversely affected
the catches. For the greater part of the time six crews only worked

regularly.

Recruitment.— Four Arab divers were recruited in Ceylon ; one died of
acute diarrhoea a few weeks after arrival and of the remaining three, two
were so discouraged with their poor earnings that they requested permis-
sion to transfer to Rameswaram, which was allowed.

7. The Ramnad Chank Fishery. — The good results here compensated
amply for the poor harvest of the Tinnevelly beds. The total of full-sized
shells fished at the various centres last year and in the preceding year
were as follows : —

1916-17.

1917-18.

Rameswaram ...

. 158,942

192,252

Kilakarai and South Vedalai ..

16,295

17.295

Pillaimadam, Jadhi quality

9,175

22,410

Do. Patti do.

.

3,851

Tirupalakudi

69,809

28,952

Total ..

. 254,221

264,760

8 Work in the Vedalai and Rameswaram sections was particularly
remunerative and demonstrated once more how the divers working in

No. 7 (1917) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1 91 7-18 I^j-

Ramnad district appreciate the facilities and help given to them. Prior
to the beginning of the Rameswaram fishery at the end of February, I had
considerable misgiving as to the adequacy of the labour force available, as
the merchants who work the Ceylon fisheries desired to take the divers to
Ceylon at an early date. The men were themselves anxious to join our
fishery and eventually after protracted negotiation with the leading divers,
an arrangement was made whereby a larger number than was the case last
year, pledged themselves to work in the Government fishery. This satis-
factory outcome assured the success of the fishery from the beginning and
I now hope that the custom of taking part in the Rameswaram fishery
before going to Ceylon, has become an established one. It is however
only because the facilities we give are superior to those which obtain in
Ceylon.

9. The Rameswaram fishery began on 27th February 191 8 and lasted
till 24th April 1918 when the Muhammadan divers held their Kahdiri
celebration in the camp prior to dispersing. The services of the motor
launches '■ Pearl " and " Leverett " and of the chartered steam tug " Eider "
were invaluable for towing the boats to and from the beds. Last year the
charter of the " Eider " cost Rs. 3,600 ; this year, by having the use of the
" Leverett " we were able to shorten the period of charter considerably so
that the bill for her use was reduced to Rs. 3,000 in spite of increase in the
rate of hire. The ■' Leverett " though small is very powerful for her size
and was able to tow at a fair speed as many as 36 boats in ordinary
weather.

10. Acquisition of land sites. — In order to erect further permanent
buildings at the various chank centres in Ramnad district, a site for a
beche-de-mer factory, store and ofiice was acquired at Tirupalakudi, the
extent being 42-4 cents and the cost Rs, 289-1-6. The Government Order
sanctioning the acquisition is No. 137, Revenue, dated iSth January 1917.
In addition, by the sanction conveyed in G.O. No. 552, Revenue, dated
6th September 1917, G.O. No. 716, Revenue, dated 27th November 1917,
a small site of 4 cents was acquired for Rs. 2-4-0 at South Vedalai and
another of 74^ cents for PvS. 1 99-10-8 at Olakkuda, Rameswaram,
respectively. The former is fur the erection thereon of a chank godown,
the latter for a second set of divers' lines.

11. Tirupalakudi. — At this centre work was hampered till late in the
season by strong winds which made the sea too muddy for effective opera-
tions. This section of the coast is the most unfavourably situated of any
in regard to this factor : only in exceptional seasons is the weather
sufficiently good to permit of large quantities of shells being fished, and
here as at Tuticorin, the weather was almost uniformly adverse throughout

1 86 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. Xt,

the year, aggravated by unseasonable and heavy rains in August, which
caused floods of muddy water to pour into the sea at a time when normally
the water should be clear. The quality of the shells is poor and of low
market value, hence it is difficult to give the divers a rate which will
adequately remunerate them. Only by running a beche-de-mer fishery in
conjunction, can their earnings be made enough to induce them to carry
on the chank fishery. Without the help of the subsidiary industry named
the men could not be prevented from abandoning the chank fishery in
favour of other work.

t2. Chank fishery in Ceylon. — Partly to prevent the Tuticorin chank
divers from drifting away to other employment during the six months when
fishing cannot be carried on at Tuticorin (a danger more pressing nowadays
than formerly on account of the marked increase in the cost of living since
the war began), and partly to gain exact knowledge of the fishing stations
and general course of operations in the chank fishery in Ceylon, by sanction
of Government (G.O. No. 1435, Revenue, dated 21st May 1917) four crews
of divers were sent to participate in the Ceylon fishery during three months
ending October 191 7.

13. Weather conditions were generally unfavourable and the total catch
of the 32 divers amounted to 29,432 full-sized shells only. The cost of
these including incidental charges was Rs. 3,029-5-5, the cost of supervi-
sion amounted to Rs. 263-13-5, and we add the crew's wages and the
upkeep of the launch " Sutherland " sent with the canoes for towage pur-
poses, the total expenditure totalled Rs. 3,926-6-1. The shells were
eventually sold by tender at the rate of Rs. 155 per 1,000, the total receipts
being Rs. 4,577-6-3. The net profit therefore was Rs. 651-0-2, but it
should be remembered that much of the expense charged against these
shells was not incurred specifically on this account ; the wages of the clerk
and peon, and the wages of the " Sutherland's " crew would have had to
be met from the department's budget whether this expedition had been
sent or not. Hence the real profit is considerably greater than the apparent
one. The prices to the divers were regulated by the rates current in
Ceylon during the fishery, and averaged one anna five pies per shell.

Our divers were fairly well satisfied as they were able to support them-
selves and their families through a period when other earnings would have
been difficult to make. Had the weather been even moderately favourable,
they would have obtained much better results.

X4. The quality and size of these Ceylon shells compare most unfavour-
bly with those from our Ramnad and Tinnevelly fisheries ; a very large
proportion are so small that if fished on the Madras coast they would be
confiscated without payment and as many as possible returned alive lo
the sea.

No. 7 (1917) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-18 I87

15. New chunk contracis. — During the past year, the produce of the
Tinnevelly chank fishery for the three years 1 918-19 to 1920-21, inclusive,
was offered to public tender. The highest offer was made by Messrs. J. E.
Dutt & Sons of Dacca, who have held the contract for the Tinnevelly and
the Ramnad shells for several years past. The rate obtained is Rs, 325
per 1,000, which compares most favourably with Rs. 121 received during
the past three years. There was considerable competition and all offers
were largely in excess of the previous rate.

16. The South Arcot chank lease for a two years' period from ist April
1918, was also re-let to M.R.Ry. Subbarayalu Chettiyar of Cuddalore at an
enhancement of Us. 600 per annum, from Rs. 900 to Rs. 1,500 per annum,
The chank market is now higher than it has been for many years ; one of
the chief reasons appears to be the difficulty experienced by the bangle
manufacturers in getting large sized shells other than those from the Madras
coast, in consequence of the gradual decrease in the average size of the
shells fished in Ceylon waters, where no size limit is imposed.

17. The beche.de-mer industry, — During 1917-18, the following
quantities of material were brought from the chank divers of Tiru.
palakudi : —

Large size (Nos. I and II qualities) ... .., 39,520

Small size (No. Ill quality) .. ... ... ... 19,407

58-927

The former yielded as cured weight of 1,710 lb., the latter of 431 lb. or
2,141 lb. in all. The material cured to December 1917 was despatched to
Singapore for sale and so far no intimation has been received as to its
disposal. The second lot, which comprises the material cured- in the
second half of the season, remains on hand. The prices that will be
obtained, it is afraid, may not be very satisfactory, especially in view of
the fact that there is a heavy loss in exchange on remitting the proceeds
to India. Rut these are war times and trade in this article suffers
materially at present from difficulties of transport and from the unrest in
China.

18. The actual cost of the raw material together with all charges
amounted to Rs. 688-4 7, so that if we value the produce on hand at the
rates obtained last year, the receipts on the operations will amount to
Rs. 657-10-9. In view of the makeweight which the prosecution of this
industry exercises upon the carrying on of the chank fishery, the small loss
that may be sustained may be considered as an incidental and necessary
expense of this latter fishery.

l88 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

However with the return of normal conditions in the world, a consi-
derable profit should then be earned.

19. A report upon the revival of this industry with full details of the
methods of cure practised was issued as a constitutent report in Bulletin
No. XI during the past year. A general review of the trade was appended.
This publication should prove very useful to any one engaging in this
industry and Mr. Alvain Scule, lately head of the Fisheries Department in
the PhiUppine Islands, writes that he considers this report as one of the
most valuable as well as one of the most interesting contributions to our
knowledge of the trepang fisheries that has ever been written.

20. Pearl fishery.' — Inspection has again been made of the banks off
the Tinnevelly coast and again no pearl oysters, save a few scattered ones
have been found. In addition a careful inspection of the ground outside
of the chain of islands stretching from Pamban to Vaippar was made in
November 1 91 7 with the aid of the motor inspection schooner "Lady
Nicholson." The result again was negative, no deposits of any kind being
found. This same inspection was also useful in settling once for all, the
question of whether there be any fishable beds of chanks sea ward of these
islands. None were found. The ground generally is a rocky plateau with
scanty life outside of sea-fans (Gorgonids), sea-whips {Juncea) and non-
commercial sponges. Hence we may conclude that there is no possibility
of extending the chank fishery to new grounds anywhere off the southern
coast of the Ramnad district.

21. The small bed of scattered pearl oysters, on the seaward eastern
ed«^e of the chank beds north of Rameswaram Island still survives and
eives off its periodical sworms. Some of these appear to have settled on
the Dhanushkodi jetties, as a number were found by the contractor when
demolishing the South pier there. By the courtesy of the Port Officer,
Pamban these were forwarded to me for examination. They proved to be
from nine months to 18 months of age, and some appear to have contained
a few seed pearls.

22. The scheme to erect a pearl-culture laboratory on Krusadai Islands
is still in abeyance in view of the heavy cost involved and the poor market
at present for culture pearls. A modified scheme is under consideration,

23. Tuticor'm fish farm. — The results during the past year are again an

improvement upon previous years. The total expenditure consisted of

Rs. 684-6-7 made up as follows : —

RS. A. p.

Wages 566 9 I

Nets and sundries ii7 13 6

684 67

RS, A.

p.

932 2

9

239 14

3

48 0

0

276 6

0

1,496 7

0

No. 7 (1917) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-18 189

while the receipts amounted to Rs. 1,496-7-0 as against Rs. 925-13-9 in
the preceding year. The net profit for the period under report deducting
supervision and depreciation charges comes to Rs. 614-0-5. The catches
and respective sales consisted of —

9,052 lb. prawns
4,718 lb. fish
Rental for crab fishery ...
Miscellaneous ...

Total

As in 1916 -17, the bulk of the prawns were sold to line fishermen,
who greatly appreciate the advantage of getting regular supplies of bait.

24. The long delayed completion of the sluices and weir is expected at
the end of next month ; thereafter the running of this lagoon as a real fish-
farm will begin. The present and past satisfactory results have been
attained in spite of great difificulties, which the provision of sluices should
largely decrease, to the additional financial profit of the undertaking.

25. Pulicat oystei- park. — The collection of spat and the supply of
cultivated oysters have now become established routine. There is nothing
special to chronicle for the past year save that appreciation of their quality
and of the care taken in cultivation under hygienic conditions has resulted
in a considerable extension of sales, whereby the small loss in 1916-17
upon working has been further reduced. The financial aspect is shown as
follows : —

Expenditure
Receipts ...

Loss

I9I7-I8
(14 months).

1916-17
(12 months).

RS. A. P.

RS. A. P.

1,124 5 9

805 10 0

843 6 6

459 9 6

280 15 3

346 0 6

The expenditure consisted of wages Rs. 377, freight Rs. 337-1-3,
miscellaneous charges Rs. 410-4-6.

26. Zoological specimen supply. — This phase of our activities has con-
tinued to expand and the sales of specimens, sent out at little over cost
price, to educational- institutions throughout India aggregate Rs. 736 for
the past year as against Rs. 576 in 1916-17. The disabilities mentioned
ill last- year's report continue to retard progress.

27. A large range of specimens including both museum and dissection
specimens -in alcohol and : form aJ in, and educational type collections of
shell fish and crustaceans, were exhibited at the second M^d.rfts Exhibition

igO MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

held at the end of 19 17. The type collections have been specially in
demand for schools and were it convenient to supply larger numbers, there
would be little difficulty in finding purchasers. It is quite clear that as
zoological teaching and nature study extend in India, an increasing demand
is springing up for specimens such as this department has begun to supply.
Colleges in the north India continue to furnish the bulk of orders and it
would seem that students in the north have greater aptitude and preference
for zoology than those of the south.

28. Research. — During the past year Bulletin No. XI was published.
The following marine reports appeared therein, viz. : —

I. The Edible Molluscs of the Madras Presidency.

II. A new protozoan cause of widespread mortality among marine
fishes.

III. A statistical analysis of the Fishing Industry of Tuticorin.

IV. The Indian beche-de-mer industry ; its history and recent
revival.

29. These four papers totalled an aggregate of 150 pages of letterpress
and were illustrated with 38 original text figures. An investigation of
Indian boat designs, viewed both from the present day aspect and from
the wider standpoint of the ethnologist, has been completed, and will
probably be published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal as one of their
memoirs. A summary of the facts and a statement of the main conclusion
were read before the Ethnological section of the Indian Science Congress
in January of the present year. The outstanding deduction is contained
in the theory, based largely on widespread similarities in boat construction
and corroborated by certain affinities of physical characters among the
chief fisher caste of the extreme south, that there is a strong infusion of
Polynesian blood in the coast population of certain southern and western
districts in India.

30. Investigations relating to the migrations of sardines, surface drift
in the Gulf of Mannar, the biological survey of Siluvathurai lagoon, now
turned in a fish-farm, and the details of the varied fishing methods
employed on the coast of India, engaged attention during the year and it
is hoped to publish some of the results at an early date. So far as possible
the aim is kept in view of putting upon permanent record all important
facts which are ascertained from time to time. One of the most regret-
table occurrence of life in India, is the frequent loss of valuable data through
the postponement or neglect of publication. The inevitable consequence
IB waste of valuable time in succeeding years, when other inquirers have
again to traverse unnecessarily the whole ground in the absence of sati^»
factory records,

Uo. 7 (1917) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-18 191

31. Dtputation to Baroda. — Consequent upon the request of the Govern-
ment of Baroda for the loan of my services to make a second investigation
of the fishery resources of their State, with the sanction of the Madras
Government, I spent one month from 9th December 191 7 in Kathiawar.
I found that the steps taken by the Baroda Government to develop their
pearl fishery on the lines of the recommendations I drew up ten years ago,
had resulted satisfactorily in providing a new source of livelihood to some
hundreds of the poorer coast population and in adding considerably to
the local revenue. The stow-net fishery for Bombay Ducks carried on
in large deep-sea fishing boats of 10 to 20 tons burden as well found
and roomy as many British herring boats was investigated, together with
other phases of the local fishing industry. A report has been furnished,
embodying a number of recommendations for further development. It was
gratifying to find that the two Baroda fishery officers are men who had
been trained (as far as facilities permitted) by the Madras Fisheries Depart-
ment ; both are doing most useful work and promise to become valuable
technical officers.

32. Socio-economic work.—l am glad to report that three co-operative
societies were formed among the fishermen of Ramnad district during the
past year, two in Rameswaram Island and the other at Karangadu. It is
too early to say how far they will prove successful, as the men are by nature
improvident and averse to regular repayment of money obtained on loan.
Much depends locally upon the success of these pioneer societies and
everything is being done to assist the management. Many of the mem-
bers are divers who participate in the Rameswaram fishery and as this has
given good returns this season, the men are in an unusually good position
to take up shares. No better year could have been chosen for the
inception of this work.

33. Loans for the purchase of boats. — As borrowers cannot be made to
see the necessity for regular repayment, however small be the monthly rate
agreed upon, loans have been restricted to a minimum. At the present
time there are five outstanding amounts, which represent as many boats
bought with Government assistance. All loans have been substantially
reduced during the season although payments have been irregular as men-
tioned above. No amounts have become unrecoverable, and no losse& are
probable as the balances of the loans made are amply secured upon the
boats purchased, which stand in the name of the Superintendent, Pearl and
Chank Fisheries, as representing Government, pending the extinction of
the advances.

The actual amounts outstanding on 31st May 1917 totalled Rs. 340
owed by 6 men ; on the same date this year the amount was Rs. 363 owed
by s men.

192 -MADRAS' FISHERIES. BULLETIN-- VOL. XI,

- 34. Temperance . mork.oi a practical nature has again been carri-ed on
among the Tuticorin divers in the shape of a coffee stall intended to
counter the attractions of the toddy shop. Coffee and country cakes are
supplied at cost price and again I have to report gratifying success.
Similarly at Rameswaram, arrangements were made with two shop-keepers
to open coffee stalls in the camp ; sites were given them free and I am glad
to say that the divers, whose cgnductand behaviour appreciably improved,
welcomed this step. The stalls did a thriving trade as the men's earnings
were usually sufficient to permit them to indulge in the luxury of a rup of
tea or coffee. It is worth noting that tea appears to be rapidly ousting
coffee in these men's estimation. I believe that simple practical methods
such as this, conjoined with a scheme for the education of the village boys
in the real things that matter in life, hold out great promise in the problem
of bettering the condition and outlook of our fishing population.

35. Recruitment for the Overseas Forces. — I am glad to be able to
record that this section has contributed its share to the forces being re-
cruited for service abroad. Mr. W. Stopford, Engineer of the " I.ady
Nicholson," and Raman, his assistant, have been both joined the motor
mechanic service in East Africa ; I trust they may be found useful mem-
bers of the force and return safely with such added experience as may
qualify them for higher employment than their old posts. This office has
also canvassed extensively the fishermen of this coast with a view to obtain
recruits for the Labour Force in Mesopotamia and several men have
thereby been induced to join. So far as possible the progress of the war
and the justice of our cause have been explained to the divers from time
to time. Our small staff has also contributed to the War Loan as far as it
was able, the result being an investment of Rs. 2,iS6.

36. I am glad to report that the staff in general worked with marked
zeal and ability. I desire to take this opportunity both to bring this to
the notice of Government and "to thank the officers themselves for their
loyal co-operation in carrying on the work of the marine section of thfs'
department ; the hours of duty are often of necessity very protracted during
the continuance of the chank fishery, while the conditions of life at out-
stations on the Ramnad coast and when camping in the islands off Tuticorin,
are disagreeable and trying : little notice can be paid to " official holidays "
during the busy season.

(2)

Report of vvork done in the Piscicultural branch during
the year ending 30th june 1918.

Owing to the lamented death of Mr. H. C. Wilson on the nth of April
1917, Mr. B. Sundara Raj, Assistant to the Piscicultural Expert, took

No. 7 (191^7) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1917-18 I93

charge of the branch till 7th February 1918, when as a tentative ftieasure
I was appointed as the Piscicultural Expert and Mr. B. Sundara Raj as
the Assistant Director.

Staff. — Excepting certain minor changes there was no change in the
staff during the year.

Tours — Mr. B. Sundara Raj visited the following districts on tours
of inspection and investigation : —

The Kurnool district in June 191 7, the Nellore district in July,
October and November, January and February, the Chingleput district in
May and June 191 7 and April and May 19 18, the Tanjore district in August
and September, the Nilgiris in April and May 191 7 and South Kanara (with
myself) in April and May 19 18.

In South Kanara the four sites for fish farms selected by Mr.
H. C. Wilson were inspected with a view to follow up, his proposals for the
improvement of the fisheries of the district.

The Sub-Assistant and two Assistant Inspectors toured in the districts
of Kurnool, Bellary, Anantapur, Cuddapah, Chittoor and Chingleput in
connexion with the tank investigation scheme.

Regarding the various operations in hand the Assistant Director reports
as follows : —

" Siinkesula fish farm. — The work of the farm continued to be satis-
factory. A notable feature was the successful breeding of the highly
esteemed species E tropins suratensis by providing artificial nests made of
Cuddapah slabs. The fish deposit their adhesive eggs on the under surface
of these slabs and are asciduous in the care of their eggs and young.
Experiments during the previous two years failed apparently for want of
such facilities. The Kurnool-Cuddapah canal and tanks in the neighbour-
hood ' could how be stocked with the fry which Was the main object 'of
Mr. Wilson in introducing this valuable species from the Madras estuaries'
into Sunkesula. • ■. •

" Pudur scheme. — The Public Works Department are doubtiful of
successfully impounding water in the Mudupanchala cheruvu, the largest
of the three tanks covered by the scheme. The Executive Engineer,
Kurnool, is still investigating the matter.

" Meanwhile the gourami have begun to breed and in the absence of
extensive rearing grounds (which the Pudur scheme was intended to
provide) the fry had to be transported to Ippur.

^^ Live-fish market. — The live-fish market at Kurnool which was
closed in 191 5 after the first year of its work owing to difficulties in manage-
ment was reopened for the sale of fish from July to January — a season when
fish is scarce in Kurnool — and was run this time by a contractor who was

194 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

supplied with S84 lb. murrel and other fish for Rs. 101-4-6 from the
Sunkesula fish farm. The sales would have been a greater success had it
not been for the virulent outbreaks of plague. Two ponds for storing the
fish in Kurnool town are under construction.

^^ Nallatnalais scheme. — The two ponds and quarters at Praema have
been completed and the ponds were stocked with a selection of larvicides
from the Ippur farm for breeding purposes. As these ponds are in-
sufficient, another site near Mahanandi for additional ponds has been
selected and the plans and estimate for them have been prepared.

" Colair scheme. — The scheme for a floating hatchery and the im-
provement of the Colair lake fishery is still pending owing to the presence
of fixed engines. The Collector has been requested to take action in the
matter.

" Cuddapah anti-malarial scheme. — The g miles of road up to Palla-
madugu has been repaired but the new jungle road from thence to
Peddagadi is being laid.

" Ippur fish farm. — The work of this new farm progressed well during
the year. It holds a large head of gourami and larvicides and is the main
source of supply, at present, of larvicides to the public and local bodies in
the Presidency. The growing demand for larvicides has necessitated the
utilization of the whole Ippur Kamini tank for the cultivation of these fish.
The food fish reared simultaneously in the tank are being departmentally
fished and marketed.

" Red Hills scheme. — A suitable site for fry ponds and staff quarters
has not yet been secured. The matter is still under correspondence.

" Powder factory scheme. — The gourami introduced from Java and
Mauritius two years ago bred for the first time last December. Many
permanent water tanks of the Presidency operated by the department
continued to be stocked with the acclimatized species Etroplus suratensis
from this farm.

" Owing to the isolated situation of two of the ponds some Etroplus
were stolen from one of them, but precautions have been taken to prevent
the recurrence of such thefts.

•• Chingleput scheme. — A scheme to combat malaria in the Refor-
matory School at Chingleput by draining the moat into the adjoining river
by means of a channel costing Rs. 12.590 was drawn up by the authorities
of the Reformatory School. Subsequently an anti-malarial cum piscicul-
tural scheme costing only Rs. 7,500 proposed by this department was
sanctioned by Government. The latter scheme while preventing the spread
of malaria by stocking the moat with larvicidal fish will enable the water of

No. 7 (19I7) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I9I7-18 I95

the moat to be used for the rearing of valuable food fish. The work has
been taken in hand by the Public Works Department.

" Hilsa hatchery. — Owing to the failure of seasonal floods in the
Coleroon, the Hilsa fishery was almost a failure. Only four solitary ripe
fish (females) were secured. The eggs though few were sufficient to verify
the results of the previous year's investigations and to furnish further data
of scientific value.

" Nilgiri fishery. — I visited the Avalanche hatchery and inspected
some of the trout streams on the plateau in April 191 7. Trout fingerlings
were transferred from the fry ponds to the streams as usual. This fishery
and the conservancy of the Bhavani and Moyar have since been entirely
managed by the District officers and the question of its future control is
pending before Government.

'■^Acclimatization and introduction of exotic and indigenous species —
Gourami. — The two consignments of gourami from Java and Mauritius
which are kept in the Powder Factory and Sunkesula farms bred during
the year. Some 200 of the resultant fry from both these farms have been
transferred to specially prepared ponds at Ippur where they are rapidly
growing — fry which were only \" or |" in December have grown to 6"
within the last five months.

" Tench and English carp As stated in last year's report these fish

have not yet bred though they have grown well during the last four years
in Sunkesula.

" As regards indigenous species, a number of estuarine food fish in
addition to Etroplus suratensis are being acclimatized to fresh water at the
Ippur and Powder Factory farms.for introduction into inland waters. One
of the largest and esteemed local carp Catla catla, which is non-indigenous
to waters south of the Kistna, is being introduced into a series of tanks in
the south.

" Stocking of tanks and channel. — As in the previous year the
Kurnool-Cuddapah canal and the permanent water tanks in the districts of
Kurnool, Cuddapah, Bellary, Salem, Chingleput and North Arcot were
stocked with fish from the Sunkesula and Powder Factory farms.

"As desired by Government in their Memorandum No. 19-A/17-2,
Revenue, dated 22nd March 1917, a preliminary survey of all suitable
tanks of the Presidency was undertaken and nine districts (Kurnool,
Nellore, Cuddapah, Bellary, Anantapur, Chittoor, North Arcot, Chingleput
and Tanjore) have been covered. A scheme for dealing with the tanks in
three contiguous districts (Nellore, Chingleput and North Arcot) with
proposals for additional fish farms at suitable centres is under preparation,
'J'he remaining districts will be taken up in due course.

196 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

"Fishery rentals. — The fisheries of the Cauvery-Coleroon fetched
Rs. 21,886 in excess of the compensation payable to the five district
boards concerned for the year 1917-18. The compensation payable to
the District Board of Tanjore was reduced from Rs. 26,620 to Rs. 23,031
and in consequence a sum of Rs. 14,356 for 1914-15 to 1917-18 was
resumed from the district board funds (vide G.O. No. 4073, Revenue,
dated 15th December 1917). The rentals from tanks and channels
operated by the departments showed an increase of Rs. 23,691 over the
compensation paid to the local bodies.

" Larvicidal operations. — Considerable progress was made during
the year in organizing and developing the work of breeding and distri-
buting larvicidal fish to the public and to local bodies. 83,500 fish were
sold for Rs. 835 to municipal and local bodies and military authorities
with full instructions for stocking their waters and in some cases their
men were trained in such operations. A leaflet of instructions entitled
* The value offish as natural enemies of mosquitoes in combating malaria '
was published and some 150 copies have already been distributed to the
purchasers of larvicidal fish.

" At the request of local bodies and the Sanitary Commissioner,
officers of the department conducted anti-malarial inspection of wells and
tanks in the municipalities of Bellary, Negapatam and the Vriddhachalam
union. Owing to the shortage of trained hands, it has not been found
possible to depute officers for this work in all cases, and some of the local
bodies and Native States have been requested to send their own men to
Madras for training. This is advantageous to the parties concerned as
they will have a trained man always on the spot, while the cost of deputing
a man for training is the same as that of obtaining the services of this
department officers. The Madras Corporation stocked a number of wells
with fish in 1915, but in a number of cases the fish introduced had
disappeared. In response to a request of the Malaria Board received
through Government the matter was investigated and a complete report
was submitted to Government. The investigations in Madras and in other
places go to prove that the failure of larvicidal operations conducted by
local bodies without reference to this department is chiefly due to the
procuring of unsuitable larvicides locally. The ignorant fishermen who
are entrusted with this work are incapable of selecting the proper varieties
of fish and very frequently introduce unwittingly the fry of predaceous
kinds. Moreover such stocking deprives the waters in the neighbourhood
from which the fish are obtained, of their own natural stock of larvicides.
Hence it was urged that the only way out of the difficulty is for the local

No. 7 (1917) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-18

197

bodies to obtain advice from this department and supply of fish from the
fish farms.

" As desired by Government a register has been maintained in which
the supply of larvicides is being recorded and the Sanitary Commissioner
is furnished with particulars of such supplies in each case.

" Deputation to Hyderabad. — Government in G.O. Mis. No. 4030 of
13th December 191 7 sanctioned my deputation to Hyderabad in May or
June 191S for a second inspection of the Oosman Sagar tank. Owing to
pressure of other urgent work it has not been found possible to undertake
the inspection this year."

Experimental deep-water fishing. — One of the great drawbacks in
tank fishing is the inability of the local fishermen to capture fish except
when a tank is about to dry up, due to their primitive methods and imple-
ments. This is a source of loss both to the fishermen and to the consumer
inasmuch as the fishermen do not realize the full value of their catches
owing to an abundance offish placed in the market and the consumer is
deprived of fresh fish throughout the major part of the year and at times
the whole year if the tank does not dry up. Moreover a tank that is not
regularly fished does not yield the maximum weight of fish. Government
tanks that fail to dry up in any year therefore fetch very little or no
rentals. With a view to remedy those evils experiments were initiated in
some of the large irrigation tanks near Madras to devise methods and
implements to fish tanks throughout the year.

V. GOVINDAN,

Piscicultural Expert, Government Fisheries.

ANNEXURES.

Statement I showing summary of charges and receipts of the
Fishery Department, 19 17-18.

Particulars.

Charges.

Receipts.

Difference.

RS. A. P.

RS. A.

p.

RS. A. r.

I. Supervision and research.

II. Marine fisheries

III. Inland fisheries ...

IV-A. Factories

IV-B. Vessels

V. Capital expenditure — 10
per cent thereon

59,100 9 I
69,167 12 II
56,122 6 4
23,902 14 8
9,815 14 I

i>939 14 I
2,20,049 7 2

274 8

1,01,577 0

69.573 12

51,051 9

3.753 4

Nil.

0
6

6

2
3

-58,826 I I
+ 32,409 3 7
+ 13,451 6 2
+ 27,148 10 6
— 6,062 9 10

-1.939 14 X

2,26,230 2

5

+ 6,180 II 3

198 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

Statement I (a) showing details for " Expenditure" in Statement I.

Capital
expenditure

Charges— Running expenditure.

Particulars.

Establish-

Supplies
and services

Contingen-

Total.

ment.

cies.

R8. A.

P.

ES. A.

P.

us. A. p.

BS. A

P.

Es. A, r.

KS. A. P.

Its. A, P.

1. Supervision

and research.

407 14

0

20,567 7

10

16,982 I 8

11,527 I

b

1,843 10 3

09,100 9 I

II. Marine fisher-

ies.

1,819 8

■;

8,148 6

2

10,416 4 11

--^,473 13

II

46,638 14 3

1,490 5 0

69,167 12 II

III. Inland fisher-

ies.

1,44s 2

9

1,394 9

5

1,176 7 2

Nil.

53,551 5 9

Nil.

56,122 6 4

IV-A. Factories —

(i) Cannery .

7,312 I

4

Nil.

3,445 10 6

562 8

0

9,013 0 3

Nil.

13,021 II 9

(2^ Tanur ..

589 10

II

Nil.

2,373 9 i^

562 8

0

7,945 I I

10,881 2 II

IV-B. Vessels

7,821 7

5

Nil.

4,056 7 3

132 6

6

5,626 15 II

Nil.

9,815 14 1

V. Capital expen-

diture—lo per

cent on the

above

19,398 12

10

1,939 H I

1.939 M

'

30,110 7

5

38,450 9 9

15,258 5 II

1,24,619 8 6

9,670 9 6

2,20,049 7 2

Details for II Marine Fisheries.
Supplies and services.

A. Chank fisheries —
(i) Ramnad fisheries
(2) Other fisheries ...

B. Pearl fisheries —

(i) Examination of pearl

banks ...
(2) Pearl fisheries running

expenses

C. Vessels —

(i) Lady Nicholson

(2) Sutherland

(3) Pearl

D. Other work —

(i) Pulicat oyster farm

(2) Marine fish farm

(3) Beche-de-mer ...

RS. A. P.

'29,244 5 7
12,274 II 5

486 II 3
294 8 6

790 9 4
666 6 2
412 3 I

868 7 6

612 10 10

618 4 7

Total ...

RS.

41,519 I

781 3 9

2,169

2,i6g 6 II
46,638 14 3

• lacludcs .a sum of Rs. 4,000 being the fifth year's proportioQ of the total consider-
atioa p*i4 ia 1913 -H for ^ fifteen years' lea,se of the Ramnad Chank Fisheries.

No. 7 (1917) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-18

Details f 07- III. Inland Fisheries,

199

Supplies and services.

A. Tank stocking — rs. a. p.

(a) Compensation to district

boards ... ... 44,946 14 o

(/'') Tank stocking ... ... 464 12 5

. Other work —

Sunkesula fish farm ...

3.841

3

9

Hilsa hatchery and lower

anicut

210

3

6

Ippur fish farm

1,715

13

7

Powder factory charges

611

6

5

Nallamalais ...

637

13

3

Investigation of new schemes.

333

8

6

House boat maintenance

308

,S

S

Motor boat expenses

481

4

II

RS.

45,411 10 5

8,139 II

53'55i 5

Turbinella
Fishing canoes.
Leverett
Machwas

Details for IV-B. Vessels.

Supplies and services.

1,868 12 II

3.096 8 6

292 15 6

368 II o

5,626 15 II
5,626 15 II

Statement I {b) shoiving details for "■ Receipts^ ^ in Statement 1.

Details for II. Maritie Fisheries.

{a) Receipts from all chank fisheries, including

beche-de-mer fisheries, as per statement

III ... ... ... 98,173 9 o

{d) Receipts from sale of zoological specimens

and other miscellaneous receipts
(c) Receipts from marine fish farm
{d) Receipts from oyster culture at Pulicat

822

1,588
992

13

3

6

5
7
6

1,01,577

0

6

200 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

Details for III. Inland Fisheries.

RS. A. P.

(«) Rentals from tanks and rivers, etc., the
fisheries of which were taken over by this
department (vide Statement II) ... ... 68,637 8 o

(3) Receipts from sale of fish larvicides ... 835 o o

(i ) Other miscellaneous receipts ... ... loi 4 6

69*573 12 6

Details for IV-A. Factories,

(i) Cannery —

(a). Actual receipts (amount remitted into

treasury) from sale of canned, etc., fish. 31,548 4 3
(h) Amount outstanding on ist July 1918 but

since realized ... ... ... ... 1)854 2 7

{c) Value of manufactured goods at hand on

ist July 1918. ... ... ... ... 7,020 10 6

40,423 I 4

(2) Tanur —

(«) Actual receipts (amount remitted to

treasury from sale of cured, etc., fish). ... 8,019 4 1°

(^) Amount outstanding on ist July 1918

since realized ... ... ... ... 1,724 3 5

\c) Value of goods on hand on ist July 1918. 884 15 7

10,628 7 10

Details for IV-B. Vessels.

(a) Receipts from fishing canoes ... ... 3,17110 9

{b) Turbinella ... 55 8 o

(f) Ratnagiri Machwas ... ... ... 526 i 6

3.753 4 3

Note. — The sum of Rs. 274-8-0 noted as receipts against " I. Supervision and
Research " represents the amount of rent realized from the Fisheries Bungalow at
Ennur.

No. 7 (I9I7) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-18

201

Statement II. — Statement showing the names of tanks or tank system,
canal or canal system, and rivers, the amount of compensation
paid and amount of rentals realized for 1917-18.

Name.

Compen-
sation paid.

Rentals
realized.

Reference lo Government
Orders taking the fisheries.

Cauvery and Coleroon

Kurnool-Cuddapnh canal...

Dusimamandur and

Kaveripakkam tanks.

Chembarambakkam and
Madurantakam tanks.

Singanamalla tank

Gudur and Karedu tanks ...

Rangasamudram and other

tanks.
Kamalapuram tank

Daroji tank

Barurand connecter! tanks.

Penukondapuram tank

Badaikhan tank

Belegal tank

Markapur tank

Venkatapuram tank

Kocheruvu ...

Ippur, Kamini and Pudu-
parti tanks.

Total

RS. A. P. RS.

34,898 0 o 56,784

A. P.
2 O

2,553 14 0

3,789 O 0

2,195 o 0

117 o o
185 o o

200 0 0

500 o o

155 o o

120 O O

118 0 o

I 16 o o

95 o c

500

44,946 14 o

0 o

O 0
O 0

8 0

1,165

4,685
3,950

250

12

860

270

166
141

66
219

42

20

6
68,637 8 o

8 o

G.Os. Nos. 1797, Revenue,
dated 2Cth June 1914 ;7II,
Revenue, dated 8th March
1917; and 1886, Revenue,
dated August 1916.

GO. No. 3660, Revenue,
lated 1 2th December 1 91 3.

G.O No. 856, Revenue, dated
2ist March 1917.
Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

G.O. No. 1686, Revenue,

dated 22nd July 1916.
G.O. No. 2330, Revenue,

dated 31st July 191I.
G.Os. Nos. 2720, Revenue,

dated 9th September 1912;

and 953, Revenue, dated 30th

March 1914.
G.O. No. 3016, Revenue,

dated 13th October J913.
fG.O. No. 610, Revenue,
1_ dated l6th March 1916.
G.O. No. 3016, Revenue,

dated 13th October 1913.
G.O. No. 100 1., dated 20th

February 1914.
Do.

G.O. No. 495, Revenue, dated
23rd February 1915.

202 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI,

Statement IIL — Summary of expenditure and receipts of all
chank and Beche-de-mer fisheries, season 1917-18.

Expenditure,

RS. A. p.

Expenditure incurred in conducting the Tinne-

velly chank fishery ... ... 8,962 5 9

Expenditure incurred in conducting the Ceylon

chank fishery ... ... ... 3,029 5 5

Expenditure incurred in conducting the Ramnad

chank fishery ... .-- ... ... ... 23,835 13 6

Expenditure incurred in conducting the Siva-

ganga chank fishery ... ... ... ... 246 13 6

Expenditure incurred in conducting the Beche-
de-mer fishery ... ... ... ... 977 6 i

Fifth year's proportion of the total consideration

paid in 1913-14 for a fifteen years' lease of

the Ramnad chank fishery ... ... ... 4,000 o o

Total expenditure ... 41,051 12 3

Balance being net profit on the season's
operations ... ... ... ... 57,12112 9

98,173 9 o

Receipts^

Value of chank and other receipts from Tinne-

velly chank fishery ... 15,866 15 8

Value of chank and other receipts from Ramnad

chank fishery ... ... ... ... ... 7o>4ii 10 11

Value of chank and other receipts from Ceylon

chank fishery ... ... 4,577 6 3

Value of chank and other receipts from Siva-

ganga chank fishery ... ... ... ... 269 13 5

Estimated value of 2,141 lb. of beche-de-mer on

hand 657 10 9

Rent for the Tanjore chank fishery ... ... 4,890 o o

South Arcot chank fishery ... 900 o o

„ Chingleput and Nellore chank

fishery ... ... ... ... 600 o o

98,173 9 o

No. 7 (1917)

ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1917-I8

20j

Statement IV.— Trading account for the year ended 30th fune 1918-
Government Fisheries Cannery, Chaliyam.

To stock of canned
goods on 1st April

1917

To stock of cured

fish on ist April

1917

To stock of oil and

guano on 1st April

1917
Pit manure on ist

April 1917

Fried oil

Tins manufactured at

the cannery on 1st

April 1917

To cost of solder, tin
plate, empty cans
(imported), tin,
rosin, soldering
fluid, turpentine,
varnish, etc.
To cost of fuel (fire-
wood, coal , kerosene
oil, petrol and
other oils)
To cost of fish used
for canning and
curing, etc.
Ush condiments in-
cluding oil for
packing ...
Cost of sundry stores,
such as soda ash,
cotton waste, spirit,
vaseline, etc.
Salt and preserva-
tives
Packing materials,
such as packing
cases, baskets,

brown, etc., papers,
twine and straw
and wire nails used.
Labels and rubber

rings for tins
Manufacturing
wages — wages of
temporary staff and
extra labour
Railway freight
Petty coolie and
carriage ...

Gross profit (transfer-
red to profit and
loss account)

9,762 2 0

4 10 6

200 2 o

13 12 o

127 8 0

1,229 8 2

6,971 15 o

655 14 0
1,839 8 9

1 , 702 7

0

136 IS

6

100 13

0

651 11

0

400 3

0

2,273 IS
1,518 2

7
9

494 13

10

11,337 10 8

By sale of canned
fiih remitted to
treasury from 1st
April 1917 to 30th
June 1918
By sale of cured fish.
,, guano ...
,, tried oil .,

,, fish oil ,.
,, prawn

shells ...
,, miscel-
laneous
products.

By value of canned,
etc., fish sold but
not realized and
remitted to trea-
sury on 30th June
1918

By value of manu-
factured goods on
hand on ist July
191 8—

Guano ...

Fried oil

Prawn shells ...

Pit manure

Canned fish
Miscellaneous, pro-
ducts

Empty cans manu-
factured in the
cauuery

R.S. A. 1'.

30,908 8

2

132 IS

I

"5 4

0

250 2

0

94 2

0

33 12

13 9 o

40.423

1,854

130 0

66 14

I 8

23 o

6,407 3

2 14 9

31.548 4 3

i,8S4

6,631 7 9

3S9 3 9

40,423 I 4

264 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

Government Fisheries Cannery, Chaliyam.
Profit and loss account for 191 7-18.
rs. a. p

VOL. XI,

To rent of Bangalore

stall 46 8 o

To fixed travelling

allowance of Sir

F, A. Nicholson

(12^ per cent only

debited) 562 8 o

To pay of permanent

staff (50 per cent

only debited) ... 1,171 10 11
To service stamps ... 603 o o
To advertising and

printing charges ... 188 8 6
To depreciation and

interest at 10 per

cent 1,616 o 0

To net profit ... 8,150 11 lo

12,338 15 3

RS. A. P.

By gross profit trans-
ferred from trading
account ... ...12,338 15 3

12,338 15 3

No. 7 (1917)

ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I917-II

^5

Statement V. — Trading account for the year ended 30th June 1918
Government Fisheries Yard, Tanur.

To stock of cured fish
On ist April 191 7.

To stock of fish oil
and foots on ist
April 1917

To stock of guanu on
I5t April 1917

To stock of miscel-
laneous products on
1st April 1917

To cost of fish used
for curing opera-
tions

To cost of oil and
guano curing opera-
tions

To cost of salt and
preservatives

To cost of sundry
stores used.

To cost of fuel, such
as firewood, kero-
sene oil, etc.

Packing materials .. .

Wages of temporary
siafT and of coolies.

Railway freight on
parcels of cured fish.

Petty coolie and
carriage ...

Watering and manur-
ing charges for
coconut plants ...

Cost of fish oil pur-
chased

To gross profit (trans-
ferred to profit and
loss account)

1,524 6 7

RS. A.

P.

1 ,099 2

2

370 1

I

II 4

0

43 15

4

3.332 3

2

431 9

5

129 II

3

237 8

2

226 14

380 12

0
9

1,371 II

8

748 I

3

820 II

6

95 4 2
675 0 o

By sale of cured fish
remitted to treasury
on 1st April 1917
to 30lh June 1911S.

By sale of fish guano.

By sale of fish oil and
foots

By sale of prawn
shells

By sale of pit manure.

Miscellaneous re-

ceipts

By value of goods
sold but not realized
and remitted to
treasury on 30th
June 1918 ...

By value of manu-
.factured goods on
hand on ist July
1918—
Cured fish
Fish guano
Fish oil and

foots ...
Prawn shells ...
Pit manure

7M7 7 4

1,266 9 n

10,628 7 10

5.4.'3 14
969 12

420 15 o

75 5
86 2

1.013 3 3

1,724 3 5

5,019 4 10

1-724 3 5

284 3 II

296 10 10

210 I 7

50 3 3

43 12 01

884 15 7

10,628 7 10

/

266

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XI, No. ^ (19I7)
Government Fisheries — Station, Tanur.
Profit and loss account for 1 9 1 7 - 1 8.

RS. A. P.

90 o o

72 II o

To rent of Bangalore

stall ...
To rent of Cannanore

yard...
To fixed travelling

allowance of Sir F. A.

Nicholson (12^ per

cent debited) ... 562 3

To pay of permanent

staff (50 per cent

debited) ... ... 978 8

To service stamps ... 350 o
To depreciation on

plant, machinery,

shed, etc., 2,000 —

200 + 300 = 2,100 at

10 per cent ... ... 210 o

2,263 i^ 2

RS. A, p.

By gross profit trans-
ferred from trading
account ... .,,1,266 9 11

By net loss ... ... 997 i 3

2,263 ^i 2

N'ote. — A sum of Rs. 1,412 was received within the year (25th June 1918) on
account of the supply of oil to the Munitions Board in view of the expeniiture by the
West Coast station, Tanur branch, in salaries, travelling allowance and contingencies.
This was not included in the receipts ; it converts the loss on Tanur into a small profi'.

20^

Order— No. 3461, Revenue, dated 17th October 1918.
The Fisheries department continued to do good work through-

,,. ,, , out the year in the development of the

Miscellaneous | ^

industries entrusted to its care. The report

does not deal with the soap experiments as the soap factory is no
longer under the control of this department.

2. The Pisciculturist's branch made progress under the charge
of Mr. Sundara Raj. The proposals for the utilization of the
Mopad Reservoir for piscicultural operations and those for the
cultural and sanitary development of the Vellore Fort Moat are
under the consideration of the Government. The cannery opera-
tions were extended to some extent and the net profits were
considerably greater but the scale of operations is still insufficient
to meet the general demand. It is satisfactory to note that a
scheme for the refrigeration of fish has been elaborated and will
be put into immediate operation. The effect of the absence of
freight on the oil and guano operations has been to some extent
counterbalanced by demands from the Military department and
the jute mills and by the formation of groups of producers acting
as intermediaries for large customers. The Government note that
these groups will be formed into co-operative societies -and will
thus be further consolidated.

3. The Honorary Director has submitted preliminary proposals
regarding inshore fishing experiments in Madras. He has shown
that the experiments already conducted were a success from a
fishery point of view, though financially they resulted in a small
loss on account of the cost of bringing boats and men from the
West Coast and of inducing the men to remain at Madras. The
Government have just sanctioned the Honorary Director's pro-
posals for continuing the experiments on a larger scale and for a
longer period.

4. The department is continuing its philanthropic work in the
social and economic development of the fisherfolk and the fact
that Mr. Govindan is being invited by them to visit the villages
and organize societies is a tribute to the success of his work. The
Government are glad to receive the assurance of Sir Frederick
Nicholson that the people themselves are beginning to understand
the need for education and it is hoped that the proposals approved
in G.O. No. 2048, Revenue, dated 27th May 1918, will have far-
reaching developments.

208

5. The war has rendered it impossible to proceed with the
work of the Krusadai pearl oyster farm, the Marine Aquarium at
Madras, and deep sea exploration. Proposals are however under
consideration for the establishment of the Krusadai farm on a
smaller scale.

6. A trial chank fishery expedition to Ceylon was a successful
feature of the year and with the sanction of the Government of
India the experiment is being repeated.

7. The Government are glad to note that the department was
awarded a gold medal and the diploma of excellence for canned
and the cured fish at the Madras Exhibition of Industries in
1917-18 and that people of other provinces are taking an interest
in the work of the department.

8. The Government agree that the primary object of the
department is not revenue but development and progress. It is
nevertheless satisfactory to observe that the working of the
department during the year shows a small profit.

(True extract)

M. Young,
Additional Temporary Secretary to Government.

Editors' Taljle.

a.

LIST OF MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETINS
ISSUED UP TO DATE WITH THEIR
CONTENTS AND PRICES.

DULL. .

NO. PAGBS

1. Papers from 1899 relating chiefly to the Development of

THE Madras Fisheries Bureau. By Sir 1'". A. Nicholson, 1915,
Re. 1-14-0. (Pages 237.)

2. Note on Fisheries in Japan. By Sir F. A. Nicholson, 1907.

(Out ot print.)

3. The Preservation and Curing of Fish. By Sir F. A. Nicholson,

1909. (Reprint edition,)

4. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1908. By James Hornell,

(Out of print.)

5. The Practice of Oyster-culture at Arcachon and its Lessons

for India, By James Hornell, 1910, Re. 1-6-0 —

I. Introduction , ,,, j ^

II. The physical conditions characterizing Arcachon basin ... a j

III. The origin and development of oyster-culture at Arcachon ... 7 iq

IV. Present methods and conditions ig j.

V. Principal characteristics of other European systems of cultiva<

tion 75—79

VI, Applicability of French methods to oyster-culture in India ... 79—00

6. Marine Fish-farming for India. By James Hornell, 1911,

Re, 1-4-0 —

L Introductory I ^

IJ. French fish-farming at Arcachon ... 4—20

III. The communal fish-farms of Comacchio ... ... ,,. ,., 21 62

IV, The scope for marine fish-farming in India ... ... .,. 65 8"

7. The Sacred Chank of India. By James Hornell, 1914, Rs. 2 —

Introductory I__2

I, The chank fisheries of India and Ceylon 2 ho

II, The chank bangle industry - 41 — ug

III, The role played by the chank in Indian religion and life ... 117—172

IV. Appendix 173 — jj^l

8. Marine Fishery Investigations in Madras, 1914-15. By James

Hornell, 1916, Re. 1-12-0—

I, A note on the edible oyster I — 10

II. An explanation of the irregularly cyclic character of the pearl

fisheriesof the Gulf of Mannar 2j 22

III. Notes upon two exploring cruises in search of trawl grounds

off the Indian and Ceylon coasts ... ... ... ,., 23 41

IV. Report on the pearl fishery held at'Tondi, 1914 ' ^o g^

V, Professor Huxley and the Cejdon pearl fishery, with a note

on the forced or cultural production of free spherical pearls. 93 104

VI, The utilization of coral and shells for lime-burning in the

Madras Presidency , .„ 105 126

9. Fishery Statistics and Information, West and East Coasts,
Madras Presidency, Compiled by V. Govindan, with
Introduction by Sir F, A, Nicholson, 1916, Re. 1-12-0 —
Gives a summar}' of the numbers of fish-curing yards and fishing
boats, the methods of curing fish and a sketch of the economic
conditions now existing, etc. (Pages 140.)
10. Annual Reports of the Fisheries Department for each
year from 1908-09 TO 1916-17, By Sir F. A. Nicholson,
Re. i-io-o, (Pages 179.)
J1. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1917, Re. 1-4-0 —

I, The edible molluscs of the Madras Presidency. By James

Hornell ... 1—51

II. A new protozoan cause of widespread mortality among marine

fishes. By James Hornell 53—66

III. A statistical analysis of the fishing industry of Tuticorin (South

India). By James Hornell 67—117

IV. The Indian beche-de-mer industry : its history and recent.revival.

f By James Hornell iiQ— 150

V. Carp-growing in Germany, By Sir F. A, Nicholson ... 151 jgg

VI. Note on treaunent of swamps, stream beds, ponds, wells, pools,

and other mosquito-infested areas for the destruction of their

larvae. By H. C. Wii.scN ... ,., ... 161—172

VII. Madras Fisheries Adjuinistration Report, 1917-18, By Sir F. A.

Nicholson, As, 8 ,;. .. i73-_207

12. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1920, Rs. 4 —

I, Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1918-19. By Ja.mes

Hornell, As. 5 i— /■2

IT. The Outrigger Canoes of Indonesia. By James Hornell. *

Illustrated with 55 text figures and 16 plates, Rs. 2-14-0 ,. .. 43 jj.

IJI, A Statistical Analysis of an Inshore Fishing Experiment at

Madras, 1919. By M, Famaswami Nayuuu, As, 4 ii5__jo2

BOLL.
NO.

WH lfiY3

FACES

IV. Reports on the methods of capture and supply of fish in the

rivers of the Nilgiri district. By the late H. C. Wilson, As. 4. 135— 156
V. Notes on the Cicblid Fishes of Malabar, Elroplus suratensis and

E. maculatus. By N. P. Panikkar, As. 4 I57__i66

13. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1921 —

I. Madras Fisheries Adnainistration Report, 1919-20. By the Hon.

Mr. A. Y. G. Campbell, As. 4 ... 1—34

11. Remarks on Canning. By Sir F. A. Nicholson, As. 12 ... 35 — 146

III, Manufacture of Fish Oil and Guano. By Sir F. A. Nicholson,

Re. 1-4-0 147—266

14. IV. The Fisheries of Norway and Denmark. By James Hornell,

As. 8 1—56

V. The Madras Marine Aquarium. By James Hornell, As. 6 ... 57 — 96
VI. The Common Molluscs of South India. By James Hornei.l,

Re. I ... 97—215

15. Fishery Reports, 1922 —

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1920-21. By James

Hornell, As. 4 1—44

II. Notes on the Fauna and Fishing Industries of the Laccadive

Islands. By S. Ramasvvami Ayyangae, As. 4 .,.. 45 — 69

III. The Grey Mullets of Tuticorin. By R. H. Whitehouse,

As. 4 71 — 9S

IV. The Flying-fish Fishery of the Coromandel Coast and the

Spawning Habits of Cypsilurus. By J. Hornell, with a note
on the Eggs and early Embryonic Development. By M.

Ramaswami Nayudu, As. 6 99— Hi

V. The Aims and Achievements of the Madras Department of

Fisheries. By J. HORNELL, As. 3 ... I13— 129

VI. A Statistical Account of the Fish Supply of Madras, By S. T.

Moses, As. 6 ... 131— i66

16. The Indian Pearl Fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk

Bay. By J. Hornell, Rs. 2-8-0 i— 1S8

17. Fishery Reports, 1923--

I. Madras Fisheries Admi.iistration Report, 1921-22. By J.

Hornell, As. 4 i — 44

/ II. A new Copepod Parasite from the Gills of Wallago Attn, By

B. Sundara Raj; As. 2 4S--48

HI. Report on Young Fishes, etc. By R. H. Whitehouse,

Ke. 1-4-0 49 — 103

iV. Anatomy of the Chank. Bv S. T. MoSES, As. 5 105—127

V. A Contribution to the I.il'e-History of the Indian Sardine,

By J. Hornell and M. Ramaswami Nayudu, As. 14 ... 129—197

VI, Inspection Report, Madras Pearl Banks, 1923. By J. Hornell,

As. 3 199—214

18. Fishery Reports, 1924—

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1922-23. By James

Hornell, As. 10 .. ., i — 58

II. The Fishing Methods of the Madras Presidency, Part I — The

Coromandel Coast. By JAMES Hornell, As. 12 59— Iio

19. Fishery Reports, 1925—

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1923-24. By

B. Sundara Raj,- As. la i — 58

20. Fishery Reports, 1926--

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1924-25. By B.

Sundara Raj, As. 14 1—78

21. Fishery Reports, 1927—

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1925-26. By B. Sundara

Raj, Rs. 2-4-0 1—94

22. Fishery Reports, 1928 —

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1926- -27, Bv B. Sundara

Raj, Re. I 1-99

If Fish Statistics for 1925-26 (Supplement to the Administration

Report for 1926-27). By B. Sundara Raj, As. 14 1—75

23. Fishery Reports, 1929 —

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1927-28. By Dr. F. H.

Gravely, As. 14 1—86

IT Fish Statistics for 1^26-27 (Supplement to the Administration

Report for 1927-28). By B. Sundara Raj, As. 10 87—151

HI Report on a systematic survey of deep-sei fishing grounds by S.T.

"Lady Goschen," 1927-28. By Sundara Raj, Re. 1-8-0 ... 153—187

24. Fishery Reports, 1930—

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1928-29. By B. Sundara

Raj. Re. 1-4-0 -. i— 103

25. Fishery Reports, 19JI— „ ^ ^

r, Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1929-30. Bv B.

Pundap.a Raj, As, !4 1-^104

MHI. WHOI IIHUARY

UH IflYM A