L

MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

BULLETIN No. 12

ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-19

AND

THE OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

BV

JAMES HORNELL, f.l.s., f.r.a.i.

A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF AN INSHORE
FISHING EXPERIMENT AT MADRAS, 1919

BV

M. RAMASWAMI NAYUDU, b.a.

REPORTS ON THE FISHERIES OF THE NILG1RIS

i:y

The Late H. C. WILSON

NOTES ON THE CICHLID FISHES OF MALABAR

BY

N. P. PANIKKAR, b.a., f.l.s.

M A D R A S
PRIN1ED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS

Price, 4 rupees: I 9 2 I

CONTENTS.

Pages

Report No. i. Administration Report for the year 1918-19. 1 — 42

„ 2. The Outrigger Canoes of Indonesia ... 43 — 114
„ 7.. A Statistical Analysis of an inshore fishing

experiment at Madras, 1919 ... ... 115 — 133

,, 4. Reports on the methods of capture of fish in

the rivers of the Nilgiri district ... ... 135 — 156

„ 5. Notes on the two Cichlid fishes of Malabar,

Etroplus suratensis and E. maculatus ... 157 — 166

3 86 1 5

Report No. / (1920).

ADMINISTRATION REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
FISHERIES, MADRAS, FOR THE YEAR 1918-19.

BY

JAMES HORNELL, F.L.S., F.R.A.I.,

Director of Fisheries.

MADRAS, the 2lst August 1919.

To the Secretary to Government,

Revenue (Special) Department, Fort St. George.

I have the honour to submit the administration report of the
Department of Fisheries for the year ending 30th June 1919.

Administration.

2. Administration and Personnel. — With the sanction of Govern-
ment, the Honorary Director, Sir F. A. Nicholson, handed over
charge of the department to myself on 26th November 1918.
Fortunately he was willing to remain for some time longer in charge
of the West Coast fisheries stations, thereby greatly lightening the
difficulties which confronted me in taking up the mantle of so
exceptionally able an administrator. The department owes its
origin and present industrial and economic importance entirely to
his far-sighted initiative ; my endeavour must be to continue and.
if possible, amplify and extend the good work he has carried forward
so far and so successfully in .many directions. It is fortunate for
me that I have been associated with him in many of his most
important plans and experiments from the beginning, a fact that
renders my path more easy.

3. Owing to the difficulties entailed by war conditions, officers
to take over my duties as Marine Assistant and Marine Biologist
were not at once available. In consequence I had to combine as
well as I could the duties of Director with those of these officers
till 1st March 1919, when Mr. J. H. Allan relieved me as Marine
Assistant from duties which at present include the superintendence

2 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII

of the pearl and chank fisheries [G.O. No. 278, Revenue (Special),
dated 14th February 1919]. This officer has seen much service
during the war, first in Mesopotamia as a Royal Engineer officer in
the Inland Water Transport; being invalided out on account of
injuries, he obtained, on recovery, a temporary commission in the
Royal Naval Reserve, and was given command of a flotilla of six
mine-sweepers based in Colombo. His experience in command of
motor-launches and steam-trawlers combined with his previous
record in all grades of the mercantile marine, fit him admirably for
his new duties, and already he has been of great assistance to me.

4. No appointment to the vacant post of Marine Biollogist has
yet been possible; a man with suitable qualifications and adequate
practical experience is hard to obtain on the pay sanctioned, in
view of the keen demand for zoologists of this type at home and in
the Colonies, where fisheries' development is particularly active at
the present time.

5. Under the reorganization scheme Messrs. V. Govindan and
B. Sundara Raj reverted to their substantive posts of Assistant
Director and Piscicultural Assistant, respectively ; the office of
Piscicultural Expert being abolished, the administrative duties are
carried on by the Director, who also gives direct personal supervi-
sion to the technical side of the work. To relieve the Director of a
certain amount of routine work, Mr. U. Karunakara Menon was
appointed Personal Assistant and joined duty on 20th December
1918.

6. Removal of Headquarters Offices.— With the appointment of a
whole-time Director, with headquarters at Madras, the old office at
Chepauk, already much overcrowded, became impossible and
removal to larger premises was imperative. By the courtesy of the
Bank of Madras, a portion of their handsome new office in the
Mount Road was placed temporarily at my disposal ; removal thereto
was effected on 7th April 1919. Unfortunately another move will
have to be made before the end of this year, and so far, a suitable
location has not been found. Much work, especially the scientific,
is practically at a standstill under these unfavourable circum-
stances, for most of our reference books and specimens have to be
kept in packing cases where they subserve no useful purpose.

7. Director's Tours. — Since my appointment, I have made exten-
sive tours in Kurnool and Nellore on piscicultural duty; also on
the East and West Coasts on general inspection and particularly

NO. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-19 3

to select sites for several new Fishery Demonstration Stations
under consideration. The initiation of the Marine Assistant into
his duties necessitated several tours to the coast towns of Tinnevelly
and Ramnad. Calcutta was also visited in company with the
Marine Assistant to inspect steam-trawlers under construction.
Altogether I spent 148 out of 216 days on tour after becoming
Director on 27th November 1918.

General.

8. Limitation of Expansion. — The limitations placed upon expan-
sion consequent upon war conditions continued throughout the
greater part of the period under review ; all existing lines of work
pursued a normal course with results much the same as last year.
It was not found possible to extend operations on any considerable
scale. The only important departures consisted in the taking over
on 1st June 1919, from the Salt and Abkari Department, of a num-
ber of fish-curing yards on the West Coast to be run on model lines,
in the reorganization of the old Aquarium taken over from the
Museum authorities as per G.O. No. 387. Home (Education), dated
27th March 1919, and the initiation of a scheme for the education
of men to become eventually the teachers in elementary schools in
fishing villages, with a special curriculum appropriate to their
occupational requirements. With a return to more normal condi-
tions several important dormant propositions have been revived,
and submitted for the consideration of Government, together with
others entirely new. If we can obtain sufficient subordinates, the
expansion of our activities should be rapid within the next few
years, but unfortunately this presents great difficulty ; indeed I fear
it will be unsurmountable till we have a technical institute or
rather Fishery College, where the men we so urgently need will be
able to obtain education in the theory and technique of their
profession. An University education is a good foundation whereon
to build ; alone, it is insufficient equipment for a fishery expert,
even of subordinate rank.

The scientific assistance and advice of the department have
been again in demand during the year by officers concerned with
fishery development in several other States, notably Burma, Baroda,
Travancore, and the Seychelles ; zoological collections have also
been furnished to researchers in various countries including
Australia, the United States and Java.
I-A

4 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

9. Finance. — Results judged by this standard may be considered
eminently successful, for, apart from the industrial section com-
prising the cannery and fishcuring yards which will be reported
upon separately, large increases in profits mark the operations
of both the marine and fresh-water sections. The profit made by
the former of Rs. 32,409-3-7 in 1917-18 has been increased to
Rs. 74,722-2-3, chiefly by the better yield of the chank fishery, and
the large expansion under the head of zoological supply. An
increase of over Rs. 7,000 has also been obtained in the profits
from the sale of fishing rights in rivers, canals and tanks, con-
trolled and stocked by the department. Concurrently with these
gratifying increases has to be noted the fact that expenditure
actually shows a small decrease, that for 1918-19 (excluding
'Factories ') being Rs. 1,96,073-14-0 as against Rs. 1,96,146-8-6 in
the preceding year. It is not likely that such extremely favourable
finance will continue indefinitely; expenditure upon research,
education and socio-economics is likely to mount up rapidly in the
immediate future. Meanwhile it is a matter for congratulation that
the marine and fresh-water operations, even after bearing the
debit for the supervision and research charges of the whole depart-
ment, and excluding profits made in industrial experiments on the
West Coast, have been able not only to pay their way, but also to
show the substantial net profit of Rs. 35,447-0-7.

Honorary Superintendent's Section.

10. This section, administered directly by Sir Frederick
Nicholson, comprises practically all the work carried on by the
department on the West Coast and might indeed be termed the
West Coast Section. The sub-sections include the Beypore
cannery, oil and guano operations, the experimental fish-curing
yard at Tanur, the control of certain public fish-curing yards
transferred from the Salt and Abkari Department, and the import-
ant subjects of co-operation, education, and related socio-economic
work among the fishing classes. The year's operations are
surveyed by the Honorary Superintendent, and as this report is
printed in extenso as an annexure, there is little for me to say,
except to express my deep regret that the heavy burden entailed
by supervision of this work, has determined Sir F. A. Nicholson to
hand over charge at an earlv date. As one consequence of this

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-19 5

I have proposed to Government to appoint a General Manager to
have charge of the Cannery with a view to systematize and develop
operations. The appointment is now pending and I trust that,
with a competent Manager continuously on the spot, the production
may be largely extended in the immediate future. The experi-
mental and research side will not be neglected; in this connexion
the most promising line of work at the present time seems to be
that in respect of the sharp freezing of fish. The fish trade in the
leading fish-producing countries is particularly alive to this subject
and from the experiments which both the Honorary Superintendent
and myself have carried out, there is, I believe, a great sphere of
usefulness in front of this particular subject in this country, pro-
vided ice can be produced sufficiently cheaply. But while these
matters have the material progress of the fishing industry as their
object, and may result in substantial direct profit to Government*
the socio-economic aspect of our work is likely to prove of far
greater eventual value to the community in the uplift it will bring
to the fisherfolk of this land. I propose to extend vigorous
propaganda in the immediate future to [the East Coast fishing
communities, and also to the fresh-water fishermen of our rivers
and tanks. Two groups of these latter men, after lengthy discus-
sions with the Piscicultural Assistant, have now grasped the value
of co-operation in regard to joint action to eliminate the greedy
middleman, and are eager to be banded together financially
with a view to take over certain extensive fishing rights in the
Cauvery at the termination of the present lease. Proposals are
being prepared to this end; I trust this may be the beginning of
a movement which will enable the department to deal directly
with fishermen-groups in the majority of the fisheries now leased
to the highest bidder, irrespective of whether he is a speculator or
a fisherman.

The trading account of the Cannery and other industrial
branches of work not having yet been received, will follow as soon
as they come to hand.

II. Inshore Fishing at Madras. — The second season's work,
sanctioned in G.O, No. 3741, Revenue, dated 23rd November 1918,
commenced on 16th December 1918. Two additional canoes were
obtained from Malabar with their complement of crews, nets and
lines. The Assistant Director, under whose supervision and
guidance the experiments were carried on, reports that " in 6%

0 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

months the crews were able to capture 83,187% lb. of fish which were
sold for Rs. 4,912-0-9 at an average price of about 113 pies per lb.
The largest quantity caught on a single clay was 2,080 lb., worth
Rs. 108-9-9. The total expenditure for the period is Rs. 5,320-1-1
including a capital outlay of Rs. 1,026-15-1 for canoes and nets.
As the canoes are serviceable for about fifteen years and the nets
for about three years, depreciations at 7 per cent and 35 per cent
may be calculated respectively on their value. The effects of
these operations on the local fisherfolk are not altogether unfavour-
able and, though none of the well-to-do among them has yet
come forward to copy our example, we have been able to secure
the services of four local fishermen to work in our canoes and
this is a great improvement considering the opposition that was
set up by them last year. Unfortunately our men had again to
incur the displeasure of some of the local men as they assisted the
Marine Police in capturing smugglers who, were carrying 2,000 tolas
of opium into a steamer in the harbour. On several days when
only a few catamarans were able to go for fishing owing to bad
weather, our canoes went out and were able to land good hauls of
fish, e.g., on 1 6th January 1919, they captured 1,715 lb. worth
Rs. 91-5-O though only a few catamarans went out fishing on that
day. Important biological information and other data have also
been recorded." Supervision charges, amounting to Rs. 434, have
not however been debited, but this is justifiable in part, if not
entirely, by the fact that if a party of fishermen were working in
co-operation on their own account and profit there would be no
need for paid supervision. A point which the report of this
experiment omits to note is that a considerable amount of fishing
was done inside the harbour where no local fishermen are allowed to
ply their calling. This is a most material circumstance ; therefore
to present a perfectly fair account of the result of these operations,
it is necessary to deduct from the receipts whatever sum was
received from the sale of fish caught inside the harbour. This
amounted to the comparatively large sum of Rs. 828-14-3. Deduct-
ing this amount and depreciation of Rs- 201-3-1 on boats and nets
making in all Rs. 1,030-1-4, from the gross receipts of Rs. 4,912-0-7,
we have a balance of Rs. 3,881-15-3 as against Rs. 4,293-2-0
(excluding supervision), leaving a loss of Rs. 41 1-2-9 on the
working. From this there may however be deducted the sum of
Rs. 169-7-3, which represents the rail fares incurred in transporting

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-19 7

the crews from West Coast. Even with this extra deduction a
final net loss of Rs. 24I-H-6 has to be faced. Hence I am afraid
that the results are not sufficiently encouraging to induce local
men to change their methods.

The exposed and surf-beaten nature of the Coromandel Coast
makes improvements in fishery methods extremely difficult, and
except at harbours such as Madras, Negapatam, Cocanada and
a few other places, we cannot hope to replace the catamaran by any
better type of sea-craft. At Tuticorin and Negapatam, I hope
soon to start experiments having for their object the introduction
of larger and more efficient fishing craft, such as the fine balance-
board boats of Tirupalagudi and the roomy weatherly fishing type
used on the Bombay coast. Experiments in long-lining are even
now in progress at Tuticorin and these will be reported upon in
due course next year.

Marine Section.

12. This section was wholly in my charge for the first eight
months of the year ; thereafter the Marine Assistant took over the
departmental fisheries and the care of the department's fleet. The
duties come under the following sub-heads : —

Chank and pearl fisheries, the beche-de-mer industry, the
marine fish-farm, the oyster park at Pulicat, the marine aquarium
at Madras, zoological supply to colleges, research and miscel-
laneous.

13. Departmental Fisheries. — These, which include the chank,
pearl and beche-de-mer fisheries, proceeded normally so far as the
first and last are concerned. " The second proved again wholly
unproductive, neither adult pearl oysters nor spat being found
anywhere on the banks. The chank fishery was specially
remunerative partly because of increased catches, but chiefly by
reason of the increased rate (Rs. 325 per 1,000) received under the
new contract for the Tinnevelly shells. The total catch of chank
shells was 435,262 shells as compared with 391,137 in the previous
year, while that of beche-de-mer was 208,610 against 58,927 in
1917-18. During the year all the chank fisheries usually rented
out, were re-leased to the highest tenderer in each case, satisfactory
rates in all instances being obtained, notably so in that of the
Chingleput and Nellore fisheries which are now leased for three

8

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL- XII,

years at the rate of Rs. 1,250 per annum as against Rs. 600 pre-
viously, a most satisfactory advance. The former Tanjore lessee,
however, defaulted in part, in his final year's payments, paying
Rs. 4,100 only against the sum due of Rs. 5,922. The new lease is
for a term of three years at the rate of Rs. 4,466-10-4 per annum.

14. Financial Results. — The year's work has been most successful
and can best be expressed in tabular form as under : —

Expenditure.

Revenue.

Profit.

RS. A.

p.

RS. A.

p.

RS.

A.

p.

I.

Tinnevelly Pearl and
Chank Fisheries.

27,194 13

2

49,944 0

4

22,749

3

2

2.

Ramnad Chank and
Beche-de-mer fish-
eries.

34,651 4

11

76,221 12

7

41,570

7

8

3-

Sivaganga Chank
Fishery.

242 I

0

342 2

8

100

1

8

4-

Tar.jore Chank
Fishery.

4,IOO O

0

4,IOO

0

0

5-

South Arcot Chank
Fishery.

...

1,886 8

7

1,886

8

7

6.

Nellore andChingleput
Chank Fishery.

...

750 0

0

75°

0

0

7-

Ceylon Chank Fishery
Total

4,649 4

1

7,862 1

2

3>212

x3

1

66,737 7

2

1,41,106 9

4

74,369

2

2

Deduct supervision charges
Net profit

• • ■

6,789

1

11

67,580

0

3

In addition to the above receipts the sum of Rs. 14,250 was
received by the sale of the engine of the Lady Nicholson.

The above profit is the largest on record derived from our chank
fisheries and is due in the main to the abnormally high price being
paid under the current contract for the Tinnevelly chanks, which
is Rs. 325 per 1,000 shells as against Rs. 121 per 1,000 for the
preceding three years. The total net profit on the year,
Rs. 67,580-0-3, compares most satisfactorily with that of last year
which was Rs. 39,278-5-9. It would have been considerably
greater had it been possible to enlist a larger labour force at
Tuticorin or had the season been normal in regard to weather.

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-IO. 9

15. The financial aspect of the minor revenue-producing
branches of our marine work is shown as follows : —

Expenditure.

Receipts.

Profit.

RS. A.

P.

RS. A.

p.

RS. A.

p.

Marine Fish-farm

864 12

4

937 9

9

72 13

5

Pulicat Oyster Farm

1,820 15

3

i»93° r3

■y

^

109 14

0

Zoological Supply

363 4

8

1,257 14

6

894 9

10

Marine Aquarium

2,063 l4

6 3,807 11
Total Profit

6

i»743 13

0

2,821 2

3

Except in regard to the first of these, the above profits are
most gratifying, particularly that in respect of Zoological supply
which is more than double the profit of the fourteen months
ending 30th June 1918.

16. Tinnevelly Charik Fishery. — The year's catch of 148,285 is not
up to the average of late years but it compares well with the 126,377
fished in 1917-18. The weather conditions were good in the early
part of the season and a bumper catch was anticipated. Unfortu-
nately in the most productive period, January to April, the weather
was unsettled and this, taken together with a virulent outbreak
of cholera which carried off two of our best divers, was the cause
of the comparatively poor result of the fishery. The number of
crews working regularly was six, the same as the preceding year.
Government in G.O. Mis. No. 1858, dated the 13th May 1918, had
sanctioned an increase in the rate paid for shells of three pies
each, equivalent to an increase of 50 per cent over former rates,
partly to meet the increased cost of living and partly to render
the divers' calling more popular. The poor catches made owing
to unsettled weather largely counterbalanced the advantage given ;
I fear also that the increased rate, in too many cases, tends to
irregularity in working, for when a good catch occurred, it was
often the case that some divers failed to turn out to work the follow-
ing day. The concession given has not been gratefully received by
the majority of the men, whose appetite for more pay and a
consequent increase in ' off-days ' has materially increased of late.
Intemperance and the consequent squandering of earnings are at
the bottom of the trouble ; so far as possible the department
endeavours to counteract these evils by means of the departmental
coffee stall, by personal suasion and the organization of temper-
ance lectures. These have had a good effect upon some of the

1.0 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

younger men, and for this we have to be thankful. Further and
more definite steps in this direction are now under consideration.

17. On account of the poor earnings of the Tuticorin divers in
1918, and the low market rates prevailing in Calcutta this year
(1919) for Ceylon shells, I decided not to send our usual expedition
to fish in Ceylon waters. A further reason was that a local specu-
lator, without experience of the trade, began to recruit our divers
for the same purpose. He made large advances and extravagant
promises of pay far beyond what current rates warrant. With
adverse conditions reported from Ceylon — extremely high food
prices and epidemic diseases — the project has fallen through, at
least temporarily, and the divers, after an attempt to coerce the
department into extravagant concessions, using the high pay
promised to them in Ceylon, as a lever, are now veering round and
agreeing to our terms. This incident, and the unreasonable
attitude of the divers in face of the concessions given and help
rendered to them in the past in many ways, emphasize how
precarious is the present system of exploiting our chank resources,
where the success of our work depends upon the whims and fancies
of ignorant men, easily misled by any specious talker.

For various reasons no outside diving labour, with the exception
of two Arabs, could be recruited. Special attention will be given
next season to this subject, as it is increasingly necessary to
supplement the local labour available from outside sources.

18. Ram nad Chunk Fishery. — Results show a steady progressive
improvement on the preceding two years. The total yield from
the various fishing centres during 1918-19 is shown below in
comparison with 1916-17 and 1917-18, viz. : —

Rameswaram

Kilakarai and South Vedalai..,

Pillaimadam, Jadhi quality ,.

,. Patti „

Tirupalagudi, including Siva-
ganga.

19. The fishery at Rameswaram proceeded unusually smoothly.
None of the usual difficulties of recruitment was experienced;
the Kilakarai merchants were not anxious to take their men to

1916-17.

1917-18.

1918-19.

158,942

192,252

205,305

16,295

17,295

16,326

9,175

22,410

36,561

3,851

6,050

69,809

28,952

22,735

254,221

264,760

286,977

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I918-TO. II

Ceylon this year because of the lowness of the Calcutta market,
except on terms much less favourable than usual to the divers ;
in view of the high prices of foodstuffs in Ceylon, the divers could
not accept any reduction in terms. So an adequate diving force
for our local needs was obtained without difficulty. A number of
the Kilakarai men have abandoned chank fishing this year in
favour of ordinary fishing and others have emigrated to the
Straits ; had these men joined the fishery the catches of shells at
Rameswaram would have been considerably higher. The fishery
was favoured with good weather and lasted for a period of 65 days,
from 27th February to 2nd May, without interruption from any
cause. The diving force numbered 400, manning 43 canoes ; of
these approximately 300 were from Kilakarai and the vicinity.
The total number of undersized shells brought ashore was 27,263,
of which 17,029 were returned alive to the sea. It continues to be
difficult to prevent an undue quantity of these shells being fished,
and this is a matter where tact and firmness in the subordinate
staff are essential.

20. As last year, the steam launch Eider was chartered for the
busy period of the season, from 5th March to 10th April. The cost
amounted to Rs. 4,214-4-7 as against Rs. 3,000 last year. Increase
in the prices of coal and supplies and a rather longer period of
employment, account for the increase. In the latter period of the
fishery when the number of canoes decreased, the launch Leverett
brought from the West Coast for the purpose, took over this work,
and enabled us to dispense with the employment of the Eider,
so effecting a large economy. Without efficient towage, this
fishery cannot be run satisfactorily.

21. From the experience gained during the past four years, it is
clear that 200,000 shells may be taken as the normal annual yield to
be expected from the Rameswaram beds ; if considerably more be
fished, there is likely to be a diminished catch in the following
year and thereby an inducement to the divers to insist on a relaxa-
tion of the minimum size limit in order to make good the deficiency
in full-sized shells. We may therefore base our estimates in future
regularly upon a two-lakh catch at this centre.

22. The North Vedalai or Pillaimadam section continues to
develop most satisfactorily, beds not fished for a number of years
being now given increasing attention by the divers. This is due
directly to the increase given in the rate for the fine quality shells

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

(Jadhi grade) fished here ; this has rendered it remunerative to the
local men to fish the neglected beds situated a greater distance
from Vedalai, and has also, during the past year, induced a number
of Kilakarai men to fish at Vedalai instead of going to Ceylon
towards the close of the Rameswaram fishery. The increase in the
catch of jadhi nndpatti qualities together is 16,350 over 1917-18, viz.,
42,611 as against 26,261, a most notable rise. The Vedalai men at
present are the divers most contented and most regular in work.

The Kilakarai catches were normal, but those at Tirupalagudi
again showed a decrease. The shells fished at the latter place
are the poorest quality of any fished departmentally and at present
are difficult to sell in Bengal, where the adverse economic con-
ditions among the lower classes make the purchase of chank
bangles a luxury that has in many cases to be postponed till
normal conditions return. Hence the weakness of the market for
poor quality shells. I believe there are very large accumulations
of such shells in Ceylon, practically unsaleable. No Valampuri
(sinistral) shells were fished at any centre during the past year.

23. Sivaganga Chank Fishery. — The lease of this fishery having
expired on 30th June IQl8, a new agreement was concluded with
the Sivaganga Estate, whereby the Madras Government lease the
fishery for a term of five years for an annual rental of Rs. 120.
The yield of the fishery was 2,266 shells only, distributed as
follows : —

Karangadu ...

...

• • t • • •

• 79*

Mullimunai

• • • • • ■

• • • • • •

. 609

Pudupattanani

•••

< • • • • *

. 724

Tondi

...

* • a • • •

. 46

Miscellaneous

• t * * • •

• • ■ • • •

96
2,266

The expenses, including rental, amounted to Rs. 242-I-O,
whereas the value of the shells is Rs. 342-2-8, yielding a net profit
of Rs. I00-I-8.

The fishery is a poor one, the beds being very scattered and
difficult to fish as well as poor in yield. Few divers live in the
Sivaganga villages, most of them having abandoned chank fishery
in favour of net-fishing for fish and crabs on account of the poor
yield of the chank fishery. The chief reason for controlling and
working the fishery is to prevent persons using the Sivaganga

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I918-I9 13

villages as bases for illicit operations under cover of fishing the
Sivaganga beds.

24. New Works. — A second set of divers' lines was completed
during the year at Ramesvaram, giving much needed accommoda-
tion to the divers attending our camp. The crews of ten canoes
can be housed in these new lines. The cost was Rs. 1,540. Part of
the original set of lines was also converted into an office and store-
room at a cost of Rs. 418-2-IO, thus enabling us to dispense with
the rented buildings hitherto occupied — a convenience as well as
an economy. A small chank godown costing Rs. 1 50 was erected
at South Vedalai, on the land acquired in the preceding year.

25. Ceylon Fishery. — A fleet of nine canoes manned by sixty-
three divers and ten mundaks was despatched to Ceylon in two
batches during July and August of 1918, to participate in the
Ceylon Fishery. Whereas all the divers in 1917 were recruited at
Tuticorin, in 1918 four crews joined from Ramesvaram. The
results attained were not satisfactory in any way, save that these
men were given employment at a time when remunerative work at
home was practically unobtainable. The total catch was 51,370
full-sized shells and 8,419 under-sized and wormed, confiscated.
Fishing was possible on forty-one days only, the weather being
broken and unsettled, with turbid water for most of the time the
men were away. South-west winds continued much beyond the
normal season and in greater violence than usual. The season was
altogether abnormal and unfavourable. Add to this that influenza
prevailed in the camp during the latter part of the season, incapa-
citating many of the divers just at the time when better weather
began. The poor catches entailed by these untoward conditions,
conjoined with the excessively high price of rice at Jaffna — two
measures only per rupee — made existence difficult for the divers
and entailed grumbling and discontent. The average cost of
provisions was Rs- 9-8-O per month per man, so if his earnings be
calculated at Rs. 15 per month, he had Rs. 5-8-O only to send to
his family in India — a sum manifestly insufficient.

The rate given, Rs. 75 per 1,000 shells, was governed by that
paid by the Kilakarai and Jaffna merchants ; this was Rs. 13-8-0
less than the 1917 rate, in consequence of the depressed state of the
Calcutta market for this class of shell.

The shells brought back remain unsold. They have been
offered for sale twice, but so far^the best offer has been Rs. 105-10-0

14 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

per 1,000, against Rs. 155 obtained last year. It has been decided
to hold the shells till the market recovers.

26. New Chank Contracts. — As the Ramnad chank contract
expired on 30th June 1919, public tenders for the produce of the
fishery for a period of three years from that date were called for.
The offers showed a great falling off compared with those made
three years ago. The highest was that of Mr. Hem Chandra Kar,
who tendered Rs. 215 per 1,000 for Ramesvaram shells, Rs. 161 per
1,000 for Kilakarai quality shells, Rs. 101 per 1,000 for Tirupalagudi
shells and Rs. 101 per 1,000 for the jadhi and patti shells fished off
Pillaimadam and North Vedalai. In view of the depressed condi-
tion of the Calcutta market his tender was accepted. Although
the rates are much less than those of the expiring contract, the
main rate, that of the Ramesvaram quality, compares satisfactorily
with Rs, 140 per 1,000 received in 1915-16 for the same shells.
The lower prices will, it is hoped, go some way to help the
banglemakers in Bengal to meet the difficult situation which now
confronts them, owing to the falling off in demand owing to the
inability of the poorer classes to afford luxuries.

27. The lease of the Tanjore Chank Fishery expired on 28th
February lQIQ, with a debit balance of Rs. 1,822 still owing by the
lessee. Legal proceedings are now being taken to recover the
amount. Tenders for a new term of three years were called for
and the highest bidder, M. K. Periatambi Marakkayar Sahib, has
been awarded the lease ; the rent to be received is Rs. 4,466-10-4
per annum. Considering the state of the market, this rate is a
highly satisfactory one.

The South Arcot Fishery has also had to be re-leased owing to
the default of the former lessee. It has now been rented for
Rupees 1,546-2-6 per annum for a period ending 30th June IQ22, an
increase of Rs. 46-2-6 per annum on the previous rental.

The Chingleput and Nellore fishery which has been held by
M. K. Periatambi Marakkayar Sahib since its revival in IQI4,
was obtained by S. Abdul Qadir Sahib in public competition for a
further period of three years from 1st July IQIQ on an annual rent
of Rs. 1,250, an advance of Rs. 650 per annum on the previous rental.
Such a large increase is most gratifying and is concrete proof of
the value of what, a few years ago, was a neglected asset of
Government. The three leased-out fisheries have now been
brought to a satisfactory state of development.

NO. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I918-I9 15

28. Pearl Bank Inspection. — No detailed inspection was possible,
but the principal banks were visited and tested with the help of
the motor launch Sutherland; no deposits of oyster spat were found
anywhere. A thorough examination of the banks is arranged to
take place next season.

29. Beche-de-mer Fishery. — As a means to keep the chank divers
together by affording them an opportunity to earn money when
chanks are scarce, this industry was continued at Tirupalagudi in
the usual manner of previous years. The quantities fished were
as follows : —

1918-19. 1917-18.

< •*- * , -*■ <

LB. LB.

Large size (Nos. I 13, 145 weighing 675 39,520 weighing 1,710

and II).
Small size (No. III). 195,465 „ 2,844 19,407 „ 431

Total ... 208,610 „ 3,519 58,927 „ 2,141

The bulk of the No. Ill size was obtained in April, May and
June of this year ; all these are immature individuals, under one
year old and should be left on the beds to grow to adult size.
Unfortunately the Fisheries Act of 1897 does not provide for the
protection of any immature marine animals of economic value and
till it be amended, a pressing necessity, we have to stand helpless
and watch the destruction and waste of valuable food materials.
Were these immature beche-de-mer left unfished another year, the
product would increase three-fold in weight and some five-fold in
value. As it is, if we did not allow our divers to fish the immature
some outside merchant would step in and perpetrate much greater
havoc ; we do discourage the fishing of the very smallest and reject
a considerable number in order to emphasize our views. It appears
that conditions have been specially favourable to the propagation
of beche-de-mer during the past year, and the quantities of young
are so great that I trust enough will be left unfished to give a
bumper fishery of adults next year.

30. The same great abundance of young has been found in the
inshore grounds north of Ramesvaram Island, and this abundance,
coinciding with a sharp rise in prices in Singapore and Penang,
induced two Ramesvaram merchants to resume the industry in
April and May 1919. I had originally intended to carry on the

16 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

work departmentally, but as the merchants had certain claims
upon the allegiance of the RamSsvaram divers because of long
outstanding advances, I agreed to forego my plans on receiving a
promise to pay satisfactory rates to the divers and to cure the
material in a proper and cleanly manner. I am glad to report that
this has been done and that they have now over three tons of
excellently cured stuff ready to ship. The prosecution of this
fishery at Ramesvaram has materially assisted the chank fishery,
as it induced many men to continue work much longer than they
would otherwise have done, chanks and beche-de-mer in this
locality existing side by side. It is noteworthy that the beche-de-
mer fished by our divers at Ceylon is notably larger and heavier
than our best, fished in the south-west corner of Palk Bay ; all our
larger Indian material is really No. II grade in regard to size.

Fishing is still proceeding actively and the good catches made
have proved a godsend to the divers of Tirupalagudi ; nearly
Rs. 1,000 has been expended in cash in the village on this item
alone, apart from the much larger sum received for chanks fished
at the same time. As nearly all the material was fished in the
present year, it will not be sent to Singapore for sale till September
when the fishing season will be ended for this year.

31. Krusadai Island Biological Station. — Government sanctioned
in their Order No. 640 W., dated the 17th May 1919, the modified
scheme mentioned in the preceding year's report. According to
this new scheme the old hospital building will be converted into
halting quarters for the Marine Biologist, whilst a modest biological
laboratory and establishment quarters will be erected adjacent, at
a total estimated cost of Rs. 5,790. The revenue from coconuts,
water-supply and the lease of the right to collect cowries and other
shells, chanks excepted, amounted to Rs. 63-6-IO. No material
increase can be expected till after the completion of the station,
when an effort will be made to develop the agricultural resources
of the island.

32. Tnticorin Fish Farm. — The greater part of the works
necessary to transform the Silvathurai lagoon at Tuticorin into
a true fish-farm has been completed, but the sea-mouth remains
to be closed. I do not anticipate the Public Works Department
will be ready to hand the works over before September. In the
meantime ordinary fishing is carried on vigorously. The quantity
of fish caught increased considerably, but the prices obtained

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I918-I9 17

were less remunerative than in the year before ; concurrently the
wages bill increased ; hence the profits were largely decreased.
Comparison with the results of the preceding period reported upon
is misleading as the latter covered a 14 months' term and included
extraordinary miscellaneous receipts of Rs. 276-6-0. If the receipts
from catches alone be compared of the past three years (actual)
we get the following data : —

1916-17. 1917-18. 1918-19.

LB. RS. A. P. LB. RS. A. P. LB. RS. A. P.

Prawns ... 7,306 769 5 o 7,487 737 1 6 7,446 632 11 9

Fish ... 2,262 121 o 9 3.S37 201 12 10 4,623 264 6 9

Crabs 30 o o ... 38 o o ... 39 11 9

Total ... 920 5 9 976 14 4 936 14 3

^Miscellaneous receipts are omitted.)

These figures show remarkable consistency from year to year, and
their average may be accepted therefore as an accurate index of
the revenue to be obtained from a sheet of water of this extent in
the undeveloped condition. The possession of these data will be
of the utmost importance in future when the lagoon is worked as a
cultural proposition ; it will enable us to judge of the utility or
otherwise of rearing sea-fish in confinement. The profit made was
Rs. 72-13-5 on an expenditure of Rs. 864-12-4 for wages and nets.
The line fishermen as usual obtained notable benefit from the
supplies of prawn bait we were able to provide ; a new development
was the taking up of the crab fishery with our own staff. Simple
though this is, we had great difficulty in persuading our men to do
this; crab fishing is the monopoly of two or three low caste men
and ordinary fishermen were averse to attempt it. Eventually traps
were obtained and the staff instructed and somewhat to their
surprise they found the work easy and catches as good as those
made by the professional crabbers. We have now trained half a
dozen men to the work and catches should increase considerably in
the coming year.

33. Pulicat Oyster Park. -Operations were carried on as usual.
Demand increased notably, particularly from the hotels in Madras,
Bangalore and Secunderabad. From 1st July 1918 to 30th June
1919, 404,850 oysters were supplied as against 99,100 for the
corresponding period last year. The steady progress made in
2

18 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

this section of our activities during the past three years is well
brought out in the following tabulations of receipts and expen-
diture : —

1916-17.

1917-18
(14 months).

1918-19.

RS. A. P.

RS. A. P.

R3. A.

P.

Expenditure ...

805 10 0

1,124 5 9

1,820 15

3

Receipts

.. 459 9 6

Loss

843 6 6

Profit

i»93° r3

3

Loss

.. 346 0 6

280 15 3

109 T4

0

Not only has the volume of business increased greatly, but the loss
experienced in both the two preceding years has now been con-
verted into a profit.

The difficulties attendant upon the comparative inaccessibility
of Pulicat continue however to hamper progress greatly, and
sometimes to cause disappointment to consignees. When the
Ennur Fisheries Station be re-established as intended during the
current year, supervision will become more efficient and the
operations will be facilitated in several ways.

34. Zoological Specimen Supply. — This branch of our operations
has been attended with remarkable success during the past year.
A new price-list was prepared and circulated among the prin-
cipal colleges in India, with the result that orders have poured in
steadily and tax our modest resources to the utmost. The following
comparison shows the financial aspect of the work : —

Expenditure. Receipts. Profits.

RS. A. P. RS. A. P. RS. A. P.

1917-18 3°2 " " 735 11 ° 432 15 1

1918-19 363 4 8 1,257 14 6 894 9 10

Considering that the rates charged are much lower than those of the
Plymouth and Naples laboratories, and that we are not seeking to
make large profits, these figures are noteworthy and reflect credit
upon the Sub-assistant in charge of this branch. It has to be
remembered too, that this particular work, like so much else, is
done under very great disabilities. We have not a properly fitted up
marine laboratory anywhere, and this cannot be remedied pending
the erection of the long postponed Marine Stations at Madras and
Krusadai Island (Pamban). The fact remains that we are now able
to supply the Zoological Departments of Indian Colleges and
Universities with the greater part of the specimens they require
for teaching purposes and which formerly they had to obtain at

No, I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-19 19

heavy expense from Europe. As was noticed in last year's report,
the bulk of the orders come from the north of India, where zoolo-
gical teaching appears to be far more vigorous than in the south.
The Benares University sent particularly heavy indents.

35. During the year I drew up a scheme for the reorganization
of school museums in respect of that part of their collections
representative of the fauna of our seas. At present there is no
order or system in these collections ; their educational value is low
and it is rare indeed to find any of the specimens identified and
labelled. To effect a remedy and to place adequate means to teach
4 nature study ' and marine zoology at the disposal of teachers in
secondary schools, I have proposed to the Director of Public
Instruction to provide series of standard zoological collections
arranged systematically. The contents would comprise sets of
typical Indian sponges, corals, and other ccelenterates, sea-urchins,
starfishes, sea-worms, shell-fish, crustaceans and fishes, together
with the minor groups, with special exhibits illustrative of various
outstanding habits and phenomena among marine animals, such as
parasiticism, commensalism, protective colouration, degeneration,
etc., etc. This was welcomed by the Director who proposes to
arrange for the sets to be taken by a large number of schools,
provided handbooks to the collections be written. This condition
I have accepted and as Government have approved of the scheme,
I hope to write these handbooks at an early date.

35. The Madras Aquarium. — Government having been kind
enough to sanction the proposals which I had made to this end
[G.O. No. 387, Home (Education), dated the 27th March 1919], the
Aquarium at Madras was transferred from the charge of the
Superintendent of the Museum to that of the Director of Fisheries
on 1st April 1919. With the help of the Zoological Assistant (Mr.
S. T. Moses), I have been able to effect many improvements which
add greatly to the attractiveness of the exhibits. Sanction has also
been obtained from Government (G.O. No. 790 W., dated the 14th
June 1 919) to instal electric lighting in the building, so that it will
be possible to admit the public in the evenings. The tanks will
be lit from above, an arrangement which will convert each tank
into a fairy-like sea-grotto far prettier than its daylight appearance.
Electric fans are also to be installed in the central hall to moderate
the heat of the day in hot weather. Advantage will be taken of
the installation to fit an electric motor to the air compressor used

20 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

in aerating the tanks- Consequent largely upon the improvements
introduced and the greater variety of fishes exhibited, the attend-
ance returns increased wonderfully during the three months that
'Fisheries ' have had control. The attendance jumped from 21,354
in the months of April, May and June of 1918, to 35,422 for the
corresponding period of the present year; the receipts during
these months in 1918 were only Rs. 762-14-6 as against Rupees
1,540-11-6 for the same period this year. Rupees 21 were also
obtained from the sale of guides as against 13 annas only in 1918.
Still more gratifying perhaps is the fact that, whilst the takings
have not only been doubled, this has been done without increasing
expenditure. Indeed this has been materially reduced, the expend-
iture for the last three months of 1917-18 being Rs. 470-IO-6 as
against Rs. 405-13-7 in the present year.

The statistics for the whole year compared with those for the
preceding year are as follows

1918-19.

1917-18.

Total number of visitors

96,957

93,4oo

RS. A.

p.

RS. A.

P.

Total admission money

•• 3,783 4

6

3»336 2

6

Total expenditure ...

.. 2,063 J4
.. 1,719 6

6
0

2;020 3

8

Profit .

I.3I5 x4

10

An entirely new handbook to the aquarium has been written
by the Director and this will be issued at an early date (G.O. Mis.
No. 1341, dated the I2th July 1919).

37. With the cessation of the war, it has become possible to
revive the project of an enlarged aquarium with laboratories
attached, where zoological research may be prosecuted under
really favourable conditions. A committee is now engaged in
investigating the merits of the possible sites which have been
proposed.

38. Research. — Lack of any adequate facilities for laboratory
work and still more the fact that the post of Marine Biologist has
not yet been filled up, have handicapped this section of work most
woefully. However the Director was able to complete a very
voluminous and important report upon the fishing craft of Indian
seas, a subject which has never received detailed attention until
the present time. The report is now in the press and will be
issued as one of the memoirs of the Royal Asiatic Society of
Bengal. A second, upon East African fishing craft, has appeared

NO. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-19 21

in the London Journal Man. Another memoir upon the relation-
sh,p of Madagascar and East African outrigger fishing craft with
chose of Indonesia has also been completed and will probably be
published in one of the French scientific journals. Much material
for other work of a similar nature has been collected ; the value
of research of this character is important because of the light it
sheds upon the relationships of coast populations in the east.

The anatomy of the chank (Turbinella pinun) has been worked
out in detail by the Zoological Assistant and should shortly be in
a condition for publication. The life-history of a curious shore-
frequenting beetle, Blcdius maindroni, has been investigated by the
Fish-farm Sub-Assistant, who is also collecting extensive details
concerning the life-history and growth of the chief backwater
fishes of important food value.

38-A. Edible Seaweed. — A certain amount of edible seaweed is
found on the Ramnad coast and islands, of the kind sold in
Colombo under the name of ' Kalpentyn moss.' This is used
largely by Muhammadans in making a .gelatinous sweetmeat and
should be equally adapted for refinement into agar-agar, which is
in considerable demand in Europe, especially for bacteriological
purposes. To test the market value of the Ramnad product in the
European market this department collected 500 lb. and arranged
with a firm in Tuticorin to export it to London. The firm have
promised to report the result. The cost of collection was paid for
in full by the exporters.

39. The Department }s Fleet. — The opportunity afforded by the
strengthening of the staff by the appointment of a Marine Assist-
ant whose duties will be entirely executive as apart from research,
has enabled me to have the whole of our little fleet properly over-
hauled. The motor engine of the Lady Nicholson, being found to
develop less speed than is requisite, has been sold for the very
satisfactory price of Rs. 15,000, less 5 percent commission. It
will now become necessary to decide whether it is desirable to
instal a more powerful engine ; estimates are being sought from
several well-known makers. Opportunity was taken at the time
of removing the engine to overhaul the vessel and effect the
necessary repairs. The hull is now in perfect condition.

The motor launches Pearl and Sutherland are now under repairs
and minor alteration. The Leverett performed useful towing
service during the Rameswaram chank fishery and has proved

22 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

most serviceable owing to her high speed and fine towing power.
Her consumption of oil is heavy however and compares unfavour-
ably with that of the semi-Diesel ' Dan ' engines in the Pearl and
Sutherland. The fishing lugger Turbinella is being refitted for
deep-sea fishing experiments to be carried on off Tuticorin and
Negapatam.

40. Experimental Trawling. — The proposals to obtain a sea-going
steam vessel able to carry out experimental trawling off Cape
Comorin, along the Malabar Coast and north of Madras have been
revived and are now under investigation. The Marine Assistant
and I under instruction from Government inspected three steel
trawlers now under construction by Messrs. Burn & Co., Calcutta,
and three composite mine-sweepers built at the Indian Marine Dock-
yard, Kidderpore. None proved suitable, the former being without
sufficient cabin accommodation and the latter with inadequate
deck space for trawl operations.

Inland Piscicultural Section.

41. Soon after assuming charge of the Directorate I arranged
to take over the direct control of this section, Mr. Sundara Raj
reverting to his substantive post of Piscicultural Assistant. In
this, however, he has now much more responsibility than originally ;
he has charge of the whole of the executive work and his duties
include the drafting of the details of new schemes after the main
lines have been decided upon by the Director. Extensive tours
have been made by myself in Kurnool, Nellore and North Arcot,
and by the Piscicultural Assistant and his Sub-Assistant in these
and other districts.

42. Fish-farms and Acclimatization. — We have at present three
piscicultural establishments where fish for the stocking of tanks
and other waters are bred. These are at Sunkesula, Ippur and
the old Powder Factory in Madras. Others at Chingleput, Mopad
and Vellore are contemplated. The fish upon which efforts are
now being concentrated are the Gourami and Etroplus suratensis.
The Gourami (Osphromenus gourami) is an exotic species foreign
to India, but much esteemed in Java where it is bred in large
numbers. It has been introduced with notable success into
the ponds and streams of Mauritius. We have now breeders
obtained both from the latter island and from Java and these
are distributed among the three fish farms at present available.

NO. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I918-IO 23

Complete success has attended our efforts to breed from them at
Sunkesula and the Powder Factory ponds, but at Ippur, where
much larger areas of water are at our disposal, breeding has not
taken place. From the information I gained during my visit to
Java last year, I am inclined to suspect that the Gourami is not
likely to succeed in tanks of large area ; it seems a fish that thrives
best in quite small ponds where there is much vegetable growth
and shelter : it offers analogies to the domesticated animals and
will, I fear, not be a success in India except in ponds of moderate
extent. It is essentially a species that requires personal attention
to secure its well-being ; hence the high hopes which attended its
introduction into Madras are, I fear, likely to be disappointed.
But I may be mistaken in this deduction, and so far the evidence
either way is not sufficient. We shall therefore go on with the
experiments till we make sure of the facts; at Ippur where the
Gourami have not yet bred, though they have been there for over
two years, I am arranging for the ponds to be reduced in size and
for an increase of water plants therein.

43. Etroplus suratensis is the other fish on which our hopes
largely centre. It is indigenous to the waters of the Presidency,
but has a comparatively limited distribution in backwaters and
certain tanks near the coast line. It is found, for instance, in the
Adyar, Fort St. George moat, and the large Kalavoy -tank at
Chingleput. The two former are often highly saline, whereas the
latter is purely fresh water. Yet Etroplus lives and breeds equally
well in all these: this peculiarity is of the highest value obviously
in piscicultural work, particularly as this fish has a good flavour
and attains a fair size in a comparatively short time. It breeds
freely and as it attaches its eggs by preference to the underside
of stones where these are raised free from the pond bottom, it is
easy to construct suitable nesting places for the breeders. By this
device Etroplus has been induced to breed prolifically at Sunkesula
and at Ippur and in the Powder Factory ponds.

44. One of the common Indian mullets, Mugil troscheli, found
abundantly in the tidal waters of our creeks and rivers, has also
been introduced in the fingerling and fry stages in fairly large
numbers to a number of fresh-water tanks with a view to increase
the food value of these waters. The species in question readily
adapts itself to changes in the salinity of its habitat and appears
to acclimatize readily in perfectly fresh water. Whether it will

24 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

breed there is doubtful, but it is only by experiment on a large
scale that this can be settled conclusively. Several thousands of
young have been transported from brackish water to various tanks.
Considerable difficulty was found in conditioning and transporting
them safely, but this has been overcome in great measure by a
series of experiments conducted at the Ippur Fish Farm.

45. Sunkesula Fish Farm. — The routine of this farm, which
consists of rearing quick growing carp and other indigenous fish
for the stocking of the tanks supplied from here, and in the
breeding of Gourami and Etroplus for the same eventual purpose
was carried on as usual. On my inspection, I found that the area
available is altogether insufficient, nearly all of the large ponds
originally provided for, having been allowed to dry up, on account
of the difficulty of supplying them with water. I consider that the
work of the farm cannot be satisfactorily carried on in these
circumstances and I have sketched out certain improvements,
consisting chiefly in the deepening of the abandoned ponds,
which are now under investigation by the Executive Engineer of
Kurnool. Owing to the failure of the monsoon last year, and the
consequent unusual silting of the Tungabhadra river-bed adjacent
to the farm, unprecedented difficulties were experienced last
February and March in obtaining an adequate supply of water,
even for the few small ponds which are now utilized. To guard
against similar occurrences in future, a new well with a long
infiltration gallery, has been sunk near the head sluice of the
Kurnool-Cuddapah canal. Government sanction (G.O. R. No. 149,
Financial, dated 2nd June 1919) was accorded and the well is now
under construction by the Public Works Department at an
estimated cost of Rs. 500. As mentioned before, both Gourami
and Etroplus bred freely here ; 53 young Gourami were transferred
successfully to Ippur while 964 young Etroplus were distributed
to selected tanks in the Ceded districts and to the Kurnool-
Cuddapah canal. Supplies of live fish obtained from the growing
grounds at Edurur and elsewhere were regularly forwarded by the
Farm staff to the supply ponds at Kurnool, and therefrom delivered
to the contractor. The total amount so supplied was 1,743 lb. of
carp and other fish, and 105 lb. of murrel, the whole realizing the
sum of Rs. 208-5-6. The two ponds at Kurnool for storing live
fish pending sale, have been completed and will afford increased
facilities for this useful work of supplying the public market with

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I918-I9 25

live fish during the season when fish caught by the usual methods
are scarce or unobtainable. A most satisfactory feature is that
the contract for 1919-20 has been let at rates nearly double those
paid for fish supplied on last year's agreement ; this indicates
increasing appreciation by the public of this convenience of
getting fish at times when usually none are obtainable. The new
rates are 5 annas per seer for murrel and 4 annas per seer for carp
and other fish.

The Pudur scheme sanctioned in G.O. No. 920, Revenue, dated
28th March 1917, for the construction of ponds to rear young
Gourami bred at Sunkesula, has had to be abandoned. The
investigations of the Executive Engineer, Kurnool, proved that it
is not possible to impound the water necessary except at great cost
(vide G.O. Mis. No. 140, Revenue, dated 27th January 1919).
Certain gullies along the Kurnool-Cuddapah canal are now being
investigated in conjunction with the Executive Engineer, with a
view to turn them into Gourami ponds to take the place of those
which the Pudur scheme was intended to provide.

46. Ippur Farm. — Ninety young Gourami, partly from Sunkesula
and partly from Madras, and 200 Etroplus from Madras, a fish new
to this locality, were placed in the ponds for breeding purposes.
None of the old Gourami have yet bred at Ippur, and it is evident
that unfavourable factors are present. As at Ippur artificial
nesting places for Etroplus have been provided in the shape of
supported stones, and the device has proved successful. Over
30,000 of the mosquito-larvge-destroying fish Haplochilus were
supplied from this farm, which is the chief centre for their
distribution.

The Gudur and Karedu tanks are supplied with mullet
conditioned at this farm. Another aspect of the work done from
this centre was the fishing departmentally of the Puduparthi and
Ippur Kamini tanks ; the produce yielded the satisfactory sum of
Rs. 41-3-6 in place of the nominal sum of Rs. 5 received on an
average in previous years when the fishing was auctioned
publicly.

47. The Powder Factory Ponds at Madras continue to give highly
satisfactory results. Both Gourami and Etroplus breed freely here.
In the absence of suitable feeding grounds near Madras, 37 young
Gourami were transferred to Ippur, together with 200 Etroplus.
In addition ten permanent tanks in the Presidency were stocked

3

26 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

with young Etroplus from these ponds. A number of thick shelled
river-mussels of a large species from Dacca ( Lamellidens daccaensis),
obtained through the courtesy of Dr. B. Prasad, Acting Director of
Fisheries, Bengal, have been stocked on one of the ponds, with a
view to introduce them into this Presidency, where no species
exists having a shell thick enough for button-making.

48. Anti-malarial Operations. — These form a considerable and
valuable part of our work and consist of three separate phases,
viz. : —

(a) The breeding and distribution of mosquito larvicidal fishes
to municipalities and other public bodies.

(&) The periodical stocking of pools in specially malarious
localities with such larvicides.

(c) The conversion of mosquito-infested sheets of water into
fish-breeding ponds which also serve the purpose of fish-distribu-
tion centres for the stocking of irrigation tanks with young fish.

49. Regarding the first of these, I regret to record that in spite of
the earnest recommendation of Government, municipalities and other
local authorities do not as yet avail themselves at all adequately
of the facilities for obtaining a good strain of larvicides from
this department. They appear either careless in the matter or
depend upon local supplies of what too often are species of very
inferior larvicidal quality. Only some 30,000 of these fishes were
in consequence distributed, a number totally disproportionate to
the needs of the province in this respect. The Sanitary Inspector of
the Madura Municipality was given a course of training in these
operations and advice and instructions were given in numerous
other cases, both to local officers and to private individuals.

50. In the second category are the Cuddapah and Nallamalai
schemes. With regard to the former, operations have not yet been
possible as the jungle road from Pallamadugu to Paddagadi is still
under construction. As to the Nallamalai work, the bungalow
sanctioned in G.O. No. 391, Revenue, dated the 10th February 1917'
has at last been completed. The Collector's advice and approval
have been obtained regarding the construction of additional
ponds near Mahanandi for which proposals will be submitted to
Government shortly.

51. Chingleput and Vellore Moat Schemes. — The schemes in this
category comprise at present proposals for the conversion of the
moats around the Chingleput and Vellore forts into fish farms to

No. I (IQ20) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, I918-I9 27

provide breeding and rearing ponds for suitable fish, particularly
Gourami and Etroplus, for the stocking of a large group of tanks
within a considerable radius of each of these new farms. These
moats at present form stagnant pools, largely overgrown with dense
pond vegetation, supremely suitable as harbourage to mosquito
larvas. As a consequence malaria is endemic within both forts, an
extremely serious condition seeing that a large reformatory for boys
is located within the Chingleput fort, while the Police Training
School is similarly situated within that of Vellore. When I visited
the latter in April, I found parts of the moat so overgrown with
water-lilies that the collection of their leaves for use as food
platters was rented out ; other portions, even where the water is
deep, are even more densely choked with enormous masses of
Water-Hyacinth, here well deserving its name of the ' lilac-devil' ;
mosquito larvee live here in myriads and are the main cause of the
malignant malaria that scourges the residents within the fort. The
present position is that a revised and final estimate for the Chingle-
put works, amounting to Rs. 11,450, is now before Government,
awaiting sanction, while in regard to Vellore, Government have
given general approval (G.O. No. 3592, Revenue, dated 4th Novem-
ber 1918) to the proposals submitted for a combined anti-malarial
and piscicultural scheme. The moat has been inspected and
estimates have just been received from the Executive Engineer;
the scheme will cost approximately Rs. 16,000.

52. Departmental Tank Fishing. — Plans for improvements in the
methods employed by the local fishermen on the banks of the
Kanigiri-Duvvur reservoir have been perfected and have received
the sanction of Government [G.O. No. 1087, Revenue (Special),
dated 29th May 1919]. This reservoir is one of the largest irriga-
tion tanks in the Presidency and holds a permanent supply of
water. Owing to their primitive methods and implements the local
fishermen are unable to fish it except in abnormal years of drought.
The result has been that the average fishery rental brought in a
very small amount, out of all proportion to the intrinsic value of the
fish content of the tank. The scheme sanctioned provides for
the continuous fishing of the tank departmentally ; the local
professional fishermen (numbering 24), as opposed to those who
occasionally fish, but whose occupational calling is not fishing, will
be taken into the department's service, and new methods of
fishing will be taught to them. A sum of Rs. 8,740 is sanctioned
4

28 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

for the provision of the necessary buildings which will include a
model fish market, with boats, nets, and other apparatus, and
Rs. 6,000 as annual running charges, over a trial period of three
years. We have already accumulated a considerable amount of
information respecting methods for fishing deep water tanks from
experiments made during the last two years at Chembarambakkam
tank. From these it appears that drag-nets and seines are of most
value where the water is sufficiently clear of weeds for their use, and
the bottom free from boulders ; in the deep central portion, gill nets
give good results when their mesh is suitable for the size of fish
most abundant. This work is of great economic value in the
development of our inland fisheries, for the customary plan of
postponing the fishing of tanks till they are on the eve of drying
up is most wasteful, resulting on the one hand in a dearth of fish
for sale so long as there is plenty of water present, and on the other
of throwing an excessive quantity on the market during several
successive days in one single month in each year. We desire to
regulate this and to spread the catch fairly evenly through a period
of at least several months' duration.

53. Mopad Scheme. — A somewhat similar scheme has been
evolved for the fishing of the great irrigation reservoir at Mopad,
Nellore district, now on the point of completion. This great sheet
of water, formed by clamming the river Manneru, will impound a
large body of permanent water. It is proposed to introduce into it
good varieties of food fishes, with a view in later years to stock an
extensive series of other tanks in the district with the fry obtained
from the introduced fish, and also regularly to net a proportion of
the larger fish for sale in neighbouring towns and villages.
Detailed plans and estimates have been submitted to Government
for sanction.

54. Acquisition and Stocking of Tanks. — As part of the routine work
of the department, a large number of acquired tanks in the districts
of Kurnool, Bellary, Anantapur, Salem, Chingleput, Chittoor,
Nellore and North Arcot are stocked annually from our existing
fish farms, as also is the Kurnool-Cuddapah canal. As a conse-
quence, the rentals received have increased considerably since the
date the tanks were taken over, and this forms our most important
asset and source of profit in inland operations. As shown in
statement No. IV the rentals received from these artificially stocked
waters exceed by Rs. 7,889-14-4 the amount of compensation

NO. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-19 29

payable by the department to the District Boards. In addition a
profit of Rs. 23,425-13-0 was made last year upon the rentals
of the Cauvery-Coleroon river system, after making full allowance
for compensation. This amount of profit shows the satisfactory
increase of Rs. 1,534-13-0 upon the 1917-18 figures. The total
profit on this part of our work for 1918-19 amounts to the handsome
sum of Rs. 31,315-11-4 as against Rs. 23,691 in the preceding year.
I am desirous that this phase of our operations shall include the
whole available tanks of a suitable nature in the Presidency at as
early a date as possible. The Piscicultural Assistant is being
given all the opportunity possible to press on with his survey of
tanks in the different districts ; I have also decided to have the
work done systematically, district by district, rather than to pick
out specially favourable tanks here and there as was the system
previously. Accordingly effort during the past six months has
been concentrated upon the Nellore and Chingleput districts, with
the result that a complete scheme covering all the good tanks at
present available in this area has been sent in to Government for
sanction. I propose next to take Ganjam district as the tanks there
are specially numerous as well as eminently suited to our purpose.

55. Fish Hatcheries. — The trout hatchery at Avalanche has, for
the present, been transferred to the control of the Collector of The
Nilgiris; this head will in future disappear from this report.

At the Hilsa hatchery at the Lower Anicut, no operations were
possible last year owing to the failure of floods in the Cauvery due
to the weakness of the south-west monsoon. Great numbers of
ripe hilsa accumulated in the estuaries unable to ascend the rivers ;
these fell an easy prey to the local fishermen and hilsa roes were
particularly abundant in the fish-curing yards on the Tanjore coast,
Muthupet in particular. This year floods arrived early and ripe
hilsa were found at the Lower Anicut as early as 25th July (1919).

56. Fishery Regulation and Conservancy. — The customary notifica-
tion under section 6 (4) of the Fisheries Act of 1897 was a prohibi-
tory order against all fishing in waters to which it was not applied,
and, as this was not considered satisfactory, a modification is now
made to permit fishing by lessees [G.O. No. 567, Revenue (Special),
dated 27th March 1919I under which modified order, the fisheries
of the Cauvery-Coleroon were notified for the first time under
section 6 of the Act named above ; this will in future enable the
prosecution of poachers to be instituted and will, it is hoped, result

4-a

30 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

in increased fishery rentals being offered, as the lessees will benefit
materially from the protection offered. On the representation of
the Forest Department, a section of the Yelleru river, called Kulla-
thiri, was inspected and as it was found to be an important
breeding ground, Government have agreed to conserve the fishery
under the usual section of the Fishery Act [vide G.O. No. 519,
Revenue (Special), dated 22nd March 1919.]

57. Deputation to Hyderabad. — The Piscicultural Assistant in-
spected the Oosman Sagar tank, Hyderabad, at the instance of His
Exalted Highness The Nizam's Government and a detailed report
was submitted by him, with recommendations as to the measures to
be taken to render its piscicultural value greater.

58. General. — A considerable amount of data is being accumu-
lated concerning the distribution of fresh-water fishes and water
plants ; in the latter work we are benefiting b}' the valued assist-
ance of Prof. Fyson who is kindly identifying the specimens
submitted to him. Experiments are also in progress to determine
the relative values of different kinds of artificial fish food, such as
groundnut and gingelly oilcake (poonac), etc., the best species of
mullet to use for introduction into fresh-water tanks and the best
methods to employ in conditioning and transporting them. Due
to the success of these latter experiments some of the Nellore and
Chingleput tanks were stocked for the first time with mullets.
Experiments in mussel culture have also been initiated at Sunkesula
and Madras.

59. In concluding the survey of the department's activities in
this section I cannot close without expressing my satisfaction with
the good and earnest work put in by the Piscicultural Assistant,
Mr. Sundara Raj, who has performed his duties most intelligently
and energetically. The staff generally have also worked well and
deserve commendation, but I regret to say that in nearly all cases
their qualifications, so faras the executive section is concerned, are
not adequate to requirements. This renders the burden of the
Piscicultural Assistant so much the harder and this unsatisfactory
state of affairs cannot be remedied till we have a technical institute
for the training of the executive staff.

60. The usual statements and statistics are appended.

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-iq 31

ANNEXURE No. I.

Report by the Honorary Superintendent upon the West
Coast Experimental Station for the year 19 18-19.
In November 1918 Mr. J. Hornell was appointed Director of Fisheries,
the Honorary Director, with the name of Honorary Superintendent, retaining
only the work of the West Coast which then included —

(1) the experimental cannery at Chaliyam (Beypore) ;

(2) the experimental fish-curing at Tanur ;

(3) co-operation ;

(4) education and other socio-economic work ;

(5) fish oil and guano operations, including the supply offish oil to
the Munitions Board ;

(6) fish-curing yards.

2. The Experimental Cannery. — This worked as usual but was sadly
hampered both by the war conditions and by the poor supply of fish.
Owing to the war, developments, e.g., in the purchase of plant for improve-
ments were impossible; the stock of tin plate having been exhausted this
essential had to be locally purchased at prices three times higher than in
1914 and even 1915, and for plate of greatly inferior size, weight and quality
insomuch that the solderless plant could not be utilized for such plate.
Solder went to about double the pre-war price, and proper packing oils were
almost unobtainable, olive oil in quantity being out of the market, cotton-
seed oil unprocurable, and superior ground-nut oil only available at nearly
treble the normal prices. Fortunately a priority certificate for tin plate was
obtained early in the year 1918, and the tin plate was delivered in the
autumn which so far relieved the situation ; the delivered price of this
supply was about double that of -the 1915 parcel. Notwithstanding these
extraordinary items of cost, the sale price of goods was not raised above
that of 1917-18.

3. As regards fish difficulties, the sardines were very abundant but
generally of miserable canning quality, the size being so small for the greater
part of the season that fish were packed at perhaps 36 to the tin instead of
11 or 12. These immature fish gave poor results in canning, being lean
and comparatively bony ; so much so that for some time I stopped canning
them, though abundant.

4. Again, mackerel were comparatively absent from that part of the
coast (South Malabar) and only 9,716 cans could be packed notwithstanding
all exertions, and the end of the year has left us with almost a nil balance

32 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

of this favourite article. Prawns also were singularly absent, so that only
2,030 cans of whole prawns were packed and were entirely disposed of.

5. Notwithstanding difficulties, we packed 80,267 cans of all sorts
during the year plus the opening balance, and sold 62,095 ; the closing
balance on 30th June 1919 was 37,683 valued (cost price) at Rs. 9,683.

6. The expenditure during the year, was Rs. 34,285 including Rs. 5,644
on capital account and Rs. 28,641 running charges. The capital charges
include Rs. 3,852 for building decent quarters for the staff; Chaliyam
being only a small village, largely fishing, the staff had nowhere to live, and
were not only gravely uncomfortable but were exposed to serious risks of
disease. On part of the land obtained from the Forest Department (G.O.
No. 1 1 8, Revenue, dated 8th January 1918) comfortable lines close to the
cannery and away from the village have now been built.

7. The running charges were not only swollen, as stated above, by war-
time prices, but include the cost of 15 tons of the high priced tin plate
from England, much of which (135 boxes value Rs. 7,918, equal to about
one year's consumption) remains in stock and is therefore available,
without further expenditure, for 1919-20; also solder worth Rs. 1,485 and
labels sufficient for about a year, are in hand.

8. The cash returns paid to the treasury were Rs. 27,641, or Rs. 6,644
short of drawings. This shortage is explained by the capital expenditure
and by the heavy cost of the large parcels of English tin plate, solder, etc.,
mentioned above and largely still on hand ; there are also additional assets
of Rs. 1,853 as good debts for goods sold, and Rs. 12,773 being value of
other goods and stores on hand, mostly the balance canned goods (Rs. 9,683
valued at cost price) from the year's work.

9. The gross profit on the year's work was Rs. 8,464-14-1 as per trad-
ing account. Deducting Rs. 4,110-0-6 on account of overhead charges
(proportion of the Honorary Superintendent's travelling allowance, pay of
all permanent staff — sub-assistant, mechanic, maistris, and office) and
depreciation, etc, on buildings and plant, the net profits are Rs. 4,354-13-7.
These figures are subject to super-audit. The profits are smaller in amount
than in 191 7-1 8 partly owing to the enhanced cost of material, partly to
the year being the usual twelve months year instead of fifteen months as in
1917-18.

10. Little work could be done in experiments other than those of can-
ning operations, owing to war conditions and the consequent impossibility
of obtaining plant, metals, etc. An experiment in canning sardines rather
more salted than usual in large tins in oil, so that a shopman could open
such tin (kerosene or smaller) and sell canned sardines by the pound, etc.,

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, IOT8-19 33

was tried with success ; cans thus packed and processed were subsequently
opened and left open for many days without tainting , it is therefore now
possible to give consumers in towns the benefit of tasty canned fish at very
low rates. The experiment will now be continued and attempted with
other sorts of fish.

11. The vacuum drier was run successfully in so far as thoroughly
drying — over-drying — the fish, but it requires long and patient experiment
to obtain results which will warrant larger ventures. I continue to believe
in its possibilities as a rapid means of drying fish at minimum temperatures
and with the loss of moisture only. This must be left for my successor.

The refrigerator was practically not in use.

12. The solar oven was worked as usual, the maximum temperature
obtained being as high as 3250 F. It continued to bake our lacquered
cans,

13. Tanur Experimental Yard. — Very little needs special record about
this yard, where the unfortunate conditions as to fish mentioned in para-
graph 2 supra, also obtained ; sardines were abundant but very small
mackerel and prawns very scarce, though the prawns, as usual at Tanur,
have recently been fairly abundant. Only about 90,269 lb. of fish were
obtained for curing, costing Rs. 2,369 : those were cured and sold for
Rs. 3,878. For oil and guano operations 237,411 lb, or about 106 tons
were obtained at a cost of Rs. 613 (slightly below Rs. 8 per ton) the
produce of which in oil and guano was Rs. 2,173, which after deducting the
cost of fuel, labour, wear and tear, left a fair profit ; this would have been
far greater had the fish been larger and more oily. The guano was sold at
just Rs. 81 per ton, viz., 2 if tons for Rs. 1,765, the weight of guano to raw
fish being just above the normal 20 per cent. The leanness of the fish may
be gauged partly from this last fact (for rich, oily fish usually give slightly
less than 20 per cent dry guano), and more precisely from the product in
oil which did not much exceed 4 tons on 106 tons of raw fish or 4 per cent •
double this rate is about normal, on a year's working.

14. A pair of twin refrigerating tanks was constructed at the yard in
view to experimenting in the sharp freezing and in the chilling of cheap fish
such as sardines. For various reasons, including difficulties about ice, the
experiment has had to stand over to the current year.

15. The experimental work done in this yard should bear fruit in the
application of the results to the ordinary fish-curing yard of which six were
experimentally taken over from the Salt Department by Fisheries on 1st
June.

34 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

1 6. During the year a great quantity of oil was supplied for the
Munitions Board, mainly by purchase : the Tanur mechanic, M. P. Krishnan,
was largely employed as an oil and guano expert on this business under the
Assistant Director's supervision.

17. The Tanur accounts show a profit this year of Rs. 2,163. This
takes into account profits of Rs. 2,736 on account of purchase of oil for the
Munitions Board, etc., partly by the Tanur Staff. But this latter is not
strictly a profit obtained by the ordinary operations of the yard. Deducting
this sum the Tanur yard will show a small net loss of Rs. 573. The loss
would have been converted into a profit had there been larger purchases
and sales especially of oil and guano, but as stated in paragraph 15 the
results are not directly pecuniary but in improvements in general fish-curing,
etc., in the future. •

18. Co-operation. — This in its details was carried on entirely by the
Assistant Director. At the beginning of the year there were ten co-operative
societies, based on thrift, of which nine were on the West Coast and one
on the east : they had about 900 members and Rs. 10,400 as own capital'.
During 1918-19 no less than 32 new societies, of which 29 were on the
West Coast, were organized ; of these 26 were registered and got to work ;
two of these were societies for the production and sale of cured fish, fish
oil and guano. All of these except two were directly organized by the
Fisheries Department. The newness of these numerous societies has, of
course, brought down the average of members and capital which recently
stood at about 1,900 members; it is noteworthy that 256 of these were
females, the women of the fisherfolk being co-workers with the men in
industry and especially in curing and selling. The ' own ' (actually paid
up) capital was Rs. 25,388, and loans had been given for over Rs. 40,511,
of which 8,736 were paying off usurious debt. Deposits were small since
the members have subscribed their own cash, but Rs. 4,714 had been
borrowed from central banks.

19. Owing to very serious outbreaks along the coast of cholera, small-
pox, and influenza, this work was seriously hampered and several even of
the older societies temporarily ceased active business ; otherwise more would
have been done. Nevertheless the proportion of societies to the fisher
population is about 1 in 5,300.

20. It is to these societies that we look for the general development in
status, independence, and intelligence of the fisherfolk and for their financial
regeneration ; it is only among an awakened population that we can hope
to introduce the fishery developments on which work has begun in Tanur
and elsewhere, and to enable them to take their place as free fishermen.

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-19 35

21. Part of the year was spent in inculcating the advisability of
co-operation in the sale offish oil and guano. There have been and will
increasingly be demands for large parcels of oil by arsenals, jute mills, etc.,
and if the isolated producers — isolated in fact though there may be a dozen
in a village — combine as members of a co-operative society, it follows that,
commanding large parcels, the society can sell to advantage direct to large
consumers and thus evade the middlemen or if they sell through or to a
middleman, can fix and obtain equitable prices. Moreover since arsenals
and factories, etc., often require high class oil, it will pay the members of a
society to manufacture such oil and obtain the consequent better prices.
On the other hand the consumer obtains large parcels of even quality in
one transaction, and, avoiding the middleman, can give or obtain better
terms. With guano it is the same ; if societies bulk their products and
have them tested, planters, associations, etc., can deal direct for large
parcels andean demand a guarantee of quality; this will make for better
goods and check adulteration.

22. Two such societies have begun to work on these lines under
inducement from this department, such inducement being backed by con-
siderable purchases by the department for the Munitions Board, arsenals,
several large planters, etc. It is hoped to see this business developed
during the current year.

23. The Thalayi (near Tellicherry) co-operative curing-yard for which
Government have granted direct raid, only began work in May at the very
end of the season : even now it is not completed.

24. Education. — This was a notable year in this matter. In the

marginally-noted Government Orders
G.Os. No 16, Home (Education), dated .g recorded the higtory of &nd prQ_

3rd January 1917, Nos. 20*8-49, dated , c .. , j • j r

, ,,. oxr j.i/cl posals for the scheme devised for

27th May 1918, No. 400, dated 6th r

March 1919, and No. 1185, dated 17th ordinary fisherfolk education, that
June 1919. is f°r education other than the

special technical and scientific educa-
tion of an advanced Fishery Institute. The Director of Public Instruction
approved of the scheme which was sanctioned by Government ; a Training
Institute for the special schoolmasters, who under the scheme have varied
duties to perform, has been also sanctioned, a Headmaster appointed and
work begun, in a preliminary way, on the 14th July 1919. Several primary
schools already started by private agencies in certain villages have been
taken over, and inquiries made regarding trial schools in several other
villages. The history of fisherfolk education, village or otherwise, is in
the future.

36 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

25. Temperance and Social Matters. — Progress was made in assisting
temperance movements among the fisher population. The Gnanodaya
Samaj of Mangalore, a society which owes its origin and development
to the devoted efforts of Mr. B. M. Thingalaya and which has branches in
several villages, built an excellent hall — to which Government contributed —
and this was opened in February last in the presence of several Fisheries
officers. This hall is the first example of those desiderated for every fishing
village of any size, to serve as school, as co-operative, temperance, and caste
meeting room, as a hall for lectures and general social meetings, and
recreation, and as a standing reminder of the need for progress. The
influence of the meeting was considerable and has already borne fruit in
several other villages, not merely in inciting persons to the cause of
temperance, but in the beginning of arrangements (by the practical method
of subscribing funds) for the building of similar, if smaller, halls for similar
purposes. There is a distinct tendency towards a strong temperance
movement on the West Coast, but on the East Coast there seem to be
difficulties ; the Assistant Director examined, for co-operative purposes,
three hamlets near Cuddalore, but found a toddy shop in each where the
fishermen only too readily spend the proceeds of their catches. I remember
the same eleswhere. But with the hoped for advent of a strong movement
fostered by the Fisheries Department towards schools and co-operation and
it may be hoped, of men like Mr. Thingalaya and his friends, the cause
should develop.

26. An interesting suggestion was made during the year by the Hon'ble
Mr. Todhunter who inquired whether Fisheries could help the temperance
movement by inducing or starting substitutes for the liquor shops. In
many villages, probably in most on the West Coast, there are existing
substitutes in the numerous tea-shops ; moreover at Tanur, etc., peculiar
non-alcoholic drinks of a spicy character are sold on the beach to the men,
so many of whom are Mappillas and therefore teetotalers. This matter
however is a very large one and has always been borne in mind ; for years
it has been suggested that the intended village halls will provide exactly the
centres where many of the amenities of civilization such as music, lantern
shows, etc., will be possible as mentioned in paragraph 25 above : these
halls will take the place of liquor shops as places of friendly and social
meetings as well as being places of business and education, and we may yet
see, and not long hence, what has been discredited with a laugh, viz., the
resort of humble fishermen not to the toddy shop but to their own recreation
room or club.

27. Oil and Guano Operations. — These important matters progressed and
retrogressed during the year. They progressed in the number of private

No. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-19 37

factories opened which reached the number of 358, and in the beginnings
of co-operation applied to business (see 'paragraph 18 supra) but they
retrogressed in that many factories were so badly and insanitarily conducted
as to draw to them the adverse attention of the authorities ; moreover some
of the smaller factories deliberately added sand to the guano, thus tending
to spoil the market. The Fisheries Department accordingly consulted with
the authorities and a set of rules for the licensing, proper working, and due
inspection of the factories is being drawn up for use during the current
season.

28. On the whole the season was good in South Kanara and poor in
Malabar, owing to the extreme smallness and leanness of the fish as mentioned
s.v. Tanur supra.

29. Considerable business was done in buying fish-oil for the Munitions
Board and guano for planters, etc., see paragraph 16 supra. Altogether
32,897 gallons of fish-oil were so bought for Rs. 15,865, besides which a
quantity of very superior oil was made to meet a demand for such oil by
the Munitions Factory at Dum Dum and the Harness Factory at Cawnpore.
Under the guidance of this department twelve private factories began to
make this high class oil for which double the ordinary price is obtainable
and which is technically desirable.

30. Fish-curing Yards. — Under G.O. No. 752, dated 10th September
1 91 7, six of the ordinary fish-curing yards under the Salt Department were
taken over from 1st June 1919 in view to introduce gradually improved
methods of curing, to be followed if successful, by assuming charge of other
such yards : the experiment has only just begun.

31. Applications for opening new yards were received from seven villages
distant from existing yards and were recommended for the sanction of the
Board ; three have already been sanctioned. Two of these new yards will
be worked on co-operative principles as at Thalayi on a share capital of
Rs. 1,500 in each case of which the bulk has already been paid : this is a
totally new and very encouraging departure.

32. The result of the fishing with machwas (Ratnagiri pattern boats)
was practically a failure, owing largely to a very unfavourable season for
the working of such boats. The boat manned solely by a Ratnagiri crew
only caught 5,580 lb. valued at Rs. 444, and that manned by a local crew
only 4,093 lb. valued at Rs. 286. Fishing days were only 82 and 88 days
respectively. The experiment requires recasting : the results are extremely
short as compared with those recorded in my Cannanore reports ; see
Bulletin X, pages 12 and 32-33.

38

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

33. An interesting fact was the deputation of Mr. Christie, I.C.S.,
Commissioner of Tenasserim, by the Burma Government, to inspect fishery
work in this and other Presidencies : it is hoped that his report will be very
useful in developing the fishing industry in Burma. Portuguese officers
from Goa also visited the West Coast works (Cannery and Tanur) and a
Bombay officer was also deputed for similar purposes. Great developments
should be in store for the West Coast fishery industries in the near future
under new auspices.

ENCLOSURES.

Statement 1. — Summary of expenditure and receipts of the
Fishery Department, 191 8-19.

Number.

Particulars.

Expenditure.

Receipts.

Differer

RS.

— 56,028
+ 74,722
+ 20,573
+ 6,579

— 2,367

— I.451

ice.

I

11

III

IV

IV.B

V

Supervision and research.
Marine fisheries ...
Inland fisheries
Factories ...
Vessels ... ... ... {

Capital expenditure

Total ...

RS. A. P.

56,302 5 1

73.196 15 7

56,724 8 10

39,044 14 11

8,398 1 8

1,451 14 10

RS. A. P.

273 6 0
1,47,919 1 10

77,297 14 3

45,624 2 4

6,030 8 6

A. P.

15 1

2 3
5 5

3 5
9 2

14 10

2,35,118 12 11

2,77,145 0 11

+ 42,026

4 0

Statement III. — Profit and loss account of Chunk and Beche-de-mer
fisheries for the season, 19 18-19.

Expenditure.

Amount

Receipts.

Amount

.

RS.

A.

p.

RS.

A.

p.

Chank Fisheries —

Value of chanks fished —

Tinnevelly

10,761

I

8

Tinnevelly

48,540

14

2

Ramnad ...

29,701

0

2

Ramnad

74.671

5

2

Sivaganga

242

I

0

Sivaganga

342

2

8

Ceylon ...

4,649

4

1

Ceylon ...

7,862

1

2

Beche-de-mer fishery

950

4

9

Value of Beche-de-mer

1,550

7

5

Sixth year's proportion

4,000

0

0

fished.

of the total considera-

Chanks rentals received —

tion paid in 1913-14

Tanjore district

4,100

0

0

for a fifteen years' lease

South Arcot district

1,886

8

7

of the Ramnad Chank

Chingleput and Nellore

75°

0

0

Fishery.

districts.

Supervision charges

6,789

I

II

Balance being net profit.

82,610
1,39,703

9
7

7
2

Total ..."

Total ...

1,39,703

7

2

NO. I (1920)

ADMINISTRATION REPORT, IQT8-T9

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ment VI).

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Sunkesula
fish farm.

c) Receipts from

lppur farm.

d) Receipts by

sale of larvi-
cidal fish.

e) Receipts from

Gunpowder
factory

ponds.

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eceipts from
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eceipts from
Marine fish-
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40

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

Statement IV. — List of tanks and canals stocked by the Fisheries

Department ivith the compensation paid and rentals realized

for the year 1 918-19.

Number and name.

1. Cauvery and Coleroon

2. Kurnool-Cuddapah canal ...

3. Belegal and Badaikhan tanks

4. Markapur tank

5. Venkatapuram tank

6. Kocheruvu

7. Siddapuram

8. Kamalapuram tank

9. Uaroji tank

10. Singanamalla tank

11. Gudur and Karedu tanks

12. Ippur Kamini and Puduparti

tanks.

13. Chembarambakkam and Maduran-

takam tanks.

14. Dusi Mamandur and Kaveripakkam

tanks.

15. Barur and three connected tanks ...

16. Penukontapuram tank

17. Rangasamudram ...

18. Tippasamudram

19. Tsadam

20. K. Vyasasamudram

21. Peddinayudu tank ...

Compensat

ion

paid.

Rentals realized.

RS.

A.

P.

RS.

A.

p.

34,898

0

0

58,323

13

0

2,553

14

0

2,229

8

0

16

O

0

175

0

0

95

0

0

90

0

0

...

II

0

0

• t •

IO

8

0

500

0

0

I,IOO

0

0

155

c

0

555

0

0

117

0

0

. . .

185

0

0

297

0

0

5

0

0

58

12

0

2,195

0

0

6,o57

5

8

3,789

0

0

6,511

10

8

120

0

0

256

0

0

118

0

0

153

0

0

11

0

0

200

0 '

211

0

0

0

11

0

0

1

J

201

0

0

44,946

14

0

76,262

9

4

NO. I (1920) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1918-19 41

Order— No. 1755, Revenue (Special), dated 15th
September 1919.

Recorded.

2. The Department has been reorganized in the course of the
year under review. Sir Frederick Nicholson, whose foresight and
enthusiasm were mainly responsible for the initiation of the
Department and its rapid progress through the early stage of
development, handed over the office of Director to Mr. Hornell but
continues in charge of the West Coast section. The post of
Marine Biologist sanctioned in the reorganization remained vacant
as it has hitherto been impossible to secure the services of a man
of suitable qualifications and the requisite practical experience.
Mr. J. H. Allan has been appointed to succeed Mr. Hornell in the
immediate control of the marine operations at Tuticorin.

3. Among the important features in the year's work, the prin-
cipal new developments were the transfer to the department of a
number of fish-curing yards on the West Coast from the Salt and
Abkari Department to be run on model lines, the reorganization of
the Aquarium the control over which was recently transferred to
the Department of Fisheries and the initiation of a special scheme
for the education of the fisher children and the training of their
teachers.

4. Marine Fisheries. — In spite of unfavourable weather and
difficulties in enlisting labour especially in Tinnevelly, receipts
under this head show a substantial increase which was mainly due
to the increased prices of the shells and especially to the high
prices paid under the current contract for the Tinnevelly chanks.
The net profit in the year amounted to Rs. 67,580, which is the
highest yet on the record. The Government will be prepared to
move the Government of India for the amendment of the Indian
Fisheries Act in order to prevent the destruction of immature
marine animals of economic value if the Director can convince the
Government that legislative action would be effective and that the
importance of the beche-de-mer industry justifies such a course.
The Government note with satisfaction the very useful work done
in the matter of the supply of zoological specimens required by
Indian colleges and universities and they are watching with interest
Mr. Hornell's scheme for the reorganization of school museums in
respect of collections illustrative of the fauna of the sea.

42 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

5. Inland Fisheries. — The Government attach considerable
importance to the anti-malarial operations of the Fisheries Depart-
ment and they hope that municipalities and other public bodies
will in the course of time learn to recognize more generally the
advantage of obtaining a good strain of larvicides from the
department for introduction in malarial localities. The plans and
estimates submitted by the Director for the conversion of the
mosquito-infested moat around the Chingleput Fort into a fish farm
are now under the scrutiny of the Chief Engineer to Government
and orders will issue shortly. The proposals for the acquisition
and stocking of tanks in the Chingleput and Nellore districts have
been referred to the Collectors of the districts concerned. The
Director is requested to expedite detailed plans and estimates in
respect of the Vellore moat scheme.

With reference to paragraph 54 of the report, the Government
doubt whether the increased rentals derived from the fisheries of
waters recently taken under the control of the Department can
safely be taken as a proof of the immediate effectiveness of
stocking operations. There can be little doubt that the general
increase in the prices of foodstuffs must have contributed consider-
ably to the rise in the fishery rentals; and while the Government
have little doubt that these operations will in time result in a large
profit both to the local community and to the State, they do not
anticipate that the advantages of scientific working will be fully
felt for some years to come.

6. West Coast Section. — The Government note with satisfaction
the progress made in the formation of co-operative societies for
fishermen during the year, and in assisting temperance movements
and other socio-economic work among the fisher population. The
Director is requested to expedite the submission of the trading
accounts of the cannery and other industrial branches of work in
the West Coast Section.

(True extract)

(Signed) S. WADSWORTH,

Under Secretary to Government.

Report No. 2 (J 920).

THE

OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

BY

JAMES HORNELL, F.L.S., F.R.A.I.,
Director of Fisheries.

Until now no adequate and connected account of the many
varieties of the outrigger boats and canoes in use in Indonesia has
been published ; those of Polynesia and Micronesia are fairly well
described, partly in the accounts left by old voyagers, partly in
papers published by the United States Fish Commission, while
those of Torres Straits have been minutely monographed by Prof.
A. C. Haddon. A recent visit to the Dutch East Indies gave me
opportunity to gather details of all the important types found in
this region ; the following is a summary of the peculiarities of the
chief local variations evolved from the fundamental design.

Unlike the outriggers of Polynesia and of India and Ceylon,
those of Indonesia are of the double type with few and unimport-
ant exceptions. Their effective range extends from the north-
western coast of New Guinea through the whole of the Moluccas
and Celebes, thence north to the Philippines and south to Lombok,
Bali, Madura and the eastern section of Java. Few are seen on the
east coast of Borneo and none on the eastern shores of Sumatra.
The western coast of Sumatra, and the islands east of Lombok
(Sumbawa, Flores, Timor and Timorlaut) were not visited; there is
no doubt, however, that double outriggers were formerly in general
use in western Sumatra and still persist in rapidly decreasing
numbers.

NEW GUINEA (N.-W. COAST AND SCHOUTEN

ISLANDS).

The varieties in use in the extreme east, being the most primi-
tive in design, I shall commence this detailed description with an

44

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

account of those found on the north-west coast of New Guinea and
in the Schouten and other islands in Geelvink Bay.

The most important settlement in this region is Manokwari, the
seat of the Dutch Government in these parts. Missionary effort is
of long standing here, dating back to some time prior to Wallace's
visit in 1858. Since then the local Papuan has learned to crop his
frizzly mop of hair, and often sports an old jacket and dirty
trousers ; the barbaric adornment of his person with bangles, ear-
rings, and necklaces has largely been abandoned ; the big communal
pile-dwellings of former days have given place to smaller ones on
the Malay pattern; his superstitions and animistic customs may be
indulged in only in secret. The essentials of his life where they
concern hunting and fishing methods remain, however, much as
they were in the old days. This applies notably to his fishing boat
design, and the implements of his craft. The canoe hulls are
always dugouts, varying from a small two or three-man size used
for inshore work to big craft of 30 feet in length. All the large
sizes and most of the small are furnished with double outriggers;
a few of the latter for harbour use, have but a single one.

The largest sizes are fitted with numerous booms connected with
the floats by means of upright stanchions. The number of booms
varies greatly, being governed chiefly by the length of the hull; at
Manokwari the largest number noted was eight (PI. II, fig. IIj, but
at Serui an exceptionally large one with as many as eleven booms
was seen.

Fig. i.— Vertical stanchion attachment typical of Manokwari outrigger canoes.

The booms are squared poles of light wood; the floats are of a
specially soft wood into which the sharpened ends of the stan-
chions can be driven with comparative ease. Each stanchion is

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

45

cut from a tough withy having a weak side branch towards one
end. The main stem below the fork is cut a little longer than the
distance at which the float is to be attached beneath the ends of
the booms ; a hole is bored near the end of the boom and the
stanchion passed through till the thickening at the fork is reached.
When all the booms and stanchions are in place the float is
brought along and the sharpened points of the stanchions are
driven into its upper surface. This done there remains only to
bend down the side branch of each stanchion till it reaches the
boom and to lash it thereto with rattan, in the manner seen in
Fig. 1.

In the largest sizes two floats are employed on each side of the
canoe ; in this variety, a double row of stanchions becomes

Fig. 2. — Double floats used in Manokwari outriggers of the largest size.
The stanchions in these are lashed to the sides of the booms.

necessary (Fig. 2). The dugout hull of one such boat measured
at Manokwari was 28 feet in length, 25 inches beam, with a depth
of 26 inches. Seven booms crossed the hull and two floats were
employed on each side. A cabin 10 feet long by about 7 feet wide
is generally present in these larger fishing canoes, the greater part,
supported outboard upon some four of the transverse booms. A
stiffening bamboo bracing pole is lashed lengthwise upon the
booms half way between the cabin and the stanchions (Fig. 3),

46

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII ,

and some have another along the row of stanchion forks, while
occasionally in canoes with double floats, a rattan lashing connects

V

ffl

A t

I—.

(]

1

y

T

/ \

i
V

i

V

1 \

V

1 I

"T

r_- --'--_— _r _-_- - -r;

1 "

r

V

"T"

If

tt

1

\

1

i

I

i -

V

W'

J

U

W

— r-
J

1 1

FIG. 3.— Plan of a large double Manokwari outrigger. a. platform occupied

by cabin ; b. brace.

several of the stanchion pairs as shown in figure 4. At Manokwari
the small canoes with three to six booms, are equipped with but

Fig 4. — Rattan lashing bracing each pair of stanchions, Manokwari.

one float on each side ; a few of the smallest are single outriggers
with a float on one side only, usually the starboard. The end of

No. 1 (19^0) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

47

the float is often carved and sometimes is decorated with a design
in black (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. — Carved anterior extremity of the boom of a Manokwari outrigger from above

and also in side view.

The hull is an ordinary slabsided double-ended dugout. End
pieces, ornamented with elaborate carving in the better built ones,
are fitted on at each end, and between them the sides are raised
with a weather-boarding made of several superposed rows of the
leaf-stalks of the sago-palm, finished off with a squared wooden

Fig. 6. — Section of the hull of a Manokwari outrigger, showing method of lashing-
the boom inboard ; a. gunwale of soft wood ; b. weather-board made
of four palm leaf-stalks.

bar forming a rude gunwale; the whole structure is secured in
position by vertical pegging (Fig. 6).

Considerable variation obtains in the design of the prow and

Fig. 7. — Fore end of a small Manokwari outrigger showing the form of added stem
piece and the weather-board of palm leaf-stalks.

stern pieces. In small canoes these are simple in form, being
carved out of the solid and added at each end to safeguard the

48

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

freeboard obtained by the provision of a weather-board of sago-
palm leaf-stalks (Figs. 7, 8a and 8b, and PI. Ill, fig. V).

Kir;. 8a. — Aft end of same dugout as shown in figure 7 showing added piece at stem.

In the larger canoes the prow has additional pieces added for
the sake of ornament ; two distinct patterns prevail, due possibly
to the fact that Papuans from other villages in Geelvink Bay have
migrated to Manokwari. Both are highly decorated, but one in
use usually by canoes of medium size is much more complicated

Fig. S/>. — The same before affixing the stern seat and the weather-boarding.

than the other. The latter is used by the largest fishing canoes
provided with double floats on both sides ; figure 9 shows better
than words can describe the construction and ornamentation
of this type. In these the stem piece is relatively longer and
projects further than in the small unornamented canoes; at the
fore end, fastened on by vertical pegs, is attached a high raised
prow ornament carved from a plank, broad at the base, narrowing
upwards to a terminal decorated point, pierced and carved in an

NO. 2 (1 920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 49

exuberant scroll design (PI. II, fig. IIP. Just beneath the point
is usually a hexagOnally grooved pumpkin-shaped oblong knob.
The perforated scroll work is painted alternately black and red;

Fig. 9. —Decorated prow of a large Manokwari outrigger.

below this, the solid base has black, red, and white bands above,
with a band of wave pattern below. The stem piece upon which
this high pierced prow is fitted is carved from the solid, and fitted
upon the fore end of the canoe partly by means of pegs, and
partly by a lashing on each side passed through holes cut in
projecting cleats left when shaping these parts-

50

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII.

The ornament on the side of the bow piece consists of relief
carving along the centre, margined above in the most elaborate
example by a painted frieze of three rows of a conventional wave
pattern worked in three colours. The carved median figures
represent, taken in order from before backwards, a. a mamma-like
boss, b. a human figure crouching on his haunches with stiff tufts of
hair formed by wedging small bunches of palm fibre into small
holes punched over the head, c. a tiny snake heading forwards,
and d. a much larger representation of another snake with head
apparently trifid, directed aft ; the size of the head region is much
exaggerated and displays a distinct herring-bone pattern along its
whole extent. A somewhat similar stern ornament is fitted on
special occasions.

The second style of ornamental prow seen at Manokwari is
even more numerous at Wooi Bay, Serui, Bosnik and Pom, all
settlements in Jappen and the adjacent islands in Geelvink Bay.

Fig. io. — Decorated prow of a large outrigger, Wooi Bav, showing egg cowries
pendant from the horns of the pierced bow-pieces.

Figure IV on plate III exhibits the chief peculiarities of this design
and its differences from the one previously described. In this,
which appears less primitive than the other, the fore end of the
dugout is fined down and considerably elongated in a horizontal
direction to give purchase for the attachment by splicing and
lashing of a graceful wing-like curved prow ornament. Instead
of being perpendicular as in the companion design, this continues
forwards and upwards the under curve of the canoe's bow. It is cut
from a thin plank, the fore edge nicked into several narrow teeth
and the body frequently pierced in a fretwork of short scrolls
arranged in parallel bands. Behind this is the true bow piece
connecting with and finishing off the weather-board fitting on either
side. Unlike the corresponding parts in the other canoes it is made

NO. 2(1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 51

up of separate pieces forming a box-like structure, open behind.
It consists of two sides each with a forwardly directed horn-shaped
projection from the upper edge, a transverse bulkhead at the front
between these sides and a high rudder-like ornamental part fitted
edgewise against and in front of the bulkhead. This last part
together with the two sides are usually pierced with fretwork
scrolls (wave-pattern ?) after the manner of the prow piece. The
mode of attachment of the median piece accentuates its likeness
to a rudder, for the hinder edge is furnished with a pintle-like peg
to fit over the top edge of the athwart bulkhead ; the head of the
pintle is fashioned to represent the Papuan conventional human
face, and another but smaller head is found at the upper outer
corner. No further decoration is usually present in Manokwari
canoes of this type, but at Wooi Bay and other of the Papuan
villages in the islands in Geelvink Bay, what no doubt represents
the formerly universal fashion in this district still prevails ; in
these the projecting wing-like horn of each side is decorated with
the porcelain-white shells of the egg-cowry (Ovum ovum), suspend-
ed from the fore end and from projections on the under edge ;
usually a single shell is hung from each point, sometimes a bunch
of two or even of three may be thus suspended. In a fully deco-
rated canoe, a row of three -shells is generally hung from each
side projection (Fig. iol It is probable that in former days
and even now during festivals this shell was and is employed
more lavishly in decoration, for in one instance I saw each of the
heads of the outrigger stanchions ornamented with a shell, tied on,
together with a bunch of leaves.""

In the recess in the bows provided by this ornamental struc-
ture is stowed the shallow basket holding the turtle harpoon line.
In passing, it is worthy of note that the line is fitted with wooden
disc ' retarders ', sometimes highly ornamented with carving. In
some cases they are fashioned into somewhat conventionalized
representations of fishes (Fig. 1 1), birds, and fish-tails (Fig. 12);
others, the less important ones, have incised geometrical patterns
on one side (Fig. 13). . .

In all the sailing canoes in this district which adhere to the
original style of rig, a tripod mast and oblong sail are carried.

* Considerable petty trade is carried on by Chinese traders in these shells on the
New Guinea coast, the chief demand appearing to be from further east ; the Solomon
islanders are noted for their love of the egg- cowry in their decorative schemes.

52

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII

This mast, which we shall see is more or less prevalent through-
out the eastern section of the Malay Archipelago — particularly

Fig. ii.

-Line retarder on a harpoon line; it is a conventionalized representation
of the great Ox. rays (Dicerobaiis spp. )

in the Moluccas and Celebes — is here composed of three bamboos,
connected at the apex by rattan or rope lashing. The smaller
New Guinea canoes have usually a Y-shaped crutch peg fitting
jnto the top end of one of the paired legs; upon this is hitched a

Fig. t2.

Fic.lS.

Fig. 12. — Another line retarder in the form of a fish tail.

Fig. 13. — Two other retarders of geometrical design. In b, pieces of mother of
pearl are inlaid as decoration.

loop attached to the yard of the sail at a point a little way forward
of the centre. In larger canoes where the increased size of the
sail renders it impossible for the crew to lift it high enough to

No. 2(1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 53

hitch the loop over the mast-head peg, a hole is cut in the project-
ing end of one of the paired mast legs which is cut longer at the
top than the other ; through this hole a rope is rove and by this
means the sail is hoisted. The sail is oblong with a bamboo yard
along the upper edge, and a similar pole along the lower. This is
the same style of sail seen in the Buddhist sculptures in the Boro
Budur ruins in Central Java, a building dating from the eighth and
ninth centuries of our era (Frontispiece).*

InWooi Bay in Jappen Island, the canoes seen were all of the
single outrigger form, rare at Manokwari ; the structure of the
outrigger parts, the form and ornamentation of the bow and the rig
are otherwise as already described. The number of outrigger
booms varied from three to seven. Decoration of the canoes with
the shells of the egg-cowry is more prevalent than at any of the
other villages visited except Serui ; several men wore one of these
shells suspended from a bead necklace around the neck. In other
cases the suspended amulet was a cylinder of wood carved at the
attached end into the semblance of a squatting human figure with
a much elongated nose, the tip turned down over the upper lip in
the characteristic Papuan convention. It is noteworthy that the
noses of the people here are not typically of this form, the majority
being heavy and of the bottlenose shape which attracted Dampier's
attention when he was cruising among these islands. It may also
be remarked here that the cylindrical form of the wooden neck
amulets hung from one end, is a common form among the ornaments
strung on necklaces among the lower castes in South India. This
parallelism is perhaps significant, for such a shape of necklace
ornament is not widely spread elsewhere so far as lam aware.

At Serui the canoes are almost identical in construction and
decoration with those at Wooi Bay except that the largest sizes,
running to a length of 30 feet, have double outriggers with as many
as eleven booms in some. Such large ones sometimes have two
floats on each side, with a corresponding increase in the number
of stanchions. The small and medium sizes are all single out-
riggers, and in these the float is boomed out on the starboard side.

* Mat sails are generally used, but at Manokwari where the fisher people come into
contact with people from the Moluccas, the greater advantage of a cotton sail has been
realized by some and a few have even gone so far as to adopt either the spirit or the lug
as their sail pattern

54 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

The canoes at Bosnik in the Schouten Islands are similar to
those of Serui, both single and double outriggers being in use,
with the same variations in details.

Pom, a group of very populous and purely Papuan villages on
the north coast of Jappen Island, employs canoes of like design.
In one only did I see any divergence ; here instead of a pierced
median plank at the force side of the bow bulkhead, the owner
had placed a rounded or head-shaped ornament covered with
tufts of black fibres let into holes punched over the whole surface
to give the appearance of a human head. Mr. Van Hasselt, a
Manokwari missionary, informed me that its employment is to
obtain protection for the canoe against evil spirits. Probably
the pendant egg-cowries are for the same purpose ; as the canoe
breasts the waves, particularly in rough weather, the shells clash
together, emitting a tinkling sound and, as we know, various
noises, such as the blowing of conchs, are commonly supposed
to have effect in scaring or appeasing harmful spirits.

East of Geelvink Bay, beyond Cape D'Urville, except for an
occasional visitor from the Schouten Islands, no double outriggers
are seen, neither does the use of multiple booms and vertical
stanchions extend beyond this point.

WAIGOU AND THE N.-W. POINT OF NEW GUINEA.

At Saonek, the chief port in the island of Waigou, and at Sorong
at the extreme north-west point of New Guinea, intercourse with the
Moluccas is of extremely long standing. These places were gate-
ways to New Guinea even before the coming of Europeans to those
waters; in consequence the population is far more mixed than
further east, and this is the explanation of the fact that the type of
double outrigger in use here is wholly different from the Geelvink
Bay type ; affinity on the contrary is with the boats of the Moluccas.
They have however distinctive points, the most noteworthy being
that the majority have four booms, as against the two normal to
the Moluccan outriggers ; a few only have the number reduced to
three.

The Waigou type, as we may term these outriggers, are well built
and much more carefully put together than the majority of the
Geelvink Bay canoes (PI. IV, fig. VI). The hull is built up
upon a dugout with flared sides, deep wash-strakes being added
to the requisite height. Four or five booms cross the canoe ; each is

No. 2 (1920)

OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

55

connected with a float on either side by a long elbow-shaped joint
having normally as hort inner limb and a much longer outer one.
The latter is inclined at about 110° from the short limb, and passes
so obliquely downwards that the float lies considerably beyond the

I 1
r 1

t 1

1 1

\

i
1
1

l

1
1

< t
i 1

1

1

_

_

_

_

'_

_

—

_

-

-

-

-

1 i

;

I

1 1

'

1
1

Fig. 14. — Plan of a Waigou outrigger, a. cabin platform.

extremities of the booms (Fig. 14). The upper end owing to
the elbow or angle present there, can be secured to the boom very
strongly by two lashings, and further stiffness is obtained by the
insertion of a longitudinal bracing pole between the angle of the

Figs. 15 and 16.— Two forms of the connecting secondary Waigou type.

elbow and the boom (Fig. 15). The long limb is straight or only
slightly curved ; its distal end is lashed upon the upper surface of
the boom. In some examples the short limb has disappeared and
the joint reduced to a single nearly straight rod (Fig. 16).

50

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

In the larger canoes a fairly roomy cabin is provided ; this is of
great use to the crew both when engaged in fishing or when away
on prolonged trading trips. The double outrigger frame permits of
a fairly large structure as the booms enable it to be built outboard
on each side to a distance of a couple of feet. Part of the outboard
cabin space is utilized for a sand-box fireplace, so the crew and
their passengers enjoy a fair amount of comfort. Water is carried
in long bamboo joints set upright in the cabin.

The outrigger design is particularly useful when cabin
accommodation is necessary to fishermen who cannot afford large
plank-built boats, for the employment of this device permits the
owner to use a comparatively small and inexpensive hull to what
would otherwise be necessary. This is the real raison d'etre of the
continuance of the double outrigger design in waters where the
superior handiness of the boat type must be well known.

Fig 17. Fig. iS.

Two carved paddles, Waigou.

Tripod masts and mat sails are the usual rig, but cotton sails
are gradually becoming more frequent. The paddles used are of
heavy ironwood and in a few cases most beautifully ornamented
with carving. In the finest one seen at Sorong the upper end of
the shaft was elaborately carved, while the blade bore a finely
worked representation of a snake, the body disposed in elegant
curves, the eyes picked out in ivory (Fig. 17). In another case
the carving on the blade was a very chaste line pattern, the lines

NO. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 57

cut in low relief (Fig. 18). The simplicity and good taste of
both designs were remarkable, the effect enhanced by the absence
of superfluous accessory ornament.

THE MOLUCCAS.

Throughout the Moluccas all outriggers are of the double
type; with the exception of a few large ones seen at Weda, in the
south-east of Halmaheira, two booms only are employed. Two
main types are present, one with elbow-shaped secondaries eon
necting the booms with the floats, the other having the connexion
made by means of withy loops.

The former, termed by Haddon, the Halmaheran, may more
appropriately be called the Eastern Indonesian type as it is found
i n one variation or another throughout the eastern part of the Malay
Archipelago, from the eastern coast of Borneo to the coast of New
Guinea, from the north end of Celebes to Lombok in the south.
The second in its chief varieties I propose to call the Amboyna and
Bum types respectively as they are there the common forms.

HALMAHEIRA AND ITS DEPENDENT ISLANDS.

The Eastern Indonesian type. — At no port in Halmaheira is
this type of outrigger wanting, but considerable variation in the
details and ornamentation is seen. The essential features consist
of the restriction of the booms to two in number (at Weda three are
occasionally employed) and the attachment of the floats to the
booms by means of elbow-shaped joints or brackets- The dimen-
sions vary greatly, from small dugouts to built-up planked boats.
The largest sizes, of three varieties, are found chiefly on the east
coast of Halmaheira, hailing from the ports of Galela, Tobelo, Kao,
Buli and Weda ; the small sizes are universal.

The three large varieties may be called respectively the Galela,
the Buli and the Weda varieties from the places which are the
chief centres of their occurrence.

(a) The Galela outriggers are often met far from their home
ports; their owners are petty traders as well as fishermen and in
the season carry cargoes of home-grown tobacco for sale through-
out the islands of the group, particularly to Ternate and Batjan.
Their craft are true boats, planked up, with a keel, ribs and a fairly
roomy cabin. A bamboo forms the float on each side. The con-
necting elbow-shaped joints differ considerably from the Waigou

58

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

form. In the present one the short upper limb of the joint is
straight and not curved downwards (inwards) ; it is lashed so that
it lies nearly parallel with the boom, above which it is raised by
the thickness of a brace pole lying in the bend of the joint.
The joint is lashed at two places to the boom, as shown in figure 28.
The long limb is slightly curved outwards and secured to the upper
surface of the float by a lashing. A second brace-pole laid across
the ends of the booms on the outer side of the joint angle is secured
parallel to the inner brace. These are connected with the
bamboo float by three long lashings. The whole complicated
fitting is well designed to meet the various stresses to which the
outrigger frame is exposed.

1%

'4-'

TT

±

FIG. 19.— Ornamented stem pieces oftwoGaleia outriggers. (The splice connecting
each piece with the stemhead is shown open to exhibit the method of attachment.)

A paddle is usually used in steering, but in the largest boats a
quarter rudder suspended by a grommet from a steering crutch, is
sometimes employed. A characteristic feature whereby the Galela
outriggers are readily recognized is the curious upstanding orna-
ment carried at stem and stern. This is fashioned from a long and
narrow plank notched at the upper end in trifid fashion. This
terminal part is generally coloured black, while the flat sides are

NO. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 59

decorated with crude figures made up of crosses, circles and dots,
painted in black upon the naked surface of the wood. Two
typical patterns are illustrated (Fig. 19). Others were different and
no two are exactly of the same pattern. In many boats the outer
edge of the gunwale is carved. The hull of one measured at
Ternate was 24 feet long, with a beam amidships of 5 feet and depth
of 25 inches ; the keel was 3% inches deep, running the whole
length. Three others measured at Galela were respectively 20, 20
and 22 feet long. In the Ternate example there were 7 strakes on
each side of the keel ; each strake had a row of projecting
perforated 'lugs' left in the centre at 5 intervals and those
of each strake were spaced so as to coincide vertically with

a.

^^^

^^^

Fig. 20. — Details of the hull construction in Galela outrigger boats. ./. inner view of
four planks with two vertical rows of projecting cleats or • lugs ' ; b. longi-
tudinal section through a plank and two cleats ; c. Vertical section through
four planks to show how a rib is lashed to the cleats.

those above and below (Fig. 20). In building, the planks are
first secured together with vertical pegs ; afterwards when the hull
is complete, frames or ribs are fitted over the vertical rows of
projecting cleats, and tied thereto by cord made from black palm-
fibre. Thus the ribs do not lie against the inner surface of the
planking, but are separated therefrom by the thickness of the cleats
to which they are tied. By this device no metal fastenings are
required; such a hull possesses great elasticity and stands bumping
in the surf in a way that no metal-fastened boat would long survive.
The beamy design of these boats permits of the cabin being
built up from the gunwales ; unlike the Waigou type the cabin is
3

60

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

not built partly outboard, upon the outrigger booms. In the present
design strong thwarts projecting a few inches outboard are substi-
tuted. By the utilization of the interior of the wide hull as part of
the cabin, the height of the cabin roof can be kept lower than in
the Waigou boats. A light bamboo framework as shown in figure
21, affords stowage room for various tackle above the cabin roof,
thereby liberating useful space within.

FIG. 21. — Diagrammatic section through a Galela boat, to show the relationship of the
paired legs (.v) of the tripod mast with the tabernacle («) and the frame-
work of the cabin, a. Section of poles laid fore and aft to stiffen the cabin
framework.

The ordinary rig is the tripod bamboo mast used in conjunction
with an oblong sail ; the same rig as the Waigou outriggers above
described. Most of these boats now use cotton sails, but the older
mat sail is still to be seen fairly commonly, especially among the
smaller outriggers.

To carry the paired legs of the tripod mast, a simple tabernacle
is provided on the roof of the cabin at the fore end (Fig. 2l)
The twin legs are short and about the length of the cabin. The

Mo. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

61

unpaired leg is longer and is stepped half way between the cabin
and the prow. The details of this tabernacle in reference to the
other parts of the cabin framework will be seen by reference to
figure 21. In the better class of these boats, this tabernacle affords
considerable scope for the strong artistic feeling displayed by the
people of Galela. Figure 22 depicts one of the most elaborately

Fig. 22. — Tabernacle of a Galela boat and carved upper surface of the cross-bar.

carved of these mast supports. The cross-bar in this was most
carefully carved in high relief, the motif, a coiled snake swallowing
a dog or some other small animal. The uprights were actually
more elaborately carved than is depicted, as time did not permit
all the detail to be copied.

To carry the yard of the sail at the mast head, a Y-shaped peg
is inserted into the top end of one of the paired legs. This one is
left a few inches longer at the top than its partner (Fig. 21). In

62

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

hoisting sail the tripod is first erected, the two paired legs being
each provided with a slot near the foot, which is slipped over the
laterally projecting end of the cross-bar of the tabernacle. The
unpaired leg has similarly a perforation in the foot, but here it
runs fore and aft. This slips over a projecting peg on the foreside
of a thwart half way between the tabernacle and the stem.
Properly adjusted such a tripod is quite stiff and requires no
stays. When the mast is up, a loop placed near the mid-length
of the upper yard of the sail is slipped over one arm of the Y-peg
at the mast head, a boatman holding up vertically the rolled up
sail till he manages to hitch the loop over the peg. The sail is then
unrolled and the sheet made fast astern. The fore end of the boom
is secured to the same thwart to which the unpaired mast leg is
attached or else to one right at the stem. In heavy weather the
lower edge of the sail is partially rolled up around the boom and
the yard lashed half way or so up the mast.

(b) The East Halmaheira or Buli variety of plank-built outrigger,
hails chiefly from the ports of Tobelo, Kao, and Buli on the eastern
coast of Halmaheira. Usually the planked hulls are built up upon
a very narrow dugout base which serves the purpose of a keel ;

FlR. 23. Diagram of the side view of Kao outrigger boat. Fig. 24. — Vertical section
amidship of same on a larger scale, n. and h. The dugout hull forming the
keel portion in each.

indeed at Kao the direct evolution of this design from the ordinary
small outrigger dugout is clearly exhibited in the perfect gradation
of all stages, from the plain dugout without any added pieces
through a stage where a single wash-strake is added together
with prominent stem and stern pieces, up to large boats built up of
3 and 4 or more strakes, and possessing a fairly roomy cabin.
Some have a nearly straight keel, but many of the medium-sized
Kao ones have the dugout keel portion strongly curved, with stem
and stern posts continued upwards with inordinate sheer as shown
in figure 23. One such boat measured on the Buli beach was 20
feet long overall, 4% feet wide amidships, and ~$V\ feet deep. This

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

63

boat had 3 broad strakes pegged on ; in many the sides rise so
steeply from the dugout keel as to give the boat a V-shaped
transverse section (Fig. 24) ; others have a flatter section particularly
those of large size as otherwise the draft would become too great.
The larger boats have cabins much after the style of the Galela
boats ; from these they are readily distinguished by the shape of
the stem and stern post projections; instead of having pegged-on
straight pieces, the projections are continuations of the stem and
stern posts, rising to four and even five feet beyond the gunwale ;

FlG. 25. — Stem and stern forms in two Kao outriggers.

the upper end of each is brought to a sharp point by a long slightly
concave cut which leaves a characteristic angular prominence two-
thirds up the inner edge of the post (Fig. 25). The length of the
terminal pieces appears to vary with the fancy of the owner.

The outrigger frame scarcely differs from that of the Galela
boats except that in some places the connecting joint shows a

Fig. 26. — Two forms of boom and float connexions seen in Kao. (Inner stringer

has been omitted.)

characteristic heel on the outside of the joint angle (Fig. 26), and
two brace poles are employ ed, one within and the other without the

64 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII.

joint angles. The two booms pass through slots in the topmost

strake.

(c) The Weda design.— At Weda, further south, the large outrig-
gers are not plank-built ; the hulls are large dugouts, running to 25
feet in length. Some have the depth increased by the addition
of a wash-strake where the dugout has not sufficient freeboard.
Two examples measured were respectively 25 feet overall, 2Y2 feet
beam and the same in depth, and 24 feet by 2 feet 7 inches wide
by 2Y2 feet deep; the latter had a wash-strake added. These
boats carry a cabin of the usual style, the sides built outboard
upon the support of the booms. The bow and stern pieces are
short and inconspicuous.

The outrigger design departs from that seen elsewhere in the
Moluccas in being provided with three transverse booms; usually
all three are attached to the floats by heeled elbow joints after the
Buli pattern ; in a few the middle one is sometimes omitted. Two
strengthening brace poles are used as in the other designs described.
A further peculiarity is the frequent use of a bamboo and a jungle
pole lashed together to form a compound float. Where the float is
single, a tree pole is employed. In the use of more than two booms,
this design approaches that seen on the opposite coast of New
Guinea, hence the Weda boats form the connecting link between
the Moluccas and New Guinea. This is to be expected ; for the
east coast of the Moluccas faces New Guinea and the population of
so-called Alfuros show distinct hybrid characteristics wherein a
Papuasian element is marked. Strangely enough there is little or
no trace of frizzly hair to be seen ; from various facts which have
come to my notice, I am led to infer that the frizzy mop of the
Papuasian is of a recessive nature liable to be eliminated when
crossed with the straight-haired races.

Batjan Island. — At Labuha in this island, which lies to the west
of the southern extremity of Halmaheira, the finest and largest
example of Moluccan outrigger boats was seen. It was a big boat
about 30 feet overall, beamy but of little draft (Fig. 27). The
ends rose high and sharp, gradually narrowing till they became
attenuated to a sharp point, in this closely resembling the big
gondola-like boats without outriggers seen everywhere in Halma-
heira ports. Unlike the latter, the Batjan boat had no pumpkin-
shaped ornament on either of the high projections ; two booms only
were employed, but the float was more strongly constructed than

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

65

in any other Moluccan outrigger; it consisted of three stout bam-
boos lashed together, two under the outer end of the connecting

^MML

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T

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w

JS

Fig. 27. — Larger outrigger boat, Labuha, Batjan Tsland.

bracket joint, the third above it (Fig. 28). Otherwise the outrigger
frame was as in the Galela boats.

The hull, built up of numerous strakes pegged together and
furnished with perforated cleats on the inner side for the attachment
of ribs, was crossed by numerous thwarts, with ends projecting
beyond the gunwale. Upon this basis was erected a large cabin
situated amidships in the space between the outrigger booms, the

Fig. 28. — Dagrammatic section through the boat depicted in figure 27, to show cabin
framework and outrigger consi ruction, Batjan Island.

roof covered with atap leaves. The framework was ingeniously
constructed in somewhat different manner from that already
described. The details are shown in figure 28.

At one end beyond the cabin the outboard ends of the project-
ing thwarts were made use of to provide a narrow outboard
platform.

Outrigger dugouts. — As already mentioned the smaller dugout
outrigger canoes of Halmaheira and the adjacent islands are of
two types, the one having angular secondaries of the Eastern

66 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

Indonesian type, the other with the connecting joint formed from
a bent withy— the Bum or U-type. The former require no lengthy
description — the hull is a simple unornamented dugout with out-
rigger frame exactly as in the ordinary Galela boats. They run
from 8 or 10 feet long to double this length. In Tobelo they are
termed prau setna son a, in Buli, pelang aio; sema sema meaning
'outrigger', aio, being 'tree' in the local Alfuro dialects. I may
mention here that the large cabin outrigger boats with high stem
and stern fittings, are called prau paketa at Tobelo and pelang pak-

pak at Buli.

In the Bum design, two outrigger booms are employed as usual,
but instead of an oblique bracket connexion whereby the float is
maintained at a little distance beyond the ends of the booms, the
connexion is made by a withy bent into the shape of the letter U ;
the upper ends are lashed to one side of a boom near the extremity,
the base being bound to the upper surface of the bamboo float
(Fig. 29).

I [G. 29, — U-attachment used to connect bourn and float in Buru outrigger.
Fig. 36. — Loop attachment characteristic of Amboina. The figure also shows
the method of securing the booms within the dugout hull.

This is a pattern that appears to have come to Halmaheira
from the south, through Buru and the Obi Islands where it is the
prevailing type of outrigger used in connexion with dugout canoes.

The distribution of the two forms of small dugouts through
Halmaheira is significant. At Labuha in Batjan, the great majo-
rity of dugouts are of the U-design, a few only being of the East
Indonesian type; at Tidore, Ternate and Djailolo, the majority of
the inshore and harbour outriggers are again of the U-type, but a
larger proportion than at Batjan have elbow joint secondaries.
Generally the slabsided dugouts have the former, those that have
flared sides the latter; these are also generally the larger. All

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 67

these are on or off the west coast of Halmaheira. Round the north
end of the island, we find that at Wajabula in Morotai Island,
the proportion is reversed. Here the majority are of the East
Indonesian type, only one-third the total having the U-form of
secondaries. In the former, two brace-poles are used to stiffen the
outrigger frame in the way already described. The outer one is
the longer and is tied to the float in the manner shown in figure 30.
The float in the smaller canoes consists of one, or more commonly

Fig. 30. — Method of stiffening the outrigger frame by braces in use at
Wajabula, Morotai Island.

of two slender bamboos ; sometimes a pole is used ; in such cases
the forward end curves up slightly and is carved on the underside
in the same fashion as is seen occasionally (rarely) at Batjan and
the Obi Islands (Fig. 31). South of Morotai Island, the U-design
disappears on the east coast of Halmaheira; none was seen at
Galela, Tobelo, Kao. Buli, Patani and Weda, where the East-
Indonesian type of outrigger canoes is employed exclusively. The
U-type pertains to the western side of Halmaheira and to the
islands to the south, lying between that island and Amboina.

THE OBI ISLANDS.

Here the Bum type of U-shaped secondary is adopted almost
entirely for small dugout canoes working inshore- Sometimes the
float is double, made from two leaf-stalks of the sago palm tied
together. A single small canoe was seen having the elbow-shaped
secondary with the outer or long limb nearly vertical, so that the
float was immediately under the angle of the elbow.

Larger craft with flared wash-strakes upon a flared dugout
basis, had secondaries of the usual oblique Eastern Indonesian
4

68

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

type. One used as a passenger boat had a large square well in the
centre, built partly outboard, with seats along the side. The inner
and upper arm of the secondary was attached particularly high
above the boom with two brace poles both placed within the elbow

FlG. 31. — Outrigger frame characteristic of the Obi Islands, a. general view of the
midships region of a passenger canoe ; h. details of boom attachment.
Two brace poles are shown in section under the elbow ; c. carved fore
end of float.

joint, the inner being the shorter. The float was a stout cylindrical
jungle pole, slightly curved upwards at the anterior end and carved
as shown in figure 3Ir.

BURU.

This large island lies about 80 miles south-south-west of the
Obi Islands, 50 miles south-east of the Sula Islands and a lesser
distance west of Ceram and Amboina.

The double outrigger is employed for most purposes ; ordinary
dugouts without outriggers are used in quiet water, while for heavy
work beamy plank-built true boats are employed.

By far the most numerous outrigger is that with U-shaped
secondaries — the Biiru type — generally withies, rarely stout rattan.
The float is variable, either composed of one, two, or even three
sago palm leaf-stalks or of a pole of light wood flattened below
and convex above or else of a suitable length of bamboo. Such
canoes have hulls made of comparatively short dugouts, usually
with a washboard added, together with high projecting stern and
stem pieces; some have a narrow slab-sided dugout for a basis;
the others are flared and these are much wider amidships, as the
wash-board continues and emphasizes the flare of the sides.

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

69

A second form of outrigger whereof only a single example was
seen, had L-shaped secondaries ; in each the lower or horizontal

limb was turned outwards and
lashed to the upper side of the
float, transverse to it. The
upper end of the vertical limb
instead of being lashed to the
side of the boom as is usual
with secondaries, had its point
inserted pegwise into a hole
passing through the boom. To
secure the joint, a long rattan
connexion is made between the
extreme end of the boom and
the end of the horiz ontal
limb (Fig. 32). The device is

FlG. 32.— Variation in the U-attachment
seen in Buru.

obviously a weak and inferior variation upon the U-design.

Larger outrigger canoes, employed for heavier work, adopt the
East Indonesian elbow joint as their type of secondary ; these craft
are fairly numerous. Two strengthening bracing poles are used,
one without and the other within the elbow joint. The inner is the
shorter; it runs parallel with its fellow and has a rattan connexion
with it at each end and at midlength. The long outer brace is
again connected by three rattan lashings with the float (Fig. 31b).

Fig. 33. — Varieties of the East Indonesian attachment seen at Buru. a. outer brace

pole ; b. inner one.

These braces are tough thin poles. Their employment tends to
stiffen the float and prevent it from working loose from the
secondaries. Considerable variation is seen in the form of the
angle and upper arm of the secondaries in different canoes; the
three common forms are shown in figure 33 ; the first is the most
numerous.

70

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

Whereas the smaller of the Bum outriggers use steering paddles,
the larger have a steering fitting or frame near the stern from which
to suspend a quarter rudder. This frame consists of a stout thwart

laid across the canoe
and secured in the man-
ner shown in figure, the
gunwales being taken
in recessed grooves.
The end on the star-
board side projects
some inches outboard
and in this is inserted a
vertical peg, the upper
end passing through the
outer end of the stout
elbow piece likewise

Fig. 34. -Section of a large Buru outrigger hull inserted into the thwart
showing the thwart that carries the peg from /T^. \ , ,

,.,.,,, . , , (Fig. 34 , and secured

which is hung the quarter rudder. v ™ J,')

by a long lashing. The
rudder of the form seen in figure 54 is hung by a rattan grommet
upon the projecting end of the upright peg ; its fore edge rests in a
groove cut in the hinder margin of the outboard portion of the
thwart behind the rudder peg.

3

ilU'll'lr"1'""1""""""""^^'!'"!" mu.mlfin,,,^

Fig. 35. — Two forms of paddle used in Buru. a. a rowing paddle :
b. a steering paddle.

The paddles in Burti are varied and elegant in form. A com-
mon shape of steering paddle is represented in figure 35^; it has a
perforated handle with carved shaft and long blade, thickened
along the middle line. Rowing paddles have shorter and more
angular blades (Fig. 35ft).

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 7 1

Considerable variation prevails in the rig of these Bum
outriggers. The most common is the oblong sail, most primitive
of those in use in these seas ; sprit-sails running on the mast on
rings are also fairly numerous ; the cutter rig, with jib, is also
coming into limited use, evidently copied from the modern pearling
boats, one of which I saw here in harbour.

AMBOINA.

This once important centre of the far Eastern trade has
been so long under intimate European influence that the use
of outrigger canoes has been discarded for the coasting trade ;
they survive only for inshore fishing and ferry purposes. The
great majority are particularly long and narrow slabsided dug-
outs, with weak outrigger frames. No wash-strake is normally
provided. The outrigger booms are squared poles of small
sectional dimensions. Each is secured to the canoe by a pair of
rattan couplings passed around a thwart inserted low down in the
well of the dugout and secured there by being jammed under two
wooden chocks or cleats left standing when the interior was roughed
out (Fig. 36 on page 66). The floats are usually made of the large
leaf-stalks of the sago palm, the narrow end directed forwards.
The floats are connected with the booms by means of egg-shaped
loops made of rattan in the case of the smaller dugouts, and of
stout withies in that of the larger ; the base of each loop is lashed
to the upper surface of the boom while the ends are crossed over
one another above and lashed together; the two limbs are tied
against one side of a boom near its extremity.

The two booms are fitted about equidistant respectively from
stem and stern ; the length of each float is roughly equal to double
the distance of the float from the midline of the dugout.

CERAM.
The adjoining island of Ceram is much larger than Amboina
and has been much less under longstanding European influence.
Hence I was not surprised to find the outrigger type more in
evidence and more varied in design than in the latter island.

Three varieties of outriggers are present ; they show consider-
able diversity in pattern, with affinity on the one side with
Amboina and with Buru on the other.

72 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

The first variety is of the true Amboina type with withy loop
secondary ; it needs no further description.

The second approaches the Burti U-shape in the form of the
secondary, but instead of being of withy or of rattan it is made
from a natural angle of timber, with a flat base ; this enables it to
be lashed more securely upon the upper surface of the float when
the latter is solid (Fig. 37*7). The two arms are attached to the
boom in the usual Buru fashion. In canoes where the floats
consist of bamboo, the base of the U-fork is prolonged into a
short stout peg ; this is inserted into a hole cut in the bamboo, a
device which contributes considerably to provide a strong and safe
attachment (Fig. 37ft).

a

b.

FIG. 37. — Two forms of the Ceram variety of the U- attachment (the booms shown in

transverse section).

The third type of outrigger is one of the innumerable varia-
tions of the East Indonesian design. It has the usual two booms,
with a float on each side, the connexion being made by an
oblique-elbowed secondary of the peculiar form figured below.
(Fig. 38). The long limb is nearly straight, and is lashed to the
outer upper surface of the shaped timber float. A distinct knuckle
is present on the upper side of the elbow ; the free extremity of the
short limb is secured in position by a long lashing to the boom. A
single tough brace lies across the ends of the two booms, within
the angles of the joints ; unlike those previously described, there
are only two long lashings coupling the float with the brace,
one near each end ; by the tightness of the lashings the gentle
curve given to both ends of each float when shaped is retained,

NO. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

73

thereby reducing resistance when sailing as well as contributing
to the general strength and rigidity of structure as a whole ; these
braces are of the nature of stays and it is noteworthy that their
use is confined to outriggers of the East Indonesian design — those
with oblique secondaries.

The anterior portion of the brace pole is usually ornamented by
the cutting of a series of three incised rings, the extremity being
mango shaped. The fore end of the float is deep and narrow in
section, forward of the front lashing, with the upper surface ridged

Fig. 38. — Fore end of outrigger frame. Ceram.

in the centre, with incised herring-bone decoration (Fig. 38) on the
two sloping faces. At the hinder end of this short stretch of
incised pattern the transverse section of the float becomes nearly
cylindrical but less deep than the fore end.

SULA ISLANDS.

These islands lie midway between Bum and the western coast
of the Celebes, and are not to be confounded with the Siilu
Archipelago, between the Philippines and Borneo. Their out-
rigger canoes conform entirely to the East Indonesian type ;
none is found either of the Burn or the Amboina types. Those
of Sanana, the principal town in Sula Besi island, are typical of
the local variety. The ends of all are brought in very fine, and
in the large ones great sheer is given. Wash-strakes are added
to almost all ; as little flare is given, the end view is extremely
elegant and remarkably like that of a modern 'ocean greyhound '
as seen in dry dock. In some, the sheer is so great that the bottom
of the canoe forms almost a segment of a circle, running sharp and

74

MADRAS FISHP:RIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

fine at each end (Fig. 39). The larger ones run to 35 feet in
length. They often have an atap roof for shelter amidships ; in
these the space available is increased by building out over the

Fig. 39. — An outrigger canoe, Sanana, Sula Islands.

outrigger booms upon a longitudinal pole laid athwart the booms
a foot or so outboard on each side.

In all but the smallest outriggers four crutches are inserted in
the booms about a foot outboard, to take spare bamboos, poling
sticks, etc. In many, these crutches have a faint suggestion in
their shape of a bird motif and in a few this is emphasized un-
mistakably (Fig. 40).

Fig. 40. — a. Diagram of the transverse section of a Sula outrigger to show cabin frame-
work and bird-shaped crutches ; b. attachment method of outrigger secondary.

By means of two transverse poles lashed below the forks
of the forward and aft pairs of crutches respectively, each
further supported by two nearly upright stays stepped on two
projecting cleats inside the canoe, a simple framing is made
(Fig. 40), which by the addition of a king post in the centre at each
end and of a longitudinal ridge pole, can be used when necessary
to support an atap (palm leaf) roof.

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 75

The outrigger frame approaches the third design described
from Ceram so far as the number and arrangement of the parts are
concerned. In detail there are numerous differences ; no ornamen-
tation of the single bracing pole on each side or of the fore ends of
the floats is attempted ; the floats are generally bamboos, the fore
end projecting much beyond that of the brace pole and extending
forwards almost level with the stem of the canoe ; three rattan
lashings connect each brace and float. Most notable of all, the
long limb of the angular secondary is extremely oblique and
of greater relative length than in that used in Ceram ; in this it
approaches the form seen in Batjan and in many places in
Halmaheira. In the neighbouring Mangoli Island, the outrigger
canoes do not generally run so fine as at Sanana, neither is the
sheer so pronounced. The hull is always a dugout ; a wash-strake is
usually added but rarely any stem and stern pieces in those used
for work in sheltered bays.

One brace-pole only is employed on each side; the bamboo
floats are greatly elongated at the fore end as at Sanana, and bent
upwards by the pull of the brace. The curve of the oblique
secondary is rather more marked than in that of Sanana. The
booms are of squared poles.

The paddles are long in the blade and sometimes have elegantly
carved handles. One especially, seen at Vesuvius Bay, was parti-
cularly well designed. The majority have however a plain cross
bar for handle.

For heavy work, beamy shallow boats, built up on a dugout base,
with flared planked sides are employed generally. They employ
two quarter rudders often ornamented with carving. Such boats
are generally provided fore and aft with a simple arched cross
piece supported on two oblique lateral posts ; by means of reeper
poles laid lengthwise over these arches, the framework of a cabin
can be put up quickly ; when thatched with atap leaves, this forms a
shelter, proof alike against sun and rain. A point of much interest
in regard to the Sula Islands is the fact that although they are
comparatively close to the northern end of the Celebes, the distinc-
tive outrigger form of that region (Minahasa) is unknown ; in 1916
a Minahasan outrigger was thrown ashore and was a source of
wonder to the Sula coast folk who had never seen* one before, and
who could not imagine where it came from. Trade connexion here
is chiefly with the east and not with the west.
S

76 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.

Before turning our attention to the smaller sea-craft of the
Celebes, it is desirable to see what types are in use in the Philip-
pine islands and their dependency, the Sulu Archipelago. I have
not had an opportunity to visit this locality, but fortunately, thanks
to the courtesy of Mr. Alvin Seale, formerly Director of the
Fisheries section of the Bureau of Science there, and of Colonel
O- C. Waloe, commanding the constabulary in Mindanao, I have
at my disposal a fine series of photographs and valuable notes
upon points of detail. The Bureau of Science, Manilla, has also
kindly supplied a valuable set of fine photographs.

With few exceptions Philippine outriggers belong to the direct
attachment group, and with merely occasional exception of
no significance they are all of the double type. They separate
readily into two main sections, which I shall term respectively the
Philippine and Sulu sub-types. The latter centre in the Sulu
Islands, their range extending approximately as far north as Sind-
angan Bay on the Zamboanga Peninsula of Mindanao, eastwards
as far as Sarangani Island, and on the south including the whole
of the islands in the Sulu and Tawi-Tawi groups. The Philippine
sub-type covers the whole of the remainder of the Archipelago to
the northward.

The true Philippine outriggers are of an extremely simple design
marked off sharply from the highly complex and ornate pattern
favoured in Sulu. They vary greatly in size, from small dugouts
used for inshore fishing (PI. IV, fig. VII) to large built-up boats
employed for interisland navigation. The latter are rigged with
one or even two large principal sails and usually carry a jib (PI.
V, fig. VIII). The general design of hull is the same throughout,
having as a base a hollowed-out log or dugout ; in the larger, plank
sides are raised upon the edges. The outrigger booms, made of
tough wood, are normally two in number; their outer ends on either
side are secured by neatly made rattan lashings to the upper
surfaces of from one to five bamboo poles, forming the float. Those
intended for sailing have the sides built up by securing to the
upper edge of the hull, panels of stout matting, woven from strips
of split bamboo, supported by stanchions at intervals, the whole
made watertight by a preparation of resin. The booms do not
pass through the body of the boat but lie upon the upper edges,
secured thereto by rattan lashings ; they pass consequently through
the bamboo weather-matting and so seem to project from out the

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 77

body of the boat. The general appearance of such a craft built
up with high matting bulwarks supported by numerous stanchions
and stays has a distinct resemblance to the much larger outrigger-
ships seen in the Buddhist sculptures of Boro-Budur in Java to be
referred to on a later page.

Single outrigger canoes are sometimes seen, especially in
Manilla harbour, but these are local and are apparently so modi-
fied for ease in moving in and out of crowded harbour waters and
for convenience in carrying passengers between the shore and
ships at anchor.

The Sitlit sub-type. — This design is most elaborate in detail and
the owners are lavish in its ornamentation.

With differences in size and locality, there are as usual, minor
variations in the detail of the fittings ; for the present purpose we
shall take as the central type a medium-sized vtnta, as these boats
are called, capable of voyages extending to four and five-day trips
and much used on account of their speed in smuggling between
the Sulu Islands and British North Borneo (PI. VI, fig. X).

The hull consists of a dugout (Samal-Moro dialect - dalamat),
the sides raised by means of two wash-strakes (tapi) sewn on with
coir yarn. The ends are bifid. The lower projection of the prow
(munda) is nearly horizontal ending sharply in ordinary canoe
fashion ; the upper projection has a wide cuneate board attached
to its upper edge, prolonging it upwards (PI. VI, fig. X); this
board (sangpad) is usually decorated with fringed cloth. The bifur-
cated stern (boli) is much more elaborate and shows great artistic
skill in the carving of the handsome pierced ornamentation (pansal)
of both the horizontal and the upwardly sloping branches. The
former is the true hinder end of the dugout and the edges are carved
out of the solid in an elegant conventional foliate design.

The upper branch of the stern consists of two lateral and
slightly divergent wings of perforated woodwork, carved in a bold
foliate pattern, as shown in PI. VIII, fig. XIV. Strengthening trans-
verse bars or struts prevent these carved wings from being broken
(PI. VI, fig. XI).

The outrigger frame consists of either three or four booms
directly attached to a bamboo float on each side of the canoe.
The forward and aft booms (batahgdn) are shaped from long poles
which pass through the canoe and have one end attached to the
port float and the other to the starboard one. The centre boom
(tarrik) or booms — there may be either one or two — are, on the

78 MADRAS FISH RRIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

contrary, each in two pieces, one to each side ; the inner end of
each half is lashed with rattan to a stout crossbar or thwart,
morticed into the side of the dugout (PI. VII, fig. XII). All the
booms pass through the lower of the two wash-strakes sewn upon
the edges of the dugout basis.

The fore and the aft booms are straight poles; the centre one
(in those with three booms — the usual number) is curved downwards
towards its distal end in small and medium-sized boats; in the
largest sizes it may be straight with an L-shaped arm or inter-
mediary passing down to the float, which in such cases is made
usually of three stout bamboos lashed side by side. This L-arm
is cut from a naturally-grown bend. To keep the booms rigid
an ingenious system of braces is employed. Those fitted to the
fore and the aft booms are bow-shaped squared timbers, which
are lashed firmly athwart the canoe, concave side upwards, and
immediately above the booms (Pis. VI and VII, figs. XI and XIII).

Three or sometimes four nearly vertical rods are intercalated
at intervals between the brace and the boom, carefully and neatly
served with rattan in order to keep them in position. The object
of this device is to maintain the boom straight and to prevent it
from becoming" bent upwards as is its tendency owing to the
frequent upward thrust on its extremity when in rough water
or when a surge passes under the canoe. The extremities of
the stout transverse brace timbers are usually expanded into
ornamented heads, carved to match the decoration of the stern
(PI. VII, fig. XIII). Y-shaped crutches are also inserted in holes in
these braces, to carry the mast and other gear. In large boats
an elliptical crutch frame — a double bow — is fitted near the stern
for the same purpose.

In boats with three booms, the median one, composed of two
sections as already noted, is braced in a different manner ; each
section of the boom when it passes outwards from the side of the
canoe is inclined slightly upwards ; hence the brace used here is
straight. It passes athwart the hull and at each end is lashed
to the upper side of the boom on that side ; one or two short struts
are placed between the brace and the boom to keep them rigid.

In boats with four booms, the whole four are sometimes
composed each of one entire pole ; in such ease the inverted
bow-brace is used for all. In others the first, third and fourth
booms are of this discription, the second only having the srraight
brace described above.

No. 2 (IQ20) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

79

It may be useful here to note the terms used in the Samal-Moro
dialect for the various parts of these boats, as kindly supplied by
Colonel Waloe. They are as follows : —

Outrigger boat

Dugout body of the boat ...

Bottom of the dugout

Bow

Stern ...

The two wash-strakes

Outrigger boom at each end of hull

Median or amidship boom

Brace on top of boom

Outrigger float

Rattan lashing boom to float

Ornamental carved work at stern
Do. at bow

Carved scroll along edge of dugout
Mast ••■

Sprit

Mainsail boom
Guy rope to mast

Sail ...

Paddle •••

Nipa covering to cabin
Cabin floor of bamboo slats

vinta.
delamat.
tadas.
munda.
boli.
tapi.

batangan.
tarrik.
mandatang.
katig.

buay pumu-
kus sakatik.
pansal.
sangpad.
pangambal.
taduk.
tuklug.
bajo.

baligtang.
banug.
bugsay.
kadiang.

lantay.

Several of these appear to be of Spanish origin, but the
majority are of Malay derivation.

A cruder and more primitive form of the Minahasa type of
hermaphrodite outrigger {infra, p. 85) is met with at Las Palmas,
Mindanao. Its characteristics, are clearly shown in figure IX, on
plate V. It is probably the parent form of the type, indicating its
original home. From a study of the boat forms of the North
Celebes region, I infer that there has been immigration thereto
from the Philippines.

THE CELEBES ISLANDS.

When we pass to the Celebes we find much greater diversity
in double outrigger canoes and boats than in the Moluccas. The
fishermen use them if possible even more extensively and for light
coasting purposes in several parts, particularly in the north, large
outriggers still continue the struggle with the schooner-rigged,
high-sterned praus that have monopolized this trade in the south.

80 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

Everywhere the East Indonesian type is found ; it is the one
employed tor weight carrying. Side by side with it exist several
other types, usually with definite utilities. In the north these
consist of the highly specialized Minahasa fishing canoe and a
ferry type with floats directly lashed to the booms. In the south,
the latter is also found, together with a second and very distinct
variety of the same type. In addition there are very peculiar and
strictly localized types in certain of the small islands. Single
outriggers are also occasionally met with in the south, never in
the north ; they seem a recent modification evolved for greater
handiness in harbour use.

Minahasa. — This is the most easterly district in the long narrow
peninsula that stretches east and north towards the Philippines,
with which it seems formerly to have linked by way of the Sangir
Islands. The Minahasa is a wonderfully fertile region peopled
by an enterprising race ; head hunters and animists two or three
generations ago, they have adopted in a suitably modified form
many European manners and customs and now form a prosperous
and self-respecting Christianized community. In fishing and boat
designs little or no change has taken place, partly because coast
work is principally in the hands of men of rather different ethnic
origin, and partly because the craft in use are admirably fitted to
local conditions and to the unambitions nature of their fishing
pursuits.

FlG. 41. — Simple form of outrigger with direct attachment ; seen in section.

Menado, N. Celebes.

At Menado, the principal port, the three different types of
outrigger in use on the Minahasa coast are seen in considerable
numbers. The simplest is used chiefly for ferry purposes and in
taking passengers to and from the steamers in the harbour.
These are simple dugouts with two long and slightly curved boom
poles laid athwart the gunwales, with a bamboo float lashed to the
ends on each side (Fig. 41). They vary greatly in size, river ones
generally small, harbour ones usually hewn from very big tree
trunks and capable of carrying numerous passengers with a
considerable quantity of baggage. The hull is perfectly plain ; as
a rule a sail is not employed.

No. 2 ( 1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 8l

The second type here is a stoutly built and usually fairly large
dugout fitted with double outriggers of the East Indonesian pattern
(PI. VIII, fig. XV). The hull is double ended, with little sheer, rather
coarse at the extremities; the stem and stern are bent upwards
a few inches only ; these are separate pieces added to the
dugout hull. No ornament of any description is present. The
booms are of squared timber supported on chocks resting on the
gunwales; they are secured by lashing to thwarts near the bottom
of the canoe ; the floats are strong bamboos. The angular
secondaries have the lower limb rather more curved than is usual
in the Molucca varieties ; in the Minahasa design the whole joint
often assumes a loose S-shape, formed of two reversed curves.
Another notable difference is the lack of any bracing pole in the
Minahasa design. A curious substitute for the usual wooden
secondary was seen once in a small-sized canoe of this description
on the Menado river, the branched antler of a deer being used.
It is just possible that in this we have the primitive form and
material used to make the curved joint ; the natural curve of an
antler is very suitable for the purpose, and its toughness furnishes
the requisite strength. The use of antlers in fashioning canoe
anchors is not uncommon in the Moluccas ; I noticed several
instances.

In some cases a Y-crutch is lashed against the boom just
beyond the head of the secondary to which it is also lashed
(PI. VIII, fig. XV) ; this gives a certain additional stiffness to the
joint but many are without it. Poles, paddles, and fishing rods not
in use are conveniently placed out of the way in these rests.

These canoes are the weight carriers in fishing; they are far
less handy and speedy than the third form yet to be described,
but their stouter build fits them to carry heavy loads of nets. As
a consequence these boats are used wherever seining is a fishing
method much used, and that signifies nearly everywhere on the
Minahasa coast. Frequently these canoes work in partnership with
the light third type; the one shoots the heavy seine; the other
carries one of the hauling ropes to the appointed place. In this
way the seine can be used in deep water somewhat in the manner
of the Danish trawl.

Occasionally larger outrigger canoes are built on the same
general design to carry light but bulky cargo such as thatching
material, upon outboard side platforms laid over the booms. One
of these (PI. IX, fig. XVI) had a big slab-sided dugout as the basis

82

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

of the hull ; sides of some height were raised on this, by the addition
of several strakes and with a broader narrow wale on top, forming
a prominent beading, with a narrow gunwale to finish off. It
carried a permanent pole mast, and an atap roof ovei the waist to
give shelter for the crew, and was steered by means of a quarter

Fig. 42. —Attachment used for the fore and aft booms in small coasters,

Minahasa, N. Celebes.

rudder suspended from a strong pin in an aft rudder thwart, as is
often seen in the smaller Macassar boats.

The outrigger frame consisted of three massive squared boom
poles attached to the floats by very stout reverse-curve secondaries
in the case of the forward and the aft pole (fig. 42), and by a weak

Fig

43. — Attachment used for the median (third) boom in the same boats.
A bamboo and a pole are !a.sheu together to form the tloat.

joint without curved-in head in that of the middle cross pole
(Fig. 43). The former were 2 to 2% inches in section. Each of
the floats was double, made up of a stout bamboo and a stout timber
pole.

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

83

IX

t*

The cargo platforms were made by laying several poles longi-
tudinally over the three booms ; on these
a cargo of atap thatch mats was stowed.
Stem and stern were vertical and without
sheer. No ornament anywhere except for
the beading below the gunwale.

The third kind of outrigger canoes in
use in Minahasa is a strictly localized
design not seen far beyond the strict
territorial limits of the district. It is
extremely specialized and may be termed
the Minahasa type (PI. IX, fig. XVII). It is
of great importance in its own locality,
hundreds being in constant and universal
use in all fishing operations where speed is
necessary and where roominess and weight-
carrying are not requisites.

Description is difficult on account of the
extraordinary complex character of the
many details. The following account if
taken in conjunction with the diagrams
furnished (Figs. 44 and 45) will, it is hoped,
convey comprehension of the characteristic
features of greater importance. Two booms
are employed. The fore one is rectangular
in section, decreasing slightly in thick-
ness towards the extremities. By means
described later, the ends are bent down in a
graceful curve on each side so that the
whole forms a bow-shaped arc ; the extre-
mities are connected directly by lashing
with a float on each side. In addition there
are two horizontal tough braces or stringers
provided with a view to keep the curve of
the boom in correct set, counteracting the
tendency to straighten through the thrust
from below set up by the force of the sea
upon the float, particularly when pitching.
The longer of these added pieces is nearly the same length as the
boom to which it is lashed amidships. It is straight and at each
6

V

Fig, 44. — A Minahasa
fishing canoe ; side view.

84

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

end where it stands out free some three inches above the end
of the boom, a small inverted forked Y-piece, from two to three

Fig. 45. — A Minahasa fishing canoe seen from above.

inches long, is inserted; at the top end it is lashed to the end of
the brace, while the forked end straddles the extremity of the

NO. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 85

boom. In addition there are three or four lashings at short
intervals on the inner side of the Y-piece, as shown in figures 44
and 45.

The second transverse brace is much shorter ; it extends out-
board on each side to midway between the gunwale and the end
of the boom, that is, to just beyond the three-branched pole crutch
yet to be described. In the lower fork of this, at a height of two to
three inches above the down-curving boom, one end of the brace
is lashed ; inboard are usually three lashings as at the ends of the
longer brace. Both the brace poles are slender.

The aft boom is without these braces and is not fastened
directly to the floats. Instead, a reverse curve bracket of the kind
described on page 81 is employed as connecting joint — a method
employed for both booms in the heavier outrigger used in seining
in the same district. In the present instance there are several
elaborations; the inner end is prolonged to a point inboard of
the place where the three-branched pole is placed, i.e., it extends
further towards the gunwale than is usual. To secure the further
end where it joins the float from bending and perhaps breaking in
a heavy sea, a long vertical inverted forked stick is inserted as a
strut between the end of the boom and the outer end of the joint
piece just inner to its attachment by lashing with the float — in
similar manner to that described above in respect of the short
Y-peg at each end of the fore boom.

The rig consists of a short pole mast carrying an oblong sail
with a bamboo along each of the long sides — the sail of the Boro
Budur sculptures.

The hull is invariably a dugout, narrower at the gunwale than at
the bilge. The usual measurements are about 22 feet in length by
16-inch beam at the gunwale. Stem and stern are bifid, a wedge
shaped piece being cut out from each end. The gap thus formed
is deeper and longer at the fore end than that at the stern. So
deep is the former that it suggests instructively the open jaws of
a crocodile. Whether it had this meaning originally, it certainly
approximates in outline to the highly ornamental bow given to
their canoes by the Papuans of the north-west of New Guinea. On
the northern Celebes coast, the parts are simplified and no
ornament is employed. The similarity of the basal design is
significant. This type extends westward along the coast as far

86

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

at least as Paleleh, where I saw a considerable number. It may
be however that they are imported as the steamer I travelled by
landed one here which had been shipped at Amurang. These
boats are largely used in fishing (trolling) for bonito, a purpose for
which they are well adapted by reason of their fine lines and
high speed under full sail.

Before quitting the Minahasa, it is worthy of note that the
canoes used on the extensive inland lake of Tondano, the heart of
this region, are dugouts of the most primitive design, and wholly
without any visible relationship with any of the sea craft of
the same region. They are trough-shaped dugouts, truncate at
the ends which are hewn through, a cross bulkhead being after-
wards put in to close the open extremities. In some cases the hull
is straight, in others the ends rise distinctly and this makes such
canoes easier to propel. The paddles used are made from split
bamboo roughly shaped into handle and blade.

Fig. 46. — A large outrigger coaster, N.-W. Coast of Celebes.

N.-W. Celebes Coast. — On the northern part of the west coast
of the Celebes, from Paleleh to beyond Donggala, besides fishing
canoes fitted with the East Indonesian type of outrigger as in use
at Menado, much larger craft of the same basal design are
extensively employed in the local coasting trade. They run to a
fair size— 10 to 12 tons each. The hull is plank-built, sharp at

NO. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 87

both ends, with a stern platform, the rudiment of a poop (Fig. 46).
This superstructure is here seen for the first time, although it is
usual in an even more developed form in Macassar praus without
outrigger. It is carried out several feet beyond the stern post
and projects well over the quarters. The sides are low, formed of
narrow planks, four to six inches deep. A crutch sometimes
supported by an arc-shaped rail, is usually fitted at the centre of the
aft end, to take the long sprit when not in use. This elevated
stern platform gives the tindal or the pilot a clear outlook forward,
and from it he can readily transmit his orders to the steersman
below who manipulates the quarter rudder. The aft platform
is sometimes provided with a temporary mat roof, penthouse
form.

Amidships is the main cabin, wider than the hull proper which
carries the low openwork sides upon thwart beams projecting a
foot or so outboard beyond the gunwale proper. The roof is a
low atap covered penthouse, the boom of the mainsail being
raised sufficiently high to clear it.

The construction of the open-frame sides when extended and
amplified would result in such a basketwork superstructure as is
seen in the Boro Budur sculptured ships, where it is evident that
the hull proper is narrow in comparison with the width of the
superstructure — -a method or design which necessitates the use of
double outriggers. To guard as much as possible against top-
heaviness, the added parts are made as light as possible, exactly as
is seen in the openwork bulwarks of Macassar praus, each plank
being spaced about its own width apart from the adjoining plank
above and below.

The rig of these boats consists of a comparatively short mast
stepped well forward, carrying a boomed spritsail and a peculiar
fore staysail. The sprit is comparatively long ; the boom is fitted
fairly high, to enable it to clear the cabin roof. As there is
no bowsprit, the forward corner of the jib-like staysail, when
running with a fair wind, is attached to the outboard end of the
forward outrigger boom on the weather side (Fig. 46). In fishing
boats of the same design the tripod mast hoisting an oblong sail
is occasionally to be seen, for example at Paleleh.

Macassar and Southern Celebes Coast. — On the southern coast
of the Celebes, dominated by the great entrepot of Macassar,
great diversity of type exists. Among the larger fishing boats

88

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

met with off the coast for many miles northward of Macassar,
the commonest is a variety of the East Indonesian design where
the secondaries approach more closely to a form common in
Lombok than to those seen on the northern coasts of the Celebes
or anywhere in the Moluccas. Instead of the upper limb being
straight or only slightly bent, it is so greatly curved that the
extremity is bent down to the side of the boom and lashed thereto ;
as the part which in other varieties forms a distinct elbow,
is also here lashed to the side of the boom (Fig. 47), this design
gives great security and the use of bracing poles is dispensed
with. The long or outer arm of the joint is distinctly more elon-
gated than usual and is placed very obliquely, enabling the float to
be attached well beyond the ends of the booms. This design is
employed by all the larger fishing canoes that work the offshore
waters.

These large craft have a slabsided dugout hull, sometimes
heightened by a wash-strake ; sharp at both ends with little or no
sheer. They always have a double outrigger and while the great
majority have but two booms, a few were seen with three. In this
case the extra or middle boom is placed well aft. The attachment
of the booms to the dugout is often effected differently from that
in general use among the types so far described; here a narrow

1

3=

Fig. 47. — Diagrammatic transverse section through a Macassar outrigger dugout.

thwart passes on each side through the gunwale and to this in
three places— one inside and two outside — the boom is lashed
(Fig. 47). Stout bamboos are used as floats.

The greater number are rigged with a bamboo tripod mast and
oblong sail. This mast hinges at the base in the manner already
described (page 60) and can be folded down to rest in a crutch
at the stern. All three legs are attached very far forward, the
paired ones immediately in front of the fore boom, the odd leg
right in the bow. The truck where the two side poles meet is
finished off with a backward curl at the summit. Others have
adopted a rather tall pole mast ; these are generally rigged with a

NO. 2 (1920) OTjTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

89

sprit sail laced to the mast and without boom ; some however
while adopting the pole mast have adhered to the older pattern of
oblong sail.

At the stern a crescentic frame carrying two lateral crutches is
usually fitted; on this the mast and sail rest when not set up.
Inner to each lateral crutch a peg is let into the frame on which
the quarter rudder is hung by a rope or rattan grommet (Fig. 48).
Usually only one quarter rudder is employed.

Fig. 48. — Sectional view through the aft end of a Macassar outrigger cance to
show the steering framework.

Among smaller double outriggers used in Macassar and the
neighbourhood are those with the booms attached directly to the
float. In these, both the booms and the floats are of bamboo, the
booms depressed outboard somewhat to ensure that the floats are
sufficiently low to reach the water readily. Alternatively the
booms are nearly straight, and to depress the floats enough a stout
wooden chock is intercalated between at the point where the boom
end is lashed to the float (PI. X, fig. XVIII). Some canoes with this
kind of outrigger have fairly large stout hulls with end pieces and
a stout wash-strake added. The sharp ends are coarse and heavy
and nearly vertical. The gunwale is almost without sheer through-
out its whole length. These canoes carry a pole mast stepped
immediately abaft the fore boom ; a sprit sail is the usual rig.

The smallest-sized fishing boats used in inshore work range
from 9 to 20 feet in length ; nearly all are single outriggers, a most
exceptional design in Indonesia. The form of attachment also is
one not seen anywhere else in the Archipelago. The distinctive
feature is the selection for each boom of a pole having a side branch

90 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

towards one end, divergent at the requisite angle. The prolonga-
tion of the main stem is cut off, and the pole with its branch is
affixed across the canoe in such a way that the side branch is
downward and directed outwards. When a pair are affixed a
bamboo float is lashed to the ends of the two oblique side branches.
Most of them have the arc-shaped stern crutch already described
but the very small ones are provided with only half of this fitting.
Some of the larger ones have in addition a Y-shaped crutch
forward on one bow (PI. X, fig. XIX). Others have a smaller one
outboard on each side close to the forward boom ; sometimes each
of these Y-crutches is inserted near the anterior end of one of the
bamboos laid longitudinally over the outrigger booms to form a
rough outboard platform ; sometimes in the outboard end of the mast
thwart; much variation prevails in regard to the form and position
of all these crutches. No ribs are left to strengthen the dugout hull
when excavated, neither is it spread in any way. Some have a
washstrake pegged on with long vertical pegs. These canoes
generally use a sprit sail rigged on a pole mast ; a few use the old
oblong sail. Most use cotton sails, but mat ones still persist ;
a quarter rudder is the rule.

Occasionally but rarely one of the larger of these canoes is seen
with a double outrigger of this last pattern.

On the river a few small dugouts with single outriggers are in
use ; in these the booms arc naturally bent curved poles, tied
directly to a palm leaf-stalk employed as a boom. These are two-
man angling dugouts ; small as they are, steering is done by means
of a quarter rudder (PI. XI, fig. XX).

South-East Celebes. — Still other forms of outriggers — all double —
are found in the island of Buton and on the adjoining south-east
coast of the Celebes mainland. The most common is that seen in
Buton, where the fishing boats have the booms attached to the
lloats by means of hook-shaped secondaries, related to those of
Macassar but differing essentially in that the long arm of the joint
is vertical instead of oblique ; in this way the float, which is lashed
to the inner side of the vertical secondary, is directly below the end
of the boom and not some distance beyond as is the general rule
in East Indonesian designs (Fig. 49). The hulls of these
Buton outriggers are narrow unspread dugouts ; the smaller ones
have very little freeboard, and are so low in the water that chocks,
about four inches high, are pegged to the gunwale below the

NO. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

91

booms to give these sufficient elevation to carry the floats at a
suitable depth. The larger ones have a washstrake pegged on.

For passengers and ferry purposes, beamy plank-built boats
fitted with the same kind of doable outrigger are also employed.
In these the length of the booms is relatively shorter than in the
fishing canoes. Besides the booms three long thwarts cross the
hull, projecting 18 or 20 inches outboard on each side. On these
projections an outboard platform, with board sides and flooring of
split bamboos, is erected, large enough to accommodate a number

50

Fig. 49. — Attachment device seen at Buton, S.E. Celebes.
FlG. 50 a and /'.—Two forms of attachment in use at Raha, same region ; a. as used in

large canoes ; b. in small ones.

of passengers or to stow light cargo. To carry poles, paddles and
other boat gear, four Y-shaped crutches are fitted upon the
outboard ends of the two main thwarts. Two quarter rudders are
used, each hung by a grommet from a peg in the upper side of a
curved post fixed on each quarter. Forward are two small catheads,
connected by a bar, used to support the mast and sail when not in
use. The bow is straight. No ornament is employed whether in
these passenger boats or in the fishing canoes.

At Raha, further north, the larger fishing canoes are double
outriggers much like those of Buton but with the curved end of the
hook-shaped secondary turned outwards, and with the float attached
on the outer side of the vertical arm instead of on the inner; to
give further strength to the joint, a straight strut— a short
cylindrical length of wood— is tied vertically between the under
side of the boom and the upper surface of the float (Fig. 50a).
7

92 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

The smaller canoes have sometimes a plain angular bend
connecting the boom and the float, one arm lashed to the side of
the boom, the other to the outer side of the float, as shown in
figure 50 b.

WEST COAST OF BORNEO

Comparatively few outriggers are employed on this coast ; what
there are, arc of the East Indonesian type seen around Macassar.
The majority of fishing boats here are either small dugouts without
outriggers, or else shallow beamy plank-built boats, sharp at both
ends ; the latter are rigged with a short pole mast and oblong sail,
generally of cotton and sometimes of matting. Double quarter-
rudders are employed as in Macassar praus. Steering is done with
the one on the lee side, that to windward is often left immersed
and untended — it acts as a sort of leeboard under these conditions.

LOMBOK.

In this island all the outrigger frames are double ; they are of
two types, one which is typical of the adjoining island of Bali and
one characteristic of Lombok.

The latter is a variety of the East Indonesian type and may
appropriately be termed the Lombok variety thereof. The largest
fishing canoes are of this design (PI. XI, fig. XXI). In this,

FIG. 51.— Method of connecting the boom and the float in Lombok outrigger^.

the oblique outrigger secondary approaches the form seen around
Macassar, but the free end of the curved head instead of being
brought down past the side of the boom and there secured later-
ally, is cut to fit upon the convex upper surface of the boom to
which it is strongly lashed (Fig. 51). The booms are stout

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 93

cylindrical poles of light wood ; in the centre, where they cross the
canoe, they are secured in position in the manner so common in
Indonesia, by long lashings to a thwart in the bottom of the boat,
jammed beneath two lateral chocks left when hewing out the hull.
To further strengthen this part, a batten extending outboard a
short distance on each side is laid upon and parallel with the boom
and seized thereto at each end (Fig. 52). Each of the floats is
circular in section, of light wood ; the anterior end is curved
upwards slightly, and the top surface sliced away.

One of these canoes was found to be 24 feet in length, and of
40 inches beam (to outside of gunwale) ; each float was placed 12
feet outboard, and its length was 19 feet. The length of the outer
limb of the secondaries was 32 inches from the lashing" near the
outer end of the boom to the extremity where it was connected to
the upper surface of the float. Sometimes these canoes run even

Fig. 52. — Method of lashing the boom within the hull of the dugout in Lombok

outrigger canoes.

larger; one seen but not measured possessed a small poop after
the Macassar prau pattern ; this was in use as a small coaster. The
hull has one or several strakes added to increase the freeboard of
the dugout base, and both ends are sharp ; the stem is curved
slightly forward, giving a moderate clipper bow — an unusual
feature. Aft are one or several crutches ; tiie pattern and
arrangement vary, in some there is one principal and median,
carved neatly, in others three unornamented forked sticks are
employed. A single quarter-rudder is used, hung from a peg
inserted in an outwardly curving post rising from one end of
a strong thwart that passes outboard nearly a foot on each side.
A second curved post symmetric with the first is placed on the
opposite side. A rudder notch worn smooth by constant use is cut
in the fore edge of the outboard portion of the thwart to take
the axis of the quarter rudder. Usually the rudder is hung
to starboard ; in one case only was it on the port quarter. A pole
mast is used, kept set up and fitted with permanent stays.

94 M \DRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

Smaller outrigger canoes are also seen of the Bali type, with
spliced-on secondaries; they differ only in details (PI. XII, fig.
XXII). The hulls are dugouts with a narrow washstrake added,
except forward of the fore boom. No added pieces are used at the
stem and stern ; each has a long blunt overhang carved from the
original Iom'. The booms rest upon stout blockshaped thwarts
lying across the gunwales, and are secured to an inner thwart by
two loop lashings as in the Lombok type. These canoes are
largely employed in seining.

Alongside of these two forms of outriggers are many dugouts
without this device. They are elegant in their form and lines;
the stem is sharp and clipper-shaped, with the addition of a pecu-
liar forwardly-directed heel, which may be compared with the bifid
bow of the Madura and East Java ' sampans. ' Right forward
is an asymmetrical crutch ; sometimes this is carved, the straight
limb turned while the curved one sometimes has the terminal knob
carved into the conventional representation of a bird's head. At
the stern are a pair of curved elbows to carry the quarter rudder,
used even in these small dugouts. When hauled up, a neatly
made wooden rest is used to raise the hulls off the ground.

BALI.

This island, the last refuge of Hinduism in the archipelago,
has a very distinctive design of outrigger in general use. This
may be termed the Bali type (PI. XII, fig. XXIII). The hull and rig
may vary, but the essential points of the outrigger frame-work
remain the same in all. These consist of the boom secondaries,
lightly curved joints, spliced to the ends of straight booms at
the inner ends, and inserted at their outer ones into holes bored
obliquely through bamboo floats. The splice is a strong one,
secured both by ample lashings and by a stout vertical peg,
rarely by two, passing through the outer end of the splice. To
prevent the floats working free from the ends of the joint pieces, a
strong cord, secured at one end to the upper projecting end of the
splice peg, passes along the side of the joint to be carried round
the float and lashed firmly at the point of insertion of the
pointed end of the joint. Figure 53 shows these details clearly.
The booms are two in number, very stout and placed widely
apart, the aft one very near the stern. In a medium-sized canoe, a
dugout measured at Buleleng in Bali, the dimensions were : —length

No. 2(1920)

OUTRIGGER CANOES OF 1NDONES1 \

95

30 feet, beam (outside gunwale) 40 inches, depth 30 inches; the
floats were very stout bamboos, 6 inches in diameter ; each
projected 4 feet aft of the stern, the fore end being level with the
bow. To lessen resistance, the anterior extremity of each bamboo
float is closed with a bung-like wooden stopper, rounded in front.

The form of the hull varies. In the smaller and medium-sized
ones, used chiefly in fishing, the form is canoe-shaped — sharp at
both ends ; those over 30 feet in length, running to 40 feet and

FIG.' 53. — Typical Bali boom and float attachment : a. side view : /). fore end of
the bamboo boom ; c. wooden ping fitting into fore end of b.

more, are employed chiefly in trading ; in these the bow is
bifid, a narrow jibboom-like projection standing out in line
with the gunwales, and above the actual stem. The stern is
carried high in a great curve, by means of flattened pieces
pegged on edgewise, giving a broad and striking appearance in
side view. In the large sizes the depth and beam are increased by
the addition of washstrakes. The bigger boats have an outboard
platform fitted on each side extending out as far as a distance
equal to or even exceeding the width of the dugout hull proper,
which is narrow and deep — 40 inches in one of 30 feet length. In
some this is a light split bamboo platform with low sides,
in others it is a permanent and substantial structure made of
planking with fairly high sides supporting a penthouse roof of
atap thatching. The whole structure rests on transverse thwarts
passing outboard, and shows clearly how the lofty superstructure
of the Boro Budur ships was formed. The openwork adopted in
the latter was obviously for the sake of saving top weight.

9^ MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. Xll,

The rig is similar to that of the passenger and cargo
sampans of Sourabaya — a very short mast ending in a short peg,
carries a triangular sail, apex downwards ; the sail is hung from
the peg by means of a loop of rope attached to the sailyard. All
steer by means of a quarter rudder hung by a grommet from the
lower horn of a Y-shaped crutch near the stern. This type of
outrigger is derived without doubt directly from that in which
each boom is formed from a pole having a curved branch on one
side, the lower, as described on page 90. Such branches are
difficult to procure of suitable size and strength in the requisite
number — four of identical size for each equipment.

Outrigger canoes of similar design are met with in Lombok
and in S.-E. Java (Banjuwangi).

A second type of double outrigger in which the ends of the
booms are lashed directly to the float is also seen in Bali. It is
employed generally for canoes of smaller size than those using the
Bali design of spliced secondary, and is much less numerous. The
design is all but identical with one of those common at Macassar.
The hull is a simple slabsided dugout with the two ends sharp
and similar. The booms are bamboo poles of considerable length.
To secure them in position at a proper height, a thick thwart is
laid across the gunwales; in the upper surface a groove is
cut and in this the outrigger pole is laid and lashed in the usual
manner. The outer ends of the booms are lashed to the outrigger
bamboo directly; no special device is used. The only interesting-
feature is the employment of a carved ornamental piece, added at
each end of the canoe; the design is floral, akin to the exuberant
floral sculptures used in the decoration of the flamboyant temple
gateways so characteristic of this island. A Y-shaped crutch
is used to suspend the single quarter rudder used by these canoes.
A sprit-sail rig is usually adopted ; a light boom extends the
lower edge of the sail.

A third kind seen in Bali is rare and of very small size, 14 feet
in length in the one measured at Buleleng. In some ways it is the
most interesting as it is one of those exceptional designs where
the attachment to the float of the fore boom differs from that of
the aft one (PI. XIII, fig. XXIV). The only other of such herma-
phrodite type are the Minahasa one and a related design seen
in Mindanao in the Philippines (PI. V, fig. IX). Both agree in
having the fore boom lashed directly to the float but in the Bali

NO. 2 (I920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA

97

variety there are no complicated accessory parts, the method of
lashing being direct and simple; the fore boom, a squared strong
pole, is practically straight ; as a consequence the fore end of the
bamboo float is raised high and thus offers less resistance when
sailing. In the case of the aft boom, there is a very slight curve
and this, as in the case of the Minahasa outrigger, is reversed, the
ends bending upwards slightly. These are shaped as depicted in
figure 54, and each has an oblique slot in the deeper part ; through
this the upper end of a short straight obliquely-placed stanchion is

b.

b$*3£>«

Fig. 54. — Details of a rare form of small Buleleng outrigger canoe seen in Bali ; a.
method of attaching the boom to the float ; />. quarter- rudder crutch and
pin ; c . quarter rudder.

passed; the lower end is thinned somewhat and inserted in an
oblique hole in the bamboo float. To secure the float, the same
plan is adopted as in the large Buleleng outriggers — a cord being
passed round the projecting peg-like top of the stanchion and
carried down to be lashed around the float, A triangular sail
carried by a stumpy mast is the rig ; the same as in the large Bali
type above described (page 96). Upon a Y-shaped rudder crutch
of distinctive pattern, having one short vertical and a longer
slightly curved limb, a quarter rudder of the usual prau form is
hung from the bent arm. A slender and much longer crutch
whereon to rest the mast when not in use, is placed right in the
stern, abaft the other.

9g MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

It is interesting to note that the ordinary type of small trader
used on the Bali coasts is that of plank-built boats without out-
riggers, of the same general design but of much greater relative
beam than the Bali type of outrigger canoe. It is clear that these
have been evolved directly from the latter, increase in beam
giving sufficient stability without recourse to the use of a clumsy

outrigger.

MADURA.

What may justly be called the Madura type of double outrigger
is used in large numbers by the fishermen of Madura. It is one
of the strangest and most fantastic looking craft in the world,
so strange as to be grotesque. In varying extremely from more
ordinary and regular forms, it seems to occupy much the same
position to them as did the fantastic ammonities of the chalk to
their more staid predecessors.

The hulls of these canoes are dugouts with high and quaintly
shaped blade-like bow and stern (PI. XIV, fig. XXVI); a deep wash
strake is added and several small pieces go to form the curious
ends. The aft boom is in five pieces, a median stout cylindrical
bar laid transverse across the hull, a broad wingshaped upwardly
turned primary joint on each side and a downwardly curved
secondary joint fitting into the primary at one end and into the
float on the other. The details are shown in the figure. The
median part projects but little beyond the gunwale on each side ;
the wing-like primary joint fits into it by its lower end, whittled
down enough to enter the hole bored in the end of the cross-piece.
Similarly the secondary is inserted by a peg-like extremity into
the primary at a point midway along its outer edge ; from here it
curves downwards and outwards to be pegged into the float.

The fore boom is without the wing-like joint; the single joint
present is a weak reversed curve ; one extremity is inserted in the
end of the median cross bar, all that remains of the boom proper,
the other, bent up slightly, is lashed to the upper side of the float.
The whole design is made up of a medley of curves, the float
itself being bent in a deep curve, the concavity upwards. The
floats are long bamboos, strongly curved upwards at the fore
ends.

The great wing-joint of the aft boom is usually richly orna-
mented with carved designs — the one piece of decoration attempted
A quarter rudder is used, hung from the usual crutch arm.

NO. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 99

The rig is equally curious with the other features ; the mast,
a slender pole, is stepped aft at the fore side of the centre of the
aft boom-thwart ; it inclines slightly forwards and carries a long
triangular sail, laced to a bamboo pole on each long side. The
apex where the two poles meet, is secured right in the bows.
The resemblance to the sails of the New Guinea latakoi is marked.

EAST JAVA.

By far the finest of outrigger coasting craft in the Dutch Indies
are to be seen in the harbours of this region. These boats are fast
disappearing; comparatively few exist and it is only at small
oldworld ports such as Grisee, near Sourabaya in East Java, that
they may occasionally be found. Two varieties are seen ; the larger
and rarer have a hull similar to that of the small bifid-prowed
coasters and passenger praus that ply in crowds out of every
harbour in East Java and Madura with bow obliquely truncate and
gaudily painted on the flat foreside; the smaller have a plain hull
with sharp bow and stern modelled upon the design of the ordinary
fishing boat of the district (PL XV, fig. XXVII).

The larger of these outrigger coasters (PI. XV, fig. XXVIII), shares
with the tripod-masted prau of Macassar the distinction of being
one of the two most distinctive and interesting craft in Indonesia.
The former is clearly the immediate predecessor of the ordinary
Javanese small coaster, the main change being the elimination of
the outrigger. The hulls of both boats are carvel built, with
numerous cross beams which pass through the planking to the
outside, where the ends project about an inch and are picked out
in black or other dark colour upon the lighter ground tint of the
planking. The keel, instead of passing at each end into the stem
and stern posts, is carried in a gentle upward curve forward and aft
as the case may be, to end in a blunt ram-like projection just sub-
merged when the boat is fully laden. The true stem is truncate
somewhat as in Chinese sampans and like them is gaudily painted
(PL XVI, fig. XXIX); no special convention controls the designs;
many bespeak considerable decorative skill obviously influenced in
numerous cases by European contact, as shown by the frequent
employment of flags and national emblems. Ornamental scrolls
symmetrically disposed, with conventional floral designs predomi-
nate. The form and general decoration of the stern agree gene-
rally with the bow but it is less prominent and high. A powerful
8

100 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

quarter rudder is used as is usual in these seas upon each quarter,
hung when in use from a great rudder crutch or gallows close to the
stern. There is no deck, the cargo being protected by moveable
bamboo penthouse covers.

The outrigger frame on each side consists of two extremely
stout booms attached to a compound float, usually of two bamboos
of the largest available thickness. The booms are not laid upon
the gunwale of the hull in the usual manner, but pass through the
planking just above the water-line at full load. Each is thickest
where it issues horizontally from the hull. From a point about
2/^ feet outboard it raises in a gentle curve to mid distance, when
it bends down at a similar gentle curve to meet the float. The
forward boom is attached above the two float bamboos ; the aft one
is pointed and inserted into the outer bamboo and above the inner
one. On each side a light bamboo platform, two feet wide, is
laid on longitudinal bamboos resting upon the hither portions of
the two booms and upon the outboard ends of several thwarts
projecting beyond the gunwale. These platforms provide the crew
with accommodation to sit or stand when rowing and poling; at
each end of the port platform is fitted an elaborately carved and
painted unequal-armed crutch for the mast and yard.

The rig differs entirely from that affected by the local praus
without outriggers; instead of their two short masts carrying
triangular sails, point downwards, it consists of a single fairly
tall mast hoisting a sprit sail, together with a long slender jibboom
and small jib.

From certain of the details of this curious survival, conjoined
with others drawn from the tripod-masted rig and open bulwarks
of the deep-sea Bugi trading schooner of Macassar, from the
oblong sail plan often seen in the fishing boats of the Moluccas and
the Celebes, satisfactory understanding of the strange ships sculp-
tured on the panels of the lower galleries of the Boro-Budur ruins
in Java becomes possible. These sculptures dating from the 8th
and 9th centuries of our era, undoubtedly represent outrigger
sea-going vessels of greater size than any surviving at the present
day. They stand for Javanese vessels furnished with very massive
outriggers, double masts, and twin quarter rudders. In view of
the fact that the double outrigger is used solely in the Malay
Archipelago for all medium and large-sized outrigger boats and
for the great majority even of small ones, the inference that the

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 101

ancient Javanese outrigger ships were similarly equipped is
justifiable. In the smaller of the sculptured craft, a quarter steering
paddle is clearly seen, and it seems certain that in the larger, the
further development had been reached of placing them in a rudder
trunk on each quarter ; in this case, as in that of the large Macassar
schooner-praus, the steersmen would sit in the quarters on the main
deck beneath the poop deck ; in the latter there is no rudder trunk,
the tiller of each rudder passing through a large square port in the
quarter of its respective side, the rudder being suspended outside
from a gallery-like framework. In these modern vessels both the
fore and main masts are of tripod pattern, consisting of an aft part
of two nearly perpendicular spars inclined just enough to meet at
the cross trees, the forward or unpaired leg with its apex inclined
aft, to be inserted and secured by a pin just beneath the junction
of the paired legs. In the Boro Budur ships the masts appear
to be double, and in the restoration which I have attempted
(Frontispiece), they are shown thus. The present day river
barges of the Irrawaddi possess double masts braced with many
rungs ; this plan, I believe, was that used in the 9th century
in Java. If this be so, the tripod mast, undoubtedly an improve-
ment, must be a subsequent evolution. As for the oblong sails
with a spar along each long side, seen in the Boro Budur ships,
this is the ordinary sail of the majority of small craft on the
Celebes coast and is often to be seen in the larger fishing boats
working out of North Java ports. The hull of the Boro Budur boat
remains ; this has been described as a kind of basket work * but
to any one who has seen the Macassar trading praus (PI. XVI, fig.
XXX) as well as the large outrigger coasters just described and
those in use at Donggala in the Celebes, it is clear that the curious
open timber work is an outboard superstructure reared on cross
beams laid athwart the much narrower hull proper, to give greater
passenger accommodation. The reason for not making it solid is to
reduce weight and so to lessen the danger that accrues from
heavy top-hamper. It is clear that an outrigger — a double one
presumably for the reason already stated — becomes a necessity in
the case of such a lofty and overhanging superstructure ; without a
safeguard of this nature the danger of capsizing would amount to
a certainty in even a light breeze. The large Bugi schooner-praus
show a vestige of this structure in the overhanging poop and the

* Schoff, W. II., The Periplus of the Ery/hrfean Sea (translation). London, 1912.

102 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

high open bulwarks (PI. XVI, fig. XXX), while the rudder-trunk
cover on each quarter of the Boro Budur ships lingers in the open
framework within which the quarter rudder is hung.

In south-east Java, at Banjuwangi, the Bali type of outrigger is
met with as might reasonably be expected; generally of small
size (PI. XIII, fig. XXV). These show the bifid bow which in
Bali is restricted to the largest sized outrigger. For their size the
Banjuwangi canoes carry a big sail, of the oblong pattern ; the
mast is longer than is usual in the Bali type, and the yard
instead of being hung from a peg at the top is hoisted by a rope
to the masthead. The peg however persists, transformed into an
ornamental fmial. A single quarter rudder is employed.

JAVA— NORTH COAST.

An abnormal design of single outrigger, one which I believe
must be a degenerate form of a type originally furnished with
double outriggers, is common among the Javanese fisherfolk of the
central region of the North Java coast. The distribution extends
roughly from Cheribon to the neighbourhood of Rembang in the
east. The hull is a long narrow dugout sometimes large enough
to carry as many as 13 men ; others are quite small ; their use is con-
fined almost entirely to inshore fishing, deep-sea work being carried
on by built boats without outriggers. The hull is quite plain, a
simple slabsided dugout with sharp and nearly vertical ends. The
outrigger frame is reduced to a minimum. In the great majority it
consists of a single bamboo boom laid athwart the fore end of the
dugout ; the weather end projects several feet, and is attached to
the fore end of the single float, by means of a broad vertical stan-
chion shaped from a short length of plank. The outer end of the
boom is passed through a hole in the upper part and secured by the
insertion of a wooden pin or key thrust into it on the outer side of
the stanchion (Fig. 55). The lower part of the latter is narrower
than the upper, and is socketed into a slot cut in the upper surface
of the bamboo float. Occasionally a second or after-boom is used,
attached in the same manner to the float. When the canoe has to
tack, the device is practised of shifting the outrigger to the opposite
side in order that it may continue to be a satisfactory weather
counterpoise — the same device is known and practised in India
among the outrigger fishermen of the north-east coast of the Gulf
of Mannar. A further point of interest is the fact that a form of

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 103

outrigger essentially similar in the way the booms are attached to
the float, is found in Madagascar and on the Swahili coast of
East Africa. There however the outrigger frame is often double ;
it probably represents the original or archaic form of the present
Javanese type, from which the present has been derived by
degeneration.

- ' i' M,l ' >' Mr.;:;-:, ■:"■'■ -^nr, , :::■:'!

FiG. 55. — Small fishing outrigger dugout, north const of [ava.

Local names for these peculiar Javanese outriggers are : Tjemplan
(Chemplon) and Tembon at Samarang and Cheribon, respectively.

SUMATRA.

On the east coast no indigenous outrigger canoes are now em-
ployed. Formerly and not at any remote date they appear to have
been used throughout this island, for the Achinese of the 17th
century, then a powerful people, employed the double form.
Dampier gives an interesting account of the construction by
Achinese sailors of a double outrigger in the Nicobar Islands ; in
this craft Dampier and these men escaped from the islands and
arrived safely in Achinese territory. He lays stress on the value
of the double outrigger in preventing the capsize of their canoe in
the stormy weather they experienced on the voyage.

At the present day double outriggers are still to be seen at
Padang on the west coast, and outrigger canoes are also found in
the off-coast islands of this neighbourhood. The Padang canoes
have two booms, connected directly with a float on each side.

According to Rappard* the inhabitants of the so-called Malay
settlements on Nias use double outrigger canoes besides other craft
The same author states that the only seafaring section of the
original population of Nias., viz., the population of Mazingo (South-
east Nias), also use trading canoes fitted with outriggers, in this

*■ Rappard, Th. C, " Het eiland Nias en zijne bewoners," Bijdragen lot de Taal-
Land-en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch- Indie, 7e Volgreeks, 8e deel, 1009, 's
Gravenhage.

104 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

contradicting Modigliani's statement, quoted by Haddon,* of the
absence of such craft from these islands. C. Chun f gives a
photograph of a double outrigger from South Pagei, and the Raffles
Museum in Singapore has a model of another from the Engano
Islands of similar construction— a double outrigger frame and
direct attachment. The most interesting item however, in regard
to Sumatran outriggers is Rosenberg's statement J that the
Mentawei Islanders use the single outrigger, a fact of the utmost
significance when we recall his opinion that the Mentawei people
exhibit distinct Polynesian physical characteristics.

All these Sumatran outriggers appear to have direct attachment,
whether they be single or double in form.

CONCLUSIONS.

The outstanding fact made clear by the foregoing study
is the universality of the use of the double outrigger among
Indonesian peoples. Further than this it is necessary to lay stress
upon the fact that the double outrigger design is confined strictly
to Indonesia with the exception of Madagascar, the Comoro islands
and the Swahili coast of East Africa. ^ The conclusion is therefore
logical and reasonable that the invention of the double outrigger
should be credited to the intelligence of the ancestors of the
present Indonesians.

In this connexion arises the difficulty of determining whether
the single or double outrigger is the original or more primitive
form. We have seen how the double outrigger is associated most
strictly with the Indonesian peoples — those tribes and race sections
who have distinct Mongolian affinities and whose true relationship
would be better expressed by the term Malaysian, the Malays being
in some ways the best developed as well as the most widely spread
section of the communities occupying this region. Wherever people
of Indonesian origin have penetrated, there the double outrigger is
seen unless replaced by craft other than outrigger canoes — the
adventurers who crossed the Indian Ocean to Madagascar took it

* Haddon, A. C, " The Outrigger Canoes of Torres Straits and N. Queensland,''
In Essays and Studies presented to IV. Ridgeway, Cambridge 1 913.

t Chun, C, Aus den Tiefen des Welf tneeres (Valdivia Expedition).

+ Rosenberg, H. voa, Int. Archiv f. Elhnogr., 1, 1SS8.

§ For notes upon the double canoes of this outside region, see Haddon, A. C,A/an,
1918, 29, and Hornell, J., Man, 1919, 55 and Man, 1920, 67.

NO. 2 (IQ20) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 105

with them and now it has passed to the East African coast. In the
same way we find it in use in the Philippine Islands, particularly
among the Moros trading and smuggling between the southern
islands and British North Borneo. Southwards it extends to Java,
Bali and the neighbouring islands and eastwards to Western
New Guinea. Only in the west of the Archipelago — on the
east coast of the island of Sumatra — do we find it absent, being
there replaced by boats without outriggers. (This exception
appears to be a consequence of the strong influence exercised
upon Sumatra by the Arabs who have never used nor understood
the outrigger.)

With regard to the single outrigger, apart from South India and
Ceylon, the Andamans and the Nicobars, the only peoples using
it consistently as their dominant boat type are the Papuasians
and the Polynesians, to whom, with the exception of the Papuans
of North-West New Guinea, the double outrigger is as foreign
as the single is to the Indonesians. Taken generally the present-
day far eastern distribution of the single outrigger is confined
to the race distribution of the Papuasians, Polynesians and
Micronesians. Except in North-West New Guinea there is no
overlapping of the two types. Structurally and from the nautical
standpoint, the small single outrigger represents a stronger
and more handy craft than the double one of the same size,
especially when running before the wind, but it suffers from the
fatal defect of being unable to beat to windward except at great
risk of capsize, unless most unsailorlike means be resorted to. Of
the methods evolved to meet this difficulty, the most common is
that of having the hull double-ended, with the mast in the centre,
and stem and stern interchangeable according to what tack the
canoe is on. This has been adopted in Ceylon. A second, evolved
only in North Java and on one short stretch of the Indian coast,
is to shift the outrigger frame from side to side as required by the
wind ; this device allows the canoe to have a permanent stern and
steering gear always at the same end. In large outrigger craft
too big for either device to be adopted, such vessels, of which the
two-masted Sinhalese outrigger coasters, running to 30 tons
burden, are the best surviving example, we find these vessels can
be employed only during the fine weather season of the year, when
winds are light and are often in the nature of land and sea
breezes. These boats creep along the coast never venturing far

106 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

from land, and working so with the local breezes that it is seldom
the outrigger is on the lee side. With a light wind prevailing, this
is not dangerous to such a comparatively large vessel well loaded
with cargo.

In this connexion 1 must not omit to point out the probability
that outrigger vessels of larger size than any now existing, were
the ordinary sea-going craft of Java over 1,000 years ago. Indeed
it is in Java that the largest outrigger coasting vessels anywhere
outside of Ceylon have survived to our own times. Unfortunately
we cannot as yet be quite certain whether these old Javanese
outrigger ships were provided with the single or the double form ;
the persistence of the double form in the existing Javanese coasters
is a strong a priori reason for the belief that they had the double
rig. In respect of ability to beat to windward, the double outrigger
is a decided advance upon the single ; it possesses the further
advantage that it permits of very roomy cabin structures being
built ; the lateral parts may project several feet outboard on either
side, resting upon the projecting ends of stout thwartship beams,
as in the Boro Budur ship design ; this has the advantage of
permitting the immersed portion of the hull to be small in sectional
dimensions, offering a minimum of resistence in its passage
through the water. Under adverse conditions the single outrigger
behaves well if carefully and strongly constructed, but it is not
good in fine weather for long voyages, even when the winds are
regular and seasonal, on acccunt of inadequate cabin accommo-
dation ; in eastern seas long voyages can usually be taken in perfect
confidence that the wind will remain in the same quarter for the
whole duration of the trip.

Whether or not we accept the conclusion which I put forward
that the double outrigger was evolved from the single form it is
unthinkable that they had separate or independent origin.

The conclusion that the single outrigger is the primitive type,
from which the double was derived in consequence of the necessity
found by some of the users of the single form for one better
adapted for commercial purposes, and the prosecution of long
voyages, receives its greatest confirmation from the present distri-
bution of the single outrigger. Only on such a hypothesis as the
above can we account satisfactorily for the striking discontinuity
in the geographical range of this type. There must have been a
time when its range extended from India and Ceylon to hither

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 107

Polynesia, a time prior to the invention of the double type. Neither
Dravidian Indians, Polynesians, Micronesians nor Papuasians
(save a few borderland Papuans) exhibit any knowledge of this
latter type — not the slightest trace that it was ever used in these
regions can be found. The Mongoloid inhabitants of the Malay
Archipelago— the Indonesians of most writers — are admittedly
later comers into the Archipelago: we have definite proof that
many of the eastern islands of Indonesia were at one time peopled
by Papuasians — their blood persists. The Mongoloid incomers
undoubtedly came from the Asiatic mainland via the Indo-Chinese
peninsula. These people, more industrious and more enterprising
than either the Polynesians or the Papuasians, appear to have
rapidly displaced the older races, Polynesians in the hither islands
near the Asiatic coast, Papuasians in the outer groups towards the
south-east. In the course of this notable race migration the idea
of the outrigger canoe was seized upon — probably the new comers
were little acquainted with boat-building other than of dugouts.
As the Mongoloids advanced and throve, the first to be pushed aside
would be the Polynesians ; the impact of conquering hordes upon a
weak and scattered people — the Polynesian tribes never seem to
have understood the value of cohesion—would drive the more
independent spirits to a new migration. Some appears to have
passed to India and Ceylon, others took refuge in the islands off
the west coast of Sumatra — among their descendants being the
Mentawei islanders who still use the Polynesian single outrigger;
the bulk, other than those absorbed by the invaders, appear to
have gone east to the myriad isles of the Pacific.

Settled in what we now term Indonesia, the early Malaysians
throve and multiplied, more especially in Java, where at a very early
date they came under the civilizing influence of Indian mission-
aries— whether the first were Buddhist or Brahman it is now
impossible to say. Prior to that date, the Malaysians must have
improved upon the single outrigger type employed by the Polyne-
sians and Papuasians, converting it into the more commercially
serviceable double form. This type probably reached its zenith
during the heyday of Buddhist influence, for I feel sure that all the
outrigger ships sculptured in the great Buddhist shrine of Boro
Budur, built during the 8th and 9th centuries, must have been
furnished with the double type. Their lineal descendants seem
to have divided into two sections, the one retaining the double
9

108 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

outrigger device exemplified in the few small outrigger coasters
lingering to extinction in east Java, and the other, a very vigorous
and healthy branch, represented by the great tripod-masted
trading praus of the Bugis of the Celebes. These are to be seen
by the score any day in Macassar harbour ; the compound masts,
great poop, high open bulwarks and double quarter-rudders of
their prototype have been preserved but the whole outrigger device
has bepn discarded, concurrently with a great development —
broadening— of the underwater portion of the hull.

In regard to details and the variations of the double outrigger
found within Indonesia itself, the types most widely spread are
the direct and that which I have termed the East Indonesian.
The latter stretches in an unbroken chain from Lombok, north to
the Celebes, thence east to the Moluccas and on to N.-W. New
Guinea. Only in Sumatra, Java, Madura and Bali, the islands
most intimately influenced by Indian thought and enterprise, is
this type absent; the sculptures of Boro Budur though not so
clear as one would desire, lend support to the idea that a thousand
years ago the same design was indeed current in Java, and used
for very much larger craft than any of the present day. This great
extension in time as also in geographical range would seem to
indicate that this is the centra! and most characteristic of true
Indonesian designs; that all others save the direct are local
variations evolved either by local ingenuity, usually to meet special
and limited requirements, or else copies or adaptations of designs
in use by people of other races, Papuasian or Polynesian, who use
single outriggers.

With regard to the direct form of outrigger, where the booms
are lashed to the floats without any intermediate joint, present-day
distribution is curiously discontinuous, for this type is found only
on the west coast of Sumatra and in the Philippines, the Sulu
Island; and, both in the pure form and in one most curiously
hermaphrodite, in Minahasa (N. Celebes) and the Sangir islands to
the north. Apart from the simple form of direct connexion seen
commonly in Minahasa, it is quite clear that the hermaphrodite type
found in the same region marks the meeting place of two distinct
types ; in its bifid ends, the use of braces to stiffen the booms, and
especially in the direct connexion of the forward boom with the
floats, the resemblances of the Minahasa design with that of Sulu
are perfectly clear, while the use of the East Indonesian type of

No. 2(1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 100

connexion in the case of the aft-boom indicates its close relation-
ship to this type which elsewhere in the Celebes and the Moluccas
is the dominant design. The resemblances of the Minahasa design
with those of Sulu and Mindanao are much greater than those
indicating kinship with the other origin, and there can be no
doubt that this design originally came from the Philippines via
the Sangir islands and that it has since been modified by contact
with the East Indonesian design. But whence came the Sulu and
the Philippine designs ? We know of no other related instances
of direct attachment, apart from Minahasa, except upon the west
coast of Sumatra. Considering the distance between Sumatra and
the Philippines, any close connexion would seem most unlikely.
But the coast people of Sumatra have been great voyagers and
curiously enough Sulu-Moro tradition claims for their aristocracy
a direct lineage from the nobles of the Achin tribes inhabiting the
northern part of Sumatra. I must mention that Colonel Waloe,
who communicated this tradition to me, was then ignorant that
direct attachment of boom to float is a characteristic feature
shared alike by the outrigger canoes of Sumatra and the Sulu
islands.

The form and ornamentation of the stern in Sulu outriggers has
a significantly close resemblance to designs seen in N.-W. New
Guinea ; Papuasian influence is therefore indicated. Similarly
there is a distinct resemblance between the curious bow of the
Sulu canoes and that of East Javanese 'sampans' and outrigger
coasters ; all alike are characterised by the bifid form of stem
and stern. There is also a close approach to the direct type of
boom and float connexion seen in East Javanese outrigger-coasters
that is suggestive. Probably these also derived from a common
source with those of the west coast of Sumatra.

Instances of purely local variations are those in use in the
Minahasa and in Buton and Raha (S. Celebes); the latter are
obviously based on the normal form of the East Indonesian type.

To the class derived ultimately from Papuasian and Polynesian
sources, belong, I believe, both the Java type, and those of
Amboina and Bum. The former is particularly interesting for
it is, with the exception of the Mentawei outriggers, the only
type of Indonesian outrigger that is invariably single — those of
Macassar constitute obviously a mere variation from a local double
form. But howsoever interesting this may be, it sinks into

110 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. Jtll,

insignificance compared with two other facts. Of these the first is
that outrigger canoes of essentially the same design but often with
double frames instead of single are employed in Madagascar, and
on the East Coast of Africa; the second, that in the Marquesas
islands a single outrigger of almost identical construction is used
commonly for inshore fishing.* As I suggest below, the general
inference from the far eastern distribution of the different
types of outrigger canoes and their present-day builders, tends
to show that at one time the Polynesian users of the single
outrigger were distributed throughout Indonesia, that the incursions
of Mongoloid people — the main stock from which the present Indo-
nesians are derived— displaced the Polynesians and drove them
afield both east and west. It may well have happened that the
Marquesan type referred to above, wherein the stanchion connexion
between the booms and the float is on essentially the same design
as that used in the North Java type, was in use by the aboriginal
inhabitants of Java on the coming of the proto-Malaysians ;
that the dispossessed, some of whose descendants may be the
Marquesans of to-clay, carried the design with them in their wan-
derings, and that the incomers at the same time adopted the design
and transmitted it with little change to the present inshore Java-
nese fishermen. It is very probable that in the days when the
double outrigger design was dominant in Indonesia for the largest
craft as well as for small dugouts, that the larger boats using
the North Java design employed it in the double condition;
in this stage. I believe, it must have been when one or other
of the waves of Malaysian emigration struck the shores of Mada-
gascar, and introduced it there. As the Malagasy languages even
in the case of the latest arrivals, in regard to the inclusion of
Sanskrit words, aie purer and in a more archaic condition than
either Malay or Javanese, although otherwise closely related there-
to, we are able to date back the time of the use of the present
North Java type in its own country to a period anterior to the date
of the first Buddhist or Brahman missionary influence in Java,
i.e., to a time prior to the Christian era. It is very probable
that both the double and the single form of this type were in use
concurrently in Java, just as we find both forms in use in

* Alexander, A. B., " Notes on the Boats, Apparatus, and Fishing Methods employed
by the natives of the South Sea Islands." Report of the U.S. Fish Co»i»iissioner for
/<?o/, Washington, 1902, p. 745.

No. 2 (1920) OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA III

Madagascar at the present day. With the gradual abandonment
of the outrigger form that appears to have been in progress
in Java during recent centuries— possibly since the advent of
dominant Muhammadan (Arab) influence — this outrigger type
has gradually degenerated. The double form, most suitable for
deep-sea work, has been entirely superseded by the weatherly
Malay fcolek or majang, whilst the single form, possibly retained in
use from the earliest times for inshore fishing has so deteriorated
that two booms are now seldom used, the fore one only being
retained in the majority of cases.

I am disposed to consider the Amboina loop and the Buru
U-type as derived from Polynesian and Papuasian types in which
the secondary connecting booms and float is formed of several
rod-shaped stanchions. At Humbolt's Bay in New Guinea, two
pairs of stanchions placed obliquely in such manner as to show a
V-shaped outline when viewed from in front or from behind, form
the connexion. If a V-shaped fork be substituted for separate
rods placed obliquely or in U-fashion we get a variation closely
approximating to the Ceram variety of the Buru type ; the U-shaped
joint would soon follow, as this form is clearly stronger and more
easily lashed on than a sharp-angled V-joint. From the U joint to
the Amboina loop or O-type is a short step in variation or evolution.

112 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

'»■•

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I (Frontispiece).

Figure I Original restoration of a large Javanese two-masted

outrigger vessel of the 8th or 9th century A.D. From
a sculptured panel at Boro Budur, Java.

Plate II.

Figure II. — Two double outrigger canoes, Manokwari, Geelvink
Bay, Papua. One has 8 and the other 5 booms. In
the background is a small-size outrigger with 5 booms.
The foremost canoe has a washboard of 5 vertical
rows of palm leaf-stalks surmounted by a narrow
gunwale of soft wood.
III. — One of the largest Manokwari outrigger canoes in
process of having the outrigger frame put together.
The prow ornament is an elaborate piece of pierced

carving.

Plate III.

Figure IV. — Another Manokwari double outrigger with prow of
another pattern.
V. — A small-sized double outrigger fishing canoe of the
Geelvink Bay type ; seen at Humbolt's Bay.

Plate IV.

Figure VI. — Waigou type of double outrigger at Saonek, N.-W.
Papua.
VII. —Double canoes with direct attachment. Jolo. Philippine
Islands.

Plate V.

Figure VIII. — Large two-masted outrigger-coasters, with direct attach-
ment, Mambajao, Camiguin Island, Misamis Province,
Philippine Islands.
IX. — Double outrigger canoe, with hermaphrodite attachment
(closely related to the Minahasa type), Las Palmas,
Mindanao.

NO. 2 (1920^ OUTRIGGER CANOES OF INDONESIA 113

Plate VI.

Figure X. — Two large Moro vintas, Mindanao.

,, XI. — Small Moro vinta seen from aft, to show the bracing

of the aft boom, etc.

Plate VII.

Figure XII.— View, looking forward, of the inside of the hull of the
Moro vinta shown in fig. XI.
,, XIII. — Details of boom braces and their attachment to the

booms in the same Moro vinta. Note the carved
ends of the braces.

Plate VIII.

Figure XIV. — Carved stern of a Moro vinta.

,, XV. — Fishing canoe of East Indonesian, type Menado,

Celebes.

Plate IX.

Figure XVI. — Small Coaster of East Indonesian type, Menado,
Celebes. Three booms present. The cargc is loaded
upon a rough platform of poles laid across these
booms.
„ XVII. — Minahasa type of fishing outrigger, Menado, Celebes.

Plate X.

Figure XVIII. — Double outrigger canoe with sub-direct attachment. A
low chock is intercalated between the float and the
end of each b^om. Macassar.
,. XIX. — A single outrigger canoe of a type common at

Macassar; each boom has a downwardly bent distal
portion attaching directly to the float. A conspicuous
crutch at the stern. Tripod-masted praus in the
background.

Plate XI.

Figure XX. —A small river canoe of single outrigger type, Macassar.
It has direct attachment and small as it is, has a
quarter rudder and rudder crutch.
,. XXI. — Double outrigger, Lombok type, Labuan Hadji,

Lombok.

114 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

Plate XII.

Figure XXII. — Small fishing double outrigger of the Bali type,

Labuan Hadji, Lombok.
,. XXIII. — Large outrigger, Bali type, Buleleng, Bali. View from
aft.

Plate XIII.

Figure XXI Y. — Three Bali outriggers. The one in the foreground
with the sail up is a small one of the Bali herma-
phrodite type.
,, XXY. — A B*li type of fishing outrigger Banjuwangi, East Java.

Plate XI Y.
Figure XXVI.— Fishing outriggers, Madura.

Plate XV.

Figure XXVII. — Medium-sized outrigger coaster, (irisee harbour, East
Java.
,, XXVIII. — .East Java outrigger coaster of the largest si/.e, now very
rare.

Plate XVI.

Figure XXIX. — Prow of a Madura Kolek, or ' Sampan ' to show the
bifid form of bow, and handsome ornamentation.
These have no outriggers ; they have been derived
from the type shown in figure xxviii.
,, XXX. — Macassar trading prau. Note the tripod masts, the
open bulwark framing and the built out structure
around the stern.
All photographed by J. Hornell, except Nos. XXV and XXVI (Kurkd-
jian, Sourabaya), XXVII and XXVIII (Hermann, Sourabaya), and Xos.
VII — X, and XI— XIV, which I owe to the courtesy of the Bureau of
Science, Manilla, and of Col. O. C. Waloe, U.S. Army, respectively.

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MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE II.

Fig. II. — Two Double Outrigger Canoes, Manokwari, Papua.

Fig. ill.— A large Outrigger Canoe, being fitted out for sea, Manokwari.

Papua.

10

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE III.

Fig. IV.— A large Manokwari Outrigger Canof. with finely carved Prow.

Fig. V.— A small Double Outrigger Canoe, Geelvink Bay Type.

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE IV

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Fig. Vli— Waigou Type ok Double Outrigger, Saonek.

Fig. VII. — Double Canoes with direct attachment, Jolo, Philippine Islands.

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. X!l. No. 2.

PLATE V

- li-rf., . •.-• _'■■

Fig. YJTI. -Two-masted Outrigger Coasters, Misa.mis Province, l'.l.

Fig. IX. — Double Outrigger of Hermaphrodite Type, Mindanao, P.T.

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. Xll, No. 2.

PLATE VI.

:-:W*

Fig. X. — Two large Moro Vintas, Mindanao.

Fig. XT,— Smalt. Moro Vinta seen from \fx.

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE Vl'f.

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MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE VIIT.

Fig. XIV.— Carved Stern of a Moro Vinta.

Fig. XV, — Fishing Canoe, E, Indonesian Type, Menapo,

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE IX

Fig. XVI.— Small Coaster, E. Indoxksi \x Type, Menado.

Fig. XVII.— Mixahasa Tvpe of Fishing Canoe, Menado.

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE X.

Fig. XVIII. — Double Outrigger with sub-direct attachment, Macassar.

Fig. XIX — A Single Outrigger Fishing Canoe Macassar.

11

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No 2.

PLATE XI.

Fig. XX. — A smai.i. River Canoe of Single Outrigger Tvpe, Macassar.

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Fig. XXL— Double Outrigger, Lombok Type.

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE Xlt.

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Fig. XXIJ. — Small Fishing Double outriggkr ok the Bali Type, Lombok.

Fig. XXIII. —Large Outrigger, Buleleng, Bali.

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN', VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE XIII.

Fig. XXIV. Three Bau Outriggers.

Fig. XXV. A Bau-Tyi'E Fishing Outrigger, Banjuwangi, E. Java.

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE XIV.

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MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. Xll, No. 2.

PLATE XV.

Fig. XXVII. Outrigger Coaster, Grisek, E. Java.

Fig. XXVIII,— Largest-size Outrigger Coaster, E. Java.

MADRAS FISHER fES BULLETIN, VOL. XII, No. 2.

PLATE XVI.

Fig. XXIX. Bifid Prow of a Madura ' Kolek.'

Fig. XXX.— A Macassar Trading Prau.

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Report No. 3 (1920).

A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF AN INSHORF

FISHING EXPERIMENT AT MADRAS

DURING 1919

13 Y

M. RAMASWAMI NAYUDU, B.A.,

Sub-Assistant, Department of Fisheries, Madras.

Certain markedly distinct physical features of the East and
West Coasts of our Presidency, affecting in their own way the
nature of the fish catch, have given rise to the peculiar fishing
craft and appliances characteristic of each coast. The muddy-
bottomed, comparatively surfiess region of the West Coast, rich
with seasonal migratory shoaling fishes, such as sardines, mac-
kerel, cat-fishes, ribbon-fish, prawns, soles, etc., and the predatory
larger ones that are ever after these, has brought about the evolu-
tion of big, swift-moving, dug-out canoes and powerful seine, drift
and cast nets and long lines, the last two being peculiar to that
coast : whereas the generally sandy, surf-beaten East Coast has
not gone farther than the primitive catamaran — a fishing raft made
of a few (3 — 5 or even 7) logs of wood lashed together — with small
sized seines, drift nets and hand-lines.

Though shoals as big as those of the West Coast are seldom, if
ever, found on this coast, yet a few species do occur in small
shoals at certain short seasons and the fishing craft and methods
in vogue with the local fisher-folk at present are quite inadequate
to a proper exploitation of the inshore fisheries. Though cata-
marans can pass through the most dangerous surf with immunity
even during the height of the north-east monsoon when given
sufficient driving power, in actuality the power available from the
single primitive paddle and a couple or even five, small oars is
insufficient to carry the keelless, flat raft across the surf line ;
further, the catamaran being of very small carrying capacity can
admit of no heavy nets being employed from it. This state of
affairs having attracted the attention of the Fisheries Department

1 16

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XII,

sanction was obtained from the Government by G.O. Mis. No. 1477,
Revenue, dated 24th May 1917, to conduct an Inshore Fishing-
Experiment with the Madras Harbour as its base, with a view
(1) " to test the catching capacity of,West Coast boats and nets as
against the fishing capacity of the local catamaran " and (2) " if
successful to introduce them among the Madras fisher-folk."

It was with considerable misgivings the experiment was com-
menced in June 1917 and continued till the close of May 1918.
The results were not conclusive, so in order to give further oppor-
tunity to test the value of the new methods sanction was obtained
(G.O. No. 3387, Revenue, dated 5th October 1918) to continue and
extend the operations for a further period of 2^ years. Accord-
ingly it was recommenced on the 16th December 1918 with four
canoes (two small and two large) having a complement of 22 men
as crew.

The following nets and lines were tried during the year

1919:—

Nets .—

1. Paithu Vala. 1

2. Vakku Vala. J

3. Sulthan Vala

4. Kolli Vala ...

. Chala Vala.

6. Oilu Vala

and Kandadi
Vala.

7. Veechu Vala.

Or Odam Vala.

Gill-net ...
Drift-nets

Cast-net

(A large boat seine
operated from two
big canoes.)

(Operated from two

small canoes.)
(Operated from two

big canoes.)
(Operated from one to

four small canoes.)
(Operated from small

canoes.)

(Operated from one
small canoe or from
shore.)

Lines : —

8. Cheria Vep- Long-line with

pu. 1,000 hooks.

9. SravuVeppu. Long-line with 1 (Operated from one

big shark small canoe.)

hooks.
10. Kai Chundai. Hand-line

No. 3 (1920)

INSHORE FISHING EXPERIMENTS

117

A short note of all the above regarding their structure and
operation is given below: —

The cost of a big canoe ranges from Rs. 200 to Rs. 800 (pre-
war), and Rs. 250 to Rs. 1,000 (present rate), and that of a small one
from Rs. 150 to Rs. 300 (pre-war) and Rs. 300 to Rs. 450 (present).
Canoes are made from either Aynee (Malabar), Cheene, Punna,
Pine or Mango-wood of which one made of Aynee is considered to
be the strongest and hence the costliest. The big canoes are 28
to 34 feet long while the small ones are 12 to 15 feet long.

(i) Paithu Void. — This is a large seine net operated from two
big canoes. It appears in the following three forms, differing from
each other only in the number and nature of the thread used and
slightly in size: —

(a) Naria Void. — This is a cotton seine with a wide mouth
to which is attached a double armed, big meshed, coir rope net
'Thattu," which serves only to frighten the fish into the bag net.
The pre-war price of a Naria Vala was Rs. 100 to Rs. 150, the present
price is about Rs. 225. The bag itself is 7 to 7^2 fathoms long
from the apex to the periphery and 25 fathoms along the latter.
Roughly about 140 skeins of thread (numbers 10 and 20) will be re-
quired for making one Naria Vala. It is made up of several pieces
with 50 meshes each. The apical part of the net is called
"Vattam," the peripheral margin/' Naria Vala " and the interven-
ing part "Adi Vala." The number of net pieces and ply and
the nature of the thread used in the various parts are given
below : —

Number of

net pieces

used.

Number of

meshes in one

square inch.

Number of
thread used.

Number of
ply used.

f

25

16

10

12

Vattam

'[

20

in

10

10

Adi Vala

...

28

16

10

6-S

r

j3

9

20

5

Naria Vala ...

■••-!

1

900 i<> 1,000

9

20

4

About 40 skeins of thread are required for Vattam and Adi
Vala and 100 for Naria Vala. Along a fourth of the upper part

Il8 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. Xll,

of the periphery (Mevala) runs a thick coir rope to which are
attached two big and three to nine smaller floats, the number of
the latter depending on the depth required, while there is a thin-
ner rope along the remaining three-fourths (Allu Vala), which
connects the Thattu (coir net).

Thattu. — This coir net portion is also made up of three parts
" Keezh Vala," " Kachu Vala " and " Kadangani " as below :-

1. Keezh Vala ... ... 50 cubits long.

2. Kachu Vala ... ••• 55 do.

3. Kadangani ... ... ••• ... 20 fathoms long.

4. Kamba (stout coir rope) ... ••• 20 to 100 fathoms

long.
The size of the meshes increases gradually from the com-
mencement of Keezh Vala to the end of Kadangani as can be seen
from the following table : —

Number of
>\zc of mesh. ineshes along

the width.

Keezh Vala (for 15 8 fingers (knot to knot). 50

cubits in length).

Do. 10 do. ... 50

Keezh Vala (for 20 12 do. 50

cubits in length).
Kachu Vala for 55 12 do. ••• 45

cubits.

Kadangani for 19 1 cubit 35*

knots.

Do. 18 lY2 do 25

knots.

Do. 17 2 do. ... 20

knots.

There are two big floats and three small ones generally
along Mevala, ten small ones along each Kachu Vala and two
along Kadangani while there are two and four weights along the
lower line of Keezh Vala and Kadangani respectively. The price
of one Naria Vala varies from Rs. 100 to Rs, 150 (pre-war) and
Rs. 225 (present). Sardines, mackerel, prawns and other miscel-
laneous fish are caught with this.

(6) Eda Vala or Anjezha Vala (5 ply net).— This is similar
to (a) in shape and dimensions but the number of ply used in the
peripheral portion is more by one or two and more of No. 10 count

no. 3 (1920) Inshore fishing experiments 119

is used for a portion of the Naria Vala part also. About 200 skeins
of thread will be required for one Eda Vala. Cat-fish and other
medium sized fishes are caught with this net. The price of one
net is Rs. 175 to Rs. 200 (pre-war) and Rs. 300 (present).

(c) Vakku Vala.— This is also similar to 'a' in shape, but
it is a little bigger in size and is made of hemp ; this is the biggest
net in Malabar.

The price of one net is Rs. 200 to Rs. 300 (pre-war) and Rs. 350
to Rs. 450 (present). Shoals of big and powerful fishes, e.g., Kora,
bigger cat-fish, etc., are caught with this net. To operate (a) and
(b) the 2 big canoes are manned by 10 to 14 men, but to (c), 12 to
18 men are required.

(2) Sulthan Vala. — This is a smaller seine net operated from 2
small canoes with 3 to 4 men in each. In fact, it is a miniature
Paithu Vala with the bottom of the purse extended far out of
the mouth thus diminishing the" width of the Keezh Vala of
Thattu. The length of the purse from the apex to the peri-
phery is I fathom less at the top and 7 to 8 fathoms more at the
bottom than that of the Paithu Vala. Thattu (coir rope-net) of
Sulthan Vala is made up of the same 3 parts, Keezh Vala, Kachu
Vala, and Kadangani and they are 15 cubits, 20 cubits and 15
fathoms long, respectively. The terminal coir rope (Kamba) is
10 fathoms longer than that of Paithu Vala. The meshes gradually
become bigger towards the mouth as in (i) but they are here
specially bigger near the thattu.

The cost of one net is Rs. 200 (pre-war) and Rs. 350 (present).
The catches here consist of mackerel, sardines and other small fish.

(3) Kolli Vald — (means an instrument of destruction which
it proves to be especially to Sardine shoals). — This is also a cotton
seine similar to Sulthan Vala but double its dimensions- This is
operated from 2 big canoes manned by 10 to 16 men. The cost of
one net is Rs. 300 to Rs. 350 (pre-war) and Rs. 500 to Rs. 600
(present).

(4) Vcechu Vala {Cast net). — This is a large circular net
weighted rather heavily along the periphery. There is a ring at
the apex through which passes a coir rope which is tied to a certain
fixed number of strings each of which while radiating towards the
peripheral string divides into 3 branches. Fishermen cannot
operate the cast net without considerable practice over a number
of years generally commencing from their boyhood. This net is

120 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

of many varieties differing according to the kind or size of fish
intended to be caught. It is made of either cotton or hemp. It is
operated from one small canoe with 3 to 4 men. The following-
are the varieties of cast net: —

(i) Kara Vala (cast from shore) or Thirutha Vala (Thiru-
tha-mullet) made of hemp.

(ii) Muttu Kanni Vala (close meshed) for prawns — cotton or
hemp.

(iii) Kettum Vala for sardines and mackerel — cotton or hemp.

(iv) Churukku Void do. do. do.

(v) Ncthcl Vala for nethel fish (anchovy) this is the smallest
meshed cast net, l/l2th inch square mesh.

(vi) Narimin Vala.— This is the biggest meshed cast net
for Narimin (Lates), 4-5 inches square mesh.

Unlike other nets described hitherto the cast net is made of
one single piece, 7 to 14 cubits long, from the apex to the peri-
phery : the weights used are of bronze, iron or lead weighing 8 to
24 lb. The cost of the cast net is Rs. 7 to Rs. 30 (pre-war) and
Rs. 10 to Rs. 45 (presentl

(5) Gill Nets. — (a) Ayala Chala for mackerel, (/;) Mathi Chala
Vala for sardines. These are made of thin cotton thread 3 to 4
ply of No. 10. Unlike drift nets, these nets are operated only on
sighting fish. Shoals are quickly encircled and the fish inside
being frightened by the noise made against the canoes and
against the surface of water by two iron balls each tied to a coir
rope, get enmeshed in the net.

(6) Drift Nets. — These are of the following varieties and

are all made of hemp : —

Number an.l
Mesh. nature of ply used.

(a) Poocha Kandadi, llA inch diagonally 3 thin ones.
(/>) Kandadi, I to \Y/i ,, ,, 3 thicker ,,

■ (e) Ayviral Kandadi, 2% ins. „ 4

(five-finger meshed diagonally).
(d) Odu Vala, 3 to 4 ins. diagonally 4 to 5 „ „

{e) Narian Vala,' 5 to 6 „ „ 6 to 7 „ ,,

(/) Sravu Vala (shark net), 8 to 10 ins. 12 to 14 ,, „

The kind and size of fish caught in each varies as noted
below : —

(a) Small sharks, valai and other smaller fish.

(l>) Big valai, medium sized sharks and small seer.

NO. 3 ( 1920) INSHORE FISHING EXPERIMENTS 121

\c) Big pomfret, medium seer, cat-fish and sharks.

(</) Big seer, palameen, big cat-fish, kora, rays, and big

sharks.
{e) Special for narimln (Lates calcarifer) and bigger

sharks.
(/) Special for large sharks.
All the above-named drift and gill nets except Ayla Chala
Vala are shot only in fleets of 10 to 15 pieces each varying in
dimensions as given below: —

Number
Width of I piece Length of pieces.

1. Ayala Chala Vala, 5 fathoms 12 to 16 fathoms 1

2. Mathi „ „ 2l/2 „ 5 to 6 „ 10 to 12

3. Kandadi and Odu Vala, 2— 2l/2 „ 10 to 12 ,, 10 to 15

4. Shark net 2 8 10 to 12
All these except the last which requires a big canoe with five

to six men, are operated from one small canoe manned by two to
four men. Generally a group of canoes operate together.

(7) Cheria Veppu. — This is a long line with the line of even
1,000 fathoms long and with 1,000 hooks (l!4 inch long) each of
which is suspended at every fathom by a string of about lY2 feet in
length.

There are two big floats, one at each extremity, with a number
of small ones between. Small pieces of fish, prawns, and cuttle
fish are used as bait.

The cost of one long-line 1,000 fathoms long with hooks is
Rs. 35 to Rs. 40 (present).

(8) Sravu Veppu. — This is also a long-line 100 to 200 fathoms
long with 20 big hooks 5 to 6 inches long, but here the hooks are
suspended not by a string but by a chain and the floats are much
bigger; generally two tarred kerosene oil tins serve as floats, one
at each extremity. Big pieces of beef are used as bait.

Sharks of big size are hooked in this. The cost of one Shark
long-line is Rs. 25 to Rs. 50 (present).

The catches from our experiment may be taken as being-
more or less typical of the Madras Coast. The bigger fishes were
individually weighed, while the smaller ones were measured by
standard baskets the actual weight of which had been previously
ascertained; so that the weight of the latter is fairly accurate.
As the daily catches were auctioned wholesale by baskets in the
case of small fishes and individually or by lots in the case of

122 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

bigger ones and were knocked down to the highest bidder each
day, the value for the various kinds of fishes is proportioned
according to that day's market rate which by the way depends on
the following considerations : —

1. The time of the arrival of catch : good price if in early
morning or late afternoon.

2. The condition of the catch.

3. General abundance or scarcity of fish.

4 The nature of the day of the sale — the bulk of the con-
sumers being Hindus, the catches fetch a low price on all fasting
clays, e.g., all Saturdays, fullmoon days, krithigai days, etc.

Thus the value noted in the tables given below is the whole-
sale price.

How far each of the various nets and lines tried contributed
towards this year's catch will be seen from the following list : —

1. Paithu Vala

2. Vakku Vala ...

•3. Sulthan Vala and Kolli Vala ...

4. Chala Vala

5. Ozhukku Vala (drift-net)

6. Veechu Vala (cast-net)

7. Cheria Veppu (long-line)

8. Sravu Veppu (long-line with big

shark hooks) •••

9. Kai Chunda (hand-line)

From the above it will be seen that Paithu Vala, Chala Vala and
Sulthan Vala yeilded the great bulk of our catches. Drift-net, cast-
net and long-line rank next : the others are negligible. There are
no West Coast nets to capture shrimps (Sennakuni) and large
mullets which are occasionally got in large numbers by the local
men in their minute meshed Eru Valai and Eda Valai (square
net).

Weight of

Value <>

f

catch.

catch.

LB.

RS. A.

P.

b 2,093 Vl

3743 2

9

500

19 4

0

22,404^

1.562 4

0

33,274^

1,306 13

9

1,480^

158 14

6

1,062

98 1

3

609

73 9

6

130

5 8

0

III

9 2

6

111,665

6,976 12

3

* Kolli Vala was tried first and then it was amalgamated with Sulthan Vala tc form
a big Sulthan Vala.

LB.

RS. A.

P.

36,088

1.879 13

3

32,556

1,797 8

9

10,337

625 2

3

10,141

624 13

9

3-110

324 7

3

2,941

286 10

9

2,801^

264 4

3

1,353%

147 0

0

1,758

141 14

0

1,252

100 6

0

912

92 II

6

680

75 12

6

853

69 0

0

NO. 3 (1920) INSHORE FISHING EXPERIMENTS 123

The total weight and value of the thirteen most important food-
fishes of Madras caught by our canoes during 1919 are as
follows : —

1. Mackerel

2. Ceedai (Clupia kanagurta)

3. Kavalai (C. melanura) ...

4. Karapodi (Equula spp. Gazza

spp.)

5. Netheli (Engraulis spp.)

6. Prawns

7. Mullets ...

8. Oola (Sphyraena spp.) ...

9. Cat-fishes ...

10. Manangu (Engraulis spp.) ...

11. Valai (C. dorab) •••

12. Sharks

13. Pachaikutti (Chatoessus spp.) ...

It is thus clear that mackerel and clupeids top the list in 1919 in
Madras waters, while, according to the statistics on the fishing-
Industry of Tuticorin published in report No. 3 of Madras Fisheries
Bulletin No. II. it is Valai (C. dorab) that stands out most promi-
nently among the food-fishes at Tuticorin ; this has been more or
less constant during the four years 1911 to 1914, under review there.
As the data collected during the Inshore Fishing Experiment in
1917-18 are not so complete as in 1919, only a rough comparison
between the two is possible.

Unlike the year 1919 mackerel were found only sparingly in
1917-18 when clupeids formed the most important food-fish at
Madras.

The following table gives month by month the total weight and
value of our catch in the year 1919 : —

January
February

March-. ...

April •••

May

June ...

July ... ...

August

LB.

RS.

A.

P.

i4,675J/2

877

5

3

29,681

LO87

0

9

4,622

360

9

0

5.668%

406

6

9

12,657^

979

9

3

13,875^

1,054

5

0

6,077

387

12

6

2,760

206

9

6

124 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

September
October
November
December

JLLETIN

VOL. XII,

LB.

RS. A. P.

3.776

294 9 3

9,401

616 0 3

4-5II

351 7 6

3.960^

355 1 3

IIL665

6,976 12 3

The average value per lb. is about an anna.

From the above it is clear that February gives us the maximum
catch of the year and that January and February during the north-
east monsoon and May and June during the south-west monsoon
are the most prolific months for the Madras fishery.

October yielded a fairly good haul. August was the least
productive month of the year.

The following table shows the total weight and value, for the
year 1919, of all the chief kinds of fishes that sent up the receipts
during these five important months : —

LB. RS. A. P.

January —

1. Mackerel

2. Prawns

3. Clupea kanagurta

4. Mullets

5. Vala

February —

1. Mackerel •••

2. C. kanagurta

3. Prawns

4. Cat-fishes ...

5. Manangu (Engraulis spp.)

May —

1. Mackerel ...

2. C. kanagurta

3. Netheli ...

4. Karapodi ...

5. Sharks

June—

1. C. kanagurta

2. Mackerel ...

3. Karapodi ...

8,073

380

9

6

1.857

196

4

0

2,810

115

12

3

336

57

3

6

524

46

9

6

19,444

701

3

9

8,299

229

4

0

890

67

8

0

320

29

2

0

325

27

12

0

2.861

285

5

0

4,794

263

8

6

1,315

151

13

0

2,100

128

10

0

242

33

9

0

8,345

590

8

0

1,426

158

5

0

L90I

118

14

0

715

67

0

0

490

47

2

0

3io

442

4

3

042

83

12

0

154

21

2

0

i8o

u

3

0

155

13

12

0

NO. 3 (1920) INSHORE FISHING EXPERIMENTS 125

LB. RS. A. P.

June — cotiL

4. Netheli

5. Mullets
October —

1. C. melanura

2. Mackerel ...

3. Mullets

4. Vala

5. C. kanagurta
An examination of the above shows that mackerel, clupeids,

prawns, karapodi and netheli account for such a marked increase
in the quantity of the catch during these five months.

I was informed by the local fisher-folk and others in a position
to know that the presence of such large shoals of mackerel as was
witnessed during 1919 was unusual. It was considered by many as
a godsend to save the poor fisher-folk and others from starvation
due to famine conditions resulting from the late world war. This
view of the abnormal nature of the shoals in 1919 receives confirm-
ation from the data for the 1917-18 Inshore Fishing Experiments,
when clupeids (C. melanura mostly and C. kanagurta) and prawns
form the most important kinds of that year's catch ; mackerel were
got only in very small quantities ; there has been this yeara percep-
tible decrease in the quantity of prawns caught.

I infer from what the local fisher-folk have told me that
mackerel shoals appear annually but last only for a few days and
then disappear. I have also heard some say that once in every four
or five years there used to be comparatively big hauls of mackerel
but anything like their abundance and the longer stay in 1919 was
never observed within the last twenty years or so. Whether there is
actually any such cyclic appearance of big mackerel shoals in
Madras waters as is commonly believed or if the time of their
annual migration here is fairly constant can be positively stated
only after a statistical study covering a number of years.

Mackerel Fishery Season, 1919. — With the exception of March,
July and August mackerel were caught throughout the year as
can be seen from the table below:—

LB. RS. A. P.

January ... 8,073 380 9 5

February ... 19,444 ;oi 3 9

March ... it*

* Given as bait to long-line men.

126

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

SS BULLE1

'IN

VOL. XII,

LB.

Rs.

A.

P,

254

27

12

0

2,861

285

5

0

1,426

158

5

0

13

I

9

0

2,193

160

9

0

1,042

83

12

0

659

67

12

0

112

13

0

0

36,088

1,879

13

3

It was in February they were found in plenty. On the whole
it may be taken that the five months, viz., January, February,
May, June and September, are the favourable seasons for the
mackerel fishery, that is, 2 months during the north-east monsoon
and 3 months during the south-west monsoon. From the data for
the year 1917-18 given below — only two big canoes and a crew of
14 men were at work then and had no Chala vala (mackerel net)
— it can be seen that only 1,189 lb. of mackerel were caught
throughout the year and sold for Rs. 1 04 15-0.

1918, May ..

1917, July ••

„ August

LB.

RS.

A.

P.

135

14

0

0

41

7

8

0

LOI3

83
104

7
15

0

LI89

0

But curiously it was in August iQJ/that the maximum quantity
was captured and they were not found during the other months of
that year.

The time of their appearance and disappearance during the
three years 1917 — 19 is noted in the following tables: —
1917 ... ... No data available till June.

July ... Appeared on 3rd July 1917

Disappeared on 7th July 1917
August ... Appeared on 17th August 1917

Disappeared on 31st August 1917
and thence forward never found
till the close of December 191 7.

No. 3 (1920) INSHORE FISHING EXPERIMENTS

-127

May
June

July

August

September.

1918 ... Never sighted till 26th May and continued to be
found till 31st May. After which no data are
available, till their appearance (adult 8" —
II" long) on 20th December 1918 was noted:
and they continued to be found till the end
of December 1918.

1919 ... January ... Throughout found.
February--. Disappeared on 26th February 1919.
April ... Re-appeared only for one day

(only a small quantity) on 13th
April 1919, never seen from the
next day till 2lst April 1919 but
these were young ones (4" — 7°
long).
Found throughout.

Do-
Disappeared on 5th July 1919.
Not found throughout.
Re-appeared on 16th September
1 919. (Young ones f— Q" long)
and continued on in large num-
bers till the close.
October ... Throughout found-
November... Do.

December ••• Disappeared on 3rd December
1919 but very sparingly found
occasionally till the end.
During this year the mackerel were invariably found in com-
pany with Clupea kanagurta till September and thence with
Clupea melanura.

Spawning season. — The spawning season for mackerel appears to
be October to December and the minimum size for maturity so far
noted is 7*5" in length.

The maximum length found here is 9'5",

As during the year 1919 no young ones below 4" in length were
found in our catches, it is to be inferred that they go elsewhere,
perhaps farther out in deeper parts of the sea, for spawning.

2. Clupea kanagurta. — This clupeid was found throughout the
year except March and November. The maximum catch was in
June ; i.e., December to February in north-east monsoon and April

3

128 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

to July in south-west monsoon, appear to be the season for this
clupeid.

November to December is the spawning period.

6" is the minimum length for maturity and the biggest fish caught
here measured 8".

The younger specimens of this species have invariably a few
dark spots which vary in individuals on the dorsal side as is the
case with the young mackerel.

These being Plankton feeders as mackerel were generally
found together in shoals.

3. Clupea melanura. — This species was found, in large numbers
at any rate, only during the close of the year and were often
hauled up along with Clupea kanagurta and mackerel. They were
found in plenty only in October and November. Only a few
measuring 5'6 to 5'9" in length were found to have just developing
gonads in October. The biggest specimen caught on 16th October
1919 measured 6'8" and this was found to have no gonads. This
species which occupies only a third place in the order of this year's
catch occupied the foremost place during 1917-18 and Clupea
kanagurta was then found only in a small quantity in May 1918.

4. Prawns. — These were found in large numbers only in January
and February of which the former gives us the bigger haul. The
total weight and value for this year were 2,941 lb. worth Rupees
286-IO9 whereas during the year 191718 they were the second
important item of catches. With a crew of only 14 men they had
2,534 lb. worth Rs. 230 as detailed below :—

1918, February ... ...

May ...

1917. July ...

December •••

Total

That is. there has been this year a considerable decrease in the
prawn catch.

5. Netheli. — May and June are the best months for Anchovy
fishery and the former is by far the most important. The last five
months. August to December, yield a fairly moderate catch.

LB.

RS.

A.

P.

320

21

8

0

468

67

2

0

15

2

12

0

1,731

138

10

0

2.534

230

0

0

NO. 3 (1920) INSHORE FISHING EXPERIMENTS I2Q

October to November is the spawning period: 2l" is the
minimum length for maturity in one species. The biggest specimen
measured 4*8" in length.

6. Hilsa. — This was caught only twice during the year as noted
below : —

LB. RS. A. P.

1919, April 4040

„ August 365 31 8 0

Total ... 369 31 12 0

The following table furnishes the data of their appearance and
the quantity caught : —

1919, August 7th ... First caught off Mylapore by the local

fishermen in their Vala Valai. They
measured 1 2" to 15" in length, one of
which 13*5" long had just developing
ova.
„ ,, 9th 238 were caught in our Chala Vala

and drift nets.
,, 10th 145 were caught in our Chala Vala-

„ ,, nth Only a few were caught.

They were never seen again till October 4th, when a few were
caught by local men.

August to September seems to be the spawning season for
Hilsa. All the five specimens examined on 9th August 1919 were
females with about half-matured ova and these specimens
measured 11*5" to 14" long. Evidently these being anadromous,
were from the shoals that were on the look out for any river mouths
through which to ascend higher up for spawning.

General points of interest.— Out fishing operations were greatly
hampered for about a month and a half by the appearance in the
inshore area of swarms of jelly fishes, 2" to 3" in diameter, from 19th
March to 30th April 1919. These appeared even the previous
year by 2nd April 1918 and disappeared by nth May 1918. Hence
they seem to be periodical visitants to Madras waters at about the
same time every year; during 1919 their appearance and dis-
appearance were a fortnight earlier. The prevalence of strong
south-west and west winds from 17th to 20th March 1919 coincides
with this phenomenon.

f-30 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

On 19th December 1918 and 22nd January 1919 strong north or
north-east winds washed ashore on theRayapuram beach (Madras)
multitudes of Siphonophores (Physalia, Velella and Porpita) and a
few Janthina (Pelagic gastropod).

No. 3 (1920)

INSHORE FISHING EXPERIMENTS

m

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13^

madras Fisheries bulletin'

VOL. XII,

ANNEX
Monthly statistics of catches from Rayapuram

Xt

s

Kind.

January.

February.

March.

April.

May.

2

z

.

(I)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

LB.

RS.

LB.

RS.

LB.

RS.

|

LB.

RS.

LB.

RS.

I

Mackerel ...

8,073

381

19444

701

II

...

254

28

2,86l

285

2

Clupea kanagurta ...

2,8lO

Il6

8,299

229

...

..

3,117

197

4.794

264

3

Clupea nielanura ...

...

»••

* • *

...

94

8

.. ,

4

Karapodi

200

IO

no 7

I.200

80

500

26

2.100

I29

5

Prawns

1.857

I96

890

67

6

I

9h

2

29

4

6

Sharks

64

6

35

3

159

9

70

8

242

34

7

Shrimps

20

1

• ••

ill

4

...

..

...

. ..

8

Rays

65

3

5

1
2

10

1

...

17

2

9

Cat-rishes ...

94

8

320

29

104

12

35'

29

1S9 20

IO

Netheli (Engraulis
spp.).

...

...

...

4

5

1

1,315

152

il

Trichiurus savala ...

87

7

. . •

.. .

...

• . •

12

Mullets

336

57

IO5 12

1,240

96

310

18

148

10

13

Caranx spp.

2h

1

2

..*

...

2

1

s

15

1

...

...

M

Vala (Chirocentrus
dorab).

524

47"

15

1

"

1

63 10

15

Chanos salmdnius.

232

4

• ••

...

48

9

...

..

16

Elops saurus

...

...

...

...

U

1
i

7

1

••• ■••

17

Sphyr?ena sp.

50

3

...

...

...

...

54 1

57

...

1 8

Lacterius sp.

•

...

15 2

19

Chatoessus spp.

25 •

18

460 38

57

5

15 2

2C

Serranus spp.

3i

4

...

43 5

...

10 1

21

Sci^na spp.

22

5

65

4

28 3

'5

2

80 9

22

Seer

6

. . .

...

14

2 1

17 4

23

Pomfret

...

. . .

• ■ •

20 8

, ...

-4

I'olynemus spp.

90

7

...

...

27 5

...

* * . . ••

25

Pellona spp.

10

1

...

...

.

...

...

...

26

Chorinemus sp.

. • .

...

...

...

...

27

Crabs

6

1
■2

.. .

>••

• ••

...

>••

...

28

Saurida tumbil

5

1
•i

• . • ...

• ••

»••

■•«

...

... ...

29

Chrysophrys sp.

2

I

...

...

...

...

...

...

...

30

Manangu (Kngrau-
lis sp.).

...

••

325

38

570

46

'

• •■

50

4

31

Megalops sp.

...

...

20

3

...

...

• •* • . *

32

Belone sp.

...

*••

. ••

39

5

...

...

• * • • *•

33

Thynnus sp.

...

...

...

150

7

• •

. . • ■« .

34

Eels (Muraenesox

spp.)

...

...

26

1

15

3

51 6

35

Mothakendai

...

. . .

• •■

. ■ .

...

125

10

200 14

36

Cuttle-fish

...

...

*•■

* • .

...

...

12}

1

li i

37

Hilsa

...

. . .

. . •

• ■ •

...

4

L
1

...

38

Lates calcarifer

. . .

. ••

. ..

. . .

.

15 2

39

Platycephalus insi-

...

...

.•*

H

...

..

...

diatri\.

40

Miscellaneous

Totjl ...

74

4

68

4

33°
4,622

23

152

8

44 5 26

14,675'

■ -. 1
878

29.681

1,086

357

5,668}

407

12,657*

980

No. 3 (1920)

INSHORE FISHING EXPERIMENTS

133

URE II.

Inshore fishing experiments for the year 1919.*

une.

(S)

July

(9'

I.H.
1,426

8,345
1. 90 1

7

"38

532
715

490
3

18

36
21

2
50

22

36

22S

i3,S7S^

RS.

158
590

119

1

4
24t
67

•17

LB.

R->. LB.

August.
RS.

13 2

2,691 i. So

658 35

1,500 no

"23 3

20 2

1; A

Septem-
ber.

(U>

LB. RS.

( )ctober.

(12)

Novem.
ber.

(13)

December.

(14)

Total.

(15)

680 49

900 45

42:
16,

44.

1
1

it

33

-M93

260

!95
200

90',

80

161
21

15

9

10

11

84I 16

40 3

6j 1

20! 3

42 9

38 4
24c 24

I5l 3

5 1

KS

10

10

8
3

• • •

365
12

14
365

14 1,008 35J 152 10

27

2
3i

,053

6,077 386I 2.760

1
•1

20

210

.*•

*6o

12

50

1

16

LB. RS.

LB.

RS.

1,042 84 659 68

155 14 -

7,310 442 2,080 125

80 2 300 15

100

x
4

I

3

17

207 3,776

293

216 17

40

270

LB.

I 12
1,405

1,150
36

RS.

LB

RS.

6
21

Jf

33: 3 171

154 21 4

10 h 158^ 17

180 17 40 3

4
41
20
60

i\

10
8

3 543
2 18

4* 5°

21

1
2

50*

I

I

64

2

15
245

84
246.1

16

1751
20

188
3*

13 36,088 i,S8i

13* 32, 5 56 .».7i.8

10,337 625

73 10,141 625

4 2,941 287

680 74

i 137 5

148 12

2 1,758 142

23 3,1101 324

375i 3i

2 2,801 I 264

29 459 52

2 912' 92

40

9,401* 616

155

4.5"

5

35i

1}
185 .

90

12

40

1

\

;o
2

18I

I

i

i°3i
454

1,353*

79

853

1 04 J

422.^

67

25
119

585

100I

6

5

34

1,252

116

39

150

165

375
3»f

369
51

12

19

6
147

9

68

12

43
16

9
13
45

15

1
2

1
2

2
100

13

5

7

18

28
4

31
10

i

2 2,792 I37

3,960i 355 111,665 6,969

* Value brought to the nearest rupee.

Report No. 4 (1920).

ON THE .METHODS OF CAPTURE AND SUPPLY

OF FISH IN THE RIVERS OF THE

N1LGIR1 DISTRICT

BY

The late H. C. WILSON,
Pisciculturol Expert, Fisheries Department, Madras.

THE BHAVANI RIVER.

From the source to the falls where it is joined by the Billithada
Halla, the Bhavani passes over a rocky and precipitous bed through
thick jungle. This upper portion which teems with animalcules
and valuable fish food contains no fish of any consequence. As
the river approaches Bane village, the bed consists of huge boulders
and deep pools. Here again a large quantity of live fish, food is to
be found consisting of mollusca, larvae of the " dragon " and numer-
ous other flies and animalcules. The pools are occupied by a
variety of "stone loach"; the mahseer and other big fish not
being able to ascend so far.

Spawning beds. — The river continues to flow over a rough and
rocky bed for some miles. The first and highest spawning beds
are found near the village of Kardigamund.

Poaching. — Just below this on the broad shallow reaches, I
came across poaching with- fixed engines in the shape of basket
traps.

Construction of miniature dams. — These reaches which lend them-
selves to this kind of poaching were lined across with a series of
V-shaped miniature dams, constructed by placing together stones
packed with leaves, branches, etc. The flow of the river is thus
diverted in each case to the apex of the V at which point is
placed a basket trap.

Construction of fry trap. — This basket trap is constructed of
finely laced bamboo strips, so closely woven that the smallest fry

I36 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

once inside could not escape. The aperture or entrance is shaped
with inverted bamboo strips, so arranged that it is easy for fish to
pass in and next to impossible for them to get out again. At the
other end of the trap, the bamboo strips are twisted together and
tied. The fry following their natural instinct to pass down-stream,
move with the converging (artificial) main channel and thus into
the trap at the apex, there being no means of escape.

That shoals of fry are captured this way is evident. The first
trap I raised contained some hundreds of these helpless mites.

Poacher's views on fry trapping. — On questioning the man who
was setting these traps, he said that " he thought it was quite a
legitimate means of capturing small fish," but complained that
the catches were getting scarcer every year. To make up for this
deficiency, he had to make his traps more effective thus preventing
a smaller percentage escaping.

Collecting the spoil. — Having lifted the trap, the poachers untie
the string and deposit the fish into another basket and replace the
trap as quickly as possible. During the short interval when the
trap is out of position, a few fry escape, but I noticed lower down
the river that they carry an additional trap which they place in
position immediately after removing the first one. Formerly (I was
informed) they examined the baskets every few hours, but now this
is not necessary as the supply has diminished so much. Every
evening just before dark, they examine and replace the traps,
which remain in position all night.

Time of operations. —These traps are constructed on the first
appearance of fry or immediately after the flooded river subsides.
Being practically on some of the spawning beds themselves, they
capture mere alevins. The operations were in full swing when I
passed down in November.

District in which this destruction is practised. — The district in
which this wholesale destruction of immature fish is practised
constitutes the main spawning grounds of the Bhavani. Begin-
ning beside the village of Kardigamund these fixed engines are to
be found near each village down to Sindariarai just above
Attapadi.

Damage to fish in the river and number of people who benefit. — The
damage done to the future supply of fish in the river in this area

NO. 4 ( 1920) THE FISHERIES OF THE NILGIRIS 137

must be enormous, and the number of people who benefit compara-
tively small. The villages contain a small population and are few
and far between. After running the gauntlet of all these fixed
engines, the few fry that escape have their natural enemies to
contend with.

Mature fish trapping.— The trapping of big fish with fixed engines
starts just above Attapadi. The remains of an immense trap,
which has been in use last season and partly destroyed, can be
seen some 400 yards above the Attapadi ford. It is constructed of
stakes driven into the river bed among which strong bamboo strips
are interlaced and the whole forms a closely barred gate across
the main channel. In the centre of the gate, a square aperture is
left for the insertion of a large basket trap of similar construction
to the fry engine, only larger and stronger.

Places where these traps are constructed. — The places that are
favourable for the construction of this fixed engine are those in
which islands split the main stream into a series of channels. The
channel where the largest flow of water passes is selected for the
gate, which is supported by Y-shaped stakes driven into the bed
at an angle to withstand the water pressure. The other channels
are all obstructed by long bamboo-laced hurdles, which entirely
prevent the big fish passing, thus driving them to the main stream
and gate.

Area over which gates are found. — The area over which these
traps are to be found on the Bhavani is from above Attapadi to
within a quarter of a mile of Sundapatti.

Time when fish run to spawning beds and return. — The big fish run
up to the spawning grounds in the upper reaches of the Bhavani
during the south-west monsoon when the river is in spate, return-
ing as soon as the higher waters begin decreasing during August,
September and October according to the season.

Time when gates are constructed. — As soon as the heavy rains
have stopped the people start constructing these fixed engines.

Other methods of poaching. — The other methods of poaching
adopted on the Bhavani in the district I visited consist of "fishing
with night lines, small mesh netting, poisoning, beating the pools
when water is low (during dry season), dynamiting the pools, etc"
Those that came under my notice during my visit I enumerate
below.

I38 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. Xll,

Night lines. — Fixed stakes to which night lines are attached can
be seen in large numbers protruding from the banks of the river,
islands, etc., from Munjikundy to below Sundapatti.

Dynamite. — At Pallaloor and Mel Parali, there were quantities
of big fish scales, in heaps on the banks of the river near to very
deep pools and no trace of any traps. This points to some
explosive having been used and most probably dynamite. In cases
of poison, the fish are collected (as they sicken) down the stream.
With an explosive, they are gathered while stunned at the foot
of pool operated on. In this latter case it is natural to find the
scales as described above.

Wholesale waste of immature fish earn pared -with value as food-
supply. — The fry that are captured on the highest reaches are
so exceedingly small, that it must take a very large quantity to be
of any use for a single meal for a man. These people thus take a
heavy toll of the future stock of the river in this way, and in return
get an infinitesimally small amount of food compared with the
number of fish killed.

The local inhabitant's one idea is to get as many fry as he can
and by any means, regardless of the future supply.

He knows their natural instinct to move down-stream and does
his utmost to make the traps effective to prevent any escape.

Value of the big fish as food-supply when captured just after spawn-
ing.— The amount of wholesale food obtained from " spent " fish
is small and entirely confined to the male fish. Although the male
goes slightly out of condition, the loss of his milt does not
affect him so seriously as the depositing of the eggs by the female.

The flesh of a female at this period is unwholesome and not fit
for human consumption.

Methods suggested to prevent wholesale slaughter

of fish in the bhavani.

(i) I suggest the first step to be taken to bring this river back
to its full fish-bearing capacity is to enforce the Act re " fixed
engines."

(2) To do this, it will be advisable to appoint watchers to
reside in and watch the area where fry and mature fish traps are
constructed.

(3) To make it an offence to capture fry by any means on or just
below spawning beds.

No. 4 (1920) THE FISHERIES OF THE NlLGIRlS 139

(4) To have a close season for mature fish during and immedi-
ately after spawning time.

(5) During the hot months when the fish are mostly confined
to the pools, heating and poisoning goes on (I am informed) to a
large extent. Means must be adopted to stop this serious offence.
Where the river is diverted into side channels for purposes of
irrigation, the entrance should be trapped with properly constructed
iron grating.

Dams. — Where dams have been built that prevent fish passing
up-stream, fish ladders should be constructed so as to allow an easy
passage both ways.

It will be advisable in the future when anicuts are being
constructed to provide fish ladders in each case.

The actual cost will be small compared with the future value
of the river as a source of food-supply. In cases in which these
are not provided, the fish collect in large numbers at the foot of
the anicut and fall an easy prey to the poacher. They are also
cut off from their spawning beds.

Duties of watchers. — Each watcher should patrol the river in the
district to which he is appointed, should remove all fixed fry traps
and destroy the artificial weirs used for capturing fry ;

Should be instructed as to the exact localities where these
small weirs are built ;

Should destroy all fixed engines used for the capture of mature
fish, taking care to remove the obstructions in side runners,
described in the report as " hurdles " ;

Should prevent the construction of same ;

Should remove all fixed stakes used for night lines;

Should keep a sharp look out for fresh fish scales on the banks
and report the exact position, if large quantities are found ;

Should send into headquarters all basket traps seized.

Remarks. — To see that the watchers carry out these instructions,
it will be necessary to inspect the river from time to time. Should
any fixed engines be found, the watcher in whose beat they occur
ought to be severely dealt with. As the construction of fixed
engines for the capture of mature fish (judging by the nature of
the trap) will take considerable time, they will be easy to detect.
If each trap were destroyed during construction and careful watch
kept at the places during August, September, October and early

140 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

November, the majority of the mature fish will safely pass this
danger zone.

If the above suggestions are adopted, I have no hesitation in
saying the river will improve as a source of food-supply by leaps
and bounds each year.

The natural feeding (small live food, animalcules, etc.) I found
in large quantities all down the river, and it has been naturally
increasing as the fish decreased, so that the rate of growth of fish
in this river should be rapid.

THE SIRUVANI RIVER.

27TH May to 2nd June 1907.

An ideal stream with large shade trees on both banks, long
gravel reaches and deep pools the Siruvani undoubtedly is the best
tributary of the Upper Bhavani and as a breeding ground for fish
is most valuable.

During my visit in May and early June, I viewed the river at its
lowest as there had been no rain for many months.

The Gopaneri, a large tributary of the Siruvani, is entirely
dried out, but the latter, on the other hand, has a splendid supply
of water notwithstanding that all its lower tributaries are in the
same dried up condition.

The flow of water (at this season) where it joins the Bhavani is
rather deceptive as the quantity of water is less there than that
higher up the river. It is clear that the river loses by evaporation
during its winding course and gathers no additional supplies from
the dried up feeders. Judging by the flood marks the Siruvani
rises to a great height during the wet season and has no natural
obstruction to prevent fish passing up to the spawning beds.

In the more inaccessible deep pools of this river, Carnatic carp
can be seen during this dry season in shoals feeding mostly on
berries and leaves, — the leaf of the wild mango tree being a great
favourite and eaten readily as it falls on the water. I caught
several of these fish on the grasshopper and found the contents of
their stomachs consisted entirely of vegetable matter. On the
banks of nearly all the deep pools in the vicinity of villages,
numerous carp scales were to be found, yet in the pools themselves,
although very clear, no fish of any size could be seen. Poison is

No. 4(1920) THE FISHERIES OF THE NILGIRIS 141

the means adopted to capture these fish as is clear from the fact
that scales are spread over the banks for some distance.

Fry traps. — I found two fry traps of similar construction to those
described in my report on the Bhavani, hidden in the undergrowth
of one of the islands.

The mahseer ascend this river while it is in spate and some
evidently travel a long way before depositing their spawn, as the
fixed engines to catch them are found high up.

When the heavy waters are subsiding, which, I gather from the
local inhabitants, is towards the end of August or early September
according to the monsoon, they proceed to build the most formi-
dable fixed engines from bank to bank. In one mile of river, I
counted no less than four of these obstructions which had been
working last season and were still stout and strong, but not in use,
as the actual trap had been removed. All the mahseer that had
escaped the traps had left the small river long ago for safer and
deeper waters. The heavy floods which are due shortly will carry
all these hurdles away, so they have to be rebuilt each year.

Fixed engines. — In construction these are similar to those used on
the Bhavani, if, anything, they are more stoutly built with heavy
posts well driven into the river-bed and interlaced with bamboo
and branches and supported by strong " Y" shaped stakes.

Being a small river the poachers have no need to take advantage
of the islands as they do in the Bhavani. They build straight
across from bank to bank.

In two places where big trees had fallen across the river-bed,
advantage had been taken of their support and traps built along
them.

Up to the present I have not come across on any river so many
fixed engines as I found up this Splendid tributary of the Bhavani.

The engines on the Moyar are primitive compared with those
on the Siruvani and the Bhavani, the inhabitants having given
more attention to poisoning than trapping. This gives a rough
idea of what the fixed engines were originally like.

Food-supply. — There is a large amount of fish food in the
Siruvani, and as the country is well wooded, numbers of insects
and much edible vegetable matter are constantly falling in the
water.

Spawning ground. — The value of the river lies in its splendid
spawning grounds which should be properly protected.

142 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

Suggestions, etc. — Owing to the difficulty of getting food and the
excessive heat, I was unable to get up as far as the highest
reaches. I will, however, visit and report on these at the first
opportunity. That the people poach the fry is evident from
the fact of finding the two fry traps, and as these were hidden no
doubt word had been sent up the river before me. Should action
be taken and the reconstruction of the fixed engines prevented, it
would only affect the inhabitants for a few months in the year and
at the time when their crops are in full bearing. The fry poachers
of course would have to be dealt with after the big fish had left,
but the stopping of this disgraceful destruction would not affect
the communities but only the actual poachers and their families.

When on the Siruvani, I took the opportunity to go across the
country close to Attapadi and come down the Bhavani to see if
there was any other kind of poaching going on at this time.

The river is very low and with the exception of disturbing a
number of game poachers close to the river, I saw nothing new to

report.

I continued down to Sundapatti and then on to Niralai.

In the big pools all the way down were large Carnatic carp. I
examined some of their stomachs and found them full of vegetable

matter.

Continuing on down by coracle towards Mettupalaiyam I came
across some men who had been poisoning or dynamiting the river.
They were hiding in the long grass on an island and round about
fish could be seen lying belly upwards on the surface of the water.
I examined them, but they had no fish on them ; they had also
evidently thrown the poison berries away. As I could not actually
prove from anything in their possession that they had done the
poisoning, etc., I had to leave them; but it was a certainty they

had.

Nearer Mettupalaiyam poaching with the small casting net goes
on from coracles, but as there are not many who own these coracles,
they cannot do much damage.

THE MOYAR RIVER.
In reporting on this river, it is necessary, for reference, to divide
it into three sections, each section being cut off from the other by
immense falls impossible for any fish to ascend.

No. 4 (1920) THE FISHERIES OF THE NILGIRIS 143

The sections I name as follows : —

(i) Pykara or Upper Moyar— Comprising the river from the
source to the big " Pykara Falls."

(ii) Middle section of Moyar — From below these falls (where
the river takes the name of Moyar) to beyond Teppakadu where it
has a sheer fall into the Mysore Ditch.

(iii) Lower Moyar — From the beginning of the Mysore
Ditch to where the river joins the Bhavani.

Section I.— Pykara or Upper Moyar.

Temperature.

High reaches just below Mukurty Peak, 56° Fahr. II— 15 a.m. sun.

57° ., 12-30 a.m. „
Below junction of small tributaries ... 580 „ no a.m. „

Junction of Krurmund 60 ' ,, 10-45 a.m. misty.

Island pool 630 „ 2-15 p.m.

The river rises close to Mukurty Peak and is joined towards the
foot by another large tributary. Both the streams flow over a rocky
bed with pools, occasional gravel deposits, and shade in places.

Below this several small tributaries join, and the main stream
passing over rocky, sandy and gravel beds enters flat country
where at this time (March) of year it consists of very shallow
stretches and sluggish deep pools. A useful tributary enters called
Mudimund stream with a temperature at 8-30 a.m. of 54 degrees
Fahr. Below this the river passes over a small bed rock fall where
it is joined by the Krurmund. From here downwards there are
long sandy pools with gravel and rocky runs between. Below
Pykara bungalow, there are considerable falls in the bed rock
bottom, but not sufficient to prevent fish ascending in flood times.
There are deep sandy pools and similar runs to those described
above until it reaches the big Pykara Falls.

Carp. — Carp were introduced into this section from a river below
Nadgani in Malabar some years ago and have thrived and bred to
a large extent.

These Malabar carp seem to have distributed themselves over
the greater part of this section. The highest point I observed then
was in the sluggish pools of the flat country stretch above the
entrance of the Krurmund river.
2

144 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

Above this I could find no trace of any fish except the indige-
nous minnow. The very shallow water intervening would no doubt
drive them to the deep pools below for protection.

Habits. — The habits of this fish are to move about in shoals, to
come close into the edge and often to feed in practically shallow
water. They frequent the side-ditches or runners with steep grass
banks during the heat of the day, these being especially favourite
places when buffaloes are grazing near the banks. The buffalo
disturbs small frogs which invariably jump into the ditch and are
immediately eaten by the shoal which are waiting to seize them.
The fish also enter very rapid water in search of food.

Contents of stomach. — On examining the contents of the stomach
of several of these fish I found the following food : several small
frogs, remains of small fish, dragon-fly larvae, caddis, grubs and
various animalcules.

Edibility. — The flesh is somewhat tasteless, but is highly prized
by the people. Like most of the carp family it has large quantity
of small bones.

The fish as an object of sport. — He is much superior to the
Carnatic carp. He makes quite a sporting run, takes a spoon
or live bait readily and can be caught in the rapid runs as well as
Still pools.

Live fish food. — In this section can be found indigenous minnow,
mollusca, several variety of caddis, crab, dragon-fly larvae, frogs
and larvae of numerous small flies.

Poaching. — The only poaching seems to be confined to occa-
sional raids and to the use of dynamite. I have been informed
by Mr. Hodgson that some poachers were caught in the act a few
years ago with a large quantity of fish in their possession and
were convicted and fined. In spite of these raids which are few
and far between and of the legitimate fishing with rod and line,
the Malabar carp have increased enormously. This section thus
forms a guide of the possibilities of restocking rivers with coarse
fish together with protection. All coarse fish are most prolific
egg givers and if not interfered with in their spawning operations
multiply enormously.

Section il— Middle Moyar.

Carnatic carp. — This section stretching from the bottom of the
Pykara Falls (where it takes the name of Moyar) clown to the

NO. 4 (1920) THE FISHERIES OF THE NILGIRIS U5

sheer drop into the Mysore Ditch below Teppakadu is occupied
principally by Carnatic carp. They grow to a fair size and are
distributed all over the section.

Habits, — They frequent deep pools and can be seen moving up
and down the edges in search of food, selecting places where
trees overhang or where coarse grass grows on the banks. When
the wild fig tree (which is common to this section) is in fruit, they
can be found in shoals underneath it eagerly catching and eating
the fruit as the wind or monkeys shake it from the trees. During
this season he is a greedy feeder and goes on eating while greatly
distended with undigested fruit. During my visit a large branch
of one of these trees had been pulled down (evidently by an
elephant) and the bushy end was dangling in the river. I noticed
a great disturbance of the water in the vicinity and partially
dismembered branch being continually pulled. On investigation
I found a school of carp eagerly biting off the fruit and at each
pull other ripe berries dropped off, the disturbance of the water
being caused by the keen competition of the numerous fish to
seize them as they fell.

Food. — Baiting with a berry I secured and examined the
contents of one of the school. The outward appearance would
suggest a fish full of spawn, but on opening I found a sticky mass
of undigested fruit distending the stomach to its utmost capacity.
They seem to gorge themselves entirely with these berries, when
able to procure them in any quantities and neglect for the time
being other numerous sources of fish food. In pools where there
are none of these trees on the banks, the Carnatic carp move up
and down close to the edge and secure numerous grasshoppers
which the coarse overhanging grass harbours in thousands.

Contents of stomach. — I examined the contents of several fish
and found a quantity of grasshoppers, shrimp and a lot of small
larvae. They also contained a certain amount of vegetable matter,
but as it was half-digested it was difficult to identify.

The fish as an object of sport. — They give one good run and, if
caught in rapid water with fine tackle, are quite game at first, but
soon give in.

Poaching — Fry traps. — In the upper reaches I found traces of
small traps placed across side runners or ditches, which were then
dry. They had evidently been in use during the last floods and
allowed to remain. .

146 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

Construction. — Constructed of wood in the shape of a large
" rake head ' with long teeth close together, they are fastened
securely across the ditch or runner at a slight angle with teeth in
the gravel.

The object is to capture the small fry which frequent these
side places for protection during flood times. In some of them the
teeth could be raised from the gravel by turning the top cross
piece to allow anything to enter, the others evidently were con-
structed as the floods were finally subsiding and the fry would be
already in. Judging by their primitive nature and poor construc-
tion they are not effective, but will do a certain amount of
damage.

Poachers. — The nearest hamlet to this place is called Torappalli,
occupied by a few fisherpeople called Paniyans. These are
no doubt the makers of the traps, and from information, I received,
they are said to possess better fry and other traps, but I could find
no trace of them. They are also credited with having fine mesh
nets which they use when the waters are low. I never found these
however and expect they would have hidden them away when
they heard I was visiting the river.

Fixed engines. — I found no trace of fixed engines in this section
of the Moyar. So they must rely on other methods not so effective
to capture the fish.

Poison. — I am informed that poison is used during the dry
weather above and below Teppakadu, but to what extent I had no
means of judging.

Fish food. — This section abounds with fish food of great
variety; the temperature of the water being warmer than that in
section (I) everything of this nature is found of a larger size.
Large mollusca, shrimp, dragon-fly larvae, crabs and an abund-
ance of numerous animalcules I have collected and preserved
specimens in formalin. It is the custom for the people on this
section to fish for crabs which they eat with their curry. To catch
them they split open one end of a thin bamboo stick and insert a
small fish with the head protruding. They then wade up the
river poking this under the edge. The crab seizes hold and in
this way they gather large quantities.

Remarks. — Not knowing the early history of this section of the
Moyar I am unable to state whether it has been badly poached
and depleted of fish, but judging by one of the sure signs, i.e., the

No. 4 (1920) THE FISHERIES OF THE NILGIRIS T47

prevalence of such quantities of live fish food, it seems clear that
the river ij not nearly carrying its full fish-bearing capacity.
Owing to the easy approach and nearness of the main Gudalur-
Masiniguch road to the middle portion of this section and the
easy access to the upper and lower reaches, I consider it would be
easy and cheap to protect.

Suggestions — Re-stocking.— I suggest that this section should be
stocked with Malabar carp or other suitable fish such as mahseer.

If granted permission I could transfer a quantity of the former
under my own supervision from the Nadgani or other Malabar
rivers.

Carriers and nets. — Suitable carriers and nets I have already
in my possession.

Section III.— Lower Moyar.

Starting from below the high falls into the Mysore Ditch
down to where the river joins the Bhavani this section has no
natural obstruction and fish can pass along the entire distance.

Description of the high reaches. — Immediately below these falls
the river has a solid rock bed with narrow precipitous unapproach-
able sides and few men ever venture up so far.

It is here free from traps and poaching. It flows over a rocky
and rough bed which, after some distance, is replaced by gravel
reaches broken by small islands. As the ditch opens out and
allows room for camps on the banks, the signs of poaching are
evident and various.

Artificial dam.— The first I came across was an artificial dam
constructed from an island to one side of the river, the flow being
diverted to the opposite side-and trapped with a wooden hurdle
similar to that used in the Bhavani and described in my report.

Construction of dam.— The dam was constructed of stones, mud,
leaves and branches firmly set together and built in the shape of a
crescent, thus forming this portion of the river into a still pool with
no through flow, the object being to cause the fish to collect and
make the poison which they use to capture them more effective.

Evidence of poison. — On examining the banks beside the dam
I found numerous small dead fish including small eels evidently
cast aside as not being large enough to take. On the island were
masses of fish scales and similar patches at the side of the
artificial pool.
3

I48 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN * VOL. XII,

Fixed engines. — The round hard shell of the poison berry used
lay abcut in quantities. Having destroyed this dam and one or
two smaller ones lower down I came across the first series of fixed
engines.

Construction of cradle trap. — It is constructed in the shape of a
large cradle with the end opposite to the hood knocked out. This
end with raised sides is firmly set level with the bed of the river
and the hood end is supported on stout stakes some two or three
feet above the water level. These are generally built where islands
occur, and as a rule one side of the cradle is made fast to the
island while the other has a hurdle running to the opposite bank
to prevent fish passing. The people sometimes build two or
three cradles in a line but generally two, one on each side of an
island.

Where the river has a narrow pass between two islands the
cradle would occupy the entire space. Any open water would be
guarded with hurdles.

Effectiveness of cradle trap- — These cradle traps if kept in good
order are effective while the river has a good supply of water, but
when low a lot of them would become practically useless. It is
clearly seen they are intended to catch the fish descending,
after spawning operations and 1 should say large quantities are
destroyed this way.

Mode of operation. — The water passes into the cradle with a
great rush, but before it reaches the hood end disappears entirely
through the interlaced branches forming the bottom, leaving the
fish high and dry in the hood.

Destruction of traps. — I destroyed a large number of these
obstructions on my passage through the " Ditch."

Rebuilding time.— It is almost certain these traps will be con-
structed about August or September after the fish have run up.

Area where alone poaching is practised. — These cradle traps seem
to be confined to the higher waters of this section as when the
sides of the "Ditch" open out and tributaries increase the volume
of water other methods are adopted but always in close proximity
to a village or hamlet. In cases where new camps are formed by
the people the trap building and poaching always occur. One of
the main tracks crossing the Ditch to Mysore in the upper part
of this section (about six miles from below Masinigudi) is a centre
of poaching and from here down to Tallakuli several camping

No. 4 (1920) THF FISHERIES OF THE N1LGIRIS I4O.

grounds are to be found close to the river. One lot of the cradle
traps were found near a hamlet called Velemenukudu.

Class of fish captured. — A large variety of valuable fish occupy
this section comprising Carnatic carp, true mahseer, rnurral, eels
and numerous other edible fish ; specimens of some I preserved.
As my investigations were for the protection and improvement
of rivers and not classification of fish, I only preserved the
smaller variety that came to my rod or net.

Description of river below Tallakuli. — Proceeding down the Moyar
from Tallakuli there is a succession or long deep reaches, gravelly
runs and occasional islands with thick undergrowth harbouring
numerous water snakes which greatly alarmed take to the water
on the approach of the coracle.

The banks of the river where these long pools occur are lined
with impenetrable creeper-covered trees, high coarse grass and
thick jungle, broken by huge gaps in the places where elephants
cross from side to side. For miles down the river is undisturbed
by any poachers and there are no habitations. At one place two
large trees of big girth had been blown down by some gale of
wind and entirely span the river from side to side. They had
evidently been there some considerable time as the floods had
piled up all kinds of debris over them. These trees form an excel-
lent foundation for constructing fish traps and could be made very
effective at little trouble ; it is advisable to have the obstruction
removed, as when the people are prevented from poaching in the
higher and lower reaches they are sure to give their attention to
more inaccessible places and would certainly take advantage
of this.

The river continues much the same down past Theppatturai
(where a village used to exist but is now deserted) but occasionally
opens out through more accessible country until Gazzalhatti is
reached. Here I found evidence of poaching by patches of fish
scales on the banks. There is only one man living here, the keeper
of a dirty and dilapidated dak bungalow about a quarter mile from
the river, but as it is a sort of meeting place of the few local
inhabitants, they probably all poach.

Fishing here with a spoon I caught a small mahseer about
1% lb. The contents of the stomach consisted of partly digested
cray fish, some large mollusca and a lot of pulpy matter with
small pieces of shell intermixed.
4

150 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

I was informed that at one time these reaches were well stocked
with big fish but now through the use of dynamite and by other
means are much depleted.

From here down to Pirkkadavu and on to Badapally where
the Moyar enters the Bhavani, the river is constantly netted. The
people complained to me of the poor catches now, compared with
former times. As the size of fish captured decreases they resort
to smaller mesh nets. Taking the whole of this section of the
Moyar 1 consider the poaching in the upper waters responsible
to a large degree for the depletion of fish in this river.

Peculiar feeding habits of the carp in the Lower Moyar. — On examin-
ing a carp of about 2 lb. weight I found it gorged with the seed of
the prickly-pear fruit. As this fruit grows some distance from the
banks of the river and is impossible for fish to reach, I found some
difficulty at first to know how they procured it till after careful
observation close under some big trees an occasional splash of
something dropping into the water followed by the swirl of a big
fish, revealed the fact that the seed of this fruit actually passes
undigested from monkeys and is eagerly eaten on reaching the
water by these carp. Judging by a number of fish I procured here
and examined, the seed seems to pass through them as well, entire,
and without decomposition.

MINOR STREAMS.

Report on Parson's Valley stream, dated 10th November 1906.

Temperature, upper reaches, 580 Fahr. ... 9-30 a.m.
„ lower (falls) 6o° „ ... Noon.

Nature of the bottom. — Sand and gravel.

Fish food. — This stream is very prolific in live fish food, the
following being largely in evidence, viz. —

Water beetles mollusca, crabs, caddis, indigenous minnows,
and numerous animalcules and larvae.

I netted the stream, at several stretches, and captured and
examined three trout, viz. —

(i) Salmo irideus, 13 inch, male, condition very healthy.

(2) „ II „ female „

\5) ») 10 ,, ,, ,, ,,

No. 4 (1920) THE FISHERIES OF THE NILGIRIS 151

As the only nets procurable were very inferior and of large
mesh, any smaller fish could pass through.

1 consider this stream suited to Salmo.irideus but it would have
been much better if the upper reaches had been shaded by jungle.
The tropical sun shining on exposed eggs on the spawning beds
will destroy the life of the alevin. I therefore propose to remedy
this by planting small shrubs in the upper reaches in the most
suitable places for fry.

Report on trout in Parson's Valley stream, dated 291/1 June 1907.

I netted the upper reaches, 26th June 1907, and some of the
deeper pools of this stream to ascertain if there were any young
fish.

In the former I am pleased to report that I got four small
rainbow trout about 3-j to 4 inches evidently from last January-
February spawning.

This proves beyond doubt that the trout are now breeding and
with the additional new blood I introduced last year they should
increase rapidly after the next spawning season. The new blood
will also improve and strengthen the future alevins, lessen the risk
of interbreeding and firmly establish a healthy breed of trout.

The river will require careful watching to prevent poaching.
Now that the bigger fish can be seen feeding in the shallow and
narrow reaches it is a great temptation to the people to catch them.
During the dry season when the waters are low this would be an
easy matter as they frequent places where they could be caught by
the hand.

It would be advisable after the next spawning season (which
should be all over by end of March) to remove the very big fish to
some other water.

The deep pools where these fish are found are most difficult to
net. The banks in places are practically undermined with numer-
ous holes where the fish take refuge, and the nature of the bottom
is rendered so uneven by huge clumps of fallen earth from the sides
that the odds are greatly in the fish's favour and against the net.

Report on Sandy Nalla stream, dated 16th November 1906.
Temperature at junction of Municipal stream, at 9-30 a.m.,
cloudy, 58° Fahr.

T52 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

Temperature at noon (opposite Toda Mund), 6o° Fahr.

at I-30 p.m. highest reach in shade of jungle,
58°Fahr.

Nature of the bottom. — Gravel, sand and mud.

Animalcules, etc. — There is an abundance of minute life under the
stones, immediately above the small tributary on the left going
towards the source, three-fourths of a mile from the mouth or junc-
tion. Useful fish food was in some places (where the bottom of
stream was mud) very scarce.

Class of food found. — Phryganea, Hydrophilus, numerous larvae
of above, indigenous minnow, crabs, etc.

Remarks. — On the higher reaches after the stream divides into
three runners, there is on the main source an Irish bridge, which
might prevent big fish descending from the spawning ground after
the flood water had subsided below the level of stones. An open-
ing could be made to allow the passage of fish. This is a small
stream and not very suitable for trout as in the dry season the
upper waters will be very shallow. If trout were introduced they
would descend to the Municipal stream in dry weather.

Report on Municipal stream, dated 17th November 1906.

Temperature taken at ford below toll, bar on Pykara

road at 9-45 a.m., bright sun 59*Fahr.

Temperature of side runner on right hand bank

going down stream, IO-30 a.m. ■■• •■• ... 58 »>

Nature of bottom.—Mud, gravel, sand, covered in places with
coarse weed.

Remarks. — This stream is very foul and dirty. In places weeds
should be removed and an attempt made to introduce mollusca and
other fish food into the lower reaches below the toll-bar which is
at present deficient therein. The stream enters a thick shola and
descends with a succession of small falls interspersed with good
pools. Fish could pass down to these pools but not ascend again.

I consider that, in its present dirty condition, it is not very
suitable for trout.

No. 4(1920) THE FISHERIES OF THE NILGIRIS 153

Report on Avalanche river, dated 24th November 1906.

Elevation

Temperature —

Weather

above sea
(about).

Fahr., and
time.

Name of places.

Date.

condition.

FEET.

Main river.

1906.

6,45°

570 8-30 a.m. ...

Ford

25th November.

Sunshine.

6-55o

580 noon

Upper reaches

25th do.

Cloudy.

6-55°

57° 7-3° a-m- ■•■

Do.

26th do.

Sunshine.

6,480

6ic noon ...

Junction of Emerald Valley
stream .

26'h do.

Do.

6,400

6o° 8-50 a.m.

Mclvor's bund

Side streams.

26th do.

Do.

7,000

52° 7-25 a.m. ...

Stream in jungle behind
Avalanche bungalow.

25th November.

Cloudy.

6.500

580 about noon ...

Stream over falls on right
bank of Avalanche
towards source.

25th do.

Do.

7,350

520 6-40 a.m.

On Bangi Tappal road ...

27th do.

Do.

Nature of bottom. — Upper reaches, mostly gravel.

Fish food. — There is a fair amount of fish food in the upper
reaches, but it is deficient in mollusca. Lower down near the junc-
tion of the Emerald Valley stream, large quantities of mollusca and
numerous large larvae are found.

1 consider this stream should make a first-class trout river. I
will transplant a quantity of mollusca from the lower reaches to
the side runners in the upper waters. The higher reaches are
naturally shaded in places, which is a great advantage.

The only fish life I could see in the river was the indigenous
minnow and stone loach. Water was very clear.

The temperature in the upper waters is quite suitable for the
natural breeding of rainbow trout.

( Restocking with live fish food. )

Avalanche river.

I proceeded to Avalanche on I Ith February 1907 and visited
Mclvor's bund, then the junction of Emerald Valley stream, secur-
ing a large quantity of live food (mollusca) which I kept in damp
sphagmm moss over night at Avalanche bungalow.

1 2th February 1907. Took above mollusca to the upper tribu.
taries of the Avalanche river and stocked in suitable breeding
places.

154

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL XII,

Report on the Emerald Valley stream, dated 12th February 1907.
Temperature, upper reaches — Noon, bright sun, 560 Fahr.

3 P.m. „ 58°

,, lower reaches — II a.m. ,, 6l° ,,

This stream rises in the hills opposite Avalanche and flows over
a rocky and precipitous bed to the foot of the hills. From here
downwards the nature of the bottom is gravel and sand and in the
higher waters there is a fair amount of useful shade. There are
good pools and the stream is very accessible for fishing.

I examined it thoroughly, but found no trace of trout, which
were put in some years ago. The few that remained must have
moved into the lower deep pools or have been poached. There was
no evidence of any fish having been in the upper waters for spawn-
ing purposes. I examined the gravel beds in the upper waters
where fry would most likely be, but found none.

The stream contains indigenous minnow, mollusca and small
animalcules, a fair amount of shade in the high reaches, suitable
spawning grounds with good temperature and very clear water.

I consider it should make a good stream for trout and, if care-
fully watched after stocking, they ought to breed in the upper
waters as the temperature and nature of bottom are all that can be
desired.

This stream joins the Avalanche river.

Report on Billithada Halla, dated 2Jth November 1906.

Elevation
above sea

Temperature —
Fahr., and time.

Name of places.

Date.

Weather
condition.

(about).

FEET.

1906

7,560

52° 8 a.m.

Upper reaches ...

2 7 th November.

Bright sun.

7,400

530 8-40 a.m.

Junction, Notton stream.

27 th do.

Do.

7,330

53° 9 am.

Junction, Bangi Tappal.

:7th do.

Do.

7.15°

6i° noon

Beginning of falls

28th do .

Cloudy.

7,150

580 9-25 a.m.

Do.

?9th do.

Do.

7,150

62° 2-45 a.m.

Do.
Tributaries.

29th (In.

Do

7,600

520 7 a.m.

Notton stream ..

27th November.

Sun.

7,330

530 9 a.m.

Bangi Tappal

27th do.

Do.

Nature of the bottom. — Upper reaches, gravel.
Fish food. — There is large amount of valuable fish food from
the source to the falls.

NO. 4 (1920) THE FISHERIES OF THE NILGIRIS 1 55

The tributaries in the upper reaches are abundantly stocked
with the larvas of numerous flies, especially the Notton stream.
This small stream would be most suitable as a spawning ground
for trout, the temperature, the nature of bottom and natural shade
in places are all that can be desired. The only fish I could see in
the Billithada Halla were of the stone loach variety and indigenous
minnow.

I consider this ought to make an ideal trout river and is the best
I have inspected so far. Its high elevation, low temperature, good
tributaries and the fact that it is out of reach of any likelihood of
poaching are all in its favour. It is capable of carrying a large
number of trout and their growth should be rapid owing to the
quantity of feeding.

Report on Kil-Kotagiri streams (Kil-Kotagiri, Ken garni, Kagula and
Guda Kul Hallo), dated 16/// January 1907.

The main ' Kil-Kotagiri " stream rises above Kil-Kotagiri and
flows into the Moyar.

Temperature, upper reaches, 560 Fahr., 9 a.m., bright sun.
,, lower down, 59° ,, noon, ,,

Live fish food. — This stream has a good supply of mollusca, larvae
and various flies and quantities of small animalcules.

Nature of bottom. — Gravel and sand.

I consider this small stream the most suitable one for the intro-
duction of trout fry that I have seen in the Kotagiri district. It
runs mostly through jungle with good shade and gravel bottom.
The only fault is that it is so short, there only being about 3 miles
of useful water, before it drops sheer down to the low country. If
a few fry were introduced, they would doubtless thrive well until a
certain age when they would move into the lower deep pools for
greater protection and might eventually go over the falls. If
careful supervision could be ensured, it would be useful to stock
Kengarai and Kagula (tributaries of the Guda Kul Halla). Both
of these streams have useful pools and in the upper waters a
temperature of 56 degrees, lower waters, noon, 62 degrees. They
all suffer by being so short and swift rising within a few miles of
the sheer fall into the low country. They all have good shade and
gravel bottom. The Kengarai stream has several falls, while
passing through jungle which would render it very difficult for
fish to get up to spawn, once they descend to the pools below. If
fish were introduced, this could be altered to allow of easy access.

T56 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII, No 4 (1920)

KOTAGIRI DISTRICT.

Report on St. Catherine Fall stream, dated 14th January 1907.

Temperature, upper reaches, 590 Fahr.

junction main tributary (5,650 feet), 6oe Fahr.

Nature of the bottom. — Sand and gravel with clayey deposit.

Amount of live fish food. — Very little.

Remarks. — The main tributary of this stream has a rough stony
bottom and has every appearance of washing completely out
during rains. The banks of the main stream afford little protec-
tion for fish and are being gradually washed away.

At about 5,100 feet elevation, there is a big fall which is impos-
sible for fish to ascend. The temperature below this fall is 63
degrees. The stream has a gravel bottom, but no shade or protec-
tive bank. Further down a stream from Kotagiri enters with a
fair amount of shade and gravel bottom, temperature 60 degrees,
I-30 p.m.

I consider this stream unsuitable for trout, the banks being of
such a nature that fish would not stay as they have no protection
if disturbed, and the intervening fall would prevent them getting
to the upper reaches to spawn.

Report on the Orange Valley stream, dated 1 5 th January 1 907.

Temperature, upper reaches, above falls, 570 Fahr., bright sun.

below falls, II a.m., 58* Fahr.
noon, 6o°
3 P-it»-. 6l° „

Nature of the bottom. — This stream in the upper reaches flows
over slab rock. Below the falls the bottom is covered with a clay-
coloured deposit and is very dirty.

Fish food. — The amount of fish food is very small and in places
is practically all killed out by the above deposit.

There is one good tributary entering the main stieam below
Badaga village with a good supply of fish food and temperature
580 Fahr., at noon, bright sun.

This stream is not suitable for trout in its present condition,
as the pollution or silt deposit on the bottom destroys most of the
animalcules and valuable tish food.

Report No. 5 (1920).

NOTES ON THE TWO CICHLID FISHES OF

MALABAR, ETROPLUS SURATENSIS

AND E. MACULATUS

BY
N. P. PANIKKAR, B.A., F.L.S.,

Inspector of Fisheries, Travancore.

INTRODUCTION.

The material on which these notes are based was collected
chiefly during the years 1917 to 1920. The principal locality under
observation was the shallow portion of the Astamudi backwater
lying in front of the Fishery office at Quilon. Notes were also
taken during the author's tours in different parts of the Travancore
State for purposes of investigation. Breeders were introduced
into convenient tidal ponds and kept there for three consecutive
years and the habits of the two species were continuously studied.
Feeding experiments were also conducted by keeping the young
ones from their earliest larval stage in suitable glass aquaria.

Etroplus suratensis and E. maculatus are the only two represen-
tatives of the Cichlid family in Malabar. They are very common
in all backwaters, river-mouths and brackish-water ponds and
lakes. In rivers they are not rare ; the first species is found to breed
freely as far as tidal limits, but although sometimes during the hot
season they migrate beyond these limits, they are not ordinarily
found to breed there ; the second species breeds freely in fresh-
water. In Travancore these are the principal food-fishes obtained
from inundated paddy fields near river-mouths.* Their favourite
haunts are shallow creeks of backwaters and canals where there is
a luxuriant growth of aquatic vegetation. E. suratensis is some-
times introduced into fresh-water tanks to keep down the growth

* On the Coromandel coast, E. suratensis is not known to haunt paddy-fields; in
Travancore these fields are, however, inundated to a greater depth and for a longer
period — J.H.

I58 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

of algse. This species is noted for its elegance of movement and
tameable habits ; it is well suited for stocking tanks and lakes,
owing to its fair size, palatability, hardihood and non-predaceous
nature.

Although both species are quite common in the maritime
regions of the Madras Presidency and of Ceylon, very few
investigators seem to have paid much attention to them. Dr.
A. Willey (7) has published observations upon the breeding habits
of E. suratensis. Thomas (6) and Sundara Raj (5) have also given
a number of facts concerning both of them. The note which
follows is a contribution to a fuller knowledge of their reproduction
and life-history.

1. ETROPLUS SURATENSIS (Block).

Malayalam — Karimeen - Black-fish.
Habits and characteristics.

Nest making. — During the breeding season the fish resort in
pairs to shallow shady places and make a search for a suitable
object upon which to deposit the eggs. Stones, pieces of wood,
coconut husks, or midribs of coconut leaves, submerged at a depth
of not more than three feet of water, are preferred. If the surface
selected is smooth as is the outer rind of coconut husk, it is made
rough by biting on it in order to raise short fibres. After select-
ing the object one side of it is made clean by biting away all
dirt or vegetable growth. If the object is found not to be raised
sufficiently from the ground to afford convenience for the spawning
movements, a broad cup-like excavation is made in the ground
just below the surface selected by taking the mud and sand in the
mouth and blowing them away. Although each of the pair takes
part in the preparation of this simple nest, the male is found to
attend to it more particularly. The pair spend three to five days
in selecting the place and in preparing it for the reception of
the ova.

Egg laying. — The female lies flat in the cavity or space adjacent
to the surface prepared and gently moves from one side to the
other attaching the ova one by one in a single layer. In doing so the
urino-genital papilla, here so elongated as to deserve to be termed
an "ovipositor," is placed in contact with the surface, and the
black ventral fins are brought together to press on it gently to help
the extrusion of the egg. After five or six such operations she

No. 5 (1920) CICHLID FISHES OF MALABAR 159

retreats, and the male by a similar but quicker movement pours
his milt over the eggs and fertilizes them. He also scrutinizes the
eggs before he allows his mate to approach the nest again and
impatiently watches her while she lays her eggs. The spawning
lasts about two or three hours during which the alternate processes
of egg-laying and fertilizing take place several times. Both the
parents try to drive away any fish approaching the nest. They
fondle each other by striking each other's side with the snout and
by rubbing sides. This is also a very common habit with the fish
when they are at play. The eggs are cemented to the prepared
surface in a single layer close together but not in actual contact
with each other. The number found in a nest varies within wide
limits from over three hundred to more than a thousand. Young
adults are less prolific than the older.

Care of the eggs and the young. — After the eggs are laid and
fertilized the female broods over them. She is found almost
always close to the nest, fanning it with her pectoral fins and
scrutinizing the eggs from time to time. The current produced
by the pectoral fins puts the eggs gently in motion and prevents
any sediment sticking to them. Occasionally the mother goes in
search of food, leaving the charge to her consort, but she is never
away for more than ten minutes. The male generally remains
a little away from the nest and keeps off all intruders from it ; but
unlike the female he makes long excursions for feeding. On the
fourth day after spawning he begins to excavate one or two pits
at some convenient place near the nest. Generally he selects the
nearest place where the bottom is not more than three feet below the
surface and where it is of fine sand firmed with mud so that the
pit excavated may not be hired up with sand and mud falling in
from the sides. He tests the ground well by scooping at different
places before he selects the proper place. Sometimes it may be
more than ten feet from the brood. The female also takes part in
digging pits. They are about two to three inches in diameter and
about one inch or a little more in depth. After the larvae are
removed from the egg membrane to one of the pits as described
below, more of these pits are prepared in the bottom around. The
fish takes the mud and sand from the ground and blows them
away at a distance. Even pebbles of some weight are thus thrown
away.

160 Madras fisheries bulletin vol. xii,

Before the eggs begin to hatch the pit is made ready. The
female is then seen anxiously watching the hatching eggs and
incessantly fanning them. The hatching takes place on the
fourth or fifth day after spawning. The newly hatched larva?
attach themselves for a time to the egg membrane whence they
are picked up by the mother in her mouth and transferred to the
pit. As the hatching proceeds vigorously she carries large
numbers at a time. The male also helps her occasionally, but
his attention is given chiefly to the larvae deposited in the pit. The
time taken for the hatching of the whole brood is never more
than twenty minutes. When all the young ones have been
transferred to the pit, the female keeps close watch over them
and drives away intruders. The male remains by her side and
occasionally relieves her for feeding. A constant current is
produced near the pit by the active fanning with the fins of the
attendant parent and by the incessant vibration of the tails of
the larvae within the pit. The caretaker often examines the larvae
by poking its nose into the pit and carefully removes all foreign
particles entering it. The young ones are transferred from one
pit to another at least once a day.

The habit of these fish in taking the young into the mouth and
carrying them from one nest to the other, is very interesting in view
of a similar habit of buccal incubation observed in some of the
African and American Cichlids. To my surprise, I found one day
the pit from which I took some larvae for observation some hours
previously, was deserted by the guardian fish, which was found
guarding another new pit some feet away from the old one. I
examined the new pit and the larvae were found not to have grown
to the free-swimming stage. This induced me to try the experi-
ment of removing some larvae from the pit by means of a glass tube
and dropping them outside. The guarding parent immediately
picked them up carefully and deposited them again in the pit.
This conclusively proved that it was the parent fish which trans-
ferred the young ones to the new pit. Later I had occasion several
times to observe the spawning and hatching of the eggs and the
transference of the larvae from the egg membrane to the pit and
also from one pit to another. In Etroplus maculatus also the same
habit was observed several times.

NO. 5 (1920) CICHLID FISHES OF MALABAR l6l

Dr. Boulenger in describing the care of the young by the female
Cichlids of Africa observes as follows : —

"... So far as I could speak from personal observation
. . . it is invariably the female who thus carries the eggs
This was in contradiction to statements made by Lortet and by
Gunther who ascribed this habit to the male in the species of the
same genus with which they had dealt . . . It therefore remains
unproved whether in any of the African or Syrian Cichlids the
buccal incubation, as it has been called by Dr. Pelligrin, devolves
on the male. "

On all possible occasions I have taken care to ascertain the sex
of the fish which carry the young by actual observation of the
spawning and also by the examination of the genital glands ; I am
convinced that, although the male helps his mate in carrying the
young from nest to nest, this duty is mainly performed by the female.

When the yolk sac is absorbed and the pectoral fins become
functional, the larvseare led out by the parents to the neighbouring
open water. The female gathers them round her and the male
guards them against intruders. If frightened or otherwise dis-
turbed, the larvae take shelter in some hollow in the ground or cling
to bottom debris or under the parents' fins. For the first four days
they are collected together at sunset under the ventral fins of the
parents and led to some hollow where they are kept for the whole
night carefully guarded. The black ventral fins are very useful in
guiding the young ones and it is interesting to see the parent fish
attract their attention by rapidly spreading and closing these
fins twice or thrice. Mouth to mouth fighting is often found to
take place between parents bejonging to different broods and also
against wandering members of the same species. The parental
care lasts for a considerable time even after the young ones assume
the adult form. They feed chiefly on minute animal life found in
the bottom debris or hiding among mossy growth. They seem to
take vegetable food only after entering the late larval stage.- After
leaving the last pit they are never found to be picked up by the
parent in the mouth.

The fish becomes sexually mature in the second year of its life.
It breeds twice a year, in May to June and again from November to
February, the maximal spawning being in January. A pair
singled out and kept in the experimental fish-pond, spawned first
in May 1917 and again in November of the same year. Spawning
2

162 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XIl,

takes place generally when strong sunshine follows continuous
heavy rains during a few days. Late spawners seem to breed only
once a year.

During the breeding season the colour bands of the parents
become conspicuous, the anal as well as the ventral fins become
black, and black spots or blotches appear in groups on the ventral
side between the ventral and caudal fins at the lower ends of the
black stripes. The colour patches of the male are more strongly
marked and darker, when the young ones are taken about for feed-
ing. The greenish-blue iridescence and the pearly white spots
become more vivid, and the rayed portions of the dorsal and anal
fins turn a little red before spawning, which colour disappears
when the young reach the late larval stage. The female is gene-
rally smaller and assumes a muddy yellowish-brown colour before
spawning when the "ovipositor" develops ; the latter is sometimes
a little more than a quarter of an inch in length.

This fish breeds in shallow, shady portions of backwaters
where there is an admixture of fine firm sand and mud at the
bottom. It prefers places where coconut husks are soaked. It is
also found to breed freely in all brackish-water ponds, ditches,
canals and even in paddy fields.'""

LlFE-HISTORY.

The eggs. — The egg is oblong in shape, the length being twice
its breadth. It is attached at one end by means of a short stalk to
the object used as a nest. Newly laid eggs are yellowish in colour.
They become brownish as the embryo develops and the yolk sac
becomes pigmented. They are about 2*1 mm. in size. The
period of incubation lasts from 82 to 100 hours. The egg membrane
bursts first over the head of the larva which is at the free end and
the split continues along the upper side by the waving of the tail.
For a moment the newly hatched larva remains attached to the
egg membrane by means of its cement organs. The guardian fish
then picks it up and deposits it in the pit.

Early larval stage. — The newly hatched larva is 5 mm. long ;
it has neither mouth, gills, nor paired fins. The eye is pigment-

• On the east coast it also breeds naturally in purely fresh-water lakes at some
distance from the coast; the Red 1 1 Ills reservoir and Kolavoy tank at Chingleput are
instances. It is also now acclimatized by the efforts of the IJ isheries Department in lakes
tar inland, such as at Kurnool, where it breeds freely — J. It.

NO. 5 (1920) CICHL1D FISHES OF MALABAR 163

less, but the auditory organ is distinctly developed. The yolk is
richly pigmented. The larvae group together in the centre of the
pit and attaching themselves to small particles of sand by means
of the cement organs, they incessantly vibrate their tail. If dis-
turbed, they move about with the yolk sac upwards and soon
rearrange themselves as before. The instinct to group together
and to vibrate the tail lasts till the yolk sac is fully absorbed.

Second day. — Pigment in the eye appears.

Third day. — 6 mm. long. The mouth opens, and the yolk sac is
reduced to half its size ; a dilatation in front of the yolk sac at the
cardiac region appears. Heart beating is more vigorous and the
respiratory movements begin.

Fourth day. — Pectoral fins appear, colour pigments appear on
the back at two centres.

Fifth day. — The yolk sac is almost absorbed, dilatation in front
of the yolk sac disappears and when the larva moves, it lies over
on one side.

Seventh day. — 7 mm. long, yolk sac wholly absorbed, tail fin
still continuous with the dorsal and ventral ; the larva leaves the
nest and moves about in its neighbourhood, guided by the mother,
in quest of food. Cement organs wholly disappear.

Late larval stage. — The larva even after leaving the nest is quite
different from the adult fish in form. The tail remains long and
the caudal fin is continuous with the dorsal and anal. These fins
begin to separate only from the fourth day after the larva has
entered the second stage. About a fortnight afterwards, the pri-
mary chromatophores on th.e back disappear and permanent colour
bands begin to appear. The larva assumes the adult form within
a month after hatching, when it is about 18 mm. long. The
ocellus on the soft rays of the dorsal fin appears distinctly. The
young ones continue to be guided by the parents till they are
about an inch and a quarter long, which size they attain in about
two months. Even when they are out of the care of the parents
they group together in shallow places.

Until the larvae attain the adult form and the bones develop
they are preyed upon by both young and grown-up individuals of
the same species. The larval nest is sometimes attacked by them
in groups, especially when they are kept under confinement. The
parents attempt to defend the nest by moving round it in circles,
but they are pushed aside and the nest is emptied of its contents.

164 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII,

Under natural conditions such determined attacks are very rare.
This cannibalistic tendency can be reduced by supplying them with
animal food in the form of chopped prawn or crab. E. maculatus,
gobies and crabs are other natural enemies to the larvae. If one of
the parents is separated, the other becomes disgusted with the
unaided care of the brood and soon wanders away leaving them to
themselves. The male can be easily allured by throwing food at a
distance, but the female takes the brood with her. The larvae, if
separated from the parents' care and reared under artificial condi-
tions, soon turn anaemic and die.

Although these fish are found in large numbers near the mouths
of estuaries, none of them dares to enter the sea. When living
under adverse water conditions the fish turns more and more
blotched with black. The colour deepens with the increase of
salinity or density of the water. The same is the case when it is
put in water boiled and cooled and the colour becomes light when
the water is again well aerated. Although its adaptability to
varying conditions of salinity is wonderful, it is not immune to
bacterial or fungoid attacks. In one of my fish ponds into which
water percolates during the rainy season from the land side, bacte-
rial growth becomes enormous and the fish kept in it become
subject to the attack of a kind of bacterial disease and, if the pond
is not supplied daily with a current of saline water from the
adjoining backwater, all of them die within a few days. If the
affected fish are let out into the backwater they soon recover.

Under favourable conditions within five years the fish grows to
rather more than a foot in length and weighs about three pounds.
Among backwater fishes it is the most esteemed in Travancore as
a food-fish and fetches the best price.

2. ETROPLUS MACULATUS (Block).
Malayalam — Pallathi, Kurumpad =" Short striped."
This small cousin of E. suratensis is very common in all
waters of the plains of Malabar ; especially in paddy fields, shallow
canals and ditches. It migrates far higher up rivers and breeds
freely in them beyond tidal limits. In the power of endurance and
activity it surpasses its relative. Colour-change coincident with
alteration in the density of the water, is also marked in this species.
It moves about in schools consisting of individuals of different ages.
During the early part of the monsoon season after the first

NO. 5 (1920) CICHLID FISHES OF MALABAR 165

freshes, large numbers of them are found to migrate to the
inundated paddy-fields and irrigation channels. Most of them
then put on an attractive yellow livery. They breed freely in all
waters they choose to occupy. The breeding seasons almost
correspond with and the breeding habits are just the same as those
of E. suratensis. It becomes sexually mature at the close of the
first year of its growth. It is more active and pugnacious during
the breeding season than E. suratensis. The female is smaller
and more deeply coloured than the male. Mr. Sundara Raj (5)
has described in detail the breeding habits, the nest, the eggs and
the larvae of this fish and I have therefore to note here only certain
facts amplifying his statements.

The eggs are always attached to submerged objects, prefer-
ably small stones, old leaves or stumps and dead roots of coconut
trees. If the object is not raised a little from the ground, a small
excavation is also made adjacent to it. The eggs hatch on the third
or fourth day and the larvae attach themselves to the egg mem.
brane for a short time. They are picked up from there and deposited
in pits prepared for the purpose. These excavations are about an
inch or two in diameter and an inch or a little less deep at the
centre. None that I have seen has been lined with algae. New
pits are prepared from time to time and the larvae transferred
thereto in turn. Mr. Sundara Raj describes a curious habit of the
parent of what appeared to him to be a feeding of the fry. I have
also observed the parent going to some selected spot, preferably
near the root of a plant or the side of a submerged stone or stick
and digging with its mouth. This is, however, only for the prepa-
ration of a new pit. The sediment collected is never thrown into
the nest which is always kept clean. On the third day after
hatching the mouth is formed, and on the fifth or sixth day the
larvae leave the pit and move about in the neighbourhood in quest
of food. The yolk sac is then almost absorbed and the cement
organs disappear. Except for the difference in size it is very
difficult to distinguish the young of E. maculatus from those of
E. suratensis before the transverse colour bands disappear in the
former.

References.

I. Annandale, N. — "Report on the Biology of the Lake of
Tiberias, " Journal As. Soc. Bengal (N.S.), Vol. XI, Nos. 10 and II,
1915, PP- 464-65-

*

166 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XII, No. 5 (1920)

2. Boulenger. — "Fourth contribution to the Ichthyology of Lake>
Tanganyika," Trans. Zool. Soc. Loudon, Vol. XVII, 1906, pp. 537 —
76.

3. Boulenger. — "Cichlidag of Africa," Cat. Afr. Fishes, III.

4. Gill. — " Parental care among Fresh-water Fishes," Smith-
sonian Inst. Rep., 1905. 1906, pp. 403—531.

5. Sundara Raj, B. — " Notes on the Fresh-water Fish of Madras."
Rec. bid. Mu6., Vol. XII, 1916, pp. 282—86.

6. Thomas, H. S. — Report, Pisciculture, in South Kanara, 1870.

7. Willey, A. — "Notes on the Fresh-water Fisheries of Ceylon,"
Spolia Zeylanica, VII, p. 102.

MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

Bulletin No. 13

ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1919-20

BY

The Hon'blk Mr. A. Y. G. CAMPBELL, c.i.e., c.b.e., I.C.S.

REMARKS ON CANNING

AND

MANUFACTURE OF FISH OIL AND GUANO

BY

Sir F. A. NICHOLSON, k.c.i.e.

Reports Nos. 1 , 2 and 3 of 1921 .

MADRAS
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS

Price, 3 rupees 2 annas. 1922

"SS^SHP1 LIBRARY

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