MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

Bulletin Vol 14

MADRAS FISHERY INVESTIGATIONS

1 92 1

(SECOND SERIES)

BY

JAMES HORNELL, f.l.s., f.r.a.i.,
Director of Fisheries, Madras

MADRAS
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS

Price, 2 rupees 12 annas

1922

MADRAS FISHERIES DEPARTMENT

Bulletin No. XV

FISHERY REPORTS

FOR

1922

EDITED BY

JAMES HORNELL, f.l.s., f.r.a.i.
Dinctor of Fisheries, Madras

MADRAS
PRINTED BY TIIK SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PRESS

Price, 2 rupees 2 annas.']

1923

CONTENTS.

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1 920-2 r. By pages

James Hornell... ... ... ... ... ... 1 — 43

II. Notes on the Fauna and Fishine Industries of the Lacca

dive Islands. By S. Ramaswami Ayyangar ... ... 45 — 69

III. The Grey Mullets of Tuticorin. By R. H. White-

house ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 71 — 98

IV. The Flying-fish Fishery of the Coromandel Coast and

the Spawning Habits of Cypsilurus. By J. Hornell,
with a note on the Eggs and early Embryonic Develop-
ment, by M. Ramaswami Nayudu ... ... ... 99 — 112

V. The Aims and Achievements of the Madras Department

of Fisheries. By J. Hornell ... ... ... ... 113 — 129

VI. A Statistical Account of the Fish Supply of Madras.

By S. T. Moses 131— 166

Report No. 1 of 1922.

ADMINISTRATION REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
FISHERIES FOR THE YEAR ENDING 30th JUNE 1921

BY

J. Hoenell, Esq., f.l.s., f.e.a.i.,
Director of Fisheeies.

Administration.

1. Personnel. — Mr. A. Y. G. Campbell, c.i.e., continued to act
as Director till 15th November J 920, on which date I returned from
leave and resumed charge of the ] )irectorate. No change iu the
superior staff took place during the year. Rao Bahadur V. Govindan,
as Assistant Director (Coast), continued in charge of the socio-eco-
nomic section, together with the supervision of the Tanur Experi-
mental Station, the fish-curing yards and the inshore experiments
at Madras. Mr. H. L. Prager was responsible for the Experimental
Cannery at Chaliyam, whilst Mr. J. A. Fernandez controlled the
chank and beche-de mer fisheries, in the absence on leave of Lieut.
J. H.Allan, o.b.e., who returned only on June 7, 1921. Mr. R. H.
Whitehouse carried on the duties of Marine Biologist, and Mr. B.
SimdaraRaj, Assistant Director (Inland), those pertaining to Inland
Pisciculture. Mr. Karunakara Menon continued as Personal Assist-
ant to the Director.

2. Headquarters office and staff. — As in 1919 I have again to
deplore the inadequacy of the accommodation provided for my
establishment and that of the Assistant Director (Inland). This
consists of a small wing attached to the Director of Industries'
offices. My own office is in a converted dressing room, so small and
hot that it is difficult to work there in the heat of the day. The
clerks are in worse condition, as they are crowded into two hot and
ill-ventilated rooms. rlhe Assistant Diiectors (Inland) staff is
housed under equally unsuitable and unhygienic conditions. Un-
less better quarters are provided, the efficiency of w ork, now at a
low level, is likely to deteriorate further. The need for additional
staff is also sorely felt, and results in the utilization of the services,
as clerks, of men whose duties are not of this description. Thus the
Personal Aseistanl, specially appointed to relieve me of certain duties,
in order that I might have time for greater general supervision and
for research, is occupied to such an extent with accounts work that
I do not get as much relief from his help as I should. Similarly my
camp clerk can seldom accompany me on tour, and the Assistant

2 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV

Director (Inland), to make up for the lack of adequate elerieal staff,
has frequently to utilize the services of his Assistant Inspectors.
The work of the department has increased very greatly during the
past two years but the additional staff asked for long ago has not yet
been sanctioned. The work of the Assistant Director (Coast) simi-
larly suffers, and like my own is always more or less in arrears in
consequence.

General.

3. Expansion of iv ork. — This has continued in certain directions,
such as the more vigorous preparation of scientific and technical
reports for publication, increase in the number of schools and fish-
curing yards under the charge of the department, and in a large
extension of the operations of the piseicultural section. One hun-
dred and thirty-five tanks were taken over under the authority of
G.O. No. 217, Revenue (Special), dated 3rd February 1920, from
the District Boards of Chingleput and Nellore. To meet the needs
of this section for subordinates trained on tho technical side, I
arranged for the utilization of the Ennore bungalow as a modest but
efficient training institute for this purpose ; the results have been
gratifying and it may be possible to develop this temporary arrange-
ment into a permanent and economical training scheme that will
obviate the need for a costly Fishery College as proposed in more
prosperous times.

4. finance. — Expenditure on non-industrial sections of the work,
especially education, socio-economics, supervision and research,
continues to increase ; as a consequence the excellent financial result
in the piseicultural section and the fairly good one from the nhank
fishery are masked. The total revenue from all sources amounted
to Rs. 2,29,420, the expenditure to Ks. 2,93,027, a loss of Rupees
63,607 as compared with Rs. 19,087 in 1919-20. The increase in
the deficit by Rs. 44,520 is due in the main to increases in super-
vision and research (Rs. 5,400 to the Marine Biologist alone), in
temporary additions to the pay of the establishment (Rs. 14,000), iu
travelling allowances due chiefly to the increased rates given (Rupees
5,000), and Rs. 3,000 upon education and socio-economic work.
With Rs. 15,948 spent upon tin-plate, still in stock, these items
account for the whole of the increase in the deficit. The possibility
of making the department self-supporting depends on the arrest of
the declining revenue obtained from the chank fisheries, and upon
the early completion of the tank acquisition schemes, the two great
sources of income. Reorganization of the cannery, which may in-
volve its removal to a more suitable site, and more enterprise in the
conduct of the Tanur Experimental Curing Station are also urgent
and should contribute a substantial quota to profits when effected.

No 1 (1922) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 3

The profits derived from the various semi- commercial sections
of our work are as follows : —

Expenditure.

Receipts.

Profit.

Chank and heche-de-mer fisheries
Tank stocking operations
Marine aquarium . ,
Palicat Oyster farm
Zoological supply . . . .
Marine Fish farm . . . .

RS.

43,392

57,702

4,993

1,807

2,975

646

RS.

79,928

90,484

10,133

2,290

3,131

806

RS.

36,536

32,782

5,140

483

156

160

Total » .

1,11,515

1,86,772

75,257

Losses were sustained from —
Inshore fishing experiments
Tanur Experimental Station
Experimental Cannery

ES.

563

... 136

» • • i • ■ -L jO it-

Total ... 2,578

In the case of the cannery no real loss has probably takeu place,
the deficit being due to the large stock of unsold goods being esti-
mated at only two-thirds their selling value. The loss on the Tanur
yard is due to the same unavoidable cause as militated against
success so adversely in the case of the cannery, namely, the extra-
ordinary scarcity of sardines during the 1920-21 season.

5. The Directors work apart from administration. — This has been
less than usual owing to my having been on leave for the first 4-J
months of the year and to the increase of work due to the reduced
assistance I receive from the Personal Assistant whose time is too
much occupied with account work. While on leave I was deputed
to study fishery conditions in .Norway and Denmark and spent over
two months on this investigation. The results are embodied in a
lengthy report now in the press. Perhaps the most important
conclusion arising from this work was the impression gained of the
suitability of the Danish seine for introduction to Indian waters.
More powerful engines for fish-catching are urgently required and
as it appears that steam-trawling on the Madras coasts is too
expensive a method under present conditions and too much hampered
by other disabilities, the value of a powerful fishing method free
from the disadvantages attendant on steam-trawling cannot well be
overestimated.

Besides this, I wrote a comprehensive guide to the common
shell-fish of South India, to serve as a companion hand-book to
the collections of shells intended for supply to secondary schools.
The Director of Public Instruction made the writing of this guide a

4 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN "VOL. XV

condition precedent to the placing of an order for a large number
of these collections. This book should also prove of considerable
value to those who take an interest in the common objects of the
sea-shore, for till now, no attempt has been made to provide a
popular guide to the shells of South India.

I have also been able to publish, thanks to the generosity of
Government, a report upon the Outrigger Fishing- Canoes of Indonesia ;
this appeared as Report No. 2 of Fisheries Bulletin XII. At the
science congress held in February 1921 at Calcutta, I also read a
paper on Catamarans and Reed Rafts as evidence of former race
continuity from the Mediterranean eastwards to South America.
A summary was published in Man in India for June 1921.

Extensive tours have been made, chiefly in the interests of the
piscicultural section, to investigate several schemes shortly to be
submitted to Government. Special visits were also made to Tanur
and Calicut to enquire into the protests made by curers against the
imposition of certain of the new rules in force in the fish-curing yards
at these places. [ was fortunate enough to arrive at a modus Vivendi)
and that good relations, especially at Tanur, have been re-established
is evident by the fact that the staff there has not been interfered
with by the rioters in the recent disturbances.

My advice has been in frequent unofficial requisition by officers
administering fisheries in other Governments. Among these may
be mentioned inquiries upon canning procedure from Baroda and
Travancore, upon general fishery development in the Seychelles, and
upon freshwater pisciculture in Behar and Orissa and the Fiji
Islands.

INDUSTRIAL SECTION".

The Experimental Cannery, Chaliyam.

6. General. — The year under review was one of those unfortu-
nate lean years experienced occasionally in practically every sardine-
canning locality. The catches of sardines were a complete failure,
not only in the neighbourhood of Chaliyam but everywhere else on
the Malabar coast. Mackerel on the other hand were abundant
and the bulk of the goods canned were of this fish. Unfortunately
the demand for mackerel is small compared with sardines, and as
their keeping qualities are inferior it is not advisable to can
beyond a certain limit.

Prawns were also scarce at Chaliyam, and although large
quantities were caught at Tanur, the condition of those taken to
the Chaliyam cannery was usually such as to preclude their use in
canning. This resulted, I believe, from the exceptionally torrid
weather which characterized the past season, causing fish and

No. 1 (1922) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 5

prawns to taint appreciably more quickly than during normal
seasons. To add to the difficulties attending cannery operations
during 1920-21, the price of tin-plate rose to an extravagant height
and as a large purchase had to be effected at this time owing to
depletion of our stock, the heavy cost of this plate has proved a
serious handicap and one of the serious causes of the small deficit on
the year's working. The quality and packing condition, both of this
tin-plate and of a consignment of small tins, were thoroughly
unsatisfactory and reflect the unsettled conditions of industrial
life in England. So serious were the defects in these consignments
that unless conditions improve, repeat orders may have to be placed
elsewhere ; labour that will not give proper care to the work in
hand, cannot expect continued employment ; orders are bound to
drift to other countries where labour gives proper value for the
wages received.

From various inquiries made it is evident that the operations of
this department in pioneering a canning industry are impressing
other authorities with the commercial potentialities of similar work
in their territories. The departments dealing with fisheries under
the Governments of Travancore and Baroda have both requested
advice in regard to establishing experimental canneries, and
besides giving all information possible, it has been arranged to
supply can bodies and covers for their preliminary operations.

Sir Frederick A. Nicholson's most useful report on canning
practice as applied to fishes has now been issued as Report No. 2 of
Volume XIII of our Bulletin. It should prove invaluable as a
working hand-book both to our own officers and to all others who
contemplate canning enterprises in tropical countries.

7. Output. — In spite of all disadvantages, the output was an
average one, amounting to 67,521 tins of all kinds. This is a
satisfactory advance upon the preceding year, when only 59,586 tins
were put up. The bulk consisted of mackerel, with sardines occupy-
ing the second position. Prawns were less extensively treated
owing to small supplies. Of the larger fish, narimin (Lates
calcariftr) was the only one obtained and canned in any appreciable
quantity.

8. Sales. — Due to a variety of causes, sales amounted to 35,092
tins only, as against 40,729 last year, leaving a comparatively
large balance of 82,152 tins on hand at the end of the year.
Although disappointing, the fall in sales is not surprising in view
of the chaotic state of the market for canned goods during the year
under review ; in this connexion it is worthy of note that many
canneries in Portugal and the United States have suspended opera-
tions owing to the heavy losses sustained during the post-war slump

6 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLFTitf VOL. XV

in trade. So far as India is concerned these adverse conditions
may be enumerated as under, namely —

(a) a glut of imported goods bought during the months when
business was booming and thrown on the markets last year at
particularly low prices — often even below cost — in order to obtain
ready money to meet business exigencies caused by the financial
stringency of recent days ;

(b) the disposal of large quantities of surplus stores of tinned
fish by the Munitions Department at similarly low prices ;

(c) the sweeping reduction in the number of English troops
stationed in India ; and

(d) the withdrawal by the South Indian Railway Company of
the concession enjoyed during previous years of sending canned fish
at half parcels rates, coupled with the recent large enhancement
of rates plus a surcharge.

In some respects the last of these causes has been the most
detrimental, for freight now bears a wholly disproportionate relation
to the factory value of the goods, amounting to from 30 to nearly 50
per cent of such value. As a consequence many old customers have
ceased to order and others complain of the heavy freight charges.

Efforts have been made to bring the products of the cannery
more prominently to the notice of the public and to give an impetus
to sales by sending representative samples to local exhibitions, by
advertising and by wide circulation of a new price-list got up in
attractive booklet form. New and distinctive labels have also been
designed and are now in the press. Beyond a temporary fillip, the
advertisements have not effected much, apparently due to the heavy
railway rates that handicap a direct parcel trade with the populous
cities in the north of India. It is evident that a reorganization of
selling methods is required ; I consider that a Government depart-
ment should not carry on its sale operations by direct retail trade,
but should entrust sales to a restricted number of wholesale agents
Who already have the machinery required for distribution. But this
alternative has its own particular difficulties, for the production of
the cannery is after all that of a plant designed primarily for experi-
ment and demonstration ; the output is greater than can be disposed
of within the Presidency by personal recommendation and at the
same time is far too small to be worth the consideration of a whole-
sale house with business relations throughout India. Such a firm
has no use for the limited produce of our experimental plant, which
averages only some 700 cases of miscellaneous goods per annum,
whereof only some 300 cases are of sardines (the ordinary case of
one-fourth size tinned sardines contains 100 tins). Such a pro-
duction is too paltry for a wholesale firm to consider when it becomes
a question of extensive advertisement to push a new and unknown

No. 1 (1922) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 . %

brand. Even the fact that our goods are of Indian origin is a
handicap with those who are not acquainted with them, the general
idea, needless to say quite erroneous, being that the high standard of
care and cleanliness necessary to ensure a wholesome product is not
likely to be maintained under tropical conditions.

At exhibitions held at Mangalore, Tellicherry, Bangalore and
Pudukkottai, highest awards were obtained for the exhibits staged
by the cannery.

9. linance. - The total expenditure for the year amounted to
Rs. 31,896-4-1 made up of Rs. 1,999-3-8 on capital account and
Rs. 29,897 for running charges. Of the latter more than half went
in a large purchase of tin-plate bought unfortunately when the
market was exceptionally high ; the greater part remains in stock.
Against this expenditure, receipts paid into the treasury amounted to
Rs. J 6,707-1-3, the outstandings Rs. 2,024-15-1 and the value of
goods on hand, at two-thirds the sale rates, Rs. '26,160-10-8, leaving
an apparent loss of Es. 1,878-14-11 on the year's working. In
actuality there is every probability of the year's operations eventually
resulting in a substantial profit, for there is no reason to believe
that the goods in stock will be sold at other than their full value,
instead of the two-third 3 proportion for which credit is now taken.
To achieve better results, it appears clear that it will be necessary to
remove the cannery to a locality where sardines are either more
naturally abundant or the fishermen more numerous and energetic ;
supplies at Chaliyam are neither large nor regular, and the conse-
quence is that the staff is intermittantly employed even during the
four months that constitute the height of the sardine season. Con-
currently reliable agencies must be established for the speedy
disposal of the goods manufactured. (Sardines in oil always excepted,
for these are not fully matured till 9 months or a year after canning
and are said by some French manufacturers to improve even up to a
limit of five years from canning.)

Pending the decision of Government on this question no further
improvements and additions are being made to the buildings, and no
steps have been taken to provide the quarters urgently needed for
the Manager, who has in consequence to live at Feroke, two miles
up river from the cannery. On several occasions he has been unable
to proceed to his work on account of floods in the river, and the
hardship of having to go up and down the river twice daily in a
dugout canoe in rainy weather is more than should be expected from
any man, however willing.

Messrs. Charlton and Cock burn, representatives of the well-
known firm of Messrs. Price Waterhouse & Co., Chartered Account-
ants, London, who are advising the Government of India in respect

8 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV

to the form of accounts to be maintained by industrial concerns under
the Ministry of Development, paid two visits to the cannery to note
the system now in use. They also discussed generally the account-
keeping of the department with the Director at a meeting at Ootaca-
mund.

10. Experiments. — Various experiments were carried on as
usual, the chief being directed to the canning of soles, mackerel in
oil, and mackerel put up d la tamarind fish. In consequence of the
unsatisfactory quality of all the curry powders on the market, various
trials were made to get one suitable to our special needs and the
Manager deserves credit for the excellent result he has now attained.
The curried sardines prepared at the cannery and already very
greatly appreciated, will certainly be still more in favour in future.

11. Staff.— "During the year under review Government were
pleased to improve considerably the pay of the permanent staff from
the Sub- Assistant downwards. The needs of the temporary staff
were also dulv considered and substantial increases were given to
meet the increased cost of living. A bonus on profits, amounting in
the aggregate to Rs. 1,014 was sanctioned by Government upon
work doue during the period 1917-19 and duly distributed to the
staff, much to their satisfaction. It is hoped that this concession
will bear good fruit in earnest and conscientious work during the
coming season.

Tanur Experimental Station.

12. 1920-21 proved even a worse year than its predecessor
for the experimental operations carried on at this station in the
curing of fish and the production of fish-oil and guano. Both
sardines and the larger kinds of fish were extremely scarce, and
had it not been for mackerel, of which fairly heavy catches were
made, operations would have been trivial. As it was, 97,724 lb. of
fish, chiefly mackerel, were purchased for curipg, the cost being
Rs. 3,242 and the sale-proceeds Rs. 5,802. The market for this
cured fish has been extended and local fish dealers are at last
beginning to purchase our improved cures of fish for sale at the
weekly shandys in the interior : this development is gratifying as it
is one that has long been sought ; obviously it is of little use to
prepare an improved quplitv of cure if the mass of the people will
not touch it, preferring the badly cured and often partially putrid
quality to which their vitiated taste has accustomed them. The
demand for smoked fish and semi-dried prawns has also increased.
Experiments in the moist-curing of mackerel were continued but
were hampered by the difficulty of obtaining suitable containers at
a reasonable price. The preparation of fish meal for poultrv con-
tinued and the demand for it is slowly increasing.

No. 1 (1922). ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 9

13. Oil and guano operations — were restricted owing tp the
dearth of sardines. Only 27*4 tons were purchased as against 260
tons in the previous year. The quantity treated yielded 337 gallons
of oil and 4*8 tons of guano. The operations though very small
were highly remunerative ; the cost of the material was Rs. 406
while sales and stock in hand amount to Rs. 603. The highest rate
for guano was Rs. 120 per ton f.o.r. Tanur. The few sardines
fished in the past season were extremely rich in their oil content,
amounting to as much as 6'3 per cent in December 1920 as against
J -3 per cent in 1919. I had a sample of superfine sardine oil
analysed by the Chemical Examiner to Government. Its constitution
and characteristics were as follows : —

Specific gravity 0927

Iodine value ... 161

Saponification value ... ... ... ... 196

Free fatty acid (as oleic acid) .... ... ... 0*5 per cent

Colour ... ... ... ... ;.. ... Yellow (pale).

The percentage of acidity is considerably lower than is allowed
by the British Pharmacopoeia for codliver oil, hence it is probable
that this oil has equal therapeutic value and may prove an effective
substitute for the former ; large samples have been sent to the
Tuberculosis Hospital for actual trial. The cannery has also suc-
cessfully employed this quality of oil ia the canning of certain
descriptions of sardines. It is certain that if oil producers will pay
adequate attention to the separation of superfine and No. 1 oils, their
enterprise will be richly rewarded. Unfortunately carelessness is
prevalent and the factories seldom turn out any but low grades of
oil of dark colour and high acidity, and therefore of low industrial
value.

The trading accounts of the station show a gross profit of
Rs. 425-8-4 ; after allowance for depreciation and overhead charges,
this sum is converted into a small loss of Rs. Id 5- 15-8. The poor
result is due entirely to the dearth of sardines which yielded a
return of Rs 603 only as against Rs. 5,171 in the previous year.

14. Improvement of the oil and guano industry. — With a view
to minimise the nuisance caused to the public by the insanitary
working of the oil and guano factories, a set of rules for the guid-
ance of factory owners was approved in G.O. Mis. No. 1381,
Revenue (Special), dated 28th July 1920, and the local boards
were empowered to enforce them. The taluk boards concerned have
accordingly issued lice: ces and appointed Sanitary Inspectors to
regulate the working of the factories. As the development of the
industry on the right lines is the business of the Fisheries Depart-
ment, the Governrneut also sanctioned the appointment of an
Inspector of Oil and Guano Factories and a fitter to instruct the

10 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL XV

factory owners in the right method of manufacture, and to advise
them of the importance of placing products of a superior quality on
the market, as well as of the danger to the industry caused by
adulteration. A thorough inspection of all factories was made and
as most of them were found to be very defective, advice as to how
these defects could be remedied was given to their owners.
Demonstrations of correct processes of manufacture were also given
but owing to the scarcity of sardines it was not possible to do this on
an extensive scale. There were 646 factories on the coast, of
which 387 were licensed, but only 290 factories conducted operations
and even these were limited to a eouple of weeks' work during the
year, on account of the great scarcity of sardines. The total output
of guano was estimated roughly at about 1 ,500 tons, compared
with the enormous quantity 24,u00 tons manufactured in the pre-
vious season. On account of the adulteration of the guano with
sand in previous years, there was very little demand for it, and
hence, though the output was small, the price offered was very low.
In some cases buyers actually preferred beach-dried sardine manure
and paid for it even higher prices than for guano. The demand
for oil was also very small. Inquiries show that Malabar fish-oil
has recently earned, on account of its present low quality and
adulteration, a bad reputation in the Calcutta market, where it
used to be greatly in demand for batching jute fibre. This depart-
ment is trying to bring the manufacturers to a sense of the injury
they cause to the entire industry by their lack of commercial
moralitv.

15. Public fish-curing yards. — The yards under the management
of this department were increased by one during the past year, the
total now being eight. The quantity of fish brought in for curing
was 422 >11 maunds ; the cured weight was 239,504 maunds, an
increase of over 35,000 maunds over the preceding year. 72,065
maunds of duty-free salt were supplied as against 6", 061 maunds
in 1919-20. The increase in the operations was due mainly to the
phenomenally large quantities of mackerel caught at Malpe. The
maximum was reached on l(3th November 1920, when 7.942 maunds
of fish were brought in.

The employment of old brine, filtered for re-use in curing fish, is
being gradually introduced, and 28,994 gallons were used for curing
4,442 maunds of fish. Not onlv does this result in a reduction in
the curing expenses ; it results in an actual saving to Government
of the difference between the cost price and the issue price of the
equivalent amount of salt that would be used if this brine were not
utilized ; last year in spite of the conservatism of curers, who are
slow in appreciating the advantage of this procedure, a saving to the
curers of Ks. 462 was effected. When this method is systematically

No. I (1922). ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-2i. \±

employed throughout all the yards, the resultant saving will be of
very considerable importance.

In the Malpe, Mangalore and Thanirbhavi yards, the majority
of the curers have put up permanent curing yards, with cemented
floors and curing vats, on the models designed by the department.
Loans have been sanctioned for the construction of similar ones
in the Calicut and Thalayi yards. In the others, pending construc-
tion of such permanent structures, the curers were instructed to
improve their cadjan sheds in certain inexpensive ways, such as
cleansing the floor, providing ventilation and disinfecting the tubs,
etc. This caused a strike extending to 2^ months at Tanur.
During this period they cured their fish outside the yard with duty-
paid salt and undoubtedly spent several times the amount in duty
that compliance with the instructions would have cost. Various
deputations waited upon me, and only after two visits to Tanur,
could I persuade the men of the utility and reasonableness of the
innovations. Political influences appear to have been at work, and
I believe the majority had no real desire to refuse obedience to
the new rules. Similarly a partial strike occurred at Cannanore
where ten Mappilla curers stopped work rather than improve their
methods, and since then have been curing fish with duty-paid bazaar
salt.

JN"ow the chief objects in establishing public fish-curing yards
are (//) c to prevent the loss entailed on the fishing classes by the
purchase of duty-paid, salt for curing fish', and (b) l to prevent the
injurious effects of the supply of badly-cured fish. ' The attitude of
the Mappilla curers of Cannanore and Tanur, who are capitalist
middlemen, shows that they can make a profit even by using duty-
paid salt. Therefore it is evident that they could put up satisfact-
ory sheds and introduce the simple improvements which we advocate,
without the least hardship. Ii is evident that their refusal to do this
is due to their desire to make a maximum of profit regardless of the
quality of the product. The fact that the department controls only
a small number of the total of yards is a handicap to the rapid
introduction of improvements, as curers undoubtedly hope to tire
out our officers and discredit our work by delaying to carry out
improvements — the object being to have the yards reverted to the
Salt Department.

Two -Assistant Inspectors were transferred to the department,
while four temporary yard officers were entertained. All subordi-
nate officers underwent a course of tiaining at the Tanur Experimental
Station in improved methods of curing, in the filtration and re-use
of old brine and in the estimation of the correct proportions of salt
required for different classes of fish. They were specially taught
sanitation as applicable to fish-curing yards.

\2 madeas fisheries bulletin vol. xv

Inshoee fishing experiments at Madras.

16. These experiments have now been carried on continuously
through a period of three years. In spite of the demonstration that
better catches can usually be made by the employment of certain
forms of Malabar nets, used in conjunction with large dugout
canoes, no Madras capitalist or fisherman has yet been sufficiently
impressed to induce him to adopt these methods commercially ; all
negotiations proved abortive as prospective buyers always saddled
their offer with the condition of being permitted to fish inside th<j
harbour. This condition is unacceptable as it would facilitate
smuggling.

] 'uring the past year of 307 working days, the total quantity
of fish caught amounted to 84,786 lb. compared with 114,850 lb.
in the previous year. This great falling off is attributed by the
fishermen to the abnormally high temperature experienced during
the fishing season, a connexion that appears obscure ; fish scarcity
however was certainly prevalent along the East Coast during the
first half of 1921 ; one consequence of this is seen in the increased
number of fishermen from Cocanada and other fishing centres in the
north, who went to Burma in search of employment.

The fish caught by our canoes off Madras was sold for Rs. 5,809
as against Rs. 6,404 in the previous year. Expenditure amounted
to Rs. 6,295 including an item of Rs. 264 debitableto capital. The
loss on the year's working was therefore Rs. 222 exclusive of capital
expenditure. The experiment is to be carried on for another six
months, in the hope that the canoes and nets may be purchased by
local fishermen in the interval.

An extremely useful analysis of the results obtained during the
first season's work by sub-assistant M.R.Ky. M. Ramaswami Mayudu,
b.a., was published during the year as Report No. 3 of Bulletin
No. XII. In it the seasonal variations m the catches of each
species of fish are recorded in detail, together with statistics of their
relative abundance and other information. For the first time we
now begin to have distinct knowledge of the constitution of the
food-fish fauna of Madras, and of the relative fishing value of the
various nets employed in their capture. This work will be continued.
In addition, at the instance of the Hon'ble the Minister for
Development, statistics of the fish supplies coming into the city of
Madras will be compiled during the coming year. No information
on this subject is on record and it is obvious, for many reasons,
that exact information should be collected ; this information will
be particularly useful to any persons or companies who may
contemplate the introduction of deep-sea fishing boats. The first
requirement of business men in such a case is to have fairly exact
knowledge of the extent of existing sources of supply.

No 1 (1922). ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 13

PULICAT OYSTER FARM.

17. The past year's operations have been the most satisfactory
on record. The 1920 season lasted unusually late, not closing till
24th October ; the present years season opened on 19th March
1921, as against 15th March last year. The condition of the oysters
has been satisfactory and demand has increased considerably,
167,000 being sold as against 133,4^0, the figure for last year.
Owing to the increase in railway freight, enhanced prices had to be
charged in view of the fact that freight has to be prepaid. Con-
sidering the fact that oysters are supplied at the farm at only
Es. 1-3-0 per hundred, the higher freight rates now in force have
had fortunately no adverse effect upou demand ; as shown above,
the farm is now on a financially sound footing. I propose during
next season to introduce such changes in the method of distribution
as will diminish largely the disabilities at present attendant upon
regular aud satisfactory supply due to the comparative inaccessi-
bility of Pulicat, whence the oysters have to be brought 16 miles by
canal to Ennur Railway Station for despatch to the consignees.

Experiments made during the past season indicate that healthy
layings of oysters may be made in special enclosures close to the bar
at Ennur. This line of operations will be pursued extensively
next year, but no oysters will be put upon the market from this
locality until bacteriological examination has proved them to be
free from harmful bacterial infection.

The following table shows the details of the past year's opera-
tions as compared with those of 1919-20, viz. : —

1919-20 1920-21

Receipts ... ...

Expenditure

RS.

1,715
1,660

A. P.

9 6
0 6

7 0

RS. A.

2,290 6
1,807 6

p.
0
3

Loss

144

Profit 482 15

9

A small plot of land has been acquired at Pulicat, on which
permanent store sheds will be built, in order to obviate the present
inconvenience of renting buildings not entirely suitable for the pur-
pose. With methods of procedure now simplified and adapted to
local conditions, and with improved transport arrangements, I look
forward to a largely increased output in future years ; no food pro-
duct of the sea can compare with clean-grown oysters for
palatability and digestibility, combined with tonic and appetite-
stimulating qualities ; for this reason they are particularly suitable
for invalids and those with jaded appetites. Unfortunately these
facts are not sufficiently known and appreciated, hence I propose
an active publicity campaign when next season opens ; special

14 Madras fisheries bulletin VOL. XV

emphasis will have to be laid on how they should be prepared for
the table — the best of oysters are utterly ruined if the shells be
opened roughly and the flesh served up in an unattractive way, as
happens so frequently with the ordinary Madras cook who loves to
open oysters with a hammer.

THE DEPARTMENTAL MARINE FISHERIES.

18. Of these the only important one at present is the chank
fishery, for alike with Ceyion, the pearl fishery has been unproduc-
tive for many years whilst that for beche-de-mer is merely an
adjunct to the chank fishery, carried on mainly to bring the wages
of the Tirupalakudi chank divers to a remunerative level. During
the year under notice the decline in the chank fishery noted in
1919-20 continued, and the results both financially and in output
were particularly disappointing. The total catch of shells fell to
283,869 compared with 339,835 in the preceding year, and 435,262
in 1918-19. The beche-de-mer fishery was an entire failure.

19. Financial results. — The details of the revenue and expendi-
ture for the various chank fisheries for the year are shown below,
annas and pies being omitted : —

Revenue. Expenditure. Profit.

KS.

K8.

ES.

Tinnevelly chant fishery.
Ramnad chank and beche-

35,883

11,158

24,725

de-mer fishery
Sivaganga chank fishery . . .

30,605
269

22,528
264

8,077
5

Tan j ore chank fishery
South Arcot chank fishery.
Nellore and Ohingleput
chank fishery .. ...
Miscellaneous receipts ...

4,467
1,546

1,250
5,909

• • •

• • •

l]i28

4,467
1,546

1,250
4,781

Total ...

79,929

35,078

44,851

Deduct supervision charges

•••

• • •

8,314

Net profit

• t.

• • •

36,537

This profit is the smallest for the past seven years and coincides
with a marked decline in the number of clanks fished as shown by
the following tabulation : —

Net profits. SUm^ed! ehells

ES.

1916-17 53,938 418,314

1917-18

1918-19
1919-20
1920-21

57,122 391,137

82,611 435,262

46,0*9 339,835

36,537 283,869

No. 1 (1922). ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 15;

An investigation of the causes that have led to this great
reduction will be undertaken personally by the Director, who has
special and long-standing experience of this industry, having reorga-
nized both the Tinnevelly and Ramnad fisheries when those were
under his direct control ; in the 6 years after the leasing of the
ttamnad fishery and ending with 1918-19 a total net profit of
Rs. 2,75,64-8 was obtained from these fisheries, while the net profit
for the 3 last years of this period when organization was perfected,
amounted to the handsome annual average of Rs. 64,557. Any
considerable fall from this figure entails auxiety, particularly when
associated with a great diminution in the number of shells fished.
Were it not that we are now receiving the highest price on record
for the Tuticorin chanks (Rs. 325 per 1,000, compared with
Rs. 99-9-7 when first I took over charge m 1909), the net profit
would be still more disappointing.

20. Tinnevelly chunk fishery . — The year's catch of shells was
109,434 as against 158,941 in the preceding year. In addition, the
large number of 23,177 undersized were brought in, a number
greater than usual. Special attention must be given next season
to prevent these being brought ashore ; they are of trivial value
to Government and connote an equivalent reduction of the number
of valuable fullsized shells available for fishing next season. The
fishery commenced on 30th October 1920 and ended on 9th May
1921, the number of non-working days during this period being 59.
The maximum number of divers employed was 43 as against 53 last
season, and of these only 25 were local men. It is increasingly
evident that diving as an occupation is becoming yearly more un-
popular in Tuticorin, where less strenuous and. more regular
employment is open to the sons of divers and fishermen owing to
the development of the town as a great shipping and industrial
centre. As a consequence, if more divers are to be employed, the
system of recruitment from the Ramnad coast must be developed,
and to do this, a further increase in the rate paid for shells seems
inevitable. Apart from this, the wenther conditions were adverse
both at the beginning and towards the end of the fishery. Seven,
hundred and seventy-five shells were collected at Idinthakarai as
against 480 last year.

21. Ramnad chank fishery.— The total catch for the year
amounted to 171,774 as compared with 177,858 shells in the
previous season, the details being as follows : —

Rameswaram ...
South Vedalsi and Kilakarai...
Pillaimadam ...
Tirupalakudi ...

1919-20.

1920-21.

122,880

101,026

10,188

13,879

29,055

21,228

15,735

35,641

177,858

171,774

16 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV

Unsettled weather and the early onset of monsoon conditions
interfered somewhat with the fishery, but the principal reason for
the poor catches lay in the lack of success in recruiting an adequate
labour force for the Eameswaram section of the fishery. The maxi-
mum number of canoes engaged there was 22 as against 32 in the
preceding season, which again was less by 1 1 than the number
employed in 1918-19. The decrease therefore has been in progress
for two years past. One of the divers was stabbed in the chest by
the tail spine of a, ray-fish ; the alarm at this entailed a few days'
cessation of work. Of the 12,375 undersized shells brought ashore,
10,923 were returned alive to the sea, a very satisfactory proportion.
For the Vedalai fishery a number of Kilakarai divers were recruited
to make good the deficiency caused by a decrease in the number of
local men taking part in the fishery. This policy is to be developed
further during the coming season, as the offshore beds here are
capable of yielding considerably larger quantities of shells than last
year's catch. The Tirupalakudi fishery was the only successful one
in this section, the catch amounting to 36,641 ; that for 1919-20
was only 15,735. The men of this place have no other occupation
beyond fishing and diving ; therefore when chanks are plentiful
and promise better returns than ordinary fishing, the chank diving
force automatically increases

22. The unimportant Sivagancja chank fishery leased from the
zamindari for administrative reasons, yielded 2,661 shells, mostly
caught in nets. No regular beds are known off this part of the
coast and this makes chank fishing as a separate occupation too
unremunerative to pursue.

23. Leased chank fisheries. — The chank fisheries of the sea-
board districts from Tanjore to Nellore inclusive are not susceptible
of departmental fishery, primarily because of physical characteristics
of the shore line coupled with the strong inshore currents and the
frequent turbidity of the water over the chank-bearing bottom. It
happens also that several of the nets most commonly used, particu-
larly the thurivalai, sweep the bottom and bring up large numbers
of chanks. The system has therefore been evolved of leasing the
exclusive right to purchase these shells from the fishermen ; the lessee
appoints agents in the different villages to receive and pay for the
shells. The sums received in respect of the various districts are
noted above in paragraph 19. No expenditure is incurred by
Government in respect of these fisheries, the whole rental being
clear profit. The total amounted last year to Es. 7,262-12-10.
The Fisheries department may justly claim credit for the satisfac-
tory development of this section of its work, for when I took charge
of the chank fisheries in 1909, no revenue was derived from any
district save Tanjore, where the paltry sum of Es. 261 represented
the total revenue obtained from this source.

No. 1 (1922) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 17

24. Economic condition of the divers. — This heading will in
future disappear, as under orders of Government (G.O. Mis. No, 301,
Law, dated 6th May 1921), welfare work among the fishing com-
munities of the East Coast is transferred to the Commissioner of
Labour. At the same time every endeavour is and will be made to
advance the well-being of these people in every way possible* Con-
nected with this is the advance system under which from time
immemorial the divers receive advances from their employers in
times of seasonal unemployment and when bad weather interferes
with fishing. They also expect and demand advances at the
beginning of a fishery to meet the cost of the necessary preparations,
including such items as the repair of their boats, the purchase of
new gear and a sum to leave behind for their family's expenditure
in eases where the fishing is at a distance from their home port.
The system when worked sympathetically, as I can vouch it was
during the years I had direct charge of the fisheries, is of the
greatest value to men who are naturally improvident and whosp
vocation is an uncertain and seasonal one. Particularly is it of Ul.
to the men's wives, who otherwise would be dependent upon
uncertain remittances from their husbands when the latter were
away from home. It is a counsel of perfection and therefore not
practicable in ordinary life, to say that the system should cease
and the men be taught to rely upon themselves and to organize co-
operative societies to advance monies to members during emergen-
cies. If the men were educated and unprejudiced and thrifty, this
desirable arrangement might be possible, but we have to take things
as we find them; under present conditions I believe it will be
better to increase the rate paid in certain localities as compensation
for the rise in the cost of living and to wait till education has
made further advance before hastily scrapping a system that has
worked satisfactorily in the past and to which the men themselves
have a well-marked preference. According to the instructions
issued in 1920, special efforts were made during the past year to
reduce drastically the sum outstanding as advances ; the sum of
Es. 917-13-3 was also remitted under orders of Government. The
advances outstanding at the beginning of the year were
Rs. 3,618-0-7 ; with the sum remitted and special strictness in
recovery, this amount was reduced at the end of the year to
Es. 1,881-6-4. How far this drastic application of the instruction
to recover advances has affected fishery results adversely, it is diffi-
cult to assess ; the fact remains that reduced catches coincide with
unusual strictness in limiting and recovering these advances.

25. The Beche-de-mer fishery was a complete failuie last season,
only 163 lb. being cured. The scarcity has been attributed to
heavy mortality due to an unusual influx of fresh water from the

3

18 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV

river Vaigai during the last rainy season. The whole cure of the
two seasons 1919-20 and 1920-2 L, was sold last year in Singapore
at good rates, but in spite of this and of the sales being in Straits
dollars standing at a premium as compared with the depreciated
rupee, the transaction involved a loss of Rs. 447-7-5. This un-
favourable result was due to deterioration and loss of weight
through prolonged storage ; it appears preferable in every way to
despatch consignments as ready, without waiting for long periods
for some problematic improvement in market rates.

26. The Pearl Fishery remains in abeyance owing to the
almost complete absence of pearl oysters of any age upon the banks.
Here and there, as usual, occasional individuals have been found
during the partial inspections which are alone possible pending the
re-commissioning of the Lady Nicholson. The cost of these and of
the upkeep of thi3 vessel amounted in the year under notice to
Rs. 8,488-7-9. As Baron Von Imhoff once remarked in a review of
the Ceylon administration, '* There is more of glitter than of gold
about the Pearl Fishery." According to a calculation of probabil-
ities which I made some years ago, we cannot expect another pearl
fishery for another 4 or 5 years.

27< Fishery Vessels. — During the past year an order was placed
for two twin Gleniffer engines each of 50-75 B.H.P., for the re-
engining of the Lady Nicholson. These have now arrived and will
be installed shortly. Thanks are due to the Ministry of Agricul-
ture and Fisheries in London for the kind assistance of their expert
in arriving at a satisfactory choice of engine. The Sutherland \
Pearl and Leverett have all done good service in the chank fisheries,
particularly in the towage of chank divers' canoes to and from the
beds : the Leverett was especially useful in this way and her services
obviated the employment of a hired tug during the Rameswaram
fishery, a saving of approximately Rs. 4,000. This however was
possible only because of the small number of canoes engaged in the
fishery. Had a normal number been employed, a more powerful
towing launch would have been a necessity, and the extra profits
made would have far exceeded such an expenditure. The Levereft
is now undergoing alterations which should improve her sea-going
qualities. All the above vessels are in good condition, but it is
probable that the Sutherland will have to be replaced by another and
more powerful launch within the next two years, as both her hull
and engines begin to show the effects of old age.

The purchase of a sea-going launch capable of being used not
only for towage but also in commercial fishing experiments aiming at
the introduction of new methods, is under the consideration of
Government.

No. 1 (1922) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 19

One of the results of my deputation to Scandinavia already
mentioned, was a strong recommendation to Government to arrange
for exhaustive trials of the Danish seine to be carried out bv the
Assistant Director of Fisheries (Marine) in selected localities on the
Madras coasts. I was particularly impressed with the great catching
power of these nets and their apparent suitability for the conditions
on certain parts of this coast. They are operated from large motor
cutters, provided with motor winches for reeling in the net ropes
and for automatically coiling them away. On my suggestion Lieut.
Allan was deputed to investigate the details at Esbjerg in Denmark,
where this method of fishing was developed. He has reported
most favourably on the nets, but is of opinion that the cutters in
use in Denmark are not suitable for use under Iropical conditions. I
hope thut the next annual report will chronicle the successful intro-
duction of this powerful net to Indian waters. 1 may add that
recent fishery advices from England mention the success of Danish
cutters using this form of seine in competing with the work of steam
trawlers. The, latter are much more expensive to operate in every
way and the former have the advantage of landing their catches
generally in better condition than the trawlers. As a consequence,
these Danish vessels are able to sell their catches at considerably
lower prices than the trawlers. Such boats or a modified type suit-
able for our somewhat peculiar conditions, seem to me likely to solve
the difficulty of how to increase Indian fish supplies. A type of boat
suitable for the purpose if built in India should not cost more than
Es. 20,000 fully equipped, a figure that compares most favourably
with the Rs. 1,50,000 or more involved in the purchase and equip-
ment of a modern steam-trawler.

MARINE BIOLOGIST'S SECTION.

28. The headquarters remained at Tuticorin as in the preceding
year. Work also proceeded upon the same lines. On the research
side, the Marine Biologist devoted himself mainly to a continuation
of the enquiry into the species of mullets (Mugilidae) found at
Tuticorin, to an investigation of the rate of growth among the fishes
living in the Silavatturai backwater, to statistical work on the
prawns found in the same area, and to the collection of plankton.
Upon none of these subjects has a report been furnished, but that
upon the mullets is promised for an early date. This should prove
of considerable practical value, for at present several species are
extremely difficult to differentiate at sight, and as a consequence,
there is always some uncertainty in the stocking of fresh water tanks
with mullet fry, for certain species readily adapt themselves to a
life in fresh water, while others are unable to do so and die off

20 MADE \S FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV

quickly. Hence the necessity to be able to distinguish readily the
species that are tolerant of a fresh water habitat from those which
are not. (See remarks on tank stocking with mullet in the Piscicul-
tural section.)

During the year, the Marine Biologist paid visits to a number
of coast centres, for the purpose of collecting information and
material, while Sub-Assistant M.R.Ry. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar
took advantage of the resumption of the annual Laccidive inspection,
to accompany the party and thus to obtain further knowledge of the
economic possibilities of the islands in respect of marine products.
His report is awaited.

The supply of zoological specimens for teaching and exhibition
purposes continued to expand, the total receipts amounting to the
comparatively large sum of Rs. 3,131-4-0, compared with Rs. 1,608
in the preceding year 1919-20. Comparison is difficult however as
last year's figures have been unduly swollen by reason of great
increase in the cost of glassware. This, while giving a fictitious
idea of rapid progress, restricts sales as the increased cost has to be
charged to the buyers ; it is hoped that more normal conditions will
soon return in the glass trade, and so permit of more real progress
being made. The estimated cost of the specimens sent out, includ-
ing the salary of the Sub-Assistant in charge, amounted to
Rs. 2,974-15-9, showing a margin of Rs, 156-4-3 on the credit
side.

This work of zoological supply was begun in 1915 by the
present Director, who was induced to make this departure by a
consideration of the difficulties till then hampering the study of
Zoology in Indian colleges. Until then students to a large extent
relied upon a study of text-book figures and had little or no
familiarity with the animals themselves. They could describe a sea-
anemone or a holothurian with exactitude, but would fail to
recognize either if they saw them alive in a rock pool on the sea-
shore. In the rare instances where more thorough work was done,
attention was concentrated either upon land and fresh-water types as
more readily procurable, or limited supplies of material were obtained
from European Biological stations. The fact that zoological study
was hopelessly fettered for want of supplies that lay abundant to
hand in our waters, so impressed me at an early date in my fisheries
duties that I sought and obtained the permission of Government to
begin the supply of zoological specimens to educational institutions
throughout India, at rates calculated just to cover the cost of pre-
paration. A clear idea of the utility of the work and of the esti-
mation in which it is held by colleges and schools throughout the
length and breadth of India is obtained by an examination of the

No. 1 (1922) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 2l

value of the specimens supplied during the six years since its incep-
tion, viz. : —

KS.

its.

1915-16

• • •

... 360

1918-19

* • »

... 1,258

1916-17

• • •

... 576

1919-20

■ • •

... 1,608

1917-18

• • •

... 736

1920-21

• • •

... 3,131

The continuous rise in the annual value of the supplies bespeaks
not only increasing appreciation by the educational world of India,
but also a greatly widened and more solid foundation of the
zoological training now current in our colleges.

The improvement of school museums throughout the Presidency
is also one of the aims of this branch of our activities. In very few
instances are existing school museums of any real educational
value ; especially is this true of natural history exhibits. If the
school be in a coast town, a jumble of unnamed shells, with odds and
ends of the flotsam and jetsam of the sea, offends the eye of the
zoologist by reason of its utter uselessness. No possible educational
value can attach to a collection of shells gathered haphazard and
exhibited without order or explanation. To afford remedy in part
for this unsatisfactory state of affairs in secondary schools, J
arranged some years ago for the preparation of compact wall ^ases
containing named selections of typical Madras shells. The Director
of Public Instruction warmly approved of the scheme, and promised
to order a large supply of these collections provided that a descrip-
tive hand-book be prepared. It was difficult to find time in which
to write such a description, for nothiug of the kind has hitherto been
attempted, but I have now completed the task and the report is in
the hands of the printer. I hope shortly to complete a companion
work on South Indian crustaceans to illustrate a typical collection
of our common crabs.

This supply work benefits the whole of India ; indeed it is the
colleges in the north of India that take chief advantage of the
facilities provided. In these circumstances it would appear fitting
that* the Government of India should be asked for a contribution
towards the development and extension of an educational service
that has unanimous approval and support from practically every
college in India where zoology is a subject of instruction.

His Excellency Lord Willingdon, Governor of Madras, accom-
panied by Her Excellency Lady Willingdon, honoured the Tuticorin
Biological Laboratory with a visit on 31st October i920 ; the various
collections were shown to them and the scope and nature of the
current investigations explained.

29. Krmadai Island Biological station progressed during the
year. With the exception of the main building which still requires

22 Madras fishrries bulletin VOL. XV

roofing, all the others were completed ; this station is ideally situated
for biological investigation, as the island is margined by a fringing
coral reef with a rich mud-bank fauna within a mile distance on the
north side and deep water, characterized by profuse 'and diversified
bottom life, adjacent to the south beach. The completion of the
buildings will mark the realization of the hopes of all zoologists who
have had the privilege of pursuing their studies on the coast of
South India. They will also provide useful headquarters for the
Department's Fishery Inspection vessel, as the anchorage in front of
the station is the best and most sheltered of any along the south-east
coast, with the added advantage of central position, being midway
between our chank fisheries in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bav.

MADRAS MARINE AQUARIUM.

30. The aquarium on the Marina continues to maintain its
claim to be among the foremost popular resorts in Madras ; the extra
expenditure authorized by Government for the purpose of adding to
its amenities and attractiveness has again been justified by a main-
tenance of the phenominal incre; se in attendance and gate money
which occurred when it was transferred to ' Fisheries ' as shown
below : —

Number of visitors

1918-19.

. 96,957

1919-20.

163,517

1920-21.

161,699

Admission money
Expenditure

RS.

8,783
2,064

RS.

9,380
4,861

RS.

9,772
4,993

Profit ..

1,719

4,519

4,779

To this profit has to be added miscellaneous receipts amount-
ing to Rs. 130 and the value of the guide-bocks and other
publications sold, amounting to Rs. 231-10-0. The Pongal festival
again gave the highest attendance, as many as 4,963 visitors having
paid for admittance on Kannu Pongal day, as against 4,104 in the
preceding year. Among the distinguished visitors during the year
was His Royal Highness the Duke rof Connaught, who was accom-
panied by His Excellency Loid Willingdon, on 12th January 1921.
The Hon'ble the Minister for Development, who takes a great in-
terest in the success of the aquarium, has also paid several visits of
inspection.

Improvements effected comprised the construction of a small
laboratory room for the use of the officer in charge, and of further
additions to the electric lighting of the tanks and of an electric
signboard at the commencement of the pathway to the building.

No. 1 (1922) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 23

The tank lighting improvement consisted of the installation of two
shaded lights in front of each tank, in order that the paintings
and legends in the frames along the upper margin of the tank front
should be visible during the evening illumination. The practical
utility of the two latter improvements is shown by the fact that the
evening attendance rose from 7,742 (receipts Rs. 1,938-6-0) in
the year 1919-20 to 10,429 (receipts Rs. 2,584-13-0) in the past
year.

The construction of a filter well at the margin of the sea to
improve the quality of the water in circulation was commenced.

The sale of the second edition oP the Aquarium guide, priced at
2 annas, continued slow, only 637 copies being sold till 16th Decem-
ber 1 920. On a representation to Government of the advantages of
stimulating the interest of the general public in the life of the
common fishes of our seas, Government were pleased to authorize a
reduction in price to the more popular one anna ; immediately sales
rose and during the next six months over 2,000 copies were sold,
the total for- the year being 2,913 copies. A third edition will
shortly have to be issued. To cater for the non-English reading
public, an edition in the vernacular (Tamil) has been prepared, and
was placed on sale on 21st July 1921.

31. Research. — Mr. S. T. Moses, the Sub-Assistant in charge,
took up fresh subjects for investigation during the year — the anatomy
of the ocellated Sea-Hare (Notarchus) and the habits of the paddy-
cutting crabs. The latter is a subject referred to Fisheries by the
Agricultural Department, who seek a means to diminish the damage
caused in certain places by this pest. Unfortunately the demands
made upon his time by routine duties and by teaching work in con-
nexion with the training of probationary fishery inspectors at the
Ennur Institute have seriously restricted the time available for such
researches.

32. Museum specimens.— The same Sub-Assistant undertakes
the preparation of Museum exhibits of Madras crabs and other large
Crustacea. A considerable number of specimens were despatched to
various colleges and museums ; the profits on these have hitherto
been credited to the Tuticorin Biological Laboratory, but should
properly be shown under aquarium receipts,

INLAND PISCICULTURE.

.33. This section progressed most satisfactorily during the past
year and has given excellent results both on the research and
development sides. The four Assistant Inspectors sanctioned by
Government in April 1921) were duly appointed and they have
undergone an extensive course of training in the theory and practice

24 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV

of pisciculture during the past year. I placed the Ennur station at
the Assistant Director's disposal for this purpose, and it bids fair to
form the nucleus of that training institute so greatly needed for the
instruction of the department's subordinates. The present students,
besides pisciculture, have had instruction in elementary zoology, and
in surveying, levelling, account keeping and office routine. ISuch
trained men should enable the department to make more rapid and
thorough progress on the piscicultural side than has been possible in
the past.

34. Tank acquisition and slocking. — In accordance with my
programme initiated two years ago, these operations are now being
taken up systematically, district by district. During the past year
possession was obtained of the 135 tanks acquired under Govern-
ment sanction from the District Boards of Nellore and Chiugleput.
Stocking was duly carried out and it is satisfactory to find that in
the case of the fishery sale of those tanks attended by the depart-
ment's officer specially deputed to this work, the revenue obtained
amounted to Rs. 2,849 against compensation payable of Es. 1 ,066-8-0.
Those sales which could not be attended, on the other hand, brought
in a total of only Rs. 7,855-4-0 against compensation payable of
Rs. 8,1 01, a fact that emphasizes the need for the department's officers
to be present at all auctions, as they only have direct interest in
ensuring that there be healthy competition among bidders, and in
refusing bids which are obviously inadequate. The rentals of a
number of tanks and channels in the Coimbatore district supplied
from the Cauvery and Bhavani rivers were also provincialized during
the year (Gr.O. Mis. No. 520, Development, dated 5th April 1921)
as from 1922-23, and an annua] compensation of Rs. 1,893 assigned
to the District Board in consideration thereof.

The total revenue derived from the fishery sales of all inland
waters under our control amounted during the past year to the hand-
some figure of Rs. 90,484-3-0 as against compensation payable to
district boards of Rs. 55,959-14-0. These figures compare with
rentals realized in 1919-2U of Rs. 75,956-3-6, and compensation
payable of Rs. 44,946-14-0. The increase in revenue and in profit
from this source is most gratifying and betokens the intrinsic value
of the department's operations in this promising field of work.

The district of Ganjam has been surveyed during the past year,
and a scheme for the acquisition of the fishing rights in its principal
tanks and streams is under preparation.

35. Fish farms. — During the year the three established fish farms
at Sunkesula (Kurnool), Ippur (Nellore) and Perambur continued
their work satisfactorily. It is unnecessary to go into details as the
work done there has now settled into routine, and to give particulars
would merely be to recapitulate the paragraphs in last year's report.)

No. 1 (1922) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 25

The difficulties experienced at the Sunkesula farm increase, partly
because of the restricted area of the ponds available now that our
operations have increased beyond all original expectations, and
partly because of the high cost entailed by the pumping operations
necessary to keep the ponds properly supplied with fresh-water
during the hot weather. It has become necessary to find a site where
operations can be carried on both more extensively and more econo-
mically. Unfortunately the only possible site is one at Mahanandi,
in proximity to the temple, and although the temple authorities
originally agreed to the construction of the farm, they have lately
demurred until the purpose of the farm is clearly defined and certain
assurances given that under no circumstances will fish be killed
at the farm. The matter is under negotiation.

As in previous years the market at Kurnool was supplied with
fish reared in the Edurur swamp: 595 lb. of Murrel and 774 lb.
of Carp and other fish were thus distributed.

The stock of Gourami at Sunkesula coutinued to do well, and
bred twice during the year. Etroplus also bred prolifically, and the
fry were extensively distributed to various tanks.

36. At the lp pur farm, the few Etroplus introduced during the
previous year multiplied exceedingly, a result due to the provision of
special facilities for them to nest. Their fry have been distributed
to the irrigation tanks under our control in the Nellore district. A
large quantity of Haplochilus was also supplied from this farm for
antimalarial stocking purposes, to the officer in charge of the Station
Hospital at Secunderabad.

None of the Gourami bred at Ippur, and it appears certain that
some conditions are adverse. I have suggested that perhaps the
ponds are too large, as this fish breeds freely in quite small ponds at
Perambur and Sunkesula. This modification will be tried next
season.

37. The Perambur farm, where both Gourami and Etroplus breed
freely, has now become too small for our operations. Another site
was sought and has been found in the extensive borrow pits at the
Government brick-fields at Chetpat, which hold permanent water
and are otherwise eminently suitable for our requirements. The
Chief Engineer to Government has kindly placed several of these
ponds at our disposal, as the site is shortly to be abandoned owing to
the exhaustion of the available clay. The Corporation of Madras
appear to have pressed for the filling up of tbese ponds on sanitary
grounds, a procedure that would entail a prohibitive expense. It is
therefore in the interests of all concerned that the ponds be managed
by ' Fisheries ', as we can, at insignificant expense, and with con-
siderable advantage to fishery schemes on hand, utilize this large

4

2(5 MADEAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV

area for the culture and distribution of food fish, fry and larvieidal
fishes. When the ponds are cleaned out and remodelled, it is
proposed to transfer the Perambur fish-farm operations entirely to this
centre, where supervision will be easier and the area of culture-
water many times increased. Proposals will shortly be submitted.

38. Prema larvieidal fish-farm.. — The two ponds at this
centre continued to provide large supplies for stocking the Nalla-
malai waters. During the year under report all permanent
waters in the Bairluti, Pecberuvu and Gundalakamma ranges
and one spring in the Chelma range were stocked with larvicides.
An extension of the ponds has become necessary to meet the increased
volume of operations. Plans and estimates for these have been
prepared.

39. Acclimatization. — This work proceeded as in the year pre-
ceding, but on a larger scale. Etroplus suratemis bred prolifically
in all our three fish-farms, and its wide distribution to inland waters
should soon make it well known in places where none existed a
couple of years ago. This result emphasizes the value of biological
research, for it was not till the life-history of this fish had been
fully investigated, that we were able to provide the breeding fish
with nesting places suitable for its peculiar requirements. Tl\e stock
of Gourami is steadily increasing at Sunkesula and Perambur and it
will soon be possible to utilize its fry in considerable numbers for
stocking purposes.

The use of the fry of certain species of Mullet, begun in 1 919-20,
has been largely extended. Samples of the fry employed for this
purpose, kept under observation in the Ippur fish farm, were found
to have grown from sizes ranging between 2 and 5| inches in length,
to 8 and 11 inches within a period of ten months, in June 1920. In
the year now closed these same fish attained sizes ranging between
15 and 16 inches in length. Mullet that can be acclimatized to
fresh water have many other advantages besides rapid growth. Their
fry are extremely abundant in estuaries ; they are easily captured
and transported ; they are chiefly vegetarian in diet and are esteemed
highly as food, fetching better prices, weight for weight, than coarse
tank fishes.

*

The valuable carp, Caila catla, is another fish that will repay
effort to extend its area of distribution south of Madras where it
does not naturally occur. Difficulty had been experienced in finding
its breeding places and the haunts of its fry. Kecent research has
been successful in locating abundance of fingerlings in the Colair
lake region and a proposal for establishing a fishery station in Colair
lake is now under preparation.

No. 1 (1922). ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 27

40. The Hilsa Hatchery at the lower anicut could not be operated
in 1920 owing to the lack of ripe fish. Attention was therefore
concentrated upon a search for fry and young fish. Considerable
success was achieved, young hilsa, between 57 mm. and 75 mm.,
being captured for the first time in channels above the anicut.
Another set, ranging between 92 mm. and 130 mm., was secured
from other channels. A studv of the scales of hilsa has been com-
menced by Mr. Sundara Raj with a view to determine the age of
breeders and the time the young spend in fresh water before going
down to the sea. Considerable progress has been made and already
several generally accepted preconceptions have been found erroneous.

41. Incomplete schemes. — The fish farm at Mopad is nearing
completion. Stocking operations will probably commence within
the next few months. The Kanigiri-Duvvur scheme was sanctioned
for an experimental period of three years in May 1919, but so far
the detailed plans and estimates have not been received from the
Public Works Department.

The Chingleput and the Vellore moat schemes are two projects
important both from the sanitary and the piscicultural standpoints.
In each case, a considerable population lives within the fort and has
suffered much from malaria in the past. In the case of Chingleput
construction work was started during the past year, while at Vellore
preliminary work was done in the clearing out of the masses of
water hyacinth that choked the moat. The clearance of these weeds
has, as at Chingleput, already yielded results mitigating largely the
former mosquito plague, but no permanent good will result till the
works be completed and the moat stocked with fish suitable for
keeping down the growth of vegetation and for destroying mosquito
larvee.

42. Research. — Owing to the restriction of practical work in
several directions due to financial stringency, more time than usual
was available for the investigation of the life-histories of food fishes.
Considerable progress was made, as already mentioned, in the study
of the early stages of hilsa ; the nesting habits of the Gourami were
further studied and also the breeding habits of two of the largest
oatfishes found in the Cauvery (Macrones aor and M. seenghalu).

Encouragement has been given to others working on the same
lines, and I am glad to record that Mr. N. P. Panikkar, F.L.S.,
Inspector of Fisheries, Travancore, and a former student of this
department, has furnished a valuable and interesting account of the
breeding habits of the two species of Elroplus found in Travancore.
With the sanction of the Madras Government, this most useful paper
has been published as a constituent report (No. 5) of Volume XU of
our Fisheries Bulletin. It is indeed encouraging to find valuable

28

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV

research work of high economic importance being done by men
Whose training has been received wholly in India. I refer especially
to the investigations of Messrs. Sundara Raj, N. P. Panikkar, S. T.
Moses and M. Pamaswami JN'ayudu.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC SECTION".

43. Co-operation. — (a) At the beginning of the year there were
47 fishermen's co-operative societies, including two productive socie-
ties, with a membership of 2,827. Of these forty-one were on the
west coast and six on the east coast. Their number rose to sixty-
nine at the end of the year and the membership to 3,544 (fifty-six
being on the west coast, and thirteen on the east coast). The
paid-up share capital of these societies also rose from Hs. 4 9,232 to
Ps, 60,585 and the loans disbursed from Ps. J ,17,520 to Rs. 1.69,103.
The two productive societies, viz., the Melady and Madapalli fish-
curers' co-operative societies referred to in last year's report, were
registered during the year but have not started work as the fish-
curing yards in these two villages have not yet been opened. Pour
other societies which have been registered also remain to be started.
The following table contains the more important figures relating to
the working of these societies : —

1918-19.

1919-20.

1920-21.

Number of members

T males
1 females

Total

Number of shares
Paid-up share capital
Loans disbursed

, , for payment of prior debts

,, for industrial use
Loans due to the Central Banks and other depositors.

1,614

2,446

256

381

1,900

2,827

2,438

3,832

rs. 25,388

es. 49,232

40,511

1,17,520

8,736

17,866

• •

26,410

4,714

27,994

3,099
445

3,544

4,875

rs. 66,585

1,69,103

26,318

61,788
18,253

(b) The total borrowings of societies during the year 1920-21
amounted to only Ps. 7,4J0. At the end of the year the balance of
loans due to Banks and others was Ps. 18,253. Of these Ps. 10,050
is the amount due by the Mangalore Guano Factory owners'
co-operative society. This society did little or no business during
the year and a commission of Ps. 99-4-4 collected was the only
income it derived. The decrease of business is due to the failure of
sardines during the year and also to want of experience and interest
on the part of the office-bearers to carry on the business in a properly
organized manner. The Co-operative and Fisheries Departments
have jointly formulated a scheme for the better working of this
society but it has not yet been accepted by it.

No. 1 (1922). ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 29

(<?) The Tlmlayi Fish-CuTers' co-operative society was not able
to carry on joint sale for want of experienced men to manage its
business, and as they could not utilize their paid-up share capita),
for this purpose, they have resolved to give this amount as loans
to the members for their individual business till they gain some
experience in the fish trade. It nevertheless collected a commission
of Ks. 225-7-5, on the fish sold individually by the members and
also refunded Rs. 512-11-9 towards the cost of the site acquired
and of the building which Government put up for its use.

(d) The society of Uppalavadi has purchased a plot of land for
Es. 1,050 with the help of a loan from the Central Bank and secured
a licence from the Cuddalore Municipal Council for opening a fish
market thereon. This will not only enable them to get proper prices
for their fish but also bring in a rent of about Rs. 40 per mensem.
This is a noteworthy instance of a very humble, illiterate, and back-
ward community who have improved their economic condition and
status in a substantial manner by co-operation, though it is only two
years since their society was started.

Another interesting society is the one organized for the stipen-
diary students of the Fisheries Training Institute.

On account of the slackness that prevailed in some of the
societies, it was found necessary to consolidate them rather than to
increase their number by starting others. There were also factions
in a few of the villages which prevented the smooth working
of their societies. Most of them have nevertheless worked satis-
factorily making due allowance for the inexperience and illiteracy
of the great majority of the members.

44. Education. — The Training Institute at Calicut continued
to progress satisfactorily. Twenty-four pupil teachers were under
training. Besides undergoing instruction in the syllabus subjects
(except carpentry) they were given opportunity by means of fre-
quent excursions to acquire practical knowledge of the principal
methods of fishing and curing as practised on the west coast,
including canning, smoking and the like.

Three canoes fully equipped with fishing gear were available
for their use ; they were regularly sent to sea in batches several
times a week during the fair weather period to gain first-hand
experience. The Headmaster is to be congratulated on the good
progress made by his pupils.

45. Village schools. — The number of these schools rose from 20
to 28. Of these fifteen are day and thirteen night schools. The
number of pupils rose from 929 (565 day and 864 night) to 1,385
(930 day and 455 night) and out of this total 285 were girls. The
number of teachers employed by the department was 38 in the day

30 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV

schools and 23 in the night schools. As in the previous year most
of the new schools were started and worked by the villagers them
selves for several months, and were taken over by the department
only after being satisfied of the need for such schools in these loca-
lities. Similar applications were received from several other villages
for the opening of schools, but on account of financial considerations
no action was taken. Most of the sehools are accommodated in
temporary sheds or ether unsuitable buildings and much incon-
venience is felt for want of proper buildings. All the schools were
inspected in the course of the year by officers of the Fisheries Depart-
ment as well as by Sub-Assistant Inspectors and Supervisors of the
Education Department.

It). Temperance and other socio-economic work. — Temperance
work made further progress, especially in South Kanara where a
large number of fishermen in the TJdipi and Mangalore taluks have
voluntarily abandoned toddy drinking. In some villages they have
gone still further and have adopted objectionable 'coercive methods
in their otherwise laudable desire to encourage thrift ; in several
instances caste panchayats have even passed resolutions prohibiting
members from resorting to tea and coffee shops on the ground that
much money is wasted in this way. It is hoped that the officers of
the department will exercise their influence against such compulsory
sumptuary rules and encourage the men to practise thrifty and tem-
perate habits from conviction and not merely because of orders
issued by the panchayat. Compulsory thrift and temperance invite
a reaction sooner or later, and I consider that such artificial devices
to uplift the working classes of the country should be discouraged.
Let education, precept and example be the levers employed.

On the east coast the Assistant Director of Fisheries (Coast)
visited several villages on propaganda work, but the results were
unsatisfactory owing to the failure of the season and the existence
of factions. In future, socio-economic work among the east coast
fishermen will be carried on by the Labour Department.

As a result of representations made by this department from
time to time, representatives of the fisher communities have been
nominated as members upon most of the maritime taluk boards
and municipal councils. A few have been appointed Honorary
Magistrates and one has been nominated to a seat in the Madras
Legislative Council.

General.

47. The conduct of the staff has been generally satisfactory
and those at headquarters have my special sympathy owing to the
unpleasant conditions under which they have to work. I am glad

No. 1 (1922).

ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21

31

to report that the Personal Assistant, Mr, U. Karunakara Menon,
duly completed his term of training in co-operative work prescribed
by tbe Kegistrar of Co-operative Societies, who states that the
officers with whom he worked reported in very appreciative terms
on his progress and of his keenness and capacity.

Mr. J. A. Fernandez, who acted for Lieut. Allan, Assistant
Director of Fisheries (Marine), rose to the occasion and demonstrated
the ability of a member of the sea-faring Parawar community for
difficult administrative duties. I believe that Mr. Fernandez is the
first member of his community to hold a post of such responsibility
under Government, and it gives me much pleasure in bringing his
services to the notice of Government.

48. The usual statements are appended.

James Hornfll,
Director of Fisheries.

Statement I.— Summary of expenditure and receipts of the Fishery

Department, 1920-21.

Particulars.

I. Supervision and Research
II. Marine Fisheries

III. Inland Fisheries

IV. Factories

V. Capital expsnditure

Total

Expenditure.

Receipts.

Difference.

EH. A.

1,13,820 14

02,403 9

70,255 15

43,763 9

2,782 11

2,93,026 12 2

us.

3,645
99,416
90,868
35,489

A.

0
9
8
6

7
7

10
4

RS. A.

— 1,10,175

-}- 37,013

+22,612

- 8,274

— 2,782

13
0

9

2

11

11
0
5

11
5

2,29,419 9 4

— 63,607 2 10

32

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV

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34

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV

Statement IV. — Profit and Loss account of the Chank and Beche-de-mer

fisheries for the season 1920-21.

Expenditure.

Amount.

Receipts.

Amount.

Chans Fisheries —

RS.

A.

p.

Value of chanks fished —

»S. A. P.

Tinnevelly

11,158

5

10

Tinnevelly

35,883 4 11

Ramnad . .

18,294

13

2

Ramnad

30,545 11 1

Sivaganga

264

1

0

Sivaganga

268 12 2

Beche-de-mer fishery

233

8

1

Beche-de-mer fished

58 14 6

Eighth year's proportion of

4,000

0

0

the total consideration paid

Chank rentals received —

in 1913-14 for a 15 years'

T anjore district . , . .

4,466 10 4

lease of the Ramnad fishery.

South Arcot district .,

1,546 2 6

Law suits expenses, Messrs.

1,128

1

6

Chingleput and Nellore dis-

1,260 0 0

J. B. Datt & Sons.

tricts.

Supervision oharges, viz : —

8,313

s

0

Godown rent and interest

5,909 0 11

pay and travelling allow-

received from Messrs. J.

ances of Assistant Director

B. Dutt & Sons.

(Marine), 60 per cent of

pay, travelling allowance

and contingencies of subor-

dinate staff.

The halance of profit is . .

36,536

2
8

10
5

|

79,928

79,928 8 5

No. 1 (1922).

ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21.

35

Statement V. — List of tanks and canals stocked by the Fisheries
Department with the compensation paid and rentals realized for the year

1920-21.

1. Singanamalla tank

2. Ellanur tank

3. Kamalapurain tank

4. Daroji tank

5. Chembarambakkam tank

6. Madurantakam tank ...

7. Kandakur Vyasasamudram tank...
8 B-angasamudram ...

9. Tippasamudram ... ... ...

10. Tsadam

11. Peddi Naidu tank...

12. Markapur tank and supply channel

13. Kurnool-Ouddapah canal includ-

ing three canals ...

14. Venkatapuram tank

15. Siddapuram tank ...

16. Belegal tank

17. Badakan tank

18. Kocheruvu tank

19. Kanigiri reservoir ...

20. Ghidur tank

21. Karedu tank

22. Pud uparti tank

23. Ippur Kamini tank

24. Kaveripakkam tank

25. Dusimaraandur tank

26. Baruru tank

27. Three tanks under Barur

28. Penukondapuram tank ...

29. Pan jampatti tank ...

30. River channels in Trichinopoly ...

31. Oau very and Coleroon

32. Chingleput and Nellore tanks ...

Total ...

Fishery

■ rental.

Compensation

K8.

A.

P.

ES. A.

p.

200

0

0

117 0

0

100

0

0

• t •

1,625

0

0

500 0

0

216

10

8

155 0

0

1,050
550

0
0

2}

2,195 0

0

90

0

ol

11
11

0
0

Of

200 0

0

8

0

oj

11

8

0

155

0

0

95 "o

0

3,811

2

0

2,553 14

0

95

0

0

• • •

18

0

0

• t •

• • •

• • •

}

16 0

0

16

0

0

■••

1,750

0

0

1..755 0

0

120

0

0

* • •

24

8

0

117 0

0

• • •

• • •

}

5 0

0

4,176
2,335

10
0

1}

3,789 0

0

98

0

0

100 0

0

71

0

0

20 0

0

110

0

0

118 0

0

16

0

0

289

6

0

62,221

5

8

34,924"'o

0

10,704

0
a

0
0

9,300 0

0

90,484

55,959 14

0

36

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV

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No. 1 (1922)

ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21

37

Statement VII. — Profit and Loss account of the Grovernment Fisheries
Cannery, Chaliyam, for the year ending 30th June 1921.

KS.

9

p.

6

To pay of permanent 4,816

staff, viz., Manager,

Sub- Assistant,

Mechanic, Canning

overseer, three clerks

and one peon (50 per

cent only debited).
To service stamps ... .505 12
To depreciation and in- 1,43 1 3

terest at 10 per cent

(13, 680—1,368 +

Es. 2,000 at 10 per

cent).

6,253 8 8

KS. A. P.

By gross profit trans- 4,374 9 9
ferred from Trading
Account.

Loss

... 1,878 14 11

6,253 8 8

<?

38

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

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ADMINISTRATION EEPORT, 1920-21

39

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40 MADRAS FI HERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV.

Order— No. 2142, Development, dated 17th November 1921.

The Government have read with interest the administration
report of the Fisheries Department for the year 1920-21. The
Government consider that the results of the year were perhaps not
so encouraging as a perusal of the report might suggest, Certain
schemes originally included in the departmental programme have
proved under present financial conditions too costly to justify pursu-
ing them further and this has been recognized in orders recently
passed. In the case of certain other experiments, the principal of
which is the cannery, the experience of the year has been the
reverse of promising.

2. Industrial section. — The experimental Cannery, Ohaliyam. — In
paragraph 9 of the report the Director refers to the necessity of
removing the cannery to a better site. The Government have
decided that it is desirable to take this step after a suitable site
has been found and as soon as the necessary fuuds can be allotted.

The cannery is reported to have worked at a small loss of
Rs. 1,878-14-11. This figure is arrived at after crediting to the
year's revenue two-thirds of the value of unsold products, and this,
the Government believe, is a correct method of commercial account-
ing. They understand, however, that purchasers for these unusually
large stocks of canned goods are not yet forthcoming, and that the
unsold stock has since increased. Unless a market for this stock
develops, it is clear that the actual loss on the year's working will
be much greater than that appearing in the report. It also seems
likely that these conditions will repeat themselves in the year
1921-22.

The question of this cannery has recently received much atten-
tion from the Government. The management appears to have been
satisfactory enough so far as its efficiency in small scale production
is concerned, but from the financial point of view it cannot be
regarded as anything but discouraging. The Government are
convinced that if pioneering efforts are to be followed by private
enterprise, it is essential to demonstrate not only efficiency of
manufacture but the possibility of regular profits. It is hoped that
the reconstruction of the cannery on a more suitable site together
with more attention to the selling part of the business may
demonstrate this possibility. The cannery has been peculiarly
affected by the fact that the local demand for its products was
largely a war demand, and it was unprepared with any selling
agency sufficient to meet changed conditions.

8. The Tanur Experimental station also showed a small loss
during the year, but this is a minor matter. These experimental
stations are not necessarily intended to show a profit

4. Public fish-curing yards — Paragraph 15 of the report. — The
question of the policy to be adopted in respect of the compulsory

No. 1 (1922) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-1921 4l

introduction in Government yards of the hygenic methods of fish-
curing originated by Sir Frederick Nicholson, has also recently
received much attention from the Government. Political distur-
bances in Malabar are however likely to compel the postponement
of the wider introduction of this policy at least for some months.

5. Sea-fishing experiments — (a) With ordinary fishing boats and
gear. — The Government note from paragraph 16 of the report that
the experiments known as the inshore fishing experiments in
Madras have been of value for scientific purposes. Their main
object, however, it is understood, was to demonstrate the possibility
of using Malabar canoes and nets on the East Coast near Madras,
and the possibility of obtaining larger catches by these methods than
do local fishermen through the methods they employ. In this
object the experiment has so far been completely unsuccessful.
Local fishermen have in fact refused to experiment with these canoes
and nets except on condition that they shall be permitted to fish
within the Madras harbour, a concession not ordinarily allowed to
fishermen. It appears moreover that successful fishing within the
harbour would demonstrate nothing of value regarding the utility of
the canoes and nets under ordinary conditions.

A similar history has attended the experiment with the Ratna-
giri boats known as Machwas on the Malabar coast. This experi-
ment was temporarily discontinued during the year under report,
and it has since been decided to give it one year's further trial.
The results of these experiments must be deemed to be rather
unsatisfactory in that they have not yet succeeded in persuading
fishermen on any part of the coast to adopt any change in fishing
methods : nor has the department itself been able to demonstrate the
fact that larger catches can be secured by any methods that they
advocate.

(b) Larger scale experiments. — To the same general branch of
experiment, that of improved methods of sea-fishing, but to a
separate section of it, belong projected experiments in what may
be termed 'capitalistic' conduct of fishing, i.e., experiments in
vessels of such a size that they would be beyond the means of any
ordinary fisherman, though in some cases quite possibly within the
means of the master-fisherman or a group of master- fishermen.
The question has long been debated whether the Madras Govern-
ment should experiment in this connexion with a steam trawler.
It has now definitely been decided not to embark on this experi-
ment, the cost of which would now be very great. The Bombay-
Government, it is understood, is making such an experiment, the
results of which will doubtless shortly be available.

In paragraph 27 of his report the Director refers to a proposed
experiment with a motor-driven launch using a Danish seine. The
Government have now decided to accept this recommend ati on and
to experiment on these lines. _ 1

42 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV.

6. Pullcat Oyster farm. — The Government note with satisfaction
the improved results from the farm during the season.

7. Chank fishery. — The Government are aware that they must
expect a much reduced profit on the chank fishery during the
current and some succeeding seasons owing to the reduction in the
price of chanks which is due to economic causes beyond the Depart-
ment's control. This particular cause did not apparently operate
during the year 1920-21 in which the sale price of chanks to
contractors was based on a contract entered into three years pre-
viously. The large reduction in profits in the year under report is
due to a different reason, viz., the much smaller number of shells
fished, caused it is believed by

(«) comparative exhaustion of the chank beds and failure to
find others equally good, and

(b) constant difficulty about obtaining a sufficient number of
divers.

The Government have on the recommendation of the Director
endeavoured to meet the latter difficulty by raising the remuneration
of divers employed on the Tinnevelly coast, which is based on the
number of chanks fished. The Director has also promised an
investigation into the causes of the fall.

8. Marine Biologist's section. — There has been much discussion
during the year on the subject of the scale on which this work
should be performed, its scientific utility and the probability of
co-ordinating it in the near future with any work likely to increase
the catches of edible fish or, in other words, likely to result in
commercial advantage to the public or to Government. Its scienti-
fic utility is not questioned, but the Government have decided
after full consideration that the probability of obtaining any
commercial results is remote, and for financial reasons they are
unable to continue the work on its purely biological side, a matter
which belongs more properly to the Zoological Department of the
Government of India. The Government have therefore since
dispensed with the services of the Marine Biologist on the termina-
tion of his two years' agreement, and are continuing only such
branches of the department's biological activities as can be performed
by a small staff of subordinates under the scientific control of the
Director. One of these activities is the supply of zoological speci-
mens for educational purposes to colleges and schools. This work
was originated by the present Director when occupying the post of
Marine Biologist, and continues to be successfully performed.

9. Madras Marine Aquarium. — This institution continues to be
popular and profitable. The question of constructing a marine
aquarium for purposes of research and education on a much more
ambitious scale has long been under the consideration of Govern-
ment. They have now decided not to proceed with the scheme for
the present. Indeed the necessity for such an aquarium is closely

No. 1 (1922) ADMINISTRATION REPORT, 1920-21 43

related to the development of biological research discussed in the
previous paragraph.

10. Inland pisciculture. — The Government agree with the
Director that this portion of the department's activities is satisfac-
tory and that it is perhaps the one in which the greatest immediate
advance is to be expected. The improvement of breed and quantity
of fish in small inland waters presents a problem much easier of
solution than the increase of sea catches, and in its nature far less
likely to be complicated by the conservatism of the fishing class.
It is in fact a question of improving the fish supply while leaving
the methods of fishing unaltered, while the problem of sea-fishing is
exactly the reverse. The weak point so far in these inland fishing
experiments appears to be the difficulty of obtaining an adequate
return to the Government for the increased fish supplies made
available to the villagers. It is not of course suggested that the
whole or the major part of the value of this increased fish supply
should return to the Government, but a reasonable percentage of it
certainly should do so. Indeed any very large extension of the
inland fishing activities is likely to be dependent on the Govern-
ment income derived from this source. So far, it is believed,
villagers or contractors concerned have shown a reluctance to bid
for the fishing privileges a much greater sum than they had been
accustomed to offer before the tanks were stocked. Some advance
is however already apparent in this respect and it is hoped that
attendance at sales of the departmental officers recently trained at
Ennore will produce a further improvement.

11. Socio-economic section. — The Government note that there is
a considerable rise in the paid-up share capital of the co-operative
societies among fishermen and in the number of fishery village
schools controlled by the department. The Training Institute at
Calicut continues to do satisfactory work.

(By order of the Government, Ministry of Development)

J. M. Turing,
Secretary to Government.

■

Report No. 2 of 1 922.

NOTES ON THE FAUNA AND FISHING
INDUSTRIES OF THE EACCADIVE

ISLANDS

BY

S. RAMASWAMI AYYANGAR,
Sub-Assistant, Madras Fisheries Department,

WITH AN INTRODUCTORY NOTE BY THE DIRECTOR.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

This report consists of the more useful of the field notes
recorded by Mr. Ramaswami Ayyangar during a short visit
to the islands in 1920. Though necessarily fragmentary, they
have considerable value both in themselves and because they
fill several lacunae in the Report on a similar cruise which I
made in 1908 (Madras Fisheries Bulletin No. j) ; they add
materially to our knowledge of the fishing industries of the
islands. It is obvious, however, that before any scheme for
the improvement of existing methods or for the introduction
of new ones is possible, much more intimate knowledge is
requisite. Instead of a hurried cruise through the islands in
company with the revenue inspection staff, at least a full
month's investigation should be devoted to each island if the
fishing potentialities are to be ascertained satisfactorily and
adequately ; enough has now been learned to confirm my
first impression that the waters and shores of the islands
have considerable commercial possibilities. Left to them-
selves, no improvements in methods and no extension of
fishing operations can be expected from the Laccadive fisher-
folk. Although conservative after the manner of their kind,
these islanders compare favourably with the mainlanders ;

46 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

■! ; ' ■

they seem more willing to accept advice and to try experi-
ments, but it is useless to attempt or expect anything- if
demonstration and material help do not accompany advice.
As in all pioneer fishery work, a thorough preliminary
investigation is necessary. We want definite and detailed
information on the seasonal abundance of the food fishes
frequenting the vicinity of the islands ; we must ascertain
whether the bonito — most valuable of pelagic fishes — is found
in large shoals and whether suitable live bait can be found
in the island lagoons ; we must try whether the Minikoi and
Japanese method of capturing them is suitable for local
cond tions or whether drift-netting may not be preferable.
We have to ascertain whether the particular species of flying-
fish which, in the breeding season, furnishes an extensive and
profitable fishing to the Coromandel fishermen, occurs in the
Laccadive sea, and if so, when the breeding season is and if
these fishes can then be caught by the same ingenious and
simple plan as is practised on the East Coast at that particu-
lar time. The potentialities of the beche de-mer fishery also
require careful investigation, particularly on the outlying
uninhabited reefs, several of which are of very great extent,
and consequent promise. It is notable that the small beche-
de-mer industry that existed in Kiltan at the time of my visit
in 1908, has died out and is now but a memory. I feel sure
that if the islanders be taught improved methods of curing,
such as this department has introduced into the Palk Bay
beche-de-mer industrv, and if arranoements be made either to
buy their produce at a rate that would yield them a fair profit
or, alternatively, to arrange to sell it for them on a commission
basis, quite an extensive industry might result. Similarly,
the export trade in cured fish would expand greatly if
encouragement be afforded the islanders to pay greater atten-
tion to this trade and if direction in methods and cheap salt
for curing be provided. Salt curing is practically unknown

NO. 2 (1922) INTRODUCTORY NOTE 47

in the islands, presumably because the cost of bazaar salt is
considered prohibitive. (No public fish-curing yards where
duty-free salt is supplied have as yet been ojzened in the
islands.)

The main conclusions we come to, are that much more
detailed information is necessary before concrete proposals for
fishery development are possible and that the introduction
of improved methods will be valueless unless means be taken
to obtain fair market rates for the produce, in similar way to
that adopted in respect of the coir production of the islands.
Without help given in the marketing of their produce, the
islanders will inevitably fall a prey to unscrupulous traders
with the result that the unremunerative returns will cause
discouragement and a cessation of further effort. A patri-
archal treatment of the islanders is necessary till they become
more worldly wise.

It is notable that neither lono-linincr nor drift-nettinq- is
practised in the islands. The value of these methods there-
fore should receive careful attention in any future efforts
towards fishery development.

Mr. Ramaswami Ayyangar was successful in finding
young pearl oysters alive in the islands ; I doubt greatly if
they occur in commercial quantities in any locality ; if they
do, it will be in the lagoons of the great uninhabited pars.
As I have pointed out elsewhere, these pars are veritable
terra: incognita? ; they are never visited by the revenue
authorities, and ne> zoological or fishery examination has ever
been made of their potentialities. We know only that the
island fishermen periodically visit them and bring back good
catches of fish. An early investigation should be included
in our programme for the development of local fisheries.

The mosquito plague in Minikoi is referred to This is
notorious and changes what appears to be an earthly paradise
into a place of the utmost discomfort, to say nothing ofdisea.se.

48 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

I may usefully recall the fact that the member of the Cam-
bridge Zoological expedition to the Maldives under Professor
Stanley Gardiner, who was left on Minikoi, contracted malaria
and suffered so severely that he had to be invalided home.
In any scheme for the development of the island that
" Fisheries" may participate in, the possibility of adequately
combating" this scourge by means of the introduction and
breeding of larvicidal fUhes in the wells and water pools of
the island should be given careful attention and thorough
investigat'on.

3rd November i92i. JAMES HORNELL.

NO. 2 (1922) LACCADIVE FISHERIES 49

THE FAUNA AND FISHING INDUSTRIES OF THE

LACCADIVES.

In September 1 920 at the suggestion of Mr. A. Y. G, Campbell,
the Director of Industries (then in charge of the Fisheries
Department), proposals were made for the Marine Biologist to
accompany an inspection party to the Laccadive Islands with a
view to gain further knowledge of the marine fauna and to make a
general collection of specimens. Subsequently it was decided
that only one of this section's staff need undertake the trip,
owing to want of room in the inspection steamer. It was eventually
arranged that the R.I.M.S. Minto should leave Mangalore about
the middle of November with Mr. R. H. Ellis, I.C.S., the officer in
charge of the inspection party, and his staff, and that I should
accompany them.

The party left Mangalore as arranged at noon of the 18th.
After visiting all the islands we returned to Calicut on 24th
December having thus spent 38 days in all upon the inspection.

The weather on the outward voyage was fine and we sighted
the first island Amini, of the Amindivi group attached to South
Kanara district for administrative purposes, at noon the next day
(19th November) and landed at 4 p.m. amidst light showers of rain,
an unusual happening at such a time of the year.

AMINI is the chief of the Amindivi group and the head-
quarters of theMonigar; it possesses a dispensary with a small
meteorological station, in charge of an Assistant Surgeon, and a
Government elementary school. The other three inhabited islands
attached to it for administrative purposes are Kadamat (8 miles
north and just seen from the beach), Kiltan and Chetlat. Amini is
about 620 acres in extent. The soil is fertile, coconut palms growing
luxuriantly. The people, who were enumerated for the 1921 decen-
nial census, numbered 2,152; they appear to be in affluent circum-
stances. Of late the island has been divided into factions partly
due to petty local jealousies and partly to the upheaval of the lower
classes, such as Melacheris, etc. — who are toddy drawers, ordinary
labourers, etc., by profession — caused by the treatment accorded to
them by their caste superiors (Koyas, etc.).

50 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

On the 20th and 21st plankton collections were made. On the
first of these days a trial was made with the help of a diver of
the island to get specimens'from the bottom. The man was able
to bring only a few broken pieces of Madrepora. From the way
in which the aiving was done I came to the conclusion that no
good results could be hoped from this. No stone or other appliance
is used for help as is the case with Tuticorin divers. The man
dived into the water head first. Nor was he able to keep to the
bottom for more than a few seconds.

A big Bat Ray \Diccrobalis) was brought ashore this clay. It
measured 1 5 feet across the disc and II feet long (6i feet disc and
4^ tail) ; a local fisherman told me it would weigh approximately
20 thulams (560 lb.). Curiously enough the stomach contained
nothing, a fact which the men say is quite common. A good
number of sucker fishes (Echenets, two species) were found sheltering
in the mouth of the big beast, varying from lh to 14 inches in
length. Parasites both from the oesophagus and from the mouth,
were taken and preserved.

At the request of the Inspecting Officer earthworms were collect-
ed from this island and later also from Agatti, Kavarti, Kalpeni and
Androth. These were sent to Dr. Stephenson, late Principal,
Government College, Lahore. His remarks on the collection are
that "They are all, except two specimens, Megascolex maurttii, a
widely distributed peregrine form. The other two are Megascolex
konkanensis, a South Indian species. The collection illustrates the
uniformity and borrowed character of the earthworm fauna of these
and other similar islands."

On the 22nd the counting of the people of the island took place
and so no fishing boats went out. The programme for the 23rd was
to go to Kadamat in the morning and return in the evening, but
rough sea prevented our going. There was slight rain between 10
a.m. and 2 p.m. A fairly low tide occurred in the afternoon
permitting examination of the exposed western reefs.

The next morning (24th), after another postponement of the visit
to Kadamat owing to adverse wind and sea, was spent in inquiring
about nets and other fishing methods and fish and turtle oil prepa-
ration. The afternoon was spent in collecting on the reefs on the
west side. Among other animals, three young living pearl oysters
were found. This confirmed the remarks about the possible exist-
ence of these referred to in Mr. Hornell's report printed in the

NO. 2 (i 922) LACCADIVE FISHERIES 51

Madras Fisheries Bulletin No. 4 (p. 116). The lack of skill in the local
divers taken together with the condition of the sea-bottom as
described in the above report, made it impossible to continue the
search for adults.

Low tides are taken advantage of by the women and boys and
girls of the island to collect Octopus (App.ilu in vernacular) from
the reefs. With two short sticks about three-quarters of a yard
long (iron rods thick enough not to bend are also used) in their
hands, the people wade through knee-deep water, straining their
eyes to find out the crevices among the corals where the animals
shelter and from which at times they thrust out one of their arms in
search of a probable prey. Immediately on locating the animal the
sharp point of one of the sticks is thrust into the animal and with
the help of the other the victim is brought out of its retreat. They
are made into curry with the usual spices or into soups.

Small fish are also caught from among the clumps of the big
corals by means of a small net called Muduvalai.

KADAMAT. — On the 25th morning we left Amini in a country
boat and landed at the southern extremity of Kadamat island at
10 a.m. This island is long and the largest in the whole archi-
pelago. The soil is fertile and the jungle-like growth of trees
and shrubs in the south is noteworthy, while the northern end
of the island is a waste of coarse tall grass, scrub jungle and
screw pine, though in recent years coconut plantations have
been begun in earnest here, and also in the new accretions at the
southern end. Though Alcock who visited the island in 1891
makes mention of " lime trees growing and bearing fruit such as
one seldom sees in India," except for a scraggy tree with fast
dying branches I was not able to find any lime trees. The men
are stronger than in Amini and the island appears to have been
colonized by, and worked for, the landlords of that island. The
charge that "the islanders were sinfully neglectful of their oppor-
tunities " can no longer be brought against them, yet the people
appear poor (as Mr. A. O. Hume remarked) as a result " of an
oppressive influence exercised by the capitalists of the adjacent
small, but thickly populated, island of Amini." The area of the
island is 750 acres and the population 577 according to the
enumeration made while we camped there. During my stay nearly
three-fourths of the eastern side of the reef was examined. The
corals are in a living condition and luxuriantly growing while
the interspaces afford protection and breeding ground for many
2

52 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

molluscs and holothurians. A good collection was made and an
interesting find at the southern end was dead young pearl oysters,
thus confirming beyond doubt that mature ones must occur in the
waters around this island.

Better attention is paid here to fishing than at Amini. I found
fish being dried in the sun, hung on ropes. They are not treated
with salt in any way but merely washed in sea water with two to
three scores along the sides to allow rapid drying.

Owing to uncertain weather conditions the return to Amini was
postponed to next morning (26th). We arrived at Amini at 10 a.m.
and immediately proceeded by R.I. M.S. Minto to Chetlat.

CHETLAT.— -The next morning I examined the reef at the north-
east of this island. The whole beach at this end is covered with
a kind of calcareous algae {Lithothamnion sp.) which is mentioned
by Professor Stanley Gardiner as one of the active agencies in the
formation of coral reefs.

Beyond collecting shells washed ashore and making inquiries
regarding the nets, etc., in use and about the abundance of Trochus
and Turbo shells said to be suitable for making buttons, much
work could not be done here. In the course of the day a Kandali-
valai was dragged in the lagoon and the catches examined. The
haul contained 3 spine-tails {Acanthurus), 4 Caranx, 1 5 matti
{Lutjanus), I big Balistcs and a spiny puffer fish (Diodon), not edible.

In my opinion the general fishing capacity of the people of this
island is low owing mainly to their poverty-stricken condition.
The main occupation of the islanders is coir-making; the product
is taken to the mainland to be exchanged for rice, but the people
express as a grievance that their quota of coir supply is fixed too
high, leaving little time for other activities. There is scarcity of
husks for fibre as a consequence of the poor yield of nuts of the
island trees and a proposal was made by them to the officer to
grant them a licence to remove husks from Bangaram. Hence the
men are taking to other occupations such as cutting and carrying
fuel to Mangalore, Calicut, etc., from other islands. One such
batch of men was seen at Kalpitti islet of the Agatti, adding to
their thin rice gruel (kanji) the baked flesh of a Pterocera.

Pterocera chiragra and P. lambis are found in abundance around
this island; these and other big Gastropods {Conns, etc.) are baked
in the fire and eaten by the people. Large quantities of the shells
of Mesodestna glabrata are found as kitchen middens in this and

No. 2 (1922) LACCADIVE FISHERIES 53

other islands and the " giant clam " {Tridacna) gives a substantial
dish at times. The islanders are poor when compared with the
people of the other islands and the men and women are on short
commons at times owing to the irregular supply of rice from the
mainland and partly to the difficulty of finding profitable outlet for
their produce. The population is 761 and the area is 255 acres.

KlLTAN. — At 9-30 in the night of the 27th November we left this
place and reached Kiltan the next morning. The various forms of
fishing apparatus in use were inspected and notes taken of the
methods of using them.

The people of this island number 675 and the area about 400
acres. The soil is generally fertile and some enterprising men
have grown tamarind and other trees; while one garden showed
cholam bearing pretty bunches of grain. The northern end of the
island is a jungle of tall spear grass which, I am told, is a good
substitute for hay. The guide who accompanied me showed with
pride his small garden where chillies were growing as shrubs 6 to 8
feet high, together with cucumbers bearing fine fruits. Though
the inhabitants were not found in " much distress and anxiety "
as stated by Major Alcock in 1891, when 8,000 of their coconut trees
were destroyed by a storm (the effect of this storm is still seen in
many trees growing in a slanting posture) and the long expected
consignment of rice from the mainland was long overdue, yet the
people look poor and a feeling of helplessness prevails ; they
say they are starving though to me they appeared not so badly off
as the Chetlat people. At one house visited, the people were
havirg as a meal a preparation made by boiling a landweed with
mlra, the local name for sweet coconut toddy.

Fishing operations are a bit brisker here than at Chetlat. Fish
was drying on the beach. Small fish are scored through to allow
quick drying. Big sharks and rays (Kottar) are cut in pieces and
hung on ropes to dry without being treated in any way, while
kudiraimin and olaimin (Hisliophorns) are made into " mas." This is
done by cutting the big fish into chunks of about three inches square,
which are boiled in sea water for ten minutes and then put in
the sun to dry. This they expect to keep good for six months and
more. Shark fins are dried and exported to the mainland at a
price of Rs. 20 per thulam. It was in this island that I heard a pearl
had been found, some three or four years ago, in a Tridacna and
sold for Rs. 20. Regarding kokd (beche-de-mer) curing, except for

54 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

the statement that it was once practised no traces of the industry
were found. The failure is attributed to poor prices for the manu-
factured product.

As our stay was very short, detailed inquiry and investigation
was not possible. We left the next morning at 6-15 a.m. and after
putting ashore at Amini the Monigar and the Assistant Surgeon of
that place, we proceeded towards Agatti (the westernmost of the
inhabited islands of the group), which we reached at 5 p.m.

At AGATTI we camped from 30th November to 7th December,
the last three days spent in the vain hope of sighting the R.I. M.S.
Minto and proceeding by it to the next island, Kavarti.

The lagoon of this island is ideally situated, being of large
extent with depths of three to four fathoms which greatly facilitate
collection of zoological specimens. Opportunity was also afforded
while here of making short visits to the outlying uninhabited
islets of Kalpitti and the Bangaram series. Detailed inquiries
were made as to fishing apparatus and methods, and a good find of
young pearl oysters, together with a collection of various shells,
was obtained. The island is one and one-eighth square mile in
area and has a population of 1,084. It is tolerably fertile and the
people are well-to-do ; there are signs of comparative happiness and
comfort. It is a "fine large populous island standing at the
southern end of an atoll which also rises into two small islets at
two points further northwards and is thickly covered with coconut
palms beneath which the thatched coral-stone houses of the
inhabitants are picturesquely scattered among lime-bushes on
which fine fruits are hanging." (Alcock : A Naturalist in Indian
Seas.)

On the morning of the 30th November, the north beach of the
island was examined and notes taken of the fish traps and other
kinds of fishing appliances in use.

December 1st.— This morning I took a boat and went to the small
uninhabited islet (Kalpitti) at the south end of the reef separated
from the main island by a channel from one to two fathoms deep
at high water and 200 to 300 yards wide.

My chief object was to search for Amphioxus and Balano-
glossus by sieving the sand in the separating channel. The first
sieve revealed a few dead young pearl oyster shells ; on this a close
search was made among the Madrepore corals and I was able to
detect a number of live young pearl oysters adhering in bunches of

No. 2(IQ22) LACCADIVE FISHERIES $$

from four to six. It appears to me that the larvae before they come
to the sedentary stage are driven by the force of the current from
the east to the west through the dividing channel and attach
themselves to corals, etc. The difficulty of finding proper divers in
the island made it impossible to verify the existence of mature
oysters in the deeper waters of the vicinity.

This small islet is of little interest save for the shells to be
collected around it during low tides. The few coco-palms standing
there bore no fruit ; they are either eaten by rats which infest the
island or by the visitors who resort to it for fuel cutting and for
fishing. Small trees abound and every tree and bush are overgrown
and hidden by the thick covering of a spreading creeper making
them impenetrable and giving refuge to myriads of eye-flies. The
corals and rocks along the water's edge are worn into sharp edges
and points and the beach is strewn with plenty of dead branching
Madrepora. Natica and a knobbed Purpura are present in large
numbers.

On the 2nd December a plankton collection was made in the sea
outside the reef and at noon the contents of a haul of Kandalivalai
drawn in the lagoon were examined. There were 45 fish in all, of
which 21 were Caranx, 15 Lutjanus, 4 Balistes and 3 big Osiracions
with a stray Tetrodon and Naseus unicornis. The stomach contents
of Caranx, Lutjanus and Naseus were examined. The last appears
to be of vegetarian habit as the stomach contained a large amount
of seaweed in various stages of digestion.

The next day was spent in going over the reefs on the eastern
side of the island and in examining the sandy patches therein for
Amphioxus and Balanoglcssus. But none were found. In the
evening the catches of a boat practising " Chiittu " method of fish
catching in the lagoon, were examined. Sphyrsena, Belone and
Hemirhamphus are the fish caught principally by this method.

On the 4th December the three uninhabited ^islands of
Bangaram, Tinnakara and Parali (7 miles north of Agatti) were
visited. The first lies in a north to south direction, the other two
east and west. The first is separated by a wider and somewhat
deeper channel passable only by small fishing boats and at low
tide from 3 to 4 fathoms deep. Big masses of Porites are seen in
patches about 1 5 to 30 yards diameter trying to rear their heads to
water level. In recent years land has formed on all sides except
the south and the whole reef at low water appears to be one

56 M \DRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

continuous stretch. A large sand bank with about half a foot to two
feet of water during low tides, is forming to the west and north sides
of Bangaram and also of other islets to the east, providing a fine
breeding ground for young turtles, while all the sand heaps of the
three islets are full of pits, small and big, excavated by turtles
wherein to lay their eggs. The reason for these three islets being-
uninhabited is said to be due to want of good drinking water but
the water at Tinnakara tastes well. The space between Tinntkara
and Parali (which again is in two fragments) is shallow during low
tides and can be waded through easily.

Boatmen and fishermen resort to these islands for fishing and
coconut collection and they say that " Muthuchippi " (pearl oysters)
can be had in good numbers at Bangaram ; but to my request they
were not able to bring anything and the description given by them
leaves me to doubt whether the " chippi " they refer to is the real
pearl oyster, for subsequently they showed me a valve of a big-
Pinna as a sample of Muthuchippi. After inspecting Parali,
Tinnakara and Bangaram we left at 3 p.m. and returned to Agatti
with a fine breeze at 5-30 p.m.

Abundance of fish are found in the waters around these islets
for in about half an hour the boatmen were able to capture by the
cast net upwards of 30 red mullets or goatfish (Upeuoides sp.) ;
the vast sandy stretches abound here in sipunculid worms (Sipun-
culus indicus), 15 to 20 inches long, and Y2 to % inch thick which are
much prized as bait in angling. The method of collecting these
latter is worthy of note. During low tides when the surface sand is
exposed the bait men search for the holes wherein these worms
live. A short stick (generally made of th? midrib of coconut leaf),
two feet long, is pushed into the holes to such a distance (say %
to I foot) that it enters the body of the animal for about half its
length, thus preventing the worm from burrowing deeper. Quickly
the sand round about is scooped out by hand and the stick and the
animal pulled out, the intestine being removed by pressing hard
and then cut into pieces for use as bait. A trial sieving of the
sands at the north-west corner of Bangaram brought only a few
small worms, but no Amphioxus, for which 1 tried particularly.

Fragments of pumice stone are strewn all along the beach at
high water mark both at these islands and at Agatti. A few of
these and also specimens of Ithala {Dioscorea opposit i folia) with root
and plant were preserved. The latter plant grows wild at Bangaram

NO. 2 (1922) LACCADIVE FISHERIES 57

and out of the root a coarse kind of sago-like preparation is made
which is largely eaten by the island people.

The bulb, after being cleaned of sand and mud and the removal
of the small roots sticking thereto, is cut into strips and washed in
fresh water, changing the water half a dozen times, to get rid of
the mucus and also part of the bitterness. Thereafter the strips
are dried in the sun and powdered well into coarse and nice grains.
Again it is passed through fresh water to remove completely the
bitterness which otherwise is left in the product. The powder is
used in the preparation of kanji and also generally mixed with rice
flour, boiled mira (sweet coconut toddy) and coconut scrapings to
be made into round balls called in vernacular " piiidi." This is
much valued as a sweet eatable by the island people and is much
sought after by the ordinary people coming from the mainland.

On the- 5th December, a plankton collection was made opposite
of the Amin's cutcherry ; while at this work I saw a shoal of fish
followed by seagulls ; the boatmen said they were " Mas-min "
(Bonito). In the afternoon inquiries were made regarding fishing
appliances and also the so-called "pearls" from Modiola. The
steamer Minio did not arrive to take the party to the next island
of Kavarti ; hence a country boat was engaged and we left at
midnight on the 7th, arriving at Kavarti at 10 30 a.m. the next
day.

The island of KAVARTI (area one and one-third square mile .
population 1,461) is similar in shape and appearance to most of
the other islands of the group and the people appear to be living
comfortably and in better sanitary conditions. The houses are
encircled by kadjan fencing and the space thus enclosed kept clean
and neat Pitti sandbank (15- miles north-west) and Suheli reef
(35 miles south-west) are attached to this island.

On the afternoon of the 8th December the reef at the entrance
to the lagoon was examined. The coral growth was found to be in
dead condition, but the very first examination among the branches
of Madrepore corals revealed young living pearl oysters, again
confirming the view that pearl oysters are available in these
waters. The people here also seem not to recognize the real pearl
oyster and the description of their pearl oyster refer to black
Pinna shell which is said to be found in plenty at Suheli. A
collection of corals was made and two specimens of Tridacna were
obtained alive. The next four days were occupied in collecting,
the most notable specimens being big hermit crabs living in

58 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

empty coconuts still enveloped in their husk ; this considerable
weight thev are able to drag behind them without apparent effort.

Leaving Kavarti on the night of the I2th, we reached MlNIKOI
at noon the next day. This is the southernmost of the islands
under the administrative control of the Collector of Malabar.
As is apparent at sight the people in their language, dress,
habits, customs, communal organization and fishing methods are
entirely different from those of the Laccadive Islands.

Owing to the notorious mosquito trouble of the island, it was
proposed to stop only one night at this island. Owing to
language difficulty — all available interpreters being occupied with
census duties — I was not able to make extensive inquiry, beyond
collecting shells. This was of less moment seeing that Prof.
Stanley Gardiner has already carried on investigations during a
lengthy stay in this island. The two most interesting items in the
collection were Magilus, a peculiar shell growing embedded in
corals, and a sea-worn chank. As usual with other islands, the
fishermen did not go out to sea on account of the inspecting
officer's visit and my attempts to get specimens of the small fish
kept for bait in bonito fishing were not successful. The description
of bonito catching and curing adopted by the islanders is given in
detail in Mr. Ellis' report on his IQ08 inspection of these islands.

From Minikoi we proceeded to KALPENI where we stayed till the
iqth December. This island appears at a distance as four separate
islets which consist of the island proper and the detached islets of
Cheriyam, Tilakam and Pitti. It is one square mile in area and
has a population of 1,375 according to the recent enumeration.
The main island is long and narrow and about halfway towards
its northern end great boulders of coral interpersed with sand and
debris make their appearance. In this island, as also in Androth,
excavations have been made and regular plots formed for culti-
vation purposes in which paddy, sweet potatoes, etc., are raised.
The lagoon, though large, is very shallow and this fact makes me
to think that eventually a very big island will be formed with the
present land as its nucleus at the southern end. Till then the
northern half of the island and the lagoon and the small islets
towards the south and north should prove admirable collecting
ground for zoological specimens and also a very suitable place for
studying the general phenomena of the growth and formation of
coral islands.

No. 2 (1922) LACCADIVE FISHERIES 59

While here I visited one evening the Tilakam and Pitti islets to
the south ; and after a preliminary survey of the island, spent a
morning and an evening in going through newly formed and
forming portions towards the north with a view to form an idea of
the locality and also to reach the northernmost bit of Cheriyam. A
good collection of shells was made and small fish caught by casting
nets, were preserved. A big Stegostoma was found washed ashore,
thrown away by fishermen as people say they are not eaten. In
this island also young dead pearl oysters were found. A plankton
collection was made and other points of interest noted. As a result
of this short visit I came to the conclusion that in case this depart-
ment intends carrying on a detailed study of these coral islands,
this island is best suited for the purpose.

Leaving Kalpeni on the 19th night we landed at ANDROTH at
noon on the 20th. This island is the largest of the group measuring
one and two-thirds square mile in extent with a population of 2,492
(December 1920). In general appearance, it is like Amini — com-
pact in form and running east and west unlike the other islands of
the group which lie in a north to south direction, and presenting a
long appearance. There is practically no lagoon and a fringing
reef extends all round to a width of from 100 to 200 yards, an area
which is exposed during low tides.

The people are prosperous and progressive and they look
healthy and dress in a well-to-do style. Being nearer to the main-
land they have largely copied modern methods of Indian life. As
usual in the island life of this locality, this island is divided into
two factions, the Government Amin with one or two Karanavans
on one side and all the other Karanavans on the other. The
dethroning (according to the conception of the island people) of the
Amin from his post, a favourite event which his opponents enjoy,
is the result of such factions, and in this place the Amin was
suspended for misconduct.

We stayed till the 23rd. Two days were spent in collecting
and examining the reefs. Plankton collections were also made.
Plenty of Modiola in matted masses occupy the floor of the exposed
reef. A solitary Echiuroid was picked up. Turbellarian worms
were found in plenty in the reefs below coral stones as also
Holothurians of some half a dozen species. The fishing methods
in use were inquired into. Regarding the method for capturing

3

60 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

flying-fish advised to the islanders by Mr. Hoinell (vide Madras
Fisheries Bulletin No. 4, page 122), the men told me that they experi-
mented with the method on one or two occasions, but it was not
a success. It may be that they tried this at the wrong season of
the year."

The beche-de-mer industry which was a success for some time
in this island has been abandoned, the reason being that an epide-
mic of cholera of a few years ago was attributed to the insanitary
condition in which the curer kept his yard at that time. The usual
rat hunt which is practised in the islands during the Inspecting
officer's stay was carried out here also and specimens preserved.
These and the Kavarti ones were sent to the Bombay Natural
History Society on instructions from Mr. Ellis. They are stated to
be all varieties of the common rat (Rattus rufescens) which is occa-
sionally a serious pest. They play such havoc that at times in
certain islands no coconut is left for plucking. Sometimes a stray
shrew (Pachyura sp.) is met with during the " hunt." Earthworms
also were obtained and preserved.

We left the island — the last of the group — at 4 p.m., and sighted
Calicut port at 9-30 a.m. the next day, landing at I p.m.

Boats. — Apart from the big cargo boats (called Kundara) used
for carrying the island products such as coir, copra, etc., to the ports
on the mainland, usually Mangalore, Calicut and Tellicherry, the
general fishing boats may be classified into three kinds according
to sizes : —

No. I. No. II.

No. III.

Length

. 18 ft. 24 ft.

32 ft.

Breadth

. 6 ft. 8 ft.

9 ft.

Number of partitions made

to allow rowers to sit

• 2 3

4

Crew generally required

• 4 6

8

Approximate cost

. Rs. 40 Rs. 60

Rs. 80—100

The wood used in the construction of these is from the island
trees, e.g., Puvarasu, Punna and Chirani. The fishermen them-
selves are able and fine carpenters and the boats are of the best
workmanship under the circumstances. They possess sails ; but at
times, the work of rowing, in order to reach and return from, the

* This method is successful only during the breeding season and in respect of one
species only. — J.H.

NO. 2 (1922) LACCADIVE FISHERIES 6l

fishing banks, involves so much labour to the crew that they say
they are almost tired when they arrive at the banks. If our depart-
ment undertakes to experiment and devise a small marine motor of.
moderate cost for these small boats, to occupy not more than one-
fourth of the space of the boat, it would be of immense help to the
men in their fishing work, in making larger and more remunerative
catches.

The appearance, size and construction of the Minikoi boats are
entirely different and as the men of that island are already having
a prosperous and progressive fishing nothing need be done at
present for them/"

Besides the ordinary boats for fishing there is a peculiar substi-
tute for it used in large numbers by the islanders of Kavarti. It
goes by the name Tarappam (Tamil equivalent, Teppam) called
also by some Sangddam. Some 10 to 16 (generally 12) pieces
of the straight light Patti wood (resembling bamboo poles in their
straightness and lightness) are placed side by side and tied together
by means of cross pieces of the same wood (one above and the other
below). In the middle a small additional piece of wood is also tied,
on which the bag to contain the catches is kept. At the four corners
the outside poles project about a foot for facility of carrying the
tarappam to shore and back. Patti wood is found in plenty in
Kavarti Island, hence the large numbers use in there. This raft is
used in the lagoon both during day and night and manned by four
to eight men with one rudderman and a harpooner in addition.
Occasionally they go outside the lagoon to fish on the outer margin
of the reef at a depth of 3 to 5 fathoms. One of them measured
18 feet long by 4% feet wide, divided into six sections.

Fishing appliances. — The various appliances used for fishing
in all these islands are more or less the same. They may be
classified under the following four heads : —

(a) Nets — worked in the lagoons only ;
{b) Traps — also worked in the lagoons only ;
(c) Harpooning— practised both in the lagoon and in the sea,
with or without hook and line ; and

* These boats are described in " The Origin and Ethnological Significance of Indian
Boat Designs" by J. Hornell, in Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. VII,
No. 3, 1920.

Vichuvalai.

Nuluvalai.

Muduvalai.

62 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

(d) Hook and line — either alone or combined with spearing.
Practised in the deeper waters of the lagoon but mostly and very
skilfully in the sea along with harpooning.

Nets. — The names in vernacular of the nets in use are —
Kandalivalai.
Adivalai.
Koruvalai.

A description of Kandalivalai, Adivalai, Koruvalai and Vichu-
valai is given by Mr. Hornell in Madras Fisheries Bulletin No. 4,
pages III-I2, 119-20, and, except recording more measurements of
these nets in the various islands, nothing particular can be added
to the information already in print. The average measurement of
a Kandalivalai is from 120 to 200 feet long and 8 to 12 feet wide
according to the depth of the home lagoon ; the price may be
put, according to the fishermen's quotation, at Rs. 50 to Rs. 60.

Nuluvalai. — A net of this name was shown to me in Kavarti.
It is exactly like the Kandalivalai. It is nine fathoms long with a
smaller mesh (%") and with small coral stone weights attached, 5
per fathom. This is used solely for catching small fish in the
lagoons.

Muduvalai. — This is a small net, shown in Kiltan Island,
conical in shape and measuring 15 feet in circumference at the
bottom, 6 feet deep and 3 feet wide at the short end. During low
tides it is dragged in such a way that the net is brought over
the small boulders of rocks within the lagoon. The small fish
sheltering among the clumps of coral stones are thus captured.

Traps. — A photograph of one with a short description is given
in the Madras Fisheries Bulletin No. 4, page 113. They are heart-
shaped in form and their sizes vary from 5 to 10 feet long, 3 to 6
feet wide and 2 to 4 feet high. At Kavarti larger and capacious
ones are found and are very strong in construction. The number
in use is larger in some islands (e.g., Chetlat and Kavarti) probably
on account of the difficulty of going to ssa. These traps are laid
close to the place where the surf breaks on the reefs. No bait is
used. They are in use generally between June and December
(often only up to October, as I noticed many of them not in use and
stored on the beach) and various kinds of fish are caught including
dogfishes.

Harpooning. — The art of capturing fish by this means is very
skilfully practised in all the islands. The harpoon poles are made

No. 2 (1922) LACCADIVE FISHERIES 63

of coconut wood by the fishermen locally and they are very nicely
fashioned. They are generally 12 feet long and \V2 to 2 inches
thick. The harpoon head is either single for catching ordinary fish
or has triple (big) prongs, used when spearing big fishes, parti-
cularly ayakura and kudiraimin, etc.

The iron head (uli) is attached loosely by means of a socket to
the end of the pole {kalavti) in such a way that, as soon it is thrust
into a fish, the head, to which a long rope of 30 to 50 fathoms is
tied, readily becomes detached. When the animal is exhausted it
is hauled up alongside and lifted into the boat — a short gaff being
used for the purpose.

Another form of spearing often practised in the lagoons in all
the islands during dark nights is termed in the vernacular
" chuttu." In the dusk just after sunset, the fishermen set out in a
boat provided with a number of dried coconut leaves made into long
bundles and several of the peculiar spearing poles; the name of
the spear is " chilla" The head is marle of wooden spikes of two
sizes and placed concentrically in two slightly diverging circles.
The spikes of the outer row are thicker; those of the inner, thinner
and a little shorter; both of them are very firmly fixed by being
tied on with coir twine. In addition to its use in the lagoon for
" chuttu " fishing, it is also used in the open sea for capturing flying-
fish. In the lagoon elongated fishes are those most frequently
caught, e.g., Sphyraena, Belone, Hemirhamphus, etc.

Line fishing. — This is the most important method of fishing
practised in the islands, and, combined with spearing, gives the
men of the island great sport at times. The pleasure which they
exhibit when they catch specially big fishes is notable. The hooks
generally used are of three to four sizes, ranging from small steel
hooks of European manufacture to those measuring 8 inches long and
V\ to Vx inch thick of local make. That used when fishing for sharks
is secured by iron or brass chain, about a yard long, to prevent the
line being bitten through. The medium and small sized ones are
tied to the rope in the usual manner. That kept specially for
catching ayakura and kudiraimin is a triple pointed one of local
make. The line is ordinarily 30 to 50 fathoms long. About 4 to 5
such coils are carried in every boat together with two or three
harpoons of both forms. The harpoon head used for catching
turtles is armed with a single barb.
4

64 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

Neither nets nor lines are barked or coloured. The white sand
of the bottom suits the natural colour of the cotton nets so well that
the men state that barking and the consequent colouring of these
frighten and disperse the fish. There are plenty of mangrove
bushes on the islands, the bark of which could be utilized for the
purpose. Under the peculiar conditions prevailing in the island
waters, it is probably better not to bark the nets in spite of the
disadvantage of the more rapid deterioration of unbarked nets.

Their lines are made of cotton thread, 20 to 40 counts, purchased
at Cannanore, Tellicherry, Calicut, Mangalore, etc. Aloes (a short
leafed variety) abound in all the islands; the fishermen were
shown how to extract fibre therefrom and demonstration made of
the strength of a rope made of it. But they showed no interest
and prefer to buy their thread ready prepared.

Bait. — 'The bait generally used is coconut kernel cut into small
pieces; small fish and the flesh of hermit crabs add to the supply
in some islands. Another important bait is the flying-fish
and when the men go to the fishing banks, the first few minutes
are spent in catching these for bait purposes. But when they
are not available, the Poe-min (wooden "false fish ") is used with
great success as a substitute. The making of the wooden patterns
and the practice of this method of fishing, are pleasures much
appreciated both by the fishermen and visitors. A general des-
cription of these poe-mins is given at page 114 of the Madras
Fisheries Bulletin No. 4, as also photographs showing its actual
operation. There are as many patterns of these poemins in every
island as there are separate families of fishermen, and they say
they are able to claim ownership to missing ones according to
the small differences introduced in the ornamentation of these
wooden dummies.

Fish curing. — As stated already no special method of treatment
to preserve them for any lengthy period is usually followed, except
that of " mas " prepared on all islands; in Minikoi, both the fish
treated and the nature of the product are different and form more or
less a separate commercial brand. Generally fish are eaten fresh,
but whenever catches more than daily requirements are brought in,
if they are small ones they are given two or three scorings on the
sides and hung up in the sun to dry. With big fish su:h as
Ayakura (Seer, Cybium), olaimin {Hisiiophorus), kudiraimin and
big Lethrinus and Serranus, — they prepare " mas " by the following

NO. 2 (1922) LACCADIVE FISHERIES 65

process. After removing the head and guts they are cut into
pieces of 1% to 3 inches square, washed in freshwater, boiled
for about 5 to 10 minutes in a mixture of half fresh and half sea
water, drained and taken to the smoking pits. These are more or
less small square excavations in the ground, generally opposite to
their living houses, 2 to 3 feet long, 1% to 2 feet wide and a
foot to a foot and a half in depth, and covered by a sort of trellis
work of coconut leaf midribs. On this trellis the boiled pieces of
flesh are arranged ; a slow smoking fire is lighted beneath in the
pit and kept going for two to three hours till the flesh turns red (or
black in certain islands). Then they are dried in the sun for 3 to
4 days until quite hard. This product is said to keep good for
six months and even one year, of course with an occasional drying
in the sun. At present the product is cured for home consumption
only.

Bonito or Mas-min.—lt was at Agatti that I saw a shoal of these
fish and when I told the Inspecting officer (Mr. Ellis) of this fact
he asked me to inquire into the present condition, difficulties and
possibilities of introducing the well-known " mas " fishery of
Minikoi Island into the other islands also. It was suggested that
the difficulty at present expressed by the islanders in not launch-
ing forth into this special fishery, is partly due to paucity of
" mas " fish, partly to ignorance of the methods of capturing
them. Fishermen generally say that "mas" fish is available in
their seas also. But there are a few who doubt its existence in
such numbers as to create a profitable industry, and hence a
disinclination to go out prospecting for shoals of these fishes.
Granting that the fish are available, and the men take the trouble
and incur expenses to undergo a training in the methods followed
in Minikoi, there may probably be a bait difficulty. From the
description given in Mr. Ellis' report the keeping of the " live fish ':
bait is an all-important condition for the success of the fishery.
The fishermen of the other islands doubt the availability in their
lagoons of small fish required for bait in sufficiently large numbers.
Lastly, the men doubt whether the Minikoi fishermen can be
induced and hired to teach the other islanders the method of
capturing, and, even then, whether they will disclose the secrets of
their methods. As an instance, the men point out the failure of the
efforts of a former Amin of Androth who, a few years ago, built, at a
cost of Rs. 500 to Rs. 1,000, a boat of the pattern of Minikoi but did

66 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

not succeed in doing anything practical. The general opinion,
however, of the island people is that the fish are available in good
numbers, and that it is only their ignorance of the methods of
capturing (curing is not considered difficult) which stands in the
way of the industry being taken up by them.

In order to know whether any Minikoi men will be willing to
teach the fishermen of the other islands "mas" fishing and
curing, I made inquiries of the boatman who took us back to the
steamer from Minikoi, by name Muhammad Ismail. He appears
to have travelled in South India and has a smattering of Tamil
He says he possesses a knowledge not only of bonito capturing
and curing as followed in Minikoi, but also a fair knowledge of the
Laccadive sea in general. In his opinion this particular fish is
available everywhere as also the bait required, and that the pro-
cesses can be easily taught to the other islanders. He is willing to
undertake the special work. He expects the period of training
required will take not less than six months, but with regard to the
remuneration expected by him, he is not specific. If the adminis-
trative authorities open the question, it seems to me, there is every
likelihood of this man (or any other) taking up the work.

General fishery prospects and conclusions. — From my observation,
study and inquiry into the methods of fishing and curing adopted
by the islanders, and also taking into consideration the knowledge
and experience of the department in deep-sea fishing methods
(which is practically the case with the fishing from these islands,
for we get into great depths a few yards off the reef), I am of
opinion that we cannot render any advice, other than theoretical,
in the matter of improving catches and curing. It seems to me
that if we can try to create a market for their cured fish, for which
again experiments should be made for the supply and distribution
of duty-free salt through the present Government agency, the
fishing and curing will improve of themselves. It is the want of
a suitable market which causes the fishermen to restrict their
attempts to catch more fish. As described elsewhere only lining
and spearing are adopted generally, and the long drag net from
the shore is only a subsidiary method practised during low tides.
The cast net is used only as an occasional method to obtain a supply
for their daily curry. The big fishes caught by lining and har-
pooning are now consumed, more or less fresh, and the creation of
a market for salted fish, and salt supply, free or at concession rates,

No. 2(1922) LACCADIVE FISHERIES 67

ought to give an impetus to better curing and storing of these big
fishes. The fishermen are experts in handling lines, harpoons, nets
and other fishing tackle, and will easily adapt themselves to new
methods if only shown their efficacy. The flying-fish is found in
all seasons and the fishermen will perhaps take trouble to catch
more of this fish if a market is assured for the cured product. In my
opinion, if a market can be created for their salted and other cured
fish, an impetus will naturally follow for catching more fish and
that again will tend to improve their boats and nets.

As a preliminary to, and simultaneously with, the measures
suggested above, the Fisheries Department might purchase one or
two small boats (costing between Rs. 30 and Rs. 100) in use in the
islands and instal in them low-powered motois to test the suitability
of power-driven boats for the island waters. At present it appears
to me that fishermen labour at a disadvantage in having to row, at
times for a long distance, to and from the fishing banks, and thus
find themselves very tired for actual fishing work. The boats are
easily and cheaply constructed (good, small, serviceable ones are
offered even for Rs. 30), and with power added the industry is
likely to take a new turn.

Ambergris. — This is one of the valuable marine products of the
islands. It is in high demand by the native physicians of the
mainland for use in general medicine, and also as a preventive of
child bearing when taken by females. The selling price varies
from Rs. 5 to Rs. 50 per tola (rupee) weight according to the quality.
At least three qualities are recognized by the people and the trade,
e.g., Ponnamber, Puvamber and Mlnamber, meaning "gold,"
" flower," and " fish," and having yellow, light green, and black
appearance, respectively. In spite of the rumours that good
quantities are available, I was not able to ascertain the where-
abouts of a stock in any of the islands, but at Kadamat I got a
sample of Mlnamber. It is black in colour and a dirty smelling
product. The other two kinds did not come to my notice. Their
origin is stated as follows: — During the cold and wet months
a kind of tallow-like mass is found floating in the sea and also
washed ashore. Some have picked it up of the size of an orange
and a stray find of a very big mass, some 20 years ago, is also
rumoured. It is supposed by the islanders to be an exudation or
excreta of some " sea elephant " ; and as other sea animals, such
as fish and crabs, know it by smell, they are said to eat away a

68 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

good quantity (?). When picked up it is wet and gives out a very
rank odour. The islanders wrap it in cloth and in course of time
it dries and the product is very carefully preserved.

Pearls. —As described above, the people of these islands are not
acquainted with the pearl oyster. They think any round form of
white or coloured hard substance picked from any bivalve shell may
be called a " pearl " (muthu)- An inferior kind of pearl is obtained
from a species of Modiola which was shown to me at Agatti,
enormous beds of which exist at Androth. A fisherman at Kiltan
told me that some three years ago a pearl (Kalmuthu) from
Tridacna (the giant clam, Malayalam Valiyakakka) was obtained
there ; Pinna also may occasionally contribute a few. I have not
seen specimens of any of these. The real 'pearl oyster is available,
but none of the people know it as such, and until we discover the
locality of beds of mature ones during a more thorough scientific
examination of the islands than the present one, we will have to be
satisfied with the statement that pearl oysters are present in all the
islands.

In this connexion the suggestion that Trochus and Turbo,
found in big sizes in some of these islands suitable for pearl-button
making, might be available in such quantity as to be commercially
valuable was inquired into in greater detail. Without further
knowledge gained by an exhaustive investigation to find out their
abundance, we cannot come to any satisfactory conclusion on this
question.

Edible molluscs. — Inquiries in all the islands showed that the
poorer people eat molluscan flesh either baked in the fire or made
into curries with suitable spices, etc. In almost all the islands
plenty of Mesodesma shells are found near inhabited houses and
the people say they eat this at times. The big Paikalam {Ptero.
cera Iambi's and P. chiragra), with various big Conus, and Trochus
and Turbo, contribute as food in times of distress and want. The
boys and girls at Chetlat during our visit were seen sitting round a
fire busy munching the baked flesh of P. chiragra, which is found
in good numbers around this island. In almost all the islands I
saw plenty of empty Strombus shells, but I am not able to discover
for what purpose these have been collected. The people say
that they possess very little flesh and are not eaten.

Turtles and turtle and fish oils. — It is a well-known fact chat
turtles are available in large numbers in almost all the islands and

No. 2 (1922) LACCADIVE FISHERIES 69

the suggestion was made by Mr. Hornell in 1908 as to the opening
of a fresh turtle trade, in his report in Bulletin No. 4. Till that is
accomplished, it is for consideration whether the large quantities
of crude oil now prepared from the fat and liver of turtles, sharks
and rays, may not be used for some industrial purposes. No doubt
the quality now prepared and in use is not to be recommended as
it is very bad smelling and dirty looking in appearance. But if a
satisfactory price is offered for a better quality we may be able to
encourage the extraction of the oils and thus stimulate production
on improved lines. At present the use to which the islanders put
these, is to smear over their big Kundara boats and also over some
of the smaller sized ones, as a preventive against desiccation and
also against worm attacks. I brought with me a small quantity of
these oils as samples, and this has been sent to an analyst that we
may obtain information as to their probable industrial value and
uses.

Report No. 3 of 1922.

THE GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN

BY

R. H. WHITEHOUSE, M.Sc, I.E.S.,
Late Marine Biologist, Madras Fisheries Department.

INTRODUCTION.

When I assumed duties as Marine Biologist in the Fisheries
Department of the Madras Government in September 1919, one of
the subjects under investigation by one of the sub-assistants was
the determination of the various species of mullets which are found
in Tuticorin waters, and in particular, in the Silavatturai Lagoon at
Tuticorin. This young sub-assistant had found, what others had
previously discovered, that the mullets form a group whose species
it is most difficult to determine.

Beyond supervising the work of the sub-assistant mentioned,
and giving what hints I could in the time I could devote to the
matter, I myself did nothing with the mullets until the sub-assistant
left the service of the department on 2lst June 1920.

After that date, I took up the matter alone, and spent some time
in getting acquainted with these fishes in a general way. This
preliminary survey being accomplished, I drew up tabulated sheets
with a view to entering- up the details of the characters of the
different forms.

The work of counting scales and determining proportions in
many scores of specimens proved extremely trying, particularly
with those species which so closely resemble one another. Revision
after revision often seemed to result only in greater confusion,
until finally, one by one, the species became separable.

The primary idea was to establish for each species such con-
stants as would make it possible for officers of the Fisheries
Department to determine at sight the various species. To some
extent this has been possible, though in one or two cases, I fear
I have not been wholly successful, and a close examination is still
necessary.

72 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

The work was carried on vigorously until the Government of
Madras decided, in May 1921, not to maintain a Marine Biologist ;
hence a sudden rounding off in the work was necessary, and a
series of further confirmatory examinations of the material, and
comparisons with mullets from elsewhere was made impossible.
The present paper is therefore scarcely as complete as I could have
wished, but my endeavour has been to describe the various species
in such a way that any one who desires to know them may, at a
glance, assign a specimen to its place ; this in particular for Fish-
eries officers. In addition, points have been given which involve
more than a mere cursory examination on the beach, and it is hoped
that these will be found useful for zoologists interested in these
fishes.

I desire here to mention that I have received much courteous
help from Dr. B. L. Chaudhuri of the Zoological Survey of India, who
has kindly given his opinion on several occasions ; a debt of
gratitude I also owe 10 the sub-assistants lately working in my
office at Tuticorin, in particular to Mr. Jayaram Nayudu who has
given much care to the selection of fishes from catches, and sup-
plied points concerning the methods of fishing which may have
escaped me.

SILAVATTURAI LAGOON.

The Silavatturai Lagoon is a sheet of shallow water, only in a
few places more than four feet deep at low tide; it is roughly
rectangular, about 1,750 yards long and 600 yards broad, extending
in a northerly direction, with two openings to the sea facing south-
east. The floor of the lagoon is for the greater part of soft dark
mud ; there is little vegetation found, and that in one part only.

All fishing in the lagoon is under the control of Government,
and apart from the fishing conducted by men employed by the
Fisheries Department, outsiders are allowed to fish under certain
conditions. Mullets are the commonest of the more valuable fish
found there, and during the month of October large numbers of
mullets, a little over one centimetre long, are to be found at the
water's edge, and in the small channels leading from the main
sheet of water.

For some time (September T919 to March 1920) the lagoon was
closed at the entrance, and a controlling sluice built, with the inten-
tion of converting the lagoon into a fish farm; but the experiment
was abandoned owing to extensive damage caused by an excep-

No. 3 (1922) Grey mullets of tuticorin 73

tional storm, and the lagoon has reverted to its original nature.
During the period of closure, the water reached a high degree of
salinity, and though many fishes perished, the mullets survived
the trying conditions and were apparently not affected; their
adaptability in this respect is astonishing.

METHODS OF FISHING.

Fishermen come to the lagoon at certain times with the definite
expectation of obtaining mullets as the principal constituent of
their catch. The most auspicious conditions to the fishermen are
high tide periods and a strong westerly wind ; good hauls are
expected particularly in June and July.

When the tide has receded to its full extent, a gill net called the
" kalamkatti valai " is buried in a shallow trench excavated in the
sand or mud near the water's edge. The incoming tide passes over
the buried net and brings its quota of fishes ; then at the turn of
the tide, the net is raised above the water and staked in this posi-
tion. A screen is thus erected to prevent the escape of the fish with
the receding tide, and when the water is well down, the fishes are
taken in baskets. The area so enclosed corresponds to the high
and low water marks, and may be about 30 yards broad, depending,
naturally, upon the slope of the shore.

Mullets are captured in the lagoon along with larger fishes, such
as Lates calcifera, by means of a drag net, but the kalamkatti valai
is unquestionably the mullet net. This net is used also on sand-
banks which are only exposed at low tides, and in this case, the
net, or series of nets united, is arranged in a wide circle.

Mullets are sportive fishes and can jump to considerable heights
above the water ; the antics and vocal demonstrations of the fisher-
men, designed to prevent the escape of fishes over the net, are, to
say the least, amusing.

Fishing generally occurs twice a month, during the periods of
highest tides, and then three or four catches are made on alternate
days in each period. In a good catch, the quantity of mullets
obtained may exceed 100 lb., the sale of which may be expected
to realize Rs. 15, provided the fishes are of fair size ; small-sized
fishes in the same quantity would scarcely realize-Rs. 6. Intending
purchasers attend the fishery and bid for the catch, which is imme-
diately removed for sale, since mullets begin to putrefv^^af^^J^
hours in the warm climate. /\ rtoTi; \/

LIBRARY^

74 Madras fisheries bulletin vol. xv,

LITERATURE.

The literature on mullets is comparatively scanty, and not a little
confusing; I have not been able to consult the papers of earlier
writers such as Cuvier and Forskal, nor all those of later contri-
butors. Day's classic work on the fishes of India and Giinther's
" Catalogue " have been the principal works consulted.

It is evident from the literature that workers have found the
group difficult, and their descriptions include many contradictions
and much overlapping in the ranges of variations. Thus one
frequently has specimens which answer almost equally to the
descriptions of two different species.

The value of systematic literature is much reduced by the fail-
ure of authors to describe the same features in each of the species
described; any comparison therefore becomes impossible; Day's
descriptions are notably weak in this respect, important characters
frequently being omitted from them.

SPECIES AND NOMENCLATURE.

Day (3) enumerates no less than 27 species of mullets to be found
in Indian waters, freshwater and marine, all under the genus Mugil.
I am able to distinguish but eight species in Tuticorin waters.

After many repeated close examinations of a large number of
specimens, I have found it impossible to recognize Mugil cunnesius
(Cuv. & Val.) though Dr. Chaudhuri identifies this species from
specimens sent to him from Tuticorin. Some species have close
resemblances ; for example M. planiceps (Cuv. & Val.) and M.jerdoni
(Day) are easily confused, not only from their general appearance,
but also by resemblances in detail.

Jordan and Seale (5) regard Mugil (Liza) troschelii (Bleeker) and
Mugil (Liza) borueensis (Bleeker) as synonymous species with a pre-
ference for the former name ; but one of the commonest mullets of
Tutitcorin corresponds more closely with the descriptions of
M. tros 7/c///than of M. borneensis, hence this fish has been described
as Liza troschelii.

Now Jordan and Swain (6) have proposed that the members of
the genus Mugil should be distributed between two sub-genera,
according to the presence or absence of adipose eyelids; Mugil is,
reserved for those with these eyelids, and Liza includes those in
which they are absent. The distinction is quite a sharp one, and

No. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 75

only rarely need one be in doubt as to whether a specimen may
safely be regarded as possessing adipose eyelids. This division
into sub-genera has been adopted here, and for the eight species
described, four belong to Mugil and four to Liza.

The species recognized from Tuticorin waters are: —

(1) Mugil cep/ialottis Cuv. & Val. (Mugil oeur Forsk.).

(2) Mugil planiceps Cuv. & Val.

(3) Mugil jcrdoni Day.

(4) Mugil kelaartii Giinther.

(5) Liza troschelii (Bleeker).

(6) Liza amarula (Cuv. & Val.).

(7) Liza caeruleo-maculata (Lacepede).

(8) Liza waigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard).

THE CRITERIA.

MEASUREMENTS.

I. Length of body- The practice generally adopted in the past
for measuring the length of the body of fishes has been to include
the caudal fin in the measurement ; but it has recently been pointed
out that since the caudal fin is only comparable to other median
fins, it should not be included, any more than a dorsal or anal fin is
included in the measurement of the depth of the body. While
recognizing the force of this argument and sympathizing with it,
I have, nevertheless, included the caudal fin in the measurement of
the total length, and therefore in the proportions, given here. And
for the following reasons : there is absolutely no difficulty in deter-
mining the length when an overall measurement is taken ; it is
arbitrary and quite definite, allowing of no individual opinions as
to limits. If, however, the caudal fin be omitted, there at once arises
the necessity of deciding the exact line passing vertically through
the base of the fin ; different workers may fix different points,
particularly when, as in the case of mullets, there is no sharp finish
to the base of the caudal fin.

A practical point is also involved: when large numbers of
fishes are to be measured, the time taken becomes an important
factor, and the figure can be much more readily determined when
an overall measurement is taken ; much hesitation results from
attempting to measure to the base of the caudal, for to be exact, the
fish must be removed slightly from the measuring scale, and a line
continued through the base of the fin to the scale.

76 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

Inclusion of the caudal fin also has the advantage of bring-
ing the resulting proportions in line with those of earlier writers,
and a proportion based on the newer method makes comparison
practically impossible. I believe we can afford to waive a nice
morphological point in favour of practicability, so long as the end
in view does not suffer.

2. Length of head.— The length of the head has been measured
by placing the snout of the fish in contact with a vertical surface,
and, by means of dividers, measuring the distance from the vertical
to the posterior edge of the operculum.

3- Snout. — Similarly for the snout, the measurement has been
taken from the vertical mentioned to the front edge of the orbit by
means of dividers.

4. The eye. — In general, the diameter of the eye is easily measured
with dividers ; but where thick, and, after immersion in spirit,
rather opaque, lids are present, there arises some difficulty. In
some cases, I have found it necessary even to remove the eyelid
before taking the measurement.

5. Interorbital space. — The distance between the dorsal edges of
both orbits has been measured directly by dividers.

6. Mandibular angle. --Angles varying from 105 to Il8 degrees
were cut from cardboard in order to measure the angle between the
rami of the lower jaw. An angle from HO to 112 degrees, being
the commonest met with, was regarded as " normal " ; if below
this figure, the angle is described as " acute," clearly using this term
not in the strict mathematical sense, but only in comparison with
the normal. Similarly, when the angle exceeded 1 12 degrees, it is
spoken of as " obtuse." I fully appreciate the possible objections
to this misuse of terms, but hope to justify it on practical grounds;
this angle, in all the mullets I have examined, was, strictly speaking,
obtuse, hence the difficulty in conveying the degree of obtuseness
without circumlocution ; figures are of little use unless a measuring
gauge is employed. It may be noted that those which I have called
acute do, in general appearance, appear in comparison with the
normal to be practically a right angle ; measurement proved them
to be greater, but I am inclined to think that those which Giinther
described as a right angle were probably actually greater.

7. Height of body. — The greatest height, or depth, of the body was
measured directly by means of dividers ; it should be remembered
that varying degrees of fiaccidity or distention of the body does
affect this proportion.

No. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 77

8. Height of fins. — The correct measuring of the height of fins
is often difficult in preserved specimens, since the fin becomes quite
rigid and may even break in an attempt to stretch it to its naturally
extended position ; it is frequently impossible to extend the fin fully.
I have therefore decided not to include relative heights of fins in
these descriptions.

THE NUMBER OF FIN RAYS.

1. The caudal Jin. — Much difficulty is experienced in the attempt
to count all the fin rays in the caudal fin, owing to the fact
that the very small rays at the edge of the fin are often indistin-
guishable, and only dissection could determine their exact number.
I have never been able to make the numbers recorded by Day tally
with specimens I have examined. In all counts therefore I decided
to include only those rays which extend to the posterior extremity
of the fin ; this was the method adopted by Bleeker. 1 have found
that in all the mullets examined 14 such rays were present.

2. The pectoral fin. — In counting the rays of the pectoral fin, the
use of a lens is essential ; for large specimens a watchmaker's
eyeglass, and for small specimens a powerful hand lens, was used.
It must be remembered that there is always, in the mullets, a fin ray
very closely applied to the uppermost long ray ; this last closely
applied ray is usually quite small, and, though often easily dis-
tinguishable, is liable to be overlooked.

Now, I have found that the number of rays in the pectoral
fin of the same species is liable to variation, and a difference of
as much as two has been observed ; in fact, on occasions, a differ-
ence of one has been noted between the two pectorals of the same
specimen. This fact was very disturbing for a long time, since I
had regarded the number of pectoral fin rays as a factor only rarely
liable to variation. Particular care has throughout been given to the
counting of these fin rays, and in the end I was obliged to regard
their number as of no rigid importance for mullets.

SCALATION.

I. The lateral line series. — The counting of the lateral line
series (which in the mullets, means any longitudinal series round
the mid-lateral area) is fairly straightforward ; the principal
difficulty is encountered at the base of the caudal fin, where the

78 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

small scales covering the base — not reckoned in the lateral line
count — are not always sharply defined from the scales of the trunk.
The count ends with the last scale having a sensory canal. The
first scale counted is that immediately above the base of the pec-
toral fin, and behind the operculum. Care must be taken to account
for those scales which have been lost, and if these are many, one
must rely on the scale pockets, which are often not easy to deal
with. The number in the lateral line series of all specimens in the
same species is not quite constant; but within a certain range (at
most 3 or 4) there is constancy.

2. The lateral transverse series.— Speaking generally, for purposes
of counting the number of rows of scales in the lateral transverse
series, the mid-ventral and mid-dorsal line is omitted; thus only
truly lateral scale series are taken into account.

Between the two dorsal fins, however, we frequently find no
mid-dorsal scales present ; not a single scale is median for this
length, the median series being represented by two short lateral
series, which do not generally extend beyond the limits of the fins.
Since their limits are so restricted, these short series have not been
included in the count of the lateral transverse series.

The mid-dorsal series between the two dorsal fins may,
however, be represented by any number up to six scales — which
figure practically represents a complete series between the fins in
question ; one, two, three, etc., only may be present, before the series
divides into two lateral ones. The number of scales present in this
mid-dorsal line does not appear to be distinctive of species, but
rather to be an individual variation.

Occasionally, the two intercalated lateral series mentioned
do extend a little beyond the origin of the second dorsal fin, even
to its posterior limit ; and anteriorly, they may include the
elongated scales found at the base of the first dorsal fin. But this
series seldom proceeds further forward than the first dorsal fin.

Mid-ventrally, too, it is not always a simple matter to decide
which line of scales can be regarded as mid-ventral ; short inter-
calated series are sometimes present, and sometimes a lateral series
"gives out " before the vent is reached. But here also, complete
series only have been taken into account.

The number of rows in the lateral transverse series very
frequently differs on the two sides of the same specimen ; but

No. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 79

the difference is never greater than one. The count is taken from
between the two dorsal fins on the dorsal side to between the
pelvic fins and the anus on the ventral side.

3. Frontal scales. — Descriptions frequently include the number
of scales present between the first dorsal fin and the end of the snout,
but I have found that in the vast majority of mullets an accurate
count of these scales was impossible, owing to their irregular dis-
posal and, still more, to the damage, nearly always found, to the
scales on the top of the head. I have therefore been obliged to
ignore this character in these descriptions.

4. Elongated scales. — In all the specimens of mullets which I have
examined, I have found an elongated scale at the base of the first
dorsal fin and the pelvic fins ; usually, the scale is distinctly elong-
ated, but sometimes somewhat reduced. Some specimens have two
elongated scales at the base of the dorsal fin on each side, and these
two overlap ; they are sometimes the beginning of the additional
short longitudinal series between the first and second dorsal fins.

An elongated scale is also found in certain species in the axil of
the pectoral fin ; the raising of this fin reveals this scale, which is
usually pointed. In other species, there is no trace of a scale which
can be designated axillary ; however, a short, blunt, soft, scale may
be present in this position, but such a scale has not been regarded
as an axillary scale in these descriptions, the name being reserved
for the elongated form. Where it is absent, it is quite possible that
the elongate axillary scale may have become detached ; I have
found it quite loose and easily detachable, and in some cases it has
been present on one side, but not on the other; hence, in speci-
mens which tally completely with the type except for the posses-
sion of the elongated axillary scale, it is well to consider the
possibility of its having become detached.

THE POSITION OF FINS.
I. The dorsal fins. — One of the most reliable points for identifi-
cation purposes is the position of the dorsal fins in relation to the
scales of the lateral line ; a fair decree of constancy in this charac-
ter is maintained for each species, particularly in the case of the
first dorsal fin ; in fact, a recorded variation of more than one is
usually attributable to an error due to difficulty in counting. With
the second dorsal fin, a variation of two may be met with ; for
example, if for a particular species, the first dorsal normally begins
above the Ilth scale of the lateral line, specimens may be
2

80 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

found in which it originates above the 10th, but if the 21st scale
is normal for the origin of the second dorsal fin, cases will be found
where a count will show the origin to be above, say, the 23rd.

By dropping a vertical line from the origin of the second dor-
al fin across the tail to the base of the anal fin, the "advance" of
the anal before the second dorsal is determined ; the origin of
both may be in the same vertical line — in other words opposite one
another ; or the anal may have a fraction of the length of its base
in advance of the dorsal. This is a reliable character, and one in
which little variation occurs.

2. Proportions. — For a group like the mullets, where the several
species so closely resemble each other, the value of proportions is
of secondary importance. The range of variations causes much
overlapping in the proportions of the various species and several
species have almost identical proportions. Young specimens fre-
quently show different proportions from those of the adults ; they
also require the most exact measuring, since, in small measurements*
such as the length of the snout, or the diameter of the eye, the small-
est error makes a considerable difference in the resulting propor-
tions. For mullets, therefore, I can only recommend the use of some
proportions as corroborative evidence ; it is impossible to con-
sider them as of primary importance.

3. Colour. — Bluish grey above and silvery below very well de-
scribes the general colour for all the grey mullets ; the differences in
colour are, in the main, differences in detail only. The presence of a
dark spot at the base of the pectoral fin is a most useful character;
dark tips to the median fins must be distinguished from a mere
darker edge to these fins, or the character is liable to become uni-
versal for mullets ; dark lines along the rows of scales in the upper
half of the body is often a useful character. However, striking
differences in colouration are not found among the mullets.

DESCRIPTIONS OF THE SPECIES.

MUGIL CEPHALOTUS Cuv. & Vol.
M. (vnr Forsk. and Day.
D. 4 I 1/8. A. 3/8. L. 1. 40-43. L. tr. 14.
This mullet, which attains considerable size, commonly 18
inches, is a common species in Tuticorin; it can be readily identi-
fied by the following features: —

NO. 3 (I922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 8l

(1) The broad and flattened upper surface of the head ;

(2) the broad and very thick adipose eyelids, which extend
some distance across the pupil of the eye;

(3) the dark blue band across the base of the pectoral fin ; and

(4) the peculiar shape of the lower jaw, the mandibles bending
towards the middle, at the angle of the mouth.

The detailed characters are enumerated below: —

Adipose lids. — Present ; very thick and broad, extending to, or
even beyond, the edges of the pupil.

Interorbital space. — Broad and flat ; twice the diameter of the
eye across. Both Giinther and Day describe the width of this area
as more than twice the diameter of the eye.

Uncovered chin space. — Wide, and often constricted about its
middle.

Mandibular angle. — The angle between the rami of the lower
jaw is comparatively acute, approaching a right angle, and at the
angle of the mouth the mandibles turn inwards towards the middle
line.

Preorbital bone. — Scaled and serrated on the posterior and
ventral edges ; it is scarcely at all bent, and is not prominent.

Maxilla. — The end of the maxilla is entirely hidden.

Pectoral fin : Rays. — The number of fin rays usually present
in the pectoral fin is 17, but one specimen examined gave l6only,
while another possessed 18 rays. These latter are exceptional.
Day's formula gives 1 5 rays only, but I have never found less than
16.

Extent. — The fin reaches to the 10th to I2th scale
of the lateral line, that is, a little short of the origin of the first
dorsal fin. This agrees with Day's description, but Giinther places
the extremity of the fin at the 8th scale.

Axillary scale. — An elongated axillary scale is
always present in the axil of the pectoral fin.

Lateral line series. — 42 scales are typically present in this
series, but 40, 41 and 43 have been counted in several specimens.
Day gives 42 to 44, but Giinther only 38 to 40.

Lateral transverse series. — 14 complete rows of scales are pre-
sent on each side of the body ; this excludes a short series which
extends only between the two dorsal fins, where no median series is
found. In one case, there were 14 on the right side and 15 on the
left.

82 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

Origin oj the dorsal fins. — The first dorsal fin very consistently
originates above 13th scale of the lateral line, only one exception
was found in which there was a variation, and here the fin origi-
nated above the 14th scale. The origin of the second dorsal fin
is variable, viz., from the 25th to the 27th scale.

In this particular, I find the Tuticorin specimens in close agree-
ment with Day's description, but Giinther's figures are distinctly
short, being 10 — II and 22—23 for the origins of the two fins
respectively.

Position of the anal fin. — The anal fin is only very slightly in
advance of the second dorsal.

Proportions. — The total length of the body is 4^- to 5 times
'"he length of the head.

The length of the head is 4% to 5 times the diameter of the
eye.

The snout is a little shorter than the diameter of the eye.
The height of the body is somewhat less than the length of
the head.

The least depth of the tail is less than % the length of the
head, and about % the length of the postorbital part of the head.

The length of the pectoral fin is a little short of the length of
the head, not including the snout.

The first spine of the first dorsal fin is about % the length of
the head, or a little short of the length of the postorbital part of the
head.

The third anal spine is less than Ys the length of the head.
Colour. — There are no striking peculiarities in colour beyond
the very prominent dark blue splash across the base of the
pectoral fin.

MUGIL PLANICEPS Chv. & Val. and Giinther.

M. dussumieri, Day.
D. 4 J 1/8, A. 3/9. L. 1. 31. L. tr. IO-II.
This species must be jegarded as one of the commonest of the
mullets in Tuticorin, and one of importance as a food fish, since it
is commonly 16 cm. to 20 cm. in length. The features which
characterize this species as compared with others in Tuticorin
waters are few; indeed it would perhaps be safer to say that it
is the absence of very definite general characters which makes the
species readily distinguishable. There is very little by which to
distinguish M. planiceps from M. jerdbni \ in fact from superficial

No. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 83

characters, there would seem little justification for regarding them
as distinct species; the form of the head, and the proportion of the
eye to the head are the only features by which the two seriously
differ. For this species, as a laboratory instruction, I have been in
the habit of giving "flat head, and no special peculiarities" as
features for its identification. Details are given below ■-

Adipose lids. — Present; anterior one narrow, posterior broader;
the latter occasionally even reaching to the pupil.

Interorbital space— Flattened ; l£4 to 2 times the diameter of"
the eye across.

Uncovered chin space. — Moderately wide ; constricted about its
middle ; the anterior part rounded.

Mandibular angle. — The angle between the mandibular rami is
"normal," that is, HO to 112 degrees.

Preorbital bone. — Scaled; it is strongly bent and serrated
posteriorly and ventrally.

Maxilla. — The end of the maxilla is distinctly visible.

Pectoral fin: Rays. — The normal number of fin rays in the
pectoral fin is 16 ; one specimen examined showed 17 rays.

Extent. — The fin reaches as far as the 8th scale
of the lateral line ; in one specimen, it reached to the 9th, while in
one other it only extended to the 7th. Giinther gives the extent as
the 8th scale, and Day as the 7th.

Axillary scale. — No elongated scale is present in
the axil of fin, but sometimes a short stumpy scale is found.

Lateral line series.— Most commonly 31 scales are found in
the lateral line, but 30 and 34 are the extremes met with in speci-
mens examined. Day credits this species with 29 — 31 scales and
Giinther with 33 — 35.

Lateral transverse series. — 10 or II rows of scales may be
present on either side of the body; some specimens have II, others
10, on each side, while others again shew 10 on one side and II on
the other. The differences observed seem to depend on the rela-
tive prominence of an additional series, which is nearly always
met with near the mid-ventral line; this series may be so short as
to be inadmissible as a series, or it may rank as a complete one,
adding to the side on which it occurs. Both Giinther and Day
give II rows for this species.

Origin of the dorsal fins.— The I Oth and 21 st scales of the
lateral line may be regarded as those corresponding to the origin

84 Madras fisheries bulletin vol. xv,

of first and second dorsal fins respectively. My records give
two exceptions only, viz., the 9th and 20th in one case, and the
Ilth and 22nd in the other; but it will be seen that here, too, the
same relative position is maintained. One less or one more may,
however, frequently result from error, or difficulty, in counting ;
this possibility is all the more probable since, in the two cases
mentioned, the reach of the pectoral fin was also respectively one
less and one more, viz., 7th and 8th scale. Giinther places the
origins at the 10th to Ilth and 22nd to 23rd scales, while Day
places them at the 9th and 20th.

Position of the anal fin. — The anal fin is advanced by about
% of the length of its base before the origin of the second dorsal.

Proportions. — The total length of the body is 5 to 5% times the
length of the head.

The length of the head is 3% to 4% times the diameter of
the eye, but in most cases 4 times exactly. In this respect the eye
is distinctly smaller proportionately than in M.jerdoni.

The length of the snout is about Y\ of the diameter of the eye.

The length of the head and caudal fin, and the height of the
body are about equal.

The least depth of the tail is equal to the length of the post-
orbital part of the head, or more than half the total length of the
head.

The length of the pectoral fin is equal to that of the head, not
including the snout.

The first spine of the first dorsal fin is about % the length of
the head.

The length of the third anal spine is a little more than }/$ of the
length of the head.

Colour. — This fish presents no striking colour characters, but
the edge of the second dorsal and the extremity of the caudal are
often dark; faint lines are frequently present along the rows of
scales in the upper half of the body.

The first dorsal fin is stout, and the first spine is stronger than
the rest. The second dorsal, caudal and anal fins are heavily
scaled.

MUGIL JERDONI Day.

D. 4 I l/8. A. 3/8-9. L. 1. 30. L. tr. 10.
As already mentioned, this species is difficult to distinguish
from M. planiceps. with which it has much in common. The

NO. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 85

enumeration of the points of difference in the two species therefore
is advisable, before the fuller description is given.

(1) The interorbital space is slightly convex, whereas in M.
planiceps this area is distinctly flattened. The terms "slightly
convex " and "flattened " may not appear to be quite sufficiently
distinctive, and it must be admitted that,occasionally, the difference
may be a matter of opinion. At the same time, when the two species
are viewed together in profile, the difference is fairly obvious ; the
snout of M. jerdoni appears blunt, while that of M. planiceps looks
pointed and depressed.

(2) The mandibular angle is distinctly obtuse when compared
with that of M. planiceps, which latter has been described as

normal.

(3) The diameter of the eye, proportionately to the length of
the head, is greater than in M. planiceps.

(4) The number of scales in the lateral line are fewer in general
than in M. planiceps; they range from 29 to 31, most usually 30 ;
while in M. planiceps tney number from 31 to 34.

(5) The lateral transverse series never exceeds 10. M. planiceps
may have II.

(6) While in M. planiceps the pectoral fin has 16 rays, never
less, M. jerdoni has 15 equally frequently as 16.

While most of these points in themselves are not conclusive
characters, used in conjunction they are sufficient to distinguish the
two species in question.

The detailed description is as follows : —

Adipose lids. — Present ; the posterior one is broad, reaching the
pupil, while the anterior one is narrower.

Interorbital space.— Slightly convex. ll/2 to 1% times the
diameter of the eye across.

Uncovered chin space. — Of medium width, constricted in the
middle and rounded anteriorly.

Mandibular angle. — The rami of the lower jaw meet at a pro-
nounced obtuse angle ; measured in degrees the angle shews a range
of 115 to 118. In only one case could the angle be spoken of as
" normal," i.e., 112°.

Preorbital bone. — Scaled, serrated posteriorly and ventrally; its
strong bend approximates to a right angle.

Maxilla. — The end of the maxilla is distinctly visible.

86 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

Pectoral fin : Rays. — The number of fin rays is 15 or 16; either
number is equally common.

Extent. — The extremity of the pectoral fin reaches
to the 7th or 8th scale, rarely to the 9th, of the lateral line ; hence
it falls distinctly short of the origin of the first dorsal fin.

Axillary scale.- -No scale which can be called an
elongated axillary scale is present, but sometimes a very short
pointed scale is found in the axil of the fin.

Lateral line series. — The commonest number of scales in the
lateral line is 30 ; 29 or 31 may also be met with.

Lateral transverse series. — Every specimen but one that has
been examined shewed 10 rows of scales on each side of the body ,
the one exception gave 9 on the right side and 10 on the left. It
should be noted, however, that between the two dorsal fins is a
secondary series not included in the count, and there is no median
series in this position.

Origin of the dorsal fins. — Most commonly the first dorsal fin
originates above the 10th scale of the lateral line ; sometimes above
the 9th or 11th. The second dorsal starts above the 19th to the
21st scale, usually the 20th-

Position of the anal fin. — Half the base of the anal fin is in
advance of the second dorsal.

Proportions. — The length of the body- overall, is 4% to 57^-
times the length of the head.

The length of the head is a little more than 3 to 3% times
the diameter of the eye.

The snout measures % the diameter of the eye in length.

The height of the body is frequently greater than, and the
caudal fin equal to, the length of the head.

The least depth of the tail is equal to the length of the post-
orbital part of the head, or more than l/2 the total length of the
head.

The length of the pectoral fin is a little short of the length of
the head, not including the snout.

The length of the strong first spine of the first dorsal fin is
2/j, or more of the length of the head.

The third spine of the anal fin is 3/7 or % the length of the
head, or equal to the width of the interorbital space.

No. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 87

Colour. — The tips of the dorsal and caudal fins are dark ; the
iris is also dark in colour ; there is usually a dark spot above the
centre of the eye.

This species attains to a fair size ; specimens 17 cm. or 20 cm.
in length are commonly met with.

MUGIL KELAARTII Giinther.

D. 4 ! 1/8. A. 3/9- L- 1. 33-34- L. tr. n-12.

On the whole, the descriptions given by Day for M. cunnesius
and M. kelaartii are fairly similar ; Giinther's accounts for these two,
however, differ markedly. While the Tuticorin specimens agreed
almost equally with either M. cunnesius or M. kelaartii as described
by Day, they conform decidedly more to Giinther's M. kelaartii than
to his M.' cunnesius; further, Giinther records M. kelaartii as a
Ceylon form, and it is likely that it would also be found at
Tuticorin.

For rapid identification, the following characters will be found
sufficient : — •

(1) The upper surface of the head rather convex.

(2) The knob-like end of the maxilla is not visible at the
angle of the mouth, when the latter is closed.

(3) The pectoral fin reaches to, or slightly beyond, the origin
of the first dorsal fin.

(4) An elongated scale is present in the axil of the pectoral fin.

(5) Colour : a definite black spot at the upper base of the
pectoral fin, and the tips of both dorsals and the caudal black.

The detailed characters are as follow : —

Adipose lids. — 'Present ; large, but neither is "fleshy ", and as a
rule, neither quite reaches the pupil. Giinther remarks that they
are " very broad, covering the greater part of the iris, " but Day
states that both posterior and anterior eyelids are narrow — a
remarkable contradiction of the original description by Giinther.

Interorbital space. — Rather convex; i.y2 to 1% times the
diameter of the eye in width.

Uncovered chin space. — Usually narrow, constricted in the
middle and rounded anteriorly.

Mandibular angle. — The angle formed by the union of the two
rami of the lower jaw, measured in degrees is variable. Some speci-
mens shewed 105, others 112 degrees, but the commonest angle

3

88 MADRAS FISHERIES BLlLETlh VOL. XV,

was 1 10 to 112 degrees. Giinther describes this angle as being a
right one, but I have not met with any where the rami were so
closely approximated.

Preorbital bone. — Smooth and not scaled; serrated posteriorly,
and ventrally, and slightly bent.

Maxilla. — The end of the maxilla is usually completely hidden
though in some cases it is just visible. Giinther states that this
bone is entirely hidden, while Day describes it as having " the
extremity visible."

Pectoral fin : Rays. — 16 was the commonest number seen, but 15
rays were also quite common ; iy was reached in three cases, and
in one case 16 were present on one side, and 17 on the other. Day
gives 15 rays.

Extent. — The extremity of the fin reaches as far as,
or slightly beyond, the anterior border of the first dorsal fin ; i.e., as
far as the nth to 13th scale of the lateral line; most commonly
it is the nth and rarely the 13th. This agrees with Giinther's
remarks.

Axillary scale.- An elongated scale is present in
the axil of the fin ; it is always prominent.

Lateral line series. — The usual number of scales in the lateral
line is 33 ; 34, and occasionally even 35, were also met with.

Lateral transverse series. — There are II rows of scales on each
side ; but in two cases 12 were found on the right side and II on the
left; one specimen shewed 12 rows on each side. Giinther gives
12 as the number of rows, while Day records 10; Tuticorin speci-
mens therefore tend to agree more closely with Giinther's
description.

Origin of the dorsal fins. — Most commonly, the first dorsal fin
begins above the nth scale in the lateral line series, and the
second above the 2 1st. Sometimes, when examined with particular
accuracy, the first dorsal may be said to originate in the vertical
between the 10th and nth or between the II th and I2th scales.
The origin of the second dorsal may vary a little and lie above
the 2lst to the 23rd scale. Giinther's description gives the Ilth
and 22nd and Day's the 10th and 20th as the scales of origin of
the two dorsal fins.

Position of the anal fin. — One-third of the length of the base
of the anal fin is in advance of the origin of the second dorsal fin ;
in some cases, it may be very slightly more or less.

NO. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 89

Proportions.— The total length of the body is 5 to 5% times
the length of the head.

The head is usually 3V3 to 3H times the diameter of the eye
(3T2 and 376 were the extremes actually met with).

The length of the snout is about V\ of the diameter of the eye.
Giinther makes the length of the snout and the diameter of the
eye equal, while Day states it to be " nearly one diameter."

The least depth of the tail is equal to the postorbital part of
the head, and approximately half the length of the head, as stated
by Giinther.

The length of the pectoral fin is as long as, or very slightly
longer than, the length of the head ; but Giinther says it is " some-
what shorter than the head."

The height of the body is rather greater than the length of
the head, and approximately the same as the length of the caudal
fin.

The postorbital part of the head is % of the total length of
the head, or occasionally slightly greater than %.

The first spine of the first dorsal fin is a little longer than
the postorbital part of the head.

The length of the third anal spine is approximately 2/5 of the
length of the head.

Colour. — The distinctive colour features are a well-defined
black axillary spot at the base of the pectoral fin, and black tips to
the two dorsal and caudal fins. In spirit specimens, there is a fair
amount of reddish brown at the base of the anal, pelvic and
pectoral fins, as well as about the head.

The body is laterally compressed, and in preserved specimens,
the myotomes of the body are usually clearly visible. Fairly large
specimens caught at Tuticorin measure from 16 cm. to 20 cm. for
the total length.

Liza troschelli {Bleeker).

D. 4 I 1/8 A. 3/9. L. 1. 32-34. L. tr. IO-II.

The specimens described under this name possess much in
common with those described by previous writers as Mugil troschclii
and Mugil borneensis (Bleeker) ; presumably, Jordan and Seale (5)
had the same difficulty and regarded the two species as synony-
mous. Much of the difficulty arises from the absence of exactly

go MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

comparative descriptions, but the Tuticorin specimens perhaps
shew a closer agreement with the descriptions cf M. troschelii. At
the same time, they shew features similar to M. borneensis as well
as intermediate characters. M. troschelii is described by Giinther
as a Ceylon form, and it is therefore most likely that the species
in question is the same. I am inclined to think that Jordan and
Seale were quite justified in regarding these two species as synony-
mous.

Liza troschelii is very common at Tuticorin ; it bears a close
general resemblance to Mugil planiceps, but from which of course
it is distinguishable by the absence of adipose eyelids. For
immediate recognition, the remarks already made regarding
M. planiceps apply here also. There are no striking characters, no
marked colour characteristics ; the features are : —
(i) No adipose eyelids.

(2) Head flattened.

(3) No elongated axillary scale.

(4) The end of the maxilla is visible at the angle of the mouth.

(5) The pectoral fin does not reach to the origin of the first
dorsal fin.

(6) One-half of the base of the anal fin is before the origin of
the second dorsal fin.

The detailed characters are as follow : —

Adipose eyelids. — Absent.

Inter orbital space. — Flattened; its width is 1% to 1% times the
diameter of the eye.

Uncovered chin space. — Rather wide ; constricted in the middle.

Mandibular angle. — The rami of the lower jaw meet at an angle
of about 112 degrees, i.e., " normal. "

Preorbital bone. —Scaled, and serrated posteriorly and ventrally ;
bent at the angle of the mouth, but not strongly ; squarely truncated
posteriorly.

Maxilla. — The extremity of the maxilla is exposed at the angle
of the mouth.

Pectoral fin: Rays. — 16 rays are present as a rule, but 15 have
been noted.

Extent. — The fin reaches to the 8th scale of the
lateral line, well short of the origin of the first dorsal fin.

Axillary scale. — No elongated scale is found in the
axil of the fin, but sometimes a short blunt one is present.

No. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 91

Lateral line series. — The number of scales in the lateral line is

32 to 34-

Lateral transverse series. — 10 or II rows of scales are present
on the side of the body; there may be TO on one side and II
on the other of the same specimen.

Origin of the dorsal fins. — The first dorsal fin originates above
the 10th or nth scale of the lateral line, while the second dorsal
fin arises above the 21st to 23rd scale.

Position of the anal fin. — About half of the base of the anal fin
is in advance of the origin of the second dorsal fin.

Proportions. — The total length of the body is 4% to a fraction
over 5 times the length of the head.

The length of the head is 3% to 4 times the diameter of the eye.

The length of the snout is V\ to 4 5 of the diameter of the eye.

There is little difference between the lengths of the head and
the caudal fin and the height of the body, though the head measure-
ment is usually slightly the greater.

The least depth of the tail is a little less than V2 the length of
the head, and less than the length of the postorbital part of the head.

The length of the pectoral fin is a little less than the length of
the head, not including the snout.

The length of the first spine of the first dorsal fin is usually a
little greater than the length of the postorbital part of the head;
occasionally it is of the same length.

The third anal spine is less than Yj, the length of the head.
Colour. — No striking colour is to be noted ; in some specimens
the upper extremity of the second dorsal fin is dark.

This fish is fairly large and frequently exceeds 25 cm. in
length.

LIZA AMARULA (Cuv. & Vol. and Day).

D. 4 I 1/8. A. 3/9. L. 1. 36. L. tr. 12.

I have not found it possible to give characters suitable for the
immediate recognition of this species, which is easily confused with
L. trosehelii ; the anal fin is in advance of the second dorsal by one-
third of its base, but this can scarcely be useful for ready identifi-
cation. It is only when details are considered that the distinction
is established. However, this species is not a very common one at
Tuticorin, and I have only met with three or four specimens, the
4

92 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

largest of which measured 16 cm. in length. Its characters are as
follow : — ■

Adipose lids. — Absent.

Interorbital space. — Flattened ; its width is 1% to \V\ times the
diameter of the eye.

Uncovered chin space. — This is of moderate width, and is con-
stricted in the middle.

Mandibular angle. — The rami of the lower jaw meet at an
angle of about 1 12 degrees, i.e., the angle is " normal."

Preorbital bone — Not strongly bent at the angle of the mouth ;
scaled, and serrated posteriorly and ventrally.

Maxilla. — The end of the maxilla is exposed

Pectoral fin : Rays. — There are l6 or 17 rays in the pectoral fin.
Extent. — The fin extends to the 9th scale of the
lateral line series, falling well short of the origin of the second
dorsal fin.

Axillary scale. — There is no elongate scale in the
axil of the fin.

Lateral line series. — 36 scales are present in the lateral line.

Lateral transverse series. — There are 12 rows of scales on
each side of the body ; one specimen shewed 12 on the right and 13
on the left side.

Origin of the dorsal fin. — The first dorsal originates above the
I2th scale of the lateral line, and the second dorsal above the
24th.

Position of the anal fin. — The origin of the anal fin is in
advance of that of the second dorsal by Vz of its base.

Proportions. — The total length of the body is 4% to 4% times
the length of the head.

The length of the head is 3% to 34/s times the diameter of the
eye.

The length of the snout is % of the diameter of the eye.

The length of the head, the length of the caudal fin and
the height of the body are approximately equal, but the length
of the head is usually slightly the greatest.

The least depth of the tail is less than Y2 the length of the
head, and very slightly less than the postorbital part of the head.

The length of the pectoral fin is less than the length of the
head, excluding the snout.

No. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 93

The length of the first spine of the first dorsal fin is equal to, or
a little greater than the postorbital part of the head. The dorsal
spines are strong.

The third spine of the anal fin is about Vj, of the length
of the head, a little more or a little less.

Colour. — There are no special features of colouration to be
noted.

Liza caeruleo-maculata (Lacepide).
D. 4 I 1/8. A. 39. L. 1. 39 L. tr. 14.
This handsome mullet is common in Silavatturai Lagoon; it
may be identified at a glance by the following characters : —

(1) Dorsal surface of the head slightly convex from side to
side.

(2) A dark bluish-black spot at the upper edge of the base of
the pectoral fin.

(3) The presence of an elongated axillary scale in the axil of
the pectoral.

(4) The pectoral fin reaches to the origin of the first dorsal fin.

(5) The spines of the first dorsal fin are weak.

(6) The origins of the anal and second dorsal fins opposite.

(7) The rows of scales across the body numerous (14).

(8) The uncovered space at the chin is very narrow or even
obliterated.

The detailed description is as follows: —

Adipose lids. — Absent.

Interorbital space. — Slightly convex ; sometimes may be re-
garded as a little flattened. Its distance across is as nearly as
possible equal to twice the diameter of the eye. Bleeker gives
a very wide range of variation here, viz., 1% to 2% times the diame-
ter. Day gives it as ^2 the length of the head, which corresponds
with Tuticorin specimens.

Uncovered chin space. — Very narrow, and often practically
absent, especially posteriorly, owing to the close approximation
or overlapping of the opercular folds.

Mandibular angle.- ' Normal," i.e., the rami meet at an angle of
about 112 degrees.

Preorbital bone. — Either not at all, or but sparsely scaled
serrated posteriorly and ventrally.

Maxilla. — The end of the maxilla is completely hidden.

94 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

Pectoral fin : Rays. — All the specimens shewed 18 rays, except in
one case where there were 17 on one side and 18 on the other. Day
states that this species has but 17 rays in the pectoral fin ; Bleeker
mentions 18, but puts his formula for this fin in the form of 2/16, indi-
cating 2 spines and 16 rays proper. Thus the Tuticorin specimens
agree with Bleeker's description in this respect.

Extent. — The extremity of the fin reaches to the

origin of the first dorsal fin or slightly beyond it, i.e., to the I2th or

13th scale of the lateral line. In one case it reached the 14th scale.

Axillary scale. — An elongated scale is always

present in the axil of the pectoral fin.

Lateral line scries. — Every specimen shewed 39 scales in the
lateral line ; both Bleeker and Day record 38 only, but the differ-
ence is not important.

Lateral transverse series. — 14 complete rows of scales are present
on each side of the body, exclusive of a subsidiary series which
extends only between the two dorsal fins ; no median series is
present between the two dorsals. One specimen shewed 13 rows on
the left side and 14 on the right. In this particular, the Tuticorin
specimens differ considerably from the descriptions of Giinther
and Day, both of whom give the lateral transverse series as 12.

Origin of the dorsal fins. — The first dorsal fin originates above
the I2th or 13th scale of the lateral line; most commonly, the
second dorsal originates above the 26th scale, and occasionally the
25th ; Day places the origins at the I2th and 24th scales.

Position of the anal fin. — The origin of the anal fin is opposite
to, or very slightly in advance of, the second dorsal fin.

Proportions. — The total length of the body is 4% to 5 times the
length of the head ; this is a much more restricted range of varia-
tion than that given by Bleeker, viz., 4% to 5^3 ; Giinther and Day
give the proportion as 5 to 5%.

The length of the head is 3% to 4 times the diameter of the
eye, again shewing much narrower limits of variation than those
allowed by Bleeker, viz., 3% to 4%.

The length of the snout is usually 5 7 of the diameter of the
eye, but may be 4/5 to 6 7.

The least depth of the tail is less than Y2 the length of the
head, and short of the length of the postorbital part of the head.

The length of the pectoral fin is less than that of the head
by about % the length of the snout.

No. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIM 9$

The length of the head, the height of the body and the
length of the caudal fin are usually of about equal length. Giinther
and Day give the height of the body as somewhat greater than the
length of the head.

The first spine of the first dorsal fin, the length of the post-
orbital part of the head, and the width of the interorbital space
closely approximate each other in measurement, i.e., a little more
than Y2 the length of the head.

The length of the third anal spine is J/3 the length of the
head.

Colour. — Preserved specimens shew the following colour
features : a dark axillary spot is present at the upper base of the
pectoral fin ; there is a dark spot above the centre of the eye ; the
front edge of the second dorsal and the edge of the caudal fins are
darkish ; the first dorsal is frequently tipped dark ; the base of the
anal and pelvic fins brown ; there is a brownish streak across the
head a little behind the eye ; and a white triangular patch behind
and below the eye ; the iris is light coloured.

The specimens of this species at Tuticorin do not seem to
attain the size mentioned by Day who says an Andamans specimen
measured 13 inches, "but it is said to grow very much larger."
None of the specimens examined exceeded 14 cm.

LIZA WAIGIENSIS {Quoy & Gaimard).

D. 4 J 1/8. A. 3/8. L. I. 26. L. tr. 9.

This species is scarcely so common as other species described,
except L. amarula; it is a small mullet, seldom more than 14 cm.
in length. It is most readily identified by the following charac-
ters :-—

(i) Colour. — {a) Fins : The pectoral and both dorsals have a
considerable part of their surface black. The caudal fin is yellow
with a black edge. The anal and pelvic fins are orange coloured
with a black tip. Preserved specimens retain only the black
markings, {b) Prominent dark longitudinal lines along the rows
of scales.

(2) The caudal fin only very slightly forked.

(3) The pectoral fin reaches nearly, or quite, to the origin of
the first dorsal fin.

(4) The number of rows of scales across the body is few (g).

96 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

A detailed examination reveals the following features : —
Adipose lids.— Absent.

Interorbital space. — Distinctly flattened ; its width is 2 to 2^
times the diameter of the eye.

Uncovered chin space. — This is rather variable in form, always
rounded anteriorly, but posteriorly may be comparatively wide or
of medium width, and sometimes even narrow.

Mandibular angle. — The angle between the two rami of the
lower jaw is comparatively acute, measuring 103 to 105 degrees.

Preorbital bone. — Scaled; serrated posteriorly and ventrally ;
not strongly bent.

Maxilla. — The end of the maxilla is exposed.

Pectoral fin : Rays. — The number of rays in the pectoral fin is
16 or 17, more frequently the latter.

Extent. — It reaches as far as the 7th or 8th scale of
the lateral line, i.e., as far as, or only a little short of, the origin
of the first dorsal fin.

Axillary scale. — -No elongated scale is present in
the axil of the pectoral fin.

Lateral line series. — The scales in the lateral line series
almost invariably number 26.

Lateral transverse series. — No exception has been found to
nine complete rows of scales on each side of the body. Between
the two dorsal fins is an additional short series.

Origin of the dorsal fins. —The first dorsal fin originates above
the 8th scale, and the second dorsal above the 17th scale of the
lateral line ; for the latter, the 18th has been occasionally noted.

Position of the anal fin. — One-half or slightly more of the base
of the anal fin is in advance of the origin of the second dorsal fin.
Day describes the advance of the anal as only y$.

Proportions. — The total length of the body is 4% to 4% times
the length of the head.

The length of the head is 3% to 4 times the diameter of the
eye. Day places the proportion at over 4 times.

The length of the snout is % to once the diameter of the eye.

The length of the head, the height of the body and the length
of the caudal fin are about the same, but the first is usually a
trifle greater than the others.

NO. 3 (1922) GREY MULLETS OF TUTICORIN 97

The least depth of the tail is equal to the length of the post-
orbital part of the head, i.e., rather more than V2 the total length of
the head.

The length of the pectoral fin is nearly equal to the length of
the head, viz., from the posterior border of the head to halfway
along the snout.

The first spine of the first dorsal fin is the same length as the
postorbital part of the head.

The third spine of the anal fin is about ^3, or somewhat more,
of the length of the head.

Colour. — The living fish shews the following colour charac-
ters : The upper half of the pectoral fin is black, and the lower
half grey to pale ; the first dorsal fin is mostly black, with a paler
base ; the second dorsal fin has a yellow coloured base, the rest
being black'; the caudal fin is yellow with a dark edge; the anal
fin and the pelvic fin are orange coloured with black tips. The
dark lines along the scales are prominent in the adult, but less
marked in the young. Preserved specimens lose most of their
colour except the black.

98 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV, NO. 3 (l922)

PRINCIPAL LITERATURE CONSULTED.

I. BLEEKER, P. Vierde Bijdrage tot de Kennis der ichthyo-
logische Fauna van Borneo. Natuurkundig Tijdschrift
voor Nederlandsch Indie, Jaargang II, 1851.

2. Conspectus specierum Mugilis Archipelagi indici

analyticus. Natuurkundig Tijdschiift voor Nederlandsch
Indie, Vol. XVI, 1858-9, pp. 275—281.

3. DAY, F. Fauna of British India. Fishes, Vol. II, 1889.

4. GlJNTHER, A. Catalogue of the Acanthopterygian Fishes in

the Collection of the British Museum, Vol. Ill, 1861, pp. 409 —
467.

5. JORDAN, D. S., and SEALE, A. The Fishes of Samoa.

Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, Department of Commerce
and Labor, Washington, Vol. XXV, 1905, pp. 217-218.

6. JORDAN, D. S., and SWAIN, J. A Review of the American

Species of Marine Mugilidae. Proc. U.S. National Museum,
Vol. 7, 1884, p. 261.

7. MACLEAY, W. Notes on a Collection of Fishes from the

Burdekin and Mary Rivers, Queensland. Proc. Linn. Soc.
of New South Wales, Vol. 8, 1883, p. 207.

8. Contributions to a Knowledge of the Fishes of New

Guinea, No. 4. Ibid., p. 269.

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XV, No. 4.

PLATE 1

Fig. I.— Two-masted Kolamaram (Negapatam).

Fig. IL— Kolamaram making ready to begin Fishing.
(Photographed by J. Ho.rnell.)

Report No. 4 of 1922

THE FLYING-FISH FISHERY OF THE
COROMANDEL COAST

AND

THE SPAWNING HABITS OF CYPSILURUS

WITH 4 ILLUSTRATIONS

BY

JAMES HORNELL, F.L.S., F.R.A.I.
Director of Fisheries, Madras

So long ago as 1908 I published in volume IV of this Depart-
ment's Bulletin a short account of the curious method in use by the
catamaran fishermen of the Coromandel coast for the capture of
the smaller of the two species of flying-fishes common in the
western waters of the Bay of Bengal. The particulars given were
based upon descriptions supplied by fishermen ; the general facts
were believed to be correct, but obviously it was desirable to
verify their statements by direct observations — notably so in
regard to details and to the reason which influences the fishes to
congregate around the lures used by the fishermen.

An opportunity did not offer till July of this year, when it was
found possible to utilize the fishery inspection vessel, the Lady
Nicholson, for the enquiry.

The range of the fishery is co-terminous with the true Coroman-
del coast — the seaboard of the old Chola Kingdom — extending
from Point Calimere in the south, to Madras in the north. Tamil
fishermen alone pursue this industry, which must be of very
ancient origin as the catamarans employed specially for its prose-
cution are extremely specialized in every feature, making them,
within their limitations, wonderfully suitable craft for their
particular purpose.

100 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

The season in the south runs generally from the end of May till
the middle of July. The chief controlling factor in lengthening
the season beyond this period is delay in the arrival of the summer
rains and of the consequent river floods. The latter, particularly
in the south (Tanjore district) where the Cauvery and Coleroon
open to the sea, bring down such enormous volumes of silt-laden
water, that when the monsoon floods come, the sea for many miles
from shore becomes discoloured with reddish mud in suspension ;
this the fishermen aver ends their fishing season, as flying-fish
never enter muddy or discoloured water. As the river floods north
of Tanjore are far less in volume than those of that district and
come usually later, the flying-fish fishery in the north extends
generally some weeks later. In the neighbourhood of Cuddalore,
it usually lasts to the middle of August, and off Madras, in
years when the rains are greatly delayed, it may even extend into
September.

This year (IQ22) the Tanjore fishery began on 22nd May and
the end came somewhat earlier than usual, on the very day our
inspection was made — 15th July, in consequence of a spell of con-
tinuous bad weather characterized by high winds and overcast
skies, during which catches were unremunerative.

Two species of flying-fishes are recognized by the fishermen, a
larger called distinctively Thai-kola (" Mother-kola ") and a smaller
one, usually called simply Kola. The former has spotted pectorals
and is Cypsilurus poecilopterus (C. and V.). It is caught on hand-
lines. The smaller species, which runs generally 8 to 9 inches in
extreme length, is also a Cypsilurus; the species remains to be
identified. Sometimes both may be called Paravai-kola or Paravai-
min (= flying-kola or flying-fish), but generally Kola alone is used,
and this often leads to misunderstanding for Kola is also used
generally as the name for the half-beaks {Hcmirhamphus spp.).
The popular belief is that Cypsilurus poccilopterus is the male and
the smaller species the female.

DESCRIPTION OF THE CATAMARANS USED.

As above mentioned, the catamarans (Kolamaratn) employed
in this fishery are greatly specialized. They are indeed the
highest development of the catamaran form on the Indian coast.
They are designed and built solely for this particular fishery and
as they have to go comparatively far into the sea — up to 25 miles

No. 4 (1922) THE COROMANDEL FLYING-FISH FISHERY 101

from land — and have to be prepared to meet stormy weather and
to stay at sea up to three days if need compels, they are made of
unusually large size. The one which we towed to the fishing
ground, was said to be of medium size only. The principal
dimensions were—

Length over all ... ... ••• ... 33 feet.

Width at the aft lashing ... ... 7 ,,

,, ,, fore lashing ... •• 4 ,,

Larger sail yard ... ... ••• ... 29 ,,

Smaller „ „ ... 2lj£ „

Steering oar (length) ••• ... ... 12 ,,

Two Leeboards, respectively ... ... 10% and 9 feet.

The hull of these catamarans is invariably made of seven main
timbers with an accessory one lashed on the starboard side, upon
which men squat when scooping up the fish. Each timber is
specially shaped and these being narrowed at the fore end give a
cuneate form to the craft, completed by the addition of an elegant
up-turned prow of rive pointed members, dovetailed into the
forward ends of the seven main logs, to which they are simply but
securely lashed. The craft has carefully worked out proportions,
elegantly concave above and with fine lines for skimming over the
water — the draft being about one foot when loaded. But though
of such shallow draft and without keel, it is able to beat against
the wind very well indeed ; when this is necessary two powerful
leeboards are brought into action, one abreast the forward mast
(they usually carry two masts), the other at the stern, nearly
abreast of the steering paddle, which is itself also an efficient
leeboard and of similar shape. Indeed when close hauled, we
may justly say that the craft is carrying three leeboards — a curious
and perhaps significant fact seeing that the great catamarans of
Formosa also employ the same number.

The dugout as used in Malabar cannot compete with these
Coromandel catamarans in seaworthiness and, being unable to
beat to windward, is comparatively useless for offshore fishing.
This accounts in the main for the failure that attended the recent
attempt to introduce these boats upon the east coast where stormy
weather is more frequent and strong offshore winds prevalent in
the south-west monsoon.

The masts of the catamarans are short, and stepped laterally in
the outside log on the leeward side. The fore mast is well forward

102 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

and is the longer. The sails may be classed as lateen; probably
the typical lateen was evolved from sails such as these. The head
of the sail is lashed to a long yard ending forward in a peculiarly
curved heel-piece. A boom is used, but extends only along the
after portion of the foot of the sail; a stout rope runs along the
forward part — a device intended to permit the foot of the sail to
bend angularly at the point it meets the mast, on certain courses.
The fore angle of the sail is cut off, giving a short luff. The sail is
suspended from the mast head by a doubled grommet. Reefing
can be practised in stormy weather by rolling the lower part of the
sail upon the boom ; the head of the sail can also be lowered in
some degree, as a series of notches are cut for some distance down
from the mast head, and the yard grommet and stays can be
lowered to rest in any of these. The masts are provided with one
fore and one back stay and the sails have each a sheet and a yard
guy. Seven men constitute the crew.

Besides what has been mentioned the equipment consists of —

Four short catamaran paddles (tildvu) thin, blade-like and
slightly curved; a beaded edge along one margin gives purchase
for a secure grip ;

Three rowing oars, each with a long cuneate blade tied to a
pole shaft ;

A wooden anchor, one-fluked, with a stone attached crosswise
at the other end to form a stock ;

Two dip-nets {kachd) made by lashing a rectangular piece of
netting between two parallel poles, each 7 feet long. The net is
5% feet between the poles and the length is 4 feet 8 inches ;

Three bundles (kambi) of leaves, of which one is composed
usually of branches of the screw-pine {Pandanus odoratissitnus), and
the others of the little leguminose shrub called kavalai (Tephrosia
purpurea) growing often abundantly in waste places. Sometimes
the branches of the neem [Melia azadirachta) are used if kavalai is
not readily procurable. Besides these are several coils of coir rope,
some light wood floats, empty baskets for the fish, a large
chatty of drinking water and a bundle of boiled rice. A peculiarly
narrow scoop-like bailer, used to dash water upon the sails,
completes the equipment.

No. 4 (1922) THE COROMANDEL FLYING-FISH FISHERY 103

METHOD OF FISHING.

The fishermen who take part in this fishery set out in the early
morning, usually before daylight, in order to reach the fishing
ground by 9 or 10 a.m. The hour of departure varies necessarily
with the strength of the offshore wind, and the nearest point at
which the shoals approach the coast at any particular
locality. The latter depends principally upon the distance at
which ' black water " — the kala pani of Hindustani-speaking
lascars — is first found. And this in turn depends upon depth ;
whether the sea bottom in the neighbourhood slopes gently or
steeply downwards. On the day we went out favourable conditions
were reached at 12 nautical miles east of Negapatam, the water
deep indigo in colour, clear and free from sediment in suspension.
The depth was 23 fathoms. The fishermen whose catamaran we
had towed out asked to be set adrift as they had already sighted
flying-fish swimming in shoals, but not emerging from the water.
It was now 8-40 a.m. Soon after numerous other two-masted
catamarans came up and while most went further seawards than
our position, several dropped sail and started fishing close by.
These catamarans were part of the large fleet we had seen already
some distance seawards when we left our anchorage at 6-25 a.m.

The preparations are simple. Sails are furled by rolling round
the booms, the masts are unstepped and all disposed neatly amid-
ships, the fore end of the longer yard resting on the prow, where
the single-fluked wooden anchor is also kept.

The catamaran is now drifting broadside to the wind, the
starboard side, on which is the accessory log, being to windward.
From this side the men now cast loose three large bundles of leaves,
each at the extremity of a long coir rope. These are of unequal
length. In the catamaran fishing close to the ship, one rope was
approximately 50 fathoms long, the second 30 fathoms, and the
third only 10 fathoms. One bundle, that attached to the longest
rope, consisted of a branch of screw-pine, the others were of the
little leguminose shrub, Tephrosia purpurea {Kavdlai, Tamil). Each
bundle is supported by a small float of light wood, but in such a way
that neither it nor the bundle of leaves projects above the surface
of the water. The catamaran on the other hand together with its
crew, does offer some resistance to the wind and so drifts more

104 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

quickly than the leaf bundles, thus ensuring that they stream away
from the catamaran on the windward side. My former statement
that the bundles were put out on the leeward side is therefore
incorrect; neither is any anchor-stone thrown overboard to retard
the drift of the catamaran.

After adjusting their lures, the men patiently await the
gathering of the flying-fish around the leaf bundles. If they
are plentiful, they haul early and capture what fish have come ;
with good luck they may fill their catamaran within a couple
of hours. On the clay we were out, the fish were scarce,
possibly on account of the long spell of bad weather that had
prevailed till the previous day ; the men could do nothing but wait
and pass their time resting, sleeping, or fishing with hand lines,
whereof a supply had been brought.

When fishes are seen to have gathered in quantity round any
bundle, it is pulled very cautiously toward the catamaran with
every precaution not to scare away the fishes. Two couples of men
squat ready on the accessory log, each couple with a dip-net ready
between them ; one man holds the pole attached to one side of the
net, his companion the other. The bundle is hauled in so that it
comes alongside between the two sets of dip-nets ; if fish be
plentiful the two nets are brought into play and the fish scooped out
swiftly and quietly. The fore end of each net is dipped almost
vertically into the water, brought up under the fish and then, being
raised quickly, the fish slide down the middle of the net into the
catamaran where the three other men cram them as quickly as
possible into big palm-leaf bags. The reason for the peculiar
form, and large dimensions of the dip-nets is now obvious, as well
as that for the accepted number of seven making up the crew,
namely, three men to tend the three lures and store away the fishes,
and four men to man the dip-nets.

Our men stated that they saw 40 or 50 flying-fishes round the
bundles, but unfortunately when they hauled them in they were
able to capture only a single fish, a ripe male as it subsequently
proved to be. Its length was 7% inches over all.

NO. 4 (1922) THE COROMANDEL FLYING-FISH FISHERY 105

THE SPAWNING HABITS OF FLYING-FISHES.

The bundles of leaves, which had been streamed out for six hours,
were brought on board and one of the Kavalai bundles gave us the
key to the real reason why these flying-fishes congregate around
these bundles. It is not, as formerly believed, to obtain shade and
shelter ; it is to find a place suitable for the deposit of their spawn.
The proof J was plain; the branches and leaves of the shrub
were full of a tangled-up multitude of tiny colourless eggs with
innumerable glassy threads, tough and elastic, attaching them in
masses to one another and also to the leaves and branches of the
plant. The eggs were devoid of colour, transparent save at one
pole, where a tiny opaque white disc, the blastoderm area, was
distinguishable. All as it proved subsequently had been fertilized.
My assistant, Mr. Ramaswami Nayudu, kept similar eggs alive for
over 24 hours and was able to watch the early development of the
embryo, which will be described by him in a separate note. The
filaments attached to the eggs are sometimes surprisingly long
and highly elastic, and admirably adapted to tangle the eggs
securely among the leaflets of floating seaweed (Sargasso-weed
chiefly) which is undoubtedly the natural object for the purpose.
The diameter of each egg is from I'6 to 1'8 mm.

I was informed but could not verify the statement that the
fishermen sometimes detach these eggs, crush them and throw the
resultant mass back into the sea ; this is said to attract further
numbers of flying-fish which eagerly devour this form of ground

bait.

This statement of the fishermen is confirmed by the fact that
on a previous occasion (29th July 1919) the stomach of a spent
female brought ashore at Madras by the crew of a fishing catamaran,
contained nothing but a mass of eggs with thread-like entangle-
ments, such as we now know to belong to this species of flying-fish.
Whether they devour their eggs under normal conditions, say after
having finished spawning, or only when broken up and thrown out
as ground-bait by fishermen, has yet to be determined.

By three o'clock in the afternoon when fishing was suspended,
the catamaran had drifted to a point 22 miles to the north-east of
Negapatam, and into a depth of 30 fathoms, a northerly drift
approximately of \Vz mile per hour.

1 06 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

During the time fishing operations were in progress, numerous
hauls of plankton were made from the inspection vessel at various
depths. The results showed the dominant organisms throughout
to be Salpa and Doliolum. These were present in vast abundance.
All were small, the salps chiefly in double chains with individuals
of all sizes up to half an inch in length. Siphonophores were
common, Diphyes being the most abundant. Several species of
Medusoids were represented but none in quantity. Molluscs were
represented by numerous small stout Pteropods (Hyalea sp.) and by
Atlanta larvag also comparatively frequent. Crustaceans were
notably very scarce, almost entirely Copepods of medium size.
Pelagic annelids were fairly common. Of fish larvae only a single
individual was seen. Numerous colonies of Collozoum were the only
protozoa noticed. Sargasso-weed, which presumably is the usual
object upon which this particular species of flying-fish deposits its
eggs, was scarce, only a single piece being noticed the whole time
we were at sea. This absence may possibly be correlated with the
proved scarcity of flying-fishes.

So far as I can ascertain, this is the first occasion on which
definite and first-hand information has been obtained relative to
the characteristic spawning habits of any species of flying-fish.
The only reference I can find to the subject is Evermann and
Radcliffe's quotation* under Exocoetus volitans (L.) of a note by
Dr. Coker on some fish eggs as follows: —

" Eggs were purchased in the market of Arequipa, July 26,
1908. They constitute a common market article known as'raw-
cau.' According to the fishermen of Mollendo, they are the eggs
of the flying-fish ' volador ' and are found abundantly in the early
summer beginning with October. Large quantities are dried for
later use." As pcz volador is the local name for Exocoetus chilensis
(Abbot), which is a synonym of E. volitans, Evermann and Radcliffe
infer that these egg masses probably belong to this species. No
information is forthcoming as to the conditions under which these
egg masses are deposited ; from what we have now learned con-
cerning the spawning habits of one Indian species, it seems likely
that E. volitans follows the same practice ; if so we may infer that
it is probable that the same habit is common to all flying-fishes.

* "The Fishes of the West Coast of Peru and the Titicaca Basin," U.S. Nat.
Museum Bulletin, No. 95, page 44.

No. 4(l922) THE COROMANDEL FLYING-FISH FISHERY 10?

Some species of the closely allied genus Belo ne appear to have the
same habit, for Mr. Ramaswami Nayudu has shown me eggs
attached by long and slender filaments to a small feather which the
fisherman who brought them stated belonged to a fish of this
genus * ; Day records also eggs of Bclone having been foUnd attached
to the meshes of a mackerel net in the south of England.

DESCRIPTION OF THE NEGAPATAM SPECIMEN.

It is unfortunate that the only occasion when I had an opportu-
nity to see this fishery in operation off the Indian coast coincided
with a dearth of fish ; the other catamarans were equally
unsuccessful with ourselves, so the fishermen, having had no
catches for the previous week or more, considered the season at an
end, and the fishery closed. Hence no opportunity offered to get
further specimens. The single fish caught belongs to the smaller
of the two species of flying-fishes best known to the fishermen of
the Coromandel coast. The other and larger is the fine Cypsilurus
poecilopterus (Cuvier and Valenciennes) easily recognized by the
many dark spots on the pectoral fins. The smaller species where
the pectorals in life are dark purple in tint with a narrow hyaline
margin above and a wider one below, has not yet been identified.
It does not appear to belong to any of the species of Exocoetidac
described by Day! or by Weber and De Beauforti.

The fin formula of the individual obtained at Negapatam is —
D. II ; A. II ; P. 15 ; V. 6 ; C. 17.

Its length was 7% inches (200 mm.), inclusive of the caudal
fin.

Subsequently I obtained particulars of five other adult indivi-
duals caught off Madras in the months of July and August in
previous years. They measured in length, respectively, 9/5, 8, 7*5, 8
and 8'2 inches over all. Considerable variation was shown in the
number of the dorsal rays, these being II, 9, 10, 10 and 12, respect-
ively. Curiously enough the largest individual had only seven
rays in the anal fin— probably an abnormality ; of the others three
had II rays and one 12. Four had 15 rays in the pectoral, the
fifth having 16; the ventral had 6 in all instances.

* The mass of eggs was attached when found to a piece of floating wood ; the feather
was merely entangled with some of the eggs,
t The Fishes of India, London, 1878-88.

t The Fishes of the Indo- Australian Archipelago, Vol. IV, Leiden, 1922.
2

T08 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV, No. 4 (1922)

The fin-formula as deduced from the above would be —
D. 9-12 ; A. 11-12 ; P. 15-16 ; V. 6 ; C. 17.

The scales along the lateral line of those examined varied
between 42 and 44, while the transverse rows below the anterior
end of the dorsal fin were six above and two below the lateral
line. Head in total length SlA ', height in total length bji ; eye in
head 3.

The pectoral fin is long, reaching nearly or quite to the poste-
rior tip of the anal fin. The ventral reaches to some distance
posterior to the commencement of the anal fin ; this may vary from
a point one-quarter to two-thirds the length of the anal fin from its
anterior end. The lower caudal lobe is one-half longer than the
upper.

The colouring of the body in life is deep blue above, silvery
below. Pectoral purplish with a hyaline margin, that along the
posterior edge the wider. Dorsal dusky, owing to the presence of
minute dark dots. Ventral similarly dusky in the outer portion
(half to three-fourths of the fin). Anal colourless. Caudal dusky.

Should the species prove to be a new one, I propose that it be
called Cypsilurus coromandelensis.

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN, VOL. XV, No. 4.

PLATE II

Fig. III. — Dip-net used in the Flying-fish Fishery.

r

Fig. IV. — Flying-fish spawn deposited upon a bunch op
Tephrosia purpurea.
(Photographs by J. Iiornell.)

109

A NOTE ON THE EGGS AND EARLY EMBRYONIC
DEVELOPMENT OF CYPSILURUS

BY

M. RAMASWAMI NAYUDU, B.A.
Research Sub-Assistant, Madras Fisheries

WITH THREE TEXT-FIGURES

The eggs of the species described by Mr. Hornell in the
preceding report when laid are of a glassy transparency with a
small opaque white germinal disc in each. They are almost
spherical, l'75 to 1'8 mm. in diameter, and are very tough and
resilient, rebounding like an indiarubber ball when struck against
any hard surface.

They are attached to floating objects and to one another by
means of hyaline filaments issuing from the surface of the egg
membrane. These filaments are of three kinds ; first, one single
filament, the stoutest and the longest, which is the egg's main
anchoring cable ; second, a tuft of 7 to 16 tiny thin short ones
exactly at the opposite pole, and third, 4 to 6 medium-sized ones
which form side stays. The function of the tuft of tiny filaments
is not known as in all the eggs examined they were free and
unattached. The egg is very slightly elongated towards the pole
from which the stout long filament issues. When the eggs are
attached only to one another the main and the side stays are
plaited together to form a stout central cord of considerable length,
consisting of several thin filaments, from which the eggs project
on all sides in the manner of grapes in a bunch in which case the
stem of the bunch will represent the stout central cord of the mass
of eggs.

The white disc referred to above is composed of a mass of
minute cells which go to form the "germinal disc," indicating
thereby that these eggs have already been fertilized ; the position
of the disc in the egg does not seem to be constant. A few minute
oil globules are scattered about in the yolk.
3

110 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

I found these eggs for the first time on the 29th July 1919
attached to a bundle of kavdlai plant {Tephrosia purpurea) brought
ashore by a kolamaram catamaran which landed its flying fish
catch on the Rayapuram (Madras) beach that evening.

Fig. I. — Egg of Cypsilurtcs a few hours after fertilization. The dark mass of small cells
near the lower side represents the germinal disc. The three forms of filament* are
shown, and a few minute oil globules are seen scattered through the yolk. x 20.

The presence of plenty of these eggs in the stomach of one
flying-fish dissected the same day is significant in view of the
statement of the fisher-folk that, to attract more shoals of flying-
fish, they usually detach a quantity of the eggs laid on their kambi,
then crush and throw the mass into the sea as bait.

On the 15th August 1919, I found at Rayapuram (Madras) one
female specimen with the eggs oozing out and one male partly
spent. Again on the 10th July 1920, I collected from Madras three
specimens, 7'5", 8" and 8'2" long, respectively, which were all
males and were more or less fully mature.

No. 4 (T922) EGGS AND EARLY EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT III

On the 17th July of the present year (1922), I obtained a few
eggs from the kavalai bundles of a kolamaram catamaran at
Negapatam and these, according to the statement of the crew,
were deposited that same afternoon ; these were perfectly trans-
parent save for the small white germinal disc. They were kept

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Figs. 2 and 3. — Embryo of Cypsilurus about 24 hours old. Jn figure 2 a lateral view
shows the embryo bent partly round the yolk mass, the oil glolules congregated into
a median streak in front of the head. Figure 3 gives a dorsal view of the same
embryo. In both the basal ends of a number of the larger hyaline filaments are
shown, x 20.

overnight in a bucket of sea water which was frequently changed.
When examined after about 24 hours on the 18th July 1922, a well-
developed embryo had been formed in almost all (figures 2 and
3). The eggs had become slightly opaque white and the embryo
greyish white in colour. The embryo was bent round the central

112 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN [VOL. XV, No. 4 (1922)

yolk to about two-thirds its length, the tip of the tail being slightly
twisted towards the left ; all the scattered oil globules had
congregated into a median streak in front of the head. Already
the massive head with the two optic vesicles, the heart, and the
myotomes of the body and tail were formed.

It is unfortunate that, for want of proper hatching apparatus,
the further development could not be traced.

Report No. 5 of 1 922

THE AIMS AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE
MADRAS DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES

BY

JAMES HORNELL, F.L.S., F.R.A.L,
Director of Fisheries, Madras

Fifteen years having elapsed since the active work of fishery
development in its varied branches was commenced in Madras,
it is appropriate that an opportunity be now taken to review
concisely the work attempted and the successes achieved.

The aims of the department have grown considerably since
its inception by the acceptance by Government in 1907 of the first
proposals made by Sir F. A. Nicholson, K.C.I.E., the outcome of two
years' inquiries in india, Japan, Europe and the United States.
Before summarizing the results of our endeavours, a list of the
principal aims which we now conceive should be covered by the
activities of the department must be given ; they are —

(1) To increase the food-supply of the people by developing
both the marine and the fresh-water fisheries of the country to
their utmost capacity.

(2) To improve the material and moral conditions of the
fisher community by introducing better methods and improved
gear, by demonstration to them of the value of thrift, co-operation,
education and temperance, and by gradual enlightenment to lead
them by degrees to become happier men and better citizens.

(3) To introduce new fishery industries and to develop old
ones.

(4) To fight mosquito-borne diseases by the breeding and
supply of larvicidal fishes into waters in malarial localities.

(5) To popularize interest in our operations and incidentally
in marine and fresh-water biology by means of Public Aquaria,
and the publication of popular zoological literature; also to

114 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

facilitate the study of zoology throughout India by the provision
of zoological specimens suitable for teaching purposes.

(6) To carry on such scientific study of the bionomics of the
food-fishes of the Presidency and of the animals on which they
feed as our limited means will permit, bearing in mind that our
resources must be utilized in the first instance for strictly practical
and economic ends.

The practical working out of the above falls under one or other
of the following main heads : — Fishery Development, Industries,
Technical and Scientific Investigation, Education and Socio-
economics.

I— FISHERY DEVELOPMENT.

The two chief items under this head represent two of the out-
standing successes of the department. They are the reorganiza-
tion of the historic chank fisheries of the East Coast and the
stocking schemes whereby our tanks and rivers are made to yield
more abundantly. Both are highly profitable directly and these
profits in good seasons usually enable a large proportion of the
expenses of the department to be met without trenching on public
funds. In other words "Fisheries" to a great extent has been a
self-supporting department, able to pay its way. With the large
and non-productive educational work now initiated, this favourable
balance is not likely to be maintained.

The Chank Fisheries are peculiarly profitable. They are old
and historic prerogatives of the Crown, worked directly by the
Fisheries Department by means of volunteer labour, paid piece-
work. The department provides many valuable facilities to the
divers free of cost, including towage to the fishing grounds,
buoying of the beds, and provision of camping quarters, assistance
which considerably increases their earnings and gives them
comfort undreamed of in former clays. In spite of higher prices
paid to the fishermen, the work of the department has resulted in
largely increased catches and profits —

RS.

In 1917-18 these fisheries gave a net profit of ... 39>278
In 1918-19 this rose to ... ... ... ... 67,580

In 1919-20 to ... ... ... ... 46,029

A total for these three years of ... 1,52,887

No. 5 (1922) PEARL AND CHANK FISHERIES 115

Since the 1919-20 season, owing to unfavourable markets and
weather and to transient labour shortage, the profits have been
less, viz. —

RS.

1920-21 36>S36

1921-22 ... ... ... ... 8,266

A drastic scheme of retrenchment and reorganization is now being
put into operation and already has been successful in overcoming
the exceptional difficulties that beset this work during the past
two years.

The chank fisheries of Madras are worked off the coasts of
the six southern maritime districts on the east coast. The most
important are those of Tinnevelly and Ramnad. The former
yields from ll/2 to 2 lakhs of shells per annum, the latter, leased
for fifteen years for the sum of Rs. 60,000 from the Raja of Ramnad,
usually gives from 2 to 2% lakhs. The smaller fisheries of
Tanjore, South Arcot, Chingleput and Nellore are leased by
Government to contractors, who make their own arrangements
with the fishermen, subject to certain rules. The two fisheries
carried on departmentally are now as fully organized as present
conditions permit. Their produce is sold in advance by tender
on terms generally extending over three seasons. Fisheries
Bulletin No. 7 is devoted to a monograph of the chank. A detailed
account of the methods adopted to fish the shells is given ; the
exceedingly ancient and wonderfully interesting industry of chank
bangle manufacture is also described and illustrated very fully,
while the ethnological importance of the wealth of curious folklore
centring round this sacred shell receives adequate attention.

The Pearl Fishery off the Tinnevelly coast, which is intimately
associated with the chank fishery, bulked largely in importance in
ancient days. From causes still obscure but probably connected
with changes in the contour line of the coast, the pearl banks have
been seldom productive in recent years. In common with the
Ceylon Pearl Fisheries, no fishery has taken place since 1908,
except a small one at Tondi in Palk Bay in 1914. Historical
evidence shows that there have been similar long barren intervals
in the past, punctuated by an occasional fishery, hence we
inspect the banks periodically in order that when the pearl oysters
do re-appear, they may be properly watched and fished at the
right time. The result of the long continued observations of the
1 -a

Il6 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

writer shows that there is little or nothing to be done to obviate
the recurrence of barren years. Science in this has been proved
helpless in the face of the annually recurring monsoon.

The Fresh-ivater Fisheries administered by the department rank
second only to the chank fisheries in regard to the handsome
profit they return to Government. They show continuous yearly
increase in the revenue obtained and there is every prospect that
this satisfactory feature will continue concurrently with the exten-
sion of operations. These fisheries consist largely of waters in
which the fishing revenues were assigned to district authorities
years ago for local needs. The new owners did nothing to effect
improvements, the fishery rents being sold for what they would
fetch. The Fisheries Department has now initiated a scheme
whereby irrigation tanks and other inland waters are surveyed
district by district, and those found suitable are arranged in
groups round centres where fish-breeding and rearing are carried
on, and whence each year fry are removed in large numbers to
reinforce the natural stock in the linked tanks. The fishing rights
and revenues in these are being re-acquired gradually by Govern-
ment, compensation being given on the average revenue of the
preceding five years to the local authorities, who now have neither
trouble nor risk in collecting this money. The profit made by
Fisheries is the difference between the compensation thus paid
and the revenue obtained from the fish sales after the working
expenses of the annual restocking are deducted. The net profits
on these inland fisheries during the last three years have been
Rs. 20,573, Rs. 21,331 and Rs. 22,613, respectively. Within a short
time from now the operations of this section will be enormously
increased, for Government have agreed to the whole of the suitable
tanks in the Presidency coming under the department's care
eventually. In IQ20 they approved of a detailed scheme for the
organization of the most important tanks in the -Nellore and
Chingleput districts, whereby 135 tanks have come directly under
the control of the department. The tanks of the Ganjam district
have recently been surveyed and before long the whole Presidency
will be covered and their inland fisheries set upon a suitable
basis.

To render successful this fish-stocking of inland waters much
patient research and experiment have been necessary ; results have
suffered from the lack of any estuarine and fresh-water research

No. 5 (1922) INLAND PISCICULTURE 117

station. In spite of this, notable success has been achieved, parti-
cularly with the seththakendai {Etroplus suratcnsis) of the Madras
neighbourhood, with the large indigenous carp, Catla catla, and
with certain of the mullets. The life history of the first of these
has been worked out in detail, and it is now being bred regularly
and in large numbers in all three of our existing fish farms at
Perambur, Sunkesula and Ippur. The value of scientific research
is well demonstrated in respect of Etroplus; consistent success
only resulted when the breeding habits had been ascertained; the
secret of success lies in the provision of suitable stone-built
breeding refuges where the eggs may be deposited safely in the
manner peculiar to this species. This fish is found naturally in
estuaries and tanks near the sea-coast. By the efforts of the
department it has been acclimatized successfully to waters far
inland; Sunkesula is 130 miles from the sea. Similarly with the
catla carp. It is numerous in the Kistna, the Godavari and the
rivers further north, but till some 50 years ago the Kistna formed
the southern limit of the distribution. Since the opening of the
Cuddapah-Kurnool canal and the stocking of its reaches by this
department with fry of this species, the catla has found its way
into the river Pennar and is now very common in the Pennar-fed
tanks in the Nellore district. Two years ago it was introduced
into the great Madurantakam tank in the Chingleput district and
this year large numbers were liberated in the Cauvery thereby
extending its range still further south. Further extension will be
made when the Chingleput Fort fish-farm is in operation.

Other useful acclimatization centres in the distribution of the
fry of certain species of mullet from estuaries to inland waters.
This is the most recent of our efforts in this direction. The results
are very gratifying for fry ranging in length from 2 to 5% inches
have been found to increase in inland tanks to 9 and II inches
within a period of 10 months.

The successful stocking of the Nilgiri streams with rainbow
trout from New Zealand is another demonstration of what is
possible when these operations are skilfully conceived. When
these streams were first administered by this department, they
were, with the exception of some carp and small minnows, devoid
of fish life ; now they teem with trout bred at the hatchery at
Avalanche.

Sea Fisheries. — The development of our sea fisheries by intro-
ducing improved boats and appliances has presented greater

Il8 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

difficulty, largely due to the conservatism of the fisherfolk and the
difficulty of getting satisfactory teachers and demonstrators. The
introduction of methods proved excellent in one locality, into
another where those that are indigenous are weaker in catching
power, has been tried in Malabar, Tuticorin, Madras and Nega-
patam. At none was there decided success, but recently both at
Calicut and at Negapatam local men have come forward with
proposals to take over the boats and gear we have used for the
demonstrations. Supervision of actual operations on the fishing
grounds has been hitherto in the hands of intelligent but otherwise
uneducated men as no educated Indian fishermen at present are
available; the material being faulty and lacking in initiative, it is
no wonder the results have been unsatisfactory in the main.
Neither have these men been able to report intelligibly upon the
conditions of the new waters they have worked in. With the
recent placing of an order for an experimental sea-going launch to
be devoted to the purpose of introducing and testing new methods,
this vitally important problem will be attacked in a fresh direction
with greater resources than in the past, and with greater concen-
tration of effort. This fishing launch will be manned by an Indian
crew who will be taught under the working direction of an
experienced European master-fisherman able to report results and
to vary the methods according to circumstances.

II— INDUSTRIES.

Fish curing is an age-old industry in India, but the methods in
use are generally primitive and susceptible of great improvement
in regard to the flavour, appearance, cleanliness and keeping
quality of the products. The chief indigenous method is to salt
the fish, usually for one night, followed by sun-drying. Long
and patient endeavour to ascertain improvements in methods that
are yet inexpensive to adopt has been made by the department,
particularly at its Experimental Station at Tanur in Malabar.
Here numerous and varied experiments have been conducted
with generally gratifying results. To enable the methods thus
elaborated to be introduced to the notice of curers and to improve
general conditions, particularly in regard to cleanliness and sanita-
tion, six Government fish-curing yards were transferred temporarily
from the Salt Department to " Fisheries " over two years ago.
Progress in improvement has been slow owing both to the innate
and ignorant conservatism of the curers and to factious opposition.

No. 5 (1922) SARDINE CANNING 119

With patience, these obstacles are being overcome ; even now there
is a notable improvement in the cleanliness of the products of
these yards.

Canning. — Experimental work was begun at Calicut in 1911, and
transferred later to Chaliyam, 7 miles to the south. Complete
success has been attained on the operative side, the quality of the
goods packed being, in the opinion of experts, equal to similar
European products. Notably is this the case in regard to the
canning of sardines, mackerel and prawns ; these constitute the
bulk of the goods produced. The Indian oil sardine (Sardinella
longiceps) at its best, is, in my opinion, fully equal to the true
French sardine, which is in reality the young of the pilchard. Its
oil content is greater than the latter, and this, I hold, is the chief
criterion by which to estimate the value of the sardine for canning
purposes.

Oil and guano factories. — Prior to the experimental work of the
Fisheries Department in 1908, the amount of sardine oil produced
on the West Coast was inconsiderable and of the worst possible
quality. The usual method was to obtain the oil by the putrefac-
tion of a mass of sardines contained in a worn out and filthy
dug-out canoe. It was also a wasteful process, for the proteid and
other residue were thrown into the sea. Similarly when fertilizer
was made from sardines, the ancient and accepted procedure was
to spread the sardines on the sand of the open beach, and so dry
them in the sun. This had two drawbacks — large quantities of
valuable oil, of no manurial value, were wasted, and the product
became so highly impregnated with sand that analysis not infre-
quently showed the resultant mass to contain as much as 40 per
cent of this useless adulterant.

The experiments made by the department had unexampled and
swift success. It was found that a simple and quite inexpensive
plant could be devised to separate the oil and fertilizer effectively
and profitably. The high quality of the oil and fertilizer (" fish
guano " as it is now known technically) reacted favourably upon
prices, and has rendered this new industry so profitable that
literally hundreds of small factories have come into existence.
In this case the demonstrations we were able to give were so
conclusive financially, that the small capitalists of the West Coast
rushed to share in the big profits that were being made by those
first in the field. At the close of the 1919-20 fishery year the

120 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

number had reached the amazing total of 563. The estimate of
their production for the same season was 24,000 tons of fish-guano
valued at Rs. 100 per ton, the value of the oil manufactured being
about Rs. 3,75,000 — the two together amounting to 27% lakhs — a
wonderful result, which apart from any other success achieved by
the department, would alone justify its existence. A further
advance has again been made during the past two years
whereby it appears likely that much of the material now used as
fertilizer will eventually be utilized more profitably as a feeding
stuff for domestic animals. Success has already been obtained in
producing high class fish-meals from all the common fishes found
plentiful on the West Coast, particularly mackerel and sardines.
Those who have tried these meals for cattle, pigs, dogs, and
poultry speak highly of them when employed in proper proportions
with a greater bulk of starchy foods. It now remains to produce
them in larger quantities and to introduce them widely to the
notice the Indian public. In Europe and America the high
nutritive value of these meals is recognized and the fish-meal
trade there is assuming large and important proportions.

Soap making. — This industry has now passed from the control
of this department but the credit for its successful inception belongs
to "Fisheries." The story is worth repeating. In 1913 an oil
expert, Mr. A. K. Menon, trained in England under a Government
scholarship, was appointed to this department to investigate under
the direction of Sir F. A. Nicholson, the character and uses of
sardine oil and fish stearine. His work at the Tanur Experimental
Station resulted in the production of a fish-oil soap that is now in
great demand by tea, coffee and mango planters as a cheap and
efficient insecticide. This success naturally led to the manufac-
ture of other soaps from vegetable oils and other fats. When the
industry was thoroughly established, the latter branch of the work
so overshadowed the former, that it became an anomaly to carry on
the work under the Fisheries Department and so it was transferred
to the Department of Industries.

Bcche-de-mer. — This minor industry, which consists of the
curing of the thick body wall of a species of sea-cucumber (Holo-
thurian), had virtually died out some years ago when this depart-
ment's attention was drawn to its decay. An investigation was
made and experiments carried out as detailed in Report No. 4 of
Fisheries Bulletin, Volume XL It now constitutes an integral section

NO. 5 (1922) FISHERY PUBLICATIONS 121

of the department's operations in Palk Bay and affords a welcome
addition to the income of the chank clivers of that locality. In
1919-20, the total dried production was 6,245 lb. The whole of
this eventually finds its way to Singapore and thence to China.

III.— TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION.

Apart from researches directly connected with the industrial
branch, investigations covering a wide field, and continuous since
the beginning of operations, upon zoological and oceanographic
subjects have been carried on to considerable extent. The varied
nature of these enquiries will be understood from the list of publi-
cations given below : —

By Sir F. A. Nicholson —

1. 'Note on Fisheries in Japan (Bulletin II), Madras, 1907.

2. The Preservation and Curing of Fish (Bulletin III), Madras, 1909.

3. Carp Growing in Germany (Bulletin XI), Madras, 191 7.

4. Remarks on Canning (Bulletin XIII), Madras, 1921.

5. Manufacture of Fish Oil and Guano (Bulletin XIII), Madras, 1921.

By Mr. James Honiell—

Pearl Fisheries.

1. Report on the Indian Pearl Fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar (a

long report of 109 pages), Madras, 1905.

2. Explanation of the Irregularly Cyclic Character of the Pearl

Fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar (Bulletin VIII), 1916.

3. Report on the Pearl Fishery held at Tondi, 1914 (Bulletin VIII),

1916.

4. Prof. Huxley and the Ceylon Pearl Fishery, with a note on the

Cultural Production of Free Spherical Pearls (Bulletin VIII),

1916.
4a. Pearl Formation in the Indian Pearl Oyster (Jnl. and Proc,
Asiatic Society of Bengal, N.S., Volume XVIII, No. 2), 1922.
(Also numerous reports in the 5 volumes of Reports to the Govern-
ment of Ceylon on the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon, published by
the Royal Society.)

Oyster Culture.

5. Report on the Suitability of Pulicat Lake for Oyster Culture

(Bulletin IV), 1908.

122 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

6. Note on an attempt to ascertain the Principal Determining

Factor in Oyster Spawning in Madras Backwaters (Bulletin IV),
1908.

7. The Practice of Oyster Culture at Arcachon and Its Lessons for

India (Bulletin V), 1910.

8. The Present Depletion of the Oyster Beds of Sind ; Its Causes and

the Remedies (Report to the Government of Bombay), 1910.

9. A Note on the Edible Oyster (Bulletin VII), 1916.

Chunks and Chunk Fishing.

10. The Sacred Chank of India (Bulletin VII), 1S1 pages, Madras,

1914.

11. The Indian Conch (Turbinella) and Its Relation to Hindu Life

and Religion (In Marine Zoology of Okhumundal).

12. The Chank Bangle Industry {Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal, Volume III, No. 7, pages 407 — 448), Calcutta, 1913.

13. The Indian Varieties and Races of the Genus Turbinella (Chank)

{Memoirs of the Indian Museum, Volume VI), Calcutta, 1916.

Other Mo 1 1 use u.

14. The Utilization of Coral and Shells for Lime Burning in the

Madras Presidency (Bulletin No. VIII), Madras, 1916.

15. The Edible Molluscs of the Madras Presidency (Bulletin XI),

Madras, 1916.

i$a. The Common Molluscs of South India (Bulletin XIV), Madras,
1921.

16. A Revision of the Indian Species of Meretrix (one o( the clams)

{Records of the Indian Museum, Volume XIII, Part III),
Calcutta, 1917.

17. The Anatomy of the Window-Pane Oyster (Placuna) {Murine

Zoology of Okhamandal), London, 1909.

Fishes and Fishing.

18. Report on the Feasibility of Operating Deep-sea Fishing Boats on

the Coasts of the Madras Presidency (Bulletin IV), Madras,
1908.

19. The Results of a Fishery Cruise along the Malabar Coast and to

the Laccadive Islands in 1908 (Bulletin IV), Madras, 1908.

20. Marine Fish-farming for India (Bulletin XI), Madras, 191 1.

21. Note upon two Exploring Cruises in Search of Trawl Grounds off

the Indian and Ceylon Coasts (Bulletin VIII), Madras, 1916.

No. 5 (1922) FISHERY PUBLICATIONS 123

22. A New Protozoan Cause of Widespread Mortality among Marine

Fishes (Bulletin XI), Madras, 191 7.

23. A Statistical Analysis of the Fishing Industry of Tuticorin { Bulletin

XI), Madras, 191 7.

24. The Indian Beche-de-mer Industry, Its History and Recent

Revival (Bulletin XI), Madras, 191 7.

25. Report to the Government of Baroda on the Marine Zoology of

Okhamandal, 2 volumes, London, 1909 — 16.
25a The Fisheries of Norway and Denmark (Bulletin XIV), Madras,

1921.
25^. The Flying-Fish fishery of the Coromandel Coast (Bulletin

XV), 1922.

Fishing Boats.

26. The Origin and Ethnological Significance of Indian Boat Designs,

117 pages (Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume
VII, No. 3), Calcutta, 1920.

27. The Outrigger Canoes of Indonesia, 71 pages (Bulletin XII),

Madras, 1920.

28. The Affinities of East African Canoes (Man), London, 191 9.

29. Les Pirogues a Balancier de Madagascar et de L'Afrique Orientale

(La Geographie, Volume XXXIV, No. i\ Paris, 1920.

30. The Common Origin of the Outrigger Canoes of xVIadagascar and

East Africa (Man, Volume XX, No. 9), London, 1920.
30a. Catamarans and Reed Rafts (Alan in India, Vol. I), Ranchi,

1921.
30^. The Origin of the Chinese Junk and Sampan (Man in India*

Volume II), Ranchi, 1922.

General.

31. Three New Indian Cestodes (Reports of the Indian Museum,

Volume VII, Part II, No. 18), Calcutta, 191 2.

32. Description of a New Species of Pinnotheres (By J. Hornell

and T. Southwell) (Marine Zoology of Okhamandal, Part II),
London, 1916.

33. A Guide to the Madras Marine Aquarium, Madras, 1919.

34. The Madras Aquarium (Jnl., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, Volume

XXVIII, Part 3), Bombay, 1922.

35. Some Commensals of Indian Alcyonarians and Crabs (Jnl.,

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, Volume XXVIII, Part 4), Bombay,
1922.

36. The Currents of the Gulf of Mannar (in preparation).

124 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

By the late Mr. H. C. Wilson—

i. Note on the Treatment of Swamps, etc., for the Destruction of

Mosquito Larvae (Bulletin XI), Madras, 191 7.
2. Reports on the Fisheries in the Rivers of the Nilgiri district

(Bulletin XII), Madras, 1920.

By Rao Bahadur V. Govindan —

1. Fishery Statistics and Information, West and East Coasts, Madras
Presidency (Bulletin IX), Madras, 191 6.

By Mr. B. Sundara Raj —

1. Remarks on the Madras Species of Haplochiius, read before

the Indian Science Congress, Madras, 191 5.

2. Notes on the Fresh-water Fishes of Madras {Records of the Indian

Museum^ Volume XII, Part 6, No. 17), Calcutta, 1916.

3. On the Habits of Hilsa (Clupea ilisha) and Their Artificial Pro-

pagation in the Coleroon {Jul. and Proc, Asiatic Society of
Bengal, N.S., Vol. XIII, No. 2), Calcutta, 191 7.

4. The Value of Fish as Natural Enemies of Mosquitoes in com-

bating Malaria (Leaflet issued by the Madras Fisheries
Department), Madras, 191 8.

5. A new Genus of Lernaeid Fish Parasite from Madras, read before

the Indian Science Congress, Nagpore, 1920.

By Mr. S. T. Moses—

1. The Fish Supply of Madras; a statistical study (in the Press).

2. The Anatomy of the Chank (ready for the Press).

By Mr. M. Ramaswami Nayudu —

1. A Statistical Analysis of an Inshore Fishing Experiment at

Madras (Bulletin XII), 1919.

2. The Eggs and Larva? of Flying-fishes (Bulletin XV), Madras,

1922.

By Mr. Ramaswami Ayyangar —

1. Notes on the Fauna and Fishing Industries of the Laccadive
Islands (Bulletin XV), Madras, 1922.

IV— EDUCATION.

It was early realized that no rapid progress in the general
improvement of the conditions of our fisherfolk is possible till their
intelligence has been quickened and their comprehension of our
recommendations and methods facilitated by education on simple

NO. 5 (1922) EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES 125

but practical lines. A comprehensive scheme was therefore drawn
out in March 1919. Government approved the proposals and up to
the present time the department has opened 18 day and 9 night
elementary schools. It is intended to open others as opportunity
and funds allow. To provide teachers with qualifications especially
adapted for these fisher schools, the department has established a
Training Institute at Calicut; 36 stipendiary students are now
undergoing training. These pupil teachers in addition to the
curriculum followed in an ordinary training school receive special-
ized instruction in organizing and managing fishermen's co-
operative societies, in sanitation, hygiene and first aid, and in
the improved methods of fish-curing, manufacture of oil, guano,
and meal, and other technical work elaborated at the Tanur
Experimental Station. They are also given e. practical insight
into the- chief methods of catching fish. The course extends
through three years and by the end of that time it is hoped that
the majority will be well on the way to become the Admirable
Creightons of the fishing villages where they will be posted.

Education of a different nature is catered for by the existing
aquarium at Madras, an institution established by Mr. Edgar
Thurston in 1909, and transferred to this department in April 1919.
It has been entirely reorganized; electric lighting has been
installed and the exhibits enriched and rendered more attractive.
An illustrated guide has been issued. The success of the reorgan-
ization may best be judged by the attendance, which leapt from
96,957 in the year we took charge, to 163,517 in the succeeding year.
Similarly the takings increased from Rs. 3,783 to Rs. 9,772. In spite
of a large increase of expenditure upon improvements, the profits
are now Rs. 4,778 as against Rs. 1, 719. The liberal expenditure on
reorganization has therefore fully justified itself. Of the illus-
trated guide issued at a nominal price of I anna, 8,066 have been
sold since its first publication in October 1919. This too in spite
of the guide being published in English. A vernacular edition in
Tamil has also been issued and has sold freely.

But our efforts to popularize the study of the animals of our seas
are not limited to this one effort. A Zoological Supply Section
was organized over four years ago at Tuticorin (since removed to
Ennur) whence specimens of a great range of the inhabitants of
our seas and coral reefs are despatched to any teaching institution
or museum requiring them. Previous to the initiation of this supply

126 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

section, colleges throughout India were compelled to base their
practical zoological teaching either upon text-book illustrations or
to buy specimens at expensive rates from European Biological
Stations. The Madras Fisheries Department has therefore become
a Swadeshi organization in the true sense of the word ; zoological
study in India can in future be based upon locally obtained
supplies. In this connexion I wish to draw attention to the fact that
this useful work is not limited to the Madras Presidency ; indeed
the chief customers are colleges in the north of India, hence it is
essentially an all-India service that we are rendering.

Our intention is eventually to supply all local school museums
with typical sets of properly identified collections of common
marine animals to replace the present useless jumble of unnamed
specimens that serve no useful purpose, and are but a camouflage
device to give school inspectors the idea that the boys take an
interest in Natural History. These type collections are accom-
panied by printed explanatory notes, giving all important and
interesting facts touching the specimens.

The value of the specimens sent out during the past three years
shows clearly how appreciated by teaching institutions are the
facilities thus provided. The figures are as follows : —

RS. A. p.

1 91 7-18 ... ... Receipts ... ... 755 11 o

191S-19 ... ... Do. ... ... 1.257 14 6

1919-20 ... ... Do. ... . . 1,607 12 o

1920-21 ... ... Do. ... ... 3,131 4 o

V— SOCIO-ECONOMICS.

This section though always kept steadily in view from the first
as ultimately one of the most important to which attention must be
given, has been taken up comparatively recently in an extensive
form. The staff detailed to its promotion is small and this of
itself limits progress. The conservatism and suspicion of the
fisherfolk already emphasized is another bar to rapid progress.
Hence it is gratifying to record that this department, working in
close touch with the Registrar of Co-operative Societies, has been
so successful in preparing the ground and in carrying out prelimi-
nary arrangements, that the number of fishermen's co-operative
societies had risen to 60 at the close of last year, with several
further applications pending. The majority of these are thrift

NO. 5 (1922) MOSQUITO LARVICIDES 127

organizations, engaged in loan operations. A notable variation is
a wholesale co-operative oil and guano society at Mangalore,
composed of factory owners who are combining to bulk their
produce and sell it jointly.

Temperance and village betterment. — A propaganda in favour of
temperance is another of the department's activities and this is
meeting with a decided and gratifying measure of success in
several important localities. This is the case particularly in South
Kanara. Such work goes hand in hand with efforts to provide
village meeting halls to be used for reading and other recreation.
In several instances the fisherfolk have been so impressed with the
advantage of possessing such halls, that they have subscribed
substantial sums to construct the buildings; the Government
provide the sites free of cost. Every opportunity is taken to show
the fisherfolk the advantage of simple methods of sanitation and
much is being accomplished in a quiet way.

VI.— ANTI-MALARIAL OPERATIONS.

These form a considerable and very valuable part of our work
and consist of three separate phases, viz. —

(a) The breeding and distribution of mosquito-larvicidal
fishes to municipalities and other bodes.

(b) The periodical stocking of pools in specially malarious
localities with such larvicides.

(c) The conversion of mosquito-infested sheets of water into
fish-breeding ponds which also serve the purpose of fry distri-
bution centres for the stocking of irrigation tanks.

(a) The department is able to supply large numbers of
larvicides at the nominal cost of Rs. 10 per thousand, but in spite
of the earnest recommendation of Government, municipalities and
other local authorities do not as yet avail themselves at all
adequately of the facilities offered them to obtain a good strain
of these useful little fishes. They appear either careless of the
value of this cheap means of combating malaria, or else depend
upon local supplies of what are too often species of inferior
larvicidal quality.

The second form of operation is more directly in our power to
organize, and an excellent beginning was made last year, when
from our larvicidal fish farm at Praema in Kurnool district, 70,000
larvicidal fish were distributed to the streams and pools in the

128 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

intensely malarious Nandya and Chelama forest ranges on the
Nallamalais. Operations will be extended to other ranges next
season.

Our third line of attack upon malarious waters is perhaps even
more important. Two instances where operations are in progress,
are the conversion of the fort moats at Chingleput and Vellore
into fish-farms. In both cases, until these operations were com-
menced, these moats formed stagnant pools, overgrown with
dense pond vegetation, supremely suitable as harbourage to
mosquito larvae. As a consequence, malaria was endemic within
both forts, an extremely serious condition seeing that a large
reformatory for boys is located within the Chingleput Fort, whilst
a Police Training School is similarly located within that of Vellore.
The cost of the two schemes is estimated at Rs. 11,450 and
Rs. 16,000, respectively. When completed, the moats will cease to
harbour mosquito larvae and will concurrently become ideal fish-
breeding farms, whence large supplies of fry will be available for
the stocking of the many large tanks now under the control of
this department in Chingleput and Nellore districts.

VII.— STAFF AND COST OF THE DEPARTMENT.

This note, which is intended to take account only of the major
operations, will not be complete without a few brief statistics.
For the importance of its duties the staff is small. It consists of a
Director, 2 Assistant Directors, a Superintendent of Pearl and
Chank Fisheries, a Personal Assistant to the Director, Q Sub-
Assistants and a further subordinate staff of 44 exclusive of peons
and temporary hands and the crews of the small fleet operated by
the department.

As before mentioned the revenue of the department nearly
balances expenditure. The figures for the past four years are as
follows :—

Ex| enc'itrre.

RS. A. P.

1917-18 ... 2,26,230 2 5 2,20,049 7 2

1918-19 ... 2,77,145 o 11 2,35,118 12 II

I9I9-2O ... 2,26,874 2 2 2,45,960 15 8

1920-21 ... 2,29,419 9 4 2,93,026 12 2

Revenue.

RS.

A.

P,

2,26,230

2

5

2,77.145

O

1 1

2,26,874

2

2

2,29,419

9

4

9,59,668

14

10

9,94,iS5 x5 IJ

NO. 5 (1922) COST OF THE DEPARTMENT 129

That the department after paying all expenses of supervision
and a large non-productive outlay for educational purposes should
show an adverse balance of not more than Rs. 34,487, over these
four years is a record of which it is justifiably proud. The official
publication of the department is its " Bulletin." The 'seventeenth
volume is now under issue, the first two constituent reports being in
the press. The aim of the department is to record its experiments
and results as fully as possible, that those interested may be able
to utilize the facts ascertained with as little delay as'possible. As
will be seen from the list given above the range of subject matter is
varied and extensive and has not been confined to purely technical
subjects.

Madras,
4th Nov. 1922.

Report No. 6 of 1 922

A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT

OF THE

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

BY

S. T. MOSES, M.A., F.z.s.
Zoological Assistant, Fisheries Department

In India information regarding fish supplies is very meagre.
In the case of salt fish, "the sheet-anchor of the poor," the fish-
curing yard returns take cognizance of all that is cured in the
yards, omitting private produce. But as regards fresh fish no
complete account is on record though short and casual references
are found in the Gazetteers and census reports. These remarks
hold good for the Madras Presidency also, except for the existence
of two reports issued by the Fisheries Department. The following
report based on the statistics of fish supplies coming into the
Madras markets collected at the instance of the Hon'ble the
Minister for Development, for one year, is an attempt to do for
Madras what "A statistical analysis of the fishing industry of
Tuticorin (South India) " by Mr. James Hornell (Report No. 3,
1917), Madras Fisheries Bulletin, Volume XI, pages 67 — 117); has
done for Tuticorin. No such information has been compiled before
now, though Report No. 3 (1920), Madras Fisheries Bulletin,
Volume XII, pages 115 — 133, in which Mr. Ramaswami Nayudu deals
with the results of the Inshore Fishing Experiments, gives an
insight into the constitution of the food-fish fauna of Madras.
The detailed information in the present report giving the extent
of the sources of fish supply in Madras will, it is hoped, be of use
to all interested in the development of our fisheries and their
exploitation by the introduction of more powerful fishing gear
and up-to-date fishing methods.

T32 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

The period for which statistics were compiled was one year and
fifteen days. The extension of fifteen days was considered neces-
sary as the work of the first fifteen days (July 1 — 15, 1921), when
the staff were gaining experience, was considered unsatisfactory
and this sanction for extension was received in G.O. Mis. No. 322,
Development, dated 7th March 1922.

The method employed to collect the statistics was different
from the one adopted at Tuticorin. Deputing men to attend at the
main fish-landing places to ascertain the catch of each fishing
catamaran as it was landed and sold, was not possible on the
Madras beach as, unlike Tuticorin, there are many landing places.
The seaboard being longer, such a method involving the employ-
ment of a staff much larger than the two men employed at Tuticorin
could not be adopted. Further, Madras, even if the Cooum and
tank fish are omitted, receives seafish not only from the Madras
waters but also from Ennore, Pulicat and Covelong wherefrom they
are brought by boat, by rail, by jutka or as head loads. Therefore
it was considered better for the enumerators to work in the
markets where nearly all the fish, except for a negligible quantity
disposed off straightway to consumers at the landing places, is
exposed for sale.

This work of collecting data from the twenty-one markets of
Madras where fish is sold was carried on under difficult circum-
stances. What with the inadequacy of the staff engaged — two men
from other sections were deputed to help the sanctioned staff of one
peon and one clerk and each of them had to visit five or six markets
twice in a day— the reluctance of the timid fisherwomen to allow
our men to gauge the quantity and price of their fish and the labour
troubles and political " hartals " in the lccalities of some of the
important markets, the enumerators' duties were very trying. One
of the men, the clerk, while doing duty at the Paracheri kadai
market, was, on the 13th January 1922, the day of arrival in Madras
of His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, very severely handled
by the mob who relieved him of his notebook containing the data
for over a month ; the book, however, was recovered some minutes
after the departure of the mob from a gutter close by and fortu-
nately only a few pages were torn and those not completely.

The weight of large fish was calculated by weighing a sample
specimen with a spring balance and multiplying its weight by the
number of fish counted. As the men became more and more

No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

133

proficient the actual weighment was given up. In the case of
smaller fish the number of baskets was counted and the baskets
used reduced in terms of standard baskets of known weight.

As in the case of Tuticorin statistics these figures lay no claim
to strict accuracy. But there is no doubt that they can be relied on
for purposes of generalization regarding the maximal and minimal
seasons, the variations in the catches, the relative abundance of
fishes, etc. The total weights and values of the various kinds of
fishes consumed in Madras during one year from the 16th July 1921
to the 15th July 1922 are as follows : —

Names.

Prawns ...

Crabs

Silverbellies (Gerridae)

Ribbon fish

Horsemackerel ...

(Lactarius)

Jew fishes (Sciaenidae)

Anchovies

Sardines

Indian herrings ...

Grey mullets

Sharks ...

Garfish ...

Sea-perches

Cat-fish

Mackerel

Red mullet

Pomfret ...

Seer

Shrimps ...

Dorab ...

Indian Whiting (^illago)

Cock-up (Lates)

Indian salmon (Polynemidae) ...

Carps

Gobies ...

Queen fish (Chorinemus)

Rays

Wei glit.

Value

LB.

RS.

A.

... 678,654

9i,nS

7

... 33-,5s4

40-243

15

••• 26.3^333

29,221

8

260,907

26,139

1

••• 238,655

34,793

14

... I75'225

24,473

0

147,152

25,659

4

146,560

17,076

1 1

... 138,971

17,585

14

12-1, 8l6

16,655

4

120,700

19,817

7

105,944

22,196

2

77,236

9,777

11

75,IlS

11,249

12

73,I2i

10,646

J3

66,719

9,598

9

58,196

8,596

9

49,°72

15,337

7

42,207

13,660

8

33,°°4

3,694

8

30,865

4,475

8

30,719

4-607

9

2I,5IT

5,624

12

18,071

3,193

1 1

17,018

3,889

5

9,133

*>2SS

14

8,510

2,104

7

7,758

1,701

4

134 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

Names.

Barracuda
Soles

Murrel ...

Seabream

Sandeels

Butterfish

Freshwater shark

Bonito

Lizard-fish

(Megalops)

Squid, etc.

Spade-fish

(Teuthis)

Batfish

Sandbugs (Hippa)
Eels

Plough-fish
Crocodile-fish ..

Surgeon

Gally-wasp

Puffer ...

(Opisthopterus) ...
(Chatoessus)
Bombay duck

Hilsa

Miscellaneous ...

LETIN

VOL. XV,

Weight.

Value

LB.

RS.

A

6,2 20

1,209

7

6,l88

915

1

3,875

764

5

2,134

083

5

1,692

389

4

1,290

422

6

I.283

184

1 2

L254

3ro

4

469

12}

12

449

48

n

438

62

4

4i3

71

2

377

48

13

250

20

0

145

13

12

119

35

7

75

6

0

45

10

6

44

20

1 1

40

6

12

3°

2

0

25

3

6

10

2

0

10

2

8

2

0

9

670,262

86,1 1 2

7

Total ... 4,054,900 5,66,466 15

As the statistics are based on information gathered from the
markets, a few remarks on the fishing gear of Madras may not be
out of place. All small fish and some large fish are netted, while
large ones are caught with hand lines. The nets in use in the sea
are Thuri valai, Eda valai, Mada valai, Peranda valai, Eru valai,
Kola valai, Irukkan valai, Vala valai, Kanna valai and Peru valai.
In the use of hand lines and the nets except Peru valai the
catamarans or keelless rafts made of three to five logs of wood roped
together are associated. On the surfbeaten coast of Madras, only
such a type of craft can be of use. It is so very simple and can be

No. 6 (1922) FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS 135

taken to pieces so quickly and the component parts so easily
beached. It can get through the fiercest surf ; a common sight is
of the men, washed away from their catamaran by a huge wave,
slipping under the wave and picking the raft up on the other side.

The Thuri valai is a light trawl net operated from two cata-
marans, one of four logs and the other of three, when the current
is strong- The net, a conical bag into which two wings lead, is
used all the year round whenever weather conditions are favour-
able. Most of the seafish sold in Madras are captured in this net.

The Eda valai is a square net with two long and two short
ropes at the corners. The corners from which the two long ropes
emanate carry weights, while there is a float between the two short
ropes. The net is operated with four catamarans, two large and
two small. When shoals of fish are sighted the four catamarans
separate, .each with a rope, the net having been let down obliquely.
At the opportune moment the net is quickly lifted up by all the
four corners, the catamarans coming close together simultaneously.

Sometimes a crude weight— a leaf basket loaded with clay — is
let down to the sea bottom by a coir rope with a float at the other
end and a string of coconut leaves between. Fish attracted by
this are caught by the Mada valai, a net similar in structure and in
its mode of operation to the Eda valai, which is swept on the coir
rope, the side of the net with the float being carried high up behind.
Fish thus caught are usually sardines, mackerel and also large
mullets.

Peranda valai, similar to Eda valai but with medium-sized mesh,
is also operated from four catamarans. Sardines and small mullets
are usually caught.

Eru valai is a very minute-meshed net used with two catamarans
for catching shrimps and anchovies.

Kola valai is another net used with two catamarans. It is a kind
of Vangu valai with about 100 sticks and is used for catching gar-
fish.

Irukkan valai is a drift net consisting of walls of nets, the under
rope of which is weighted while the head rope is buoyed to float
on the surface. The net is left in position in the sea for a night
and the men go next day to transfer into their baskets the fish
which have been enmeshed by gilling. The Irukkan valai is
large meshed and is used to capture large seer, sharks, etc. The
Vala valai, another drift net but smaller meshed than the former,

I36 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

is used to capture seer, pomfrets, sharks, hilsa and other shoals of
large fish. Kanna valai is another large meshed drift net.

Peru valai is the shore seine used on the Madras coast. For
shooting the net in the sea, the masula, a narrow keeled sewn
boat, is used. Men working at the two ends of the shore seine who
are separated from each other at first by over a quarter of a mile,
approach one another dragging the net gradually and evenly
from both sides. When the coir portion " Mottal " and the small
meshed portion the "Mayila valai" are dragged ashore the
fishes enclosed are frightened and rush into the finely meshed bunt.
The shore seine is used from about February to June when the
surf is not fierce. The fish caught are the silver-bellies, ribbon
fishes, anchovies, etc.

The special catamaran used in Kola (flying fish) fishery has
been described in detail in Report No. 4 of the present bulletin.
The hand net, Kacha valai, is used in tanks and the Cooum. In
estuaries, tanks and also on the beach is used a small meshed
casting net leaded heavily along the periphery, called Mani
valai or Visiri valai, the user wading into knee-deep water.
Konda valai, a kind of Vangu valai, with twenty-one sticks is used
in tanks. In estuaries, Siru valai with two side ropes carrying
coconut leaves is worked by over ten men who keep the mouth of
the net open by holding over their heads sticks attached to the top
of the net, when the terrorized fish dart into the bag. Once the
fish are in, the mouth is closed.

Lining is carried on extensively from catamarans called " Mela
Maram " which go long distances to about 20—30 fathoms. The
bait used is Hippa the sand bug, cuttle fish, squid or octopus, crab,
prawn, fish, e.g , anchovy (whitebait), ribbon fish, sardine, in fact
any fish. The line fishermen on their way to the fishing grounds
purchase their bait from the Thuri valai fishermen. Live bait is
also used. Last season, a fisherman tells me, induced by the
success of one in lining for seer with live puffers (Tetrodon spp.)
most line fishermen used them with deadly effect. The usual bait
for seer is the Ribbon fish or any species of Lutianus (Nethiprion
and Vekkattai).

Lining is also done from the shore both on the beach and in the
backwaters. Polynemus, the Indian salmon, is usually got though
the whiting is also hooked in the backwaters. The bait used
usually is Hippa, prawn or an Eunicid worm.

No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

137

In the commercial world fish are divided into prime for the rich
and the offal for the poor and here the" fish supply being a poor
man's question the condition of the industry depends largely on
the offal and not on the prime. Out of the 53 different kinds of
fish considered edible by Indians only a few such as seer, pomfret,
hilsa, some of the horse mackerels, cock-up, bonito and Indian
salmon are regarded as prime quality.

The prices of the catches of fish depend upon the time when they
are landed and marketed, the condition of the fish — many prefer
tainted fish, but thanks to the sanitary supervision of markets such
indulgences are scarcernow — and the general abundance or scarcity
of fish. On festivals when there is a greater demand than
ordinarily the prices run high but on fast days^ e.g., Amavasai,
Kirthigai, Ekadasi (monthly), Sivarathri (monthly), Saturdays (or
Fridays when some Hindu women fast) when the fish-eating
Hindus eschew fish, they are very cheap. The prices given in the
statistics are those at which the sellers had taken the fish from the
middlemen or as in some cases from the fishermen direct and so
are cheaper than those usually paid by the consumer in the market.

The average rates per pound of the food fishes of Madras are
as follows : — ■

Names.

Surgeon

Eels ...

Butterfish

Seer

Pomfret

Hilsa

Cock-up

Lizard fish .

Queen fish .

Bonito

Bombay duck

Crocodile-fish

Sand eel
Carp ...

Rays ...

Shaiks
Murrel

A.

7

5

5

5

5

4

4

4

p.
6
6

o
6

2
2

(Chatoessus) J

3

3
3
3

7
6

4

138

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV,

2

2

P.

I

IO

IO

9

8

7

Names. A.

Barracuda ... ... ... .. ... ... ... 3

Seabream ... ... ... ... ... 2

Indian salmon

Jew fish 1

Spade fish I

Gallywasp

Grey mullet ...

Seaperch

Red mullet

Whiting

Horsemackerel

Cat-fish

Sole

Freshwater shark

Prawns \

(Lactarius) '

Dorab I

Squid, etc.

Goby I

(Opisthopterus) J

Indian herring

Anchovies-

Sardines

Garfish

(Teuthis)

Crabs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 10

Silverbellies \

Shrimps ^ ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 9

(Megalops) )

Ribbon fish ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 7

Sand bugs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 6

Bat-fish 1

Plough-fish J ••• •"• •" "" * 3

Puffer ... 1 t

Though fish-eaters, according to eastern writers, are regarded
as a contemptible class devoid of understanding — the oft-quoted
plea in palliation of ignorance is the offender is only a fish-eater!
— fresh fish is considered by medical authorities to be much better
than other animal foods. The easy digestibility of well-cooked

No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

139

fish gives it a superiority over other animal foods. Though held
in different degrees of estimation by the various castes, a major
portion of the people eat fish whenever it can be procured. The
people engaged in fishing and selling fish are mostly Pattanavars
(seafishing) and Sembadavar (Nattar) (freshwater and river fish-
ing) and these number 6,714 (4,209 males and 2,505 females\ The
total value of fish sold during the year being Rs. 5,66,466 150, the
average income per head per mensem is Rs. 7 only. The poor
receipts, though one cannot verify the truth of the plaint of
lessened catches, which is unanimous in all kuppams and else-
where, coupled with the intemperate habits of the people keep
them pitiably down as one of the " depressed " classes.

Both in quantity and value the crustaceans are of greater
importance than any kind of fish in Madras. The prawns top the
list, while the crabs come next. Shrimps, however, occupy a low
place. The prawns sold here are both freshwater — Palaemon
carcinus is the common species — and marine {Penaeus semisulcatus).
The monthly catches and their value are as follows: —

Months.

Marine prawns.

Freshwater prawns.

Total.

L..

RS. A

[.B.

RS.

A.

LB.

RS. A.

July

34,369

5,170 1

1,155

189

8

35,524

5,359 9

August ..

84,754

10,637 13

23,785

3,9S6

8

88,539

14,624 5

Septeml er

45.905

6,Ol8 O

29,076

3,47i

8

74,981

9,489 8

October .

39.683

4,826 2

15,678

1,871

13

55o6l

6,697 15

November

33.464

3,825 8

7,270

779

0

40,734

4,605 1

December

48,364

6,066 12

18,872

2,275

13

67,236

8,342 9

January ...

40.59^

5,909 0

12,360

1,364

4

52,958

7,273 4

February

38,22)

5,836 1

12,585

1,690

4

50,814

7.526 5

March

52,728

6,507 7

I 1,782

1,384

8

64,510

7,891 15

April

50,453

6,023 I

3. 711

580

8

54,t6t

6,603 9

May

40,599

6,107 4

3,018

420

14

52,617

6,618 2

June

38.332

5,681 14
72,698 15

2,884
142,176

404
18,419

7

41,216

6,c86 5

Total ...

536,478

8

678,654

91,118 7

Prawns occupy the sixth place in the list of fishes caught in
the inshore fishing experiments of the year 1918 19, while in those
of 1917 -18 were the second important item. Here the prawns head
the list, the biggest haul being during August. After August
there is a fall noticed till November, when later they are common
till March, when again their numbers decrease till the end of July.
The best months for Penaeus are August and the trimester March
to May and not January and February as during the inshore fishing

140 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

experiments. The maximal seasons for the freshwater prawns
are from August to October and again from December to March.

The crabs sold in the markets are usually Scylla serrata, the
common estuarine crab, the Kalinandu (Kali = backwater) or Pala-
verkat nandu (so called because of its abundance in the Pulicat
lake), the marine crabs Neptunus pelagicus, the Vari nandu, and
TV. sanguinolentus, the Munru Pulli (3 spots) nandu, and the fresh
water crab Telphusa leschenaultii. According to the inshore fishing
statistics of 1918-19 they were of no importance only 6 lb. having
been caught that year. The best season for crabs as seen from
the following table is the trimester March, April and May, though
they are brought in good numbers to the markets in June, Septem-
ber and December: —

Months.

July

August ...

September

October...

November

December

January

February

March ...

April

May

June

Total

The Silverbellies (Gerrida?) comprising the three genera Equula,
Gazza and Gerres are the most important food fishes of the Madras
waters taking the place of Valai (Chirocentrus dorab) in Tuticorin.
According to the statistics of the inshore fishing experiments they
occupy the fourth place, while in Tuticorin they were the eleventh
in importance. These fish are greatly in demand by the poor who
consume them as a delicacy, but are too small for European cook-
ery. They are priced as cheap as 1 anna 9 pies per lb. and so are
within the reach of the poor man's purse. The Tamil name of
Equula and Gazza is Karal, but they are usually known as Karapodi
to indicate their small size. The species included under this group
are Equula edentula and E. insidiatrix (Suduppunam Karal), E

LB.

RS.

A.

15,888

2,626

8

26,426

4,047

8

36.365

3.547

6

20,852

2,754

3

20,076

2,750

0

29,232

3,789

1 1

i5>589

1,672

0

17,686

2-351

2

38>4i5

4»°43

4

46,392

4,45 l

2

41,988

4,33°

M

29.675

3,880

5

33S.5<S4

40,243

i5

No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

141

splendens (Kali Karal), E. daura (Namakaral), E. blochii and Gazza
miimtah (Kottu Karal), Gerres lucidus (Udan) and Gerres filamentosus
(Val Udan).

As seen from the following statement August is the best month
for Gerridae. Equula and Gazza are common from August till
November, while the season for Gerres is from February to July.

Months.

Karapodi.

Udan.

Total.

LB.

RS.

A.

LB.

RS.

A.

LB.

R.S. A.

July .. ..

11,967

1,459

0

2,362

4«7

8

14,329

1,876 8

August ...

53,190

5o23

14 ,

829

142

4

54,019

5,466 2

September

31.875

3.164

6

1,024

n7

10

32,899

3,282 0

October , ...

24.975

Z-305

14

...

• ••

24,975

2,305 14

November

2!,7IQ

1,981

12

50

13

0

21,769

1,994 12

December

15.524

1,709

3

70

10

8

15,594

1,719 11

January

15,201

i,7i4

8

565

75

2

15,766

1,789 10

February

14,972

I.6S6

2

2,238

400

6

17,210

2,086 8

March ...

iS, ;55

2,054

4

2,447

401

2

20,802

2,455 6

April

15,665

1,923

13

2,208

414

14

17,873

2,338 11

May

12,671

i,5M

0

2,335

444

1

[5,006

1,958 1

June

10,642

1,450

8

2,449

457

J3

13,091

i,948 5

Total

246,756

26,327

4

16,577

2,894

4

263,333

20,221 8

The Ribbon fish or the hairtail (Tricliiurits) forms the second
most important food fish in Madras, while in Tuticorin it takes a
very low place among the food fishes. During the inshore fishing
experiments of Madras (1918-19) it did not figure as an important
fish being seventeenth in rank. Three species of Trichiurus (Savalai,
Olai valai and Karthigai valai) occur in Madras, Trichiurus muticus,
T. haumela, and T. sa.va.la- These are sometimes used with deadly
effect as bait for seer : —

Months. lb.

July ... 987

August 4,645

September ... ... . ... 17,850

RS. A.

121 4

477 5

1.734 o

142

Months.
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
May
June

iULLET

IN

VOL. XV,

LB.

RS.

A.

14,051

10,370

7

5r>329

5,08S

3

23*576

3,°94

3

23>°53

2,61 2

4

9»432

886

12

3,°45

353

4

3,670

379

5

5.322

558

3

3.947

467

4

Total ... 260,907 26,139 t

From the above statement the best season for Savalai appears
to be from September till January, the maximum catch being in
October. November ranks next and as it is equivalent to the
Tamil month Karthigai the Savalai is also known by the name of
Karthigai Valai.

The horsemackerels, so named because of the supposed
coarseness^of their flesh, are the next in importance, though accord-
ing to the Madras inshore fishing statistics are the 15th out of 39
food fishes. In Tuticorin they occupied the 14th place in the list
of 36 food fishes. The species usually sold in Madras are Caranx
rottleri (Komaraparai), C. djedaba (Morsing parai = Jew's harp
horsemackerel), C. iffinis (Semparai), C. kalla, C. armatus and
C. nigrexcens (Thengai parai or coconut fish), C. ire (Vennai parai
or Butter-fish), C. Icptolcpis (Pulli parai or spotted horsemackerel),
C. speciosus (Puli parai or tiger horsemackerel) and C. hippos
(Manjal parai). They are all good eating and are included among
primefish. This is the most important fishery in Madras as it
fetches the highest total value among the fishes (crustaceans are
excluded) of Madras.

Months. LB. RS. A.

July ... 25.015 3,359 I

August ... ... ... 56,200 7f742 9

September 22,535 26,645 9

Octcber ... 9,208 1,182 10

November ... ... ... 6,225 997 14

December ... ... ... 5,^39 St' 6 13

January ... 9,029 1,588 4

LB.

RS.

A.

9-595

ifS37

12

25.620

3.734

5

23.566

3.331

13

23-927

3,871

1

22,696

3,9i6

3

238.655

34,793

14

No. 6 (1922) FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS 143

Months.

February
March
April ...
May ...
Tune

Total

The season for horsemackerels as seen from the above state-
ment is from March till September, the greatest catch being in
August.

Lactarius delicatulus which is the 17th in importance out of the
36 food fishes of Tuticorin is an important fish in Madras. During
the inshore fishing experiments, however, it was not much in
evidence. It is considered very good eationg thugh Dr. Day says
" it is insipid ".

Months.

July

August

September

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

May

June

Total

This fish occurs in good quantities for nearly ten months in the
year ; the best month is October, August and March coming next.

The Jew fish which comes next in importance in Madras is an
important food fish of Tuticorin being third in the latter list. In the
Madras inshore fishery accounts it was the 1 6th out of the 39 fishes
caught. The Jew fishes of Madras include three genera Umbrina,

LB.

RS

A.

5,778

832

5

23.484

2,8l4

8

i3>x37

i.t43

1

26,140

3>°3-*

4

12,409

r,594

10

7,251

1,064

1 2

1 i,Soi

1,856

13

15.281

2,677

13

2 0, 1 2 2

3,215

13

12,05s

1,868

4

12,224

1,97s

5

I5,54°

2,094

8

175.225

24,173

0

144

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV,

Sciaena and Otohthus. The species seen were Sciaena belangeri and
5. albida (Karungathalai), S. albida and S. miles (Vellai kathalai),
5. maculata (Pulli kathalai), 5. maculata and Umbrina dussumieri
(Vari kathalai), and 5. aneus and Otolithus ruber (Panna).

Months.

Kathalai.

Pan

na.

Total.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS.

A.

LB.

RS. A.

July

2,879

534 10

9,628

1,574

12

12,507

2,109 6

August ..

5,317

94° 13

2,IIO

360

I

7,427

1,306 14

September

3,3°°

678 6

2,373

323

12

5,733

1,002 2

October

9.893

1,249 5

2,717

37 J

I I

12,610

1,629 O

November

4,402

485 12

3,36.)

453

4

7,77i

939 0

December

5.954

1,187 13

3.825

751

8

9,779

i,939 5

January

4,112

1,02 1 2

5.375

938

4

9,46'7

1,959 6

February

4,424

952 15

7,213

1,212

7

11,637

2,165 6

M arch ...

5,203

875 II

10,706

1,89c

14

15,909

2,766 9

April

5.55o

1,057 7

9-355

1,679

3

14,905

2,736 10

May

2,127

4'5 3

14,089

2,71?

0

16,2.6

3- x33 3

June

43°

7S 3

22,741

3,894

4

23,171

3.972 7

Total

53,651

9.483 4

93.50I

16,176

0

147,152

25.659 4

From the above table the season for Jew fishes appears to be
from February till July with the maximal period in June. They
occur in good numbers also during October.

The Anchovies, the 5th important fish according to the inshore
fishing experiment statistics, rank next in importance. They
belong to the genus Engnaulis the species found being E. hamiltoni
and E. mahdmricus (Poruwa), E. indicus and E. tri (Nethili). These
are used as bait for large fish and it is this use in other countries
that has secured for the fish the name whitebait in contradistinction
to the other fish baits which are not silvery in colour. In May and
June niany Engraulis tri are found to carry near the tail region
Lemceid parasites closely allied to Cardiodectes, and people are
afraid to eat them then.

No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

145

Months.

NethUi.

Po

ruwa.

Total.

LB.

RS.

A.

LB.

RS.

A.

LB.

RS. A.

July

8,423

1,102

12

542

'25

13

8,965

1,228 9

August

19,219

2,405

O

1,77°

214

O

20,989

2,619 0

September

2,400

2 C2

O

360

36

O

2.760

288 0

October

1,605

188

14

424

40

H

2,029

229 12

November

2,406

221

12

55

6

10

2,461

228 6

December

5,738

e38

9

280

38

IO

6.018

677 3

Januaiv

28,832

3,249

13

165

28

12

28,997

3,278 9

February ...

28,916

2,784

12

2,062

348

II

24.978

3433 7

Mar:h

23.345

2,604

4

1,140

226

2

24485

2,830 6

April

7,600

940

2

1.398

291

10

8,998

1,231 12

Mav

6.C89

792

12

3,153

597

II

9,142

1,390 7

June

5,324

5«4

12
6

1,3*4
12,663

256
2,211

5

5

6,638
146,560

841 4

Total ...

133,897

15765

17,976 11

The best season for anchovies is the trimester January to March
and also the month of August. May and June, the most productive
months during the inshore fishing experiments, were only as good
as April, July or December this year.

The sardines, the second important fish of Tuticorin, also form
one of the most important here. They include three species of
Clupea and two of Dussumieria, viz., Clupea melanura (Kavalai), C.
brachysoma (NonalaiJ, C. kanagurta (Seedai*, Dussumieria acuta
(Madhakandai) and D. hasseltii (Punduvirinthan, so called because
it tends to putrefy soon and is recognized when cooked only by
the bones, the flesh becoming a jelly-like mass).

Months.

Kavalai.

Madhakandai.

Nonalai.

Pundu-
virin-
than.

Seedai.

Total.

July

August
September ...
October
November ...
December ...
January
February
March

April

May

June ...

LB.

7,3°!

12,865

12.940

4,709

I3°

235

2,379

4,636

8,804

5,335
6,222
8.883

RS. A.

939 8
1,776 10
1.3*3 8

484 3
16 0

3° 15
366 4
666 to

i,i53 0
654 2
811 0

1,082 10

LB.

3,022

2,425

640

1,065

1,656

285

1,574
716

253

1,264

160

388

RS. A.

484 3
455 0

97 2
116 2
175 10

40 0
212 8
108 7

36 0
196 4

23 14
51 10

LB.

724

I7,700
160

740

2,793

620

2,850

2,322

698

28,607

RS. A.
135 12

1,772 O

19 4

126 0
495 15
95 0
533 5
453 °
130 14

LB.

170

170

KS. A.
21 4

LB.

3°

2,274

6,060

5,77o

145

298

2,015

820

2,140
2,755

22.307

RS. A

5 10
280 8
650 0
598 8
17 0
23 4
23° 4
127 8

256 4
323 8

LB.

11,077

17,564

37,340

11,704

2,101

818

6,708

8,965

9,677

11,589

n,459
9.969

RS. A.

1,565 I
2,512 2
3,832 IO
I,2l8 I
229 14

94 3

935 0

i,398 8

1,284 0

1,639 15
1,611 6
1,265 2

Total ...

74,439

9,294 6

13,448

1,996 12

3,761 2

21 4

2,512 6

138.971

17,5^5 14

August and September are the best months of sardine fishery
in Madras, the September catch being more than double that of
August. Sardines occur all the year round, but good hauls are had

146

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV,

only from January till October. The vagaries in sardine migra-
tions may be seen by comparing the inshore fishery statistics with
ours. Clupea kanagiirta was completely absent in June 1922, while
June 1919 produced the maximum catch of the year. October 1922,
the best month of the year, was one of the poor months in 1919. In
March 1922 and 1919 Clupea kanagurta was absent from Madras. In
August and September 1922 Clupea melanura was most abundant.
In 19:9 it was absent in August and the September catch was a
poor one.

The Indian herrings are another group of important fishes,
though during the inshore experiments they were caught in small
numbers. The Tamil names are Kuthuva (Pellona hcewniijuv),
Therakulhwa (P. indica), Poovali (P. elongata) and Vengan {P.
brachysoma and P. havenii).

1

Months.

Kuthuva.

r p h p r 3. -
Poovali. , ,,

k thva.

Vengan.

Total.

LB.

RS. A

LB.

RS. A.

I.B.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

July

SS

II

0

...

...

4,975

839 8

5,°63

S50 8

August ..

1,075

[3i

4

...

8,828

1,263 2

9,903

i,394 6

Septenil.er.

1 .110

102

8

...

12,710

1,566 2

13,820

1,668 10

October ..

690

7i

c

So

9 14

...

24,670

2,697 4

25,440

2,778 2

November.

6,090

634

4

29

6 12

4965

537 6

11,084

1,178 6

December.

4,960

5?7

11

20

5 8

...

2,649

349 3

7629

882 6

January

2,628

276

8

300

49 °

8,479

1,008 4

11,407

i,333 12

February...

2,673

286

4

15

3 0

SO

14 0

9,76S

1,435 5

12 536

1,738 9

March

S65

100

O

...

••

4, 7 80

704 14

5645

804 1 4

April

555

80

0

••

...

3,795

653 5

4-350

733 5

May

920

108

c

...

8,256

1,581 M

9-176

1,689 14

June

535

63

0

8.228

i,539 8

8.763

1,602 8

Total ..

22,lS9

2,391

7

144

25 2

3S0

63 0

102,103

M;i75 11

124,816

16,655 4

The Indian herrings, though occurring in good numbers all the
year round, are most prolific in October, the other best months being
January and February in the north-east monsoon and September
and November in the south-west.

The grey mullets which are found in ihe sea, backwaters and
freshwater are of some importance in Madras though not in
Tuticorin. Under this name are included Madavai (Mugil oligolepis,

No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

147

M. spcigleri, M. oeur, M. troscheli and M. cunnesius), Nalla thannir
Madavai (M. troscheli and M. dussumieri) and Perandai (M. cunnesius
juv). The marine mullets being surface feeders delight in follow-
ing up the tide. into backwaters and the harbour feeding on algae,
etc. They are very wily and in the backwaters of Ennore and
Pulicat very ingenious methods of fishing are employed to capture
them. They are good eating when fresh but decomposition sets
in soon.

Months.

Madavai.

Fresh
Mad.

water
ivai.

Perandai.

Total.

LB.

RS.

A.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

July

10,999

2,l8l

15

260

40 0

11,259

2,221 15

August

7,666

1,224

5

...

150

2.1 O

7,8l6

1,247 5

Septembet

5.514

S65

12

i5°

20 0

5,664

885 12

October

3.7So

564

1?

...

3780

564 12

November

4,986

672

0

...

...

4,986

672 O

December

10,908

1796

2

...

210

57 4

II,Il8

1,853 6

January

11-432

1,954

2

•■

11.432

1,954 2

February

9,948

1,495

14

29

4 8

...

9,977

1.500 6

March ..

16,528

2,5^7

M

20

2 8

...

16,548

2,570 6

April

i5,S33

2.545

11

...

...

15,835

2,545 "

May ...

13.992

2,399

4

...

...

...

'3-992

2,399 4

June ...

8,295

1,402

8

...

8,295

1,402 8

Tota.1 ...

1,19.881

19,670

0

j

459

67 c

360

80 4

] 20,700

19,817 7

Mullets are available in good quantities all the year round the
trimester March to May being their best season. January, July and
December are also very good months. The roe of mullets is sold
both fresh and salted. In November an enumerator mentions 4 lb.
of roe sold in the Paracherikadai market for Re. 1-7-0, the rate
being slightly over 5 annas 9 pies per pound which is more than
double the price of a pound of mullets.

Sharks, though their flesh is coarse, are important economically.
Muhammadans do not eat them because they bear living offspring
like man ! but Hindus, etc., eat them, many species being specially
3

I48 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

recomhlended as food after child birth, during illness or in con-
valescence. The liver oil is considered to be of high medicinal
value. Many species are found in Madras, those commonly sold
being Carcharias laticaudus, C. acutus, Mustelus manazo (Pal sura —
the flesh is supposed to stimulate milk in suckling mothers).
Notidanus indicus (Matta sura), Chiloscyllium indicum (Kurangan sura)
and Zygaena blocliii the Hammerhead (Komban sura).

Months.

July

August

September

October

November

December

January

February

March ...

April ...

May

June

Total

The best month for sharks is June ; December, January and March
are the next most productive months.

The Garfishes are more important in Madras among the food
fishes than in Tuticorin. Two genera, Belone and Hemirhamphus,
are included under this popular name. The following species were
noticed -.—Belone cancila the fresh water gar fish (kola), Belone strongy-
lura (Usi kola) and Hemirhamphus limbatus (Palkolachee). These
fish whose bones are green though eaten by the poorer classes, are
rejected by many because of an unpleasant odour. Belone is said
by fishermen to be the herald and companion of the mackerel.
Hemirhamphus has a habit of leaping over the nets while fishing
goes on. Flying-fish which are called Paravai kola were not
captured this year, as the Rayapuram fishermen who went on kola
fishing came home disappointed. Though occurring all the year
round, they are prolific from December to June. In August nearly
ten times the average catch of the prolific months was brought to
the markets.

LB.

RS.

A.

• 7,356

1,882

O

8,460

i,759

2

. 4,697

747

12

. 5,497

908

I

. 7,205

i,494

C

. 10,290

2,231

3

. 10,210

i,958

10

. 9,I!9

1,914

0

• u,5i9

2,321

10

. 9,665

2,125

0

. 8,978

2,a59

6

. 12,442

2,595

6

. 105,944

22,196

2

No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

149

Months.

Kola.

Kolachi.

Total.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

July

7-359

1,176 12

100

14 O

7,459

1,190 12

August ...

35,939

4,122 14

...

35.939

4,122 14

September

8,045

989 12

...

8,045

989 12

October ...

540

»4 3

...

...

540

84 3

November

621

70 10

...

621

70 10

December

2,457

312 14

...

...

2,457

312 14

January ...

1,900

272 6

..

...

1,900

272 6

February ..

2,581

373 2

...

...

2,581

373 2

March ...

3,248

418 2

.

3-248

418 2

April

4,415

546 13

...

...

4-415

546 13

May

5,566

790 0

...

5,566

790 0

June

4,465

606 3

...

...

4,465

606 3

Total ...

77, I36

9,763 11

100

14 O

77,236

9,777 11

The sea-perches which come next in importance comprise many
genera. The following statement gives the monthly quantities
and values of the various kinds of sea perches sold in Madras : —

Months.

Kadichai

K-alawan.

Kallan-
dalai.

Kandal.

Keechan.

Ki

lichai.

Sangara.

Total.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

LB. RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

LB

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

July

...

,

187

43 8

53°

80 12

679

176

3

i,396

300 7

^August ...

125

16 0

20

6 14

...

...

414

79 5

...

...

5,970

55i 8

1,061

258

5

7,59o

912 0

September.

435

5J 0

17

6 12

60

7 0

749

130 9

3°

3 0

2-9;i5

321 14

1,900

370

4

6,176

»89 7

October ...

2

0 3

'5

2 8

...

713'na 14

...

870

160

7

1,600

2/6 0

November.

"5

31 0

...

500 78 3

...

...

...

...

88

15

I

703

124 4

December ..

...

...

10

2 0

10

2 4

146 33 3

...

...

...

53

7

II

219

45 a

January ...

1 10

24 0

80

24 0

16

4 4

...

...

670

102 8

435

86

t.

1,311

241 2

f> ebruary ...

...

...

S&5

142 8

437

83 i4

56

10 14

i55

20 12

46.5

93

5

1,679

351 '5

March

...

33

15 0

1,006

161 0

192

43 14

...

1,526

203 11

i,357

273

0

4,111

697 3

April

...

...

5*8

80 14

335

62 13

39

n 11

5,870

7^5 '3

348

62

12

7,no

1,003 '5

May

..

34

5 0

499

95 8

218

45 3

...

36,824

5,3'^ 12

402

75

6

37,977

5,55' 13

June

...

...

...

...

70

15 0

...

5,o97

825 4

79

16

4|

5,246

856 8

Total ...

672

90 3

1,404

316 8

2,347

412 7

3>3°°

60S 8

3°

3 0

59,628

8,222 14

7,737

1,596

4

75. "8

11,249 ' -'

The sea-perches occur all the year round, the best months being
March to June and August to September, May being the most pro-
ductive of all. Serranus lanceolatus the common kalawan is a
valuable sea fish attaining a good size. Its flesh has an agreeable
flavour. It is found in good numbers in February and April.
Being a bottom feeder, it along with other fish of a similar habit
is expected to contribute largely to the success of steam-trawling
when such a method is introduced into our waters. Sangara
{Lutianus unimaculatus and L. annularis — also called Nethiprion)
occurs in August and September during the south-west monsoon
and also in March. Kilichai (Caesio cuniug and C. chrysozona)

150

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV,

occurs from April to June and August to September. In May an
unusually heavy catch of this fish occurred. Kandal {Synagris tolu)
is abundant from August to November. Kadichai {Pristipoma
dussumieri) occurs only in January, August and September.
Pristipoma maculatum occurs during the north-east monsoon (Feb-
ruary to May). Its Tamil name, Kallandalai, has reference to the
stones in the head which Indian doctors hold to be of high
medicinal value. Pristipoma is called the grunter because of a
grunting noise it produces when disturbed. Therapon jarbua the
keechan though a valuable larvicide, was of no economic import-
ance during the year when only 30 lb. were sold.

The cat-fishes are another important group of fishes. They
usually occur in shoals. Though not eaten by the richer classes
and avoided by the Muhammadans as fish without scales they enter
largely into the dietary of the poor. The species noticed are the
Kadalkeletni {Macroncs gulio), Akkelethi {Plotosus arab), Irunkelethi
(P. caniits), Nattu kelethi, (Macroi/es viitatns), Solai kelethi {M. cava-
sius, the fresh water cat-fish), Theli (Clarius batrachus and Sacco-
branchus fossilis, the freshwater cat-fishes) and Uppu Kali kelethi
(Arius falcarius). When large male specimens of Ar ins are caught,
it is usual to find eggs measuring nearly Y2 an inch in diameter
falling from the mouth where they had been retained for purposes
of hatching. The name Theli or scorpion fish is given as a
poisonous secretion is injected into the severe wounds inflicted with
the pectoral spines. The first business of the fishermen, as soon
as these fish are caught, is to break offor hack away the dreaded
spines.

Months.

Kelethi.

F W. Kelethi.

Theli.

Total.

I.B.

RS A.

LB.

RS.

A.

I.B.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

July

4,933

754 «

953

184

2

5,886

«3S 13

August

7,604

790 1 1

356

67

O

...

7,960

857 II

September

3,084

?75 12

460

51

8

...

...

3-544

42.7 4

October

2,449

3°5 1

90

7

8

..

2-539

312 9

November

2,236

299 4

...

16

5 0

2,252

304 4

December

3,430

603 0

297

37

t

25

4 0

3.752

644 4

January

5,102

867 15

720

90

12

...

5,822

Q58 11

February

3,912

611 5

265

27

0

4,i77

638 5

March

8,177

1,090 2

265

3>

8

..

...

8,442

1. 123 10

April

10,049

1,415 7

40

6

t>

...

10.0S9

1,421 15

May . .

8,931

1. 43i 3

90

1 1

S

9,021

1,442 11

June

9.639
69,546

1,576 12

3,536

...

9,639

1,576 12

Total

10,121 3

516

10

41

9 0

73.123

10,646 13

No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

151

The season for cat-fishes is from March to June, the maxi-
mum being reached in April. In the south-west monsoon August
is of considerable importance.

The weight and value of the catches of the mackerel (Scomber
microlepidotus — Kanangelethi) sold in Madras markets are as under —

Months.

LB.

RS. A.

July ...

• •

... 7,285

1,229 3

August ...

• •

... 2,055

242 0

September

• •

... 7.594

1,001 5

October ...

• •

• •■ 8,747

1,124 2

November

• •

... i,499

167 3

December

... i,956

176 8

January ...

• •

...

... 4,409

579 2

February

... io,55°

1,610 13

March ...

• •

... 2,583

310 12

April

• •

...

... 5,644

853 13

May

8,908

i,457 6

June

• •

«

... 5,479

846 6

T

otal

.. 66,719

9,598 9

Mackerel were obtained all the year round though in March,
August, November and December they were scarce. The maximum
quantity was sold in February, when during the inshore experi-
ments of 1919, they were also found in plenty-

The red mullet or goat-fish (Navarai), an excellent food fish, is
sold all the year round. The species seen were Upeneus indicus
and Upeneoides sulphurcu.s. The season as is seen from the following
statement is August to January with a very low figure for October ;
March and June also seem to be good months for the Goat-fish.

Months.

I.B.

RS. A.

July

... 1,191

205 II

August ...

9-375

i,355 9

September

5,36i

697 i

October

... 2,992

454 7

November

5,5*3

794 13

December

7,437

1,230 6

January ..

• • 6,810

1,054 4

February

3,824

560 1

March ...

5,274

756 9

152

Months.

April

May

June

Total

BULLETI

N

VOL. XV,

T.rs.

RS.

A.

2,106

3°5

6

2,991

459

1

5>322

723

5

58,196

8,596

9

The pomfrets which are prime fish and in great demand among
Europeans and the richer Indian classes are sold all the year
round, the best month being August- The species seen were
Stromatcus sinensis (Mohan vowal), S. cinereu$ (Vellai vowal) and 5.
niger (Karuppu vowal), the first being commoner than the others.
All the pomfrets examined among those imported from Pulicat and
Ennore were S. sinensis. The weight and value of the catches of
pomfrets are seen from the following statement : —

Months.
Julv

August ...
September ... ...

October

November

December

January

February
March ...
April
May
June

Total .

The fish next in importance is another prime fish which is also
highly valued by Europeans. This is the seer and the species
seen were Mavulasi {Cybium co:n>nersunii), Vellra (C. guttatum) and
Vanjiram tC. interrup turn and C. guttitum juv.) The seer is sold
all the year round, the best month being November. The next
best season is from January to March.

Months.

July

August ...
September

I.B.

RS.

A.

4,692

x»539

8

7,Ol6

i,999

*5

i,43°

297

0

5,630

998

0

5,233

1,163

*5

4,642

1,404

7

2,757

S68

2

2,605

h°°5

J5

2,452

817

*3

2,635

1.003

2

5,5°9

2»277

M

4-57i

1,961

1 2

49,072

15,337

7

LB.

RS.

A.

2,3°4

1,125

4

1,296

54°

7

697

211

9

. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY

OF MADRAS

Months.

LB.

RS. A.

October

... ...

... 2,423

658 I +

November

... • • •

... 7,361

i,777 14

December

• ••

... 2,889

929 12

January ...

...

• -• 5>623

i,739 14

February

...

... 6,773

2,107 7

March ...

• • • ...

... 5>2oo

1,418 6

April

...

... 3>°°8

1,404 5

May

...

... 3.66°

1,207 13

June

Total

... i,o73

53S 15

... 42,207

13,660 8

153

Shrimps (Sinnakuni — Acetes spp.) are most abundant in Decem-
ber, the next best months being January and April. In February,
May, August and November they occur in less numbers and
lesser still during the remaining months except June when they are
completely absent.

Months.

July ...

August ...

O • • •

September
October
November
December

January

February
March
April
May-
June

Total

LB.

RS.

A.

150

20

2

2,597

307

4

375

37

8

J35

1 1

1 1

2,59°

167

4

12,216

1,106

14

5-945

812

6

1,270

180

12

320

46

0

5>99i

786

n

1,415

218

0

33.oo4

3>694

8

The Dorab {Chirocentrus dorab), the most important fish of
Tuticorin, sinks here into insignificance. It occurs throughout the
year, but the season is from November to January. The weights

154

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV,

and value of the Dorab sold during the year are given in the

following statement

Months.

July

August

September

October ...

November

December

January . . .

February

March

April

May

June

Total

LB.

RS.

A.

i»753

355

9

2.443

339

J3

436

42

14

3° 2

89

1

3.926

480

6

5.476

70T

11

5.208

790

9

2,523

397

15

2,216

319

7

2,914

414

1

2,o85

245

10

1,582

298

8

30.865

4,475 8

Known as Valai in Tamil it is also commonly called Mulluvalai
from being full of bones !

The Indian whiting, an excellent food fish, often brought to
the European table is Sillago sihama (Kelangan). Tt occurs all the
year round. July and August in the south-west monsoon and
March and April in the north-east are the chief seasons.

Months.

July

August

September

October ...

November

December

January ...

February

March

April

May

Tune

LE.

RS.

A.

3,843

712

'3

3.289

720

6

675

n5

8

1,095

200

5

2,7'4

362

8

2,675

37i

9

2,447

298

10

1,864

227

8

3.717

432

2

3.60

472

9

2,948

395

13

i,755

296

14

Total

30,7i9

4,607 9

No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

155

The Nair fish or Cock-up (Lates calcarifer) is a very highly
esteemed food fish being free from small bones. The frightful
appearance of the mouth which gapes after death has acquired
for it the Tamil name Koduwa. The fish is very common in
backwaters. In Pulicat lake Koduwa fishing is an interesting
event looked forward to with pleasure by the fishermen every
year. During the hot months fishermen of all kuppams around the
lake join together and with special large meshed nets fish speci-
mens running even to 4 feet in length. The weights and values
of Koduwa sold in the Madras markets during the year are as
under —

Months.
July

August ...
September
October ...
November
December
January ...
February
March
April
May
June

Total

The Indian salmon or " Roeball " is a fish held in high esteem.
It is often caught both in the sea and backwaters by anglers
standing on the shore. The species seen in the markets were
Polyncmus sexlarius, P. tetradactylus and P. indicus (Kala). Though
sold all the year round, the best months are February, April and
October. The weights and values of roeball, or bamln as it is also
called, sold this year are —

Months.

July

August

September

October ...

November

4

LB.

RS.

A.

• 1,057

393

12

1,271

315

I I

35 2

81

4

562

98

0

269

73

4

953

191

2

2,93°

479

2

• 2,539

566

il

. 3,867

900

2

. 2,978

788

10

2,630

939

4

. 2,103

797

14

• 21,511

5,624

12

LB.

RS. A.

538

86 6

... 1,767

318 8

735

116 9

... 3,792

526 3

1,420

312 8

I56

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

• Months.

December

January

February

March

April

May

June

Total

LB.
I,l63
1,096
2,004

1,368
2,Il8

98S
1,085

l8,07I

VOL. XV,

RS.

A.

245

8

29I

7

343

4

224

4

392

6

147

14

193

14

3,198 II

The carps are an important group of fresh-water fishes of
great economic value to the poorer classes. They are tasty, but
too small and too bony for Europeans. The carps seen in the
Madras markets are Kendai (Nuria danrica and Barbus dorsalis),
Pannikendai {Barbus chrysopoma) and Vishakendai {B. stigma).
The flesh of the last is bitter, but is, however, eaten because of its
supposed medicinal value.

Months.

Kendai.

Panni

kendai.

Vishakendai.

Total.

LB.

RS.

A.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS.

A.

LB.

RS. A.

July

450

59

8

180

17 6

16

I

8

646

78 6

August

2,764

486

1 1

...

2,764

486 II

September ...

302

47

12

302

47 12

October

143

24

11

...

...

143

24 11

November ...

11

3

4

...

...

...

II

3 4

December

5,474

i,435

4

...

...

5-'74

1,435 4

January

1,870

490

8

..

...

1.S70

490 8

February ...

382

47

12

...

...

382

47 12

March

589

59

4

52

7 12

19

3

0

660

70 0

April

3,43°

992

0

200

28 9

46

6

0

3,676

1,026 9

May

312

86

4

138

20 1

64

8

8

514

114 13

June

76

7

2

468

52 9
126 5

32

4

0

576

63 11

Total ...

15,803

3,74°

0

1,038

177

23

0

17,018

3,889 5

December is the favourite month for carps. In April and
August carps are brought in good quantities to the markets.

The Gobies which are eaten by the poorer classes comprise
many species of Gobius and one of Elcotris, viz., Gobius criniger
(Upputhanni Uluvai), G. neilli and G. cristatus (Uluvai) found in
estuaries, G. giuris (Nalla thanni Uluvai) the freshwater Goby and
Eleotris fusca (Kaluluvai). This last is said to be good eating
though too small for European cookery. One other species of
Gobius {G. acutipiimis) is often seen in the markets mixed up with

No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

157

the other Gobies. These when netted in shoals by themselves are
usually thrown away by the fishermen.

Months.

Uluvai.

Freshwater
Uluvai.

Total.

LB.

KS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

LB.

RS. A.

July

2,866

396 4

40

2 O

2,906

398 4

August

3.935

473 0

29

3 6

3.964

478 6

September ...

200

26 0

••

200

26 0

October

490

62 1

490

62 1

November

92

13 10

...

92

13 10

December

170

37 8

...

170

37 8

January

288

57 10

288

57 10

February

138

26 8

••

••

138

26 8

March

376

60 14

...

...

376

60 14

April

303

57 1

...

303

57 1

May

82

14 2

...

...

82

14 2

June ...

124

23 14

...

124

23 14

Total ...

9,064

1,250 8

69

5 6

9.133

1.255 14

Though sold all through the year, the best months for gobies
are July and August.

The Queen fish {Chorinemus tala) is found in the markets all the
year round, its season lasting from May till July. It is called
Tholparai in Tamil as the fish is sworn to as the common prime
fish, the horsemackerel, by untrustworthy butlers, etc., who peel off
the skin which comes off easily.

Rays (Thirukkai) were sold for eleven months in the year, Octo-
ber being the exception. The season is from December to February.
The species noticed were the sting-rays Trygon uarnak (Sonaga
thirukkai) and Trygon walga (Sembadaka thirukkai) and the Eagle
ray Aetobatis narinari (Kurivi thirukkai). The tail which is like a
whiplash carries powerful spines with which frightful wounds can
be inflicted and which the fishermen chop off with vindictive
animosity, at times even with the tail. The rays are all highly
esteemed by the masses.

158

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV,

Barracuda {Sphyraena jello and 5. commersonii) the Ula, is said
to be good eating though some believe the ripe females and
the roe to be poisonous. This perhaps accounts for the absence
of these fish from the markets during the cold months when they
breed. They are available for sale from January to August, the
best month being July.

Soles are prime fish. Psettodeserumei (Erumai nakku), the largest
fiat fish of Madras, and Pseudorhombwi arsius (Nakku) are
common and valuable food fishes. Other soles seen in the markets
are Cynoglossus lingua (Vari Allu), Plagusia marmorata (Nedu Nakku),
Synaptura cornuta (Vari Allu) and 5. commersoniana (Nakku).
Synaptura is not esteemed as food in Madras. Soles were sold all
the year round, the best months being August and September.

Ophiocephalus, the Murrel, is a valuable freshwater food fish.
Three species are sold here, O. striaius and 0. punctatus (Viral) and
O. gachua (Koravai).

Months.

Koravai.

Viral.

Total.

-

LB.

RS.

A.

LB.

RS.

A

LB.

RS.

A.

July

...

168

41

8

168

41

8

August

222

39

10

53o

I02

9

752

I42

3

September

4°3

53

8

266

50

1

669

I09

9

October

I87

24

M

89

22

9

276

47

7

November

140

16

5

127

27

12

267

44

1

December

60

M

12

61

20

8

121

35

4

January

35

8

6

244

62

'5

279

7i

5

February

...

30

8

8

30

8

S

March

...

72

16

12

72

16

12

April

18

4

0

250

56

0

268

60

0

May

...

643

123

0

643

123

0

June

33°

64

12

330

64

12

Total ...

1,065

I6l

7

2,Sl0

602

14

3,875

764

5

Murrel is available throughout the year, but the best months are
May, August and September.

No. 6 (1922) FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS 159

The two species of Seabreams, Chrysophrys sarbq (Vellai
Mattivan) and C. dainia (Karuppu mattivan) are excellent eating,
but should be cooked soon after being caught as decomposi-
tion sets in very early. The season is from February to April but,
till July they continue to be caught in less quantities. During the
other months except November odd quantities are brought to the
markets.

The two species of Sand eels or Spined eels Mastacembelus armatus
and Rhyncobdclld aculeata (Aral) occasionally seen in Madras markets
are much esteemed as food. These fish, sometimes miscalled
lampreys, were sold in good number in August* the next best month
being March. They were absent in February, May to July and
October. Their Tamil name, Chethu aral, indicates their habitat,
the muddy bottom of fresh-water ponds.

The Butterfish {EU,\atc nigra— Kadalviral), a nice edible fish,
was available though not in good numbers from January to August,
the best month being June,

Valai or Eri Valai, the fresh-water shark {Wallago attu), an
esteemed fresh-water food fish the rejection of which is, however,
advised by Indian doctors who believe it to cause rheumatism, is
sold in the markets from June till January, the best months being
August and September.

Surai or Ratha Surai (as the flesh is purplish) the Bonito ( Thyinius
pelamyi) was sold from February till July and also in November.
This fish is said to accompany shoals of sardines and flying fish.
This statement is partly verified by the fact that sardines were
found in good numbers during the Bonito season. But during the
maxima] season of sardines August to October not a single Bonito
was seen in the markets.

The lizard-fish (Thumbili- Saurida tumbil) was seen in the
markets in January and February during the north-east monsoon
and in August and September during the south-west.

Megalops cyprinoides (Morankendai) was sold from August to
September, small quantities being available in October and
January.

The squids {Loligo spp) and the cuttle-fish (Sepia spp.) were sold
from August to October. In June only 10 lb. were sold. These
Kadamban with the Devil-fish, Pey Kadamban {Octopus sp.), are
used as bait.
5

160 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV,

The Spade-fish (Thirattai— Drepane punctata) is good eating like
pomfret. It is sold in August and November, lesser quantities being
available in September, December, January and February. When
steam trawling is done, large quantities of this bottom-haunter are
expected to be caught.

Oramin (Teuthis Java and 71' cone atenatd) is sold in August and
September. Smaller quantities are sold in October and January.

The Bat-fish (Sadakkan — Platax vespertilio) was sold in Sep-
tember.

The sandbugs (Hippa asiatica) are crustaceans known as Illipuchi
found buried in the sand within the surf zone. Besides their use
as bait, they are valued by the poor classes who pound them into
a curry. 125 lb. were sold in December and 20 in February.

Eels (Vilangu) are abominated by Hindus who regard them as
serpents (cf. the Scots belief that eels are descendants of Eve's
temptress) and are rejected by Muhammadans because of their
scaleless nature. The ones caught are usually those that have
got into the net accidentally. They are, however, such good eating
that the odour of cooking eels is said to make a dead man sniff.
The fish fetch a high price ( 5 as. 6 ps. per lb.) and are recommended
by Indian doctors as diet for invalids. The liver is said to be an
antidote to poisons. Muraena macrura and AnguilJa, bengalcnsis
were the two species seen in the markets where they were sold in
July, August and December.

Fadangan {Rhinobatus thouini), the plough fish, was brought to
the markets in November.

The Crocodile-fish (Udupathy — Platycephalus insidiator) though
often rejected by fishermen is eaten by the poorer classes who
sometimes buy them as in July of this year.

Kozhimin (Acanthurus matoides), the surgeon, was sold in the
mirkets in January and April. It is the most highly priced
(7 annas 6 pies per lb.) fish in Madras.

Allathy {Elops saurus), the Gally-wasp, was sold in January.

Pulli pilachai (Tctrodon patoca), the puffer, is an inedible fish 0/
no economic value. It is rejected by fishermen as eating its
indigestible flesh is said to bring on vomiting and purging with
sometimes fatal effects. The flesh, however, is said to be tasty and
is recommended by Indian doctors as food for consumptives. The
pleasant taste and the disastrous effects of eating it are set forth
in a Japanese proverb which says " Great is the temptation to eat

No. 6 (1922) FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS l6l

4 Fugo ' (puffer), but greater is the dread of losing life." This year
30 lb. of puffers were sold for Rs. 2 in the Egmore market on 20th
December 1921 apparently for medicinal use.

Thalari (Opistliopterus tartoor) was seen in the markets in
October.

Ten lb. of Pachakutty ( Chatoessus nasus) were sold in December.
This fish which usually occurs in large shoals is good eating
though bony.

Vangaravasi {Harpodon iichercus), the Bombay Duck, is a rare
fish, 10 lb. having been available in March. The fish which is
coated with plenty of mucus is very good eating and is reckoned
a delicacy when fried in ghee.

Ullam (Clupea ilisJia), the Sable fish or Hilsa, is such a highly
esteemed food fish that a Tamil proverb advises one to sell all that
he has to buy it. In Sanskrit it is Matsya Raja, the king of fishes.
A rich food before the eggs are deposited, the fish has so many
bones that one has to be careful in eating it. Only 2 lb. of this
fish were sold in the Madras markets during the statistical year
and that was in October. The following statement gives the
monthly statistics of the different kinds of fish sold in Madras
during the year 1921-22 : —

162

MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

VOL. XV,

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No. 6 (1922)

FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

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MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN

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FISH SUPPLY OF MADRAS

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l66 MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETIN VOL. XV, No. 6 ( 1922)

The population of Madras City according to the latest census is
526,911, of whom Hindus number 427,722, Muhammadans 53,163,
Christians 44,136 and Jains 1,057. The fish-eating population con-
sists of Muhammadans, Christians and a majority of Hindus. The
Jains touch no sort of animal food and among the Hindus the
Brahmans who form about 6 per cent and the orthodox Saivites
generally do not eat flesh, or fish. Taking into consideration the
many days when fish food is tabooed to Hindus, the minimum
proportion of fish-eating Hindus may be fixed at 50 per cent.
Thus the total number of fish-eaters in Madras, who would eat
fish if it can be procured, is about 300,000. The total quantity of
fish consumed in Madras during the statistical year is 4,054,900
lb. Thus if all who would eat fish in Madras were supplied with
fish, the quantity allotted per head would be 13% lb- in one year!

This means that the supply is insufficient. Nearly fifty years
ago when an enquiry into fish supply and demand was conducted
in the Tinnevelly and Madura districts, the result was the same,
that demand exceeded the supply and a correspondent to the
Madras Mail said in August 1873 that fish-eaters there, finding the
supply of fish insufficient, supplemented it by indenting on frogs,
four edible species of which are common in the Madras Presidency !
Thanks to the activities of the Madras Fisheries Department,
trawling experiments and the inshore fishing experiments have
revealed the existence of untapped sources of fish supply which
can be harvested when better financial conditions prevail. Import-
ant problems of life histories, etc., of fishes are being tackled,
to enable the Department to devise well-founded schemes for
increasing the fish supplies.

A

mS*43«&«£

LIST OF MADRAS FISHERIES BULLETINS

ISSUED UP TO DATE WITH THEIR

CONTENTS AND PRICES.

BULL. Jjg^

NO.

1. Papers from 1899 relating chiefly to the Development of

the Madras Fisheries Bureau. By Sir F. A. Nicholson, 1915,
Re. I-14-O. (Pages 237.)

2. Note on Fisheries in Japan. By Sir F. A. Nicholson, 1907.

(Out of print.)

3. the Preservation and Curing of Fish. By Sir F. A. Nicholson,

1909. (Exhausted ; revised edition under preparation.)

4. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1908. By James Hornell.

(Out of print.)

5. The Practice of Oyster-culture at Arcachon and its Lessons

for India. By James Hornell, 1910, Re. 1-6-0—

I. Introduction ... ... ...

II. The physical conditions characterizing Arcachon basin
III. The origin and development of oyster-culture at Arcachon

IV. Present methods and conditions

V. Principal characteristics of other European systems of cultiva-
tion ... ... •••

VI. Applicability of French methods to oyster-culture in India ...

6. Marine Fish-farming for India. By James Hornell, 1911,

Re. 1-4-0 —

I. Introductory

II. French fish-farming at Arcachon ...

III. The communal fish-farms of Comacchio ...

IV. The scope for marine fish-farming in India

7. The Sacred Chank of India. By James Hornell, 1914, Rs. 2—

Introductory ...

I. The chank fisheries of India and Ceylon

II. The chank bangle industry

III. The role played by the chank in Indian religion and life

IV. Appendix ,

8 . Marine Fishery Investigations in Madras, 1914-15. By Jambs
Hornell, 1916, Re. 1-12-0 —

I. A note on the edible oyster

II. An explanation of the irregularly cyclic character of the pearl
fisheries of the Gulf of Mannar

III. Notes upon two exploring cruises in search of trawl grounds

off the Indian and Ceylon coasts

IV. Report on the pearl fishery held at Tondi, 1914

V. Professor Huxley and the Ceylon pearl fishery, with a note

on the forced or cultural production of free spherical pearls.
VI. The utilization of coral and shells for lime-burning in the
Madras Presidency ...

9. Fishery Statistics and Information, West and East Coasts,

Madras Presidency. Compiled by V. Govindan, with

Introduction by Sir F. A. Nicholson, 1916, Re. 1-12-0—

Gives a summary of the numbers of fish-curing yards and fishing

boats, the methods of curing fish and a sketch of the economic

conditions now existing, etc. (Pages 140.) J

10. Annual Reports ok the Fisheries Department for each
year from i908-o9 to i916-17. by slr f. a. nicholson,
Rb, i-io-o. (Pages 179.)

PAGES

1—4
4—7

7—19
19—74

75—79

79—90

1—3

4—20

21 — 62

63-83

3—40

41 — 116
117— 172
173— 181

I — 10
II — 22

23—41
43—92

93-104

105—126

I— 51

B DLL.
NO.

11. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1917, Re, 1-4-0—

lible molluscs of the Madras Presidency. By James

HOJ ...

II. A new protozoan cause of widespread mortality among marine

rishes. By James Hornell 53—66

III. A statistical analysis of tbe fishing industry of Tuticorin (South

India). By James Hornell .' 67 — 117

. The Indian beche-de-mer industry ; its history and recent revival.

James Hornell 119-150

Carp-growing in Germany. By Sir F. A. Nicholson ... ... 151--160

ote on treatment of swamps, stream beds, ponds, wells, pools,
and other mosquito-infested areas for the destruction of their

larvae. By H. C. Wilson ... ... 161 — 172

12. .s Fishery Investigations, 1920, Rs, 4—

Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1918-19. By Jam

Hornell, As. 5 ...

11. The Outrigger Canoes of Indonesia. By Hornell.

Illustrated with 55 text figures and 16 plates, Rs. 2-14-0 ,.. 43 — 1 j

atistieal Analysis of an Inshore Fishing Experiment at
idras, 1919. By M. Ramaswami Nayudu, As. 4 ... u

IV. Reports on the methods of capture and supply of fish in the

rivers of the Nilgiri district. By the lats H. C. Wilson, As. 4. 135 — j

V. Notes on the Cichlid Fishes of Malabar, Etroplus suratensis and

E. macuiatus. By N. P. Panikkar, As. 4

13. Madras Fishery Investigations, 1921—

1. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1919-20. By THE Hon.

;. Campbell, As. 4 ... 1

U. Remarks on Canning. By Sir F. A. Nicholson, As. 12 ... 35—146

111. Manufacture of Fish Oi! and Guano. By Sir F. A. NICHOLSON,

Re. 1-4-0 147—266

14. icry Investigations, 1921 — (continued) —

IV. The Fisheries of Norway and Denmark. By James Hornell,

1—56

V. The Madras Marine Aquarium. By James Hornell, As. 6 ... 57—96

VI. The Common Molluscs of South India. By Jamks Hor-

nell, Re. 1 • ... 97 — 215

15. v Reports, 1922—

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1920-21. By

Hornell, As. 4

11. Notes on the Fauna and Fishing Industries of the Laccadive
Islands. By S. Ramaswami Ayyangar, As. 4
III. The Grey Mullets of Tuticorin. By R. H. Whiteuouse,

As. 4 ... ... ...

IV. The Flying-fish Fishery of the Coromandel Coast and the
Spawning Habits of Cypsilurus. By J. Hornl b a note

on the Eggs and early Embryonic Development, ..MA-

Nayudu, As.'6

Y. The Aims and Achievements of the Madras Department of
Fisheries. By J. Hornell, As. 3
VI, A Statistical Account of the Fish Supply of Madras. By S. T,
Mosks, As. 6

16. The Indian Pearl Fisheries of the Qv

.. By J. Hornell, Rs. 2-S-0 ... i — 188

17. Fishery Reports, 1923—

I. Madras Fisheries Administration Report, 1921-22.

Hornell, As. 4 ,„ i— 44

-09

71

99-

-112

XI3—

-129

131-

166