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MADRAS JOURNAL

or

LITERATURE AND SCIENCE,

EDITED BY. THE COMMITTEE
é OF sae
JWanras-Literary Soctetp
AND

AUXILIARY ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

Vol. I. New Series.
or, Vol. HVII, Old Series.

October, 1856—March, 1857.

MADRAS:

PRINTED BY PHAROAH AND CO,
ATHENEUM PRESS—MOUNT ROAD.

1807.

me

;
-

re

II.

Ill.

Vill.

XII.

XIII,

CONTENTS or Vor. I.

Page.

Description and plan of the Natron Lakg of Loonar, with an ana-
lysis of the.Salt. By George Smith, m. p., Residency Surgeon,
Hyderabad. mgki es - - -

Notes on Indian Currencies. By J. W. Breeks of the Madras Civil
Service. -9 - > - - -

Entomological Papers, beingdescriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera
with such observations on their habits, etc., as appear in any way
interesting. By Pohn Nietner, Colombo, Ceylon. [No. I.] -

) Description of a Plain or Waxed paper Process in Photography. By

Jesse Mitchell, Adjutant, Ist Native Veteran Battalion. - =

Description of the Manufacture of Biddery Ware. By George
Smith, m. D., Residency Surgeon, Hyderabad. - -
Notule Botanice No. I. On the Sand-binding Plants of the Madras
Beach. By Hugh Cleghorn, Mm. D. “ - - ~
The Geological features of Madura, Trichinopoly, Tanjore, and
Poothacotta. By the Rev. D. Muzzy. - - -

A Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Todas of the Nilagiri
mountains. By the Rey. F. Metz of the German Evangelical

Mission. - - - > 2
[I. of No. II.] Do. do. do. do. do.
(Continued from p. 108.) - > = a E

[II. of No. II.] Brief notices of Pelagian Mollusca collected ona
voyage from England to Madras, during the months of April, May

and June, 1856. By William Traill, . p. - aS ae =
[III. of No. II.] Ona Photographic Printing Process. By Cap-
tain Tripe, 12th Regiment N. I. - - - - -

[1V. of No. II.] Entomological Papers, being descriptions of new
Ceylon Coleoptera with such observations on their habits, etc. as
appear in any way interesting. By John Nietner, Colombo, Cey-
lon. (Nos. II. and III.] - . - - - -

[V. of No. II.] Memo. on the subject of Rain Gauges for the Pro-
vinces of Madras. By W. H. Bayley, Madras Civil Service. *

21

57

71

81

85

90

103

13k

147

166

bho
o
LJ)

CONTENTS.

SELECTIONS. ;
Page.
1.—Peruvian Bark-tree and its introduction into India. - - 208
2.—Supposed Aérolite in a tree. “ - = 1 Ss ~- 242
3.—On the Results of the Excavations in Assyria and Babylonia. - 251
4.—Flora Indica of Hooker and Thompson. - . - «= 254
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

a3 i Hawekdunieey at Travancore. aot De, he oe oe age |
2.—Discovery of a pot of Gold Coins, i in the Districtof Madura. - 114
3.—The Storm of the 20th November, 185@ - <4 8 wt SP ies - 115

4,—Effects of the Storm of the 26th November 1856, at the Agri-
Horticultural Society’s Gardens, Madras. at - - - ~—= ioe
5,—Mines of Antimony in the Punjab. - - - . ~ 254

6.—Observations on the Graphite or Blumbago of Kumaon and Tra-
vancore. SN ea > ee a A saree!
7.—Coal boring at Kotah. . . . - - - ~ - 261
8.—Meteorological Curves. f= : ~ <7 ke - - 267
9.—New Species of Silk Worm. - - + = -* ~~ - 2268

NOTICES OF BOOKS.
1.—Oriental Literature. " - = - - ee ee
2.—Natural History. ania a > - . - - - = 274
PROCEEDINGS.

1. Proceedings of the Managing Committee of the Madras Litera-
ry Society. - ~ - + October Oth, 1856 . -< 5 - = iise
y4 Do. Do. - - November 13th, 1856 - ao Se
3 Do. Do. - = December 11th,1856 <- + 121
4. Do, Do. ® - January 8th, 1857 — =: ~ 277
5. Do. Do. mo a February 12th, 1857 - ~- 279
6 Do. Do. - «= March 12th,1857 - ~- 283
7. Annual General Meeting of the Madras Literary Society. - - 281

METEOROLOGY.

1. Meteorological Observations for Aug., Sept. and October 1856. 127
2 Do, Do, for Dec, 1856, Jan. and Feb. 1857. 287

CONTENTS, iii

- LIST OF PLATES 1n Vou, I
I. Plan and Section of the Loonar Lake.
ily Spinifex squarrosus, Linn.
Ls; Ipomea pes-capre. Goat’s foot creeper or Rabit weed.
IV. Canavalia obtusifolia, D. C.
af Microrhynchus sarmentosus, D. C.

“VI. & VII. Therm. and Barometer Curves, for 1852. (Plates 1 and 2 of No. II.)
VIII. & 1X. Do. do. do. for 1853. (Plates 3 and 4 of No. II.)
xX. & XI. Do. do. do. for 1854. (Plates 5 and 6 of No. II.)
XII. & XIII. Do. do. do. for 4855. (Plates 7 and 8 of No. II.)
XIV. XV. XVI. Specimens of Mollusea, for classification and description of

which, gee page 163. (Plates 9, 10 and 11 of No. II.)
XVII. Chart of the track of the’American Clipper Blue Jacket. (Plate 12
of Ng, II.)
, e

ERRATA 1 Vou. I.

page 58, line 15 for Lamellicornes read Lamellicornia.

page 64, line 29 for postice read pone.

page 108, at the bottom of the page insert (to be continued. )

page 110, line 33 for Charlio’s read Charlie’s*

page 151, line 2 for last number of the Journal read page 108.

page 204, line 17 for 4:97 read 4679.

page 220, at the bottom of the page add “ Kew Miscellany, Vol. viii. pp.

302, 337.

MADRAS JOURNAL

OF

LITERATURE AND SCIENCE.

"NO. 1-NEW SERIES.

October—December, 1856.

get see ee

I. Description and pian of the Natron Lake of Loonar, with
an analysis of the Salt. By Gzeorce Suiru, M. D., Resi-
dency Surgeon, Hyderabad. |
[The following interesting description of the Loonar Lake of Berar was com-

municated by Dr. SmiTH to the Committee for the Madras Exhibition for 18957,

and placed by them at the disposal of the Madras Literary Society, for insertion

in their Journal.]
In the Circar of Meinker Soubah of Berar, about 45 miles

Description of theLake N.W. of Hingolie in Lat. 20° N., lies the

ee curious Natron Lake of Loonar. It is situat-
ed at the bottom of a crateriform depression, which forms a sin-
gular and unexpected interruption to the general gentle undula-
tory character of the district. The Lake is 510 feet below the
level of the surrounding ground*—has a rounded outline and is
about 3 miles in circumference. The sharp edge of the great ex-
cavation is about 5 miles round and the inner surface of the bowl
rises abruptly at an angle of from 75° to 80°. The surface of this
sharp slope is covered with luxuriant vegetation, in the shape of
trees and thick, vigorous underwood, tenanted by the tiger, hog,
panther, deer and peacock. Between the sloping bottom of the

* As calculated in January last by the aneroid, which during the descent from

oe brim of the crater to the level of the lake rose 6-10ths of an inch, nearly 510
eet.

t For list—vide Appendix No. 4 extracted from Surgeon Bradley’s Memoir.

Q The Natron Lake of Loonar. [no. 1, NEW sERIEs,

abrupt dip and edge of the still green lake, the ground especially
to the N. and N. E., is under cultivation, and the luxuriance of the
crops shews the excellence of the soil and the abundance of the
irrigation. | Water is supplied freely from springs of sweet, soft
water, close to the edge of the lake, and near the surface of the
ground as well as from the streams, which in the rainy reason,
come from the surrounding water shed, and which have left their
vertical trace upon the walls of the crateriform hollow. Here
and there, in the thick recesses of the wood, are observed small
deserted and ruined Hindoo temples, ‘ouilf of the common compact
Trap of the district. Many years ago, an officer, upon entering one of
them, was seized and seriously injured by a tiger. The lake, a
still sheet of water, emitting an intajerable stench of sulphuretted
hydrogen (especially during the heat of the day, when the gas
rises in millions of bubbles to the surface of the water), has a
bright green color owing to the abundance of confervz on portions
of its surface, especially near the edges. The mud close to the
margin of the lake, is thick, black, salt and tenacious, from the
mixture of regur, salt and alum—when dry, fan shaped, black,
glassy crystals of carbonate of soda are seen. ‘The lake has evi-
dently lately extended its bounds a good deal, as proved by this,
that numerous dead trees are standing within its margin (for every
tree touched by the lake dies) and also by the fact, that a bowrie of
sweet water, protected by a low wall is now completely surround-
ed by the water of the lake. Reptiles, fish, and insects are never
found in the lake, but flocks of teal and duck dot its surface. The
water has a salt and nauseous taste, and its emanations are said
to give rise to fevers of intermittent and remittent types.

At two points, near the centre of the lake, distant from each
other about 3a mile (judging by sight) are two saline springs
which have never been known even in seasons of extreme drought,
to become dry. It is supposed that the muriate of soda from this
source, coming in contact with the carbonate of lime found abun-
dantly in the other springs of the lake, and in the surrounding
rocks whence it is washed down by the feeders of the lake, causes
the deposition of the carbonate of soda or natron salt, in a state of
greater or less purity. The purest varieties, containing upwards

ocr.—pxc. 1856.] = The Natron Lake of Loonar. 3

of §0 per cent of the neutral carbonate, being found close to the
saline springs themselves—whence it is raised by diving. The
depth of the lake near the springs, varies from 5 or 6 feet in the
hot months, to 12 or 14 during the rains.

There are six principal varieties of salt to which the natives
give the following names:—l1 dulla, 2 nim-
uck dulla, 3 khuppul, 4 puppree, 5 bhoos-
- kee and 6 madkhar. Dulla and nimuck dulla are used for dyeing
silks, fixing colors, and as medicme, and in the manufacture of
bangles.* Of khuppul, ,thefe are two kinds, one of greater va-
lue than the other; this salt i§ used in fixing the red dyes of
cloths. Puppree is used in the manufacture of bangles, in the
baking of a cake called spapuy—and by the native hukeems as an
anti-acid in dyspepsia, There is also an inferior description of
puppree. Bhooskee is a white saline salt, left as a deposit on the
margin of the lake, and is principally used in the manufacture of
soap. Madkhar is an inferior kind of bhooskee, used by Dhobies
in bleaching clothes. The purest salt is found close to the saline
springs, and the other salts in their order, as entered above, are
found on receding from that point towards the margin of the lake.

Description of Salt.

The salt is raised by divers who proceed towards the centre
of the lake, in canoes (recently introduced by

cei een leg Major Johnston{) formed of single pieces of
light wood, from 14 to 16 feet long and 24

broad. The divers remain under water several seconds, and come
up with their hands full of salt. When the lake was very shallow in
1836, the salt was scooped up by the iron pans or towas, on which
natives bake their bread—no dredging instruments are used. The
process of raising the salt is rude, tedious and insufficient. The
salt thus raised is much prized, and finds a ready sale in both
Berars, in Nagpore, Candeish and Poonah. It is purchased at the

* There are two manufactories near the lake. When these are in full operation,
bangles are manufactured in large quantities, each man being able to manufacture
from 6 to 700 daily. The eye-sight of these men fails soon, owing to the entire
went of protection from the glare of the glass furnaces. Crystallized Quartz is abun-

ant.

+ For much of my information, I am indebted to the kindness of Major John-
ston, Deputy Commissioner of Southern Berar.

4 The Natron Lake of Loonar. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

lake by dealers, who carry it to considerable distances in bamboo
baskets, and retail it.
The lake has not been worked regularly since 1836, twenty
years ago. <A detailed statement* of the re-
pny of Loonar sults then obtained, is appended for the in-
formation of the General Committee. From
this carefully prepared table, it will be seen, that 2,136 candies of
the several kinds of salt were raised, each candy being equal to
240 seers. The aggregate value of the whole being Rups. 60,081,
of which sum, the Government (Native) share amounted nominally
to 45,000. Since then, Major Joknston ‘informs me, the lake has
not been worked, and the salts are consequently in great demand,
so much so, that inferior substitutes for the salts, supposed to be
obtained from vegetable products} are procured from Bombay and
sold in both Berars. Last year (1855) Major Johnston, as an ex-
periment,{ raised from the lake 35 candies of the several descrip-
tions of salt, the value of which amounted to Hyderabad Rupees
1,461-4, the expense of raising, &c. to Rupees 522-9-9 leaving
a profit to Government of Rupees 938-10-3 equal to about
Rupees 26 per candy.
The suggestions which have been proposed for increasing the
Supgestions under eott- productiveness and revenue of the lake, and
siderationfor enhanc- which are at present under consideration may
ing the revenue of
the Lake. be stated briefly to consist of—
1.—Contrivances for preventing the flushing of the lake with
water, supplied by the main-feeder, and by the several
streams from the surrounding water shed—such as bunds
and channels.
2.—Means for raising the salt with facility, and in due quanti-
ty—such as dredging machines.
3.—Means for procuring the salts in greater purity—such as
evaporating pans.
4.—Means for protecting and preserving the salt raised—such
as sheds, store-rooms, &c., with careful supervision by
trustworthy Government officials.

* Vide Appendix No 1.
t Impure carbonates of potass from burnt wood probably.
{ Vide Appendix No, 2.

oct.—pec. 1856. | The Natron Lake of Loonar. 5

In an able statistical memoir of the Circar of Meikher, drawn
eatlae ce hs Gége? UP by Surgeon Bradley of = Sess ceri
logy of the Loonar then on special duty, the opinion is re-ad-
Lake. °
vanced and supported by Geological facts,
that this singular and wild looking excavation, is the crater of an
extinct volcano. On this point, however, there exists amongst
Geologists, I believe, some difference of opinion, so that the ques-

tion may be regarded as still ‘“‘ subjudice.’’? A jagged and pic-

turesque rent exists in the N. E. well of ‘the supposed crater, down
which runs the little stream which passes through a stone channel
called the cow’s mouth, forming part of a Hindoo temple, which is
perched romantically uyon a spot near the top of the ravine. Since
the destruction of a weir too,during the rains, a large and deep
nullah is filled with water which rushes down the ravine. The
water as it passes over the almost vertical face of a Trap wall depo-
sits travertin in considerable quantity. Through this great rent,
the lava current is supposed by Surgeon Bradley to have found
an exit, whence he supposed it to have spread over the surround-
ing country. Whilst descending the ravine, the rough natural sec-
tion thus exposed, shows Trap rocks of various kinds, vesicular,
compact and amygdaloidal. Masses also of ferruginous trap, wea-
thering red, are seen with seams of chalk, reddish ochre, clay and
disintegrated trap having all more or less of a stratiform aspect.
During the Resident’s recent tour to Hingolee, Loonar, Mominadad,
Oodygheer and Beder back to Hyderabad, the whole route with
the exception of the syenite and green stone near Hyderabad, and
_ the laterite plateau of Beder lay over an uninteresting country of
Trap to the entire exclusion of rock of greater Geological and
Paleontological character. In many places, the Trap bears features
precisely similar to these observed in the walls and rent of the
Natron Lake; at times, the Trap was in solid blocks with vertical
seams and irregular horizontal rents—often seen in bowries—
again, it was amygdaloidal the nodules being imbedded in concen-
tric laminz of disintegrated trap and argillaceous shale, the beds
being laid over chalk,argillaceous schists,marls,red ochre and green
earth—again, it appeared in rude, but distinct strata, almost as
regular as the layers of stones in a wall—again, it appeared disor-

6 The Natron Lake of Loonar. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

ganized with seams, thick or thin, of chlorite, calespar, quartz and
calcedony, in contact with marl—again, it was seen in vertical shells
containing triangular fragments easily separable—again, as vesicu-
lar,trap cavities being some times distant and empty,at others close
and filled with adventitious minerals—again, it was solid, compact,
and of a leaden black hue—again, it was reddish and ferruginous,
—again,where it underlies the laterite, it was co-mingled with that
deposit, and where it slopes over the syenite, boulders of that rock
were imbedded in its masS—these the Committee should be inform-
ed, are merely the personal remarksof an inexperienced Geolo-
gist. The same appearances with a few exceptions were observed
at Loonar and in its neighbourhood. It appears to me, as if the
rocks constituting the supposed crater were too compact, to have
issued from a sub-aérial volcano, though it is more than probable
that this was one of the vents of the great eruption of the Trap of
the Deccan, which was at first effused, it is supposed, under the
pressure of water.
The points,to which the attention of the General Committee
is respectfully solicited in this reference, are the following :—
a.—What is the exact chemical composition of the several
salts? )
b.— What is their commercial value, as now sent?
c.—Are the suggestions alluded to as under consideration,
correct in their general principles? and
d.—Can the salts at Loonar be profitably separated from each
other, and if so, by what process or processes ?
.—The following specimens are forwarded for examination—

1.—Dulla.
2.—Nimuck Dulla.
3.—Khuppul.
4.—Puppree.
5.—Madkhar.
6.—Bhooskee.

7.—Travertin.

8.—Quartz used in glass-making.

9,—Glass prepared for the manufacture of bangles.
10,.—3 Bottles of water.

oct.—peEc. 1856. | The Natron Lake of Loonar. 7

(Further communication from Dr. SMITH, accompanied by a plan and section
of the Lake.]

In the plan now submitted, the crateriform shape of the hollow
is well seen, and if the opinion of some Geologists be correct,
namely, that this hollow is the crater of an extinct volcano, the in-
terest felt in it must be deepened by the fact, that, in all probabi-
lity it is the only one in southern India.

The action, however, even of a large erater like this must have
been comparatively limited, gther vents and fissures, which have
left no permanent mark “%f thejr existence must have given exit
to those vast sheeted masses of porous and solid rocks consti-
tuting the trappean plateau of the Deccan. This plateau over
lying primary and secondary focks to depths varying from a few
feet to 300 probably, Covered with a rich mantle of inexhaustible
black soil, and capped here and there along its eastern indented
edge with laterite patches, extends from 17° to 279 N. L. and from
72° 30' to 79° E. L.

It may be interesting to remark, that at the South East angle
of the plateau, the existence of numerous hot springs seems to in-
dicate the persistence of igneous action. Taking Loonar as a cen-
tre, and with a radius of 150 or 200 miles, the quarter circle ex-
tending from the North Hast to the South East, will be found to
include (a) the tepid spring of Beder, rising from the base of a
laterite cliff; (b) the hot springs at Kair on the Pain Gunga (87°
Bradley) and (c) the hot springs near Labbundee (102° Bradley)
lying in a North Easterly direction.

§

Under Raie Bul
Mookadum

Under Meer Mohib Ale
Khan Talookdar.

Talookdar.

The Natron Lake of Loonar. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

APPENDIX No. 1.

STATEMENT of Salt Fatracted from Loonar Lake from

Dulla per Candy 57

Rupees. 45 Rs. 4 As. per

|
(eee Candy.
| Quantity. Value. Quantity. | Value.

a. oe
|
|
1252 Fuslee.| 3| 1) 30 | 175,15 8) 2| 7) 10 106)14
1253 Fuslee.| 7/10} 35 | A29/18| 6| 5| 3| 261) 234

1256 Fuslee. 15118 381| 909 |

SS ee ee

Total.| 32 14 134 1,864 14 056/15) 225) 2,569)13) 3

ieee a sede 1

|
|
| |
|
|

Nimuck Dulla at

1254 Fuslee| 3! 7) 0| 190/15 318/16] 0 350l11 :
1255 Fuslee.! 2:15) 30 158)14)°6 9114, 0 | 438|14| 9
62014 26+, 938/12) 0

EE —————

—

—

1256 Fuslee...| 0 0) 0 0! 984/15
1257 Fuslee...|/30; 5, 10 | 1,72415| 6| 9115] 0 | 441/ 8
1258 Fuslee.. .| 8} 8! 0| 47813 0 2,13} 62) 120) 4
1259 Fuslee...| 0} 0| 0 0 0} 0, 0 0} 0 0| 0
1260 Fuslee...| 0| 0| 0 00 , Q 0: 0 0] 0

Total. 38/13 dle 2,208 12 ils 1] 162} 1,496) 7

as AE ee ee ee
Grand Total. 71| 7 231! 4,06810| 68916! 38%| 4,066! 4

j

|

oct.—DpDeEc. 1856. |

Fuslee 1252 or A. D. 1836-1837, under the Nizam’s Government.

Choorah at 33 Rupees

The Natron Lake of Loonar.

Khuppul at 35 Rupees

——

Puppree at 22 Rupees

8 Annas per Candy. per Candy. 4 Annas per Candy. |
—————E—EeE——EE——E—— SS —————_—_————
Quantity. | Value. Quantity. Value. Quantity. | Value.
|
a : ° a ae ; | nN .:| 4 2 . | n | ; .
Oo) e lie oO Rl a |) se ea) Oo Bla aaa!
81} 8} 0 | 3,215] 4! 0) 177\bl i6 | 6,21411) 0) 62)19) 20 1,401 3 0
41} 2} 62) 1,623)11) 9| 67) 3} 0 | 2,850) 4 0| 60} 8 122) 1,844) 4 0.
67|15| 0 2,676 2| 0] 10816) 264) 3,704) 2; 6| 181) 4] 323 2930 1 9)
54/16] 0 | 2,164/10] 6] 46/13/ 0 | 1,63212| 0| 145) 7} 0 | 3,234, 0 9)
26] 3} 124) 1,033) 8| 0| 37] 2) © | 1,298 8 0) 105 2) 0 | 2,388) 7 6
—|— |__| ——_— | —|-—-|— _— |— || —| —— ——
271 4 18/ 10,718] 4| 3| 434] 5 364! 15,200 5| 6) 505] 1) 25 | 11,238] 1 0
| | :
8,2 0 319115) 0} 315} 30 132} 9] 0} 71114 10 | 1,695) 9) 9
29, 5, 0 | 1,155) 6| 0; 16) 4) O 567| 0| 0, 22716! 0 | 5,068| 9! 0}
95) 343) 867/ 1/ 0) 3) 7] 124) 11712] 9| 127/ 0} 262] 2,828) 4! 0)
00 0 Oo} 0} of ool o 0} 0 0} 0 0! 0 0 0 0
010) 0 0} 00 «60, OF 0 0} 1 0} =O) 0 Oo 0 0! 0
en EE BEERS 2 oa SS ES Pe Ml eat geen
let 341) 1,842] 6 0 23) 7| 23) 817] 5| 9} 426/10) 362! 9,492) 6| 9
817,17! 13 |12,555|10' 3) 457121 382/16,017'111 38] 931/12! 212! 20,730! 7/9)

ty

10

Mixed Ammuis Pup-

pree at Rs. 17-4-0
per Candy.

Quantity. | Value.

ia|-; ae
O|S| 2 | a
010, of oo0
0} 8} 62/ 7 0| 0
9/13] 35 107 4| 3
2/18 10 | 50] 3| 6
4112} 0 | 79) 6 8
Bie alr Gees
1712 113} 803
image |
2) 0 | 1815 6,
s} 2| 25 | 140! 4) 0
O}16, 124] 14 1 3
010, 0) 000
0.0 0 | 00 0
——_—_ STE, Si RSEs EUS,
10] 0| 372 173, 4 9
vilisl 8s

Quantity.

60 1 10
99/14 4
43 6; 0

26/19; 10
21 4) 0

14) 0 a 4 261

ie
15; 1) 30
25/12, 0
0118 20
oS 5 30

54 5 0

ac

The Natron Lake of Loonar.

|

477' 2 9! 235 9 262| 1,163 sl 0 150 0 6 810 5 0

[ NO. 1, NEW_SERIES,

ee
|

Bhooskee. |

Value at |
Rs. 7-10-0 |Rs10-14-9 Rs 11-14-0
per Candy. |per Candy.|per Candy.|

———_——_————————__ — —[L [i

Value at Value at

“AB 15|
226| 8 6
330) 3 0
148/12 9

0 ike 0

ee el —
ecco

a

0. a 251/12) 0,

at 35 ee
1,163 sol 1 sil 51 9 ‘ “951/191 0

Nie

/
| i /

| ' “
0 o| 0| «60 0 0! 75) 6] 6!
0} 0} 0} 0 0} O| 179) 2} 6|
0/0} 0 0 0) 0 304) o 0,
0 of | 0 00) Oj 0) 0
0 Oo} 6810 9) 0 O10
———|— 1 re
0 0) 0 6810) 9 _ 558 9 9] 0

ocr.—DEC. 1856. | The Natron Lake of Loonar. 11

Madkhar. a sd git eines

|

eee a |
Value at Total Value at | Value at Total
Rs 20-14-0 eee Quantity.|Rs. 3-15-0) Rs. 8-5-0) yoy,

_ per Candy. s per Candy per Candy) ;
qt é a .| o | oa =8
aiding! & ld & Sil’ ldla| old) oldie

0} 0} 0] 457/15 9) ° 0 0.0 O01 0| O00 ooo
Clo} o| 22686) ooo} ooo} oolo ooo
610, 0| 33013 07 0} 0 0 0| 0 0 ool ol ooo
o| 0] o| aso 2i 6). a gio} of Oo) oolo ooo
of Oo} ~=—- 259/12 o| +=: 0 0| 0) 0 000 ado
ot vaso ont a iad ml Sa tae Oe Ss ea a a PL
ee 82°90 14" 0 ol O ae
o| 0! 0 75166} O00} 0,00 o OO OOo
o| 0] o| 179121 6) | ai25 16 4 3 0 010 16 413
00] 0} 30400) 0 00} 000 090 O00
19) 5| 3 19] 5 38} 0) 0, 0) 0/00) 000 O90
0 0! 0 6810 9} 01330, 0) OO) 511) 8/511) 3
19] 5 ‘ 646| 91 0| 4/16/15] 16 4 3 qu 3) 21/15! 6
19 5' 3! 2,148! a! 9! alig'i5! 46! 4) i 511| 3 21115! 6

12 The Natron Lake of Loonar. [No. 1, NEW SERIEs,

‘Deduct Char-
Grand Total. rum or
share to par- Government
Quantity | ties employ-| Share. Remarks.
of | Value. edi in extract-
Salt. ‘ing the Les |
- | -| | a i Po ie. = | Ay
oO =| a | ial B Pina far alan
'

= —— $C + CC —

3879 0 (11,571/15, 6 2892/15 9 4,678 15 a |
211/10 123) 6,216 4/6 1,554 1) 8 4,662 3 9/240 Seers to the
87919 133| 10,839) 8 0 2,709 14 0 842910 0) [Candy or 12
289 3 10 | 7,90910 6 1,977, 6,6 5,932 4 0| [Seers to the
23016 373) 6,849 7 3 1,712, 5 9 5,187 1) 6) [Maund.
| a=

1,498 18 833) 43 386 13) 9 9 10 846 11 3 32, 540 2| 6

| ba) Bs ee
| | | |

101/14 10 | or 7| 3 769 5 9 2,308 1) 6

34012 10 | 9,299/12| 8 2,323] 3| 0) 6,969) 9, 8

|

2,136) 6! 251| 60 081 1' 3 15 15,0201 4 0! 45,060.13 3)

oe —/| — |

177, 3) 112] 4,230) 4 9) 1,057| 9 i B72 11) 6
0,18 20° 19] 5} 3 4/13) 3 14) 8
619} 20 74| 6 0 18! 9] 6 pa 4
637| 7| 312] 16,694) 3 6 4,173) 8| 9| 12,520

io 9)

nese: fo AS

~ 0 | Prpewere tile |: ' seodny pequiophy [ezoy, purig OC PALGREp [sateen oo > COREA
Re ce eo eime peqeiopAyy [e}0], purayy
e lorses [vittits eee * JUOWUIOAOH) JO 4IpaIo 0} polqivo souvleg
= 66 ZG sO: IZTl0 : , : * SIOYSTIOM 0} OTP]
S 0 |8 0 : ‘ : SurySiom 10j soyeog ,
Ss 0 |9 Io SUSU OF
7 0 |0 |F . * oye] Oy} WO 4LoH 0} sjoo g dn Suryeyy ‘
= € |¢ (OL : : : : * aSesn
we 0} A[qveoise Sutatp 0} snoracid soruowo190 10g
5 € Oss «| : . * — - saIpuryg ¢g Jo osvyoing
* @ L |98 \" : * yjuout sod soodny oT ye‘eogr = |—|—;-__
S Ainge ut skep og puv oune ‘Key ‘udy jo syyuow 0 IP ITOPT |) ° °° «si998g CFE
= oy} 1O¥ douopudyutIedng Oy avpweyy 0, Avg jo Apuey aod seuuy
= 0 IZ1I&S * * + aSvsn tawt0j 0} ATqvooiSe yu00 aod ZI ‘Ip ‘sdny ye ‘aead
3 $6 ye sonpowl jou oY} UO OIIvMyNgG 0} suULOOSsNy -dngpur ‘jnddnyy ‘ey
> 0 |8 ILP ee aHUsn LOWAOF 0} ATQvoorSe “yuo az9d [ny ‘poweu uoydiuos
¢ 48 eonpoid you oY} UO sIvpurWAZ 0, suIOOSsNY -op oy} Jo oye] seu
0 |¢ S98 , e ; * gSvsn 1owi0j -O0'T 94} WO poyoely
0} A[qvooise oyery oy} wor 4y[es oy} Suyovsy -X9 }][%G Jo soIpurg ce
10) ae -XO Loy (WMALYD) YRANOJ-ou0 Suroq sioataqy 0} peg
soodnyy Bi z SPM ee SBR TD 2 Fae errr sees
"TRIO, peqviepATy "‘SINTNASUNASI(T "SLIIGONY
ul Junowy

fo syjuou ay? ur anuooTy fo

5

ocr.—pEc. 1856. |

en EE Se Sek alee RES EL Te LI EPL Zee CEE eee ae
‘quaunsadxa up so ‘ogg, Ayn ue shop 0% pun ‘oun ‘hop “nid

aYO'T oy) Uosf pajzovajxa qvy Jo gunovIv UO spuatuasngsigy pun sjdraoeay fo LNAWALVLG

© “ON XIGNUddV

14 The Natron Lake of Loonar. [ No. ], NEW SERIES,

APPENDIX No. 3.

ANALYSIS oF DuLLA Sart By Mr. Reynoxps, an ANALYTICAL
CHEMIST OF CLAPHAM.
Extracted from Surgeon BRADLEY’s Memoir—page 62.

Dulla.
Soda wuss sees 32.8
Carbottic Acid.... 34.2
WY AOE occ wate: on OL:

Chloride of Sodium Y.
Alumia, a trace.

: 100.
67 of the Sesqui-Carbonate—equivalent t> 56 per cent. of the
Neutral Carbonate of Soda.
Khupput.
Less soluble than Dulla—the equivalent of 52 per cent. of Neu-
tral Carbonate being present. |
Lake water.
Specific gravity 1,059 (Bradley) Analysis of the Lake water
(Malcolmson.)
In 1,000 grains.
Chloride of Sodium........29. grains.
Sesqui Carb: of Soda...... 4.2
Sulphate of Soda.......... 0.1
Potass, a trace.
Specific gravity.

1. of water from the Cow’s mouth........... 1,000
2. feom Loonar Lake s..aVusaseee pee descc es 1,060 at One a
3. from Bowrie of Sweet water in the Lake... .1,000

* APPENDIX No. 4.
Trees found in the crater of Loonar (authority Surgeon BRADLEY.)
6. Tamarindus Indica.
Mangifera Indica.

. Sterculia urens.
. Boswellia serrata. ap
. Grislea tomentosa. | 8. Anona reticulata.
. Cochlospermum gossypium. | 9. Anona squamosa.

. Borassus flabelliformis. lee Michelia Rheedit.

Or - © HD =

Lae

oct.—DEc. 1856. | The Natron Lake of Loonar. 15

11. Conocarpus latifolia. \25. Helicteres Isora.

12, Lagerstroemia parviflora. 26. Capparis horrida.

13. Melia Azadirachta. 27. Combretum acuminatum.
14. Butea frondosa. 28. Clematis Gouriana.

15. Dalbergia. 29. Flacourtia sepiaria.

16. Cathartocarpus Fistula. 30. Celastrus montana.

17. Bauhinia tomentosa. 31. Zizyphus (38 var.)
_ 18. Prosopis spicigera. 32. Abrus precatorius.

19. Acacia Smithiana. 33. Ficus Indica.

20. Mimosa. » (34, —— religiosa.

21. Poinciana pulcherrima. 30. glomerata.

22. Buchanania latifolia, 36. Clerodendron phlomoides.

23. Feronia Elephantum, e |o/ Dodoncea Burmanniana.
24, Grewia ulmifolia. | 38. Tectona grandis.

Report on the Chemical Examination of several specimens of
Salt from the Loonar Lake in the Deccan, by J. E. Maver,
Professor of Chemistry, Madras.

Qualitative Examination of Salt No. 1 “ Dulla.”

A portion, not weighed, treated by dilute sulphuric acid gave off
a very large quantity of carbonic acid, leaving a notable portion of
impurities undissolved, consisting of dirt, earth and some organic
matters; these were separated by filtration. A portion of the fil-
trate ascertained to be acid, was then treated by solution of nitrate
of silver, a copious white precipitate was deposited, showing the
presence of chlorine. A second portion of the filtered solution
was neutralized by solution of ammonia, iron and alumina were
thrown down in small quantity: the precipitate was separated by
filtration ; to the filtrate, solution of oxalate of ammonia was add-
ed, white precipitate took place; this was separated by filtration,
and to the filtered solution, phosphate of soda was added, a small
crystalline precipitate occurred.

A fresh portion of salt taken and tested by the blow pipe for
the presence of soda, gave the characteristic flame ; the only base
that could be left being potash, it was passed over (as if present it
could only be in small quantity) till the quantitative examination
was carried out.

16 The Natron Lake of Loonar. [no. 1, NEW SERIES,

A fresh portion of salt was dissolved, and treated by a little ni-
tric acid; after effervescence and filtration, solution of nitrate of
baryta was added—no reaction—absent sulphuric acid. Phosphoric
acid being evidently in small quantity, if present at all, was not
looked for. The preliminary examination of each sample of salt
was conducted in a similar manner. .

Guided by the qualitative examination above shown, the quan-
titative determinations were carried out. The usual methods
adopted by chemists were employed throughout in these determi-
nations. To ascertain the constitution of the salt, some special
experiments were required. Frezenius and Will’s method for the
determination of the carbonic acid was meade use of, to ascertain
whether it was really a sesquicarbonate with the formula 2 NaO,
3 CO, like the natural compounds of soda-and carbonic acid in
Africa, or whether it had the more ordinary formula of the neutral
or bicarbonate. These experiments showed in the case of the
“ Dulla” salt, that there is a mixture of carbonzte and sesquicar-
bonate, in the proportion ef 54 per cent. of the neutral carbonate
and 30 per cent. of the sesquicarbonate ; but in the others, a neu-
tral constitution was found to exist, as exhibited by the forniula
NaO, CO,. The point of interest connected with the constitution
of the Dulla salt is purely a scientific one, since natural sesquicar-
bonates are very rare, having hitherto been found only in Fezzan
in Africa, in the soda lakes of Hungary, and in Venezuela, South
America; to this list we may now however add the Loonar lake in
the Nizam’s country. An artificial sesquicarbonate can only be
obtained with difficulty, and under certain conditions involving a
very careful employment of temperature.

The following is a statement of the composition of the several
specimens of salts from the Loonar lake; calculated on 100 parts.

No. 1. Dulla.”’.

)) 83°82; equal to 77:30 of neu-
tral carbonate consisting of—
38-00 31:48 of carbonic acid

Carbonic acid. ......s0. S 45°82 of soda.

eG cd vb ts a ae 45°82

77:30 neutral carbonate an-
J bydrous.

oct.—DeEc. 1856.] The Natron Lake of Loonar. 17

Chlorides of sodium and
GAIGRURT. cece ress arc O61
Insoluble matter, trace of
iron, alumina, and or- #
ganic matter......... 2°00
PERE De et ed otcce Ae Ol

100 00

No. 2, “Nimutk Dulla.”

Nearly pure common sab, containing 92°88 per cent. of chloride

of sodium. *
No. 3. aif Khuppul.”
4 7} 72°58; equal to 68°47 of neu-
| tral carbonate consisting of—
Carbonic acid.....-eee. 32:0 27°89 of carbonic acid
Bedas. is kieesi.. 408% 40°58 of toda. |

J 68°47 of carbonate of soda.
Chloride of sodium..... 0°58

GOT fois es ccs es Pre 25°09
Insoluble matter........ 1:80
100:90

No. 4. ‘ Puppree.”

‘| 72°46; equal to 71°1 of neutral
| carbonate consisting of—
eepomie GCld,<-....-5. 2900; 29: of CO,
MEMNNe Atiners. 64's si poe 43-46 ¢ 42°1 of soda.
J 71°12 of neutral carbonate.
Chloride of sodium,.... 0°40
Insoluble matter.,...... 0°80
ERs tes Os viene sates» 20° O4

Fe ee

100°00

18 The Natron Lake of Loonar. [No, 1, NEW SERIES,
No. 5. ‘ Madkhar.”

Neutral carbonate ofsoda 27:0 Carbonic acid, .11
BOda tic eee Gee

as ——
27
Insoluble matter, consist-
ing of clay, sand, &c... 30°4
Water ivioo t. Soe 16°4
* Common salt.,....... 25°4 Mean of 2 experiments.
' €

99°2 .

Cc

No. 6. ‘“ Bhooskee.”

Carbonicfacid. . 10°6
SOuks va eS ORS 15°4

——e

26°0

Neutral carbonate of soda 26:0

Insoluble matter, consist-

ing of sand, clay, &c.. 58:0
1 To gene ecceee 15°4
Soluble impurities, chlo-

ride of sodium chiefly.. 2°6

ee

Carbonate of lime...... 78:00
Do. of magnesia.. 4°58

Insoluble matter, oxide of
WELSDL, WCas wi o aiaisie aie 9:00
Chloride of sodium..... 2°60
WV RECT asp vnee8e se tees 3°80
97°98

€ The common’salt in the sample is not uniform in quantity.

oor.—DprC. 1856. | The Natron Lake of Loonar. 19

No. 8. Quartz.
No. 9. Greenish brown glass, very fusible.

No. 1. This salt appears to be formed in crystalline masses,
and is but slightly contaminated by chloride of sodium, or by any
other insoluble impurities ; these, exclusive of the water present,
will amount to about 4 per cent.

No. 2. Fine cubical crystals, forming masses, in which the pe-
culiar structure may easily be traced’; this salt contains something
more than 92 per cent.- of gommon salt, or chloride of sodium.

’

No. 8. Has less crystalline structure than No. 1; is efflorescent
and white in appearance. Chemical constitution shows a larger
amount of water, while the soda and carbonic acid are nearly in
the proportions required to form neutral carbonate.

No. 4 is formed by the aggregation of numerous small crys-
tals, is whiter than No. 1, but has almost the same chemical con-
stitution as No. 3.

No. 5 appears in larger dirty looking masses, is not homogene-
ous in its composition ; in parts, it possesses a beautiful structure,
seen in crystals radiating from a centre: contains 16 per cent. of
water, 25 per cent. of common salt, and 30 per cent. of insoluble
impurities.

No. 6. <A greyish looking earth, containing 58 per cent. of in-
soluble impurities, 15 per cent. of water, 24 of common salt, leay-
ing 26 per cent. of carbonate of soda.

No. 7. A salt varying from all the other specimens, being com-
posed of earthy (not alkaline) carbonates chiefly, some insoluble
impurities, a little common salt.

No. 8 not examined, it evidently consists of crystallized silicic
acid, known as quartz.

No. 9. A readily fusible glass, most probably chiefly a silicate
of soda, not examined chemically, scratches window glass.

I have made no remarks respecting commercial value, as this
must necessarily depend on various circumstances, concerning

20 The Natron Lake of Loonar. [No. 1, NEW SERIEs,

which I am but partially informed; these will chiefly embrace 1st,
the present quantity available for the market: 2nd, constancy of
the supply: 3rd, local demands for the salts, which can only be
known to those residing near the lake: 4th, means of transit,
should a demand exist or arise elsewhere: 5th, the small probabili-
ty of bringing any natural carbonate from a distance to compete in
Europe, with the carbonate ef soda made from common salt by
Leblanc’s process: 6th, the want of any extensive Indian manu-
factories of glass or soap, for which in Europe alkaline carbonates
are principally employed. :

The foregoing observations apply more or less strongly to all the
samples containing carbonate of soda. The sample No. 2, which
is essentially a pure rock salt, deserves more consideration, as it
might, supposing it to exist in quantity, be’turned to account as a
source of revenue; there being always, from the large consumption
and high price of the article,a ready market for good common salt
in India. Sample No. 7 is worth a trial for building purposes,
provided that the common salt present could be eliminated by
washing.

€

The purification of the salts Nos. 1, 3 and 4 is easily effected by
simple solution in hot soft drinking water, decanting or syphoning
off the supernatant clear fluid to separate insoluble impurities, and
evaporating in cast iron or sheet iron pans by means of furnace
heat. As to whether the purification would prove profitable or not
will depend on the expense incurred for fuel and cooly hire, and
the price of the evaporating pans, together with that of the purified
article; the latter is a main point to be considered, and cannot be
seen before hand.

No. 2 requires little or no purification.

No. 5 might be purified in the same manner as Nos. 1, 3 and 4.
There will exist in solution, a mixture of common salt and carbo-
nate of soda, the former averaging about 25 per cent. ; by concen-
tration of the solution, (which should also be effected in iron pans),
the common salt, from its less solubility compared with the carbo-
nate of soda, and its equal solubility in both hot and cold water,

ocT.—DEC. 1856.] Notes on Indian Currencies. 21

will subside to the bottom of the evaporating vessel; it can be re-
moved by means of a colander, drained, subsequently washed and
dried; the solution will then contain carbonate of soda chiefly ;
by further concentration it will crystallize. A second solution of
the carbonate in a limited quantity of water, and evaporation, will
give crystals in a pretty pure state.

If it be considered worth while to purify salt No. 5, it must be
chiefly for the purpose of extracting the, common salt it contains,
for which a ready market exists in this country ; in doing so, how-
ever, the price of the article so obtained should be weighed against
the selling value of this article obtained by solar evaporation from

sea water or brine spriifgs.
J *

.

II. Notes on Indian Currencies. By J. W. Breexs, of the
Madras Civil Service.

Of all countries, Egypt perhaps excepted, the history of none
retrogrades so far into the mist of fable and tradition as the Mytho-
logical Stories of Hindostan. The four great ages or Yugs of the
Satya, the Treta, the Dwapa and the Cali descriptively distinguish-
ed as the Golden, the Silver, the Copper and the Earthen, intro-
duce us to a most extravagant antiquity and represent every occur-
rence in a drapery of marvel and allegory under a regime of Solar
and Lunar Kings.

Out of such fabulous materials to hazard an opinion as to whe-
ther the use of a currency* was understood in those times, would
be folly. Even in Menu’s Code written in all probability 10 or
11 centuries B. C., the existence of a recognised Currency is al-
luded to in as familiar a manner, as a modern author might tell of
a pound weight, or a yard measure at the present day.

In one part of the venerable volume, we find the interest of
money judiciously regulated at x for the Twice-Born, and 2x for
* When the term “ money” or “‘currency”’ occurs, it is not restricted to Coin

Stamped by Public Authority, but includes also metal and other substances used
as a medium of trade,

-

22 Notes on Indian Currencies. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

other people, while another part is devoted to a description of the
provisions to be observed in suits for recovery of debts and such
actionable matters, all of which are enumerated with the most
punctilious nicety.

In a chapter* on Judicature and on Law, Private and Criminal, it
is ordered, that ‘‘ a false witness speaking falsely through covetous-
ness shall be fined a 100 panas, through distraction of mind 250.”

Such examples may be multiplied ad libitum through the 12 books
of the Institutes: when we have thése illustrations so to speak,
_ depicting the highly civilized and social position of the Hindoos
certainly 3,000 years ago, to hope for any twistworthy accounts of
what may have taken place anterior te that: period respecting even
so obvious and familiar a topic as money would be vain.

One thing is certain, a very advanced state of civilization obtain-
ed among Hindoos in very ancient times, certainly before Troy
was besieged, probably when Theseus reigned in Athens, or when
Abraham visited Egypt, and the further into antiquity the thread
of their history extends, we are less likely to find any trusty infor-
mation of their adoption of a circulating medium and the surround-
ing causes that led to it.

All that can now confidently be asserted is, that the precious
metals were anciently found in India in great abundance, and that
when in the course of nature the want of a currency made itself
felt, a wide choice of qualified substances was available.

Without drawing at present upon the earlier accounts which
pretty generally hold India to be the fountain of everything pre-
cious, there are to be found in more modern times numerous allu-
sions in the manifold histories of India to the existence of its riches,

and to mines of precious ores and stones.

Abul Fazl (Akbar’s Prime Minister) in the Ayeen II, p. 47speaks
of the iron mines of Gwalior, of the profitable and rich copper works
of Beerat and of a silver mine not worth mentioning,

* Ch. viii. para 120.

‘J ; j
: why, if 14

ae
ail

: ° a*
oct.—DEc. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 23

In a supplement to a voyage to the East Indies, written by
Monsieur Dillon in 1698, an aecount is given of the wealth of the
Great Mogul, and that ‘he wore upon his arm a diamond of ines-
‘‘ timable value being as big as a pullet’s egg. This diamond was
“‘ stolen out of the diamond mines belonging to the king of Bisna-
“ oar, betwixt Tonquin and Pegu, where every day are 20,000 men
“at work. The king reserves all the best diamonds for his own
“use, which are not to be sold. The best of those we have in
‘“‘ Europe being only looked upon ag incdhsiderable, are sold to the
** European merchants.” ’ :

Heyne also in his ‘“ Tracts orf India” has described his visit in
1795 to the diamond mines in Ellore, and various parts of the
Ceded Districts—and we all, know Pope’s account of Governor
Pitt and the Golcondg diamond he bought from the Brahmin—

‘* Asleep and naked as the Indian lay,
‘* An honest factor stole the gem away.”

“It isa widely known fact, however, that Indian gold and silver
and minerals generally have not hitherto received much attention
from scientific men, notwithstanding that their value has been ap-
preciated from time immemorial by the Hindoos, and the metals
have been in very common use amongst them for ornament and
exchange for ages back, as is evident by their own and Grecian
writings and consequently indisputable.

Take for example the Chetri Ganitam written originally in San-
scrit “the language of the gods,’ and quoted by Heyne, one
part of which, the Suvarnah Ganitam teaches the art of assaying
gold and silver by the touch, and of taking their specific gravities.
Heeren vol. i. p.280. Herodotus also (who wrote about 5 cen-
Herodotus iii. 102:106. turies B. C.) tells a pretty story about the
way in which the Indians procured their gold in his time—

** There are other Indians living near the city of Caspatyras and
*‘ the country of Pactyica (the city and territory of Cabul) situated
“* to the North of the rest of the Indian nation, and resembling the
** Bactrians their neighbours in their manner of life. These are
“the most warlike of all the Indians, and the people who go to
** procure the Gold. For in the neighbourhood of this nation is a

ir

-
a

24 Notes on Indian Currencies. [No. 1, NEW SERIEs,

*‘ sandy desert in which are ants less in size than dogs, but larger
* than foxes, specimens of which are to be seen at the residence
“of the King of Persia, having been brought from that country.
‘‘ These creatures make themselves habitations under ground
“throwing up the sand like the ants in Greece, which they
“nearly resemble in appearance. The sand however consists of
** gold dust. To procure this, the Indians make incursions into
“‘ the desert taking with them three camels, a male one on each side
“ and a female in the ceritre og which the rider sits, taking care
“* to choose one which has recently foaled. When in this manner
*« they come to the place where tke ants are, the Indians fill their
“‘ sacks with the sand and ride back as fast as they can, the ants
** pursuing them as the Persians say by the scent, the female camel
“ eager to join her young one surpassing the others in speed and
“perseverance. It is thus according to the Persians that the In-
“dians obtain the greater part of their gold, at the same time
“ that the metal is also found though in less quantities in mines.”

As something akin to this I may insert here Monsieur Dillon’s
account of Calicut, and the wonderful gold- yaine properties | of
the Sands there.

«“ Among the sands of the shore, there is good store of gold-dust
“‘ which is very fine, and everybody has the freedom to gather it
‘< at pleasure : the biggest piece that ere I saw was not worth above
‘15 pence, and commonly they are not worth above 4 or 5 pence
“a piece; abundance of people get a livelihood by it; and with
‘«‘ the consent of the Governor (which is to be purchased by a cer-
“‘ tain set price, for the maintenance of a hundred poor people) you
“may have as much sand as you please carried to your dwelling
“ places in order to separate it with the most convenience.

Also Pennant in his “ Hindostan” written about 1798 A. D., at
page 41 relates, that “Abul Fazl (II. 223) speaking of the rivers
“‘ of this country (Lahore) says, that the natives by washing the
“ sands obtain gold, silver, copper, rowny, tin, brass and lead.
«“ Rowny is unknown to me, brass is fictitious.”

Heeren whom I have quoted before, mentions in his Ist volume
that the Hindoos were the only people subject to the Persian Em-

titel

ocr.—DEc. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 25

pire who paid their tribute in gold, and not in silver. 2In his 3d
volume, page 857, speaking directly of the ancient Indian currency,
he says, ‘‘ There is no doubt that the precious metals gold and
‘* silver, particularly gold, were in very ancient times the established
“ medium of exchange in India; but this however will not prove it
** to have been coined. If we can repose any confidence in the
** published translations of native works, the use of coined money

- would appear to have prevailed in very, remote times, for it is

‘‘ expressly mentioned in the fable of Krishna; but it is uncertain
‘** whether the passage is taken from the Mahabarat* or the Bha-
‘* gavat,t or from one of the other Puranas.{ In the laws of Menu
“ the respective weights "of paras and racticas of copper, silver
“‘ and gold, are very exactly def&ermined, without however any allu-
“ sion to their being stamped. But whatever may have been the
*‘ value and character of the ancient Hindoo coinage, it is quite
* certain that its use is of very remote antiquity.”

It is but candid however to own, that it is difficult to reconcile this
with the foot note, wherein the author seems to confess, he can find
no very reliable information for such remote antiquity, for he asks—

“Ts there even any Hindoo coinage older than our era? we
*‘ certainly know of none. There are indeed plenty of coins im-
“‘ pressed with some emblematical device, but none of them have
*‘ either date or inscription of any kind.”

In the Greek accounts of India as gathered from Maurice’s and
Elphinstone’s histories—in Strabo’s account of Alexander’s inva-
sion B. C. 327, a description is given of the habits and manners of
the natives of India, presenting a picture very similar to what we
find in the Southern parts of the Peninsula in our own time, and
that “they wore gold and jewels, and were very expensive in their
dresses, though frugal in most other things.”

From the kingdom of Bactria founded.by a detachment of Alex-
ander’s army, and which according to Clinton’s Fasti Hellenici

* Familiar to the Hindoos 2 or 3 centuries B. C.
t+ The Bhagavat is an episode of the same poem.
2 Ue more modern date, written probably between the 8th and 16th centuries

D

26 Notes on Indian Currencies. [No 1, NEW SERIES,
lasted about 120 or 130 years, and terminated about B. C. 120 or
130, many coins have found their way into India, and have been
dug out from time to time about Cabul and Peshawur, and “ one
as far East as Muttra on the Jumna.’’—See Elphinstone’s History
of India, Appendix iv. p. 247. 3d edition.

A better and more complete account however of Alexander’s in-
vasion, and of the Greeco-Parthian kingdom after his time, of which
Bactria was only an independent Satrapy, is given in Prinsep’s His-
torical accounts from Bactrian coins and in Professor Wilson’s book
on Bactrian numismatics. Previous to the researches of these two
gentlemen, our acquaintance with the Greeco-Asiatic currency was
confined to a stray coin or two which had turned up par hazard
here and there; but now by theif study and inquiry upon fresh
discoveries, that acquaintance has grown ihto a considerable chro-
nological knowledge, not only of the order of the kings, but of the
general history of that part of the country from Alexander’s inva-
sion to A. D. 215, the end of the Greeco-Parthian dominion.

Pennant in his Hindostan, page 70, speaking of a place on the
gulf of Cambay, North of Surat, called Barochia probably the -an-
cient Barygaza, the greatest emporium of all India in ancient times,
says—

‘‘ Numbers of ancient drachmz have been found here, inscribed
‘ with Greek letters and the names of Apollodotus* and Menander,+
‘‘ king of Bactria, who also reigned in this part of India.”

Also, in page 78, talking of Ougein, a city north of the Nerbud-
da and supposed to be Ozene in Arrians Periplus{, having just
described a vasa myrrhina or drinking cup of T. Petronius made
of a stone called myrrhine from Ougein, and described by Pliny—he
(Pennant) says—‘‘ Even in those early times the merchants had
“their course of exchange, and made great profit by the change
‘* of the gold and silver denarii§ for the money of the country.”

* B. C. 135

+ B. C. 155, according to Prinsep’s Historical Results from Bactrian coins.

t Written about A. UV. 30,

§ Prinsep in vol. i. p. 396 of the Journal of the Asiatic Society, for September
1832, says the Denarius was the principal silver coin of the republic—and weighed

90 grains—but was reduced by Augustus to 60 and by Constantine to 40 who also
hanged its name to Centionalis, because 100 pieces equalled | 1b. of silver.

ae

.
;

ocT.—DHC. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 27

Also, in page 51 vol. II. writing of Sadras, he says, “ That this
“ was a place of commerce I little doubt, and probably frequented
“ by the Romans. The grounds of my conjecture are that a pot of
* gold and silver coins* has been found here by a Ryot, with cha-
“ racters which neither Hindoos nor Mahomedans could explain.
“‘ They probably must be Roman. We know that their trade ex-
<< tended even farther than the Coromandel Coast, and I have also

“ been informed that Roman coins have bgen seen in the possession
' © of Brahmins, the only people of Curiosity in all these extensive

. » . . *
“‘ regions and such coins,must have been found within their

“ neighbourhood.”

In spite, then, of those who would have us believe that Akbar

“was the first to coin gold and silver money, it is evident that

the precious metals Have been known to the Hindoos from a
very remote era, certainly since the Groecian invasion, and being
eminently qualified for a circulating medium, became centuries ago,
as Turgot has observed, ‘‘ universal money not in consequence of
“ any arbitrary agreement among men, or of the intervention of
“ any law, but by the nature and force of things,” throughout the
peninsula of India as well as every where else, but at what pre-
cise period remains unknown. That the choice fell upon gold and
silver arose probably from their being obtainable in the country,
from their possessing the requisite qualifications of durability and
divisibility, from their great intrinsic value, and from their having
been extensively used for personal ornaments, the former metal in
particular, because more portable and in the absence of banks and
such like places of deposit more suitable for hoarding. The prac-
tice of hoarding jewels and gold is very common now in the inte-
rior, probably as much so as it ever was, and a good modern in-
stance of it is given by Schomberg in his account of Runjeet Sing
and his search after his chief Moonshee’s treasures. The extract is
subjoined. “A tomb was erected in the interior of the Moonshee’s
“‘ house, ostensibly to honor his father’s memory, but in reality to
** conceal his treasures, which when it was opened was found to
** contain not a smouldering skeleton but solid gold. There are

* Asiatic Researches I. 108.

28 Notes on Indian Currencies. [~wo. 1, NEW SERIES,

‘“‘ to be seen in India bars of pure gold melted into a solid mass,
“ and to which the Indians give a name that might very well be
“translated gold bricks. Under the floor of the Moonshee’s
* private room was found a flooring of these gold bricks, the walls
‘* were filled with them, the beams of the rooms were hollowed out
‘“‘ and stuffed with the same precious metal.”

Everywhere in the early and uncultivated ages of a nation, before
Fable has run into Histofy, and Money driven out its cumbersome
antecedent Barter ; when as yet Capital and Commerce are too fee-
ble to call into action that army of comptting interests and trades,
so fruitful in the invention of measures to facilitate the interchange
of commodities ; when as yet that chimerical gentleman was daily
to be met with,

©
Whose wish and care
A few paternal acres bound,
Content to breathe his native air

in his own ground.
Whose herds with milk whose fields with bread,
Whose flocks supply him with attire,
Whose trees in summer yield him shade,

in winter fire.

When it was an ordinary incident, to see men, glad to satisfy
their few wants by an exchange of the productions themselves with
the services and commodities of their surrounding neighbours, no
necessity for a circulating medium existed: and there must first
arise a variety of transferable commodities, and a succession of
different wants before such necessity can have existence.

But as time hurries on, and the nation gathers strength, and war
obliges intercourse with other nations, the people’s wants insen-
sibly increase and certain necessities stealthily creep in, aurd lens,
as it were, amongst which that of a more frequent interchange of
commodities is always in the van, and the convenience not to say
necessity of adopting some substance to facilitate the general
transfer of services and commodities, and to be a measure of
value and an evidence of debt, as obviously arises in the advancing
tide of that nation’s knowledge, as motion is created by force, and

oct.—pEc. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 29

certain uniform effects follow certain causes in any of the physical
sciences.

With a nation emerging from barbarism, as soon as a variety of
productions and a multiplicity of wants have reached a certain
pitch, the fact that Money will supplant the intricate and circuitous
method of Barter, is as much an intrinsic axiom in Pecunio-

Economy, as that 2 and 2 make 4 in Arithmetic.

Acquaintance with the early history of nations assures us that
such a result will always follow ; for have not all nations adopted
an intermediary currency at one period or another of their rise into
nationalimportance? »

The metal employed may vary, as frequently, as there are or
have been nations and’as best adapted to their varying resources
and circumstances, nevertheless every one of them have at some
period of their course adopted some, silver—some, copper—some,
iron* and some, gold—some, leather and some, shells—some, to-
bacco and some, salt—some, beads and some, slaves; but all have
employed a currency as a measure of value to represent capital,
the accumulation of labor, and to promote the transfer of commo-
dities and mutual exchanges ; and the institution of money may be
considered as natural a result of a certain posture of circumstances
in a nation’s existence, as activity and buoyancy are the natural
result of youth in an individual.

For a good account of the different substances used as currency
in different countries, from the time Abraham bought his field for
400 shekels of silver down to the new Florin of Victoria, see the

III. chapter of a book lately published called McCleod’s Theory
and Practice of Banking.

With nearly all nations metal will be found to have been the
substance employed, from its possession, as I have said before, of
a certain intrinsic value and of properties such that any fixed weight
of metal (A) being held to represent a certain fixed value (B)

* Lycurgus established an iron currency, to lay up 10 mine of which (£85-5-10)
a whole room was required and to remove it’ at least a yoke of oxen to the end

that by continuing poor, the Spartans, were best guarded against the invasion of
an enemy.

ad

30 Notes on Indian Currencies. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

certain parts of (A) can be made to represent the like parts of (B)
proportionally.

Not that itis absolutely necessary that the currency should be of
metal—it may consist of what apparently has no value, as shells,
or beans; and it may consist of precious stones, or even of paper
as far as the home circulation is concerned.

Mr. Ricardo in 1819 suggested some such paper plan to the
famous Bullion Committee, and mairtained that the circulation of
England should consist of nothing but*paper and small silver
tokens, the Bank issuing the paper and being compelled to pay
its notes above a certain amount (£1001 think) in bullion in-
stead of coin, and that there should ‘be no gold coin at all. But
such currency schemes based upon credit for the purpose of eco-
nomizing bullion can only be carried out in countries very far
advanced in civilization, where men have considerable confidence
in one another, and entire faith in the stability of Government ;
while, in a country’s infancy, on the other hand, where no such
feeling is at all universal, it is very essential that the circulating
medium should itself possess a certain intrinsic value, and for con-
venience and utility’s sake be divisible, durable and of uniform
texture—whence it comes that value has been always estimated by
weight and not by tale, and gold and silver have been the favorite
metals.

In so vast an agricultural country as India, where from time out
of mind, the people have been caste ridden, where labor has been
abundant and wages wretchedly low under governments despotic
and changeable, and where there has been considerable internal
trade, and where if we make exception in the matter of dyes,
precious stones, and gold dust, which the ancients tell us came
from countries near the source of the Indus, there was anciently
no foreign commerce of importance the great majority of payments
must always have been made in small coin, and though gold may
at the same time have been abundant, for one instance of a tender
of a gold piece, innumerable calls must have existed in such a
country for a small silver or copper currency.

ocr.—pxc. 1856. ] Notes on Indian Currencies. 31

Mills in his history of British India supports this inference,
(though he entirely disbelieves that the people of Hindostan were
in remote times profusely supplied with gold and silver, as proved
he argues, by the traffic of India being chiefly one of barter and
its taxes being paid in kind,) where he says “It was not till
‘the time of Akbar that gold or silver was coined for circulation
‘in the principal parts of India, antecedently to that period small
‘* nieces of copper being the only coin,” to which in a note is added
“« —See the analysis of Tooril Mufl’s system of Finance in British
** India analysed—1. p, 191. "These copper pieces were called pu/-
“« siah or feloos, 16 of which were reckoned equal to a Tankah
*‘ of bare silver, a sort }f coin or rather medal sometimes struck
“at the pleasure of the King® not for use but to make presents to
‘‘ foreign ambassadots and others. In the Deccan, a gold and
‘* silver coin was known earlier; which the same author thinks
“‘ must have been introduced by the intercourse of the Persians
‘and Arabians, to whom the use of the coin had been known
** nearly a 1,000 years before.”’

But I agree with Mr. Elphinstone that the coinage of gold and
silver must have been very general throughout India long ante-
rior to Akbar’s time, and was probably derived from the Greek
colonies in Bactria, two or three centuries B. C., though it is not
unlikely that with the precious metals as their standards of value
the general circulation consisted of a cheaper money. One can
understand that much more use would be found for tokens of cop-
per and such media, as better suited to the wants of the people
and to answer the purpose of a subsidiary coinage.

Stavorinus in his voyage to the Hast Indies (vol. I. p. 401) from
1768 to 1771 mentions that, “‘ copper coin is not seen in Bengal.
** For change they make use of the small sea shells called cowries,
“* 80 of which make a pon? and 60 or 65 ponis, according as there
‘are few or many cowries in the country, make arupee. They
‘* come from the Maldive islands. The money changers sit upon
‘* all the bazaars with quantities of them to furnish the lower or-
“ders with change, for the purpose of necessaries.” Again,

32 Notes on Indian Currencies. [ No. 1, NEW SERIES,

(vol. III. p. 9) talking of the Surat currency the same Author
Says, ‘in the same way as cowries are made use of in Bengal,
** almonds called badams are made use of here,’’ to which the
Translator in a foot-note adds, “ when Ovington was at Surat about
“ 60 bitter almonds was the current rate of a pice. Thevenot says
** 68, and adds, that the almonds that pass for money at Surat come
‘from Persia and are the fruit of a shrub that grows on the rocks.”
Pennant has described the way in which

Vide ‘‘ Hindostan,”’ p.151.
the cowries are obtained.

“These shells are collected twice in the month at full and new
“moon. It is the business of the women who wade up to their
“ middle to gather them. They are packed up in parcels of
“* 12,000 each, and are the current money among the poor in Ben-
‘“‘oal. Hamilton mistakes the manner of gathering them when
“he says—The natives fling into the sea branches of coco trees,
“‘ to which the shells adhere and are collected every 4 or 5 months.
** The exchange for them from Bengal is rice, butter and cloth.”

With regard to Akbar being the first to coin silver and gold,
Elphinstone (p. 428) says, “ it has been said that Akbar first coin-
‘‘ ed silver and gold money. The assertion is inconsistent with all
“history. If the Hindus had not a coinage in those metals earli-
* er, they at least adopted it from the Bactrian Greeks about the
“ beginning of the Christian era.”

Mr. Charles Masson in the Journal* of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal for September 1836, treating of certain coins found at
Beghram, in Cabul, classifies them into five grand divisions.

Groeco-Bactrian.

Indo Scythic or Mithraic.

Ancient Persian, whether Parthian or Sassanian.
Hindu or Brahminical.

Kufic or Mahommedan.

ida qua Ma Fae

Thus commencing with the third Century B. C. we have a suc-
cession of coins varying in their form and superscription accord-

* Vol. v. p. 537,

ocr.—prEc. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. Jo

ing to the dynasty that issued them, from that time to close upon
the Mahommedan era.

In the same Journal* for October 1836, Mr. Prinsep has given
several new varieties of the Indo-Scythic coins and more fully de-
veloped the link between that coinage and the Hindu series,
through the Gupta coins of Canouj. And in the April number of
the Journal for 1837, the same gentleman has engraved specimens
of the Indo-Sassanian coins which he says have frequently been
discovered in the Punjab topes. He fixes their probable date be-
tween the 8rd and 6th Centuries A. D., and concludes that the
Sassanian dynasty prevailed in Upper India, and that Hinduism be-
came mixed with the religion of Bactria.

After this, there can be littl€@ doubt of the remote antiquity of
Hindoo coinage, so I sHall speculate no further on the question, but
come at once to more modern times wherein we know, that what-
ever new district we have annexed or acquired, and into whatever
new country our people have pushed their way, scores of different
kinds of currencies have been found in circulation, evidence of the
fact that every petty native state ostentatiously maintained its own
mint and peculiar coinage. Hence it is that such a vast variety of
gold and silver coins have been current at one time or another in
our territories in India, and indeed are still to some extent current.

From the time of Alexander’s invasion to the Mahommedan
supremacy, excepting that India represented a chess-board of in-
dependent Hindoo states, little is known of its political history.
Many of the princes laid claim, we are told, to be Lord Paramount
of the whole country, but without any solid title to the honor, and it
is now nearly certain that as in Alexander’s time, so for many cen-
turies subsequent to him, these states, dotted over the length and
breadth of India, led a feudatory and independent kind of exist-
ence.

After the breaking up of the empire of the Caliphs in the 9th
century, and when several Arab conquests had taken place in the
northern part of India, various dynasties we are assured sprang up,

* Vol. 5. p. 639.

54 Notes on Indian Currencies. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

till Sultan Mahommed declared his independence about A. D. 1,000
and established the first Mahommedan government at Ghazni, some
60 miles south of Cabul. A story is told of this prince that he
promised a dirhem (Mr. Dow in his history of Hindostan says it
was a mher) to the poet Ferdousi for every verse of a certain his-
torical poem on Persia, and that although he meant a golden dir-
hem from covetousness he changed the payment into silver dirhems.

Dirhems and Dinars were the money of the Caliphs, and are
thus described by D’Herbelot ‘in his Bibliotheque Orientale.

** Les Mussulmans n’eurent point ¢e dinars d’or marques a
“‘ leur coin jusqu’en l’an 76 de l’Hegire (de J. C. 695.) Ce fut ~
“ Hegiage, lequel etablit la premiere monnoye sous le Khalifat
“d’Abdalmalek, Auparavant toute la monnoye d’or etoit au coin
“des Empereurs Grecs, et celle d’argenf avoit son inscription
“‘en charactéres Persiens. Les Khalifes Abbasides Haroun
‘¢ Raschid, Almamom et Vathek firent battre de la monnoye a plus
‘‘ haut titre que n’avoient fait les Ommiades.”’

The house of Ommiades ended in A. D. 750 and the Abbasides
Caliphs succeeded.

“‘ Dirhem et direm, le premier mot est Arabe et le second est
‘* Peysien. Un dirhem et demi pese un methcal ou une drachme,
« de sorte qu’il y’en a douze a l’once qui n’est que de huit drach-
“mes, ou de huit gros. Le Direm pese aussi douze carats, et
“se prend souvent pour un fort petite monnoye de cuivre. Ce
“ fut Hegiage Gouverneur de I’ Iraque Arabique qui fit battre le
«‘ premier des Derahim d’argent avec I’ inscription “ Allah Samad’”’
«; Dieu est inmuable. Sous le Khalifat d’Abdalmalek, ils etoient, de
‘bas alloy: mais les Khalifs Abbasides les mittoient a plus haut
s titre.”

Abul Fazl in his ‘ Ayeen Akberry,’ a kind of supplement to his
« Akbernameh, has given the following account of Dirhems and
“ Dinars. Dirhem was asilver coin originally of the shape of a date
“ stone, Caliph Omar changed it into a round form and some say
“was the first to stamp an impression on it, others that Hejaj
“in the time of Abdalmalek Meerwan, others that Mahan Ebn

“‘ Zobier was the first.”

ocr.—DEC. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 35

‘‘ Some say that Direms were of 10, 9, 6 or 5 miskals, others
“ of 20, 12, or 10 Keerats weight and that Omar formed a coin of
“14 Keerats being 4 of the aggregate sum. In Omar’s time
‘‘ were current several kinds of Dirhems of 8 dangees.”’

“ Fazel Khojendy says in former times there were two kinds of
“‘ Dirhems; 8 dangees and 6 dangees,
** 2 Hebbehs = 1 Tessuj,
“2 Tessuj = 1,Keerat,
‘2 Keerats »— 1 Dang.
“ Dinar is a gold coin weighing one miscal and is equal to 13 of a
“ Dirhem. ,

“ Miscal is a weight used in weighing gold and is also the name
‘* of a coin. ;

‘© 12 Zerrahs = 1 Kitmeer,

‘* 6 Kitmeers = 1 Nekeer,

“ 6 Nekeers = 1 Feteel,

‘“ 6 Feteels = 1] Ful,

“ 12 Fuls = 1 Mustard seed,
«© 6 Mustard seeds — 1 Barley corn,
‘* 2 Barley corns = 1 Hebbeh,

‘© 9 Hebbehs wan Lessig

«« 4 Tessuj =k ee,

*“ 6 Dangs = 1 Miscal,

by which a Miscal — 96 Barley corns
a Dang = 16 Do.
a Keerat— 8 Do.

Upon the termination of the Ghazni dynasty in the 12th century,
the house of Ghor, the slave Kings and the princes of Kilji, of
Toglak, of the Seiads, and of Lodi followed in succession, and
bring the history of India down to the house of Teimour and the
conquests of Baber in 1526 who founded the empire of the Moguls.

In Elphinstone’s account of Alla u Din’s reign of the house of
Khilji, at the beginning of the 14th century, mention

is made, that Cafur one of the king’s generals re-
turning from an expedition, brought with him vast treasures to

12951316 A. D.

36 Notes on Indian Currencies. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

Delhi, to which in a foot note is added, “ Ferishta* states that at
“ this time there was no silver coinage in the Carnatic: and Colo-
“nel Briggs observes that the same was true to a certain extent
“ till very lately : the common coin was the pagoda and there was
“a small coin called a gold fanam, as low in value asa sixpence.”

Dow in his history, describing the distracted state of the coun-
try under Mahommed Toglak’s rule, ascribes it to a number of rea-
sons, and amongst others to the king following the Chinese
“custom of issuing paper upon the Emperor’s credit for ready
** money, and to his striking a copper coin which he
‘issued and made current hy a decree at an imagi-
“‘ nary value.”” He also adds, “ that,the merchants made their pay-
‘“* ments in copper to the poor manufacturers, at the same time that
“‘ they themselves received silver and gold for their export. There
“* was also much villainy practised at the mint: for a premium to those
‘“¢ who had the management of it, the merchants had their coin struck
*‘ considerably below the legal value. But the great source of the
‘“ misfortunes consequent upon the debasement of the coin, was the

1325—1351 A. D.

“‘ known instability of Government. Afterwards the Emperor to
‘‘ ease the minds of the people was obliged to call in the copper
** currency.”

In Ferishta’s history of the Deccan, mention is made in many
places of money, as for instance, in his account of the Bhamenee
dynasty founded by Zuffir Khan in 1347, he says—‘ Coins were
‘‘ struck, impressed with his titles of Sultan Alla ad Dien Houssun
‘‘ Raujah Bhamenee.” Also at page 17, he adds, ‘‘the gold and
‘“< silver coins of the Bhamenee Sultans were of square form, and
‘“‘ different value, having on one side the creed of testimony,} and
*‘ the names of the four holy friends.{ On the other was the sove-
“ reign title, and year of his reign. The Hindu bankers at the in-
“ stigation of the roies of Beejanuggur and Telingana melting all
‘“‘ which fell into their hands that the coins of the infidels might alone

* Who wrote a history of the Mogul Emperors and some other works at the
latter end of the 16th Century.

+ There is no God but God and Mahommed is his Prophet.
+ Mahommed, Ali, Aboubekker and Omar.

oor.—DEC. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 37

** be current in the Deccan, the Sultan was enraged; and when they
“* persisted in the offence in spite of his remonstrances, he put all
“the guilty to death, and restrained the business of exchange to
** some Kutteries, descendants of Dhellians, who had migrated to
“Deccan. After this, the Bhamenee coins alone were current in
‘“¢ the Mahommedan dominions, but since the cessation of that dy-
** nasty, the coins of the Hindoo princes have been allowed also to

To cs ht
pass universally. ;

Again at page 23, describirlg the throne Firozeh of Sultan Mah-
1357 A. D. mood Bhamenee who reigned in 1357, he says,
the jewellers valued it mt a crore of oons which the Translator
at p. 169 explains as being ‘‘¢hose coins called pagodas by Euro-
*‘ peans, a lac of which make somewhat above £40,000,” in which
case the pagoda is estimated at more than 34 rupees, the com-
mon value assigned to it. Also at page 87, describing Firoze Shaw
with his bride going to the camp of his father-in-law, he says,
*“ The two princes rode on horseback together, between ranks of

** beautiful boys and girls, who waved plates of gold
1407 A. D. E ;
; *< and silver flowers over their heads as they advanc-
‘* ed, and then threw them to be gathered by the populace. Silver
*‘ flowers being small coins stamped with the figure of a flower
*‘ and still used in India to distribute in charity, and on occasions
“ thrown by the servants of the great among the populace.”

At page 175, Cowries are mentioned as well as another money
called Laares, ‘“‘ Mohammed Shaw having heard frequent reports of
eS eee “‘ the vast wealth of Rajah Jehaun, sent for his trea-

“‘ surer. The treasurer said, oh! Sultan, my Lord had
_* two treasuries one of which he called the Sultan’s—in this there
¢* are now 10,000 Jaares and 3,000 oons—the other he named the
“‘ treasury of the poor, in this there is a sealed bag containing
** 3,000 laares. Whenever money come from his Jaghire, having
“‘ taken from the king’s treasury the pay of his troops and stables,
“‘ he gave the remainder to the poor, not reserving a cowrie for his
** own use.

In Baber’s Memoirs written by himself, and translated by Mr.

58 Notes on Indian Currencies. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

Leyden, frequent mention is also made of money.
The memoirs commence with Baber becoming king
of Fergana, near Bokhara and Samercand in Tartary.

1494.

At page 28, speaking of his uncle Sultan Mahomed Mirza, he
says, ‘“‘ He was well versed in calculation, and not a single dirhem
*‘ or dinar of his revenues was expended without his knowiedge.”
The Translator adds, ‘ the former is now of the value of 53, and
“ the latter of about 9 sh<llings.” |

At page 61, mention is made of a“ 1,000 twmans of silver,” to
which Mr. Leyden has appended this noté, “ It is extremely difficult
“to fix the value of money in remote periods. The Tuman in
“‘ Dalla Valle’s time (1617) was 10 Zecchins (Voyages vol. IV. p
“ 357). Mendelshoe soon after values the Zecchin at 83 or 9
“rupees; which would make the Tuman of that day worth 9 or
“‘ £10 sterling. In Chardin’s time, the tuman was equal to 45 livres,
‘‘ and Tavernier makes it equal to 46 livres, 1 denier and }, or ac-
‘“‘ cording to his English Translator at the then par of exchange of
“ 4g, 6d. for the French crown, £3 9s. and a fraction. The livre it
‘‘ will be remembered like the tuman has been sinking in value.
“Fryer (Travels p. 222) makes the Tuman £3 anda noble.
“It was lately worth an English guinea and from incessant tam-
‘‘ pering with the coin is now worth little more than 15 shillings.
‘¢ As the decline has been constant, it was probably in Baber’s time
“‘ worth more than the highest of these sums.”

‘© The Shahrukki was a silver coin of the value of 10d. or I1d.
“ English, 23 shahrukkis being equal to a rupee in Akbar’s time.”

“ The Tang or Tenki was a small silver coin of which in Men-
“‘ delshoe’s time 14, 15 or 16 went toa pagoda. It was of the value
“ of about 5d. and was formerly more. It has now declined to
“about ald. It seems to have been tof a dirhem. The Dam
‘“‘ was an Indian copper coin, 7, of a rupee.”

At page 80, in his memoirs of the transactions of the year 1499,
it is written “ he did not give any one a single dang,”
probably the same as Tang. Also “nota fils from
any other quarter reached him.’’ Fils is explained to be a small

copper coin.

1499 A. D.

9

ocr.—puc. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 39

At page 188, among the men who adorned the Court of Sultan
Hussain Mirza, is included Béhbud Beg “ who did good service in
“‘ the Mirza’s expeditions, and in reward of it, his name was in-
** scribed on the Tangha and Sikka”’ that is, on the royal seal or
stamp, and on the coin,

1519 A.D. At page 282, among the occurrences of 1519, itis

~ mentioned that ‘“‘ the tribute of the inhabitants was fixed at 60 mush-

“¢ kals of gold,’ apparently the same as miscal which Abul Fazl
makes equal to 96 barley corns. And further on, a diamond valued
at 3 the expense of the wdrld is said to have weighed 4 mishkals or
220 ratis.*

>

At page 290, of the events 1%corded of the year 1525, it is related
that ‘tle brothers of Nur and Beg arrived bringing
“to the amount of 20,000 shahrukkis, in ashreffis
‘«¢ and Tanks” which the Translator estimates to be “about £1,000}
*“‘ sterling.” He also remarks that “ nothing can afford a stronger
*‘ proof of the scarcity of specie in Kabul than this appropriation
“of so smallasum. The name of ashrefi is applied to the gold
“ mohur which is worth about a guinea and a half. It is applied
*‘ however to gold coins of various magnitude and value.”

1525 A. D.

Throughout the latter part of the memoirs, in the mention of
large sums, and in estimating the revenues of a district, Baber makes
frequent use of the words dacs and crores, unaccompanied by any
denomination of coin; Mr. Erskine{ remarks upon this “that the
“ Emperors of Hindostan from a love of pomp and show, have al-
“‘ ways used large numbers in reckoning their revenues and in be-
* stowing presents. Their revenue accounts were kept in dams of
* which 40 go to arupee. Hence their lacs and crores sink into
*“‘ very small compass when reduced to English money.”

* Mr. Dow in his history of Hindostan makes the miskal equal to 39 rutteys
(which I suppose is the same as vatis) and aruttey equal to § of a carat, a carat
being the same as keerat "mentioned by Abul Fazl, makes the rutty equal to 7
barley corns.

+ This makes the value of a Shahrukki, a shilling instead of 10d. or 11d. as he
said before.

{ Who with Mr. Leyden translated Baber’s memoirs.

40 Notes on Indiau Currencies. [ wo. 1, NEW SERIES,

In the Ayeen Akbeery by Abul Fazl, translated by Mr. Gladwin,
very detailed accounts are to be found of the state
of the mints and the coinage in Akbar’s reign.

That the officers of the Mint were

1556—1605 A. D.

«1. A Derogah (or superintendent. )
“« 2. Shroff (assay master.)
** In Persia are 10 degrees of fineness called Dehees, in Hindostan 12 degrees
‘* called Barah Bannees. Formerly the old ‘hun’ a gold coin current in the
‘“* Deccan was 10 bannees, Akbar made it 83r
« 3. Aumeen—a disinterested party to see that nobody acts
** dishonestly.
““ 4, Mushreff—to write the waste bomen)
5. Merchant—to buy gold Pat silver.
6. Treasurer—to watch over the stock of profit.
“ 7. Weighman. |
8. Melter of metal before it is refined.
9. Plate-maker.
“10. Melter of refined metal.
‘* 11. Zerrab—who cuts metal into size of coin,
“12, Seal engraver.
“18. Sickchy—places the round piece of metal between two
dies, and by strength of hammer both sides are stamped.
“14. Subbak—makes refined silver into ingots.
‘© 15. Koorskoob—having heated refined silver, hammers till
“it has lost all smell of lead.
‘16. Chashneegeer—assays the refined silver.

¢

na

“17 and 18. Employed in recovering precious metals from
drosses. .

“19, Pykar—brings drosses and litharge from city goldsmiths
“ to be melted.

“© 20. Neecheweewala—brings old silver coins to be melted.

“21. Khakshu—rents the sweepings of the mint from Go-
“‘ vernment at 124 rupees per mensem.

About the 36th year of his reign, Akbar turned his attention to
the coinage, restored the standard, and directed that all species of
coins though they might be received by the Collectors of his re-

oct.—DEC. 1856.] Notes on Indian Currencies. 4}

venue, were only to be taken for as much as was their value by the
new standard.

The names, values, forms, and impressions of the different coins
as given by Abul Fazl, I have subjoined in a Tabular form.

Goxp Corns.

Weight. oes REED..." |
wn | .
Names of Coins.| 4 | 3 | aut We iy Value Form.
ee ee | ,
— Sp | =
2 Ee ae
Sehenseh...... | 101} ,9| 7 {12,000 Rupees. | Circular.
Do. Bar 03: 900 = do. do.

Rehess....half of both of the above and made square.

Atemah....a quarter of the Sehenseh.

Binset.....a fifth of the Sehenseh, there are also Binsets of 4,345
zy), and ;'- parts of a Sehenseh.

Jugul......a fiftieth of the Sehenseh.

Chargoshey..
Aftaby........ } 1) 2 | 437/12 Rupees. ..../Round.
PRESS... ois: 0; 12) 182/12 do. AG te

Laal Jilaly..... 0} 12} 182112 do. ....|Square.
Adel Gootkeh..! 0} 11! 01] 9 do. ..-./Round.

OF 11

O19 de: Le :
Mehraby....>+ : $0

Rieerd.4"\).'.'55-. 5 = Of Linhee,
Dehn... ....... § of Laal Jilaly.
Seleemy........ 4 of Adel Gootkeh.
BOY ee ae ts + of Aftaby.

1 Fae a + of Jilaly.

Nisfy Seleemy.. + of Adel Gootkeh.
Pan}... s/ee%. 4 of Llahee.

Pandow....... 4 of Laal Jilaly,
Sumny......,. + of Ilahee,
Kala,......... 4 of Illahee.
Zerrah,..... «+s of Ilahee.

3
>.

42 Notes on Indian Currencies. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

SILVER Corns,
Rupeeah weighs 114 mashahs---first introduced by Sheer Khan,
and by Akbar made more pure. Market price is 40 dams.
Jilaleh---same impression and weight as rupeeah.
12 Sooky = 1 Kala.

13 Kala = 1 De-fa.
1} De-fa = 1 Ashet.
12 Ashet = 1 Pandow.

1 Pandow = 1 Chern.
2 Cherns = 1 Dmb.
2 Durbs = 1 Jilaleh.

. . . . .
There are also similar subdivisions of a rupee of a round form.
€

Coprer CoINs.
Dam is a copper coin, in weight 5 tanks or 1 tolah 8 mashahs

7 ruttees, in value j; of a rupee, formerly called pysah and also
Behlooly ; accomptants suppose the dam to be divided into 25
parts, each of which they call a cheetel, and use them in calcula-
tions.

2 Dumrees — 1 Powlah.

2 Powlahs = 1 Adheleh.

2 Adhelehs — 1 Dam.

From this time, Akbar’s coinage may be said to have form-
ed the bulk and basis of the currency of Pre country, although
numerous independent states exercised the privilege of coining and
fabricating pieces of a very different stamp, weight and fineness.
Rupees, mohurs and pagodas form the prevailing denomination to
be met with.

In the “Memoirs of the Mogul empire” by Eradut Khan Wazeh

translated by thesame Mr. Scott, from whose transla_
Meer tion of Ferishta’s History of the Deccan I have before
quoted, the author describing his interview with the emperor Au-
yungzebe about A. D. 1700, says, (p. 3,) “when I returned to his
“< presence, his majesty gave me his blessing, 200 mohurs and one
‘coin weighing 100 mohurs,” to which this note is appended,
‘‘ Golden coins of this and greater weight were often given as

oct.—DEc. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 43

“marks of favor—silver coin, of several hundred rupees value
“‘ were also in use; and there is one of them now in the British
“Museum, of which the ingenious Mr. Richardson has given a
“‘ very full description in his very learned work, the ‘ Persian and
** Arabic Dictionary.’ ”’

Elphinstone* in his history, alludes very cursorily to the ancient
coinage of India and merely tells us, “ that the first princes used
“dinars and dirhems like the Caliphs, these were succeeded by
“‘ tankhas divided into dams and jitals—Shir Shah} changed the
“name of tankha to that,of rupeia, or rupee, which was adopted
“‘ by Akbar, and the latter prince fixed the weight and relative va-
lue of mohey on a scale which remained unaltered
** till the dissolifion of the Mogul empire, (1761 A.
*‘ TD.) and is the basis’of that nowin use.” In a note he adds, “ the
‘Dinar under the Caliphs was about equal to 10s. 8d. In Ibn
‘* Batuta’s{ time a western dinar was to an eastern dinar as 4 to 1
‘and an eastern dinar ; of a tankha, which even supposing a
‘‘tankha of that day to be equal to a rupee of Akbar, would be
* only 2id. The tankha is said by Ferishta to have been in Ala u
“‘ Dins time (1295 A. D.) equal to 50 jitals, and in Mohammed
“ Toglak’s time (1325 A. D.) it was so debased as to be worth no
‘* more than 16 peisas.”’

1761 A. D.

“The rupee§ of Akbar contained 174.5 grains of pure silver
** and was divided inf 40 dams or peisas (of 1914 gers. of copper
‘‘each). The dam was divided into 25 jitals (probably a nominal
coin). Queen Elizabeth’s shilling contained 88.8 grs. of pure
*¢ silver---Akbar’s rupee therefore was worth Is. 114d. of English
** money of his time.”

Having thus traced the various denominations of coins from
very early times down to a more modern date with such explana-
tions of their values and kinds annexed as are afforded by cotem-

* Page 429.

y Lived 1540 A. D.—947 A. H.

{£ Who wrote nearly 2 centuries before Baber, thatis, about A. D. 1300.
§ Weighed 187.5. |

44 Notes on Indian Cwrrencies. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

porary authors, I will conclude with some account of our present
coinage, and compare it with others that have been current within
the last century in British India.

From a revised Assay Table, lately published by the Bombay
Government, of coins current in the territories under that Presi-
dency, or imported there as bullion, it is shown what a marvellous
variety of sorts each district exhibits. It should be remembered,
these are all coins of quite a modern stamp, with one or two ex-
ceptions, probably none of them being much more than a 100
years old. c

The Table contains 27 varieties of gold coins current in, or im-
ported from the Madras Presidency. Of these, the average
is 80 per cent touch, that is 20 alloy to 80 gold, while the English
sovereign is 91°666 touch.

Among them the Gharava Tharokee Pagoda formerly current in
the Southern Mahratta country, gives the finest touch being 85.25.
While the Sultana and Canteroy Fanams show most alloy, being
only 58 and 59 touch respectively.

The same Assay Table gives 22 varieties of Rupees from Guzerat
with an average touch of 87.

The highest being the Ahmedabad Hallee Rupee, 98.05.

The lowest the Chittoree Rupee, 74.52.

The fineness of the new Company’s Rupe@eurrent through Bri-
tish India is 91.666. And the English shilling, 92.5.

Twenty varieties are given of the Deccan coinage, with an aver-
age touch of 88.

The highest being the Berhanpoor Rupee, 94.75 ; coined by Scin-
dia in Khandeish.

The lowest, the Komptee Old Rupee, 63; struck at Pannallee by
the Rajah of Kolapore.

Eighteen varieties of the S. Mahratta coinage with an average
touch of 86.

The highest being the Phoolsheree Rupee, 95.60; a species of
Ankoosee: coined at Phoolsher.

The lowest the Nilkunkee Rupee, 54.

ae eas

ll ts dei

ocr.—pEc. 1856. ] Notes on Indian Currencies. 45

Twenty-nine varieties of the Hyderabad Assigned* Districts with
an average touch of 80.

The highest being the Chandore Rupee, 92.

The lowest the New Narrinpett Rupee, 74.86.

Twenty-six varieties from Scinde with an average touch of 86.

The highest being the Tuttaee Old Rupee, 98.23, current at Sha-

__ bunder, Dhurraza, Succara and Kekrola.

The lowest the Hydrabadee Rupee, 69.60.

Fourteen from the Punjaub; with an average touch of 88,
The highest being the Sha Jehan Rupee, 97.76.

The lowest the Goondashye Rupee, 75.52.

These examples will serve fo exhibit the state of the currency
before the establishment of Mints by the E. I. Company. That
these were all the varieties of coins, and that there were not legi-
ons of others up and down India, I must not for a moment be sup-
posed to put forward. Only the other day Mr. Seton Carr in his
speech to the Court of Proprietors upon the policy of granting
Lord Dalhousie a pension, mentioned tuat the Company’s Rupee
had supplanted some 60 different kinds of currency in the Punjaub
alone, and I imagine the varieties there are not more numerous
than in other parts of India.

* In 1852, the Nizam’sgGovernment sent down a number of Uncurrent Coins
weighing 9,51,166 Tolas . 0 P. to be assayed and valued at Madras, in order
that their net outturn in Company’s Kupees might be taken in payment of the
Nizam’s debt to the British Government. Subjoined is the result of the operati-
on given by Major J. T. Smith, the Mint Master at that time, showing the net
Outiurn to be 8,14,203 Rs. 14 A.7 P., exclusive of Seignorage and Refinage.

fe ee A een. aa
As per Assay Master’s outturn Reports, dated 3rd Septem-

Gross weight. __ber and 30th October |&32.

Before Melt- | After Melt- Standard Net Outturn
at aie Weight. Outturn Value. Walue:
Syarent el — ans Ae Lae Le a ee

Tolas A. P.| Tolas A. P. Rs. A. P. Rs. A. P,|
8,:1,166 8 09,49,899 8 0| 8,39,56310 2 _ 839,563 9 0 8,14,203 14 7

In Col. Smith’s Report also, upon the various points of enquiry regarding the
Madras Mint, suggested by the Government of India, the Hydrabad Currency is
alluded to in these words, (para. 42) ‘‘ An extensive Coinage will probably be
“* required to rectify the indescribable confusion of the Hydrabad Currency. Its
** value is, I believe, estimated at from 2 to 3 Crores, which with a due proportion
. of small Silver and Copper coins, would require a coinage of 17 or 18 crores of

pieces.

46 Notes on Indian Currencies. [ No. 1, NEW SERIES,

With regard to the coins which have just been enumerated, it is
right to draw attention to the high standard of value the majority
of them reach. It almost leads one to suppose that native Princes
never debased their coinage, as the Romans did in the 1st Punic
war, when they reduced the As from 12 oz. to 2, and as Henry
VIII. and some of our Kings have done, and as James did in
Treland in 1698 after the siege of Londonderry, to serve their own
or some political convenience, were it not that such a conclu-
sion is opposed to all we know of the origin and lives of many of
them—who being often mere adventurers, and succeeding to the
musnud by some happy stroke of luck or desperate villainy,
were not likely to neglect the mint, so poworful an engine to wipe off
a debt or replenish (for the moment) an empty treasury. In-
deed, we may feel certain that tampering with the fineness of the
metal was a very common practice with them, for we know it was
customary with native Financiersin Bengal to demand “ a Sherusteh
‘* Butta or per centage on the difference between the coin in which
** the lands were universally assessed and the coins in which the
“ cultivators paid their taxes,” and no doubt they made it a fruitful
source of income. .

Akbar’s coinage however is admitted by all hands to have been
the true and ancient standard. Jervis speaking of it in his
Indian Metrology, (p. 63) says, ‘‘ the coins of Bengal were origi-
‘‘ nally the same as those of Surat, as restored and established by
“ the wise and virtuous Akbar. The true tola weight and the weight
‘‘ of the rupee was then fixed at 12 massas or 187.5 grains.”

A curious account of Akbar’s treasures in coined money and
jewels is given in the ‘‘ New History of the East Indies,” translated
from Abbe de Guzon, (page 268. vol. i.) ‘ Achobar for so that
‘‘ prince was called caused a certain species of money to be coined
“ of the value of 25, 50 and 100 toles which were worth 2,0123,
“© 4,025, 8,050 crowns, each piece, amounting to the sum of
** 6,970,000 massas which make 97,580,000 roupees or 48,790,000
‘*‘ crowns, money of France. He had also besides a 100,000,000
‘“‘ of roupees or 50,000,000 of crowns, in a certain species of money
** called after his name, roupees of Achobar. And 250,000,000 of

ocT.—pDEc. 1856.] Notes on Indian Currencies. 47

“ another species of money called peisas or pechas,. 30 of which
** make a roupee.

‘“‘ The peisas or pechas are a small piece of copper not quite 2
‘“‘ Jairds French money in value.

“ The mamoudy is their smallest piece of silver, it is valued at
* 104 sols; 26 pechas = 1 mamoudy; a roupee of silver is valu-
** ed at 30 French sols.

“« The roupce of gold is only known among the great lords, and
‘is worth 14 silver roupees or 21 livres. "The thiel of silver makes
“11,12 or18 roupees current money. The massas is another
** piece, of which 114 make a thiel of silver ; and 10 of these make

“a thiel gold. ’
“ 100,000 rowpees = a lek.
** 100,000 leks = a couron.

* 100,000 courons = padan.
“ 100,000 padans = nil.

I do not engage to understand Mon. Guzon’s computation, in one
place he says, 30 peisas make a roupee and afterwards that 30 sols
make a roupee and that a peisa equals 2 lairds (or $a sol), but I
give the extract as a curiosity. The sol, the livre, the laird, the
denier and the pistole formed the ancient money of France which
ceased to be current in 1834.

To go back to Jervis again, who says Akbar’s rupee was divided
into 12 massas, each massa being 15.625 grs. troy, we find, “ In
* the reign of Shah Jehan the coinage was reduced to 114 massas,
“and this multiplied by 15.625 shows the origin of the deteriorat-
“ed coins of later years, and equals 179.6875 gers. troy, which
*‘ standard with very trifling modifications has continued at a stay
“ ever since, though it is remarkable through the profound ignor-
“‘ ance of our own governments and countrymen on the subject or
*‘ probably their apathetic indifference to such calculations and to
“the great financial questions in connection with the character,
“ dignity and stability of the state, this standard has been suppos-
“ edto be the full weight of 12 massas or 1 tola, and now ulti-
‘** mately fixed as the unit of the monetary system throughout
* British India.”

48 Notes on Indian Currencies. | No. 1, NEW SERIES,

When we first came to India, attracted by the inviting reports of
Drake and Cavendish, and were permitted to establish here and
there a factory, originally subordinate to Surat, but afterwards to
Madras, Bombay and Bengal---constantly at war to-day with the
Mahrattas, to-morrow with the Moguls, and the next with the
Dutch, Portuguese or other European rivals---our hold upon India,
even up to the close of the 17th century, was of far too precarious
and insecure a nature to admit of our finding, at the present day,
many traces significant of our darly occupation of the country ; ne-’
vertheless our factories and stations’ rapidly continued to extend
with a growing charge in their accounts to “ Civil and Military ex-
penses,” and eventually resulted in thecfoundation of a British
empire in the East, the envy of theepresent age. In this prelimi-
nary state, things continued with variable fertune till 1746, when
our political horizon looked gloomy in India, and Madras was taken
by the French, but restored by the peace of Aix la Chapelle in
1748. Subsequent to this, occurred those memorable struggles be-
tween our countrymen under Clive and the French under Dupleix,
ending after a long conflict in their overthrow, and in the extinc-
tion of the Mogul empire and the eventual succession of Company
Durbar. In1771, the East India Company, we are told, “stood
forth publicly in the character of Dewan.”

It is not always an easy matter to get information of many things
connected with our first government of India—and the coinage of
money is among the number.

Cesar Mureau’s “ E. I. Company’s Records” exhibit in chrono-
logical order the Commercial and Political history of the Company
from 1600 to 1823, and is a very comprehensive account in a suc-
cinct and readable form ; but he alludes to mint matters only once,
and that merely to say that in 1677 permission was granted the
Company to coin money.

The earliest notice of a mint, I can anywhere trace, is in Kayes’
History, (p. 68,) where speaking of various administrative schemes
proposed by the Court in 1669-70, he says, “‘ They

Macadead recommended also the establishment of a Mint.”

ocT.—DeEcC. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 49

Accordingly in the charter granted by Charles II. to the E. I.
Company in 1677, besides} having their old privi-
leges confirmed to them, authority was granted
them to coin money (not resembling British money) at Bombay
and other places in India, with respect to which Mr. Kayes says,
(p. 71)—“ The establishment of a mint had long before been re-
‘commended to the Company by their servants abroad ; and it

1677 A. D,

an had been much considered and discussed but had never before

“‘ taken practical shape. It was no'w however actually to pass in-
“ to a fact by the express permission of the crown. The Company
“ regarded it simply as an instrument of trade but their servants
“* five and twenty years %efore had been looking at the matter of a
‘* Tankshall* in the Deccan imconnexion with the question of war.
“ The Factors at Rajapore, recommending the Company to coin
“money, wrote in 1659 “‘ For your worships may please_to know
“ that all these artificial mines of money which were made in time
“of peace are now exhausted through a civil war—will it not be
“* necessary to have a Tankshall in the Deccan and a coin that will
“‘ be current to carry on a trade here, as large as you please during
** your war with India and which will continue no longer than you
** please ?—Then judge if you would not make the Tankshall
“ cry as mournful to the king of India’s ears as the liver, the
‘“‘ fountain of the blood, should complain in a natural body, and
* then what conditions you may bring him to is easy to foretell.”’

Many years would naturally elapse, before the Company’s coin-
age took an important part in the general circulating power of
the country. ach district wedded to its own currency would rea-
sonably be jealous of a foreign coin, and resist its introduction at
any rate at first. It was probably far into the 18th century be-
fore the Company’s coinage took its place‘among ‘the other cur-
rencies of the country and performed atmaterial part of the duty
of circulation.

Mr. Dillonzin his ‘“ East Indies” speaking of the natives in

Malabar alludes to the currency of that part of the

i698 A. D. : :
world in 1698, ‘To everyjone of these natives you

* From two Sanscrit words signifying a coin and a hall,

-

50 Notes on Indian Currencies. | No. 1, NEW SERIES,

** pay 8 tares per diem which amounts to $a fanam. The fanam is
** a small piece of gold worth 16 tares, and the tare is a small sil-
“‘ ver coin worth about a $d. Each native has not above 4 tares a
“* day when he keeps guard in a house, but when he travels he has
“** double pay.”

In an old Fort St. George Journal for 1716 is an entry for the
month of May, “ Rupees Madrass Dr. to Edward
“ Harrison, Esq., Mint Master, Pagodas 238-32, for
*« 8362 Rupees received of him account coinage at 350 Rups. per
* 100 Pag.” And in the June Journal,“ Rupees Madrass Dr. to
** Edward Harrison, Esq., Mint Master, Pag. 105-9-0, for 268-5-0
“ dd. out of the Mint into the Warehouse account coinage for the
“ month of May at 350 Rups. per 100 Pag.,” and so on for other
months. :

1716 A. D.

Pagodas and Fanams were the old money of account at Madras,
and were reckoned in this wise.
10 Cash made a Dudy.

8 Dudies made a Fanam.
45 Fanams made a Pagoda.
Lullier has given an account of Pondicherry in 1722, and alluded
to the currency in these words. ‘“ The Company
** (French) as Sovereign of Pondicherry and its de-
** pendencies causes money to be coined there in the name of the
“king. Cowries are not taken in payment, which however are
“ current in the country, although no more than little shells 20 of
“ which are worth a liard. They also use caches (cash) a small

1722 A. D.

“ piece of copper worth a denier: the largest pieces of silver are
** valued at 4 sols; and their coins called Pagodas 3 a pistole.”

Stavorinus in his account of his voyage to the East mentions
. gold and silver Rupees as current in Bengal and

‘throughout the whole extent of Hindostan, stamped
with Persian letters instead of any portrait or arms. ‘* When the
‘¢ Rupees first come from the mint they are called Sicca Rupees
‘sof the first year, and they decrease every year in value, and at

1768—1771 A.

~ the end of nine years are taken at the same rate as Arcot Rupees.
‘Those coined at Moorshebad are the current coin in which the

ocT.—DEc. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 51

“ trade of the Company is carried on. It is the money of account
“ according to which the value of the other Rupees is calculated.
“ The Arcot Rupees are coined by the English at Arcot and by the
“ French at Pondicherry. The gold Rupee called Mohur is worth
‘15 silver Sicca Rupees.”

At page 475 of vol. ii. of his voyages he describes the Mint at
Surat. ‘ The mint where the silver is imporfed and coined into
_ © Rupees, by having the impression of ,the Emperor’s name and
“the year of his reign stamped tipon them, is a large pile sur-
‘“* rounded by a high wall—along the wall are sheds under which
“‘ the workmen sit: on the right hand is an elevated apartment for
‘“‘ the overseers and inspectors when any work is doing; opposite
** to it a square place is walled off where the silver and copper are
“melted and cast in moulds into bars or ingots. The metal is
** weighed to the workmen who cut it into pieces of the exact
** weight which the coin to be struck requires, every one having a
** pair of scales at hand for that purpose in which every piece is se-
*“‘ parately weighed. These workmen beat it round and fiat, though
“‘one piece sometimes falls thicker than another to which exact
*‘ attention is not paid. It then goes to the coiners who were then
“about 30 in number, each of whom has an assistant, who puts
“‘ the prepared piece of copper or silver upon the lower die, while
** the other places the upper one which he holds in his left hand
* upon them, and stamps the impression upon them with a forcible
** blow of a hammer.”

Schomberg describes the Mint of the king of Oude much in the
same terms; his account is somewhat more modern, and it ap-
pears the Oude Mint paid more attention to the beauty of the coin
and the accuracy of workmanship, the description does not other-
wise differ much from that given of the Surat Mint.

Mr. Holt Mackenzie in his evidence before the Select Committee
in 1832 says, “‘ the Sicca Rupee has been a legal tender in Calcutta
“ever since we acquired the country—the present Sicca Rupee bears
“ the date of the 19th year of the last King—There were 3 Rupees,
“the current Rupee, the Sonat Rupee, and the Sicca Rupee—
“ But previously to A. D. 1773, the Rupees were distinguished by

yr

52 Notes on Indian Currencies. [ No. 1, NEW SERIES,

‘‘ the years in which they were coined ; that is to say the impres-
“ sion bore that they were struck in such a year of the reigning
“« King of Delhi; and after circulating 4 or 5 years
“ they suffered a depreciation whether they had lost
“* weight or not, being reckoned Sonat Rupees, that is, Rupees “ of
“ years.” These with several othercoins continued to circulate at
“ different rates of discount, and accounts were kept in a nominal
“ coin called the current Rupee, which was probably taken at the
“rate of 116 to the 100 Sicca Rupees to represent the average of
“ the currency actually in circulation. _ The first step to reform,
“ was a resolution that all Rupees coined in future should bear
“ the impression of the 19th year* of thé reign of Shah Allum,
“ and so put an end to the arbitrary distinction previously made to
“ the coinage of different years; and in 1792—3 A.D,
“ the Sicca Rupee was by the rules contained in Reg.
“35 of the Bengal code rendered the only legal silver currency
‘* for the provinces of Bengal, Bahar and Orissa—The Sonat Rupee
“is still used in the military accounts and is considered equivalent
“to the Ferruckabad, Madras and Bombay Rupees. Since
“ 1793 all other Rupees but the Sicea Rupees have been receiv-
“ed as bullion. The Sicca Rupees used to be receivable as of
“ full weight, if the deficiency did not exceed 6 Annas (6) in
“100 Rupees. Since 1818 the limit has been extended, a defici-
“‘ ency of 2 pice (,£;) or about 2 grains being allowed in each
“coin. In the remoter districts and in the dealings of the poorer
“ classes, different rupees appear still to be in circulation, but the
“mass of the currency is the Calcutta Sicea Rupee. In general
“ the state of the currency out of the Company’s territory is very
“ irregular, each Sovereignty has its own Rupees and they vary
“ very considerably.”

1773 A. D.

1792—3 A. D.

Further evidence was also given before the same Committee,
that prior to 1809 there were four Mintsin the Bengal
territories, one at Calcutta, ome at Bemares, cne at
Ferruckabad, and one at Delhi; andithere were three currencies,the
Calcutta Sicca, the Benares, and the Ferruckabad Rupee, the last

1809 A. D.

* About 1773 A. D.

oct.—DEC. 1856. | Notes on Indian Currencies. 53

called also Quenow Rupee, because intended to be equivalent to
that of the Oude Government, and struck both at Ferruckabad and
Delhi, but the Delhi Mint was never employed to any great extent.
For a long time back, the Calcutta Sicca Rupee had circulated in
Bengal, Behar, and Orissa—the Benares Rupee was confined
to the province of Benares, and the Ferruckabad Rupee to all
ceded and conquered districts, except Cuttack and the acquisiti-
~ ons east of Bengal, into which the Calcutta Rupee had been in-
troduced. It was also stated that the standard of the Calcutta
Sicca Rupee and Ferruckabad ‘Rupees was the same, being ,'; alloy
—the former weighing 192 grains with 176 grains pure silver, the
latter weighing 180 grais with 165 grains pure silver, omitting
fractions—and that at Madraszand Bombay the rupee was similar
to the Ferruckabad—and that there was a mint at Saugor estab-
lished for the temporary purpose of converting local currencies in-
to Ferruckabad Rupees. It was likewise stated that a copper coin
passes through the Bengal territories at the rate of 64 to a Rupee,
but is legal tender only for the fractional parts of that coin—and
that because the market value of gold relatively to silver was great-
er than the mint value, therefore gold had ceased to circulate. Also
that the Bengal gold mohur weighs 204-710 grains of which 187.651
is fine gold—and that the Madras gold Rupee is of the same weight
and standard as the silver, viz. 180 grains—and that at both Presi-
dencies the relative value of gold to silver is 15 to 1—and that there
were ¢hree mints at Bombay, one at the Presidency, one at Trivat
and one at Broach, and that Madras had one mint.

In 1818, the Bengal Government added to the
weight of the Rupee, leaving the quantity of silver
the same and increasing the weight by alloy, the reason given was
that the Rupee being much purer than othercoins, and more espe-
cially than the Spanish Dollar of which the import into Calcutta

1818 A. D.

was large, a considerable expense was iacurred in refining, and some
delay occasioned.

In 1819, the currency was changed in Madras from Pagodas to
Rupees, in which former coin all accounts had previously been
kept, and the Rupee was rated in the accounts rendered to Parlia-

o4 Notes on Indian Currencies. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

ment at 2s. 3 °8;d., though at the mint price of silver in Eng-
land it should only have been Is. 11 +49¢d.

In 1835, the East India Company’s coinage underwent its final
adjustment to the state that it remains in at the pre-
sent day. It was ordained that the undermentioned
coins only should be coined at the Mints within the territories of
the East India Company.

183d A. D.

The Co.’s Rupee weighing 180 grains. / !4 standard, or 165 grains
The do. pure silver and 15 grains
& the do. | alloy.

|i dol

Impression on one side, the head and nume of the Sovereign of
Great Britain, on the reverse, the name of the coin in English and
Persian, and of the East India Company.

The Company’s Rupee, $ Rupee and double Rupee to be legal
tender, if not deficient more than 2 per cent. in weight, and if not
clipped or filed or defaced otherwise than by use.

The Company’s Rupee to be equivalent to the Bombay, Madras,
Ferruckabad, and Sonat Rupees, and to +4 of Calcutta Sicca Ru pee .
Company’s + Rupee to be legal tender only in payment of the frac-
tion of a Rupee.

The undermentioned gold coins only to be coined at the mints :
A gold mohur or 15 Rupee piece, 180 grains weight and +4 fine.
A do... or ».3 do, +70.

A do. or 10 do. do.
A double do. or 80 do. do.
Gold coin not to be legal tender.

Cola Cole

By a proclamation issued in 1841 gold was allowed to be re-
ceived at the public treasuries in payment of taxes, and was
so received very frequently till 1852, when in consequence of the
discovery of gold in Australia the proclamation was cancelled, and
gold is now only received into treasuries as deposits for security.

To compare the Company’s Rupee with an English Shilling.

The Co.’s Rupee is 180 grs. in weight of which 165 are pure silver.

o) ear ay e e-

—_
i

OCT. —DEC, 1856.] Notes on Indian Currencies. 5d

that is, 440 grs. out of 480 grs. (the oz.) are pure silver.
or 220 dwts. out of 240 dwts. (the lb.) are do.
that is, the Co.’s Rupee is +3 fine or ‘916 touch.

The English Shilling is 87 ¥; grs. in weight of which 80 =, are
pure silver.
that is, 444 grs. out of 480 grs. (the oz.) are do.
or 222 dwts. out of 240 dwts. (the lb.) are do.
that is, it is 33 fine or -925 touch.
English silver which is 37 fines called standard silver.

The Company’s Rupee, it will be observed, is Worse .009, that
is, a pound of English standard silver contains 2 dwts. more pure
silver than a pound of Company’s Rupees.

In England, from 1600 A. D. down to 1816, a pound of standard
silver was coined into 62 shillings—in 1816 it was ordered to be
coined into 66 shillings, 4 shillings being retained by Government
as a seignorage amounting to 6 47 percent. By this means, a fictiti-
ous value is given to the silver coinage, and the pieces pass current
for more than their real value, and thereby having no value in
other countries equal to their value at home are neither melted nor
exported. Though in England an oz. of standard silver is coined
into 5 Shillings and ,°, of a Shilling over, (,4, of which are retain-
ed as seignorage) yet silver coins are always rated at the assumed
price of 60d. per oz. per British standard.

. An oz. of silver B. standard — 60d,
therefore 1 grain = ‘125 of a penny.
A Company’s Rupee contains 178-37 grains B. standard
therefore Co.’s Rupee = 1s. 10°29625d. (Par of exchange.)

Sicca Rupee weighs 191°916 grains of which
175-921 are pure silver,
or 176 B. standard silver.

That is 439°995 out of 480 grs. (the oz.) are pure silver,
or 219-997 out of 240 dwts. (the lb.) are do.
That is, it is £2927 fine, or ‘9165 touch,
and 1s. 11°78d. is its Par of Exchange.

[No 1, NEW SERIES,

‘YENCIES.

Notes on Indian Cui

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ocr.—pec. 1856.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 57

Ill. Entomological Papers, being descriptions of new Ceylon
Coleoptera with such observations on their habits, etc., as
appear in any way interesting. By Joun NietNER, Colombo,
Ceylon.

No. I.

[Introductory Note on the publication of new species under disadvantages such
as describing entomologists necessarily laboy under in countries remote from the

European centres of science. } g

I little doubt that the fgllowing descriptions of new Coleoptera
will meet with anything but approbation from the entomological
world athome. As, however, in spite of this anticipation of an un-
gracious reception, I shall not be deterred from my purpose of pub-
lishing such descriptions hereafter, I may as well try to vindicate
this measure, by setting forth the reasons which induce me to con-
sider the difficulties which beset the path of the entomological
author in this country, as not insurmountable.

The objections raised against me will be these: that consider-
ing the state in which entomological literature still is, that is to say,
considering that it has not, generally speaking, been condensed into
a certain limited and obtainable number of volumes, as is the case
in the higher branches of Zoology and Botany, that on the contrary
the bulk of it consists of fragments which float without order in
the misty and unfathomable ocean of scientific journals—it is next
to impossible that an individual entomologist abroad should sur-
round himself with this shapeless mass of learning, and keep him-
self by this or other means so well informed of the details of the
actual progress of the science, as not to be exposed to mistakes of
one kind or another but more especially to the multiplication’ of
synonyms, in attempting to work independently. It will further be
urged against me, that not having the facilities and the wholesome
check which arise from the diligent use of extensive and well nam-
ed collections, not even having the gratification of a brother ento-
mologist’s views and opinions on doubtful cases, it will be impossi-
ble even to determine whether an insect be new or not; and from
these reasons it will be inferred, that entomologists abroad should

H

98 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

confine themselves to collecting and observing the habits of the ob-
jects of their attention, but that they should never go to print with
matters, on which it is impossible for the ablest among them to be
quite competent to deal with. These arguments are unfortunately
too true, but still I think they admit of being mitigated sufficiently
to come to final conclusions less disheartening than the above.

First of all, every entomologist gives preference to a certain or-
der of insects—say Coleoptera—and in this, even in almost all
cases, to one or two particular families. In studying for the pub-
lication of new species under the disadvantages just mentioned, he
will confine himself to this order or perhaps family. Now, although
as objected above, the information existing on this particular
branch is for the most part fragmentery, still there are certain fa-
milies on which it has received a tangible shape, through condensa-
tion by able hands: Burmeister’s Lamellicornes, Dejean’s Cara-
bide, Erichson’s Staphylinide, Schoenherr’s Curculionide, Bohe-
man’s Casside, Westwood’s Pausside, etc., as well as the latter
author’s general work on the families, and Lacordaire’s on the
Genera Coleopterorum, diligently consulted, go as guides a long
way, and should, although some of them have by the rapid progress
of the science become rather antiquated, guard against a number of
mistakes of a systematic nature. As to whether a beetle be new
or not, I admit that in forming an opinion on this question the en-
tomologist situated as above, will have quite as much to be guided
by a certain tact (not clearly definable but understood by scientific
men) as by anything else, and I am forced to concede that under
almost any circumstances, it is totally impossible to arrive at an m-
disputable certainty either the one way or the other. This, how-
ever, by no means excludes the possibility of his forming an opi-
nion with so much precision, as to enable him to pronounce in the
matter with a very high degree of confidence and all probability in
his favor. In attempting to come to a decision on this difficult
point, he will receive a first superficial idea from careful reflection
on certain accidental circumstances, such as size, scarcity, or other
peculiarities of the insect in question. This idea, which ever way
it may incline, will then either gain or lose strength by diligent
reference to his library, until at length with a certain amount of

ocr.—peEc. 1856.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 59

tact and judgment he will arrive at a result, which under such cir-
cumstances must earry much weight with it. I shall illustrate this
case by an example: If forinstance after collecting for five years in
Ceylon generally, and in the Colombo District more especially, I find
at the latter place an insect—say the Chlenius 5-maculatus describ-
ed below for the first time, am I not entitled to consider it as very
scarce? If on consulting my library I discover nothing which can
- possibly refer to it (finding that not a single Chlenius is marked as
occurring in Ceylon), are not the chances’greatly in favor of its be-
ing an undescribed species? Af again, I collect beetles as small
and inconspicuous as the ¥richopteryx described below, and con-
sider at the same time that, although they are in certain localities
of common occurrence, no professional Coleopterologist has ever
collected before me in this Island; if, moreover, my library offers
nothing that could possibly refer to them individually (there being
hardly an Asiatic species mentioned), am I under these circum-
stances not justified in considering them as undescribed? Decided-
ly I am. Circumstances like these would indeed be altogether con-
clusive, if there was not a chance of the beetle occurring in some
neighbouring country, and it having thence found its way into the
normal collections of Europe. The possibility of such being the
case, of course enhances the difficulties of the case very materially,
but I do not see why they should not, to a certain degree, be over-
come by the same or similar means as those cited for overcoming
them in one particular country.

« I think I have said enough to show,that the disadvantages encoun-
tered by the entomologist here, or in other places similarly situated,
in conscientiously attempting to publish new species may (his princi-
pal assistance being perseverance, a good library and tact—ento-
mological instinct I am almost tempted to call it)—be overcome, I
am far from saying entzrely—but so far as to expose him from
want of resources in the execution of his plan, to no more mistakes
than are incident to entomologists under more favourable circum-
stances, from neglecting them. ButI am not satisfied with obtain-
ing the simple grant of permission to describe on the spot a part
of what he collects—I claim more for the entomologist abroad. I
wish to show that he should naturally be expected—nay desired—

60 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [ No. 1, NEW SERIES,

to do so, for although he labors under distressing disadvantages in
some respects, he happily enjoys a proportionate share of advan-
tages in others. It is unsatisfactory in the extreme for an enthusi-
astic entomologist to be obliged to let his collections go out of his
own hands, see others reap the honors from them which are to be
reaped on such occasions, or perhaps see as it were a gulf close
over them, hear no more of them, and find himself forgotten. For
what is a mere collector ? Let him display as much industry as
possible, he is hardly looked upon as an entomologist, certainly as
long as he is prevented from publishing arything, not as a scienti-
fic one. Now, if such a man merely desists from publishing the
fruits of his researches, from want of resources to assist him to go
creditably through such a task; if he suffers his collections to go
out of his hands because he is too true a lover of science not to
see the credit in a great measure due to himself reaped by another
rather than to hoard up his entomological treasures—a useless heap
eventually to be destroyed by moths and time—I say, that a man
who acts upon principles like these, finds himself not seldom dis-
heartened in the prosecution of his studies, under difficulties such
as I have set forth. If however, as I have endeavoured to point
out, these difficulties can be overcome to a very considerable extent,
is anything more natural than that he should be the herald of his
own discoveries? Could anything be more unkind and unge-
nerous on the part of his scientific brethren at home than to oppose
and discourage him by their disapprobation? I might enlarge on
this subject, which has been a sore one with me for a long time,
but I think this is sufficient to direct the reader into the train of my
ideas and to enable him to follow it up.

I hasten therefore to conclude. As mentioned above, the tropi-
cal entomologist has a proportionate share of advantages to balance
what falls to his lot of the contrary. One of the advantages which
he enjoys over his brethren at home is, thathe has an opportunity of
seeing and studying alive what can at home only be examined in a
state differing more or less from that of life. Therefore, if he is
enabled and expected to describe new species, it is moreover highly
desirable for the sake of the promulgation of souzd information that
he should do so, that he should avail himself of this, his principal

ocr.—DEC. 1856.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 61

advantage and describe fresh from nature, as many of his favourites
and their habits as possible ; and to discourage him in such an un-
dertaking on any of the above grounds would be to discourage the
progress of science in general.

FAM. CARABIDA, TRIB. CHLAZNIDZ.
1. Chlenius Ceylanicus. N.

»

C. subellipticus, subconvexus, glaberrimus, nitidus ; supra brun-
neo-zneus, capite, thoracis elytrorumque margine aureo-viridibus ;
. J , * . .
subtus piceus, margine, pedibus oreqne dilute castaneis. Long.

corp. 52 lin. ,

Caput ante oculos 2-impressum. Antennz art. 3° quarto paulo
longiore. Mentum dente magno excavato. Thorax subquadratus,
latitudine parum longior, obsolete punctulatus, antice subconvexus,
lateribus deflexus, postice depressus, planus, 2-impressus. LElytra
subtiliter striato-punctata, obsoletissime punctulata.

In stagnorum ripis inter arundines habitat, in prov. occid. et
merid. infrequenter legi. Per occasionem nocte ad lumen advolat.

A handsome and interesting species, distinguished as well by its
general shape, which is more elliptic and convex than usual, as by
its polished surface. The head is oblong and, with the exception
of the mouth the parts of which are of a deep brown, of a bright
metallic green divided longitudinally by a streak of copper color.
The thorax is rather longer than broad, rounded in front and flat
behind and finely punctured all over; it is of a brownish metallic
color bordered laterally with bright green. The elytra are of the
some color as the thorax, the same bright green stripe running
along the sides. The margin, properly speaking, is deep brown.
They are impressed with rows of fine indistinct punctures and with
the usual series of larger setigerous ones within the margin. They
are rather narrowed near the apex.

The female, in addition to having the anterior tarsi not dilated,

has the basal impression of the thorax of a somewhat semi-circular
shape, and is broader in the body than the male,

yr

62 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

2. Chlenius 5-maculatus. N.

C. precedente major, minus convexus, latior, rugosus, pubescens;
supra obscure nigro-viridis, capite viridi-zneo, nitente, glabro, ely-
tris maculis 5 flavis; subtus piceus ; pedibus, elytrorum margine
antennisque flavis, ore thoracisque margine magis minusve brun-
neis. Long. corp. 63 lin.

Caput ante oculos leviter 2-impressum, punctulatum. Antenne
art. 3° quarto plus sesqui longiore. Thorax subquadrato-rotun-
datus, latitudine haud brevior, dorsa,planus, ad basin 2-impressus,
tugosus, pilosus. LElytra subdepressa, subtiliter striata, rugosa,
pilosa, maculis 2 humeralibus, 2 intermediis, 1 apicali flavis or-
nata.

‘
Specimen singulum m. in lacus Colombensis ripis sub gramini-
bus putrescentibus legi.

Not less distinguished than tLe former, especially by the round-
ed shape of the thorax and the 5 yellowish spots with which the
elytra are adorned. These are arranged in the following manner:
2 small ones at the shoulders, 2 large transverse ones at the mid-
dle stretching from the external margin towards the suture reach-
ing, however, but little more than half across, 1 at the apex; this
is of the shape of a hammer, and half in one and half in the other
elytron. The palpi appear to me longer and more markedly
elbowed at the joints than is usual with insects of this genus, the
last joint is deeply excavated at the tip. The thorax is of sub-
orbicular form, the back and hind part are flat, the sides slightly
depressed, the margin sharp, the basal impressions very near the
angles ; it is, as are also the elytra, rough and finely pubescent, the
strie of the latter being thereby rendered obsolete. Legs of m.
stout, anterior tarsi strongly dilated.

8. Chlenius pulcher. N.

C. elongatus, subconvexus, subglabratus, eeneo-viridis, elyiris
obscurioribus, limbo pedibusque flavis, subtus piceus. Long. corp.
63 lin.

Caput oblongum nitidissimum, ante oculos 2-impressum. Men-
tum dente fortiter excavato. Antenne art. 3° quarto sesqui lon-

oct.—DEc. 1856.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 63

giore. Thorax oblongus basin versus angustatus, parce punctula-
tus, antice lateribus deflexus, postice dorsoque planus, basi 2-im-
pressus. Elytra striata, ad strias, praecipue apicem versus, sub-
tilissime pilosa, flavo-marginata. Pedes flavi, spinulis castaneis.
Abdomen flavo-marginatum.

Specimen singulum m. in ripis Maha-Oyz fluminis prope Ne-

_ gombo cepi.

Distinguished by its elongate shape. ‘bhe head is of a bright
green color with the labrum and the mandables of deep, and the
antenne and palpi of a light brown, the latter being darkened to-
wards the end. The thorax is of the same color as the head re-
flecting a copper hue from the back, its anterior angles are obtuse,
the basal ones being right. ‘The elytra are of the same greenish
copper color but darker, they are impressed with longitudinal lines,
which are bordered on each side by a row of minute hairs.. They
as well as the abdomen have a yellowish margin.

4, Chlenius cupricollis. N.

C. subconvexus, subglabratus, capite thoraceque cupreis, elytris
nigro-zneis, limbo pedibusque flavis, subtus piceus. Long. corp.
m. 52—f, 64 lin.

Preecedenti affinis. Caput ante oculos indistincte 2-impressium.
Thorax ut in precedente sed minor, antice lateribus magis deflexus,
linea media impressionibusque basalibus longitudinalibus, preecipue

inf., profundioribus. Pedes flavi, trochanteribus spinulisque cas-
taneis. Elytra preecedentis.

In prov. occid. fluminum lacuumque ripis infrequenter legi.

Allied to the former but easily distinguished by size, color and
sculpture of the thorax. The male is shorter and the female plump-
er than the former. ‘The thorax is smaller and, as is also the head,
of a bright copper color with greenish sides, its impressions, espe-
cially in the female, are deeper and its anterior part laterally more
deflexed. Moreover the yellowish margin of the abdomen is want-
ing and the tooth of the mentum is not excavated. The elytra, an-

tennee and palpi are, making allowances for size etc., those of the
former. '

64 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. | No. 1, NEW SERIES,

5. Chlenius rugulosus. N.

C. subconvexus, subglabratus, thorace occipiteque rugulosis cu-
preis, elytris nigro-viridibus, pedibus, elytrorum limbo lunulisque
apicalibus flavis, subtus piceus, abdomine apice margineque flavis.
Long. corp. 6} lin.

Caput fronte 2-impressum, subtillissime longitudinaliter rugulo-
sum. Menti dens laciniis extus rotundatis. Thorax lateribus ro-
tundatus, deflexus, basi Sat fortiter angustatus, obsolete 2-impres-
sus, parce punctatus, subtiliter transversim rugulosus. Elytra ut
in precedente sed apice utrinque lunula flava signata, ad strias dis-
tinctius pilosa, his apicem versus per paria coéuntibus. Pectus
abdomenque picea, hoc segmentis 2 ultimis, preecedente dimidio
margineque flavis.

Specimen unicum f. in Ch. pulchri N. societate cepi.

Of the general appearance of the preceding two species. The
head finely longitudinally, the thorax transversely rugose ; the lat-
ter with rounded and deflexed sides. The mandibles are of deep
brown, the palpi and antenne of yellowish color darkened towards
the tip. The lobes of the mentum tooth are externally rounded.
The elytra are marked by two sub-apical spots of yellowish color
and semi-lunar shape (the back of the lunule being turned towards
the suture). The striae verge near the apex by twos into each
other. The abdomen is distinguished by having a yellow margin
and apex.

Trib. SCARITIDA.
6. WScaritesminor. N.

S. elongatus, niger, nitidus, subtus nigro piceus, pedibus piceis,
tarsis, antennis palpisque castaneis. Long. corp. 6 lin. lat. 14 lin.

Caputsubquadratum, ante oculos 2-impressum, postice irregulariter
sulcatulum. Mentum rugosum, medio costatum, lateribus utrinque
profunde uni-sulcatum, lobis obtusis, dente forti, lobis paulo brevi-
ore. Maxille valide, breves, apice extus leviter arcuate et exca-
vate, subacuminate. Mandibule valide, inter medium et basin
fortiter dilatate, obtuse dentate, dextera dente obtuso subapicali,

oct.—pEc. 1856.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 69

supra subtusque longitudinaliter sulcate. Antenne art. 1° se-
quentium trium—2° tertii prope longitudine. Thorax oblongo-
quadratus, angulis anterioribus obtusis, posterioribus oblique trun-
catis, anguste marginatus. LElytra thoracis capitisque prope lon-
gitudine, striata, ante medium ad striam 2™ uni—apicem versus ad
striam 3™ 2-punctata, punctis piliferis, basi granulata, angulis ob-
lique-truncatis, anguste marginata. Pedes anteriores tibiis apice
_ extus 5-dentatis, dentibus 2 ultimis parvis, omnes tarsis subtus le-

viter excavatis. ,
’

In prov. occid. arenis hymidis sub vegitabilibus putrescentibus
specimina nonnulla legi.

Scarceand but little distinguished excepting by its size, for which
reason, a lengthened descriptidn makes itself necessary. The head
is subquadrate, in front with 2 deep longitudinal impressions, be-
hind the eyes finely suleated. The labrum is of the usual shape,
the eyes are not very prominent; the antenne are of about the
same length as the head, the first joint is about as long as the 3
following together, the 2nd, which is generally longer than the 3rd,
is in this case of the same length, joints 1—4 are naked, 5—11
pilose, increasing towards the tip gradually in size and thickness,
taking at the same time a subquadratic and depressed shape. The
mandibles are strong, much dilated and dentated from before the
middle to the base, the right one having an additional subapical
tooth. The maxillae also are strong, but slightly bent at the apex,
where they are also slightly excavated. The labial palpi have the
last joint longer than the 3rd, elongated and elliptic. The thorax
is oblong with the basal angles obliquely truncated. The elytra
are oval, striated, granulated at the base, and have, as has also the
thorax, a narrow margin. ‘The anterior tarsi are furnished exter-
nally with 5 teeth, the 2 last of which, however, are very small,
the posterior legs are similarly provided, but the teeth are indis-
tinct. The joints of the tarsi are slightly excavated below. The
sides of the body below are rugose.

7. Clvina rugosifrons. N.

C. ferruginea, capite, thorace abdomineque piceis. Long. corp.
42 lin, lat. 14 lin.

yr

66 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. | No. 1, NEW SERIES,

Caput rugosum, inter oculos elavatum, elevatione plana antice
profunde l-impressa. Mentum lobis subtiliter sulcatis. Antenne
robustz, thoracis medium vix attingentes, art. ultimo elongato,
penultimo—, art. 2° tertio sesqui longiore. Thorax subquadratus,
antice parum angustatus, elytrorum latitudine, subtus parce punc-
tatus, prosterno sulcato. Elytra striata, in striis punctata. Pedes
tibiis anterioribus apice extus 4-dentatis, subtus excavatis, tibiis
reliquis fortiter spinosis, tarsi articulis margine apicali setoso.

In prov. occid. sub vegetabilibus putrescentibus infrequentissime
legi.

A large and distinguished species. The head is very rugose,
the clypeus is contracted behind the apical angles and then pro-
duced again into another pair of angles. The labrum is transverse,
slightly sinuate in front, with the angles rounded and setose. The
mentum is quadrate, the lobes rounded at the apex and slightly
sulcated, the tooth is strong, of equal length with the lobes and of
the typical spearheaded form. The ligula has the apical angle much
elongated, terminating in a membranaceous bristle which is bifur-
cate at the tip. The maxillary palpi have the last joint elongate,
cylindrico-conic; that of the labial ones is still more elongate, ellip-
tic. The antenne have the basal joints elongate, those towards
the tip rounded. They and the legs are hairy, otherwise the insect
is of a bright polished surface.

8. Clivina elongatula. N.

.C. elongata, subdepressa, supra nigro-picea, subtus picea, pedi-
bus elytrorumque margine castaneis, antennis oreque dilatioribus.
Long. corp. vix. 3 lin. lat. 2 lin.

Caput triangulare, subtiliter punctato-rugosum. Palpi articulo
ultimo apice leviter truncato. Thorax oblonge quadratus, ante
apicem leviter sinuosus, parce obsoleteque transversim strigosus.
Elytra striata, in striis punctata, ad striam 3™ utrinque 4-punctata.
Subtus parce punctata.

Ubi preecedentem specimen singulum legi.

I have not dissected the labium of this species, which, however,

‘00T.—DEC. 1856.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 67

is at once recognised by its depressed and, in proportion to its
width, very long shape. The labrum, antenne and legs are so
much like those of the former that they need no further descrip-
tion. ‘The bristle of the ligula appears simple.

9, Clivina maculata. N.

C. picea, elytris ferrugineis infra mediam macula nigra indis-
tincte ornatis, pedibus intermed. et post. oreque brunneo-testaceis,
”

pedibus ant. antennisque obscurioribus. Long. corp. 2 lin.
s

Caput oblonge quadratym, rugosum, costis 5 magis minusve in-
terruptis ad marginem anteriorem dentibus 4 productis munitum.
Palpi art. ultimo basi intus incrassato, Antenne art. 2-3 suba-
qualibus. Thorax subquadratus leviter rotundatus. Elytra striata
in striis profunde punctata.

Ubi precedentes specimen singulum legi.

As distinguished as the preceding two species. The palpi and
the mentum appear to me of a somewhat extraordinary form. The
last joint of the former is considerably more inflated at the
base than in any other Ceylon species that has hitherto come under
my notice, whilst the others are of a very curved appearance in
both the maxillary and labial palpi. The emargination of the
mentum would at first sight appear to be of a semi-lunar shape.
However, it is only the lower margin which has this form, the ob-
lique truncature which forms the emargination being such as to
give it that shape. The tooth is of the typical shape, but being
on a level with the lower margin, it stands at a small angle with
respect to the inclined plain formed by the rest of the truncature.
The apical angles of the lobes are somewhat pyramidal being formed
by 3 sides. I have not dissected the labium, therefore do not know
whether the remaining parts exhibit any peculiarities. The insect is
however, easily distinguished by its general facies, which is rather
like that of a Dyschirius, from which genus, however, the mentum
alone is sufficient to separate it. I may as well remark here that,
although the Island is well supplied with Scarites and Clivanes, I
have hitherto not discovered a single Dyschirius, a genus so well

Fad

68 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

represented in Europe. Of the three Clirenas just described, single
specimens only have been in my possession for a considerable time.
There are three or four more species met with about Colombo but
these being of common occurrence I abstain from describing them

here as they may possibly be amongst those described by Putzeys
or others from the Indian continent.

Fam. RHIPIPHORIDES.
10. thipiphorus tropicus. N.

R. niger, nitidus, elytzis albidis, nigro-maculatis, labro palpis,
antennis (pectine nigrescente excepto) unguibusque brunneis, im-
presso-punctatus, punctis magnis sed non profundis, subtus sub-
orbicularibus piliferis, supra oblongis levibus. Long. corp. 24 lin.
lat. ad humeros 2 lin.

Caput oblongum, latitudine paulo longius, parte frontis inferiore
dense profundequé punctata, vertice obtuse obconico glabro, niti-
dissimo, occipite piloso. Thorax elevatus, ad basin 2-impressus,
medio angulo obtuso, apice excavato, glabro, inter elytra producto.
Elytra ad suturam utringue stria lata brunnea punctata impressa,
acuminata, apice dehiscentia, albida vel subhyalina, apicibus, medio
utringue et ad basin nigro-maculata. Alz apice fusee. Pedes
tarsis anticis art. 2-4 unguibusque bifidis omnibus brunneis, tarsis
subtus setosis, anticis art. 2—3 primo que apice, subtiliter sericeo-
penicillatis.

Specimen singulum m. prope Colombo, in floribus legi. De me-
tamorphosi adhuc nihil constat.

The head is rather long in proportion to its width, the occiput is
narrowed, short obconic. The hind part of the thorax is elevated
above the elytra. The central part of its base is prolonged between
the elytra in an obtuse angle, the apex of which is abruptly trun-
cated, excavated and polished. The labrum is hairy and the ungues
of the tarsi bifid as usual.

The tibiz of the anterior legs are furnished at the apex with one,
those of the 4 posterior legs with two spurs. The anterior tarsi

oct.—pEc. 1856.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 69

have joints 2-4 brown. The tarsi are setose below joints 2-3 and
the apex of the first of the anterior ones wearing fine yellowish
silky brushes instead.

All over the Island the RAipiphorides and Mordelline appear to
be very scarce, with the exception of 1 or 2 species of dnasprs
which are not occasionally taken in flowers. Still I recollect hav-
ing met with about seven species including two large Mordelle
which however I have not been fortunatesenough to catch as yet.

Fam. STAPHYLINID&. * Trib. PrnopuHi4rtntr.
’
11. Céaichirus alatus. N.

CE. alatus, setosus, Sudo rufo-testaceus, thorace dilatiore, ca-
pite, elytris abdominisque segmentis 3 ultimis nigris ; elytris apice
2-maculatis, maculis rufo-testaceis ; pedibus flavis, femoribus apice
tibiis que basi nigrescentibus; autennis palpisque maxill. basi ob-
scuris, apice testaceis, reliquis oris partibus rufo-piceis. Long.
corp. 3+ lin.

CE. pederino Er. simillimus, preter colorum distributionem dif-
fert tamen alis, elytorum antennarumque articuli ultimi sculptura.
Antenne art. ultimo penultimo equali nisi paulo minore, apice for-
titer ¢runcato leviterque excavato. ‘Thorax CM. pederini, dorso
punctis biseriatim impressus, serie interna vel centrali elliptica
punctis minoribus magis inter se approximatis, externa vel submar-
ginali punctis magnis distantibus. Elytra oblonge subquadrata, in-
fra medium rotundata, thorace longiora et fere duplo ampliora
(utrumque elytron thoracis fere magnitudine), basi parte thoracis
adjacente duplo—infra medium illius latitudine antica plus tertia
parte latiora. Os, pedes et abdomen MH. pederini.

Pederorum more victitare videtur; in eorum societate in lacus
Colombensis ripis infrequentissime legi; illis minus gracilis atque
minus agilis.

I have not had an opportunity of examining specimens of either
of the three Gdichiri hitherto described. However, I have before
me Erichson’s figure and description of the Sicilian GZ. pederinus
with which I find my species strongly to agree.

70 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

It differs, however from the former materially in the following
three points, viz., the wings, the sculpture of the wing-covers and
the last antennal joint. The fact that this species has wings would
render an alteration in Erichson’s diagnosis of the genus necessary,
it being characterized therein as apterous. The elytra are not so
much contracted and rounded at the base, and, being longer than
the thorax, have therefore amore oblong, subquadrated appearance.
As in the above typical.species they are however, rounded at the
sides and broadest a little below the middle. They are about twice
as broad at the base as the adjoining part of the thorax and in their
largest part, rather more than a third broader than the greatest
breadth of the thorax. The third point in wnich the two species differ
is the last joint of the antenne, which in this case is strongly trun-
cated at the tip and slightly excavated. They are further distinguish-
ed by the distribution of the colors; my species being ofa dark yel-
lowish red, thorax lighter, head, elytra and three last abdominal seg-
ments black, elytra with 2 reddish spots at the apex, legs yellowish,
at the apex of the femora and base of the tibiz blackish, the mouth
is brown, the maxill. palpi yellowish with the three first joints dark
at the base, the antenne have the 6 basal joints dark excepting at
the apex where they as well as the 5 remaining ones are yellowish.
In all other points I find the insect entirely agrees with the typical
CE. pederinus: the palpi, legs and anal segment of the abdomen
are of the same structure, the hairy vestiture is exactly the same
in the different parts of the body of my species as it is in the cor-
responding ones of Erichson’s.

It is perhaps wrong in me to describe an isolated species of this
extensive and difficult family. However, the gen. Gidichirus is one
so extraordinary that I am sure it will be noticed wherever the
description of a new species of it may be found, be it by itself or
amongst those of other Slaphylinide. The case would be differ-
ent if the object of the description were a Homalota or the like.

ocr.—DEc. 1856. | Paper Process in Photography. 71

IV. Description of a Plain or Waxed paper Process in Photo-
graphy. By Jesse Mircuet,, Adjutant 1st Native Veteran
Battalion.

So much has been written on the paper processes that the sub-

-~ ject would appear to be exhausted. Nevertheless a good paper

process, easy to manipulate and applicable to all situations appears
to be still a desideratum, I have therefore, at the request of our
Honorary Secretary, undewtaken to describe my mode of operating,
and I believe that any one who faithfully follows these directions
will, after a little practice, find no difficulty in producing, at least,
tolerable negatives. Skill in Photography as in any other Art, or
Science, is only acquired by practice, and no reasonable man should
feel annoyed if in his first attempts, he fails to produce as good
pictures as those who have practised assiduously for many years.

This process is a modification of the original waxed-paper pro-
cess of Le Gray, but it is equally suited to unwaxed papers. As
the manipulation of unwaxed paper is much the easiest and
the results so much alike that the operator himself cannot, after a
time, say which was taken on waxed, which on plain paper. I shall
confine myself to a description of the latter process, giving after-
wards such additional directions as may be necessary to adapt it to
waxed paper.

In Photographic operations, absolute cleanliness is an essential
element of success. It is not sufficient that the Photographer’s
hands, for instance, be mechanically clean, they must be chemically
so, therefore when he is about to select bis papers, he should not
be satisfied with the usual washing with soap and water, but should
rinse them afterwards in a good quantity of clean water, lest the
soap do that mischief it was intended-to prevent. This applies
still more strongly to the trays used in the various stages of the
process. The Tray used for Iodizing the paper should be used for that
purpose alone, or if from the paucity of apparatus which in this
country is not always procurable, he is compelled to use it for the
exciting solution also, that is the greatest liberty he may take, The

72 Paper Process in Photography. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

exciting dish must never be used for developing, and the dishes for
developing solutions should not be used for any other purpose, ex-
cept washing the paper after it is excited, in which case if clean
they are not likely to do any harm. After being used with Gallo-
nitrate they should be washed as soon as possible in abundance of
clean water, and if the Gallo-nitrate solution decomposes rapidly
when placed in them, they must be washed with a weak solution
of Cyanide of Potassium (5 grs. to one ounce of water), and with
plenty of clean water afterwards. The trays for Hypo-sulphite
cannot be used for any other purpose except for washing the finish-
ed negative. The Photographer will also find it advantageous to
have separate measure and funnels for hissAceto-nitrate and Gallic-
acid solution. C

PAPER.

The paper used in this process is Canson’s thin Negative. It is
not without imperfections, such as unevenness of texture and mi-
nute holes which allow the exciting, and developing solutions to
pass through and stain the back of the negative. To the beginner
these things are not of much importance, as he must expect to spoil
a few papers, but when a little more advanced, he should examine
his papers carefully by a strong light, rejecting any that have the
imperfections above noted which need not however be thrown away,
as the best will do for waxing which fills up any very small holes,
and the remainder will do for Positives. The papers should be cut
of the same width and half an inch or so longer than the Camera
slide; one side of the paper is smoother than the other which is
best ascertained by holding it so that the light falls upon it oblique-
ly ; this should be marked in two opposite corners with a capital
letter, which better defines the side on which the mark is made
than a circle or cross.

IoDIZING.

The solvent may be either whey or distilled water, I believe the
former produces the most dense skies and a greater opacity gene-
rally in the dark parts of the picture, it is however somewhat
troublesome to prepare :—the following method of obtaining it, is
perhaps as good as any.

ocr.—peEc. 1856. ] Paper Process in Photography. 73

Let pure milk from the cow stand until it is sour, for each quart
of milk beat up the whites of three eggs; add these to the milk in
any convenient vessel, porcelain is best—if brass or copper uten-
sils be used they should be well tinned. Boil gently over a slow
fire for a few minutes and the caseine will be taken up by the
coagulated albumen. When cold, filter through a double fold of
cambric, and then through bibulous paper, the latter is a tedious
process unless the operator has a large funnel which he can fill and
leave whilst he is attending to other matters. If properly made it
should be clear and transparent and of a straw colored tint.

To each ounce of whey or distilled water add the following in-

gredients— ,
Serge ae POGSEUI, 66 opis sis voc c's oo 0's 5 acne x RRS tie
Bromide of Potassium..,......... Pe SY hawt cp ee
Cyanide of Potassium........ Bil aebth aseactien sis sas <<. Oxy
Chloride of Sodium, dry, (table salt).......... 5, 03
Sugar of Milk........ SS Net eh Em Ae ge re

Crystallised Honey (from the bottom of ajar)... ,, 5
Dissolve, and add to the mixture as much re-sublimed Iodine
as will produce a brown sherry color: try 10 or 12 grs. to the
quart of 40 ozs.—and if that is found insufficient, add more, as the
exact quantity is of no importance. The Iodine being rapidly ex-
tracted from the solution by the starch in the paper will require to
be renewed occasionally, the necessity being indicated _by the pale-
ness of the solution. It is some hours before the whole of the
Todine is dissolved.

Filter the above solution into a dish to the depth of one inch,
or more if the dish is deep enough. Take a paper by two adjacent
corners and place the other end upon the solution so as just to
touch it, without pause lower the hands gradually and carefully to
exclude air bubbles, for the better seeing of which the lodizing
tray should be placed between the operator and a window. Let the
paper lie fora moment until it is wetted, then take it up by the
corners nearest to you and place the other side of the paper upon
the solution in the same way. Then by the help of a bent glass

rod, or by tilting the tray, cause the solution to flow over the paper.
K

74 Paper Process in Photography. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

Should air bubbles be present, they will be indicated by that por-
tion of the paper remaining uncolored. Put in as many papers
as the tray will hold without crowding. When all are in, remove
in succession the bottom paper to the top, turning it as you do so,
this will enable you to see if the whole have been properly im-
mersed. ‘The dish should be shaken occasionally to prevent the
papers adhering to each other, which they have a tendency to do,
and which is shown by light patches where the free access of the
solution has been prevented. The papers may be immersed from
2 to 3 hours, and then hung up to dry.

The best mode of suspending iodized papers is to hang up each
sheet with two of the American spring ctips, made of Beech and
sold in London at.1 shilling a dozen, they are to be strung upon a
piece of bobbin or thin cord, and stretched across a room that is
free from dust, which would soil the papers,—and from strong
draughts of air, which would tear the paper out of the clip.

An additional precaution which I found necessary to prevent stain-
ing is to prepare some strips of new blotting paper, as wide as the
clips and about ¢ of an inch long, fold these in two, and having
taken up a paper by two corners, let an assistant drop one of these
papers on each corner close to your fingers, he then opens a clip
and you put in one corner of the paper, where the blotting paper
is, you will find it most convenient to open the second clip your-
self. A small strip of blotting paper should be placed at each of
the lower corners to facilitate draining, and prevent an excess of
the iodizing materials from lodging there, which will be a case if
this is not attended to.

When the papers are dry, trim off the half inch in excess of the
length of the slide from whichever end appears most to need it,
and put them by in an envolope made of course drawing paper,
which should be kept in a portfolio, or a tin case made for the pur-
pose.

Thus far the operations may be conducted in any convenient
room, but those which I am about to describe must be carried on
in a room fitted up for the purpose, ar:dinto which no ray of white
(or common daylight) must be allowed to enter whilst either excit-

ocr.—perc. 1856. | Paper Process in Photography. 79

ing, or developing papers isin progress. This we will call the
operating room.

Where circumstances permit, the best light is obtained through
a ruby coloured glass, made for this purpose, one or two moderate
sized panes of this should be fitted into a window or door, if
possible at the level of the table, that being the most convenient

_ direction of the light in many Photographic operations. The light

thus procured will not affect Collodion (unless the sun shines upon
the glass) and is so abundant as to permit everything to be seen
with the greatest comfort. , Where this mode of fitting up a room
cannot be adopted, a double fold of long cloth, or close woven
country cloth, dipped in ah aqueous solution of Turmeric, and made
to sit close to the wall, makes‘a curtain that obstructs the actinic
rays, and admits a considerable amount of light, but not so much
as the glass.
To EXCITE FOR THE CAMERA.
The exciting solution consists of,

Distilled water....... elie sahara chats ui Biel o « edie Miele 3 AO

Crystallized Nitrate of Silver..........5 ae ATS a peers Be

Glacial Acetic Acid (half a fluid dram)......,..mins. 30

This solution should either be kept in a yellow glass bottle, or
in a bottle with a wooden or dark pasteboard cover, as although
Aceto-nitrate of Silver is not liable to be decomposed by daylight
when the chemicals are pure, it becomes so after contact with the
organic matters contained in the iodized paper.

Filter as much of this solution as will cover the dish to the depth
of a quarter of aninch. Float the marked side of the paper on it
for four minutes—taking care that there are no air-bubbles.
These, if any exist, will be indicated (in from 80 to 60 seconds,)
by that part of the paper remaining of a dark colour~whilst the
remainder is becoming white (apparently, but in reality of a prim-
rose yellow colour.) Have ready a dish with distilled water and
float the excited paper on it for a minute or two, this removes the
excess of Nitrate (perhaps some Nitrate of Potash, &c.), and makes
the paper keep longer without becoming discoloured. Ona clean
table, or a board kept for the purpose, put 3 or 4 folds of blotting

76 Paper Process in Photography. (No.1, NEW SERIES,

paper with a fresh piece on the top, on this lay the wet side of
your paper, and cover it with another piece of fresh blotting paper
—hblot off the excess of fluid by passing the hand lightly and
equally over it. Then put in between fresh blotting paper and
place it in a drawing paper envelope, which may be deposited in
a portfolio or a flat tin case made for the purpose, until required
to be put in the slide. This should not be done for about half an
hour, unless it be intended to expose it immediately, as the eva-
poration from the paper is condensed upon the glass, and forms a
number of small plano-convex lenses which doubtless refract the
rays that have passed through the glass of the slide and injure the
picture. 6

I have not had occasion to keep this paper longer than 18 hours
after exciting, it kept well for that time.

EXPosURE IN THE CAMERA.

With a given paper and light, the time of exposure will depend
upon the focal length of the lens, and the aperture of the dia-
phragm in front of it. My pictures were taken with a Ross’ 4 inch
Landscape lens of 20 inches focus, with an aperture of 4 an inch
in the diaphragm. And the time of exposure I found necessary
will be the best guide I can give to others.

I took a good negative of the Catholic Cathedral in 9 minutes,
between 8 and 4 P.M., the paper having been excited about half
an hour previous to exposure in the Camera. This is a white
building much darkened by time. There were some deep shadows,
the detail in which is fairly rendered: the Cassarina trees also
would have been tolerably well represented, had it not blown very
hard at the time. During half the time of exposure, the sun was
obscured by a small, but dense, black cloud. The Museum was
taken between 7 and 8 A. M. on paper excited on the previous even- .
ing, it was exposed 9 minutes in bright sunshine. This was per-
haps exposed rather too long to be called a good negative, al-
though not altogether to be despised. If need not have been made
quite so intense, but there was a palankeen carriage and horse in
very deep shadow under a large tree, which I wished to bring out,
or else the development could have been stayed earlier. These

ocT.—DEc. 1856. | Paper Process in Photography. 77

pictures were developed in 23 and 24 minutes, ,'; of the volume of
Gallic-acid, being added from tke exciting solution.

The amount of exposure for any focal length and aperture being
known—the time necessary for any other lens is found by the fol-
lowing rules, viz. :—

With lenses of the same focal length, the time of exposure is

inversely as the square of the diameter of the aperture in the dia-
phragm. ;

With the same aperture and diff¢rent foci—the time of exposure
is, directly as the square of the focal length.

With different apertures and foci, the times of exposure are, in-
versely as the square ofsthe diameter of the apertures, and directly
as the squares of the focal lengths.

The correct time of exposure however is one of the Photogra-
pher’s difficulties, and requires some considerable experience to ad-
just accurately under every kind of light.

_ DEVELOPING SoLUTION.

Some hours before it is required to be used, fill a large stoppered
bottle with distilled water, put in a piece of camphor, the size of a
nutmeg, and some Gallic-acid, the exact quantity is of no conse-
quence, so that it be in excess. Upon an emergency the solution
of the Gallic-acid may be accelerated by putting the bottle (without
stopper) in ajug of hotwater. The Photographer however should
be careful to have a saturated solution, always, or there will be no
certainty in his practice.

Filter as much of the above solution into the developing tray as
will cover it to the depth of at least one-eighth of an inch, and
then examine the state of your negative.

If by the light of a taper, the outline of the upper part of the
buildings or trees,* is just plainly visible, the paper is in the best
state for developing and you should add to the Gallic-acid about
75 of its volume of the exciting solution, If the sky line is very
strongly marked, add ,{; to 74, and if the paper has been so long
exposed as to bring out the brighter parts of the view, you may
perhaps save it by omitting the Aceto-nitrate altogether or even, in
extreme cases, diluting the Gallic-acid,—adding a small quantity

* “ Technically known as the sky line.”

78 Paper Process in Photography. — [xo. 1, NEW SERIES,

of the Silver solution, when the detail is nearly all visible; on the
contrary, if the sky line be entirely invisible add ,', of the Aceto-
nitrate solution.

Tilt the tray to and fro half a dozen times to ensure the perfect
mixture of the solution, or you will have patches of unequal de-
velopment.

Float the marked side of the paper on this as before described,
and be careful that no portion of the solution is allowed to touch
the back of the paper—should this unfortunately happen, as it
sometimes will notwithstanding every precaution, instantly reverse
the paper and wet the whole of the back as the only way to avoid
a stain—turning it again as soon as the bdck is wetted thoroughly
and developing by immersion. Should there be an insufficiency of
Gallo-nitrate to cover the paper well, get an assistant to pour in
more whilst you hold the paper, replacing it face downwards as
soon as the solutions are mixed.

The sky and most strongly illuminated parts of the picture first
appear, then the portion more in shade. When the darker parts
become visible through the back, lift one end between yourself and
the light, if the detail in the least brightly illumined parts is at all
visible, take it up and examine it carefully. If satisfied that you
have obtained as much detail in the shadows as can be done with-
out too much intensifying the high lights, remove the paper at
once to a pan of clean water and plant it face downwards to allow
any decomposed Gallo-nitrate to fall to the bottom of the pan,
then pour off the water or, what is better, remove the negative to
another vessel of clean water. If from the length of time occupi-
ed in the development or any other cause, decomposition of the
Gallo-nitrate has taken place to any extent, the face of the nega-
tive may be very cautiously brushed with a small camel’s hair
brush. After washing in 4 or 5 changes of water for half an hour
remove it to the fixing solution.

FixInG@ SoLvurion.

This consists of 8 or 4 ounces of Hypo-sulphite of Soda to 1
pint of clean (not distilled) water—in which the negative is to be
left until all the yellow Iodide of Silver is dissolved, this can only
be ascertained by daylight which will not hurt the picture after

=” Uh SS

=)

;

ocT.— DEC. 1856. ] Paper Process in Photograhy. 79

it has been some time in the solution—still it is not prudent to ex-
pose it to too strong a light (such as sunshine) until the Hypo-
sulphite has been washed out.

When all the Iodide of Silver is removed, wash in three or four
waters in succession, and then leave it in a large quantity of water
for 3 or 4 hours, changing the water every half hour, after which

_ pin it up to dry,—(pins do no harm now). When thoroughly dry,

it must be waxed in one of the following ways.
To Wax Paper.

A dish of double block tin, without joints in the bottom and
one inch deep, is made to fit into another and larger vessel, also of
tin, containing boiling water which must be kept at the boiling
point by any convenient heater. A cake or two of white wax is
put into the waxing dish, and when it is melted the sheet of paper
is floated thereon, when the paper is saturated with wax take it up
and drain off as much as possible of the superfluous wax. Do the
same with any number of papers. Then with aclean box-iron—
iron them one at a time between from 4 to 6 thicknesses of blotting
paper until the blotting paper is saturated with wax; then iron
between fresh blotting paper, which may require to be repeated.
The 2nd and 3rd papers of the Ist batch will do the Ist and 2nd
ironing of the 2nd batch. Proceed thus until all are ironed and
appear (when held between the eye and the light) free from any
opaque, or shining spots—and perfectly clear and transparent.

Another method of waxing papers is to place the paper on two or
three folds of blotting paper ; then as you pass the iron over the
back of the paper with one hand follow it closely with a piece of
wax held in the other, the excess of wax being ironed out as be-
fore, I do not recommend this mode of waxing papers previous to
iodizing, but it answers very well when one or two negatives have
to be waxed, and must do when tke Photographer is unprovided
with a tray.

After the negative is waxed the edges should be trimmed, it is
then ready to print from. In taking out the superfluous wax from
the finished negative, as hot an iron as possible should be used to
remove the wax, for notwithstanding all his efforts to extract the
excess, he will, not unfrequently, find by the spots in his print,

80 Paper Process in Photography. [ no. 1, NEW SERIES,

that the Sun has done what he was unable to effect. For the glass
plate of the printing frame becomes so hot as to transfer the wax
from the negative to the positive, through the coagulated albumen.

Having said all that appears to be necessary on the subject of
unwaxed paper, I will add what may be necessary to enable the
novice to use waxed paper. He will find at the outset that it is
much more difficult to immerse waxed papers in the iodizing solu-
tion, the difficulty is lessened when there is a good depth of solu-
tion, I have also found that the papers are more easily immersed in
a solution made with whey than in one‘ prepared with water. In
exciting waxed papers, float twice the time directed for unwaxed
papers. They will require about five thirds the exposure, and ge-
nerally, the development, fixing, and washing of waxed papers will
require alonger time. With these exceptions the manipulation is
the same as with plain papers.

In conclusion I have only to add, that the method of manipulat-
ing is that followed by Captain Tripe and Dr. Neill, which will
recommend it more to your notice than anything I can say in its
favour. They do not soak their papers so long in the iodizing so-
lution as I recommend. It was an experiment with me, and the
result having proved satisfactory, I of course direct you to do that
which has succeeded in my hands. But I am not certain that such
lengthened immersions are necessary, though I am quite satisfied
they are not injurious. The iodizing compound contains nothing
new to Photography, but the proportions are different from any
published formula, I believe. How much of its greater rapidity
of action is due to that (or perhaps the longer immersion in the
iodizing bath,) I am not prepared to offer an opinion, because
neither my leisure nor circumstances permit me to enter into numer-
ous experiments. But I know it is considerably quicker than any
modification of the waxed-paper process that I have tried, it is

-as quick as the Calotype, and I think is deserving of a more ex-
tended trial by Indian Photographers than an Individual has the
power to give it. Itis doubtless capable of improvement, and the
probability of this will increase with the number of hands that can
be induced to give it a trial.

' oot.—pveEc. 1856. ] Description of Biddery Ware. 81

V. Description of the Manufacture of “Biddery Ware. By
GerorcE SMITH, M. D., Residency Surgeon, Hyderabad.

[Communicated by the Committee of the Madras Exhibition for 1857.]

On passing through Beder about two months ago, I thought it

- would be well, to make a few enquiries into the mode of manufac-

turing the unique and elegant ware commonly called Biddery ;

accordingly I procured two Workmen, who, partly shewed and
partly explained to me the several

' stages of the manufacture; the
information thus obtained may
assist those desirous of imitating
his beautiful ware.

Suppose the vessel to be made,
resembles in form the common
small hookah bottom (vide Fig.
No.1). The steps of the manu-
facture are as follows—A mass of

No. 1. finely pounded and sifted old la-
terite dust mixed with cow-dung, is put upon a rude lathe, and
when dry is carefully turned into the correct shape. The lathe is
rude and simple, and is turned either by the hand alone, or by a
short rope attached to a small piece of wood (vide Fig. No. 2);

———
2 —=

=

ira

82 Description of Biddery Ware. [xo. 1, NEW SERIEs,

with the other hand the workmen holds a sort of chisel (vide Fig.
No. 3), with which he cuts and smooths the model. The model

thus carefully prepared, is next covered with a mixture of wax and
oil boiled together (vide Fig. No. 4), when dry, the whole mass
is again turned, care- '
fully thinned and
smoothed. Over this
coating is plastered a
second layer of la-
terite dust moisten-
ed with water but
without cow-dung—
this coat is rough,
and is not subse- 7
quently smoothed Ye
down, (vide Fig. ws
No. 5). The next
stage consists in bor-

No. 4. ing two openings in
the composite mould, and in placing it in the fire, the effect of this
being to melt the intermediate layer of wax, and thus to leave a va-
cant space for the reception of the alloy. Into this space is pour-
ed the alloy (consisting of copper 1 part and pewter 4). The ves-
sel has now a dull leaden look; it is hard, but easily cut. This
model or shell is carefully turned and smoothed. Upon the smooth
surface of this shell, the pattern is etched by hand, a small pointed
graver (like the pattern of the chisel, but only sharper at the
point) being used. This etching is done rapidly. The workman
next takes a small chisel and hammer, and following the lines of the
pattern, cuts it deeply and expeditiously, scooping out the tracings
of the little leaves, &c., and leaving an indented but rough surface.
This rough surface is next smoothed down by hammering gently

oct.—prc. 1856. ] Description of Biddery Ware. 83

with another blunt pointed chisel, and the space is then ready for
the process of my ing (vide Fig. No. 6).

wae

No. 6.
Thin plates of very pure silver are taken, and the little leaves
(vide Fig. No. 7) are cut out with a small hammer and chisel,

No. 7.

each little leaf is then raised separately by the chisel and finger
tip, and hammered gently but carefully into the depression intend-
ed for it. This part of the process is tedious. In the more dura-
ble kinds of Biddery ware silver wire is substituted for the silver
leaf. The vase in this state is rough and requires smoothing. This
is done with a common file and with a curved scraper, of a rude
and clumsy form. The hole in the bottom of the vessel is filled up
with lead and is smoothed down. [Finally the vase is gently heat-
ed, and whilst warm, is blackened by the application of a powder,
supposed to consist of chalky earth and muriate of ammonia, this
imparts a brilliant black polish to the shell, and careful hand rub-
bing brings out the lustre of the silver.

The value of the ware depends upon the thickness of the silver
inlaying—the common ware of the bazaars rarely lasts long. In-
laying is also executed in the same way with copper leaf, but the
artistic effect I think, is inferior to the silver. The price of a small
hookah bottom like that described varies, in Beder, from 7 to 10 Rs,

84 Description of Biddery Ware ([xNo.1, NEW SERIES,

It might be worth while to ascertain, if any intelligent workman
at Madras would undertake to imitate this elegant and durable
manufacture.

The following patterns are forwarded: they will illustrate the
several stages of the manufacture.

1. The first dust and cow-dung model. 2. The wax coating.
3. The rough compound model. 4. The shell, showing also the
graving, the scooping out, and the inlaying processes. 5. Half
finished shell. 6. The cutting chisel. 7. The silver-leaf—with
an oval leaf cut out. 8. The ‘polishing powder. .

No. 9.

'No. &, is a fac simile of a cake of laterite dust and cow-dung sent for imspec-
on? No. 9 shows the appearance of a vessel after the inlaying process has

been accomplished-}

ocr.—DsEC. 1856.] Sand-binding Plants of the Mad. Beach. 85

VI. Notule Botanice No. I. Onthe Sand-binding Plants of
the Madras Beach. By Hvucu CLecuory, M. D.

Having lately been requested by the Military Board to examine
the condition of the South Beach, between the Saluting Battery
and Saint Thomé, with a view to consolidate the drifting sand
thrown up near Colonel Cotton’s groynes, I endeavoured to estimate
the compatative value of the different species of maritime plants in
preventing the encroachments of the sea on the land, and in fixing
the loose soil along the shore. All that seems worthy of mention
has been condensed in the following short notice of these useful
plants, which originally appeared in the Journal of the Agricultural
and Horticultural Society of India, vol. 1X. part Il. 3

The wide-spreading roots and under-ground stems of the sand-
binding plants extend themselves in quest of food, and thus be-
come interwoven together, so as to sustain the soil in a sort of
basket-work, and consolidate the sands thrown up by the waves of
the ocean. If it were not for the subterranean stems of these sea-
side plants, which can vegetate amidst dry and drifting sand, the
banks which man heaps up as a barrier against the sea would be
blown away by the first hurricane. In Holland, the great sea-
dyke preventing inundation, owes its stability to these plants,
creeping Graminez are employed, which are carefully protected
under the instruction of Government. Along the shore of Great
Britain, as in Lincoln, Suffolk, &c., the quantity of dry land has
been much increased by the propagation of the Bent star or Sand
Carex (Carex arenaria) and Lyme grass (Elymus arenarius).

Let us cast a glance at the localities under consideration. On
this low coast, the wind which blows alternately over the sea and
from the land, but more continuously from the sea, propels land-
wards the sand, which collects in a succession of parallel ridges—
these gradually advance, and year by year fill up any hollow de-
clivities, or gain on the vegetable soil which is buried. The ac-

sr

86 The Sand-binding Plants [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

companying figure will illustrate the way in which hillocks are
formed by the constant encroachment of sand.

é-. c oe A. _ &
oo SY sxZ —— we =)

This figure is intended to represent sand-hills placed perpendi-
cularly to the direction of the prevailing winds. The wind
pushes the sand from the bottorfi @ to the top 4, it then falls in the
direction be. A hillock therefore will always increase if fresh
sand is supplied in front, or be removed, if the sand be kept conti-
nually in motion. °

Sandy and irregularly irrigated soil can only produce shrubby
and herbaceous plants ; it’s vegetation, suspended during the dry-
season, revivifies during the rains, and covers with a transitory car-
pet of verdure, the earth which appears naked and sterile during.
the rest of the year.

The drifting in of great masses of sand is, I understand, one of
the greatest obstacles to the perfect success of the Eastern Coast
Canal, now in progress near Madras. The drift occurs from both
sides, but chiefly from the sea.

Along Canals, in which the level of the water is nearly con-
stant, the banks at different heights are in different conditions of
moisture and frequently also of soil: so we see certain species of
Grasses, Bulrushes, &c. placed above each other in regular narrow
parallel bands forming a kind of girdle, beyond which the soil be-
comes too dry on one side, and too wet on the other, for them to
prosper. |

1. Spintfex squarrosus, Linn. the species known to Europeans
by the designation of “ Ground Rattan’’* comes nearest to the Sand
Carex of England inits habit of growth, creeping along horizontally
sometimes above, sometimes below the surface of the earth, emitting
roots and shoots at short intervals of afewinches. It likewise pos-
sesses the advantage of being extremely tenacious of life; the shoot
at every node is capable of renewing the existence of the individual

* Also called ‘‘Sea Pink,’’ these names are both popular misnomers, the correct
designation is ‘‘ Spinifex’’ of Botanists. The Tamil name, Ravanen mise, i. e.
Whiskers of Ravanah, is a descriptive epithet.

»
“4
*
al
we

>?

‘ocr.—DEC, 1856. } of the Madras Beach. 87

as fast as destroyed, and the whole plant offers a resistance to the
storm which is rarely overcome. I think this species would be near-
ly as indestructible from natural causes as Couch grass, and it ap-
pears to me (after watching patches of it on the road to Ennore, where
it is little disturbed) that it would speedily colonize the sand tracts
spontaneously, if it were only left unmolested for a year or two. In
the experiment lately made in front of the Fort, and near the Salut-
ing Battery, this binder has answered well, notwithstanding the fre-
quent disturbance of the young plants. The fishermen do not ap-
preciate the conservative design of this “ground rattan” or mat
grass, but collect it for fuél, and thus destroy their greatest pro-
tection: the reason seems to be that the spiny leaves injure their
naked feet, and the turf does not answer for spreading their nets
upon. On this account, it would be well to propagate the other
plants mentioned, immediately in front of fishing villages. This
grass is Polygamo-diectous, (Spinifex dioicus of Ham. MS.S.), and
reproduction is effected in a very remarkable manner; the male
spikes congested into an umbel are carried by the wind to the fe-
male flowers, which are fascicled on a distinct plant, and being
light and spherical, the Dutch call them wind-ball (Wind-boll).

Rumphius in the “ Herb. Amboinense” alludes to this plant, as
being connected with a superstition among the natives, who, see-
ing the capitula carried along the shore by the sea-breeze, think
they are propelled by the devil. (Vide Plate No. 2).

2. Ipomea pes-capre, Sweet. Goat's foot leaved Jpomea, (also
known as “ Rabbit weed”). Perennial, creeping to a very great ex-
tent. Stems rooting at distant intervals. Leaves smooth, long
petioled, two lobed, like those of Bauhinia, tipped with a muero.
Flowers large, reddish purple, very handsome. Common on the
sandy beach north and south of Madras, where it is of great use
in binding the loose sand, and in time rendering it sufficiently
stable to bear grass. This fine creeper is equally abundant in both
peninsulas, and is also a native of Mauritius, Macao, &c., occupy-
ing the place of C. Soldanella of the British coast, and we have
rarely seen a more striking and beautiful species of the Tropical
Bind weeds. Rabbits, goats, and horses eat it, so do cows, but

r

88 The Sand-binding Plants [ No. 1, NEW SERIES,

their milk is tainted. Great difficulty occurs in raising this plant
in the vicinity of houses—as the inhabitants tread it down, and
cattle nibble the tender shoots. It naturally takes a higher posi-
tion on the sand-bank than the Spinifex, and suffers less in-
jury during a storm, but they often grow together and conjointly
effect much benefit. The Spinifex arrests the drifting sand,
and the Ipomcea secures what the former collects. Mr, Cadell
has planted it most extensively along the Canal banks near Tran-
quebar. (Plate No. 3).

3. Canavalia oblusifolia D. C. common on the sea-shore,
frequently entwined with the last named binder, this is also a very
useful plant, and is very abundant at the Adyar, Ennore, the
mouth of the Godavery, and between Quilon and Anjengo. (Plate
No. 4).

4. Hydrophylax maritima, Linn. Seaside Hydrophylaz. A
straggling herbaceous plant, native of the shore of Coromandel,
where it shows its pale lilac blossoms great partof the year. The
branches run over the sand, sometimes under the surface, and
strike root at the joints. It answers well when the sand is moist.
Figured in Roxb. Cor. pl. t. 233.

5. Microrhynchus sarmentosus, Wight. A widely diffused hum-
ble plant, common along the sea beach, with long flagelliform run-
ners; but according to my observation, no species of the Compo-
sitee possesses sufficient strength to effect the objectin view. It is
well figured in Wight’s illustrations, Vol. II., t. 183. (Plate No. 5).

6. Pupalia orbiculata, Wight. Achyranthes orbiculata, Heyne,
Wallich, Cyathula orbiculata, Moquin, “‘ stem prostrate: leaves
short petioled densely villous when young, becoming orbicular, re-
tuse, acute at the base, smoother by age: fascicles densely tomen-
tose, many-flowered, globular, remote, with long brown bristles.”
Wallich in Roxb. Fl. Ind. Carey Edit, 2. 507. Wight Icon. Vol.
y. t. 1783.

On sandy soils near the sea beach, abundant at St. Thomé, and
near the mouth of the Adyar River.

An extensively spreading procumbent plant, the branches being
often several feet long, round, pubescent of a light brownish-green

ocr.—pxc. 1856.] of the Madras Beach. 89

colour: leaves when full-grown coriaceous and nearly glabrous,
spikes terminal, long, at first compact, but becoming interrupted
as the plant increases in length: fascicles of flowers capitate, dense-
ly tomentose: bristles when full-grown not simple, but compound,
or as it were pinnate, pale brown, attaching themselves to the
clothes of passengers, cling to them with tenacity.

7. Pandanus odoratissimus, Linn. (Kaldera bush.) A large
spreading ramous shrub, which fringes the coast in many places,
and is often planted in belts, but takes up much room, forms dense
thickets, and harbours venomous reptiles. The lands in which Chay
Root is cultivated are often protected from drift sand by means of
this shrub. It is a very 3trong binder, but is objectionable from its
raising sand-hills, which near the Marine Villa interrupted the
currents of sea breeze to the island.

8. Hhretia arenaria, Griffith, which is found between 12° and
28° N. L. (vide “ Notulz ad plantas Asiaticas,” Part IV, page 212)
appears to be widely distributed, and binds together the loose
sand, although in a minor degree. Is this the same as Ehretia (X)
cuneata? Wight Icon. Vol. IV. t. 1885 which grows on sand banks
in the beds of all our rivers.

The above are the sand-binding plants most frequently noticed
along the Coromandel beach. There are others as Pedalium murex,
Lpomea pes tigridis and Sesamum prostratum, &c., which c0-ope-
rate in the work of conservation to a minor extent, but are less
widely diffused along the coast. In this notice, I have only in-
cluded those which seem obviously preferable for the purpose spe-
cified, by peculiarity of structure or rapidity of growth.

List of Sand-binding Plants.
. Spinifex squarrosus........Spinifex.............Ravanan mise.
. Ipomoea pes capr@........ Goat’s foot Ipomea. . . Mosul taylie.
. Canavalia obtusifolia. .... Round leaved Canavalia. Koyli avaree.
. Hydrophylax maritima... Seaside Hydrophylax.

b> =

. Microrhynehus sarmentosus.Creeping Microrhyncus.

. Pupalia orbiculata.......,Round leaved Pupalia. Adai yotti.

. Pandanus odoratissimus., .Kaldera bush.,..... ..T aylie marum.,
8. Hhretia arenaria,,,......Sand Fhretia.........

IT DO - Oo

ts

90 Geological Features [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

Trees such as the Cashew (Amacardium occidentale) the Alexan-
drian Laurel (Calophyllum Inophyllum) and the wild Date (Phenix
sylvestris) grow well, and render a double service by preventing a
further encroachment of sand, and rendering the land useful.

Note.—In support of my favorable opinion of the Spinifex, I may quote the fol-
lowing authorities from the Records of the Military Board.

In 1849, Major Worster, Superintendent of Roads, first recommended the trans-
plantation of this grass as well adapted for securing the sand from drifting; and
in 1851, he represented “‘that of the two experiments made with the Rabdit
Weed and the Ground Rattan to protect the side of the Sea Beach Road, the
preference is given to the Rattan, the trial of this plant to the extent of 872 ft. x
10 ft. being considered to have proved perfectly successful.’’ Under these cir-
cumstances, Government sanctioned an outlay of 240 Rs. for planting the Ground
Rattan between the Coom Bar and the Ice Hoyse, on a length of 4,109 feet by
12 in breadth.

Again, Captain Cannon, Acting Superintendent of Roads, under date 21st
July 1853, in reporting on the effects of this plantcn protecting the South Beach,
states the experiment succeeded “as a preservative to the edges of the road next
to the beach, preventing them from being breached to the same extent as for-
merly. The good effects are best seen (between the Marine Villa and fishermen’s
huts) by comparing the portions where it flourishes in full luxuriance, with those
where from the constant passage of the fishermen over it, the plant has been de-
stroyed; in the former there is a high bank of sand covered with vegetation, and
little subject to drift, whereas in the latter, the sand is constantly shifting, and
moreover the foot paths form channels for the drainage of the road, and where
such is the case breaches most frequently occur. I consider the Ground Rattan
far superior to the Rabbit Weed as a protection to the Beach.”’

Mr. Cadell, Sub Collector of Tanjore, likewise informs me that he finds this the
hardiest and most useful of all the plants tried on the sides of the Eastern Coast
Canal.

VII. The Geological features of Madura, Trichinopoly, Tan-
jore, and Poothacotta. By the Rey. D. Muzzy.

The region of country embraced in this paper is that included in
the four Districts of Madura, Trichinopoly, Tanjore and Pootha-
cotta. It is bounded on the north by South Arcot and Salem, on
the east by Paulk’s Straits, on the south by the Gulf of Manar and
the Collectorate of Tinnevelly, and on{the west by the Province of
Coimbatore and the Malabar country.

Its mountains are the Patchemalies or Green Mountains in the
north-western part of Trichinopoly ; the Pulneys and Serumalies in
the Madura District, with various ranges of smaller mountains and
detached spurs and cliffs, and some vast rocks. The rivers are the
VellAr, or White-river in the extreme north, the Cauvery and Vigay
with their branches; these and a few other small streams com-
prise all the rivers that are found in this region.

oct.—Dprc. 1856. | of the Southern Division. 91

The face of the country is that of a level, and in some places an
undulating plain ; lower in most cases at the foot of the mountains
and vast rocks, which rise abruptly from the surface, than in other
places. As most of the vallies are occupied with tanks and ponds
for irrigating the country, ravines and deep water-courses are very
few.

The soils are the regur, or black cotton in the north, west and

south, and in small patches in some other places; the red sandy
and red irony in parts of the Talooks of Sevagunga, Maloor, Ram-
gherry and Tadicomboo, and the light sandy and gravelly on the
sea-shore and in vicinity of the rivers, and a few other places ; and
the dark-brown vegetable soil confined mostly to the hills and val-
lies of the mountains. These various soils, with the exception of
the last mentioned, contain a portion of clay, but this is so free
from it that water penetrates through it nearly as freely as through
sand, or ashes, and when burned it falls to pieces like so much
earth.
The alluvium beneath the soil partakes much of the nature of
the underlaying rock except in the vicinity of the sea and the ri-
vers. There it is either the fine-washed sand mingled with land,
fresh water, or marine shells, or the fluviatile and lacustrine depo-
sits. A deposit resembling the loess of the Rhone, and the silt and
crag of some pools of England are met with in various places.

In noticing more particularly the features of this region we find,
that in the northern part of the Trichinopoly District, in the black
soil through which that remarkable bed of fossil shells and crusta-
cea passes, and in the vicinity of the Vellar are beds of a pure ba-
salt, both in nodular masses and in large blocks, and as it breaks
with a smooth and even fracture, it is used, to a considerable ex-
tent, for building purposes. Adjoining this in the north-east are
beds of laterite resting upon syenitic granite. And in the north-
west the plains are much variegated by the out-croppings of this
underlying granite, which in some places passes into syenite and
greenstone, and rises in other places into hills and mountains that
extend westward beyond the boundary of the District, and south-
ward to within a few miles of the Cauvery. Among these hills is

92 Geological Features [ No. 1, NEW SERIES,

a small mountain situated a few miles north-west of Moosery, com-
posed partly of beautifully pure magnesite and brucite and some of
the other magnesian compounds. Where it is associated with
iron, it possesses considerable hardness and solidity, but the bru-
cite is soft and friable and has a large proportion of magnesia in it.

Near this mountain, in the direction of Cannanore, is an exten-
sive bed of pure chlorite potstone. This is wrought to a consider-
able extent, and the vessels made of it, find a ready sale in Trichi-
nopoly, Madura and other large towns.

It is in this region also that portions of the iron ore used by the __
Porto Novo Iron Company are found. This appears to be an
oxide of the metal occurring in small gravelly pieces in the soil
and is mingled with much impurity.

In this vicinity, three miles from Moosery on the road to Salem,
is situated a hill, or small mountain, composed, as far as appear-
ances indicate, almost entirely of crystalline pyroxene associated
with beds of albite. Here were masses of beautiful dark green
crystals of jeffersonite, black cocolite, forsterite, and hypersthene,
The disintegration of the pyroxene imparted to some places a pe-
culiarly rusty and irony appearance.

At Totiem about eight miles from Moosery, the soil though com-
posed of a large portion of sand, imbeds large quantities of felspa-
thic gravel, which is used for improving the roads.

Near this place, is a ridge of rocks composed of a quartzose gra-
nite associated with striated siliceous limestone and pure albite, as
also massive garnet and chlorite rock, and ata little distance were
augite and felspar. Ve

In the vicinity of the upper annicut on the Coleroon river are
rocks of granular limestone, some of which have in their composi-
tion silica and pyroxene and some a portion of serpentine and the
rock is a variety of verdantique marble.

To return again to the north, we find at Valeondapuram and vi-
cinity considerable quantities of magnesian rocks. In some cases
they are associated with lime and a chertty rock resembling a com-
pound of jasper and lime. Beautifully pure specimens of magne-
site as also round shot like grains or crystals of ferruginous oxide

4
:
j

ocr.—pxEc. 1856.] of the Southern Division. 93

of titanium in nodular concretions of recent limestone are found
here.

The same kind of granite as mentioned above is found to under-
lie all this region to within about 10 miles of the Coleroon ; in some
places it is associated with the common granite as its frequent
outcrop and disintegrating fragments in the soil plainly show.
Nearly all the mountains and hills, however, and most of the vast
blocks that nearly cover the surface in. some places are syenitic.
The granite near the river Colerooh is of the common kind and
highly porphyritic.

At the junction of these two kinds of granite and crossing the
road from Madras to Trichinopoly, near the 182nd mile stone from
the former place, is a bed of finely and evenly stratified grey sand-
stone. The strata are from 2 or 3 inches to ;4,th of an inch in
thickness, and they separate with a fracture so smooth and even
that the pieces resemble smooth plates of slate. A specimen ob-
tained there is about 2 feet long, one foot wide and 1 inch thick
and nearly as even and smooth asa board. The small crystals of
felspar contained in it are of the orthaclase species, and of a dull

" flesh colour.

The extent of this bed has not been ascertained; it has been
traced, however, more than amile in length, but the width of the
outcrop is not more than 10 or 15 yards; and it runs in a direction
nearly east and west. The strata on the south side of the bed are
crossed by joints which pass through it nearly parallel to each other
and about two feet apart and at an angle of about 50° with the

line of direction; the dip of the strata appeared to be about 60°

on the south side and nearly 20° in the centre, while that of the
north side was not satisfactorily determined. A singular charac-
teristic of this bed is, that the strata on the south side of it are
composed of nearly pure silicious sandstone; in the middle they
were porphyritic, containing felspar, while those on the north side
were composed almost entirely of a greenish. black hornblende,
these thin strata forming a beautiful hornblende slate. This ap-
peared to be the junction of the two minerals hornblende and mica ;
to the north of this, hornblende, either in a free state, or combined

94 Geological Features [ NO. 1, NEW SERIEs,

in syenitic granite, or greenstone, is prevalent, while to the south
of it mica, combined with quartz and felspar forming the common
or porphyritic granite, is equally prevalent.

We have now arrived in our notices of the country at the eastern
part of the Trichinopoly District, which is traversed by that re-
markable bed of fossil-shells already referred to, sometimes called
the Ootatoor marble. In the tour mentioned above, this region
was visited, and I proceed now to state a few particulars in regard
to it. . :

In the vicinity of Ootatoor, the syenitic granite containing gar-
nets is very abundant, it crops out and lies on the surface in flat
masses and huge blocks; and rises into hills and mountains im-
bedding in some places the blue or oolitic quartz, fine specimens of
jade, crocidolite, and a black curiously crystalline carbonate of lime
and small pieces of iron.

About half a mile east of the Travellers’ bungalow, the granite
disappears from the surface, or remains only in small quantities
and scattered in disintegrating fragments. The prospect from this
place to the north, east and south is that of a great plain extend-
ing in vast wave like undulations as far as the eye can reach.

The soil is a dark loam containing magnesia and lime evidently
formed from the disintegration of the rock on or beneath its sur-
face. Small pieces of red irony crystalline limestone as also pieces
of the marble full of small white shells of the multilocular class
called the turrilite are found here.

In the rolling surface of this plain, there is a fair opportunity,
considering the loose and earthy nature of -the soil, for the denud-
ing effects of the water, hence we see many of those ridges worn
into banks and mound-like and deep ravines by the torrents. One
of these, about a mile east of the bungalow is well marked. The
ravine is about 58 feet deep and lays bare the surrounding strata
to a considerable extent. The upper stratum on the western side
is a marl or earthy limestone and occupies a large portion of the
surface ; the next stratum below appeared to be an iron sandstone,
slightly resembling laterite yet regularly stratified, and of a red-
‘dish brown color, evidently containing a considerable quantity of

ocr.—pDEc. 1856. | of the Southern Division. - 95

the oxide of iron. Farther to the north where other smaller ra-
vines come into the large one a still lower stratum is laid bare, it
consists of a well-defined gneissoid sandstone. It is plainly and
evenly stratified with layers of mica, silicious sand and felspar, or
lime. The stone is soft and friable and appears to be considerably
extensive, underlying much of the western part of this plain, its

_ thickness is unknown. Ina bank in the lower part of the ravine

were strata of a pure white clay, or chalk alternating with layers
of a dark dun-colored substance of*the same apparent composi-
tion ; both containing carbonic acid and effervescing freely with
acids. This dun-colored clay is very extensive throughout this re-
gion and becomes indureted and passes into limestone. Much of
the recent limestone in which the shells are imbedded is evidently
formed from this clay; as it exists in different parts of this plain
underlying the cotton soil in almost every degree of hardness from
that of marl and soft clay to that of compact and solid limestone.

On the east side of this ravine, this clay and the cotton soil
which commences here is overlaid with an earth containing salts
of different kinds; those containing nitrate and muriate of soda
are conspicuous. The sulphate of lime in the form of bladed,
amorphous, and fibrous gypsum was so prevalent as nearly to cover
the ground in some places although some bandy loads had been
collected and sent to Madras. In and on the banks of this ravine
were found a large number of the shells called belemnites and spe-
cimens of globular, cylindrical and over-shaped substances, of va-
rious sizes from that of an ounce bullet to that of some six or
eight inches in diameter and length. These substances were com-
posed invariably of a dark blood-red or brown-jointed oxide of
iron and laterite or fine radiating zeolite. Sometimes these round
substances were inclosed as nuclei in nodules of pure white chalk ;
but more frequently they were covered with a thin smooth cretace-
ous substance, which gave them an uniform appearance as far as
the texture of this external coat was concerned.

In our farther examination of this interesting locality, it was
found, that this black soil and these globular specimens of fossil
crustacea, (as there is evidence to believe they are), extended to

Be ia

96 Geological Features [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

nearly a mile east of the village of Giridimungalum, whichis situ-
ated at the quarry of the Oottatoor shell marble, a distance of some
five miles north easterly from Oottatoor.

As we passed from this place to Giridimungalum we saw, to the
north of our path and some two or three miles from it, what had
the appearance of vast banks and mounds of earth recently thrown
up. On visiting them, however, we found them to be high ridges
of land, washed into the forms mentioned, by torrents of water si-
milar to the location just referred to. Here were found nearly all
the different kinds of fossils and minerals that had been found
there besides others, such as ammonites of some eight or ten dif-
ferent species, some of which though not entire, were more than =~
nine inches in diameter and some entire were about six and seven
inches, while others were only three or four inches, and nautili
were well preserved and had the syphuncle well developed. While
the fossil crustacea before referred to were here larger and more in
the shape of the living animal, some resemble the body of a large
lobster, or crab so exactly, that there seems but little risk in call-
ing them fossils of that animal; and some resembled the different
kinds of echinus, especially the spatangus. There were also other
masses with two lobes somewhat resembling a small saddle having
distinct marks of shell or skin. These are only a few of the great
variety of forms and shapes that were met with. These were all
composed of the oxide of iron, selenite, or zeolite and lime, as be-
fore described. Many of these bodies were broken and the oxide
of iron, which had formed them, with portions of the fossil animal
distinct, lay in different places where they had been entombed.
They were of various sizes, from that of the shrimp to that of an
animal of some 25 or 30 feet in length.

We next examined the limestone in the village of Giridimunga-
lum ; this appeared to be of different ages ; while some of it, being
highly crystalline, must have been of a high antiquity, other parts
of it were more recent, imbedding a different kind of shell; and
some appeared to be of the clay above mentioned, and to be, even
now, in a state of formation. The shells in the oldest rock, were
in the best state of preservation, being much fresher and freer from

ocr.—pxEc. 1856. | of the Southern Division. 97

fracture, than those in the more recent formation, some of them
still retaining in part their color and all the small ridges natural
to them. This rock is of a bluish color highly crystalline and so
hard as to receive a good polish. A noticeable feature of these shells
was, that although they were so numerous as to compose a large
proportion of the rock, they were, with few exceptions, of the bi-

_ valve class.

Not possessing the means, nor the time to name these shells, I
do not attempt it. Most of them will be found figured in Sowet-
by’s Geological Conchology, in Lyell’s Manual of Elementary
Geology, and a few of them in this Journal for June 1840.

We obtained parts of ‘what appeared to be two fossil tortoises
and a few large bivalve shells entirely converted into limestone, a
number of pieces of fossil wood in limestone ; some with the holes
made by the teredo nearly filled with calc spar; these also contain
knots or the beginning of branches. There was also found at this
place, an ammonite in good state of preservation measuring some
15 inches in diameter and about 4 inches in thickness; the out-
ward whorl of which is partly free from the limestone which en-
velopes the central part and shows the shell but little altered.
This bed of limestone was found to be narrow, not being more
than half a mile wide in the widest place ; we traced its length for
about two miles south of the village and could see its outcrop for
about a mile further. Persons were sent to follow this bed to its
southern extremity, who returned with fossils and minerals; plain-
ly indicating that although its continuous outcrop is not more than
about four miles in length it does extend beneath the surface to
the village of Pullumpardee near the Coleroon, where it again
crops out and is wrought.

From the south of a small rivulet, which runs across it, the rock
and fossils appeared to be more silicions, and frequent masses of
granite and small pieces of sandstone were found among them,
Now considering its extent from Pullumpardee, and that from the
rise of ground near Giridimungalum those high denuded ridges,
like those where the fossils are so numerous, can be seen extending
in a north-easterly direction as far as the eye can reach, and also

N

98 Geological Features [xo. 1, NEW SERIEs,

that this kind of limestone appears on and under the surface in the
same direction at Virdachellum, Seedraput, and other places be-
tween these places, may we not safely conclude that this same for-
mation accompanied by its fossils and minerals continues, either
beneath, or upon the surface the whole distance from Seedraput to
Pullumpardee? If so, we have a space of more than 100 miles in
length and from two to five miles in breadth, which, when this
country was submerged beneath the ocean, as was most probably
the case in, what is called the cretaceous or latter part of the se-
condary epoch, was the peculiar home and feeding greund of in-
numerable animals, similar to what the Newfoundland and Bahama
banks are now. Here, they lived and fourished and here they
died and were buried, and here in the abundance of their fossil
remains we read the history of creative wisdom and preserving
goodness of which we have such abundant evidence in our day.

In our return to Trichinopoly we found the country near Ootta-
toor covered, in places with the same dark granite before men-
tioned, and across the road passed a vein of pure augite slate, so
hard and fine grained as to admit of a high polish. At the dis-
tance of about three miles south-west from Oottatoor occurred the
same undulating denuded surface as at Giridimungalum in which
were found nodular concretions of iron ochre imbedding selenite
which was very pure; here was also found chlorite, porphyry and
an abundance of crystalline gypsum and a kind of limestone which
had the appearance of being simply a mass of fossil hamites, and
another kind made up of different species of the shell called tera-
bratula, the turbinide, and many others; the whole differing en-
tirely from any thing discovered in the other places mentioned.
This is an interesting locality and deserves further investigation.

As the formation on the sea-shore and in the vicinity of the
rivers is composed of light sand, and up from the shore, of dilu-
vium brought down by the waters, it will require no further re-
mark.

We have now come to the northern part of the Madura District.
We find that granite underlies nearly the whole of this District ;
there is reason to believe that the laterite rests upon granite, as it

ocr.—pbeEc. 1856. ] of the Southern Division. 99

does in other places. So also some of the syenite on the tops of
the mountains is found to rest upon granite. Indeed syenite is not
known to be an underlying rock to any extent in any part of this
district, but appears in blocks or rounded masses both on the
mountains and some parts of the plains.

In the direction of Vellum and Poothacotta from Trichinopoly
the granite pierces the laterite, which covers most of the surface,
in a number of places where it appears either in ridges of some
height or in broken masses scattered over the plains, but the late-
rite does not appear here eften in the form of a rock, but of gravel
mingled with the soil, or immediately beneath it. In the vicinity
of Vellum and from that place south through the Poothacotta and
Sivagunga districts, the laterite takes more the form of a glomerate
rock and is used for building purposes. Its appearance in some
places when it is forming is that of a liquid percolating the soil and
forming for itself small pipes, or veins which branch in different
directions not unlike the veins in the human system; these multi-
ply and harden till the whole mass becomes thoroughly impregnat-
ed with iron, and by degrees formed into a hard and rich iron ore.
Considerable hills are formed of this substance in the Poothacotta
district ; still containing the pipe, or vein-like formation.

From Trichinopoly in a south and south-westerly direction the
granite is porphyritic and contains at Verallimalli a vein of nodu-
lar greenstone imbedding granular chlorite and beautifully white
albite. On the road from Trichinopoly to Dindigul at Amaparthi
is a bed of granular limestone imbedding grains of pyroxene, of
considerable extent and hardness; this is found in some cases
united to the granite, connected with the felspar of which, are
crystals of vermicutorite. At Manaparie 25 miles south-west from
Trichinopoly, the granite is diversified by large masses of viscid
quartz and quartz rock and granite; the minerals found at this
place are rock crystals, axinite, calcspar, chlorite, ripidolite, octahe-
dral and specular iron, prehnite, chlorite porphyry, polyolite, schorl,
albite, pyrope, garnet, aquamarine, nigrin, rutile, zeuxite, arseniate
of copper, nicoline, and crystalline hornblende.

Near Corttamperthe is an extensive bed of silicate of iron; it
forms a part of four small mountains and continues in one direc-

100 Geological Features [no. 1, NnW SERIES,

tion, either upon, or beneath the surface, a distance of about eight
miles and contains the different varieties of this ore and their dif-
ferent crystals.

In the vicinity of Tovarankurchy are considerable hills of quartz
rock having a quantity of green diallage in its composition. In
the Maloane mountains, gonulite is the prevalent rock and it im-
beds black and common garnets which with the massive variety is
found in considerable quantities in the granite soil of this region.
Alagiri Malei is a mountain situated 12 miles north of Madura and
is about 1,000 feet in height and some ten- or fifteen miles in length,
and is composed almost entirely of aventurine quartz or micaceous
sandstone. Some portions of it appear to have been formed upon

a shore and are stratified and have inequalities resembling ripple-
marks.

Five miles north-east from Madura is that remarkable rock call-
ed Elephant mountain, from its resemblance to that animal in a re-
clining posture. Itis a block of gneiss two miles in length, + of a
mile wide and some 250 feet high. Strata of felspar, mica, and
quartz run horizontally through this mass from one end to the
other and are seen on both sides of it, and are crossed at different
angles by veins or faults of a felspathic rock which pass through
the entire vein. A porch and a temple have been hewn out of one
side of it. As there can be but little doubt of the sedimentary
origin of this rock, we must suppose it to have been formed in
some yast pit and elevated to its present position by that force
which has produced so many of the changes which have from time
to time variegated the surface of the earth.

The vast fields of granite at the south-eastern base of the Siru-
malei and Alagiri mountains would seem to indicate the direction
and denuding force of ancient oceanic currents.

At Vadapadi 16 miles north-west from Madura is a small moun-
tain composed almost entirely of porphyritic greenstone. The
hornblende in its composition is of the dark basaltic variety and the
felspar is of the andesine or the white variety and in the composi-

tion of the mass the columns appear in spots like the skin of a
Leopard.

ocT.—DEC. 1856. | of the Southern Division. 101

The limestones of the district are numerous and of various kinds.
The lime gravel, or kunker, is widely diffused in the soil, and in
some places is nearly a pure carbonate of lime; in other places it
is mingled with other substances and takes the form and consist-
ence of concreted limestone or pisolite. These are the kinds used
_ for making roads and burning into lime. Travertine or tufa is
found in stalagmitic concretions in caves and bordering around the
stems and branches of plants. The crystalline limestones are also
numerous, they are found in nodular masses and large blocks and
show the crystals of calespar and the fine granular and compact
varieties. Some of thess kinds receive a tolerably good polish and
might, it is thought, be wrought for marble. The minerals found
imbedded in these stones are the chondrodite, graphite, pyroxene,
and molybdenum ; and the different locations where they are found
are Poovandy, Puntelacoodee, Carnapadi, Vitherapadi, in the Tiru-
mungalum Talook and in a number of other places. In the loca-
tion at Puntelacoodee the outcrop is some 20 yards in width, six or
five miles long and of a depth not explored. These masses of
rocks are nodular in most places, nor does there appear to be any
regularity of dip in the case of any of them. They lie in wild con-
fusion in every part of these limits resembling the ruin of a vast
wall. The stone of the south side of this bed is highly crystalline
calespar of a dull whitish colour, while that on the north side is
finely granular or compact, and of a bright flesh colour.

Another feature of the district is its iron. This is widely dif-
fused: it is found in almost every part of the district, either in the
form of native iron or united with oxide in the form of haematite,
of ochre or of octahedral crystals of specular iron and iron sand,
&e.; there is the silicate of iron, the carbonate and sulphuret and
a vast quantity of laterite, but so small quantities are found in any

one place, except of the silicate and laterite that it has been but
little wrought.

The region where gold is sometimes found was visited and the
sand and rocks of the same, to some extent, examined. The name
of the place is Pulkanath, 14 miles north of Dindigul just under
the east end of the Pulney mountains. The gold is found in small

102 Geological Features of the S. Division, [wo. 1, NEW SERIES,

particles in the alluvium and sand of a plain at the foot of a small
mountain about two miles from the Travellers’ bungalow. The soil
and alluvium of this plain are composed of the disintegrated and
decomposed rocks of the mountain, as the frequent fragments, and
sand and gravel abundantly testify. So that there is no doubt, but
that the gold was originally in this rock which is in some places a
granulitic, in some a micaceous, and in others a syenitic granite
containing alamandine garnets and specular iron in abundance.
The yield of gold as yet obtained i8 rather small, not averaging
more in value than could be earned by day labor. This is proba-
bly owing, partly to the inefficient way the labor is performed, and
partly to a want of water: it is the opinion of those who have
taken gold here that the proportion of gold is much larger at the
depth of some feet below the soil than on the surface. Could a
shaft be sunk some 25 or 30 feet, there is a fair prospect that the
yield would well repay the labor, especially as it would afford water
to wash the earth and sand, which is now found only at a considers
able distance from the place where it could be used.

oct.—pEc. 1856.] Toda Vocabulary. 103

VIII. A Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Topas of the
NILAGIRI mountains. By the Rev. F. Merz of the German
Evangelical Mission.

[ Previous notices have appeared in this Journal, descriptive of the man-
ners and customs of this peculiar race, the Todas, Vide an article entitled,
*¢ The antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills, including an inquiry into the de-
** scent of the Thautawars or Todars. By Captain H. Congreve.” Vol. XIV.
No. 32, 1847. See also “‘ An’Essay on the Relationship of Languages and
“ Nations. By the Rev. Bernhard Schmid,” Vol. V. No. 14, 1837, But no-

thing like an useful Vocabulary of the Toda language has yet been publish-
ed. Ep. M. Jovr.]

The pectoral pronunciation ofthe Todas in speaking their
language is the reason why so many Europeans, who heard
them speak, believed that it had no relationship at all with
any of the S. Indian languages. If these Europeans had lived
longer among the Todas andif they had understood the Bada-
ga dialect, they could not have given such an opinion. In my
opinion the Toda language isarude dialect of old Canarese
and I can find nearly allits words inthe Badaga lan-
guage, only I must keep in mind, that according to the rules
of Toda pronunciation acommon Canarese word is somuch
changed that itis difficult to reeognize it again as such and
itrequires a leng time to get the ear accustomed to their
jungle language. I find it nearly impossible to get their lan-
guage reduced to writing with such perfection, that any one
who reads my Toda words can be understood by the Todas.
On this account Imay say, that the Toda language can-
not be properly learned except by living amongst the Todas
and by hearing their conversations.

As the whole life of a Toda is concentrated inhis Buffaloes
andasno great variety of wordsis required for the purposes

104 ' Toda Vocabulary. [No. 1, NEW sERIES,

of their common life and occupation, I find it very difficult —
to discover words for abstract terms, without which I cannot
have a religious conversation with them, so I help myself
with Badaga words, which most of them understand. The
Todas do not trouble themselves much about religion. Theirs
is a very convenient one. Heaven is nothing else but a place
where they will have plenty of Buffaloes andas no Toda has
any doubt about his going te heaven, he thinks that
the occupation in the other world viz. feeding Buffaloes does

not require any preparation.

On this account | find their language very poor and in-

sufficient to convey the truth of the Gospel to them.

Most of their verbs have only one tense, and they
help themselves by adverbs of time to express the future and

past tenses.

I also find that there is a slight difference in the dialects
of the different tribes of the Todas. For instance one tribe has
an Sh where another has an S’ ora Th (like the English,)
which another again changes into S or 7’. I write their language
in Canarese characters. In printing the Gospel of Luke in the
Badaga language, we were obliged to take up some of the old
Canarese characters, which are not in use now in the present
Canarese. In the Toda language I helped myself by adding
marks in some characters to shew the peculiar Toda sound.
For instance, the 72 I have given with % to distinguish it
from @, and as their Kh is pronounced like the German or

rather Swiss Ch I mark this sound by 2) to make it different

from &. In many cases the Ph is like the English /, which

oct.—peEc. 1856.] Toda Vocabulary. 105

no Badaga can pronounce on account of the pectoral pro-
nunciation, I have therefore chosen © to represent (f.)

They have no pure A asit occurs in other Indian languages

but their @ is pronounced as @ in tall and as wu in much,

There are 2 sounds of the vowel z (ee) the one is like

the English ee (2) in meet, the other one like the German «# in

tiber, for instance, ® SQ bitsh with wu means a tiger and

29 birsh with ee means the sun, Xe St mirsh with

# means a hare and Daz mish with 2 means a peacock.

VocABULARY.

Abaisance (I make) roe 30§ SS 2 kal-mele-butth-bini.
I fall at (your) foot.

Abandon 28 ee PD butt’hu-butth-bini. Badaga
ano%s we. butt hu butt’ hint.

Abide & Q 3S eshken lit. I sit Q Se shall I sit down.

Abject xo BA FD tali vershbini ; ersbini, ershbini or versh-
bint means I am, which is generally put to theroot of a

verb. The Badagas use unnane (YV°OFO came) for it.

Abominate 36 o aD, nanth bini.
Abomination sao. nanam.

Abortion 2S COB IW, mokh yidiladi.
Absorb wa D8 nuggivitt hini,* Badaga So Ames,
Absurd BGe 5 ; perat.

Abundant ev seo, upam.

Accede ed , 2 adbini.

* The Todas always assimilate the n to the following consonant.

106 Toda Vocabulary. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

Accept 3s cy Fed. parth bini.
Accommodate % Ens & 02, HSA Satis
ais

sari madthbint sariyitthbini. B. sari madine, sari gittine.
Account v, OxDSRF 9d, yenivershbini. B. yeniunnane.

Account mn. So¥o, yekkam. B. yekka.
Accompany Trai BREWD, eitth vershbini.
B. kutiunnane. “3
Accurate © 6, ~~ sari. B. sarri.
Accurse 238F- al QP. bartibadthbini.
+
Accuse 2O2)8 NRE Jord. piryadi yeshts bini.
Aches, it We & = oS or SOS. Bddthati, pasti or parasti.
Acquire ef #8 20, katthbinz. B. kattiunnane.
+
Adolescence DOOR. mokharsh.

Adore Ww) SBS, OSMWABS. — kubbutt hikhen,
>

adabudthikhen. B. kombittine,* adabuddint | bow down the
horn, I fall.
Adorn PAF SRE w2, oR HARE WD,

narshi madth bini, nadrsh gersh bini.
Adultery GUS BRP, Wd 22 BARE,
+

urdthvershbint, stile bach versh bint. _ 1 commit a.

Adulterer Moses. stile mokh. B. sulemaga.
Advantage wos &, ulival. |
Adversary OS3sar 438 5. Akhevershbén,
Advice MQ. biddi.t B. buddi. (wisdom.)

* This appears rather to be a corruption of the Tamil @LYC@wer
kumbi‘tén I salute-—W. E.
7 Thet in ma is pronounced like the German w in iiber.

oct.—peEc. 1856.] Zoda Vocabulary. 107

Afar wo 5 . bathakh.

Affection KS. gava.B. giva.

Afraid OF Jw. ajjsbini. B. anjine.

Afternoon Nee Spd 5. ékara votkh.
| Again EOR, terigt B. tirigi.

Age Bes, preya. B. perea.

Ago << a . muchch. B. munche.

Agree BAD) VyP Viabcabise B. vobbiunnane.

Air, wind 8. . kat. B. katu.

Alas 5 Sas . ayakh.

Alms SSF . Darma B. darma.

Alike PV BE Wy O. udthershbini.

, ; ee

All Xd osea, yellumadi. B. yella.

Anecdote oS . kadh B. kade.

Alone wa DIST, uddialadi. B. vondalagi.

Amputate S 5 BA). kwarthdershbini.

Anger DX, bid.

Angrylam 2% a3 bya badthachi (anger is come)

F

Ana AO, veli.

Ancestor a wee aa doddavan.

Another co 0 Due &. yinnodd.,

Ant oe & yerb. white ant ARO. gejalu.

108 Toda Vocabulary. [No. 1, NEW SERIEs,

Ant hill Ree oos,. gejalutta.

Ape Sans 5S. térun.

Appear Ts 5 SPO. tuvarsbini.
Arbiter PINS Ks aa . nadyagaran,
Arm We o par.

Apprehend 228 ye RFD. battivershbini.

Army OOS, dadd.

Arrive rw Q s 5S. bashken. WS Je. baddsbini.

Arise 30% Swe aX FD, magedadu vershbini, imperative
aS oy85, rregular.

Arrow HIP, abu.

Around a. tuchi.

Arse DO Q &~. tudarsh. «

Ascend 1) 8 309. hatsbini.

Ashamed BOS WO. nanthbini.
Assembly Bro 83, kita.

Assemble Ts BRAS QP. kutagershbini.
Ass = 8. kevatte.

Attend SS | PO. kwedsbini.

Attest asd SRE wD, sakistershbini.
Avarice S 8. hari.

Avidity BIIS. ase.

Authority

OHTod o. adikdram.

oct.—prc. 1856. | Scientific Intelligence. 109

IX. Scientific Intelligence.

[The following letters regarding Earthquakes, lately observed at Travancore,
are extracted from the Madras Atheneum.]

Sir,—Perhaps the following account of the Earthquake observy-
ed in Travancore on the morning of Monday the 11th instant may
interest some of your readers,

The assistant in the Tsevandrum observatory having the watch
on the morning referred to, was entering an observation when he
heard a low rumbling sound which he thought at first was distant
thunder towards the north-east; in about three seconds the raft-
ers of the building began to creak, the windows to rattle anda
mirror resting on the table to shake: he immediately looked at
the clock and found the time 5h. 53 m. 30s. which, allowing for
the known clock error, would give the mean Trevandrum time of
the commencement of the sound 5h. 51 m. 25s. He then went
out to look towards the north-east and immediately thereafter the
sound ceased with alouder “ bom’’; on looking again at the clock
the time by it was 5h. 54 m. and he estimated the duration of
noise and shock at nearly twenty seconds. He now examined the
magnetical instruments, but could perceive neither vibration nor
change of mean position. It is not impossible however that the
magnets might have had swinging or dancing motions without be-
ing remarked by the observer, as vibrations round a vertical axis
only are noted. An examination by myself since, of the observa-
tions made before and after the shock, confirms the fact of the
steadiness of all the magnets ; neither did I find any thing remark.
able in the state of the atmosphere. The velocity of the wind from
the north-west was nearly as usual at the same hour; the sky was
nine-tenths clouded, the clouds moving from north-west; the
temperature of the air was nearly 73°, the maximum temperature
of the day being nearly 78°.

A. lady living near the observatory was awoke by a low rumbling,
puffing noise, which terminated by a stifled explosion, as if under

110 Scientific Intelligence. | No. 1, NEW SERIES,

ground, she saw the foot of the bed moving slightly from side to
side (north and south) and heard the windows rattle. The sound
seemed to her to precede the shaking by a few seconds, but she
did not conceive that the whole lasted more than from five to ten
seconds. The air appeared hazy to her and to several other per-
sons. The atmosphere felt close and disagreeable during the day.

Lieutenant Colonel Faunce, living about three-quarters of a
mile west of the observatory, has informed me, that the ‘noise and
shock appeared to him to come from the south-east and to pro-
ceed in a north-westerly direction: the noise seemed in or on the
surface of the ground and the noise and shock lasted at least six
or seven seconds. The shock was rather strong, his right leg was
swayed from right to left (i. e. east to west) while he was sitting
facing the north and his whole body felt the movement: Colonel
Faunce also thinks that the sound preceded the shock. The win-
dows rattled considerably. He likened the noise to that of a

steam carriage ; a rumbling sound terminating louder than it com-
menced,

Dr. Sperschneider, three-quarters of a mile north-west of the
observatory, also felt the shock. The noise he says began a few
seconds before the earthquake and lasted a few seconds after it.
It appeared to Dr. Sperschneider to go off in a westerly or north-
westerly direction; the windows and roof of his house trembled.

Dr. Waring, about a mile and half north of the observatory,
heard and felt the earthquake though apparently not so markedly
as by the others. Iam told that about the same distance south
south-east of the observatory the shock was very distant; while
within the fort about two miles south of the observatory the earth-
quake was not perceived at all. It should be noted that about the
Fort decomposed granitic rocks are covered by a thick stratum of
sand, while all the other stations are immediately on laterite rock.

The shock it seems was felt at Quilon “about six o’clock,’”’ and
Mr. Liddell at Charlio’s Hope near the road between Quilon and
Courtallum says “we hada smart shock of an earthquake about
ten minutes before six on Monday morning.”

ocrt.—DEc, 1856. | Scientific Intelligence. Ll

I was on the summit of our highest mountains, the Agusteer
Mally (about 30 miles W. N. W. of Trevandrum) on Monday the
11th but did not perceive any shock. I noted that the Tinnevelly
country and the mountains to the north appeared much clearer
that morning than usual.

The testimony on the whole seems to indicate a southerly and
easterly point as the direction of the origin, all agree that the sound
was heard before the shock was perceived.

It is quite possible that the shéck may have been propagated
from Tinnevelly below the ghats and not have been very sensible
at their summits. It would be of importance for the purpose of
determining the origin,’the velocities and the direction of trans-
mission of the shock to have the accurate time it was perceived at
some localities considerably distant from Trevandrum.

I have the honor to be,
Sir,
Your’s obediently,
JoHN ALLAN Browy.
Trevandrum Observatory,
16th August, 1856.

P. S.— Where the earthquake has been observed it will be de-
sirable to mention by what means the error of the timepiece has
been obtained.

Siz,—TI took the liberty a few days ago of forwarding to youa
notice of an earthquake felt in Travancore on the 11th instant, al-
low me to add to that communication that I have found since that
the shock was neither perceived at Nagercoil (40 miles S. E. by E.
of Trevandrum) nor at Cochin (120 miles N. W. by N.) but I un-
derstand it was felt at Cottyam (90 miles N. N. W.) It was also
felt at Courtallum (40 miles N. E.) by several persons; and Dr.
Barker estimates the time of the shock there at 5h. 50m. A. m.
(verified to some degree by the sunrise) this time agrees really with
that of the shock at Trevandrum. At Quilon Mr. D’ Albedhy]ll in-
forms me that two ladies give 20 minutes before 6 as the time of

P

112 Screntifie Intelligence. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

the shock. On the best consideration of all the facts as yet re-
ceived by me I am inclined to consider a west north-westerly di-
rection from Trevandrum as that of the origin of the shock and
perhaps towards the Laccadive islands.

On the 22nd August about 4 hour 25 minutes p,m. while lying
on a cot reading in an upper room I felt the cot shaking rather vi-
olently, I immediately looked at the bed posts, these, and the tester
frame seemed to vibrate irregularly and sharply from éast to west.
On going to the magnetic obsetvatory I found the time of the shock
to have been almost exactly 4 hours 25 minutes, 10 seconds. I
observed the magnets dancing up and down in short jerks, anda
brass weight hanging in a closed box was‘ observed by means of a
telescope, to dance perceptibly 15 mznutes after the shock. 1 could
not observe any swag or side motion, but I concluded from the vi-
bration of a hanging cord, seen ina room below me by another
person, from the motion of the bed posts, and from the wetted sides
of a glass vessel containing water, that the shock had been propa-
gated in the direction between W. N. W. and E. S. E. the shock
was accompanied by a low trembling sound. This second shock
was observed also at Quilon by Mr. D’Albedhyll and others about
4h. 16 minutes. If the clocks there can be trusted this, as in the
case of the first shock, is about 10 minutes before the time at
Trevandrum.

General Cullen informs me that a shock was felt in Travancore
in February 1823, 19th September 1841 and 20th November 1845.

I shall feel obliged, if any person has observed the time or di-
rection of either of the shocks of the present month, by the com-
munication of the facts to me.

I have the honor to be,
Sir,
Yours faithfully,
JoHN ALLAN Brown.
Trevandrum, 25th August, 1856.

P. S.—The second shock is said to have been stronger than the
first. The first shock was observed at Quilon by few persons ; the
second was observed by many Europeans and Natives. No native

_—

ocT.—DEC. 1856. | Scientific Intelligence. 113

at Trevandrum appears to have observed either shock excepting
those on the watch at the observatory. }

Srr,—The shocks of earthquake are reaching us so frequently
that they will cease to be interesting as news, and the proper place
to notice them in detail will be in the pages of some scientific peri-
odical.

Another shock was felt here at 15 m. 0s. afternoon. of to-day
(1st September). The effects of the shock on the magnetical in-

struments were even mor? remarkable than on the last occasion ;
and the ball of a pendulum 17 feet long moved through a space of
about 4 inches in the direction N. W. by N. and S. E. by S.; I
believe from the former to the latter.

In my attempts to obtain information on the last two shocks I
have heard (from Dr. Colebrook of Madura) of a remarkable shock
experienced on the 17th of March last, near midnight, about 30 to 40
miles east of Madura, the noise seeming to travel from west to
east. An examination of the observations of the magnetical in-
struments in observatories on Agustier Mullay and here, shows that
the shock was felt markedly by both places.

Any communication on earthquake shocks felt in Southern India
addressed to me would much oblige.

Sir,
Your’s very obediently,

JoHnN ALLAN Brown.
Trevandrum, Ist September, 1856.

[The following letter, describing the shock experienced on the 17th of March
last in Madura, is taken from the ‘‘ Thinavarthamani’” of the 27th March 1856,
a Tamul Newspaper edited by the Rev. P. PERctIvAt.]

(Literally translated.)

‘“‘T am sure you will not object to publish the following account
of a wonderful Phenomenon, in your valuable journal, for the infor-
mation of the people of other countries.

At 1 o’clock on the night of the 17th March 1856, a sound was
suddenly heard in Paramagoody a village of this Zillah of Madura,

|

il4 Scientifie Intelligence. [No. 1, NEW SERIEs,

which continued 10 minutes like a peal of thunder, and appeared
to move from west to east. During its continuance houses and
other things were agitated, and many persons who were sleeping
were aroused and sprang from their beds.

Fissures in the earth were also caused in some places.

The people of this village, ignorant of the nature of this pheno-
menon, feared that it might be a judgment inflicted by the Gods.

Since that, the Moonsiff of this Division, Mr. William Boalth, has
told them that it was an earthquake, and has explained its cause
and mentioned other incidents of a similar kind: which has prov-

ed a relief to their minds. I think your readers will not be other-

wise than wonderstruck at this occurrence.”

I am,
Your servant,
THERoo CanacasABy Mopiziar.
Paramagoody, }
20th March, 1856. j

[Extract of a letter from R. D. Panxun, Collector of Madura, dated 31th of
August 1856, reporting the discovery of a pot of gold coins in his district].

«In a piece of waste land, belonging to the village of Caliem-
pootoor, in the Iyempully Talook, a pot of very beautiful gold
coins, bearing the heads of Augustus and other early Roman Em-
perors, has been discovered.

The persons Pona Boyen and Dasa Boyen by whom they were
found, and who are tank diggers, were employed in excavating
brick earth. The coins were packed in an earthen pot about the
size of a large mango, which unfortunately is broken. The origi-
nal No. was 63, of which 4 are not forthcoming and two are re-
duced to ingots, leaving 57 in excellent preservation, with the
heads and inscriptions exceedingly distinct. The pot was found
about 4 foot below the surface of the ground adjacent to the bank
of the Shunmoogum Nuddy River, which is near the boundary of
the Madura and Coimbatore Districts, and rather more than 30
miles South-West of Dindigul.”

oct.—peEc. 1856. | Scientific Intelligence. 115

[The following notice of the late Storm of the 20th Nov. 1856, was kindly fur-
nished by Major Jacos, The Hon’ble Company’s Astronomer. ]

The Barometer began to show a downward tendency as early as
the night of the 17th but so slight as to cause no alarm; for the
next two days this tendency continued, but there was no sudden
depression ; the daily rise being only a little Jess, and the daily
~ fall rather more prolonged than usual. No decided fall took place
until the afternoon of the 20th when instead of the usual rise after
4. p. M., the mercury, after fluctuating slightly for about an hour,
continued descending until 3 h. 30 m. a. m. on 21st, when it stood
at 29°540.

The wind, which had been for some days a little westerly, blue
rather fresh from N. N. W. about midnight of the 19th, but the
pressure scarcely exceeded 5lb. on the square foot.

On the morning of the 20th, after a short lull it veered to the
eastward of N., about 10 h. 30 a. m. returning to nearly due N., in
the afternoon between 2 and 8 p. m. the pressure reached 12\b.
but only in a single gust. From 5 to 8 the gale moderated and
again became easterly; but freshened again during the night, and
about midnight began to veer westerly, from 4 to 5 4. M. on the
2\st it attained a force of 184 lb., when it began gradually to mo-
derate and by the evening had become nearly calm, still coming
round till it finally blew S. W. The Barometer continued to rise

steadily from 33 a. M., and by the evening had nearly attained its
usual height.

From the course followed by the wind it was inferred that the
centre of the storm was passing a little southward of Madras, and
this agrees with the reports of the shipping which stood out to sea
in a S. E. direction, and met with worse weather than what occur-
red on shore.

The rain continued heavily on the evening of the 19th, and con-
tinued with little intermission until the morning of the 2lst, the

fall in those 36 hours amounting to 11°65 in. of which 6°22 in. fell
in the night of the 20th.

116 Proceedings of the Mad. Lit. Socy. [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

X. Proceedings of the Madras Literary Society and Auzili-
ary of the Royal Asiatic Society.

Thursday Evening, October 9, 1856.
The Hon’ble Waiter Extrot, President, in the chair. Read
extract of a letter from H. CrEGHoRN Esq., mM. D., dated 11th

i.)

September 1856. ;

I take this opportunity of submitting for the consideration of the Committee,
some passing thoughts as to the urgent want of a good Library of reference in
Madras, a want equally felt, I believe, in the othef Presidency Towns of India.
The advance of education and the increased attention bestowed upon Statistical
and Scientific enquiries, renders the possession of standard works for referenc®
an imperative necessity. The arrival of many able men in India, who have de-
voted much time and attention to particular branches of science has greatly in-
creased the demand for books, and the supply has to a certain extent kept place
with the demand; but still there is no place in Madras where a student can find
the information required in many enquiries of every day occurrence, Standard
works on many branches of science are with difficulty obtained for reference.
The Medical College and Medical Society having formed their books into one col-
lection, the aggregate exhibits a fair professional Library. The Corps of Engi-
neers and Artillery have each a good well selected Library relating to their re-
spective Departments. The Clerical Society has I believe a Theological Depdt.
At the Club House there is a considerable collection of works upon Miscellaneous
Literature. The Literary Society alone has a large General Library containing
(crowded together in a small area ana scarcely in a consultable state) almost all
the more interesting works of Travels, History, Science, and Antiquity, but the
Society like the sister in Calcutta has almost ceased to purchase the more expen-
sive publications of the day, and by necessity devotes the greater portion of its
fluctuating income to works of an ephemeral nature, because they are in special
demand by the bulk of Subscribers, while the Chemist, the Naturalist, the Arche-
ologist, and the Statist have no means of keeping up to the level of the day, and
have no means of knowing the discoveries which have been and are being record-
ed, unless they are able and willing to purchase largely from their own resources,
and there are few who are in a position to do this.

Resolved, with reference to Dr. Cleghorn’s letter, that 10 per
cent. of the Society’s funds be set apart for the purchase of stand-
ard works on scientific subjects.

The Secretary communicated to the Meeting, the result of a Cir-
cular issued in May last, and forwarded to all the Stations in the

oct.—Drc. 1856.] and Auxiliary Royal Asiatic Society. 117

Interior, inviting Contributions and Subscriptions in support of the
“Madras Journal of Literature and Science,” the Society having
determined to commence the republication of that Journal. The
appeal for literary support having been responded to with much
readiness and upwards of 200 Subscribers having been registered,
it was resolved, on the motion of the President, seconded by Mc.

_- G. Ellis, that the Journal be published Quarterly, and that the

number for October, November, December 1856, be entitled No.*
I. of a ** New Series,”’ and be issued in December.

The foregoing resolution having been discussed and agreed to;
it was resolved to refer the same to a Committee of Papers to carry
the resolution into effect.

Read an interesting paper by George Smith, m. p., Residency
Surgeon, Hyderabad, descriptive of the Natron Lake of Loonar,
in the Deccan, accompanied by a plan and section of the Lake,
with two statements exhibiting the result of two experiments to
extract Salt from the Lake.

Read also an excellent account, by the same gentleman, of the
Manufacture of Bidderyware, at Beder.

Read also a paper on Indian Currencies by J. W. Breeks, M. C.
Service; and a paper descriptive of the Plain or Waxed Paper
Process in Photography, by Jesse Mitchell, Adjt. 1st Nat. Vet.
Battalion.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Society be presented to the
Donors and that the Papers be set aside for publication in the
Journal.

The thanks of the Society were voted to Major Jacob, Director
of the Madras Observatory, for the Meteorological Observations for
July, August and September last, which will appear in the Journal.

Thursday Evening, November 13, 1856.
The Hon’ble Watter Extior, President, in the Chair.
The Secretary informed the Meeting that specimens of Salt, ex-
tracted from the Loonar Lake, had been forwarded to Dr. Mayer,
Professor of Chemistry, Madras, for examination.

* No. II. of “ New Series’ for January, February and March 1857, will be
published in March.

118 Proceedings of the Mad. Lit. Society [No. 1, NEW SERIES,

Dr. Mayer’s Report was laid upon the Table:

Read the following letter from Dr. Mayer,

I have much pleasure in forwarding the accompanying paper on the Chemical
composition, properties, and probable uses of the various Salts forwarded to me, ~
and stated to be obtained from the Loonar Lake. I cannot close this note with-
out favorable mention of Mr. G. Norton my assistant in the Laboratory, by whose
great assiduity and intelligence I have been enabled to finish my examination in
a very short space of time.

Resolved, to tender the thanks of the Society to Dr. Mayer for
his able and interesting Repori, which was delivered to the Com-
mittee of Papers for publication in the Journal, as an apperdix to
Dr. Smith’s account of the Loonar Lake.

The Receipt of the following Papers, was communicated to the
Meeting.

A Vocabulary of the Toda Language, by the Rev. T. Metz, of the
German Evangelical Mission, (commenced in the present number.)

An Entomological Paper descriptive of some new Coleoptera
found at Ceylon, by J. Nietner Esq., (published in the present
number.)

This is the first number of a Series of Entomological papers,
which the author has resolved upon publishing. He has kindly
promised to furnish the Society with a fresh number every month.

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Metz and Mr.
Nietner for their able communications, and the Committee of
Papers were desired to address a letter to the latter gentleman to
inform him of the pleasure it will afford the Society to receive a
fresh Entomological paper from him every month.

The following papers were presented to the Meeting.

The Secretary to the Photographic Society communicated a paper
by Captain Tripe on a Paper Process which he has found well
suited to Indian Photography. This paper, which had already
been read before the Photographic Society, will appear in the
Journal, together with a table of Formule for preparing Albume-
nized paper, drawn up by Captain Scott of the Artillery, also trans-
mitted by the Secretary.

Mr. Elliot read a paper, communicated through him by Dr. Traill,
on a collection of deep sea Molluscs made with the aid of a tow-

oct.—pDE¢. 1856.] and Auailiary Royal Asiatic Society. 119

ing net, on his voyage from England round the Cape in the Ameri-
can Clipper Blue Jacket. Mr. Traill is known as an accomplished
Malacologist. During the former period of his service he success-
fully investigated the Conchology of the Straits, and since his re-
turn to India he has classified and named the shells in the Govern-
ment Central Museum. The paper was accompanied by drawings
of the different species obtained during the voyage and by a chart
exhibiting the localities at which they were captured.

After some general observations oh the classification of Pelagian
Shells and on the means employed for catching them, My. Traill
proceeds to notice the different specimens, in the order in which
they were found, giving thcidentally such notices of their, peculiar
habits and forms as occurred to him, and referring to the figures,
It is to be regretted that he has not added a synoptical descriptive
list of all the species, naming such as have not been hitherto de-
scribed. This desideratum, it is hoped, may still be supplied.

The specimens more particularly noticed in the paper belong to
the division of Encepuatous Mouxuvuscs, and include examples of
all the great families, the PrERopops, GAsTEROPODs and CrePHa-
Lopops, by far the largest number appertaining to the first, which
are essentially oceanic in their habits.

Of the CrPHALopoDs a single species only was obtained of a
diminutive Argonaut apparently new to Science, of which two spe-
cimens were captured alive. Mr. Traill gives an interesting des-
cription of its locomotive habits and shows that it differs from the
common Paper Nautilus.

Individuals were captured belonging to two genera of Gastro-
Pops, viz. three species of Lanthina and two of Atalanta. The
Author remarks on the singular fact of finding Molluscs belonging
to a group which is characterized by the possession of a crawling
foot among the inhabitants of the deep sea, where such an organ
is useless. But the Janthinas are fitted for this peculiarity of ha-
bit by the possession of their vascular float, while the foot of the
Atalanta is divided into two lobes which it uses for purposes of
progression after the manner of fins. Mr. Traill was enabled to
make some minute observations on the organs of sight possessed

Q

120 Proceedings of the Mad. Lit. Society [xo. 1, NEW sERIEs,

by these curious little animals. The second species of which a
single individual only was obtained has the shell covered by a strong
epidermis the lower edge of which is prolonged into a broad keel
serving to sustain the shell in an erect position during the process
of swimming. This species is probably new to Science.

Several specimens of a species of Glaucus, an aberrant group
intermediate between GastRoPops and Prerorops (although gene-
rally included among the former), were taken in Lat. 34S. These
are without shells but are furnished with lateral symmetrical append-

a]

ages which are supposed to be bronchiz and also serve for pur- —

poses of locomotion.

Dr. Traill’s specimen differs from the common kind and appears
to have been considerably mutilated. It may prove to be new.

But the richest harvest was obtained in the class of Prerorops.
Of the 8 or 9 genera constituting the family of Hyaleide im this
group, Numerous specimens were obtained belonging to Hyalea,
Cleodora, Cuviera and Creseis or Theea and one species of Zimacina.
The genus Hyalea was particularly prolific of species. Some it is
probable have now been met with for the first time. Their speci-
fic characters are carefully pointed out and all are faithfully repre-
sented in the drawings.

Mr. Traill has some excellent remarks on the analogy between the
organization of the young of some kinds of Gasrropop Motxuscs
and that of the adult Preroron, and has observed that the young
of the Cyprea or Cowry shell when first released from the egg or
capsule and before they are able to crawl, exhibit a mode of pro-
gression very similar to that of the PrezoPops.

The greater part of the specimens described were captured in
the night, the habits of most of the genera being more or less cre-
puscular or nocturnal, except the genus Creseis which was often
met with during the day.

Dr. Traill’s memoir was referred to the Committee of Papers,
and will appear in the Journal.

3

ocT.—DEc. 1856.] and Auwiliary Royal Asiatic Society. 121

Thursday, 11th December 1856.
The Hon’ble Watrer Extror, President in the Chair.

The Secretary laid before the Meeting the state of the Society’s
Funds, up to the termination of the present year, 1856.

LIABILITIES.
Rs. A. P. ASSETS.
Due to Messrs. Allen & Co, RS. A. P.
for Books, Periodicals, &c. 1439 3 4 | Balance in hand of Treasu-
Due to Deposits of 5 Third ; A eee a ee ee 2003 5 11
Class Subscribers.....0.. 60 0 A £ Subscripti
Excess of Assets overLiabilities 830 2 6 Be erence «25 8.0.8

eee

9319 5 10 2319 5 11
Resolved, that the Statement is satisfactory, and be published in
the Journal for the information of Members of the Society.

Dr. Cleghorn read a paper on the Sand-binding Plants of the
Coromandel Coast, in which he mentioned eight species of these
useful plants, more or less serviceable in strengthening the beach
between the Saluting Battery and St. Thome. Representations of
these binders lithographed in Dumphy’s best style were laid before
the Meeting, showing the distinctive character of the respective
plants. Dr. Cleghorn points out the soil and situation in which
these plants are best calculated to succeed, and hopes to find lei-
sure to contribute similar notices from time to time under the head
of Notule Botanice. The thanks of the Meeting were voted to
Dr. Cleghorn for his able and interesting communication.

The following Books and Papers were presented to the Society.

1. Geschichte Wassaf’s—Persisch Herausgegeben und Deutsch
ubersetzt von Hammer-Purgstall, from the Author.

2. Correspondence respecting Rain Gauges, from the Chief Se-
crelary.

3. A notice of the late Storm, of the 20th Nov. 1856, from the
H. Co.’s Astronomer. |

4. Diagrams of Barometrical and Thermometrical Curves for
1852, 1853, 1854 and 1855, from the H. Co,’s Astronomer.

122 Proceedingsof the Mad. Lit. Society ,&c.[No. 1,NEW SERIES,

5. Meteorological Register for October and November, from
the H. Co.’s Astronomer.

Resolved, that the thanks of the Meeting be presented to the
Donors, and that the Committee of Papers be requested to address
a letter to Baron Hammer von Purgstall to convey to him the
thanks of the Society for his donation to the Library.

ocT.—bDrc. 1856. | Scientific Intelligence. 123

[The following additional information regarding the storm of the 20th Novem-
ber was furnished by Dr, CregHorRn, but too late for insertion under its proper
head of Scientific Intelligence, ]

Effects of the Gale of 20th November 1856 at the Agri-Horticultu-
ral Society's Garden, Madras.

I regret to state that the injury done to this garden during the
late gale has been very considerable, and has surpassed that of
any similar visitation, since I have Been a Member of the Society.

As it seemed desirable that the more notable effects of the at-
mospheric disturbance on the vegetable kingdom should be record-
ed, I have prepared a list of the trees and shrubs which were par-
ticularly damaged. Being desirous of ascertaining which of our
noble avenue, trees suffered the most; Iaddressed a letter to Col,
Boulderson requesting him to favor me with the number of trees
blown down by the tempest, or mutilated in their trunk, or shatter-
ed in their branches.

The following summary of the Police Return of trees fallen, &c.
on public ground within the limits of Madras, conveys as clearly
as possible, the information obtained as to the nature and extent
of the damage inflicted upon this untoward occasion.

| ie Of | No. of | No. of
| No. of Trees. Pens Trees |Treesin-
broken. | jured.

down
Portia tree (‘Thespesia populnea).........| 47 | 278 | 325.
Odyan tree (Odina wodier)............ | 18 10 28
[Korkapully (Inga dulcis)....... Ra hee 388 13 ol
Banian tree (Ficus Indica).......... ao attic be 8 19
Margosa tree (Melia Azedarach)........ bs NG 6 11
Cocoanut tree (Cocos nucifera)..........) 5 1 6
Valum tree (Acacia arabica)............ | 9 1 3
Asoca tree (Guatteria longifolia)..... cna 1 0 1
Connay tree (Cassia fistula)............ 2 0 2
Thane tree (Guazuma tomentosa)........ 1 0 1

Total... | 130 317 447

It will be observed that a large proportion of the trees blown
down or broken (325) is of one species.

124 Scientific Intelligence. [No, 1, NEW SERIES,

Portia (Thespesia populnea).—Suffered most of all the avenue
trees, and it was particularly noted that trees grown from cuttings
were more extensively damaged than seedlings.

Banian (Ficus Indica).—When allowed to strengthen its posi-
tion by its natural supports, this tree does not suffer, but when the
props are cut away, as is customary by the roadside, it is very
liable to be uprooted. Two were blown down on the Mount Road
and falling against the new iron railing of the Cathedral, caused

considerable damage.

Adansonia digitata—The Baobab, with its enormous trunk and
stout branches suffered little injury generally. One handsome tree
in the gardens gave way at the root, and remained in a slanting
position like the leaning tower of Pisa. The trunk subsequently
broke transversely about the middle.

The Palms with their unbranched stems, and Casuarinas with
their acicular foliage yielded to the gale and suffered the least.
The crown of Caryota urens was damaged.

The Plantain from the broad expanse of its delicate foliage
always suffers on these occasions, the cellular stem snaps across,
and the leaves being torn as it were into narrow ribbons, dangle
from the midrib.and then fall off.

The Betel vine plantations in many places were greatly damaged
and trellices laden with the Snake Gourd (Trichosanthes anguina, )
and other Cucurbitaeeous fruits were levelled, causing much loss
to the Market Gardeners.

Trees with soft or brittle wood as Agati grandiflora, Bignoma
suberosa, Moringa pterygosperma, Visenia umbellata, Carica Papaya
&c., were either entirely prostrate, or had their branches strewed
about in almost every compound,

I am not aware that any one except Dr. Wallich in the Journal
of the Agri-Hort. Society of India (vol. I, p. 3) and Dr. Buist (Trans.
of the Bombay Geogl. Soc. vol. XII, p. 58) has recorded his obser-
vations or paid much attention to this subject, and it seems to me a

matter of no small importance in connection with planting of frees
along the public roads.

ocrt.—DECc. 1856. ] Scientific Intelligence. 125

I am happy to say that none of the plants in the Society’s gar-
dens irreparably damaged was unique.

A very fine flowering specimen of Spathodea companulata, was
quickly set up by Mr. Jaffrey, and fortunately saved.

A Pandal covered with a number of our choicest creepers Thun-
bergias, Passifloras and Poivreas was thrown down, and these
interesting climbing plants were much damaged, but they have
generally recovered.

The Conservatory fortunately stood well, and the plants in pots

being sheltered in shady corners were comparatively uninjured.
Several graft mango-trees were blown down, and the Graft layers
attached were destroyed.

It was very interesting to observe how quickly the wounded
trunks and mutilated branches healed up spontaneously. If the trees
are attended to early, and the gaps and fissures spliced up with
cotton rope the cure is remarkably rapid.

an

Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Magnetic Observatory. 2
DAILY MEANS. \
ee IS a a a a a a a
July 1856, | August 1856, September 1856. ; g
Q
ermometers. HO Thermometers. HO | Thermometers. fied
Date|§2 | 3. | ce =
= : : 3 ; o
g Be Means gt Wind. | Rain.|} Remarks. 8 333 Means. So Wind. | Rain. | Remarks. g 333 Means E. Wind. | Rain. | Remarks. ror)
aS Max. | Mini. a3 Max. | Mini, ay Max. | Mini bend
a2 Dry [Wet Om Dry|Wet Ax (Dry |Wet
Inches) ° Inches Inches| ° 2 Inches Inches, ° | ° ° Tuchos
1 | 29°619| 85°5 S by E 0-413/Overcast | 29°720/838.2| 76°6) 95:3) 78°6 SW 0:080/Overcast | 29°777| 82°6| 73'8}, 94:1] 78-9 a) eae Ee Cloudy 1
9 *634/ 84:0 SW 013} do 95:0) 78:8 De eg ag cn 762) 84:3} 73-9] 94-2) 78-7) WSsSw |...... do 2
3 645) 84:1 SW Shades BO -750| 84:5] 76°0} 94°6] 793) WbyS |...... Cloudy °7865| 85°4| 741] 95:01 380°3 W pea : ‘
< | -670| 84:0 7 295} do -800|85°4|76°6 96:3] 805, W ‘045/Overcast | °825/85°9| 76:9] 949] 1-4 ? Mean dp AS
5 Ss ane *834| 83°38) 77'8} 93°8) 80-5 ? 010} do *840) 85°5| 78:1} 94:9} 81-8 ? -«../Cloudy 5 S
6 706) 84°0 ? soveee|Cloudy 840] 83°21 77°5| 94°4) 79:0 Rh eee ae Hazy 94:7} 80°3 ? nas 6 BS
7 -730| 84:0 SSW re do Sh cos (84) O64 BOA ewes do *842| 85'3| 78°6| 95:5} 79:9 ee pee do 7 >
8 -714| 86:3 SW “460| do *774| 86'0| 78'5| 96°6} 81-4} S ale do *834| 85°1/ 781} 95°45) 79:8 > a ee IC. ag 8 >
9 705) 83°5 ; see ee {Overcast 95:8} 802) SW soe *816| 85'4|76'4| 96-4 8011 Sw ea Sr 9 s
10 | °674| 84-4 Ma |e. e.. *do 758: 85°5| 783 97°21 812 Sim lames: do -786| 85'9| 760} 95-7} 81:21 WobySs |......| do 10 S
il -627| 85°4 Se a ee eC) 723 85-4| 78-3} 97:1} 79°38 SW 368] do ‘779| 85°6| 73°6] 94-11 82-2 Wiese ulioeass Overcast ll S.
19 WwW “008 ‘728 85°4|79°8| 97°2| 80-7| SW |... Cloudy ‘743| 85°8| 73'0| 947| 82:01 WbyN |......| do 12
13 | -644| 95-4 SW 004! do 728 84°7| 78-4 949] 81-°0/ SW |...... [Overcast 92:6] 763 WwW 0:508 13 ce)
14 665] 88°2 SW jaasees do 750 82°7|76°7} 93:5} 78°5 SW Knees niger, 758, 84°2;/77-°0} 93:7) 79°41 Sby W |...... do 14 3
1 *661| 88°5 WSW feceee. Cloudy 732, 84°8| 77°2| 96:0} 79:3) WSW |,..... Cloudy °761| 82°9| 77-9} 93°5| 78°6 SO Wines csthscsieete do 15 BS
16 | °670/87-7 Sav. mak. do 932) 81:21 SSW 062 776) 84°6|76-9| 95-2} 802; SW |....-.{Cloudy te Se
17 | -703/ 88°6 ? RG. ab ‘718 81:4|77°2| 849] 788] SW -403 Overcast | °796'84°7/76°6| 962] 80:2) Sw |. /.... do 17 2
18 "706) 87°8 "3 seseee| dO *716, 79°9| 76°2} 87°4| 75°38 WwW *634| do 822) 85°3)77'5| 95:3] 80°5 BG Peitees do 18 3"
19 | SW Peletess 758 80°1| 76:1; 89°5| 77:0 WwW *220| do *817| 85°) 77:0} 95-2) 81°] Wier fel Savehte do 19 >
20 694, 86:8 SW |acegee(Overcast | °750/81:1/77:1] 921| 77-0| WbyS *385| do 93:7| 80°2 ? ies 2 a
91 | -678| 87-4 Bi: | akee|.'de ‘744| 83°5|78°5| 93:9] 794] WbyS |.....-| do 833 848. 78:2 93:8] 80°3 pee es Hazy 21 @
22 | -668) 88-9 SW |......(Cloudy ‘739 83:0|78'7| 91:4| 77:8 ? 1-115 Hazy 833/846 78:3; 96:3) 8071 SW |....-. do 2
93 | 689) 88:9 WoyS |...... do | 923] 78° > 0:05 g06| 83'3|78:1/ 91-8] 8011 SW 135] Cloudy 23
24 | °737|87°7 WhbyS |......Overeast | °752 82:1/77:9) 938] 79:0) W -042 Cloudy ‘787| 82°577°2| 92-0/ 787| WNW | -063/Overcast | 24 ‘©
25 | -761/ 87°1 Wiby So |.eioee Cloudy 741 82:6/77-5, 93-0] 768, W 2180 Overcast | 772/82'9 78:1] 92:8] 788! EbyS |...... Cloudy Dae? os
a wsw | +498 761|79°6|77-0| 87-4 78Ol 2? = |ireeee do ‘779,828 77°5| 94:91 7311 SW 003;Overcast | 26
27 | +728| 87:2 SAviby'S |. sb! to ‘742, 81°7| 78-2; 92:1] 78°6 S 0:055 Cloudy 91-4] 80:6 ? “137 o7
28 766) 83°0 > +597 Overcast *743 80°8/77°7; 88°71] 781 ss WwW (08 Overcast "783, 81°2| 771) 90:2) 77:0 W rcaivs do 28
29 *744) 81:0 SW by W 092} do “753, 80°6| 76°6| 874) 77:9 SVVerar las Gre ) 800, 82°6| 78-5) 90°7| 788 Sy te leigehGer y 29
30 719) 81:2 SW 460; do 88:7| 77:6) SW by W |..... 838) 83°8| 78:4; 92°9| 78:8) Wby N 013} do 30
31 708} 81°8 SW 476) do *787| 80°7| 74:0; 88:0] 78:91 SW by W )...... do .
Means| ‘691 85°6| 77"1 0] 81: , 3316 *755| 83'0| 77-4) 92°8} 79-0 5°665, *798| 84°3| 76°8| 94:1] 79°8 0°859 Means
} *
| Sum Sum : d Sum
eS
? This mark signifies that no means can be taken owing to the variable state of the wind. =

Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Magnetic Observatory.
DAILY MEANS. 3

© ee ee

October 1856. November 1856.
- = 4 |
Date. |8 ee nd leiden 8 Bs Thermometers.
ier Means. Wind. Rain.| Remarks. = om Means, Wind. Rain.| Remarks.
e 52, Max. | Mini. Boa Max. | Mini.
ROO Dry| Wet PQ HS Dry |Wet |
Inches; ° | ° | a & Inches Inches; ° | ° . sf Inches
1 |29°861 82°5|77°6, 92:5, 76°9| Wby N ():204| Hazy 88°8) 76:3 E bina’
2 *827| 82°2| 78-6) 89:8) 79°4 SW 1'532|Cloudy 29'924/80°8/75'6) 86°8| 77°77; Eby N 0'112|/Hazy
3 781/81.5 (Ae CS) aw oe | Se ae eee Hazy *933/81°0174°2} 88°0| 76:41 ENE 107} do
4 ; 90:3} 78°6 et a a ESR *942/79°6|73'2) 87:8) 74:2 NE Coniess) aD
5 *758| 82°8|78'6| 91:4) 79°5 Peal eae do 951) 78'8|71°5| 87:0} 71:4 NE . «.|Clear
6 7641 83°'2,78 9} 91:2} 79:5 NE odie hie AL *968|77'0,'70°8} 86°73) 69°9 NNE_ l..ee..| do
7 °764| 82°2| 78°6| + 88°8} 805 i vemos Overcast 947|78°8| 734; 88°5| 72°6 N woe-0 « |ELAZY
8 °765| 78:9176'0| 80:7; 769) WS W 0°625| do coi Niel Lf RR Se WI 0 | Ae
9 *729| 78°2|75'9| 83:8: 775} WS W 033) do *952|79'0/73'7| 85°6} 75-4 N *175|Cloudy
10 ‘718| 80°0| 74.1) 91°6) 75:3) WbyS |......| do *946/80'8|74°5| 88:0} 77:9] Nby E 068} do
11 92:3; 75°8| WbyN j..... 944|80°3)72'4 866) 771) NNE *035| do
12 *792| 82°6|76 0} 91:8) 77°5| WbyN |,.....|Hazy 954|76'5|73 6} 818} 7465 NNW 1:775|Overcast
13 835] 81:8) 77'1; 91-7) 763} EbyS |,.....Clear | *951/76'1/73°5| 85°2} 72°8 N 0:278|Cloudy |
14 *857| 82°0) 76:9} 92:3) 76°d Poh) isl cance ee do 934/77'5|74°3| 84:6) 74:5) N by E -300/Overcast |
~ 15 °871| 82°38; 77:1) 93:1; 77:3 ? aus - pal alo 846} 793 NE 020
16 *865| 82°0/'75'9, 90-7) 76:5} ENE |... ...|Hazy *933/77'9|74.9| 79:5} 767) N by E 2°160| do
17 °876| 81°5| 77°38) 88:1) 79:3 SW 1:490|Cloudy ‘918/78'0)/75'1| 84:8, 74:9| N by E 0°145| do
18 908) 753) NW equape . *875|77'°6/73'4| 86°83) 753) N NW 090) do
19 849] 79:2| 74:9] 90:8} 78°4 W coeeee|Overcast *761|74°4/73:0| 781) 707 NW _ | 5:259} do
20 840) 80°4| 75°6} 90:1] 75°5 Ss cece e(tdazy *663/73'2|71'7| 77:5) 69°83) N by W ; 6-390} do
21 *866| 81:2/75'3) 92:8) 76°41 Wby N |....-.| do 778|76°4)72'1| 84:5) 729) Sby W j......|Cloudy
22 *882 81°3 76:0 91 0 76°4 Ss esaene08 do 86'5 761 ‘ Ss o2@e
23 *892| 81'2/76°3} 90:9) 77:2 S Rs Sak *890/78'5|75°5| 84°8) 76:2) EbyN |......| do
24 °913] 80°8|}73'9} 89°2} 758 oo ean CE Ea do *928/77°8/75°0} 84:3) 75-1 E weve oo {hazy
25 87°7| 785] EEN BH |escoe - °984/78°5|75°2; 85-1) 756) EbyN |,.....! do
26 921) 79:9 71°7} 87-5} 732, NNE j......|Clear 972|78°7| 75-4} 84:9] 76-2 NE 010} do
27 922) 79:6|73°0! 886} 73:4, N by E --| do 945/76'0/71-2} 82:9) 71:0 N ove. (Clear
28 "898| 80:3] 74:3} 89:8) 74:41 N by W py *954/75'5) 70°9| 81'7| 723 N eo (tlazy
29 *835|81°4|74'8 913] 76°4 ? eX eae heeaey 82°2| 72:3 N “eran
30 835] 81:2/74°'7| 90:0) 744 SSE i.......,Clear °969| 76°5|70°0; 82:7} 70°9' Nby EH |.ce...|Cloudy
31 887| 81°5|76'4| 89°9) 76°6 E eevee. {Hazy
Means) ‘837/81.2)76:1| 90.1) 76:7 3°884 929| 77°8|73°4| 84:6) °744 16'974
Sum Sum

Sat

J

ay} 40 gday suounasasgD joorbojosoajapy

? This mark signifies that no means can be taken owing to the variable state of the wind.
ee es aie aa an a

SAIWHS AMEN ‘T ‘ON |

t

|

Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Magnetic Observatory.
HOURLY MEANS. |

Gottingen Mean Time...+-esseeee | NOOn. 1 2 3
hmhmhmh mh mh mh mh mb mh mb mb mh mb mh mh mh mob mb mh mh mh mh mh m

Madras Mean Timesssscesccccevees| 4 41/5 41) 6 41) 7 41) 8 41) 9 41/10 41/11 41/12 41/18 41/14 4115 41/16 14/17 41)18 4119 41/20 41/21 41/22 41/23 4° 0 41 1 41 2 41) 3 41/Means
P.M. é

aS
on
for)
~J
Co
ite)
a
i=)
—_
_—
—
bo
—_
oo
—
_
—
on
i
for)
—
~]
—
co
—
ve)
iw}
Oo
bo
—
np
th
tb
Oo
['9¢gt ‘o1a—'x00

ees [ | | | | — | | | | | | | ee ae

a ee ee

Inches] In. In, | In.

July 1856.) °617| -630| 651] ‘679

Barometer 32°=29 x < August do 683} °699} °722, -749
Septr. do 730} + *746) 767; +=*790

‘773, °788| -790| 781i :765| -754| -743! +742! 740! +752! -770| 792! 805] -809| °796| -779| °753) -729) 707; 690] -755
813} °830; °826) fea *803| -794| °784| -789! °793| °809/ +829] :850| 862} -861/ °845| -817| °786) °757| °736) .724| -798

° ° ° Q 2) ° Ce) ° ° 9 ° ° ° ° ° Q ° 2 ° © ° | 9° 2
July 1856.) 90°83) 88:3) 86:0) 847] 83:8) 88-1] 82:7! 82:1) 81:5) 81:4} 81-1] 80°8} 80-4) 80-1] 81-1] 83-4) 858) 87:9] 89-7} 91:4) 92 6 93°1} 92:5] 91:7) 85°6
Dry Thermometer... { August do 87:1} 85:4] 8375} 823] < 81:8) 81:2} 80:6} 80:3) 79:9] 795] 79-0 78:7) 78-4| 78:1] 79:0! 80-8} 82:8} 84:8] 86:4] 87:7} 88 5) 885} 886} 880} 83:0
Septr. do 88°3} 86:4] 84:5( 83:8} 83:3; 82:8) 82:1] 81 81:2} 80°7; 80:3) 79:9} 79:5) 79:0} 796 1:8} 84:1] 865} 88-2] 89°6} 904, 90°4) 90:3) 89°7, 84:3
July 1856. 78: 78:2) 77.7} 78:0} 77-7] 77:3) 77-0] 76-6) 76:2) 761 59! 756) 75:3) 74:9] 75:5] 763) 76-7| 77:0} 77:41 77-8) 781] 784] 788) 79:0 T1
Wet Thermometer... { Bogut do 793} 78:9} 78:7) 78:0) 77:8] 77°6| 77-3] 77-21 76-7 76:0) 75°8| 756) 75:4) 758] 75:8| 76:4} 77-0| 77:6} 77:9! 78:0{ 786) 787| 790 792 74
Septr. do 77°8| 777) 77:6) 77°5| 77:5} 771! 769] 768) 766) 764] 7 all? G 68] 77:2 8

"hiognasasgg oyaubopy soupopy

7
77°3| 77:6 i 779| 76

* The Numbers in these Columns are not Observed but interpolated for the sake of obtaining the daily means.

Manpras, W. S. JACOB,

—
1st October, 1856. Director of the Madras Observatory. S

Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Magnetic Observatory.
HOURLY MEANS.

Gottingen Mean Timessseueeeeeee.(Noon.| 1 Oh a er Bolg 7 8 B10 Fi | we as | ae | We ee) I) ae 18 be or eee: on
hmbh mh mh mh mb mh mh mh mh mh mh mh mh mb mh mh mh mh mb mh mh mh mh m

|
Madras Mean Time,ssscssesersene: 4 41/6 41/6 M7 41/8 41) 9 4110 41)11 41/12 4118 41/14 41/15 4116 4117 4118 41)19 41/20 4ij21 4122 41/28 41/0 41] 1 41) 2 418 41/Moons
|

3 Octr. 1856. ‘1
Wet Thermometer... { as. 6 71-9] 73-2] 73-7] 740! 747! 74:6] 74°71 74:5! T41l 742 73-4

Novr. do

z

mm sees ee ed ; Se Es ee eee —e————eeeE=—=—_ee= _ese= eee | ee _ ee ses ee | ce | cr | | eee | Lf
e * * :
Inches ae ee Te Tied) Inte i. Tae? | Tn In. | In. Boss) Ines eer! Inn) Bye | Ine { Inet In | Jae | dn) In.-|etas bf En... Inches
Barometer at 32° Fant, { Qctr.1856.} 29°78] 29798) 29820] 298421 29-863 | 29860] 29-866] 29-855] 29'839, 29-826] 20°820} 29'8)7)29.823| 29-842) 20 861 | 29-880) 20-895] 29 g94| 20-876] 20-847) 20: 817 29°794] 29-778] 29°777] 29°837
aht. | Nove. do 901] -922| -945| -961| -964| -956| -945/ 926] -912/ -902| 8981 906) -929) -944 +965/ 9891-984 -ge¢| 942/914) -89l| 8781 -875| -929
9 su g 9° ° rs) 9° ° ° Q © tie - ° ° 9° 9 Q Q Q. Q Q 1°] Q 2
>
Octr. 1856,| 84:6] 929] si-4! 80-6 gol 79:3] 78-6; 78-1| 77-31 77:1| 768] 768] 762] 75°8' 77-0| 797; 89-31 84-21 85-5) 969| 87°31 8721 96] 861] 812
Dry Thermometer. .... {Wor Boal Sa 6 77°8| 77°5| 771) 767| 761 75°8| 75:3) 74-7| 74:5| 74:2| 73-7, 7421 7651 78-7| 79°83) 81-l| 81-6| 81-81 81-4) 81-1] 8081 77°8
. a :
air gp dts | ill s| 73-6) 75'1| 763) 768) 77-1] 76-7) 77-9| 77-4) 77-6776] 77-41 761

* * The Numbers in these Columns are not Oobserved but interpolated for the sake of obtaining the daily means.

MAnRAs, W. S. JACOB,
1st December, 1856. Director of the Madras Observatory.

0&1

"QR 0 ‘suoypasasgg poobojo.soazayr

“GIUGS MAN ‘T ‘on]

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] 131

THE TODA VOCABULARY BY THE REV. F. METZ.

(Continued from last Number of the Journal,)

B.
Baby BslsyQs. popen.
Back i JA¥) 2 we 16s
Backbiting DEE, perkiti.
Backward O° bedi *bek. :
Badge BWI, pare.
Bag : ESO, tiram.
Bail (I am) Ble PFIyWH WD. ponndyisbini.
Balance, scales. e — a, tarasu.
Ball of a gun EQER oS, tershguddu.
Bald S sor 5 . tarmadd. (litt. open head.)
Bamboo e 4. kailu.
Bat ay over S. barkon.
Bathe a3 weO F QP. nirarthbini, and ao Rrwy, nir- -
arshbini.
Battle 6 aS, daddu.
Bark of a tree oS Her . ménput.
Bark (verb) | we J F-92D. kwarthbini.
Barley Wo =. Gajj.
Barren we &, baradi.
Basket we 8, Kits, makari, gudu.
Beat ao FBR EMD, burthvershbini.

Be ROW? ershdini.

132 Toda Vocabulary. [NO. 2, NEW SERIES,

Bean ao 5. evar.

Bear (noun) woe. kar.

Bear (verb) Bs , JOP. hottsbini.

Beard Bro, moyi.

Beast oor 8. murkiti,

Bee ajS Asad. Fe

Bee's wax w har.

Bedstead BOSS : het? hs.

Before S500 ay . mudd.

Beg a3 F-aD2. bédvershbini.
Beggar Dea web - . bédigar.

Behead A £88, 32. morr-atisbini:
Behind evjo-eS5 hindadu, & 200 & oe pindalk.
Believe oo aa De. nabbvershbint.
Below alee erk; om . neshk.
Belly ay5. bir,

Between ee Ly Fo), narthkasi,

Be it so Os, a se. attanama (means also) enough:
Bell Aor . gong.

Bend 28 {RQr OS. batsvershbini.
Beyond avae 2. dtadu.

Beware of ee a 2 , atetkhir, litt. be at that side.
Big i 5 . etud.

Bile ae. pitta.

Bind FeSSwp, hart'dsbini. © SSS. katt 'hikhen.

JAN.—MAR, 1857.] Toda Vocabulary. 133

Bird 22, . bilt.
Bird cage 9 Kn . biltgud.
Bite (and bark) fl & mee. kwarthbini.
Bison Gans, amof.
a3
Bitter = & 1He. katstudt.
Black © SEB. harthti.
Blackberry 9 Bayo. élpom. Do B2)$0, milpom.
Blind Sopas oped. kannu kanadi.
Bliss WS Xo, suggam.
- Blood aves. bakh.
Board, plank 9. izha.*
Bog, swamp 0395 | . kenner.
Boat OHrw, arigilu.
Born (1 was) DH FADD. bert’hbini.
Boil Opes, punnu.
Boils (it) W288. bukit. § MOS & 8. bulkthti,
Bold | Sd. elthi.
Bone od). elph.
Bottle SD & ~ putt’ hi.
© ae
Boundary Sa &. tevvar.
eo
Bow (a) oDSX F-, Bish,
Bowels 6, . gurr. KE . gourr.
Box OS. pett hi.

Boy Bes , mokh, D2 5 QF » mokhvarsh.

*The (es) isthe peculiar Toda sound something like the tamil , which is
usually rendered by zh,

134 Toda Vocabulary. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Breast 22768, neyjt guddi, woman’s breasts. DOS » mozh,
BARA, morsh.
Bracelet Ssreya, tuvalpadi. & nS S8. télvadi.

Bramble &oo5" 355. ©, cnmali.
Branch of a tree mH &. tuvar.
Brass QF O. pitali.

Break D5 cS SQ FDO, mirdrs vershbini, Bre 2
aR F-9D2, vodadvershbini.

Breath, life 8. Stee

Breathlessness ums . uppdaj.

Breed weSas , katikhen.

Bribe BBO, kekkoli.

Bring SAF S, tashken, Caay 292, taddsbini.
Brook Do. pa.

Brother (elder) 8° g0, anna, Pe) os S ennan; younger bro-
ther @2 88 , norvet.

Brother in law AwonsIaT . boyt al.

Brow (eye) F Opa Avo3 5 D035 kannugormir.
Buffaloe a5 Ser

Badd FS Sd. hatt’hsbini.

Burden 25, parr.

Burn Her SARE WO, tutt’h vershbini.
Business BOD kelas.

Butter Ento 5, benn.

Butter milk 3 . mach.

JAN.—MAR. 1867.} Toda Vocabulary. 135

Butterfly e Bay5 . kappan.
C.

Cage, trap Kad . gud.

Calf me, . karra.

Call 2 R- NRO. birsh ershbini.
Calumniator 89 8 Fe oe ay jadikaran.
Camel srg. volt it.

Carriage wheel, potter’s wheel, “C8. bandi.

Cast away bee Tass} 2. talibutt’hs bint.
- Castle, Bungalow of Europeans = . kwat.

Cat Sve 8 | kotti.

Catch eo q S22. parvatthsbini.
Centre es aS . naduf.

Chaff ee, kwast.

Chain S B55, takél, OK Ar. tagarsh.

Chalk, Chunam B05 . mir.

Chat Os Yar Ey ©. arvotbini.

heap 86595, etiyadt.

Cheat vay S Sa 3. Qed, mosamadwershbint.
Cheek BIS BOA . dnog.

Child RBIS. popan.

Chin D§S . mid.

Claw Sood . kulér.

Clay 350 Of a0, munnu.

Clean 7S F nérth, isitclean Sea? YF We, narther-
+r
shka.

136

Cloud
limb
Club
Coal
Cob

Cocoanut

Cold, feverish cold

Toda Vocabulary.

Say . Majpu.

BB, JOP. yettsbini.
Boos. kunda. :

5. kart.

REE se & twalajangudu.
BoRw sce. tengokayi.
Lod 8. perthti.

Cold, from cold weather 2.8 ee, kworthti.

Colour

no saya,

Come xR 5. vashken. a = mS. fashken, bee

badthbini.

Command

Conjurer

Companion, friend

Comprehend
Consent
Corn, grain,
Corner
Corpulent
Cotton
Cough
Count
Countenance
Country
Courage
Cowries

Cover, hide

Cow

OIYP. appane.

iY 8 eS pilikaran.
EXGTOS. yéhal.

® O Fea. arthbint.

8p3y RAD. vobbershbini.

ae, > battam.

w0 3. mule,

205. balbir.
ww 8. patit.
D 28. putiti.

SoPHY?. yenisbini.

Bass SOP. konmunna.
Bo35 nor, D5 ao, sime.
Jed, elathi.

2aar 0. nerpali.

a0 9B Rw, muchvershbini.

Sw Fo, danam.

[No. 2, NEW SERIES,

JAN.—MAR. 1857. |

Crab
Cream
Cripple
Crooked

Crow

Toda Vocabulary. 137

eRe, teguli.

F. pihatha, aOPd, bennu.
So 85", kutt han.

Bes F. tork.

BSS. kik.

Cry 28 g08. adthbini, FOpansS was Yap, kanna nor

haksbini.

Cultivate =o ear 999, kazhgershbini, MF JMO uzhsbini.

Curse

~ Custom house

a8F QQ FE 2. bartivershbini.
DEEN, subkakatt’h.

Cut DF BAF wD, artivershbini, ST38R Fw, ésversh-

bint.

Dance

Dark

Daughter
Daughter in law _
Day

To day

Day after tomorrow
Deaf

Death

Debt

Deceive

Deceiver

Deep

LD.
IIS 2B. adsbini.
coos. yizh.
So D . kukh.
Se e5), matveth,
oO . nal,
NS. edu.
BlSy 55. pérnér.
SDH. hividu.
B59, kédu.
nS 5. kadan.
BVO SS & \ MP. mosamadsbint.
DIOGO, vroladi.

G3 =f kinu.

138 Toda Vocabulary. [™o. 2, NEW SERIES,
Demon «0538 . bit.

Deny O98 OSH AR_2) 9. adadiyeddeshtsbin.
Depart Byse3 so. pokent, BMW A) ©. poyisbint.

Deride er oF ap karthbini.
Desert, forsake 10'S as QF 2D. butt hvershbini.
Descend Sr 2) >. ytzhkhbini.
Desire WSSE?, drelu. i
Diarrhea (I have) ®§ 5s % ) 2 , virvasbischi.
Difference a SDo. hechkadime.
Dig . OSA FD. adershbini.

Diminish (neutre) ) 2,X CRE 2D. ettigadershbini.
Die #;aS0. kédikheni, 88 SAD. kedavershbini.
Dirt eRras §. arsh bidar.
Dirty (I make) ¥ al SSR DD. harshkevershbini.
Dishonour TED VSO, nanipém.

Disappear So pen WP. kanavershbini.

Dismiss 5 eRAQr o>. talivershbins.
Dispute, debate So =a F-99D. kudvershbint.

Ditch Go®. kudi.

Divide 38 SeS } °2D. palmadsbini.
Dog BF. ndyi.

Door DB dod- pashazh.

Drive SpyQaqr xo. vodivershbini.
Drink eed 2D. ddsbini.

Drown <@AZ By een. mzhugivershbini.

Ln
“> =
Drum & . barra. @

JAN.—MAR. 1857.) Yoda Vocabulary. 139

_ Drop BOB. katchi.
Drum, verb wW 5 RAE 2. barragershbini.
Dry BpH ARE wd, vonugersh bini.
Dull Booed . pérdd.

Dumb Sioa S . miugan.

Dung Rowe 0, goparam, SoQE, karsh.

Dwarf : DW S ass. kurudamokh.
ane

Eagle TS pathu,

| Ear 3S . kev.
Earth, soil WTI, bumi.
Kcho (it is) ey hS & 2 néperthchi.
Eat ES Jw. tinsbini, ES Yd, tedsbint.
Eclipse ies om 8. grendacha.
Keg a8, mott’he.
Elegant Fo SS - nartht.
Eight oes. etf’h.
Eighteen 0965 + bot.
Eighty SoBe5 . emboth.
Enemy S25 mae 5. akhgaran.
Enough Oo > ws. attanama, * ©. ganam.
Elbow Ramer F). gormagat.
Elephant’ O05. an.
Elk UO) . mof.

Embrace wud se 8 RFD, wv tkatershbint.

140 Toda Vocabulary. |No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Empire Dea. sime, 39235 | nor.
Egual Z 8. sari.
Ever 8 x 28 a 5S. etvanetvan.
Excrement wo hersha:
Expel T yas joo. talivitsbint.
Expenditure mo, sallam.
Eye Sc peo. kanmu.
Enchanter oS ae piliearan.
End (verb) EZSR ya. ‘fli
Enter Sez Bpezyeo. o!pokent.
Envy a3 > hott he kichch.
Error w 5, . kvarr, 5 2 .) ‘app.
Evening Ssh . ekar.
Every a we. ella.
Excise DFo. sukkam.

F.
Fall an Sa AF OD. bududuvershbini.
Face Bas Oe, . konmunna,
Falsehood BSt 8 perkiti.
Family SoS & aves. paltial.
Faith S068 | nambik.
Fat a3292. bekhiti.
Fane, temple a. gudi, B56 555 “3. dérmane.
Far a2& 8. badhkh.

Farmer 3n¥ 2 5. vokalikhen.

JAN.—MAR. 1857.} Toda Vocabulary. 141

Father Ns §- aiyan.
Fatherless owe ) 8. tobbari.
Fault =e, . kwarra.

Fault (to commit) pie AN BAF WD, kwarragisiversh-
bint.
Fault it is a ie a: 2 . kwarrabudidiveschi.

Fear 52) >. ajbini. I fear not os ©. ajjent.

Feast m BSD) o- habbam.
Feather ». tufi.

- Fever (I have) DR SRW, bishkevershbini.
Five coo F yich.
Field BO os. hazh.
Fill aS F8)d. burdsbini.
Finger so os. kaivezh.
Fire S&S", ditth.

+ =

Fireplace | i ar SX. varrsh.
Firewood os F. berkh.
Firestone, flint. 88 soS. titmuk.
Fish DZS. min.
Fist GS osess. kepot.

. Fife wr Sed &. kwezhsh.
Flea ad s. delta.
Flee Sse Jw. vodsbini.
Flesh ans & . buvad.

Floor 2. nellu.

142

Flour
Flower

Fly (a noun)
Fly (verb)
Foam

Fog

Fool

Fore head
Forest

Four

Fourteen

Forty
Forward

Foot

Foreigner

Toda Vocabulary.

eves. hitt’h.

SoD. pi.

re epi.
Bos Fara. parthbini.
aF0, bukku.

aR dwarsh, 285 . men.
a0. nink.
Wao . pank.

“aed BAG nazhboth.
05. va
wO9 . kal.
OO 5 . paradas.

Forget 5S 3 aX F~ DD, maredwershbint, Braw28 2 ar

M2. tubakharivershbini.

Forgive
Fowl
Fox
Friend
Frog
Frost
Fruit |

Fruit tree

OF 8 55a Jad, ultmadsbini.
BIB. kehidi.

J 8. nari.
woe. éhal.

& Dy \e kappun.
Wo. pani.

Bysloso, Pee
BASMPE pommen.

[No. 2, NEW SERIES,

JAN.—MAR. 1897. }

Funeral
Fur
Fart

Gain
Gall

Gallows
Garden

Garlics
~ Gather
Gate
Gem
Ghee
Ghost
Giant

Girl

Toda Vocabulary.

S53. kedu.
Ss. tuvazh.

ane F. burk.

G.
ys Dd, ulival,
83 °
aT. pitta.

‘ SHE Bed. tikmén.

Soosy OS. tuvat.

SIHy . beluldi.

oo bF jo, hutsbini.
Dae. pashazh.

Se SO OS. kalmutturu.

Bla. néyi.
asa8 . bit.

® bver aay . arkotash.
Goo. kikh.

Give BvaeSRyo. hott hsdini FAS Waaliben,

Go

Glow worm
Goat

God

Gold
Goldsmith
Good
Gooseberry

Byrgaod. pdkheni.
DoyS Tod. minpif.
395°. der.

NYS. disna.

vas. tatt’han.
Snr a, volt.

TUF BNGHI. toutvom.

143

144

Grain
Grandfather
Grandmother
Grandson
Grass

Grasshopper
Gray

Great

Green

Grief

Grind

Grindingstone

Groan

Ground

Hailstone (hailrain)

Hair
Half
Hand
Hard
Hare
Harlot
Hate

Toda Vocabulary. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

280, battam.

&§ oS . pryen.

25 SS a pigavo.

SO aUaF oS . marmokh.
DO. pullu.

a 8, matt he.

© 8. nare.

Io = . elud,

wa. pachi.

WS Fo. dukkam.

Ur) 8x 8ar OD. vorrigallershbini.

of Oxs . vorrigall.
2a Toes } MP. baratsbini.
POD, nellu.

H.
x. 7 kosketona

Dos& mir.

aw. adam.
Bayon, Kéyi.
KR. gagal.
DoF. (miirsh.) mirsh.
Face, szhuyi.

a5 ZQr 2. akhvershbinz.

JAN.—-MAR. 1857.; Toda Vocabulary. 145

Hatred OS + akh.

| Halt So Sos omy 2. haletv hsbini.
Hammer Too Waa. kutupadi.
Handle a BgQ FT. tirsh.

Hang (suicide) Bad Fee, 2. morakatt’hsbini.

Hang (another) i RAE 2. tukvershbini.

Harken » BF ToeS Ryd. vordtsbini.
Hatchet , HOO . kurval.

Haughty ABsSQF MO. gwovershbini.
Hawk nose a S DO F . pathmituf.
Head a 5. madd.

Hear F $5 3WD. kzhetsbini.
Heart Ree, gendi.

Heat Sak. bizh.

He 8 Wo, adum.

Heap | Kaa § . gudhal.
Heaven Beso B35". dmundr, B§ Dass . méllokh.

Herd *S 2). guppi.
Heavy ne 8. tukade.
Here cod . yi.

Hew Hs %) F 2. érsbini.
Herb S595. tir

Hiccup ) R05. eshkir.

146 Toda Vocabulary.

No. 2, NEW SERIES,

—

Hide (reflexive) 3nt ZRF xp. volachwershbini,

Hide (active)
Hill

Hire

Hog

Hoof

Hook
Held

Honey
Honour

Horn

Horse
Horse gram

es & 2. karthbini.
2S, ditt’ hu.

Sodnw. sambolu.

=:
~ ©. paddi.

EET bapu.
SEF. durk.

= Bay? vaththsbini.
ess. ten.

Sao, manam.

So Gy. kuvarr.

s os 8. kadare.

Sse, kati.
sat

Hot TOR. kasti, itis hot Bo? D2. kasavichi.

House
milk house S22).
How
Howl
Hungry
Hundred
Hunt

Husband

Humbug

800.7}. azhs. Badaga house or
palti.

d2.8.. ettett.

Ba\F oe. arsbini.

35 2 Ss 8. biréthti.
Spowsed . vonnir.

BekrstS yen. betdtsbini.
S599 . al.

OF ees. pitalat.

(To be continued.)

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Pelagian Mollusca collected, &c. 147

II. Brief notices of Pelagian Mollusca collected on a voyage
from England to Madras, during the months of April, May
and June 1856. By Witi1am TRaILtL, M. D.

In throwing together the following observations it was my first
intention to describe the various Mollusca met with, in the order
of their classification, beginniag with those highest in the scale,
but on further reflection I djd not think it would answer any useful
purpose to do so. Theyaretoofewinnumber to represent the grada-
tion of the different classes, which may be more clearly understood by
a glance at any systematic work on the subject. By adhering rigidly

‘to classification I should have very frequently, to reverse the suc-

cession of events. Moreover, authors are by no means agreed as to
the exact position in the animal economy, which each group should
hold: Preropops for example according to the varying opinions
of different authors, having successively occupied no less than three
of the six Classes into which MOLLUSCA are usually divided.
Upon the whole therefore, I thought it better to note down zoolo-
gical facts and deductions in the order of their occurrence as be-
ing a method easier to myself and probably more intelligible to my
readers.

In remarking on these animals, I have not been so much actu-
ated by the belief that some of the species are new to science,
as by the fact that Pelagic Molluscs in general, and PreroPons in
particular, are comparatively little known. Although the indefati-
gable labours of such men as M. M. Rang, Quoy and Gaimard
have greatly added to tue number of ascertained species, yet in our
knowledge of their specific distinctions and affinities much remains
to be accomplished.

PTEROPODS are rarely seen either in public museums or private
collections ; their mysterious haunts in the unknown depths of the
ocean render them peculiarly inaccessible to the majority of col-
lectors ; even the experienced voyager, without some previous know-
ledge of their habits, would fail to detect any indication of their

148 Pelagian Mollusca collected ona [no. 2, NEW SMRIRS,

presence. As most of them are crepuscular or nocturnal animals,
they rarely if ever make their appearance in the bright sun light,
but no sooner does the twilight approach, than different species
‘successively come to the surface, and they may then be readily
captured in the towing net.

IT have appended a chart* showing the different localities where
we met with any Molluscs, as I conceive that by collecting and
comparing the experience of different voyagers, not only may our
acquaintance with the nature of these animals be greatly extended
but it may add a link to our imperfect_knowledge of the geogra-
phical distribution of animal life,a subject, theimportance of which,
can hardly be overrated. ;

It is only by comparing a sufficient number of such charts that
the facts they convey can be made practical use of ; there are ob-
vious reasons why one voyager may not meet with success in lati-
tudes where another may have been eminently fortunate. Alterna-
tion of season, change of temperature, or currents prevailing at —
different times and places, must greatly influence the movements of
these creatures andmay often occasion their involuntary migration:
again Prreropops and other MOLLUSCA may at times be pre-
sent in abundance without the voyager being able to capture a
single specimen, This happens when the speed of a ship exceeds 9
or 10 knots an hour, a circumstance of frequent occurrence on the
present voyage, as our ship, an American built clipper, sometimes
attained a speed of 15 and 16 knots an hour, when any attempt
with the towing net involved immediate destruction of the net, if
not loss of the towing line.

The first part of our voyage, which we commenced in the latter
part of March, was very stormy, and therefore peculiarly unfitted
for the prosecution of any researches in Natural History. We could
however watch the “ stormy Petrels’ following the ship for stray
garbage, while an occasional shoal of porpoises or other CeETACEA
varied the scene by theirfantastic gambols; at night the wake of the
ship and the crests of the waves shone like luminous vapour, with

Plate No. XII.

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] voyage from England to Madras. 149

here and there brighter specks intermixed. This appearance we af-
terwards ascertained was partly, if not wholly, caused by multitudes
of phosphorescent marine animals, chiefly Crustacea and many
of them, microscopic. By the 7th April in Lat.
81:11 N. Long. 17°28 W. the wind having abat-
ed, many Physalias harbingers of calm weather,
floated past, catching the wind by means of their
purplecrests. Meanwhile we proceeded to prepare
our towing apparatus which was simply a bag made
of double mésquito gauze of a conical shape as in
the accoyvhpanying wood-cut Fig. I, It was 13 foot
long, the widest end open and made to fit a circu-
lar iron hoop of 8 or 9 inches in diameter, to
this was attached 15 or 20 fathoms of cord the
size of aship’s log line. This form we found well
adapted to use in light winds, but in anything of
a breeze it too quickly filled with water which
as rapidly regurgitated and carried with it all the
contents of the net. To remedy this defect we con-
structed another net of the formshown inthe annexed wood-cut
Fig. 11. which retained its contents better than the
other in windy weather. Macgillivray, Naturalist
to the surveying Expedition of H.M. 8S. Ratile-
snake, thus describes his net; ‘not having seen a
description of this useful instrument I may men-
tion that the kind used by Mr. Huriey and my-
self consisted of a bag of ‘ bunting’ (used for flags)
2 feet deep, the mouth of which is sown round a
_ woodenhoop 14 inchesin diameter. Three pieces of
cord a foot andahalf long are secured to the hoop
at equal intervals,and have their ends tied together.
When in use the net is towed astern, clear of the
ship’s wake by a stout cord secured to one of the
quarter boats or held in the hand. The scope of
line required is regulated by the speed of the
vessel at the time and the amount of strain caused
by the partially submerged net.” In Darwin’s voyage of H. M.S.

Fig. I.

150 Pelagian Mollusca collected ona [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Beagle he alludes to a towing net of “ bunting,” but he does
not mention how it waskeptopen. Not having tried a net with a
wooden hoop, I cannot pronounce on their respective advantages, I
observed that with the iron hoop our net was generally half sub-
merged, and it would thus probably have more scope for the cap-
ture of specimens than a net with a wooden hoop, which would
oftener skim the surface without dipping sufficiently, but the strain
was very great with the iron hoop as we not unfrequently lost both
net andhoop. We generally examined our net every quarter of an
hour as we soon found that when it was left too long, its contents
were very apt to be damaged by friction:

On the 8th of April in Lat. 29°32 N. Long. 18°56 W. we made
the first trial of the net, but the speed of the ship immediately tore it.
For the next two or three days we essayed withnets made of “ gunny
bag,” a kind of coarse brown cloth of open texture, but they retain-
ed too much water and owing to the dark color of the cloth it was
difficult to see if there was anything in the net; finally we return- —
ed to the use of white mosquito gauze, the only objection to which
was, that it too often required to be repaired or renewed.

April 18th, Lat. 76 N. Long. 24°55 W.* At night we pass-
ed a few Pyrosomas, these animals the most brilliant of noctilucent
molluses, belong to the 6th Class or Tunicata. They are cylin-
drical, cartilaginous bodies, 3 or 4 inches long,open at one end,tuber-
culated, hyaline or almosttransparent; they rise to the surface only
at night, and although but few were seen on this occasion, yet dur-
ing a former voyage, when near the same Lat. and Long. our ship
for eight successive nights passed through countless thousands of
them. They evidently floateda little below the surface,as we could not
manage to enclose any in the net, but by means of several large
fish hooks tied together and dragged astern we were enabled to se-
cure two fine specimens for examination, When first taken in the
hand in the dark, they shone like molten metal, in color a pale but

* Itmust be borne in mind that the Latitudes and Longitudes mentioned, al:
ways refer to the actual position of the ship at noon, but by referring to our
course traced on the accompanying chart, our position at any given time may be
inferred with sufficient accuracy.

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] voyage from England to Madras. 151

vivid green, but when the animal died it quickly faded. Some au-
thors affirm that each of the tubercles with which their surface is
studded, constitutes a distinct animal; but while admitting its com-
pound nature I should feel rather disposed to compare these tu-
bercles or gemmules to the buds on a tree; in short I consider it
as one of these remarkable instances where the animal kingdom
closely approximates to the vegetable, and is in some measure
regulated by the same laws. In their native element they diffuse
a strong phosphorescent light for a.distance of several inches from
their bodies, and their aggregate numbers so illumined the stem of
the ship, that moderately farge print could be read at midnight.

As we neared the equator a succession of calms temporarily put
a stop to our towing experiments, the ship making no perceptible
~ way through the water.

April the 29th in Lat. 22:1 S. Long. 88:7 W. After so many
fruitless attempts we were gratified to-night by taking in the net
three different species of Hyalea and two specimens of another
genus ‘* Cuvieria”’ Fig. 26, the flat Hyalea Fig. 12, was first
caught about twilight, the other, Figs. 13 and 14, were taken after
dark until 8 Pp. mu. when the wind became too high.

Both of these genera belong to the Preropopa, a class the
position of which has much distracted the opinions of naturalists,
some assigning them a rank second only to the Ist class or
CrepHatopopa, while others have variously considered them
superior or inferior to the GaAsTERoPpopA, or degraded them
below the level of the AcEPHALoUs bivalve. PrrrRopops being
provided with fins can traverse the ocean, a faculty they possess
in common with CePHALopopDs, and in this particular they might
be considered superior to the creeping GasTEROPOoD, but when we
compare their interval conformation, habits and instincts, the Gas-
TEROPOD is seen to exhibit proofs of a much higher state of deve-
lopment than the Przropop, which being destitute of feet or pre-
hensile organs, cannot creep or attach itself to floating objects.
Nor is the power of swimming “ per se” an indication of high
organization, it is in fact possessed by some of the GasTEROPODS

/*

152 Pelagian Mollusca collected ona ([No. 2, NEW SERIES,

in their earlier stages of existence. I have watched the young of
several species of Cyprea when first disengaged from the egg or
nidamental capsule. The foot of the animal then unadapted for
crawling is expanded into two slender fins by means of which these
little creatures swim with rapid jerking movements and having
little or no voluntary power of directing these motions, they are
carried by a blind instinct or rather in obedience to the laws of
the great author of nature, wherever they can insure safety from
enemies and a sufficiency of their proper sustenance.

I have been much struck with the resemblance the PrERoPoD
bears to the rudimentary GasTEROPOD, in its simple organization
and in the random jerking manner in which it effects locomotion,
apparently with little or no exercise of volition. Their chief use
in the animal economy seems to be, to afford food to the whale
and to various oceanic birds, most of which being night feeders,
the Preropons readily become their prey. It has been already
observed that PrrroPops, with very few exceptions, shun the
light. The different species have their regular periods for approach-
ing the surface of the water, where they actively sport about for a
given time and then retire from view, to be succeeded by other
species which also play their part on the surface and then likewise
disappear. ‘The cause or object of these periodical visits is un-
known, nor has it been ascertained to what depth they subsequently
retire. It may be safely assumed that they never reach the bed of
the ocean. In the parts where they chiefly abound, the enormous
depth of water would forbid this supposition. Being creatures ex-
tremely sensitive to light, it is probable that they merely retire to
a depth sufficient to enable them to enjoy the required amount of
shade or obscurity, besides which their specific gravity differs so
slightly from that cf the surface water, that each species when in
a state of repose, would probably retain its proper level without
requiring the exertion of any voluntary effort,

The Hyaleas when placed in a vessel of water, displayed consi-
derable activity, especially the more globose species represented in
Fig. 13, which darted about in all directions by rapidly flapping its
fins, which in shape were not unlike a butterfly’s wings. The shell

ae
bat |

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] voyage from England to Madras. 153

was clear as glass, with various patches of palerust color. The
animal was purple and could be seen throughthe transparent shell.
Fig. 14 was a solitary specimen with well marked characters, a
small shell of compressed form with the aperture narrowed into a
canal, posterior spine somewhat imperfect, color purple. The animal
was dead and could not be satisfactorily examined. The flask-
shaped Cuvieria Fig, 26, when in motion, usually propelled itself in
a straight course with the open part of the shell forward. It is pro-
vided with fins very similar in formeand situation to those of the
Hyaleas but more elongated. Between the fins is a slight projec-
tion which may be the head, but it seemed to me more like
a continuation of the mantle or membrane which forms the fins.
The shell which is well represented in Fig. 26,is colourless and

~ _ transparent as the clearest glass; in several of the specimens the

rounded extremity of the shell shows marks as though it had for-
merly been prolonged into a point, which probably becomes deci-
duous when the animal approaches maturity as is the case with
severalof the GAsteropopos. In the net along with these were
several specimens of Hrichthus and other CRusTACEA so trans-
parent as to be invisible in water, all except their eyes which ap-
peared like insolated blue specks.

April 30th, Lat, 24.448, Long. 37:41 W. this evening about 52
P.M. in daylight we putover the net and soon got many specimens of
asmall Creseis Fig. 23, the shell is of a spicular form,and longitudi-
nally carinated at one side where the open end of the shell is pro-
longed into a sharp point. The animal is a Preropop of a pale
purple color, they move briskly by means of two fringed fins,
between which is a fringed projection or plume, which appears
to be a continuation of the expanded membrane forming the fins.

As twilight set in, we caught more of the Hyaleas Figs. 9 and
18, already described. The former made its appearance first, and
when darker still, the latter species again rewarded our efforts, and
it was interesting to observe that each kind was taken at about the
same hour as on the previous evening, although we had in the in-
terval sailed a distance of nearly 170 miles. Another Preropop
captured this evening was Cleodora, Fig. 22,a beautiful hyaline shell,

154 Pelagian Mollusca collected on a [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

marked transversely with broad undulating sulci or furrows. The
aperture is somewhat triangular and produced into three spines ;
the shell had but a fragment of the animal adhering to it and was
so much mutilated, that I cannot vouch for the Tepresentation being
quite accurate. A little before 8 Pp. mM. we took in the net two
species of Atlanta Figs. 6 and 7. The animal is endowed with nata-
tory powers like the PrEropon but is possessed of a much more
complex organization. It is classed with the GasrERopops and has
like them a true foot which however is not fitted for progression in
the usual manner on a plane surface, but is cleft into two fleshy
expansions, which the animaluses very éffectively as fins. Attached
to the foot is a calcareous operculum, which in Fig. 7, shows very
peculiar striz indicating that the nucleus of the operculum has
been situated at the owler part of the aperture of the shell, from
which the marks of increment proceed in successively increasing
wavy lines towards the inner part of the aperture.

It will be seen by a reference to Fig. 7, that the inner whorls of
this shell appear as if chambered or divided intosepta. Thisis en-
tirely due to a peculiar joint-like formation of the viscera of the
animal, visible through the transparent shell which is in reality
unilocular.

The animal has two tentacula and a proboscis, behind which
are placed the eyes which do not project externally but are visible
under a thin layer ofintegument. On dissecting out one, and sub-
jecting it to a high magnifying power, I found it to possess a erys-
talline lens of spherical form, partly imbedded in a black cushiony
mass, which appears to serve the purpose of absorbing the rays of
light and is somewhat analogous to the pegmentum nigrum in the
human eye. The magnified eye in its dark chamber is represented
in Fig. 7 a. The shell is transparent and colorless, discoidal, spiral,
in shape not unlike some of the smaller species of Planorbis. An
expanded keel is attached to the outer circumference of the shell
and extends to the space between the last and penultimate whorls,
which it connects together. The general form of the shell is ex-
tremely elegant. Adlanta Fig. 6 of which we obtained only a
solitary specimen, is a very remarkable and interesting shell, it is

JAN.-~MAR. 1857.] voyage from England to Madras. 155

completely enveloped in a strong membranous epidermis which
extends considerably beyond the mouth of the shell and is at its
outer edge prolonged into a keel, situated as in Fig. 7, but wholly
membranous and only extending over half the circumfer-
ence of the shell. On the inner whorls the epidermis is
marked with spiral dotted lines. The shell is not so flatten-
ed in the whorls as Fig. 7, but is, like it, provided with
an operculum, otherwise it seems to answer to the description
of Sowerby’s Limacina which he defines as ‘“‘a thin fragile, spiral,
discoid shell, umbilicated on Voth sides and carinated on the back
and below, with a membranaceous lamellar keel,”’ and he adds that
it has externally much the appearance of a very diminutive umbili-
cated Nautilus. The Limacina however is a true PreRopop which
this animal is not, it likewise differs from Zimacina, in the shell
being earinated, possessing an operculum, and having the aperture
dextral. During the next few days the wind was too high, we got
nothing, and our nets were repeatedly torn.

On the 3rd of May, Lat. 30°34 S. Long. 80°51 W.a species of
Loligo or Sleeve fish called by the sailors a flying squid, fell on the
deck of the ship. This animal belongs to the CepHazopops the
highest class of MOLLUSCA which in theirmore complicated inter-
nal organization, and in the possession of organs of sight and hear-
ing, and a distinct brain, approximateto the VERTEBRATA. The
fact of this mollusc having alighted on the deck of the vessel, is re-
markable and instructive, for it is alleged that the MOLLUSCA
not having members sustained by jointed and solid levers, cannot
make rapid springs, whereas it is evident that some have the power
of leaping or springing a considerable height out of the water.
This fact has been observed by Bennet and others. I have repeat-
edly noticed other species of CepHatorops that had fallen on the
deck of a ship or in the chains and this in calm or moderate
weather, so that they could not have been thrown up by the agency
of the winds or waves, and I have also been informed by several
officers of ships, that they may be often seen to execute a sustain-
ed flight, like the flying fish when pursued by its enemies. They
are said to accomplish this movement with the head back-
ward and the tail or arrow-shaped extremity advanced, which I

156 Pelagian Mollusca collected ona [wNo. 2, NEW SERIES,

believe to be true, as it isquite in accordance with its mode of loco-
motion_in water. The internal dorsal plate being elastic is proba-
bly of service to the animal in making these extraordinary bounds.
The specimen above mentioned was about 6 tmches long and of a
purple color with ten arms or tentacles surrounding the mouth, two of
them longer than the others and all furnished with suctorial disks,
The general form of the animal was much like that figured as Bank’s
Onychoteuthis and the resemblance also extended to the shape of
the elastic dorsal plate but it did not possess the tentacular hooks
characteristic of that species.

May 5th, Lat. 30:19 S. Long. 27-40 W. from 5 to 8 P.M.
took nothing in the net although the yate of sailing was only
from 4 to 5 knots; between 9 and 10 P. mu. we got a few
Atlantas, Fig. 7, and one or two specimens of a small com-
pressed Hyalea, the form of which is well delineated in Fig. 15.
The shell when in good condition is perfectly transparent. Habits of
animal the same as those already described. This species we after-
wards found had a wider range than any of the other Hyaleas —
taken by us during the voyage. In the net with these were some
very small globose CEPHALoPoDs with prominent eyes and several
kinds of small fish and CrusTacEA. One minute species in particu-
lar of the latter class, was of a brilliant blue color. For several
successive nights we continued to capture specimens of Hyalea,
Fig. 15, and occasionally Atlanta, Fig. 7. On the 9th May Lat.
34:4 8. Long. 20°42 W. at 1 P.M. in very calm weather and the
sky rather overcast we took in our net another species of Creseis,
Fig. 24. It differs from the first kind in having no keel to the shell
which is also much more elongated posteriorly and the fins of the
animal are not fringed. Later in the day we found in the net seve-
ral specimens of Glaucus, a GASTEROPoDoUs Mouuuvsc of singular
form. It has on each side of an elongated body, bunches of digi-
tated filaments, by some supposed to be branchice, by others swim-
ming organs. Fig. 27 was the most perfect specimen! could get
for illustration. It was about 1 inchlong. The structure of these
animals is so delicate that when dragged astern in the net they are
quickly destroyed by contact with other bodies. All the others when
taken from the net had shrunk up into shapeless masses and did

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] voyage from England to Madras. 157

not again resume their natural form. Fig. 28 which is placed here
for the sake of comparison, is copied by permission of the
Honorable WattEer Extror from his valuable collection of color-
ed drawings of Nupisrancu Motiuscs. Mr. Exnior has sug-
gested to me that my specimen may have lost all the digitated ap-
pendages and this seems probable, for the animal in question,
though it lived several days in a vessel of water, (thereby proving
that the supposed missing organs were not branchice) yet it showed
no power of swimming or even of moving, beyond curving its body
into various contortions when touched. It appears that the species
of Glaucus are not as yet well determined, which may account for
the apparently contradictary statements as to their habits, &c. One
author affirms that the Glaucus “ swims with great quickness,’’
others describe it as being remarkably torpid and sluggish in its
movements. Glaucus, Fig. 28, which was taken by Mr. Exxiot,
in the bay of Bengal near Vizagapatam, at no great distance from
the shore,* differs from my specimen not only in the number of
the lateral appendages, but in the form and disposition of the blue
lines on its surface. Both species are remarkable for the brilliancy
of their color, which is generally attributed to their feeding on the
beautiful blue Velellas and Porpitas, animals very low in the scale
of animate objects, which are met with abundantly in these seas.
This conclusion appears to me illogical. Most of the Pelagic animals
we met with, were remarkably devoid of color, and such as had any
were generally blue. Indeed with the exception of an occasional
tinge of purple, I do not remember that we met with them of any
other tint; so that I think we must look elsewhere for the cause of
this color prevailing so remarkably in Pelagic and other marine
animals. It seems to me not improbable that Iodine,a powerful color-
ing agent, universally prevalent in sea water, may be partly instru-
mental in producing it.

May 21st, Lat. 40°51 S. Long. 24:57 E. After dark we
took in the net myriads of minute CrusTacEA not much
larger than cheese mites, of a pale blue color, and in the dark

* The perfect specimens of this Glaucus when first captured moved with consi-
derable rapidity. The branched appendages appeared to be very brittle and were
easily broken when attempting to catch the animal—W., E.

158 Pelagian Mollusca collected on a (No. 2, NEW SERIES,

a mass of them appeared like liquid fire of a bluish yellow color.
Most of the Crustacea we have caught are luminous, especially
their eyes. After 9 P. M, we caught in the net three small Hyaleas
one of them, Fig. 15, already described, the 6ther kind delineated
in Fig. 16, had a more expanded aperture and the posterior extre-
mity was unusually lengthened and curved so as to give the shell
somewhat the form of a cornucopia. Another interesting shell
of which we obtained several specimens this evening, much resem-
bled a minute sinistral Helix, transparent, glossy, discoidal, with the
spire slightly elevated ; it is well represented and magnified in Fig.
8. I could not well distinguish the animcl. It was extremely minute
and none of those I placed in water showed any signs of vitality.
I believe the shell to be a Limacina or Spiratella. These names
are by some authors considered synonymous, though others take
them to represent two different genera. The shell has likewise
been confounded with A¢lanfa; and consequently the various des-
criptions of this shell, are most conflicting and contradictory. On
this account I regret the more, my not having been able to record ~
the appearance of the animal. However the figures of this and
indeed of all the species illustrated in the accompanying plates
are executed with such fidelity as to render it a comparatively
easy task for a Naturalist in command of the requisite means,
either to pronounce a species new, or to identify it with such as
have been already described. The animal is probably a Przrorop.
We took afew more specimens of it, the following night, after
which we saw no more of them. .
Our course was now south easterly for a considerable time, during
which our experiments with the net were almost barren of results,
and it was not until we approached higher and warmer lati-
tudes, that we again fell in with Moznusca. However, hard-
ly a day passed that our net did not reveal varied and
novel forms of animal life, with which the ocean seems
to be teeming,—beautifully marked fish, singular CrusTacra
and a variety of AcaLEPH#, as Beroe, Diphyes and Cuboides, the
two latter perfectly transparent and angular, like animated crystals.
Many of these animals would live for days when placed in a vessel
of sea water and the study of their habits in this manner, was
always interesting and well calculated to while away a vacant hour.

JAN. —MAR. 1857.] voyage from England to Madras. 159

June 3rd, Lat. 31°25 S. Long. 84:15 E, We took in the net
several Creseis of a different form from those we had hitherto met
“with, the posterior part of the shell terminating in a curved point.
This is shown in Fig. 25. Fig. 25 a. shows the position of the
shell when the animal is in motion, which it effects much in the
manner of those already described except that the convexity of the
curve is always directed backward, in this respect resembling the
Hyaleas. And I may here observe, that some authors consider Cleo-
dora, (of which Creseis and Cuvierta are by them reckoned only
sub-genera) so closely allied *to Hyalea, that it is impossible to
draw the line between they, and in support of this anology they
advert to the fact,that the animals, in their internal structure, differ
but little from each other. Now although the analogy is undoubt-
ed, yet the differences seem sufficiently marked to warrant the
present arrangement of genera and even species, at least the ana-
logy is not stronger than that observed among other MoxLuuscs,
the anatomical distinctions between which, are almost impercepti-
ble, and yet they have been established into species and genera by
the common consent of Naturalists. It is worthy of observation
that the three species of Creseis were all captured in daylight, only
one species, Fig. 23, having been ever taken by us at night. In this
respect they contrast remarkably with the Hyaleas which, as far
as we could ascertain, are strictly nocturnal or crepuscular animals.
We continued working at the net all day, but were not successfal
in getting any more of this species until 7th June, Lat 26-0 S.
Long. 87:9 E. a little after 12 o'clock noon, when we took two or
three specimens alive. In the evening a little after dark we got
two specimens of Hyalea Fig. 9. This species much resembles
Hyalea Fig. 12 but differs from it in the direction of the lateral
spines. It is also considerably larger. The animal has the power of
withdrawing entirely into its shell, but often when at rest it keptits
fins extended as in Fig. 11; when in motion the triangular mem-
brane observable between the fins in the above figure was doubled
over the aperture of the shell as represented in Fig. 10, the dark
blotches are the viscera of the animal as seen through the shell.
In the net with these we founda Hyalea Fig. 17, differing from
any previously met with in being more angular in form and in
haying the anterior part of the shell deeply grooved horizontally ;

160 Pelagian Mollusca collected ona [wNo. 2, NEW SERIES,

color white or nearly transparent; animal slightly tinged with pur-
ple; habits, so far as can be observed, do not appear to differ from
those of the Hyaleas already described. On this evening we also
obtained several Cuvzertas ; a genus we had not met with since April
29th in Lat. 22:18. Long. 38°7 W>; all these were taken before 8
Pp. M.

9th June, Lat. 22°408. Long. 84:27 E. a little before 5 Pp. m.
we took from the net several Cuvierias and one Hyalea, Fig. 12.
This species of Hyalea we have always got earlier than any other
but never before in daylight as on this occasion, which was half an
hour before sunset: later this evening we got no more PreRopoDs
but great numbers of Aélanta, Fig. 7, already described, and a con-
siderable number of a GAsTERoPoDoUs Mouuusc “ Lanthina exigua”’
the characteristic strize of which are well shown in Fig. 3, Most of
them were empty shells and none had the animal alive.

On the following evening about 6p. m. in Lat. 21:5 S. Long.
83°46 E. we got a few more Lanthina exigua ina similar condition
and with them two Cuviertas and a few specimens of Hyalea, Fig.
12. For the uext few days we met with tolerable success but got

nothing new.

On the 16th June in Lat. 4:32 8. Long. 80° 4 E, a little before
8 p. m. we took in the net a species of Hyalza, Fig. 18, somewhat re-
sembling Fig. 18, but more globose and with its spines less deve-
loped. The most part of the shell is transparent and colorless, but
the anterior surface is claret colored deepening in color towards
the aperture; animal nearly white with a tinge of purple ; mode of
progression similar to those already described,

June 17th, Lat. 2:15 S. Long. 794 E. at dusk we caught in the
net several small Cleedoras about a quarter of an inch long tri-
angular, wedge-shaped and pointed as represented in Fig. 20. The
animal is of a pale milky color and moves actively by means of its
two expanded fins, between which is visible a slight projection
which appears like a head ; with these we found several AdlantaS
and a Hyalea similar to that obtained on the previous evening. Later
in the evening when quite dark, we took in our net two specimens
of a brown Hyalea, Fig. 19, which I am not prepared to say is
specifically distinct from Fig. 13, as a difference in locality is known

eee

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] voyage from England to Madras. 161

to produce such remarkable aberrations in species; it is however
more elongated in form, and its lateral spines are less produced.
Its deep brown color is worthy of note among shells most of which
are of glassy transparency. In the net with these were several spe-
cimens of Janthina exiyua and three or four Cleodoras, larger and
of a more elegant and curvilinear form than the last. Their general
appearance is well depicted in Fig. 21. The animal is provided with
two alar appendages of considerable size and moves rapidly,

June 18th, Lat. 1.12 S. Long. 78:44 E. This evening just before
darkmany specimens of Lanthina fragilis floated by the ship. What
first attracted our attention ‘was the dead white appearance of their
vesicular floats which wes could thus readily distinguish from the
particles of foam caused by the motion of the ship, we soon captur-

ed in our net a considerable number of them in very perfect condi-

tion, [see Fig. 4.] the shell is covered with a very delicate epiderimis
the animal when handled exudes a purple stain ; when in a state of
repose on the surface of the water the shell is entirely submerged
the float only being above the surface except that it occasionally
raises its proboscis and mouth armed with numerous slender curv-
ed teeth visible to the naked eye ; the float is attached to the foot of
the animal from which it could be readily detached or peeled off, ap-
parently without injuring the animal. Most of the specimens taken
were the J. fragilis but among them were three examples of the Jan-
thina globosa Fig. 5. This shell is in color a deeper blue and it wants
the carinated form of J. fragilis. The floats of these molluscs have
been repeatedly described and commented upon by authors, It was
observable that the float of J. globosa was more loosely constructed
and of a more irregular form than that of J. fragilis. One of the
former had the lower part of its float studded with egg capsules,
having the appearance of a cluster of small pendulous blue vesicles,
each of which, when examined under a microscope, was found to
contain numerous minute ovules of a pale blue color. Shortly after
8 p.m. we got several additional specimens of Cleodora, Fig. 21
and about 9 Pp. M. a small specimen of Argonauta, Figs.
1 and 2—not the Argonauta argo, but an allied species of a horn
color, having a broader keel and fewer tubercles. The animal be-
longs to the CapHaLopopa, already mentioned as the highest class

162 Pelagian Mollusca collected ona [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

of Mollusca approaching in their physical conformation and instincts
to the VERTEBRATA. This superior intelligence was exhibited
by the animal in question. When taken out of the towing net it
had artfully folded its limbs over the shell so as to resemble a no-
dulous mass of brown sponge, which indeed I at first supposed it
to be, but when placed in a tumbler of sea water and left undisturb-
ed, it cautiously began to creep about the bottom of the tumbler,
head downward, it then repeatedly darted against the sides of the
tumbler and while doing so, it often changed color rapidly from
pale brown to dark purple, apparently with the double object of
concealmentand escape. In swimming th2animaleffected locomotion
not only by the rapid contraction and expansion of its arms but by
the forcible expulsion of water through its syphon. The tubular
extremity of the syphon is seen in Fig. 1. At the approach of death
the animal underwent some convulsive movements which appeared
to disengage it from itsshell, after which it ceased to move and
quickly died ; another specimen taken on the following evening
exhibited precisely similar phenomena when dying. Naturalists -
were long divided as to what animal was the true possessor of the
Paper Nautilus, some throwing doubts on the CepHALoPoD being
the original inhabitant of the shell. Even at the present day authors
are at variance upon this point, some even asserting that the
Argonaut is not a shell but merely an envelope for containing the
eggs of the CepHALopop found in it. This scepticism in the public
mind appears the more extraordinary, from the well established
fact, that this animal (and no other) has been found in this shell
in all various stages of growth, as has been fully proved by the
interesting experiments of Madame Power. Professor Owen has
also demonstrated that the pearly Nautilus and other allied shells,
recent and fossil, appertain to CEpHALoPoDs. Much more might
be adduced to prove that this animal is the legitimate owner of
the shell but it has already been done by abler hands. However I
conceive that as the matter stands at present, every circumstance
should be noted that may tend to remove obscurity, either by
imparting new facts or by corroborating those already recorded.

Our voyage was now near its close and notwithstanding that we
continued to ply our nets assiduously, we did not succeed in cap-

fr,

‘TAN.—MAR. 1857.] voyage from England to Madras. 163

i. -
turing any more Mortusca, although many interesting forms of

Crusracra rewarded our efforts, a description of which is hardly
within the scope of these pages, which however, I trust, have suf-
ficiently shown, how the monotony incidental to a sea voyage may
be relieved by giving attention to Zoology, facilities for which pre-
sent themselves much oftener than might be imagined by those
who have not practically pursued such investigations.

References to plates 1X., X., XI. and XII, tllustrating Mr.
TR4ILL’S' paper.

{ We had hoped to receive a synoptical table of the species collected by Mr.
TRAILL, but as he finds himse# unable from the want of books of reference to
assign the trival names of the several specimens or to pronounce with certainty
which of them may be considered new, the following list has been added to facili-
tate references to the Plates. ]

PLATE TX,
Genus ARGONAUTA,

Dorsal arms (of the female) webbed at the extremity, secreting
a symmetrical involuted shell. J/antle supported in front by a
single ridge on the siphon.

Fig. 1. Animal of Argonauta sp.? detached from the shell. Color
light brown or horn color with crimson spots.
Fig. 2. The Shell.
a. Front view.
b. Lateral view.
Ail of the natural size.
Genus IANTHINA.

Suet thin, trochiform; ucéeus minute, sinistral ; aperture
foursided : column tortuous; lip thin, notched at the outer angle ;
color violet at the base becoming white on the spire.

Fig. 3. Janthina exigua (magnified).
The small figure shows the natural size.
Fig. 4. 1. ——— fragilis.
Fig. 5. I, ———— globosa.
Genus ATLANTA.

SHELL minute, glassy, compressed and prominently keeled ;
nucleus dextrally spiral ; aperture narrow, deeply notched at the keel ;
operculum ovate, pointed.

Fig. 6. Atlanta ————— (magnified).

The small fig. shows the natural size.

164 Pelagian Mollusca collected ona [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Fig. 7, Atlanta ———— (magnified.)

The small figures show the natural size.

a, With the animal, exhibiting the bifid foot employed in swim-
ming.

b. The eye magnified.
Genus Limacina.

SHELL subglobose, sinistrally spiral, umbilicate ; wmbslicws mar-
gined ; operculum, none.
Fig. 8. Limacina ?

(magnified) front and lateral view.
PLATE X.

N. B.—The large figures represent the shell magnified—the
smaller ones the natural size. |
Genus HyaLma.

SHELL globular, translucent ; dorsal plate rather flat, produced
into a hood; aperture contracted, with a slit on each side ; pos-
terior extremity tridentate.

Fig. 9. Hyalea ; :

Fig. 10. The same showing the animal with its alar appendages
in a State of rest. .

Fig. 11. The same showing the appearance of the animal when
in motion.

Fig. 12. Hyalea , ) .

Fig. 13. Hyalea : Quite transparent, with rust-colored patch
es; animal purple.

Fig. 14. Hyalea

Fig. 15. Hyalea ;

Fig. 16. Hyalea——: Shell with posterior extremity elongated,
curved, aperture more expanded.

Fig. 17. Hyalea

Fig. 18. Hyalea

Fig. 19. Hyalea

: Shell compressed, animal purple.

: Shell deeply grooved, and purplish.

: Shell globose, claret colored.

: Shell of a deep brown color.

PLATE XI.

Genus CiEopoRA. SHELL pyramidal, 3 sided, striated trans-
versely ; aperture simple ,triangular, with the angles produced,
apex acute.

Fig. 20, Cleodora : (magnified) shell triangular elongated,

wedge shaped, pointed; animal of a pale milky color.

JAN.—MaR. 1857.] voyage from England to Madras. 165

Fig. 21. Cleodora : (magnified) sed triangular, compressed.
a. Front view.
b. Posterior view.
ec. Section of aperture.
d. Natural size.

Fig. 22. Cleodora : double the natural size; shell hyaline,
with broad undulating transverse sulci.
a. Lateral view.

6. Front view. :
ce. Transverse section at the aperture.
d. Natural size.
Genus CRESEIS, .
Suett as in Cleodora but slender, conical, straight or curved
Fig. 23, Creseis——: (magnified) shed’ elongated, carinated,
pointed, straight; ale of the animal fringed.
a. With the animal as when swimming ; natural size.
Fig, 24. Cresevs : (magnified), appears to differ little from
Fig. 23, ale of the animal rounded, simple.

a. With the animal, natural size.

Fig. 25. Creseis : (magnified) Shel/ curved at the point.
a. With the animal, natural size.

Genus CuvIERIA.

SHELL cylindrical, transparent; aperture simple, ovate : apex
acute in the young, afterwards jointed and often deciduous.

Fig. 26, Cuvieria——(magnified).
a. With the animal, natural size.
Genus GLAvcus.

Animal elongated, slender; foot linear, channel-led ; ¢entacles
four, conical; branchi@ ? supported on 3 pair of lateral lobes.
Fig. 27. Glaucus natural size. Taken 34 S. Lat, 20

W. Long.
Fig. 28. Glaucus : natural size. Taken near the shore 17:42
N. Lat. 83 W. Long.

PLATE XII.
Chart of the track of the American Clipper Blue Jacket showing
the localities at which the different specimens of Medluses as indi-
cated by their numbers, were captured,

la

166 Lholographic Printing Process. [xo. 2, NEW SERIES,

IIT. Ox a Photographic Printing Process. By Captain

Trier, 12th Regt. N. I.

[This paper which was read at the Mecting of the Photographic Socicty, has

been received from the Secretary to that Society, for publication in the
Journal. ]
1

BANGALORE, 22nd September, 1856.
GENTLEMEN,—I have much pleasure in laying before you this
paper which Dr. Scorr will read to you. ‘ There is a value in the
Printing process, that I am about to describe which, coupled with
the fact, that I do not obtrude on you uninvited, will aan me of
presumption in doing so.

My facilities for acquiring experience in this branch of the art,
have been great, and there are few, to whom this will be read, who
have the requisite leisure, to practice the various processes,from time
to time put forward, and so decide for themselves, which would be
the simplest, as to manipulation, the safes¢, as to permanence, and
the best, and most certain, as to results. I have followed many
methods—and, keeping in mind all their several advantages, I have
no hesitation in recommending for your use, though it is by no
means, the stmplest in manipulation, a Process published by Mr.
Sutton of Jersey, in which Hyposulphite of Gold is used as a
toning agent. The Council of the Society are, I believe, about to
notify the opening of an Exhibition to be held at Madras during
February next, and, as it is only through successful Printing, that
the Photographer’s skillis properly represented, ‘iis may be no
inappropriate occasion to bring to your notice a process, not as yet
generally followed, but which will show itself superior, it is to be
hoped, over “ Old Hypo” at the forthcoming Exhibition.

Thin French negative Paper, albumenized, is what I find best
for my purpose. To albumenize, use —
10 oz. Albumen,
20 oz. Dist. Water,

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] | Pohtographic Printing Process. 167

300 grs. Muriate of Ammonia,
240 grs. Sugar-candy.

Float the paper on this for half a minute. Hang up and dry—
Ironing this paper before sensitizing seems quite unnecessary.

To sensitize use,
60 grains Nitrate of Silver,
12 minims Acetic Acid,
1 oz. Dist. Water, i

Float it on this for 4 ore) minutes—hang up to dry.

Expose in the pressuré frame until the lights are a shade or two
darker than they ought to be in the finished picture. When print-
-ed sufficiently—wash all traces of the aceto-nitrate out of the
paper—in a darkened room. Dissolve off the Albuminate of Sil-
ver in a bath of Hyp. 1 to 8 of water, or of liquor Amm., 1 drachm
to 1 pint of water, in the former about 8 minutes—in the latter the
action is more violent and practice only will enable the operator to
judge of the time.

The Print must be well washed after this bath and then immers-
ed in the toning bath composed of

10 grains Chloride of Gold,

30 oz. Distilled water,

30 grains ‘Hyposulph. Soda,

380 minims of Hydrochloric acid 7f the chloride of Gold
be neutral.

Mix the Gold and the Hypo. each in 15 oz. of water, and pour

the former into the latter gradually stirring the white. Then add
the acid if necessary.

Keep the picture in this, till the shades are a deep purple, and
the lights, a pleasing grey. Then pass through water—(not for
more than a minute or two as the lights are yellowed by longer
washing,) into the second fixing bath of Hypo. 1 to 8 of water to

ensure its perfect fixation. It should remain in this from ten to
fifteen minutes: Wash as usual.

168 Photographic Printing Process. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

A good method of washing is to take up a dishful of pictures
(8 or 10) and let them drain on apiece of plate glass slanted, for a
minute or two, then lay it flat and with a glass roller express the
liquid from the papers as well as you can, replacing the mass in
a dish of fresh water and let them separate of themselves which
they will do after some shakings of the dish. This should be done
after a few washings after fixing—and repeated once or twice—during
the changing of water which ought to be every quarter of an hour
for twelve hours or so.

MEmo.

Throw down the Nitrate of Silver in the first washings—great
saving of the silver salt will result from this.

The same economy can be practiced with regard to the toning
bath—by recovering the unused gold. |

I have found that 1 grain of Chloride of gold tones three pictures
14% 12.

It would be economical to make Chloride of gold for oneself—
a half sovereign will give 86 grains of Chloride—and the cost will
be about 6 Rs.

Put the half sovereign into a glass stoppered bottle and pour
upon it six drachms of Aqua Regia—made of
1 part nitric
: acids,
39 5, mureatic
6 ,, water.

Let it dissolve gradually adding acid when necessary. When
dissolved dilute, and throw down the gold by protosulph. iron
(6 to 1 of gold)—

Re-dissolve (after thorough washing) and evaporate on a water
bath.

A convenient form of drying apparatus can be made by two
sticks 12 feet long 3 inches broad and 1 thick slanted against a
wall—long (according to the wishes of the Photographer) rods
squared and veneered with deal or other soft wood should have their

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Photographic Printing Process. 169

ends lodged in squared hooks at intervals of 10 inches on the sticks
—the rods fitting the hooks—I have on a space of wall 12’feet long
dried 143 papers almost daily for months and find it most convenient.

In conclusion I would mention what seem to me to be the ad-
vantages of the Process I have described.

First.—The saving cf time in not overprinting as required by
the old Hypo. processes.

Second.—The agreeable, tone’ of the picture—its firmness and
the preservation of its half tones.
°

Third.—The comparative certainty of its working.

Fourth and most important.—The permanence. Printssul-
phuretted have been proved to be not so safe from fading as
Prints coloured by Gold. In this Process the toning is by
Gold only—and with subsequent care in washing this seems
to be as safe as Photographic Printing can be.

I must not close without reminding you that nearly all of this is
given in Photographic works—and that I am merely bringing the
subject to your notice that you may benefit by it as I have done,

The subjoined Table of “Formule for preparing Albumenized
Paper,’ was communicated by Captain J. D. Scorz, of the Madras
Artillery.

** Similar Tables” he observes ‘“‘ might be drawn up for the
** Fixing and Toning Baths” &c. &e.

“In England 1 Egg gives an ounce of Albumen, but in this
country, when the Eggs are very much smaller, I find that 24
Eggs give about 16 ounces of Albumen, i. e. 14 Eggs are required
to give 1 ounce.”

[No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Photographic Printing Process.

170

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JAN.—MAR. 1857. | Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 171

IV.) Entomological Papers, being descriptions of new Ceylon

Coleoptera with such observations on their habits, ete., as
appear in any way interesting. By Joun Nietner, Colombo,
Ceylon.
No Il.

[N. B. In No. I. species 1 to be cancelleg, being synonymous with Chlenius
nitidulus. De}. 4

Spec. 2. ditto: syn. Cexanthophilus. Wieden.]

@RIB. LEBIIDZ.
Anchista. n. g. N.

Corpus depressum, ovatum. Mentum dente magno obtuso, lobis
parum breviore, his extus rotundatis, apice acuminatis. Palpi ro-
busti, maxillares art. ultimo magno ovato, apice obtuso, labiales art.
ultimo valde securiformi. Ligula cornea apice obtuse acuminata,
labri marginem anteriorem attingens. (Paraglosse mihinon dis-
secte.) Labrum transversim quadratum. Mandibule simplices
apice arcuatee et acuminate. Antenne robust art. 1° mediocri,
2° brevi, 8° quarto paulo longiore, 4-10 subzequalibus, 11° penul-
timo parum longiore. Thorax longitudine latior, angulis anticis
rotundatis, medio obsolete angulatus, basi engustatus, angulis rec-
tis. Elytra apice quadrate truncata. Fedes robusti tarsis art 4°
profunde bilobo, unguibus fortiter pectinatis.

12. Anchista modesta. N.

A. brunneo-testacea, elytris (maculis 2 obsoletis subhumeralibus
exceptis) obscurioribus abdomine piceo. Long. corp. 4 lin.

Caput fronte medio leviter uni-impressa. Thorax linea media
longitudinali divisus. Elytra apicem versus parum dilatata, stri-
ato-punctata, ad striam 2™ punctis 2 majoribus subapicalibus, cum
thorace marginata.

Prope Colombo nocte ad lumen cepi.

The characteristics of this new genus are those of the g. Calleida
(between which and Cymindes I place it) excepting the ligula which

172 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

in this case is obtusely acuminated, the last joint of the maxill.
palpi which is obtuse at the apex and the thorax which is not as in
Calleida longer than broad but the reverse. From Cymindis it
would differ principally in the deeply bilobed 4th tarsal joint, and
in some other minor points, but it is difficult to say what the true
characteristics of this genus (which appears for this reason to re-
quire a careful revision) are, if even Lacordaire uses the particle
‘*‘ou”’ not less than five times in the diagnosis he gives of it in his
g. d. Col. However, I feel justified in separating Anchista from
Cymindis as well as from Calleida. ‘The name “ Anchista” has re-
ference to the affinity of the insect to the two genera just men-
tioned, whilst the specific name ‘‘ modest.” refers to its inconspicu-
ous colors. Amongst its peculiarities weight ought to be laid upon
the plumpness of the palpi, in fact all other parts of the mouth
and even the whole head, which was very striking to me.

Like many of my best CaraBip# I found this insect at night on
the table whither it had been attracted by the light, I may mention ~
that the single specimen which came thus into my possession has
an oblong shallow impression on either elytron, perhaps accidental,
perhaps a peculiarity. The anterior tarsi are dilated and furnished
with hairy brushes below, longest at the apex of the lobes of the

4th joint.
Ellictia. n. g. N.

Corpus subconvexum, ovatum. Caput mediocre, oculis maximis.
Mentum leviter transversim emarginatum, edentatum, lobis acumi-
natis. Ligula sub-membranacea apice truncata, paraglossis conna-
tis marginem anteriorem parum superantibus, obtusis. Palpi
elongati, art. ultimo elliptico, acuminato. Labrum magnum trans-
versum, integrum, mandibulas, fere obtegens. Mandibule valide,
edentate. Antenne robusta, filiformes, humeros superantes, art.
1° mediocri, 2° brevi, 8° quinti prope longitudine, 4° preecedente
breviore, 2-4 obconicis, 5-10 zequalibus, cylindricis, 11° precedente
tertia parte longiore, 4-11 pilosis. Thorax parvus, capite minor,
transversus, longitudine duplo latior; antice leviter emarginatus,
lateribus elevato-marginatus, ab apice ad medium lateribus rotun-
datus, medio fortiter angulatus, a medio ad basin valde abrupteque

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 173

angustatus, basi truncatus, subtus cylindricus. Scutellum leviter
excavatum. Elytra ovata, marginata, apice sat fortiter truncata.
Pedes omnes subequales, simplices, tenues, tarsis cylindricis art.
3-4 magis minusve trigonis, unguibus simplicibus. Prosternum
carinatum.

In honorem Dom. Hon. Walteri Ellioti (Madaraspatani), natu-
ralistee diligentissimi, meritissimi, nomen imposvi.

13. iliotia pallipes. N.

E, supra nigra -nitida, thor&ce scutelloque rufo-testaceis, labro
elytrorumque limbo atque satura brunneo-testaceis; subtus piceus,
pectore rufo-testaceo, pedibus albidis, his geniculis oreque (palpis
obscurioribus exceptis) testaceis. Long. corp. 2} lin.

Caput ad antennarum insertionem et inter oculos utrinque pro-
funde impressum. Thorax basi rugosus, ante medium utrinque
uni-impressus, linea media longitudinali divisus. Elytra punctato-
striata, infra humeros leviter impressa.

In ripis lacus Colombensis sub veget. putrescent. mens. Jul.
non infrequenter legi. Agilis est et avolare semper expeditus.

A pretty and very interesting little insect, about whose systema-
tic position I am not quite satisfied, however I provisionally place
it towards the end of the true Lesripm. I find it most to agree
with the descriptions of the g. Pentagonica 8S. G. and Rhombodera
R. with neither of which, however, it is identical. The head is
distinguished by the large and prominent eyes and four deep im-
pressions, two larger ones at the root of the antenne, two smaller
ones between the eyes, also by a very distinct neck which connects
it with the thorax ; the labrum is large, transverse and entire with
the angles rounded off and the base narrowed ; the mentum is but
slightly transversely emarginated, edentate ; the ligula is truncat-
ed at the tip, the paraglossz adhere to it, reach a little beyond it
and are obtuse at the apex ; the palpi are rather long with the last
joint elliptic, acuminate; the antenne are strong, filiform and reach
beyond the shoulders, joints 5-10 are of equal length and cylin-
dric, 4-11 are pilose. The most remarkable part of the insect is,
however, the thorax which is of a sub-rhomboidal shape, trans-

174 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. ['No. 2, NEW SERIES,

verse, smaller than the head, as broad again as long, it has two
strong lateral angles at the middle, each furnished with a strong
bristle, the anterior part has the sides rounded, the posterior
abruptly obliquely contracted, at the base itis cylindric. Asa
specific distinction of the thorax I mention moreover, that in the
present species, it isimpressed with two deep punctures before the
middle and that it is rugose at the case. The abdomen is slightly
peduncled. The scutellum is slightly excavated. The elytra are

oval, rather convex and impressed with rows of punctures. The

legs are simple and weak, apparently equal in both sexes. The
anterior tarsi are a little stouter than the rest, but not dilated nor
furnished with any additional clothing below, the anterior tibiz
are deeply notched. As to the color: the head and wing-covers
are black, the latter with the suture and margin of a light brown
and highly polished, the thorax is reddish and the legs are whitish.
The insect is very agile and ever ready to take to its wings. It is
of quite a peculiar appearance, imparted to it by its large eyes,
small curiously shaped thorex and rather plump elytra and abdo-
men. I may further mention that I have observed the 4th joint
of the maxillary palpi to collapse when the specimens become
quite dry, so as to give them a different, spoonlike, appearance apt
to mislead any one who has not examined fresh specimens.

14, Harpalus advolans. N.

H. eneus, clypeo, labro, antennis mandibulisque brunneis, his
apice nigris, subtus testaceus, lateribus obscurior, pedibus flavis,
tarsis geniculis spinulisque brunneis, ore testaceo. Long. corp.
435+ lin.

Caput leve. Mandibule unidentate. Palpi art. ultimo elon-
gato, apice truncato. Mentidens simplex, obtusus. Ligula apice
quadrate truncata, angulis acutis leviter productis, paraglossis in-
flatis marginem anticum parum superantibus. Thorax longitudine
sesqui latior, dorso anticeque levis, basi rugoso-punctatus, 2-im-
pressus. Elytra striata, cum thorace anguste marginata, Variat
colore testaceo-zenea.

Nocte ad lumen, sed adhuc non usquam alibi, non infrequenter
cepi.

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 175

I have taken this species not unfrequently at night on my table
but have never found it anywhere else as yet. It is not very re-
markable, for which reason I have “mentioned the parts of the
mouth in the description, these being moreover not very constant
in this genus. The insectis of the usual oval, Harpalus-form, of a
dark metallic green onthe back and more or less yellowish or light
brown below, the color of the back changing occasionally to a
brownish green.

15. Oodes piceus. N. ,

°
O. ovatus, subconvexus, piceus, tarsis, palpis antennarumque
articulis 8 primis castaneis, palpis apice flavis. Long. corp. 4 lin.

Caput parvum, inter antennas linea latitudinali abbreviata
impressum. Labrum integrum, punctis 8 impressum, puncto
intermedio bi-lateralibus uni-setigeribus. Mandibule valide pro-
minentes. Palpiart. ultimo elongato-ovato, apice leviter truncato.
Menti dens apice truncatus leviterque sinuatus. Antenne art.
3° quarto quali nisi paulo breviore. Thorax amplus basi elytris ap-
plicatus, apicem versus angustatus, angulis posterioribus subdepressis
translucentibus, ante scutellum leviter sinuosus, ante sinum obso-
lete latitudinaliter impressus. LElytra striata, cum thorace angus-
tissime marginata. Pedes valide, ant. tibiis apice intus uni—,in-
termed. et post. bi-calcaratis.

Specimen singulum f. in ripis lacus Colombensis sub vegetab.
putrescent. legi.

As already one species with a bifid mentum tooth (O. pulcher) has
been received in this genus I have waived the hesitation I should
otherwise have felt to refer to itthe present one, the tooth of which
is of a similar description. I have not seen the O. pulcher, but as
it is said to be an inhabitant of this part of the world it may pos-
sibly be identical with my species. If not, they might, as the g.
is otherwise pretty constant in its characteristics, be separated un-
der a new name as types peculiar to India. Besides the abnormal
mentum tooth the insect has not much to distinguish it from others
of the genus. The labrum is, however, peculiar being entire, or
even very slightly produced in the middle, with the angles rounded
off, it is impressed near the anterior margin, with three deep punc-

176 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera, [x 0, 2, NEW SERIES,

tures, the central one of which is furnished with two—the lateral
ones with one strong bristle each. ‘The anterior tibize are but
slightly notched. The prosternum is largely developed, reaching
beyond the anterior cox, obtusely acuminated and received in a
deep excavation of the mesothorax. But I doubt that the deve-
lopment is sufficiently large to entitle the insect to a place in the
g. Lonchosternus Laf. which however I have not seen in nature.

16. Trichopteryx cursitans. N.

T. ovata, subconvexa, pubescens, supra obscure nea, elytris
eneo—brunneis, subtus picea, pedibus, oreque testaceis, antennis
art. 8-11 nigrescentibus. Long. corp. 2 lin.

Antennarum clava art. 2 primis ovatis, ultimo conico, acuminato.
Thorax amplissimus, elytris tertia parte minor, convexus, angulis
acutis, basi humeros amplectens, apice angustatus. Elytra sub-
depressa, subquadrata, apicem versus parum angustata, truncata,
abdominis 3-4 segmenta ultima non obtegentia. Tibize medio in-
crassatee. Coxe posticee maxime dilatate. Mesosternum carina-
tum.

Sub veget. putrescent. exsiccescentibus in prov. occid. copiosa.

A rather large species commonly met with in this part of the
Island under rotting vegetable substances somewhat dried up. It
is very agile and ready to take to its wings which are of the beau-
tiful typical construction, about twice the length of the body and
in dead specimens frequently produced behind. These insects vary
a little_as to shape, some being more narrowed behind than others,
and also as to the exact number of the abdominal segments left
uncovered by the elytra. The head is large but exhibits nothing
abnormal or extraordinary ; the thorax is very large, emarginated
in front and behind, with the angles acute, the basal ones enve-
loping the shoulders; the wing-covers are subquadrated with
the angles rounded off and a little narrowed behind; the legs have
the tibize incrassated in the middle and the posterior coxe very
much dilated and distant from each other, in all other respects they
are typical. The shape of the body is that of an egg, broadest at
the shoulders, gently narrowed towards the apex of the abdomen,
and rounded off towards the head.

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 177

17. Trichopteryx immatura. N.

T. preecedenti similis, differt tamen colore supra eeneo-testacea
subtus testacea, antennarum art. 3-11 nigrescentibus ; differt etiam,
corpore crassiore, magis quadrato, capite paulo majore, thorace mi-
nus convexo, parum ampliore, elytris abdomen totum vel fere to-
tum obtegentiis. Pedes, antenne etc. omnino precedentis. Long.
corp. 3 lin.

In preecedentis societate specimina nonnulla legi.

Of somewhat the appearance of an immature individual of the
former but sufficiently distifict to be formed into a new species. The
insect is altogether of a different appearance imparted to it by the
greater general plumpness of the body, the larger head, the less
convex but at the same time possibly still ampler thorax, the alto-
gether more quadrated shape, etc. The remark regarding the exact
number of abdominal segments left uncovered by the elytra, applies
to this and all other species as well. The present one has generally
the last two segments uncovered.

18. Trichopteryx invisibilis. N.

T. ovata, subdepressa, subparallela, pilosa, supra obscure zenea.
subtus picea, pedibus, abdomine, antennis oreque testaceis, Long,
corp. vex + lin.

Thorax amplus, elytris sesqui minor, convexus, angulis pos-
ticis humeros vix superantibus. Elytra oblonge quadrata
angulis rotundatis, subdepressa, truncata, abdomen totum vel fere
totum obtegentia. Cox postice approximate. Tarsi typicis
minus elongati, art. 3° preecedentibus haud multo longiore.

Cum 7’ cursitante victitat ; frequenter legi.

A very pretty and very distinguished species. Its most striking
peculiarity consists in the posterior coxe which are as little distant
from each other as those of the anterior legs, and almost touch
each other, and also in the shortness of the tarsi. The head with
the antenne, the mesosternum, the tibiz, which are incrassated in
the middle, the posterior coxee with regard to the enlargement are
quite typical. However, the thorax and elytra differ again from
those of 7’. cursitans, (which in every respect may be looked upon

~

178 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

as the typical representative of the family in Ceylon and which is
here referred to as such) the former by the shortness of the poste-
rior angles which can hardly be said to envelope the shoulders, the
elytra by being less or not at all narrowed behind, giving an oblong
rather than an oval shape to the iusect. Although in length only
about one half shorter, it is in bulk certainly one-fourth smaller
than TZ. cursitans, and, although probably the smallest Ceylon
beetle, itis distinguished at first sight.

19. Ptilium subgquadratum. WN.

P. subquadratum, subconvexum, pilosum, obscure ceneotestace-
um, thorace dilatiore. Long. corp. + lim

Caput mediocre. Antennarum clava art. 1° inverte conico, 2°
subcylindrico, ultimo elongato-ovato. Thorax convexus, angulis
basalibus humeros fortissime amplectentibus, apicem versus valde
rotundatus, apice leviter sinuatus. Elytra quadrata, abdomen non
totum obtegentia. Scutellum parvum. Pedes robusti tibiis apicem
versus incrassatis, tarsis art. 3° primi secundique longitudine, his
subbilobis subtus penicillatis, coxis posticis simplicibus distantibus.
Mesosternum non carinatum.

Ubi preecedentes sed infrequenter occurrit.

The g. Péilium is the repository for all the anomalies of the fa-
mily, its characteristics therefore are very vague, but if the absence
of the mesosternal carina and the simplicity of the posterior coxe
are the determining features amongst them, the present species, in
spite of a variety of anomalies exhibited in other respects, belongs
to it. The head is of middling size; the antenne robust with the
Ist joint of the club of the shape of an inverted cone, the 2nd ra-
ther cylindrical, narrowed at the base and the last elongate, ovate.
The thorax is of very different structure from that of the foregoing
species of the family, the basal angles being unusually far produced
beyond the shoulders, towards the head it is strongly and rapidly
rounded off, being thus altogether of a semicircular shape, at the
apex it is merely slightly sinuated, and the head is inserted rather
below than in this sinuosity, the whole thorax moreover is very
convex whilst the elytra are depressed. The wings vary from the

JAN.—MAR. 1857.]| Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 179

typical form by being fringed with short simple cilia instead of
those long feathery appendages, they are moreover without a dis-
tinct peduncle but still folded in the manner characteristic of the
family. The legs are stout with the tibic thickest at the tip, the
8rd tarsal joint is of the length of the preceding two, the latter
are somewhat bilobed and hairy below. The posterior coxe are
simple and distant. The mesosternum without a carina. The
whole shape of the insect is quadratic rather than otherwise.
20. Ptenidium macrocephalum. WN.

P. ellipticum, subconvexum, nitidum, sparsim pilosum, supra
piceo-zeneum, subtus piceum, pedibus oreque testaceis. Long. corp.
+ lin. ar

Caput maximum. Antennarum clava elongata articulis ellipti-
cis. Thorax subquadratus antice posticeque angustatus, basi punc-
tis 4 magnis profunde impressus. LElytra ovata, medium versus
leviter inflata, apice obtuse acuminata, abdomine longiora et am-
pliora, punctulis lineis dispositis obsoletissime impressa. Ale
corpore plus duplo longiores. Tibiz fortiores spinulose. Tarsi
breviores. Prosternum carinatum.

In preecedentium societate frequenter lectum.

This is perhaps the prettiest of the five species of the family just
described and at first sight recognised by the shape of its body and
the polished back. The head is very large. The thorax is nar-
rowed in front and behind, at the latter place impressed with 4
deep not to be overlooked punctures. The wing-covers are oval, a
little inflated about the middle, rounded at the apex and longer
and wider than the abdomen. The prosternum is carinated. _

It affords me much gratification to be enabled to publish repre-
sentatives of three genera of this highly interesting and probably
very extensive and widely distributed family of pigmies, the Asiatic
representatives of which have hitherto been entirely unknown. I
have no doubt that even this Island is the abode of a great many
more species.

21. Stenus barbatus. N.

S. elongatus, eneo-niger, nitidus, punctatus, sparsim pubescens,
pedibus palpisque albidis, ore coxisque testaceis, antennis brunnes-
centibus, Long. corp. 24 lin.

-

180 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [ No. 2, NBW SERIES,

Caput thorace tertia parte latius, fronte costis 3 abbreviatis, an-
tice albido-pubescens. Antenne art. 3° sequentium 2 fere longi-
tudine, 3 ultimis elongatis, ellipticis. Palpi max. elongati apice
densius pubescentes. Thorax cylindricus medio leviter incrassatus,
basi subquadratus. Elytra thorace paulo longiora, sed fere duplo
latiora, convexa, ovata. Abdomen immarginatum. Pedes elongati
tenues, tibiis apice tarsisque fortiter setosis, his art. 4° profunde
bilobo. |

In lacus Colomb. ripis speciminaenonnulla legi. |

This as well as the following species belongs to Erichson’s divi-
sion ITI. B. of the g., both having the abdomen immarginate and

the 4th tarsal joint bilobed. Everything about this species is

elongated. The head is about one-third broader than the thorax,
the forehead is slightly excavated with 2 elevated ridges running
from the root of the antenne a short distance upwards, a third runs
from the crown of the head down towards the centre of the two
former,but all three reach only to about the middle of the head. The
part below the antenne is covered with white hair. The antenne
have the 3rd joint much elongated and the terminal club composed
of elliptic joints. The thorax is rather slender, incrassated at the
middle, gradually narrowed in front but nearly quadratic behind.
The elytra are longer than the thorax, about double its breadth and
oval being slightly narrowed at the shoulders and the apex. The
legs are long and slender, hairy at the apex of the tibiz and the
tarsi, the latter very much so on the inner side. ‘The insect is of
a metallic black color highly polished, the legs, palpi and the first
2 antennal joints are whitish, the tibie and the apex of the palpi
being, however, rather darker, joints 3-11 of the antenne are
brownish, the coxee and the mouth are yellowish, the tarsi have a
brown spot at the apex of the first 3 joints, the claws are black.
The insect is punctured all over, but less so on the abdomen, the
apical segments of which are indeed nearly smooth, and sparingly
covered with small white hairs.
22. Stenus lacertoides. N.

S. robustus, nigro-zneus, dense profundeque punctatus, subtus
sparsissime pubescens, pedibus palpisque testaceis, femoribus apice
nigrescentibus, antennis oreque castaneis. Long. corp. 13 lin,

|
|
|
:
%
;
‘
:
.

gan.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 181

Caput thorace quarta parte latius, fronte 2-costata. Antenne
robusta art. 8° quarto paulo longiore, 9-10 globosis, 11° conico.
Thorax cylindricus, medio fortius incrassatus, latitudine quarta
parte longior, margine anteriore elevato, basi subquadratus. Elytra
thorace longiora, convexa, humeris prominentibus. Abdomen im-
marginatum. Tarsi art. 4° profunde bilobo.

In prev. occid. stagnorum ripis rarius occurrit.

About this species everything is robust. It is well distinguished
by the rounded club-joints of ¢he antenne, the elevated anterior
margin of the thorax, the, prominent shoulders and its general
shortness and plumpness. The forehead is rather more depressed
or excavated than in the former, the 2 antennal ridges are shorter,
the vertical one is altogether obsolete. The palpi are robust. The
3rd antennal joint is about one-third longer than the 4th. The
thorax is shorter and plumper than in the former. The elytra are
less oval, having the shoulders more prominent and only the apex
rounded off or narrowed. The legs are similar to those of the
former, but more robust, less hairy and have the tarsi more cylin-
dric. The insect is of a blackish metallic color, the legs and palpi
are yellowish, the tibize, however, the apex of the palpi and also
joints 1-2 of the antenne rather darker, the femora are blackish
towards the end, the mouth and joints 3-11 of the antenne are
chestnut and the cox pitch color. The animal is densely and
deeply punctured all over, very sparingly covered with small grey-
ish hairs, nearly obsolete on the back but more distinct below. It
is less highly polished than the former. I have known this species
for a long time and specimens of it must exist at the Mus. Berol. ;
the former I have met with but lately.

I may mention that in dissecting these two species I have ob-
served the same remarkable production of the wsophagus with the
ligula, characteristic of the g. and noticed in many of the European
kinds.

23. <Anthicus quisquiliarius. NW.
A. castaneus, capite, abdomine elytrisque piceis, his pilorum
niveorum fascia media transversali interrupta maculisque concolo-
ribus 6 humeralibus obsoletis, parce pilosus, Long. corp. 12 lin.

-

182 Descreptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. | NO. 2, NEW SERIES,

Caput globosum supra subtusque profunde punctatum, oculis
parvis. Thorax nodoso-pyriformis, infra medium constrictus, parte
anteriore crassiore lin. long. med. profunde divisa, subcordiformi.
Elytra elliptica.

Sub veget. putrescent. victitat, prope Colombo rarius legi.

This insect looks uncommonly. like an ant. It is easily distin-
guished from all other species of the Island partly by this resem-
blance, partly by the sculpture of the thorax and the white fascia
across the elytra. The antenne are‘robust, thickened towards the
tip, the three last joints forming aclub. The legs have the femora
very much incrassated, the tibiz at the apex bicalcarate and the
tarsi, especially of the anterior pair, very hairy below, the 4th joint
appears to be slightly cordiform. The white marks of the shoul-
ders and the fascia across the wing-covers are composed of white
hairs, the former are rather an interrupted row of these than true
macule, the fascia consists of two halves, one in either elytron,
reaching neither the external margin nor the suture. The insect is
of slow motion.

24. Anthicus insulanys. LN.

A. testaceus, abdomine obscuriore, capite thoraceque rufotesta-
ceis, elytris fasciis 2 nigris, parce pilosus. Long corp. 13-14 lin.

Caput globosum oculis mediocris. Thorax pyriformis, cum
capite supra punctata. Hlytra ovata. Tarsi art 4° bilobo.

Prope Negombo in pratis sat copiosus.

In some of the specimens before me the anterior femora are fur-
nished with a strong thorn inside having at the same time the tibiae
of the same pair of legs slightly emarginated inside near the apex
—I have reason to believe these individuals, if the distinction be a
sexual one, to be females not males.

25. Meligethes orientahs. WN.
M. ovatus, subconvexus, pilosus, supra nigro-ceneus, subtus pi-
ceus, pedibus, antennis palpisque maxill. dilutioribus, tarsis pal-
pisque labial. brunneo-aureis. Long. corp. 1-13 lin.

Mentum transversum planum, punctatum, lobis apice depressis
excayatis, glabris, obtusis Palpi lab, art. ultimo inflato, ovato;

ti lil

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 183

maxill. art. ultimo apice angustato levissime truncato. Mandi-
bul unidentate. Thorax amplus angulis acutis, antice emargi-
natus, postice pluries sinuatus, subtus punctatus. Elytra ovato-
quadrata, angulis 4 apicalibus rotundatis, pygidium haud obtegen-
tia. Pedes validee. femoribus tibiisque incrassatis ; anteriores tibiis
apice intus unispinosis, tarsis art. 1-3 fortiter dilatatis, 1-2 sube-
qualibus transversis, profunde reniformibus, 3° minore, cordato,
4° minimo, subcylindrico; intermed. et post. tibiis extus spinulo-
sis, tarsis anterioribus similibws sed’ art. 1-3 minus dilatatis, cordi-
formibus. Prosternum marginatum, punctatum, obtuse acumina-
tum. Mesosternum antice carinatum,
Variat magnitudine et’colore zeneo-brunnea.
Prope Colombo in floribus per occasionem frequentissime legi.
Of the usual shape and color, but larger than usual, varying,
however, in this respect—some individuals being fully one-third
smaller than others. These small individuals, which occur in the
proportion of about 1 to 20, are moreover nearly always of a brown-
‘ish metallic color instead of a blackish green. I have been unable
to discover any other distinctions. I was much interested by the
discovery of these insects, having missed them for years amongst
the abundantly represented Nretedulide of the Island. They appear
of local occurrence or attached to certain plants, which is nearly
the same. I find them in abundance in the beautiful bell shaped
blossoms of the Argyreia argentea and one or two other plants in
my garden. The species appears to differ from the typical Meli-
gethes in the following points: the structure of the mentum, which
I have sufficiently described above, the last joint of the lab. palpi
which in this case is not truncated, and the first of the antennz
which is externally incrassated as in Epurea. The antenne are
otherwise robust, the club is firm and hairy. The thorax is very
ample, thinly ciliated along the upper part of the anterior margin,
rather strongly below. The prosternum is largely developed, mar-
ginated, punctured and obtusely acuminated, overlapping the an-
terior part of the mesosternum which (the anterior part) is cylin-
dric and carinated. Joints 1-3 of the tarsi are strongly penicillated

below, the penicilla being composed of glanduliferous hairs of a
fine golden color.

~

184 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

26. Geeryssus gemma. N.

G. pygmai statura et magnitudine, supra purpureo eneus, irides-
cens, subtus piceus; alatus. Thorax subsemiorbicularis infra
apicem constrictus, sulco med. long, divisus, lateribus, basi apice-
que excavatus, impressionibus 3 majoribus dorsalibus, 2 minoribus
lateralibus. LHlytra fortissime costata, costis obtuse dentatis, in
interstitiis transversim punctato-impressa, ad humeros profunde
excavata, infra medium leviter sinuata. Tibie extus spinulose,
intus sparsim ciliate. S

In prov. central. montibus Kotmaliensibus alt. 3,500 ped. in ri-
vulorum ripis non infrequenter legi. ’ 3

Lacordaire and others characterize the g. Georyssus as having
the elytra soldered together and being destitute of wings. In the
present species, however, the elytra are unconnected and cover wings
proportionately larger than in any other beetle, I can at present
think of. They are elongated and comparatively narrow, resemb-
ling in shape very much those of a Libellula, have a few veins at_
the base and are ciliated at tie margin. I have moreover occasion-
ally taken insects of this g. fyzng about the light at night, but I
am not quite sure at present whether it was this species or another.
The sculpture of the thorax is complicated and difficult to describe,
however, the leading features in it are these: a subapical sinuosity
on either side; a longitudinal furrow; excavated sides, base and
apex ; 3 larger dorsal depressions (1 central, 2 obliquely basal) and
2 smaller lateral ones at the subapical sinuosities—a short elevated
ridge at the centre of the base separating the two basal impressions
and being itself divided by the longitudinal furrow ; two elevations
separating the anterior part of the basal impressions from that of
the central one (at the middle these three depressions are connect-
ed); two small rugosities near the anterior margin, one on either
side of the longitudinal furrow.

The sculpture of the elytra is less complicated: they have a deep
cavity at the shoulder, a large, but not deep, sinuosity below the
middle and are obtusely acuminated. ‘The coste of the back are
11 in number, the suture lying in the central one. The half of this
central costa and the exterior margin form an elevated border

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 185

round either elytron. The first and second on either side run to-
wards the apex but come to a stop (very abrupt in most, but less
so in some specimens) before reaching it, the third after having
been interrupted near its base by the subhumeral cavity runs on
but does not reach as far as the former, the 4th does not leave the
region of the shoulder, the last on either side is very prominent at
the base but soon forms an abrupt declivity and runs on as a low
tidge to below the middle. The back of all these costz is obtusely

--dentated. The interstices arg marked with large, shallow, trans-

verse impressions. The head of the insect is rather large and even.
The mandibles are furnished with an obtuse subapical tooth, the
two lower thirds are ciliated. The maxillz have the apex of the outer
lobe externally enlarged, rounded off and furnished with three strong
teeth replaced by cilia on the inside, the inner lobe is conic and
similarly provided with teeth and cilia, however, much thinner and
finer. The maxill. palpi are robust, the last joint is inflated at the
base. The antennal club is hairy, dark (whilst the remaining joints
are yellowish), conic and somewhat securiform, the 6th joint being
inserted on one side of the 7th. The legs are robust, the tibiz
slightly curved, obliquely truncated at the end, furnished with
spines along the outside and with distant cilia along the inner, ©

27. Hydrochus lacustris. N.

H. elongatus, subdepressus, supra metallicus, iridescens, subtus
piceus, pedibus, autennis, palpis elytrorumque margine magis mi-
nusve brunneis, mento cyaneo. Long. corp. m. 1 lin,, f. multo
major atque robustior.

Palpi maxill. robusti, art. ultimo elliptico leviter inflato. Manai-
bule apice bifida. Antennarum clava dense pilosa. Thorax ob-
longe quadratus basin versus angustatus basi medio productus, cum
capite profunde punctata. Elytra ad humeros oblique truncata,
apicem versus sat fortiter angustata, profunde striatopunctata. Tibize
extus spinulose.

Specimina nonnulla in lacu Colomb., legi.

The head is robust, broader than the thorax, the eyes large and
prominent.

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186 Descreptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

The femora, the last jcint of the maxill. palpi, the mandibles and
the tarsal joints are dark towards the apex. The last abdominal
segment of the f. is furnished with a bifid hairy appendage.

28. Hydrous rufiventris. N.

H. ovatus, convexus, supra oleagino-niger, subtus obscure fer-
rugineus, pedibus dilute piceis, labro zneo, reliquis oris partibus
cum clypeo testaceis. Long. corp. g. lin.

Palpi maxill. articulis apicem, versus abruptius incrassatis, art.
3° quarto sesqui longiore. Antenne art. 7-8 fortiter perfoliatis,
ultimo acuminato. Caput antice utrinque punctulorum serie subse-
micirculari et ad oculorum marginem intetiorem impressum. Tho-
rax punctulorum seriebus 4 lateralibus, 2 subapicalibus obliquis
abbreviatis signatus. LElytra subtiliter striato punctata. Tarsi
omnes unguibus basi fortiter unidentatis. Carina prosternalis
cultriformis. ;

Specimen singulum f. nocte ad lumen cepi.

As far as my resources allow me to ascertain a very anomalous
species having the perfoliated antenne and toothed claws of a
FTydrophilus and the cultriform prosternal carina and the elytra
of a Hydrous. I have placed it in the latter g. on account of the
sharp edge of the prosternal carina, in which the great distinguish-
ing character of this g. seems to lie, the same being deeply groov-
ed in Hydrophilus.

The insect at once attracts attention by the reddish color of its
abdomen. It is of a blackish olive color on the back, having how-
ever the clypeus and the anterior margin of the labrum of a yel-
lowish brown, the latter being otherwise of a somewhat metallic
color. The remaining parts of the mouth are more or less yellow-
ish. Joints 1-6 of the antenne are yellowish too, with the excep-
tion of the 2nd which is dark, joints 7-9 are blackish and pubes-
cent. The legs are of alight pitch color. The lower part of the
head is impressed with two rather semicircular series of punctures,
similar punctures occurring along the internal margin of the eyes.
The thorax is marked with six series of them and on the elytra they
are arranged in lines. The sternal carina is well developed, the

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 187

prosternal part has a sharp edge, whilst the mesosternal one is ob-
tuse on the back and the metasternal part depressed and slightly
grooved.

29. Hydrous inconspicuus. N.

H. precedente minus convexus, supra oleagino-niger, subtus
rufo-piceus, ore testaceo. Long. corp. 44 lin.

Palpi maxill. art. 2° et 4° subcylindricis, 3° apicem versus
sensim incrassato, sequente tertia parte longiore. Antenne art.
7-8 sub-globosis, 9° magno, ¢vato. Caput, thorax et elytra ut in
precedente sculpta gt signata.

In lacu Colomb. mens.,Jun. non infrequenter cepi.

This is in every respect anormal species. The prosternal carina
has a sharp edge, the claws are simple, the antennal club is com-
posed of rounded joints, the elytra are of the typical structure etc.
In the latter respect as well as with regard to the various series of
punctures upon head, thorax and elytra, it resembles the former,
the punctures of the elytra are, however, less distinct. Joints 1-6
of the antenne are yellowish, the club being dark and finely pu-
bescent. The maxill. palpi have joints 2 and 4 subcylindric but
the intermediate one thickened towards the tip.

In the month of June, I have not unfrequently taken the pup of
this species on the banks of the Colombo lake and hatched them
at home. I found them about one inch under ground and often as
far as 12 feet from the edge of the water but still in muddy places.
The imago is very active, perhaps more so than any other species
of the g.

No. III.
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SCYDMANI DESCRIBED BELOW.

In the first number of these papers I have described a winged
species of Gidichirus, a g. supposed to be without organs of flight ;
in the second number I have given publicity to the more important
discovery of wings in the single g. which forms the family of the
Georyssi, also hitherto supposed to be apterous ; at present I am
about to announce to some and to confirm to others, the existence

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188 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [NO. 2, NRW SERIES,

of these organs in the family of the ScypmMan1D4, a fact, although
incomplete, of more importance than either of the former consider-
ing the extent of the family and the difference of opinion which ap-
pears to exist on the subject amongst the most eminent entomolo-
gical authorities. It is this importance which induces me to enter
more fully on the subject.

I am not acquainted with the famous monograph of the family of
the ScypMan1Ipz by Dr. Schaum; however, from the manner in
which it is quoted by Lacordaire in his g. d. Col.—I should infer
that these two celebrated authors agree in all the vital points. In
Lacordaire’s diagnosis of the family these insects are described as
having (with the exception of the American g. Brathinus, of
which Lacorcaire is not quite sure that it belongs to the fa-
mily) the elytra soldered together and being destitute of wings.
Now, although it is scarcely credible that on a point so easily
ascertained as this, any difference of opinion should exist, still
Westwood in his Modern Classification of Insects, in describ-
ing the same family makes statements which imply the contrary.
However, Lacordaire’s description being fifteen years earlier, in
fact the most recent book on the subject, is from this reason alone
entitled to be considered before all others, and looking upon it-in
this light, that is as the essence of all former observations, I shall
for the present occupy myself with it alone. According to this
description, as mentioned above, the insects referred to, have the
elytra soldered together and are destitute of wings. This being the
case, I was startled to find that out of the 13 species described be-
low, 9 or 10 which I examined in this respect, had neither the elytra
soldered nor were they destitute of wings—on the contrary the elytra
were unconnected in the middle and the wings were nearly double
the size of the whole insect and could not possibly be overlooked. I
would willingly suppose that the 100 species of this family con-
tained in European collections, and principally derived from
Europe and N. America, agreed with Lacordaire’s description and
that the Ceylon species formed exceptions to the general rule, were
it not that Westwood’s observation alluded to above corroborates
my own and renders me suspicious that some unaccountable mistake
or oversight may have occurred. That thismistake cannot consist in

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera, 189

a slip of the pen or a misprint in the g. des Coleoptéres quoted
above, is clear from the obvious care which has been bestowed
upon every part of that work, and from the same remarks being re-
peated in different words. To attempt to discover how this mis-
take occurred, and upon what grounds it rests—would under my
circumstances be useless. However, it appears certain to me that
some more detailed and positive remarks on the subject cannot be
superfluous, and must be new tosome Entomologists. Placing
the fullest confidence, as every one naturally would do in the
infallibility of the descriptién of the Belgian author, it was
not likely that I should»have looked for wings at all in the
ScypMaNIDz& (a family, to which I have not until lately paid
much attention) had I not been struck by seeing the elytra of
my S. alatus open, when handling it with a fine paint brush
in a drop of water, it being at the time quite out of the question
that the opening could have been effected by pressure. On open-
ing the elytra fully I had no difficulty in discovering the wings.
Rendered extremely curious by this discovery—diametrically op-
posed as it was to the distinct statement of so great an authority,
I now examined other species, and all with the same result, most
of them opening the elytra without my assistance in the same man-
ner as the S. alatus, and I have not the slightest doubt that when
a sufficient number of specimens shall enable me to examine the
rest it will still be with the same result. That these insects use
their organs of flight may be gathered from the following fact: At
a former period I lived in a house situated on a small eminence
and overlooking extensive groves of Cocoanut trees, Cinnamon gar-
dens, Paddy fields and patches of jungle. Here I collected large
numbers of PsELAPHID#, especially Huplectus, in thin, scarcely
visible spider webs with which the white walls of the house were
covered in certain places—thus forming one large trap for anything
small flying about. That these had been caught when on the wing
there could be no doubt, but I was much surprised to find with
them (what is so common in more congenial localities, here also) a
considerable number of ScypM NI, especially my S. advolans and
pubescens, a family pronounced by the most recent authority to be
unable to fly, in a position which they could not well have found

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190 Descreptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

themselves otherwise but by flying. From some reason or other,
I am ashamed to say, I did not follow up the matter at the time,
but I am now certain on the subject. Indeed to remove all doubt
and to settle all disputes I have just been so fortunate as to take
my S. advolans actually on the wing flying in my garden in the
evening at sunset.

Having gone so far, I will (in spite of some slight misgivings of
being laughed at for telling an old story with so grave a face) add
a few descriptive words about the organs in question: The wings
of my ScypMZNI are ample, about‘ double the size of the whole
insect, oblong, having the margin beautifully ciliated and, with the
exception of a few yellowish veins at the base, without any visible
organs of this kind.

In spite of the difference in their shape etc. I believe the species
described below to be all genuine ScypMz=nz1 as restricted at pre-
sent. Being, however, unacquainted with the sexual distinctions
of these insects (which indeed I believe not to have been satisfac-
torily pointed out by any one, and to differ in different species) I
should not be surprised if one or two of my species were eventual-
ly ascertained to have been separated upon these grounds alone.
However, having been very reluctant to admit new species, it is
just as likely that individuals may hereafter be found unitedin one
which ought to be separated into two species. ButI trust that nei-
ther contingency may happen. The species were all collected by my-
self in the immediate neighbourhood of Colombo. I have, however,
no doubt that they occur all over theS. W. part of the Island, which
is of an uniform physical character, and they may perhaps occupy a
still larger portion of it. Noneof them are very common, on the con-
trary,of nearly half of them I possess only one or two specimens. My
S.femoralis [found under the soft,rotting bark of anErythrina indica.
S. Ceylanicus and ovatus I found dead in spiderwebs. 8S. gramini-
cola, glanduliferus and pyriformis I have hitherto taken exclusively
in the sweeping net on the lawn of my garden about sunset,
the other species I have met with indiscriminately in spiderwebs,
under rotting vegetable substances and in the grass.

After this preamble, which I trust may not be deemed quite su-
perfluous, I now enter upon the description of my species, previ-

:
.
:
:

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 191

ously drawing attention to the three very natural and very distinct
groups which they form and the characteristics of which will at
once be perceptible from the headings given below. With regard
to the first group (A. I. spec. 30-34) I may mention that the elon-
gated legs, largely developed posterior trochanters and often distant
posterior coxe give the insects belonging to it a staggering motion
when walking,which together with their oblong,subdepressed body
distinguishes them ata glance. I have subdivided them from the
cultriform or grooved mesosternal carina. The second group (A. II.
spec. 35-41) is equally well characterized as the former by the
more robust, pyriform and subconvex body of the insects. S. psela-
phoides in the former and S. advolans in the present group, form
connecting links between the two, especially S. pselaphoides which
in general appearance rather belongs to the second, upon closer
examination however is easily ascertained to be an anomalous mem-
ber of the former. I have divided the second group into two
subdivisions distinguished by the rounded or narrowed occiput giv-
ing preference to the distinctions to be drawn from this part of the
body rather than to those derived from the thorax, which from the
variety of shapes it assumes would naturally suggest itself for that
purpose, but the gradations between the principal forms appear. to
me too many, too fine and therefore too indistinct to adopt them.
As to the third group (B. spec. 42) the insect which alone forms it
amongst those described below, is so different from any of the
others that its peculiarities must strike any one at first sight.

A. Species with a thick neck, abruptly formed and immersed in the
thorax.

I. Fourth joint of the mazill. palpi not acuminated ; head subqua-
drato—ovate ; eyes middling or small, finely granulated, little or not
at all prominent ; antenne subapproximate at the base ; posterior
trochaniers elongated, encrassated at the apex ; thorax obovate ;
body elongate, subdepressed.

(a.) Mesosternal carina slight, simple.
30. Scydmenus. alatus. N.

S. dilute brunneus, pedibus antennisque dilutioribus, tarsis pal-
pisque testaceis ; pubescens ; long. corp. 2 lin.

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192 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Antenne art. 1° apice biacuminato, 3-4 subequalibus, 5 pre-
cedente majore, 6 longitudine inter 4 et 5, ovato, 7-8 subeequalibus,
9 majore, 7-9 apice angustatis, tubiformibus, 10-11 ovatis, clavam
formantibus, vel art. 9 globoso, 9-11 clavam formantibus. Palpi
maxill. art. ultimo minimo apice truncato. Mandibule dente bifido
munite basi fortiter abrupteque dilatate. Thorax foveis basali-
bus nullis. Pedes elongati tarsis art 2-3 subzequalibus,

I include in this species individuals with a two and others with
a three-jointed antennal club. The latter are further distinguish-
ed by having a slight sinuosity in the rounded outline of the basal
angles of the thorax, by having the posterior part of the metathorax
and the base of the abdomen sensibly incrassated, and the head
rather less quadrate than the former. However, the individuals
thus distinguished being in all other respects exactly like those
with the two-jointed club, I cannot help looking upon all these dis-
tinctions as sexual ones and uniting the insects in the same species.

The head from the eyes to the neck is of a transverse subquad-
rated form merging into oval by the angles being rounded
off, the anterior part is narrowed. And this is the typical sculp.
ture of the scull in all the five species of this group. The eyes in
the present species are middling. The antenne are rather approx-
imated at the base and inserted in the centre of the front under a
ridge which runs across it from eye to eye. The first joint is bia-
cuminated at the apex, the 5th is longer than the adjoining ones,
joints 7-9 in the individuals with the two-jointed and 7-8 in those
with the three-jointed elub are of a peculiar construction being nar-
rowed at the apex and fitting into each other like the tubes ofa
spyglass. The club joints are ovate, flat at the base, the last is
large and obtusely acuminated. I consider the principal distin-
guishing character to lie in the remarkable structure of joints 7-9
of the antenne. The maxill. palpi have joint 2 rather strongly
incrassated at the apex, joint 3 obovate, narrowed at the base, joint
4 very minute, truncated at the apex. The mandibles are furnish-
ed with a bifid tooth and are strongly and abruptly dilated at the
base. The thorax is of an obovate or obcordato—ovate form being
rather strongly rounded off before the middle and gradually nar-
rowed below it; the usual basal impressions are wanting, the pos-

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 193

terior margin has 2 slight sinuosities, the posterior angles are round-
ed off or obliquely truncated. Scutellum obsolete. Elytra fur-
nished with a very short elevated ridge at the shoulder. Legs elon-
gated; coxe large, the 2 posterior ones rather distant from each
other; 2 posterior trochanters much elongated, incrassated at the
tip; apex of tibiz subcylindric, but not narrowed, and hairy, es-
pecially in the 2nd pair ; joints 2-3 of the tarsi of equal size, the
first longer,the 4th a little shorter,the two anterior tarsi slightly con-
tracted, 2nd and 3rd pair more and more elongated. Penultimate
segment of abdomen with a strong longitudinal groove on the back.

31. Scydmenus femoralis. N.

S. statura et magnitudine preecedentis; testaceus. Antenne art.
3-4 subzequalibus, 5 precedente longiore, 6-8 gradatim minoribus,
subglobosis, 7-8 apice fortius oblique truncatis, 9-11 gradatim ma-
joribus, subglobosis, clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. ulti-
mo minimo semigloboso. Thorax magnus obovatus, basi rotunda-
tus, 4 foveolatus. Elytra apice truncata, 2-sinuata. Pedes femori-
bus 2 posticis medio constrictis, tarsis art. 1-4 gradatim minoribus.

Of the general appearance of the former but of a light yellowish
color and well distinguished by the large thorax, truncated elytra
and abnormal construction of the 2 posterior femora. Antenne
With joints 7-8 rather strongly obliquely truncated at the apex, 9-11
forming a club, subglobose, flat at the base, the last acuminated and
slightly cut away or even excavated on the inside at the apex. Last
joint of maxill. palpi semiglobose, these otherwise the same as in
the former. Thorax and elytraof S. alatus, the former however,
larger, rounded at the posterior margin and with 4 basal impressions
the latter slightly truncated at the apex and with a slight sinuosity
in the truncature on either side of the suture. Scutellum very small.
Legs with the tibiz slightly bent at the base, the apex as in the
former : tarsi with joints 1-4 gradually decreasing in size, first pair
contracted and furnished with brushes on the inside. The 2 pos-
terior legs inserted rather distant from each other, the basal part
of abnormal construction: the trochanters are much elongated and
incrassated at the tip whilst the femora are at the place of the june-
ture rather abruptly narrowed, bent and slightly compressed, they

-

194 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [ No. 2, NEW SERIES,

being at the same time thinner than the adjoining apex of the tro-
chanter the constriction is very striking.
82. Scydmenus Ceylanicus. WN.

S. alati colore, sed major et magis depressus; long. corp. 2 lin.
Caput magnum, robustum, thoracis latitudine. Antenne basi non
approximate, art. 3-4 et 5-7 inter se subzequalibus, arcum forman-
tibus, 8-10 gradatim majoribus, subglobosis, depressis, apice oblique
truncatis, 11° magno, conico, 8-11 longius pilosis, clavam forman-
tibus. Palpi maxill. art. 4° minimo, semigloboso. Thorax ovatus,
foveis basalibus nullis. Elytra apice singulatim rotundata. Pedes
validi tarsis art. 1-4 subeequalibus, 2 anterioribus art 1° subtus acu-
mine sat forte producto. ~ e-

An anomalous species, especially with regard to the antenne
which are much less approximated at the base than those of the
rest of the species belonging to this group, and with regard to the
2 posterior coxze which on the contrary are more approximated than
in any of the species just referred to. The insect is of the light
brown color of the two former but larger and more depressed. The
head is strikingly large and heavy, of the width of the thorax, in
its hind part, which is strongly transverse, the oval form prevails
over the square. Eyes small. Antenne inserted under two strong
protuberances rather than under a ridge, their club 4-jointed,
joints 3-7 forming an inwards bent section of a circle, joints 8-10
strongly compressed, obliquely truncated (subperfoliated) 11 large,
conic. The 8rd joint of the maxill. palpi is of an oblongo-ovate
shape, the external basal angle is prolonged into a small peduncle
inserted in the apex of the 2nd joint, the 4th joint about the semi-
globose shape of which I am not quite satisfied appears to be oblique-
ly inserted in the tip of the preceding. Thorax oval, of a similar
shape to that of the former, anterior margin slightly emarginated.
Scutellum obsolete. Elytra with the traces of a humeral costa,
separately rounded off at the apex. Legs strong, 2 posterior coxz
not more distant from each other than the 4 anterior ones ; tibize
elongated, bent at the base and apex, at the latter place slightly
narrowed, subcylindric and hairy; tarsi with joints 1-4 subequal,
in the first pair strongly contracted, joint 1 of this pair produced
in a spine on the inside,

a ee ee ee ae ee a ee ae

JAN. —MAR. 1857 | Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera, 195

(b.) Mesosternal carina middling, grooved.
83. Seydmenus intermedius. N.

S. alati statura sed major et robustior, colore obscuriore ; long.
corp. $ lin.

Antenne art. 1° apice biacuminato, 2 et 5, 3 et 4, 7 et 8 inter se
subeequalibus, 6 quarto paulo minore, obovato, 7-8 subglobosis apice
oblique truncatis, 9-11 gradatim majoribus, obovatis, clavam for-
mantibus, 11 acuminato. Palpi maxill. art. 3° obovato, 4° mini-
mo semigloboso. Thorax subrotundatus, basi 4-foveolatus. Elytra
apice singulatim rotundata. Pedes tarsis art. 1-4 gradatim mino-
ribus vel 2-3 subzequalibusy 4 anterioribus intus pilosis. _Mesos-
ternum sat fortiter carinatum, carina dorso deplanata, fossulata
apice acuminata.

This species stands in the middle between S. alatus and psela-
phoides. To the former it is allied by its general appearance rather
than by anything else, differing from it very much in the structure
of the antenne and the mesosternal carina. To the latter on the
contrary it is allied by similarity in the structure of the said
carina, differing, however, from it in general appearance. The
color is that of S. alatus but a shade or two darker, the insect,
being at the same time larger and altogether more robust. The
eyes are small. Antennal club 3-jointed, the joints forming it
gradually increasing in size, obovate, flat at the base, the last acumi-
nated. Scutellum obsolete. Elytra with 2 slight basal impressions,
the traces of a humeral costa, separately rounded off at the apex.
Legs elongated as usual ; 2 posterior coxe distant, tibie straight,
subcylindric but not narrowed at the apex, the 4 anterior ones hairy ;
tarsi with joints 1-4 almost imperceptibly decreasing in size or per-
haps 2-3 equal, the anterior ones slightly contracted, these and the
intermediate ones hairy on the inside. Mesosternal carina mid-
dling, flat on the back with a shallow, but very distinct, longitudinal
groove or excavation, anterior part projecting, acuminated.

34. Scydmenus pselaphoides. WN.

S. subpyriformi— ovatus, subconvexus, magis minusve brunneus,
pedibus antennisque subtestaceis, femoribus apice nigrescentibus,
tarsis palpisque testaceis ; flavo-pubescens long. corp. 1-1} lin.

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196 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera.[No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Antenne art. 1° mediocri, apice biacuminato, 2-4 sensim mino-
ribus, 5 et 2, 6 et 3, 7 et 8, 9 et 10 inter se subequalibus, 9-11
clavam formantibus, 6-11 basi rotunde truncatis, 6-8 apice oblisque
truncatis, 7-8 compressis, 9-11 obovatis. Mandibulze dente bifido
munite, basi dilatate et ciliate. Palpi maxill. art. 3° inverte
conico,4° minimo apice truncato. Thorax obovatus, latitudine
quarta parte longior, basi 4 foveolatus. Elytra apice singulatim
rotundata. Pedes validi, tarsis art. 1-4 gradatim minoribus, ante-
rioribus dilatatis, his cum intermediis subtus fortius pilosis. Me-
sosternum preecedentis. : |

C
An anomalous species with regard to its general appearance

which differs considerably from that of the rest of the group, and —

makes it, as I remarked above, the connecting link between
this and the following group. This is the largest species I have
hitherto met with. The system of coloration is the usual one:
more or less deep brown, legs and antenne lighter, tarsi and palpi
quite so. Eyes middling. Antenne with a 3-jointed club, the
joints subglobose, flat on the base, the last large, conic, joints 6-8
are slightly truncated at the apex, 7 and 8 being at the same time
strongly compressed have a subperfoliated appearance. The man-
dibles are furnished with a bifid tooth. The 3rd joint of the maxill.
palpi is of the shape of an inverted cone, the 4th minute and trun-
cated at the apex. The thorax is of an obovate form, about one-
fourth longer than broad, rounded off before and gradually nar-
rowed below the middle, subquadrate at the base impressed with
4 fovez or pits, the posterior angles rounded off. Scutellum minute.
Elytra with 2 short humeral coste, separately rounded off at the
apex. Legs stout; 2 posterior coxe distant; tibiz slightly bent
at the base, subcylindric at the apex, the 4 anterior ones hairy;
tarsi with joints 1-4 gradually decreasing in size, the anterior
ones dilated, the joints transversely triangular, the intermediate
pair hairy on the inside. Mesosternum of the preceding. Me-
tasternum with a slight longitudinal depression down the mid-
dle. Penultimate abdominal segment grooved on the back as in
S. alatus. The enlargement of the anterior tarsi (as in other beetles)
indicates undoubtedly a sexual distinction, since it is not equally

i i i i, | i a

oe Se

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 197

strong in all individuals. I may mention here that upon some
of the individuals I found ticks (some g. allied to Jxodes but
- not a Gamasus) fastened, one of them having made a wound
such as, supposing it to be inflicted at a corresponding place and
on a proportionate scale, few animals of a higher order, I think,
would have survived—still this little beetle appeared perfectly at
its ease. The parasite alluded to had fastened itself right in the
centre of the forehead and the wound it had inflicted in this, one
‘should imagine most dangerous plage, was a deep hole or pit with
a callous border. The latter led me to infer that the injury was an
old one, and the tick being at the time fastened in it (and this so
firmly that Ihad some, difficulty in detaching it) I felt sure it
had been in this position for months. The injury was observable
under a slight magnifier and I think to compare it to one inflicted
by a rifle-ball would be greatly underrating its importance.

II. Fourth joint of the mazill. palpi acuminated ; mesosternal
carina strongly developed ; eyes large, prominent, coarsely granulat-
ed; antenne distant at the base; 2 posterior trochanters simple ;
thorax variable; body robust, pyriform ; subconven.

(a) Occiput rounded.

35, Scydmenus advolans. N.

§. long. corp. 2 lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4,5 et 6 inter se sube-
qualibus, obovatis, 7 majore, subgloboso, 8-10 subglobosis, basi
rotunde—, apice oblique truncatis, cum 11° conico clavam forman-
tibus. Palpi maxill. art 3° elongato, inverte conico, 4° mediocri.
Mandibulz tenues, medio acuminate 1-dentate, basi abrupte dila-
tate. Thorax ovato-rotundatus, apice fortius angustatus, basi

leviter 2-sinuatus, 4-foveolatus. Elytra apice singulatim rotundata.
Tarsi art. 2-3 subeequalibus.

The insect is of brown color, the antenne lighter, the legs still
more and the tarsi and palpi quite so, the femora are dark towards
the apex, the head, thorax and suture are occasionally of chestnut
color ; it is as usual pubescent. The sculpture of the head in this
and the following species is not, as in the preceding, based upon
the oblong square or the oval, but rather upon the form of a ball

ft”

~

198 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. (No. 2, NEW SERIES,

which in a more or less compressed state is always perceptible ; in
some instances it is narrowed on one side. In the present species
the head is heavy and subglobose. The eyes are large, prominent ~
and coarsely granulated. The antenne are inserted distant from
each other under two protuberances of the anterior part of the fore-
head. The club is 4-jointed, the joints composingit, being flat at the
base, and, with the exception of the last, obliquely cut away at the
apex,the last itself being conic. The maxill. palpi have joint 3 rather
elongated and of the form of an inverted cone, joint 4 middling,
acuminated. The thorax is of a rounded oval shape and rather
strongly narrowed towards the apex. ‘The scutellum is obsclete.
The elytra have the usual rudimentary coste at the shoulders and
are separately rounded off at the apex. The legs are middling, 2
posterior coxe inserted close together, trochanters all simple, tibiz
slightly bent at the base, narrowed and subcylindric at the tip, the
4 anterior ones hairy, tarsi with joints 2-3 subequal, the first a
little longer and the 4th shorter, the 2 anterior ones slightly con-
tracted. I include in this species some individuals which slightly
differ from the foregoing description, being more robust, covered
more densely and with lonzer hair, especially on the occiput and
thorax, with the latter rather obconico-ovate and the coste of the
elytra more distinct, and moreover occasionally ofa chestnut color.

36. Scydmenus pubescens. WN.

S. precedente gracilior; long. corp. 3 lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4,
5 et 6 inter se subzequalibus, subcylindricis, 7° secundo paulo mi-
nore, fortiter cylindrico, 8-10 subglobosis, cum 11° conico clavam
formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 4° minuto.
Mandibule tenues, medio obtuse obsoleteque unidentate, basi ab-
rupte dilatate. Thorax conicus, latitudine haud longior, basi 4-

foveolatus. Elytra et pedes precedentis, tibiis tamen apice leviter

arcuatis.

Less robust than the former and further distinguished from it by
the 7th antennal joint (the one preceding the club) which is of a
strongly cylindric shape, by the minuteness of the last joint of the
maxillary palpi, the obtuse and nearly obsolete tooth of the man-

JAN.—M4R. 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 199

dibles, the short-conical form of the thorax and the tibie which
are slightly bent at the apex.
37. Scydmenus pygmeus. WN.

S. statura et colore precedentis sed longius pubescens et sesqui
minor; long. corp. 4 lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 5 et Ginter se sub-
eequalibus, 7° majore, ovato, 8-10 subglobosis, fortius compres-
sis, cum 11° clavam formantibus, hoc magno, obconico, apice ob-
tuso. Palpi maxill. art. 2° tenuiore, 3° inverte conico, 4° minuto.
Mandibule obsolete unidentatee. Thorax conicus latitudine parum
longior, elytris fortiter applicatus, basi 2-sinuatus et 4-foveolatus.
Pedes et elytra preecedentig, his tamen amplioribus.

Strongly allied to the tWo preceding species, still very much small-
er, more compact and covered with longer hair—thus of rather a
different appearance regardless of its size. From S. pubescens this
species would principally differ in the shape of the 7th antennal
joint, also in that of the three first club joints which are much more
compressed and more hairy in S. pygmaeus. The thorax of
the latter is more firmly applied to the base of the elytra, the latter
have a fuller, more robust appearance about them, the palpi are
more slender and the tooth of the mandibles is pointed. From
S. advolans it would principally differ, besides in the generalities
mentioned above, in the shape of the thorax and in some of the
points in which it differs from S. pubescens.

(6) Occiput narrowed.
38. Scydmenus glanduliferus. N.

S. robustus; long. corp. 2 lin. Antenne art. 3-7 sensim majo-
ribus, 8-10 globosis, fortiter compressis, cum 11° glanduliformi
clavam formantibus, longe ciliatis. Palpi maxill. art. 2° tenuiore,
3° inverte conico, 4° mediocri. Thorax conicus latitudine basali
haud longior, elytris fortiter applicatus, basi 2-impressus, in im-
pressionibus 2-foveolatus. Tarsi art. 2-3 subeequalibus.

Of the size of S. advolans and the plump shape and color of 8.
pygmeus the latter being rather lighter than that of S. advolans ;
it has the longer (especially on the occiput and thorax) hairy ves-
ture of the former. The occiput is slightly narrowed behind. The

~

200 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

antennal club is composed of 4 joints, the 3 first of which are
strongly compressed, the 4th being plump and of the shape of an
acorn with its cup, all are strongly ciliated. The thorax is conic,
firmly applied to the base of the elytra as in the preceding species,
depressed and with 2 pits at the base, posterior margin with 2 si-
nuosities. The shoulder-ridges of the elytra are short but rather
strongly marked. The tibiz are narrowed, subcylindric and hairy
at the apex. Joints 2-3 of the tarsi are subequal, the anterior pair
more, the intermediate less contracted.

39. Scydmenus graminicola. NV.

c

S. gracilior; long. corp 2lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 6 et 7, 9 et
10 inter se subzequalibus 5° adjacentibus paulo longiore, 3-7 sub-
eylindricis, 8 subgloboso, 9-10 fortiter globosis cum 11° clavam
formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 4° mediocri.
Mandibule apice arcuate, medio acuminate 1-dentate, basin versus
sensim dilatate@. Thorax obconicus basi depressus, 2-sinuatus et
2 foveolatus, rectangulatus. Pedes ¢ibus elongatis basi apiceque
arcuatis.

Of the usual brown color, legs and antenne lighter, tarsi and
palpi quite so, femora nigrescent at the apex, hairs of occiput and
thorax rather long. The former slightly narrowed behind, the head
thus of a somewhat rhomboid form. Antennal club composed of 3
joints, the 2 first of which are strongly globose, the last being
acuminated and slightly cut away on one side at the apex. The
mandibles are furnished with an acuminated tooth at the mid-
dle, bent at the apex and, what is rather uncommon in this g.,
gradually enlarged towards the base. The thorax is obconic,
rather longer than broad. The elytra are somewhat more stretch-
ed than usual in this group, the rudimentary humeral costa are
rather prominent and they are separately rounded off at the apex.
Tibiz more or less elongated, slightly bent at the base and apex,
at the latter place subcylindric and hairy. ‘Tarsi with joints 2-3
subequal, first pair slightly contracted. A sexual distinction ap-
pears to be expressed in the length of the tibie which are less
elongated in certain individuals which are at the same time less

JAN. MAR.—1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 201

robust than the others. The insect is easily distinguished by its
general appearance.
40. Scydmenus pyriformis. WN.

S. supracastaneus, subtus brunneo-testaceus, pecibus antennisque
dilutioribus, tarsis palpisque flavo-testaceis, antennarum clava ni-
gricante ; long. corp. 3 lin.

Antenne art. 3-8 fere subeequalibus excepto 5° parum longiore,
_ 8° subgloboso, minore, 9-10 subglobosis majoribus, cum 11° acu-
minato clavam formantibus. ,Palpi? maxill. art. 3° inverte conico,
4° minuto. Thorax obovatus, basi 2-foveolatus. Pedes coxis 2
posticis distantioribus ; tibiis 2 anterioribus basi apiceque leviter
arcuatis, reliquis subsimflicibus ; tarsis art. 2-3 subzequalibus.

A pretty little species, at once distinguished by its color which
is chestnut, darker at the base and suture of the elytra, and light,
more or less brownish or yellowish, below, the antenne being of
the latter color with a nigrescent club. The occiput is slightly
narrowed, the head altogether plump, heavy and transverse. The
antennal club is composed of 3 subglobose joints the last of which
is acuminated and slightly cut away on one side as in some of the
preceding species. The thorax is obovate, broadest below the
middle and gradually narrowed towards the apex. The elytra
have the usual two shoulder-ridgesand are ratherstrongly dehiscent
at the apex. The posterior coxe are rather distant at the base;
the tibize are slightly angustated and subcylindric at the apex, the
4 anterior ones hairy, the first pair moreover slightly bent at the
base and apex, but the rest nearly straight.

41, Scydmenus angusticeps. N.

S. castaneus, antennis pedibusque dilutioribus, tarsis palpisque
testaceis ; long. corp. 1 lin.

Caput magnum subtrigonum, occipite fortiter angustato, hoc cum
thorace longe pilosis. Antenne art. 3 et 4,5 et 6 inter se sube-
qualibus, 7-11 gradatim majoribus, vel 9-10 subequalibus, sub-
globosis, 8-10 leviter depressis, cum 11° clavam formantibus. Palpi
maxill. art. 2° tenuiore, 8° inverte conico, 4° mediocri, conico-
acuminato. Thorax obconicus basi subquadratus, 2-sinuatus et 4-
foveolatus. Elytra costis 2 fortioribus abbreviatis. Tibiz subrecte.

~

202 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

A handsome species of more or less deep chestnut color with
lighter legs and antenne. ‘The head is large, heavy and from the
eyes to the neck strongly triangular, the occiput and thorax are
covered with long hair, which adds much to the peculiar appear-
ance of the insect. The antenne are thick and robust, the club
4-jointed. The thorax is subquadrate at the base up to the mid-
dle and conic towards the apex. The punctures or pits at the
base are fourinnumber. The scutellum is small. The humeral
coste are stronger developed tkan in any of the other species and
traceable to the middle of the elytra. The tibie are nearly straight,
subcylindric at the apex, the 4 anterior Ones hairy. The tarsi have
joints 2-4 nearly subequal. ¢

B. Species without a neck.

42. Scydmenus ovatus N.

S. ovatus, convexus, brunneus ; long. corp. $ lin.

Caput subquadrato-ovatum., Antenne art. 3-11 sensim incras-
satis, 9-11 subglobosis, depressis, cum 11° magno, conico clavam
formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 4° minuto acuminato. Thorax
amplus semrorbicularis, margine posteriore medio producto, basi 2
foveolatus. Tarsis art 1-4 subequalibus.

The color of this insect is as usual shaded off from brown to
light yellow; however, in other respects it differs materially from
all the preceding species. The body is regularly oval, thorax and
elytra convex, pubescent. The head is subquadrato-ovate; the
eyes rather small, but prominent; the neck is altogether wanting.
The antenne are at the base as distant from each other as they
can be being inserted below the eyes; the club is 3-jointed; the
joints increase gradually in size from the 3rd to the 11th. The
maxill. palpi have the 2nd joint slender, the 3rd rather pearshep-
ed, the 4th minute and acuminated. The thorax is very ample,
semiorbicular, of the shape and nearly the size of the apical half
of the elytra, the basal angles are acuminated and slightly envelop
the shoulders, the posterior margin is prolonged in the middle,
towards the scutellum the fovez or basal impressions are 2 and
rather distant from each other. Scutellum obsolete. Elytra with
2 depressions at the base. ‘Tibie straight; tarsi with joints 1-4
subequal or very nearly so. Mesosternal carina middling.

JAN.—-MAR. 1857.] Memo. on Rain Gauges, §c. 203

V. Memo. on the subject of Rain Gauges for the Provinces
of Madras. By W. H. Baytey, Madras Civil Service.

Tue Rain Gauge now in use is a Funnel of Copper, 12 inches
in diameter, and is inserted in a chatty or any kind of vessel.
When rain has fallen the water is emptied out into a copper
cylinder, 8 inches deep, and 3 inches diameter.

As the diameter of the Funnel is 4 times that of the cylinder, the
area of the former is 16 times that of the cylinder, so that when
the rain water is poured into the cylinder, every inch deep shows
zis of an inch of rain fallen, and a cylinder ful/, or a ‘‘ measure”
denotes ;* or 4 an inch of rain.

A dipping stick divided to inches and tenths is used to measure
portions of the cylinder. One inch in the cylinder as before stated
denotes ;., or (0625 ofaninch of rain and , of an inch deep in
the cylinder denotes +15 or 00625 of an inch.

The Talook Officers are directed to enter in their Books, Mea-
sures, Inches and Tenths. And these are to be reduced in the Board’s
Office to inches and decimals of rain, by using the following
Multipliers.

Suppose the Return is.

Measures, Inches. Tenths.
13 7 8
13 X °d = 6°5.........Inches of rain.
7 X °0625 =5 0437 5.5005. do.
8 xX °00625 ==9°0°0520.5. 243 do.

6:9875 Inches of rain fallen.
The objections to this plan are two;

First, the apparatus is made much larger than is required,
one-tenth of an inch in the cylinder denotes +1, of an inch fall
of rain, whereas +4, of an inch is the utmost we can want from
such country Registers as these. In the next place, if there is at

-

204 Memo. on the subject of Rain Gauges. | no. 2, NEW SERIES,

all, a heavy fall of rain, the receiving vessel must be a large one,
if the Funnel diameter is 12 inches. No ordinary bottle (which is
the cleanest and best receptacle) will do, and the consequence is a
chatty is used, which is porous, easily broken and awkward to pour
from into a narrow cylinder.

The second objection is, that the Register is not intelligible
generally to those who keep it, and the orders of the Board that
the Registers are to be sent to them to reduce ** Measures,” ** Inches”
and “‘ Tenths,’”’ give the idea, that the inches and tenths, are inches
and tenths fall of rain which is not the case. It will also be seen
that the reductions are tedious when they come to extend over se-
veral Reports. Every “‘ measure’ has té be multiplied by 5, every —
inch by ‘0625, and every “ tenth” by “ *00625.

Now lI venture to suggest a form of Rain Gauge which will re-
gister accurately to 100th of an inch fall of rain, and which will be
free from every objection urgedagainst the present one. The Fun.
nel is 4°97 inches in diameter, and its area is therefore, 17:33
square inches, therefore a fall of rain of one inch, is 17°33 cubic
inches in the reservoir, whichis simply a common quart bottle.
The rain water is poured out of the bottle into a little tin vessel
holding one fluid ounce, and each of these full denotes that +, of
an inch of rain has fallen. A stick notched to a 10th of the depth
of the little cylinder, will show how many ¢enths of water there are
in the said cylinder, and each of these is equivalent to 71, of an
inch of rain, though for country work, a 10th of an inch (each cylin-
der full being ;5 of an inch) may be sufficient.

The diameter of the Funnel, is theoretically, 4697 inches; but
in practice, 4°65 is found sufficient. This is a little smaller than
the theoretical diameter, because it is impossible to expect Native
workmen to bend the mouth of a tin funnel, to a ¢rue cylinder.

The tin funnel is much cheaper than a copper one.

A wooden Gauge might be sent from Madras to each Cutcherry,
to which the funnel might be fitted.

The quart bottle is more convenient than a chatty or earthern
ware pot, and is quite large enough to suit any fall of rain in the
Carnatic. It will run over if the fall is above 33 inches, but this

JAN.—MAR, 1807. | Sor the Provinces of Madras. 205

is a fall that hardly ever occurs even ina heavy monsoon in 24
hours, and the Rain Gauge is, of course, measured every 12 hours.
The bottle is cleaner, more easily poured from than the vessels
now in use, and always obtainable.

The small measuring cylinder was fixed at one fluid ounce, in
order that it might be easily tested at any Hospital or Dispensary.
A diameter of 1 inch, and depth of 2:2 inches is very suitable. It
is very easy to discern its contents to tenths, and each tenth de-
notes the -3, of aninch of rajn. °

Three or four of these Gauges were tried last Monsoon at the
Madras Observatory, and ae results exceedingly near the standard
Pluviometer.

I first saw a Rain Guage of this kind at the house of a Native
Gentleman of scientific acquirements at Vizagapatam, but it was
not quite correct as to dimensions.

Its cheapness, simplicity, and accuracy, should, I think recom- ,
mend it for general use.

[Report upon Mr. Bay3ey’s proposed new Rain Gauge, by Colonel SMITH
Mint Master, Madras Engineers. |

The memorandum omits to mention one circumstance which is
necessary to a clear comprehension of Mr. BAYLEY’s proposal, and
that is, that the Imperial fluid ounce consists of 1°733, or more ex-
actly 1:7329625 cubic inches, consequently the fluid ounce measure
necessarily represents the tenth part of the bulk of rain falling at
the rate of one inch, in any given period, on an area of 17:33
square inches.

With this explanation I trust it will be evident that Mr. BayLry’s
proposed arrangement is as correct as it is scientific, and that its
precise accuracy merely depends upon the truth of the workman-
ship and the care of the observer; which with moderate pains are
not likely to cause error to a degree likely to interfere with objects
aimed at by the use of these instruments,

In order to any practical trial, it would be necessary that five or
six carefully made Gauges of the new pattern should be exposed
during rainy weather, in company with a correct standard, and a

206 Memo. on the subject of Rain Gauges. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

comparison of their respective indications made. This could most
conveniently be done at the Honorable Company’s Observatory,
there being no such thing as a standard Rain Gauge in the Mint.

[Agreeably to Colonel SMiTH’s recommendation, 6 Rain Gauges answering to
Mr. BayLery’s description were ordered to be made up and tested at the Honora-
ble Company’s Observatory. ‘The following is an extract of a letter from Major
Worster, the Honorable Company’s Astronomer with reference thereto. ]

Several of these Gauges, &c. have already been tried with the
standard Gauge of this Observatory, and as there can be no doubt
whatever of the accuracy of the result if the rim is truly formed to
the given diameter, it would appear to be an unnecessary loss of
time in detaining the Gauges here when‘they could be more usefully
employed in the interior.

Tin plate however can scarcely be formed on a mould to a truly
cylindrical shape, and it would be far better to form the rims of
brass and turned to the given dimensions, the tin funnels being
subsequently soldered on to complete the Gauges. The expense
of these rings would be but trifling.

Mean Diameters . 2 : °
No. 1 4095 The six tin Gauges (with their measures) have
No.2 4-83 been prepared, the diameters of which are noted in
No.4 4:690 :
No.5 4-692 the margin.
No. 6 4691

[In order to judge of the advisability of substituting the improved Gauge for
the less convenient pattern in use, letters on the subject were addressed to the differ-
ent Collectors inviting their opinions thereupon. Colonel FABER, the Chief Engi-
neer, upon the receipt of their replies, submitted to Government a concise narra-
tive of the whole project, of which the following is an extract. ]

The Collector of Malabar states that the jars used for receiving
the rain water are glazed so that they are not open to the objection
of being porous but that he wishes to have one of the new pattern
for trial.

The Collector of Canara states that the new pattern will not
answer on the Western Coast as 9 inches of rain have fallenin 24
hours at Mangalore.

The Collector of Nellore has written two letters on the subject ;
in the first dated 29th April 1856 he states that the Talook Officers
are quite familiar with the pattern now in use, that the method of
taking and registering the measurements causes no confusion of

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] for the Provinces of Madras. 207

thought and that the new gauge will not answer throughout every
monsoon, as 8:25 inches fell on the 9th October 1852, and 10°7
inches on the 8th October 1855. He thinks however that a few
gauges of the new pattern would be useful and asks for 4.

In his second letter No. 202 dated 8th July, he suggests that
Mr. Baytry’s improvement of dividing his measuring rod into
10ths should be introduced with the present gauges and points out
the method of using it.

The total number of the new gauges asked for was 129, but as
yome of the Collectors who approved of
» the new gauge did not mention the num-
bers they required, I have the honor to
recommend the manufacture of 180
gauges of the new pattern, substituting
however a tin vessel to receive the rain
fall instead of the quart bottle; orelse .
placing the bottle ina tin cylinder so that
if very heavy rain fall, so as to more than
fill the bottle, the surplus water might
overflow into the tin vessel as exhibited
in the annexed drawing. This would an-

swer very well, as the external diameter
of a quart bottle is less than that of the gauge; the former being
about 32 and the latter 4°697 inches.

The total cost including that for the tin vessels in which the
bottles are to be placed would amount to Rupees 360 for 180
gauges.

It is far from being an uncommon occurrence to receive mis-
taken values of rain falls from Collectors using the pattern now in
use, and I have frequently to send back the returns for correction
month after month. The new stick suggested by Mr. Elton allud-
ed to in his letter of the 8th July, and which I beg leave to forward
for inspection is however a decided improvement, and to any one
giving himself the trouble to think on the subject at all, it is diffi-
cult to believe that wrong values can be assigned to the measure-
ments shown by the decimal scale. But it must be admitted that

208 Selections, [| No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Mr. BAYLEY’s pattern is much to be preferred, and the suggestion
contained in para. 10, which [ owe to my Assistant Lieutenant
O’Connell meets the solitary objection that has been, or probably
can be, urged against the new apparatus, namely its insufficiency
during the very heavy downpours frequent on the Western Coast,
and of occasional occurrence throughout the whole Presidency.

[The Government approved of the new Rain Gauges and sanctioned the manu-
facture of 180, with the improvement suggested in the Chief Engineer’s letter. ]

@

SELECTIONS.

On the intoduction of the Cinchona or Bark-tree.

The attention which has lately been paid to the experiment of
introducing the Cinchona or Bark-tree into India has induced us to
re-produce an interesting article on the successful accomplishment
of a similar attempt in Java which we have prefaced by a general
review of the history of this valuable drug.

Dr. Forbes Royle, so long ago as 1840 had pointed out* that the
bark yielding trees might be successfully cultivated in India and
indicated the Neilgherry Mountains as being peculiarly suited for

a trial.

In 1850 Dr. Grant, Apothecary to the E. I. Company, again drew
attention to the subject, and in 1852 the Agri Horticultural Soci-
ety of Bengal transmitted a paper by Dr. Falconer, Superin-
tendent of the Botanical Garden at Calcutta in which he also urged
a trial of the experiment. The proposal was favorably received by
the Governor General and recommended to the notice of the Court
of Directors, by whose ordersa case of plants of Cinchona calisaya
was transmitted to Calcutta under the charge of Mr. Fortune.

Of the six plants so despatched, five reached the Botanical
gardens alive. They were kept forsome months but did not ap-

* Prod. Resources of India, pp. 248, 426.

JAN.—MAR. 1857. | Peruvian Bark-tree. 209

pear to thrive, and the cuttings taken from them all died. On the
approach of the cold weather they were sent to Darjeeling, but
three only reached the station alive and these survived but a short
time, having been killed by the cold of the winter.

This can hardly be deemed a fair trial. The plants were too
few in number. ‘They were detained many months in the uncon-
genial climate of Lower Bengal. They were weakened by cuttings
_ and change of place and then suddenly transported at the approach
of winter to an elevation 6,000 or 7,000 above the plain in which
they had passed the hot season and the rains. Accordingly
the Medical Board of Bengal again addressed the Government of
Indiaf urging the prosetution of the experiment upon amore ex-
tended scale and recommending that it should be undertaken in si-
tuations better adapted to the natural habits of the tree, such as
the Neilgherries and the hilly regions of Sylhet, Chittagong and

the Tenasserim Provinces.

Of the result of this application we are not informed.

About the same period, the subject of the Cinchonas attracted
the attention of the French Government. In 1843 M. de Castel-
nau having been appointed to conduct an expedition for scientific
purposes into Central South America, M. Weddell was associ-
ated with him at the instance of the Musee D’Histoire Naturelle
for the prosecution of researches in Natural History. His atten-
tion was directed to the investigation of several interesting subjects
of botanical inquiry among which the history of the Cinchona oc-
cupied a prominent place. After working in concert with M.
de Castelnau for two years, he separated from him and pursued an
independent course of inquiry until 1848. It was during this pe-
riod in 1845-47 that he obtained the valuable information regard-
ing the Quina yielding trees which he has given to the world in his
Histoire Naturelledes Quinguinas which forms the standard as well
as the most recent work on the subject.

In the introductory chapter Mr. Weddell gives a sketch of the
history of the drug previous to the period of his own discoveries,

+ Indian Annals of Medical Science, III. 250.

210 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

The Quina Bark was first brought to Europe in 1640 by Juan de
Vega, physician of the Conde de Chinchon to whom it had been
sent in 1688 by an officer in the interior of the province, the Corre-
gidor Don Francesco Lopez Canizares, but for along time the
tree which produced the drug remained unknown. In 1735 the
Academy of Sciences having obtained the appointment of the com-
mission to measure an arc of the meridian at the equator under
the direction of M. de la Condamine, Joseph Jussieu was attached
to it as Naturalist. He visited the forests of Loxa and Upper
Peru from which the largest quantity of the febrifuge bark was ex-
ported and first ascertained that it was produced by the tree which
has since been named Cinchona Condamines by Humboldt. But un-
fortunately the results of his researches were never published. He
did not return home till 1771 and then in a state of mental inca-
pacity which totally unfitted him for literary labor. La Conda-
mine however gave a general account of their discoveries in 1738.

For along time the market continued to be supplied from this
single source, but so great was the destruction of trees, 25,000
having, according to Humboldt, (1779,) been destroyed in one year,
that the C. Condaminea became extremely scarce and the dealers
having taken to adulterating the article with other barks, it fell into
disrepute. The trade gradually diminished and Loxa itself sank
into decay.

A new source of supply was opened by the discovery of several
kinds of Cinchona in the forests of New Granada and a trade in
barks sprung up at Carthagena after the middle of the last century.

The Marquis de la Vega appointed Viceroy of New Granada in
1760 was accompanied by Don Jose Celestin Mutis who ear-
nestly applied himself to develop the resources of the province.
He made known the existence of bark yielding trees in the vicinity
of Santa Fe de Bogata and was appointed to the charge of the
forests in which office he was found by Humboldt when he visited
that part of S. America.

A few years later the Spanish Government having organized an
expedition to explore the productions of their American possessions
Messrs. Ruiz and Payon were appointed to accompany it in the

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Peruvian Bark-tree. 911

capacity of Botanists together with M. Dombey, an able French
physician. After continuing their labors for 11 years they publish-
ed the results in the Flora Peruviana and in the Quinologia which
appeared subsequently from the pen of Don Hippolito Ruiz.
Their researches tended greatly to enlarge the existing knowledge
of the subject. They established several additional species of the
genus Cinchona and opened a new source of supply from the forests
_ of lower Peru and Chili. r

Much however still remainad to be discovered and although addi-
tions to the stock of information left by them were contributed by
Humboldt and Bonpland, Lambert, Poppig, and others, it remain-
ed for M. Weddell to bring the subject in a comprehensive form
before the public.

His first journey in search of the Cinchona trees commenced in
August 1845, Proceeding through the’Chequito country in the
province of Bolivia he directed his course southwards towards the
Rio Grande, crossed the Cordilleras to Tarija which he reached in
January 1846 and determined the most southern limit to which the
genus reaches, near the 19° of S. Lat. where it is represented by
the C. australis. He then after the rains crossed the Andes to La
Paz, the emporium of the bark trade of Upper Peru and in the
course of his journey, identified for the first time the tree pro-
ducing the Caltsaya bark which he named C. calisaya. In the lat-
ter part of 1847 he explored the eastern slopes of the Andes and
came upon some of the richest forests of Cznchona he had yet met
with particularly those on the Rio Ayopaya and in the province of
Yungas.

It was here that he obtained the most precise information of the
mode of discovering, felling, barking, transporting and selling the
guina barks, his account of which is well worth quoting.

“‘ The name of cascarilleros,”’ says M. Weddell, “ is given to the
men who cut the cinchonas in the woods ; an appellation equally ap-
plying to those who are specially engaged in this commerce. The
former, and of these alone I will speak here, are in general men
who have been brought up to this laborious occupation from their
Infancy, and are accustomed by a kind of instinct to guide them-

-

212 Selections. [wo. 2, NEW SERIES,

selves in the midst of the forest. Without any compass but that in-
telligence peculiar to man in a state of nature, they guide them-
selves as unerringly in these labyrinths as if they were surrounded
by an open horizon. But how often does it happen that those less

experienced in this art lose themselves and are never more heard
of !

‘The only period which is not suited for the collection of cincho-
na bark is the rainy season, which in duration corresponds in some
respects with cur winter. Ifsome persons contend that the pe-
riod of the ascension of the sap is the best for stripping the trees,
their precepts are certainly not practically adopted, for even during
the rainy season the collection of the ba¥k is only suspended on
account of physical obstacles to its continuance.

“« The cutters are not generally engaged on their own account, but
are mostly in the service of some merchant or small company. A
confidential person is sent with them into the forests who is called
the major domo. It is his duty to receive and examine the barks
which are brought to him by the different parties in the forest, and
to superintend the distribution of the provisions.

‘“‘ The first thing done by those who engage in this kind of specula-
tion in a region previously unexplored is to have it examined by ex-
perienced cascarilleros, who are called diestros or practicos, The
duty of these is to penetrate the forests in different directions, and to
ascertain to what points they may be profitably explored. They are
expected to state whether there are any cinchonas, and in what
quantity ; also to point out the direction in which the trees are to

be found, and to report on the quality of specimens of the bark ob-
tained.

‘«‘ This preliminary investigation is very important, and requires
the possession of much sagacity, patience, and experience, in those
who are engaged init. It is upon their report that the chances of
success are calculated. If it be favourable, a road is immediately
commenced up to the point which is to form the centre of the ope-
rations ; and from this time all those parts of the forest adjacent
to the road become provisionally the property of those who have
formed it, and no other cascariileros can work there.

JAN.—MaR. 1857. | Peruvian Bark-tree. 213

“On the arrival of major domo with his cutters in the neighbour-
hood of the part to be explored, he chooses a favourable site for
his encampment, as near as possible to a spring or river. He con-
structs a hut or slight house to shelter the provisions and the pro-
duce of the cuttings; andif he anticipates having to remain for
some time in the same locality, he commences the cultivation of
maize and a few vegetables. Experience, indeed, has shown that
an abundant supply of provisions is one of the most important con-
ditions of success in this class; of undertaking. The cascarilleros,
during this time, are distributed through the forest, one by one, or
in small parties, each carrying under a small cloak, and suspended
at his back, provisions fr several days, and the coverings which
constitute his bed. In this way these poor beings have occasion to
put in practice all their courage and patience in order that their
work may prove fruitful. Obliged to have the hatchet or knife
continually in his hand, to disembarrass himself of the numerous
obstacles which arrest his prcgress, the cascarillero is exposed, from
the nature of the circumstances by which he is surrounded, to an
infinity of accidents which too often endanger his life.

*“‘ The cinchonas rarely constitute an entire forest, but form groups
more or less compact, distributed in different parts of it. The
Peruvians give these the name of manchas. In some cases, and
most frequently, they grow separately. However this may be, it is
in discovering them that the skill of the cascarillero is principally
exerted. Ifthe position be favourable, the tops of the trees first
attract his notice; a slight movement peculiar to the leaves of cer-
tain species, a particular colour of the foliage, the aspect produced
by a great mass of inflorescence, enable him to distinguish the cin-
chonas from a great distance. Under other circumstances he con-
fines his inspection to the trunks, of which the external layer of the
bark, or enves as it is called, presents remarkable characters. Very
frequently the dry leaves which he finds on the ground are suffici-
ent to indicate to him the vicinity of the object of his search ; and
if these indications have been brought there by the wind, he sits
in what direction to look. An Indian, under these circumstances,
is an interesting object for observation. Passing in and out through
the narrow pathways of the forest, glancing through the foliage,

a?

-~

214 Selections. [NO. 2, NEW SERIES,

and appearing to sniff the earth, he seems to walk like an animal
pursuing its prey, and darts forth when he thinks he has discover-
ed the object of his search, nor stops until he has arrived at the
foot of the trunk which he had descried from the distance. It is
not always, however, that the exertions of the cascarillero are pro-
ductive of such favourable results. Too often he returns to the
camp empty handed, and without provisions ; and not unfrequent-
ly, when he has discovered on the side of a mountain indications
of the tree, he finds himself séparated from it by a torrent or ra-
vine. Entire days may then pass before he can attain the object
which, during this period, he allows not to escape from his sight.

‘“‘ In order to strip the tree of its bark it is felled with a hatchet,
being cut a little above the root, and the bark previously removed
from this part, so that nothing may be lost ; and as at the base the
bark is thickest, and therefore most profitable, it is customary to
remove the earth from around the trunk, so that the barking may
be more complete. The tree seldom falls immediately when cut
through, being sustained either by climbing plants or by the adja-
cent trees; these are fresh obstacles to be overcome by the casca-
yillero. I remember having once cut the trunk of a large cinchona
in the hope of bringing its flowers within reach, and, after having
felled three adjacent trees, had the mortification to find it yet
standing, being held up by the interlacing creepers.

«“ When at length the tree is down, and the useless branches have
been cut off, the peridermis is removed by striking it, either with a
little wooden mallet, or even with the back of the hatchet ; and
the inner bark, being thus exposed, is often further cleaned by
means of a brush. The bark is then divided by uniform incisions
circumscribing the pieces which are to be removed, and these are
separated from the trunk with a common knife or some other in-
strument, the point of which is carried as close as possible to
the surface of the wood on introducing it into the incisions pre-
viously made ; and if the position of the trunk prevents the opera-
tor from removing the whole of the bark by the first operation, it
is subsequently divided so as to admit of its being turned. The
dimensions and regularity of the pieces necessarily depend more or

mits”

Bed |S oad 2 Ae ese

~_ =, owe are

Se

5) ha

Eee, we

Sees eee ety

«ey

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Peruvian Bark-tree. 215

less on circumstances ; in general, however, for the convenience of
transport and facility of preparation, they endeavour to make them
from fifteen to eighteen inches long, and four or five inches wide.
The bark of the branches is separated in the same way as that of
the trunk, excepting that it is not deprived of its exterior coating
or peridermis.*

*©* Formerly, with very few exceptions, the bark deprived of its peridermis was
not received in commerce; not that any virtue was supposed to exist in that part,
but it furnished distinctive characters, by which it was easily known, and render-
ed difficult of substitution. The necessity which was thus imposed upon the cas-
carilleros of preserving this, in mgny cases, frail part, demanded on their part the
greatest care. Thus in many places it was the custom to fell the tree two or three

days before barking it, so tliat, desiccation having commenced, the different
layers of bark might adhere together.

“« T think that the removal of the peridermis from the surface of the thick barks
at the time of cutting, is not quite general. Some of the cinchonas of New Gra-
nada, which I have recently seen, retained the outer coating. However this may
be, we perceive the necessity of studying the bark under both aspects. I am per-
suaded that many museum specimens, collected at a period when it was custo-
mary to preserve the peridermis, would no longer be thought of doubtful utility,
if considered in this point of view.

‘** The process formerly employed for separating the young barks from the wood,
also differs much from that which is now practised ; hence there is a certain dif-
ference in the formation of the cylinders prepared by the two methods. I have
already described the way in which it is now done, and it is easy to understand
that by this method the dimensions of the separated pieces may depend on the
patience or skill of the cascariilero, or on the circumference of the branch or
trunk from which they are taken. Formerly, on the other hand, each piece was
cut by one operation, the cascaril/ero holding his knife by the two extremities,
and drawing it rapidly towards him. The flat pieces obtained in this way neces-
sarily varied in width, according to the size of the trunk from which they were
taken, and the quills when dried were frequently no larger than a pen. The
pieces also had sharp edges, and they were thicker at the centre. The defect of
this method was the immense loss which resulted, for nearly as much bark was
left on as that which they removed, the former being considered useless on ac-
count of its being deprived ofthe peridermis. But this loss was as nothing when
compared with that which I have next to notice. I allude to the almost entire
rejection, for some time, of the bark of thick trunks. The loss resulting from this
cause was immense. Many of those experienced in this subject having affirmed
that with age the juices disappear by degrees from the bark, and that those barks
only are efficacious which are taken from branches of moderate size, four times
as many trees were sacrificed as would have been the case under other circum-
stances. It has been said, it is true, that the cascarilleros climbed the trees to

216 Selections. [NO. 2, NEW SERIES,

«“ The details in the process of drying also vary slightly in the
two cases; the thinnest pieces of bark from the branches or small
trunks, intended to make the quilled cinchona, are simply exposed
to the sun’s rays, and of themselves take the desired form, which is
that of a hollow cylinder; but the bark taken from large trunks,
which is to constitute the flat cinchona, or, as it is called, tabla or
plancha, must necessarily undergo a certain degree of pressure dur-
ing the process of desiccation, without which it would become mis-
shapen, or take a cylindrical form as in the preceding case. To
effect this, after first exposing the pieces of bark to the sun, they
are placed one on the other in crossed " squares, in a similar man-
ner to that practised in timber-yards in the arrangement of the
planks of wood, and on the top of this pile a heavy weight is
placed. This process is repeated for several days until the bark is
completely dried.

“‘ The above process is that most commonly adopted in preparing
the cinchonas ; but it will be easily comprehended that this must
vary, in some degree, according to the locality, or the nature of
the tree operated upon. In many places the bark is not pressed
at all, or but imperfectly so, and it is then generally out of form or
slightly curled. The peridermis is often but partially removed, or
simply scraped. Finally, whether it be accidental, or whether it
be done with the view of augmenting the weight, there frequently
remains a certain quantity of moisture in the bark, which greatly
deteriorates it. It thus appears that cinchonas which would have
presented the same characters if similarly prepared, may, accord-
ing to the circumstances, vary very greatly. In any of these cases
the labour of the cascarillero is by no means ended, even when he

cut off the branches, taking care to leave the terminal branch ; but those whom
I have known have always candidly confessed that they found the most simple
method to be that of cutting the trees down, and this, I believe, has been the
uniform practice. Thousands of quintals of cinchona bark have been thus left to
perish in the forests; and it has only been since the inutility of the practice has
been proved by chemical analysis that it has been discontinued. It is not to be
considered, however, that the bark of old trees contains as much of the active
principle as those which have only arrived at maturity. There are limits between
which all are good; indeed, none ought to be rejected.

JAN. —MAR. 1857.] Peruvian Bark-tree. Qi

has finished the preparation of the bark; he has yet to carry his
spoil to the camp, and, with a heavy load on his shoulders, to re-
trace his steps along those parts which, while unburdened, he tra-
versed with difficulty. The labour involved in this part of the
operations can hardly be conceived. I have seen more than one
district where the bark has to be thus carried for fifteen or twenty
days’ journey to get it out of the wood from which it was obtained;
and considering the amount of remuneration received, I could
hardly imagine men so unfortunate as to engage in work so labo-
rious and ill-paid.*

“ Something yet remains to be said with reference to the packing
of the bark. It is the “major-domo who performs this duty. As
the cutters bring him the bark, the produce of their labour, he sub-
mits it to a slight examination, and rejects that which is bad. It
is then, if necessary, exposed to a fresh process of desiccation, and
formed into bundles of nearly equal weight, which are sewn up in
coarse canvas kept for that purpose. In this condition the bundles
are conveyed on the backsof men, donkeys, or mules, to the depéts in
the towns, where they generally receive an exterior envelope, con-
sisting of fresh hide, which as it dries makes a hard and compact
package. In this form the packages are known by the name of
serons, and it is thus that they arrive in Europe. The usual weight
of aseronis from 70 to 80 kilogrammes (kilogramme 2 lbs. 3 ozs, avoir-
dupoise); but the weight is sometimes much less than this. From
these details it will be seen how erroneous the notions of some per-
sons still are with reference to the collection of cinchona bark ; many
having thought that it continues under special surveillance as it
was formerly represented to be; and others that the cinchona-trees
are cultivated in enclosed parks and treated as the cork-trees of our
country. It must be acknowledged that the mode of collecting
this valuable product appears to be always under the control of the
half-savages by whom it is performed; and if some efficient means

*“** In general, before the product reaches the coast it passes through at least
three or four hands, and on each occasion its price is augmented; moreover, as
carriage is very expensive, it follows that the price charged in- Europe will afford
no idea of its cost on the borders of the forest. At Pelechuco, for instance, 1 ki-
logramme (2 lbs. 3 ozs. avoirdupoise) is only worth a franc and a half (fifteen
pence), and for this twenty francs are now paid in Paris.

218 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

be not discovered of counteracting the ruinous and wasteful me-
thod adopted, our descendants will inevitably have to regret the
entire or at least partial extinction of the different varieties of cin-
chona. |

“The opinion of those who calculate upon the forests being re-
stocked from seeds, and from suckers thrown out from the stumps
of the fallen trees, is more nearly in accordance with truth; but,
as will be seen, even this source of renewed supply can only be de-
pended upon to a certain extent. Too often the suckers, reckless-
ly cut down, perish with the trunks to which they were attached ;
and the young trees, which very slowly attain to a certain degree —
of development, fall in their turn beneath the hatchet, never again
to appear. The same may also be said of the seeds. A supervision
and control exercised over the cutters, by means of inspectors,
would, to a certain extent check this vandalism, but, unfortunately
could not practically be carried into operation. The inspection of
the woods in our country is a very different thing from inspecting
a forest in the New World, especially if this forest cover 20,000

square miles.

“ In fact, itappears to me that there are but two methods which
could be adopted for preventing the rapid destruction of the cinchona
trees. One is to limit the exportation to a quantity proportionate
to the sustainable produce of the forest; the other, that of making
the trees objects of regular cultivation. To limit the exportation
would certainly be the most efficacious method; but is it not to
be feared that the disproportion between the consumption and
production is already too great to admit of the balance being thus
restored? and moreover, are not our wants too pressing to give
way to considerations effecting only the future?* There remains
the cultivation, and this must be resorted to. If there be a tree
which is worthy of being acclimated in a French colony, it is, cer-
tainly, the cinchona, and posterity will be grateful to those who
may succeed in putting this plan into execution.

‘“«* Tn support of this view of the subject we may cite the case of the Company
of La Paz, to whom the Bolivian government conceded the monopoly of the com-

merce of the cinchonas of Bolivia, with the power of annually exporting 4,000
guintals, or 40,000 Spanish pounds. The restriction imposed in this case was

JAN.—MAR. 1857. | Peruvian Bark-tree. 219

M. Weddell has likewise given interesting details of the present
condition of the Cinchona forests and of the measures adopted by
the Bolivian Government to regulate the trade. The discovery of
quinine in 1820 gave a new impulse to the bark trade of Upper
Peru from which province alone the Calisaya bark, yielding by
far the largest proportion of quinine, is obtained. In 1830 Gene-
ral Santa Cruz, then President of the Bolivian Republic attempted
to check the wasteful destruction of the forests by a series of ill-
digested measures which only tended to aggravate the evil. In
1845 a monopoly was given to a commercial house, a principal con-
dition of which was that the exports should not exceed 20,000
quintals (2,000,000lbs.) dyring the five years for which it was grant-
ted. The stipulation was not observed. Other monopolies fol-
lowed and in the last two years of M. Weddell’s stay (1849-50) the
quantity of bark brought into the market from Bolivia alone was
$,000,000lbs. No wonder then that he foretells the utter extince-
tion of the trade at no very distant period. It appears that the
bark from the lower part of the tree is more valuable than that grow-
ing higher up. Many trees were observed by him in the course of
his excursions, to have been barked only as high as the arm
couldreach. Others which had been cut down were stripped only
on the upper side because the cascarzlleros would not take the trou-
ble to turn them! As a proof of the progressive diminution of the
tree he cites the fact that whereas the Calisaya was, at a compara-
tively recent period to be found every where in the neighbourhood of
the most populous tracts, it is impossible now to see a tree of 2 or
3 feet in diameter without penetrating several days’ journey into
the deepest parts of the forests.

never observed, and complaints have been made that the quantity allowed to be
exported has been greatly exceeded. What would it be, then, if the restrictions
were entirely removed, as they are in most other parts, and especially in Peru,
where the exportation, during some years, has attained to an extent which is al-
most incredible ?

** In New Granada, at the time when the commerce of cinchona bark was carri-
ed to the greatest extent, that is to say at the commencement of this century, the
quantity exported from Carthagena alone amounted in one year, 1806, to the
enormous extent of 1,200,000 pounds. In the present day, on the contrary,
scarcely any is exported.

920 Selections. | NO. 2, NEW SERIES,

It does not appear that the French Government have founded
any practical measures on the discoveries and recommendations of M.
Weddell. Butin 1852 the subject was taken up by the Netherlands
Government and measures were adopted which have resulted in the
successful introduction of the C. Calisaya into Java. The history
of the experiment has been published by Professor De Vriese in a
pamphlet of 122 pages, the substance of which is contained in the
article with which we conclude the subject.

On the Transplantation of the Partvran BARK-TREE into Dutch
Kast India; dy Dr. Do Vriesz.*

‘< Were this notice intended for the leained world alone, it would ~
be necessary to treat the subject more amply than is now attempt-
ed, as nothing more is desired than to enable the inquiring reader
to understand what Quinquina is, its value to mankind, and the
views that have actuated the Dutch in what they have done in this
important matter. /

““Onsome points of a scientific nature it has been necessary to be
more diffuse than in other respects was desirable, as the greater
part of the uninitiated (and who would misinterpret this term ?) are
not generally acquainted with the specialities of natural and medi-
cal science; in other respects, conciseness has been necessary to
avoid too great amplification.

‘* From the earliest scientific information we know that the inha-
bitants of South America have done nothing to hinder the unlimit- —
ed collection, we should almost say robbery, of the Quinquina
woods. No one thinks of their cultivation, and the Public Autho-
rity seems not to be interested init, or is not able to be so: the
latter, we should be disposed to conclude, when we consider, after
Weddell, that the Quinquina district covers an extent of 2,000
square miles.

‘“‘ We notice also that unheard-of quantities are exported; nay,
what is more, now and then whole woods are burnt up. It may

* Extracted from a Work entitled ‘De Kina-Boom uit Zuid-America overge-

bragt naar Java. Door W. H. De Vriese. ’S Gravenhage. (Translated by James
Perrin, Professor of the English Language at Leyden.) 1800.’

JAN.—MAR, 1857. | Peruvian Bark-tree. 221

be unknown to the Peruvians and Bolivians less than to Europeans,
that the quantity diminishes, and that the trees, which are felled
by thousands, are not so speedily succeeded by others that replace
them. Whoever descends the Andes, to visit the woods in which
the Quingquina grows, finds his way from the sound of the reckless
axe of the Cascarilleros,as they mercilessly, in an unexampled man-
ner, hew these beautiful trees. This rough handling is not alone
working fatally for the future, but all accounts are unanimous that
an incredible quantity of bark is lost in the most reckless manner.

“These circumstances have the sad consequence which De la
Condamine foresaw as probable, and that all late travellers confirm,
namely that there is a vieible diminution in the quantity of Quin-
quina trees.

* Don Antonio de Ulloa,* thirty years after De la Condamine, ut-
tered a warning against the destruction of the Quinquina woods,
and proposed that strong prohibitive measures should be taken
against theirabuse. This, although very late, sixty-six years after,
the Government of Bolivia considered, viz. in January, 1838; it
issued an order against the exportation of Quinquina wood for five
years.

“ Pereira} makes the remark, that as these trees are produced but
in one quarter of the world, and no care is taken of their cultiva-
tion, it is nowise to be wondered at that, this bark, in the course of
time, should disappear from commerce.

** Stevenson{ declares that if the Government of America do not
take care to preserve the Quinquina-tree, either by forbidding the
felling of it, or by obliging the authorities of the provinces to take
strong measures to prevent the destruction of the tree, it is much
to be feared that this excellent Sa hig of the New World will
be wholly exhausted.

* Writer of ‘ Noticias Americanas,’ vol. i. 1772, 8vo. See also Hooker’s ‘ Com-
panion to the Botanical Magazine,’ i. 247.

+ ‘ The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics,’ by J. Pereira, ed. 3,
vol. ii, part 2, pp. 1605 e¢ seg. London, 1853.

t Narrative of Twenty Years’ Residence in South America, ii. 60.

-

222 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

“ Weddell, in the Introduction to his ‘ Histoire Naturelle des
Quinquinas,’ says that his attention has been given to all sorts of
Quinquinas. These are his words :—* L’immense accroissement
pris par le commerce des Quinquinas dans ces parties, rendait en
quelque sorte nécessaire un travail aleur sujet. A une epoque aussi
ou la consommation de ces écorces, et surtout de leur principe fé.
brifuge, la Quinine, devient de plus en plus considérable, je crois
qwil peut étre utile d’appeler l’attention sur les écorces qui un jour
devront remplacer la Quinquine Calysaya, dont l’épuisement devient
de plus en plus imminent. Ces espéces, si elles sont beaucoup moins
riches en principes actifs, nous offrent encore, par leur abondance,

quelque sécurité, contre la chance prochaine de nous voir privés du _

médicament le plus précieux du régne végétal.’

“¢ Several Dutch naturalists, whose zeal in advancement of science
for the good of mankind and the glory of their country is above all
praise, have, for more than twenty-five years, urged upon the Go-
vernment, both at home and in India, the transplantation of the
Quinquina-tree from South America to Java. Those gentlemen
have been Messrs. Blume, Korthals, Reinwardt, G. J. Mulder, Mi-
quel, Fromberg, Vrolik, and others.

“Tt will be superfluous to say that successive Ministers for the
Colonies have considered these propositions, and all who were offi-
cially called to it, and could throw light on the subject, have shown
their interest in, and their desire for, the accomplishment of this ob-

ject.

“‘ Some of these naturalists have thought it probable that after
some years, if the Quinquina-tree should be exhausted in South
America, the culture of it might succeed in Java. Others have
thought that neither pains nor money should be spared to transplant
from Peru to Java a tree which would grow as luxuriantly there as
in America.

*‘ The desirableness of the transplanting was continually kept in
remembrance ; but the Government supposed the thing impractica-
ble. The wish to obtain seeds of this tree, through the Dutch con-
suls in different States of America, was disappointed, the difficulty
of obtaining them being so great, on account of the distance of their

EE

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Peruvian Bark-tree. 228

stations from the woods of the interior of Peru, Bolivia, and New
Granada, Seeds and plants were often promised by one and ano-
ther, but these promises were not realized, although they were con-
tinually renewed. It was sufficiently clear that the only means to
obtain seeds or plants of the Quinquina-tree was to send thither a
proper person to fetch them,

** To find such a person was not easy. Various knowledge, bo-
tanical knowledge, and particularly an acquaintance with the Quin-
quina, were required. A great constancy and intrepidity in danger
and in the difficulties of long journeys in foreign countries, and es-
- pecially a strong constitution, would be requisite in one charged
with so important a mission.

*“ Meanwhile the experience and information obtained by Mr.
W eddell, in South America, were not lost to the naturalists of the
Netherlands. His fame, but particularly his excellent writings, as
well as the barks and dried specimens, collected by him in Peru,
were not only known and appreciated here, but came freely into the
possession of Dutchmen, and of their scientific institutions. In the
Museum of Paris they were submitted to the inspection and research
of the professional and interested with a praiseworthy liberality, of
which the writer of this communication was able to bear witness dur-
ing his sojourn in the French capital.

‘<In the month of June, 1852, the Minister for the Colonies pro-
posed to the King, that a proper person should be sent to South
America, to collect seeds and plants, and to transport them direct-
ly to Java, and he was empowered to despatch Mr. Justus Charles
Hasskarl, late Botanist of the Botanical Gardens at Buitenzorg, Java,
on the mission.

“* The choice of so competent a man may in all respects be con-
sidered fortunate. Mr. Hasskarl, by along residence on the Island
of Java, had become accustomed to the influences of a tropical cli-
mate. He hada strong constitution, and was of middleage. For
many years he had given evidence of a great love for the science,
and a comprehensive knowledge of the Flora of Java. His nume-
rous published writings evince great accuracy, perseverance, and

,

224 Selections, [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

industry. His travels and investigations in India had furnished him
with an uncommon measure of experience in travelling, particularly
in overcoming the difficulties which so often arise out of the nature
of a tropical soil.

“ From his sound judgment and caution there was every reason
to believe him particularly fit for this mission ; it is not to be won-
dered at, then, that he immediately attracted the Minister’s atten-
tion who proposed him to the King for this important service. Ex-
pectation was not disappointed, as the result has shown, for the ob-
ject of Mr. Hasskarl’s mission to South America has been attained.

“A plan was prepared and proposed, though he was left to his -
own judgment and prudence, and was only charged not to confine
himself to the Calisaya Quinquina plant, but to collect as many as
possible of the other sorts of Quinquina, which are found at vari-
ous heights above the level of the sea. He was to go from South-
ampton to Charges, and so on over Panama to Guayaquil and Loxa,
whence he was to journey inland. To save time, preference was
given to the steam-voyage to Panama, above the longer one of
doubling Cape Horn, which would have caused a delay of three
months at least before the traveller could reach the places from
which he would have to direct his course towards the interior of
South America.

“ On the 4th of December, 1852, Mr. Hasskarl left the Nether-
lands for Southampton, which he quitted on the 17th of December,
on board the steam-boat La Plata, arriving at St. Thomas on the
Ist of January, 1853; on the 12th, at Aspinwall, by Chagres ; and
at Panama on the 14th, just three days too late to continue his
voyage by the steam-boat that touches at the ports on the west
coast of South America.

‘“‘ Being thus detained, he on the 25th continued his route to
Payta, to go thence to Guayaquil. With the knowledge however
that the rainy season would render his journey fruitless, he chang-
ed his plan and went to Lima.

‘** In the beginning of May he ascended the first, and then the se-
cond Cordilleras, thence he descended into the lower part of Peru.

JAN.—MAR. 1857. | Peruvian Bark-tree. 225

Here it was that he saw, for the first time since leaving Panama, a
luxuriant vegetation, but which however was far from being com-
parable with that of the last-mentioned country.

“To what difficulties such journeys are subject, may be generally
known from the accounts of travellers in the pursuit of natural his-
tory ; but it may not be uninteresting to the reader to be informed
of Mr. Hasskarl’s experience in that respect.

_. “ The roads over the mountains of Peru are bad, mostly not
broader than a bridle-path, and there are often on one side deep
and dangerous precipices ; it is impossible for travellers meeting to
_ pass each other. When the crest of the second Cordilleras is pass-
ed, the traveller finds steps rather than roads. Here the way must
be traversed on foot, the baggage being borne by Indians, if one is
so fortunate as to find any. Setting forth on foot by Vitoc to Mo-
nohamba and Uchahamba, Mr. Hasskarl had the satisfaction to see
the first Quinine-trees in their natural state, although these were
not the Calisaya Quinquina, which are found in Southern Peru and
Bolivia. Returning from Monohamba, across the second Cordille-
ras, he went to the capital of the province of Zanja.

** Near Uchuhamba Mr. Hasskarl saw a great number of true
Calisaya Quinquina-trees but he was only able to collect a few of
the plants and seeds. Of that good sort he collected a large quan-
tity of seed, besides about fifty plants, which, after being packed
with much difficulty, were sent from Lima to Holland on the 28th
of July, 1853. This packet contained, besides seeds of ‘ Calisaya,’
four packets of ‘ Cinchona ovata,’ and a small quantity of ‘ Cin-
chona pubescens.’ Ina letter to the Minister for the Colonies da-
ted 12th August, Mr. Hasskarl sent a small bladder of seeds of the
‘ Cinchona amygdalfolia.” After a voyage of about a month and
a half, these objects arrived in a good state at Lima. They were
addressed to some one acquainted with their culture, and by him
packed in Wardian cases, and despatched to Panama. Owing to
a misunderstanding of the carrier, they were detained there; and
when, after experiencing the influence of a tropical heat, on arriv-
ing at Lima, all were dead. Here we had to lament the loss of the
soil in which those plants were set in the cases, which, if it had

-

226 Selections. [NO. 2, NEW SERIES,

been chemically examined in this country or in India, might have
thrown some light on the culture. However the seeds arrived
safely, and were consigned to the Directors of the Botanical Gar-
dens of the Universities, and at Amsterdam. We shall revert to
these seeds later. From Uchuhamba the traveller went more
southerly, where the people, who had revolted against the Govern-
ment, and declared themselves free, not unfrequently threatened his
life, for they looked upon him as aspy of the Peruvian Govern-
ment. Often, and that too in the night, wholly and suddenly for-
saken by his guides, was he obliged to wander about, without the
most necessary food, to seek his old track, being whole days with-
out seeing a human being.

«

«The opinion that the Quinquina-trees are found together in

woods, growing, as it were, in company, is again, by the experience
of Mr. Hasskarl, refuted. They are often scattered, and sometimes,
even in the Quinquina districts, very difficult to find. Can the con-
tradiction which, in these statements, exists between the earlier
and present writers, be explained by the destruction of the woods,
which has taken place during the last half century ?

«* Arrived in the province of Caraboya, he cherished the hope
that he should there find the Quinquina-trees still full of fruit and
seed, and ¢haé from information given him. This hope was dis-
appointed, as the seeds were already scattered.

“In the latter end of September, 1853, Mr. Hasskarl arrived at
Cuzco, the old Inca town. Passing from there to Sandia, the ca-
pital of the district of that name, where alone the Quinquina, as
far as Peru is concerned, is collected, he put himself in connection
with some old and experienced bark collectors / Casearilleros practi-
cos ), to obtain information, and to make inquiry concerning the places
where the Quinquina-trees grow. Thus he was enabled to see a
great number and variety of the Quinquina species, but it was his
misfortune to discover that he had come too late to collect seeds,
for the fruits remaining on the trees had already dropped their
seeds. It may not be improper to remark here that the Quinquina
seed is extremely fine and light, and surrounded by an exquisitely
fine membrane, so that it is easily blown away and lost, but also,

a a ee

TAN.—MAR. 1857,] Peruvian Bark-tree. Q27

that to this cause may be traced the wonderful extent of the Quin-
quina-trees in South America.

“Tt was even less possible at that time to obtain young plants of
those trees. In Caraboya however the trees were very scarce, much
scattered, and thus rare, as the Cascarilleros had grubbed up all
the old or seed-bearing trees. It is therefore often necessary to
cross the great river, and thus to go over the boundary of the
country of the wild Indians, with a faint hope of success, to look
for these trees, and find scattered: here and there in the woods,
young plants that have grown up from seeds.

*‘In this manner, being disappointed in his expectation that his
journey would be finishefl with 1853, he determined to return to
Lima, and pass the rainy season there till April; however he
changed this place, where, in the meantime, the yellow fever had
broken out in a severe form, for Chili, where a cooler climate seem-
ed to promise the restoration of his impaired health and strength.
Advices from the Netherlands induced him to settle at Arequipa,
where he was expecting to receive news of a score of Wardian cases
which he bought at Lima, being forwarded to Islay. Having re-
ceived this advice, he determined to go toa distance of 150 Span-
ish leagues into the interior, to make further investigations.

“* A series of difficulties however presented themselves, which ren-
dered the obtaining of Calisaya plants almost impossible. Peru
and Bolivia were at war with each other. In the former year, the
frontiers of the latter were wholly forbidden to the Peruvians.
Mr. Hasskarl however believed that the restraint had been re-
moved, with the exception of a small port on the “ desaguadero”’
(outlet), lying at the south corner of the Lake Titicaca, which fa-
vourable change might have been brought about by the departure
of the Peruvian armies, under the command of Echinique, to reduce
Arequipa, where the insurgents had ranged themselves under the
banners of Castilla.

* Bolivia was the country to which his attention was particularly
directed, for there, according to the information, right or wrong,
he had received, the Quinquina-trees were not so widely spread,
but in certain places, called ‘ manchos” appear in great numbers,

-
a

228 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

and grow much higher. If he might be fortunate enough to pe-
netrate into the more deeply situated districts of Bolivia, the chance
of collecting seeds and plants was not unfavourable, as the Cali-
saya of Bolivia, which is collected here, is the Quinine Bark par
excellence.

“The frontiers of Bolivia were soon reached. Mr. Hasskarl
was soon at La Paz, not far from the snow-mountain at Lutchis,
a Bolivian frontier village, where he learned that the military order,
forbidding the passage of the frontier, had not been revoked, as he

had been erroneously informed.
Cc

He was thus obliged to determine to retire on the Peruvian ter- _
ritory, which he did, with the plan of going to Sandia in an easterly
direction, keeping along the Bolivian frontier. With what pains
and difficulties this expedition was attended can scarcely be con-
ceived, unless we gave the detailed account furnished by himself,
which our present space forbids. At the frontier places of Peru
are often found Bolivians, who are generally Cascarilleros. For
these the passage of the boundary was not forbidden, as it was for
the Peruvians. They carry on their trade, have their families and
abodes in Bolivia; they export all sorts of objects or produce, and
were not only disposed to serve Mr. Hasskarl, but they afforded
all wished-for help, so that he was (naturally for an equivalent)
very quickly supplied with plants by some, with seeds by others.
Awaiting these, he went from one frontier place to another, and
at last reached the above-mentioned Sandia, which he de-
termined to make his head-quarters, and to which the objects to
be delivered were to be forwarded at an appointed time, that he
might pack them. He determined also to visit the places deeper
inland himself, and to study, as much as possible, the Quinquina
Calisaya.

“Meanwhile, the agreement with the Bolivians for plants and
seeds of Quinquina-trees, for which provisions and strong drinks
were given to those people, to load their mules and to serve as
barter, was fulfilled, and by this means he really succeeded. While
Mr. Hasskarl was gone from Sandia eastwards, one of the Bolivi-
ans arrived with a very considerable number of plants. Having

1 ey 5 Seer. 6
. 4

JAN.—MaR. 1857. | Peruvian Bark-tree. 229

received information of this, he returned speedily to Sandia to se-
cure all, that the plants might not suffer from the air and heat.
On arriving, he found about 400 Calisaya plants, although not all
of the strength for which he had agreed. The person who brought
them must have had a very difficult journey to arrive at Sandia
with this precious cargo.

** We shall not here enumerate the difficulties and dangers with
which Mr. Hasskarl and that precious burden had to contend be-
fore he had accomplished a distance of 150 leagues, to bring those
objects in a safe state to a place of shipment. The necessary
means were contrived and put in action to obtain the seeds pro-
mised, but in this he was not able to succeed. The person who had
undertaken to secure them, and to follow him on his arrival at San-
dia, to Arequipa and Islay, and for which sufficient travelling ex-
penses were allowed, did not come; at the same time, the interest
that was felt in keeping the plants alive did not admit of delay.

‘In the packing of the plants several circumstances required at-
tention ; first, the plants were to be made sufficiently damp to be
able to reach the coast without drying up, notwithstanding the
strong drying winds, and the almost perpendicular rays of the sun.
Particularly was it necessary to protect them against this last,
against the great warmth during the day; while on the other, it
was equally necessary to guard these precious objects against the
other extreme, the cold of the evenings and nights, which on those
mountains is sufficiently severe. Just in the months from June
till August, the water on the high table-lands (particularly at
night) is frozen to ice. Ifit had been the aim of the indefatigable
traveller to transport the plants set in earth, the weight, and the
consequently increased number of beasts of burden, would have
caused more hindrances; the plants themselves, but particularly
their roots, would certainly have been injured by the continual
shaking of the animals. It was also necessary, in other points of
view, to provide for the plants in such manner that they should not
have to suffer ; considering that large plants were difficult to pre-
serve from the injurious external influences before mentioned. The
sprigs were closely packed together, with the roots in damp moss ;

230 . Selections. [NO. 2, NEW SERIES,

each packet was wrapped in the bark of Pisang stalks, and fasten-
ed with sackcloth, and made into small bales, somewhat resem-
bling wool-bales, as those in which goods are forwarded on the
llamas from the interior to the coast. The Pisang stalks necessary
for this packing had to be fetched from the lowlands, on the
shoulders of Indians; the moss, which did not grow at Sandia, was
obtained in the mountain districts; all which, on account of the
awkwardness and laziness of the Indians, cost much pains, time,
and money.

** But with the greatest difficulty was the necessary rope obtain-
ed. Four persons were sent into the lower woodlands to collect
bark, and work it up so as to serve for rope. Strong cords were —
required to bind the packages on the beasts of burden; these were
ordered at Cruzero, and in this Mr. Hasskarl met with cordial co-
operation. The collecting of so many mules in this solitary and
out-of-the-way place was no slight matter: they were weak ani-
mals that could not carry half the weight the mules of Arequipa
were able to bear on their backs. .

“ After a legion of difficulties of divers kinds, too many and too
various to sum up here, the expedition started from Sandia on the
8th of June.

“‘ It seemed however as if the difficulties would never come to an
end. The animals were driven forward as fast as possible, but it
was necessary, for the sake of the plants, to shorten the way as
as much as it could be. From early in the morning till late in the
evening they travelled on, almost without interruption, to leave the
hill-country, with its extreme changes of temperature, behind, and
to get as far off the highway as possible, that the cavalcade might
incur no risk from the numbers of troops, who took possession of
all transports as contraband of war, and that the plants, which were
threatened with many dangers from that cause, might arrive in
safety.

‘‘ Arrived at Azangora, they learned that no beasts of burden
were to be obtained, as they were all required by the insurgents
belonging to the party of Castilla, to carry muskets brought from
Bolivia to Cuzco; whereas other drivers had taken the district of

JAN.—MAR. 1857. ] Peruvian Bark-tree. 231

the mountains, to avoid being compelled to a like service for the
corps of General Roman, who was on the way from Puno to Cuzco.
It appears that the strife of the two Republics against each other,
and the troubled condition of the contending parties, caused the
indefatigable and courageous traveller many difficulties, and almost
occasioned the failure of his mission.

** We will not now follow him in the enumeration of his disas-
ters, but only say that, not counting five days when he was detain-
ed by meeting with the soldiers, he, by means of forced marches,
accomplished the journey from Sandia to Arequipa in a week ;
thence, embarking on a ship ready for sea, he went by Islay to Cal-
lao, and thence direct to Java.

** It seemed as if the courageous traveller must encounter new
difficulties at the end of his mission. Islay was again in possession
of the party of Echinique. An attack for the conquest of Arequi-
pa was preparing there. But the means of transport were wanting.
Mr. Hasskarl required many beasts of burden to transport his
packages. To obtain these there was no sort of prospect. It was
feared, and, as it appeared later, not without reason, that the ani-
mals would be seized. The profits of the expedition were not an
equivalent to the risk the drivers feared they should incur. The
party of Castilla, which was uppermost in Arequipa, moreover, did
not permit the departure to Islay, and the one danger brought on
the other. At last, when damages for the possible loss of the
beasts was promised in case of need, and some persons of influ-
ence in Arequipa placed themselves in the breach for Mr. Hass-
karl, his desired departure was allowed. On the journey to
Islay nothing important happened, but at that place however the
beasts were immediately pressed into the military transport service.
The Wardian cases were ariived at Islay, but the frigate did not ap-
pear till a fortnight afterwards; this induced him to depart for Cal-
lao ona vessel going thither in ballast. . In three days he arrived
there. On the passage Mr. Hasskarl, unpacked his Quinquina
plants, which he was able to do withoutinterruption. He had rea-
son to congratulate himself on their state, though they had been
for more than four weeks shut up from light and air, when cutting

282 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

through the stems afresh colour appeared. He immediately plant-
ed them in convenient cases. On the 7th of August, late in the
evening, he arrived at Callao, and on the 27th he was ready to set
out for Java, having passed the interval at Lima.

*« As soon as the cooler west coast of South America was left,
the heat began to increase daily, so that during the greater part of
the day the thermometer marked 80° to 86° Fahrenheit. This
made Mr. Hasskarl very careful of his plants, which, from his
observations have in their natural position a temperature not above
60°, and generally below 50° Fahrenheit, and sometimes even at
freezing-point. The objects had much to suffer in this heat, which —
must have been injurious to them, since they had made, including
the transport from Bolivia, a land journey of six weeks. Shades
of tents, etc., might ward off the sun’s rays, but the glass cases
were daily obscured with steam inside. The cases were opened,
to clear away the mildew that had collected in them ; and it was
found good to repeat the operation daily. The mildew was con-
tinually renewed, and had to be taken away. At the beginning of
the voyage, and after leaving the Sandwich Islands, the cases were
inspected, and those that required water were supplied with it,
however very sparingly.

“The stronger plants only began in any degree to sprout; the
others showed no signs of doing so, although the stems evidently
retained life. Some of them during the voyage began to shoot out
at the root, whereas of the weaker plants, the parts above the soil
appeared to be dying off, although it was apparently to be expected
that they would shoot later. It was thought advisable not to en-
danger the plants by an untimely inspection, or loosening of the
soil.

“We were informed, under date of the 22nd of December, 1854,
that Mr. Hasskarl had arrived at Batavia on the 13th of that month,
with twenty cases containing Quinquina plants, and at the same
time, that a longer delay at Callao was caused by the difficulty of
obtaining provisions and fuel; further, that at about 150 leagues
from the Philippine Islands, the ship had encountered a dreadful
hurricane, and had suffered much damage. ‘They arrived at Ma-

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Perucian Bark-tree. 233

cassar on the 3rd of December. As a long voyage now was con-
sidered bad for the plants, Mr. Hasskarl took his collection on
board a steamship stationed there, and arrived at Batavia on the
13th, as mentioned.

“* Measures were immediately taken by the Governor-General to
transport the plants to the higher-situated Tjippannas, in which,
however a delay of two days was occasioned by the tempestuous
weather.

«Mr. Hasskarl, on his arrival, was charged with the cultivation
of the Quinguina at Java.

“We have mentioned some seeds sent by Mr. Hasskarl to the
Netherlands. The consequences thereof are to be considered as
resulting directly from the mission carried out by that gentleman,
and what is to be said of them will find an appropriate place here.

* Seeds of various sorts of Quinquina have successfully been re-
ceived at the Colonial office as follows :—

1. “ Cinchona Condaminea, Lamb., vat. 6, lancifolia, Wedd. (C.
lancifolia, Mutis), collected in new Granada, and presented to His
Majesty’s Consul-General there, Mr. Lansberge, by the famous
traveller Karstens. From these seeds a few plants have been
raised in the Academical Garden at Leyden. From Mr. Hasskarl
were received—

2. “ Cinchona amygdalifolia, Wedd. Sent immediately to Java
per Overland Mail.

3. ‘* Cinchona Calisaya, Wedd., from the Valley of Sandia, in
the province of Carabaya, in Peru. Of this sort a quantity was

sent, immediately on its arrival, by post to Java; another quantity
was sown in the Botanical Garden.

4. “ Cinchona Calisaya, Wedd, var. B. Josephine ; sown, but
come up badly in the Garden at Leyden.

5. “* Cinchona ovata, R. et. P. (Cascarilla crispilla, rhigua or
chiqua). We were informed that this, like No. 4, grows as a shrub
in the neighbourhood of Hohubamba (Peru), 5-6000 Paris feet, on
sunny slopes ; whereas No. 5 grows at 6-7000 feet in high woods,
and even on slopes in a mouldy soil, more or less mixed with

234 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

mica-slate, which circumstances were taken into consideration in
laying the seed to germinate, and in the raising of the plant.

“The seeds received (with the exception of those sent directly
to Java) were immediately distributed by the Minister for the Co-
lonies to the Directors of the Botanical Gardens of the Universities
and of Amsterdam, to be germinated, and further cultivated. It
will be unnecessary to mention that these directors, deeply im-
pressed with the importance of the matter, used every effort to
make these objects answer the views of the Minister. In the be-
ginning of 1854, and since, in 1855, his Excellency, even a short

time after the sowing, received from the Botanical Gardens favour-

able reports concerning the germination. ‘

‘‘ With reference to the seeds that the Minister sent by the Over-
land Mail to Java, to be sown, favourable advices have been re-
ceived from the Governor-General (see lower) ; which last circum-
stance induced the Minister to request the return of the seeds from
the Gardens in the Netherlands, and to send them likewise by
Overland Mail to East India. It will be readily seen that the
Minister, in trying and promoting the matter by all the means in
his power, has had no other aim than that of assuring himself of
the success of the intended transplanting. The Quinquina plants
raised in the Gardens progressed in their development so much,
that even in 1854 some were sent to Java. This really took place,
and they were sent from Leyden, Utrecht, and Amsterdam.

1, ‘From Leyden plants of Cinchona Calisaya.
2. ‘From Utrecht, plants of the Cinchona ovata.

3. “From Amsterdam, plants of Cinchona Calisaya and Cincho-
na pubescens.

‘“‘Of No. 1 favourable reports have been received; of No. 2 such
are still expected.

** Could there possibly be a doubt as to the correctness of the nam-
ing of the sorts of those received from Mr. Hasskarl under the name
of ‘ Cinchona Calisaya, Wedd’? I think not. The Government had
sent a thoroughly competent person, and one who, by a long expe-

i rt i a i i i oe el i Mi

ee ee a Se ee ee

JAN.---MAR. 1857. | Peruvian Bark-tree. 235

rience in the investigation of nature, had become a clever botanist,
and whose writings testify to his strict exactness and scrupulous
nicety in the smallest particulars; his love of truth is above all
praise ; his special knowledge of the subject must be a guarantee
against all mistake. With such security for my conviction, I thought
to be able, da priori, to foresee, that from the seeds which the Go-
vernment has been pleased to entrust to the Botanical Gardens, if
they germinated, no other plants than the Calisaya Quinine-tree
would appear, under which name I received them.

“The result has not disappointed the expectation. The Quin-
quinas here developed are Calisaya plants. A strict inquiry has
proved this to me as certainly as science only can.

“Under date of the 21st of October, 1854, the Governor-Gene-
ral informed the Colonial Minister that a great part of the Quin-
quina plants had attained such a growth that they could be planted
out in aregular garden. Later advices concerning the planting
out do not inform us of the preservation of the greatest number of
the plants which came up from seeds at the Tjibodas, but this was
not to be expected ; this has nowhere, or never been the case with
transplantation. Experience yet teaches us that plants produced
from seeds do not always grow up and remain sound.

« The result of the culture of the Quinquina, under the direction
and care of Mr. Teysmann, as well those obtained from seeds of
Mr. Hasskarl, as those sent on former occasions from Leyden and
Amsterdam, is as follows :—

‘In the beginning of the month of November, 1854, Mr. Teys-
mann went to Tjipannas to prepare the ground for the transplant-
ing of the Quinquina plants there.

«The ground which Mr. Teysmann judged proper for the pur-
pose was then covered with heavy wood; this however being pre-
pared, the transplanting began. It was about half a mile above
the Garden of Tjibodas, perhaps 300 or 400 feet higher than this
place, and consequently 4600 to 4700 feet above the level of the
sea. The soil is very mouldy, with a porous, greasy, red subsoil,
in which trees of colossal height, mostly 150 feet, with a diameter

236 Selections. [ NO. 2, NEW SERIES,

of four to six feet, thrive luxuriantly, but which however are now
cut down. The land lies to the north-west of the deep ravine of
Tjibodas, on the slope of the Gedeh Mountains, and offers above,
as well as below, good ground for extending the culture, provided
that the woods be felled. The climate through the whole year,
but particularly in the rainy season, is very damp, and the vege-
tation is at times wrapped in the clouds.

“To these are now to be added the Calisaya plants brought di-
rectly from Peru by Mr. Hasskarl, those sent by Willink of Am-
sterdam, those sent and yet to be sent from the Gardens of the Uni-
yersity and of Amsterdam, and the plants which at different times
have been sent from the Netherlands to East India, besides those
which are yet to come up from seeds now there; by which it may
be computed that the plantations already made are, or will be ina
short time, much more numerous than the success of the culture
required.

“< How well soever we may be convinced that all the care we can
desire is given to the plants by Mr. Teysmann, it is not likely that
the cultivation can be taken to heart better than by him who, on
innumerable occasions, has risked his life in the countries from
which he brought the living trees to Java. The observations con-
cerning their growth, and the natural state of the places where
they are found, can be applied to the culture at Java. Numerous
particulars, which the most curious observer, who has not visited
the original places where they grow, would pass by, are here
brought to bear by the experience of Mr. Hasskarl. The long
residence of that natural philosopher at Java, his acquaintance with
the topography of the Island, with the elevations, table-lands,
mountains and their slopes, the constitution of the soil, and the
comparison ofall these with those in the countries where the Quin-
quina grows; this rich treasury of knowledge and experience, we
are of opinion, enables us to look for success to attempts so well
undertaken.

“‘ With all that has already been said with regard to the mea-
sures taken by the Government, and the direct importation from
South America by Mr. Hasskarl, we think it not improper to say a

JAN.—MAR, 1857.] Peruvian Bark-tree. 237

little of what has been done by means of botanical gardens in the
Netherlands, and by one private person, Mr. J. Willink, in the
cause of this weighty matter, although those endeavours alone
would not, in our opinion, have attained the object of the importa-
tion.

‘‘ From the Botanical Garden at Amsterdam the Professor Mi-
quel sent several Quinquina plants to Java. The results of the
sending out of a Quinquina-tree to Java in 1847, under the name
of Cinchona alba, were very favourable. This tree, after having
blossomed at Java, was called there Cascarilla Muzonensis, Wedd.,
or Cinchona Muzonensis, Gaud. Mr. Teysmann occupied himself
with the management of this tree, which is a shrub, and quickly
obtained from it more than a hundred plants.

“‘ To promote the chemical investigation of this sort of Quinqui-
na, a few branches were sent to Mr. Rost van Tonningen, then apo-
thecary at the Government Laboratory at Batavia ; an analysis of
which, on account of the small quantity of bark, was not easy.
There was no Quinine in it, but a resin which unmistakably had the
smell of Quinquina resin, and deserved further inquiry as soon as a
larger quantity of the bark should be obtained. He determined to
make a second analysis, when the trees should be older, and he
should have a larger quantity of the bark.*

‘© We remark here, that till now it is not known at what period
the alkaloids develop themselves; and we may expect that a fur-
ther analysis of the bark of this sort, furnished by the justly-cele-
brated Botanical Garden of Amsterdam to Dutch East India, will
afford us a new subject of information. We may not omit to
mention that, for our chemists in Dutch East India, a new field of
inquiry is opening, which may be of great importance to the very
difficult, and as yet imperfect, chemical history of Quinquina barks.

“ From the Botanical Garden at Amsterdam, besides the exports
made by order of the Minister, plants of Cinchona Calisaya were
successively sent to East India,—as in April, 1851, six plants;
December, 1851, three plants; July, 1852, four plants. Mr. Wil-

¥ The result of the inquiry of Mr. Rost van Tonningen was published in the Nat.
Tydschrift (Batavia, 1852).

ta

~
—

238 _ Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

link, of Amsterdam, has also sent once or twice to Java, and there-
by has shown his real interest in the good cause.

“In the Botanical Garden at Paris some plants of the Cinchona
Calisaya had grown up from seeds, sent by Mr. Weddell from
South America; part of these were sent to Algiers, the rest were
kept at Paris. In 1851 I saw two plants in one of the greenhouses,
which, I was assured, were the only ones left. These, as I guess,
were from 2-23 feet high, and were in a healthy state. It would
have been indisereet to have asked for one of those two plants ; I
learned however that there was one at Messrs. Thibaut and Ke-
teliére’s, which seemed to me the same. This plant was conceded
to me, and was sent from Paris to Leyden on the 21st of July, :
1851. It grew luxuriantly here, and in afew weeks attained a
length of 75 inches; it was sent by the Minister’s orders, in an
apparatus expressly made for it, to Java, on the Ist of December,

1851.

* A letter from Batavia, 21st April, 1852, informed me that what
I had sent had succeeded ; for which, it appeared, that the minute
care and the particular form of the apparatus were to be thanked.
A few slips were immediately taken from this little tree ; and the
preservation of the plant was ensured, if unfortunately the chief
stem should wither, for which, at first, there was some fear. The
slips grew, and the tree also was preserved, to which its transplan-
tation to Tjipannas certainly contributed.

““The last advices from East India, concerning this plant, sent
from the Botanical Garden, stated that very favourable expecta-
tions were formed of it, and that it had already attained a height
of 53 feet. Will the cultivation at Java succeed? Will the soil,
the air, the light, the degree of warmth, of dampness, and other
atmospheric relations, lastly, will the particular situation, suit the
culture > Will the plant there find, in a word, all that it finds in its
native soil that is necessary for its development in its normal state,
and there everything to form all that which makes it the most
valuable of all medicinal substances that the earth anywhere. af-

fords ?

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Peruvian Bark-iree. 239

“ Of no new agricultural undertaking is the result to be consi-
dered as certain. The whole system of agriculture consists but in
-the exchange or transplantation of plants from one place to another.
This holds good for the agriculture of all Europe, and we may say
the same (as far as we are acquainted with them) for the other parts
of the world; but this is particularly the case with the culture in
‘tropical districts, and with European civilization in other parts of
the world. The numberless host of crops of economical or techni-
cal nature belong, rarely, or never, by nature, to the lands in which
we see them raised.* But those cultivated plants are just the most
useful of the whole earth. * We seek and find at last, without dif-
ficulty, all the circumstances that they require, if the plants are not
wholly unfit for the change of air and soil, which quickly appears.
Many plants for the commerce of Java, whose produce, that of some
at least, brings large sums annually to the treasury, are not indige-
nous to that beautiful country, but have been brought to it from
elsewhere,—Coffees from Arabia, indigo from Southern Africa,
cinnamon from Ceylon, vanilla and nopal from Mexico, tobacco from
America, rice from China and Japan, etc. Of some others the ori-
gin is no longer to be known. Other plants were originally there,
but specimens of them have also been imported from gther places,
and they allsucceed excellently. ‘To expose all this in detail would
be to communicate things already known.t

* Von Humboldt (and we cannot produce a greater authority) saysin his Essay
‘ Sur la Géographie des Plantes,’ p. 27: ‘‘ L’>homme, inquiet et laborieux, en par-
courant les diverses parties du monde, a forcé un certain nombre de végétaux
d’habiter tous les climats et toutes les hauteurs ; mais cet empire exercé sur ces étres
organisés n’a point dénaturé leur nature primitive. La pomme-de-terre, cultivée
a Chili a trois mille six cents métres de hauteur, porte la méme fleur que celle que
l’on a introduite dans les plaines de la Sibérie. L’orge qui nourrissait les chevaux
d’ Achille était sans doute la méme que nous semons aujourd’hui. Les formes ca-
ractéristiques des végétaux et des animaux, que présente la surface actuelle du
globe, ne paraissent avoir subi aucun changement depuis les époques les plus recu-
lées,’’ ete.

+ Humboldt says (p. 27), ‘‘ C’est ainsi que homme change a son gré lasur-
face du globe et rassemble autour de lui les plantes des climats les plus éloignés.
Dans les colonies Européennes des deux Indes un petit terrain cultivé présente le
café de ]’Arabie, la canne a sucre de Ja Chine, l’indigo de 1’Afrique et une foule
d'autres végétaux qui appartient aux deux hémisphéres,’’ Others think indigoan

Tig

-~

240 Selections, [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

The Island of Java must be considered as having not high alone
but also low temperature, and different climates, even if it be not
known by experience. On one and the same island grow cocoa-
palms and species of oak; from its plains to the different eleva-
tions are found all the varieties of vegetation which are met with
from the equator to the temperate zones. The plains of Java fur-
nish the tropical fora in all its varieties; and the heights, table-
lands, and mountain-tops, the foras of Southern and Middle Eu-
rope. The plains of Europe present many floras agreeing with
that of the Java mountain-tops, which are 9,000 feet higher.

“The progress of our knowledge of the geographical propaga-
tion of plants, and of that propagation in connection with the —
knowledge of the physical constitution of countries, offer a vast
field for enterprise in the culture and transplantation of plants,
which may sometimes be brought from distances of thousands of
miles.

“ The situation of many of the Quinquina districts being analo-
gous to the geographical breadth of Java, must not be lost sight of.
If this island does not present a like temperature in respect to
the division of the quantity of sunlight, that mighty spur to vege-
tation, it will however give some analogy.

““There exists at Java a principal requisite, which is of the
greatest importance, and which almost warrants success. It
is this: a good result to the transplantation of the Quinquina-
tree from its native soil to a foreign land, can only be expected if
(except conditions of less weight) one principal condition be ful-
filled, namely that the trees be not planted in any country beyond the
tropics ; as only in the tropics does a temperature sufficiently even
and unvarying last during the whole year, and by which the free
development of the Quinquina-tree is made dependent by nature,
as it appears in the geographical extent of those trees in Bolivia,
Peru, Ecuador, New Granada. For this reason, the countries
without the tropics, as Algiers or the Himalaya Mountains, could

Indian plant, although from the different information and opinions we may deduce
that the matter is uncertain. See Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii. 379; Wight and Arn. Prodr.
p. 202; Royle, Ill. Himal. t. 195; Alph. de Candolle, Geogr. Bot. ii. 854.

JAN.—MAR. 1857. ] Peruvian Bark-tree. 241

never serve for the culture of the Quinquina-tree, because they lie
without the tropics, and the difference in the temperature of winter
and summer is too great to suppose that trees that have been used
to an even temperature through the whole year, would thrive there.
Similar elevations, with a climate constituted as nearly as possible
alike, having the same variations by day and night, are to be found.
On the mountains of Java, floras similar to those of the Quinquina-
woods of Peru, may indicate the way, the place, the soil probably,
where the Quinquina may be cultivated with good success.

**In the opinion of Dr. Junghuhn, the elevation for the culture
of the Quinquina is to be found at 5000 and 6000 feet, or even
higher, particularly as we can with confidence assert that, in Ame-
rica, experience has taught us that those sorts which are met with
in the lower stations produce less Quinine, and are used by the
Carcarilleros only to mix with the better barks.

“The experience at first aequired should plead for the correct-
ness of the assertion of many Dutch naturalists, who have fre-
quently raised their voices in thisimportant cause, and for the me-
rited confidence which was reposed in their opinions by the present
Minister for the Colonies, M. Charles Pahud, under whose direc-
tion, doubtless to his own satisfaction, this matter was begun and
has been so far successfully carried out; indeed the culture is al-
ready begun, as we think we have established in this communica-
tion ; but particularly by advices from Java, by which we are in-
formed that the culture of the Quinquina is so far advanced that
they are of opinion that it is empossible for it to facil. These foreign
plants have been so acclimated, multiplied, raised from seeds,
planted out, and all with such good success, that the Quinquina
plantation is reported as being in a very flourishing state.

*< We are convinced that unless great and not to be foreseen ca-
Jamities befall them, we shall in a few years see Quinquina planta-
tions at Java yielding the best sorts of Peruand Bolivia. The num-
ber of trees which may be raised in a few years is incalculable; but
if we take for the basis of our calculation, the fact that a small tree
which arrived at Java three years ago, is now five feet and a half
high, and kas given off sixty striplings, then, in a few years, by a

242 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIEs,

proportionate continuation of the culture, the number of trees will
be increased to millions.

“Thus we have succeeded in carrying out a matter in which the
whole human race has an incalculable interest, and which was un-
dertaken, not for the Netherlands alone, from thirst for gain or
commercial speculations, but for the real benefit of mankind. We
flatter ourselves that the Netherlands, on this account, may reckon
on the approbation of the whole civilized world.”

Supposed Aérolite mm a tree.

We re-publish the following paper by Sir R. Murchison, from
the proceedings of the Royal Society not only on account of the
intrinsic interest attaching to the subject but as an example of care-
ful induction and research applied to a singular natural phenome-
non, and as an example of the caution with which conclusions
should be drawn regarding the nature and origin of remarkable
appearances in nature. Young and rash observers, particularly in
Incia where access to books and well authenticated specimens is
often difficult, are too apt to pronounce dogmatically on forms
which meet them in the course of their inquiries. The care and
circumspection exhibited by so eminent a philosopher as the Pre-
sident of the Geological Society in this investigation should serve
as a warning against too hasty and confident a reliance on first
impressions.

‘‘ In bringing this notice before the Royal Society, it is unneces-
sary to recite, however briefly, the history of the fall of aérolites or
meteorites, as recorded for upwards of three thousand years, though
I may be pardoned for reminding my Associates, that the pheno-
menon was repudiated by the most learned academies of Europe up
to the close of the last century. The merit of having first endea-
voured to demonstrate the true character of these extraneous bodies
is mainly due to the German Chladni (1794), but his efforts were at
first viewed with incredulity. According to Vauquelin and other
men of eminence who have reasoned on the phenomena, it was in
1802 only that meteorites obtained a due degree of consideration

JAN.—MaR. 1857.] Supposed Aérolite in a tree. 248

and something like a definite place in science through the studies
of Howard, as shown in his memoir published in the Philosophical
Transactions.

“ Vauquelin, Klaproth, and other distinguished chemists, in-
cluding Berzelius and Rammelsberg, have successively analysed
these bodies, and the result of their labours, as ably brought to-
gether in the work of the last-mentioned author, is, that whilst
they have a great general resemblance and are distinguishable on
the whole by their composition from any bodies found in the crust
of the earth, each of their component substances is individually
found in our planet. They are also peculiarly marked by the small
number of minerals which have collectively been detected in any
one of them; nickel and cobalt, in certain relations to iron, being
the chief characteristics of the metallic meteorites.

“‘ Of the various theories propounded to account for the origin of
these singular bodies, it would indeed ill become a geologist like
myself to speak ; and referring in the sequel to some of the various
works in which the subject has been brought within formula, I
will at once detail the facts connected with the discovery of this
metalliferous body in the heart of a tree, as now placed before the
Members of our Society, feeling assured that, whatever be their
ultimate decision, my contemporaries will approve of the efforts
that have been made to account for this singular and mysterious
phenomenon.

“ On the 2nd of June, a timber merchant, residing at North Brix-
ton, named Clement Poole, brought the specimen now exhibited to
the Museum of Practical Geology, when it occurred to Mr, Tren-
ham Reeks, our Curator, that it might be a meteorite, and on in-
specting its position in the mass of wood, and having heard all the
evidence connected with it, I was disposed to form the same conclu-
sion. On submitting a small portion of the metallic part to a qua-
litative test in the metallurgical laboratory of our establishment,
the presence of nickel, cobalt and manganese was detected in the
iron included in the mass, and as the surface was scorified, indent-
ed, uneven, and partially coated with a peculiar substance, the
surmise as to the meteoric nature of the imbedded material seemed

244 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

to be rendered much more probable. Again, in looking at the
wood which immediately surrounded that portion of the mass which
remained, as it is now, firmly inserted in the tree, a blackened
substance was observed to be interpolated between the supposed
meteorite and the surrounding sound wood. On the outside of
this substance (which had somewhat a charred aspect) we observ-
ed a tiue bark, which follows the sinuosities of the wood wherever
the latter appears to have been influenced by the intrusion of the
foreign mineral matter.

‘“‘ Seeing thus enough to satisfy our conjecture, if sanctioned by
other evidence, I desired Mr. Poole to bring all the fragments of
the wood he had not destroyed which susrounded this body. On —
placing the ends of some of these (also now exhibited) on the parts
from which they had been sawed off, they indicated that the space
between the mineral substance and the surrounding sound wood
widened upwards; the decayed wood passing into brown earthy
matter with an opening or cavity into which rootlets extended. On
interrogating Mr. Poole, who cut down the tree and superintended
the breaking up of its timber, I learnt from him all requisite parti-
culars respecting its dimensions, the position of the ferruginous
mass, the quantity of wood above and below it, a description of the
place where the stool of the tree was still to be seen, and of the
parties who, living on the spot, were acquainted with every circum-
stance which could throw light on the case.

“‘At this period of the inquiry, the Museum in Jermyn Street
was visited by Dr. Shepard, Professor in the University College,
Amherst, United States, whose researches on meteorites are widely
known, and who has furnished an able classification of them by
which they are divided into the two great classes of stony and me-
tallic. Having carefully examined the specimen, Dr. Shepard
expressed his decided belief that it was a true meteorite, and the
next day wrote to me the following account of it ; at the same time
referring me most obligingly to a series of interesting publications
on the subject as printed in America and Europe* :—

* Dr. Shepard’s numerous memoirs on meteorites are all to be found in the vo-

lumes of the American Journal of Science and Art, and in the same work the read-
er will find not only the general classification of these bodies by this author, who

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Supposed Aérolite in a tree. 245

“ Concerning the highly interesting mineral mass, lately found
enclosed in a trunk of a tree, and of which you have done me the
honour to ask my opinion, I beg leave to observe, that I have no
hesitation in pronouncing it to be a true meteoric stone.

** Aside from the difficulty of otherwise accounting for it, under
the circumstances in which it is found, the mass presents those
peculiar traits that are regarded as characteristic of meteorites. It
has, for example, a fused, vitrified black coating, which is quite
continuous over a considerable part of the mass, and contains se-
veral grains and imbedded nodular and vein-like portious of metallic
iron, in which I understand nickel and cobalt have been detected.

“‘ The general charactér of the body of the stone is indeed pecu-
liar; and asa whole, unlike any one I have yet seen; it being
principally made up of a dull greyish yellow, peridotic mineral,
which I have nowhere met with among these productions, except
in the Hommoney Creek meteoric iron mass, and which exists in
it only ina very limited quantity. It is singular to remark also,
that the stone under notice strikingly resembles in size, shape and
surface, the iron above alluded to.

‘“< The absence of the black, slaggy coating on one of the broad
surfaces of the stone, may arise from its having been broken away,
by the violence to which it must have been subjected in entering
the tree; for it appears to have buried itself completely at its con-
tact, an operation which would probably have been impossible, in
the case of a stone, but for its wedge-shape configuration, and the
coincidence of one of its edges with the vertical fibres of the wood.

possesses a collection from 103 localities, but also essays on the same subject by his
countrymen Dr. Troost, Professor Silliman, jun., and Dr. Clark.

In our own country, Mr. Brayley published some years ago a comprehensive
view of this subject in the Philosophical Magazine, and recently Mr. Greg has in
the same publication put together all the previous and additional materials, with
tables showing the geographical distribution of meteorites. Among the well-re-
corded examples of the fall of metalliferous meteorites, no one is more remarka-
ble than that which happened in the year 185], about sixteen leagues S. E. of
Barcelona in Spain. In describing that phenomenon, Dr. Joaquim Balcells, Pro-
fessor of Natural Sciences at Barcelona, has illustrated the subject with much eru-
dition, whilst his theoretical views are ingenious in his endeavour to explain how
meteorites are derived from the moon.

| a

-
_

246 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

‘In reply to a question I subsequently put to Dr. Shepard as to
whether he knew of any examples of meteorites having struck trees
in America, he replied as follows :—

**T think you will find in the volume I left with Mr. Reeks at
the Museum, an account of the fall of Little Piney, Missouri, Feb-
ruary 13th, 1839; in which it is stated that the stone struck a tree
and was shattered to fragments, it being one of a brittle character.
In the interior of the Cabarras country, N. Carolina, a stone (Oc-
tober 31, 1849) I know struck a tree, and I found it was difficult,
indeed impossible, to separate completely the adhering woody
fibres from the rough hard crust of thé meteorite. The stone in
this case is a peculiarly tough one, havirg a decidedly trappean
character, rendering it as nearly infragile as cast iron.”

*« Aware that some time must elapse before the precise analysis,
which I wished to be made in the laboratory of Dr. Percy, could be
completed, and that the last meeting of the Royal Society was to
be held this evening, I announced the notice I am now communi-
cating. At the same time I resolved to visit the locality where the
tree stood and to obtain on the spot all the details required. Hav-
ing done so, accompanied by Mr. Robert Brown, Sir Philip Grey
Egerton, Professor J. Nicol, and Mr. Trenham Reeks, the informa-
tion ultimately obtained was as follows :—

‘* The man who helped to cut down the tree confirmed in every
respect the evidence of Mr. Poole as to its position, height and di-
mensions, and pointed out to us the stump or stool we were in
search of, which is to be seen at nearly 200 yards to the east of
the St. George’s Chapel, Lower Road, Battersea Fields, and at the
eastern end of a nursery garden, between the railway and the road,
occupied by Mr. Henry Shailer.

“The tree was a large willow, probably about sixty years of
age, which stood immediately to the east of the old parsonage
house recently pulled down. Its stem measured about 10 feet in
circumference at 3 feet above the ground, and had a length of be-

‘tween 9 and 10 feet ; from its summit three main branches extend-

ed, one of which, pointing to the S. W. or W. S. W. had been for
many years blighted, and was rotten to near its junction with the

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Supposed Aérolite in a tree. 247

top of the main trunk; a portion of this blighted main branch is
exhibited. The other two main branches, which rose to a height
of 50 or 60 feet, were quite sound ; a part of one of these offsets is
also exhibited.

“The stool of the tree was visibly perfect and without a flaw,
and at the wish of Mr. R. Brown, a section of it has been obtained
since our visit, which is also here, and the rings of which seem to
confirm the supposition as to the age of the tree.

“ Mr. Poole having conveyed the tree to Brixton, cut the trunk
into two nearly equal parts? intending to make cricket-bats out of
each. In doing so, he yerceived that the upper portion of the
lower of the two segments was in a shaky or imperfect condition,
and hence he resolved to saw off the upper part of it, intending
thereby to obtain wood large enough for tke “ pods” of his cricket-
bats, but not such entire bats as he was making out of the upper
segment.

“In dividing the tree, the saw was stopped at about 8 inches
from the surface on one side (or the breadth of a large saw) by a
very hard, impenetrable substance, which was supposed to be a
nail, and hence Mr. Poole resolved to break up the portion of the
wood he had previously condemned as of inferior quality, and hew-
ing it down from the sides he uncovered, to his astonishment, the
great lump of metalliferous matter, as now seen. Attaching little
value to it, much of the surrounding wood was thrown away or
used up before the specimen was brought to Jermyn Street; but
enough has been obtained to throw light on the probable or pos-
sible origin of the included mass.

*« On interrogating Henry Shailer, a market gardener, who has
long lived on the spot and managed the ground where the tree
grew, when it was part of the garden of the former clergyman (Mr.
Weddell), I learnt from him that he had ‘known the spot for sixty
years, that in his days of boyhood it was a fellmonger’s yard, before
it was attached to the garden. He had observed that the tree was
blighted in one of its main branches for many years, and had
always supposed that it was struck by lightning in one of two

, a

248 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

storms, the first of which happened about 1838 or 1839, the other
about nine years ago.

“ So far the evidence obtained might be supposed to favour the
theory that this ferruginous mass* had been discharged near to the
blighted branch, and had penetrated downwards into the tree, to
the position in which we now see it, charring and warping the wood
immediately around it in its downward progress ; whilst in the six-
teen years which have elapsed, the wood renovating itself, produc-
ed the appearance which has so much interested the eminent bo-
tanists who have examined it, viz. Mr. R. Brown, Dr. Lindley, Pro-
fessor Henfrey, Dr. J. Hooker, and Mr. Bennet.

‘‘On the other hand, I must now point’ out some features of this |
extraordinary case which check the belief in the included mass being
a meteorite.

‘We found lying near the root of the tree two fragments, one
of which is similar to the substance included in the tree, while the
other is decidedly an iron slag. On bringing these fragments,
weighing several pounds, to Jermyn Street, and on breaking one
of them, it was found, like the supposed meteorite, to contain cer-
tain small portions of metallic iron, in which both nickel and co-
balt were also present; and hence the scepticism which had pre-
vailed from the beginning of the inquiry in the minds of some of
my friends, was worked up into a definite shape.

“The occurrence of stones enclosed in wood is not a novel phe-
nomenon. Mr. Robert Brown has called my attention to two cases
as recorded in the following words :—

‘De lapide in trunco betule reperto. G. F. Richter in Acta
Phys. Med, Acad. Nat. Curios. volume 38, page 66{.”

‘“‘ Descriptio Saxi in Quercu inventi. Kellander, Acta Literaria
et Scientize Suecie.” 1739, pp. 502, 503.

* The ferruginous mass is, it is supposed, about thirty pounds in weight; but
as one of its extremities is still imbedded in the wood, the precise weight cannot
be stated.

+ “Lapis predurus subalbicans et manifeste siliceus pruni ferme aut juglandis
minoris maguitudine. * * * * Nidus ad figuram lapidis non plane accommodatus,
sed quadrangulus, et hinc illinc in mediocres rimas desinens, corticeque imprimis
notabili, non multum ab exteriori cute diverso, maximam partem vestitus.”’

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Supposed Aérolite in a tree. 249

“Since the Battersea phenomenon was announced, Professor
Henslow, to whom I had applied, wrote to me saying, that he pos-
sessed a remarkable example of a stone which was found imbed-
ded in the heart of a tree, in sawing it up in Plymouth Dockyard ;
and he has obligingly sent up the specimen, which is now also ex-
hibited. In this case, judging from the mineral character of the
rock, and its being slightly magnetic, Professor Henslow supposed
that it was perhaps a volcanic bomb. On referring it to Dr. Shep-
ard, that gentleman entertains the opinion that it is also a mete-
orite, and states that it resembles certain meteoric stones with
_ which he is acquainted ; suspicions of which had also been enter-
tained by Professor Henslow. From the examination of a minute
fragment which I detached from this stone, it appears to be com-
posed of a base of felspathic matter, with minute crystals of felspar
and of magnetic iron pyrites. Externally it has a trachytic aspect,
though, when fractured, it more resembles, in the opinion of Mr.
Warington Smyth, a pale Cornish elvan or porphyry than any other
British rock with which it can be compared. Whatever may have
been the origin of this stone, which is of the size of a child’s head,
it is essentially different from the metalliferous mass from Bat-
tersea, to which attention has been specially invited, and its posi-
tion in the heart of an oakis equally remarkable. Like the Bat-
tersea specimen, the segment of wood from Plymouth Dockyard is
characterized by an interior bark which folds round the sinuosities
of the included stone.

* In respect to the envelopment of manufactured materials in
trees, my friend, Mr. H. Brooke, the distinguished mineralogist,
tells me that he perfectly remembers the case of an iron chain
which had been enclosed in the heart of a tree, the wood of which
was sound around the whole of the included metallic body. This
_ specimen was to be seen some years ago in the British Museum.
Again, he informs me that at Stoke Newington he recollects to have
seen a tree, the trunk of which had grown over and completely en-
closed a scythe, except on the sides where its ends protruded*.

* Many other examples of extraneous bodies found enclosed in the heart of trees
have been brought to my notice since this account was written. The most curious

of these is perhaps that of an image of the Virgin, which having been placed ina
niche had become imbedded by the growth of the tree around it.

250 Selections. [NO, 2, NEW SERIES,

“Whatever may have been the origin of the metalliferous mass
from Battersea, its discovery has at all events served to develop
certain peculiarities in the growth of plants which appear to be of
high interest to the eminent botanists who have examined the parts
of this tree which surrounded the supposed meteorite. Unwilling
to endeavour to anticipate the final decision as to the origin of the
body in question, I may be permitted to feel a satisfaction that its
discoverer brought it to the Establishment of which I am the Di-
rector, and which numbers among its officers a Fellow of this Society,
who is so well calculated, by his analytical researches, to settle the
question on a permanent basis. Shouid the metallurgical analysis

now under the conduct of Dr. Percy leac to the inevitable conclu-

sion that the composition of this body is different from that of well-
authenticated meteorites, and is similar to that of undoubted iron
slags, we shall then have obtained proofs of the great circumspec-
tion required before we assign a meteoric orign to some of these
crystalline iron masses, which though not seen to fall, have, from
their containing nickel, cobalt and other elements, been supposed
to be formed by causes extraneous to our planet.

‘Postscript, 830th June 1855.—The following are the analyses
above referred to which have been given to me by Dr. Percy since
the preceding notice was read :—

“« The slag-like matter (1) attached to the metal in the tree, as well
as the similar matter (2) with adherent metal which was found by
Mr. Reeks in the vicinity of the tree, has been analysed. The results

are as follow :—

No. I. No. 2. -
BiiGaai. nhs dle giana plates 58°70 63°52
Protoxide of iron. .......6- 35°46 32°30
Lame snes ses ak seers Sale , 0:30 0°59
Magmegay si! sole) sacl tales 0:74 0:21
Protoxide of manganese.... trace trace
Alumina rete s: ocho haw t 3°40 2°85
Phosphoric acid........... 0°43 0:57
Sulphur as sulphide........ trace trace

99:03 100 04

an oi a kh ee te i +, Anh

JAN.—MAR, 1857.] Excavations in Assyria § Babylonia. 251

“No. 1. was analysed by Mr. Spiller, and No. 2. by Mr. A. Dick,
chemists who have been incessantly engaged at the Museum dur-
ing the last two years and a half in the analyses of the iron ores of
this country, and whose great experience renders their results wor-
thy of entire confidence. Cobalt and nickel were not sought for in
either case, but the metallic iron enveloped in both specimens con-
tained a minute quantity of cobalt and nickel. Another piece of slag-
_ like matter, which was foundon the ground near the tree, and which
from its external characters I have no hesitation in pronouncing to
be a slag, was examined for cobalt and nickel and gave unequivocal

- evidence of the former in nfnute quantity, though not satisfactorily
of the latter. °

“The metal previously mentioned is malleable iron. That
which was detached from the slag-like matter, found outside the
tree, was filed and polished, and then treated with dilute sulphuric
acid. After this treatment, the surface presented small, confused,
irregularly-defined crystalline plates, and was identical in appear-
ance with the surface. of a piece of malleable iron similarly treated
after fusion in a crucible.”

Cotonet H. C. Rawuinson,
On the Results of the Excavations in Assyria and Babylonia.

These excavations, independently of the treasures of art disclos.
ed by them, have opened up to us a period of about 2000 years in
the world’s history, which, as far as the East is concerned, was be-
fore almost entirely unknown. The cuneiform inscriptions of
Babylonia and Assyria furnish a series of historical documents from
the 22nd century B.C. to the age of Antiochus the Great. The
speaker divided these documents into three distinct periods of
history, the Chaldzean, the Assyrian, and the Babylonian, and he
then proceeded briefly to describe each period in succession. Dur-
ing the Chaldean period the seat of empire was to the south,
towards the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the sites
of the ancient capitals were marked by the ruins of Mugheir, of
Warka, of Senkereh, and of Niffer. At Mughier, called in the in-

252 Selections. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

scriptions Hur, and representing the biblical Ur of the Chaldees,
inscriptions have been found of a king, “ Kudur, the conqueror of
Syria,” who was probably the Chedorlaomer of the Bible. At any
rate, a king named Lsmt-Dagan, who lived some generations later,
is proved, by a series of chronological dates found in the Assyrian
tablets, to belong to the 19th century B.C., so that the era of the
earlier king agrees pretty well with the ordinary computation of
the age of Abraham. The names of about twenty-five kings have
been recovered of the ancient period, and there are good grounds
for believing that the Assyrians did not succeed in establishing an
independent empire at Nineveh till the early part of the fifteenth

century B.C. a :

From B.C. 1273to 625, the Assyrians seem to have been the lords
paramount of Western Asia, and their history is preserved in an
almost continuous series of documents, from the institution of the
empire to the taking of Nineveh by the Medes and Babylonians.
During the later part of this period, or from about 800 B.C., Jew-
ish history runs in a parallel line with that of Assyria; and where-
ever a comparison can be instituted between the sacred records and
the contemporary annals of Nineveh, the most complete agreement
is discovered between them; and that not only in regard to the
names of the kings, but also in respect to their order of succession,
their relationship to each other, the wars in which they were engag-
ed, and even the leading features of those wars. Col. Rawlinson
noticed many such examples of coincidence, and drew attention to
the great value of the verification which was thus obtainedof Scrip-
ture history.

The third, or Babylonian period, was then shortly discussed ; the
reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Nabonidus being especially selected
for illustration. A description was given of the excavation of the
great ruin near Babylon called Birs Nimrud, and a translation was
read of the edict of Nebuchadnezzar inscribed upon the clay cylind-
ers, which were found imbedded in the walls of the temple. A
number of original relics, discovered among the ruins of Chaldza,
Assyria, and Babylonia, and illustrative of these three periods of
history, were also exhibited to the meeting, previously to their
being deposited in the British Museum,

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Excavations in Assyria & Babylonia. 253
LIST OF KINGS.

I. CHALDZAAN PERIOD. Name of King. Approximate
Name of King. Approximpte Date.

Date. |Asshur-Dapal-II. - -3.c. 1185

Urukh - - - - -3B.C, 2234 Mutaggil-Nebo- - - 1165

Tigi - - - - = = Asshur-Rish-Ipan - - 1140

Sinti-Shil-Khak - -
Kudur-Mapula - - - 1950

Tiglath-Pileser I, - - 1120
Asshur-Bani-Pal. I. - = 1100

eee Asshur-Adan-Akhi = = 950
Ismi-Dagan - - - - 1860)Asshur-Danin-I. }- - 925
-Ibil-Anu-Duma - - ° Phulukh Uf) ¢=.<- +) (= 900
Gurguna - - - <«-e Tigulti-Sanda - - - 880
a a ee er Sardanapalus -~ - - 850
Naram-Sin - - - = Shalama-Bar II. - - 815
eS 1700\(Asshur-Danin-Pal)
Purna-Puriyas - - - Shamas-Phul - - - 780
~~ 2 ag gt peepee eye Phulukh III. ¢ or Puland
Sheminarabi miss 2. o: Samuramit Semiramis 760
Samshu-Iluna- - - 1600)Tiglath-Pileser II. - - 7417

Shalmaneser(?) - = - 730

Sin-Shada - - - = Sargon. = <-> =) == 721

een Re Saha tsi) 1500 \sennacherib- - - - 702
Zur-Sin - = = = =
oa: sl See a AR ele Esar-haddon - - - 680
Merodach-Gina - - - Aashut-Bani-Pal II. - 660
Rs. ents a to A : 640
MS 95 karte te a dss nay Asshur-Emit-Ilut - - to 625
ay Se SR ee ee IIIl.—BABYLONIAN PERIOD.
4 AS ee 1300\Nabopolassar - - - 625
a 3 = See Nabokodrossor (or 2
II.—ASSYRIAN PERIOD. Nebuchadnezzar) 605

Belukh - - - = = 1273\Eyil-Merodach - - - 562
Pudil - - =~ - - esos Se - - 560
Phaulukh I. - - - - 1240\Nabonidus, and oat 554

Shalama-BarI. - - - 1220) Ezer (Belshazzar) to538

Sanda-Pal-Imat- - ~- 1200|Taking of Babylon, by Cyrus.
N.B.—It must be understood that the reading of many of these names is still

far from certain. [H. R.]

Journal of Royal Institution, Vol, 11, p. 148,

y |
5 : Scientific Intelligence. A ws
Flora Indica. 2425

We regret to learn tet this valuable work is likely to b

part of the East Tate Company. Drs. Thomson and noe es
dertook the work at their own risk. The first Volume gives an
earnest of what might have been expected at their hands. The
authors are already well known to the scientific world by their bo-
tanical works, and every one acquainted with science is aware of =
their high standing and of their thorough competency for the isttae =
ikey have undertaken. The work is 2 national one, and promises —

to be one of the most important which has appeared in the bota-
nical world. It will be the result, in a great measure, of personal —

observations, aided by the unrivalled resources of the ar
Herbarium. That such a boon to science should be stopped for <<
want of funds, and that the authors should suffer pecuniary loss,
is by no means creditable to our country. When the Admiralty
have most nobly published the results of arctic and antarctic ex- —
peditions, it is surely not too much to expect that the East India
Company, which is so much indebted to the labours of scientific

men, should lend a helping hand in making known the vegetable ;
productions ‘of that vast territory over which they rule. E

We think that all interested in science should unite in memo-
rializing the Company on this subject, and we cannot for a moment
doubt that the unanimous voice of scientific societies and scienti-
fic men will ultimately prevail._—Edinburgh New Philcsophical —
Journal, Vol. V., p. 204. =

=

- SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Mines of Antimony. a

On the table at the Home Office may be found some interesting a
correspondence relating to Mines of Antimony. 25

So far back as 1854, Major Hay brought to the notice of the —
Chief Commissioner of the Punjaub, that he had discovered on the
great Shicree Mountain a vast deposit of metals in granife, one of

Oe ete ate LE EN

Lot Ee on |

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Mines of Antimony, 255

the principal being a Sulphuret of Antimony. In June 1855,
M. Marcadieu, the Analytical Chemist, visited the locality, and while
he acknowledged the richness of the mine, urged that placed as it
is at an elevation of 13,507 feet, and covered for a great portion of
the year with snow, no great commercial benefit could be antici-
pated from it. Major Hay, however was by no means discou-
raged, and determined to prosecute his researches, the results of

which he communicated to the Deputy Commissioner of Kan-

gra.

Six distinct beds of metal are now visible on the surface, three

of which have been worked. Major Hay believes that the supply

is inexhaustible, and the specimen sent to Dr. Macnamara for
analysis, was found to contain so much as sixty per cent. of pure

metal. It appears that owing to the dreariness of the locality, and

other unfavourable causes, it would not be advisable to work the
mines for more than three months in the year, and even during
that limited period, the labourers would have to work under con-
siderable disadvantages. Major Hay calculated that including
every expense, the Antimony could be landed at Nuggur for two
rupees per pucka maund ; but he seems to have made no allowance
for the impurities with which the metal must always’ be impreg-
nated, and it is said that the three hundred and twenty kucha
maunds lodged at Nuggur, probably do not contain more than one
hundred and sixty maunds or sixty pucka maunds of pure metal.
The Officiating Commissioner and Superintendent of the Trans-
Sutlej States, is disposed to estimate the precise cost of the An-
timony at Nuggur, after purification, at double or triple the price
fixed by Major Hay. 7

With the view of testing the commercial value of the Antimony
sent down, a meeting of the merchants of Julundhur trading in
this article was called, and they assured Major Lake the Officiat-
ing Commissioner that in its then impure.state, Major Hay’s An-
timony would scarcely find a market ; that the sulphur with which
it was impregnated would seriously affect its value, and that even
under the most favorable circumstances, it would scarcely fetch
more than four or fiye rupees a pucka maund. The Officiating

rr

256 Scventifie Intelligence. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Commissioner was also informed tha‘ they could procure from a
mine near Jugadree at four rupees a pucka maund, landed at Ju-
lundhur, an Antimony of somewhat inferior quality to that dis-
covered on the Shigree Mountain, and also showed him a specimen
procured from Reeanee near Jummoo, for which they paid as high
as nineteen rupees a pucka maund. With this Antimony, it is
said, Major Hay’s specimens cannot be compared in quality, and
if the relative distance of the two places be considered, the ac-
cessibility of Reeanee and the isolated position of the Shigree
Mountain, the Antimony brought down from the latter place will
not be able to compete with the Jumnioo product in the distant
markets of the Punjab. The Officiating Commissioner however, ©
thinks it important to ascertain whether the Mines of Reeanee are -
sufficient for the wants of the Punjab, and if so, how it is that the
Antimony of Europe and Candahar finds a sale. He states that
he has been credibly informed that Antimony is now in less de-
mand than it was in Europe, where it was formerly employed in
all printing types, but by a recent invention leaden types capped
with steel are used instead. He does not therefore anticipate any
great commercial benefit from Major Hay’s discovery, but con-
siders that the latter is entitled to credit for prosecuting his re-
searches with so much enterprise, and recommends that he be
reimbursed all expenses to which he has been put in this attempt
to develop the resources of the Koolloo Province.

Major Hay in a letter addressed to the Deputy Commissioner of
Kangra, mentions that, towards the beginning of the last war it
was stated, Antimony had been manufactured into cannon-balls,
and had been found to answer better than any other metal; and
that as the different scientific journals published the result, he ap-
prehends “it was not a mere puff of the holders of Antimony to
sell the metal ;” and suggests that there is nothing to prevent the
mine being worked on so extensive a scale as to furnish all maga-
zines in Upper India with shot made from Antimony.

A refusal of the sanction of His Lordship in Council however
has recently been conveyed to the Chief Commissioner of the Pun-
jaub to the working of the Antimony mines discovered by Major

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Plumbago of Kumaonand Travancore. 257

Hay, on the ground that no material advantage would be derived
from the undertaking. He is, nevertheless, pleased to acknow-
ledge the exertions of Major Hay, and to authorize that Officer to
submit a contingent bill for his bond fide expenses.”—Madras
Spectator, March 19, 1857.

Observations on the Graphite or Plumbago of Kumaon and
of Travancore, by J. Forses Roy te, m. D.

Specimens of Graphite arfd Plumbago have on various occasions
been sent from different parts of India and a desire expressed to
have their value ascertained in this country,

Thus at the Exhibition of 1851, there were specimens from Al-
morah, Vizagapatam and Travancore.

The specimens from Travancore are in nodules extremely soft
but brilliant, very like the Ceylon Graphite, of which some quan-
tity has for some time been imported and sold for about £8 to
£10 a ton. Some of the purer specimens of Travancore would rank
with them, but all impurity greatly deteriorates its value. The Vi-
zagapatam in its present state seems to be worthless. i

Graphite has on several occasions been sent from Almorah as
in 1849 and 1850, again in 1851 and lastly on the present oc-
casion. It was first discovered by Captain Herbert near Almorah,
who describes cutting it into slices of which he made pencils,
showing that it had some of the qualities required in that substance.
The specimens sent in 1849 and 1850 were examined and reported
on by the late Mr. Phillips and also by the late Mr. Brockeden.
The latter of whom was well acquainted with the practical uses and
commercial value of Graphite, but he pronounced the specimens
for any purpose that he was acquainted with as useless, and there-
fore worthless. The same opinion was again given to me by Mr.
Brockeden before his death.

If the enormous value (from 30s. to 50s. a pound) of good
Graphite, is considered, the declared worthlessness of these Indian
specimens seems to be unaccountable. Itis desirable to ascertain

-
_

258 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

what constitutes the value of good Graphite and what causes the
deterioration of that from India. For this purpose it is necessary
to notice the different uses to which this substance is applied.
These are Ist for making pencils, 2nd to diminish the friction of
machinery, 3rd to make fire proof crucibles, 4th to black-lead grates
as itis called. For all these purposes except the last, it is evident
that purity is essential.

The best pencils were formerly made of the Borrowdale Gra-
phite, obtained from a mine which is now exhausted. This kind
was pure and compact, and sold readily at about 40s. a pound.
It was sawn into thin slices, these were inserted into the groove of -
one-half of Cedar Pencils and the supertluous part filed off, then
the other half was glued on to the filled up half of the pencil. It
is evident that for such a purpose only the purest specimens were
of any value, for the presence of a bit of quartz or of an ore of
iron or of any other metal would injure the tools and fracture
the thin slices or slender prisms of Graphite, and if they did not
produce any of these effects, they would be very inconvenient at
the point of a pencil for whatever purpose employed. Indeed if
it had not been for the discovery, that finely-powdered Graphité can
by an extreme degree of pressure be rendered nearly as compact
as the best natural Graphite, we should have been without any —
more good drawing pencils. But the Graphite for grinding though
in small pieces, must be pure, or otherwise the grinding mills be-
come injured, besides pencils made with it being unfit for use,

So also finely powdered Graphite is required for mixing with
fatty substances in order to diminish the friction of machinery.
It is equally evident, that this must be of the purest kind, or
otherwise the machinery in which it was prepared, or that to which
it was applied would be equally injured. Thus also if Graphite
as an infusible substance, is required for mixing with the more in-
fusible kinds of clay for making the best crucibles, the Graphite
must be without impurities, as these would diminish the melting
point and render the crucibles useless.

The Graphite or Plumbago, black-lead as it is commonly call-
ed and used for polishing grates, is an impure substance, but if

JAN.—MaR. 1857.] Plumbago of Kumaon and Travancore. 259

it has sufficient lustre it may be applied to such a purpose, but
then it is always a low priced article.

Notwithstanding the unfavorable opinion entertained by Mr.
Brockeden of the Graphite from Kumaon, I again submitted to
him the specimens sent to the Exhibition of 1851, as well as those
which had been forwarded from Travancore. He considered both
as valueless, so Messrs. Reeves whose opinion I likewise asked
accounted them ‘‘ quite useless for the manufacture of black-lead
pencils.” Messrs. Wolff of Church Street Spitalfields who also
make pencils, by first grinding and then condensing Graphite, took
a more favorable view of tle specimens, inasmuch as they could
not conceive why pure specimens should not be found in the locali-
ties where both kinds had been collected. But they also observed,
that they could not use the specimens in the state in which they
had been sent, without damaging their machinery, and it would
take time and labour, costing of course a good deal of money in
this country, to separate the purer specimens from those which
were intermixed with quartz or ores of iron.

Among the Travancore specimens however Messrs. Wolff ob-
serve many which are sufficiently pure for use, and if these were
picked out in India and sent separated from the pieces ‘covered and
intermixed with quartz or iron ore, there is no doubt that it would
sell in the markets for at least £8 or £10 a ton according to its
purity and perhaps higher. As Trevandrum near to which the
Plumbago is found is in the vicinity of the Sea and near a port like
Cochin, there would be very little expense in land carriage and
therefore freight would be the chief charge, but this might not be
high as Plumbago is sometimes sent as ballast.

With regard to the Graphite from near Kumaon, Messrs. Wolff
state, like Mr. Brockeden, that they cannot use it in the state
in which it is sent in consequence of the quartzy sand and iron
ore with which it seems to be intermixed. But from the internal
purity of some of the Graphite in nodules, as well as from
the appearance of the larger specimens they conceive that pure
specimens of compact Graphite should be found in the same lo-
cality. But of this, those examining the localities themselves must

-

260 Scientific Intelligence. [NO.2, NEW SERIES,

be better judges than those looking at bad specimens. It is cer-
tain that no specimens have yet been sent sufficiently pure to be
sawn in slices or for grinding in the mills. The specimens last
sent are valued at not more than £6 a ton.

Mr, Ruel celebrated for making crucibles (v. Jury Reports) con-
sidered that the specimens from Travancore were not worth more
than 8s. a cwt. for his purpose though the price is sometimes as high,
as 14s. |

A good practical test I am told is that of chewing a small piece,
when if not gritty, it will probably be found to be sufficiently pure
for grinding up. a

It is possible however that the enquiries now being made by
Chemists may devise methods by which the impure specimens
may be made available for purposes not yet generally known, I
have been asked by one of our intelligent Chemists to ascertain the
quantity in which the Travancore Graphite can be obtained and the
cost per ton, at which it can be delivered on board-ship. It seems
desirable therefore to forward a copy of this communication to
Travancore as well as to Kumaon,

Extract from a letter from the Resident of Travancore dnd Ges
chin, dated 9th February 1857.

‘‘ Two varieties of Graphite are found in Travancore, one in their
laminee, another granular, and I sent specimens of both to the Ex-
hibition of 1851,

‘‘ The granular or fibrous variety, I have only yet discovered in
two localities and both of them in laterite, a few feet only below
the surface. One locality is about 5 or 6 miles N. E. of Trevan-
drum and the other about 12 or 14 miles N. E., I brought in from
this latter locality on my visit to it about 3 cwt.

** Some small deposits are also found immediately on the W. of
the town of Trevandrum, but I have not yet heard of any other
deposits of this granular variety, though I think it probable they
exist.

“‘ Graphite in thin scates or lamine is common nearly throughout
the laterite tracts of Travancore and Cochin, but more or less

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Dr. Walker’s Report on Coal at Kotah. 261

abundant in particular places. It is found in some places in
lamine of considerable size, particularly in a laterite hill about 25
miles N. E. of Trevandrum at a place called Caviattencoodul, near
the foot of the Ghat mountains.

“Tt is also found in lamine of good size in the disintegrated
gneiss of the Ghats on the Tinnevelly side, also common in the
Kunker or Travertine Deposits near Culdacoorchee and Ambasa-
-moodrom.

** The Vizagapatam Graphite is perhaps also found in laterite, of
which there is a large deposit at Bimlipatam.

*“ The objections made “to the specimens of Graphite sent by
me to the London Exhibition of 1851, were because of the impu-
rities attached to it, but one motive in the selection of the specimens
forwarded was to exhibit the matrix or laterite rock in which they

were found.”’

Dr. Walker's report on boring for Coal at Kotah, a village 10 or 12
miles from the jun ction of the Wurdah River with the
Godavery, in the months of April and May, 1848.

[The following paper was received from Hyderabad and communicated by the
Chief Secretary to Government to the Literary Society for the information of
Mr. Wall, the Coal and Mineral Viewer of this Presidency. ]

In a paper published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal for the month of June 1841, and to which reference is
now made, I showed the probability of a coal bed existing on the
left bank of the Pranheetah or Wurdah river, close to a small vil-
lage called Kotah or Kotahpilly, about ten or twelve miles from the
junction of this river with the Godavery, and sixteen miles N. W.
of the large village of Mahdeopore.

Encouraged by the indications detailed in that paper, a bor-
ing operation was undertaken to ascertain the extent and position
of the coal stratum, if such existed, the superintendence of which
was entrusted to me.

The rods, drills and augers of the boring machine were made
up at the Ordnance stores, Bolarum, and from the extreme dife

262 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

ficulty in giving to steel at an up-country station the requisite
hardness and temper it was feared by Captain FitzGerald, the Offi-
cer in charge of the Ordnance Department, that much obstruction
to the work would be experienced in boring through the harder
strata; that these apprehensions were well grounded, the result
showed.

The boring machine reached its destination towards the end of
March, but owing to the heavy rods, one anda half inch square,
not arriving till the 4th of April the work was not begun in earn-
est till then, as the lighter rods of an inch square were found to
be nearly useless and it was only by afffxing heavy weights to the
stronger rods that any progress was made. No difficulty was ex-
perienced in procuring coolies to work the machine for the mo-
derate hire of a seer of rice and three small pice a day, they were
divided into two working parties of eight or nine men each,

At Kotah, the river is about half a mile in breadth from bank to
‘ bank, and during the hot weather it is a large stream containing at
least double the quantity of water of the Godavery and by a rough
estimate is a couple of hundred yards in width. The alluvion on
its left bank is of various depth, from 60 to 100 feet, and is com-
posed of tdugh cotton soil with Chalcedony Jasper and other
quartzose pebbles; towards the margin of the river the alluvion
is much thinner.

In consequence of the tendency of this soil to fall in and by
clogging the machine and filling up the bore seriously to impede
the work, it was resolved to bore where it was as shallow as could be
found, and this occurred in the immediate vicinity of the river ten
yards from its brink.

The alluvion of 20 feet was pierced on the first day but so hard
was the subjacent rock, composed of argillaceous limestone, and so
frequently did the drill require repairs that it took nine days to get
through a foot, from the 5th to the 12th of April; a specimen of
what was taken up during that time accompanies this report and
is marked No. I. On the 13th the rock became softer, and of a
yellowish color and a foot and a half were pierced in three days, then
followed a foot of blue clay when again the hard rock intervened,

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Dr. Walker’s Report on Coal at Kotah. 263

and but four inches were got through in three days. From this date
(the 20th) tothe 29th the average boring was about 8inches a day, the
rock being softer although composed of much the same matter as
the harder rock, clayey limestone orshale. On the 30th at 29 feet
4 inches from the surface, and 9 feet 4 inches from the overlying
rock a bed of shale and slate coal of the thickness of 24 feet was
reached, a specimen of this as taken up by the auger of the machine
is marked No. II. Hard rock again occurred and a fortnight was
exhausted in penetrating a foot and a half deeper, when another
bed of coal and shale like the last but of nine inches only in thick-
ness was reacned, earth tow had fallen into the bore, and some
time was occupied in cleazing it out. From this time until the 29th
of May when the rising of the river and the constant breaking of
the drill and auger warned us to stop the work, not more than half
a foot of hard rock which again occurred was bored through.

Thus the whole depth of the bore only amounted to thirty-four
feet seven inches, an inconsiderable distance when compared to
the extent commonly. gone through in search of coal in Europe.
Surface coal too is usually of an inferior quality, such as the
specimens now sent. But that a true coal field exists at Kotah
I think may be inferred from the following reasons. °

Ist. The strata accompanying the slate coal are those which
are found along with deposits of this mineral in other parts
of the world, argillaceous limestone and shale, as the specimens
sent will abundantly show.

2nd. The fossil plants, of which in the specimens sent the
scales of a lepidodendrous plant are most conspicuous, are identical
with the fossil plants of the true coal measure, this may be learnt
by inspecting them.

Should coal be ever required in this part of India for the pur-
poses of steam, or for smelting the iron ore so profusely scattered
through the neighbouring sandstone, if would appear that suffi-
cient data have been now afforded to warrant the sinking of a
shaft at kotah whereby a more effectual search can be made than by
a boring machine. No difficulty would be met with in procuring

,

264 Scientific Intelligence. [No.2, NEW SERIES,

well-diggers for this purpose on the spot, accustomed to wield
their own tools and at a low rate of wages.

The importance of finding good serviceable coal on the banks of
the Pranheetah, and so close to the main stream of the Godavery is
scarcely to be overrated. By means of river steamers of light
burden a new avenue of commerce would be opened, and access
at a cheap rate would be attained to the most fertile tracts in the
Deccan. The navigability of these rivers was shown by Captain
Fenwick, late of the Nizam’s Service, when in the employ of Messrs.
Palmer and Co. of Hyderabad more than a quarter of a century
ago, for not only was timber floated dvwn to the mouth of the ri-

ver, but the cotton of Berar was brought down from Woon, a_

village on the bank of the Pranheetah seventy-five miles S. E. of
Nagpore, to Coringa. In my report on the Chennore Sircar, I shall
give in detail various other articles produced in those parts that
might be turned to commercial account and profit, if a cheap and
free access by means of water carriage to the coast were afforded
them.

As the Godavery has never been surveyed with a view to its pur-
poses asa navigable river, I shall give from the information of
Captain Fenwick, an account of the obstructions that are met with
in its channel. A map, which was furnished to the Supreme Govern-
ment in June 1841, by the Resident at Hyderabad, Major General
Fraser, will indicate the localities where these impediments occur.

From Coringa to Budrachellum, the navigation is perfectly free,
except that there is a whirlpool at Papeecondah, not far above
Palaverum at the opening of the narrow and tortuous straits of the
same name which wind through a range of high hills for more than
12 or 15 miles commencing from the Nizam’s Boundary. The
river here is generally not more than 3800 yards wide. In some
places I think even less. The mountains rise almost perpendicu-
larly from the water’s edge, and the depth is many fathoms.
From Budrachellum to Ellapoka the river is impeded by rocks
when it is low, but when half full or more, there is no difficulty in
the navigation. The same description applies to the rocks marked
at Central Donurgoorum and Albaka ; from the last point the river

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Report on the specimens of Coal, &c. & ec. 265

although quite free is somewhat shallow, early after the rains.
The next obstacle is the two whirlpools at Mooknoor which when
the river is full, present a considerable obstacle, but not so when
it is moderately full at which time the boatmen, who are very
expert, manage to steer between them without danger. The pas-
sage between Nulumpully and Mooknoor, is only tedious after the
rains as during the freshes the rocks may be sailed over. The

~ last obstacle in the Godavery is just at the junction of the Inda-

rootee. The channel through the rocks, which are there high is
very narrow, and pointed ones in it render the passage somewhat
dangerous, “ some of these’”’adds Captain Fenwick “ I had removed
the nature of the rock bemg soft slate.”

Specimens of Minerals belonging to the Coal Measure to accom-

_ pany the report.

No. I. and No. II. are referred to and explained in the report.

No. III. Shale and Bituminous shale from Kotah.

No. IV. Prismatic Limestone from the same place.

No. V. Slate Coal.

No. VI. Specimens of Coal with fossil impressions chiefly of
lepidodendrous plants to show that the measure is a true Coal. —

No. VII. Specimen of Coal found in the river bed (detached),

No. VIII. Specimen of Iron ore (brown clay) found in the
vicinity of Kotah.

Report on specimens of Coal, Prismatic Lime Stone and Iron Ore,
forwarded with Dr. Watker’s Report, by James Dodd, Esq., Assay
Master, in charge of Chemical Examiners’ Department,
Calcutta.

Coal. Bituminous slate.
Volatile matter.... 29 per cent. No. 1-41:25-2-26°667.
10) SS SA ee Le » 46:25 ,, 66:250.
VATBOU sais gals se eae os, OO. 12°50 ,, 6°083.
Prismatic Lime Stone,

Carbonate Lime.,., 27-8 per cent.

Iron Ore

Metallic Iron,.,,,, 22-4 do,

rr

266 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Report on specimens of Bituminous Shale transmitted along with
Dr. Watker’s Report, by Dr. Falconer, a. M. and M. D.,
Supt. Hon'ble Co.’s Botanical Gardens, Calcutta.

I have carefully examined the specimens in question six in num-
ber, and although they exhibit abundance of black flakes as com-
monly occurs in bituminous shale, which are probably of vegeta-
ble origin, I cannnot detect the presence of any determinable im-
pressions of vegetable fossils. The black flakes, under a careful
eXamination with the microscope, exhibit no marks of structure
and appear to be bituminous.

ce,

The appearances which seem to have been taken for vegetable
fossils and which I presume are those alluded to by Dr. Walker in
his Report as ‘* Scales of Lepidodendrous Plants,”’ I have made
out to be enamel dersinal plates of an extinct placoid fish co-ordi-
nate with Lepidotus and Dapedius. If Dr. Walker forwarded any
well marked vegetable fossils they have not been submitted to me
there are one or two obscure and indistinct impressions probably
of organic origin but they are not determinable.

In the list appended to his Report, Dr. Walker mentions No.
VI. specimens of coal with fossil impressions chiefly of Lepido-
dendrous plants to show that the measure is a true “coal,” I have
observed nothing among those sent, to which this description could
accurately apply, nor have seen any samples of coal among them.
Should there happen to be any, I should be glad to examine it, on
the chance, that some portion of it may exhibit determinable struc-
ture. In reference to this point I may mention that I have detected
structure on the Burdwan coal, sufficient to determine the plans
from which the coal was produced, and which go a long way to
prove that the Burdwan coal fields belong to an age and series,
perfectly distinct from and more modern than the great English
coal measures.

There is no evidence afforded by such of Dr. Walker’s specimens

as I have seen that the Chennore coal belongs to the same forma-
tion, as the English Carboniferous series.

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Meteorological Curves. 267

[With reference to the latter part of Dr. F’alconer’s Report the only specimens ap-
proaching coal that accompanied Dr. Walker’s letter were forwarded to Dr.
Falconer, and he reported upon them as follows. ]

I have detected structure in the Chennore coal under the micros~
cope, consisting of glandular dotted vascular tissue referable proba-
bly tothe natural family of Conifere.

Plants of this order are met with in the Zias and Oalite, as well
as in the coal measures, and the Chennore specimens furnish no de-
cisive information as to the formation in which they occur.

{Extract from Dr. Walker’s statistical Report on the Northern and Eastern Dis-
tricts of the Soubah of Hyderabad. ]

I have already sent a communication on the coal found in the
bed of the'Pranheetah, close to its junction with the Godavery, and
to thisI refer. The subject of rendering the Godavery navigable
has lately been discussed, and some interest has been excited in
what would appear to be a measure very feasible and very advan-
tageous. Should this scheme ever be carried out, the mineral, con-
veniently situated as it is, might be turned to profit.

The surface of the coal measure has as yet so to speak been
merely scraped, but from the impressions of fossils found on the
coal, chiefly Lepidodendrous plants, there can be no doubt of a true
coal mine being there in existence.

[Major Jacob, H. C. Astronomer, Madras, placed at the disposal of the Society
some Barometer and Thermometer Curves, and supplied a brief notice in
explanation of them. The Curves have been accurately lithographed by
Dumphy, and will be found at the end of this number, but on a smaller scale
than those sent by Major Jacob, to suit the size of the Journal.]

Plates (1) to (8) at the end ofthis number give the indications of
the Barometer and Thermometer for the years 1852—55 as noted at
the H. C. Observatory, arranged in curves so as to exhibit the peri-
odical changes. In the case of the Barometer the curves for every
month show very conspicuously the course of the daily tides, there
being two well marked maxima and minima: the principal maximum
occurring at 214. 16m. (or past 9 a. m.), while the lowest minimum
is seen at about 4. M.: with a second rise and fall during the

268 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

night; the highest nightly rise being at 10 Pp. m. and the lowest
descent at 15h. or 3 a4. m.: the daily range being on an average
0-120, and that during the night about half as much. The varia-
tions in the times or range between the different months is very
trifling, but the mean value for each month shows considerable alter-
ations; the mercury standing highest on the average in January,
falling gradually until June, and rising again from July to Decem-
ber, the rise being usually, but not always, most rapid from October
to November. The same general course is also visible, though sub-
ject to great fluctuation, in the curve of daily means at the foot of
each Barometer Plate, where are shown the successive changes in

the mean height of the mercury from day to day. In most of the |

years there will be seen one or more considerable depressions about
the beginning of November, indicating the effect of the storms which
so frequently occur about that time.

The Thermometer curves have rather a peculiar form ; that por-
tion which belongs to the day, viz. from 18/. to 6%., having nearly
a parabolic shape, while the night portion scarcely differs from a
straight line, showing a nearly uniform descent from sunset to sunrise;
the change from the night to the day being much more abrupt than
the converse. The coldest time of the 24 hours appears to precede
that of sunrise by afew minutes ; the hottest time is about 1h. 10m.
Pp. M., but varies in the different months from 02. 30m. to 2k. June
is on the whole the hottest month but is nearly equalled and in one
year surpassed by May. The coldest month is January, but De-
cember and February differ but little from it. The range of tem-
perature is seen to be much greater in the hot than in the cold
season, the least occurring in November. The mean daily range
amounts to 12°,

New species of Silk Worm.

“ Toe Acri-HoRTICULTURAL SocrETY oF Inpra has reported
most favourably on a new variety of silk, brought into notice by
Capt. Hurton, of the invalids, a resident of Landour. The worm
which produces it (Bombyx Huttonz) spins in all weathers, whereas
the common silk-worm is apt to be thrown off work by a passing

ee eee ee

JAN.—MAR. 1857. | Notices of Books. 269

cloud. It is thought that the new worm may prove commercially
important, and Government is solicited to institute experiments re-
garding its productive powers. In connection with silk it was
announced at the late meeting of the Society, that the new plan of
manufacturing silk directly from the bark of the mulberry tree is
rapidly gaining ground. Signor Lorrert, the inventor, announces
that four companies have been started in Europe for carrying out
the system, one of which has already paid him down 25,000/. for
the privilege.” —Allen’s Indian Mail, 30th Jan. 1857.

0

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

Oriental Literature.

The Poems of the Hudsailis, edited in the Arabic from an ori-
ginal MS. in the University of Leyden and translated with annota-
tions by J. G. L. Koszegarren ; vol. I. containing the Arabic
text, London, 1854, 4to.

This work is now in course of publication by the Council of the
Oriental Translation Fund. The first volume contains only the Arabic
text. M. KosEGARTEN purposes to give a complete translation
in the second and the remainder of the text in the third.

This collection of poetical compositions or Dewans contains the
National poems of a tribe of Bedouins—the Hudsailis or Hodeilites
and belongs to the same class of compositions before the Aira of Mo-
hammad as the Moallakat, the Hamasa of Boutori and the #iiad-
al-Aghani of which latter work Mr. KoszeGartEen has also com-
menced the publication. The MS. which is a unique copy, in the
Library at Leyden, is incomplete, the 2nd volume only being in
existence but it contains the commentary of AssuKARI, the com-
piler of the work.

In connection with the literature of this epoch are the dnsab or
geneological tables of the Arab races published by M. WasTENFELD
at Gottingen from the writings of MoHAMMaAD BIN AL HASAN InN
DorEID, a poet and philologist of the 3rd century of the Hijri.

270 Notices of Books. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

Geneologische Tabellen der Arabeschen Stemme und Familien von
Dr. FErp. WASTENFELD—Gottingen 1852, Fol.

Register zu den genealogischen Tabellen with historical and geo-
graphical notices, 1853.

Handbuch Geneologisch etymologisches von ABUBEKR MoHAM-
MAD BIN AL Hasan Inn DoreErp heransgegeben von Ferv. Was-
TENFELD—Gottingen 1854, 8vo.

The indefatigable M. Von Hammer continues the publication
of his great work on Arabic Literature (Literatur geschichte der

Araber) of which the 5th vol. containing 1,115 pages appeared in

1854 and the 6th extending to 1,169 pages in 1855.

The Library ofthe Society possesses a copy of this admirable work
presented by the munificence of M. Von Hammer himself. Each
vol. commences with a general view of the literature of the epoch
of which it treats, followed by biographical sketches of the writers
arranged either according to the class of society to which they be-
longed or according to the subject of their works; followed by
translations of some of the most remarkable poems.

The six volumes already published contain notices of more than
700 authors and afford a striking example of the patient and labo-
rious habits of study and research so remarkably characteristic of
the savans of Germany.

The 2nd and 3rd volumes of the Travels of Ibn Batuta—the text
and translations by MM. C. Derremery and Dr. B. R. Saneur-
NETTI, have been published at the Imprimerie Imperiale, Paris,
1854 and 1855.

M. RENAN is occupied with a valuable philological work on the
Semitic languages, the first volume of which appeared in 1855 and
received the prize of the Institute.

It is entitled Histoire Generale et Systeme compare des langues
Semitiques, par Ernest RENAN, Paris, 1855, 8vo.

The fourth volume of the translation of the Shahnameh of F1r-
pDAusi, by M. Juntes Mout, Secretary of the Asiatic Society of
Paris, appeared in 1855.

:
:

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Oriental Literature. 271

The third volume of the Rig Veda Sanhita with the commentary
of Savana Cuarya, by M. Max Mutter, has been published and
copies are on their way to India.

Another translation of the Hitopadesa has appeared at Paris by
M. LancreREAv. It is very neatly got up in 12mo. and is enriched
with interesting notes tracing the origin and history of the several
fables and tales.

The first complete translation of the Persian version of the same
work, the Anvart Soheili of Hoseyn Vaz at CasHari, by Pro-
fessor Eastwick, was published by Austin of Hertford in 1854.

From the same Press, has likewise issued a new edition of the
text of the Bhagavat Gita witha translation by J. Cockpurn
Tuompson, 1855.

The VII. No. of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
for 1856, which has lately been received, is occupied by an index of
the matter contained in the previous volumes from I. to XXIII. and
of volumes XIX. and XX. of the Asiatic Researches. It is fol-
lowed by a supplement repairing omissions in the first and by three
specialindices—1. of the Numismatic matter contained in the Jour-
nal; 2. of translations of ancient inscriptions, reprinted from the
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. VI. and continued to the
end of 1854; and 3, a geological and mineralogical index to the
Gleanings of Science, Asiatic Researches and the Journal of the
Society.

A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian, or South Indian Fa-
mily of Languages, by the Rev. R. CaLpwett, London, 8vo. has just
been received.

Mr. Caldwell has labored for the last seventeen years as a Mis-
- sionary inthe South of India. During a recent visit to England he
completed a Comparative Grammar of the Languages of Southern
India, the family of which he divides into nine principal branches,
viz. Tamil, Teloogoo, Canarese, Malayalum, Tolu, Toda, Kota, Gond,
and Khond. He has discussed in detail the connexion these dialects
have with each other, as well as that of the whole family with the
families of other languages. He is opposed to Mr. Hodgson’s theory

yn

272 Notices of Books. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

in regard to the identity of the languages of Southern India with the
dialects of the Himalaya and Bootan, being more inclined to support
the views of Mr. Max Muller on the affiliation existing between the
Dravidian, and what is now styled the Scythian group of languages.

We hope to give a review of this in our next Number.

A Dictionary, Sanscrit and English, extended and improved from the
second edition of the Dictionary of Professor H. H. Wilson, toge-
ther with a supplement, grammatical appendices and an index serv-
ing as an English-Sanscrit Dictionary, by Theodor Goldstiicker, Ber-
lin, 1856, large 4to. ; part 1, (80 pages.)

This is the commencement of the publication of the long expect-
ed 3rd edition of Professor Wilson’s dictionary.

The preparation of this new edition has been undertaken by Mr.
Goldstiicker alone. It contains considerable additions more par-
ticularly of those véedu terms which Professor Wilson systematically

‘ excluded.

Mr. Goldstiicker promises to insert in a supplement those words
whose meaning he has not been able satisfactorily to explain as
well as all new words he may meet with in the course of publica-
tion. The work will appear in parts, each part to contain 80 pages
—price 87 fr. 50 centimes.

We are glad to have to announce the publication of a work in
connection with our own Presidency, viz. a new edition of Dr.
Barxie’s Book on the Neigherries. It is thus noticed by the Hur-
karu.

*“ Mr. W. H. Smoult has got up with great trouble and expense
an edition of an account by R. Baikie, Esq., mw. p., of the Neilgher-
ries, their topography, climate, soil and productions, and of the effects
of the climate on the European constitution. The subject matter of
the work is of great interest to very many persons in this commu-
nity, but the point which we are most disposed to dwell upon is the
admirable style in which Mr. Smoult has contrived to get the work
illustrated by an artist of the name of Fraser, a stranger we believe
amongst us and who is about to try his fortune in another land,
unless perhaps the local Government has the good sense to secure

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Oriental Literature. 273

so able a hand to its own service. The large panoramic view of
Ootacamund is a picture that well deserves a handsome frame and
is worth the price of the book itself. Then there is a capital fron-
tispiece with a view of Sispara on the Neilgherries drawn from
nature by Captain Francis and transferred to stone by Mr. Fraser,
and there are four other separate sketches which with the large pa-
noramic view of Ootacamund are enclosed ina tincase. The illus-
_trations are all tinted lithographs and all exhibit an artist’s taste
and skill. Indeed such artistical productions in the way of book
embellishments have never been published before in this country,
In a land like this where health and even life itself are so precarious,
every information regarding the climate of particular localities
ought to be received with eagerness not only by the community but
by a “paternal government.” The Government of Madras, we
hear, has subscribed largely to the work before us, by way of en-
couraging all attempts on the part of individuals to make the com-
munity acquainted with the character of the country and its resources.
Such a sanatarium as the Neilgherries furnish us is a blessing that
cannot be too highly appreciated. Many a valuable servant may
be saved to the State, by having so near us a climate so admirably
adapted to the restoration of individuals. Dr. A. Grant, who was
the personal surgeon of the Marquis of Dalhousie and accompanied
his Lordship to the Neilgherries in 1855 remarks that “ it is sur-
prising the advantages of the Blue Mountains should have been so
long overlooked, in a country where European health is so preca-
rious and the necessity of a change to a cool climate is so frequently
and urgently called for. In Bengal they have scarcely attracted
any attention, otherwise, how many invalids might have been saved
a trip to Australia, or the Cape or even to England.” Dr. Grant
recommends that in Bronchitis, or incipient consumption, or when
the liver is affected the patient should first go to Coonoor, ‘a plea-
sant, retired, and pretty summer residence,” well sheltered and
easily accessible, and when he has gained strength he should go, he
says, to Ootacamund, the air of which is more bracing. In a very
few days an invalid could pass comfortably from Calcutta to Oota-
camund. The climate of the Neilgherries is delightful and the sce-
nery is singularly varied and picturesque, as may be seen from the

Q74 Notices of Books. [No. 2, NEW SERIEs,

accurate and truly artistical sketches which accompany the work
before us.

«“ We learn from Mr. Smoult’s excellent explanatory introduction
that the late Bishop James, in a letter to the Right Hon’ble S. R.
Lushington expressed himself perfectly charmed with the hills of
Ootacamund. ‘I have been racking my memory,” he wrote, ‘‘ for
some place to compare them with ; the closest resemblance I can
find is “ Malvern” at the fairest season: but the extent and bold
variety give these a decided superiority. I have a fuller sense of
the enjoyment to be derived from air and exercise than I remember
to have ever experienced at any time of at any place.”

“ Mr. Smoult’s own share of the work‘is carefully and ably exe-
cuted. He has brought out a very valuable publication. It does
him great credit in every way. If Mr. Smoult should be a pecuni-
ary loser by this costly publication he will at all events have the
pleasant consciousness of having done a real service to his country-
men in India by calling their attention to the lovely and health-
inspiring locality of the Blue Mountains. This book may save
many a valuable life by its suggestions and the interesting informa-
tion which it will circulate through a community in which indivi-
duals are so:often reduced to the alternative of an immediate change
of climate or a preparation for their final home.”

Natural History.

DECANDOLLE’s Propromus. Vol. XIV. Part. I. has lately
reached us. It contains the large order Polygonacee, by C. F.
MEISNER, excepting the Sub-order Hriogonee, which are from the
pen of the laborious Mr. G. BentHam: Myristicacea, by the
Author. Proteaceae, by MEISNER, and Peneacee, by ALPH: DE-
CANDOLLE. The Volume is a worthy addition to its invaluable
predecessors.

Planiea Indie Batave Orientales.

A work under this title is now in course of publication by the

a a

JAN.—mMaR, 1857. | Natural Mstory. O15

Dutch Government under the especial patronage of the King of
Holland. It is edited by Professor Dz Vrirsz. The first part
which has only as yet appeared contains a full account of the plants
found in the principal islands of the Eastern Archipelago—Java,
Celebes, Amboina, Ternate, &c. from the MS.S.: of the late
Professor C. A. C. Rernwarpt, between the years 1815 & 1822
edited by Dr. W. H. DE Vrizsz, Professor of Botany in the Uni-
-versity of Leyden. The technical descriptions are given in Latin
and are illustrated by characteristic lithographed figures.

The work will be published in 4to. with 40 plates ; three num-
bers have appeared in 1856,’ four more are to be given in the cur-
rent year and the rest in 1858.

Dr. RemInwaRptT died in 1854 without having given to the world
any consecutive work on the rich and important collections he had
made in the Dutch Colonies. His papers and drawings were pre-
sented to the Government and the task of editing them was entrust-
ed to Professor Vriese.

*‘ T purpose” says the Professor, “ first to publish in this work,
“ the plants that Dr. Rernwarprt discovered during his travels in
*‘ the Indies and to elucidate such portions of their history as have
“‘ not already been investigated by the researches of other botanists.
““ When it is remembered that Messrs. Bennett and R. Brown
“have only lately published the plants which Dr. Horsrizexip
** discovered in the island of Java at the commencement of the cen-
“ tury, it need not be matter of surprise that the discoveries of
‘“* REINWARDT in the other islands subsequent to 1815 should still
“ be worthy of publication. We doubt not that the labor we now
‘‘ propose to ourselves of making known the botanical researches
“ of Dr. REINWARDT will bring to light a great number of new
‘* plants and contribute to give a better idea of the geographical dis-
* tribution of plants in the Indian Archipelago, of which so little is
“ yet known.”

One of the plates which have already appeared represents a plant
which would form a most desirable addition to our gardens, The
Dichrefrichum Ternateum found in the forests near the summit of the

yy”

276 Notices of Books. [NO. 2, NEW SERIES,

Voleano of Ternate. It is a prostrate plant creeping on the ground
but is conspicuous for its large, downy, cordate leaves and its
bunches of scarlet tubular flowers from one to two inches long.

It appears to be allied to Streptocarpus with the habit of Hischy-
nanthus.

At the meeting of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, on the
12th June last, a paper was read by Lt.-Col. MappEn on “ the elu-
cidation of plants mentioned in Dr. FRANcIs HAMILTON’s account of
the Kingdom of Nepal.

At the following meeting on the 10th July 1856, Professor Bal-

four on taking the chair announced that since the last meeting
Col. Madden had died suddenly from rupture of the aorta.

“We all, Iam sure (he said), deeply deplore the loss of one
who took a warm interest in our proceedings, and with whom we
have had much pleasant intercourse. For my own part I cannot
easily give expression to the sad feelings with which I contemplate
the bereavement. He had been a constant visitor at the garden
during the summer while engaged in preparing his elaborate paper
on the Indian Plants in Dr. Buchanan Hamilton’s herbarium ; and
I had looked forward to the pleasure of spending many a happy
day with him in the prosecution of Botanical science. His ami-
able deportment and gentlemanly manner endeared him to all of us,
and we all rejoiced to see one who had spent a large portion of his
life in the active service of the East India Company, now devoting
his time and leisure to the prosecution of science. During his re-
sidence in India he was a careful observer, and made many inter-
esting remarks on the flora of the country. He sent home the
seeds of many valuable plants which have flowered in Glasnevin
and in other gardens. When he came to settle in Edinburgh he
joined the Royal and Botanical Societies, in both of which he be-
came a very active member. He was elected a councillor of the
Royal Society, and took a marked interest in its proceedings, he
particularly took charge of the Scientific additions, which it was
agreed to make to its library. To the transactions of the Botani-
cal society he contributed an excellent paper on the occurrence of

JAN.—MAR. 1857. ] Proceedings. 214

Palms and Bamboos high on the Himalaya, and it is to be hoped
that the paper which was read from him at our last meeting will
be in such a state as to allow of its publication. Most sincerely,
I am sure, do the Society condole with his afflicted widow. Such
events call on us to be ready, seeing we know not what a day may
bring forth.”

At the same meeting a paper was read entitled, 4 brief account
of the general Botanical features of a Hill District in Western India,
with the results of a series of observations in connection with ve-
getable climatology. By Joan Kennett Witson, Bombay.

PROCEEDINGS.

The Managing Commitiee of the MApras Literary Socrety and
Ausiliary of the Royal Asiatie Society, Thursday Evening, Janu-
ary 8, 1857,

The chair was taken at 3 past 6 by W. U. Arnsutunort, Esa.

The Secretary laid the usual statements before the Meeting and
the following papers were selected for the evening.

Read an interesting account from Major Jacob, the Honorable
Company’s Astronomer, explaining the different indications of the
Barometrical and Thermometrical Curves, for the years 1852-53,
54 and 55; the Plates having been previously forwarded by bim
to the Society.

In regard to the Barometer the Curves for every month show
very conspicuously the course of the daily tides, there being two
well marked Maxima and Minima the principal Maximum occur-
ring at $ past 9a. M., and the lowest Minimum at 4r. mM. The Mer-
cury stands highest on the average in January, falling gradually
till June, and rising again towards December. The Rise is usually
most rapid from October to November, about which time considerable
depressions are also observable indicating the effect of storms which
not unfrequently sweep over this coast at that time of the year.

278 Proceedings. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

The Thermometer Curves, show the coldest time of the 24
hours to be a few minutes before sunrise, and the hottest time to
be lh. 10m. P. m. but varying in different months from Oh. 30m.
to 2h. June on the whole is the hottest month and January the
coldest. The range of Temperature is greater in the hot than in
the cold season, the least occurring in November. The mean
daily range amounts to 12°.

Resolved that the thanks of the Meeting be voted to Major Ja-
eob, and that his paper be set aside for publication.

Read letter from Secretary to Government, dated 23rd Dec. 1856
forwarding Dr. Walker’s Report on Coal boring at Kotah, a village |
about 10 or 12 miles from the junction of the Wurdah river with
the Godavery.

In 1841 Dr. Walker submitted to the Asiatic Society of Bengal
an account of some minerals found in the bed of the Godavery, of
the nature of Slate Coal, with a few remarks on the Geological
features of the place at which they were discovered. The account

will be found published at page 341, vol. 10 of the Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal.

In consequence of the indications set forth in that paper a bor-

ing operation was determined on, and entrusted to Dr. Walker's
superintendence.

The Rods, Drills, and Augers of the Boring-Machine were
made up at Bolarum—about 30 feet was pierced on the first day ;
afterwards, falling in with Argillaceous Limestone it took 9 days
to get through afoot. At the depth of 29 feet a bed of Shale

and Slate Coal was met with. The whole depth pierced was only
34 feet 7 inches.

Dr. Walker infers that a Coal field may be found at Kotah for
the following reasons.

Ist. The strata accompanying the slate Coal are those which
are found along with deposits of this mineral in other parts of
the world.

2d. The fossil plants apparent are identical with the fossil plants
of the true Coal measure.

JAN.—MAR., 1857.] Proceedings. 279

The report concludes with an account of the obstructions to
navigation in the Channel of the Godavery.

Read also letters from Mr. Dodd in charge of Chemical Ex-
aminer’s Department, and from Dr. Falconer, Superintendent of

the Botanical Garden, Calcutta, upon the mineral specimens for-
warded by Dr. Walker.

The thanks of the Meeting were presented to the Contributors
of the above Papers. Some time has elapsed since Dr. Walker’s
experiment, but Madras having now its Railway and Mineral
Viewer, and the Committee being aware of the great importance of
a Country like India being able to supply itself with Coal and Iron
in the same way as England is favored with the former, thought it
advisable to put on record in the Journal an experiment like Dr.
Walker’s, and it was resolved accordingly to request the Commit-
tee of Papers to arrange for the publication of his Report.

The Managing Committee of the Mapvras Lirerary Society and
Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday Evening, Feb. 12,
1857. ;

The Hon’ble W. Extiort, in the CHAIR.

The Secretary read a letter, from Dr. Jameson, Superintendent of
the Botanical Garden at Saharunpoor, to Mr. Elliot, giving an ac-
count of the Tea plantations in the Himalayas.

The encouragement given to the cultivation of Tea in the last 2
years bids fair to render Teaa staple article of produce in the
N. W. Provinces. Last year the quantity turned out was 40,000 lbs.
this year that amount will be doubled. It is nowin great demand
at Almorah and Deyrah, the best kinds realizing from 3 Rs. to 4

Rs. 8 As. per pound, and this not for small quantities, the amount
disposed of having been 20,000 lbs.

A great proportion of the second class Teas was purchased by
natives for the purpose of bartering with the Bhotiahs in the inte-
rior of the Himalayas and Thibet in exchange for Borax and other

a We -
ea)
“ ;= 2

_—
=

.

280 Proceedings. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

products of the mountain region. Up to this time the Mountain
races have been in the habit of consuming the brick Teas of China.

Tt is certainly a remarkable fact that an integral part of the
Chinese Empire is receiving its supplies of Tea from India, and
Dr. Jameson is sanguine that if aided by good roads the trade with
the Bhotiahs will soon become an important one, and that the
Indian Teas will be sold at rates so cheap as to drive the Chinese
article out of the market in these regions.

Extracts of a letter from Professor Oldham to Mr. Brooke Cun-
liffe, were also read acknowledging the«receipt of ceriain fossil re-
mains from the cretaceous beds at Utatur and Verdachellam for the —

e, Museum of Economic Geology. Putting aside the Cephelopoda,

ss <__7-Mr. Oldham observes, the specimens from the two localities indi

_ cate only a litile difference in the depth of water where the depo-

sits were formed; but the presence of these chambered shells

points to a series of beds somewhat higher in Geological sequence.

The great prevalence of ammonites of the section of Lgait as
compared with the Verdachellam group is of this nature.

Mr. Oldham also sent copies of the prospectus of the new organi-
zation of the Geological Museum, one of which Mr. Cunliffe pre-
sented to the Society.

It is proposed to print this on the fiy leaf of the Journal, and it
is hoped that the Members of the Society will exert themselves to
procure contributions to the collection. It is only by grouping
together the geological facts derived from a comparison of fossil
remains from all parts of India that a correct idea can be formed
of the geological structure and conditions of this vast country. And
the eminent qualifications of the officers attached to the geological
survey afford the best guarantee that full justice will be done to such
contributions.

Mr. Oldham adds that he had recently obtained a small collec-
tion of fossils from the limestone to the west of Mhow and Indore
near the Nerbudda Valley which appear to be nearly of the same
geological age as those from Utatur, with considerable vanety how-
ever, as was to be expected from the difference of latitude.

:
ae Dik oi

;
:

JAN.—MAR. 1857.] Proceedings. 281

It was also stated to the Meeting that fossil remains of a large
vertebrate animal probably a gigantic saurian have recently been
discovered at Utatur. Mr. Adolphe Schlagentweit, found a large
bone, apparently the condyle of a femur, and a portion of what is
stated to be a large tooth sent to Dr. Hunter by Captain Ryves
will be shown at the forthcoming Exhibition.

The Annual General Meeting of the Society was fixed for the
~ 26th Instant.

Mapnras Literary Society and Auailiary of the Royal Asiatic
Society, Thursday Evening, February 26, 1857.
Sir C. Rawiinson, Kt., PResIDENT, in the Cuarr,

This was the Annual General Meeting of the Members of the
Society.

The President, on opening the Meeting brought to notice an
error that had crept into the Society’s monthly Reports, of publish-
ing the Proceedings of the Managing Committee of the Madras
Literary Society as the Proceedings of the Madras Literary Society,
none of the Members of which, save the Managing Committee,
appear to have had an opportunity of attending, and it was resolved
accordingly that endeavours should be made to give all Members
the opportunity of attending any Literary or Scientific Meeting
which the Managing Committee might be able to arrange.

The Secretary read to the Meeting the usual Report and State-
ment exhibiting the state of the Society’s Funds up to the end
of the past year.

To
The Members of the Madras Literary Society
and Aumhary of the Royal Asiatic Society.
GENTLEMEN,

The Managing Committee of the Society have the honor to lay
before you the accompanying Statement of the accounts of the
Society for the past year, exhibiting a balance in favor of the
Society on the 3lst December last, of Rupees 750-14-0.,

The balance at the end of 1855, was Rupees 469-13-4,

yr

282 Proceedings. [NO. 2, NEW SERIEs,

The Committee hope this will be deemed satisfactory.

It may not be out of place here to add that the Statement ren-
dered at our last Meeting on the 12th instant, exhibits a still more
favorable view of the Society’s Funds, showing a credit balance
of Rupees 1,052-8-8.

The Committee have further to announce that, with the view of
upholding the Literary and Scientific character of the Society, the
publication of their Journal has been resumed, and from the pre-
sent number of Subscribers they have every reason to hope that
the issue of this Periodical will tend to the advantage of the In-
stitution, and prove attractive to the Community.—255 copies out
of 850 have already been disposed of.

In conclusion the Committee desire to state that the number of
Subscribers to the Library at the end of the past year stood as fol-
lows ;

WirstClaess oo ess cee eae cee
Second Clader %, Yo. st sss avon
Third Class oo 32 2s eae try eae

For the Managing Committee.
(Signed) J. W. Breexs, Secretary.

Resolved, on the motion of Mr. R. Burgass, seconded by Mr. H.
Fortey, that the Report be received and printed in the Journal.

Resolved, on the motion of Mr. R. Burgass, seconded by Major
W. J. Wilson, that the Managing Committee use their best en-
deavours to obtain books on more advantageous terms, now that
the late changes in the Book Trade hold out such a prospect to
Purchasers.

Resolved, on the motion of the Chairman, seconded by Mr. R.
Burgass, that the accounts be passed as satisfactory, and that the
thanks of the Meeting be presented to the Managing Committee of
the past year for their exertions in behalf of the Society, and that
they be re-elected into a Managing Committee for the present year.

Resolved, on the motion of Mr. W. U. Arbuthnot, seconded by
the Honorable Walter Elliot, that Mr. R. Burgass be invited

= eee

i a

JAN.—-MAR. 1857. | Proceedings. 283

to become a Member of the Managing Committee, to complete the
number as laid down in Rule VI. of the Society’s Regulations.

The following Gentlemen were elected as the Managing Com-
mittee for the current year.

MANAGING CoMMITTEE.

Major W. J. Wilson, | Mr. W. U. Arbuthnot,
Mr. T. Pycroft, Major E. Lawford,
Colonel F. A. Reid,c.s. | Mr. H. F. C. Cleghorn, m. p.

Lieut. Col. T. T. Pears, c. B. | Mr, A. J. Arbuthnot,
Lieut. Col. F.C. Cotton, | Mr. R. Burgass,
Mr. G. H. Ellis, | Mr, J. W. Breeks, Secretary.

The thanks of the Meeting were voted to the Chairman, and the
Meeting closed.

The Managing Committee of the MApRAs LiteRARY Society and
Ausiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday Evening, March
12, 1857.

On the motion of Mr. W. Arbuthnot, seconded by Colonel Cot-
ton, the Hon’ble W. Elliot, was elected Chairman of the Commit-
tee for the current year.

The Secretary laid before the Meeting the usual Monthly State-
ment of the Society’s Funds, and brought to the notice of the
Committee the urgent necessity which existed for a complete Ca-
talogue of the Society’s Books by embodying the Supplemental
Catalogues for 1852-53 and 55 with the old Catalogue, and clas-
sifying each work under its appropriate head.

Resolved that the state of the Society’s Funds is satisfactory,
and that anew Catalogue of the Society’s books be printed as
soon as possible, containing every work received into the Library
up to January 1857.

Extracts of a letter from Mr. Thwaites, Superintendent of the
Royal Botanic Garden of Paradenia in Ceylon to Dr. Cleghorn
were read, in which he expressed his readiness to permit the descrip-

284 Proceedings, [No. 2, NEW SERIES.

tions of the new Genera of Plants of Ceylon, published by him in
the Kew Miscellany, to re-appear in the Society’s Journal.

The intimate connection of the Flora of India with that of Cey-
lon invests the details of such discoveries with peculiar interest for
the Botanists of this part of the country and the Committee at
once resolved to avail themselves with thanks of Mr. Thwaites’
liberal permission. The Sub Committee of Papers were accord-
ingly directed to make a selection of some of these New Genera
for publication in future Numbers of the Journal. |

Dried specimens of several of these, especially of such as are

likely to prove useful in the Arts, have been forwarded by Mr. .

Thwaites to the present Exhibition.

Some of the early Proof Plates of Dr. McPherson’s Antiquities
of Kertch were laid on the table and attracted much admiration.
They represented Vases, Statuettes, Bas Reliefs in Terra Cotta,
Glass and Ivory, of Greek and Etruscan Types, Fibulcee and Gold
ornaments, bearing a remarkable resemblance to those found in
the Tumuli and Mounds in Britain and which Dr. McPherson sup-
poses may have belonged to the Varangian Guards of the Byzan-
tine Emperors, &c.

The Plates are executed in the best style of Chromolithography
by a young andrising Artist named Kell, and though unfinished
give promise of great beauty and elegance when completed.

The Committee acknowledge with thanks the receipt of the fol-
lowing papers.

1, Observations on the Graphite or Plumbago of Kumaon and
Travancore by J. Forbes Royle, M, D. with an Extract from a let-
ter from the Resident of Travancore and Cochin dated 9th Febru-
ary 1857, from the Chief Secretary.

This Mineral was formerly found in its most pure state in Bor-
rowdale in Cumberland, which indeed was the only Mine which
produced Lead_of that fine quality requisite for the manufacture
of Drawing Pencils.

The Cumberland Mines have been wrought since Elizabeth’s
time ; pure Cumberland lead costing as much as from 30 to 40

JAN.—MAR, 1857,] Proceedings. 289

shillings a pound. The lead is not found in veins but in detached
pieces, so that the supply is occasionally irregular and the search
for it laborious and often fruitless.

Inferior descriptions of lead come from Spain and Ceylon, and
are used in the manufacture of crucibles and of the inferior sort of
Pencils and in polishing Cast Iron.

At present Mr. Royle says, finely powdered Graphite can, by
an extreme degree of pressure, be rendered nearly as compact as
the best natural Graphite, or we should be without any more good
drawing Pencils.

The great Manufacturers of Pencils in England reported the
Kumaon and Travancore specimens as quite useless for the manu-
facture of black lead pencils, observing that they could not use the
specimens in the state in which they had been sent without da-
maging their machinery, at the same time they could not conceive
why purer specimens should not be found in the same locality.

In regard to the objections made to the specimens forwarded,
General Cullen, the Resident of Travancore, remarks that one mo-
tive of their selection was to exhibit the matrix or Laterite rock in
which they were found, 3

2. Reports V, VI, VII, and IX of the proceedings of the Offi-
cers engaged in the Magnetic Survey of India, from the Chief
Secretary.

8. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. I. Part 1.
from T. Oldham, A. M., F. R.S., F. G, 8. &e, Superintendent of
Geological Survey of India.

This is the first of a series of Memoirs published by order of the
Right Honorable the Governor General of India in Council. The
subject of the present Notice contains a highly interesting account
of the Talcheer Coal Fields, situated in the Tributary Mahal of
Cuttack, there is also a short notice of the Iron Ore procurable in
the same locality.

Appended to this Memoir will be found accounts of the aurife-
rous deposits of Assam and the vicinity of Shué-gween in the Pro-

286 Proceedings. [No. 2, NEW SERIES,

vince of Martaban. The gold discovered in both localities is of
considerable purity, the latter Mr. Oldham considers fully equal in
value to the average quality of Australian gold.

With the Book Mr. Oldham forwarded a letter to the Secretary
and a notice setting forth the object of the Geological Museum
now in progress in Calcutta of which he expressed a hope that the
Society would obligingly promote the welfare, and sanction an
interchange of publications.

Resolved that the notice be printed in the forthcoming number
of the Journal, and that a letter be addressed to Mr. Oldham inti-
mating the pleasure it will give the Society to effect an interchange
of publications as desired by him.

The Meeting separated a little before 8 o’clock.

INTRODUCTORY NOTICE.

Tue Committee of the Madras Literary Society having resolved
on commencing the re-publication of the ‘“* Madras Journal of Lite-
rature and Science,” desire briefly to point out what have been the
general scope and objects of this work.

The Journal had up to the cessation of its publication served as
a repertory for all matters of local interest, whether literary or sci-
entific, connected with the History, Geography, Antiquities, Lite-
rature, Ethnology, Natural History, and Meteorology of Southern
India. A reference to the numbers of this Journal will show how
considerable an amount of useful and valuable information has thus
been collected and preserved.

Many observations must frequently occur to persons attached to
Science, worthy of notice and interesting to the public, which are
often withheld from an undue diffidence as to their being worthy of
formal communication to the Literary Society.

Such Notices will be received with pleasure, and after submis-
sion to the Committee of Papers may find an appropriate record in
the Society’s Journal.

Narratives of Journeys undertaken with Scientific views or even
visits to new or little known places will be received with interest
and any observation as to the Local Fauna or Flora of particular
Districts will be highly valued.

The want of some such means of imparting to the public valu-
able discoveries in all such subjects has been very generally felt ;
but a work of this description must depend mainly on public sup-
port and this it is not unreasonable to expect that the pen as well
as the purse of the Community at large will furnish.

In inviting, therefore, Contributions as well as Subscriptions to
the Journal on its re-publication the Committee trust that their ap-
peal will be readily responded to.

NOTICE TO SUBSCRIBERS.

As Government have beén pleased to authorize Collectors and
Paymasters at out stations to receive into their Treasuries the sub-
scriptions due to the Madras Journal of Literature and Science, the
Committee particularly request that the subscriptions to this Num-
ber, and to all others, may accordingly be handed over to the near-
est Collector or Paymaster. ;

Extract From Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Magnetic Observatory.
DAILY MEANS. ;

|

[19ST ‘avN—'Nvs

December 1856. January 1857. February 1857.
Date, |8 23 THERMOMETERS. . Ee THERMOMETERS. ‘ Bes THERMOMETERS. [ $
aos a |23e aren letees 0 eta 4 10
8 S$") Means.) | . | Wind. |Rain. @ [635 | Means | a] | Wind /Rain) 3 [2 25) Meme | |, | Wind. | Rain. d
ac eo | a0. |—————_ |] 8 | .§ 3 3 | .&
4 26|Dry|Wet| & | & ae [A & 69 Dry |Wet ala PB) Bee barlie a|S ie
Inches} ° |° yak: Inches tuches| °™ N7e ye @ Inches Enclies 2 (2? | Seare Inches
1 | 29-960|76-2| 70'1| 82:0) 723] w by E| 0:010/Cloudy | 30:020|77'1 716 827/752) NE es {Cloudy | 29-937] 75:6] 71°9|83°7/69°3| & sa-- |Clear | 1
2 -949|'76-0| 69°7| $3°2| 72:1] N by H| .... | do 079; 75:3) 69:9) 88°6|70°'7] NE «» |Hazy ‘950] 75'4| 71°5|85°0| 70.1] su een Omang
3 -972) '75'8| 68°8| 83:0] 71°5| NN W ie | ado 83'7/71'3| EN E - 953] 74:1] 70°3/83'5|67'5| 8 = oo he
A +959! 76:0] 70°9| 81:6] 73-6] NNW |... | do ‘086| 75'9\ 71°4|83°8|72'3, HN E | .... | do 949] 72'8| 68'4/83'0|66°4| sz oO WiKe
5 961| 74:2) 70:0) 82 7| 72°0|N by w} °303} do | :092|76-1\71:2/82-1 724 ENE | .... [Cloudy] 955] 72-9] 68°3/83°0|67°3| > Cloudy} 5
6 79°3| 70°7| N by w| 1:240) ‘100| 75:4| 69°1/81'8|69°3, BN E - |Clear *984| 75°1| 69:4/83'7| 69.4) nN E Hazy | 6
7 "898, 70°8) 69°1/ 76:6) 68°8| N by w| 8°080/Overcast| -065) 75:8] 69°1/83°0/71'2} NE | see. |Hazy 84:1/69 7} ? vee
8 °812 75'1|73'1) 79°8| 71:0|N Eby=| 1:567| do ‘057| 75°2| 69'9|82'8/71'5} NE | .... | do 945] 74:8] 70°0/83:9|69'8| x wees (Clear | 8
9 -884'75:0| 73°2/82°2173'1| sE | 1:752| do 051) 76'5| 70°8/82°8|72°1] nw | .... | do 966} 74-6] 69°8/84:0/69'4] wu |... | do,
10 -961| 76-0| 74°0/82-0] 75°0| NE s75|> = do 83°4/75°5| NE | .... ‘983| 75°6) 70°8 pad 70:2] NNE - | do 10
11 *977| 77:0] 74:2) 82-8] 74:3] NE ‘610\Cloudy | :059/77:3]70 7/84:0/75-6) BN EH | «eee | do | °957| 75°31 71-7/84'9|69'8| = by N = | Go lt
12 992) 77'5| 742/828] 76-2|NE by N| -095| do -081| 75°9|68°7|83:3|/69'4) NE | .... | do *927| 76:6) 72°2|86°3|71°5) > edo 12
13 82'6| 74°6INE by N| “815 -069] 76°7| 68°8/82°7|75'1'N E by E| .... | do ‘930| 77°1| 72'6|86°7|71'2) ssxz . | do \/13
14 ‘988| 76°6| 73°7/82°0| 75°1| N by Ww} ‘058|Overcast| -037| 74°8) 68-7/82°5/70'5, NE | 0:003) do 86:0/70'6] ss : 14
15 969) 76°4| 73'1|82 3|73°6] NNE Hazy -002| 75°1| 70°6|/81-6/72'8; oN ... |Cloudy| +915} 76:7|72:3\86°1171-7, ss = . | do {15
16 *973] 76:2] 71°9)81.9|71'8] NNE Q 020] 74°6, 69:5|81:2/69-'7| NE ‘320\ Hazy -940| 77:0) 71:8|85°8'71'7| sz , | do {16
17 “976| 75°4| 70°6|81°8| 71°65] NNE | «se. | do 82:5|67°3/ NE by #] .... ‘972| 76°2| 69°3| 84°6|69-2iIn Ebyw, --- | do {17
18 998] 74:3 69-3/81°3/ 69'4) NE | .... | do -006|73°2| 67:9|81:6/68'0; N by H | ...¢ |Clear ‘995] 76°2| 69:6] 84:2/69°9iw & by B| «++. |Hazy /18
19 | 30°039| 74:8) 68:9/81°5| 70:1] NNE | .... | do 29:984| 74°3/ 68:6/81'7/68°9] NE | .... |Hazy ‘978| 74:4| 69:0] 83:9)67°2) nu ..+. [Clear /19
20 80'4| 69:3} N-by E/ .... "986, 73°7| 67'°2/81'2167'4| NE, | ... | do ‘945| 75.0) 69°8| 87°4|67°3} > . | do (20
21 -032| 75-4| 69:°1/81°8] 72°8] NE 008} do 980) 73°3) 66:5/80°7/66'2) NE .. (Clear 87°8|66°6| ? : 21
22 038] 77:0] 68-6) 82-5] 72°8|n B by N s|do 974] 72°6 65°6|80°7/66 4] NNE | wees |Hazy 884] 75:0| 69:5| 86'4/67'8| s B by s - | do [22
23 018] 75-6] 69-9 81:3] 71:3] x by B . | do 968) 71:5] 65:0/80°3165-4] NNE | sees |Clear ‘9141 74-4 68-8) 85:9/66-0; sz - | do {28
24 | 29 988) 75:7| 69:0'81-2/ 72:6] N by B do 81:0,66'7} NN E | esse 914| 74°7| 68 0/90°0|66'4) ssw we | do 24
25 988] 74:2/ 69-7180-6| 71:0 N ..| do ‘954 74:0| 68:2/82°7/70-'2, NNHE | .... |Hazy 820) 75:9] 68:1/91-7|/66'l) —,, eos. | do [25
26 | 80-088] 75:4! 69:4|83-0] 70:7) oN do "927/76°6| 70:°6|82°6174-4, NE | eeee |Cloudy| °820) 76:9) 71-9/87°3)71'4, do 26
27 83.2/ 72°1] n by E ‘905, 77°0| 71°8/83'6|75'0| NE | esse | do *841| 76°4|71°9/87-6(70°2) su done: ae
28 | 29.996) 74:8) 69:3) 82-0) 70:2; NN W| .... | do 919 76:5] 71.9|85'2/72'5| NE ioache ao . 87°3| 70.1] sz 28
29 "969| 75:2) 69:8/82:8) 71:0) Nw | sees {Clear 927) 76'8| 72°5'84:5|72'1| N by w | ..-- |Hazy 20
30 *957| 76'7| 72°6| 83'8| 73-5, = oN seoe | Hazy ‘923 76°5| 72°7/84°7|72'0, ENE | veee {Clear 30
31 | .957|77-6| 72:8 83°6| 76-0\n x by B| .... | do | | __ [8#0/71-8 | 2
Means) 972) 75°6) 70-9|81:9 72:3 9713 30:010) 75:3] 69-6] 82-6) 70°9 323 29-932] 75°4| 70°3| 85°7|69° : 0
l eun }

Sum
? This mark signifies that no Means can be taken owing to the variable state of the Wind,

*

‘0.2 -0Q “suorypasasqQ pnorbojosoapaye

L8G

Latract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Magnetic Observatory.
HOURLY MEANS.

Gottingen Mean Time....|Noon.| 1 2 3 4 5 6 | 8 | 9 10 il 12 13 14 15 16m | he 18 19 20 21 2 23

h. m.} h.m.!] h. m h. m.} h.m.j h m.| h.m./ h. m:| h. m.| h. m. h. m -h.m.| h.m.| bh. m.} h. m.| bh. m.| h.m.| h. m.| h. m.
4 4115 41/6 41 nai 8 41) 9 41] 10 41) 11 41) 12 41) 13 41] 14 41 ie al 16 41 Lye ‘41 Ten ga 20 41 21 41} 22 41! 238 41; O41) 141) 2 41!) 3 41\Means
Madras Mean Time...... P. M.

| ee ee
eee eee oe ae mores eee | ey ee | eet a | re a

.
>

; * *
Inches} In. ; In. | In. Ins} sIng | In:.1 In: Tog?) sin. 16 tn: | ee ates (oe eB 0 Ln. In. In. Th.c| Sis 7 Ime oie In,..| dn. nehes
Barometer at | Dec: 1858,| 29-932 29:946] 29-970] 29: 993] 30:005 30° 009] 30-001] 29:992 ae 977) 29-958] 29-943| 29-9371 29-9441 29-958! 29 978/ 30-006] 30-025) 30-026| 30-015| 29-987] 29-957] 29:939| 29-9181 29-918) 29-972
Sea es 1857.) 962} °974' -991/30.014/ -034| 040) 034) 30:023'30-010) -997| -980| 979] +988/30:002/30:017| -042| -070| .075| -065) 30-043] 30-012] -981| -961| 955) 30-010
am" Feb. do | 879! -890| +909) 29-933] 29-955} 29-966] 29-967| 29-958] 29-945, 928 911) 901 -904!29-919/ 29-939] 29-965] 29-987] 29-999/ 29-990) 29-969, 29940} 908] -883/ -871) 29-934
Q o beer ig @ ° Q 9 onnh re | @ ° ° ° ° @ @ ° ° ° ry ° Q ° °
Dec. 1856.) 77:3) 76:2) 75:5| 75:1) 75-0! 74:7) 74:3| 742| 738] 78:4, 73-1) 73-0] 72-7] 72:4) 721] 73:8] 762) 77:7) 787; 791} 79.2) 791) 789| 78.2) 75°6
pola mg Jan. 1857] 78:0) 76:8) 75:8, 75°4| 75-1, 748, 74:3, 740) 73°0| 724 71-9] 71:3; 70°7| 702} 70-1] 72-4] 75:5] 77°8| 79:0] 79°8! 80.1] 801] 79°7| 791) 75:3
i 7 (Feb. do. | 80:7) 78-8} 769) 75-7; 74:6] 73:5| 7261 71:8| 70-6) 70:0, 69:5} 69°1, 68°61 68:2) 68:3 ae 756) 79:0; 81:0} $21) $28] 83:0, 826] 819) 75:4
‘mo. ( Dec: 1856.| - 71'1|, 70:9 70:9! 70-9} 70-7| 70-7] 70-61 70-7| 70:6] 70-4} 70:3; 70-3] '70°2| 70-0) 69°8| 70-4) 71:2) 71-5; 72-0) 72:1) 71-9) 717) 719 71°6 709
(he acne Jan. 1857.) 70-4} 69-9, 69:5, 69°3} 692} 691) 68°9| 68-7] 68.6, 685, 68:5) 68:3] 68-0/ 67-8) 67-7} 69-0} 70-2} 70-7} 71-0, 71-2 713) 71:3) 71-1 709 696
~ “"""*{ Feb, do. | 72:3) 72:0) 71-7} 71:21 70-6) 70-2} 69-7| 69-0] 68-41 68:1| 67:7; 67-4| 67:1| 66°8| 67°0| 69°3|. 71:3) 723) 72°83! 72:0; 72:5) 72:8) 727) 7

* The Numbers in these Columns are not observed but interpolated for the sake of obtaining the daily means.

MADRAS, ) W. S. JACOB,
9th March, 1857. § i . Hon’ble Company’s Astronomer.

886

0.9 ‘08 “suoynauasgg jvrrboposoojzayy

"SHIUAS MAN ‘% ‘ON |

INDEX OF MATTER rn Vot. I.

Atlanta, Species of, description of eye of, 154, 156.
Argonauta, species of, 161.

Anchista, new genius of Coleoptera, 171.

Anthicus, two new species of, 181.

Aérolite in a tree, on a supposed, 242.

Antimony in the Punjab, 254.

Analysis of Loonar Salt, 15. >

of Kotah coal, 265.

Akbar, not the first to coin money in India, 27, 32.
Almonds in lieu of Copper Coin at Surat, 32.

Bhooskee, a kind of salt from Loonar, 3.

Biddery Ware, on the Manufacture of, 81.
Barometrical Curves at Madras in 1852—5, 267.
Bombyx Huttoni, on the, 268.

Books, notices of, in Oriental Literature, 269.
-——-——, in Natural History of the East, 274.

Coins in the reigu of Akbar, 41.

Coleoptera of Ceylon, 57, 171.

Chlenius, five new species of, 61, 64.
Clivina, three new species of, 60.

Canavalia obtusifolia, 88.

Coins found at Madura, 114.

Currencies of India, on the, 21.

Cuvieria, species of, 151, 153, 160.

Cleodora, species of, 153, 160.

Creseis, species of, 153, its habits diurnal, 159.

Cinchona Condaminea, 210. C. calisaya, 208, 211, 220, 225.

Other species of, 225, 233.
Cascarilleros, Weddell’s account of the, 211.
Coalof tke Valley of the Godavery, on the, 261.
Cowries in lieu of Copper Coin in Bengal, 31.
how collected, 32.

Dulla, a kind of Salt from Loonar Lake, 3.
CEdichirus, new species of, CE. alatus, 69.
Ehretia Arenaria, 89.

Earthquake at Travancore, 109.

——at Madura, 113.

Elliotia, new genus of Coleoptera, 172.

C. australis, 211.

290 INDEX.

Fossils of Ootatoor, 94.

of Kotah, 266.

Flora Indica, Vol. Ist, 254.

Fossils of Utatur, Verdachellam and Nerbudda Valley, notice of the, 280.
Fossil Tooth, large, 281.

Godavery River, on the Navigability of, 264. ~
Geology of the Loonar Lake, 5.

Glaucus, species of, bronchial apparatus, 156.

Georyssus gemma, 184.

Graphite of Kumaon and Travancore, on the, 257.

Gold coins found at Madura, 114.

—-dust singular method of procuring, 23.

——-deposits in Assam aud Martaban, 285. :

Himalayas, tea plantations in the, 279.
Hydrophylax maritima, 88.

Hyaloea, species of, 151, 152, 153, 159.
Harpalus advolans, 174.

Hydrochus lacustris, 185.

Hydrous, two new species of, 186.

Indian Currencies, 21.
Tpomea pes-capre, 87.
Tanthina exigua, 160.
————- fragilis, 161.
globosa, 161.

——

Java, Cinchona Calisaya, Plants at, 238.

Khuppul, a kind of Salt in the Loonar lake, 3.

Kertch, notice of Dr. Macpherson’s antiquities of, 284.
Kotah, probability of a true Field of Coal existing at, 263.
Kings, Assyrian, Babylonian and Chaldean, list of, 253.

Loonar Lake, description of, 1.
Library of Reference, want of a, 116.
Loligo, its mode of progression, 155.

Madras Literary Society, proceedings of the Managing Committee of the, 116, 277.
—_—- , Annual General Meeting of the, 281.

, Managing Committee for 1857 of the, 283.
Museum, Geological, in grogress at Calcutta, 286.

Mudkhar, a kind of salt from Loonar, 1.

Microrhynchus sarmentosus, 88.

Madura, Geology of, 90.

Meteorological Observations, 129.

Meligethes Orientales, 182.

Meteorological Curves, at Madras, 267.

Mint in the reign of Akbar, Officers of, 40,

eewosres sa

INDEX.

Natron Lake of Loonar, 1.

Notule Botanice, No. 1. by Dr. Cleghorn, 85.

Nautilus, its inhabitants, 162.

Neilgherries, nature of republication of Baikie’s Work on the, 272.

Oodes piceus, 175.

Plumbago, Cumberland Mines worked since the time of Elizabeth, 284.

Puppree, a kind of Salt from Loonar, 3.
Pupalia orbiculata, 88.

Pandanus odoratissimus, 89.
Poothacotta, Geology of, 90.

Pelagian Mouuvscs, notice of Dr. Traill’s paper on, 119, 147.
PreRopPoDS, description of, 151,

Pyrosomas, 150,

Ptilium subquadratum, 178.

Ptenidium macrocephalum, 179.

Proceedings of Societies, 116, 277.

Photography, Paper Process in, 71.

,rrinting do. 166.

Quina Bark, on the, 209.
Quinquina or Peruvian Bark, on the, 220.

—

a

Rhipiphorus, new species of, R. tropicus, 68.
Roman Gold Coins found at Madura, 114.
Rain guages for Revenue Officers, on, 203.

Salt, Statistics of Loonar, 8. x
—-, Dulla.

—, Nimuck Dulla.

——, Khuppul. |

——, Puppree, Madkhare and Bhooske.
——, Revenue, derived from Loonar, 13.
—-, analysis of Loonar, 15.

Scarites, new species of, S. minor, 64.
Sand binding plants of Madras Beach, 85.
Spinifex squarrosus, 86.

Storm of 20th November, on the, 115, 123.
Stenus, two new species of, 179.
SoyDM2nI, on the group of, 187, whether winged or apterous, 188.
Scydmeenus, twelve new species of, 191.

Silkworm, a new species of, 268.

Sadras, probably frequented by the Romans, 27.

291

Scientific Works, 10 percent. of Society’s Funds to be appropriated to, 116.

Trichinopoly, Geology of, 90.
Tanjore, do. do. 90.
Todas of the Nilagiris, their vocabulary, 103, 131.

290 INDEX.

Fossils of Ootatoor, 94.

of Kotah, 266.

Flora Indica, Vol. Ist, 254.

Fossils of Utatur, Verdachellam and Nerbudda Valley, notice of the, 280.
Fossil Tooth, large, 281.

Godavery River, on the Navigability of, 264. | ~
Geology of the Loonar Lake, 5.

Glaucus, species of, bronchial apparatus, 156.

Georyssus gemma, 184.

Graphite of Kumaon and Travancore, on the, 257.

Gold coins found at Madura, 114.

—-dust singular method of procuring, 23.

——-deposits in Assam aud Martaban, 285. ‘

Himalayas, tea plantations in the, 279.
Hydrophylax maritima, 88.

Hyaloea, species of, 151, 152, 153, 159.
Harpalus advolans, 174.

Hydrochus lacustris, 185.

Hydrous, two new species of, 186.

Indian Currencies, 21.
Tpomea pes-caprez, 87.
Tanthina exigua, 160.
—_—— fragilis, 161.
globosa, 161.

——

Java, Cinchona Calisaya, Plants at, 238.

Khuppul, a kind of Salt in the Loonar lake, 3.

Kertch, notice of Dr. Macpherson’s antiquities of, 284.
Kotah, probability of a true Field of Coal existing at, 263.
Kings, Assyrian, Babylonian and Chaldean, list of, 253.

Loonar Lake, description of, 1.
Library of Reference, want of a, 116.
Loligo, its mode of progression, 155.

Madras Literary Society, proceedings of the Managing Committee of the, 116, 277.
—_--~ , Annual General Meeting of the, 281.

, Managing Committee for 1857 of the, 283.
Museum, Geological, in grogress at Calcutta, 286.

Mudkhar, a kind of salt from Loonar, 1.

Microrhynchus sarmentosus, 88.

Madura, Geology of, 90.

Meteorological Observations, 129.

Meligethes Orientales, 182.

Meteorological Curves, at Madras, 267.

Mint in the reign of Akbar, Officers of, 40.

Beeweawess Ses

INDEX. 291

Natron Lake of Loonar, 1.

Notule Botanicew, No. 1. by Dr. Cleghorn, 85.

Nautilus, its inhabitants, 162.

Neilgherries, nature of republication of Baikie’s Work on the, 272.

Oodes piceus, 175.

Plumbago, Cumberland Mines worked since the time of Elizabeth, 284.
Puppree, a kind of Salt from Loonar, 3.
Pupalia orbiculata, 88.

Pandanus odoratissimus, 89.
Poothacotta, Geology of, 90.

Pelagian Mouuvuscos, notice of Dr. Traill’s paper on, 119, 147.
PreRoOPoDS, description of, lol,

Pyrosomas, 150,

Ptilium subquadratum, 178.

Ptenidium macrocephalum, 179.

Proceedings of Societies, 116, 277.

Photography, Paper Process in, 71.

,rrinting do. 166.

Quina Bark, on the, 209.
Quinquina or Peruvian Bark, on the, 220.

—

Rhipiphorus, new species of, R. tropicus, 68.
Roman Gold Coins found at Madura, 114.
Rain guages for Revenue Officers, on, 203.

Salt, Statistics of Loonar, 8. :
—-, Dulla.

——, Nimuck Dulla.

—, Khuppul.

——, Puppree, Madkhare and Bhooske.
——, Revenue, derived from Loonar, 13.
—-, analysis of Loonar, 15.

Scarites, new species of, S. minor, 64.
Sand binding plants of Madras Beach, 85.
Spinifex squarrosus, 86.

Storm of 20th November, on the, 115, 123.
Stenus, two new species of, 179.
ScyDMZNI, on the group of, 187, whether winged or apterous, 188.
Scydmeenus, twelve new species of, 191.

Silkworm, a new species of, 268.

Sadras, probably frequented by the Romans, 27.

Scientific Works, 10 per cent. of Society’s Funds to be appropriated to, 116.
Trichinopoly, Geology of, 90.

Tanjore, do. do. 90.

Todas of the Nilagiris, their vocabulary, 103, 131.

292 INDEX.

Travancore, earthquake at, 109. Plumbago found at, 260.
Towing net for deep sea shells, 149.

Trichopteryx, three new species of, 176.

Teas, notice of the Himalayan, 279.

Teas, part of China supplied from India with, 280.
Talcheer, Coal Field at, 285.

‘Waxed paper process in Photography, on the, 71.

INDEX OF NAMES ry Vor. I.

c

Breeks, J. W., on Indian Currencies, 21.

Bradley, Dr., on the Geology of Loonar Lake, 5.
Brown, J. D., on an Earthquake at Trevandrum, 109.
Bayley, W. H., ou. Rain Guages, 203.

Cunliffe, Brooke, Professor Oldham’s letter to, 280.

Cleghorn, H., on Sand binding Plants of the Madras Beach, $5.
——-——-, on improvement of the Society’s Library, 116.

, on the gale of the 20th November, 123.

De Vriese, Dr., on the introduction of the Cinchona tree into Java, 220.
——__—___-—_-,, on the Flora of Batavia, 275.
Dodd, James, analysis of the Kotah Coal, 265.

Elliot, Walter, remarks on a species of Glaucus, 157.

Faber, Colonel, on Mr. Bayley’s Rain Guage, 206.
Falconer, Dr., on the fossilimpressions in the Bituminous Shale of Kotah, 266.

Hasskarl, J. C., his introduction of the Cinchona Calisaya into Java, 223.
Hooker, Dr. Jos., Flora Indica, 254.

Hay, Major, discovery of Antimony in the Punjab, 254.

Hutton, Captain, on a new species of Silk Worm, 268.

Jamieson, Dr., extract of a letter from, on Tea Plantations in the Himalayas, 279.
Johnston, Major, his mode of raising Loonar Salt, 3.

Jacob, Major, on the Storm of 20th November, 110.

————~, Meteorological Tables, 127.

, Tables of Barometrical and Thermometrical Curves, 267, 277.

Kell, Mr., notice of his Pictures in Chromolithography, 284.

Mitchell, J., on the Waxed Paper Process in Photography, 71.
Muzzy, Rev. D., on the Geology of Madura and the Southern Districts, 90.
Metz, Rey. F., Vocabulary of the Toda Dialect, 103.

INDEX. 293

Mayer, Dr., Analysis of Loonar Salt, 15.

Murchison, Sir R., on a supposed Aérolite, 242.

Madden, notice of the late Colonel, 276.

McPherson, Dr., notice of Proof Plates of his Antiquities of Kertch, 284.

Nietner, J., description of new Ceylon Coleoptera, 57, 171.

Oldham, T., notice of the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 286.
——, on Gold Deposits of Shué-gween, 285.
———_——, extracts of a letter from, 280.

Parker, R. D., on discovery of Gold Coins in Madura, 114.

Rawlinson, Col. Sir H., on his Assyrian discoveries, 251,
Royle, Dr. Forbes, on Indian Plumbago, 257.
Reinwardt, Professor C. A. C., his botanical labors, 275.

Smith, Geo., Description of the Loonar Lake, 1.

———-——,, on the Manufacture of Biddery Ware, 81.

Scott, Capt. J. D., Formule for preparing Albumenized Paper, 169, 170.
Smith, Col. J. T., on Mr. Bayley’s Rain Gauge, 205.

Smoult, W. H., his edition of Baikie’s Neilgherries, 272. ,

Theroo Canacasaby Modiliar, account of Harthquake at Madura, 114,
Traill, Dr. W., notice of his paper on deep sea Molluscs, 118.
———, Dr, W., on Pelagian Mollusca, 147.

Tripe, Capt,, on a Photographie Printing process, 166,
Thompson, Dr., Flora Indica, 244,

Thwaites, Mr., notice of extracts of a letter from, 283.

d

Vriese, Dr. De, on the Cinchona trees 220: on the Flora of Netherlands India, 274.

Weddell, Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas, 209.

—--——-, process of obtaining the bark of the Quina tree, 211.

Walker, Dr., on Coal in the valley of the Godavery, 261.

Wilson, J. Kennett, notice of his account of the Botanical Features of a Hill Dis-
trict in Western India, 277.

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