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THE

MADRAS JOURNAL .

OF

LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. F
EDITED BY THE COMMITTEE

SNadras Miteraryp Soctetp

AND

AUXILIARY ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

( vol. III. New Series.)
or, Vol. XIX. Old Series. ——

Gite DecebalGnm Jase—Marck 1858)"

®

MA DEAS:
PRINTED BY PHAROAH AND CO.

ATHENZUM PRESS—MOUNT ROAD.

1858.

CONTENTS or Vox. III.

I.—Report upon the Oils of Southern India. By Lieut. H. P. Hawkes,
Ss. A.C. G. - - - - 2
II.—Description of the method adopted in the Coimbatore District for
catching Wild Elephants. By Captain T. Hamilton, Assistant
Conservator of Forests. - - - - -
III.~-Notice of the occurrence of Crystalline Limestone, in the District
of Coimbatore. By H. F. Blanford, Esq. of the Geological Sur-

vey of India. - - - . . - .
IV.—Description of a Cyclone at Nellore, on 2nd November 1857. By
Lieut. John Mullins, Madras Engineers. - - -
V.—Notice of the same Cyclone at Cuddapah, on 2nd November 1857.
By Lieut. E. Hemery, Madras Engineers. - : <
VI,—On the Line selected for the Madras Railway. By Colonel T. T.
Pears, Consulting Engineer. > »- - -

VII.—A List of Neilgherry Ferns. By the Revd. Dr. B. Schmid. - -
VIII.—A List of Neilgherry Mosses. By the Revd. Dr. B. Schmid. - -
IX.—Introductory Report on the Natural History of the Pearl Oyster of

Ceylon. By E. F. Kelaart, M. D. - - : =
X.—Report on the Tamblegam Pearl Oyster Fishery. By E. F. Ke-
laart, M. D. - - - 7 =

XI.—Extract from Report on the Vegetable Products of the Pulney
Hills. By Lieutenant R. H. Beddome, Assistant Conservator

of Forests. - - - - = :
XII.—Notes of an excursion along the Travancore Breakwater. By Capt.
Heber Drury, 45th N. I. - - = :

XIII.—Numismatic Gleanings. By Walter Elliot, Madras Civil Service.
X1V.—Notes on various subjects. By Lieutenant H. P. Hawkes, Sub-

Assist. Commissary General. . : c =
SELECTIONS.

1.—Moths and Bees. - - - = E

2.—Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. . 2 ss

3.—Account of some recent Geological Researches hear Cairo. . -
4.—Letter from Captain Burton, Leader of an Expedition into Eastern

Intertropical Africa. - - - - -
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
1.—Scientific Mission to India. - - » - sa
2.—Poisoning with the seeds of Theyetia neriifolia. . . >
3.—Coal in Scinde. . - - - -

Page.

58

‘i il CONTENTS.
~
se a Page.
4.—Death of Mr. Purdie 7 - > - -~ 142
5.—The Scientific Expedition of the Austrian Frigate ‘* Novara.” - 264
6.—Notes and Queries. - - - - - 266
7.—Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. - - 268
OBITUARY NOTICES.
1.—The Revd. Dr. Schmid. - - + : - 143
‘2 2.—Assistant Surgeon Charles Drew. - - . - 146
3.—Mr. Henry Walker, Professor of Anatomy, &c. Calcutta. eee ee
4.—E. Stocks, Esq., M. D. Bombay Medical Service. - - 22
NOTICES OF BOOKS.
1,~Thwaites’ Enumeration of the Plants of Ceylon. - - 149
“ 2.—Livingstone’s Travels and Researches in South Africa. . - 149
3.—Decandolle’s Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis - 152
4.—Hooker’s Journal of Botany. - - - - 153
5.—Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society - = 153
6.—The Plant Scenery of the World. - - - - 153
PROCEEDINGS.
1.—Proceedings of th Managing Committee of the Madras Literary So-
ciety, November 12th, 1857. - - - + - 154
2. Do. do. do. December 10th, 1857. - 187
S: Do. do. do. February llth, 1858. - 274
3. Do. do. do. March 18th, 1858. - 278
METEOROLOGY.
Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observa-
® . tory for January, February, March, April and May 1858. - - 280
a
a
‘ e

. TABLE OF ERRATA In No, V. Vot. III.

Page.
4 line last for Portia Nut read Portia Seed.
6 ,, 4 for Star arise read Star Anise.
14 Table of Exports opposite Cocoanuts fresh for 5°340'493 read 340°493 and in
the same line for 6°333 490 read 333 490.
Total—for 5°957 999 read 957 999 and in the same line for 7:503 292 read
Page. 1-503 292.

- 20 Add the following Note at the foot of the page.

* Note.—The Numbers appended to each of the Oils throughout this Section refer
to those of the Index at page 45—many Oils, being of little note, are omitted,
but their names will be found in the Index.

138 line last but one—omit the Comma after Turkistan.

TABLE OF ERRATA 1n No. VI. Vot. III.

Page.
163 line 9 for Shorea robusta read a Dipterocarpaceous tree.

215 ,, 8 Insert Scevota Taccada before Excoecaria Camettia to which and
not to the former the succeeding remarks refer.
218 ,, 23 for houses read waves.
» 25 for mile pond read Mill Pond.
219 ,, 1 Add at after shifting.
$24. -_ 12_Dete forobotircite Sots.
»» 13--doforoBerorreii@poro:
226 ,, 15 for two read too.
228 ,, last—although should not be in parenthesis. 3
' 230 ,, 9 add of after consist.
»» 9, 21 for cadeuceus read caduceus.

eee. = 20) for th read the.

»» 99 last for off read of.
209 ,, 9 for Observe read Obverse.
246 ,, 13 for face read pace.
257 ,, 38 for be read by.
258 ,, 1@for till read then.
11 add till, after Star.

261 ,, 6 for acacios read acacias.

263 ,, 1 for loose read lose.
“64 ,, 4 for by read of.

264 ,, 17 for where read whose.

265 ,, 9 for accompany read accompanies.
266 ,, 12 for seriatum read seriatim.
267 ,, 6 omitcomma after fastening.
267 ,, 25 for by read of.

273 ,, 7 for neuralgie read neuralgic.
273 ,, 14 for taste read state.

274 ,, 8 for Balsom vead Balsam.
274 ,, 10 for and read of.

MADRAS JOURNAL

OF
LITERATURE AND SCIENCE.

NO. 5.—NEW SERIES.

October—December, 1857.

I. Report upon the Oils of Southern India. By Lizvr.
H. P. Hawxgs, S. A. C. G.

The following Report upon the oils of Southern India has been
drawn up from notes taken during the formation of a collection of
oils for the Madras Government, The statistics have been fur-
nished by the Civil and Military authorities throughout the Presi-
dency.*

The subject may be conveniently arranged under the following
sections. }

Sect. 1. Oil considered as an article of export trade.
2. Abstract of oil cultivation in the several districts of
the Presidency.
38. A descriptive list of the oils of Southern India.
4. Remarks on the economical uses of oil in India.

©

* Nore.-It will be observed that in many parts, especially in Section 3, this
report is almost identical with that in Class IV. of the Jury Reports of the Ma-
dras Exhibition of 1855. This arises from the writer of the present paper having
been requested to perform the duties of reporter in that section, and from his hav-

ing embodied in that report all the information on this subject collected up to that
date.

2 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,
SECTION. I.
e OIL CONSIDERED AS AN ARTICLE OF EXPORT TRADE.

Although the number of oil producing plants in Southern India,
is very large, yet upon examination it will be observed, that of
these but few are cultivated to any great extent; the larger propor-
tion consisting of trees, shrubs, &c. growing in a wild state, the
fruits of which are gathered by the poorer classes, and the oils ex-

“pressed as necessity requires. These latter (with some exceptions)
do not form articles of trade, nor are they usually procurable in the
native bazaars.

Of animal oils, that extracted from the liver and other parts of
various species of fish, chiefly on the Malabar Coast, now forms a
source of considerable trade; whilst Petroleum is largely exported
from our Burmese possessions to the manufacturing towns of Li-
verpool and Glasgow.

In taking a general view of these substances it seems advanta-
geous to consider them under the following classes.

1st Class.—Those plants which are cultivated for the sake of their
products.—Of these, the oil and cake form in some cases the only
valuable part, whilst in others, as the Poppy, the plant serves many
other purposes. This class includes the bulk of the oils export-
ed from, and consumed in India, and comprises the following—
Cocoanut, Gingely and its varieties, Lamp and Castor,* Ground nut,
Linseed, Ramtill, Mustard erroneously called Rape, and Poppy;
the essential oils of Cinnamon (from the bark and leaf,) and Cassia,
Gloves and Sandalwood. Fish oil and Petroleum being also valu-
‘able commercial products will be considered in this Section.

First in importance is Cocoanut oil which is yearly exported to
a large extent from Malabar and the Western Coast, and in smaller

® Nore.—Throughout this report the word ‘‘ Lamp oil’ will be used to denote
the oil obtained from the large seeded variety of the Ricinus communis used al-
most exclusively for burning in lamps, whilst the term ‘‘ Castor oil’’ will be un-
derstood to refer to the medicinal product extracted from the Ricinus communis
fructibus minoribus.

+ For the Botanical names of these plants, see Section 3.

oor.—DEC. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 3

quantities from Rajahmundry and Tanjore. During the last five
years (from 1850-51 to 54-5) not less than 70,09,818 gallons, valu-
ed at 15,783,528 Rupees (according to the custom house valuafion)
have been exported from this Presidency, the demand having in the
same time increased from 63 to 212 lacs of gallons. In addition
to this, dried kernels have been exported from Malabar alone to the
value of 23,78,888 Rupees, and the fresh nut to the extent of Ru-
pees 20,43,669, thus presenting a total of Rupees 59,96,085 in five

years, or an average of nearly 12 lacs per annum on this one com-*

modity alone. This is exclusive of the dried kernels and fresh nuts
exported from Rajahmundry, Tanjore and Vizagapatam, which ap-
pear to be sent chiefly to other Indian ports.

Gingeley oil and its varieties are next in value as articles of com-
merce. They are very generally grown in all parts of the country,
and enter more largely than any other oil into the home consump-
tion of every class of natives.

They are exported in large quantities chiefly in the shape of seed.
The quantity and value of oil and seed exported from the Madras
territories for the last five years is as follows :—

Oil, gallons.. 3382,384..Rs. 2,05,290
Seed, cwt.. ..19,54,209..Rs. 23,96,894

Rupees . -26,02,184

making an average of 5 lacs of Rupees per annum. Of this a very
large portion is sent to France as will be seen by the following ab-
stract of the quantity exported in 1852-53,

United Kingdom....Seed. Cwt. 12,713 Oil. gall. 42,043 °.

Gevion .. <o5. ear Nie Ree 2,968
Peo’ + ste vere a site isteveus + 35-2500, 220 "5,
Peew.).. <6. Pe aieeide ciate e onsie th bp Te acre 19,698
MDA Cora cig aca's s als'e «a5 eee es,
Malacca. SOS. vere us a oaths Go 5. 3,093
AP PAVAMCOTC ss. sek o oce 9 e295 ro 35
ems a gies S55 dialed sigiiisheticss 0 5 46
French Indian Ports. .. ,, OF 7h 27
Mauritius and Bourbon.. ,, Onde’. 4,232

_@

4 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

“‘ Lamp oil” is grown very generally throughout the country. It
was exported from Rajahmundry to the value of 32,607 Rupees in
1854-55 ; and from Guntoor, Nellore ‘and Tanjore to the value of
from 10 to 15,000 Rupees each yearly. Little, if any, is sent to
England.

The total exports for the last five years are as follows:

" Oil. Gall. 1,97,977 Rs. 98,875 | Seed. Cwt. 99,471 Rs. 1,138,370
«making an average of about 42,349 Rupees per annum.

Castor oil, extracted from the small seeded variety of L2icinus is
exported to a small extent for medicinal purposes.

Ground nut oil is exported chiefly from South Arcot and Madras.
In 1850-51, the demand arose to no less than 1,10,566 gallons, but
with the exception of the year 1853-54 the export has never sub-
sequently much exceeded half that amount.

The abovementioned oils and seeds, until within the last few
years comprised the bulk of the exports from this Presidency. Now
however the following begin to be exported.

Mustard seed, to the amount of Cwt. 50,746, Rupees 11,5,477
has been shipped during the last five years, from the Ganjam and
Vizagapatam Districts.

° The cultivation and export of Linseed is on the increase. It is
sent from the Guntoor, Nellore and Masulipatam Districts to the
value of from 2 to 9,000 Rupees per annum.

The manufacture of Fish oil has lately become a very valuable
source of industry. The trade is chiefly confined to the Western
coasts, although small quantities for home consumption are made
in the Northern Circars. Omitting the year 1854-55 which is un-
favorable on account of the failure of fish, the average value of this
e - export for the last five years, is Rs. 78,126.

Petroleum is sent from our Burmese possessions, but no correct
statistics are at present available.

The oils of Cassia, Cinnamon and Sandalwood are chiefly export-
ed from the Western Coast, the wood from which much of the latter
is extracted, is obtained from Mysore.

oct.—pEC. 1857.] Ouls of Southern India. 5

2nd Class.—Those plants, &c. which grow spontaneously and are
found in sufficient quantities to admit of the produce becoming an
article of inland trade. :

These are generally to be procured in large bazaars and include
Margosa, Illoopoo, Pinnacottay, Kurunj, Coorookoo, Cat amunak,
Piney tallow, Gamboge butter, the various Wood oils, the essential
oils of Lemon grass, Roosa grass, Cageput and Camphorwood.

The increasing attention which has been given to this subject .
has resulted in the manufacture and export of the following oils,
which were previously unknown to the market.

Piney tallow exported to the value of Rupees 4,350 in 1854-55
from Canara.

Lemon grass and Roosa grass oil exported from Malabar and
Travancore (sometimes under the fictitious name of Oil of Geranium
or Verbena. )

Gamboge butter, employed peter as a lubricating agent
for Railway carriages.

Illoopoo, Margosa and Pinnacottay exported to a limited extent
for household purposes.

3rd Class.—Those plants &c. which grow spontaneously but to a
limited extent in many parts of the country, the oils from which are
sometimes extracted by the poorer classess for home consumption
and are seldom procurable in the bazaar.

This class comprises the oils of Safflower, Belgaum wallnut,
Poovana, Neeradimootoo, Addale (J. Glauca), Country-cress,
Cheeronjie, Cucumber, Melon and Pumpkin, Coorgapilly, Stercu-
lia, Wild olive, Cheeroo pinnacottay (Cal. colaba,) Sandal seed,
Mooroogana tallow, Naga Sumpaghy and Caat Urraloo.*

4th Class.—Those plants &c. from which small quantities of oil
are extracted chiefly for medicinal purposes and perfumery, includ-
ing Soap nut, Cashew nut, Ben nut, Cotton seed, Silk Cotton seed,
Sweet Fennel, Rosebay, Malkunganee, Hemp Seed, Portia nut, Vis-

* For the Botanical names of these plants, see Section 3.

6 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

cid Cleome, Thortay, Fznugreck, Abelmoschus seed, Gutta Percha
seed, Croton, Bryony, Colocynth, Wild cummin, Bonduc nut, Mi-
muSsops, Moodooga, Thevetia, Oodul, Garlic, Sunflower, Wild al-
mond, Star arise, Gayapa, Nutmeg (wild), Thorny Trichilia, Cy-
perus, Thorn apple, Condamminee, Sand box tree, Saul seed, Eu-
genia, Belleric Myrobalan, Chebulic Myrobalan, Kikuel, Bergera
Keenigii, Balanites Gigyptiaca, Radish seed, Cabbage seed, Car-
damom, Poondy, Cordia, Girghitly, Jogyhulloo, Nux Vomica,

« Marking nut, Cashew husk, Oleum nigrum, Tobacco seed, Alli-
gator pear oil, Cinnamon tallow, Cocculus oil, &c. &c. This class
will also include, Neat’s foot oil and oil of wax.

Excepting Croton oil which is manufactured for medicinal pur-
poses to a small extent, none of the oils of the last two classes form
articles of trade.

A reference to the table of exports will give a good idea of the
extent of the trade in these commodities, the total value of oils and
seeds exported for the last five yearsis as follows: (For the items
vide Appendix A.)

Year 1850-1 Rupees 811,057 duty 24,331

y» 1851-2 6,42,439 19,273
wr 650-8 11,31,578 83,947
» 1853-4 15,58,222 46,746
a 864-5 11,41,617 34,248

A duty of 3 per cent. is levied on oils and oil seeds of all sorts,
yielding an average annual revenue (for last 5 years) of 31,709 Ru-
bees.

The quantity of the four principal oils annually imported into
Great Britain is as under.

Palm oil., Cocoanut oil. Castor oil. Olive oil.
1848 Cwts. 510,218 Cwts. 85,463 Cwts. 4,588 Tons. 10,086
1849 493,331. 64,452 9,681 16,964
1850 448,589 ge 985040 3 20,738
1851 608,550 55,995 ik 11,503

1852 523,231 101,863 oD 8,898

oct.—pxEc. 1857.] Ouls of Southern India. ¥

The total value of oils exported from India exhibits an annual
increase, the demand however for the various items of which the
whole export is composed, fluctuates considerably.

In 1848-49 the quantity of oil shipped was less than in the pre-
ceding year, but Linseed and Ground nuts first formed regular ar-
ticles of export.

In 1849-50 the demand for Cocoanut oil was doubled, that for
Ground nuts trebled, and that for Gingely much increased.

In 1850-51 Gingely was exported to twice the amount of the
previous year, and Ground nut continued to be largely shipped.
Fish oil, was also made in large quantities.

In 1851-52 there was an increase of one-third in demand for Co-
coanut, and of 100 per cent. for Fish oil, but Ground nut declined
to one-third of its former export, Gingeley oil and seed also decreas-
ed, the latter to the extent of nearly one half of the former demand.
This was on the whole a bad year for this branch of trade.

In 1852-53 there was a further increase in demand for Cocoanut
oil which now more than doubled its export for 1850-51, also an
immense increase in the export of Fish oil of upwards of 300 per
cent. Mustard was exported to five times its former figure and
Lamp oil and Ground nut advanced, Gingeley oil and seed remain-
ed the same as in 1850-51. |

In 1853-54 the demand for oils of all sorts consequent on the
war rose to an enormous extent, the quantity of ail oils exported and
especially of Fish, Ground nut and Gingeley, increased largely.

In 1854-55 the demand decreased considerably in PonecHuches a:
of the large supplies sent the previous year.

A remarkable specimen of the rise and progress of a new branch
of industry is to be seen in that of the manufacture of Fish oil, the
export of which has increased from 3,500 gallons in 1847.48, to
7,21,095 gallons in 1853-54,

From the above summary it will, I think, be sufficiently evident
that the discovery or introduction of new articles of produce how-
ever desirable, is by no means so indispensable as is so often sup-
posed, Efforts should rather be made to extend and improve the

8 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

cultivation of those oil seeds for which there is already a steady de-
mand. The oil cultivation seems in a remarkable manner to ac-
commodate itself to the demand, and there is but little fear of a de-
ficiency of supply as long as remunerative prices are offered.

SECTION II.

ABSTRACT OF OIL CULTIVATION IN THE SEVERAL DISTRICTS

OF THE PRESIDENCY.*
NORTH ARCOT.

The principal oils of this Collectorate are’,Gingeley and Lamp,
both of which are cultivated very generally throughout the District.
Castor, Cocoanut and Ground nut are produced to a limited extent.

The plants yielding Kurunj and Brumadundo also grow sparing-
ly, the latter from its cheapness being frequently used in this and
other collectorates to adulterate more expensive oils.

Exports, none.
SOUTH ARCOT.

Ground nut is the chief oil produced and‘exported in this Dis-
trict. Gingeley oil is also sent in tolerably large quantities to Eu-
rope, but the demand for both appears to fluctuate considerably.
Mustard oil and seed have been lately exported, and the cultiva-
tion is on the increase. Cotton is grown on from 15 to 20,000 caw-
nies of land, but the oil of the seed is not extracted. Illoopoo oil
is prepared to a limited extent and sold at Rupees 25 per Candy,
-eand oil is obtained from both kinds of Physic nut and burned by
~ the poorer classes.

* Notr.—The difficulty of obtaining accurate statistics of Agricultural Produce
in India is very great; the system of sowing several crops in one field also tends
to augment the labour. ‘ilthough therefore the following returns are believed
to represent a very fair approximation to the average amount of cultivation and
export, yet too much reliance should not be placed upon these figures. As re-
gards prices also some idea may be formed of their fluctuation and of the impossi-
bility of basing any calculations on such data, by a return received from North
Arcot, in which the prices of the same oil are shown to vary to the extent of one-
third in different towns of the district,

.
EEE

pi ct i Bi

a... .. 2) te

= ewe

ocT.—prc. 1857.]

NAMES.

CuDDALORE.

Cocoanut Oil..|Candies.

Cocoanut Ker-
nels
Gingely Oil....
Gingely Seed...!Garces.
Lamp Oil.....| Do.
Ground nut Oil Candies
Ground nuts..|arce.
Mustard Oil...
Mustard Seed..|Garce.

Pinnacotay Oil| Candies.

Porto Novo.

Candies.

Orls of Southern Indva.

EXxPorts.
1850-1 1851-2 1852-3
No. Rs. | No| Rs. | No. | Rs.
0 0;| 0 0 0 0
0 0; 0 0; 0 0
311] 12,154/103 391 1 41
0 109; 0 92 0) 0
0 0} O 0 0
.|1,428| 42,831/382/11, 120) 1,038) 28,754
0 109; ¢ 92 0} 0
0 0; O 0 (a) 0
0 0} O 0; 58! 667
0 0; 0 0 0 26
Gingely Oil...|Candies. 3 149) 5| 3854 gi” 329
‘{Gingely Seed..| Garce. 0 0; 0 12Ps G ()
Lamp Oil .. .|Candies. 0 0} 0 0 0 20
Ground nuts..|Garce. 0 0; 0 3 0 140
Margosa Oil. ,|Candies. 0 :) 37 0 24
Total...| ee |59,253| ..{ 12,012} .. |30,004

1853-4,
No. | Rs.
0 0
0 0
334| 14,332
0 0|
Gre 67!
640| 2,759
0 0|
O| 24
62| 823
0 0
0 0)
0 0
0} 28
1} 154
0 0
» [43,441

1854-5.
No. | Rs.
35| 1,860
10} 368
13 728
(6) 0
one. 0
2,893) 18,572
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0| 0
0 ()
0 0
() )
0) 69
w» {21,658

BELLARY.

The cultivation of Lamp and Gingely seeds extends over 88,950
and 7,177 acres respectively. Linseed, Safflower and Illoopoo oils

are obtainable in small quantities.

in this district is chiefly made from imported nuts.

CANARA.

The Cocoanut oil consumed

Cocoanut oil and kernels, Gingely seed, Fish oil, Cassia and
Sandalwood oils form the staple oil products of this district. Piney
tallow has of late risen rapidly in demand. Fish oil is largely

made and exported.

This district is moreover rich in oil bearing trees, many of the
oils of which if obtainable in sufficient quantities, appear likely to
A list of some of these is subjoined.

become valuable.

10

Cocoanut oil..
Cocoanut ker.
Gouers Do. 82 2,295 182 per 60} 1,845} 29 857; 83) 3,117
Gingely oil... Do. 19 2| 129 2 86! 48) 2,67}

nels

‘Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

TABLE oF Exports.

€

1850-1 1851-2 1852-3 1853-4 1854-5
NAMES.

eS ee ee ee

No.| Rs. |No.| Rs |No.| Rs.|No.| Rs. | No.| Rs.

Gingely seed.. »|In. Mads. |2 ai 4, ae | * 3, 581 2,282] 3,584/4, e 5,382}3,778) 9,
113 6

Castor oil...... Candies.
Castor seed.....|In. Mds.

207 4) 196

.|Candies. 6} 31]} 18} 838) 20; 914) 22) 1,082) 103) 5,932

+
;| 0} 19 19 0 0
Fish ol........}]Candies 82| 1,632 ; i 137 1, ,144/18,214/2, ct 61,284; *75| 1,988
Linseed .......,/In. Mds. 0 0 0 0} 189; 4,202
Cassia oil......|Candies. 11) 2,445 i 1 127] 8) 2,159 : 964 5} 1,590
{Sandalwood oil.} Do. 14:38,946} 13/36,722); 16 42,552 23) 65,203| 28) 81,495
Pinnacotay oil.| Do. 2} 101) Sp 1S oF ee
Piney tallow...| Do. 0 0 ve 6 0 7 3 23} 71) 4,350

a mw mg ws i | we ee ee [ee

ToTAaL..| .. |50,159| «. |47,7389) .. |69,126) .. eet -» {114,858

* Consequent on the failure of the fish the quantity of oil exported this year was small.

~
-
a
A Si TR

List of Medicinal and other oils, §c. produced in Canara.

VERNACULAR NAMES. ee REMARKS.
M ocroonana Gil 75232... }. ees : Used as a cure for cattle
wounded by Tigers.
Arasinagoorghy oil.....|Garcinia pictoria...|Lamps and Food.
Thoronagulloo oil..... ..|Dalbergia. . .. ?|For skin diseases
UNS AN 5 5-0 os eee Cs panicu- For ulcers and wounds,
ata
Cat Ghairoo.. oi ai sion ee eee . ?\For sores in cattie.
Girghitly Ge eee eee ..... 2 Extracted from the pulp o
the tree and considered va-
luable in Rheumatism.
Nagasumpaghy.......|Mesua ferrea.., ?|For Lamps, sold at 4 Rs. per
maund.
THOVtAY 2 asi wo ss te cehee ees: tae es ele ee Oe
Jogyhulloo. . EE nose _.... ?\For skin diseases.
Poondy Wace eet |Myristica Malaba-\Of two sorts, extracted from
rica. the seed and fruit. For
burning in lamps.
Sahcottay.. MPO Pree eer ‘diseases.
Mahnaloo.... Pte al Lee 5 oe eee ?!For lamps.

Soorty (or Neeradimoo-/Hydnocarpus ine-|For cutaneous diseases.
too). brians.

CatUrraloo(wildCastor)| ...... ?}For lamps andin medicine.

ocT.—pec. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 11
CHINGLEPUT.

As there are no exports from this district, the oils in most gene-
ral request for local consumption are those chiefly grown. Gin-
geley is sown to the extent of about 3,700 acres, Lamp oil 830
acres, and Illoopoo is produced over about 890 acres of ground.
In addition to the above, small quantities of Ground nut, Castor,
Pinnacotay, Brumadundco, Cat amunak and Neeradimootoo are
produced, but not to a sufficient extent to form articles of trade.

COIMBATORE.

The Cocoanut oil used in this Collectorate is imported from Paul-
ghaut. Gingeley and Lamp are grown for home consumption,
Kurunj, Neem and Illoopoo trees grow wild, and the oils of the seed
are extracted by the poorer classes.

CUDDAPAH.

Lamp oil seed is cultivated to the extent of about 75,000 acres,
yielding 120 measures per acre, and Gingeley to the amount of about
10,000 acres, yielding 150 measures per acre. The Cocoanuts grown
in the district are sold for culinary purposes, and the Cocoanut oil
consumed on the spot is extracted from kernels imported from Ca-
nara.

Kurunj, Linseed, Safflower, Illoopoo and Cat amunak oils are pre-
pared in small quantities.

GANJAM.

The relative proportion of land under cultivation in this district,
with the following oils, appears to stand thus.

Cocoanut........ 12,093 acres.
Gineeley.s «sas. 0, fa0
Wdstat’. cc 62,006
a. PeaMNElE =. cae o's 2,700
For some years past, large exportations of Gingeley oil have been
made by French merchants.
The Ramtill is said to be chiefly used (on account of its cheap-
ness) to adulterate the Gingeley and Castor oils, for this purpose
it is mixed with those seeds before being put into the oil press.

12 Oils of Southern India.

Cocoanut oilis largely made at two places in the district, but
little is exported except to Moulmein.

Kurunj oil, though rarely made, is sometimes exported to Madras.
Mustard oil is extracted to a small extent, the seeds however are
exported largely

TABLE OF EXPporRTs.

[No. 5, NEW SERIES,

1850-1. 1851-2. 1852 3. 1853-4, | 1854-5.
NAMES Fe
Mds.| Rs. |Mds. | Rs. |Mds.. Rs. |Mds. Rs. | Mds. | Rs.

Cocoanut oil.. 6 45 0 0 26 260 31 273 34 261
Cocoanut ker-

nels. eeeeee 0 0, 0 0 yi 15 rae 1 209 0 0
Gingeley oil.. 46) 248 36 0 34 87 160} ‘187
Gingeley ee 4] ($F 51,433, 60 st 100,430 Fe sah 242,561/107, 205 174,982| 92,592/150,431
Rape seed. 0! 0) 2 663; 2,220] 4,764| 3,970 993/319
Lamp oil.. 19 0 0) 60 °300 7 30 58 246
Lamp oilseeds 135 135 0 0; 1,047} 1,047 42 44 116 116
Ramtill. . 661; 551; 34; 28) 2,250] 1,857] 769} 642) 1,014] 8465
Mustard foil : 6 0 0 ¢C 0) 0 0 0 0
Mustard seed. | 8,697|18,045} 5,311| 7,966} 19,110, 28,059, 3,462) 5,248) 7,874) 11,812
llloopoo oil.. 818} 2,123 0) 0 0 0 12\ 82 48 823
TIlloopoo seed. 0 0 0 0) 24 12 0 0 0 0
Wood oil.. 0 0 0 0 2 16 0 0 0 0

ToTAL.. 151,538 67,697 697 65, 639. 108,923] 170, 732 277,276 116, 588!187,209

* In addition to this, 2,000 dry nuts valued at 300 Rupees, and large quantities ef the

fresh nut for edible purposes, are produced annually.

GUNTOOR.

106,121|168,892

© ‘With the exception of a little Linseed, Lamp is almost the

only oil plant cultivated in this district.

The quantity of land

under cultivation with this latter is 31,242 acres, the produce being
about 4,400 candies, of which 1,400 candies have been annually
exported by sea and‘land.

Linseed is sown rather extensively in furrows on the borders
of fields in the Western Talooks.

Other oils, such as Cocoanut and Gingeley, are imported from Ra-
jahmundry and other districts.

ocr.—pxc.1857.] Oils of Southern India. 13

TABLE OF EXPORTS.

1850-1, “eaee | th | 2. 1852-3. | 1853-4. | 1854 5.
NAMES. | . <a
Mds.| Rs. Mds. | Rs. | Mds.| Rs. ia Rs. | Mas. | Rs.
Lamp and | ¥
Castor oil..| 47) ees 78} 520} 73) 490, 47] 314) 40) 279
Lamp and

Castorseeds 8, 396 13, iad 17,858|27,292) 16,364 25,095 |28,174|38,891/21,133)28 672
Linseed...... (1,462 1 594, 1,609) 1,777| 3,414 3, 583) 2, 056 3,208 "583 "659

aS nn EEE

se i eee i oO eee OS OO eo

ToTau.. 9,835 15,046 19, 545 29,589| 19,851 29, 168|31,177 42,413!21,75 629 610

KURNOOL.

Lamp oil is most largely produced in this district The extent of
cultivation is 26,200 acres, and the average crop (at 140 measures
per acre) is 36,68,000 measures. Gingeley covers about 8,059 acres,
the average produce is estimated at 80 measures per acre. Castor
oil (medicinal variety) does not thrive well, and is therefore but little
cultivated, Illoopoo and Safflower oils are produced in small quan-
ties.

. MADURA.

Gingeley and Lamp are the chief oil products of this district, the
cultivation of each being 14,653 and 11,546 acres respectively.
Illoopoo, Neem and Kurunj are extracted to the extent of from
one to three thousand gallons annually, and Brumadundoo and
Cat amunak in smaller quantities.

TABLE OF Exports.

1850-1 1851-2 1852-3 | 1853-4 | 1954-3. |

NAMES. ji ee ES SE OEUSS Gis: ea Me ba!

No. | Rs. | No. | Rs. No. |Rs. No.| R. |No. |Rs.
Gingeley oil../Cwt. | 18] 102] 5 66, 7| 72) 0| 0| 1) 13)
Gingeley seed.|Cwt. 0 0 0) Oo} oO; 20) 79; OF Oo;
Lamp oil.....|Cwt. 29| 165 1g! 143] 50) 363] 120] 864) oO} 6
Lamp oilseed|Cwt. 11 19 0) Greer = Ol > Sr Est --0 rd
Margosa oil..|Cwt. 9} 90 0) o| DO} oe] 22! oOo] oO y
Total...| -67| 456} 24; 199| 57| 435| 167| 947| 1| 13

MALABAR.

This district, so rich in natural productions of every sort, yields
a great variety of substances from which oils may be derived.
Up to this time sufficient data asto the extent of cultivation,

[No. 5, NEW SERIES,

Oils of Southern India.

14

&c. has not been obtainable, but the interest which has been evinced

known

ing

ect, will doubtless result in maki

J

is sub

th
those oils which are likely to become valuable articles of trade.

ing

lucidati

ine

d table will give the best idea of the ordinary pro-

joine

b

The su
ducts of the district.

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ocT.—DEC. 1857. ] Oils of Southern India. 15
MASULIPATAM.

Gingeley and Lamp oils are the staple products of this district,
the former is said to be cultivated to the extent of about 10,¢00,
and the latter about 15,000 acres. There are but few cocoanut
plantations, this oil is therefore chiefly imported, but there is am-
ple room for the introduction of this productive cultivation.

Fish oil is made for local consumption from fish caught on the
Colar lake and on the coast, it is chiefly burnt in lamps by the

lower classes, but the manufacture appears deserving of encour-
agement. Small quantities of Castor, Kurunj, Margosa and Bra-
madundoo are also made.

TABLE oF Exports.

1850-1. | 1851-2. | 1852-3. | 1853-4 | 1854-5.
NAMES. a eS ee =e Br ea
No. | Rs,| No. | Rs.| No. |Rs.} No. | Rs.| No. | Rs.
Cocoanut oil ;|Candy i 0} 0 0} 0 20; 0 5 eae
Cocoanuts.. Do. 0 0} 98 OXF 8 0 0 OE 6
Gingeley oil..| Do. 0 0| yg 8} O 4ige O 39] 9

Gingeley
seeds...... Garce. (0) 0.0 0; 0 0 5). 0
Lamp oil. .../Candy. Oo} 60 a | iene an G 46, 0
Lamp seeds..|Garce. 9) O 12 20F - 230); 0 42} 0 48} 0
Linseed oil. .|Candy. 0; 0 1; O oF 8 a 40 6; 0
Gees. eh. Candy. frie, 0 aor “0! 1,209) ' 0) (427) OF 1380) -0
Polak. ce | ees 58} .. | 1,454! .. 606] .. 275
NELLORE.

Lamp-oil is grown in this Collectorate to the extent of 12,500
acres.

The cultivature of the Gingeley seed covers on an average about
1,000 acres. Margosa oil is made to the extent of about 1,600
Maunds, and Illoopoo about 5,000. Brumadundoo, Cucumber
and Linseed are all produced to a limited extent in the Ongolee
Talook.

TABLE oF Exports,
1851-2. 1852-3.

Cwt. | Rs. Cut. | Rs. Cw. | Rs. Cwt| Rs,
Gingeley oil. 243 846 30 313 85 121 50 438; dl| 450

1850-1. 1853-4.

oe

1854-5,

| Gingeley seed, 11,41 120,445| 8,123] 74,369] 2,685] 17,233) 1.869} 7,209] 395) 978

Lamp oil......| 197} 1,549} 239] 1,897] 187! 1,470] 158] 1,275] 163/1,196
Lamp sced..../15,121/113,550|240,961| 76,660'23,042)169,784/15,076| 90,450/3,364| 0
Linseed.. ...... 0} 732} 117] 689, 242] 1,426] |127| 741) 17) 25
Cucumberseed 0 0 0 gs} 14 59; 11 AAIAEE OY)" 4

a Reh rT Nl ee ee ee ee

Total.| 26,972 237 122]249, 457|153,936, 26, 188/190,093\17,291|100,157 3,990 2 653

Cocoanuts

talooks, and might be planted to a large ex-
Castor, Kurunj, and Margosa oils are also pre-

. pared for local consumption.

ON
mM
B
pa
faa
wm
a
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pT)
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a

a)

derable quantities of the latter seed have

RAJAHMUNDRY.

is district the oil seeds principally grown appear to be those

of Gingeley, Cocoanut and Lamp.

Oils of Southern India.

are grown in various
tent if necessary.

€

Of Lamp and Gingeley upwards of 14,000 acres each are said to

In th
within the last few years been exported to France.

be cultivated, and cons

16

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“SLUOdX FO ATAV

ocT.—DEC. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 17

SALEM.

Lamp and Gingeley are cultivated throughout the district, the
former to the extent of 39,300 acres, yielding on an average 160
measures per acre, and of the latter 18,525 acres yielding 150
measures per acre. Ramtill is also cultivated in the Oosoor, Den-
kencotta and Tripatore talooks. Illoopoo, Cat amunak, Kurunj,
Neem and Brumadundoo grow spontaneously, and the latter is said
to be also cultivated to a small extent.

TANJORE.

Cocoanuts form the chief oil product of this fertile district, the
quantity of ground under cultivation being estimated at 4,369
acres, producing on an average 5,447 nuts per acre.

Next in importance are Illoopoo grown over 6,000 acres, Castor
occupying 1,493 acres, and Gingely cultivated to the extent of 1,207
acres. Pinnacotay and Ground nut oils are produced to a limit-
ed extent. A great variety of Medicinal oils &c. are obtainable in
this district.

TABLE OF EXPORTS.

1850-1. 1851-2. 1852-3. 1853-4 1854-5
NAMES.

No. | Rs. | No. Rs. | No.| Rs. | No.| Rs. | No. Rs.

Cocoanut oil...|Cwt.| 54) 549) 169 1,712) 125) 1,264| 64) 647/18,104/19,194
Cocoanuts ....|No. |41,375} 580/29,375, 384 0 0 0) 0 0 0
Gingeley oil..|Cwt.| 623] 6,288] 454| 4,588) 556| 5,609/1,085/10 966) 202| 2,765
Gingeley seed..;Cwt.| 67] 175} 81] 226] 265) 691,7,654|20,925 0 0
Lamp oil. .....|Cwt.} 796] 5,707| 1,175| 8,429|1,366| 9,797| 448/16,124| 2,268|f6,264
Lamp seed ... |Cwt. 1 3 0 0 () 0 0 0 0 0

Illoopoo oil. ... Cwt. 3 27 4 ao; 12) Eh 0 0 3 35
Margosa oil..... Cwt.| 109} 857) 1,207] 1,002} 35/ 1,689; 46) 362; 197) 1,546
Pinnacotay oil.. Cwt. 12 84 22; 210} 1380; 866 0 5) & 30
Pinnacotay seed Uwt. 10 19 46; 108] 83) 163) 10 30 12 2)
a aa or 72} 1651 42] 961 366| 1,002) -90! 2991 15] 60
- ee ee re | | ee | |g —~ - — | —— | ee — | ee — | ee
Total... 14,454’ .. (16,791 21,182"... 49,3581 ay (39,915

TINNEVELLY.

The oils in general demand for local consumption are here large-

ly cultivated, Lamp to the amount of 34,785 acres and Gingeley
18,222 acres.

18 Oils of Southern India. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES,

Illoopoo oil is procurable in large quantities (about 16,000 Gal-

lons,) and if advances are made to the manufacturers of Wood oil, a

’ good supply is obtainable, the quantity however at present extract-
ed for home consumption is very small.

Castor, Safflower, Margosa, Pinnacotay, Kurunj, Brumadundoo,
Cat amunak and Poovana oils are all procurable in quantities vary-
ing from 5 to 250 Gallons.

TABLE OF EXxPpoRtTs.

1850-1. | 1851-2. | 1852-3. | 1853-4, | 1854-5,

NAMES. 2 SS
No:4| Rs. Noa. ?} Ra: Na, | Rs. | No- | Rs. | No. |. Rs.

By Sea.
Gingeley oil.| Mercal 40! 107] 15} 67 69} 180] 4385 1,143! 135} 365
Gingeley

medics nce Do. 0 0, 0 0 50 86} 3865| 268) 2,575! 1,887
Lamp oil... Do. 0 0 0 0 44; 116 15 40} 41) 108
Lamp oi] ; | Br

BECO Zeal. Do. 6 3 0 0 2 1; 30 40, 56 28
Margosa oil..| Do, 5 12 43, 107 94} 236 2] 62; 68) 170
To Travan-

core. |

ere oil.|Mercal ig 2,872} 591)1,5538) 1427 8,747 2,020) 5,803 a 3,075

ingeley |

sced...se-| Do. {14,462 9,900) 5,043/3,708119,751|14,524 17,333 14,217 7,584) 5,538)
amp oul...) se; 72| 189 14) 37 0 0 0 0 0, 0)

Lamp seed..| Do. 363 148} 190] 94 0 0 0 | 0|
Margosa oil..| Do. 19) 48 0 0 0 v 0 0 0 0;
Margosaseed Do.| 402| 474 Oho 0 0 0 Oo 0

| ce ef ee een ee | eee Tar

Toran..| .. !18,713 5,666 .. 118,939! .. 21,0631 .. 111,171

—_—_— eee eee

TRICHINOPOLY.

“Most of the oils usually grown are produced in this district. The
supply however being insufficient to meet the local demand, the de-
ficiency is imported from Salem, Coimbatore and the neighbouring
Collectorates.

‘VIZAGAPATAM.

According to the returns furnished from this district the follow-
ing appears to be the proportion in which the several oils therein
mentioned are cultivated. Owing however to the great difficulty of
obtaining correct information, these numbers must be considered
only as an approximation.

19

ocT.—DeEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India.

Lamp oil 40,000 acres, Gingeley 27,000 acres.

Mustard, 25,000 acres, Putty Gingaloo 10,000 acres.

Ramtill, 3,500 acres.

Illoopoo, Margosa, Brumadundoo, and Cat amunak oils are also

procurable in quantities of from 200 to 1,000 maunds.

eS SEER TED ES ya EEE GA ey oe EE ES

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‘SLUOdXY LO ATAVy,

MALWA.
Opium being the staple product of this province, Poppy oil and
seed (the former at 9 seers, and the latter at 25 seers per Rupee)

are procurable to a very large extent.

Poppy oil is here more ge-

nerally used than any other both in Lamps and as food.

20 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NRW SERIES,

Mahowa oil selling at 1 anna 6 pie per seer, and a little Mus-
tard oil are the only other oils made in this province, excepting two
very inferior ones extracted from the seeds of the Ramayen and the
Kunjee (Dalbergia 2?) and burnt in lamps by the poorer classes.

MYSORE.

Lamp and Castor, Gingeley and Ramtill appear to be the chief
oil products of Mysore.

Most of the oils however in Classes 2 and 3 are procurable. Of
these the Kurunj, Brumadundoo (largely used for lamps), Cat amu-
nak and Neem are the principal, the latter is said to grow most
plentifully in the Chittledroog Division.

The Poppy is cultivated in the Chickmugaloor talook, and Lin-
seed, Safflower and Mustard in various parts of the country. San-
dalwood oil is largely made. Cassia, nutmegs and pepper grow wild
in the jungles.

The Garcinia pictoria is plentiful in the jungles in the West of
Mysore, and yields a valuable solid oil. A very sweet tasted edible
oil is also obtainable from the seeds of the Chirongia sapida.

SECTION III.

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF THE OILS oF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY.

Cuass 1.
No. 1. Cocoanut oil. (Cocos nucifera.)

The Cocoanut Palm grows almost every where within the tropics.
It is plentifully cultivated in the districts of Malabar and Canara,
Ganjam and Rajahmundry.

The oil is generally. prepared from the dried kernel of the nut,
by expression in the ordinary Native mills. When carefully made
it is colorless, solid at low temperatures but possesses a rancid dis-
agreeable smell.

When required for edible purposes, the kernel of the fresh nut
is taken, rasped and mixed with a little boiling water. This yields

ocr.—pEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 21

by pressure a milky fluid which, on being boiled until all the water
has evaporated, produces a clear edible oil. Only just sufficient water
to moisten the pulp should be added, asa larger proportion pro-
longs the operation and deteriorates the product. When fresh
prepared, this oil is comparatively free from smell, but it speedily
acquires an unpleasant odour; many attempts have been made to
divest the oil of this smell, which renders it inapplicable for the
perfumers’ use, but only with partial success.

The prices of this oil vary most considerably in different parts of
the country. For the quarter ending 3lst October 1854, the max-
imum and minimum prices at nineteen large stations in all parts
of the Presidency were Rs. 8-5-4 at Jubbulpore, and Rs. 2-14-0
at Bangalore, per maund. The average of twenty-one large stations
in the Madras Presidency gives Rs. 4-9-5 per maund or about £41-2
per ton. The market value of “ Cochin oil” in London in January
1855 was £46-10 per ton, the average being from £46 to £48.

It is used very largely in England in the manufacture of candles
and soap, For the candle maker the stearine is separated from the
olein, the former product being used for candles, for which it is most
applicable on account of the high temperature required to fuse it.
The olein is then made over to the soap boiler for conversion into
soap. Soap made from Cocoanut oil is lighter than water, and con-
sequently floats in that medium, whilst from its being the only soap
which will dissolve freely in salt water it is usually called “‘ Marine
soap.” .

In India this oil is made into soap by boiling with a proper pro-
portion of dhobies’ earth, salt, saltpetre, quicklime, and water. It +
is also burnt in lamps by the higher classes, used for anointing the
body, and in cookery.

The best oil is exported from Cochin and the neighbouring ports
on the Malabar coast. It usually fetches 20s. ber ton more than the
Ceylon or Coromandel coast article. The average annual quantity
exported from this Presidency from 1850-1 to 1854-5 is about
14,10,963 gallons. Of this by far the largest portion is sent to the
United Kingdom and France, the remainder finding its way to Ara-
bia, Mauritius, Bombay and the French (Indian) Ports.

22 Oils of Southern India. [wo. 5, NEWSERIES,

The Cocoanut palm thrives best near the sea coast, although it
sometimes grows favorably on inland plains, the soil of which contains
a large proportion of silex and soda or salt which are the sub-
stances chiefly required for its nourishment. In South America salt is
largely used asa manure. The tree begins to bear about the 7th
or 8th year, the annual produce being from 70 to 100 nuts. Atthe
Tanjore local Exhibition in March 1856, a bunch of Cocoanuts con-
taining no less than 70 nuts on a single stalk was exhibited. Each
tree is calculated to yield at least 23 gallons of oil per annum, and the
coir obtained from the nuts is estimated to yield one fourth of the
value of the oil, whilst the oil cake is very valuable for cattle and as

amanure. The Elephant beetle (Oryctes Rhinoceros) is a great

enemy of this tree, it begins by nibbling the leaves into the shape
of a fan, and then attacks the main shoot into which it bores, and
unless speedily extracted, infallibly destroys the tree.

No. 2. Guingeley oil. (Sesamum orientale.)

The Sesamum and its varieties are grown throughout the coun-
try. So universal is the use of this oil, that its name in almost
all the vernacular languages signifies ‘ the oil.”

The mode of extraction sometimes adopted is that of throwing

the fresh seeds without any cleansing process, into the common :

mill and expressing in the usual way. The oil thus becomes mixed
with a large portion of the coloring matter of the epidermis of the
seed, and is neither so pleasant to the eye nor so agreeable to the
taste as that obtained by first repeatedly washing the seeds in cold
water, or by boiling them for a short time until the whole of the

‘reddish brown coloring matter is removed, and the seeds have be-

come perfectly white; they are then dried in the sun, and the oil ex-
tracted as usual.

In expressing this oil, the Natives of the Northern division always
add the bark of the fanghedi (Cassia auriculata), or the Babool
gum to the seed to be pressed, this is probably done with a view of
enhancing the value of the cake, which is used as an article of food
for man and beast.

The value of this oil in England was £47-10 per ton in January
1855, and £49 to £53-10 in January 1856. In different parts of

a ee ee ee

oot.—pDEc. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 23

the Presidency, the price of this oil varies from Rs. 1-5-0 to
Rs. 6-0-0 per maund of 25 lbs. In South Arcot it is procurable at
Rs. 27-12-5 per candy. 4

The prices per maund at the undermentioned stations, for the
quarter ending 31st October 1854, were as follows:

BA, 2, | Bids P.
pee eee oe SO Madura... sic feaces, - 8 8-3
Bangalore... i-s.0c0e o,f 8 | Mangalore.:..<sceae 4 1 8
PE ete. eels sine a Ge oO | NOBDOTe. 5,55. .ecs0>. 2.12, 0
Merhamipore.o..0ss.-.02 6.0.) Palameotiah......... 412 0
Cannanore 3% 23°. eis wee OL bamaenaut cy. ese oy a OO FO
Suddapane...cuesse edo 0) Samulcottah....i..¢:210 8
Jaulpah 7.2 iso% 32% Wiig O.. 0-| Seeunderabad.;;.%.:. 2-3 11
Suipuipotese. <> fesse) 4) oe Oc} Ariehinopoly;....... 4 1 8
Madrfas’s :': 0% peence Oo kE OW VGUOLC ys akc cdi ase 8 314 0
Masulipatam......... 3 0 0 | Vizagapatam......... 3 2 0

In England this oil is chiefly used for the manufacture of soap,
and for burning in Table lamps, for which itis better suited than
Cocoanut oil, owing to the lower temperature at which it congeals,
although the light it gives is not so bright. In India it is chiefly
used in cooking, for anointing the body, for making soap, for burn-
ing in lamps, &c. by the dyer to brighten and fix his colors.

The following tables will show the quantity and the destinations
of the exports of this oil.

Year 1847-8. Year 1848-9.
Oil....Gals. 19,520 Rs. 14,776 Oil....Gals. 52,721 Rs. 36,294
Seed. .,Qr. 17,518 Rs. 160,134 ~ Seed, Cwt. 1,44,125 Rs. 299,412
Year 1852-4. Year 1854-5.
Gale. cise 119,180 Rs. 73,635 Gals..... 17,1389 Rs. 12,720
Cwt ....1,198,079 Rs. 693,760 Cwtec. 167,824 Rs. 431,726
Seed. Oil.

Exported to the United Kingdom Owt. 12,718 Gals. 42,043
Ceylon. c...cevsscevcesecsccsesees. . SI0— 2,968
EMRE Oa ce ny was 4 o ox SHOR Seay eee
SE er co ee ee 741 — 19,698
1 LS aie gis Sees ied Pa cramer 113
MERRIER Net lai seer ee ee oo ees 8 383 — 3,598
EEAVANCOPE. SS CoS. S a aie atastalate © s 148
-Mauritius and Bourbon. eveoeeeerreeee ve — 4,232

24 Oris of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,
No. 3. Bastard Gingeley oil. (Sesamum ortentale var.)

The “second sort Gingeley” sometimes called “ bastard Gin-
geley’’ is extracted from a variety of the Sesamum above mentioned.
It differs but little from the true Gingeley; the quantity of oil yielded
by an equal amount of seed is somewhat less, but there appears to
be no difference in the quality of the product.

The following remarks upon the cultivation of the true Gingeley,
and its varieties in the Rajahmundry district, have been furnished
by. F. Coplestone, Esq.

Gingeley, or first sort Gingeley. ( The black seed.) This is the pro-
duce of the Hill-country called Reddyseema in the Rajahmundry
district. Itis generally sown at the commencement of the mon-
soon (June) and ripens in four months, 160 seers of seed yield 50
seers of oil which is clear and sweet. The current value of the
seed is Rupees 50 per candy of 500lbs.

Bastard Gingeley, or second sort Gingeley, is the worst variety of
this plant, the seeds are of mixed colors, white, red and black. It
is usually sown in the month of Chyteari (April) and ripens in three
months, 160 seers of seed yield 35 seers of oil, which is of a brown
color and bitter. The current value of this seed is 85 Rupees per
candy of 500lbs.

White Gingeley, is sown in the month of Myglam (January, Fe-
bruary) and ripensin three months and ahalf. The oil is clean and
sweet, 160 seers of seed yield 44 seers of oil, the current value of
the seed is 44 Rupees per candy.

Pyroo Noovooloo is the red seed sown generally on the islands
called Lunkaloo. It ripens in three months, 160 seers of seed yield
45 seers of oil. The current price of the seed is Rupees 42 per
candy. The term “ Pyroo” is applied to the season after the gene-
ral harvest in January, viz. February, March, and April, and
has no reference to these seeds except as indicating the time of
their sowing.

The exports of this oil and seed are included in those of Gingeley.
No. 4. Lamp oil. (Ricinus communis fructibus majoribus.)

The oil obtained from the large seeded variety of the Ricinus

-ooT.—pDEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 25

communis has obtained the above name from the fact of its being
used almost solely for burning in the commonest lamps and for
feeding torches. ’
For this purpose the seeds are sometimes partially roasted to
coagulate the albumen and liquify the oil, and then pressed in the
ordinary mill, or boiled with water, or the roasting process is omit-
ted ; in either case the coloring matter of the husks of the seed and

other impurities gives the oil a dark color, and if the roasting pro- .

cess is carried too far, a slightly empyreumatic odour is communi-
cated.

By carefully shelling the seed and rejecting all impurities, the
Natives prepare a clear oil for medicinal purposes (by boiling) near-
ly equal to that extracted from the small seeded variety.

The price of this oil varies in different parts of the country from
Rupees 1-10-0 to Rupees 3-13-6 per maund of 25 lbs. The aver-
age of nineteen large stations in all parts of the Presidency for the
Quarter ending 3lst October 1854, was Rupees 2-8-6 per maund.

It is chiefly used for burning in lamps, and from its viscidity and
drying qualities only in those of the simplest description.

The average export of this oil for the last 6 years has been
97,561 Gallons per annum,

Lamp oil made into a kind of palmine by agitation with nitri¢ acid,
is largely used as alubricating agent for Railway locomotives in
India.

No. 5. Castor oil. (Ricinus communis, fructibus minoribus.)

The small seeded variety of the Ricinus communis is supposed *
to yield the best product, and is therefore universally employed in
preparing the oil exported to Europe for medicinal purposes.

The fresh seeds after having been sifted and cleaned from dust,
stones, and all extraneous matters, are slightly crushed between
two rollers, freed by hand from husks and colored grains, and en-
closed in squares of clean gunny or canvass. The packets of seed
then receive a slight pressure in an oblong mould which gives an
uniform shape and density to them. The ‘bricks’ as they are

26 Oils of Southern India. [ NO. 5, NEW SERIES,

technically called, are then placed alternately with plates of sheet
iron in the ordinary Screw or Hydraulic press. On the application
ofa‘gradually increasing pressure, the oil exudes through the pores of
the gunny and is received into clean tins. Water in the proportion
of a pint to a gallon of oil being added, the whole is boiled until
the water has evaporated, the mucilage will be found to have sub-
sided and encrusted, the bottom of the pan whilst the albumen soli-
dified by the heat forms a thin layer between the oil and the water.
Great care must be taken to remove the pan from the fire the
instant the whole of the water has evaporated, which may be known
by the bubbles having ceased, for if allowed to remain longer, the
oil which has hitherto been of the temperature of boiling water or
212°,suddenly rises to that of oil or nearly 600°, thereby heightening
the color and communicating an empyreumatic taste and odour.
The oil is then filtered through blanket, flannel or American drill,
and put into cans for exportation. Itis usually of a light straw
color, sometimes approaching a greenish tinge.

The cleansed seeds yield from 47 to 50 per cent. ofoil. The fol-
lowing is the result of experiments made at Madras and Calcutta
to ascertain the per-centage of oil in Castor seed (January 27th,
1853.)

Calcutia—1,400lbs. of seed yielded kernels and raw oil as follows :

Kernels. Oil.
ist sorh:.; 2c. caeoulns, én 0 oie.e OUSIDE.
2nd sort 184lbs. cing cies OMe BBs

ord sort 8° Cl. 5., BG 4IbE eS 2. va tOs eee.

Making a total of 980lbs. of Kernels and 483lbs. of Raw oil from
1,400lbs. of seed.

Madras—1,400lbs. of seed yield raw oil as follows:

Ist sort. 818lbs.
2nd sort. 88lbs.
Srd sort. 74lbs.

Making a total of 480lbs. of oil from 1,400lbs. of seed.

The cost of the Madras oil is as follows:—

OE ee ee eee -

oct.—DpeEc. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. Q7

1,400lbs. of seed at Rs. 3-5-0 per bag of 164lbs. Rs. 27 38
Husking and selecting Kernels and cooly hire...... 3 1),
Crushing, moulding, pressing, boiling.............. 2

7
Filtering and Sundries....... Rone Want 326s “DE NGdE 2's
Overseer’s pay, Godown rent......s.secescereses IL 6
300 Empty Quart bottles, Corks, &c.............. 34 4
Cleaning and Packing Charges.........+..ss0005.. 4 8

onon @ » ©

——F

Zotel Hs... 76° 1: 6

Deducting the price of the bottles, this gives an average of annas
1 pies 4¢Zper quart of first, second, and third sort oil.

This oil is chiefly used as a mild purgative, and by Natives for
anointing the head. Soap of good quality may be made from it,
but the cost and disagreeable smell which it communicates, preclude
its general use.

The average export from the year 1849-50 to 1852-3 was 11,825
gallons per annum.

The method of extracting this oil by the boiling process is thus
given by Ainslie. ‘ The seeds are boiled for two hours in water,
dried for 3 days in the sun, husked and pounded. They are then
boiled in fresh water until the whole of the oil has risen to the
surface.”

Castor oil being entirely soluble in highly rectified alcohol of sp.
_ gray. *825, any adulteration of it with other fixed oils may be ascer-
tained by dissolving a sample in 8 times its weight of spirit, the
fixed oil is not dissolved but floats on the surface. This however
is not an infallible test.

No. 6. Ground nut oil. (Arachis hypogea.)

The Ground nut or ‘“ Manilla” nut, and the oil extracted there-
from, has of late years been exported to a considerable extent. It is
now grown in all parts ofthe Peninsula. The oil is seldom used by
the Natives, although large quantities of the nut are eaten after
being slightly roasted over a charcoal fire. The cleaned seeds yield
about 43 per cent. of a clear straw colored edible oil possessing a

28 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

slight bean-like taste and smell, which makes a good soap, indeed
it is a perfect substitute for olive oil in all its uses.

Its value in London in January 1855 was £47-10 per ton. In
North Arcot, where it is largely cultivated, the oil is precurable at
from Rs. 1-8-0 to 2-12-0 per maund. In the Nellore district the
seed costs 1-8-0 per maund, and in Tanjore about 200 acres are cul-
tivated with this plant yielding annually 75 candies of oil at Rs. 2-6-0
_ per maund. In the year 1848-49, 37,000 gallons of this oil were
shipped, but in the two following years the exports exceeded
1,00,000 gallons. It however fell to 75,207 gallons in 1852-3.

According to Simmonds, 1,950 parts of seed give 1,405 of blanched
kernels and 708 of oil, by cold pressure. It is produced to a very
large extent in Africa, from whence England and France draw large
supplies.

No. 7. Linseed oil. (Linum usitatissimum.)

The seed from which this oil is expressed has long been culti-
vated to a limited extent at Nagpore, Bellary, Guntoor and other
parts of the Presidency. Itis usually sown in furrows on the bor-
ders of fields, and the extent of cultivation is consequently difficult
to ascertain.

_ The oil is seldom used for painting in India perhaps from an im-

pression which seems to be general, that the oil obtained from In-
dian seed is inferior to that imported from England. It willhow-
ever be found on experiment, that this arises from the former hav-
ing been imperfectly freed from the mucilage which prevents its
drying, or from some admixture of a non-drying oil.

In the year 1852-3 English Linseed oil to the amount of gallons
4,552 valued at Rs. 8,763 was imported into Madras, whilst at the
same time 1,045 cwt. of the seed was exported hence, mostly to
England. The fact that it can be made on the spot equal in qua-
lity and considerably. less in price than the English article, needs
only to be known to be taken advantage of. It would be necessary
to guard against its adulteration with any of the greasy oils, which
would of course infallibly destroy its drying properties.

The value of this oilin England was from £61 to £66 in Ja-
nuary 1856, Itis said tobe procurable in Bellary at Rs, 3-8-0 per

a es

oct.—pEc. 1857.] Ouls of Southern India. 29

maund. It was imported into England in 1851 to the amount of
608,986 Quarters. 3

Some energetic efforts have been made to improve the cultivation
of Linseed in the Punjab chiefly for the sake of fibre. The Agri-
Horticultural Society having obtained a grant of money from Go-
vernment offered rewards for its cultivation, and a considerable in-
crease immediately took place.

In 1853-4 there were 3,435 acres under cultivation in eight :

districts, whereas in the next year no less than 19,039 acres were
so taken up, and it is estimated that the whole cultivation through-
out the Punjab during that season was 50,135 acres producing
146,508 mds. of fibre, and the increased produce of seed is esti-
mated at 130,000 mds. valued at 160,000 Rs. The seed sold by
auction atan average rate of Rs 4-6 per maund of 80lbs.” (Specta-
tor, Oct. 14, 1856.)

The following extract froma late number of the “ Sindian’’
newspaper, will give some idea of the progress made in Linseed
cultivation in Scinde.

“We are glad to observe that the growth of Linseed in Scinde is
attracting the attention of the authorities. Major Wormald tried
an experiment at Jemadar-ka-Landee, and gives a very favorable
report, which has been placed by the Commissioner in Scinde at the
disposal of the Press. We have seen a specimen of the Linseed,
and the following is a description of its culture and growth.

* At Landee, the quantity of land prepared for seed was 4,658,

square yards, on which was sown 126lbs. of Linseed, part on the

28th October, and the rest on the 1st November 1856. In four
months the crop was pulled up and etacked; and the produce was
one thousand pounds of Linseed, being as far as may be judged,
much above the average yield of flax crops in different parts of
Europe, and certainly finer Linseed than any yet seen here. A sample
of this Linseed has been forwarded to Mr. Warwick, a merchant in
Kurrachee, who pronounces it to be very fine. It is intended that
the sample be forwarded to Bombay, when an opinion will be formed
on it by competent judges.

30 Ouls of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

‘“‘ The stalks of thisseed grew strong, and ranged from two to three
feet. No opportunity has as yet been afforded of converting the stems
into flax, and as the stackage will not deteriorate from their quali-
ty, opportunity may be found to complete the experiment.

“*‘ Major Wormald, from past experience, considers the soil in the
Mulleer Valley particularly suited for the growth of Linseed and
Flax, and feels confident that if cultivated ona large scale a for-

« tune might soon be realized.

“« The ten-fold yielding of this valuable seed in the Mulleer valley,
owing to rich soil, should operate as an inducement to the Com-
missioner to promote the growth of an article, that bids fair to make
so respectable a figure in the revenue of the Province. The sample
we have seen appears to possess the properties of the best kind.
The seeds are small, bright, grayish-brown, slippery, elongated
bodies, containing a full amount of that mealy, oleaginous albumen,
which yields the oil insuch abundance. In short we consider the
specimen we have seen as well worthy the attention of those whose
hearts are with the prosperity of Scinde.”

No. 8. Raméttll oil, (Verbesima sativa or Guizotia oleifera. )

This sweet tasted edible oil is plentiful in the Mysore, Vizaga-
patam, Nagpore and Ganjam districts. It is used for nearly the
same purposes as the Gingeley oil, and from its inferior quality and
low price is frequently used to adulterate both this and Castor oil.
It is exported from Ganjam.

The oil is said to mix with colors as well as linseed and to dry
‘without litharge, although a little improves it.

No. 9. Mustard oil. (Sinapis varieties.) Improperly called
“ Rape’ in India.

Five or six kinds pf Sinapis are cultivated in various parts of
Southern India. The seed is chiefly used asa condiment, but the
oil which is sometimes extracted is much prized by the Natives, and
apart from its edible qualities is supposed to possess many virtues.
The different kinds of seed yield from 28 to 36 per cent. of a bright
yellow edible oil, having a strong smell and aslight taste of mustard.
The average price of Mustard seed in eighteen large stations, in all

oct.—DEc. 1857.] Odds of Southern India. 3h

parts of the Presidency for the quarter ending 31st October 1854,
was Rs, 1-2-8 per maund of 25lbs., the maximum being Rs. 1-11-6
at Cannanore, and the minimum As. 10-6 at Nagpore. In Vizaga-
patam it costs Rs. 208 per sicca garce.

The oil is not exported, but the seeds have been annually shipped
as follows :
ae ape 1848-9. 1849-50. 1850-1. 1851-2. 1853-4. 1854-5.
Cwt..J 5,828 6,767 9,435 9,909 16,075 = —
Although seldom procurable in the market, this oil is neverthe-
less generally made, and usedin cooking and in the manufacture
of pickles, condiments, &c. It is considered by the Natives supe-
rior to all other oils for anointing the body which it is supposed to
invigorate.

In medicine itis sometimes given internally as a remedy for fla-
tulent colic, but is more frequently applied as a rubefacient, and as
a cure for burns and wounds.

Rape oil (Brassica) properly so called, was imported into Eng-
land in 1851 to the amount of 107,029 Qrs. or 21,606 tons from
France and Germany, the oil is valued at £34 per ton.

No. 10. Poppy oil. (Papaver somniferum.)

The Poppy is largely cultivated throughout Malwa and the Opium
districts, where the drying oil obtained from the seed is more ex-
tensively used than any other, both inlamps and asfood. The fol-
lowing statistics regarding the cultivation of the Poppy plant, are
furnished by C. Timmins, Esq., Sehore.

“‘Thereare three lacs ofbeegahs under Poppy cultivation in M alwa, "
the average produce of seed per beegah being two maunds,*each of 40
seers, or 82lbs, which gives a total of 6,00,000 maunds of seed worth
from Rs. 1 to 12 per maund. From these six lacs, deduct 13 seer per
beegah required for seed, and there remains 5,90,623 maunds of seed
for oil. The oil extracted from 1 maund of seed being about 13
‘seers, the above quantity of seed would yield a total of 1,91,952

* Notr.— The seer in use here is more than three times the weight of the Ma-
dras seer. It weighs 324 ounces, that of Bombay being 111 oz., and Madras 10
ounces,

-

32 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

maunds of oil, which sells at from Rs. 4-8-0 to 5 Rs. per maund or
£40-6 per ton. The whole of the oil at present made here appears
to be consumed in Malwa. Mr. Anson, the first Assistant to the
Governor General and Superintendent of the Opium department at
Indore, concludes that 5,000 maunds might be available for export
at Indore alone.

‘‘ The hire of a cart from Indore to Bombay would be about 20 or
25 Rupees. The carts are much smaller than those used in the Ma-
dras territory, and will carry from 20 to 24 maunds. There would
appear to be no difficulty in establishing an export of this oil, pro-—
vided there were a remunerating demand for it; the extent of sup-
ply must however be regulated by the demand for Opium, the high
price obtainable for which alone supports this expensive and hazar-
dous cultivation.

* Perhaps Calcutta presents greater facilities for the export of the
seed or oil from the advantage of the water carriage afforded by the
Ganges and other rivers of Bengal ; but the railway now progressing
from Bombay will materially facilitate the transit of goods from this
part of India, but as before remarked the production of Poppy oil
must ever be dependent on the demand for opium which may pos-
sibly be extensively affected by the extraordinary revolution now
progressing in China.

By simple exposure to the rays of the sun, in shallow vessels, this
oil is rendered perfectly colorless. It is supposed by the Natives .
to produce sleep and strengthen the brain. Poppy oil is peculiar-
ly suitable for mixing with paints; ‘ with white lead it leaves a

“ beautiful surface which does not afterwards change by the action

of light into a dirty yellow.”

i saaunecenaenenl

Crass 2.
No. 11. Margosa or Neem oil. (Azadirachta Indica and Mela
azadirach.
Two species of the Neem grow in Southern India. The Azadi-
rachta Indica, or white flowered Neem, is exceedingly graceful,
and forms an excellent avenue tree. The Melia azadirach or Per-

oct.—pDEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 33

sian lilac, is a tall wide-spreading tree, of quick growth, the branches
of which are very brittle and liable to be broken in high winds.
The blossoms are of a lilac color, possessing a very sweet smell, and
the fruits as well as the extracted oil of both varieties are much alike.

A bitter principle prevails in all parts of the tree, and is present
in the oil, which is much used by Native practitioners as an anthel-
mintic and vermifuge, and externally as a liniment in rheumatism,
headache, &c. it is ofa deep yellow color, unpleasant smell,and bitter »
taste ; it forms an article of export, although the demand fluctuates
considerably. Besides the uses above mentioned, it isalso burnt in
lamps, andis knownin the market by the name of the “ bitter oil.”

No. 12. Jlloopoo and Mahowa oils. (Bassia longifolia et species.)

Several varieties of the Bassia yield semi-solid oils known by
thesenames. The B: longifolia isthe most common in Southern India,
and although the oilis seldom to be met with in the bazaar, yet
large quantities of the seeds are gathered, and the oil extracted for
private consumption. Excellent candles and:soap may be made from
it, and as asubstitute for butter and for burning in lamps, it is much
employed by the poorer classes. It is sometimes exported in small
quantities.

The Bassia butyracea is abundant in the hills of Kumaon, and
produces an oil known by the names of Fulwah, Phulwarah, Choo-
ree fooliel and Phooliel ka tael. This solid oil dissolves readily
in alcohol, and is said to keep an indefinite time without becoming
rancid.

No. 13. Pinnacotay ol. (Calophyllum inophylium.)

The fresh seeds of the “ Alexandrian laurel” when shelled and
subjected to pressure, yield a dark green oil of a peculiar odour. Old
seeds yielda higher colored and thicker produgt. It is occasionally
shipped in small quantities to Ceylon, but cannot be considered a

regular article of export. It is burnt in lamps.

No. 14. Kurunj oil. (Dalbergia arborea.)

This oil, which in some parts of the country is used toa large
extent in adulterating lamp oil, is expressed from the seeds of a

34 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

tree common in most parts of India. Its fluidity at ordinary
(Indian) temperatures renders it very suitable for burning in lamps,
whilst its comparative cheapness leads to its use as an adulteration
with other more expensive oils.

No. 15. Coorookoo or Brumadundoo oil. (Argemone mexicana.)

This pale yellow limpid oil may be obtained from the round
corrugated seeds of the “ prickly poppy” which was originally intro-
duced from Mexico in ballast, but now flourishes luxuriantly in all
parts of Southern India. It is especially suited for lamps, and is
also employed in the process dying red thread, and as an external
application in cutaneous diseases. The seeds yield 123 per cent. ofoil.

W. Hamilton, Esq. mu. D. remarks of this oil, “ that the Materia
Medica hardly presents a more valuable purgative, or one which
answers so many apparently conflicting circumstances at one and
the same time. In that excruciating complaint, so common in all
climates, colic arising from constipation of the bowels, 30 drops of
the oil taken upon a lump of sugar allay the pain as if by magic,
throw the patient into a profound sleep, and after a little time pro-
duces a copious and unpainful evacuation of the bowels. The mi-
nuteness of the requisite dose, the instantaneousness of the relief,
and the mild and gentle though effectual action it produces upon the
intestinal canal, seem peculiarly to adapt it for cases of Cholera, su-
perseding the use of Chloroform and Opium for subduing the cramps
and mitigating the more urgent symptoms.” 7

No. 16. Cdtamunak oil. (Curcas purgans.)

This oil has of late been exported to Europe as a substitute for
‘ Linseed oil, but the results of the experiment have not as yet trans-
pired. The shrub is plentiful all over the Presidency, and the oil
can be obtained in some parts of the country for little more than
the expense of the collection of the seeds and cost of extraction.
It is used by the Natives in lamps, &c. |

“ Under the name of “ seed oil” ithas been imported into Eng-
lend to the amount of nearly 1000 tons per annum from Lisbon,
where it was first used by the contractor in lighting the public streets,
and so useful was it found, that it soon usurped the place of all other
oils. It has been found to answer in England for cloth dressing,

oor.— pic. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 85

which in consequence of the irregular supply of olive oil makes it
a valuable acquisition, the only objection to its employment being
its highly drastic property.’’ (Stmmonds.) :

No. 17. Piney tallow. (Vateria Indica.)

The Vaderia Indica or Doopada tree, grows plentifully in the jun-
gles of the western coasts, and besides the product under consideration
yields a resin nearly equal to copal, and a valuable building wood.
The oil which is perfectly solid even in hot climates, is prepared by
cleaning the seeds, then roasting and grinding them into amass. To
five seers of seed 12 seers of water are added, and the whole is boiled
until the oil rises to the surface. Remove the oil, stir the contents
of the vessel and allow it to stand until the following day, when a
further portion of oil will be found on the surface.

This substance has been pronounced by the Railway Agent very
suitable for the lubrication of the wheels and axles of Railway car-
riages, it is not however at present procurable in sufficient quantity
to be used for that purpose, except to order. It is equally appli-
cable to the manufacture of soap and candles. The next mention-
ed oil is very. similar in quality to the above.

No. 18. Gamboge Buiter. (Garcinia pictoria.)

A semi solid oil obtained from the seeds of the Garcinia pictoria,
growing abundantly in certain parts of Mysore and in the Western
coast jungles, especially near Cooly Droog. ‘The oil which is pro-

curable in moderate quantities, is prepared by pounding the seed in»

a stone mortar, and boiling the mass until the butter or oil rises to
the surface; or by first roasting the seeds, and then proceeding ag
above. Two anda half measures of seed should -yield one and a
half seers of butter.

In the Nugger division of Mysore it is sold at therate of Ag. 1-4
per seer of 24 Rs. weight, or £36-6 per ton, it is usedas a lamp oil,
and by the poorer classes as a substitue for ghee. The butter thus
prepared does not seem to possess any of the purgative properties of
the Gamboge resin,

-

36 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NRW SERIES,

Crass 8.

No. 19. Safflower oil. (Carthamus tinctorius.)

The Carthamus is principally grown for the sake of the dye
yielded by the petals of the flower, oil is however plentiful in the
seeds and is expressed to a small extent. In Europe it is in demand
for the manufacture of fancy soaps, &c. It grows plentifully in black
cotton soil in Mysore and Tinnevelly. The oil which is of a clear
yellow color, is edible.

No. 20. Belgaum Walnut oil. (Aleurites triloba.)

The tree which produces the Lumbang or “ candle nut” grows
plentifully in Hyderabad, Mysore and other parts, also in Ceylon
where the oil is called ** Kekune,” and in the Sandwich Islands where
it is named ‘* Kickui.”? (Simmonds.)

The iree is very prolific, and the nuts yield so large a per-centage
of oil, that when strung upon a thin strip of bamboo and lighted,
they burn like acandle. (Rddle.)

No. 21. Poovana oil. (Sarcostigma Kleinit.)

This oil is as yet known only in Tinnevelly, Travancore and the
Western coast. It has a very peculiar but not disagreeable odour,
is burnt in lamps, and sold in the Tencausy talook of Tinnevelly, at
Rs. 4 per maund. It is known in Travancore under the name of
Poovengah.

No. 22. Neeradimaotoo oil. (Hydnocarpus inebrians.)

This tree is produced abundantly in Travancore, and is met with
“on the Eastern side of the Ghats, especially near Shencotta at the
entrance to the pass leading to Quilon. The oil is also known
under the various names of Jungle almond, Maroty, Tamana, Mara-
vettie, Neervittie and Soorty. It is in great repute amongst Native
medical practitioners, and the oil appears somewhat drastic. The
kernel has much the taste of the Brazil nut, and the shell, although
differing from it in other particulars, has the same corrugated sur-
face. It might probably be found very useful in the arts, as it much
resembles Almond oil, but is much thicker. The seed yields 44 per
oont. of oil, and cost As. 2-6 per seer at Madras.

ect.—pDEC. 1857.] Oxls of Southern India. 37
No. 28. <Addale oil. (Jatropha glauca.)

This seed is somewhat smaller than that of the ricinus, which
however it much resembles. It grows wild on waste lands in South
Arcot, and is cultivated in Tinnevelly, where the oil sells at Rs. 2-8
per maund. It is limpid, of a light straw color, and if procura-
ble in sufficient quantities, would prove a very serviceable lamp oil.

No. 24. Cress seed oil. (Lepidium sativum.)

The Tamil name of the seeds of this plant, is the same as that of
the Linseed, probably from its being like it of a mucilagenous na-
ture. Its qualities and uses have yet to be ascertained.

25. Cheeronjee oil. (Chirongia sapida vel Buchanania latifolia.)

The kernels of this nut mixed with milk are eaten by the higher
classes of Natives to promote fatness. They abound in a straw-
colored, sweet tasted and limpid oil, which, although edible, is sel-
dom extracted. The tree grows plentifully in Mysore, Cuddapah
and other parts. Dr. Riddle states the method of separating the
kernel from its shell to be as follows:

‘The fruit, when ripe in May, is gathered and soaked in water
to soften the outer pulp which is then rubbed off by the hand.
The little nut, after being dried in the sun, is broken between a
common ‘ chuckee’ or mill, such as is used for grinding wheat,
it is then shifted and winnowed.”

No. 26. Cucumber seed oil. (Cucumis sativa.)

No. 27. Melon seed oil. (Cucumis melo.)

No. 28. Pumpkin seed oil. (Cucurbita pepo.) ,

The various species of the Cucurbitacez are extensively cultivat-
ed in the dry beds of rivers, or on sand banks in their vicinity, in
all parts of India. The seed is sown in the hot weather, and the
fruit perfected before the rains. Oilis made*from the seeds in the
Masulipatam and Guntoor districts, but the bulk of the fruit is sold
and eaten before it arrives at maturity.

No. 29. Coorgapilly oil. (Inga dulcis.)

The “ Manilla tamarind” is extensivly used in all parts of the

38 Oils of Southern India. (xo. 5, NEWSERIES,

Presidency as a hedge plant. If permitted however, it grows to a
small sized tree, the pods of which contain several flattened black
seeds, from which an oil of the consistence of castor oil may be
extracted.

No. 30. Sterculiaoil. (Sterculia fetida.) |

The seeds of this forest tree yield by expression a clear oil
containing much stearine.

No. 81. Wild Olive oil. (Pootrunjiva Roxburghii.)

This tree grows plentifully in Mysore and Canara, the fruit much
resembles an Olive, and the kernel contains an olive brown oil.

No. 82. Cherroo Pinnacotay oil. (Calophyllum colaba.)

A clear yellow oil obtained from this tree was forwarded to the
Madras Exhibition of 1855 from Cochin.

No. 38. Sandal seed oil. (Santalum album.)

The kernel of the nut of the Sandal wood tree, yields by ex-
pression, a viscid oil, which does not give much promise of useful-
ness.

No. 54. Moorgana tallow. ( 2) f

This valuable substance, which, even at high temperatures, is
perhaps the most solid oil with which we are acquainted, is produced
in Canara. If procurable in sufficient quantity and at a moderate
cost, it would be doubtless an excellent material for the manufac-
ture of candles, &c.

“ On the Western coast it is used medicinally as a cure for cattle
wounded by tigers.

t

No. 85. Naga sumpaghee oil. (Mesua ferrea.)

This oil is procurable in Canara, at Rs. 4 per maund. It is
chiefly tsed as a Lamp oil, andas a healing application to sores.

No. 86. Cat urraioo oil. ( ?)

An oblong, flattened and corrugated seed sent from Canara under
the names of “ Wild Castor seed” has not yet been identified.
It yields alamp oil.

ocT.—pDEC. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 39

Crass 4.

No. 87. Soapnut oil, (Sapindus emarginatus.) :

This oil is extracted from the kernels of the seed, and is used
medicinally.

No. 88. Cashew nut oil. (Anacardium occidentale.)

The nuts of this tree yield by expression a very sweet tasted
edible oil, much superior to European Olive oil, but not socheap as ,
the Ground nut oil. The nuts however being generally roasted
and eaten, the oil is seldom expressed.

No. 89. Ben nut oil. (Moringa pterygosperma.)

This oil has long been considered valuable on account of the long
period which it may be kept without contracting rancidity. This
quality, as well as the very low temperature required to freeze it,
renders it exceedingly useful to the watch maker and perfumer. |

The tree grows in all parts of the country, and flowers at all
seasons, the blossoms, green and ripe fruit being often seen on the
same tree at the same time. The young leaves and green legumes
are eaten both by Natives and Europeans, and the rasped root forms
an excellent substitute for horse-radish, to which circumstance it
owes itscommon name of “ horse-radish tree.”” The oil is seldom
manufactured in India.

No. 40. Cotton seed oil. (Gossypium species.)

The seeds of the various varieties of Gossypium contain a large
proportion of oil, but the remains of the fibre adhere with such
tenacity to the seed of almost all the varieties at present generally’,
cultivated in India, that it is found to absorb the whole of the oil
expressed, from which it cannot be separated without much difficulty.
The oilis consequently never made in India, although the seed is a
nourishing food for cattle. Should however, any of the varieties of
Cotton with loose seeds, such as the G. aewminatum come into ge-
neral cultivation, the oil would then become of much importance.

At present this oil is manufactured at Marsellies from seed im-
ported from Africa, and could some cheap and easy method of
ridding the ordinary cotton seed from the adherent fibre be de-

40 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

vised, thousands of maunds of seed which are now comparatively
useless, could be worked up.

No. 41. Silk Cotton seed oil. (Bombaz.)

A dark brown but clear oil, is obtained by expression from the
seeds of the silk cotton tree, the pappus of which is sometimes used
as a stuffing for pillows, although it is by some supposed to pro-
duce deafness.

No. 42. Sweet Fennel oil. (Nigella sativa.)

The black aromatic seeds generally known by the name of “ Siah
Danah” yield by expression a dark colored fragrant oil.

No. 43. osebay ol. (Wrightia antidysenterica.)

Various parts of this plant are reputed to possess medicinal vir-
tues. The oil obtained by expression from the seeds, is of a deep
red color and viscid consistence, probably possessing some of the
medicinal properties of the seed.

No. 44. Malkungunee owl. (Celastrus paniculata.)

The oil expressed from the seeds of this shrub is of a bright scar-
let color, and when mixed with other ingredientsand subjected to -
destructive distillation, yields an empyreumatic product useful in
Beri-beri.

No. 45. Hemp seed oil. (Cannabis sativa.)

Obtained by expression from the seed of the common hemp which
is cultivated in several parts of the country for the sake of the intox-
‘ icating drugs it yields. In Russia the oil is much used for lamps

but it is comparatively unknown to the Natives of India.

No. 46. Portia nut ol. (Thespesia populnea.)

From 8 to 10 per‘cent. of a deep red and somewhat thick oil is
obtained by expression from the seeds of this tree, which grows in
great abundance in the vicinity of Madras and other parts of the
Presidency. Itis extensively planted as an avenue tree for which its
quick growth and the beauty of its flowers render it a general fa-
vorite, it is howeyer yery liable to injury from high winds (as may

ocT.—prc. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 4]

be seen on reference to the Journal of the AZadras Literary Society.
No. 1. New Series.) The greater injury almost invariably suffered by
trees grown from cuttings, has been frequently remarked. The
wood is said to be capable of being worked, when fresh cut. The
juice is used on the western coast as a remedy for various cutaneous
affections.

No. 47. Viscid Cleome oil. (Cleome viscosa, )*

This warm and pungent little seed when subjected to a very pow-
erful pressure, yields 13 per cent. of a light olive, green limpid oil.

No. 48. Thortay oi. ( ?)

Is obtainable in small quantities in Canara, it is a solid oil and
used as a native remedy for sores.

No. 49. Fanugreck oil. (Trigonella fenum greacum.)

The fresh seeds of this plant are said to yield a small per-cent-
age of oil.

No. 50. Abelmoschus oil. (Abelmoschus ficulneus.)

In addition to its fibre, for which the plant is used, the seeds
yield a small quantity of oil.

No. 51. Gutta percha seed oil. (Isonandra gutta.)

Yielded by expression. Oil but little known.

No. 52. Croton oil. (Croton tighum.)

This well-known medicinal oil, the use of which as a drastic pur,
gative appears to be on the decline, is seldom extracted in India,
the powdered seed, being usually administered by native practiti-
oners. It is also used in veterinary medicine.

Nos. 53 and 54. Bryony and Colocynth oils.

These plants grow wild in most parts of the country. The seeds
are collected by shepherd boys, and boiled to obtain the oil, which
is only used for lighting purposes.

® Now Polanisia icosandra, W. and A.—Ep.

42 Oils of Southern India. [No.5, NEW SERIES,
No. 55. Wild Cummin oil. (Vernonia anthelmintica.)

This black seed grows plentifully in Mysore, and yields an oil,
which however is never prepared for sale.

The following oils being used only in Native medicine, an enu- -
meration of their names will be sufficient.

No. 56. Bondue nut ol. (Guilandina bonduc.)
No. 57. Mimusops oil. (Mimusops elengi.)

No. 58. Moodooga oil. (Butea frondosa.)

No. 59. Thevetia oil. ( Thevetia neritfolia.)

No. 60. Oodul oil. (Sareostigma Kleinii.)

No. 61. Garlic ol. (Allium satiwum.)

No. 62. Sunflower oil. (Helianthus annuus.)
No. 638. Wild almond oil. (Terminalia catappa.)

No. 64. Star anise ort. (Lllicium anisatum.)
>

No. 65. Gayapa oil,
No. 66. Wild nutmeg oil. (Myristica malabarica.)

No. 67. Thorny trichilia oil. (Trichilia spinosa.) Empyreumatic.
No. 68. Cyperus or Mat grass oil. (Cyperus juncrfolius.)

No. 69. Thorn apple oil. (Datura stramonium.) Empyreumatic.
No. 70. Condamunnee oil. (Abrus precatorius.)

c

No. 71. Sand box tree oil. Huracrepitans. The seeds of this
tree (which has been introduced from Jamaica,) yield by expression,
a clear oil. The whole tree, abounds in poisonous matter, but it has
not yet been ascertained whether the oil possesses similar proper-
ties, the tree grows in the Horticultural gardens.

No. 72. Saul seed oil.. (Shorea robusta.)

In places where this tree abounds, the oil is expressed from the
ripe seed, vulgarly called the “ dammer tree nut.”

oct.—pDEc. 1857.] Ouzls of Southern India. 4$

Woop OILs.
91 40 100. Wood oils. ¢

The class of substances called ‘“‘ Wood oils” form the connecting
link between the oils and resins of the natural kingdom. They
consist of a volatile oil, holding in solution a resin, and are gene-
rally classed under the head of Balsams. They are obtained from
various trees of the order Dipterocarpez, some of which also yield
the dammers of commerce.

The mode of extracting the oil, is similar to that adopted for ob-
taining the solid resin. It is best described, in the words of a con-
tributor to the Madras Exhibition of 1855, who says “ About the
end of the dry season, that is in March or April, several deep in-
cisions are made with an axe into the trunk of the tree, anda
good sized piece, scooped out. Into these holes, fire is placed and
kept burning until the oil begins to run, when it is received into a
bamboo, and allowed to run slowly drop by drop.”

The oil, when freshly obtained from the tree and allowed to rest,
separates into two layers, the upper consisting of aclear chesnut
eolored liquid balsam, and the lower being a flocculent deposit of
the more solid resin, of a light ash color.

They are much used as natural varnishes for in-door work, but
are very brittle, and require constant renewal. Perhaps the admix-
ture of a certain proportion of some drying oil, would remedy this
defect. They are said to be used also in the manufacture of Li-
thographic inks.

These oils are chiefly imported from our Burmese possessions
and the Islands in the Straits of Malacca, and are usually known
by the name of the districts, from whence they are brought.

The Camphor wood oil is a purely volatile substance, without
any admixture of resin. Itis the produce of the Dryobalanops
Camphora. Itis used in the Straits as a substitute for turpen-
tine, and sells at 15 to 20 cents a bottle.

Many substances called ,, wood oil’ by Native doctors, are little
else than varieties of tar obtained by the destructive distillation

44 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

of chips of various woods. For the names of these see Index to
Section 3.

MINERAL OIL.

101 Petroleum or naptha.

Naphtha is a limpid colorless oil, which is oollected in wells, or
pits dug into certain clay soils in Media and Persia. It is also
found in the European state of Parma, and is used to illuminate
the city of Genoa.

A substance similar to this product is obtained during the pro
cess of making coal gas, and is called coal naphtha. It is a sol-
vent of India rubber and is extensively used in the arts.

Petroleum is a more solid product, produced largely in our Bur-
mese possessions near Rainanghong. It is burnt in lamps, and
used instead of tar for shipping.

ANIMAL OILs.

102 and 108. Fish oils.

The only oil of any importance which comes under the head of
animal oils, is fish oil, which is largely prepared on the Western
Coast. Forthe mode of preparation, see “‘ Jury Reports Madras
Exhibition of 1855, page 39.

104 and 105. Neats foot oil and oil of wax.

These two oils are seldom prepared, the former is, however, some-
_times used for softening leather, and the latter, which is an empy-
‘ reumatic product, obtained by the destructive distillation of wax, is

used in Native medicine.

VOLATILE AND PERFUMED OILs.
106 to 133. :

Of these the only oils, made in any quantity, are those of Le-
mon grass, Roosa grass, Citronelle, Bishopsweed, Cinnamon,
Cassia bark and Cajeput. Their properties and uses are well
known. A list of the oils, in this class which are sometimes
used toa small extent in Native medicine, will be found in the
Index. The oil from the Guava leaf is said to be used in Ceylon.

oct.—DEc. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India.

The exports of Citronelle oil, from Ceylon are as follows :
1850 86,0480z. £3,344
1851 114,9590z. £5,742
1852 181,7800z. £2,806

INDEX TO SECTION III.

=
VEGETABLE FIXED OILS.

{ 1 Cocoanut oil. Cocos nucifera.

} 2 Gingeley oil. Sesamum orientale.

1 3 Bastard gingeley oil. Sesamum orientale. variety.
- 4 Lamp oil. Ricinus communis. fr. maj :
wi é 5 Castor oil. Ricinus communis. fr. min.
<\ 6 Ground nut oil. Arachis hypogea.
} 7 Linseed oil. Linum usitatissimum.

| 8 Ramtill oil. Guizotia oleifera.

9 Mustard or “‘rape”’ oil. Sinapis species.

. 10 Poppy oil. Papaver somniferum.

( 11 Margosa or Neem oil. Melia azadirach, and

]

Azadirachta Indica.
12 Illoopoo and Mahowa oils. __ Bassia species.

ei | 13 Pinnacotay oil. Calophyllum inophyllum.
~ 1 14 Kurunj oil. Dalbergia arborea. +
<1 15 Coorookoo or Brumadun-
} doo oil. Argemone Mexicana.
16 Cat amunak oil. Curcas purgans.
} 17 Piney tallow. Vateria Indica.
. 18 Gamboge butter. Garcinia pictoria.
( 19 Safflower oil. Carthamus tinctorius.
20 Belgaum walnut oil. Aleurites triloba.
21 Poovana oil. — ?
| 22 Neeradimootoo oil. Hydnocarpus inebrians.
23 Addale oil. Jatropha glauca.
24 Cress seed oil. Lepidium sativum
25 Chironjee oil. Chirongia sapida. *
es | 26 Cucumber seed oil. Cucumis sativus.
x J 27 Melonseed oil. melo.
< ) 28 Pumpkin seed oil. Cucurbita citrullus.
¢> | 29 Coorkapilly oil. Inga dulcis.
| 30 Sterculia oil. Sterculia fetida.
31 Wild olive oil. Putranjiva Roxburghii.
| 32 Cherroo pinnacotay oil. Calophyllum calaba.
33 Sandal seed oil. Santalum album.
34 Mooroogana tallow.
35 Naga sumpaghee oil. Mesua ferrea,
36 Cat urraloo oil. Jatropha.—

* Now Buchanania latifolia, W. and A.—Hp.
+ Pongamia glabra, W. and A,—ED.

45

46

Cuass. 4.

oN

{ 37 Soap nut oil.

38 Cashew nut oil.

39 Ben nut oil.

40 Cotton seed oil.

41 Silk cotton seed oil.
42 Fennel flower oil.

43 Rosebay oil.

44 Malkungunee oil.

45 Hemp seed oil.

46 Portia seed oil.

47 Viscid cleome oil.

48 Thortay oil. =
49 Foenugreck oil.

50 Abelmoschus seed oil.
51 Gutta percha seed oil.
52 Croton oil.

53 Bryony oil.

54 Colocynth oil.

55 Wild cummin oil.

56 Bonduc nut oil.

57 Mimusops oil.

58 Moodooga oil.

59 Thevetia oil.

60 Oodul oil.

61 Garlic oil.

62 Sunflower oil.

63 Wild almond oil.

64 Star anise oil.

65 Gayapa oil.

66 Nutmeg (wild) oil.

67 Thorny trichilia oil.
68 Cyperus bulb oil.

69 Thorn apple oil.

70 Condamunnee seed oil,
71 Sand-box seed oil.

72 Saul seed oil.

73 Eugenia oil.

74 Belleric myrabolan oil.
75 Chebulic. do. oil.
76 Kikuel oil.

77 Balanites A.gyytiaca oil.

78 Radish seed oil.
79 Cabbage seed oil.
80 Cardamom oil (fixed.)
81 Poondy oil.
82 Cordia or Nochie oil.
83 Girghitly oil. ‘
84 Jogyhulloo oil.
85 Nux vomica oil.
86 Marking nut oil.
87 Cashew husk oil.
| 88 Oleum nigrum oil.
89 Tobacco seed oil.
90 Alligator pear oil.
(903 Cinnamon tallow.

Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

Sapindus emarginatus.
Anacardium occidentale.
Moringa pterygosperma.
Gossypium sp.

Bombax malabarica.
Nigella sativa.
Wrightea antidysenterica.
Celastrus paniculata.
Cannabis sativa.

Hibiscus populneus.*
Cleome viscosa.

Trigonella fenum grecum.
Abelmoschus ficulneus.
Isonandra gutta.
Croton tiglium.
Bryonia callosa.
Cucumis colocynthis.
Vernonia anthelmintica.
Guilandina bonduc.
Mimusops elengi.
Butea frondosa.
Thevetia neriifolia.
Sarcostigma Kleinii.
Allium sativum.
Helianthus annuus.
Terminalia catappa.
Illicium anisatum.
Swietenia ??
Myristica malabarica.
Trichilia spinosa.
Cyperus juncifolius.
Datura stramonium
Abrus precatorius.
Hura crepitans

Shorea robusta.
Eugenia.

Terminalia bellerica.
Terminalia chebula.
Bergera keenigii
Balanites Zgyptiaca.
Raphanus sativus.
Brassica oleracea.
Elettaria cardamomum.

os

Sebestana officinalis.

—sa

Srychnos nux vomica.
Semecarpus anacardium.
Anacardium occidentale.
Celastrus &c.

Nicotiana tabacum.

Persea gratissima
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum.

* Now Thespesia populnea.—Ep.

oct.—DEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 47

f Woop OILS.
91 Teakwood oil. Tectona grandis.
92 Wood oil from Pegu. Dipterocarpus alatus. ,
93 do. Rangoon. do ?

94 do. Chittagong. do. ?

95 do. Moulmein. do. —?

96 Shemanathee wood oil. Seth ia indica.

97 Sissoo wood oil. Dalbergia sissoo.

98 Camphor wood oil. Dryobalanops camphora.

99 Wood oil. __
100 Wood oil.

{

Cese. 2

—

Minerat OIL.
101 Petroleum and Naptha.

|
|
|
8
(
i AnIMaL OILs.

CLAss, 1

102 Fish oil.
103 Fish liver oil.

Gp sca: 2 104 Neats foot oil.
ss ics 105 Oil of wax.

VOLATILE AND PERFUMED OILs.

— (106 Cinnamon bark oil. Cinnamomum Zeylanicum.
v# ) 107 Cinnamon leaf oil. do.
< ) 108 Cassia oil. Cinnamomum cassia.
> (109 Clove oil. Caryophyllus aromaticus.
es (110 Lemon grass oil. Andropogon schcenanthus
va )111 Roosa grass oil. Andropogon iwarancusa.
= )112 Cajeput oil. Melaleuca cajaputi.
¢ (113 Camphor tree oil. Dryobalanops camphora.
(114 Anise seed oil. Pimpinella anisum.
115 Fennel flower oil Nigella sativa
116 Nutmeg (wild) oil. Myristica malabarica.
117 Sassafras oil. Sassafras officinale.
118 Bishop’s weed or omum oil. Ptychotis ajowan.
119 Cardamom oil. Elettaria cardamomum,
; 120 Cummin seed oil. Cuminum cyminum,
| 121 Spikenard or jatamansi oil. Valeriana jatamansi.
<= | 122 Cuscus root oil. Anatherum muricatum.
ui } 123 Tobacco leaf oil. Nicotiana tabacum.
< 124 Sweet flag oil. Acorus calamus.
¢> | 125 Pepper oil. Piper nigrum.
126 Cubebs oil. Piper cubeba.
127 Lime peel. and leaf oil. Citrus limonum.
128 Orange flower, or neroli oil. Citrus aurantiym.
129 Orange peel, and leaf oil. do.

130 Citron peel, and leaf oil. Citrus medica.

131 Mustard oil (volatile. ) Sinapis species.

: 132 Sandal wood oil. Santalum album.
133 Guava leaf oil. Psidium pyriferum.

eras

N. B.—This list is not to be taken as by any means including the whole of our
indigenous oil plants. j

48 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,
SECTION IV.
« REMARKS ON THE ECONOMICAL USES OF O1Ls IN INDIA.

The value of the commercial oils of India, being already so
generally known to Merchants and Manufacturers, both at home
and in this country, any remarks on this head would be superflu-
ous ; itremains, however, to consider in what ways, we may become
the consumers as well as the exporters of oils.

I would more particularly refer to their uses in the raw state for
currying leather and making buff, for burning in lamps, for lubri-
cating machinery, for anointing the person, and as an article of
food,—to their value in a somewhat modified form, as a vehicle for
paints, and varnishes,—and lastly to their employment in the mas
nufacture of candles and soap.

Oil—as used for currying and buffing leather.—Experience has
shown that the kinds of oil most suited for the preparation of
leather, are those derived from the animal kingdom. Of these, fish
oil, neats foot oil, and the solid fats of oxen, sheep and pigs, are
those most generally used. Some one of these, or a mixture of se-
veral of them as the case may be, is rubbed over the underside of
the tanned skin whilst still wet. The leather being then hung up
in an airy loft to dry, the evaporation of the moisture enables the
composition to penetrate through the substance of the hide until
it appears on the surface or grain side. The beef, mutton and pigs
fat used in this process are procurable with difficulty and at high
prices.

At present, but little leather is curried in India, and the de-
mand for these substances is consequently limited, but should this
branch of trade rise into importance (of which there can be no
reasonable doubt,) and should hides be tanned and finished on the
spot, instead of being sent to Europe in the raw state, and re-im-
ported when dressed, the supply of these substances will become of
greater moment, and it will be a question for the practical manu-
facturer to decide, whether it is more to his interest to pay the cur-
rent Indian prices, or to import his materials direct from Australia.

Fish oil, however, is procurable in abundance at reasonable prices,

oct.—pEc. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. 49

indeed, the Indian article has entirely superseded the use of English
oil, which, until the establishment of this manufacture on the Western
coast, was imported at a high price for the use of the Government
Buffing establishment at Hoonsoor.

A comparison of the price of the Indian and English article is
shown below, and as regards quality, it has been found that the Na-
tive oil, if made with care, is fully equal to the English product.

Cost of English oil per gallon Rs. 2 4 0O

Cost of Malabar oil per gallon Rs. 110 O

The saving thus effected in this one article alone, in this large
establishment, is very great.

Oil—as used for burning in lamps.—Almost all the oils procur-
able in India, are burned to a greater or less extent by the native
population in the rude contrivances which serve as lamps. For
the finer description of European lamps, however, only the fiuid
non-drying oils should be used. Of these Cocoanut, Ground nut,
Coorookoo, Kurunj, and a few others are to be preferred. The first
is decidedly the best, but in cold climates, it requires to be mixed
with a due proportion of some other oil to prevent its tendency to
congeal at low temperatures. Drying oils, such as Castor, Lamp,
and Linseed oil are unsuitable for these lamps, as the oil becoming
viscid, clogs the tubes; they may, however, in common with many
other sorts of oil, be burned with advantage in open vessels or night
lamps. Some of them emit much smoke.

In the preparation of these oils for burning in lamps, much im-

provement might be effected. Excepting Cocoanut, the generality *

of oils as sold in the market, are contaminated with mucilage and
extraneous substances, which much impair their burning qualities.

The usual mode of purifying oil, is to add to 100 parts of oil one
part of Sulphuric acid, and agitate the mixture ; the acid immediately
attacks and chars the slimy parts of the oil. In half an hour add
50 parts of water with agitation, and allow the whole to settle for
some days. Decant the clear oil, and wash with water to get rid
of the acid. The same object may be effected in a less degree by
keeping the oil for some time in a quiet place, this improves it by

-

50 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

allowing the mucilage to subside ; for this reason, old oil is prefer-
able to new for lamps. The manufacture of oil gas for illumi-
nating purposes must not be passed over in silence. Oil dropped
on a red hot surface is instantly converted into gas, (oil gas) and
with the aid of very simple machinery, can be made by the most
inexperienced person. It was at one time made to some extent in
England, but the high cost of the oil and other causes, led to its
abandonment in favor of coal gas.

Oil,—as a lubricating agent.—Any of the fluid non-drying oils,
may be used as lubricants for machinery. For fine work, the Ben
oil (Hyperanthera moringa) being free from any disposition to ran-
cidity, is to be preferred, but for Railway carriages, a more
solid substance, such as Piney tallow or Gamboge butter is
more suitable. At present, however, a composition prepared by
agitating lamp oil with nitric acid, for which the maker holds a pa-
tent, is employed successfully. The Gamboge butter, has been re-
ported on favorably, by the Railway agent, as ‘“ very clear and free
from grit, and suitable for lubricating axles.” A more extended
experiment with this substance is in contemplation. A locomotive
engine is said to consume between eighty and one hundred gallons
annually. A mixture of grease and tar is used for Native carts.

Oiwl—for anointing the person.—As an application for rendering
the skin supple, which in tropical climates, is an almost indispen-
sible necessary of life, any of the greasy oils will answer. Those
generally preferred by the natives are Cocoanut, Gingeley, and
Mustard oils. The former has been sometimes used by the Euro-
pean perfumer in the manufacture of scented oils for the hair, but
the difficulty of preventing its acquiring the well known disagreea-
ble odour, or of disguising it with the most powerful scents, is the
chief objection to its use. The Moringa or Ben oil, from the great
length of time, it keeps without acquiring rancidity, is well suited
to the perfumer’s use. |

Oils—as articles of food. Oilis largely used as an article of
food in all tropical countries, and as the qualities of most edible oils
are well known, little need be added on this head further than to
recommend greater cleanliness in the expression, and a more profita-
ble use of the oil cake; which, however, valuable as a manure is

oct.—pxEc. 1857.] Ourls of Southern India. 51

still more useful for fattening cattle. As an ingredient in salads
and similar dishes, for which it is used to a limited extent ,by
Europeans in India, there is every reason to hope, that the native
product, will ere long entirely supersede the imported article.
Numerous indigenous plants such as the Poppy, Mustard, Gingeley,
Ground nut, Chironjie, Cucumber, Cashew nut, &c. yield oils fully
equal to the best product of Italy, with the advantage of superior
freshness. Indeed, they are even now frequently used in preference
to the English oil, and the only bar to their general adoption, is the
difficulty of getting them extracted, in a pure state by the native
press.

It is a well known fact, that a large portion of the oil pre-
pared from seeds yearly exported from India, is consumed as
*“ salad oil” in Europe, and part finds its way back to India, under
the same name, although the fresh product is procurable on the spot,
at a tenth part of the price of the re-imported article. The amount
of Salad oil imported at Madras during two years was as follows:

In 1849-50, Galls. 268, value Rs. 1,139.

In 1850-51, Galls. 399, value Rs. 1,809.

The imports of Olive oil into England in 1851 amounted to
20,783 tons of 252 gallons each.

Oil,—as used in the preparation of woollen cloths, §¢e.—As a dres-
sing for woollen cloth, oil is seldom if ever used in India, nor indeed
is it probable that it ever will be, many of the indigenous oils, are
however well suited for this purpose.

Orl,—as a vehicle for paints, varnishes, §c.—Poppy and Linseed
oils, are in general repute in Europe for paints and varnishes.
The former may be cheaply prepared in the opium districts of
India, and from its perfect clearness and limpidity (when bleached)
it is most valuable to the portrait and miniature painter, whilst
the price at which it can be made renders if available for more
common descriptions of work. From the fact, of no vegetable
_ oils, (except wood oils,) being used as ingredients in paints by the
Natives of India, it has not yet been ascertained which of the many
varieties procurable in various parts are useful for this pur-
pose.

Linseed, as will be seen on reference, to the first part of this

2
’

52 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEWSERIES,

port, is now becoming a large article of produce and export trade,
the oil however still continues to be imported from England, for the
publicservice and private use. Trials have been made of the relative
value of oil, obtained from seed grown in the country, and of the im-
ported article, the results of which, have established the perfect
similarity of the two products, there are however several precau-
tions to be observed, in the preparation of this oil, the neglect of
which has caused the country article to be less esteemed. The oil
must be obtained perfectly pure, and unadulterated by the admix-
ture of any greasy oil, which would of course destroy its drying qualities
and render it useless for paint, it should not therefore be prepared in
a press which has been used for other oils, unless it has been
first thoroughly cleansed, a matter of some difficulty with the ordi-
nary native press. To render the oil drying, the process although
very simple, is one which requires some practice to succeed fully.
It is generally effected by boiling 100lbs. of Linseed oil with 1lb.
litharge, and maintaining the mixture for an hour at a temperature
of 100. Cent. Indian oil thus prepared, is perfectly equal to that
obtained from England for paints and varnishes. The imports of
Linseed oil, and the exports of seed for the last six years, have been
as follows.
OIL IMPORTED.
In 1849-50 Gallons. 1,311 value Rs. 2,623 from England

1850-54: ig | 25882) 5. 6,358 do.
1851-52 » 2,823 5,978 do.
1852-53 Py 4,552 8,763 do.
nto { 6,505 13,060 do.
aera ee) Py, 474 from Indian ports.
2,879 5,270 from England.
1854-55, ;
668 1,883 from Indian ports,

, SEED EXPORTED.
1849-50 Cwt. 401 value Rs. 1,539

1850-51 o 801 9,271
T8152 | pas sp 2067 2,927
POGR-568 + tu, 2 wag LOC 3,275
1853-54 ,, 2,898 9,588

1854-55 Quarters 293 5,914

oct.—pEC. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 53

The imports of Linseed oil into England in 1851, amounted to
Quarters 608,986.

As a great variety of pigments and of resins for varnishes are
procurable in India, the present large item of imports under the
head of “* paints and colors’’ might be materially diminished.

The wood oils of India are in themselves natural varnishes, being
composed of a mixture of a resin and a volatile oil, they are not
however so durable as the Linseed oil varnish, being more brittle
and liable to scale off, though they answer well for in-door work ;
the addition of a due proportion of any good drying oil, would
perhaps render them more durable.

Oil,—as used in the manufacture of Candles and Soaps. We now
proceed to consider oils in a higher state of manufacture, or when
converted into candles and soap.

As regards the former article, it is doubtful whether candles can
be manufactured in India at a sufficiently remunerating price to en-
able a ‘local company successfully to compete with the imported
article. This question indeed is one for the practical manufacturer
to determine. Candles might be made with ease, but to make them
cheaply would involve a large outlay for machinery, &c. The im-
ports of wax and candles (almost entirely the latter,) and the ex-
ports of bees’ wax are as follows.

IMPORTS.

1849-50 1bs.62.720 Rs. 45,953 from England.

1850-51 ie —— Rs. 4,778 from England.
lbs. —— Rs. 2,549 from Bengal and Bombay.
1851-52 lbs.52,478 Rs. 28,720 from England.
hm 6,272 Rs. 4,178 from Bengal and Bombay.
-(1bs,35,366 Rs, 18,213 from England.
1853-52 ;
lbs. 2,977 Rs. 1,808 from Indian ports.
1853-54 RE ip Rs. 21,690 from veaend
lbs. 4,255 Rs. 2,369 from Indian ports.
1854-55 oo Rs, 31,523 from England.
lbs.10,194 Rs. 3,739 from Indian ports,

54 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NRW SERIES,

EXPORTS.
1849-50 —1bs.2,64,096 Rs. 1,12,270
1850-51 1bs.3,13,697 Rs. 86,614

1851-52 eng: Rs. 95,286 to England.
lbs.1,07,260 Rs. 44,726 to Bengal and Bombay.
lbs.2,32,000 Rs. 99,713 to England.

1852-538 a 65,609 Rs. 27,083 to Bengal and Bombay.

lbs. 43,000 Rs. 15,434 to England.

1958-54 Wax. lbs. 10,602 Rs. 3,760 to Indian ports.

lbs.1,89,886 Rs. 76,834 to England.
lbs. 19,776 Rs. 16,377 to Indian ports.
Ibs. 85,615 Rs. 31,054 to England.
lbs. 87,010 Rs. 35,646 to Indian ports.

IMFORTS RE-EXPORTED.
1849-50 lbs. 10,976 Rs. 4,048
1850-51 ,, 9,412 ,, 1,827
1851-52 ,, 4,482 ,, 8,266
1852-53 ,, 6,660 ,, 2,623 the larger proportion went to Pegu.

Candles.

1854-45 Wax.. ee

Soap.—The ingredients for making soap are ever at hand, and
available to the most humble workman. Although the quantity of
this substance used by the native population is, it is to be feared,
very small, yet the trade would afford ample employment, to a large
establishment. A large quantity of the common chunam or coun-
try soap, is imported from Bombay, and sold at 1 anna per lb.,
and upwards. The amount of hard soap annually manufactured in
England is stated to be 53,400 tons, of which about 17,800 tons,
are made from palm oil, which is imported for this and other pur-

poses to the extent of 50,000 tons per annum.

We are not, however entirely without soap manufactories in
South India; Messrs. Kohlhoff, and Prudhomme at Tanjore; Dr.
Flynn, and C. Bauloo Moodelly, at Madras, make soap to a greater
or less extent. Mr. Kohlhoff of Tanjore, who manufactures soap
on a large scale, (chiefly from Illoopoo oil,) for exportation to the
Mauritius, as well as for local sale, at 80 Rs. per candy, of 500 lbs.,
has kindly placed the following remarks on the relative value of
soaps, made of various Indian oils at my disposal. I can also add
my testimony, to the superiority of the soap made from Illoopoo oil,

oct.—prc. 1857.] Odls of Southern India. 5d

according to his method over all other soaps ; fora quantity of this
soap, exhibited by Mr. Kohlhoff at the Madras Exhibition of 1855,
was purchased and kept in an open place exposed to all weathers
till the present time, (June 1857.) It does not appear to have sen-
sibly diminished in weight, orto have been affected by heat or damp,
but remains perfectly firm and good, whilst English bar soap, under
the same circumstances has shrivelled up to two-thirds of its origi-
nal size. I prefer it therefore to ordinary English bar soap,which does
not stand the test of extremes of temperature, nearly so well,

Mr Kohlhoff observes—‘* Cocoanut oil soap is of inferior quality,
if exposed to damp it will melt away, and if allowed to dry it will
shrink, wherefore it is the object of the manufacturer to prevent
loss by making only such a quantity at a time, as he is likely to sell
immediately. Castor oil soap is too clammy, and from its offensive
smell, is unfit for use. Gingeley and ground nut oil soap, are like
each other, they are certainly better than the Cocoanut oil soap, but
not so good as that made from Jlloopoo oil, which is decidedly supe-
rior to all. Pinnay oif soap, may be considered as good as that
manufactured from Gingeley and Ground nut oils for washing
linen, &c. but itthas a dirty brown color which is unfavorable to
the seller. Margosa ow soap is on a par with the above in utility,
but may be classed with the Gingeley and Ground nut soaps in point
of color, which will be a pale yellow, but the smell of the Margosa
soap is unpleasant.”

The process of manufacturing the above mentioned soaps, is as
follows : ‘ Two cisterns being built one above another, two-thirds

of chunam, mixed with one third of Fuller’s earth is pressed very ,

tightly into the upper cistern. Water being poured thereon, the lye
will slowly filter through, and be received into the lower reservoir.

About two-thirds or three-quarters of this lye (according to the
nature of the oil, employed,) is mixed with the oil, and allow-
ed to remain three days with occasional stirring. The whole is
then boiled in a copper cauldron, until the soap separates from the
lye water. A small quantity of pure cold water, is then poured
in and stirred up to clarify. The soap is then poured into moulds,
and cutinto bars, when cold. When sufficiently dry, it is smoothen-
ed and ready for sale.”

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58 Method of catching [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

II. Description of the method adopted in the Coimbatore
District for catching wild Elephants. By Cartan D. Ha-
MILTON, Assistant Conservator of Forests.

I beg to enclose some rough sketches (Plates I, II, III and IV.)
referring to the late Elephant Hunt, which, with a brief description,
may be of some interest, showing the method adopted in the Coim-
batore District for capturing wild Elephants.

The spot selected for the hunt on this occasion, was at the en-
trance of a valley (vide Plate I) at the foot of the Neilgherries near
Seermoogay, where are the remains of an old Coopum or Kraal.
The situation was an excellent one, for the river on one side, and
steep hills on the other, left only a narrow gorge at the entrance of
the valley; so that once having got the Elephants into the valley,
it appeared easy enough to drive them into the Coopum.

The Coopum consisted of a circular trench 280 feet in diameter,

(vide Plate III) the breadth of the ditch being 18 feet, narrowing at
the bottom to afew inches; the depth 10 feet. The causeway at the
entrance 17 feet broad was composed of blocks of light wood, and
earth. The object of using wood was to enable the causeway to

ect.— DEC. 1857.] Elephants in Coimbatore. 59

be quickly demolished on the Elephants entering the enclosure.
From the entrance strong palisadings wére erected (vide Plate IV.)
diverging in one direction towards the river, and in the other to the
foot of the nearest hill, the length of the right palisading (looking
from the Coopum) was 600 feet, that on the left 800 feet consist-
ing of stems of trees firmly fixed in the ground and strongly bound
together. 2,800 of these stems were used in forming the palisadings,
beyond them strong abattis were laid down, extending on the right
side 2,900 feet and on the left 3,200, For 400 feet on each side be-
hind the palisading, a ditch 5 feet 7 Inches broad and 3 feet 6
inches deep was dug; beyond this, a ditch 4 feet by 4 feet was
continued, but on the inner side of the palisading and abattis, on
the right side te the distance of 310 feet and on the left 180 feet,

KG.

x ex
IVR! EW LN

This completed all the preparations with the exception that on the
day of the drive, the whole of the palisadings were covered with
green branches, to conceal them from the Elephants. All trees
and bushes were left standing, and the causeway was made to look
as like the natural jungle as possible, the ditch at the sides being
carefully concealed by bushes.

It took several days to bring the Elephants into the valley, (vide
Plate II) above the Coopum, as they have to be moved in the di-
rection required, without alarming them. Parties had to be sta-
tioned, day and night watching certain passes, to stop the herd from

ce

60 Crystalline Limestone [NO. 5, NEW SERIES,

proceeding in any direction but towards the valley; at nights a line
of fires are lighted for this purpose. On the day of the drive peo-
ple are stationed at intervals outside the palisadings and abattis,
to drive back the Elephants if they attempt to break through. Two
small bon-fires are made on each side of the entrance, within the
Coopum concealed by bushes, and the moment the Elephants enter
two men are ready to rush in and light them; faggots which have
been previously collected and piled near the entrance, are quickly
thrown on and soon two immense fires are formed which effectual-
ly prevent the Elephants attemping to recross the causeway, while
a number of coolies detailed for the purpose are demolishing it.

Muskets, rockets, crackers, tom-toms and horns are used in the
drive, which combined with the shouting of several hundred men
is enough to intimidate the boldest Elephant from charging back,
but itis difficult to get Natives to believe this. Every thing de-
pends on their having good leaders.

Besides those employed in guarding the enclosures, and driving
a number of men are placed on the flanks beyond the arms or en-
closures of the Coopum, as soon as the drive commences they light
small fires, the Elephants have such a dread of fire, that if well-
driven, on seeing the fires on each side of them, they are sure to
make straight for the enclosure.

III. Notice of the occurrence of Crystalline Limestone in
the District of Coimbatore. By H.F. Branrorp, Esa.
of the Geological Survey of Indva.

During the progress of the Geological Survey of the Neilgherry
Hills in the months of June to November of the current year, my at-
tention was called to some specimens of Crystalline Limestone col-
lected by Dr. Cleghorn and Capt. Francis, Engineers. This discovery
of limestone, which is of the greatest interest both in an economical
and scientic point of view, induced me to avail myself of an early
opportunity to visit the locality in question, in order to ascertain
the nature and extent of the mass of limestone, from which the

ooT,—pDEc. 1857.] in the District of Coimbatore. 61

specimens were obtained. ‘The chief results of the examination
are embodied in the following notice.

The whole surface of the district of Coimbatore as well as the
Mysore table land, and indeed the greater part of S. Western India
is composed of a vast spread of Schistose or foliated rocks, such as
Gneiss, Hornblende Schist, Mica Schist, &c., aclass of rocks term-
ed Metamorphic by Sir Chas. Lyell, (although such a term must be
regarded as premature until their really metamorphic nature 7 ad/
cases be firmly established.) The mineral characters of these rocks
are extremely varied, but they consist for the most part of Quartz,
Feldspar, Hornblende and Garnet, intermixed in various propor-
tions, one or more of these minerais being occasionally entirely ab-
sent. Mica which is one of the constituents of true Gneiss is only of
exceptional occurrence in the district in question. The foliation (or
system of laminz) in which the constituent minerals of schistose
rocks are arranged, is well marked ‘over the greater portion of the
Coimbatore district, but is far less distinct on the elevated plateau
of the Neilgherry Hills, and occasionally disappears altogether,
so that were it not that such non-foliated rocks pass invariably by
insensible degrees into others in which a foliated character is dis-
tinctly discernible, they might be easily mistaken for Syenite,
Greenstone- or some other kind of Plutonic rock, an error into
which previous observers have generally fallen. The foliation
wherever apparent conforms toa general strike in the direction
E. N. E., W.S. W. on the plateau of the Neilgherry Hills, and
such is also its direction in the vicinity of Coimbatore. In other
portions of the district it varies considerably and towards Bhovani
it has a North Western strike. Granite veins of small size, are
occasionally seen cutting through the foliated rocks, which form
the surface of the low country, but on the hills generally no trace
of Granite or any of the allied Plutonic rocks has been detected.
A few small dykes of Basalt being the only intruded rocks of the
elevated country.

About 5 miles to the south of the Civil station of Coimbatore,
a low broken ridge of hills characterised by a peculiarly jagged
outline occurs crossing the road to Palghat and running in an E.

62 Crystalline Limestone [no. 5, NEW SERIES,

N.E. direction. These hills consist of thin alternating bands of
crystalline, limestone and gneiss, the banded structure of which
is absolutely coincident with the foliation. Here and there small
contortions occur in the rock, which are rendered very strikingly
visible by the erosion of the intercalated band of the limestone
from atmospheric causes, and it is this unequal erosion which has
given to the hills themselves the jagged appearance already allud-
ed to.

The range of hills ceases suddenly about half a mile to the east
of the road where the rock becomes much contorted, and an ex-
posed surface of pure crystalline limestone, unmixed with Gneiss
extends for the space of about 200 yards, between the hills and the
cultivated land beyond. The limestone is largely crystalline, being
composed of an agglomeration of small rhombohedrons of Carbo-
nate of Lime, the characteristic cleavage of whichis frequently
very distinct. In color, it is usually of a pale mottled grey, fre-
quently passing into pink, and occasionally becoming nearly white.
It is intersected by a few minute veins of Granite, which have ap-
parently been intruded while the limestone was in a molten condi-
tion, so that by slight movements in the fluid mass, they have
been drawn out and twisted into peculiar thread like forms, re-
sembling those frequently seen in the intermixture of two colors on
the marbling trough of a bookbinder. In general, the rock is very
eompact and blocks or slabs, of almost any required size, might be
quarried without much difficulty.

From this spot, which is the most easterly point at which the
limestone is at present known to occur, it passes westwards form-
ing a band of 30 or 40 yards in width in the substance of the
schists, into which it graduates along its northern edge, forming
the banded rock already described, while its vertical extent is pro-
bably very great. It has been traced for a distance of about 7
miles along the foot of the range of hills already mentioned, which
to the West of the Palghat road, become very elevated and form a
ridge of about 2,000. feet in height above the general surface of the
surrounding country. Ata point about 2 miles west of the village
of Ittrumudday, the line of Railway from Madras to Beypoor, cuts

ocT.—DEC. 1857.] 7 the District of Coimbatore. 63

the band of limestone and passes to the westward along its outcrop,
and in some of the small cuttings, good faces of the rock are ex-
posed. The blocks obtained from the cuttings, are used for rubble
work in the construction of the bridges, &c., on the line. Further
to the west the limestone band penetrates the Walliar jungles,
beyond which point it has not been traced, but it is not improbable,
that it extends much further in the same direction,

It is unnecessary here to enter upon any theoretical considera-
tions with respect to the limestone, as these will be treated of at
length, in connection with the Geology of the surrounding coun-
try, in the Report now preparing for publication, in the “ Memoirs
of the Geological Survey of India,” but a few words on the econo-
mic importance of the discovery may be here fitly added.

As a building material, limestone such as that now described is
capable of a two-fold application. It may either be used in the
form of rough or worked stone, or may be burnt in some form of
kiln for the manufacture of lime and cement. Asa building stone,
the Coimbatore limestone would be perhaps one of the cheapest
arid most durable materials, that could be used. Being extremely
soft and very massive, large blocks could be quarried and dressed
with great ease, and as from the purity of the stone, it is but little
liable to weather or decompose, as is seen on the mere inspection
of the stone in situ, dwelling houses or public buildings construct-
ed with it would require no stucco, and would thus present a more
sightly and imposing exterior than an ordinary pucka building,
and at the same time, a considerable saving in the expenditure for

. . . . ’
repairs would be effected. This saving alone would in a few

years more than cover the original difference of cost. For inter-
nal decorations of a simple character, the limestone is well adapted,

as it is susceptible of a high polish, and by employing slabs of va-

~ rious colors, very beautiful walls, pavements, &c., might be construct-
ed. It would not be applicable for highly decorative work, such
as small mouldings or carved ornaments, since owing to its large-
ly crystalline structure, it would be liable to chip, but this very cha-
racter imparts to it a transparency which would much enhance the
sbeauty of a polished slab. It is, however, possible that extended

.

64 Crystalline Limestone &c. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES,

.

:
research might discover limestone, of a finer grain in some portion .
of the band.
For the manufacture of lime, the limestone is well adapted. The
lime obtained from it would be very pure, and of the class termed .
rich limes which require the admixture of a certain amount of clay
to make them set rapidly. Hitherto, kunkur only has been used
for the manufacture of lime, in the Coimbatore district, and for lo-
cal purposes this undoubtedly answers extremely well, but asit no
where occurs in any great thickness, and is distributed in irregular :
.

Ce SS a

patches over the surface of the country, the supply of lime obtain-
able from this source is limited. It is probable also that in the event
of the limestone being quarried for building purposes on a large scale,
the small fragments and chippings burnt on the spot and packed
in casks or air-tight boxes, would be cheaper material for convey-
ance toa distance, than the kunkur which is not only a very bulky
material, but in this district generally occurs on dry arid ground
where but little fuel is available.

For the production of iron, the ores of which are abundantly dis-
tributed over some parts of the Coimbatore district, the limestone
is eminently fitted, and the neighbouring jungles of Walliar and
the Malabar Coast yield a plentiful supply of fuel.

Finally, the limestone is admirably situated as regards facility of
transport to distant localities. The Railway from Madras and Sa-
lem to Beypoor, passes as above-mentioned for some distance along
the band of limestone, so that the cuttings of the Railway are in ,
the stone itself. Were quarries opened along the side of the line, :

el a le ee

« the blocks of dressed stone might be placed on trucks in the quarry 4

and transported without expense of reloading to any point on the
line, while by transporting to the Cauvery and transferring to boats,
the stone might be easily conveyed to Trichinopoly and other
places in that district.

_ caadinas _— — ,
A ae net) ye tee ae NG ere a ee? ae ee

ocT.—pxc. 1867. ] Cyclone at Nellore. 65

IV. Description of a Cyclone at Nellore, on 2nd Novem-
ber 1857. By Lizur. Jonn Mutuins, Madras Engineers.

Nellore was visited yesterday (Nov. 2nd) by a hurricane of un-
usual violence, which has devastated the station, and the surround-
ing neighbourhood, and done an enormous amount of damage to
property of every description, both public and private.

The sky on Friday and Saturday, the 30th and 31st ultimo,
had a leaden appearance, which made the Natives think that there
would be a high wind. On Saturday night and Sunday morning,
(1st Nov.), there were moderate showers with a strong wind from
the west, and towards evening the wind had increased to half a
gale. The aneroid and mercurial barometers were both falling, and
at 4 past 9 p. m., the former showed afall of 2;ths of an inch and the
weather was what is generally called by seamen ‘‘ very dirty.”
From this time to 0°45 a. m., the wind continued to increase, and
was then blowing a heavy gale, with a good deal of rain. The
aneroid barometer had fallen very nearly ,%,ths since 3 past 9 or
‘zths altogether ; a little before 4 the gale had increased to a hur-
ricane, trees on all sides were being torn up or broken off, and it
was only with great difficulty that doors and windows could be
kept shut. The hurricane continued to increase until } to 5,
when the gusts were terrific, the aneroid had fallen ,7,ths of an
inch in 4 hours, and was still going down rapidly. Shortly after
2 past 5 I fell asleep, and on awaking at 3 past 6, I found to my
surprise that there was a perfectcalm, but on examining the aneroid,
I found that a further fall of nearly = ths had occurred during the
preceding hour, and in 10 minutes more a further fall of ,',ths took
place. I then knew that we were in the centre of a cyclone, and
that before long the wind would recommence with probably equal
fury. All this time the direction of the wind was from west and
northwest, and ultimately about north north west, as nearly as

-
.

66 Cycione at Nellore. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

could be judged by the result of its operations on the houses and
trees. The scene out of doors was, at this time, one of utter de-
solation ; out of many hundreds of trees which the night before had
stood covered with the rich foliage of this period of the year, three-
fourths were blown down, and nearly all the rest stripped of branches
and leaves. ‘Tiled houses were more or less unroofed, walls had
fallen and were crumbling, balustrades of terraced houses were in
a ruinous state, and the low country was flooded.

I started off to look at the Tank, which I was afraid must have
sustained serious injury, and I hoped to be able to get back before
the gale became again serious. On the bund I found Captain
Ritherdon and the Tahsildar, together with several peons and some
of the Ryots. The Tank was but little injured, but there was a
heavy swell running against the revetment, and the waves were
breaking high over the Calingala. I had barely reached tke bund
when the gale came on again with great violence, and in 2 or 3
minutes a hurricane set in which exceeded greatly in its violence
what we had felt early in the morning, the wind being from south
east. The massive stone gate way of a small Hindoo temple, si-
tuated on the bund, afforded some shelter, and here we were
forced to remain as no man or animal could for a moment have
withstood the wind, asit was then blowing, and the sheets of water
that were driven over the bund, were enough of themselves to pre-
vent any hope of forcing our way to the nearest house, which was
not more than about 300 yards distant. The Pagoda was built
many years ago, when the bund of the Tank was much lower, and
as this latter has been raised, a thin bund strongly rivetted on both
sides with stone has been built up between the Pagoda compound
and the Tank. On this wall, the waves which by this time were
something terrible, soon began to tell, and in 20 minutes the wall
was breached in several places and the court of the temple was
deluged with waves andspray. ‘The spot at which Captain Rither-
don and myself stood was within 4 or 5 yards of the edge of the
bund, the state of which and the effect of the waves upon:
it were anxiously watched, but so thickly was the water blown
over the bund, that frequently many minutes elapsed ere the front of ~
the bund could be distinguished, and as it from time to time ap-

oct.—pDrc. 1857.] Cyclone at Nellore. ua GF

peared, it became evident that the rivetment was fast falling, and
the earth work in rear washed away. This state of affairs continu-
ed for about one hour, during the whole of which time no object 20
yards distant had been visible, and the trees immediately in front
of the temple, which were too deeply embedded in the earth to be
uprooted, had been reduced to mere shapeless stumps. About this
time (3 to 9) the wind began to shift a little to the eastward, and
we then knew that, if the bund could hold out a little longer, no
further serious damage would occur to the part on which we were
standing. The change in the direction of the wind rendered how-
ever our position, on the outer pial of the doorway, no longer ten-
able, and we sought refuge in the middle recess, with the Tahsildar
-and the other natives. The wind continued to shift still more to
the eastward, and the houses abovementioned in a few minutes
again became visible. The moment the spray and wind had sufli-
ciently subsided, we quitted the Pagoda which by this time was by
no means a safe place, though probably deemed by us more inse-
cure than it really was, and made the best of our way against the
gale, until the shelter of some walls enabled us to get ona little
faster, and thankful were we when we again stood on the main land,
after crossing, with considerable difficulty, the piece of ground
and bridge over the surplus channel, which before had intervened.

When I reached home, at 4 past 9 o’clock, I found the ba-
rometer had risen = ths, and by 10 o’clock, ths more towards fair

weather had been attained. The hurricane rapidly subsided into a
strong gale, and from that to a moderate one, and by 3 past 11 or
12 afresh breeze only remained, blowing from the east by south :
and south east, and from that point it has continued to blow ever
since.

I cannot say exactly what the barometer stood at for the 48
hours preceding the setting in of this terrible hurricane, but I sub-
join the readings taken by me during the night of the first, and
morning of the second November ; they will give a fair idea of
the extent and character of the barometric fluctuations, and I sub-
join the reading at 12 noon this day, which will show the usual
state of this particular barometer in fine weather.

-

63g Cyclone at Nellore. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES,

Aneroid Barometer.

P.M. 28°25

5 A.M. 28° 6 wind from N W. with a good deal of rain.

A Parse A

= lea 27°74

ee 27:70

30... 37

45 ,, 27°55 hurricane at its height.

50. a ora

27°16 a lull from 6 o’clock to 4 past 7.

40 a.m. 27°08

50 ,, 27:25 blowing hard from south and south east.

=) ee 27°70 a terrific hurricane from 8 to 9 A. M.
pe 28°00
, 1045 ,, 28:10

8rd 12 0 noon 28°50

S S
—_
oot OD GP PB OD OD
Cw
oO

strong gale but breaking fast.

The above observations show that between 9°30 p. m. of the Ist
and 6°40 a. m.of the second, the barometer fell 1 inch, and 11
hundredths, and that the total fall from the fair weather average

was 1 inch and ;4,ths, a fluctuation which is I believe enormous, ©

and far exceeding that of the gale of last year, which amounted to
= ths of an inch only.

In the afternoon I visited most parts of the residents’ lines,
a portion of the town, and the tank, and on every side there was
nothing but desolation; many of the roads were entirely blocked
up with trees, every tiled house was more or less damaged, in some
cases hardly a tile being left on the exposed side; sheds built on
substantial laterite pillars were levelled with the ground; the in-
terior of the Church presented a sad spectacle, the doors and win-
dows had blown open, and the benches had been thrown about by
the wind like feathers, the bocks were lying in the water in pieces,
the register which had been in the vestry was lying torn and spoilt
under the communion table, the harmonium was blown from near
the main entrance to the other end of the Church, where it remain-
ed among the ruins of benches and tables, the roof of the Church
was laid bare of tiles for about 4 of its area, and to crown the des-

ee Oe

ocr.—DEc. 1857.] Cyclone at Nellore. 69

truction, the N. W. pinnacle (15 feet high) of the tower fell from
a height of 60 feet through the roof of the west aisle, (the Church
is built north and south), even the boards supporting the pulpit
cushions and the brackets of the wall-shades were broken by the
benches, which appear from the marks on the walls and pillars to
have flown about in all directions. The Court house, place of arms,
Public Bungalow, Jail, the new Engineer’s Office, and the work shops,
in fact every tiled building suffered damage, and even the best
houses in the place were barely habitable, owing to the wind hav-
ing, in some cases, blown in the doors and windows, and in others
blown out the glass or forced the rain through the venetians. The
pillars on the Annicut, recently built to carry the Telegraph wire,
which were 18 feet high and which were elliptical in plan, the dia-
meters at base being 43 feet and 2’, and at top 27’ and 1’, were
blown away ; one being broken off at the base, another at 7’, and
the third at 10 feet from the base, and the lower portions of the
latter two were so much injured, that they were carried off by the
river, when it had risen to about 5 feet above the crown of the
Annicut. At Nellore, very little loss of life appears to have
occurred, which is the more wonderful as many houses were blown
down, and some were crushed by falling of trees. Reports have not
yet been received from the neighbouring country, but the dead cat-
tle of all descriptions, both in the tank and in the river, show that
the destruction of animals has been very great.

When I visited the Annicut this morning, I found 10} feet
of water going over its crown, and the marks on the guage showed
that more than 11 feet had been reached. The superintendent in-
formed me that, up to $ past 11 a. m. yesterday, the water was
below the crown, but that it then commenced rising and in a couple
of hours had risen to 7 feet above the crown, and about 12 mid-
night it reached its highest level. The Head sluice recently erect-
ed has enabled us to control the water in the Jaffersaib Channel,
but the Head of the Survapully Channel being open, owing to the
non-sanction of the estimate submitted last year for bringing it
under the Annicut main Channel, and closing the old head, the
flood has found its way in at this point, and inundated the country
to the east and south-east of Nellore, thereby doing much injury

70 Oyclone at Cuddapah. [no. 5, NEW SERIES,

to the tanks as also to the fields and young crops. This flood is
almost entirely due to the bursting of tanks to the westward of
Nellore.

The Nellore tank is breached in two places, but only at the
shallower portion, and there will be no difficulty in retaining a full
supply. The rivetment is very much injured, however, and in many
places for 4 or 500 yards, at a length, will have to be entirely re-
built. Breaches were in many places imminent, but altogether the
bund has withstood the severe trial very well, as in addition to the
force of the wind, it received during yesterday, the drainage of a
large tract of country and the whole of the water of Mooloomoody,
Condlapoody and Ambapoor tanks, which breached during the

storm.

V. Notice of the same Cyclone at Cuddapah, on 2nd Novem-
ber 1857. By Licur. HE. Hemery, Madras Engineers.

The following account of a storm which visited the town and
neighbourhood of Cuddapah, on the 2nd instant, may not be unin-
teresting.

Sunday the Ist was calm with light clouds from the north east ;
at sunset, the sky became completely overcast, and towards morn-
ing of the 2nd, the wind shifted to the north-west from which quar-
ter it was blowing furiously at 6 a. M. accompanied by very heavy
rain.

The storm increased in violence up to noon, and from that time
until 4 py. mu. it blew a perfect gale, the rain continuing to fall with-
out the slightest intermission.

Towards evening the wind went round to the south-west and
south, it then gradually fell, the rain ceased and by midnight it was
quite calm.

I am happy to be able to report that the tanks, bridges and
other public works in the immediate vicinity of Cuddapah, have

ooT.—pDEC. 1857.] On the line selected for the M. Railway. 71.

sustained little or no injury, the native houses however in the town
have been greatly damaged, and many of the roads were impassable
this morning owing to the number of uprooted trees lying across
them.
The following observations of the Aneroid Barometer were made
during the day.
November 2nd, 6a. mM. 29°425

9a.M. 29°35
Noon. 29:27
Lip, ms. BO"?

4p.m. 29°18

8p.M. 29°185
November 3rd, 8 a. M. 29°45

4°58 inches of rain were registered during the day at the Civil

Hospital.

VI. On the line selected for the Madras Railway. By Co-

LONEL T. T. Pears, Consulting Engineer.

(The Editors having learned that the article by Colonel A. Cotton in the
3d No. New Series, of this Journal, had elicited certain observations ad-
dressed to the Government, by the Consulting Engineer for Railways, on -
those portions which had reference to the Madras Line, applied to the
Author for permission to insert them, on a question affecting so much the
progress of this Presidency. The Paper not having been prepared in the
Ist instance for publication, Col. Pears expressed some hesitation in com-
plying with their request, but at last consented, disclaiming any wish to

enter into controversy —Ep. M. J.)

My attention has been drawn to a report, printed in the Mad-
ras Journal of Literature and Science, No. 42, April to June 1857,
by Colonel Arthur Cotton of the Engineers upon the subject of
the proposed pier ; but discussing mainly the subject of a break-

72 On the line selected for the [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

water, and alluding, incidentally, to the Madras Railway in the
following terms.

“Without a harbour at either end and merely as a line connect-
‘ing the East and West Coast of the Peninsula, I look upon this
‘work as one of the least important lines on which 3 millions
‘**could have been spent, assuredly nothing of any consequence
‘‘either in goods or passengers will ever be conveyed by it from
** one Coast to the other, and at least 200 miles of it are perhaps
‘* about the least productive line of country that a Railway could
‘‘’be carried through in India. Further, it is proved beyond all
‘*‘ question that the passenger traffic is the main source of profit
‘‘on Railways and that the great mass of passengers only travel a
‘* few miles (the average for all England is 18) that is they go to
“the next town and back—strange to say this Railway of 450
‘miles is not to pass through one of the few towns (only 7 and
** all but one very small) which le near its route so that it looks
‘fas if the ultimate object had been to make a Railway not to
‘* carry the people.”

As this expression of opinion, though not given in relation to any
question proposed in the Railway Department, has been before Go-
vernment, I consider it right to offer a few remarks upon it.

The Madras Railway is here spoken of as being without a
harbour at either end, and, therefore, one of the least important
lines on which 3 millions could have been spent. As there are no
harbours on this Coast, and none deserving the name, unless it be
Sedashegur on the other, south of Bombay, it would be difficult
to say which would be the more important line that Colonel Cot-
ton would have proposed. A natural harbour is doubtless a very
good thing ; but that in this part of the world, a considerable trade
may be carried on without such, is proved by the large and in-
creasing commerce of Madras. Moreover, the fact that Nature has
denied harbours to the Peninsula of India, does not appear a suf-
ficient reason for the Government denying its inhabitants the bene-
fit of Railways to bring their produce to the Coast.

Colonel Cotton then goes on to state, that the Railway “‘is
not to pass through one of the few towns (only seven and all but

ocT.—DEc. 1857.] Madras Railway. 73

one very small) which lie near the route,’’ and observes, that itlooks
as if the object was to make a Railway not to carry the people.
That the towns referred to are all, but one, very small, is a circum-
stance sufficient in itself, one would suppose, to account for the
fact of which he complains, viz., that no great sacrifice has been
made with the view of leading the trunk line of rail through them.

I have the highest respect for Colonel Cotton’s public character
and abilities, and of those who will read these remarks there are
few probably who do not entertain the same feelings. It is im-
possible, that any observations can fall from an. Officer of his cha-
racter and position, without leaving their impression upon the
minds of many, especially of those who have not been accustomed
to the consideration of such subjects.

In reference to the passenger traffic, and in order to show
its nature and importance, Colonel Cotton asserts, that it is prov-
ed beyond all question, that the passenger traffic is the main source
of profit on Railways, and that the great mass of passengers only

travel a few miles.

In the first place, I have never seen the former fact proved,
and it is prima-facie opposed to Colonel Cotton’s recorded opi-
nions, upon the extreme cost of speed—the passenger traffic being
carried at a much higher rate than the ‘‘ goods.’’ It is known too,
that in England the receipts from goods have been increasing year
by year, faster than those from passengers ; and in the Parliament-
ary reports for 1855, it is stated that whilst in 1849, the propor-
tion of the passenger traffic* to the goods traffic was as 53 to 47,
(the passengers in excess), in 1855, the passenger traffic is repre-
sented by 44, and the goods traffic by 56. In Scotland the aver-
age receipts for goods traflic are very nearly two-thirds of the total
traffic, andit is added ‘‘ the preponderance of the goods traffic
over passenger traffic is more marked in the manufacturing and
mineral than in the agricultural districts,” that is, in those very
places where the collection of men in large towns would lead us
to expect the contrary.

* i, e. the gross receipts,

74 On the line selected for the [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

Again, Colonel Cotton is, as far as I can. learn, in error in
naming 13 miles as the average distance travelled by passengers
for all England of all classes. In the report for 1855, the average
receipt from passengers (exclusive of season tickets) is 19°20 pence,
the average fare per mile 1°28 pence. The average distance tra-

velled is a = 15. For the United Kingdom it is 14°9.

But I follow this no farther, because I think it very un-
sound to build systems and theories for India upon English ex-
perience. Take for example the statement regarding the prepon-
derance of passengers and goods traffic. Ifin one and the same
country, as England, there be different lines of Railway, some
making their chief profit from passengers, some almost wholly
from goods (and one of the latter the Taffvale has been long dis-
tinguished as one of the most profitable works in England); if this
be the case there, we may well look for a difference in this respect
in different countries.

No two countries would be found to offer more different pros-
pects toa Railway than England and India; the one confined
within narrow limits with a dense and wealthy population, active-
ly engaged in manufacture and as such collected in large towns,
whose existence is secured by permanent and natural causes; the
other a country of vast extent, with scanty and scattered popula-
tion, wholly engaged in agriculture, or in commerce connected
therewith—the few large towns scattered widely apart, existing in
dependance upon accidental and ephemeral causes.

The difference between the aim and prospects of a Railway,
or system of Railways, in a manufacturing and in an agri-
cultural conntry is, as great as this, that in the one case the atten-
tion would be immediately directed to the large towns—the seat
of mineral and manufacturing wealth—in the other the object
would be to drain, as completely and cheaply as possible, a large
tract of country of its agricultural produce.

The latter is the case with us here. The line running inland
from Madras seeks thus to serve directly the inland districts —
of North-Arcot, Salem, Coimbatore, and Malabar; while until the

oct.—pec. 1857.] Madras Railway. 75

other lines are formed, it indirectly serves those of Mysore, Bel-
lary, and Cuddapah on the one hand; Trichinopoly and Madura
on the other.

The first point to be aimed at, therefore, is to get a good main
line through these districts. If considerable towns are found in
the way (Colonel Cotton says there is but one), the Railroad should
be taken to them if it can be done, without disproportionate sa-
crifice of expense, either in increasing the length or the difficulties
of construction.

What amount of sacrifice should be made with this object will

depend upon circumstances now to be noted.

The size of the Town.
The probable duration of its existence.

The probable effect of its distance from the rail on the traffic of
the line.

I shall first consider the last point, viz., the probable effect of the
distance at which a line passes a town upon the traffic. This de-
pends mainly on the passenger fares. It depends also on the cha-
racter of the country and condition of the people, by which the ave-
rage distance travelled by the inhabitants is affected.

Thus, if the fare by rail is } the expense of travelling by road,
it will cost a man, living three miles from a station the same in go-
ing to a point on the line 5 miles off in a direct line, whether he goes
by high road or by rail. If the place be more than 5 miles off, it
will be cheaper to go by rail if less, dearer.

Now the average distance travelled by rail by passengers in Eng-
land is shown to be 15 miles. Colonel Cotton has stated it erroneous-
ly at 138, and has unreasonably, I think, taken this as a data for
Railways generally all over the world, but nothing can be more
clear than that in this, as in all other respects, but in this respect,
preeminently, the traffic in this country must differ from that in
England.

There, we havea large wealthy population dwelling within nar-
row limits, and a land thickly studded with populous Towns and

a
76 On the line selected for the [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

villages. On this vast expanse of country, large towns are few
and far between, and the population scantier and more scattered.

According to our last half-yearly return, the average distance
travelled ona line 65 miles in length was 38 miles; what will it
be when we have it complete 450 miles ? I have no doubt that the
average will be above 30, even though the fares should be reduced
as I trust they will.

That the line should pass 25 or 3 miles from Wallajahnug-
gur and 4 from Vellore does not, in my opinion, affect the traffic
coming from those towns in the slightest degree. It may, but itis
a question whether it does affect even the traffic between those
two particular places. This depends on the fares also. A man
can travel, even at the present high rates, cheaper and quicker by
rail between those two towns than he can by the high road. All
other traffic from them to any point on the line 10 miles and up-
wards, from each of their respective stations, would take to the rail.

But, is the short and insignificant passenger traffic, between
those two towns, sufficient inducement to change thé course of the
line of Railway, and adopt one less beneficial to the districts at
large, a worse and more expensive line, crossing the Palar at a much
more inconvenient place, and cutting up a large amount of valua-
ble land on the right bank of that river? I think not.

These towns do not in the least degree resemble the large towns
of England. They possess not one element of permanency. These
the only two of any considerable size along the line, owe their
existence to causes that may cease at a moment, and will cease ere
long.

In an agricultural country like this, the large towns are chiefly
local market towns, or emporia of agricultural commerce. They
are singularly uniform in size and importance; sacred temples, the
contiguity of Civil and Military stations, being the circumstances
that generally give one such town importance over another.

Take Vellore the largest town on the line of Rail. It owes its
present extent wholly to three causes. Itis a local agricultural
mart, a Military station, and it is a rendezvous for a great portion
of the traffic from the inland districts en-route for the coast.

oct.—pxEc. 1857] Madras Railway. 77

It possesses no manufactures, no mineral deposits, not one ele-
ment of permanency or stability. Of the three main sources of its
present populousness, the Railway is certain to destroy one, to ma-
terially curtail another, while a few strokés of the pen, in the shape
of an Extract Minutes of Consultation, would at once remove the
third.

The effect of the Railway, had it run right through it, would
have been precisely the same, as it will be now, entirely to destroy
its business and importance as an emporium of trade, with the dis-
tant provinces, with Mysore, Bellary, Salem, &c. The same effect
has been produced by Railways in England in numberless cases,
some of which have fallen under my own immediate observation.
The large traffic that now passes into Vellore from Salem, Banga-
lore, Mysore, and Bellary, will, as the rail advances towards those
places, be conveyed at once through it, and the number of people
now residing there, connected with this traffic, will disappear. |

Had the line run right through these two towns, it would have
been the same; nothing would be left them but the importance
due to a Railway station, and even this would be a fall from their
present condition, considered merely as local agricultural centres,
since stations, on each side of them, within 6 or 8 miles, would draw
away much of the business that, in the present state of the com-
munications, passes into these towns.

Nothing will remain to give Vellore special importance, but
its Fort and its Garrison; and it is not probable that the latter will
ever be considerable.

The other towns near which the line passes are Gooriathum,
Vaniembady, Tripatoor, Salem, and Coimbatore. To some of
these it passes quite close, but the same principles apply. In some
cases, as Salem, it appears a positive good that the station should
be 2 miles away, on a high and apparently healthy spot, to
which many traders will be attracted leaving the present town,
which like many others in this country, seems to have been plant-
ed on the most unhealthy spot that could have been selected.

I think for the reasons I have now given that the present
towns, existing wholly upon temporary and accidental causes, as

78 On the line selected for the M. Railway. [no. 5, NEW SERIES,

the proximity of roads, passes, European stations, &c. are by no
means deserving of the same consideration that is due to such
towns as Birmingham, Manchester, and Liverpool; to sea ports,
or to the abodes of men clustered round, and upon, an inexhausti-
ble supply of Coal and Iron.

These towns of ours have no local products, every article
now brought out of them is due, not to the town itself, nor to the
people in it, but to a tract of country of which it has hitherto been,
but which the Railway station will in future be, the centre.

I would not needlessly compel the few who may remain, when
the busy ¢hrough traffic has disappeared and passed by the rail,
to shift their dwellings to a station 2 or 3 miles off, but the sacri-
fice to them is inconsiderable, compared with that to the Company
in selecting a worse and more expensive line, merely to accommo-
date a town anda group of people, destined to melt away under
the operations of the Railway itself.

The Railway has to do with a great agricultural District, and
whether it lies a few miles this side, or that, the business com-
ing into it will be the same, depending, as the sphere of its opera-

tion depends, on its “ rates and fares.” or

It has often occurred to me, as a thing to be borne in mind, that
the distribution of the inhabitants of this country has not attained
to any thing like a normal state. Had we laid down Railways in
England 300 years ago, the lines then laid might have been useful
even now, but they would certainly not be of the first importance.

We have seen within short spaces of time, collections of human
beings rise and disappear with political changes; and we may be
quite sure that whatever particular course they follow, few changes
will be more marked than that which must follow the introduction
of Railways through these agricultural districts, with stations at
every 6 or 8 miles.

The men engaged in trade, however, distributed now, must and
will cluster along the line. Such towns as Wallajahnuggur and
Vellore, established under, and due to, a totally different order of
things, must and will, to a great extent disappear.

ocT.—DEC. 1857.] A list of Neigherry Ferns. 79

Individuals may, and some must, of necessity suffer from such
changes as these, but no man can doubt the ultimate benefit to the
country; and if the change be necessary there is in this country
some satisfaction in the thought, that a new, and, we may hope, a
more enlightened and enterprising class will owe their rise to the
Railways, while the opportunity will not be lost of introducing into
the towns thus springing up a new, more healthy, and more civiliz-
ed description of dwelling.

VIL. A List of Neilgherry Ferns. By the late Dr. B.
ScHMID.

[These Ferns were partly collected by Dr. B. Schmid in the
years 1831-35 for Professor Zenker of Jena; partly by Dr. Weigle
for Dr. Kurr of Stuttgart, and the Lycopodiaceew by Mr. Perrottet.

They were described by Professor Kunze, in the Linnea, Vol,
VIII, July 1851. The Professor’s last labour before his death ;
The capital S. indicates that the plant was found by Schmid him-
self, and W. that it had been collected by Weigle. ]

OPHIOGLOSSES.

1, Ophioglossum Schmidii, (Kunze,) Nova species, sent by S.
Botrychium lanuginosum, (Wallich) sent by S. and W.
GLEICHENIACER.

3. Mertensia dichotoma, (Sw. syn. fil.) sent by S. and W.

Syn. Gleichenia dichotoma, (Hooker sp. fil. 1, p. 12.)

OsMUNDACE.
4, Osmunda regalis, (Linn.) S. Baron Hiigel found it in Emo-
dus.
PoLYPODIACES.
5. Acrostichum angulatum, S. Blume in Java.
6. 5 decurrens, (Desv.) Philippines and Nilagiri in

Wallich’s herbarium.)

3. Gleichenia Hermannt, Wall. 4. Osmunda Leschenaultii, Wall.—Ep.

)
b

Da

10.

Lis

12.

13.
14.

15,

16,

A list of Neilgherry Ferns. [no.5, NEW SERIES,

Acrostichum stigmatolepis, (Fée.) In Delessert’s herbarium
‘“‘ from Nilagiri;’’ Perrottet.
Leptochilus lanceolatus,(Fee.) Perrottet in 1838.
Hemionttis cordata, (Roxb.) sent by S. and W. Hook. and
Grev. ic. fil. t. 64. Rheede Hort. Mal. 12, t. 10.
Gymnogramma totia,(Schlechtendal). \ Very little different
var: mollisima, (Kunze.) G. Schmidii, fr that of Ma-
(Zenker’s manuscripts.) deira and Abyssinia.
% bifurcata, (Kaulfuss’ herbarium.) sent by S.
3 leptophylla, (Desv.) sent by S. is smaller than the -
specimens from South Europe, Teneriffe, Madeira,
Mexico, Egypt and Abyssinia.
Ampelopteris firma, (Kunze.) 8. and Higel, No. 2152.
Grammitis attenuata, Kunze.) S. Nov. species.
Selliguea involuta, (Kunze) Syn: Grammitis involuta, (Don,
Blume, Hooker and Greville.)
im var: cuspidata, Grammitis cuspidata, (Zenker’s Plante
Indice) sent by S. and W.
Synn : Loxogramma, (Presl.) Antrophyum, (Blume,) FI:
Jav: p. 87.
Polypodium (Pleopeltis,) mediusculum, (Kunze,) Nov. sp.
sent by S. and W.
Polypodium (Pleopeltis,) sent by W.

s linearts affine, S. also Nepaul.

_ (Phymatodes,) (Presl.) Nov. sp: S. W. sterile.

Hs (Drynaria) oxylobium, (Wallich) 8. W. in Ne-
paul, Wallich. in Emodus, Hiugel.

4 (Drynaria) quercifolium, (Linn.) S.

es carpophyllum, (Zenker’s manuscript) S. W.
Nov. spec.

2 pyrrhorachis, (Kunze,) S. W.

Niphobolus sticticus, (Kunze.) Nov. sp. 8,.W. Leschenault,
also from Emodus.
pe obese eSpec. Serine, S.
Blechnum orientale, W.

21. The true Linnean species, Fl, Zeylanica,.~Env.

ocT.—DEC. 1857.] A list of Neilgherry Ferns. 81

27.

28.
29.
30.
dl.
32.
30.
34.
30.
36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44,

45.

46.

47.
48.

49,
50,

Asplenium (Actiniopteris) radiatum, (Sw.) Syn: Blechnum
radiatum, (Presl ) 8. Hook. Icon. t. 975. ,

Zenkerianum, (Kunze,) Nov. sp. S.

Salcatum, (Retz) S. also in Ceylon and Java.

Fe decurrens, (Kunze) Nov. sp. S.

J brachyotes, (Kunze) W. also in South Africa.

~ opacum, (Kze) Nov. sp. W.

FA camptorhachis, (Kze) Nov. sp. S.

a emargimato-dentatum, (Zenker’s M.SS.) 8S. N. sp.
3 umbrosum, (Klfs.) W. also from Brazil, Martius.
« lunulatum, (Sw.)

5» Var: sphenolobium, (Kunze) S. W.
oo jimbriatum, (Kunze) Flora Af. Austr: Natal.
Emodus.
», Var: leptophyllum, (Kze) S. W.
i Jurcatum, (Thunberg, Kunze) S. W.
“ tenuifolium (Don) S. W. larger than the Natal
form.
Allantudia solenopteris, (Kunze) S. W.
», Var: pusilla, (Kurr.)
», Fieldingiana, (Kze) Nov. sp. 8. Fielding received it
from Emodus.
td Species doubtful. W.
Diplazium lasiopteris, (Kze) W.
» nigro-paleareum, (Kze) 8. N. sp.
»» ajuvenile, sterile specimen, the roots mixed up with
one similar to Pteris Blumeana (Kze adds,
I have not yet seen the like.)
Pieris geranitfolia, (Radd: fil: Brazil) S. W. also, Nepal,
Chili, Java. Hook. ic. t, 915.
» Cretica, (Linn) S. W.
», Dlumeana, (F. Ag.) 8. W. (Pteris normalis, Blume,
Java.) .
5, lanuginosa, (Bory) S. also Mascarenhas.
5» multi-aurita, (F. Ag.) Leschenault on Nilagiri?
grows in Ceylon.

A

29. Burm. Zeyl. t, 43; Rheed. Mal. 12. t. 18.—Ep.

oo.

56.

57.

58.
59.

60.

Bi:
62.

63.
64.
65.
66.

67.

A list of Neilgherry Ferns. [xo. 5, NEW SERIES,

Pteris palearia, (Roxb:) S.
Adiantum hirsutum, (Bory) S.
aethiopicum, (Kze.) S. W. At the Cape, Australia.

capillus veneris,

$9

39

var : 1, normale, S.
2, latissimum, (Kunze) also Bory in Algiers, and

Hay in Emodus.

Cheilanthes dealbata, (Don) Nepal, 8S. Kurr.

farinosa, Hook and Grev :

farinosa, var: pallida-sulphurea W. Kurr.

Wallich in Nepal, Hay in Emodus; Higel in Karli;
Cuming in Luzon; Zollinger in Java.

>)

bulbosa, (Kunze) S. ‘ valde insignis,” similar to
Ch : elegans (Desv.)

un Dicksonioides, (Endlicher) S. W.

var: phyllochlaena, (Kze.)

35

Zs resistens, (Kze.) 8. Nov. Sp.
LInndsaea cultrata, (Sw) S. W.

var: pallens, (Wallich’s Catalogue).
Davallia tenuifolia, (Sw.)

5 var: B segmentis latioribus, S. W.
Nephrolepis tuberosa, (Presl). S. W. also Bourbon, Java.
Aspidium (Cyrtomium) anomophyllon, (Zenker, Plantae In-

dicee,) S. W.

var: macroptera and mecroptera, but intermediate forms
are not wanting.

“3 atratum, (Wallich) S. W.

x (Nephrodium,) caudiculatum, (Sieb.) W. Nov. Sp.

” = Xyloies, (Kunze.) S. Nov. Sp.

o fa ochtosis, (Kze.) S. W. N. Sp. also
near Mercara, found by the Revd. Mr. Metz,
and sent to Hohenacker.

- (Dicharium A. B.) Donianum, (Spr.) S.

55 Syn. Wallichtanum (Spr.) 2 paleaceum (Don.)
patentissimum (Wall.) Zastraea patentissina,
Pr. tent. Pterid.

oct.—bDEc. 1857.] List of Neilgherry Ferns. 83

68. Aspidium Weigleanum, (Kze.) W. Nov. Sp. (Nephrodium
procerum, Don. prod. fl. Nep.) f

69. i (Nephrodium) Canariense, (Al. Braun) perhaps
the same.

», Syn Aspidium elongatum, (Willd. Sp. pl. R. Brown in

H. Kew; Hook. and Grev. ic. t. 234.

70. os (Fo. a” a doubtful species. W.

ree = ( 5, ) seabrosum, (Kze.) Nov. Sp., S. W. (A

tree fern ?)

72. MS (Polystichium) palmipes, (Kze.) S. W.
73, o ( oF ) brachypterum, (Kze.) 8S. W.
var. major, laza, S. Metz (in Hochenaker.)
74, A ( 4 +) subsnerme, (Kze.) W. N. Sp.
75. > ( »» ) tacticopterum, (Kze,) S. Nov. Sp.
76. ( » ) mucronifolium, (Bl. ? Java) W. Hay on
Emodus.
77. (over looked.)

78. “ ( 5 ) Wallichtanum, (Pr.) S. Syn. Asp. seto-
sum,( Wall.) Polystichum setosum, Schott.
Hooker’s Asp. Wallichii and Sprengel’s
Asp. Wallichianum are both erroneous.

79. ss ( 5 ) parvifolium, (Kze.) S. W. Syn. Poly-
stichum conitfolium, (J. Sm.) Cuming,
the specimens from the Philippine Islands
are more robust.

CYATHEACE,
80. Alsophila crintta, (Hook. ic. Plantarum t. 671.) S.
81. latebrosa, (Wall.) Penang, Assam.
cs var. Schmidiana, smaller than the normal form.
HYMENOPHYLLACEZ,

82. TZrichomanes Schmidiana, Zenker’s MSS. (in Dr. Taschmer’s
Dissertation) similar to Zr. filicula (Hook) Ni-
lagiris? and still more to Tr. intramarginale,
(Hook. and Grev.) ic. fil. t. 211. Perhaps a
dwarfish form of Tr, Schmidianum, from Ceylon?

84 A List of Neilgherry Mosses. [xo.5, NEW SERIES,

LYCOPODIACE.
83. Lycopodium aloifolium(Wall. cat. 129) Spreng. monograph
des Lycopodees, Hook ic, fil. t. 223.

84, “ subulifolium, (Wall. cat. 114) Perrottet.
Syn. Lyc. Nilagiricum, Spreng. 1, p. 58,n. 42.
85. ps serratum, (Thunberg) ; Spreng. Perrottet, also in
Java, Japan.
86. - macrostachys, Hooker’s Herbarium, Spreng. 1, 1

II. p. 30, n. 496.
Syn? Lyc. Phlegmaria, Kunze’s Herbarium, given by
Koenig from East India, also in Ceylon.

87. 2 cernuum, (L. Spreng. monogr. 1, 79) Perrottet and
Kurr.

88. 3 clavatum, (Linn. Spreng.) Hooker’s Herbarium.

89. Fs Wightianum, (Wall. cat. 2184, Syn. Lyc. sabin-

aefolium, Kunze) in fil, Zollinger.
90. Selaginella vaginata, (Sprehg.) Perrottet.

91. ss radicata, (Spreng.) W. Perrottet.
92. “8 caulescens, (Spreng.) W.
93. » pennula, (Spreng. Voyage Bory.) Perrottet.
94. - tcnera, (Spreng.) Syn. Lyc. ornithopodioides,
- (Wall cat. 2186.)
CaxicuT, 24th January, 1857. *B, ScHMID.

* The Manuscript not being always legible, some errors may have crept inte
this interesting Catalegue.—Ep. M. J.

VIII. <A List of Neilgherry Mosses. By Dr. B. Scumip.

[These were collected by Mr. Perrottet, described and named
by Montagne in 1842, others found by Dr. B. Schmid, described and
named by Dr. Charles Miller of Halle in Prussia, in the Botan-
ische Zeitung, 1852-54. Mr. Perrottet collected principally about
Kaity, and at Neddoowuttam and Kotagiri. Dr, Schmid explored

oct.—pDeEc. 1857.] A List of Netlgherry Mosses. 85

exclusively in the basin of Ootacamund. The Mosses" marked +
were collected by Mr. Perrottet; those without a mark were col-
lected by Dr. Schmid; those marked * were found by Mr. Perrot-
tet and also by Dr. Schmid. |—Ep. M. J.

Class II. CLEISTOCARPI.

Tribe II. BrucowracEez.
Genus II. Astomum.

1. Astomum denticulatum, C. Mill.
Class III. STEGOCARPI.

Sub-class I. AcRocARPrY.

Tribe VIII. FrisstpENTEx.
Gen. I. Conomitrium.
2. Conomitrium serratum, C. Mull, Synops. II. p. 527.
Gen. II. Fissidens.
3. Fissidens Sehmidii, C. M. similar to F’. crispus.
* 4, _ anomalus. Montagne, Annales des Sciences Na-
turelles, 1842, No. 36.

Tribe XI. FUNARIOIDEZ,

Gen. I. Funaria.
* 5, Funaria hygrometrica, Hedwig.
+ 6. 55 physcomitroides, Mont, about Kaitie.
Gen. IV. LEntosthodon.
% 7. Entosthodon Perrottetii,C. M. Kaitie.
8. se diversinervis. C. M. a very fine species.
9. ee submarginatus, C. M.
Tribe XV. BryacEaz.
Gen. I. Mielichhoferia.
10. Mielichhoferia Schmidii, C. M.
Gen. II. Bryum.
#11, Bryum Neilgherrense, Mont. (Dr Schmid’s specimens have
larger nerves set.)
12. » Zollingert. Duby.
713. »» Montagneanum. C. M. Brachymenium pendu-
lum, Mont. Muse. Neilgh. No, 48.
14, » apalodictyoides. CO. M,

86

15.
att.
17.
18.
19.
#20.
21.
$22.
23.
24.
25.

+40.
+41,
42,

A List of Netlgherry Mosses. [No, 5. New SERIES,

Bryum lamprostegum. C. M,
porphyroneuron. C. M.
rugosum. C. M. a pretty, remarkable species.
» exile. Dz. et Molkh.

flaccidisetum. C.M. a pretty species.
argenteum. lL. very frequent on earth and wood.

Schmidiit. C, M,

leptostomoides. Mont. Dodabetta on Rhododendrons.

clavariaeforme, C. M. ;

velutinum. C,M.
‘ trematodonteum. C.M.

Tribe XVI. DIcRANACEZ.
Gen. VI. Dicranum.

Dicranum involutum. ©. M.
nivale. C.M.
3 flagelliferum. C.M.

albescens C.M.

caudatum. C. M.

tricolor. C. M.

erythrognaphalon. C. M.,

Schmidii. OC. M.

nodiflorum. C.M.
Tribe XVII. LEprTroTRICHACEAE.

Gen. VI. Angstromia.

39

Angstromia phascoides. C.M.
Schmidii. C.M.
Gen. VII. Leptotrichum.
Leptotrichum plicatum. C. M. humid wood behind Ava-

33

lanche.
Gen. IX. Trematodon.
Trematodon Schmidii C. M. a pretty species.
paucifolius. C. M. hitherto only found in Jaya.
Tribe XVIII. BArTRAMIACER,
Gen. IV. Bartramia.
Bartramia Roylii. C. M.
macrocarpa. C. M.
dicranacea. C, M.

39

39

3)

oct.—pEc. 1857.] A List of Nelgherry Mosses. 87

43.
44,

+45.

46,
47.
48.
49.

50.
fol.
52,
53.
54.
55.

56.

of.

$58.
+59,
+60.

+61.

+62.
+63,

Tribe XIX. PorrrorpEs.
Gen. VII. Barbula.

Barbula orthodonta, C. M.

Schmidii. C. M.

Gen. VIII. Ceratodon.

Ceratodon stenocarpus Br. and Sch. about Neddoowuttam,
Gen. XI. Zygodon.

Zygodon acutifolius. C, M.

Zygodon tetragonostomus. A. Br. Java, Blume.

99

eylindricarpus. C.M.
Schmidii C. M.
Gen. XIII. Orthotrichum.
Orthoirichum Schmidii, C. M.
Gen. XV. Macromitrium.
Macromitrium Perrottetii, C. M. Kaitie.

33

33

es squarrulosum. C. M.
a Schmidi. C.M.
Aa Neilgherrense, C,. M.

uncinatum. C. M.
Gen, XXI. Grimmia.
Grimmia Neilgherrensis. C. M.
Class III. STEGOCARPI.
Sub-ClassI. Acrocanrri.
Tribe. LxeucoBRYAcEz.
Leucobryum Neilgherrense. C.M.
Tribe MNIoIDER.
Sub-tribe PoLyTRICHACEA.
Polytrichum ( Catharinella) Neesii. C. M.
( Cephalotrichum) perichatiale. Mont.
95 (Pogonatum) microstomum. R. Br. P. urni-
gerum Montg. in Muse. Perrottetii.
Sub. Class II. PLEUROCARPI.
Tribe. HyPporprERYGIACEZ.
Hypopterygium (Euhypopterygium) Struthiopteris, Brid.
Syn. II. 4,
3 Cas ) tenellum. C. M.
bs (Rhacopilum) Schmidii.

88 A List of Neilgherry Mosses. [no. 5, NEW sERIES,

. Tribe. MNIADELPHACEG.
«64. Mniadelphus Montagneanus. C. M.
Tribe. HyPNnorpDE2.
Subtribe. NECKERACES.
+65. Rhegmatodon orthostegius Mont. Kaitie on bark of trees.
*66. Fabronia (Eufabronia) secunda. Mont,
67. A Gra rea hr eee O28
68. Neckera (Ewuneckera, Rhystophyllum,) aequalifolia. C.

M. n. p.
+69. me (Entodon) plicata. C.M.

100. e C. 3,22) Perrotietu. ..C. M.
71. 9 ( Pterigynandrum) julacea. Schw.
#72. 3 ( * ) Indica, C.M.
¥73. ‘3 (Harrisonia) macropelma. C. M.

74. ne (Papillaria) leuconeura. ©. M.
75. A ( >» ) plicaefolia, C.M.
76, 4; ( ea ) breviramea. C. M.
te 9 ( » ) hispida, n. sp. Dioica?
78. 2 (Pilotrichella Schmidii. n. sp.
79. Pilotrichum (Meteorium) punctulatum, n. sp.
80. sf ( ie ) reclinatum, n. sp.
+81. Hookeria (Lepidopilum) Utacamundiana. Mont.
¥*82. Hypnum(Aptychus) subhumile. C. M.
#83, ae (Taxicaulis) albescens, Schw.
¥*84. 3 (Isothecitum) Buchanani. Hook.
¥85. HY: (Pliacaria) Neilgherrense. ©. M.

86. 4 eae, ) paraphysale, n. sp.
87. 5 ( Tamariscella) blepharophyllum, n. sp.
88. ( res ) pristocalyx, n. sp.
89. 9 ( a ) tamariscellum, n. sp.
90. be (Hypnodendron) Schmidii, n. sp.

+91. nf (Anomodon) consanguineum. C. M.

~92. Lf (Homomallia) secundum. Mont.

(To be continued. )

oct.—DEC. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 89

IX. Introductory Report on the Natural History of the
Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. By HE. F. Kevaart, m. p.

[This interesting Report is republished from the Ceylon Overland Observer,
not only with reference to its intrinsic value, but also to its important bearings
upon the Pearl Banks belonging to the Madras Presidency, which have long been
in an unsatisfactory state.|—Ep. M. J.

Having understood that some account of my researches into
the Natural History of the Pearl Oysters of Ceylon, is desirable,
even at this early period of my labours, I shall endeavour briefly
to sketch a Report, that can only be considered in the light of an
Introduction to a more extensive and prolonged series of observa-
tions ; which, if means are afforded me, may be brought to a more
speedy conclusion than I have any prospect of doing at present.

Before I proceed to detail the results of my researches, since
I was commissioned by His Excellency the Governor, in March
last, to undertake this desirable investigation, I have to acknow-
ledge the great facilities which the aquarium gives, for the inves-
tigation of the natural habits of Molluscs, and other moderate-
ly sized fresh and sea water animals. Without glass aquaria and
a powerful microscope, I should not perhaps have obtained even
that information on the minute anatomy and habits of the Pearl
Oyster, which is embodied in this Introductory Report. Soon
after my appointment, I ordered out large glass aquaria and other
apparatus, which will be of service hereafter, to myself, or to those
who may be engaged years hence, in reporting to Government,
from time to time, the natural condition of the Oysters in their
various banks. In the mean time, I have made use of large glass
globes and Ceylon manufactured aquaria, made of thick crown
glass, Roman cement and slate, purchased from the Naval Store.
Large chatties too, and tubs, are also in use. The Oysters thrive
best in chatties, but these do not afford the same opportunity of
seeing their habits as glass sided aquaria. I have also, in addi-
tion to the above named means of observation, had perforated
wooden boxes, with a few Oysters in each, deposited in various

«

a

90 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

depths of the sea ; and latterly, I hare used large canoes (ballams)
for the same purpose ;—lastly, though perhaps of most importance,
I have had unexpected facilities of observation among the several
small beds of Oysters found in the inner Harbour of Trincomalie.
They are found of all ages and sizes, and various depths and dif-
ferent kinds of banks ; so that no Naturalist has perhaps ever had
the same opportunities of observing the habits of the Pearly Mol-
lusc, as I have at present.

I cannot do better, than correct at the outset, some popular
errors regarding the anatomy of the Pearl Oyster; and this I may
perhaps do most simply, by describing, in a popular form, the ex-
ternal and internal structure of the species of Molluse producing
the best Pearls of Ceylon.

The Mollusc, generally known as the Pearl Oyster, found in
the Banks of Arripo, Chilaw, Trincomalie Harbour, and other
parts of the Island, does not belong to the same genus as the edible
Oyster of Europe, although, in its internal structure it has a re-
semblance to it. The Pearl Mollusc resembles more the Mussel
tribe than the Oyster ; more particularly, as it has, like the Mussel,
a byssus or cable by which it attaches itself to foreign sub-
stances, or to others of its kind. The only source of infor-
mation that I know of on this subject, available to the Ceylon
student, is to be found in “ Lebeck’s Account of the Pearl
Fishery of Ceylon, 1797,” to be seen in the Appendix to Captain
Steuart’s book. The description Mr. Lebeck gives, is very im-
perfect, and excites a smile in the modern Naturalist; but this
imperfection is excusable, in any account written in the infancy of
the science of Conchology, and when the Microscope was scarcely
ever applied to anatomical studies of shells ; at least not in Ceylon.
The most glaring error in that description is the mistaking of
“bluish spots” on the foot for “eyes,” and the “ovaria’”’ for
“lungs.” This Mollusc has no eyes; and the lungs, or gills, are
in the front, far away from the stomach, and occupy the middle
space between the hinge and the anterior edge of the shell, easily
seen when the valves are open; they look like four, or two pairs,
of whitish (in a few specimens the gills are of a black color) semi-
lunar combs or bands, stretched from side to side.

eee = WE he i?

Seieimme sewage TE eo ee

ocT.—DEc. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 91

I have carefully examined Oysters of all ages, and have no-
ted the structure of the shell, and of the animal within it: which
will form the subject of illustration in a future Report. In this, I
shall briefly describe the animal; as it is of the greatest importance,
that a correct knowledge be first obtained of the animal structure,

before a physiological account of its habits can be properly un-
derstood.

Meleagrina margaritifera, Lamarck. | Mytilus margaritiferus, Linn.

Pearl Oyster, Ene. Avicula radiata, Leach.
Pintadine mere perle, Fr. » margaritifera, Sowerby.
Mutu Chipi. Tam. & Sywe. » Meleagrina, Blainville.

Conchologists have long agreed, that Lamarck was right in sepa-
rating the “ Pearl Oyster,” par excellence, from the old genus 4v-
cula, of which there are several species in Ceylon, some producing
valueless pearls of a dusky blue and blackish colour. The only de-
scription of the Pearl Oyster of Ceylon I have access to, is La-
marck’s, in his ** Histotre Naturelle des animaux sans Veriebres,”
and that, too, is only of the shell.

“© Meleagrina, testa subqguadrata, superne rotundata, fusco virente.
Albo radiata, lamellis per series longitudinalis imbricatis, superioribus
majoribus.”’—Lamarck, vol. 7, p. 107.

The Ceylon shell is a variety of that above described. The
white radiating lines are alternated with rays of a red or black co-
lour. Doctor Templeton made it appear, that the Ceylon variety
corresponded with Leach’s description of his Avicula radiata. Iam
more inclined to believe, that they are only accidental or occasional
varieties. The shell however, appears to attain a larger size in Ame-
rica, and in the Persian Gulph, than in the Seas of Ceylon. In the
largest Ceylon shells, the red or black radiating lines become obso-
lete. If they are permanent varieties, they are both found in Cey-
lon. I havea faint recollection of having seen both varieties on the
Pearl banks of Arripo. 1 had also a small perfectly white Pearl
Oyster ; this may be an Albino specimen or Lamarck’s Meleagrina
albina. DM. testa albida, irradiata, obsolete squamosa; auriculis
duabus semper distinctis, originally found on the coasts of New Hol-
land and Van Diemen’s Land.

92 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [xo. 5, NEW SERIES,

On removing the animal from the shell, the whole of the internal
part is seen enveloped ina membrano-muscular covering, called the
“* mantle,” and known popularly in Ceylon as the “skin.” The free
border of the mantle lining each valve, dips downwards, to meet
with a similar veil on the opposite side; thus forming a kind of dou-
ble fringed veil. The one set of tentacular fringe, in immediate con-
tact with the shell, is composed of hairy tentacles, looking horizon-
tally forwards; the other, about three-eighths of aninch apart from
the former, and lining the edge of the mantle, from side to side,
looks downward, and dovetails with the tentacles of the opposite
flap of the mantle. These tentacles consist of a series of long
and short flat filaments—the long ones having lateral filamen-
tous projections. The tentacles are exceedingly sensitive; and
one would almost give them the power of seeing; for not only the
touch of a feather, but the approach of one when the animal
is lively and in good health, makes them draw forwards, and
perfectly shut out the intruder. As these molluscs have no organ
of sight, I have no doubt that the delicate nerves which are dis-
tributed through the mantle and its tentacular processes, possess
in some degree the sense answering to vision in other animals, as
well as of touch; foran Oyster will be observed rapidly to close

its valves on the approach to the aquarium ofa lighted candle, or.

even the approach of a hand, or the shadow of a person, near the
glass sides of a vessel in which it is confined. I should not, ina
popular Report, advert to this physiological subject, but that the
senses of the Oyster have a great deal to do with its habits, not only
in the aquarium, but also in its native bed. Were it not for these
delicate fringes surrounding the mantle, the softer parts of the
Oyster would easily become the food of a host of carnivorous
creatures abounding in the sea; and many more Pearls would
drop out of the shell, than do now with such sentinels at the en-
trance of its external rim. The mantleis the only organ the ani-
mal has for the formation ofthe shell. The increase of the lateral
dimensions of which, and the formation of the pearly nacre, and
the Pearls, depending upon the condition of this important invest-
ment. Ifitis injured, the pearly matter is not secreted in such
abundance over the shell, or if by some cause it becomes retracted

——_ . 2. ae

ocT.—DEC. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 93

the shell does not grow rapidly, and the mother-of-pearl lining is
jagged at the edge, and is not of the usual brilliant colour. How-
ever, its temporary retraction facilitates the ingress of sand and
other irritating particles, which doubtless become the nuclei of
many pearls, as will be hereafter observed. The forepart of the
mantle is coloured and rayed like the shell. The colouring matter
is secreted by glands found in these parts. The glandular secre-
tion serves the purpose of increasing the lateral and longitudinal
dimensions of the shell. It is after this is deposited, that the
pearly secretion (nacre) is applied to the inner wall of the shell,
which, concreting or solidifying, increases its thickness. The
pearly fluid is secreted by nearly the whole external surface of
the mantle. It will be thus clearly understood, that when a grain
of sand or the larva of an insect is introduced between the mantle
and shell, it will become covered over with the pearly secretion ;
which always going on, is augmented at the part where the foreign
matter lies. This phenomenon I have detected with the aid of the
Microscope in the very earliest stage.

About one and a quarter inch from the rim of the shell, is seen
a pair of gills like four segments of a circle, or semilunar combs,
stretching transversely from one side to the other, the convexity
looking forwards. There is a vacant space between the concave
surface of the gills and the body of the Oyster. The adductor mus-
cle, called “ grizzle,” is now seen, covered over with a delicate
membrane. This muscle is attached to theinner surface of both
shells. On one side (the left, when the Oyster is placed with the
hinge next the observer) is seen a short, conical, tubular, sharp-
pointed prolongation ; this is the terminal end of the intestines ;
it looks like a sharp-pointed claw. The intestine is short : leay-
ing the stomach, it winds round the adductor muscle, and termin-
ates, as I have just remarked, on the side opposite to where the
mouth is placed. There is always an unclosed space, between the
edges of the mantle, when the tentacles are brought together, ad-
mitting of the free passage of excrementitious matter; and it was
through the same opening between tle mantle, that I observed, on
one occasion, the ova escape, in a cloudy stream, which continued
to pass into the water for nearly 15 minutes. I failed to detect the

o4 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No.5, NEW SERIES,

immediate part of the animal through which the ova found their
exit ; and I have not been able to detect a regular oviduct. The
ovaria, when distended with ova, cover nearly the whole of the
stomach, heart, and liver, and project even on the conical cecal
process of the stomach, and also on the base of the foot. The sto-
mach is very small, placed in the centre of the liver; the esophagus
is very narrow, scarcely admitting a moderate sized probe; it is
about 3 lines long. The mouth situated near the hinge, behind the
foot and byssus, is a horizontal slit, of about 3 lines in length, in
the duplicature of the lower pair of labial palps. These palps are
large, broad, truncated anteriorly, and rounded on the sides; the
inner surface plaited, or rather grooved. The sense of feeling, or
touch, is no doubt by this rugose structure, greatly increased. The
palps serve the animal as organs of touch, if not of taste ; they also
serve to collect food, and give the animal the power of rejecting in-
digestible particles of matter, or such substances as might prove
injurious.

I have, through the Microscope, ascertained the kind of food Pearl
Oysters live on. This consists of minute alge or weeds, animal-
cules and shells, called Foraminifera. Diatoms also, those minute
vegetables forms which can scarcely be detected with the naked eye,
are found growing on the external surface of the shell; where a
host of infusorial and microsopical objects likewise find a pasturage.
So that the Oyster may be said to carry on its back, the food upon
which it lives. The siliceous internal skeletons of these Diatoms,
I have detected in the excrementitious matter of the Oyster. It
will be a subject for future inquiry, whether any of these sharp-
pointed skeletons do not permeate the coats of the mantle, and thus
become nuclei of Pearls. Ihave, on examination of “ seeding”
pearls found the skeleton of a Navicula, (species of Diatom) among
the ova; but whether this proceeded from the stomach of the ani-
mal, or got there by passing under the mantle, it was not possible
for me to determine.

The Pearl Oyster, like other Bivalves, (Conchiferae) are Mo-
neecious, or rather hermaphrodites ; though, properly speaking,
they can neither be said to belong to one or two sexes, for, with the
exception of the presence of ovaria (or egg bags,) no other sexual

o¢t—DEG. 1857.| The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 95

organ has been yet discovered. Doctor Johnson, in his valuable
work on Conchology, remarks on Conchifere, ‘‘ that every indivj-
dual is sufficient to its own felicity.’’ But however correct this
may be, regarding the feeling of sexual gratification, it is clearly
established by M. Rudolph Wagner, that in some Acephalous bi-
valves, as likewise in Twnicata, Gasteropods and Polyps, the ova-
ries of some individuals contain a milk fluid, instead of ova ; and
that this milky fluid contains spermatozoa (seminal animalcules).
I have now to add the Pearl Oyster (Meleagrina Margaritifera)
as another of the bivalve species of Mollusc, which has individuals
with spermatozoa or seminal fluid, in organs similar to those which
in a larger number of individuals contain ova, or eggs. It will
not, perhaps, be necessary further to discuss this important sub-
ject, than to remark, that the Native diver’s idea, that “‘there are
male and female Pearl, Oysters,’’ is not altogether fabulous. The
important part which the male Oyster must play in the formation
of banks of Oysters, is self-evident, if it can be clearly established,
that the ova absolutely require the vivifying influence of a male
fluid. JI have not seen more than three or four individuals with
this milky fluid, in 100 Oysters; nor have I yet satisfactorily
made out any difference in the characters of the shells of the two
supposed sexes. The Native diver’s opinion quoted by Captain
Steuart and Mr. Lebeck, viz., that “‘the large flat ones they call
males, and those that are thick concave, and vaulted, they call
females, ‘* Peedoo Chippy,” is not borne out by my microscopical
observations. I found well formed ova in Oysters which were
broad and flat. It is quite possible, however, that in the course
of this investigation, some external marks may be discovered, by
which the male Oyster can be distinguished from the female. From
the very small number of males (about 3 to 100) to females, I
can easily fancy, that if by some natural or artificial cause, the
males are destroyed, the banks will not be enlarged ; and that
in time they will become extinct, i. e., supposing the majo-
rity of Naturalists are correct in their present view of the
Dicecious character of Oysters. It is just as likely, that Mr.
Garner’s opinion will ultimately prevail ; viz., ‘“‘that the or-

gans called ovaria, do at certain periods, secrete the seminal fluid,

96 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [nxo.5, NEw sErRizs,

which impregnates the ova contained in them and is then dis-
charged as an excretion by the oviducts.’’ To this observation of
Garner I have to oppose the fact, that not a trace of ova was seen
in the ovaria of the supposed male Pearl Oysters, which were dis-
tended with the milky fluid at the time when the ovaria of other
Oysters were distended with ova.

The last, though not the least important part of the animal,
is the foot. This important member, which has so many useful
services to perform in acephalous molluscs, requires a more than
ordinary consideration. It is that long, brown, leech-like mem-
ber, which is seen when the animal is at rest coiled up in a corner
on the right side, above the byssus which, when protruding out of
the shell, and moving about, gives one the popular idea of a tongue.
It is of a dark brown colour above, and whitish beneath ; in mid-
dle age itis speckled. It is composed of longitudinal and trans-
verse muscular fibres, the latter interlacing between the former,
which proceed in two columnar masses from each side of the ad-
ductor muscle; between the bundles or fibres, are placed the ab-
dominal viscera. From its base is sent off, posteriorly, a glisten-
ing white fibrous band; this is attached to the duplicature of the
mantle, near the angle of the valves. Thus, the foot is seen to be
admirably adapted for locomotive powers ; and also serves, by its
connection with the adductor muscles, to lengthen or shorten the
cable or byssus. The foot, in a full sized Oyster, is about two
and a half inches long when extended ; at rest, it is not more than
one anda halfinch in length. It is broad at the base, tapering,
toa conical point ; the upper surface is rounded and smooth, the
lower flattened and grooved. The groove extending from the base,
terminates at the point in an oval cup-like fosset. This groove is
lined by a secreting membrane, and is an exact mould for the for-
mation of the byssus, at the will of the animal. When it finds a
necessity for making one, the foot is protruded out of the shell, and
with the tip it seeks out a spot, where it can rest the terminal disc
of the groove. If not satisfied with the substance or position of
the stone or any other matter on which it rests, it removes to an-
other more suitable spot ; for a few minutes (say five or six, if the
animal is strong) it rests, and is then retracted within the shell,

ooT.— DEC. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 97

leaving behind a strong fibre with an oval disc, of the form of the
groove inthe foot. This whitish fibre is attached tothe base of
the foot at one end, and tothe rock, or to the shell of another
Oyster, at the other. In a day or two, this fibre becomes ofa bronz-
ed greenish colour, and looks like hair, with a broad flattened oval
root attached to the rock. This process is again and again repeated,
at intervals of a few minutes, tilla sufficiently strong cable is form-
ed. Ina large Oyster, removed from the sea, upwards of fifty such
fibres forma thick strong cable or byssus, which is attached to the
base of the foot by a bifurcated fleshy root. The animal cannot de-
tach the byssus from the rock to which it is attached, but it has
the power of casting it offits own body and leaving it behind, (like
aship letting slip her cable and anchor in a storm, and sailing off
to sea) in order to make another byssus, either on the same rock, or
on any other convenient place.

I observed all this process in the aquarium at a very early period
of my investigations ; and was not surprised to find, that the Pearl
Oyster having nearly the same organs as the Mussel, should form
and reform its byssus. But I was agreeably satisfied in iearning by
these observations, that Captain Steuart, in his valuable and inter-
esting Monograph on the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon, was incorrect
in denying to the Pearl Oyster this faculty. He states, that “ ztzs
not believed that the Pearl Oysters have the power to detach them-
selves, or to remove at their own will.” Ihave not only satisfied my-
self, and many friends whohave seen the Oysters in the aquaria
which I have established, that the Pearl Oystercan detach or unmoor
itself, but likewise that it walksaway with its foot foremost, and the
shell behind ; and does not, as Captain Steuart observes, “‘movewith
tts hinges in advance.” This “ shuffling” movement alone attracted
Captain Steuart’s attention, but it is an unimportant one; as all
bivalves without a byssus have it, and it is independent of the will
of the animal, owing to the valves being opened and closed for the
purpose of respiration. How imperfect must Captain Steuart, a
candid inquirer, now say, have been his long observations, when
the Oyster is seen, night after night, taking a walk round the in-
side of a chatty, or mounting the glass side of a vivarium, forming,
here and there, a byssus. It is most unfortunate, that he and

98 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No. 5, NEW SERIES.

others should not have made these observations, (which are so sim-
ple in their nature, but yet conclusive of the possibility “ of érans-
lating Pearl Oysters from their original rocky beds to other more con-
venient locations.”

Who can tell what the results might have been, had Dr. Wright's
views been carried out? I know of my medical brother’s Report
(made I believe in 1803), only from the brief notice taken of it in
Mr. Boyd’s observations, and quoted by Captain Steuart, in the
Appendix to his work (page 55). Mr. Boyd’s observations clearly
indicate, that Dr. Wright proposed, some thirty years ago, the
transplanting the animals to places convenient for fishing them,
when they arrive at maturity. Either Dr. Wright did not observe
the facility with which the Oyster reforms its byssus; or he was
misunderstood by Mr. Boyd, who remarks further on, “ that surely
as the animal has not the power of regaining its adhesion, after
it is once detached, it cannot, when once broken away from its
attachment, fix itself again, and must either perish, or be carried
away by the current,”

Now, it is very gratifying tome tobe able to speak positively
on this subject; and this I do hopefully, as I have observed the
Pearl Oyster detaching itself spontaneously from its old moorings,
in a glass vivarium and attaching itself to another part of the
glass vessel, not once only but have noticed, that some Oysters
will go through this process a dozen times, in less than a month.
In addition to the above related facts, I have successfully established
a colony of Pearl Oysters near Fort Frederick, in the open sea, at
various depths; and have also Oysters which have been living for
several months in wooden boxes, finger glasses, glass globes, chat-
ties, and large canoes, sunk in the sea. Some were thrown into
the sea, after being removed from the inner harbour and kept in
my house in chatties and tubs for two and three days. The byssus
of most of them had been broken and torn from the rock. These
they have cast off, and are now living attached to each other, and to
pieces of coral, and to rocks, exposed to all the influences of the
sea.

When an Oyster is first put into a vivarium, it sickens, 7. e.,
the mantle becomes retracted, and a collapse is observed;—in a

ocr.—peEc. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 99

few hours it revives, but with few exceptions, it is on the third or
fourth day, that the portion of byssus attached to the foot of
the animal is shaken or cast off, and the animal puts out its
foot and forms another near the spot where it lies; or walks,
by a snail-like motion of its foot, to, or up the side of the
glass, to the level of the water, and there fixes itself. Some of the
Oysters which were thrown into the sea, are now seen growing
on the sides of rocks, four and five feet from the bottom.

I am not surprised at these results, for the edible Oysters, with
out a byssus, have been known for ages to bear translating with*
advantage, If Oysters in artificial beds in England can live and
breed. I see no reason why the Pearl Oyster should not do the
same, and like the edible Oyster, yield a large revenue; or prove
remunerative to private individuals, who may undertake the esta-
blishment of new banks.

I have one other subject, connected with the interior eco-
nomy of the Pearl Oyster, to report upon; and this the miscros-
cope which Government aided me in procuring, has enabled me to
investigate very satisfactorily.

My observations commenced about the middle of March last;
although I was not officially connected with the Ceylon Govern-
ment till the first of May. I have ever since made monthly obser-
vations regarding the fecundation of Oysters; with the following re-
sults. In March, and all through April, May and June, every Oys-
ter I opened, young and old, contained ova in the ovaria, except
the few which had the seminal milky fluid ; so that the Meleagrina,
like the edible Oyster is in spawn almost from its birth, a precocity
serving a useful purpose no doubt; and its practical bearing easily
understood. From July to the present date, the Oysters examined
did not all contain ova; some of the ovaria were only half: full ;
others contained a very small quantity. It will be very inter-
esting to proceed with these monthly examinations, and to as-
certain, whether the Oyster is only in spawn at certain periods of
the year; and, if possible, to determine whether it spawns more
than once in twelve months. Nearly all the 100 Oysters from the
Pearl Banks of Arripo, kindly sent to me by Mr. Vane, contained

100 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [xo. 5, NEW SERIES,

ova, their form preserved, although saturated with arrack. Under
the microscope the ovum is seen to be pear-shaped ; each measured
3-1000 part of an inch in diameter, at its broadest part ; longitudi-
nally it is 6-1000 with a short pedicle attached. I have calculated,
with the micrometer, the number of eggs contained in the ovaria of
an Oyster of five or six years of age, and I find that there cannot
be less than twelve millions. Leuwenhoeck states, that ten million
eggs exist in one European edible Oyster. If we consider how
few of these millions of eggs can arrive at the mature condition of

- a living Oyster, and the great demand that man makes upon the
species for his gratification; we can only see in this great fact, the
bountiful provision made by the Creator for a wise and beneficial
purpose.

In concluding this first Report, I shall briefly recapitulate
the important discoveries I have already made.

(a) The Pearl Oyster is more tenacious of life, than any bi-
valve Mollusc I.am acquainted with. It can live even in brackish
water, and in places so shallow, that it must be exposed for three
or four hours daily to the sun, and other atmospheric influences.

(5) That it has locomotive powers, beyond any idea which can
be formed from former observations.

(c) That the power of moving from place to place, is inhe-
rent, and absolutely necessary, in early life, for the due perform-
ance of the animal functions. This is obvious from the fact, that
if a cluster of young Oysters stayed permanently in one place, ad-
hering to each other, the growth of the animal, and particularly of
the shell, would be prevented.

(d) That the Pearl Oyster will move about in search of food,
if the locality, in which it is originally placed, is not rich in its na-
tural supplies.

(e) That it will move from its original situation, if the water
becomes impure, either from the decomposition of vegetabie or
animal matter, or muddy ; and, probably too, if there is a large in-
flux of fresh water.

(f) That if the water is agitated to an inordinate degree, the
Oyster will leave its old mooring place and seek another.

oct.—pEc. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 101

(g) That a thunderstorm will kill some in an aquarium.
(Query,) Have thunder storms similar fatal effects on Oysters
lying deep in the sea? ;

(4) That the: animal can unfix itself from its byssus; and that
crabs, shrimps, and other creatures, force them to form a new
byssus, by nibbling through the old one.

(2) That it can re-form its byssus at pleasure, if in good
health and condition.

(j) That it can live for along time, without forming a bys-
sus; and that it will re-form a byssus when it has recovered
strength.

(4) That the power of re-forming its byssus, is not to confine
the young animal; but that the largest living Oyster] have seen,
can re-form it in an aquarium, as well as in the depths of the sea,
but not so actively as the young and middle aged.

(2) Pearl Oysters are gregarious in their habits. In placing
several young Oysters in different parts of an aquarium, they will
sooner or later be found attached to each other. The older ones
have also this desire ; but their heavy shells impede their motion,
and they are contented to remain apart from their fellows.

(m) That taking the foregoing facts into account, there ap-
pears to be no reason why Pearl Oysters should not be translated
from their native beds, and made to colonize other parts of the sea.

(nm) That the young, aswell as the old, are in spawn from
March to September ; and that probably there is no stated period
for spawning.

The whole occupation of the Oyster, when fixed to a spot,
appears to be, keeping its valves open, and admitting food to
its mouth. For several hours the valves remain open, they then
close for a few minutes, or for an hour or two, then open again.
At night, the valves remain generally open till towards daylight,
when they close, and remain so till the sun shines brightly over the
horizon. It is during the early part of the night, or soon after
sunset, that they exercise, when required, their locomotive powers.
Ihave watched the Oysters in aquaria for nearly a whole night;

Eo

102 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

and they appear to be then active in moving and attaching them-
selves to new localities. During the day, I have only seen, on one
occasion, an Oyster form anew byssus. This nocturnal habit, is
doubtless instinctive precaution; for should Oysters move during
the day, they are more likely to become the food of fishes, and
other animals which prey upon them. Their movements are in-
stinctive, and guided by the sense of touch. Darkness suits them
better than daylight, of the difference of which they are very sen-
sitive.

Most of the Oysters in which I have found Pearls, had ex-
ternal marks of having been retarded in their lateral growth, and
displaced in early life from their fixed position on a bank. Iam
inclined to believe, that Oysters which have abundance of food,
and are not disturbed, remain fixed for the last two or three years
of their growth to one spot. These are less likely to have a large
proportion of pearl bearing individuals among them. This of course
requires more extensive practical observation, either on the beds in
the harbour of Trincomalie, or on the Pearl banks of Arripo.

With reference to the formation of Pearls, I have nothing
new to add to the accounts found in the best modern books on the
subject ; except that one, which modifies the view taken by Sir E.
Home; viz. that Pearls are formed from abortive ova. I believe
the ova left behind in the ovaria, are not the nuclei of Pearls, but
that the ova which escape through the distended coats of an over-
grown ovarium, and are imbedded in the interstices of the mantle,
become nuclei of Pearls formed in this situation. Ihave repeated-
ly examined seed, or young pearls, in process of formation; and
with a magnifying power of 1°5 inch lens, I was able to see dis-
tinctly, the outlines of two and three ova through the first or super-
ficial layer of nacre, surrounded by groups of ova. It can be rea-
dily understood how an overcharged ovarium will, by some acci-
dent, or spontaneous evolution, have its coats ruptured, allowing
the ova to escape and become inserted in the contiguous attenuated
parts of the mantle. As Pearls are more usually found imbedded
in the mantle near the hinge, the most likely place where the ova-
rium is liable to rupture, I consider this very conclusive of the
new theory I have here proposed. I may also observe, that I

ocr.—pDEC. 1857:] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 103

have seen the vestiges, or cicatrices, in the mantle where the
Pearls once existed. Though Pearls originate in the mantle,
when large they work their way out, and lie loose between it and
the shell; or become attached to the ‘* Mother-o’-Pearl’’ surface
of the latter. I have no doubt that Pearls can work their way
out from this position, and be found entangled in the meshes of
the byssus. I also consider it very possible, that an over-distended
ovarium is one of the causes of Pearls being discharged from the
Oyster and lost. Ifthis be really the case, it will easily account
for the singular fact, that a sample of Oysters, fished in the month
of October, will yield a larger proportion of Pearls, than a batch of
Oysters fished from the same bank in the months of April and May
ofthe following year. These observations are somewhat sugges-
tive, and can be improved upon by future investigation.

I have now drawn to a conclusion this Report, which, I fear,
has extended to a greater length than will suit the patience of the
reader. But the subject being one which has bgen so long neg-
lected and so little understood, I hope that the Government which
has engaged my services, if they do not consider my endeavours as
already productive of some practical results, will, at least, see in
these researches, glimpses offuture success. Itis due to Sir Henry
Ward, here to acknowledge my grateful thanks, in which my bro-
ther Naturalists in all parts of the world, I am sure, will join for
the gracious manner in which my humble services have been re-
tained, for investigating, fundamentally and practically, the Natural
History of a species of Shell, which from the darkest ages of the
world to the present, has been considered of inestimable value in
producing one of the richestof gems. Time was, when the product
of Pearl Oyster fisheries founded cities in South America and the
Red Sea. But what is the state of the Islands in the Red Sea,
‘‘ whose merchants were princes”? They are now thinly inhabit-
ed by a miserable race of fishermen. ‘The sites of some of the Oys-
ter banks in South America are not even now known; they have
been destroyed by being overfished. New beds are doubtless form-
ing in localities to be yet known to future generations. Ceylon
Pearl banks were once on the point of sinking into the same state,
but for the subsequent observance of more caution, I was present

»’

104 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No.5, NEW SERIES,

at two of the largest fisheries ever made off Arripo in 1835 and
1836. The Oysters fished during the first half of the fishery were
full sized, and yielded a good price, most of the speculators making
handsome profits. Government was encouraged to pursue the
fishery ; young Oysters were taken up; many of the purchasers,
inflated with former gains, purchased readily, and were ruined ;
and, I believe, to this day, these over, or prematurely fished banks,
have not been very productive, although twenty years have since
elapsed. Ifthe same incautious and unscientific plan were adopted
on the Oyster banks in England, similar results would soon be per-
ceived there. Nota “native” would be had in London, nor even
a cultivated one seen any where. If Government desires to have
a steady, and not a precarious revenue, from Pearl Oyster fisheries,
let good laws protect the beds already known, and those thatare now
forming ; and let means be adopted to secure their increase and
growth. In one year more Oysters are consumed in England, than
were fished on the banks of Arripo last year; and this consump-
tion is repeated year after year, without exhaustion ; simply be-
cause the natural laws having been once found out, they are allow-
ed tooperate fairly. It will indeed be a very great source of sa-
tisfaction to me, if any of the natural laws I have described in this
Report, suggest to Government, an improved system of manage-
ment.

My attention has also been directed to the Natural History of
the Tamblegam Oyster, Placuna placenta. I have a few still alive,
which were translatedin May last. If this Oyster can be success-
fully translated, the whole of Batticaloa lake might be converted
into a large Ostrearium. The Placuna placenta has no byssus, and
can, therefore, be more readily transported. Their removal from
their native beds, does not necessarily destroy the internal parts.
About one-third of the Pearl Oyster (J/eleagrina,) die from being
injured by the force necessarily applied when detaching them from
the rocks to which they adhere.

I have also lately ‘ doctored’? some Pearl Oysters, according to
the plan adopted by the Chinese, in the case of the large fresh
water mussel; but which method, I believe, has never been at-
tempted with the real Pearl Oysters. Time, and further experi-

oct.—peEc. 1857.] Pearl Oyster Fishery. 105

ence, are required, to ascertain the results of this practice in Cey-
lon. Dr. Gray, of the British Museum, has, I believe, by the ap-
plication of the same means, succeeded in producing Pearls in the
edible Mussel or Oyster of England. It may therefore be hoped
that I shall eventually succeed with the Pearl Oyster of Ceylon.
All that I can at present say, is, that they do mot die under the
operation, and that they are still living, having also reformed new
byssuses. This is the only way the period required for the forma-
tion of good sized Pearls can be ascertained. There are some
other points in the natural habits of the Pearl Oyster, which I re-
serve for future Reports, as precipitate conclusions may mislead
the Government.

X. Report on the Tamblegam Pearl Oyster Fishery. By

EK. F. Kenaart, M. D.

The Oyster found in the Tamblegam lake, and from which Pearls
are obtained, is the Placuna placenta, “‘ Vitre Chinoise’”’ of some
French writers, and the ‘“ Window Oyster’ of English travellers
in China—the shells, from their semi-transparency, being used for
windows. The Placuna belongs to the same family of Conchifer-
ous Molluscs as the edible Oysters of Europe and of this country.
It has no resemblance (except slightly in the animal structure),
to the shells of the Arripo Oyster (MJeleagrina.) When full grown
the valves (shells) measure, at their broadest transverse diameter,
from 5 to 7 inches ; and their longest longitudinal diameter is about
the same ; some, halfan inch more. They arrive at maturity soone,
than the Maleagrina margarttifera, and like the Aripo Pearl Oys-
ter, the young also have ova. Iam not able from my own obser-
vation (having been only a few months engaged in these researches)
to say, in how many years this Oyster arrives at perfection.

-
*

106 Pearl Oyster Fishery. [no. 5, NEw sERIEs,

But from the appearance of shells of all sizes, and the history of
the Tamblegam Pearl fisheries since 1839, I should say, that in
three years, this bivalve Mollusc attains its adult age; and, that
after that, it dies. It appears to thrive best in brackish water, but
a large influx of fresh water (from rivers) kills them. Instances
have been known, when a large number of young and old Oysters
died in Tamblegam lake, during some very rainy seasons when the
rivers which empty into the lake brought down an unusual quanti-
ty of fresh water. If ever the channel, which was once proposed
to be cut through the neck of land which connects the lake with
the Trincomalie harbour, is made, this cause of mortality will more
rarely occur, perhaps never again exist.

From the flattened formation of the shells, Pearls are very lia-
ble to drop out when the animal reaches its full growth ; I would
therefore fix, as the best period for fishing, the time when the ani-
mal has closed its supposed two year’s age, or when the shell mea-
sures from 53 to A inches in transverse diameter.

I have inspected the Tamblegam bank this week, and am sorry
to report, that there is no prospeet of even an average good fishery
before the middle of 1859. The banks have been overfished. The
Natcha Cooda bank is completely destroyed. The renter in 1856,
left scarcely any Oysters behind, and this portion of the bank will
consequently be unproductive for many years, possibly yield none
again, unles Government should re-stock it.

Nothing could have been more prejudicial to the interests of the
Government, than to have leased out the bank by the year. The
Government Agents who could have acted so unwisely as to lease
out to Native renters a small bank of Pearl Oysters for three con-
secutive years, without any stipulation as to the s:ze of the Oys-
ters to be fished, must have lost sight of the natural laws of re-
production and multiplication of species, known even to the Na-
tive divers. It is therefore very gratifying to observe, that the
present Government Agent, Mr. Morris, takes great interest in my
researches ; that he is alive to the importance of the Naturalist’s
opinion, and has recommended that all young Oysters be thrown
back into the lake ; a measure which I had the opportunity of sug-

ocT.—pDEC. 1857.] Pearl Oyster Fishery. 107

gesting to his Excellency the Governor in March last, but which,
I believe, was only partially acted upon, during the last Paarl
fishery at Aripo.

I watched the number of Oysters fished during the two days I
was lately at Tamblegam (Keenear), and have to report, that
there could not have been less than 30,000, on each day. More
than two-thirds of this number were young, and had better have
been left in the lake for another year or more. The renter is evi-
dently making the most of the few months he has yet liberty to fish
or rather ruin the bank. The Tamblegam Wanniah, and all the div-
ers, whom I questioned on the subject, stated that in the early
part of the present year, more than 50,000 Oysters were fished daily.
It is therefore impossible to arrive at any other conclusion, than
that the former renters misrepresented the state of their finances,
from the Pearl banks, when they got Government to remit some
portion of the rent, and had the fishery resold for a smaller sum, to
another Native,—a relative, 1 am informed, of gne of the original
renters.

All Oysters are very prolific, and the Placuna is not an exception
to the rule; for, at the lowest calculation, in three years, there
must have keen fished from this bank, upwards of 18 millions of
Oysters, supposing that there were only 200 fishing days in each
year. The renters’ share must have been (allowing five shillings
for each thousand Oysters) nearly £2,250, from which, deducting the
three years rent, viz. £901, they must have derived a profit of at
least £1,250. ‘To this profit must be added another source of gain,
(a very ingenious one) from the divers’ share of Oysters. The diver
is allowed half the quantity fished, but he is not permitted éo sell
the Oyster at the best market, or to the highest bidder. He is
obliged to open the Oysters when fresh, and sell to the renter all the
Pearls, at a fixed rate, which the renter takes good care shall be
below the market value. Any plan therefore, which may relieve
the diver of this grievance, will, I am sure, be thankfully welcom-
ed by at least 20 individuals, whose chief means of living is by
diving for Pearl Oysters.

Oysters of upwards of two years of age, (i. e. about six inches
broad) are worth a¢ least ten ghillings a thousand, but if there is

,

108 Pearl Oyster Fishery. [xo0.5, NEW SERIES,

any competition, they may be sold for even fifteen shillings a thou-
sand; for although the Pearls they produce are about two-thirds
less in value than those from the Aripo Pearl Oyster (Meleagrina),
the quantity obtained in 1,000 Oysters, is at least three times more
than what is obtained in a similar number from the Aripo banks.

Upon these circumstances, I have to submit for the future guid-
ance of Government, the following proposals :

lst. That the banks be allowed to remain undisturbed fcr eigh-
teen months after the termination of the present fishery.

2nd. The future fisheries to be conducted by Government Of-
ficers, and the Oysters sold to the highest bidder.

8rd. That the fishery be held only for two or three months in
the year; say April, May and June, and that a sufficient number
of boats be employed daily, so as to have the matured Oysters dur-
ing this fishing period.

4th. That the banks be carefully watched, and placed under the
immediate superyision of the Tamblegam Modliar, to whom a per-
centage might be promised on the net profits of each fishery which
yields to Government more than £500. I suggest this per-centage,
well knowing, that any extra work thus thrown upon a Native of-
ficial, will be badly performed, unless paid for according to the
value of his labour.

5th. Thatno Oyster under 53 inches broad, be allowed to be re-
moved from the banks.

6th. Thata fourth share of the Oysters fished be bond fide the
divers’ share, which they shall be at liberty to dispose of to the best
advantage for themselves.

7th. That those parts of the Tamblegam lake which have been
denuded of Oysters by over-fishing, be re-stocked with young Oys-
ters, found in the shallow parts of the lake, or near its margin ;
which if leftin their present position, are very likely to be clan-
destinely removed at night, although the banks may be strictly
watched.

8th. That Government endeavour tofishup the Oysters by dredg-
ing, instead of the present pernicious method of divers walking over
most parts of the banks, searching for them with their feet ; by
which means, they crush the young Oysters and destroy the spawn.

oct.—pxEc. 1857.] Pearl Oyster Fishery. 109

This Oyster, having no byssus, is not attached to any hard sub-
stance ; nor is it cemented, like some of the edible Oysters, by the
hinge, or by one of the valves, to any subject, but lies either flat
on the mud, or is fixed loosely in a semi-vertical position, with the
wedge-shaped hinge buried in the mud. It follows, therefore, that
they can be removed with great facility with the ordinary Oyster
dredge.

The young Oysters taken by the dredge can be returned imme-
diately to the lake; or collected and then deposited in some suita-
ble place, previously selected by the supervisor.

I have no doubt, in my own mind, that by proper supervision and
care, the Tamblegam lake Oyster Fishery, may be made to yield in
a few years, at least £1,500 every second year. For the last 18
years, the average annual revenue to Government was only £344,

In order to secure this revenue for future years, it is necessary
that the present renter’s proceedings be watched ; and, that he be
obliged strictly to observe the condition of his bend, viz: ‘‘ That
the Fishery of the said Pearl banks shall be carefully and prudently
carried on by the Renter and others, his servants, so as to cause no
damage or injury to the said Pearl banks.”

If, in the opinion of the Government, the above condition does
not enjoin the renter to prevent divers taking up young Oysters, I
think it will be worth while to pay him £50 or more, and take his
lease from him; for at the rate he is now fishing, and bringing up
daily 5,000 or 6,000 young Oysters, scarcely more than eight months
old, and which cannot yield more than six-pence worth of Pearl in
each thousand, even if they do that, the bank, which now promises
to give a tolerably good fishery in June 1859, may, like the Natcha
Cooda bank, be unproductive for many years. I would therefore
suggest, that a Government Officer be immediately sent to the
fishery to prevent further mischief being done.

I cannot help again observing in this Report, that it is worthy
the attention of Government, to stock the various salt lakes of Cey-
jon with this species of Oyster. The lakes of Calpentyn, Putlam,
Batticaloa and Hambantotte, if stocked with the ‘‘ Window Oys-
ter,” will yield a very handsome revenue. Ihave availed myself

110 Selections. [No. 0, NEW SERIES,

of the present opportunity to remove about 1,200 middle-aged
Oysters (which the renter gave me) to Yard Cove in Trincomalie
harbour, where the muddy bottom promises to be suitable for breed-
ing them. But the experiment should be made on a larger scale,
to test the full value of translating these Oysters to new localities ;
this I am not able to do from want of funds to meet the necessary

expenses. I have already, in my former Report on the Natural

History of Pearl Oysters, reported, that some of the Oysters, which
were placed in other parts of the sea in May last, are still living.

SELECTIONS.

On a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees; a Contribution to the
History of Reproduction in Animals. By Cart THEeopor Ernst
Von Sriesorp, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the Uni-
versity of Munich. Translated by Wu. Datuas, F, L. S., &c.
&c. London: Van Voorst. 1857. 8vo, pp. 110.*

Among themany revelations of modern science, few have attract-
ed more attention, or excited greater interest among naturalists,
than the phenomena of Parthenogenesis ; whether, with Owen, we
regard this term as the appropriate designation of the alternation
of dissimilar generations ; or, with Siebold (and this, in our opi-
nion, is the more correct), we restrict its application to the pro-
duction of offspring ‘‘ sine concubitu’’ from perfectly formed mo-
thers. With regard to the former, Chamisso, as early as the year
1819, found in the Salpe (a group of tunicated molluses) that
many species which are associated in long chains give birth to in-
sulated individuals, which in their turn produce concatenated off-
spring ; and these remarkable observations have been confirmed

* Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science, May 1857, p. 403.

—-

“wey

oct.—DEc. 1857. | On Moths and Bees. 11

by all who have examined these and kindred forms ; and from the
researches of Sars, Steenstrup, Siebo!d, and others, we aitive at
the conclusion, that, in many of the forms of lower existence,
animals produce offspring, which at no one time of their develop-
ment resemble their parents ; but which, however, in their turn
bring forth a progeny which revert in their form and nature to the
parent animal, so that the maternal animal does not meet with its
resemblance in its own brood, but in the descendants of the second,
third, fourth, or even more remote degrees of generation ; and this
has been proved to be the case in many of the Meduse, Claviform
Polypes, Salpz, many Entozoa and Aphides ; and, according to
the assertions of some naturalists, in all the lower classes of ani-
mals ; so much so, that we cannot avoid inferring that many ani-
mals described as belonging to distinct species are but the alternate
generation of known forms. The phenomena of alternation of
generation differ essentially from metamorphic changes ; in meta-
morphosis we have changes taken place in the same individual ;
while in alternation of generation, or metagenesis, different and
many individuals arise and are separated from the parent ; besides,
in the course of metagenesis, in many instances metamorphosis
also takes place. In metagenesis we observe that in one alterna-
tion are produced distinct ovaries and ova; in the others the de-
velopment does not take place from ova, but by a process of gem-
mation; and in the isolated Salphz, a remarkable organ (Stolen
proligerum) has been described, whence are developed the catenat-
ed offsprings.

These facts have gone far to solve a difficulty felt by some op-
ponents to the ‘‘ development theory ;’’ it has been stated by the
ingenious author of the ‘‘ Vestiges,” that if animals have not been
developed since the creation, our first parent should have had de-
posited in their structure either all the human entozoa or their ova.
The phenomena of metagenesis, however, may lead us to infer,
that all human entozoa may be but alternate forms of those ani-
mals found in other creatures or elsewhere, and this is actually the
case with one entozoon (Cysticercus fasciolaris) which in one form
is found in the cat, in another in the rat or mouse. In true par-

112 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIEs,

thenogenesis, phenomena ofa totally different nature are exhibited
—phenomena, the belief in the occurrence of which, did it rest on
individual or questionable testimony, would gain but slight assent
among the learned, but when we find such an array of names of
naturalists who have mainly contributed to the advancement of
natural science, all bearing testimony to the facts as related by
Siebold, we cannot withhold our belief, that in many cases perfect
offspring can arise ‘‘ sine concubitu,’’ from animals fitted for a
union of the sexes, and that in one species of insects at least the
sex of the offspring depends on the entrance of spermatic filaments
into the egg.

In the study of this most interesting wark, we are struck with
the circumstance, that science is often retarded by general or
sweeping assertions, although emanating from high authority.
When Castellet, in 1795, reported to Réaumur, that he had found
that a moth of Bombyx mori (silk-worm) laid perfect eggs, though
unimpregnated, ‘ne received the laconic reply—‘‘ ex nihilo nihil
fit.”” How different in a similar case was John Hunter’s reply—
‘*But did they hatch ?” for naturalists have not long been familiar
with the circumstance that unimpregnated females will sometimes
lay eggs; but these have hitherto been supposed to have been in-
variably incapable of being developed into a perfect animal. <A
common example of this is the occurrence of pullets’ eggs, but
these are notoriously incapable of being developed by incubation.
At first blush we might be led to infer that reproduction without
fecundation was impossible, so contrary does it appear to the usual
course of nature, both in the vegetable and the animal kingdom.
We observe what careful precautions are taken that the sperma-
. tozoa should reach their proper nidus uninjured: how many pro-
visions are found to hedge around the safety of the pollen! Ex-
ceptional cases, however, do occur in the vegetable kingdom. The
Celebogyne, for instance, a dicecious plant from Australia, has
produced fertile seeds at Kew, although the female only is known
to botanists ; and M. Lecoq had deduced from some experiments
of his own, that similar phenomena occur sometimes in hemp,
spurge, &c. Our author seems to have been fully aware of the

oct.— DEC. 1857.] On Moths and Bees. 113

great caution required in carrying on an investigation of this kind,

and to have devised his experiments accordingly. ;

Tn his introduction, he describes the seminal receptacle found in
female insects. The existence of such a receptacle in bees, explains
how it is that a queen, fertilized by a single coitus, after discharg-
ing a number of eggs in the first year, may again, in the following
year and still more subsequently, lay eggs capable of development,
because the seminal filaments are preserved in this receptacle un-
injured, and in a quantity sufficient for successive broods. Siebold
reviews at length the cases of alleged true parthenogenesis or ‘‘ Lu-
cina sine concubitu,’’ which are to be found recorded by many
observers, and shows that errors may have occurred in the obser-
vation of these cases; one of the earliest on record is that of Al-
brecht, who in 1701 wrote a treatise—‘‘ De insectorum ovis sine
previa maris cum femella conjunctione nihilominus nonnunquam
foecundis.”” He took a brown pupa, which he preserved apart,
and yet the moth evolved therefrom laid fertile eggs. He says:
—‘* Cum masculum huic papilioni haud adfuisse certus essem, et
propterea ejus ova subventanea et sterilia esse judicarem, vix am-
plius eorum habui rationem relictis interim lsdem oscitantius et
sine omni curh sub dicto vitro per totum tempus hyemale.’”’ Dr.
St. Blancard is stated, too, in 1696, to have had a spider
which for four consecutive years laid eggs from which young
spiders escaped, ‘‘ although no male spider had ever appeared in
the business.’”” Dumeril, Bernoulli, Treviranus, Burmeister, and
others have made similar observations, but in all these instances
the possibility of mistake has been shown by Siebold. This au-
thor then enters upon experiments which he performed on somesac-
bearing Lepidoptera, particularly Solenobio lichenella and triquet-
rella, and by taking every precaution he convinced himself, and
doubtless his readers also, that true parthenogenesis occurred in
Pyschides. Examples in the honey bee next came under his no-
tice, and in these investigations he was greatly assisted by the dis-
tinguished apiarian, Dzierzon. From accurate observations of the
habits of bees, as well as from careful dissections, Dzierzon arriv-
ed at the singular conclusion, that drone eggs require no fecunda-
tion, and that true parthenogenesis is normal in these insects.

114 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

In the ‘‘ Bienenzeitung’’ of Hichstadt, 1845, he thus expresses
himself :—‘‘ Presupposing what will be referred to and proved in
the following numbers, that the queen (female bee), to become
good for anything, must be fertilized by a drone (male bee), and
that the copulation takes place in the air.—I express the convic-
tion, from which all phenomena and mysteries may be perfectly
explained, that the drone eggs do not require fecundation; but
that the co-operation of the drones is absolutely necessary when
worker bees are to be produced.’ Again—‘‘ In copulation the
ovaries are not fecundated, but the seminal receptacle, that little
vesicle or knot, which in the young queen is filled with a watery
moisture, is saturated with semen, after which it is more clearly
distinguishable by its white colour ; the activity of the ovaries in
the normal state commences only after copulation, but it is not
necessarily caused thereby ; hence many unfecundated queens lay
no eggs at all, while others lay only drone eggs ; and even workers
do the latter, although, from their want of a seminal receptacle, I
regard them as quite incapable of copulation. Iam convinced
that such eggs are sufficient for the production of drones, whilst
the egg from which a queen or worker is to be developed must
come in contact with the seminal receptacle.’’ In another place
he thus writes :—‘‘ The queen has it in her power to deposit an
egg just as it comes from the ovary, and as the unfecundated mo-
thers lay it ; or, by the action of her seminal receptacle, to invest
it with a higher degree, a higher potency of fertility, and awaken
in it a more perfect being, namely, a queen or worker.”’

Baron v. Berlepsch, of Seebach, has also contributed much to
establish this theory of Dzierzon and by liberally placing his
hives, furnished with Dzierzon’s moveable comb-supports, at the
service of Siebold, enabled the latter fully to confirm Dzierzon’s
views. Baron v. Berlepsch also performed three experimenta
crucis: in the first he contrived the exclusion. of a queen at the
end of September, when there were no longer any males, and this
queen, early in the ensuing year, furnished 1500 cells witha drone
brood, the subsequent accurate dissections of Leuckart proving
that this queen was a virgin. The second experiment exhibited
considerable ingenuity. Knowing that a high or a low tempera-

ocT.— DEC. 1857.] On Moths and Bees. 115

ture causes the movements of spermatozoa to cease and become
inert, he subjected a queen to a very low temperature in an ise-
house ; she recovered, and afterwards laid thousands of eggs, yet
from all these were only males evolved. The third experiment
was performed with the crossing of Italian and German bees.
These, although of the same species, are found to differ most re-
markably in appearance and disposition, and in the mixed breed
which resulted, the drone offspring without exception presented
the same variety as the queen-mother, thus affording a very strong
negative proof that drone eggs do not require the interposition of
the male bee. This matter has, however, been subjected to fur-
ther proof by Leuckart and Siebold, for they examined freshly
laid eggs, and in numerous instances they detected spermatic fila-
ments in or on worker-eggs, while none could be found in drone-
eges. The experiments of Siebold upon this point seem to have
been conducted with great nicety and care. He says :—

‘I soon convinced myself that there was no possibility of discovering
the delicate seminal filament between the granulo-vesicular yelk-masses,
the. linear object to be sought for was too subtle to be capable of discovery
with certginty amongst the many mutually-crossing outlines of the yelk
vesicles ; after various vain endeavours to render the interior of the bee’s
egg accessible to an inquiring eye, I came at last to the idea of employing an
artifice which I had soon acquired by practice, and which allowed me to
survey at least a portion of the inner space of the bee’s egg with great
clearness an tranquillity. I crushed a bee’s egg quite gently with a very
thin glass plate, and so that it was ruptured at its lower pole, opposite to
the micropylar apparatus, and the yelk gradually flowed out at this spot,
by which a clear empty space was produced at the upper pole within the
micropylar apparatus, between the egg-envelopes and the yelk which was
retiring downwards.”

Having thus microscopically examined the new-laid eggs of
bees, he arrives at the following conclusion :—

“‘ Amongst the fifty female bee-eggs examined by me with the greatest
care and conscientiousness, thirty furnished a positive result ; that is to
say, in thirty I could prove the existence of seminal filaments, in which
movements couldeven be detected in three eggs; ofthe other twenty eggs,
twelve were unsuccessful in their preparation.”’

116 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

There was some difficulty in procuring drone-eggs for the pur-
pose of examination, as the season was late ; however, as Baron v.
Berlepsch spared neither trouble nor his hives (of which he had
104 in his bee colony), twenty-seven drone eggs were procured,
and of these the author states :-—

‘*‘T examined these twenty-seven drone-eggs, which might have been
about twelve hours old, and which agreed perfectly both in their appear-
ance and organization with the female eggs, with the same care and by the

same method, with which I had treated the female eggs, and did not find
one seminal filament in any single egg, either externally or internally.”

Three of these only were unsuccessfully prepared, and the same
queen, both before and afterwards, laid eggs from which worker
bees were developed.

In the latter part of his work, Siebold enters on the considera-
tion of the occurrence of true parthenogenesis in the silkworm
moth, and details some very interesting observations on these in-
sects. Ona pattent review of this subject, we can hardly with-
hold our assent from the propositions laid down by the author,
and these views are considerably enforced by the strange facts de-
tailed by other observers in regard to the prevalence amd the ab-
sence of one or other sex amonginsects. Leon Dufour has stated,
for example, that he never obtained a male insect of Diplolepis
gallee tinctorum, of the genus Cynips.

A priori we should say, that this was a topic from whichwe could
expect nothing of practical utility of industrial application, and
yet we are told that Dzierzon and other in the bee colonies have
turned it to material advantage.

{The importance of the results contained in Von Siebold’s work, induc-

ed Professor Goodsir, of Edinburgh te communicate an abstract to the
Royal Society. Mr. Dallas, soon afterwards published an able translation
of the work itself.]—Ep. M. J.

—_—

'
ee a eS SE es ee ee

ocT.—pDEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 117

On a mode of protecting Timber from Fire. By Mr, ABzt.»

[This Valuable Memorandum is specially worthy of the attention of
Res‘dents in Burmah and the Tenasserim Provinces, where the frequent
occurrence of fire has proved so destructive, and where any arrangement
insuring protection against the conflagration of wooden or thatched build-
ings Would be most important ]—Eb. M. J.

From F. A; ABEL, Esq., Chemist of the War Department, Wool-
wich, S. £., 30th July 1857; to the Secretary East India
Company.

I have the honor to address you upon a subject which I have
been strongly recommended by Colonel SanpHam, Commanding
Royal Engineer at Chatham, to bring to the notice of the Honora-
ble Court of Directors of the East India Company.

During the late War, I was called upon by the Engineer autho-
rities to suggest some simple, cheap, and efficacious means for
protecting wooden hutting from fire, and at the same time, I was
instructed by the Secretary of State for War, to examine into the
merits of certain proposals laid before him for the same purpose.

The result of my experiments on this subject was the prepara-
tion of a protective material applicable even after the erection of
huts, in the same manner as whitewash, tar, or paint, and which
was shown to afford such important protection to wood in case of
fire, that experiments upon a proper scale were ordered by Lord
PANMURE to be tried at the principal camps in Great Britain, and,
at the same time, permission was given me by his Lordship to pa-
tent the material of which permission, however, I declined to avail
myself.

It was subsequently arranged by the Inspector General of For-
tifications, that a full trial of the value of the material should be
made by Colonel SAnpHAm and myself at Chatham. The accom-
panying abstract from the professional papers of the Royal Engi-
neers contains a copy of our joint report to Lord Panmure on the
results of these experiments to which I beg most respectfully to
call the attention of the Honorable Court of Directors.

118 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

Unfortunately, by the time that the merits of the protective
caating in question were properly established, the huts at the va-
rious camps had been already coated with tar or other materials
which did not admit of removal from the wood, except at consi-

derable expense.

The silicate of soda and lime coating has however been tried and
applied to a small extent at Aldershot and at Alderney.

Fifteen tons of the silicate of soda have moreover been sent by
Government to China for the purpose of coating the hutting.

The advantages of the material referred to for coating timber
may be embraced under the following headings.

Istly. The simplicity of its application,

Qndly. The circumstance that it forms an excellent protective
to wood against weather, and may therefore be employed asa sub-
stitute for tar or paint.

The colour of the coating itself is nearly white ; a small admix-
ture of an ochre serves to remove the glazing nature of the coat.

8rdly. The cheapness of the material, the cost of coating ten
square feet not exceeding two pence.

4thly. The great efficacy of the coating as a means of protection
against fire, as demonstrated by the experiments detailed in the
accompanying report.

Although personally impressed with the idea, that a knowledge
of the existence of the material in question, open to general use
without reserve, and emanating indeed from Government itself, must
be of importance to the Honorable East India Company, I hesitat-
ed to adopt the step I am now taking, until I had consulted Colo-
nel SanDHAM, who urged me strongly to lose no time in bringing
the subject to their notice.

I beg to enclose a copy of the directions for preparing timber
with the material which have been drawn up by desire of the In-
spector General of Fortifications and to state that it will afford me
pleasure to give any further information on the subject that it is in
my power to afford should the Honorable Court of Directors feel
desirous of taking it into consideration.

oct.—pxEc. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 119

From F. A. Apex, Esq, Chemist of the War Department, Wool-
wich, S. E., 27th August 1857. ’

I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the
26th instant, informing me that the Court of Directors of the Ho-
norable East India Company have directed copies of my commu-
nication of 30th ultimo, and of printed directions to be enclosed to
the several Governments in India.

With reference to the concluding paragraph of your letter re-
ferring to my statement as to the employment of silicate of soda in
China, I beg to observe that from the quantity sent out (15 tons)
and from the correspondence which I had at the time on the sub-
ject with the authorities at the War Office, there is no doubt that
the silicate and lime is to be used in China as the coating material
for the wooden erections required at the stations there, and has
not been sent out as a matter of experiment.

Having heard that the great risk of fire arises from the thatch-
ing employed for the roofs of hut buildings in India,—I am anx-
ious to state for the information of the Directors and of the Go-
vernment of India, that the silicate of soda admits of very simple
application to the thatching as a protective material.

The thatching would require soaking for a short time previous
to use in a solution of silicate, and the thatched roof when dry
should receive a thin coating of lime or clay stirred to a cream
with solution of silicate.

It would probably be found advisable to renew the exterior coat-
ing of wash after the rainy season.

I beg again to express my readiness to furnish every information
which may be required on the subject.
Remarks on the Protection of Wood from Fire. By F. A, ABeEt,
Esq., accompanied by a Report from Colonel Sandham, R. E., and
himself.

The attention of practical men has been for some years past di-
rected, from time to time, to the importance of affording to wooden
erections some degree of protection from the effects of fire; and

120 Selections. _ [wo. 5, NEW SERIES,

numerous plans have been proposed, and to some extent tested,
for lessening the combustibility of, wood, and for covering its sur-
face with a protective coating more or less unalterable by fire.

The simple application of lime or clay-wash, for example, has —
been found to afford some slight protection to wood, although the
tendency of such materials to peel off the surface of the wood (into
which they do not in any way penetrate), by exposure to heat, and
the rapidity with which the coating is destroyed by atmospheric
influence, render them very ineffective agents.

Several processes have been patented, even recently, for the pro-
tection of wood from fire. Some idea of the general nature of such
processes will be conveyed by the following extract from an official
report made on this subject :—

“The importance of obtaining an effective method of reducing
the combustibility of wood, or even of protecting its surface from
fire, has led to an examination into some of the methods of ac-
complishing this, which have been lately {patented, and of the ge-
neral nature of which the following is a brief statement. |

I.—* Mr. Maugham’s Patent consists in saturating dried wood
with an aqueous solution of phosphate of soda and muriate or sul-
phate of ammonia, in certain proportions.

“Tt is believed by the patentee that these salts will be so affect-
ed by each other, and by the action of heat, that the fibres of the ©
wood will be protected by an incombustible coating, while a quan-
tity of vapour will be generated by the volatilisation, and partial
decomposition, of the ammoniacal salts, which will possess the
power of extinguishing flame.

“ The same objects are believed to be obtained by—

II.—* Lieutenant Jackson's Patent Process, by which wood is im-
pregnated with a solution of salts of zinc and of ammonia.

“The same means are adopted in both of these processes for
saturating the wood.

“Tt is packed into large cylinders from which the air is then
exhausted, the liquid being afterwards forced in with a pressure
of 150 to 200 lbs., which is maintained during one or two hours.

ocT.—DEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 121

It is the same method as that employed in patent processes for
preserving timber from decay.

;

*‘T am not aware whether Mr. MauGHaAm’s process hasbeen sub-
mitted to any extensive practical test. Numerous experiments
were however instituted on Lieutenant Jackson’s process, under
the direction of Mr. BRUNEL.

‘‘ Specimens of seventeen different kinds of wood were prepared ;
corresponding pieces being kept unprepared, and others covered
with a coating of paint. Their powers of resisting fire were tested
by piling the prepared, unprepared and painted specimens round a
perforated sheet iron surface, filled to the top witha bright coke
fire.

‘In most cases the prepared wood resisted the action of fire for
a longer period, and, when removed from the fire, ceased burning
sooner than the unprepared specimens,

“It was also evident that light porous woods were more effi-
ciently protected than those of a denser character.

“‘ There is no doubt therefore that the combustibility of wood is
more or less diminished by either of the above methods of treat-
ment, although the protective action must be ascribed to the in-
destructible compounds with which the wood is to some extent im-
pregnated, far more than to the vapours evolved by the decompo-
sition of the small quantities of ammoniacal salts forced into the
wood.

*‘ Although by the impregnating process adopted in the above
patents, the preparative solution is believed to be forced into the
very centre of the wood, it is essential, if such a result is to be
obtained, that the solution should be weak, since it is impossible
to force strong saline solutions thoroughly into wood.

“Tt is evident that the protective action of the salt cannot, under
these circumstances, be very powerful.

“Were it possible, on the other hand, to employ stronger so-
lutions, the expense of the processes would be considerable.

“The necessity of costly apparatus for impregnating the wood is
-also a matter of serious moment.”

122 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

The patentees of some of the wood-preserving processes go so
far as to state that they are enabled to render wood incombustible
or uninflammable, and such statements have tended to lead to the
presumption that a thoroughly effective protecting agent should
have the power of depriving wood of its combustibility.

It will be readily understood, however, that even if a piece of
wood could be most thoroughly impregnated with a solution of
some strength, of matter unalterable, or at any rate only fusible,
by continued exposure to heat, the amount of protective material
thus deposited in the pores of the wood, although it might be con-
sidered to surround each particle of fibre, would not prevent the
destructive distillation of the wood by the effect of heat, the result
of which would be the disengagement of inflammable vapours from
the wood, and its ultimate complete ignition, if maintained fora
sufficient period in the vicinity of highly heated or burning matter ;
or, if on the other hand, the protective agent employed be conver-
tible by heat inte vapours possessing the property of extinguish-
ing such fire as they may completely surround, such vapours might
have the effect of partially or completely extinguishing the fire in
a piece of ignited wood, after its removal from the source of heat or
fire, but otherwise the volume of vapour generated from the prepa-
ration used, would be but slight, as compared with the inflamma-
ble vapours evolved from the over-heated wood, and would have
no perceptible effect on the combustion of these, while the scorch-
ed, or charred, woody fibre would be less efficiently shielded from
the effect of flame than by the coating formed from an indestruc-
tible preparation.

It does not therefore appear reasonable to expect more from the
most efficient protective coating or impregnating material than—

Ist. That it should considerably retard the ignition of wood,
exposed for some length of time to the effect of a high tempera
ture, or of burning matter in its immediate vicinity.

2nd. That if the vapours which the wood will emit, by con-
tinued exposure to heat, become ignited, the flames thus produced
shall not readily affect the fibre of the wood, and shall cease almost
directly on the removal of the wood from the source of heat; and

oor.—pxc. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 128

3rd. That prepared surfaces of wood, when in actual contact
with burning unprepared wood, shall have little tendency to ignite,
and thereby cause the fire to spread.

In addition to such processes as those above referred to, in
which the protecting material is forced into the wood by the ap-
plication of considerable pressure, trials have been made with
agents of different kinds, in solutions or baths, in which the wood
was steeped, or allowed to soak, for some hours, so that it might
be in a slight degree impregnated with the material, or that a
superficial coating of the protective might, at least, be formed.

‘Some of these methods have been made the subject of experi-
ments by order of Lord Panmure, with a view to test their merits.

One, proposed by W, CO. Satomons, of Paris, consisted in immer-
sing the dried wood alternately, in two baths; the one containing
three parts of acid sulphate of alumina, and one part of glue,
dissolved in six parts of water; the other consisting of two parts of
dry chloride of calcium, one part of glue, and seven parts of water.

The objects which the inventor wishes to attain, by the use of
these solutions, are, firstly, to impregnate the wood slightly with
one of the salts (the chloride of calcium, for example), and then,
by immersion of the wood in the second bath, to effect the decom-
position of the first salt by the second, in the pores of the wood.

Thus the chloride of calcium and sulphate of alumina should
become converted into sulphate of lime, and chloride of aluminum ;
the former an almost insoluble substance, the latter a soluble
deliquescent body, possessing the property of converting the glue,
employed, together with the salts, into an insoluble body—a species
of leather,

The pores of the wooden surfaces are therefore, by the treatment
in question, to be filled up by particles of a substance nearly inso-
luble, and unalterable by heat, which, together with the soluble
salt, also present, are to be protected and united by means of the
precipitated glue, which dries up to a hard, horny substance.

The experiments made with this process showed that the glue
employed in the solutions greatly impeded the penetration of the
wood by the saline matter, and also caused the decomposition of
the salts to be very partial.

124 Selections. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES,

The protective property of the coating formed on the wood, pre-
pared by this process, was not found to be considerable, while the

expense of the materials was great, as compared with others equal-
ly efficient.

The successful results obtained on the Continent by the applica-
tion of alkaline silicates, as protective materials, led to an exami-
nation into the comparative value of the cheapest of these, the
soluble silicate of soda, as an agent for decreasing the combusti-
bility of wood.

The property possessed by the soluble alkaline silicates, of being
readily softened by hot water, and thus converted intoa state of
solution, while they are but slightly affected by cold water, renders
their application to wood, either in the form of a bath, or asa
wash, very simple. ‘Their dilute solutions being readily absorbed
by wood the surfaces of the latter, as it dries, assume the form of
a hard coating.

The experiments made in the first instance with the silicate of
soda, and the results obtained, are described in the following ex-
tract from the official report :-—

‘‘ Various specimens of dry wood were prepared with silicate of
soda, by being soaked for a few hours in a weak solution,

‘* Upon examining the interior of these, after the removal from
the bath and subsequent desiccation, the silicate was found to have
penetrated about a quarter of an inch on all sides.

‘“‘ On piling the above over a fire, together with specimens of un-
prepared wood, and others that had been prepared by different

processes, the superiority of the silicate of soda, as a protective
agent, was fully established.

“ Some specimens of wood were then simply painted witha _
moderately strong solution of silicate, and afterwards placed, to-
gether with unprepared wood, in a pool of coal-tar naptha some of
the latter being thrown over the surfaces of the wood.

Uupon the results of these experiments being reported, an or-
der was issued by Lord Panmunrz to have the proposed process for

OCT.—DEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 125

the protection of wood from fire, practically tested at some of the
camps or stations.

It was ultimately arranged that a proper trial of the process
should be instituted at Chatham, under the direction of Colonel
SanpuHan, R. E.

The nature of the experiments performed at Chatham, and the
results obtained, are detailed in the following official report :—

Report on Experiments at Chatham, from Colonel Sanpuan, R. E.,
and F. A. ABEL, Esq., 1st March 1856 ; to the Inspector Gene-
ral of Fortifications.

Sir,

We have the honor to inform you that some experiments with
silicate of soda applied in conjunction with lime-wash, as a means
of protecting wood from fire, and of retarding its combustibility,
have been made at Chatham, on a sufficient scale to determine
practically the value of this agent, if applied ay a preservative to
camp-huts.

The following is an account of these experiments, and of the re-
sults obtained.

A small single-boarded hut was built in the model Battery, the

material used in its construction being of the description usually
employed for camp huts.

It was provided with one door, and a window-opening on one
side, closed by a shutter.*

After the hut was completed, certain portions of it were prepared,

on the 8th and 9th of January, with the silicate of soda in the fol-
lowing manner :

* The hut was 14 feet by 10 feet, 6 feet high at eaves, and 9 feet at ridge ; it
was constructed of 3 inch deal weather boarding, on quarters and rafters of deal,
3 inch by 2 inch Door, 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 9 inches, of 1 inch deal, and win-
dow 3 feet by 2 feet, closed by ashutter of linch deal. Floor of 1 inch deal, on
fir joists, 4 inches by 2 inches, the upper surface of floor being 6 inches above the
ground. Both sides of the walls from o to s, and from v tom, were prepared. The
insides of the portions a b, ec d were painted with common oil paint in three coats,

that at a 6 being laid on the prepared part, while that at c¢ @ was laid on the un-
prepared part.

326 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

Plan of Hut. 1st. The wood was washed

; over with a somewhat dilute
solution ofthe silicate ofsoda,
applied in the manner usually
adopted for whitewashing
walls.

Window. Qnd. After an interval of
about two hours, a coating of
thick lime-wash was applied,
over that of the silicate.

3rd. On the following day
the prepared portions of the

N, door,
interior of the hut received, upon the lime, asecond application

af the solution of silicate of soda, a little stronger than that first
applied.

Shortly afterwards the exterior prepared portion of the hut was
similarly coated with the silicate.

The prepared wood therefore received.—
Ist. A coating of dilute silicate of soda, which penetrated

slightly into the wood, generally to the depth of about ,'5 inch.

2nd. A coating of thin lime wash, and
3rd. <A second coating of silicate of soda, which, acting chemi-

cally upon the lime, formed a hard protective coating with the lat-

ter on the wood. :
Two opposite corners of the hut, with about one-third of each

side, and a corresponding portion of the roof, were left unpro-

tected.

One side of one of the unprotected corners of the hut received
three coats of paint; a similar coating was applied, over the pro-
tective coating, to one side of a prepared corner. Some pieces of
plank were also prepared with the silicate of soda, and lime, as des-
erlbed above.

Experiments with the prepared hut were unavoidably deferred
until the 12th of February, 1856. During the interval the hut had
been repeatedly exposed to very heavy rains ; but although the light
wood of which it was constructed was eventually completely saturat-

oct.—DEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 127

ed with wet, the coating on the wood was not in the slightest de-
gree injured, and could be removed, by knocking the wood, only jin
one or two places in the roof, where the surface of the boards was
very rough, and the coating consequently less perfect,

EXPERIMENT 1}.

A fire of wood, charcoal, and coke was kindled ina tall iron stove
provided with numerous large openings in the sides, so as to adimit
of a great escape of heat in the neighbourhood of the boards.

‘“‘ Immediately on the ignition of the naphtha, the wood was sur-
rounded by flames, which soon fired the unprepared pieces, whilst
those coated with the silicate only ignited after a time at the edye,
and were scorched or baked by the heat, but not burned.

‘¢ A wooden hut, similar in construction to those at Aldershot,
having been erected in Woolwich Marshes, for the purpose of
testing the value of Phillips’s Fire Annihilator, advantage was tak-
en of the opportunity thus offered for trying,to gome extent, upon
a larger scale, the merits of the silicate as a protective.

“Shortly before the experiment took place, an application was
made to me, by the officers of Royal Engineers, for the preparation,
in some way, of a portion of the building with a protective agent.

** One part was painted, inside and out, with a mixture of lime
“and alum, which, however, was not found upon experiment to act
as an efficient protective against fire.

‘* Another part of the hut was painted, inside and out, three
times, with a solution of silicate of soda.

“Unfortunately for the fairness of the experiment, the building
was constructed with a double boarding, so that it was only possi-
ble to coat or impregnate the planks, on one side. Nevertheless, the
value of this agent was established beyond doubt.

*“‘ A large heap of shavings was lighted in the interior of the hut,
against the coated portion of the wall. The flames played fiercely
upon the latter for some minutes, but only succeeded in kindling
one edge of a plank, and that portion did not blaze, but smoulder-
ed for a short time.

128 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

“‘ By the heat of the fire, the salt was drawn to the surface of the
wood, and fused, forming a glazing upon it.

*“« Subsequently, when the whole building was destroyed by fire,
after unsuccessful attempts to extinguish it by means of the “ An-
nihilators,’”’ the fierceness of the flames was such, that few mate-
rials could have withstood it: yet, of the exterior coated portion
of timber, several planks remained.

** Upon examining these, the unprotected surfaces which had
been directly exposed to the fire were found to be completely char-
red, but this charring had extended only to the point to which the
silicate had penetrated from the other side of the plank.

“‘ This experiment is considered to have proved that the silicate
of soda is a very valuable protective agent, and that, even when
simply applied as a paint, it will serve to protect wood for a consi-
derable time from fire, and to retard greatly the spreading of a con-
flagration.”

Shortly after the experiments above described were made, the
possibility suggested itself of rendering the coating of silicate less
destructible by exposure to wet, of increasing its efficiency as a *
protective, and of rendering its application more economical, by
combining with its use that of ordinary lime-wash.

Some pieces of plank were prepared in the following manner ;
a dilute solution of the silicate of soda was firstapplied with a brush ;
when this had thoroughly soaked into the wood, and dried, a thick.
lime-wash (made by slaking some lime, and reducing the hydrate
to a smooth wash of the consistence of thick cream) was applied,
and lastly, after the planks had been exposed to the air for two or
three hours, they were painted with a second solution of silicate of
soda, somewhat stronger than that first used. The effects of the
liquids thus applied, both upon the wood and on each other, will be
more particularly pointed out in a report subjoined.

Several experiments, precisely similar to those described below,
were made with the prepared planks, the results proving most sa-
tisfactorily that the protective coating resisted toa remarkable de-
gree the action of heat, evinced no symptom of peeling off the high-
ly heated surface of the wood, and protected the fibre to a great
degree from the influence of flame playing upon its surface.

oct.—DEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 129

The durability of the coating was tested by exposing prepared
surfaces of wood to a continuous stream of water, and to heavy
rains, for a considerable period. It was found that the rain had no
effect upon the coating; in the other more severe test, the mate-
rial was only to some extent removed, after a time, on that spot
where the jet of water first impinged upon the wood.

A trial was made of the firmness of the coating, by applying
heavy blows to the surface of the wood; the covering was only dis-
turbed in one or two places, where the lime had been laid on rather
too thickly.

The stove was placed in a prepared corner of the hut, at a dis-
tance of about 10 inches from the sides, and the fire was speedily

raised to a sufficient degree to render the sides of the stove red
hot in several places.

About one hour and a quarter elapsed, after the stove was well
alight, before those portions of the sides nearest to’ the hottest parts
of the fire evinced any sympton of igniting, although the wood was
scorched, and to a great extent baked, in several places: those por-
tions becoming at last so hot on the outside, that the hand could
scarcely be placed against them.

At this point, the prepared side whick had been painted, became
‘ignited, the vapours emitted from it, by the baking of the wood,
being very considerable. The remainder of the heated corner in
flamed instantaneously, but the flame was not so powerful as_ that
covering the painted portion.

After the first burst of flame from the prepared planks, produc-
ed by the ignition of the vapours baked out of the wood, the fire
went down considerably and made but very little progress. Now
and then a small burst of flame was seen on the outside, issuing
from between the joints of the weather-boarding, but it was soon
evident that the fire could only with great difficulty seize perma-
nently on the prepared surface of the wood, and that it only spread
very slowly by creeping along between the overlapping portions
of the planking, which were unprotected, and between the quarter-

130 Selections. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES,

ings and the planks, where the surfaces of the wood could not be
xeached by the brush in the process of preparation.

Some pieces of plank, which had been piled against the stove
in the building, having become inflamed, as also a small portion
of the flooring, which was not prepared, a pail of water was thrown,
from the doorway, at the stove, whereby the fire from the planks
was extinguished ; the water, however, scarcely reached the sides
of the hut and did not affect the fire in the stove.

About an hour after the corner of the hut had been kindled, the
stove, which had some time before partly fallen from some of its
supports, so that it actually leaned against one side of the hut, pro-
truded from the opening ultimately formed in the corner by the
fire, which, though not interfered with, had confined itself almost
to the immediate vicinity of the highly heated stove.

The latter was now removed from the hut through this opening,
and a short time after, a little water was used to extinguish the
fire which had been communicated to that part of floor over which
the stove had been standing. .

The fire which was burning here and there very slowly, in the
corner of the hut, was left untouched.

EXPERIMENT 2.

Soon after the experiment above described had been commenced,
and before the fire in the stove had produced any effect upon the
hut, a pile of shavings and wood, with a little tar, was made in the
opposite prepared corner of the hut, upon some loose prepared
planks (laid down to save the unprepared flooring of the hut,) and,
this having been kindled, a fierce fire was maintained for about
ten minutes ; the flames licking the sides of the hut and a portion
of the roofing.

At the expiration of that time, the sides and upper corner of the
hut were perceived to be burning in a few places, at the edges of
the weather-boarding. <A short time afterwards the pile of fire
was withdrawn, upon which the prepared surfaces of the wood
immediately ceased burning, and it was found that the fire had

oct.—DEc. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 131

only to a slight extent seized permanent hold of the corner, in

three places. ?

1st. At the bottom where two planks overlapped : the fire was
soon extinguished spontaneously at this point.

2nd. About half-way up the corner between the back of the
quartering and the weather-boarding, where the fire continued to
smoulder on, consuming the unprepared portion of the wood in
that spot.

3rd. In the upper corner, immediately under the roofing. At
this spot, there was necessarily a considerable portion of wood (the
backs of the joists, wall plates, and planking) which could not be
reached by the preparation, and which therefore served as a hold
for the fire.

It was interesting to observe how in this, as in the experiment
first detailed, the fire slowly crept along those small portions of
wood which had escaped preparation, in the protected corners
(i. e., the overlapping edges of the weather-boarding, and the
backs of the quarterings) ; while the prepared surfaces of wood ex-
hibited no tendency to carry the fire along, and were only con-
sumed when in contact with other burning matter, or when sur-
rounded for a length of time by flame from unprotected portions
of the wood.

Although, at the expiration of about three hours, portions of the
two opposite corners of the hut were still burning ; and frequent
gusts of wind served to fan the fire, it was found that the hut
could be left, without fear of the fire spreading so as to become
unmanageable.

Upon our returning to the hut, after the lapse of about half an
hour, the fire was still found smouldering here and there in both
corners, having extended very little farther along the unprotected
portions of the wood, as above described, particularly between
three of the joists, and in the corner immediately under the roofing.

The effects of the fire were watched for a short time longer,
and the few burning places in the prepared corners were then
‘extinguished by the application of a little water from a mop.

132 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

The above experiments showed that although the attempts to
kindle the protected corners of the hut had ultimately succeeded,
in one instance, by the maintenance of a fierce fire for several
minutes against the wood, and in the other by the immediate vici-
nity, and even actual contact, of a highly heated stove with the
wood, for a great length of time.— |

Ist. The prepared surfaces of wood, having been thoroughly
baked, only burned as long as they were in close contact with
burning, or highly heated matter, or for an instant when exposed
to a powerful current of air; and did not possess any tendency to
lead the fire along, this being only effected by the unprepared
portion of the wood :

2nd. At any period during the four hours, for which time the
fire was allowed to exert its uncontrolled effect upon the prepared
portions of the hut, the burning parts of the building could have
been with ease extinguished, by means of a couple of pails of
water. ¢

EXPERIMENT 3.

While the experiments with the hut were being carried on, some
pieces of prepared and of unprepared planking were piled together
in two similar heaps in the open air, and a fire of shavings and
wood-chips was made up under them.

The comparative tardiness with which the prepared planks in-
flamed, and the difference in time required to effect the actual
ignition of these and that of the unprepared planks was very evi-
dent, as was also the case with pieces of planks which had been
piled up against the sides of the stoves in the building.

The prepared boards upon which the fire had been Kept up in
the corner of the hut were also examined, and found to be but
little affected by their protracted contact with burning matter.

The wood had only caught at the edges, and was found smoul-
dering there in two or three places.

By submitting the glimmering portion to the blast of a bellows,
a small flame was produced, which went out immediately on the
removal of the current of air,

ocT.— DEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 133
EXPERIMENT 4.

In order to have convincing proof of the advantages of the pre-
paration in retarding the ignition of wood, it was resolved to make
experiments, similar to those described as Nos. 1 and 2 ; to observe
the difference in time required for the ignition of the wood in the
unprepared corners of the hut, and to ascertain the comparative
power of the fire to extend, in these parts.

A fire was kindled in the stove placed in one of the unprotected
corners of the hut. In about ten minutes after the stove had be-
eome thoroughly heated, the sides of the hut burst into flames,
which at once rose to the roofing above, and kindled portions of it.

A heap of wood and shavings was lighted in the opposite un-
prepared corner, and in two or three minutes this portion of the
hut was in flames.

The unprepared wood having been once kindled, the fire spread
so rapidly as to be quite unmanageable in a»few minutes, the
flames completely filling the interior of the hut. But even under
these circumstances, when the intense heat and fierce flames from
the burning portions soon spread the fire to the prepared parts of
the hut, it was remarkable how the flame crept along between the
crevices and overlapping portions of the planks where the wood
was unprepared, so that the prepared surfaces were always tho-
roughly surrounded by flame for a considerable time before they
ignited. Some portions of the prepared planking, of which the
wood had probably imbibed a rather larger quantity of silicate, in
consequence of its greater porosity, offered great resistance to the
fire to the very last.

We consider the experiments above detailed to have afforded
conclusive proof ona practical scale, of the considerable power
possessed by silicate of soda, applied simply as a coating, in con-
junction with lime, of retarding the inflammability of wood.

It is, of course, impossible even by the thorough impregnation
of wood with various substances, to deprive it of the property of
burning ; the only results to be attained by the use of a protective
material are,—

134 Selections. [NO. 0, NEW SERIES,

lst. To shield the substances of the wood itself in a great
degree from the effects of neighbouring fire, or of the vapours which
will issue from over-heated wood, and burn onits surface, and.—

2nd. To deprive the wood to a considerable extent, of the
power of carrying the fire along, thus rendering necessary the con-
tinued application of heat or fire from another source (such as an
over-heated stove or unprotected portions of wood) in order to
effect its thorough ignition.

An examination of the experiments just described will show that
these results are obtained by the application of the silicate of soda
to the wood. ‘This substance may be obtained in any quantity at a
very reasonable rate and the method of applying it is so simple, that
the wood may be properly prepared with it by ordinary workmen.

It appears to us important that, if its application to new Camp
huts should be determined upon, the wood to be employed in their
structure should be completely coated with the preparation, before
the erection of the buildings, in order to give the latter a fair chance
of resisting the action of fire, reaching the wood from any quarter.

But even in buildings already erected, it isofimportance that those
portions which are in any way liable to possible exposure to heat
or fire (e. g. the portions in the vicinity of stoves), should receive
the very considerable protection which would be afforded by the
application of the silicate coating, any covering of paint or paper
having first been remcved.

We beg to give it as our opinion that the efficiency of the protec-
tive agent in question has been sufficiently tested to obviate the
necessity of further trials upon a large scale, and submit, in con-
clusion, that while the extensive employment of light wooden build-
ings for huts and temporary workshops, renders the application of
some protective material to the znéertor of these, at any rate, a
matter of great importance, it is of equal consequence that such an
agent, if adopted for use in the service, should be easy of applica-
tion and inexpensive, and that its employment should be as com-
pletely under the control of Government as that of any ordinary
coating material,

oct.— DEC: 1857] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 135

The above report was accompanied*by a communication relating
to the cost of the application of the silicate coating, in which it
was stated that, provided the silicate of soda employed has been
prepared with especial reference to this application (2. e.so as to be
readily and completely misceable with water,) one pound of the
material is sufficient to prepare a surface of wood of ten square
feet; while the wholesale price of the silicate, in the form ofa
syrup of acertain degree of concentration, is twenty pounds per
ton ; so that the cost of the silicate, required to prepare the wood,
is at the rate of about two-pence for a surface of ten square feet.

Experiments are just now being carried on, with a view to im-
part to the silicate coating the appearance of paint, by combining
the use of different colouring matters with that of the lime.

The following are the directions adopted for general guidance,
in preparing wood with the coating of silicate of soda and lime.

DIRECTIONS FOR COVERING TIMBER WITH A PRoTECTIVE CoAT-

ING OF THE SILICATE OF SoDA AND LIME.

Materials emgloyed.—The silicate of soda, must be in the form
of a thick syrup, of a known degree of concentration, as manufac-
tured by Messrs. Simpson and Co., Kennington Road, London.

The lime-wash should be made by slaking some good fat lime,
rubbing it down with water until perfectly smooth, and then di-
luting it to the consistency of thick cream.

Treatment of the Wood.—The protective coating is produced by
painting the wood, firstly with a dilute solution of silicate of soda;
secondly, with the lime wash ; and lastly, with a somewhat stronger
solution of the silicate.

The surface of the wood should be moderately smooth, and any
covering of paper, paint, or other material should be first removed
entirely, by planing or scraping.

A solution of the silicate, in the proportion of one part by
measure of the syrup to three parts of water, is prepared in a tub,
pail, or earthen vessel by simply stirring the measured proportion
of the silicate with the water, until complete mixture is effected.

136 Selections. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES,

The wood is then washed ever with this liquid, by means of an
okdinary white-wash brush, the latter being passed two or three
times over the surface, so that the wood may absorb as much of
the solution as possible. When this first coating is nearly dry, the
wood is painted with the lime-wash in the usual manner.

A solution of the silicate, in the proportion of two parts by mea-
sure of the syrup to three parts of water, is then made; anda
sufficient time having been allowed to elapse for the wood to become
moderately dry, this liquid is applied, upon the lime, in the manner
directed for the first coating. The preparation of the wood is then
complete. If the lime-coating has been applied rather too thickly,
the surface of the wood may be found, when quite dry, after the
third coating, to give off a little lime when rubbed with the hand.
In that case, it should be once more coated over with a solution of
the silicate, of the strength prescribed for the second liquid.

Directions for Covering Timber with a Coating of the Silicate of Soda
and Iime, as a Protective from Fire.

MATERIALS EMPLOYED.

THE SILICATE oF SopA must be in the form of a thick syrup of
a known degree of concentration, and is diluted with water when
required for use according to the prescriptions given below.

The lime-wash should be made by slaking some good fat lime,
rubbing it down with water until perfectly smooth, and diluting it
to the consistency of thick cream.

TREATMENT OF THE Woop.

The protective coating is prduced by painting the wood, firstly
with a dilute solution of Silicate of Soda; secondly with the lime-
wash; and lastly, with a somewhat stronger solution of the Silicate.

The Surface cf the wood should be moderately smooth, and any
covering of paper, paint or other material, should be first removed
entirely, by planing or scraping.

A solution of the Silicate, in the proportion of one part by mea-
sure of the syrup to four parts of water, is prepared in a tub, pail
or earthen vessel by stirring the measured proportion of the Silicate

oct.—DxEC. 1857.] Scientific Intelligence. 137

first with a very small quantity of the necessary water until a
complete mixture is produced, and then adding the remainder cf
the water in successive quantities, until a perfect mixture in the re-
quisite proportions is obtained.

The wood is then washed over with this liquid, by” means of an
ordinary white-wash brush, the latter being passed two or three
times over the surface, so that the wood may absorb as much of
the Solution as possible. When this first coating is nearly dry,
ihe wood is painted with the lime-wasb in the usual manner.

A solution of the Silicate, in the proportion of one part by mea-
sure of the syrup to two parts of water, is then made as above des-
cribed ; and a sufficient time having been allowed to elapse for the
wood to become moderately dry, this liquid is applied, upon the
lime, in the manner directed for the first coating. The preparation
of wood is then complete. If the lime coating has been applied
rather too thickly, the surface of the wood may be found, when
quite dry after the third coating, to give off a little lime when rub-
bed with the hand. In that case, it should be once more coated
over with a solution of the Silicate of the first-named strength.

(Signed) F. A. ABEL,
Royat ARSENAL Wootwicu. Chemist of the War Department.

Notz.—[The Marquess Origo, Commandant of the firemen at Rome, dipped
the dresses of his men in a solution of Sulphate of Alumine and Sulphate of lime.
Clothed in these suits, and their faces covered with incombustible masks, they
traversed burning buildings without injury. Journal of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 1831, p. 164.]—Epb. M. J.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Scientific Mission to India.

An important paper has just been read to the Academy of Sci-
ences on a mission sent to India and Upper Asia in 1854, by the
King of Prussia and the East India Company. The members of the
mission consisted of three brothers, MM. Herrmann, Adolphus, and

138 Screntific Mission to India. [No.5, NEWSERIES,

Robert Schlagentweit, two of whom, MM. Herrmann and Robert,
returned in June last; the third, M, Adolphus, is still among the
Himalaya mountains, and is expected soon to return, vid the Pun-
jaub and Rombay. During the winter of 1854-55, these enterpri-
sing travellers visited the region lying between Bombay and Ma-
dras ; in the following summer M., Herrmann explored the eastern
parts of the Himalaya, the Sikkim, Bhootan, and Khasia mountains,
where he measured the altitudes of several peaks. The highest of
all the summits known throughout the world appears, by his mea-
surements, to be the Gahoorishanka, situated in the eastern portion
of Nepaul—the same announced as such by Colonel Waugh, but
called by him Mount Everest, because he hac been unable to ascer.
tain its real name in the plains of Hindoostan, where he effected
his measurement. This peak is somewhat more than 29,000 feet
in height, and bears another name in Thibet, where it is called Chin-
gopamari. The other two brothers penetrated by different roads
into the central parts of the Himalaya, Kumaon, and Gurwhal;
they then visited Thibetin disguise, entered the great commercial
station of Gartok, explored the environs of Lake Mansarowr, and
that remarkable crest which separates the waters of the Indus from
those of the Dihong, often erroneously called the Burrampooter.
They ascended the Ibi-Gamine, 22,260 feet in height, that being
an altitude never before attained in any part of the world. After
having been separated from each other for a space of fourteen
months, during which M. Robert ascertained that the table-land
of Amarkantak, in Central India, which is generally stated to be
8,000 feet above the level of the sea, is not more than 3,300 feet
in height, the three brothers again met at Simla, previous to com-
mencing the operations intended for the summer of 1856. M.
Adolphus, on leaving that place, crossed the Himalaya, went over
Thibet, Baltistan, and visited the interesting spot where several
mountain crests meet, and the Hindoo Koosh joins the range lying
to the north of India. He then returned to the Punjaub through
the valley of Cashmere. MM. Herrmann and Robert proceeded
to Ladak by different routes. Under good disguises, they were
enabled to penetrate into Turkistan, proper by crossing the Karako-
ram and the Kuenlun mountains, and descending into the great

oct.—DECc. 1857.] Scientific Intelligence. 139

valley of Yarkand, a region never visited before, not even by Marco
Polo. It is a vast depression of between 3,000 and 4,000 feet,
separating the Kuenlun, on the northern frontier of India, from
the Syan-Chane, or mountains of Central Asia, on the southern
border of Russia. They then returned to Ladak, and entered into
the Punjaub by different routes through Cashmere. After a two
years’ negotiation, M. Herrmann was, at the commencement of
1857, admitted into Nepaul, where he determined the altitudes
of the Machipoora and Mount Yassa, which have hitherto been
vaguely called the Dhawalaghiri, which means nothing else but
“snowy crests,’ and is applicable to all snow-capped mountains.
M. Robert proceeded to Bombay through Scinde, Kutch, and Gu-
zerat, where he surveyed the chain called the Salt Range, and de-
termined the changes effected in the course of centuries in the
course of several rivers. Before returning to Europe, he stayed
three months in Ceylon. M. Adolphus visited various parts of the
Punjaub and Cabul, previous to returning to the Himalaya, where
he still is. The chief results obtained from this careful explora-
tion of Asia are the following:—The Himalaya mountains every-
where exercise a decided influence over all the elements of the
magnetic force ; the declination everywhere presents a slight de-
viation, causing the needle to converge towards the central parts of
that enormous mass, and the magnetic intensity is greater than it
would be anywhere else under an equal latitude. In the south of
India, the increase of the magnetic intensity from south to north is
extremely rapid. The lines of equal magnetic intensity have a re-
markable form, similar and perhaps parallel to those of certain
groups of isothermal lines. The three travellers have collected all
the materials necessary to ascertain this important fact. Irregular
local variations in terrestrial magnetism are rare in those regions.
In the Deccan and Behar the rocks are magnetic. On the Hima-
laya, at altitudes of 17,000 and even 20,000 feet, the daily maximum
and mznimum variations of the barometer occurred nearly about the
same hours as in the plains below. Again, at the above altitudes,
the inversion of the curves of daily variation, which is met with on
the Alps, does not take place. At the altitude of 17,000 feet, the di-
minution of transparency produced by a stratum of air of the thick-
ness of 3,000 feet is no longer distinguishable by the eye. During the

140 Scientific Intelligence. [No.5, KEW SERIES,

dust storms which frequently occur in India, the dise of the sun is
séen of a blue colour; if small bodies are made to project their
shadows on a white surface under such circumstances, the shadow
is of an orange colour—that is, complementary to blue. The trans-
parency of the waters of the Ganges, the Burrampooter, and the
Indus was tested by letting down a stone into them, which generally
became invisible at a depth of from 12 to 15 centimetres (5 to 6
inches), showing that they are overcharged with earthy particles,
for in the sea near Corfu a stone is visible to the depth of 50 feet, and
in these as under the tropics it remains visible at a depth of 30 feet.
— Times, 287d October, 1857.

Poisoning with the Seeds of Thevetia neriifolia.

The following’ extract from a communication by Dr. Dovetas
MaciaGan to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, is worthy of at-
tention, detailing the history of two cases of poisoning by a shrub,
common in our gardens, known as the exile or yellow Oleander. Dr.
J. Batrour, Bengal Army, was called by the Native doctor to see
his own children, reported to be suffering from obstinate vomiting,
and narrates as follows:

“« Upon investigation, it turned out that, they had found the seeds of a
shrub called by the natives Cheen-ke-kunér or the Chinese Oleander, said
to be the Jatropha multifida, or one of the physic nuts ; they had broken
the nuts, and finding the kernels bitter, had played at ‘ Doctors,’ and had
each eaten about one whole nut. (A younger boy, said to have eaten
half a nut, did not suffer at all.) This was about noon, at three they eat
their dinner, in their ordinary style, and were free of complaint ; they ap-
peared quite well when I left them, about a quarter past six, to go out to
dinner, but soon after began to feel unwell, for they refused their tea. The
principal peculiarity in the action of the poison was the style of vomiting ;
no retching nor straining, but a single gulp, without much apparent dis-
tress, and then an immediate return to the recumbent posture, and a state
of somnolence. The pulse in No. 1 was very weak as well as slow, and I
was anxious about him for some time. The taste of the kernels is extremely
bitter—a persistent aloe flavour—and in this also I think it differs from the

ocT.—peEc. 1857.] Scientific Intelligence. 141

description given of the physic-nut, which is stated to be sweet like al-

monds.—Joun Batrour.

A single glance at the specimens, which the letter enclosed, sufficed to
show (that they had nothing to do with Jatropha multifida, but) that they
belonged to one of the Apocynacez, and ashort search through the Univer-
sity Herbarium enabled me to identify the plant as Thevetia neriifolia,
Juss, Ann. Mus. 346.

This is a species well known threughout India, more commonly under
its older synonyme of Cerbera Thevetia, Linn. It eccurs in almost all
the collections from India, which are in the University Herbarium. In
Hamilton Buchanan’s Catalogue, where it forms No. 718, under Willde-
now’s name of Cerbera Thevetia, there is the following account of it: —

* Hab. in hortis Magadhae, Simillima certe plante que, ex America,
alata, in horto botanico prope Calcuttam colitur, et perhibent Brahmani
plantam in scriptis suis antiquis bene esse cognitam.’

On the tally, however, accompanying the specimen to which this refers,

there is written— :

‘This really was introduced by Dr. Roxburgh, but is called the yellow
oleander, and supposed to have come from Nepal. Patna, 22d April 1812.’

The affirmation made in the catalogue, that it resembles a species brought
from America, appears to be true; for, on comparing it with a Cerbera
from Peru, in the University Herbarium, sent as Cerbera peruviana (Ma-
thews’ Catalogue, 442), I can see no trace of difference between the two
plants,” and this is the opinion maintained in De Candolle’s Prodromus,
where, under Thevetia neriifolia, are given not only Cerbera Thevetia,
but ©. peruviana, as synonymes.

O’Shaugnessy states that Cerbera Thevetia is ‘ said to be powerfully fe-
brifuge, two grains being affirmed to be equal to a common dose of Cin-
chona.’ [Beng. Dispensatory, p. 447. ]

Dr. B. subsequently wrote “ that young M—, one of the poisoned, who
had been subject to ague up te the time of eating the seeds, has had none
since. True, the aguish tendency was much weakened, but perhaps the
poisoning did him good.”’

Almost every Indian plant possessed of bitterness, is said, if not in
India, at least in books, to be reputed febrifuge ; and as to its effects on
young M——, it need hardly be remarked, that a periodic disease, espe-
cially if on the wane, might be readily broken up by any agent produging
such a commotion in the constitution as in this case,

142 Scientific Intelligence. [NO, 5. NEW SERIES,

There can be little doubt that, whether febrifuge or not, the Thevetia is
péssessed of very active properties. ‘The symptoms, at first sight, seem to
be those of a narcotico-irritant, the irritant action predominating ; but,
from Dr. Balfour’s description, I am inclined to doubt their being narcotic
in the true sense, the somnolence, etc.. being more like that of exhaustion
from a violent acrid ; the peculiar vomiting was perhaps an action of the
stomach itself, unaided by the abdominal muscles and diaphragm. We
might well expect the plant to be possessed of dangerous qualities of some
sort, considering its affinity with the very acrid Cerbera Manghas of the
East Indies, and the still more deadly C. Tanghin, the ordeal poison of
Madagascar, of which, if we are to believe it, ‘akernel not larger than an
almond is sufficient to destroy twenty people.’ ”’

[This notice, contains an important addition to our knowledge of an indigenous
Medical plant, the bark of which isa reputed febrifuge, but the seeds are thus
proved to be a Narcotico-acrid poison.]|—Ep. M. J.

Coal in Scinde.—It gives us much pleasure to learn that the coal
diggings near Kotree is daily progressing favorably ; up to the
6th instant, Mr. inman, with his staff, had completed exactly 100
feet in the Great Experimental Shaft, and passed through a three
feet seam of beautiful coal, full of bitumen and gaseous principle ;
the coal is so good, that it works with great advantage in the
smithy, and has the peculiar property of rendering the hard harsh
brittle English iron, soft and malleable as silver. Colonel Scott and
Captain DeLisle both visited the place, and were highly pleased at
the coal prospects of Sind. The sinking is now carried on through
a hard ferruginous white sandstone not perfectly formed. Strange
to say, not one drop of water had touched the shaft at this depth.
—Sindian, Jan. 13, 1858.

Death of Mr. Purdie. On October 10, at Trinidad, William
Purdie Esq., for many years Government Botanist of this Colony.
The deceased was widely known for his exertions in his peculiar
province, in making which he had visited nearly every portion of
the Island, and carried out long investigations with no small degree
of endurance.

Governor Keate has selected Dr. Kruger, a gentleman long re-
sident on the Island, of considerable scientific attainments and well
acquainted with Tropical Botany.

oct.—pkc. 1857.] The late Dr. Schmid. 143

OBITUARY NOTICES.

Since the last issue of this Journal, we have had occasion to la-
ment the death, of the Venerable Doctor BERNHARD ScuMID,
formerly of the Church Mission, who died at Calicut, on Ist Octo-
ber 1857, at the advanced age of 70. This erudite Missionary
came out to India in 1817, and whilst labouring in his high calling
corresponded with several Savans in Germany, as Baron von Hv-
GEL and Nees von EsENBECK; with Sir Wm. Hooker, of Kew,
and with Dr. Wraut, of Madras.

In the fourth volume of this Journal is a notice of Zenker’s
“© Plante Indicae,” quas in montibus Nilagiricis collegit Bernhard
Schmid, Folio Jena. 1835,

Two decades only of this work appeared, in consequence of the
early death of Dr. Zenxer, Professor of Botany at Jena, who
had undertaken the publication of the extensive and valuable ma-
terials transmitted to him by our lamented friend. The publica-
tion of aserialin Saxony which depended for support upon Indian
subscribers, was attended with many difficulties, but the 20 colour-
ed Illustrations were executed in a superior style, the Analysis by
Scumip, and the Botanical Descriptions by ZenxkER. At page
836 of the same volume of this Journal, is a short article *“* The
Study of Botany recommended,” which is very characteristic of the
simple minded Missionary.

We find from Manuscripts placed at our disposal, that about this
time, to use his own words “ from the burning climate of Tinne-
velly, incessant labour, and the greatdiscouragement experienced in
my work, my health failed.” He left his post very reluctantly first
for the Neilgherry Hills, and afterwards for Germany. During his
sick leave he was not idle, and the following are a few of the Lite-
rary productions printed chiefly whilst he was on the Neilgherries.

1, ‘ English Orthoepy or Pronouncing Spelling Book” (small
Dictionary) for Tamulians.”’

2. A second Edition of Translation of Baxter’s Saints’ Rest.

3. Translation of the two First Books of Thomas a Kempis.

144 — Obituary Notice. [wo. 5, NEW SERIES,

4, English Tamil Grammar, compiled for the Palamcottah Se-
: minary.

5. A Treatise showing where the different Descendants of Noah

settled (as far as certainly known,) and taking particu-

lar notice of all nations and countries mentioned in the

Scriptures. .
6. A Chronology of Universal History.
7. Introduction to do. 22 pages.

The following passage in his private Journal, will illustrate the
character of the man.

“© My health failing entirely, I was constrained to apply for leave
to go to Europe for the recovery of my health, whilst waiting on the
Hills for a reply from England, two families of the Aborigines set-
tled near my house, in order to learn Tamul from me, and one of
them with the avowed intention to be by means of the Tamul, in-
structed in Christianity. Whilst teaching them Tamul, I compil-
ed a Vocabulary of their language, containing above 400 words,
from which it is clearly established that their speech is an ancient,
rude dialect of the Tamul. Dr, Coxe intended to print it, but my
strength was so exhausted that I was unable, much asI wished it,
to write out a fair copy before sailing.”’

When, in 1836, his leave to Germany having been sanctioned, and
he was preparing for the voyage, he writes ‘“ God found it good
to take away by death, my three sons within four months. I had )
now quite given up my work among the Tamulians (although not
among the Todawars,) and I occupied my mind, by writing an Eng-
lish Treatise ‘ on the Relationship of Languages and Nations,’
in which I embodied the results of my philological inquiries and
observations during the last 28 or 30 years. This occupation was
a relief to my mind in my heavy and unexpected affliction. The
treatise was printed in the Madras Journal of Literature and
Science, 1837, Vol. V., p. 133. After my arrival in Germany, I
made a free translation of it, which was printed at the expense of
the Director of Instruction, Dr. Niemeyer, the successor in office
of Aug. H. Franke of Halle, in order to recommend thereby the
Mission cause to the attention of the Students in German Univer-
sities, and of the German Literary Public in general.” Again, he

ocT.x—DeEc. 1857.] The late Dr. Schmid. . ie

writes in a letter to a friend. ‘“ During the year 1840, the exhaus-
tion of my nerves and of my bodily strength was so great, that it
was quite out of the question to undertake any stated official duties,
even if procurable. In the Winter of 1840-41, I had an attack of
influenza which retarded my recovery. In May 1841, I went there-
fore to Almenau, a cold water bathing place, and submitted to the
most rigorous homeopathic and hydropathic regimen for 18
months, entirely abstaining not only from wine and beer (which I had
scarcely touched since my return to Germany, much less spirits,)
but also from the use of tea, coffee, pepper and every kind of sti-
mulants ; and my stay there restored me to that degree of healthy,
and comparatively youthful appearance, which made you overlook
my grey hairs.”

In the end of 1845, Dr. Schmid returned from Europe, and
subsequently resided at Ootacamund, and devoted his leisure hours
more especially to the study of Cryptogamic plants. We received
not a month before his death, the List of Nei?gherry Ferns de-
scribed by Professor Kunze in the “ Linnea, Vol. 8, July 1851, and
a Catalogue of Neilgherry Mosses, named and described by Dr.
Charles Miller of Halle in Prussia, in the “ Botanische Zeitung”
1853 and 1854, These lists we have thought it desirable to pub-
lish in the present No. of this Journal ; they will prove useful to
the explorers of these elevated regions, as the Spicilegium Netlgher-
rense of Wight terminates with the Labiate.

A Genus of Acanthaceae, allied to Meyenia and Hexacentris, bears
the name Schmidia, and was one of the latest discoveries of Dr.
Wight. Several specimens of Ferns and Mosses were also named
. in honor of him by his German friends,

Dr. Schmid presented to the University Museum of Jena, a piece
of the fossil wood of Trivacary, near Pondicherry, which has been
described and figured in a German dissertation on Fossil woods by
Professors Schleiden and EE. Schmid of Jena. A copy of this work
was presented by the authors to the Library of the Madras Museum
in 1856, containing lithographic figures of the following fossil
woods. |

Psaronius Cattai.
Peuce Sibirica, Pl, II.

146 Obituary Notice. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

Peuce pauperrima, (Schleiden. )
‘ > aD,
» 4ipseriana,
»» Australis, (Unger.)
» Schmidiana, (Schleiden)

the last being the specimen referred to. The following passage
occurs in the “ Musee Botanique de Baron Delessert,” p. 4383,
‘Le reverend Bernard Schmid, Ecclesiastiquede Weimar, attaché aux
missions evangeliques, et quia longtemps sejourné dans l’Inde, a
parcouru les Nil-Gherry, et a fait avec soin des herbiers de plantes
de ces montagnes, il a visite principalement Konnor, Kota-Gherry,
Outa-Kamound, etc.’

We had scarcely heard of the removal of this venerable Mission-
ary, when we received the sorrowful tidings of the decease of ano-
ther Indian Botanist and friend, intelligence, which was much more
sudden and unlooked for, and particularly affected the writer of

these lines.

II. Cares Drew, Assistant Surgeon, was educated at Plymouth
and afterwards at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. He subsequently
settled at Wiveliscombe, Devon, as a County practitioner, when he
was advised in 1854, to compete for admission into the Honorable
East India Company’s Medical Service, he succeeded and stood high
in the List. He broughtanote to us from Dr. Hooker of Kew men-
tioning his acquirements in Botany. A few months afterwards, he
acted for a short time as professor of Botany, Medical College. Mr.
Drew was as a Member of our Society, energetic and indefatigable
not only as regards the study of the Indian Flora, but with respect
to all subjects coming under his observation, whence he thought ~
he could derive useful information.

He was a skilful Histologist, and has left a Book of Botanical
drawings executed by himself in a superior style, showing that he
had carefully studied and accurately delineated the minute structure
of several little known Genera. He adopted the excellent practice
of devoting a short time daily to the Analytical study of plants.
Last year, Mr. Drew, in the capacity of Secretary to the Local Ex-
hibition of Calicut, discharged his duties most efficiently. A notice
of his search for the Gutta Percha Tree of Wynaad will be found at

oct.—pxc. 1857.] The lale Mr. Walker. 147

p- 169 of the last volume of this Journal. He had just been ap-
pointed to the Forest department, where his careful habits of inquiry,
and his exactness gave the promise of his being a valuable assist-
ant. Putting private feelings aside, we could not refrain as editing
this Journal, from recording the early death of this earnest and
hopeful Naturalist. It is worthy ofremark, that Mr. Drew first sug-
gested the preceding notice of Dr. Schmid, which he himself was
well qualified to have undertaken, but it devolves upon the Editor
to chronicle both the old and young.

III, Mr. Warxer. Among the losses that have recently been sus-
tained in the scientific circle of India, few are more to be regretted
than the late Henry Watxker, who filled the chair of Physiology
and Comparative Anatomy, in the Calcutta Medical College. After
two years of frequent illness and repeated warnings, which unfor-
tunately were neglected, he was induced to leave India on Sick
Certificate in March last. It was too late. Shortly after his arrival
in London, he became rapidly worse, and sunk under an attack of
the most recent form of his ailments, disease of the kidneys, on the

22nd May, 1857 at the age of 53.

Mr. WaLkKER was born of humble parents at Huddersfield, where
he received his early education, and choosing the profession of
Medicine, he served his apprenticeship to a Surgeon of that town.
He afterwards prosecuted his studies in London, Paris and Berlin,
where he was for three years, the pupil of the eminent Physiologist
MULLER, and imbibed that taste for comparative*Anatomy, which
he afterwards pursued with such vigor.

It was not till 1839, when he had attained the mature age of 36,
that he received his appointment to the Bengal Medical Service.
His first employment was that of Civil Surgeon at Gowahatty in
Assam, where he devoted himself with ardor to the study of Natu-
ral History. Two years later, he was nominated by Lord AuckLanp,
Surgeon of the Body Guard, in which capacity he accompanied
Lord ELLENBOROUGR, in the Gwalior Campaign which led to his
being appointed personal Surgeon to the Governor General, a post
which he continued to fill under Lord ELLENBOROUGH’s successor,
He attended Lord HarDINGE throughout the Sutlej Campaign, for

€

148 Obituary Notice. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

his services during which he was thanked in the General Orders
of 14th February 1846, and received the offer of the Superintending
Surgeoncy of the Gwalior Subsidiary Force, one of the most lucrative
posts in the service. Influenced, however, bya desire to take part
in the organization of the Medical College, which had been for
some time projected, he preferred waiting for the establishment of
that Institution, which took place towards the close of the following
year. He was then appointed Professor of Anatomy and Physiolo-
gy, and notwithstanding an ill judged reduction of the salary, which
left him in very straitened circumstances, he devoted himself with
the ardor of his character to the advancement of the institution
and to the improvement of his class, resisting the temptations of
private practice, which his high professional attainments would
have ensured, that he might apply himself more exclusively to his
Collegrate labors. In 1855, he was appointed Professor of Compara-
tive Anatomy, in addition to the Department he already held, but
he refused to be made Principal of the College out of delicacy to
his colleagues, whom from a too scrupulous feeling he felt unwil-
to supersede.

It was shortly after this, that his health began to fail, and he was
only prevented by want of means occasioned by the niggardly salary
attached to his appointment, from having recourse to the advice
again and again urged upon him, of recruiting his shattered health
by returning home.

Every year during the College vacation, he repaired to the Coast
of Arracan, for the purpose of studying the numerous remarkable
animal productions in which a tropical sea so richly abounds. His
notes and dissections accompanied by elaborate drawings of Mol-
luscs, Annelides and Radiated Animals were prepared with sedu-
lous care and scrupulous accuracy. His researches among the
naked Molluscs, particularly in the families of the Nudz, Tect: and
Infero-branchiata, and the Tunicata, were rewarded by the discovery
of numerous new and interesting forms, which he investigated with
singular patience and success. The collections amassed during
eight years of continued labour, contain a store of materials of the
greatest value in some of the least known departments of Zoology,
which he fondly hoped one day to give to the public himself, but

ocr.— DEC. 1857.] Notices of Books. 149

which it is hoped, will still be suffered to see the light. It is
earnestly to be desired, that the task of editing his papers may Lt
committed to competent hands, for we are well assured that if
adequately treated, they will pove a lasting and worthy monument
of one who was eminent not only for the zeal and ability which
distinguish the votary of science, but for those high minded, disin-
terested and generous qualities that do honor to the man, and which
in him were carried to an almost morbid extent.

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

Thwaites’s Enumeration of the Plants of Ceylon.

Under the above title, we are happy to find from the Kew Mis-
cellany, that Mr. Thwaites is preparing a worl on the plants of
Ceylon, giving a correct list of all the hitherto described species,
together with generic and specific characters of such as are new.
The enumeration will comprise (we understand) the Phanerogamia
and Ferns. We should be glad to find, that it includes the lower
orders of Cryptogamia also, for there is no man better able to un-
dertake the Flora of that Island, or to develope the resources of
the Colony.

The list of species, indigenous to the Island, as contained in the
Peradenia Herbarium is nearly 3,000. Dr. J. D. Hooker, assists
Mr. Thwaites in determining the correct nomenclature by verifying
his species in the magnificent collection at Kew. The description of
the new species will be in Latin, but the notice of ‘‘ uses, &c.”’ in
English. Mr. Thwaites is now on a tour through Bintenne and the
Eastern parts of the Island, enlarging his knowledge of their vege-
table productions, with a view to a general introduction to the
Enumeration.

Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, by David
Livingstone, LL.D., D. C. L. London, John Murray, Albemarle
street, 1857, 8vo, pp. 688.

€

150 Notices of Books. [no. 5, NEW SERIES,

The publication of Dr. Livingstone’s Discoveries, has rendered
it an easier task than usual to name the most important book of
the year. The demand for copies has surpassed all experience in
works of a similar description. We learn from the English Press
that the avidity with which both the mercantile and the reli-
gious world have seized upon its information, may be expected,
in time, to produce the most gratifying result. It is understood
that Dr. Livingstone will depart for Loanda again immediately.

Of the Zsetse, a venomous fly, we have the following extraordi-
nary history. ‘This insect, the Glossina morsitans, ‘is not much
larger than the common house-fly, and is nearly of the same brown
colour as the common honey-bee; the after part of the body has
three or four yellow bars across it; the wings project beyond this
part considerably, and it is remarkably alert, avoiding most dex-
terously all attempts to capture it with the hand, at common tem-
peratures ; in the cool of the mornings and evenings it is less agile.
Its peculiar buzz when once heard can never be forgotten by the
traveller whose means of locomotion are domestic animals ; for it
is well known that the bite of this poisonous insect is certain death
to the ox, horse, and dog. In this journey, though we were not
aware of any great number having at any time lighted on our cattle,
we lost 48 fine oxen by its bite. We watched the animals carefully
and believe that not a score of flies were ever upon them. A most
remarkable feature in the bite of the tsetse, is its perfect harmless-
ness in man and wild animals, and even calves sc long as they con-
tinue to suck the cows. We never experienced the slightest injury
from them ourselves, personally, although we lived two months in
their Aaditat, which was in this case as sharply defined as in many
others, for the south bank of the Chobe was infested by them, and
the. northern bank, where our cattle were placed, only 50 yards
distant, contained not a single specimen. ‘This was the more re-
markable, as we often saw natives carrying over raw meat to the
opposite bank with many ése¢se settled upon it. The poison does
not seem to be injected by a sting, or by ova placed beneath the
skin, for when one is allowed to feed freely on the hand, it is seen
to insert the middle prong of three portions, into which the pro-
boscis divides, somewhat deeply into the true skin; it then draws

ocr.—px0. 1857] Notices of Books. 151

it out a little way, and it assumes a crimson colour as the man-
dibles come into brisk operation, The previously shrunken belly
swells out, and if left undisturbed the fly quietly departs when it is
full. A slight itching irritation follows, but not more than in the
bite of a mosquito. In the ox, this same bite produces no more
immediate effects than in man. It does not startle him as the gad-
fly doés; but a few days afterwards the following symptoms su-
pervene: the eye and nose begin to run, the coat stares as if the
animal were cold, a swelling appears under the jaw, and sometimes
at the navel; and, though the animal continues to graze, emaciation
commences, accompanied with a peculiar flaccidity of the muscles,
and this proceeds unchecked until, perhaps months afterwards,
purging comes on, and the animal, no longer able to graze, perishes
in a state of extreme exhaustion. Those which are in good con-
dition often perish soon &fter the bite is inflicted with staggering
and blindness, as if the brain were affected by it. Sudden changes
of temperature produced by falls of rain seem to hasten the pro-
gress of the complaint; but in general the emaciation goes on un-
interruptedly for months, and do what we will, the poor animals
perish miserably. When opened, the cellular tissue on the surface
of the body beneath the skin is séén to be injected with air, as if a
quantity of soap bubbles were scattered over it, or a dishonest awk-
ward butcher had been trying to make it look fat. The fat is ofa
greenish-yellow colour and of an oily consistence. All the muscles
are flabby, and the heart often so soft that the fingers may be made
to meet through it. The lungs and liver partake of the disease.
The stomach and bowels are pale and empty, and the gall-bladder
is distended with bile. The symptoms seem to indicate what is
probably the case, a poison in the blood ; the germ of which enters
when the proboscis is inserted to draw blood. The poison-germ,
contained in a bulb at the root of the proboscis, seems capable,
although very minute in quantity, of reproducing itself, for the
blood after death by ¢se¢se is very small in quantity, and scarcely
stains the hands in dissection. I shall have by and by to mention
another insect, which by the same operation produces in the hu-
man subject both vomiting and purging. The muie, ass, and goat
enjoy the same immunity from the /se¢se as man and the game.”

152 Notices of Books. [No.5, NEW SERIES,

Scarcely less surprising is his account of African Melons. ‘‘ But
tke most surprising plant of the Desert is the ‘ Kengwe or Keme’
(Cucumis caffer), the Water Melon. In years when more than the
usual quantity of rain falls, vast tracts of the country are literally
covered with these Melons ; this was the case annually when the
fall of rain was greater than it is now, and the Bakwains sent trad-
ing parties every year to the lake. It happens commonly once
every 10 or 11 years, and for the last three times its occurrence
has coincided with an extraordinarily wet season. Then animals
of every sort and name, including man, rejoice in the rich supply.
The elephant, true lord of the forest, revels in this fruit, and so
do the different species of rhinoceros, although naturally so diverse
in their choice of pasture. The various kinds of antelopes feed
on them with equal avidity, and lions, hyznas, jackals, and mice,
all seem to know and appreciate the common blessing. These Me-
lons are not, however, all of them eatable; some are sweet, and
others so bitter that the whole are named by the Boers the ‘ Bitter
Water-melon.’ The natives select them by striking one Melon
after another with a hatchet, and applying the tongue to the gashes.
They thus readily distinguish between the bitter and sweet. The
bitter are deleterious, but the sweet are quite wholesome. This
peculiarity of one species of plants bearing both sweet and bitter
fruits occurs also in a red eatable Cucumber often met with in the
country. It is about 4 inches long, and about 13 inch in diameter.
It is of a bright scarlet colour when ripe. Many are bitter, others
quite sweet. Even Melons in a garden may be made bitter by a
few bitter Kengwe in the vicinity. The bees convey the pollen
from one to the other.”’

Decandolle’s Prodromus Systematis naturalis Regni Vegetabilis.—
We have just received the second part of the fourteenth volume,
comprehending Thymelceacece by Meisner, and Santalacece by
Alph. deCandolle, two volumes more are expected to complete the
Exogens. Professor Anderson undertakes the difficult task of -
elucidating the Salicaceous order. Dr. Buek of Hamburg, to
whom Botanists were indebted for an admirable index of the first
seven volumes, has now in the press a second index up to the end

oct.—DEC. 1857.] Notices of Books. 153

of the 13th volume, thereby doing good service to the cause of
Botany. It is computed that the 14 volumes actually complet-
ed, contain 50,509 species, arranged in 4,525 genera. The first
volume was commenced in 1822. When the work is finished, we
will have a complete systematical account of all plants known at
the time of publishing the several volumes.

Hooker’s Journal of Botany.—We find from the December
Number of the Kew Miscellany, that Sir William Hooker’s very
useful Journal has ceased to appear. Under one form or another this
veteran Botanist has published since 1827, much of his most in-
teresting correspondence with men of Science and travellers of
every grade and in every clime. We fear that the cessation of this
periodical will be felt by very many besides ourselves. The Jour-
nal of the Linnean Society, and the Annals of Natural History in
London, and the New Philosophical Journal in Edinburgh are now
the remaining media through which communications on Natural
History may be brought before the public.

Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society.—Six num-
bers of this admirable serial have reached us, appearing quarterly
and containing papers on Natural History read before the Society,
and not inserted in its ‘* Transactions.”’ The Zoological and Bo-
tanical Papers are separately paged, so that either section may be
taken separately.

The ‘‘ Journal of Proceedings’ for the present year is sold to
the public at 12s. for the entire Journal, or 8s. for either the Zoo-
logical or Botanical section taken separately ; the separate num-
bers being charged 3s. for the whole, or 2s. for either section.
There are some valuable Zoological papers by Professor Owen and
others—and a series of sketches of the Natural Families of Indian
Plants, ‘* Preecursores ad Floram Indicam,”’ by J. D. Hooker, m. p.,

and T. Thomson, m. p., which we hope to give in the selections
of our next number.

The Plant Scenery of the World ; a Popular Introduction to Bo-
tanical Geography.—By John H. Balfour, a. m., m. v., &c., and
Robert Kaye Greville, t, x. p., &c, with Illustrations.

154 Proceedings. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

We are enabled to announce with great pleasure the prospective
#ppearance of this work, which is intended to illustrate something
in the style of Humbold’s ‘‘ Aspects of nature,’’ the physiognomic
effect of certain species, and families of plants in representing the
scenery of different parts of the Globe. The descriptions will be
accompanied with Chromo-lithographs of great artistic merit.

Any persons possessing drawings or photographs of interesting
plants, such as would be easily recognized in a picture, will confer
a benefit upon the authors by permitting them to be copied. The
Editors of this Journal will be happy to receive, and forward any
such contributions.

PROCEEDINGS,

The Managing Committee of the Mapras Lirerary Society and
Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday evening, Novem-
ber 12th, 1857.

After the usual accounts exhibiting the state of the Society’s
Funds, the Secretary read a letter from Lieut. H. P. Hawkes,
drawing the attention of the Society to the facility afforded by the
electrotype process for obtaining perfect fac-similes of Coins, Seal
rings, Cameos, &c. The three specimens forwarded, one froma
Gutta Percha Medal, one from a Cameo, and the third from a Cliche
Medal were laid upon the Table and attracted much notice. The
impression from the Medal especially was found to be very sharp,
and the manipulation of all appeared very creditable.

Mr. Hawkes having understood that the Society had under con-
sideration the advisability of purchasing the Stacey Collection of
Coins, kindly proposed, should any coins be found wanting to com-
plete a series, to make electrotype impressions of such of the miss-
ing coins as might be found in private Cabinets, and to complete
the Society’s collection.

Resolved to inform Mr. Hawkes that it was the Asiatic Society
of Calcutta that had in contemplation the purchase of the Stacey

2

ocT.—DEc. 1857] Proceedings. 155

Collection, and that this Society was only requested to aid in the
same. The Committee nevertheless appreciate Mr. Hawkes’ kind
offer.

Read a letter from Mr. H. Smith, Superintendent of the Govern-
ment Press, soliciting the publication in the Society’s Journal, of
certain specimen copies of Plants*in illustration of anew develop-
ment of Nature printing. In addition to the impressions forward-
ed with the letter, a large folio book of illustrations was laid upon
the table, and attracted great admiration. In clearness, in sharp-
ness of outline, and in accuracy of representation Mr. Smith’s pro-
cess particularly excels.

The most successful representations appear to be those of the
Ferns, Grasses, and specimens requiring minute and delicate out-
line, like Mollugo Cerviana, the impression of which is admirable ;
or complicated details such as the reticulated venation of leaves.
But Mr. Smith’s excellence of manipulation has also enabled him
to overcome the difficulty of printing from the most succulent and
fleshy plants. The print of the common Yercum or Madar (Calo-
tropis gigantea) is particularly happy and exhibits clearly all the
botanical details. A leaf of the prickly pear (Opuntia Dillenii) is
equally successful. He has even carried his experiments into the
animal kingdom, and exhibits printed pictures of a Snake anda
Bat, the characteristics of which are shown with surprising clearness.

Considerable discussion arose in the Meeting as to how far the
discovery is due to Mr. Smith. Mr. S.in his letter gives a precis
of the different processes of Nature printing that have been at va-
rious times resorted to, and claims for his own plan that it excels
all others in simplicity and efficiency, and is capable of a much
more extended application. Its distinctive peculiarity, he tells us,
consists in the impressions being obtained direct from fresh unpre-
pared plants. Mr. Burgass however recollects similar impressions
being exhibited two or three years ago at the Polytechnic at Home,
but not being aware of the exact modus operandi, which is part of

* Vide Plates 5 and 6 of this Number.

156 Proceedings. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

the point at issue, he cannot positively pronounce as to what credit
Mr. Smith is entitled to in the question of discovery.

Major Wilson observed that the process referred to by Mr. Bur-
gass was probably that exhibited by Mr. Cox at the Polytechnic
Institution under the name of the Foliographic Press, for Printing
from fresh leaves and plants. Major Wilson stated that one of
these Presses was in his possession, and that he had frequently taken
impressions of leaves with it, the process appearing to be identical
in all respects with that described in Mr. Smith’s paper. Major
Wilson sent for the prospectus of Mr. Cox’s invention, of which
the following is a copy :—

‘** The Foliographic Press for printing from Nature being a new
and exceedingly simple machine for printing fresh leaves, ferns,
feathers, lace &c., invented and sold by G. I. Cox, at 1384, Great
College Street, Camden Town, and the Royal Polytechnic Institu-
tion. Press, Roller, Pot of Ink, and Sheet of Carbonised Paper
5s. 6d. small; 8s. 6d. large.’’

Direction for use.

‘‘ Put a leaf between the fold of the Carbonised paper. Pass
the Roller five or six times over each outside surface; open the
fold and extract the leaf, which has now become impregnated with
ink. Then place it between the fold of a clean sheet of writing
paper, which is now to be introduced under the leather flap and
pressed by passing the roller once over the surface, when an ac-
curate and beautiful impression will be the result.

The carbonised paper is made by dabbing the ink evenly over
the surface of ordinary writing paper, with a dabber made of wash
leather.

It is advisable, previous to using a leaf, to roll it slightly be-
tween a sheet of blotting paper, to absorb the extraneous damp or

moisture.’’

~ The Meeting were of opinion that the principle of both process.
es was the same, but Mr, Smith has the merit of haying develop-

)

ocT .—DEC. 1857. | Proeeedings. 157

ed its application more fully, so as to obtain larger and finer pic-
tures as well as of having extended it to more difficult object.;
and particularly to reptiles and animals, which seems not to have
been attempted before.

The Committee beg to acknowledge, with thanks, the receipt of
the following books and papers :

From the Chief Secretary.

1. Geological Papers on Western India.

2. Atlas do. do. 3

3. Selections from the Records of the Madras Government,
Railway Correspondence.

4, do do India No. 23 on Tea Cultivation.

5. Indian Journal of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 4.

6. Cyclopedia of India, Parts 8, 9 and 10.

7. Description of the method of catching Wild Elephants in
the Coimbatore District, by Captain D. Hamilton.

From the Government of Bombay.
8. Bombay Magnetical and Meteorological Observations for 1856.

From the Authors.
9. Note sur Les Rubaiyat de Omar Khaiyam par M. Garcin
de Tassy.
10. La poesie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans,
d’apres le mantic uttair, ou Le Langage des Oiseaux de Farid
Uddin Attar par M. Garcin de Tassy.

The Managing Committee of the Mapras Literary Society and
Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, 10th December, 1857.

Mr. Elliot read a notice of the Gold Coins stated at page 114,
Volume I, new series ofthe Journal, to have been found at Madura.
They comprise 49 specimens, of which 28 have been bought for
the Government Central Museum, 20 were purchased by a Gentle-
man at Madura and sent home, and a single one was obtained by
Mr. Elliot himself. The whole are gold pieces of the kind called
auret, belonging to the times of the earlier Ceesars from Tiberius to
Domitian, as follows:

158 Proceedings. [No. 5, NRW SERIES,

Of Tiberius 6, Claudius 8, Agrippina 3, Elder Drusus 2, Younger
Prusus 5, Nero 17, Caligula 1, Domitian 5, Nerva 2.

The Secretary read some interesting Remarks by Mr. Jesse Mit-
chell on the distribution of fresh water Polyzoa.

Mr. Mitchell observes that Professor Allman in his recent work
entitled “a Monograph of the Fresh Water Polyzoz,”’ has stated
that although found at an altitude of 6000 feet, these Jnfusorza are
not met with beyond the limits of the temporate Zone. ;.Now, Mr.
Mitchell has himself taken them in Madras, and gives a very inter-
esting description of one he captured in considerable numbers ad-
hering to the roots of the common Duck weed or Lemna in the
month of September last.

These when placed in a Polyp-trough under 'a one inch objec-
tive, exhibited groups of Polyzoa inhabiting tubular cells attach-
ed to the root of the plant and to each other. The head of the
animal which w&s transparent and hyaline and furnished with a
double row of cilice upwards of forty in number, was protruded
from the cell in the act of feeding, and the whole process of cap-
turing, swallowing and digesting its prey was distinctly visible. It
seemed to prefer the smaller kind of Infusoria rejecting the large
Rotatoria, which were drawn into the vortex of the cilice by their
rapid motion, an operation which it effected either by driving off
the intruder by blows of the tentacula, or if this failed by retiring
into the cell, when the vibratile action of the cilice was suspended
and the unwelcome visitor escaped. Mr. Mitchell believes that
both this and other species will be found abundantly on the roots
of Lemna and other fresh aquatic Plants.

The Committee beg to acknowledge with thanks the receipt of
the following books.

From the Chief Secretary.

1, Cyclopeedia of India, Parts 11, 12, 18, 14 and 15.

2. A Treatise on the Small Pox, by W. C. Maclean, Esq., m. p.

3. Extract from M. C., relative to Silicate of Soda and Lime as
a Protective from Fire.

ocT.—DEc. 1857.] Proceedings. 159

GO nr > OT

Catalogue of the Government Central Museum.

Report on the Railway Department. ;

Report on the Civil Dispensaries.

On Indian Infanticide, by the Rev. John Cave Brown.

Report on a reputed Coal. Formation at Kotah, by P. W.
Wall, Mineral Viewer.

=)"
» pe)
>
bb

;
[No,. 5, NHW SERIE:

Extract from Meteorological Observation

160
OcTOBER 1857.
‘ 5 S s THERMOMETERS.
A zo Means. | ; = ; F
33°? a A -3 5 a
ARS Dry Wet a\a] & pe P=
Lees sty BRE Ge E | Ins.
1 | 29-831] 84-9) 78°1/95°6) 79:2, s | 0 032/Hazy
2} .851/82-0|77-0| 92:5 72°4.esB| °750\Clody.
3 | 93:2|768.s 8 W
4 | 880/831) 77°2/94-6| 79 lwNw) ....| do
5 | 885) 83:8) 77°3|96°2)782ssw| ....|Hazy
6 | -956| 84:0 77°7|92'9| 798, sz | ... | do
7 | 876) 83:4) 77-2| 91-0, 78°8, ..s.{Clear.
8 | -901| 83-3) 76°7| 92:0 78°55 by s|_ ...-|Hazy
9 | -905| 83:3, 768/91-6|790, = eee a |
10| § 90°9}79-4E by x| 013
11 | +860} 79:0| 75-4| 88-6 75-4; w | 3:391|Clody.
12 | 833 77-0) 74°8| 85°8] 75°4| nw B| 0:667| Ovest
13 | .881,79°5|76'3| 88:3) 77-11 Esz| 981; do
14 | 947, 76:6 749] 84:5 75-4/N by 2 5073 do
15 | “891) 76°8) 748 85°2) 75.1) nw e| 1 Se do
16 | 884) 79 3|76:5, 88 0|76°7| = | 0°152/Clody.
17 ST O77 ah ew IS
18 | 888] 80°0| 76:8] 87°8|77-°0] 8 = | -022|Hazy
19 | +885|80-2|76-4| 88 8|77:2| =z | +208\Clody.
20 | .879| 80°5| 77-0! 88-1|77°3) nz | +465] do
91 | -886| 77°7| 75°3| 82°4| 75°0| NN E| 955] Ovest.
22 | -871| 78:2 749) 82:3 75°9\e by n| °573] do
23 | 848 75°1, 73°7 ee 74:1IN Nw) 4°165} do
24 79.0| 73-6] x w | 18-039
25 | -740| 75:0| 74°5| 78:2] 74°41 w | 2813] do
26 -760| 76°7| 74°9| 81°3| 75°7in N w| 0-125} do
27.| +793] 78:4] 75°1] 86°3| 765}? do
98 | -796|78 °3| 74°1|85°1|75'3| ? do
29 805/76 6) 72° ss ee NW) do
30 | 784, 76-3] 72°2| 80°8| 74:4) by n| do
31 | 82:0| 745|w Nw} ‘010
F
S { | 29:854'79-6 |75°7 | 87°3| 76°4 37-726
= ~ | Sum

.| 30°041

DAILY ¢

NoOvEMBER.

THERMOMETERS

Means:

Barometer
reduced to
82° Faht.

2

Dry |Wet :

f,
t:
7
7

° Q °

87-5
87°6
87°5)
88-2) 7
86°37
86:1) 7:
85°6) 74
83°8) 7:
83'9) 7:
83-117
82°7)7.
83:6) 71
84:0) 7
$3°8) 7
80°87:
84:3) 74
83°27
82:2) 7
81:3} 73
S11] 7
805) 6S
82 3) 73
83-0] 73
82-5} 7
82:2] 66
84°3) 68
84°2) 7]
84-3} 7.
83-4! 70
826) 69

Inches
29-739) 77:8) 72:4
*851| 75°S| 76°2
916; 80°1| 76:8
-921| 79°7| 76:5
-919| 79:7| 766
‘913! 78°4| 74°6

—_ ——

77-7| 72:0
77°5| 70°8
76°2| 70-7
76:1! 69-1
75:8 69:1
76°6| 68:3

961
973
949
“991

"049

75°2) 7177
770) 74:3
77'9| 73 3
76°7) 71-8
75°6) 71-0
746 092

-017
022
29-992
‘987
‘980
963
905) 74°3| 68-0
‘903. 75:9] 71:7
‘929' 75°8| 70°3
-896| 74°3| 68 8
-892| 74:2) 69 4
919) 76-2] 72°1

7671) 71°4
| 70°1| 68°7

wee | eee | ee

29-948] 76-6) 71°7| 83-9] 72

? This mark signifies that no Means can be ‘

"4

T.—prc. 1857. | 161
pt at the Madras Magnetic Observatory.
ANS.
a DECEMBER 1857. y
, i es THERMOMETERS. |
g |s33 2”
: Fog ia RM DE ed Sn a ; a |
mea) § jssai——| sid} 2 hal 2
| 3S | oe RHO Dry | Wet} 314 ! = faa} 2
Ins. | Inches ° | ° e ~ . Ins.
ys 0:071 Ovest 30029) 75 7 68°7| 819/712) NB (satay (| +I
pw) 013 Clody.| “038,75 9 68-5) 822)70°3| x = do | 2
FE] ....| do pa dees 5| 82:1|69°5|IN NE! ..,.| do | 3
EB, °319| do 066: 75°3 66-5} 83:1/70°2| Nz | vs do | 4
A EC | 81°3|70-7'n N E 0:006 5
2 | ....\Clear, | 013/751 66-8] 81-7|70-6ls xe! -022'Clody.| 6
et... 29.977 71.7 648 80.7 65'S) N | wees Hazy | 7
iE . Hazy e 72-4, 65: 2 80.3) 69-5-n by E ----|Ovest.| 8
Pel ....\clody.| -987|71.3 65: 1) 801) 66-3)" by & seg/Hazy | 9
E | ....\Hazy | °923)71° 3 66 8} 75:2)68°8\In Nw *202/Ovest.| 10>
Sul ....(Clear.| -941/76:31741] 846/733 = -315| do | 11
E).. detaes 847] 70°6r by a aon 12
'B/ oe; do | 80°024) 75 9 73°7) 83:2 736 N E/| ‘012)Hazy | 13
| ....| | 037 15° 72.7 834/723 Ne | ....|Clear | 14
: Bevo (Clady. 018) 74-8 71° 3 8271 705 B by N do | 15
0920 Ovest.| °009) 73-0, 68. 9) 81°9}674 ? ..| do | 16
7 «Hazy 026! 74.1/68'2) 82-6684 by N|...-| do | 17
E) ....|Oves -oor|73. 5 68°6| 826 69:9 nx | ‘380'Hazy | 18
E “309 do 825172-3E N xB) “058 1g
z) ....|Clody.|29:997|74°6 707] 81-7|72'3| NB | «+4. |Ovest.| 20
fi 30.015 76-0 69:1 816 74:1 NE |. ..|Hazy | 21
003'Hazy | °021/75°5/ 66.4) 81-6/74:1 Nw | -++./Clody.| 22
Clody. a 732 671 80'8|69°1.N Nz] -.-.|Hazy | 23
gE} ...|Hazy 39175 52 66-6] 81:3 7228 N x do | 24
E \clear a 56 65°7| 81°8|73°6 N E | «++.|Clody.| 25
| do 810/69 1E N E 26
a do | °045|72°6|66-2| §0-5|67-8N Nz Hazy | 27
S.. .063| 75-11 684! §1-2 723,N E Clody.| 28
Clear 079 74:0) 68°4) 81-6) 69. 2N N E| .ee-/Hazy | 29
-.a| do" P ,-083) 76° 0 706] 81-873 SNE Ovest.} 30
| ‘085| 754/700] 81-7|71- bo NE Clody.} 31
= dia ee | ere Bae ea st
| <
5-820 20-023) a4 68:4) 81°7|70°6 ie 995 | 3
Sum | Sum ~

ing to the variable state of the Wind.

Meteorological Observations, &c. &c. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

162

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— hsoqnasasg¢ ououbopy soupwyy oy yo day suoywasasgy jvoibojodonjapy mot ponupenT

JAN.—MAR, 1858.] 168

XI. Extract from Report on the Vegetable Products of the
Pulney Hills. By Linut. R. H. Beppome, Assistant Con-
servator of Forests.

(Communicated by the Madras Government. )

Ihave completed my tour in the Pulney range, and have thorough-
ly explored all the slopes and the forests onthem. In many places,
there has at one time been a considerable quantity of Teak, and
Blackwood (Dalbergia latifolia, and D. sissoides,) also on the north-
ern slopes, Cungilium (Shorea robusta,) almost all the large trees of
these timbers have been long since felled. Teak and Blackwood
saplings are yearly springing up, these are felled, when their scant-
ling is about that of a man’s arm, and used ‘as posts, &c., the natives
prizing the Teak especially as they say, that the white ants will not
touch it. Whilst I was at Pulney, I saw ten young Teak saplings,
none of them perhaps thicker than my arm, brought in by the wood-
cutters, and sold to an overseer as posts fora shed that he was
building near the public bungalow, saplings that would have yielded
magnificent timber years hence. On the slopes near Pulney, and
between that place and Verupatchy, I observed a great quantity of
timber cut and being carted away, chiefly Vengay, ( Pterocarpus mar-
supium,) and Veckalie (Conocarpus latifolius,) some logs of good
size. On the lower slopes in this direction, there is a scattering of
Teak. There is also Blackwood, of this tree I observed a great
many saplings, about the foot of the ghat which ascends to Cowa-
jee, and for some way up the rocky slopes, they are being felled,
however, by the wood cutters. I saw one large tree of this timber
being carted away from the jungles, though I did not succeed in
finding any trees of size, standing.

Ascending to Poombary from Pulney there is a very extensive
alpine basin with high hills all round, in this, and the ravines and
valleys formed by the spurs to the West of it, below Ulloorankun-
vay, I found no Teak: the timber, particularly in the large basin,
has been much destroyed.

Norse.—Dr. Wight visited the Pulney Hills, his observations will be found in
this Journal, Vol. VY. p. 280, (1837.)

164 Vegetable Products [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

The timber here is chiefly the following :
~Pterocarpus marsupium. (Vengay.)

Conocarpus latifolius. (Veckalie.)

Grewia tiliefolia (Tarrada.)

Emblica officinalis.

Briedelia.

Terminalias, 2 : scarce.

Acacia Sundra (Baga.)

Acacia odoratissima.

Dalbergia latifolia (Todakuttay) scarce and poor.

Of the two Acacias, I observed several trees that had been fell-
ed and were being cut into small logs.

On the slopes far down below Kookul in a northerly direction,
the jungle has been much cut, there has at one time been a good
quantity of Cungilium (Shorea robusta) in this locality, there are
however, only a few poor trees now left standing. This timber is
most greedily sought after by the Natives for house building. Fur-
ther down on the spurs near the plains, and below a hill called the
Koombootookee mallay, I found Teak.

I visited the Mungapatty valley, lying to the West of the Pulney
range, here the timber has been much destroyed, to make way for
cultivation. There is no Teak here. Down the slopes to the S.
W. towards the Aggamullay hills, I found that the jungle had been
much cut, the spurs in some places are pretty thickly wooded, but
there is nothing of any value now standing. The slopes about
Wollangum have been considerably cleared for cultivation. On
the lowermost spurs and small rocky hills between this village and
that of Vellay covay (near Periakolum) I found here and there
straggling Teak trees, and signs of a good deal having been cut.

A good quantity of Teak has formerly been cut, about the pass
from Periakolum up to the Kodakarnal, none however now re-
mains.

All this Western portion of the Pulnies up to the Permaulmallay
and Cowanjee comprizes the higher range, and is generally called
. the Verupatchy Hills.

The higher ranges are from six to seven thousand feet in height,
the plateau at the top consists of undulating grassy Hills, similar to

’

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] of the Pulney Hiils. 165

the Neilgherries, the grass is short and every where dotted with
beautiful Orchideous plants (amongst which Platanthera Susanne,
and dutea are very conspicuous,) Ophelia, Exacum, Pedicularis,
Geniiana and many other plants peculiar to a high altitude. With
the exception of the sholas, the higher ranges are free of any jun-

gle or trees, save here and there a few scattered trees of “* Rhodo-
dendron arboreum.”

There are a good many sholas up the higher range, chiefly situat-
ed, where there are springs or water-courses, some of these are
very thick, and several of enormous extent, the three largest
upon the higher range are. The Kookul shola (situated close to
a village of that name) which extends over two hills, on the north
Western face of the Pulnies. The Minmoordi cornal shola situat-
ed at Pattoor on the southern side, and a large shola situated be-
tween that and Kodacarnal. The timber in these sholas is exten-
sively cut by the inhabitants of the Hills. The following are trees
common in the sholas on the higher ranges.®

Cyminosma pedunculata.
Millingtonia pungens.
Rhododendron arboreum.
Hedera obovata.

Hedera rostrata.

Hedera racemosa.

Meesa Indica.

Myrsine capitellata.

Olea robusta.

” Sp.

Cinnamomum iners. (much felled by the Natives.)
Magnolia.—? (a magnificent tree)
Michelia Pulniensis,
Syzygium. Sp.
Dodonea Burmanniana.
Rottlera peltata.

a tinctoria.
Pittosporum floribundum.
Bentinckia condapana.
Symplocos, Sp.

166 Vegetable Products [no. 6, NEW SERIES,

Lauracee. 4 large trees.

~ Elceocarpus oblongus.
Monocera glandulifera. Enormous trees.
Monocera tuberculata.

Kooragoo marum. :

Kooravoo. >

Velle Ore. ?

Noorle. ?

Wellatos. ? (ploughs always made of this.)

Gnidium eriocephala.

There were other trees not in flower, with which I am quite un-
acquainted, amongst these I have little doubt, there are valuable
timbers to be discovered. The Lime and the Orange are also found
apparently indigenous.

The chief products ofthe higher ranges are Rice, Mustard, Garlic,
Wheat, Barley, Vendiam (Zrigonella Fenum Grecum.)

Tennay (Setaria [talica) together with Lablab vulgaris, Limes,
Oranges, Peaches and a few Plantains are also grown. A great
number of low country Natives, have settled on the Pulney Hills.
The Hill tribes are the Poliars and the Koonoovers, these latter
tribes are most abundant on the lower Pulnies.

From Cowajee which is situated at the foot of the Permaulmal-
lay, the highest peak ofthe Pulnies, I descended to the lower range
of the Pulnies, or as they are often called the Tandigoody and Ve-
rupatchy Hill, they are I should judge about 4 to 5000 feet above the
sea, or perhaps rather more. In the Arepatty valley below the Per-
maulmallay there is a good deal of scattered jungle, the timber has
been largely felled; the timber most common there, is the Termu-
nalia chebula, the Vengay, (Pterocarpus marsupium) and the Vecka-
lie (Conocarpus latvfolius.)

The vallies between Vilputty and Cowajee are more or less wood-
ed, I here also found Cungilium (Shorea robusta) but no good trees
of it left standing. The Warre bakee river runs through this valley
and there is a fine fall. Near Pussinkud I saw a few large Teak
trees, the only ones that have apparently escaped the general des-
truction. The slopes down to Tempollium are extensively wooded,
and there is Teak and Cungilium, almost all destroyed, howeyer,

e ’

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] of the Pulney Hills. 167

the Cungilium is‘I know still cut, and I have no doubt the Teak
saplings also when any are found worth cutting. On the slopes
near Pullatoor, Sandal wood is also found in small quantities.

The lower Pulnies are much more wooded, than the higher range,
they are almost every where covered with a rather stunted jungle
of Trees. The following trees are most numerous.

Conocarpus latifolius (Veckalie.) Erythrina Indica.
Terminalia chebula. Veryabun- Sclerostylis atalantioides.

dant. Atalantia monophylla.
Bignonia xylocarpa. Gmelina arborea.
Sterculia guttata. Zizyphus xylopyrus.
Cathartocarpus fistula, _ Grewia tilicefolia.
Emblica officinalis. Canthium umbellatum.

The trees are generally rather stunted, I observed a good quan-
tity of the black dammer tree (Canarium strictum) towards Tyem-
pollium. The hill people never extract the damimer, and are ap-
parently ignorant of the uses of the tree.

The cultivation on these lower ranges is very considerable, com-
pared to that of the higher ranges, about Pumukad and Tantigoo-
dy, all the vallies are under cultivation.

The chief products of the lower ranges are Turmeric, Plantains,
Mustard, Castor Oil, Vendiam. (Trigonella Fenum Grecum.)

Cumboo. (Penicillaria spicata.)

Ragee (Eleusine coracana.)

Varagoo (Panicum miliaceum.)

Tennay (Setaria Italica.)

Mangoes, Citrons, Limes, Oranges, Cardamoms.

The shola forests in the vicinity of Tandigoody and Perryoor are
very extensive, and contain tress of enormous size. The black
dammer and the wild nutmeg trees are abundant. These sholas,
however, are daily disappearing before the Plantain groves. To
prepare a Plantain grove, a large tract of shola is burnt down, this
forms a fine soil for the Plantain, acres of fine shola are destroy-

ed annually in this manner.

Sid

€

168 Vegetable Products [No.6, NEW SERIES,

Near Tandigoody, Cardamoms are also cultivated to a great ex-
Tent. To form a Cardamom grove the small trees and underwood
are burned, but the larger trees are left standing.

The following plants yield valuable fibres for rope, &c., and are
much used by the Natives in the lower ranges.

Kat murke nar. (grows to a tree.).......Gnidia eriocephala.

Volca nar, eeesveeeeee @eesetoeveoseteeeene . Grewia Asiatica.

Surke fiers: Waco: cr sari sins tees eee . Grewia abutilifolia.
Artocarpus integrifolia is most abundant in all the sholas of the
lower ranges, particularly at Perryoor and Paucheloor.

The following timbers are much used by the Natives here.

Nawar....... (Eugenia jambolana.)

Maiglan...... (Vitex alata.)

Cottam pallam. (Terminalia catappa.)

Kammalla.... (Gmelina arborea.)

Mate ses. us 2 used for ploughs.

The timber of Gmelina is highly spoken of.

The mace round the wild nutmeg (Palmanee Kam) is used by
Natives to color their teeth. A Beer is made from the raggee
(Eleusine) the flowers of Vitex negundo are used as a hop to fer-
ment it with. Into the toddy which they draw from the Caryota
urens, (a tree very abundant here,) they fling in some of the bark
of Olea rebusta which immediately causes fermentation.

Girardinia Leschenaultiana, aplant yielding avaluable fibre is most —
abundant here, the natives however, are ignorant of its use.

The leaves of Dodonza Burmanniana are bound on swellings pro-
duced by Sprains, &c., it is said with great effect, a decoction of the
leaves is given internally in cases of leprosy. -

Polygonum Sp...sessececeees

Acalypha Indica................ p used medicinally.
Flowers of Kalanchoe grandiflora.

The sholas are very thick about Paucheloor and less destroyed,
apparently than at Pandigoody. The black dammer tree is very
abundant here. There has at one time been a good quantity of Teak
on the slopes between Periyur and Verupatchy and also on the

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] of the Pulney Hills. 169

slopes below Paucheloor, it is now almost entirely destroyed. There
is Blackwood also, which is still at times cut and carted into Din-‘’
digul and Madura for sale. I did not myself observe any large
trees of this timber standing, and as I was over a great portion of
these jungles, there cannot be much left.

Flora of the Pulney Hills, as observed in September and
October, 1857. By Lizvur. R. H. Beppome.

RANUNCULACEZ,
Clematis Gouriana,
* Wightiana,
- Munroii, sholas at Kodakarnal.
Anemone Wightiana,
Ranunculus reniformis,

a Wallichianus, common.
Naravelia Zeylanica,
MAGNOLIACEZ,
*Michelia Pulniensis, |= very common (Shemboo.)
Magnolia sp. a beautiful tree common in sholas,
ANONACEZ.
Guatterla cerasoides,
’ SCHIZANDRACE.
Hortonia sp. near Perryar.
MENISPERMACER,
Cocculus villosus, lower slopes.
= glaber,
e macrocarpus? (only in fruit.)

Clypea hernandifolia, very common.

Notse.—Local Catalogues such as this “ Flora Pulniensis” are of great use,
illustrating the Geographical distribution of the plants of Southern India, and are
specially commended by Dr. Royle in his observations on Provincial Exhibitions.
—-ED. M. A he

* M. Nilagtrica (Zenker) in Hooker and Thomson’s Flora Indica.

170 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

BERBERIDACEX.
= Berberis tinctoria,

Leschenaultii, 5,000 to 8,000 ft.
CRUCIFERZ.

Nasturtium Madagascariense,

Cardamine Borbonica,

33

Sinapis juncea,

CAPPARIDACE.
Gynandropsis pentaphylla,
Cleome monophylla,
Polanisia icosandra,
Cadaba Indica,
Capparis hornida, lower slopes.

» incanescens,

» grandis,

RESEDACE.

Reseda alba, — common about Kodakarnal.
. FLACOURTIACEZ.

Flacourtia sapida, slopes towards Verupatchy.
Hydnocarpus inebrians,

VIOLACER.
*Viola odorata, scentless. very common on the higher

> Patria, ranges.

Ionidium enneaspermum,
DROSERACE.
Drosera peltata,
Parnassia Mysorensis, commonin moist groundnear Kodacarnal.

POLYGALACER.
Polygala arillata, very coammon shrub, 5,000 feet and up-
wards.
“ Wallichiahs, abundant in the grass on the highest
ranges.
$s ciliata,
a“ rosmarinifolia,
we Wightiana ?
oh nov. sp.? asmall shrub, slopes near Periyur.

* Viola Wightiana, (Wall.)

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 171

CARYOPHYLLACES.
. . . . ‘7
Stellaria media, moist places on the highest ranges,
Cerastium Indicum, very common.

Arenaria sp.

Mollugo ? sp.
MALYACEZ.
Urena sinuata,
és lobata, used by the Natives as a fibre.
Pavonia Zeylanica, covered with clammy pubescence.

Lzbretonia procumbens, lower slopes.

Hibiscus micranthus, do.
is hirtus, do. white variety.
“8 lampas, very abundant.
. Surattensis, lower slopes.

»» aculeatus, (Rozbd.) This is H. furcatus, (JV. and 4.)but very
different from H. furcatus, (Roxd.)
a plant common in Central India.

= canescens, slopes near Pulney.

ms sp. (near Vellay covay) erect, shrubby,
covered all over witlr shining hairs,
leaves cordate, serrate, 3-5 lobed,
petioles the length to twice the
length of the leaves, involucel 4
to 7 leaved, generally 5, segments
narrow, acuminate, calyx deeply 5
cleft, segments 3 nerved, acuminat-
ed, purple streaked. Flowers short
peduncled, axillary, afterwards in
terminal racemes,elongated. Seeds
glabrous with a few tufts of hairs.

Perhaps “ H, lunarifolius” but the

involucel is generally 5 leaved never
10, the calyx is like that of “ canes-
cens.”

» ‘ eriocarpus, slopes towards Pulney.

172 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

Abelmoschus angulosus, W .A4.The involucel is spathiform, and splits

=

into 4 leaves, I have however often
observed it in4 leaves from the com-
mencement, and never assuming the
form of a spathe, I believe it to be
the same as Hibiscus tetraphyllus,
(Roxb.) which is common in central

; India.
at moschatus,
Lagunea lobata,
Abutilon polyandrum, much valued as a fibre.
ae Asiaticum, slopes.
. Indicum, do.
Sida humilis, do.
» acuta, do.
BoMBACEZ.

Sterculia guttata, yields a fibre, which is hardly distin-
guishable from that of “S. villo-
sa,’ the valuable Elephant rope of
the Anamallays.

>» urens,
Kydia calycina,
Eriochlena Hookeriana, Lower ranges, very abundant,
TROP ZOLACER.

Tropzolum sp. very abundant. near Poombary,

run wild?
TILIACEA.

Corchorus trilocularis,
Triumfetta sp.
Grewia abutilifolia, (Surke nar) used as a fibre.
> villosa,
», tilieefolia,
», salvifolia,
Asiatica, (Valce nar) used as a fibre. At the
Anamallays, valce nar is applied to
Sterculia villosa.

23

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 1'73

Grewia hirsuta,

330s BD. Leaves roundish, rhomboid, 3 nerved,”
cordate at base, unequally toothed,
slightly scabrous, peduncles axilla-
ry, 1,2 flowered longer than petioles,
bracteoled at base, sepals twice as
long as petals, recurved, petals
sharply bidentate, stigma 2 lobed,
style clavate at apex, longer than
stamens, nuts 1-3 shining.

ELZOCARPACER.
Eleocarpus oblongus,
Monocera tuberculata, very large trees, in sholas.

Z glandulifera, Do. glands not always present.
DIPTEROCARPES.
Vatica = sp. (Cungilium) vallies amongst the hills

and slopes. Wood much prized by
the natives, °

TERNSTREMIACER.
Cleyera gymnanthera, sholas.
Cochlospermum gossypium,
OLACACER.
Gomphandra polymorpha, near Poombary.
Stemonurus foetidus, do.
AURANBIACEZ,

Atalantia monophylla,
Limonia acidissima, * avery pretty wood.

ey alata, in sholas.
Glycosmis pentaphylla,
Feronia elephantum,
Aegle marmelos,
Citrus sp.

?

Ri, #2)

A very prickly climber, with ternate
{ leaves, the fruit is eaten.
HYPERICACEZ,

Hypericum Hookerianum, very common, higher ranges.

€

174

™ Garcinia

Flora of the — [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

GUTTIFERZ.

sp.

sholas.

MALPIGHIACE.

Hiptage Madablota,

35

Dodoncea Burmanniana,

near Tandigoody.

SAPINDACEZ.
Cardiospermum canescens, lower slopes.
halicacabum, _,, ”
Sapindus emargiiatus,

39 33

from the plains to the highest level,
common also in the sholas.

MILLINGTONIACER.
Millingtonia pungens,

in sholas, common.

MELIACER.

Melia azedarach,
Mallea Rothi,

near Perryur.

e CEDRELACEX.
Chloroxylon Swietenia, lower slopes.
AMPELIDACEZ.
Vitis quadrangularis,
ae setosa,
e- tenuifolia,
a sp. gland-tipped, deep purplish, serrated
leaves.
A sp. Poombary valley.
3 Rheedii,
- sp.
GERANIACES.

Geranium afiine,

very abundant.

LINACES.

Linum Mysorense, near Shambaganoor, common.

BALSAMINACES.

Impatiens Balsamina,

33

33

arcuata,
Leschenaultil,

in drying, this species tinges the paper
a bright pink color, (Common at
Kodakarnal.)

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 175

Impatiens albida, common in hill streams 5,000, to 7,000
feet, grows to 16 or 18 feet high,
flowers very large, of a delicate rose
color. I never saw them white as
described by Dr. Wight, nor does
his plate give much idea of the plant,
as it grows on these hills.

a campanulata, in sholas very common, 6,000 to 7,000
feet, flowers beautifully mottled
with pink.

= dasysperma, capsule slightly pubescent! this
species is readily known by the
curved mucro at the conjunction
of the 2 upper sepals.

2 nov sp. sholas at Kodakarnal, 7,000 feet,
glabrous, leaves alternate, lanceo-
late acute, petioled, bristly serrate,
racemes as longorlongerthanleaves,
4 to 14 flowered pedicels, longer
than petioles witha large cordate
(convex on outside) bract at the
base of each. 2 upper sepals wing-
ed at their conjunction. Spur long,
incurved with gland-tipped point,
flowers of a uniform crimson. A
very beautiful sp: quite unlike any
described or figured.

= — Impatiens Phenicea.
-s tomentosa, Kodakarnal about streams, the whole

plant is sometimes quite glabrous,
7,000 feet.

- fasciculata, the commonest species on the hills.
a viscida, Kodakarnal in streams, 7,000 feet.
= Novy, sp. (summit of Permaulmallay, in streams

8,000 feet.) Stems 4 angled, sul-
cated, slightly hairy, leaves opposite,
serrate, long petioled above a few

’

/

76 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

hairs, below glaucous, peduncles,
longer than the leaves, smooth
viscid, bearing 7-9 flowering race-
mes at their apex, pedicels with a
gland tipped filiform bract at their
base, lateral sepals small, spur
rather long, capsulegibbous, streak-
ed with purple, flowers very small
pink. A very small species, the
whole plant not more than 4
inches high.
Impatiens Pulniensis.
OXALIDACEZ,
Biophytum sensitivum,
Oxalis corniculata,
: ZYGOPHYLLACEZ.

Tribulus lanuginosus, Lower slopes.
RUTACES.
Cyminosma pedunculata, sholas. (very common.)
ZANTHOXYLACEZ.
Toddalia aculeata, slopes towards Verupatchy.
PITTOSPORES.
Pittosporum floribundum, Poombary (common.)

CELASTRACEZ.
Celastrus Heyneana, (Poombary valley.)
Euonymus angulatus, (sholas) a very elegant small tree.
RHAMNACEX,
Zizyphus glabrata, slopes.
» _ xylopyra, %»
ar CEnoplia, 3
‘TEREBINTHACES,

Semecarpus Anacardium,
Mangifera Indica, lower Pulney ranges,
Odina Wodier, do, do.

‘%

JAN—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 177

Canarium strictum,

BURSERACEZX.

yields a black dammer, the na-

7 on the lower Pulnies,
tives however never extract it.

Garuga pinnata,
Protium Roxburghianum, leaves pinnate.

3)

? ‘Leaves ternate, much used for hedges:

MoRINGACEX,

Hyperanthera Moringa, about villages.

LEGUMINOS.&.

Sophora glauca,
Crotalaria rubiginosa,

3?

Wightiana, several forms of this, if they are all
one species.

sp. Stipules wanting, leaves very narrow,
linear, with thei® upper surface as
well as whole plant densely cover-
ed with blackish hairs, vexillum
with a tuft of hairs, otherwise si-
milarto “ anthylloides.’”” Common
near Poombary. (a form of anthyl-

loides.)

anthylloides,

Mysorensis,

longipes ? agrees well with the description of
that plant, except that the legumes
are pubescent, (a large shrub, com-
mon near Puttoor.)

paniculata, slopes near Pulney.

superfoliata, near Tandigoody.

_juncea,

Leschenaultii, very common.

sericea,

montana, (foxd.) (only differs from sericea in the sti-
pules and bracts, but so far is cons
stant, )

178

Crotalaria nov. sp.

~

Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES,

Herbaceous,erect,elabrous, leavesvery

(6. Verrucosze,) narrow, linear, very obscurely nerv-

99

ed, tapering at the apex into apoint.
Stipules wanting, racemes terminal,
many flowered, bracts adnate to the
rachis, (asin the stipules of some
Phaseolee, )ovate with along acumi-
nation, calyx cleft to the middle,
upper lip bifid, legume with a short
thick stalk, oblong, broader up-
wards, glabrous, many seeded.
Flowers yellow, a very distinct
species, apparently new, arare plant.
Crotalaria elegans.

Wallichiana, very common.

5, nov. Sp.? (6. Verrucosze,) suffruticose, erect, leaves orbicular,

(

smooth on the upper surface, under
surface and stems densely covered
with white woolly hair, stipules very
large, lunate, transverse, racemes
terminal, calyx (cleft to the middle,
upper segment bifid,) pubescent,
bracts ovate with along acumina-
tion, legumes glabrous, many seeded,
flowers yeliow, 12 to 15 feet. Poom-
bary ghat.
Crotalaria lanata.

(7 Diffusee,) A very pretty procumbent species,

with hirsute legume, very common amongst the grass at

5
o> MOVs ER.

93

Poombary and elsewhere, with
very long terminal racemes of large
brilliant yellow. flowers, perhaps a
form of ‘* C. Evolvuloides.”

Herbaceous, erect, much branched,

glabrous leaves lanceolate.

Acuminated, attenuated at the base.

Stipules wanting racemes terminal or

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 179

axillary, few flowered, bracts mi-
nute, calyx cleft to the middle, upper
segment deeply bifid, legumes ob-
long, broader upwards, pubescent
12 seeded, flowers blue, (has much
-the appearance of C. verrucosa ata
distance, but has no stipules, and
the leaves differ much,) arare plant,
near Cowanjee.

Crotalaria coerulea,

This species is very common on the
Anamallays.

= albida, common.

viminea,

_ globosa,

im umbellata, near (Shambaganoor.)

ES Notonii, near Vilputty.

“* clavata, Periyur slopes towards Canavaddy.

- Grahamiana, Poombary valley (very common. )
Trigonella Fenum groeecum, much cultivated.
Pycnospora nervosa, (not common. )
Indigofera viscosa,

- pulchella, a very common shrub.

“a tenuifolia,

sf trifoliata,

a parviflora,

a Wightii,

oh sp.
Clitoria Ternatea,
Dumasia congesta, very common.
Shuteria vestita, aga these 2 species might be

= glabrata, united,

Notonia (Johnia) Wightii, lower Pulnies.
Pseudarthria viscida,
Tephrosia tinctoria,

x 3 Very common,

39 purpurea,

180 — Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

Smithia sensitiva,

5» racemosa? Poombary ghat.

Uraria hamosa, abundant lower ranges.
Desmodium triquetrum,

3 latifolium,

“ Gangeticum,

5 Wightii?

- recyurvatum,

ms gyrans,

os polycarpum,

Ss rufescens, very common 4,000 to 7,000 feet.

* strangulatum, very common.

es triflorum,

> parvifolium,

Dicerma pulchellum,
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius,
> styracifolius,
Abrus precatorius,
Rhynchosia densiflora, lower slopes.
Calycine segments longer than the

3 (Phyllomatia), sp.
(Phy )» 8p 1 seeded legume.

3; suaveolens, at Punnikal.
Flemingia congesta,
a Grahamiana,
Phaseolus Pulniensis, a pretty sp. in the grass near Poom-

bary and Kookul. Flowers lilac,
large, fragrant.

i trinervius,
is sublobatus,
% sp. twining to a great extent, stipules

adnate, stems strigose, leaves on
long petioles, trifoliate, terminal
one ovate oval, lateral ones obli-
quely ovate, very unequal sided,
above harsh adpressed pubescence,
below downy, peduncles longer
than petioles, thickened, 3-4 flow-

JAN.—-MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 181

ered at apex, flowers from glandu-
lar knobs, legumes terete, covered
with brown hairs. Flowers very
large, lilac and fragrant, very com”
mon. Can this be P. caracalla ? It
is certainly wild.

“ trilobus,
48 sp. (Poombary valley) flowers white, le-
gumes compressed.
Dolichos glutinosus, (Poombary valley.)
» Sinensis,
Lablab vulgaris,
Parochetus major, moist ground, higher ranges.
Canavalia gladiata,
& virosa,
“2 mollis,
Mucuna (Citta) atropurpurea, at Tandigoody. ,
prurita,
Cantharospermum pauciflorum.
* albicans, (Poombary ghat.)
PS Ber very long filiform racemes.
Dunbaria, sp. (Poombary ghat and Vellaycovay,
This sp. I cannot ideatify with
1 any of Dr. Wight’s, the calyx is
4 not herbaceous, nor are the bracts
3 toothed, the vexillum is as
L much reflexedas in “ Kennedya.”

Cylista scariosa,
Cyanospermum tomentosum, Poombary valley,
Erythrina Indica,
Butea parviflora,
» frondosa,

Pongamia glabra,
Dalbergia latifolia,

si sissoides,

“5 volubilis,

= paniculata,

182 Flora of the [NO. 6, NEW SERIES,

Brachypterum scandens,
Pterocarpus marsupium,
Inga xylocarpa,
Dichrostachys cinerea,
Prosopis spicigera,
Acacia Sundra,
» Jatronum,
» omer.
,, odoratissima,
», sSpeciosa,
1a onisigs
9 pennata,
Guilandina Bonduc,
Ccesalpinia mimosoides, Perryur (very common.)
= sepiaria,
Tamarindus Indica,
Cassia fistula,
a auriculata,
»,, occidentalis,
55 ~ LOra;
3) aes.
>» pumila,
> o> ODtHES, lower slopes,
Bauhinia Malabarica,
>» racemosa,

> Variegata, (at Vellaycovay.)
RosacEZz&.
Rubus lasiocarpus, from 3,000 feet.
> rugosus, from 5,000 feet.

» gowreephul,
Fragaria elatior,
se Indica,
Potentilla Leschenaultii,
Rosa involucrata,
Photinia Lindleyana,

SALICARIACE.
Ammania sp.

JAN.—MAR. 1858. ] Pulney Hills. 183

Lagerstroeemia microcarpa,
CoMBRETACEZ.
Terminalia Catappa,
< Belerica,
ps Chebula,
5 tomentosa,
» paniculata,
Conocarpus latifolius,
Gyrocarpus Jacquini, .
MEMECYLACES.
Memecylon sp :
MELASTOMACE2.
Sonerila Rheedii ?
Osbeckia Wightii,
es Leschenaultii,
is hirsutissima,
s Zeylanica,
MyRTAcEx. :
Rhodomyrtus tomentosus, Very common, berries eaten. |
Syzygium jambolanam,

Bs sp.
Eugenia sp.
Careya arborea,
ONAGRACEZ.
Jussizea repens,
Ludwigia parviflora,
Circeea sp. Common in grassy places near the
large Kookul shola.
CucURBITACEZ,
Coccinea Indica,
Bryonia Garcini, Lower slopes.
Re laciniosa,
5 scabrella,
>» ? Hookeriana,
Momordica charantia, Dicecious? Leaves 3-5 lobed, sca-

Trichosanthes ? brous above, downy beneath, with

hard tipped serratures, female flow-
ers racemes with large glandular

184 Flora of the [NO. 6, NEW SERIES,

laciniate bracts, sometimes solita<
ry, or 2 together in the axils of the
leaves with one lanceolate bract,
stigma 3-4 cleft, 3 sterile filaments
inserted low down in tube of corolla.
Male flowers with a large and more
laciniate calyx, filaments 3 (rarely
4) quite distinct, inserted on the
gibbous upper part of the tube,
anthers united, corollavery hairy on
the inside, tendrils 2-3 cleft, flow-
ers white. Berry globose.

At Tandigoody and Perryor. (Nat-
chantalle.)

PASSIFLORACEZ,
Passiflora Leschenaultii,

¢ PoRTULACACER.
Trianthema decandrum,
CRASSULACEX.
Kalanchoe grandiflora, Flowers used medicinally,
*UMBELLIFERZ.
Hydrocotyle polycephala, Sholas (very common.)
Sanicula elata, =
Bupleurumramosissimum, Abundant in the grass on the higher
ranges.
Pastinaca sp. Do. do. do.
Pimpinella Candolleana, Do. do. do.
ARALIACEX.
Hedera rostrata, Sholas.
as racemosa, do.
o obovata, do. very common.
LoRANTHACEZ,
Viscum verruculosum,
és angulatum,
» grossum,

a LO, CETL LL

* Heraeleum pedatum, (Wight) may be added, see Icon. t. 342,

JAN.—MAR, 1858.] Pulney Hills. 185

Viscum moniliforme, ¢

Loranthus (Symphyan-
thus) sp: nov. ?

L

“ loniceroides,
Hs buddleoides,
A} sarcophyllus,

re amplexifolius,
_ Candolleanus,
3 cuneatus,

9 Euphorbie,

99 sp. nov. ‘

+ ea aia

On ‘* Rhododendron arboreum,”’ very
common, glabrous, leaves ovate, very
obscurely nerved, thick, opposite,
racemes axillary or terminal, many
flowered, pedicels short, one small
bract embracing the calyx. Calyx
entire or nearly so, corolla glabrous,
ventricose at base, equally 4 cleftto
below the middle, segments cuneate
linear, berry oblong, flower deep
dull orange color.

at Cowangee.

common on the lower ranges.

common.

leaves with a transparent margin.

at Kodakarnal.

very common. ®

growing on Euphorbia antiquorum,
near foot of hills. ;

Lower slopes growing on ‘ Salva-
dora Indica’ rarely on ‘‘ Cordia po-
lygama ?”’ Glabrous, branches very
woody, leaves nearly opposite
or approximated in threes, very
long, linear, often much curved, of
a thick texture, short petioled at-
tenuated at base, obtuse or slight-
ly acute, racemes axillary, or from
the axils of fallen off leaves, many
flowered, pedicelled, one bract em-
bracing the ovary, calyx entire or
nearly so, corolla curved, apex split
into 5 segments, one third the
length of the tube, segments, linear
acute, ovary oblong crowned with
calyx, flowers whitish with the seg-
ments green,

—

186 Flora of the [NO. 6, NEW SERIEs,

CAPRIFOLIACER.
Viburnum acuminatum, common at Poombary.
a3 capitellatum, i
Lonicera Leschenaultii, very abundant.

RUBIACER.
Nauclea parviflora,
Musseenda frondosa,
Gardenia lucida, (pissanee) in sholas.

Randia dumetorum,

», uliginosa,
Griffithia fragrans, slopes towards Verupatchy.
Wendlandia Notoniana, = very common.
Hymenodyction excelsum,

Hedyotis stylosa, %
ot articularis, |
x pruinosa, | higher ranges only.
- monosperma,
7 affinis, flowers very fetid.
35 Burmanniana,
‘. Heynii, these 2 little plants are common in
‘ dichotoma, hilly places in Central India.
- aspera, lower slopes.
Lasianthus venulosa, sholas Kodakarnal, (berries blue.)
= Sp. Kookul sholas, (flowers very fetid, ber-

ries black.)
Canthium umbellatum, grows toa good sized tree. (lower
Pulnies. )

3 parvifiorum,

Psychotrium ambiguum,
sp. Sholas.

93
Grumilea congesta ?
Bigelowia lasiocarpa, ¥
- Roxburghiana,
Spermacoce hispida,
Knoxia corymbosa, very abundant.

» Wightiana, in the grass near Poombary.

JAN.—MAR, 1858.] Pulney Hills. 187

GALIACEZ.
Rubia cordifolia, very abundant.
Galium asperifolium,
» Requienianum,
VALERIANACER.
Valeriana Leschenaultii, Poombary ghat.
» Hookeriana, Cowangee hill streams.
DIPSACE. ®
Dipsacus Leschenaultii, | common.
CAMPANULACER,
Campanula Alphonsii, common.
=f fulgens,
Wahlenbergia agrestis, very common.
“3 perotifolia,
LoBELIACES.
Lobelia trichandra, a very common plant.
ee trigona, °
PYROLACER.
Pyrola sp. Kodakarnal.
ERICACE.

Gaultheria Leschenaultii, (Moorcherree) berries eaten.
Rhododendron arboreum, very abundant.
VACCINIACES,
V ini N ‘
accinium SugREATenss; \ ébishow shite.
Leschenaultii, 7

Poombary ghat, axillary spikes of
green flowers,

P

ULMACEA.

Celtis orientalis, from the plains to the highest ele-

vations,

STYRACER,

Symplocos Gardneriana, _ sholas.

AS pendula, Kodakarnal, banks of streams.

EBENACE2.

Maba Neilgherrensis,

AQUIFOLIACEZ.

Monetia tetracantha,

188 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

APOCYNACER.
Carissa Carandas,
Ophioxylon Neilgherrense, near Puttoor.
Vinca pusilla, fields.
Wrightia tinctoria,
Alstonia venenata,
Ichnocarpus frutescens,
Kchites sp. slopes near Pulney.

LOGANIACER.
Strychnos nux-vomica,
Gardnera Wallichiana, sholas.
Fagrza Coromandeliana,
ASCLEPIACES.
Hemidesmus Indicus,
Holostemma Rheedianum,
Calotropis gigantea,
Sarcostigma bréVispina,
o SPs
Deemia extensa,
Cynanchum pauciflorum, Kookul.

Tylophora mollissima, common.

Be tenuissima, sholas.

Hoya viridiflora,
5, pauciflora, a rare and beautiful parasite.
Ceropegia intermedia,

A acuminata,

5s tuberosa, slopes towards Verupatchy.

a juncea, lower slopes.

Me elegans, ( Root fibrous, leavesremote, lanceolate,
tapering to a long point, slightly
hairy, covered with minute dots, ra-
cemes cyme like, axillary, 2—6 flow-

. sp. | ered, flowers very large, greenish,

upper part of tube and segments

speckled with purple, segments of

calyx, very narrow and acute,

nearly allied to C, Decaisneana, a
(bulbous plant.

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 189

( Stem filiform, with a few narrow

' linear leayes near the apex, hardly

two lines broad, flowers bell shaped,

Caralluma ? drooping, purple. (Poombary val-
ley.) I unfortunately lost the only

1 specimen that I found of this euri-

Lous little plant.
Boucerosia diffusa, on rocks.

ORoBANCHACEZ.
Aginetia pedunculata, flowers of a most lovely deep blue,
parasitic on the roots of a grass.
Oligopholis tubulosa, Kodakarnal shola.

Campbellia sp. Tandigoody sholas.

GENTIANACER.

Gentiana verticellata,

Ophelia elegans, ® higher ranges,
3, Griesbachiana, glands on the petals ( most abundant
very hairy. in the ‘grass.
Halenia Perrottetii, borders of sholas common.

Exacum tetragonum,
+ Perrottetii, - abundant near Poombary, a very
beatiful species.
(herbaceous, erect, glabrous, leaves

opposite, broadly ovate, stemclasp-
ing, 5—7 nerved, suddenly acumi-

J nated, 2 bracts about the centre of
2 noe: 1 the peduncles, flowersvery large of
| adeep blue. Poombary and Koda-
| karnal. (Introduced into gardens at
(the latter place.)
= pedunculare,

Canscora diffusa,
SoLANACES.

Solanum sp. Shrubby, erect, leaves petioled, ovate
lanceolate, acuminated at both ends,

——2

190 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

stems and every part but the flow-
ers coveredwitk longish weak hairs,
flowers axillary 2-3 together, on
peduncles a little longer than the
petioles, berries small, 6 seeded, In
sholas, grows to 12 feet high.
Solanum ferox, higher ranges common,
» giganteum, do;;% ‘do, do.
» Indicum,
> PubrUM:
>» pubescens, Lower slopes (flowers purplish.)
Datura fastuosa,
Physalis minima,
» Peruviana? The Brazil cherry (so called,) is wild
all over the hills ; it has I suppose
been introduced.

c OLEACEZ.

Olea robusta, . Bits of the bark are thrown into the
toddy extracted from Caryota urens,
to cause fermentation.

CoRDIACER.
Cordia myxa, Lower slopes,
» polygama? ts es “ near Chattrapatty.
*CoNVOVLYULACES.
Evolvulus alsinoides,
Porana racemosa, a rare plant, slopes near Cowangee.
Convolvulus rufescens, common on the higher ranges, 6 to
7,000 feet.
Calonyction speciosum, valleys and slopes.
Ipomea Wightii, common at Puttoor and Poombary ;

(I have since found this _ flowers very large, (the calyx and
sp. on the plains at the leaves are much like those of
Anamallay.) I. pilosa,) 6 to 7,000 feet.

* Of these only 3, viz. Ipomea Wight, I. nov. sp?, and Convolvulus rufescens
inhabit the higher elevations.

JAN.—MAR. 1858. ] Pulney Hills. 191

Ipomea pilosa, )
ss hispida,
a dentata, on the
» striata, 1 slopes ofthe
- staphylina, an enormous climber. r hills ard
» pes tigridis, in valleys.
ee pileata,
a tuberculata, #
5 obscura,
he OV. Bp re Procumbent, stems, leaves and calyx
strigose, leaves alternate, distant,
narrow, cordate, flowers axillary,
solitary, short peduncled, calyx with
the 3 outer sepals, ovate, the 2inner
linear, and longer than the outer
ones, 2 bracts below the calyx, cap-
sule——, flowers lilac, ratherlarge;
in the grass near Puttoor, 6,000
feet. ;
Hewittia bicolor, Slopes.
Pharbitis nil, Lower Pulnies.
Rivea cuneata, do. do.
5, bona nox, Slopes.
Argyreia aggregata, ge
pomacea, ”
hirsuta? ”
Aniseia uniflora, Alpine vallies 3,000 feet.
PLUMBAGINACES,
Plumbago Zeylanica,
PRIMULACES.
Lysimachia Leschenaultii, (very common.)
Anagallis latifolia, (fields. )
Micropyxis tenella, (Kodakornal.)
MYRSINACEZ.
Mesa Indica, very common in Sholas.

Embelia Tsjeriam-cottam, at Vilputty and Perryur.
Myrsine capitellata, in sholas, common.

192

Ardisia humilis,
» pauciflora?

Jasminum revolutum,

Flora of the [xo. 6, NEW SERIES,

sholas.
sholas at Kookul.

J ASMINACE.

> brevilobum, higher ranges, all common.

a rigidum,

a sp. lower slopes.
SALVADORACEZ.

Salvadora Indica,

Ehretia aspera,

a sp.
Heliotropium Rottleri,

lower slopes.

EHRETIACE.
Pautcheloor slopes.

33 3?

lower slopes.

BoRAGINACEZ.

Trichodesma Zeylanica,
Cynoglossum furcatum,

Ocimum sp.
Orthosiphon sp.
Plectranthus Wightii,

es sp.

+ sp.
Coleus barbatus,

,» Spicatus,
Anisochilus albidus,

= purpureus,
f sp.
$3 Sp.

lower slopes.
higher ranges.

LAMIACEZ.

common.
(obovate bracts.)

very common.
at Perryur.

on rocks, with silvery leaves.
a large shrub, with cordate serrate
leaves, very common.

Pogostemon rotundatum,

5s sp.

> sp.
Dysophylia auricularia,
Micromeria biflora,
Melissa umbrosa,
Prunella vulgaris,

higher ranges, common.
sholas, common.
at Poombary.

JAN. —MAR, 1858.] Pulney Hillis. 193

Scutellaria violacea, very common.
: ba mm h he high
7a i rass on the higher
Leucas ternifolia, Common in the g 0 1g

ranges.
> .binlora,
55 cephalotes,
oe ate Lanceolate serrate leaves, dense capi-
tate or axillary heads of flowers,
whole plant densely covered with
deflexed brown hairs.
Leonotis nepetzfolia,
Teucrium tomentosum,

VERBENACEZ.
Stachytarpheta sp. Slopes near Pulney, most abundant,
flowers blue,
“ sp. common near Perryur, a handsome

plant with lilac flowers, not unlike
S. mutabilis,

Bouchea ? Lower slopes. ,
Lantana Indica, Very common,
Vitex negundo, Perryur, flowers used to ferment a
beer that the natives make from the
Ragee.
a3 alata, .

Premna Wightiana,
» cordifolia,
3, tomentosa,

Slopes near Verupatchy.

Tectona grandis, Lower slopes.
Gmelina arborea, Wood much valued by the natives,
Peryur.
Clerodendron infortunatum, Sholas.
a serratum, a very common plant.
_ Callicarpa Wallichiana, Sholas.
PEDALIACES.
Pedalium murex, Lower slopes,
GESNERACES.

Klugia sp, (Lower lip of corol 3 lobed.)

194 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

JEschynanthus Ceylanica, A beautiful and rare parasite, the
leaves are those of a Hoya.
Didymocarpus tomentosus, Very common, 500 feet up to 6000.

BIGNONIACEZ.
Stereospermum sp. There is a tree of this sp. in the
Madras Horticultural Garden, it

does not appear to be described.
Bignonia xylocarpa,

ACANTHACES.
Thunbergia fragrans, Very common.
Dyschoriste littoralis, (Lower slopes.)
Dipteracanthus patulus, oF a

Phlebophyllum Kunthia- Very common in the grass on tha
num, higher rangese
Stenosiphonium Rusellia-
num, near Kodakarnal.
Strobilanthes micranthus, Poombary in hedges.
Asystasia Coromandeliana,
ie sp. apparently with bright yellow flowers.

the same as the above.

Barleria buxifolia, Lower slopes.
z cuspidata, + od
23 Sp. | 33 99
Ai prionitis, 3 he? =
bs sp. avery large shrub 15 to 20 feet high,

with ovate lanceolate, acuminate
leaves, perfectly covered with very
large blue flowers; a very hand-
some sp. Poombary ghat, sholas
near Vilputty. |

Blepharis Madraspatensis,

Crossandra infundibulifor-

mis, very common.

Endopogon ? ? This like ‘‘ Endopogon strobilanthes’’
has the corolla of Endopogon but
has 4 stamens; shrubby, leaves

JAN.—MAR, 1858. ]

Hemigraphis latebrosa,

Pulney Hills.

195

opposite, ovate, serrate, generally
very unequal in size,long petioled,
minutely dotted and covered with
a harsh pubescenee, flowers from
axillary peduncled capitate heads,
surrounded by broad hairy bracts,
flowers pale blue. Kookul, com-
mon in hedges close to the village.

Rostellularia procumbens, borders of sholas.

s9 sp.
Eranthemum montanum,
Adhatoda Vasica,

= betonica,
Rhinacanthus communis,
Rungia pectinata,

99 ?
Rhaphidospora glaber,
Andrographis Wightiana,

rf Neesiana,

i paniculata,

Pa viscosula,
Leptacanthus ?

a shrub in Kodakarnal shola.
lower slopes.
in sholas. ,

do.

in sholas.
in sholas below Kookul ghat.

ScROPHULARIACEZ.

Verbascum ?

Limnophila sp.
Torenia Asiatica,
Vandellia crustacea,
Bonnaya sp.
Buddlea discolor,
Striga densiflora,

», ? orobanchioides,?
Gerardia delphinifolia,
Pedicularis Zeylanica,

a pretty yellow flowered annual, com-
mon in the grass on the higher

ranges.
moist places, very common.

fields near Vilputty. “

yellow flowers.
very common.
most abundant on the higher ranges.

196 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

UTRICULARIACER.
; Utricularia Wallichiana,
3 humilis,
7 racemosa,
NYCTAGINACEZ.
Boerhaavia procumbens,
95 humilis,
Pisonia aculeata, lower slopes.
AMARANTACEZ.
Achyranthes aspera,
~ sp.
Euxolus caudatus, lower slopes near Pulney.
Psilotrichum nudum, 3 a A
/®rua floribunda,
Amaranthus frumentaceus, (A flour is made from the seed.
Celosia pulchella,
= argentea,
0 CHENOPODIACES.
Chenopodium ambrosioides, An abundant weed about Perryur.
POLYGONACES.
Polygonum Nepalense, Kookul in fields.
‘5 Chinense, Very common, used medicinally.
Rumex Nepalense, Kookul.
BEGONIACES.
Begonia dipetala, Abundant.
LAURACES.
Cinnamomum iners, Sholas very common.

Alseodaphne semicarpifolia, Sholas.
Cylicodaphne Wightiana,
Tetranthera tomentosa,
and 3 other trees of this order.
MyYRISTICACE.

Myristica sp. (Palmanee kam.)
tomentosa? the mace round the nut is used by
the natives to color their teeth.

3?

SAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 197

ELEAGNACES.
Eleagnus latifolius, very common, the berries are eaten.
THYMELACES.
grows to a tree in the Kookul shola,
Gnidia eriocephala, much used by the natives as a fibre,
and called Kat murke nar.

~

SANTALACES.
Thesium Wightianum, near Kodakarnal.,
Osyris Wightiana, the bark is eaten like suparee with
chunam, it turns the saliva red, a
common shrub.

Santalum album, near Pullatoor.
ARISTOLOCHIACER.
Aristolochia Indica,
ss acuminata,
KUPHORBIACER.
Euphorbia Rothiana, ‘
oe trigona, } ;
% antiquorum,
z tirucalli, eae slopes,
its Nivulia, i
Dalechampia velutina, common near Perryur.
Tragia inyolucrata, ,
ia Sp. densely covered with reddish hairs,
(at Poombary common.)
Acalypha Indica,
3 ? a shrub, slopes towards Verupatchy.
Macaranga Indica, (Arboreous, dizcious, leaves opposite,

oblong, lanceolate, attenuated at
both ends, serrate towards apex,
glabrous—below covered with re-
Claoxylon sp. ~ sinous dots, spikes axillary, male
flowers glomerate, (not amentace-
ous), spikes about the length of
leaves—styles 3, capsule tricoccous
\ muricated.

198

Flora of the [NO. 6, NEW SERIES,

Givotia Rottleriformis, very common,

Ricinus communis,
Rottlera peltata,
% tinctoria,

a common tree.

Baliospermum polyandrum,

Briedelia spinosa ?

= sp.
Cluytia collina,

lower slopes.
~ do.

Phyllanthus, 2 species,

Melanthesa turbinata,

Emblica officinalis,

Glochidion ?

Sarcococca trinervia,

Reéidia floribunda,

Macrcea Rheedii ?

3) sp.

Urtica vesicaria,
Laportea terminalis,

very common.
Perryur—a large shrub, opposite,
lanceolate, shining, serrate leaves,
dense amentaceous axillary spikes.

very common on the higher ranges.
common about Tandigoody, a showy
plant.
leaves and stems covered with a few
silvery hairs, especially below,
margins ciliated.
(shrubby, erect, stems angled, glabr-
| ous, leaves nearly sessile, oval,
4 whitish below, margins revolute—
| female pedicels half the length of
i the leaves.
URTICACEZ.
sholas at Tandigoody.
a severely stinging plant.

Girardinia Leschenaultiana, stings severely. Flowers used me-

Elatostema cuspidata,

Pilea trinervia,

oe Ep.
Splitgerbera ?
Pouzolzia, 3 species,

Cannabis sativa,

dicinally, very common.
abundant.

with very large caducous stipules.

CANNABINACEZ.

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 199

MoRaAcE#.
Dorstenia Indica, at Tandigoody.
Covellia ? (Ficus), an enormous climber.
Ficus, 8 or 9 sp. all trees.
ARTOCARPACEZ.
Artocarpus integrifolia, | abundant in sholas on the lower
ranges.
Conocephalus niveus, common, lower rapge.
Trophis aspera, lower slopes, common.
ANTIDESMEACEZ.
Antidesma paniculata,
PIPERACEZ.
' Peperomia Wightiana, very common.
e Dindigulensis,
sai reflexa,
Piper attenuatum,
» Wightii, i
CHLORANTHACES. ,

Sarcandra chloranthoides,

D10scOREACEZ,
Dioscorea tomentosa,
+ pentaphylla, roots eaten.
“ sp.
SMILACEZ.
Smilax Zeylanica, sholas near Cowangee.
» maculata, very common, apolymorphous species.
CYCADACER.
Cycas circinalis,
ORCHIDACE.
Liparis olivacea, on rocks.

“ atropurpurea,
Oberonia Arnottiana,
& verticillata,

> sp. aminutesp. Permaulmallay (on trees)
i 8000 feet,

200 Flora of the [NO. 6, NEW SERIEs,

Microstylis Rheedii,

2 versicolor,
Dendrobium filiforme, on trees in sholas on the Permaul-
mallay.
Coelogyne corrugata, on rocks near Vilputty. (A most

beautiful plant.)
Pholidota imbricata,
Ania latifolia,

Eulophia ramentacea, rare, slopes between Kodakarnal and
Velaycovay.
Vanda Roxburghii, lower slopes.

Saccolabium guttatum,
> Wightianum, at Poombary.
4Grides Lindleyana, on rocks near Tandigoody.
Sarcanthus filiformis,
Cymbidium aloifolium,
Polystachya luteola,

Calanthe Perrottetii, very common in sholas. (A most beau-
tiful species. )
Satyrium sp. very abundant all over the higher
ranges, flowers a lively pink.
Platanthera Susanne, at Kookul and Shambaganoor, very
common in the grass.
= lutea, simitar places to the last.
ob iantha, Kookul ghat, a rare plant rather.
3 affinis, near Kookul.

Peristylus exilis,
Habenaria peristyloides,

= elliptica,

és plantaginea,

cs longicalcarata, the commonest Orchid on the hills.
“4 montana, common.

i Lindleyana,

Ate virens,
Josephia latifolia,

} apparently more than one species, in
Spiranthes Australis, grass near Kodakarnal.

JAN.—MAR. 1858. ] Pulney Hills. 201

XYRIDACEZ.
Xyris Indica,
CoMMELYNACEZ.
Commelyna polyspatha,

a Bengalensis,
Dictyospermum protensum, in sholas,
Aneilema paniculata,

Cyanotis cristata,

os pilosa,
JUNCACEZ.
Juncus sp.
»” Sp.
MELANTHACE.
Disporum sp.
Gloriosa superba,
LILIACEZ.
Lilium Wallichianum, very abundant higher ranges.
Sanseviera Zeylanica, lower slopes.
Anthericum tuberosum,
Asparagus racemosus,
Phalangium sp.
Ophiopogon Indicus,
Peliosanthes sp. .
PoNTEDERACE.
Pontederia vaginalis,
ZINGIBERACES.

Zingiber squarrosum,
Curcuma montana,
Elettaria Cardamomum, much cultivated.
Hedychium coronarium, banks of streams abundant.

i “A variety with straw colored flowers,
Costus speciosus,

MARANTACES.

Canna sp. : Sholas at Tandigoody.

AMARYLLIDACES,
Crinum sp.

c

202 Fuora of the Pulney Hills. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

HyPoXIDACE2.
Curculigo orchioides,
3 sp.
ARACEZ.
Arum sp. Poombary well,
33 Ka: Sholas near Kodakarnal. .
PANDANACEZ.

Pandanus odoratissimus,

PALMACEZ.
Areca, (Kat pan.)
Caryota urens, Lower ranges, a fibre is made from

the peduncle.
Borassus flabelliformis, about villages, lower ranges.

Bentinckia condapana, Sholas.

Pheenix sp.

Cocos nucifera, rare about villages.
| EqQuisETACEZ.

Equisetum sp. Poombary valley.

GRAMINACEZ AND CYPERACEX.
Are both abundantly represented on these hills.

BRYACEZ.
This order is abundant.
LyYcoPoDIACE.
Five or six species,
OPHIOGLOSSACES.
Several species,
PoLYPODIACEZ.

Between 40 and 50 sp. all I believe Neilgherry forms.
I have not attempted to name the Composite, in the above cata-
logue, there are many of the larger Neilgherry forms,

The above is not supposed to include nearly all the flora of the
sholas (or moist woods) of the higher ranges, especially the trees,
few of which were in flower at the period of my visit to these
mountains.

JAN.—MAR, 1858.] Notes of an excursion, Sc. §c. — 2038

XII. Notes ofan excursion along the Travancore Backwater.
By Captain Heper Drury, 45th N. J.

During a recent trip by water from Trevandrum to Cochin, it
struck me that a few notes descriptive of what may be seen in the
course of a hundred and thirty miles of the Western Coast might
not be altogether devoid of interest. The country Iam about to
describe lies within the kingdom of Tranvancore, the southernmost
portion of Malayala, formerly known as the kingdom of Kerala,
which comprised what is now designated Malabar and Canara, in-
cluding the principalities of Travancore and Cochin. Travancore
may be said to commence at Cape Comorin, and to include a nar-
rowslip of territory lying between the Ghauts and the sea extending
to within 20 miles of the town of Cochin, the total length being
about 175 miles, and the breadth varying from 25 to 70 miles, The
farthest distance, viz., from Cochin to a mountainous peak on the
east boundary has been calculated at 75 miles, averaging about 35
miles throughout the entire distance, the total area comprising from
600 to 700 square miles, and within these limits is a country diversi-
fied by scenery of the most unparalleled beauty, rich and teeming
with the products of nature. The high mountain land which forms
its eastern boundary is covered witlf dense forests, while the peri-
odical rains which render the soil so fertile, cause the most profuse
vegetation to spring up, giving a charming appearance of freshness
and verdure unknown to the inhabitants of the eastern coast.

As it is not my purpose to write a description of Travancore, I
proceed at once to record such features or incidents as I noted in
the journey recently undertaken. There are two routes on leaving
Trevandrum for the north, one by the road, and the other by the
canal. I chose the fcrmer, for the canal is long, tedious and unin-
teresting, whereas by land the distance is only eleven miles to
Cunneapooram, where you at once reach the open backwater. The
road is througha fine semi-cleared jungle, rich in Botanical products,
and though not thickly populated, a few villages occur at distant
intervals, the largest of which are Ooloor and Wulleecotum, To
a person arriving from the Coromandel Coast, the aspect of a vil-

204 Notes of an excursion along (No. 6, NEW SERIES,

lage in this part of the country cannot fail to excite surprise and
interest, awakening associations of comfort and cleanliness, if not
of a superior stage of civilisation, to which the tree-less and half-
deserted villages on the other side of the Ghauts present a sad
contrast. The great ambition of the Travancoreans, even of the
lowest class, is to possess a garden, wherein they can grow with
scarcely any trouble or expense, the few necessaries of existence.
Nature too flings her stores with such a liberal hand that little
care is requisite in rearing the vegetable products which these
people live upon. Hence it is that a Travancorean village is
a series of huts, enclosed in gardens wearing an eternal verdure
fresh and cheerful to the eye. The peculiar trees which succeed
so well in this moist climate, combine to render the Nair cottages
and gardens most picturesque and comfortable. In one small en-
closure may be seen grouped together the graceful Areca Palm
(Areca Catechu,) the Jack tree (Artocarpus integrifolius,) with the
Pepper vine (Pizer Negrum) climbing up its bark. The Sago Palm
(Caryota urens), the Talipot Palm (Corypha umbraculifera), besides
the Cocoa palm, Plantain, Tamarind and Mango trees, &c. These
gardens are protected by mud walls or hedges of different heights,
and are traversed by little lanes and bye ways. That such too has
been the custom for centuries, may be known from an ancient*
book in my possession whose author describes them much as they
are in the present day. Of the Nairs he records. “ They inhabite
no Towns, but dwell in houses made of earth invironed with hedges
and woods, and their waies as intricate as into a laborinth.’”’ These
Nairs—the principal inhabitants of Travancore—have, I am inclin-
ed to think, degenerated from that martial valour for which their
ancestors were once so renowned. Lightly clad, and with a remark-
able fairness of complexion, they appear to partake more of an
effeminate disposition than that described by earlier writers. It is
a known fact that a Nair cannot, as a rule, bear transplantation
from his native soil. Ina foreign country he pines away and dies;
yet in former days the habits of the Nair were peculiarly military
and he was trained to hardship and the exercise of war from his
earliest youth. The above quoted author remarks on this point.

* Johnson’s Relations of the most Famous Kingdom in the World, 4to. 1611,

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 205

* Itis strange to see how ready the Souldiour of this country is
at his weapons: they are all gentile men and tearmed Naires. At
seven years of age they are put to school to learn the use of their
weapons, where, to make them nimble and active, their sinnewes
and joints are stretched by skilful fellows, and annointed with the
oyle Sesamus: by this annointing they become so light and nimble
that they will winde and turn their bodies as if they had no bones,
casting them forward, backward, high, and low even to the aston-
ishment of the beholders. Their continual delight is in their weapon
perswading themselves that no nation goeth beyond them in skill
and dexterity.’’ This description would be more applicable to a
Parthian horseman or Roman Athlete than to the mild and delicate

looking Nair of the present day.

But the most peculiar feature in the domestic life of the Nair is
in the institution of marriage, and the customs which result from
his mode of observing this ceremony, so different from nearly all
other nations of the world. The ceremony of mmrriage (the term
is a complete misnomer,) is performed at an early age by one of the
near male relations of the family, usually by a cousin. Whén the
forms attendant upon this nominal union have taken place, all
communication between the youthful pair ceases, and the girl re-
turns to her relations. On arriving at or near the age of maturity,
a more real ceremony is performed, when another husband pre-
ssents himself, and this couple now become man and wife; but
should the husband after a certain period not be pleased with the
lady of his choice, he has the option of returning her to her parents
or relatives, when both are at liberty to seek a fresh union in other
quarters. No disgrace is attached to this proceeding, nor is the
summary divorce and violent disruption of the marriage tie in any
way illegal. There isin point of fact, no actual marriage such as
we understand the sacred institution, and it is in consequence of a
custom so abhorrent to our feelings of propriety, and one go sub-
versive of everything which should create and strengthen the ties
and relationship of domestic life, that in cases of heirdom either to
the throne of the royal family, or the succession to property, the
descent is recognised only in the female line. The nephew, not the
son, becomes the heir. Truly the remark which Telemachus makes

c

206 Notes of an excursion along [xo.6,NEW SERIES,

to Minerva is most worthily appropriate to the Nair race.* From
so strange a custom the moral tone of the inhabitants may be better
conceived thanj described. The same practice obtains, I believe in
Nepaul.

Returning from this digression on the Nair race, I come again to
speak of the road I was traversing and which I remarked was one
full of treasures for the botanical collector. It is a garden of wild
plants the whole way, for scattered on either side are

‘ The living herbs, profusely wild,

O’er all the deep green earth, beyond the power
Of Botanist to number up their tribes.’

In enumerating a few of the trees and shrubs, which are met
with, perhaps I may convey some idea of the Flora of these parts.
Among the most conspicuous trees are many fine specimens of the

‘ateria Indica with its large panicles of white flowers, and bright
green leaves whose veins are so prominently marked. It is well
known that this €ree, (commonly called the Piney Varnish tree,)
yields a valuable Dammer resin. The Piney Gum or Indian Copal,
as it is sometimes termed, is much used in these parts for varnish-
ing doors and window frames, candles have also been made ofa
solid oil contained in it. The experimental manufacture which
was conducted by Dr. Wight succeeded, but the cost of transmission
to England precluded the hope,of profit. The Resin flows sponta-
neously or is procured by making vertical and horizontal incisions
in the bark, from which in the course of 12, or 24 hours it exudes
very freely. The Natives state there are two varieties of this tree,
one growing at the foot of the hills yielding a different colored
dammer, but this I suspect is a mistake; and there is little or no
difference in the trees, but that the difference in the color of resin
is owing to local causes, probably from the season in which it is
procured. It is probable that the ‘ green’ dammer is obtained

* “Stranger! I tell thee true ; my mother’s voice,
Affirms me his, but, since no mortal knows
His derivation, I affirm it not.”

Hom. Odyss 1. 216. Cowpers translation.
+ For a fall detail of this extraordinary custom of the Nairs, see Buchanan’s
Journey Vol. 2. p. 411], 513.

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 207

from the Vatica Tumbagaia, a tree which I know from speci-
mens before me, yields a dammer *resinj of a beautiful light green
colour. Another resin similar tothe Piney is yielded by the Cana-
rium strictum, a tree very plentiful at the base of these mountains
but which has hitherto attracted less notice than it deserves. Allthe
above trees belong to the natural families of Dipterocarps or Tere-
binths, both peculiar for yielding resin. Another handsome tree
with dark green foliage growing here is the Hgbradendron gambo-
gioides. This and several Garcinias are common in these jungles.
A considerable quantity of Gamboge exudes spontaneously in
largish tears from the trunk, but the quantity procurableis much in-
creased by incision. The Natives eat the fruit of some of the Gar-
cinias with much relish, The Hmbryopteris glutinifera, or wild Man-
gosteen is here found. This tree is very like the Mangosteen in
appearance, and if introduced in gardens would be very ornamental.
The viscid juice which surrounds the seeds is used by carpenters as
a useful glue, but the fruit is quite uneatable. The Aclanthus Mala-
baricus isnot uncommon. The resin which exudes from the bark
is known as Muttee pal, and is said to be a sovereign remedy in
dysenteric affections. It has very balsamic properties. The Calo-
santhes Indica, Maearanga Indica and tomentosa are plentiful.
The glutinous fluid which flows from the petioles and branches
when broken off exudes from both the above species of Macaranga.
The large leaves of M. tomentosa are hoary beneath with a soft white
down, and are used in the bazars for wrapping spices, and similar
articles, for purchasers. Alstonia scholaris, Plumiera acuminata,
Odina Wodier and other large trees, are most deserving of men-
tion, while conspicuous among lesser shrubs, is Gloriosa superba
with its bright orange and yellow flowers so curiously arranged
creeping from bush to bush, decidedly the most gorgeous of Indian
creepers. The root is said to be poisonous. The Memecylon
amplexicaule is a tropical shrub, which when its flowering stem of
deep blue florets is in full blossom, cannot be sufficiently admired.
The MJussenda frondosa with its white calycine leaf, contrasting so
strongly with its orange coloured petals, Zabernemontana crispa,

* For information as to the varieties of Dammer, seo Jury Report of Madras
Exhibition. —Ep.

c

208 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

Dodonea angustifolia, and Connarus monocarpus are also in abund-
ance here. This latter shrub has flowers of exquisite fragrance, and
is constantly inblossom The black seed is surrounded by a yellow
pulpy aril which is used by the Natives in the following cases.
There is a kind of!worm which attacks their feet when bathing in
tanks or walking in muddy places and by the application of the
aril of this seed the worm is either destroyed or expelled. A pretty
flowering shrub along the road side is the Osbeckia aspera and a
smaller species the O. virgata. Carissas are very frequent, the Holos-
temma Rheedii, a charming creeper may occasionally may be met with.
It is the Adakodien of the Hortus Malabaricus. Asa creeper for
trellis work few Asclepiads could vie with its elegant flowers in
beauty, Asystasia Coromandeliana, (a variety with yellow flowers
like our English Primrose,) anda beautiful epiphyte the Vanda
spathulata of a deeper yellow still are common. But I have no space
to enumerate all the beauties of Floras that might be gathered in a
ramble through thesejungles. Among others may be found Litsea
Zeylanica, Careya arborea, Syzygium Zeylanicum, Ixora coccinea,
Vitis lanata, Gratiola monniera, Cyanotis axillaris, Bryophyllum
calycinum, Morinda exserta, Callicarpa lanata, Smilax ovalifoha, &c.,
&e. On reaching Cunneapooram, there is great abundance of the
Calophyilum spurium, which tree is easily recognised by its young
leaves being of a reddish brown hue, giving a singular appearance
to the forests at the season of the year when they begin to sprout.
At this time (October) the tree is in full flower.

At Cunneapooram the back-water commences. Here a hybrid
kind of boat for the reception of the Palankeen was in readiness.
This is called a Jangadum, and consists of two canoes lashed to-
gether with a platform over them. Upon this latter flooring the
palkee is placed, and the whole is urged lazily through the water,
two rowers and two men with long bamboo poles. The water here
is rather wide in some places—but not deep. The banks are lined
with the Cocoa palm andlow brush-wood. There is no object of
interest until you come to the town or rather village of Anjengo,
formerly a place of some note in our early commercial relations
with these parts, but now a desolute and almost deserted spot.
Anjengo, a corruption of two Tamil words ‘“ Unjee Tenkal” the

JAN.—-MAR, 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 209

five Cocoa trees. The remains of the Fort are close to the water
edge, now filled with rubbish and jungle.

At Anjengo was for many years an English factory. It rose into
importance upon the decline of Quilon, and was one of the last Te-
tained by us on this Coast. The Portuguese were the earliest pos-
sessors of the spot and the ruins of their Church still exist.* In its
palmiest days Anjengo must have beenalively place. ‘“ The for-
tress,” says Forbes, “‘contained store houses, accommodation for the
garrison and apartments for the chief who was a member of coun-
cilat Bombay. The civilians and military officers resided in to-
lerable houses &c.’’ At the present day a few scattered houses
tenanted by East Indians and Natives are all that remain of this
once gay and merry station. The place still belongs to the East
India Company, and is now chiefly famous for the manufacture in
painted wood of the different castes of the inhabitants of the coun-
try. These are creditably executed, a male and female of each
sect, about 8 or 4 inches in height, draped and ornamented, and

on the whole faithful representations. A complete set costs about ;

40 or 45 Rupees. Great quantities of Lemon grass oil are>manu-
factured at this place. The oil is distilled from the leaves of the
Andropogon citratum, common in the country. As a remedy for rheu-
matism this oil is much valued. An East Indian located here is a
fair Taxidermist, and keepsa collection of stuffed birds and animals
for sale. Of the latter may be chiefly procured the wild Cat, (Felis
Chaus,) Civet, (Viverra Zibetha,) Mongoose (Ichneumon mungos,)
Flying squirrel, (Sciwroptera oral,) Malabar squirrel (Sciurus maxi-
mus) &c., and among the rest that curious fish the Sea horse (Hip-
pocamgus,) which is caught in great numbers on the Coast.

One or two celebrated characters have claimed Anjengo as their
birth place. Robert Orme, the Historian of Hindostan, first saw
light in this remote spot. He was educated at Harrow School,
became a member of Council at Madras, and died in England at the
advanced age of 73 years. It was at Anjengo that was born Mrs,
Elizabeth Draper, an East Indian, the wife of one of the Councillors
of Surat, and the lady to whom Sterne addressed the well known
“letters to Eliza.” Ihave heard of people stopping at Anjengo to

* Forbes’ Oriental Memoirs.

(

210 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

visit Eliza’s tomb, under the idea that the defunct lady reposes in
the spot of her birth, but alas for the disappointed pilgrim, Eliza
enjoys a marble monument ina church in Bristol, far from the
land of her nativity.

' A few miles beyond Anjengo the water communication ceases.
A strip of elevated land about six miles in breadth runs out to the
Coast, ending in an abrupt cliff of laterite about 250 feet in height.
Travellers land at asmall village called Coletotum, where bearers are
in readiness to carry them to the opposite side where the back-water
is again reached. The road used is partly the sea beach itself, and
partly the summit of the cliffin land. About a quarter of a mile from
Coletotum there is a Bungalow situated on the cliffs built by the
Sircar for the accommodation of Traveliers and from this spot the
view is extremely beautiful. To the Eastward rises the magnifi-
cent line of Ghauts, to the South are the windings of the Back-
water dotted occasionally with small Islands whose banks are
adorned with thigk groves of the Cocoa Palm, Mango, Jack tree,
and other features of oriental scenery. The whole landscape is
peculiarly striking and picturesque. ‘To the west is the sea-board
stretching from Quilon on one side to the low cliffs beyond Tre-
vandrum on the other. I have said before that the cliffs here are
composed chiefly of laterite and are known as the Verkullay cliffs.
Immediately below the laterite formation of the surface are seen a
series of various coloured clays and sandstones, and below them
again a remarkable deposit of lignite which crops out in hori-
zontal seams of some extent the base being washed by the breakers:
This latter deposit extends for many miles along the coast being
found at Cannanore, Mangalore, and other places.* It can be ap-
plied to no use asa fuel though of vegetable origin. Below the
lignite some specimens of fossil limestone have been discovered
by General Cullen. In several places, the laterite here assumes
many curious forms having all the appearance of fossils, both animal
and vegetable. It has not however, yet been proved that laterite
is a fossiliferous deposit, and some persons are inclined to think that
the result arises from the action of the rains on a clay highly im-

* A notice of this lignite from the pen of the late Capt, Newbold will be found
in Vol. xi. p. 289, of this Journal—ED. M. J.

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 211

pregnated with iron, which ia perforated by certain minute insects
and becomes indurated by exposure to the atmosphere. This is a
curious point to be decided by Geologists. But tke age, formation
and history of the laterite is still a gwestio vexata, and until more
light is thrown upon the origin of so extensive a deposit, we must
remain in partial ignorance of its contents. A few scattered shrubs
are seen on these cliffs. A species of Barlerza with pretty blue
flowers is frequent. It makes an excellent border plant in gare
dens. The Pandanus odoratissimus grows plentifully here also.
There appear to me to be two distinct varieties of this shrub.
One has a more bushy head, the leaves are darker colored and the
spinal processes are disposed at shorter intervals than in the other,
which is more open and lax in appearance and the spines are thick-
ly set together. As a plantfor binding the banks of canals, &c.,
itisinvaluable. On the right hand side, about midway after leaving
the Bungalow lies the village of Paroor, where there is a famous
Pagoda and artificial tank. Near this is a minegal spring which
deserves to be better known. ‘The water of this spring was former-
ly brought to Anjengo for sale. It was near Paroor on the banks of
the Attengalriver, that a former *Rajah of Travancore encamped for
ten years in order to dispute the passage of the Rajah of Quilon. His
patience was rewarded after so long a delay by the capture of the
latter Prince and the annexation of his territories to Travancore.
Paroor too was the scene of an action in later times betweeen the
British forces and the troops of the Travancore Rajah commanded
by the Dewan. A force moved out from Quilon under command
of Colonel Chalmers: proceeding to Paroor, he made a successful
attempt to dislodge the enemy from theirsituation. The Nairs
though far exceeding in number the handful of British troops op-
posed to them, fled in confusion leaving several guns behind them.
This took place during the troubles in 1809. Two or three miles
beyond Paroor, the backwater appears once more in view and boats
are in readiness at a place called Eddavah. This was formerly a
Danish factory, and the English Governor of Anjengo built a villa
there in which he occasionally came to reside. The village now
consists of a few shops and fishermen’s huts inhabited by Moplahs

_ * Bartolomeo’s Voyage to Hast Indies.

212 Notes of an excursion along [xo. 6, New sERiEs,

and Christians. From Eddavah to Quilon the distance is about
12 miles, a journey performed by boats in 83 or 4 hours. There is
nothing remarkable in the voyage unless it be several slightly ele-
vated terraces at short intervals which have much the appearance
of ancient sea beaches. The uniformity of level is remarkable, and
the distance from the present sea line not being great, would
perhaps occasion the Geologist no great difficulty in arriving at
the history of their origin.

Quilon at present garrisoned by a Corps of Native Infantry, was
formerly* a place of some importance. It is variously spelt Col-
lam, Coulam and Coilon, signifying in Tamil ‘language ‘ a tank.”
Tt was built, says Bartholomew, in 825 after Christ, and was for-
merly a city of considerable note. The natives of Malabar begin
their era at the period ofits foundation saying ‘‘ so many years
after the foundation of Collam.”” The Portuguese built a large and
spacious fortress here, near the modern town of Tangancharey. It
is now quite in®ruins. Quilon at one time had an independent
prince of its own known by the title of the Rajah of Tangancha-
rey. He was subdued and taken prisoner by Vira-Martanda, Ra-
jah of Travancore in 1764, when his territory was annexed to the
latter kingdom.

One of the earliest accounts of Quilon is found in the travels of
Marco Polo, who lived in the fourteenth century. Discoursing on
the several products of this country, he especially alludes to the
manufacture of Indigo which he asserts was made here of superior
quality and in great quantities. He gives the process of its manu-
facture as follows. ‘They procure it from a herbaceous plant
which is taken up by the root and put into tubs of water where it
is suffered to remain till it rots, when they press out the juice.
This again being exposed to the sun and evaporated leaves a kind
of paste which is cut into small pieces of the form in which we see

Marco Polo’s Travels, p. 410, Bohn’s Ed.

* ‘ About two hundred years ago, the Town was rich, and great and populous ;
traded to by many Indians, enlarged by the Samoryn, and able to number a hun-
dred thousand inhabitants; of such repute it then was for situation, trade, and
fidelity of the Cowlamites. But now, the period of her excellency is outrun ; for
Calicut first, and then Goa have not only monopolized but attracted the trade of
this as well as other parts thereabouts.” Sir Thomas Herbert’s Voyage, p. 339,
1677. 3

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 213

it brought to us.” This rude process of the early manufacture of
Indigo is, as the English Translator has remarked, pretty correct.
Indigo to a slight extent is still made at Quilon, though at the pre-
sent day the place is more famous for its lace manufactory. That
it was a place of bustling trade in early time is apparent from thé
author above mentioned for he says, ‘* Merchants resort thither
from various parts of the world such for instance as the kingdom
of Mangi and Arabia, attracted by the great, profits they obtain
both wpon the merchandise they import, and upon their returning
cargoes. Many of the animals found here are different from those
of other parts. There are tigers entirely black, and various birds
of the parrot kind, some of them are white as snow, with the feet
and back red, others of a diminutive size, &c.’’ The ‘ black tiger’
is the dark spotted cheetah found in the neighbouring jungles.’’—
Bartholomew, who wrote some 3 or 400 years later, alludes to the
commercial activity of Quilon. ‘‘In this city, there were formerly
a great many weaving looms as well as manufactures of cotton and
stone ware. Even at present the most ingenious artists reside at
Collom. Cotton, pepper, ginger and, other kinds of mercliandise
are carried hither by water, and deposited in ware houses.’’ Proba-
bly Anjengo and subsequently Allepey eclipsed Quilon as a com-
mercial emporium.

At one time a considerable force was maintained at Quilon in-
cluding a European Corps with artillery. The grave yard at
Tangencharey is filled with tombs of deceased officers and sol-
diersof a Queen’s Regiment formerly stationed there. During the
troubles in 1809, an action was fought here between the Bri-
tish and Travancoreans. This took place under Colonel Chalmers,
then commanding the forces. He moved out to meet the ene-
my, who were approaching from the side of Trevandrum and
were commanded by the Dewan in person, amounting to nearly
80,000 men with 18 guns. The engagement which ensued was of
short duration. In less than five hours the insurgents were total-
ly defeated losing nearly all their artillery and leaving a large
number of slain on the ground. Such was the battle of Quilon.*

® The Nairs were again defeated here in a brilliant engagement by Colonels
Picton and Stewart, who dispersed and utterly disorganised the rebel force and
captured all their artillery in 1810.

2i4 Noies of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES;

The residency here, built by Col. Munro, is charmingly situat-
ed on a slightly rising ground overlooking the back-water. It
is a lovely spot, and the park like appearance of the grounds at the
back of the house add considerably to its beauty. The garden is
spacious and well laid out, the walls skirting the water, and to-
wards the south is a small bay on one side of which is seen the
house allotted by the Sircar to the officer commanding the station
and immediately opposite the house of John Liddell Esq., both
prettily situated at the bank and sourrounded with Casuarinas and

other trees.

On leaving Quilon, the scenery of the back-water becomes more
romantic and pleasing. Laterite cliffs, about fifty or sixty feet
high, rise on either side enclosing little bays with calm and deep
blue waters. These cliffs are very picturesque. Small shrubs
among which are Mussenda, Izora, Osbeckia, &c. cover the broken
sides and fallen fragments of rock half lying in the water, while
the level summits are occupied by gardens, plantations, or small
patches of cultivation. Immediately on leaving the Residency, will
be seen on the left hand side at the apex of one of these jutting
cliffs, a small obelisk enclosed by a group of Casuarinas. This was
erected as a tribute of affection by a Captain Gordon to the me-
mory of a favourite dog, which was drowned near the spot. Be-
yond this on another rising ground is a tiled Bungalow, charmingly
situated in a bay known familiarly as Loch Lomond. An officer
detached from the Nair Brigade to take charge of the out-posts
formerly resided here. It has been unoccupied for many years,
though occasionally made use of as a place for picnics and plea-
sure parties from Quilon. About halfa mile beyond this the water
opens out into a spacious and beautiful bay. Into this extensive
sheet of water pours the Tiruvalla river, and there is an outlet to
the sea at its Western extremity known as the bar of Neendacara.
The extent of the bay is very considerable, enough to contain half
the navy of England, and in fact it is one of the largest harbours
in the Peninsula. Unfortunately the water is very shallow which
has been the great drawback to its use; what improvements engi-
neering science might accomplish under European superintendence
it is impossible to say, but could this noble inlet from the sea

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 215
ever be made available for the purpose of ship building the advan-
tages would be incalculable. The river would float down timber
direct from the forests, and the possession of a harbour of refuge
like this on the Western Coast would be beneficial in the highest
degree to the interests of Commerce. %

The banks of the water are covered with many interesting plants,
and among them will be found Bruguiera, Rhizophora, Cerbera Odol-
lam, Dilivaria ilicifolia, Excoecaria Camettia, Scawola Taccada, &c.
The latter shrub (Rheede calls it arbor excelsa) contains a very acrid
caustic juice of which the Natives are greatly afraid. With much
difficulty I persuaded them to collect a small quantity. If the juice
gets into the eyes the pain would be intense, perhaps causing loss of
sight. Other trees* found here are Alstonia scholaris, Calosanthes
Indica, Terminalia catappa, Ailanthus Malabaricus, while in the
low lands and paddy fields Sph@ranthus hirtus, Utricularia, Sphe-
noclea Zeylanica, and Asteracantha longifolia are common two or
three miles beyond Quilon, the scenery become$ more tame and
monotonous, the passage being sometimes through canals occasion-
ally expanding into broad sheets of water. The sea beach eraes
is very near, the sandy hillocks peeping out here and there between
the strips of jungle, or Cocoa palms and fishing villages. The
sands are partly covered with [pomea pes-capre, Spinifex squarrosus
and Dactylon lagopoides. The singular Mangrove tribe is common
along the backwater. It is curious to remark the wonderful pro-
vision of nature displayed in this family of plants for the preser-

* The Revd. H. Johnston lately furnished us with a list of Orchids found by
him in the Travancore Forests, which appropriately finds a place here.—p, M. J.

Pholidota imbricata, Saccolabium rubrum,
Eria paucifiora, Cotionia macrostachys,
Celogyne corrugata, Airides Lindleyana,
Dendrobium filtforme, Wightiana,
— macrostachyum, Sarcanthus paucifiorus, .
_— ramosissimum, Polystachya purpurea,
——— barbatulum, Cymbidium aloifolium,
Bolbophyllum tremulum, ————— triste,
———— Neilgherrense, Geodorum dilataium,
Lichenora ——_-—,, Eulophia virens,
Arundina bambusifolia, Josephia lanceolata,
Vanda spathulata, ———- latifolia,
Roxburghit, Habenaria Jerdoniana,
Wightiana, Podochilus Malataricus,
Saccolabium Wightianum, and others not determined.
— guttatum.

— papillosum,

216 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

vation of the species. Take for example the Kandelia Rheedii and
see the long pendulous roots hanging from the boughs, perhaps the
only instance of the kind where the seeds actually begin to germi-
nate before falling from the parent branch. When of sufficient
length, should they not reach the water, they drop off, and sink
by their own weight in the soft muddy bottom, from whence the
new plant springs up. Now were the seeds to drop off at once
when ripe, as in other plants, the stream would naturally carry
them away, but by this wise yet simple adaptation of means to an
end, the plants have the power of increasing to an indefinite extent,
in situations where their utility is required and appreciated. The
mangrove tribe has an extensive range being found in all tropical
countries in salt marshy places, along the shore of the sea.

About twenty miles from Quilon to the left hand is the village
of Porcaad, the Dutch had a factory here, and it was formerly a
very populous place, but its importance as a pepper depot decreas-
ed on the rise of Allepey. Some miles beyond Poreaad, and with-
in twelve miles of Allepey, on the right hand side at a place called
Ambalapuley, the traveller will remark a curious stone image the
size of life, standing half out of the water, and apparently in a
running attitude. It hasa singular appearance. I could never
ascertain anything beyond its legendary history, for stories tell
that itis the image of a murderer whose victim was a woman he
had slain in the vicinity. After the commission of the foul deed,
he attempted to escape by running through the water to the oppo-
site side, but the hand of avenging justice turned him into stone
on the spot, where he has remained ever since. The image ofa
man apparently in the act of running is very remarkable. For-
merly the boatmen when passing by the haunted locality used to
cross themselves and mutter the name of their patron Saint Anthony
as they quickly glided by the image of the murderer.

Proceeding along from Ambulapuley there are extensive rice-
fields on either side, as might naturally be expected im a tract of
country so flat and so abundant in water. The physical configu-

The Mangrove tribe are most numerous at the Equator, asin Sumatra. Hel-
fer collected 17 species in the Tenasserim Provinces.—ED. M. J

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 217

ration of Travancore is not favourable to the production of large
quantities of rice except in certain parts. Patches of cultivation
in the hollows between the undulating hills are met with far amid
the interior forests to the very base of the hills, but it is only in
level tracts like those near Allepey, and the Southern district of
Graneel and Calcaud that very extensive sheets of rice cultivation
occur. The rest of Travancore, in spite of its natural capabilities,
is still allowed to remain desert and uncultivgted. Why are all
these fine lands permitted to exist in their primitive barrenness ?
With a noble water communication from one end of the country
to the other, with creeks and rivers pouring into this inland sea
from every side, yet no effort is made to take advantage of such
admirable facilities for the development of the natural resources of
the country. British enterprise is not wanting for the undertak-
ing under favorable circumstances, but until sufficient protection
is ensured to the speculator by the Native Government, Travan-
core must remain a sealed country in regard to t¥ade and improve-
ment, when it may be hoped that a happier era will dawn upon the
people. General Cullen has proved by the successful establish-
ment of gardens at different elevations, (Vailey Makay and else-
where, ) how well the cultivation of such products as the following
prosper, viz., Potatoes, wheat, coffee, sugar, nutmegs, cloves, cocoa
&c., all of which thrive and yield gbundant produce.

Allepey, Aulopolay, or Alapushe, as it has been variously named,
is the present commercial port of Travancore, and the principal
depot for salt, Cardamoms, Pepper, Teak-wood and other products
of the country. It is reached by a canal leading from the back-
water nearly due west, the length being about three miles. This
canal is entirely artificial, and is crossed by several bridges, facili-
tating trade and communication to and from the northern and
southern sides. Previous to entering the canal there is a very
deep basin, some 40 or 50 feet in depth, inhabited by alligators of
of enormous size, which may often be seen basking on the banks,
It was in this pool that at the beginning of this century the
reigning minister threw such hapless Europeans as chanced to fall
into his hands, first sewing them up alive in sacks, and then in-
dulging in the pastime of casting them into the deep waters to

€

218 Notes of an excursion along [no. 6, NEW SERIES,

become the prey of the monsters at the bottom. The banks
of the canal leading to Allepey are fringed with several in-
teresting plants. The Lantana Indica, with its pale pink, orange
and white varieties of flowers, is strikingly beautiful. The
scarlet festoons of the Barringtonia acutangula, and the gorgeous
golden spikes of the Cassia alata are chiefly conspicuous, large
specimens of the Yerminalia Catappa overhang the banks, while the
Pandanus so admirably adapted for retaining the soil and prevent-
ing its gliding into the water is plentifully planted. The large
kind of dock, the Colocasia nympheifolia, with its finely reticulated
leaves is thickly growing at the waters edge. Of this latter plant,
there are two kinds, to all appearance similar, but one is cultiva-
ted for the sake of its roots, which are eaten, while the other is not.
The cultivated species is I believe the Caladium ovatum, the Ka-
vinfola of Rheede.

Important as Allepey is to the Travancore Government asa
commercial depot, from the facility of an inland water communica-
tion, which enables the forest products to be brought to the very
doors of the godowns established for their reception, yet undoubt-
edly its greatest advantage as an emporium arises from the singu-
lar natural breakwater formed in the open roadstead, and which
consists of a long and wide bank of mud, the effect of which is so
completely to break the force of the houses, that large vessels ia
the stormiest weather can securely anchor in the open roads, where
the water is as calm as a mile-pond. It is this extraordinary de-
posit which has earned for Allepey the name of “ mud bay.” The
origin of this deposition of so large a quantity of mud in the open
sea about two or three miles from the shore, and so many miles
from any bar or outlet from the backwater has never been satifac-
torily accounted for. From the circumstance of there being no
natural outlet for the vast accumulation of waters which are poured
down from the various mountain streams into the basin of the back-
water, nearer than thirty six miles on either side, it is not impro-
bable that there exists a subterraneous channel communicating with
the sea fromthe backwater through which the large quantity of mud
is carried off and thrown up again by the sea in the form of a bank.

See Captain Coape’s Voyage to the East Indies,

Sh ty er th ,

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 219

Being subject to tidal action the bank is more or less shifting
certain seasons but not toa material extent. Itimparts a dirty brown
colour to the water for a considerable distance, and close to the
shore the water is usually of a thickish consistency being deeply
impregnated with mudand slime. But whatever may have been th®
origin of this mud bank, it creates a natural harbour for shipping as
secure as any land-locked bay in the world. Allepey is 54 miles from
Quilon and 36 miles from Cochin. It is the last place of any im-
portance on the route. After leaving it the backwater opens out
into a large and very spacious bay stretching across to the eastward
to a distance of ten miles or more. The low coast on the oppo-
site side cannot be seen from the boat’s deck, though the ghauts
rising in the back ground to the height of 4 or 5,000 feet are clearly
visible and form a grand boundary to the landscape. From hence to
Cochin the backwater is of varying width, containing small islands,
which with the main-land are buried in the everlasting Cocoa palm.
Occasionally to the east a clearer view is obtained, and the distant
mountain chain and thick jungle at its base afford a striking and
beautiful prospect. About mid-way on the right hand side is the
town of Vyekkum a place of considerable sanctity. There is a large
pagoda here dedicated to Shiva. Vyekkum was a place of refuge to
the Brahmins and other Hindoo sects flying from the licentious sol-
diers of Tippoo when the latter invaded the Cochin territories in
1788-9. On, on, nothing but water and Cocoanuts till at last the
Residency at Balghetty embosomed in tufted trees is sighted at a
distance, and to the left the shipping in Cochin harbour and the bust-
ling busy town of Cochin itself about two miles away.

Brundisium longe finis charteque vieque.

220 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NuW SERIES,

XIII. Numismatic Gleanings. By Water ELtior,
Madras Civil Service.

No. 1.

c

Although considerable attention has been paid of late years to
the investigation of the Hindu and Mahomedan coins of India,
numismatologists have confined their researches chiefly to those oc-
curring north of the Nerbudda and in the trans Indus provinces ad-
jacent the N. West frontier. But whilst the writings of Prinsep,
Professor Wilson, Cunningham, Thomas, and others, give ample
details of the historical results deducible from the ancient coins
which have been discovered in Upper India and Bactria, scarcely
any notice has betn taken of those of the south.

A principal cause of this neglect is probably to be found in the
comparatively uninteresting character of the coins themselves.
Although sufficiently numerous and of very diversified types, they
rarely present an intelligible legend, and hardly ever a date.

As subjects of historical inquiry therefore, their value is propor-
tionably small. Something however may still be gleaned from
them by the patient investigator of pastevents. The localities and
extent of range in which they are found, the variations in the ty-
pical symbols of a series, and the occasional occurrence of a name
or title, afford data for drawing conclusions, which in the dearth of
historical records are far from unimportant.

Southern India presents the extraordinary spectacle of a people
who have carried the art of composition to a high degree of cul-
tivation without having produced a single work of a really histo-
rical character. The cheritras, pattiyams, kai’has, van’sdvalis, dan-
dakaviles, mahatmyas which profess to record historical facts are
little better than mythological romances, filled with chronological
extrayagancies and preternatural fables.

JAN.—MAR. 1858. | Numismatic Gleanings. 221

-The only trustworthy data now extant from which a knowledge
of former events can be gathered, are the contemporary records
offered by deeds of gift inscribedon stone and copper and by coins.
Scattered, obscure and imperfect facts derived from these sources
supply almost the whole of the knowledge we possess of the earli€r
southern dynasties and kingdoms.

It is the object of the following papers to draw attention_to_the
latter of these fields of inquiry and by stimulating a more general
and combined investigation of the coins of southern India, to col-
lect and digest the information which may be extractedjfrom them.

A large collection of Hindu and Mahomedan coins was formed.
by Col. Mackenzie chiefly though notexclusively in the south, which
is deposited in the India House Museum. From it duplicates were
furnished to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, but most of these have
been lost. The original collection contained upwards of 5,000 spe-
cimens, the list of which including a few European coins, occupies
from pages ccxxiv. to ccxxxtx. of the second volume of Wilson’s
Catalogue. The Central Museum at Madras contains a,pretty
good collection derived from the cabinet transferred to it from the
Literary Society, greatly enlarged and extended by the present in-
defatigable Curator. These are the only public cabinets of any
extent with which we are acquainted. But several private col-

lections of varying importance are’known to exist, the contents of
which it is important to ascertain.

The first published notice of coins belonging exclusively to
southern India, occurs in Moore’s Hindu Pantheon, where, in 1809,
the author figured 23 specimens from a small collection procured
by Major Price at the prize sale of the contents of Tippoo’s trea-
sury, after the capture of Seringapatam. Moore has also describ-

ed and figured a series of Mysore coins in his narrative of Little’s
Detachment, p. 465.

In 1832, Prof. Wilson inserted a paperon the coins deposited in
- the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in which he included
observations on those received from the Mackenzie collection.
This was printed in the XVII. Vol. of the Asiatic Researches and
is accompanied by figures of 53 specimens. The descriptions are

(

222 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

extremely short and throw little light on the subject. The speci-
mens of southern coins which fell in the way of James Prinsep
were not likely to be overlooked by such a zealous numismatolo-
gist. They appear to have been but few and are included in his
plate?of Ceylon coins published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society
in the year 1837.* These together with such other incidental re-
ferences as have fallen in our way, will be duly noticed in their pro-
per places. F

We possess no data to show at what period the use of a coined
currency as a medium of exchange was introduced into India. But
this we know, that the art of stamping metal with a die for such a
purpose, came into Asia from the west. Long previous however
to the introduction of a die-coinage, the employment of pieces
of metal stamped or punched with various symbols was general
throughout India. Itis true that a punch or wedge (in French
coigne whence the modern term coin) was also used in the fabri-
cation of the earliést known coins of Europe. But this was al-
ways done in conjunction with a die or matrix on which the piece
of metal was placed and an impression obtained by means ofa
smart blow with a hammer on the wedge. One side only of the
coin therefore was stamped, the reverse exhibiting the marks of the
wedge in the form of one or more square cavities.

The oldest Hindu coins, on the other hand, are distinguished by
numerous small indented symbols cut on the punch itself and evi-
dently struck at different times, the later ones often obliterating
those which had been previously impressed. And this mode ap-
pears to have continued without the introduction of any interme-
diate process until superseded at once by an improved die-coin-
age with perfect reverses.

European writers assign the earliest known employment of wedge
struck pieces by the Greeks, to the middle of the 7th Century B. C.
The piece of metal was generally of a spherical shape which be-
came somewhat flattened after being struck. Ofthis kind are the
staters of Melitus, the drachmas of Egina called waxeca or thick,

* Vol. VI. Pl. XX.

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 223

the gold and silver darics, &c. The use of double dies appears to
have been adopted by the Greeks about the 4th Century B. C.
The art was transported by the Macedonian conquest into central
Asia. From the Bactrian colonies, it passed into Hindustan and
appears to have been carried across the Indus about two centu
ries before the Christian era.

The first known exemplars of such improved coinage are those
of the monarchs of the Sah dynasty, whose cqins of the size and
form of a hemidrachma, are described by Prinsep as the Surashtra
group. So servile is the imitation that an attempt has even been
made to retain an imperfect, and now unintelligible Greek legend
on the obverse, whilst the letters on the reverse exhibit an antique
form of Dévanagari. But the skill of the die-cutter rapidly de-
teriorated and the workmanship soon became barbarous, till it as-
sumed a new and purely Hindu type in the coins of the Gupta
dynasty. The eraassigned to the Sah Kings by the latest autho-
rities is from about: 180 or 170, to about 50 B. &.*

The progress of the art towards the south and east was very
slow. It did not come into general use south of the Nerbudda
until the fifth or sixth century. But this refers rather to the pre-
cious metals, for leaden die-struck coins are found in considerable
numbers, which appear to date somewhat earlier. Up to the
beginning of the present century tlte money, of the trans-Gangetic
nations was noting more than lumps of silver, like the sycee of the
Chinese. China, although so much in advance of all other Asiatic
nations in the arts, did not possess a stamped coinage till after the
Christian era. Smooth pieces of metal which served rather for
weights than for currency, date according to Chinese authorities
from Kieng- Wang who reigned B. C. 524, but the earliest known
piece with the name of a sovereign is attributed to the Emperor
Wen-ti of the lesser Sung dynasty who flourished A. D. 465.+

* Thomas, Jour. R. As. Soc. Vol. XII. p. 45.

+ I. Hager, Description des Medailles Chinoises, The oldest known
representatives of value in Eastern countries were shells. The cowry,
cyprea moneta, even yet serves for purposes of small change in parts of

{

224 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

The coins described in this paper are for the most part stamped
Of Buddhist with emblems peculiar to the worship of Buddha.

Bene. They have therefore been classed generally as Bud-
dhist coins, and these again have been divided into ’sa/dka or punch-
eoins* and die-coins.

India as well as in Siam, China, Japan, and great part of Africa and the
radical character or key in the Chinese words for “ silver,’’ money,”

‘* riches,”’ ** precious,”

‘* expense,’’ &c., is poe? or ‘* shell.’’? The export of
cowries has always formed a principal article of trade from the Maldive
Islands and the east coast of Africa. Nails and bars of metal have also
been made to serve the same end, Tavernier found pieces of twisted
wire called Jaris, [from the province of Lar in Persia] in general use as
money, on the Malabar coast. Thunberg saw them likewise in cir-
culation in Ceylon, and Knox describes a similar kind [p. 197,] “ which
all people by the king’s permission, may and do make : the shape is like a
fish hook, they stamp what mark or impression on it they please.’’ These
seem to resemble the Celtic rings found in Britain and the oboli of the
Greeks, which were nothing more than kabob-skewers— oBehot—a hand-
ful of which or about six, made a drachma from Ogattew ‘ to grasp with
the hand.”’

The knife and tile money of the Chinese, in the form of a scimitar or of
a plummet, described by Du Halde [II. 1€6 and 168 &c.,] and by Hager
[pp. 85 and 41,] was of asimilar but more elaborate description and the
gold kopang of Japan, still in use, is simply an oblong plate of gold with
the angles rounded off.

In the Manikyala Tope, General Ventura found specimens of shell-
money, 2. e. of the cowry, (J. A. S. B. Vol. III. Pl. XXI. f. 17,) together
with the spherical flattened ingot (Ib. Pl. XXII. f. 25,) Indo-Scythian and
Sassanian coins, all of which had been deposited in the mound at the same
time. In another tope opened by General Court, Roman denarii of An-
tony and Julius Cesar and coins of some Roman families were found asso-
ciated with Indo Scythic pieces of Kadphises. /

In Abyssinia pieces of rock salt serve for money. Dr. Barth found stripes
of cotton called farda and shirts called déra employed for the same purpose
in Bornou.

* Jas. Prinsep calls them ch’hdp or ‘stamp’’ coins, J. A. S. B. III. 44,

Col. Stacy chungahs, Ib. p. 433, see too the same Journal I. 394, IV. 621,
629.

JAN.—MAR. 1858. | Numismatic Gleanings. 225

The prevalence of the Buddhist faith over the whole of India for
two or three centuries before and fora still longer period after
the Christian era, sufficiently explains the preference shown to
such symbols.

Extensive Buddhist remains can still be traced throughout thé
Madras Presidency. A principle seat of this sect, appears to have
been on the banks of the Kistna in the Northern Circars. The
ruins ofone of the most magnificent dehgopeg ever constructed,
can still be traced at Dipaldinni, between the ancient city of D’ha-
ranikétah and the more modern town of Amaravatiin the Guntoor
district. From this were obtained the interesting sculptured mar-
bles now deposited in the Government Central Museum. A very
few years ago, amound or tope was demolished by the Collector to
procure materials for the repair of aroad at Gudiwadah in the
Masulipatam district, from which several curious Buddhist relics
were disinterred and two other topes (one of them at B’hattiprolu
in Guntoor) still exist in the same part of the country. Several
stone vases containing crystal caskets filled with similar remains
were discovered by the Zemindar of Pittapoor in digging tp the
foundations of an ancient temple about the year 1842-3. The
articles were sent to the Literary Society by the Zemindar, at the
request of Sir Henry Montgomery, then at Rajahmundry, and are
now in the Government Central Museum. They were figured in
Pl. 2 of the XVth vol. of this Journal, but through some oversight,
no descripticn of the plate appears to have been inserted.

Dr. Stevenson has distinctly proved that the great pagoda of
Jagannath at Pooree where the pilgrims eat indiscriminately food
prepared by the lowest castes, and where as with the Buddhists, all
distinction of caste ceases, was originally a Buddhist temple. The
same may be asserted of Conjeveram where the principal place of
worship, that dedicated to Kamakshi Dévi was doubtless inthe first
instance a Buddhist fane. So firmly was the Buddhist religion estab-
lished in Kalinga (the old name of Telingana) that Asoka thought
it unnecessary to issue some of his more stringent edicts in that
province.* Norare similar indications of this creed wanting in the

* Journal Asiatic Society Bengal, Vol. VII. 269,

¢

226 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

south. The Buddhist edifice at Negapatam, known as the Puduvol
gopuram, is well known. Curious Buddhist sculptures have been dis-
covered at Nalliyur and Kalugu or Kazhugu malai in the Tinnevel-
ly district, and many traditions of the destruction of the Samanar
at Uraiyar near Trichinopoly and in other'parts of the country, dur-
ing a great religious persecution, are still extant.* We may con-
clude therefore that Buddhism flourished generally and in great
splendour throughout the whole of southern India, nor does it seem
to have been exterminated until some centuries after the Christian
era.

The coins which we have classed under this head, comprize the

Of the Saldka or Oldestknown descriptions of Indian metallicmonies.
Punch coins. They are either spherical lumps of metal slightly

flattened by the act of striking [Plate VIII. figs. 3 to 5]; or thin
pieces of irregular shapes, as if cut from a large plate of the size
required to meet an occasion or as if trimmed to reduce them
when two large, [ igs. 54 to 27]. A third description are of a more
perfect character, their shape circular, their weight uniform, and
the symbols upon them more regulary impressed, [Plate VIII. figs
28 to 88]. The transition from these into die coins, [ jigs.31 and
30] is easy and evident.

The symbols impressed on all these descriptions of coins are
very various, but for the most part have reference to the Buddhist
creed. Others are of a general character such as figures of animals.
In no case do they evince a connection with the existing Hindu
mythology.+ Those on the flat silver pieces appear to have been
long in use, the surface of the coin being completely covered with
them. Some have been impressed over others of more ancient date
partially or wholly obliterating them, and others have been wholly
worn out from lapse of time [ fig. 2.] An ingenious suggestion

*Ellisin Trans. Madras Literary Society, p. 17; Taylor’s Cat. Mac-
kenzie MSS. in Madras Journal Literature and Science.

¢ In the note attached to the list of this kind of coins in the Mackenzie
collection, the Lingam is said to have been traced, but in the many speci-
mens we have examined from all parts of India, we have never been able to
dete ct it—Wil, Cat, I1, ecxxvii.

JAN.—MAR, 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 227

to account for the origin of such a practice has been offered by a
writer in the Numismatic Journal. ‘‘ As the act of impressing a
seal or signet,’’ he observes, ‘‘ was an understood sign of solemn
compact, from the most early periods, and as engraved seals and
signets were undoubtedly in general use long anterior to the in-
vention of coinage, it appears highly probable, that the ori-
ginal idea of impressing a stamp on uncoined lumps of gold
and silver was derived from the common applicstion of a seal to
wax. The earliest coins may be therefore looked upon as pieces
of sealed metal ; which in fact they are, it being well known that,
at first, coins were impressed only on one side. No device that
could be imagined, was so well adapted to the peculiar necessity
of the case, or so likely to satisfy the public mind, as the impress,
by public authority, of the symbol of the tutelar divinity of their
city or of some equally sacred and well known emblem.’’*

An explanation so obvious can hardly fail of being accepted,—
supported as it is by the very general practice still extant in
Eastern countries where the custom of hoarding money prevails,
of using private stamp-marks. We possess several specimens both
from India and China which are covered with such ciphers, the
only difference between them and the pieces represented in the
plates being, that the marks in the one case are private in the
other public. So general is this habit that it is constantly neces-
sary to call in such defaced pieces for recoinage.

The flat silver pieces represented in Plates VII and VIII are
found in all parts of India. Those figured were received from Cud-
dapah, Madura, Coimbatore and Nagpore. In the Mackenzie ca-
talogue they are recorded as having been obtained in Hindustan,
about Patna, at Cawnpore, at Hoogly, also at Nellore and generally
in the Telugu districts. A large hoard was discovered in Septem-
ber 1807,*at the opening of one of the ancient tombs known by
the name of pandu-kiulis near the village of Chavadi paleiyam in
Coimbatore, thus identifying the employment of this kind of money

* Burgon: Inquiry into the various representations stamped on ancient
money. Num, Jour, vol, 1,

(
(

228 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

with the aboriginal race whose places of sepulture are scattered
over every part of Southern India. And about four years earlier
a pot full of the same pieces was dug up at Pennar, also in the
Coimbatore province, among which was found a silver denarius of
‘Augustus, which proves that they were current at the commence-
ment of the Christian cera.

A single example (fig. 53) of the same kind of money in cop-
per was found among a quantity of Buddhist coins from Oojain.
This is the only example we have met with of a true punch coin
in baser metal, but smooth and worn pieces of copper of similar
shape and appearance are by no means rare.

Description of The coins figured in Plates VII and VIII re-
ag present the oldest descriptions of Hindu money
extant.

Figures 1 to 5 are of the simplest kind, spherical, square or ob-
long pieces of metal with hardly the vestige of a device.

Fig. 1. A silver piece of somewhat peculiar form, from the an-
cient site near Behat in the Ganga-Jamna Doab discovered by Cap-
tain Cautley in 1834, when excavating the Ganges canal.* It
Weighs grains 26°85.

Fig. 2. A flat quadrangular piece of copper with merely the
trace of a mark, from Mahamallaipur or the Seven Pagodas. Others
of the same shape and appearance are perfectly smooth. The
weight differs considerably, the heaviest of six was grains 40°75,
the lightest, grains 26°35.

Fig. 3. A spherical ingot of copper very slightly flattened, ex-
hibiting four indistinct indentations: weight grains 31°329,

Fig. 4. A gold piece very similar to the last but having less of
the spherical form. It is from the cabinet of Lieutenant H. P.
Hawkes, 12th M. N. I. and weighs grains 51:05. _ —

Fig. 5. One of three coins of the same description as Figs.
8 and 4. They were procured in the Soonda division of Canara,
and weigh from grains 52°05 to 52.3, the average being 52°2. The
indented marks (although) somewhat more elaborate than in the

* Journal Asiatic Society Bengal, Vol. III. pp. 48, 221.

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. Q29

preceding specimens, are too small to allow of their import being
recognized.

Figs. 54 to 27 belong to the second description of punch-coins.
They are of various weights ranging from grains 40 to 55. The
first only, fig. 53, is of copper and weighs grains 51°45, The rest
are all of silver and their weights as follows :

Figs. 6 and 16 grs, 41.4 Figs. 23 grs. 48.9
9 41.95 1% 49.8
24 45. 13 bis 49.85*
13* 45.4 21 50.225
22 46.35 10 50.75
19 47. ® 26 50.8
18 47.1 11 51.65
25 47,2 7 52.4
15 47.45 12 52.8
27 48.1 8 02.9
20 48,24 10, 54,2

The most common symbols are those of animals. Thus the ele-
phant occurs on figs. 8, 12, 13 (on both sides), 14 (twice), 15,
17, 18, 21, 27.

A dog, always in the same form, with his forelegs half crouching,
as if in play, is found on figs. 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20,
21, 26. i

The figure of a bull is impressed on figs. 17 and 20.

Fish occur in many forms as in figs. 6 and 10, where they
appear to be fixed on skewers; in figs. 22 and 23 a fish appears to
be associated with a serpent or eel ; in figs. 24 and 25 a large fish
is in the act of swallowing a small one, and in fig. 24 the fish is
pierced with several transverse rods.

The fish has always been a celebrated symbol in the south. It
was the ensign of the Pandyan dynasty who are thence called Mina-
vars and their standard the Minkodi. It also occurs on Buddhist
seals. |

* By a mistake of the engraver these though distinct have been numbered as
one coin.

if
Af

230 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

Of the symbols more particularly associated with the worship
of Buddha, the chakram or wheel is the most prevalent and oc-

curs on every coin, sometimes in the form of a disk surrounded
by rays, sometimes with rays alternately resembling an umbrella
dnd a loop containing the crescent shaped termination of a Bud-
dhist chaitya.

The chaitya emblem is also of frequent occurrence its most com-
mon form being aspyramid of two arches surmounted by a third
or the pyramid may consist three or more tiers of arches. Exam-
ples occur on figs. 9, 10, 12, 22, 23 and 26.

The uppermost arch of the chaitya is often surmounted by a
ball and crescent, but is not so represented on any of the coins now
figured. The ball and crescent however is met with frequently,
either single, as in figs. 16 and 19 or associated with other emblems,
as in the case of the chakrams already mentioned and on figs. 19
and 27 with a plough. It is also found on the Sah coins of the Surash-
trian series where it has been conjectured to represent a numeral.*

The, tree sacred to Buddha (Ficus religiosa) is seen on figs. 9, 12,
18, and 26.

On 54 and 11 are represented a symbol which has been com-
pared to a cadeuceus and which also bears some resemblance to the
numeral taken for 9 on the Surashtrian coins. It occurs likewise
on the Behat Coins.{ :

On fig. 18 and several others (not figured) is a bow and arrow
on fig. 7 a hand,§ &c. &c.

The next class of coins contains those represented by figs. 28 to
35. Here the execution is better and there is a gradual transition
from the use of punches to that of a matrix or die embracing the
whole surface, but on one side only, and then to the employment
of a double die with impressions on both sides.

* Jour. R. As. Soc. Vol. XII. p. 36.
+ Ibid. also Jour. As. Soc. Beng. VII. p. 349—354 and Pl. xrx.
t Jour. As. Soc. Beng. III. Pl. xxy. Fig. 1.
§ Ibid. VII, Pl. x1. Fig. 2.

JAN.—MAR, 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 231

They are known generally by the name of mddas and tankas* as
padma tanka, kamala mdda, All the examples we have met with
are of gold. They are generally, but not always irregularly cup-
shaped, the obverse being concave, the reverse convex, The ob-
verse generally exhibits five impressions in relief, a central or noy,-
mal one surrounded by four others subsequently applied. The
symbols are for the most part of a Buddhist character.

Figs. 28 and 29 are examples of a kind not unfrequently met
with to which the name of padma tankas more particularly belongs.

Obverse ; normal symbol a lotus or padma, the sank’ h or sa-
cred shell on one side, on the other a weapon witha legend in
Nagari characters, a large portion of which has been lost in the

* This term seems to be taken from the Tamil word SMELD 4 verbal

noun signifying that which is heavy, hence applied to gold as the heaviest
metal and more especially to the finest gold or that of 10} touch. The
term may still be recognized in the Telugu word tarkam 620809 and
the Dak’hani KS taka which to this day are used to signify a sum of six-
teen paisas or dabbs (equivalent to annas 5, pice 3,) and in the» native
name for a mint tankasala. In Shakespeayr’s dictionary the meaning of 3

taka is given as “‘a copper coin equal to two paisa.’’ But no such

coin is known in the Dak’han or the Northern Circars now, the term being
applied to a mere nominal expression of value, remarkable for its refer-
ence to the 16 or anna sub-division of 4 normal standard. Wilson derives
the word tankasala from tanka ‘‘ an instrument, a weight equal to 4
mashas,’”’ as if it were a pure Sanscrit word in which the hard Nagari
t takes the place of the soft Tamil s: It is probable therefore that the

Tamil term comes originally from the Sanscrit and this is the more likely,
because the old Tamil name fora mint is g)h) 4°) 1 kambattam a

word which by the way, Dr. Caldwell also derives from the Sanscrit,
Comp. Gram. p. 57.

The word mdda is the Telugu term for a half pagoda. It occurs fre-
quently in that sense in old inscriptions as does the old term for a pagoda
gadyanam. In the Lilavati the weight of a gadyanam is stated to be 48
gunjas. A gunja, the red abrus seed, averages about 2 grains. A mdda
therefore should weigh 48 grains. Most of our specimens exceed that
standard, though some not greatly,

¢
¢

232 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

periphery. The intermediate symbols are likewise imperfect, but
are probably the same as those which will be afterwards described
as frequent in this kind of coin resembling the letter g) Rev. plain.
The weapon occurring with the legend on two of our specimens
is a bow, ona third a fork. Professor Wilson has figured two
from drawings in the Mackenzie collection,* one of which has a
sword, the other a mace. The legends which are more perfect in
his figures, he reads Srz Sr: Mahadeva, but this version does not
correspond with the drawing. On our exemplars the words appear
to be Srz-rdma. In neither case do they afford evidence of origin.
They were obtained from Banawassi in the province of Soonda,
and weigh from grains 57:55 to 58:3. Colonel Mackenzie’s are
noted on the drawings as from Tripati and Honaver, but Professor
Wilson believes them to be identical with those entered in the ca-
talogue under the name of “ kamala mudras from Banawassi.”

Figs. 30, 31, see below.

Fig. 32, obverse: central or normal symbol nearly obliterated,
on one side a vase with a ball resting on its mouth which may refer
to the kama-kumbha or vase of desire, the Hindi cornucopia, a
common emblem on Buddhist coins and sculptures; opposite to it
the letters Desoto which in modern Telugu reads vyaya ; in the in-
termediate spaces a scroll like the Telugu letter 9) with the tail
prolonged go as to pass twice round the letter itself or it may be

Sri Bei
Reverse plain ; with asingle indentation or fixing-point? near
the edge.

From the western coast: weight grains 58:2.

Fig. 33. Obverse: although in good preservation, and the im-
pression sharp, it is difficult to discover what the symbols refer to.
The normal design presents a number of dots over the whole sur-
face, some larger, some smaller. In one specimen they may almost
be taken for rude representations of four simhds or tions. Some
of them are cut by the lateral stamps, one of which contains imper-
fect Telugu letters of antique form, too indistinct to be read; the

* Asiatic Researches, Vol. XVII. p. 594, Pl. 1v Figs. 88, 89,

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gelanings. 238

opposite symbol is unintelligible and between them are the double
tailed a or Q32.

Reverse smooth : five of these were obtained in the Ceded Dis-
tricts near Kurnool, and weigh from grains 54°25 to grains 54°55.

Fig. 34. Obverse: central symbol indistinct. Of the lateral
ones the gys are replaced by a circular figure prolonged into two
points like a bud or seed, with two or three envircling lines; in
Nagari characters are the letters gdmaga or rdmaga and belor
the sank’A shell and chakram, now sacred to ibe.

Reverse plain ; weight grains 43.90.

85. Obverse : central figure, Krishna, as the muralid’hara or
flute-player; on either side the double tailed 3 or Q?,) ; above,
the sun and moon with a tricuspid symbol between them; below
unintelligible.

Reverse plain; unique, from Tanjore ; weighs grains 53:25.

The figure of Krishna in the same character occurs not unfre-
quently on small copper die-coins of Raja Raja Deva Chola.

Fig. 31. Obverse: a single symbol covering the whole surface
and representing a chakram or wheel with eight rays which are of
two forms alternating with each other, in the manner of those on
the flat silver coins already described. The coin being worn these

are not clearly shown in the engraving. =

Reverse : four small indentations near the periphery, one of
which is flanked by two smaller, deeper cavities, one on each side,
These are simple while the larger ones contain a point or dot in

relief.

From the Dharwar district in the Southern Mahratta Dodb ;
weight grains 66:9.

This appears to bea true die coin with an impression on one
side only.

Fig. 30. Obverse;a seat or chair, on which rests a sphere or
cushion surmounted by three other spheres, the whole in a shrine or
portico of a temple; on either side a portion of a vase, like the ha-

€
(

234 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

ma-kumb’ha, may be perceived and above the sides of the portico,
representations of the lotus. This is a subject of frequent recur-
rence in Buddhist sculptures, and may be seen repeatedly on the
sculptures from Dipaldinni in the Central Museum.

eReverse : a scroll or arabesque of foliage. This appears to have
been adopted very generally for the reverse of the earliest double
die coins of which we shall find repeated instances as we go on,
from all parts of the country.

From the Ceded Districts ; weight grains 60:1.

These last examples conclude the series of ihe earlier descrip-
tions of coinage, by bringing us to the introduction of a more im-
proved system of mintage. But it willstill be necessary to recur
to earlier and less perfect specimens in describing future plates, in
which it has been found necessary to arrange the pieces with re-
ference to the prevailing type represented on them, in default of
means for ascertaining their connection more accurately, on histori-
cal and chronologiwal data.

es The lion is one of the most favorite symbols
Sinha type. represented on Buddhist sculptures. It forms
the crowning ornament of th celebrated Jat’hs or columns of north-
ern India, the most remarkable of which are the Allahabad column, .
those of Bettiah, Bakra &c., described in the Journal of the Asia-
tic Society of Bengal.* It occurs prominently among the orna-
ments of ancient and modern dehgopes. Among the marbles from
Dipaldinni in the Central Museum are statues of the lion which
occupied the summits of lai’hs or pillars at the gateways of the
edifice and representations of winged lions, reviving associations
with the Arian origin of the founders of Buddhism, appear in bold
relief on the friezes, in the same collection. It was to be expected
therefore that this animal would form a favorite symbol on the
coinage of the sect and Plate 1x. exhibits cea of its applica-
tion to such a purpose.

Figs. 34, 35, 36a, all of gold, bring us back to the punch-coins.
Obverse off 34 ; normal symbol a swastika or cross with the limbs

«J. A: 8 B. IIL. 105, 482, TY, 121, 125,

JAN.—MA4R. 1858. | Numismatic Gleanings. 235

bent at right angles in the same direction, surrounded by four
punched impressions of lions, which a herald would describe as

passant regardant. Reverse the scroll ornament, [vide fig. 30, |
and two indented marks.

Figs. 35, and 36a, only differ in the normal symbol which in the
former is a padma or lotus, butin the latter the form intended to
be represented is not distinctly defined.

These were all obtained in the Southern Mahratta Country and
weigh respectively grains 58°825—~-58°525—58°45,

Figs. 36). and 37, are representations of two gold coins, which
with eight others were found at the village of Hevali in the south-
ern Konkan in 1844, and were presented by the Government of
Bombay to the Asiatic Society of that Presidency from whose
Journal the figures are copied.* They belong clearly to the same
type as figs. 34—36a.

Fig. 366, obverse; normal figure, a lion passant, with four si-
milar lions subsequently impressed on the four sides between two
of which is the symbol described above as resembling the letter 2
or Bo. and between the two others, one stamp containing letters
and another opposite to it of some unintelligible device. This
coin is interesting as exhibiting eight separate stamps besides the
central one, which from the drawing appears to have been also
impressed by means of a punch, i

Reverse ; not figured, but as two of the coins are stated to have
been quite plain in the reverse, this was probably one of them ;
weight stated to be 63 grains.

Fig. 37, obverse ; a single figure of a lion passant, regardant,
with a legend in old Telugu or Canarese letters below.

Reyerse, a scroll or arabesque of foliage in the centre, surround-
ed by a circle of dots, and that again by an outer circle in which

an ornament resembling the Greek letter @ or a circular buckle,
alternates with a trefoil.

This type to which the majority of the Hevali specimens appear
to have belonged, has all the appearance of being a die-coin, but

* Vol. II. p. 63, Pl. x11. figs. 1, 2, d.

256 Numismatic Gleanings. [ wo. 6, NEW SERIES,

the two indentations conjectured to have been fixing-points, occur
near the edge of both. Dr. Bird reads the legend balya sri, but
it more nearly resembles the Canarese word sri-ga or sri-ma. The
scroll on the reverse he appears also to have considered to be let-
ters, which he reads as giving the name Rudra and hence identi-
fies them with Pratapa Rudra Deva, the last King of the Kakateya
dynasty of Warangal. We consider however that these coins be-
long to an earlier~age than the 13th century, the period during
which Pratapa Rudra flourished and should be inclined to ascribe
them to some of the older dynasties, as the Kadamba, which about
the fifth or sixth centuries ruled at Banawassi and other places
on the western” coast, in which quarter all the specimens hitherto
discovered have been found. The weight of all is stated to be
about 63 grains.

Figs. 38, 39, 40, 42, 45, 46,47, are gold fanams from various
parts of the country.

Fig. 38, obverse; a lion passant with a swordin front. Reverse ;
a legend ia an old form of Nagari which may be read wusli,"a word
to which no meaning attaches.

Three of these were found at Bezwada in making excavations
for the anakat and were received from Captain Orr. They belong
to the same type as fig. 48—50, and weigh exactly grains 6°8.

Fig. 39, obverse ; a lion passant, reverse the Telugu letter 0, %.

This was obtained from Cuddapah and weighs grains 5°85. We
also possess an example in silver precisely similar in device and
weighing grains 5°45.

Fig. 40, obverse ; a lion passant gardant, reverse a legend in
old Nagari {}3 8 which may be read sri deva or sri dema.

These are from the ancient city of Chandragiri, near Tripati.
They weigh 38 grains. [See No. 47. ]

Fig. 41, by anerror of the artist in engraving the numbers, a
single No. 36, has been affixed to two distinct coins which have
therefore been subsequently distinguished as a and 8, and No. 41
has been omitted altogether.

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 237

Fig, 42, obverse ; a lion passant : reverse; a Telugu legend, very
indistinct ; from Vengipuram; weight grains 5°99.

Figs. 48 and 44, two silver coins; obverse; a lion passant: re-
verse ; the words whichfrom a collation of three specimens appear
to be rdj ad’ hi rdja in somewhat modern Nagari character. These
are from Canara and weigh grains 10-7 to 11.

Fig 45, obverse ; alion passant: reverse; in old Telugu the
word = mba for mba, a name of Parvati or Duygi.

It has been worn as an ornament, and the weight grains 7:525,
does not give its true value.

Fig. 46. Alion passant. Reverse, the Canarese letiet Q che,
_which may stand for Chella or Chellappa Raya, a name of Vishnu:
under which he is worshipped at Melkottai in Mysore.*

Fig. 47, obverse ; lion passant gardant: reverse; plain. This be-
longs to the same type as fig. 40, but has been represented much
too large; it weighs only 3 grains to 3:1. -

Figs. 48, 49, 50, 52, belong to a type of copper coins occurring
extensively in the Masulipatam district and corresponding with fig.
40. The locality and general character lead us to attribute them to
the early Buddhist dynasty of Vengi, the ancient name of southern
Telingana, the capital of which was situated near Ellore.t Of these
early sovereigns we possess scarcely any historical ttacés. The
names of twoof them Rajah Vachi Varma and Nandi Varma are
given in the inscription printed in the volume of Madras Jour-
nal already referred to. The Chalukyas of Rajahmundry, an offset
from the dynasty of the same race already established at Kalyan,
appear to have effected their entrance into Telingana Balaghat, by
the conquest of Vegi about the 6th century.

* Taylor’s Cat. Rais. Or. MSS. I. p. 510.

t See a notice of this ancient city in Madras Journal, vol. XI, p. 304. We
have since visited the spot which is about five miles north and a little west of Ellore
on the road to Nagpore, via Badrachalam and exhibits extensive remains of walls
and fortifications with the ruins of the Chitrarat’ha Swami-gudi still bearing the
same name. Twosmall modern villages occupy a trifling portion of the an-
cient site which are still called Pedda Vegi and Chinna Vegi.

€
(

238 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

Fig. 48, obverse ; a lion passant with a sword in front and above
a Telugu legend USWk, which may be read Pavamasi.

Reverse ; three si’hambas or poles? From Bezwadah ; weighs
grains 4°15.

Fig. 49, obverse ; a lion passant with an indistinct symbol over
his head and a flower over his uplifted forefoot.

Reverse ; a sword with a broad truncated point resembling the
khanda or national weapon of Orissa and a Nagari legend which
may be read Ratadeva-itdrta or Ratadeva gupta? Unique; from
Dipaldinni.

Figs. 50 and 52, obverse; alion passant with a sword above and
a symbol like those on the reverse of fig. 48 in front; [the two
latter are wanting in fig. 52. |

Reverse; on both, (that on 50 being imperfect,) a symbol which
may designate either the vase of plenty, [| hama-kumbha] with can-
delabra on either ¢ide or it may represent a dehgope with its accom.
panying pillars or sf’hambas.

These coins are generally very thick and much oxidised;
sometimes they are found to be partiaily plated with silver or other
white metal and are then in better preservation ; they occur numer-
ously throughout the Masulipatam district, but from their great
age, perfect specimens are rare.,

Figs. 51 and 59, are small leaden coins which have been intro-
duced to illustrate fig. 54, the one exhibiting the lion, the other the
elephant. They are not uncommon about Amaravati.

Fig. 53, a leaden coin from Dipaldinni: obverse; a lion with the
tree symbol in front: reverse ; the chaitya symbol; weight, grains
226°9, [see fig. 57. |

Fig. 54, a square copper coin, having a remarkable coincidence
with a class of coins occurring in the Panjab and Affghanistan.*

Obverse ; a lion passant: reverse; an elephant with a chaira or

umbrella and another small symbol above. Others instead of the

* J. A.8. B. Til. Pl. rs. F. 19, LV. Pl. xxxv. Figs. 50, 51. Wilson, Ariana
Antiqua, P. 415, Pl. xy. Figs, 26, 27, 28, and Pl, x1x. Figs. 11, 12.

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 239

elephant have an ankus or elephant-goad, a bow or other implement.
They were found at the village of Kurupad in Guntoor. A similar
square coin of lead with a lion on the obverse and the reverse blank
like fig. 51, was obtained from Dipaldinni.

Fig. 55, is a gold coin copied from Moor* who saw it in the
cabinet of Major Price by whom it was purchased at the sale of
Tippoo’s property after the capture of Seringapatam. It was
probably therefore found in Mysore. ,

Observe ; anondescript animal which Moor calls a lion, but which
resemblts rather the fabulous monster having the body of a lion
with an elephant’s trunk and tusks, in Tamil called ydJi ; in Sanscrit
Sarab’ha a sword or mace over the back anda cross or flower under
its feet.

Reverse; a legend inCanarese which having been copied by one
ignorant of the language is too incorrect to be read although sez
veral letters are recognisable.

Fig. 56, a copper coin; obverse, the face of ’a lion: reverse, a
sword between thesun and moon. The swordisof the peculiar
short form so often represented on Hindoo sculptures.

Fig. 57, a square leaden coin from Dipaldinni resembling fig. 53,
but without the tree symbol.

Leaden coins of this description are very common in the neigh-
bourhood of D’haranikétah and Amaravati, of all sizes, often like
fig. 51, with the reverse plain. Wilson has figured two from the
Mackenzie collection of this description} said loosely to have been
found at Mahamallaipuram and Nellore, but more probably at
Amaravati. The lion bears a striking resemblance to that on the
coins of the Bactrian kings Agathocles and Pantaleon} and again
on those of their barbaric successor Azes. But Wilson calls the
animal on the coins of the former a panther and that on the latter
only, a lion. The former however both in attitude and general
form is almost identical with the animal represented on these leaden

* Hindu Pantheon, P. 434, Pl. 104, Fig. 7.
7 As. Res. XVII. Pl. v. Figs. 117, 118.
{ J. A.S. B. III. Pl. 1x. Figs. 17,18: Wilson Ariana Ant. Pl. vi. Figs. 7, 8, 9,
11 and Pl. vir. Figs. 8, 9.

240 Numismatic Gleanings. [no.26, NEW SERIES,

coins. They are of all weightsand sizes. Thisone weighs 14:4.
We have received them frequently from the districts of Guntoor
and Masulipatam along the valley of the Kistna.

Fig. 58, is copied from a MS. drawing of Col. Mackenzie re-
presenting a silver coin with the note “ from Sehore, November
1819.”

Obverse ; alion passant. Reverse; a Nagari legend which may
be read Sri tarp deva.

Fig. 59; see Fig. 54.

Fig. 60, a leaden coin in the Government Central Museum
where there are two specimens, numbered 40 and 41.

Obverse ; a lion passant. Reverse; the short, straight, Indian
sword; on the other, the reverse is different, but is very indistinct
and resembles a large S shaped scroll.

Fig. 61, belongs to a type of which several specimens have
been received from the Salem district, and of which a more ex-
tended notice will be given hereafter. This particular one has
been ‘selected for this plate, because the figures both on the ob-
verse and reverse are connected with the series now under review..:

Obverse; a lion sitting on his hind quarters (sejant, gardant)

between two pillars on his right and a chakram elevated on a pillar
on his left.

€

Reverse ; a bow ahd arrow as in fig. 18 of the punch coins.
Fig. 62, a copper coin from an uncertain locality.

Obverse ; a lion passant regardant. Reverse; a pagoda reseni-

bling a Chinese temple or it may be intended for a rat’ha or idol
car.

In the preceding series we have seen the elephant appearing con-

Plate X. jointly with the lion on the Buddhist coins of

Elephant Type. Bactria and of southern India, and also as the
Bull Type.

most frequent symbol occurring on the puneh
coins in Pls. viz. and-yr1z. In the following examples, the same
animal is represented as the typical figure of the series with various
Buddhist symbols on the reverse.

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 241

Fig. 63. Is a copper coin of square form received from the
ancient site of Wurrioor [ Uraiyur] near Trichinopoly.

Obverse ; an elephant. Reverse; a cross in a heart shaped dia-
gram without motto or accompaniment of any kind; weight grains
111-45.

Figs, 64, 65, two copper coins from Dipaldinni.

Obverse; an elephant with uplifted trunk anda legend: re-
verse; the four-limbed chakram. ;

Fig. 66, a small copper coin, from the Masulipatam district.

Obverse ; an elephant with a staff over the neck and a radiated
border: reverse; a series of lines and dots intended perhaps for
a temple or portico. This coin forms a link connecting the ele-
phant with the lion series of the (supposed) Vengi dynasty.

Fig. 67, a small copper coin of more modern date.

Obverse; an elephant with one hind leg out stretched as if
kicking and the tail raised over the back.

Reverse; an upright rod with some resembfance to an ankus,
but much defaced or it may be a candelabra, or pillar between two
rings. ;
~ The posture of the elephant connects it with amore recent
series having a Telugu legend on the reverse, which will be describ-
ed hereafter.

Fig. 68, a copper coin, also mor? modern.

Obverse ; a female figure seated, with a lotus in either hand and
two elephants pouring water over her.

Reverse ; indistinct, but apparently two or three lines of what
may be Nagari characters too much defaced to be read.

The sitting figure under the modern name of Gaja Lakshmi may
be frequently seen as an ornament in the centre of the lintels over
the doors of ancient temples and also over the sluices of old tanks.
It appears to be an undoubted Buddhist emblem, although claimed
by modern Hindus as appertaining to their mythology. Fig. 73
belongs to the same type.

Fig. 69 to 72, are leaden coins, of similar type to figs. 64 and 65.

Obverse ; an elephant with uplifted trunk and traces of an im-
perfect legend: reverse ; the four-limbed chakram.

{
{

242 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

Severe! specimens of this type have been found at Dipaldinni,
Gudiwadah and other places in the Guntoor and Masulipatam dis-
tricts, and in 1826, a large hoard was discovered in the lands of
the village of Magalli, within three or four miles of kasbah Nandi-
gam. The head of police on the 4th August reported to the ma-
gistrate that the Munéru river, having overflowed its banks, had
washed away the soil and laid bare some earthern pots filled with
leaden coins which weighed altogether about 105lbs. They were
sent to Masulipatam and lay for many years in the treasury. The
greatest portion consisted of the elephant type, but afew were
found with the figure of a bull.

Fig. 73, obverse; an elephant passant: reverse ; a female figure
seated holding alotus in either hand, this appears to be a repre-
sentation of the Buddhist deity Padmavati.

The important position occupied by the bull
both in Buddhist and Sivaite mythology renders
it a favorite symbol with the votaries of both creeds. Accord-
ingly we find a great number of coins impressed with its image. It
was early adopted by the successors, of the Greek conquerors of
Bactria, appearing with a conspicuous hump on a square copper
coin of Philoxenes about 130 B. C. and a few years later on the
more elegant round and square hemidrachmas of Apollodotus with
an elephant on the reverse.*. Jt occurs frequently on the coins of
Azes, also associated with the elephant and again with the lion,
camel &c. and on those of Kadphises the first Indo Scythian prince,
standing behind a figure of Siva. With the extension of the Si-
vaite creed in India its symbolic adoption became almost universal.

The Bull series.

Fig. 75, is a leaden coin found in the sea shore between Maha-
mallaipur and Madras with a bull on the obverse, and the reverse
plain: weight 88 grains.

Figs. 76 and 77, are copper coins belonging to the so called
Vengi series. They are found in the same part of the country but

* Wilson, Ari. Ant. Pl. 11. fig. 18, Pl. rv. figs. 14,15, Pl, vit. figs. 8—10. J. A.
S. B. Vol. LY. Pl. xxi. fig. 2, Pl. xx11. figs. 1—8. Pl. xxu1m1. fig. 28, Pl. xxvi.
fig. 5.

+ Ar. Ant. P. 340, Pl. xr.

JAN.—MaR, 1858. | Numismatic Gleanings. 243

less numerously and exhibit the same general character. It is diffi-
cult to say what the central figure on the reverse is meant to signi-
fy. Wilson figures a specimen of this series from the Mackenzie
collection with the same reverse, but an elephant on the obverse,
which thus serves as link between figs. 76 and 77—66—and 48,
50,52. The weights of these are—fig. 76 grains 64-°9—and fig.
77 grains 86°5, but small quarter pieces also occur varying from
grains 10 to 25.

Fig. 78, is composed of a sort of inferior aie metal with a bull
on the obverse and the reverse plain, weighing grains 30°75. It
was found near Palaveram with several others of similar descrip-
tion, some having the bull obverse, others a horse, all of which
came into the possession of Lieut. Col. F. Clerk, late of the 8rd
or P, L. I. Regt. from whom the specimen here figured was receiv-
ed. Prinsep describes a similar kind of money among the relics of
Behat, the composition of which he calls white bronze, and the ge-
neral aspect and execution of which bear a strong analogy to this
and the succeeding figures.*

Figs. 79 to 89, belong to aremarkable series of very thin and
frequently much broken copper coins found along the sea-shore,
after the sand has been disturbed by storms or high winds, to the
south of Madras, in company with Roman, Byzantine anda few
Chinese coins. The figures are often struck with considerable
elegance, the obverse being always a bull sometimes with a short
legend and various reverses, as a chakram or wheel in figs. 79, 82,
and 83; a ship with two masts like the modern d’honi save that it
is steered by paddles from the stern, in fig. 81, 88; a tree in 80;
a bow, in 84; acrabin 85; a fishin 87. The reverses of 86 and
89 have not been recognized.{ The leaden coin fig. 74 has been
introduced from its resemblance to figs. 81 and 88. It was found
near Allamparva between Sadras and Cuddalore.

There can be little difficulty in attributing this series to the
aboriginal people of Dravida-déesam, the Curumbars and their

* J. A.S. B. Vol. III. p. 229, Pl. xvii. figs. 11, 12.
+ We have a leaden coin from Dipaldinni of the Sinha series with a similar
reverse and four undulatory lines for the water symbol.

«

244 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

princes of the Pallava race* who were overcome and destroyed by
the natural son and successful general of one of the Cholas (pro-
bably of Raja Raja Chola or Rajendra Chola) and their country
incorporated with the Chola dominions under the names of Ton-
damandalam and Jayam-konda-Chola-mandalam about the eighth
or ninth century.

These coins therefore may be assumed to have been struck in
the seventh and eighth centuries. The frequent representation of
a ship, as in figs. 74, 81 and 88, indicates the existence of commer-
cial pursuits, and the fact that all the specimens in our possession
have been picked up on the sea shore at different points between
Madras and Cuddalore, and that they occur with copper coins of
the lower Roman Empire and with Chinese money shows that the
commerce must have been tulerably extensive. The following
extract from the Revd. W. Taylor’s analysis of the Mackenzie
MSS. throws some light on the subject. The volume in which it
occurs appears to be a collection of traditions connected with the
ancient history of Tondamandalam, made for Col. Mackenzie:

«‘ After the deluge the country was a vast forest inhabited by wild
beasts. A wild race of men arose; who, destroying the wild beasts,
dwelt in certain districts. There were then, according to tradition, no
forts, only huts; no kings, no religion, no civilization, no books; men
were naked savages: no marriage institutions. Many years after, the
Curumbars arose in the Carnatic country: they had a certain kind of
religion; they were murderers; they derived their name of Curumbars
from their cruelty. Some of them spread into the Dravida-désam as far
as the Tonda-mundala country. ‘They are now found near Uttramalur ;+
but more civilized. They ruled the country some time, but falling into
strife among themselves, they at length agreed to select a chief, who
should unite them altogether. They chose aman who had some know-
ledge of books; who was chief of the Dravida country, and was called
Camanda Curumba-prabhu, and Palal (Pallava?) Rajah. He built a
fort in Puralur.{ He divided the Curumba land into twenty-four parts
and constructed a fort in each district. Of these, the names of ten are—

* Mad. Jour. Lit. and Sc. Vol. XIII. p. 52 and Pt. ii. p. 43.
+ A tower in the Chingleput District 40 miles W. of Madtras.—W. E.
t{ Now Poral or Pozhal or Madavaram, the village at the Red Hills, near

Madras.—W. E.

JAN.—MAR. 1858. | Numismatic Gleanings. 245

Puralur, the royal fort, Callatur, Amur, Puliyur, Chembur, _Utthikadu,
Kaliyam, Venguna, Icattukottai, Padavir. While they were ruling, there
was a commerce carried on by ships, As the merchants of Caveripum-
patnam sought trading intercourse with them, the Curimbas built the fol-
lowing forts (stations) for trade: Patti-pulam, Sala-cupam,* Sala-pakam,
Meyur, Cadalur, Alampari, Maracanam ; whence, by means of merchants
from Caveripum-patnam and the Curumbar, a commercial intercourse by
vessels was carried on. They flourished in consequence ; and while with-
out any religion, a Jaina (Buddhist) ascetict camo and turned them to
the Jaina credence. The Basti which the Pural king built after the
name of that ascetic, is still remaining together with other Bastis, and
some Jaina images in different places ; but some are dilapidated and some
destroyed, by the hatred of the Brahmans. They were similar to the
Jainas of the present day. ‘They were shepherds, weavers, lime-sellers,
traders. While living thus, various kings of civilized countries made in-
roads upon them, as the Chola and Pandiya kings, and others ; and being
a wild people who cared not for their lives, they successfully resisted their
invaders, and had some of the invading chiefs imprisoned in fetters, in
front of the Pural fort. Besides they constrained all young people to
enter_the Jaina religion ; in consequence of which vexation a cry_arose in
the neighbouring countries. At length Adondai of Tanjore formed the
design of subduing them, and invading them, a fierce battle was fought
in front of the Pural fort, in which the Curumba king’s troops fought,
and fell, with great bravery ; and two-thirds of Adondais’ army was cut
up. He retreated to a distance overwhelmed with grief; and the place
where he halted is still called Cholan-pedu. While thinking of returning
to Tanjore, Siva that night appeared to him in a dream, and promised
him victory over the Curumbas, guaranteed by asign. The sign occur-
red; and the Curumba troops were the same day routed with great
slaughter: the king was taken, the Pural fort was thrown down, and its
brazen (or bell-metal) gate was fixed in front of the shrine at Tanjore.
A temple was built where the sign occurred; anda remarkable pillar of
the fort was fixed there: the place is called Tiru muli vasal. A sort of
commemorative ceremony is practised there. After a little more fight-
ing, the other forts were taken, and the Curumbas destroyed. Adondai
placed the Vellazhar{ as his deputed aurhorities; having called them

* Sala-cupam now Salvan-cupam near the Seven Pagodas, Cadalur is the
modern Cuddalore of our maps, Alampari is Alamparva.—W. E.

+ Probably one of Asokas Buddhist Missionaries.—W. E.

{ The Vellalar or Vellazhar are still said to be of foreign origin and are alse

246 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIEs,

into the country to supply the deficiency of inhabitants from the Tuluva-
desam (modern Canara). They are called Tuluva-Vellazhar to the pre-
sent day. Some were brought from the Chola-desam, still called Chola
Vellazhar. He called from the north certain Brahmins by birth, whom
he fixed as accountants. The Kondai Katti Vellazha, were appointed by
him, He acquired the name of Chacravarti from rescuing the people from
their troubles. The name of Curumba-bhumi was discontinued; the
country was called Tondamandalam ; and common consent ascribes to
Adondai the regulation of the country.’’+

The mention of the brazen gates which it was thought worth
while to carry away to Tanjore, the execution of the coins and the
superiority of the older sculptures at the Seven pagodas, as on the
vathas, prove that the arts had kept face with commerce and that
the Curumbers must have attained a considerable degree of civili-
zation.

Fig. 90, the concluding coin of this plate has been introduced
on account of the similarity in form and execution of the bull with
those just described and as forming a link with the Chola series
of coins to be noticed hereafter.

Obverse ; a standing figure rudely designed, the right hand rest-

ing on a mace or sceptre, the left raised.
Reverse ; a bull with a crescent over its back.

The association of the horse with military operations has at all
times and in all countries caused it to be embla-
zoned as a distinguishing mark of warlike na-
tions. Although not peculiar to the Buddhists it was a favorite
symbol and occurs on many coins of the period of their ascendancy.

Figs. 91 and 99 have been selected for their more perfect
reverses from a number received from Cuddapah.

Obverse ; a horse with an anchor-shaped symbol aboye anda
sphere or circle in front.

The Horse Type.

called the Ganga Kula. A similar tradition exists in Canara of the emigration
of the cultivating class from Ahech’hatra at the instance of an early Kadamba
King. The tradition in the extract seems to refer to a second emigration of this
same tribe.—W. E.

+ Mad. Jour. Lit. and Sc., Vol. VII. p.316. Jour, As. Soc. Ben., Vol. VII.
p. 403,

JAN.—MaR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 247

Reverse ; a dehgope of three tiers surmounted by a crescent, by
its side the sacred tree, below which is the wavy line supposed to
designate water* with dots in the undulations.

These are large leaden pieces, weighing grains 105°7 and 116°75
and of indifferent execution, the figure of the horse being rude
and stiff.

Figs. 92, 96, and 98, obverse; a horse with a legend extending
round the whole periphery : reverse ; the four-armed chakram.

These which are also of lead, are found in the Guntoor district,
about Dipaldinni and its neighbourhood. They are only half the
size of the preceding specimen, and the design i3 remarkably good,
but owing to the softness of the metal few of the letters retain their
sharpness. The weight of the two larger pieces is, of the one,
grains 82:2, of the other 59°75 that of the smaller or quarter pieces
like fig. 98, is grains 14'1 to 20 and 22.

Figs. 93 and 97, are square copper coins, locality whence pro-
cured unknown. In execution and faulty design*they resemble the
Cuddapah specimens. The symbol in front of the horse in fig. 97
appears to be an altar; the design on the reverse is an ornamental
band. They weigh grains 51°35 and 60°3.

Fig. 94, is a circular coin of white metal found at the same time
and place, and in all respects similar to the bull coin fig. 78.

Obverse ; a horse with a sphere,in front and a small portion of
the letters of a legend visible above.

Reverse ; the base of the sacred tree anda part of a dehgope
only visible, with the line designating water below, as in figs.
91 and 99; weight grains 39°75.

Fig. 95, a small copper coin from an uncertain locality.

Obverse ; a rude figure of a horse : reverse; a padma or lotus.

Winsallaneaas From fig. 100 to 108 are coins of a miscella-
Types. neous character but of Buddhist origin.

Fig. 100 and 101, in lead, have on the obverse, a dehgope, below
which is the symbol of water, and the latter a svastika in addition,
with a legend much defaced. From Dipaldinni where they are
tolerably common ; weight from 70 to 90 grains.

* Jour. R. As. Soc., Vol, XII. p. 25.

«
«

248 Numismatic Gleanings. [ NO. 6, NEW SERIES,

Fig. 102, a copper coin, locality uncertain.

Obverse ; a female figure (Padmavati?) seated andi holdinga
lotus in each hand (see figs. 68 and 73.) Reverse; a non-
descript symbol resembling spiked poles between two ladders ;
(‘See reverses of figs. 76, 77. ]

Fig. 103, a thin copper coin from the sea shore near Madras.

Obverse ; a dog: reverse; four dots within a circle. This isa
unique specimen, ahd the only example that has been met with of
such an animal serving for a monetary device, but Prinsep has
figured several pieces from the Stacy collection in his plate of
earliest Hindu coins* in which a dog is the principal figure. The
weight of this is grains 43:9.

Figs. 104, 105, 106 and 107, are leaden coins from Dipaldinni
similar to figs. 100 and 101, but in which the chatiya emblem
assumes the form of a solid mound or dehgope. Fig. 105 is a re-
markable, unique specimen of large size weighing grains 224°15,
haying on the obverse the dehgope surmounted by a crescent, the
water symbol beneath, and the padma and san#’h shell on either
side with a legend extending round the edge but the letters much
flattened and the outlines pressed into each other. Reverse; the
four-limbed chakram.

Fig. 108, is a very thick copper piece with a plain reverse, the
obverse exhibiting the base of a chatiya of two rows, the third and
uppermost being omitted and with a dot in each of the arches. It
fills the whole of the upper part of the field which is deeply exca-
vated, the lower half containing a circle andecrescent. This has
more the character of a weight than of a piece of money. It is ex-
actly equal to grains 105°35.

The remaining figures 109, 110, 111 and 112 represent copper
seals picked up on the sea-shore with the coins figs. 75 to 89 and
therefore attributable to the old Buddhist inhabitants of Maha-
Malleipuram and its dependencies. Theuseof material of which they
are composed and which accounts for their acquisition and appear-
ance here, is illustrated by an injunction occurring in M. Csoma

* Jour. As. So. Ben, Vol. LY. p. 628 and Pl. xxxy. figs. 34—36,

ee ae — se

>
)
)

JAN.—MaR. 1858. | Notes on various Subjects. 249

+Korosi’s analysis of the Dulwa portion of the sacred Thibetan work

entitled the Kah-gyur where the 11th leaf of the 10th Vol. is thus
epitomised :—“ Seals are permitted to priests—excesses in regard
to seal rings. They are forbidden to have them of gold, silver or
precious stones. They are prohibited from wearing rings. But
they may keep seals or stamps made of copper, brass, bell-metal,
ivory and horn.”’*

Fig. 109 is a quadrilateral seal having an animal on each of its
sides and on its face viz., a horse on the face and on the sides
two tigers or lions, a fish with a crescent and a monkey.

. Fig. 110 is cireular and has the vase of desire [ Kama-Kumbha]
on its face.

Fig. 111 also circular, exhibits an animal something like a frog,

between two candelabras, and

Fig. 112, a cock.

?

XIV. Notes on various-Subjects. By LizuTEnant H., P.

Hawkes, Sub-Assist. Comy. General.

No. 1. Entomoloyy. On the best material for lining an entomo-
logical cabinet. :

The unsuitability of English-made cabinets for use in India, is
a source of much trouble and annoyance to the Indian Naturalist.
The mere form of the case is of very secondary importance, pro-
vided portability has been ensured ; so also is the material of which
it is constructed, although where there is a choice, én is to be pre-
ferred from its being safe from the attacks of white ants; but it is
chiefly on the dining of the cases that the value of the cabinet de-
pends. The principal things to be desired in a good lining mate-
terial are, that it should afford a firm hold to the pins which con-
fine the specimens, that it should be unaffected by changes of tem-

* As, Res. Vol. XX. Pl. 86.

t
t

250 Notes on various Subjects. [NO. 6, NEW SERIES,

perature, that it should be sufficiently cheap and easily procured,
and lastly, that it should not afford harbour to insects.

A cabinet lined with a material that does not give a sufficiently
tenacious hold for the pins is worse than useless. In the jolting of
& Voyage or march a large and heavy insect gets detached, is rat-
tled about the case amongst the other specimens, and destroys in
a few hours the labours of years.

Cork is the material in most general use in England for this pur-
pose, and is procured in large sheets which are cut to the requisite
thickness, and after being glued to the bottom of the case, the
whole is covered with a sheet of paper. In a cool climate this an-
swers sufficiently well, but in India the sheets of cork too often be-
come detached by the heat, whilst the numerous pores which per-
forate it in every direction, afford abundant shelter to myriads of
insects, which speedily destroy the contents of the case.

Shola commonly called pith (the stem of the Gischynomene as-
pera) is frequently used in India, as is also the very soft wood of
the Erythrina Indica, but with the same results. Solutions of ar-
senic or corrosive sublimate will preserve all these substances for
a time, but as far as my experience goes, no amount of these drugs
will secure them from destruction for any lengthened period.

The substance which I have used with the greatest success, meets
all the requirements of a good lining material. It affords a very
tenacious hold to the pins, is unaffected by ordinary changes of
temperature, is procurable in every bazaar, and affords no harbour
toinsects. In addition to this, it does not require the application
of any poisonous solution, being in itself indestructible by vermin.
The receipt is as follows :

K Common rosin or dammer..........-..20. 16 ounces.
Yellow wax ...: 5% bad Dede. Wee eee et 8 ee
Turperitine i... ae niche we Civs Goole Lee | a
Camphor....... oi oe a ates se eee he eee 1 ta

Pound the rosin and melt it slowly, then add the wax, and when tho-
roughly incorporated take it off the fire, and add the camphor previously
dissolved in the turpentine.

To apply this composition, place the box, case, or drawer on a
level surface, and when the liquid has cooled down a little, pour

)
)

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Notes on various Subjects. 251

it into the case until it stands about 4th of an inch thick. When
the mixture is on the point of hardening, cover it with a piece of
white or colored paper previously cut to the required dimensions.

No. 2. Entomology. On an artificial method of preserving a
collection of duplicates of Lepidoptera in a portable form.

Those who devote their spare hours to the study of the various
branches of natural history in India, whether they prefer entomo-
logy, ornithology conchology or botany, cannot but have found,
that the constant movements to which we are most of us subject,
are a great impediment to these pursuits.

Collections of specimens in either of these branches are general-
ly bulky, and the care, anxiety and expense involved in their trans-
mission from place to place, do much to counterbalance the plea-
sure which these pursuits are calculated to afford. Any plan
which tends to decrease the bulk of these collections, will, I am
sure, be acceptable to collectors, and with this end in view, I pro-
ceed to recommend the adoption of a simple plan examples of
which as a pasteme many of us have no doubt seen, but of the
extended application of which in the manner now proposed, I have
never witnessed an example. We have our books of ferns, mosses
and sea-weeds, and why should we not have a book of butterflies,
which, independent of its portability and beauty, would be one of
the most lasting ways of securing examples of these delicate insects.

I must premise however that the plan which is to acertain ex-
tent artificial, is intended to be applied simply and solely to the pre-
servation of duplicates, and can never supersede or replace a collec-
tion of the perfect insects.

The mode of procedure is as follows. Chose a well bound blank
book of convenient size, and having ready at hand a phial of isin-
glass size, (made by dissolving isinglass in alcohol) a pair of fine
pointed scissors, and a camel’s hair pencil, select the duplicate spe-
cimens which are not required in your cabinet, and cut off care-
fully the four wings close to the point of insertion. Lay then on
a page of your book in the most natural attitude, and if you have
two specimens of the same butterfly, show both the upper and

252 Selections. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

under sides of the wings. Trace the outline of the wings as they
lie on the page with a fine lead pencil, then remove them gently
with a camel hair brush, and cover the space within the pencil
mark with a coat of size; replace the wings carefully, cover them
with a piece of paper and press them with a marble slab or heavy
weight. When dry remove the weight, and take away the skele-
ton of the wing, the whole of the delicate feathers will be found to
have adhered to the paper in their natural order. With a brush and
colors insert the body in the space between the wings, and give
if necessary, a coat of size over the whole. The effect may be much
enhanced by adding drawings of the larve and pupz as well as
of the plants on which they are usually found.

A collection of duplicates of many thousand specimens may in
this manner be preserved within a very small compass, it has
moreover the advantage of being indestructible by insects is very
convenient for reference, and, although it can never supersede the
cabinet, it formsea most convenient auxiliary to it.

SELECTIONS.
The Royal Society.

Art the last meeting of the Society, a paper was read, entitled, dn
Account of some recent Researches near Cairo, undertaken with the
view of throwing light upon the Geolegical History of the Alluvial
Land of Egypt, by L. Horner, Esq., V.P.R.S.

This communication, which followed a previous memoir on the
same subject, details at considerable length the results of the ex-
amination of the various soils and other substances obtained by
numerous borings and shafts sunk in the vicinity of the statue of
Rameses and across the valley of the Nile, in the parallels of
Memphis and Heliopolis. The following are the chief facts made
known by the excavation shafts and borings.

JAN.—MAR, 1858.] The Royal Society. 253

On examining the results of ninety-five excavations and prob-
ings of the alluvial land, it appears:—1. That the alluvium is of
two principal kinds: first and chiefly, an argillaceous earth or
loam, more or less mixed with fine sand of various shades of color,
being the true Nile mud or sediment; and, secondly, pure quart-
zose sand, derived in a great measure from the desert, which is
swept by violent winds through the gullies in the hills on either
side, but chiefly from the Libyan range. 2. That the Nile sedi-
ment found at the lowest depth reached, is very similar in com-
position to that deposited by the inundation water of the present
day. 3. That in no instance did the boring instrument strike
upon the solid rock which may be presumed to form the basin
between the Libyan and Arabian hills, which contains the alluvium
accumulated through unknown ages, from the time when this de-
pression in the earth’s surface was formed, and the waters of the
Nile first flowed through it. 4. Thatexcept minute organisms
discoverable only by a powerful microscope, fev» organic remains
were met with, and that those forms were recent land and river
shells, and bones of domestic animals. 5. That there has not
been found a trace of an extinct organic body. 6. That at the
-same levels great varieties in the alluvium have been found in ad-
joining pits, even when the distances between them are very mo-
derate. 7. That there is an absence of all lamination in the
sediment. When the author first undertook these interesting
researches, he expected that sediment, slowly deposited on the
land from nearly tranquil water, would present in sections a lami-
nated structure—more especially as an able observer, the late
Captain Newbold, stated that he had met with such an arrange-
ment of the alluvial soil. It was therefore with no small surprise
that on examining the soil from the excavations at Heliopolis, no
such laminze could be discovered, and in none of the excavations
or borings has such a structure been met with in a single instance.
There can be no doubt that a layer of sediment must be deposited
upon the land, but as soon as the waters have subsided, the sun,
the wind, and cultivation combine to break it up. From the
earliest times when the Nile Valley was inhabited by man, the

254 Selections. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

alluvial land fertilized by the sediment from the annual inunda-
tion must have been cultivated in the returning seasons. The
next following flood softens the hardened mud of the preceding
year, and it is considered that this softening of the soil is one of
the most fertilizing effects of the inundation. The very primitive
and simple system of cultivation at the present day is, most pro-
bably, the same which has been followed for unknown ages, for it
is said that in Egypt nothing changes. As the subsiding inunda-
tion level continues to expose to air and light the surface on
which the sediment has been deposited in -insulated patches of the
uneven ground, the Fellah, wading in mud begins to throw seed
upon them in contour lines, his light boat bringing to him his seed
corn. As the retreating waters expose more land, as soon as it is
sufficiently drained another zone of ground is sown, and so on until
the lowest parts have received the seed, which must be cast be-
fore the surface begins to crack, and after it has been cast it is
beaten down inté the mud with a flat piece of wood attached to
the end of a pole. During the dry season, when vegetation withers,
and the underground water has subsided, the ground cracks in
to numerous and deep fissures, forming the usual polygonal figures
we see in dry mud or clay, affording receptacles for the flying sand.
For three or four months in every year the surface of the valley
stript of vegetation, in the state of adry powder, is swept by violent
winds, raising clouds of dust. By these combined causes, there-
fore, every trace of the deposited layer must be effaced. Instances
of lamination and alternation of clay and sand, such as those
mentioned by Captain Newbold, are not unfrequently met with
on the banks of the river and at the entrances of canals, but
they are local occurrences, caused by eddies and currents.

A further result of these researches is, that there are occasional
accumulations of soil, the materials of which are only remotely
derived from the inundation water and the storms of desert sand.
In the neighbourhood of old buildings and on the sites of earlier
buildings, where these have been constructed of crude bricks, the
soil, to a considerable depth, may have been derived from the dis-
integration of these bricks. The soil thus derived would have

JAN.—MAR, 1858.] The Royal Society. R55

nearly the same aspect as the natural deposit of Nilemud. In the
excavation at Heliopolis crude bricks were seen to have been the
origin of the soil, these by visible rectangular lines chequering the
sides of the pit. This last appearance, however, must be a rare
occurrence, for the action of the inundation water softens the briclhs
and causes them to melt, as it were, into a homogeneous mass.

' And finally, in nearly every part of the ground penetrated, arti-
ficial substances have been found, such as fragments and particles
of burnt brick and pottery, and in the area of Heliopolis and Mem-
phis fragments of statues and other sculptured stones. By far the
most interesting kind of this nature was obtained from the lowest
part of the boring of the sediment at the colossal statue of Rameses
at adepth of thirty-nine feet. The boring instrument brought up a
fragment of pottery, now in the author’s possession. It is about
an inch square, anda quarter of an inch in thickness, the two sur-
faces being of a brick-red colour, the interior dark grey. Accord-
ing to Mr. Horner’s deductions, this fragment, having been found
at a depth of thirty-nine feet (if there be no fallacy in his reason-
ing,) must be held to be a record of the existence of man 713,375
years before a. D., 1858, reckoning by the calculated rate of in-
crease of three inches and a half of alluvium in a century—11,517
years before the Christian era—and 7,625 before the beginning as-
signed by Lepsius to the reign of Menos, the founder of Memphis.
Moreover, it proves, in his opinion, that man had already reached
a state of civilization, so far, at least, as to be able to fashion clay
into vessels, and to know how to harden it by the action of strong
heat. This calculation is supported by the Chevalier Bunsen, who
is of opinion that the first epochs of the history of the human race
demand atthe least a period of 20,000 years before our Eraas a
fair starting point in the earth’s history.

An appendix to Mr. Horner’s valuable paper contains, among
other matters, a description of the microscopic organisms in the
Nile sediment: and the memoir is accompanied by various plans
of the excavations and borings, with sections of the alluvium
pierced through.

The author acknowledges with gratitude the assistance he has

256 Selections. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

received during the course of these interesting researches, which
have extended over several years from our Consul in Egypt, the
Hon. Charles Murray—from the late Viceroy, Abbas Pasha—and
especially from the able engineer, Hekekyan Bey, who was educat-
ed in England, and of whom Mr. Horner gives a very interesting
biographical memoir. The entire expense of the researches carried
on during three seasons, of some original surveys, and the prepa-
ration of various maps on a large scale, and many drawings, amount-
ing altogether to a‘very considerable sum, have been, with great
liberality, defrayed by the Egyptian Government. The expense of
analysing the soils sent to England was met by a grant of money
from the Royal Society.—Saturday Review, Feb. 28.

é The Geographical Soctety.

At the meeting of the Bombay Geographical Society held on
the 21st January, the following letter from Captain Burton was laid
before the meeting. The various references contained in it were
made at the suggestions of the Committee of the Society in the
correspondence with Captain Burton, and with Government in
December 1856 :—

Zanzibar, May 25th, 1857.

Sir,—I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your official
leter dated the 8th December 1856, conveying to me, by order of
the Geographical Society of Bombay, certain suggestions regard-
ing the expedition into Eastern intertropical Africa, which I have
been appointed to lead, and to express my gratitude for their valua-
ble instructions and recommendations.

During my last preparatory journey from Mombator, on the
Panjan river and thence by land to Fuga, the capital of an interest-
ing mountain district—Usambara—I left at Zanzibar for com-
parison a barometer in charge of Mr. Frost, Medical Officer to the
Consulate, the instrument (by Adie) obligingly lent to me by the
Secretary of the Bombay Geographical Society. It would have
done scant service during a coasting voyage, and on a rough

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] The Royal Society. 257

mountain tour, so delicate an instrument would certainly have
come to grief. I took with me four thermometers be Newman, of
which one, a B. P. Thermometer, was rendered useless by the
mercury setting in the upper bulb, consequent upon expansion of
air carelessly left in it by the manufacturer. I have now in all
four strong Nutt’s Thermometers, in good condition, and two B.
P. ditto, one used by Captain William Smyth, R.N. in crossing
the borders, and kindly given to us by Colonel Hammerton.
These even should the ‘‘ Adie’? be broken, and the instruments
recommended by the Medical Board Bombay not arrive in time,
will suffice to determine with tolerable accuracy the altitude of the
Unyamisi Lakes. As regards sympisometers, they are found by
the long experience of Naval officers, and the accurate hourly ob-
servations of a staff of recorders, to be useless by reason of their
extreme sensitiveness on this coast within 62 or 8° N. and 8S. at
the Line. This however might not be the case on land.

For a reference point of known pressure, I am happy to say we
can now confidently apply to Zanzibar. Mr. Apothecary Frost, an
able and accurate observer, has during the last ten months filled
up Meteorological tables with the Barometer,—probably the same
instrument sent by the Bombay Geographical Society in 1847,—
with Thermometer attached and unattached, wet and dry bulb,
evaporating dish, and with the rain gauge. As the Society seems
to take an interest in these observations, I have the honor to trans-
mit copies with which Mr. Frost has obliged me.

I now proceed to answer your letter paragraph by paragraph.

For enquiries into the hydrology of the region which we pur-
pose exploring, I shall be careful to provide myself with a dish
anda gauge. The professionally learned however must not be
exacting in their demands for observation. These African ex-
plorations present peculiar difficulties. An expedition into the
Eastern Interior is a small campaign, in which the traveller is
beset by all the troubles, hardships, and perils of savage warfare.
He must despair of studying “ infusoria,” unless at least he haye
nothing else to do.

258 Selections. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

The Missionaries and all acquainted with the country have
wondered at our using instruments at Usambara :—the dazzle of
a sextant makes every man thirst for your blood. The climate
also is hostile to the traveller in more ways than one. Captain
Spike, my well tried and energetic companion, has twice suffered
severely from sickness, jungle fever and catarrh,—in consequence
of exposure to disc whilst taking observations. The simplest geo-
graphical operationg become at times impossible. During our two
days and two nights at Fuja, a dense poll of clouds overhung the
sky, the rains had set in, though the half of February had not till
elapsed; we never saw the sun, and we could not find even a star
we had descended the hills. In these regions, the traveller’s chief
study must be to make things easy, to take all easy, and do only what
iseasy. I doubt the route crossing any great mountain ridge as you
suppose : it leads, say the Arabs, with a steady rise and an occa-
sional ascent, between the coast and lake. As regards our alti-
tudes on the way, we can boil Thermometers and register the
Barometer ;—for objects off the line of march we must depend
upon compass bearings, a Pedometer horse-line and vertical angles
observed with a large or small sextant. I have the honor to for-
ward a few specimens of the coast formation : but for the sickness
which cut short ourjourney, our collection would have been less
meagre. The mountain zone, like Zanzibar and its adjacent Is-
lands, is a mass of corallines, ‘often shelly and coated with red,
yellow and black argillaceous soils, rendered fertile by decayed
animal and vegetable matter. In some places there are distinct
sea-beaches rising 100 to 150 feet above the alluvial plain. In
others I could find none.

From Mombas to the Panjany river (the tract called in Sawahil
““Mrima” or the Mountain Region) stretches a broken line of
sandstone at some distance from the coast, and varying from 700
to 1,200 feet above the sealevel. The interior is gneiss, quartz
and sandstone, with detached hills of tufas and grey granite: the
latter is so micaceous that the Belooch garrison cannot banish
their belief that it contains gold. As at Madagascar no limestone
appeared, and the result of enquiry is a doubt of its existence. I

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Zhe Geographical Society. 259

inspected many wells and excavations upon the coast, and rarely
saw either blue clay or tree roots underlying the gravel. The
habitat of the Cocoanut is chiefly the Coralline coast, but it extends
along the Panjany river, and bears fruit at least 30 miles from the
sea ; wherever it is found at any distance from the main stream tlie
natives judge water to be near.

The ripe Copal (called Gum Animi in the London market) is the
most interesting production of Eastern Africa, °This semi-fossil is
not generally “‘ washed out of streams and torrents,” but dug up
especially during the rains by the Sawahili of the coast and the
savages of the interior. There is, however, a kind of gum called
by the natives—who deeming it the Egesta of whales, know no use
for it—‘‘ Damar.”’ Found upon the sea, especially about Cape
Delgado, it floats, whereas copal sinks, in water : it may be unripe
gum washed from the shore during the wet monsoon. The whole
of this coast produces the real copal of commerce in different de-
grees of excellence. Specimens have been brought to Zanzibar from
Brava and Magdishu (Magadoxo). Small quantities are found in
the Rabai hills behind Mombas, and the tree grows in the jungle-
patches which studthe range. From Panjany southwards for 80
miles it is plentiful, at distances varying from three hours’ march
to two days’ journey fromthe coast. It would be impossible for
us “ to trace the position and circumstances of the extinct forest,
of which it now constitutes the principal remains.’”’ Such an in-
vestigation would require at least two months’ voyaging along and
dwelling upon the fatal sea board. In most places, I am told, there
is now no sign of a tree.

Of Gum Copal these regions supply two great varieties :

1. Raw, popularly called “Jackass Copal,’’ is, I venture to
opine, the gum which, exuding from the trunk or branches of the
live tree when injured by elephant or man, fall to the ground, and
either infiltrated, or was covered by successive layers of soil. Like
a common resin it is softened by spirit, and becomes viscid in the
solution used for washing ripe copal. This variety is exported in
considerable quantities from Zanzibar to China, where, it is said,
the people have discovered and retained to themselves the secret

260 Selections. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

of working it. At Bombay and Surat, itis made into an inferior
varnish for carriages and palanquins.

2. The ripe or true copal—a semi-fossil, doubtless the product
of forests overthrown by gradual decay by the upheaval of the coast
or by some violent agency of the elements. This is proved by the
fact, that pieces of the gum are met with embedded in wood, which
crumbles to dust under the touch, and by its “ goon-skin,”’ which
is the impress of sand or gravel. There are many varieties of co-
lour, caused probably by the embedding strata, the clearest and
most transparent fetches the highest price; then follow the nume-
rous and almost imperceptible gradations of light amber, lemon and
dark yellow, red and tufas. I have seen a specimen of tender green.
Sometimes the gum, like Sicilian amber, contains drops of water,
bees, tics, flies and other insects, delicately and completely preserv-
ed, and disproving a remote antiquity.

Without entering further into theory, I will simply describe two
visits which I made to the Copal-diggings. On the 10th May, I
rode out from the Town of Zanzibar upon the Mony road. One
mile east of the town lies a low sandy plain covered with sedgy
grass, and pitted with holes two or three feet deep, from which
copal had been dug. The place is about a mile from the shore,
apparently but few feet above high-watermark, and bounded land-
wards by a sandy nullah. Passing the palace of Mony, some one
hundred yards, I was shown a torrent bed, where during the rains
copal is said to be brought down and picked up by slaves. Thence
turning towards the interior we rode up the rising ground, to judge
by the eye, about one hundred feet above the level of the sea, fora
mile anda half into an estate, belonging to the prince, and called
Rauzah. Here were many traces of copal diggings. The soilisa
dark vegetable mould varying from a foot to a foot and a half in
depth, based upon blue clay, the raised sea beach. This clay be-
comes exceedingly fat and adhesive, clogging the bar the deeper it
is excavated; it is mixed throughout with fibres, said by the ne-
groes to be roots of the Cocoanut tree half decayed, and of bright
red: blood colored bits of earth also variegated the faint blue co-
lor, and ata depth of about two feet anda half, water began to

)
)

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Zhe Geographical Society. 261

exude from the greasy walls of the hole. The copal is here found
in the vegetable soil overlaying the blue clay.

On the 13th May, I started from Saadan, a haven on the main-
land, opposite Zanzibar, in company with the Akida-ao, or Mucud-
dum of the copal diggers. Passing over an alluvial plain, coveréd
with rank vegetations, acacios, thorns and spear grass, after walk-
ing three miles I was shown the copaltree. It is growing ina
thicket upon a flat covered with toddy and fan palms, but no cocos;
it stands about thirty feet high, and measures in girth three feet.
Gum exuded from the bark, and in securing the specimen of the
wood herewith forwarded, we were pitilessly assailed by a large
ginger-colored and semi-transparent ant whose very bite drew
blood. The copal tree is rare on this part of the coast: within the
space of several hundred yards I saw two only.

Another mile brought us to a distinctly defined sea beach rising
about 150 feet in a swell from the plain, marked bya regular line
of quartz and quartzose pebbles and crowned with fuxuriant thickets.
Tbe soil is sandy, and here as on the flat below are frequent traces
of the copal digger. Our guide was induced to cut a stick to
sharpen it, and to scrape up the earth which produced several bits
of gum. One of the slaves dug a pit about three feet deep; the
color of the sand became redder as he went lower, crimson fibrous
matter appeared, and presently the ground seemed to be half co-
pal, half sand. He assured me that there is no subsoil but this
red sand, and that his people never dig deeper than a man’s waist.

The whole of this land from Panjan to Mboamaji may be called
the copal coast: it affords an apparently endless supply of the
gum. Copal is obtained by scraping the sand, even in places
washed over by high tides, and often when digging holes, to fix
the poles of houses, the people come upon it. That of Saadan is
poor compared with the produce of Wande and the Southern har-
bour. On the mainland it costs half price of what is paid upon
this Island, and the lazy inhabitants of the villages can never be
induced to dig whilst they have a handful of food remaining.

The copal tree (Vateria Indica? or Hymencea Vermicosa?) is
still found in the Island and on the mainland of Zanzibar. It is not

262 Selections. [No. 6, NEW SERIEs,

as was supposed a small and shrubby thorn nine foot high : from
its towering stem canoes sixty feet long have been made and a
single trunk has sufficed for the kelson of a brig. The green
wood is gummy; whole flakes at times adhering to the saw.
When dried it is well veined of a light tint, and has been used for
the pannels of doors: when oiled and polished it darkens toa
yellowish-brown. Its small branches freshly cut make good and
pliant sticks for chastisement.

I have the honor to forward the best specimens procurable of
the superficial soils, in which the gum is chiefly found, the under-
lying blue clay, the reddy earth that is found mixed with the
latter, a piece of copal, branch and leaves, and a bit of the gum
here called ‘‘ Damar.’’ Unfortunately the copal tree was not
in flower or fruit : the people assured me that it bears a berry not
unlike a grain of Indian Corn.

The merchants of Zanzibar (mostly Germans and Americans)
are not likely to throw away an ounce of serviceable copal, and
they have consulted the ablest European Technologists upon the ©
subject of preparing it to the best advantage. Supply certainly
no longer meets demand, but that golden rule of political economy
full of exceptions in civilised regions, in these latitudes becomes a
sad fallacy. There is an inexhaustible supply upon the coast
of East Africa, but ‘‘ hands’? are wanted. When there is little
rain and the ground is hard, the lazy savage will not dig. More-
over ‘‘ Kizkazy copal’’—excavated in the N. E. or dry monsoon
—annoys merchants by the difficulty of washing off the hard sand
which adheres to its surface. Whenever upon the coast there is
either a blood feud—and these are a legionary host—or a drought,
or a famine, or a pestilence, the people strike work and dollars
are offered in vain.

I must leave, Sir, to your ingenuity the task of remedying these
evils. European labourers cannot be employed, the climate of
East Africa, as has been abundantly proved is not less injurious
to our constitutions than the worst parts of the Western coast.
Indian coolies, the only procurable hands, would fear to face the
wild men, some of whom I believe to be inveterate canibals. If

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Zhe Geographical Society. 263

they did summon courage they would loose their lives, and justly
enough, for trespassing upon other people’s property. A large
gang (say 500) of good fierce negroes from Kilva (Quiboa) and
the southern parts, might be taught to use a proper mattock
instead of the child’s plaything now employed, and each man
woul doubtless procure twelve or fifteen lbs. per diem; but the
Imaum’s Government would probably object, as a late treaty

enables it todo. The Lawahili Mtua Mkuba or muccadum of ’

the copal diggers would require propitiation, and to prevent the
labourers running away, it would be necessary to enter into ar-
rangements with all the chiefs of tribes, villages, and harbours.
It is to be feared that such an operation, commercially speaking,
would not pay. Willingly therefore as I would wish that highest
of meeds, the gratitude of my fellow countrymen, by reducing the
price of carriage-varnish, I must fairly confess it to be beyond
my powers. The sole remedy for the manifold diseases of this
Bona Terra with its Malaguns is time:—perh3ps an occasional
East African expedition might be administered to advantage.

We have, I am happy to say, shaken off the miasmatic fever of
the coast, and are ready to set out again when the rains show any
signs of abating. Dr. Steinhauser has not yet joined us, but we
are in hourly hopes of the welcome event: his presence will be a
no small comfort in a sickly climate, and where we must expect
to suffer from the hardships, exposure, and various incidents of
African exploration.

I have the honor to be, Sir,
Your most obedient Servant,
Ricwarp F. Burton, Bombay Army,
Commanding E. A. Expedition.

«
€

264 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

«

The Scientific Expedition of the Austrian Frigate “ Novara.”

His Imperial Austrian Majesty’s Frigate Novara is now in the
Indian seas on her voyage by circumnavigation, having arrived from
the Cape of Good Hope and Rio de Janeira. The vessel left Trieste
in April 1857, with instructions to be absent for 3 years.

The staff of Savans attached to this exploring expedition is
composed of the following gentlemen.

1. Dr. Carl Scherzer, known through his travels in Central and
North America, performed in company with Mr. Moritz Wagner.
The narrative of his visit to Nicaragua, Paraguay, &c., under the
auspices of the British Government has been published both in
German and English: he accompanies the expedition for the pur-
pose of making Ethnological and Statistical Inquiries.

2. Dr. Ferdinand Hoch Stetter, Member of the Geological In-
stitution of Austria, Physicist and Geologist to the Expedition, son
of the traveller where Abyssinian plants were distributed to the
subsribers to the Uris itineraridé. This gentleman has published a
variety of Geological and Mineralogical researches, amongst which
is a Geological map of Bohemia. He is in charge of numerous sets
of valuable lithographs, and of duplicate collections of minerals
supplied by the Geological Institute of Vienna, with a view to re-
ciprocal interchange with the Scientific Societies of Eastern Asia.

8. Dr. G. Franenfeld, the Custodier of the department of In-
vertebrate Animals in the Imperial Museum at Vienna. He accom-
panies the Expedition as 1st Zoologist, especially for the lower
classes of animals. He is well known from his travels in Egypt,
his Report upon Gall Nuts, his description of the parasites on
Cheixoptira, &c., published in the Transactions of the Zoological
and Botanical Association of Vienna. Heisa most indefatigable
Naturalist. Franenfeld and Hoch Stetter were specially selected by

’
)

SAN.—MAR. 1858.] Expedition of the ‘* Novara.” 265

the Academy of Sciences to accompany the Expedition, and it was
not originally intended that there should be any other Naturalist.
However, by order of the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Lord
High Admiral of the Indian Navy, and Prime Mover of the voyage
of the Novara, Dr. Scherzer already named, and the following gen-
tlemen were added.

4. Mr. J. Zelebor,in charge of the Ornithological Department,
of the Imperial Museum, an able Ornithologist and Taxidermist,
accompany the Expedition as 2nd Zoologist, specially for the
higher classes of animals. He has travelled in Persia and Egypt,
whence he brought back a remarkable collection of live animals.
Mr. Zelebor was‘on the point of starting for the West Coast of
Africa for the special purpose of bringing back a live specimen of
that extraordinary monkey Troglodytes Gorilla, (the great Chim-
panzee,) when he was ordered to join the Expedition of the Novara.

5. Dr. Schwartz, one of the Physicians on board, was added to
the staff of Naturalists for the purpose of making Medical Inqui-
ries and Botanical collections. He has already obtained many ob-
jects of great value, amongst which may be mentioned the skeleton
of a Bushman from South Africa.

6. Mr. A. Felineck, of the Botanical Garden at Vienna, attach-
ed to the Expedition as Seed-Collegtor and Conservator of Vegeta-
ble Products.

7. Mr. Selleny, one of the most talented Painters in the Aus-
trian Capital.

8. The whole Expedition is under the charge of Baron Wullers-
derf, himself an eminent Astronomer and Physicist. He was for-
merely Director of the Observatory at Venice. These Naturalists
have been furnished with printed instructions, compiled by the most
eminent Savans in Austria. The venerable Humboldt himself con-
tributed a long list of Physical and Geological Inquirenda. The
Expedition will make a stay of some weeks amongst the Nicobar
Islands, the two larger ones of which are to be surveyed. The Fri-
gate will then proceed to Java, New Zealand, &c.

€
a

266 Screntifie Intelligence. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

NogTES AND QUERIES,

[The following propositions have been submitted, relative to a system
of Notes and Queries, by Lieutenant Hawkes, and we think their adoption
will be followed by the receipts of much curious and interesting informa-
tion.

Measures are, however, about to be adopted whereby a less lengthened
period will elapse between the receipt of, and reply to, any queries.

Any communications intended for insertion, in reply to the questions
now submitted shouldcbe forwarded to the Secretaries of the Society with
the least practicable delay.

All questions received will be published at the Monthly Meetings of the
Society and entered seriatum in all future numbers of the Journal under
the special head of Nores anp QuERIESs. ]

RULEs.

(1) Notes and Queries submitted by correspondents should be
ctnfined to those of a scientific and literary character; the queries
should be put, and the answers given in the plainest and most con-
cise form. As several communications will frequently be sent in
answer to the same query, the substance only of these will be given ;
except where the answers differ in material points, when the opi-
~ nions of each writer will be recorded.

(2) Correspondents in forwarding Notes or Queries should au-
thenticate their letters, not only for the satisfaction of the commit-
tee, but chiefly as a means of communicating with the writer should
further enquiry be necessary. The name of the correspondent
will be appended to his first communication, and his initials to all
subsequent notes, &c.

(3) Notes and Queries will be numbered separately and conse-
cutively.

Norte.

(1) On Mr. Rarey’s system of horse-taming—Aao American
paper intimates that it is cognizant of the peculiar secret possess-
ed by Mr. Rarey, and used by him in subjugating the most vicious
horse. ‘ Thechiefsecret,” according to the Advertizer, “ consists
in raising one of the forefeet of the horse doubling the knee and
keeping a strap round the fetlock fastening the foot close to the

,
)

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Notes and Queries. 267

arm or shoulder, the horse then stands upon three legs. Having
next put on a surcingle, pass a long strap or rein through the sur-
cingle and fastening one end of it around the fetlock of the other
forefoot, attach the other to the surcingle after the animal is
thrown, so closely as to deprive it of the use of the limb. In this
item the treatment may be varied in fastening, the second fetlock
to the arm or shoulder, after the animal is down. This plan
“‘says the Advertizer” is successfully “practised by many skilful
horsebreakers in Western New York, and the horse yields to the
necessity of the case, his spirit of opposition is broken” ——( From
the Home News, 17th March, 1858,) H. P. Hawkes.

QUERIES.

(1) On the effect of the venom of the Cobra on the Mungoose.—
Have any of our readers been witness of an encounter between, a
Mungoose and a Cobra or other venomous snake, if so what was the
result ? This query being put in the hope of asvertaining whether
or not the Mungoose is naturally uususceptible of the effects of the
poison (as some suppose) it would be necessary therefore that the
eye-witness should have satisfied himself that the snake was actu-
ally in possession of fangs and a poison bag uninjured, that the
Mangoose was undoubtedly wounded, and that it was kept long
enough after the encounter to prove the inertness (or otherwise) of
the poison on its system. H. P. Hawkes.

(2) The Demia extensa as an antidote for snake bite.—Are there
any well authenticated cases of the cure of the cobra bite, by the
inward administration, or outward application by the Demia exten-
sa (or Cynanchum extensum) which is called in Tamil Vele-parutt¢
and Ootamani, and in Telugu Guruti? HZ, P. H.

(3) The Company's monogram.—What is the meaning of the
numeral 4 which surmounts the Company’s monogram. JH. P. H.

(4) On the meaning of the word “ Mylay.’—The word mylay,
milay or meille is used in connection with many Indian coins, as
the mylay fanam, cash, &c. What is its meaning? If derived from
Mylapoor as some suggest, how can its presence on the most re-
cent coins struck in Mysore, be accounted for? H. P. H.

€
€

268 Sctentifie Intelligence. [no. 6, NEW SERIES,

(5) A concretion found in teak trees.—A peculiar concretion re-
sembling lime or gypsum is occasionally found in the heart of teak
logs. It generally collects in what carpenters cail a ‘“ shake”’ in
the wood, but with this exception the logs are perfectly sound, and
no communication whatever with the external air has been observ-
ed. Isits chemical constitution the same as that of the “ tabas-
heer’ or bamboo salt. H. P. H.

(6.) On the curing of tobacco.—The very great difference in
quality of the tobacco of various parts of India is said to be attri-
butable entirely to the mode of curing. Is this correct? could any
of our readers give a detailed account of the mode of cultivation, na-
ture of cure, and more especially of the mode of curing adopted in
their own neighbourhood. The process of curing the Lunka and
Trichinopoly tobacco would be especially interesting. H. P. H.

«(7.) On Burmese coins.—Do any bona fide Burmese coins exist?
if not what is the currency in use? H. P. ZH.
e

Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India.

[At the request of the Committee of the Madras Branch of this Society,
we insert the following notice of the Premia for 1858, offered by the Ben-
gal Society.

The importance, in an economic point of view, of the subjects thus
brought forward, cannot be exceeded by any intelligence of a scientific
character.

We trust that the long continued exertions made by this Society, and by
the Government of India, may yet eventuate in the development of those
resources, in which India is so rich, and which if drawn upon more large-
ly may yet be the means of advancing her national prosperity and the
wealth of her inhabitants.

The Premia for Essays are particularly interesting, and we trust that the
liberal prizes offered may produce works of general and popular utility.
The Fibres, paper materials, and substitutes for Gutta Percha, are all sub-
jects of importance to every one interested in this country, and we are
confident, that our own Presidency will not be backward, in the develop-
ment of these articles as commercial products.’’]

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Agri. and Hort. Society of India. 269

List oF PREMIA FOR 1858.

Premia for certain Articles of Raw Produce, &c., Fibres
(substitute for Flax.) |

For the production of any new vegetable fibre, which can he
successfully applied to all the purposes for which flax is now used,
and of which not less than 10 maunds to become the property of
the Society.—Rs. 1,000, and Gold Medal.

Fibres (substitute for Hemp.)

For the production of a quantity of any vegetable fibre, which
can be successfuily applied to the purposes for which hemp is now
used, and equally strong and durable, and of which not less than
10 maunds to become the property of the Society.—Rs. 500, and
Gold Medal.

Fibres Rheea.

For the production of at least 25 maundsof Rheea fibre, the
whole to be the produce of the party tendering it, and of which 5
maunds to become the property of the Society, to be accorhpanied
by adetailed statement of the process followed in its cultivation
and after preparation, and the cost of the same. The quality to
be approved by the Society, and the fibre to be in a fit condition
for the English market.—Rs. 1,000, and Gold Medal.

NV. B.—In the event of there being more than one competitor,
the premium to be adjudged to the best specimen.

Cotton (Exotic) long staple variety.
For the production of at least 10 maunds of good merchantable

cotton, raised from foreign seed of the black-seeded long staple
kind.—Rs. 1,000, and Gold Medal.

Cotton (Indigenous. )

For the production of at least 5 maunds of cotton raised from in-
digenous seed, of a quality superior to that now exported, and
such as is likely to prove a substitute for the Upland Georgia or
New Orleans cotton of the United States of America.—Rs. 500,
and Gold Medal.

«
t

270 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

N. B.—The producer or producers of the above cotton must
submit to the Society a statement of the mode of cultivation and
cost of the same.

: Substitute for Gutta Percha.

For the discovery and production to the Society of any new sub-
stance, the produce of India, which can be successfully used as a
substitute for Gutta Percha.—Rs. 500, and Gold Medal.

Materials for Paper-making.

To the producer of at least 6 maunds of fibre suitable for ma-

nufacturing into fine paper, such as will prove an efficient and eco-

nomical substitute for rags or other materials at present employed
in India for that purpose.—Rs. 500, and Gold Medal.

Quinine-yielding Plants.

«To the introducer of twenty healthy plants of South American
Cinchonas, of the kind or kinds known to yield the best description
of bark.—The Gofd Medal.

; Madder.
For the production of at least 5 maunds of Madder, raised in
any part of India, of which 1 maund to be the property of the So-
ciety.——Rs, 500, and Gold Medal.

N. B.—This prize to be renewed for three years, in the event of

a specimen or specimens not being sent in by 3lst December 1858.
Substitute for Gunny Cloth.

For the production of acheap and efficient substitute for gunny
cloth, suitable for packing sugar or grain, of which a piece of 36
yards in length, by 2 feet 3 inches in breadth, or thereabout, to be
submitted to the Society.—Rs. 500, and Gold Medal.

Premia for Essays on certain subjects.

For an approved Essay on the following subjects :—

1. For the best practical Essay on the production and relative
cost of the various oil seeds of India, suitable for export.—A pre-
mium of Rs. 500.

2. For the best practical Essay on the present state of the cul-
tivation of the date tree in Bengal, and on the best mode of in-

JAN.—MAR. 1858.] The late Dr. Stocks. 271

creasing its production and improving the manufacture of its sugar.
—A premium of Rs. 500.

8. For the best practical Essay on the present mode of culti-
vating and manufacturing Indian fibre, yielding plants known in
commerce, such as jute, sun, &c., with practical suggestions for
their improvement.—A premium of Rs. 500.

4, For the best practical Essay on the present mode of culti-
vating and preparing the various tanning products of India, with
practical suggestions for their improvement.—A premium of
Rs. 500.

Prize for a Gardener’s Vade Mecum.

To any person who shall produce on or before the 31st Decem-
ber 1858, the best practical treatise on gardening as applicable to
Lower Bengal, or a Gardener’s Vade-Mecum, the sum of Rs. 600.

,

The work must afford full directions for the culture of vegeta-
bles, fruits, and flowers, whether indigenous or such as have been
introduced into Lower Bengal to the present time, giving practical
hints on grafting, budding, pruning, and transplanting, with des-
criptions of soils and manures best adapted to certain plants; a
calendar of operations in the kitchen, fruit, and flower garden, for
every month throughout the year must be added, as also a copious
alphabetical index.

N. B.—The Rules of competition for Essays the same as pub-
lished in 1886.

A. H. BLEcHYNDEN,
Secy. A, and H. Society.

Calcutta,

MeETCALFE HALL ; |
Aprii 1858,

The Late Dr. Stocks of the Bombay Army.

We are indebted, for the following interesting notice of the late
Dr. Stocks, to Vol. yx. of Hooken’s JouRNAL oF Botany, In

«
‘

272 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

giving it insertion we cannot fail to record our deep and -sincere
regret atthe loss of one of the most distinguished Indian Bota-
nists, we trust that Dr. Srocx’s researches, into the Na/ural His-
tory, §c., of Scinde, may- not be lost; but, that their publication
tnay be undertaken, by some one competent to present them to the
public, with that care which their interesting nature and undoubt-
ed merit equally deserve.

Our contemporary thus records the death of *Jonn ELterton
Stocks, Esq., M. p., BompaAy Mepicau SERVICE.

This event took place at the residence of a relative, where he
was on a visit (with an unmarried sister), Samuel Watson, Esq., of
Cottingham, near Hull (his native town) at the early age of thirty-
four. He received his medical education at University College,
London, and profited more than most students by Dr. Lindley’s
Botanical Lectures. He entered the East India Company’s service
on the Bombay Establishment, and was soon appointed Vaccinator
in Scinde, and afterwards Inspector of Forests there. His travels
in Scinde and Beloochistan were frequent and extensive, and he
took advantage of them to improve his knowledge of the Botany
of all this remarkable region, which he showed to have a close affi-
nity in its vegetable products with Arabia and Egypt. His collec-
tions of specimens were very extensive, and well prepared; and
the drawings, done by native attists, under his immediate inspec-
tion, are no less so. On Dr. Gibson’s visit to England, about three
years ago, Dr. Stocks was appointed during his absence to the
important duties of Conservator of Forests and Superintendent of
Botanic Gardens in Bombay, which gave further opportunity of
pursuing his Botanical researches, both personally and by means of
Collectors. His ambition now was to turn these large collections
to account, and to come to England, where alone he could deter-
mine the correct nomenclature of the Genera and Species, and
where he hoped to publish the new plants, and to distribute his
specimens in the manner that would be most beneficial to the cause
of Botany.

* Hooker’s Journal of Botany, Vol. VI. p. 308.

JAN.—MAR. 1858. ] The late Dr. Stocks. 273

Dr. Stocks accordingly came to England on furlough, bringing
his collections with him, and made Kew his residence, and here
he had been busily engaged since the early spring, in comparing
them with authentic specimens in the Kew Herbarium, and pre-
paring them for publication. Unfortunately his constitution had
been undermined by his great labours in the unhealthy climate of
Scinde ; he was subject to intense neuralgie pains in the head and
neck, and a change of air and scene was deemed desirable. He
accordingly spent afew weeks with relations in the Isle of Man;
and on his way thence to Cottingham he caught a cold, which was
succeeded by fits of apoplexy which, in a very few days, terminated
fatally, on the afternoon of Wednesday, the 30th August.

Dr. Stocks had brought to England materials, in a very forward
taste, for a general work on the Natural History, manners, cus-
toms, arts, manufactures and commerce, agriculture, &c., &c., of
Scinde, which it is yet hoped may be found worthy of publication.
Great talent and great research had been bestowed onit, and the
information it contains is much of the same nature as that of the
late Dr. Francis Buchanan Hamilton’s History of the Mysore, but
possessing the further advantage of being written ina lively and
agreeable style, and rendered doubly valuable from the amount of
Scientific knowledge of the highest stamp brought to bear upon it.
Few men of his years were more extensively read in all subjects
connected with the improvement of India, than Dr. Stocks, In
that country his death will be much felt, and sure we are that to
his personal friends the loss is irreparable, for he possessed a most
kind and amiable disposition.

Like Mr. Winterbottom, Dr. Stocks was more gratified by being
useful to others than in coming forward as an author; and it was
only by the urgent entreaty of his friends that he could be induced
to appear in that capacity. Most, if not all, that has yet been
printed from his pen, we have been privileged to publish in our
Botanical Journals. In the “ London Journal of Botany,” Vol. vii.
p. 539, will be found some notes on the Botany (chiefly economic)
of Scinde, describing some of the numerous vegetable products he
had presented to the Museum at Kew. At page 550 of the same
volume, is a most lively and spirited letter, written during “a Bo-

«
t

274 Proceedings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

tanical excursion to Shah Bilawul, in Beloochistan.” In the pre-
sent Journal or “ Kew Garden Miscellany,” Vol. i. p. 257, is an
excellent Memoir on two Balsom-trees (Balsamodendron) of Scinde,
B. Mukul and B. pubescens, with two plates. In Vol. ii. p. 808,
will be found an excellent general sketch of the Botany of Beloo-
chistan, written after a second journey into that country. In Vol.
iii. are descriptions and figures of two new plants of Scinde. Vol.
iv. contains descriptions of thirty-seven Beloochistan plants, chief-
ly new species. His last communication will be seen at p. 314 of
the same volume ‘“‘ Notes on the Botany and the Government
Gardens of Bombay.”

PROCEEDINGS.

The Managing Committee of the Mapras Literary Society and
Ausiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, held their usual Monthly
Meeting at the Club House, on Thursday the 11th February at }
past 6 o’clock P. M.

The Honorable Walter Elliot, Esq., in the Chair.

Read a Letter from M. Haidinger, Director of the Imperial Geo-
logical Institute of Austria, with a Memo. of Publications present-
ed to the Society, viz :—

1. Transactions of the Imperial Geological Institute Vienna,
Vols. 5, TEE

2. Annual Report of the Imperial Geological Institute, Vols.
i, Vi.

3. Natural Historical Transactions published by Haidinger,
Vols. I, IV.

4. Notes on the Communications of the Naturalist of Vienna—
Vols. I, VII.

These valuable works relate to the Natural Sciences generally
but to Geology more especially, and are beautifully illustrated :

.
’

JAN.—MaR, 1858.] Proceedings. 275

many of the Lithographs being coloured, and some of them are
Chromo-Lithographs.

Read a letter from Mr. H. Smith, Superintendent of the Govern-
ment Press on the subject of Nature Printing, in which Mr. Smith
with reference to the remarks which took place in discussion at a
former Meeting, claims for his process a greater degree of origina-
lity than was then supposed to be his due. Mr. S. points out that
the essential difference between Mr. Cox’s prosess and his consists
in this, that the ink is applied directly to the object and that the
impression is produced by vertical pressure, whereas in the other
it is obtained by the action of Rollers. The correctness of this
distinction was fully admitted, and the more clear delineation of
Mr. Smith’s impression was illustrated by examples which met
with the Society’s approbation.

It was resolved that the following Institutions should be added

to the list of those with which the Society exchanges its publica-
tions. ‘

The Imperial Geological Institute—Vienna,

The Royal Academy Science—Berlin.

The Royal Society—Edinburgh.

The Linnean Society—London.

The Royal Irish Academy—Dublin.

The Committee beg to acknowledge receipt of the following
paper from the Chief Secretary, Report of the Vegetable Products
of the Pulney Hills with Catalogue of the Flora, by Lieut. R. H.
Beddome, Assist. Conservator of Forests. This interesting com-
munication will appear in next No. of the Journal.*

The Managing Committee of the Mapras LirERrary Society and
Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, held their usual Month-
ly Meeting at the Club on the evening of Thursday the 18th March
1858.

The Honorable Walter Elliot in the Chair.

The usual monthly statement of the Society’s Accounts was read
and passed.

* Vide page 163.

4

276 Proceedings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

Mr. Elliot exhibited to the Meeting, specimens of the curious
genus Sagitta, the precise position of which in the Animal King-
dom has not been determined, some, as Huxley, regarding it as
approaching the Annelide, others, as the late Professor G. Forbes,
considering it more closely allied to the Molluscs, while a third
party are inclined to view its nervous system as exhibiting an affi-
nity with Crustacea.

These were received from Captain Toynbee of the Gloriana,
with a number of minute Pelagian shells also shown to the Meet-
ing. Mr. Elliot regretted that the departure of the Gloriana pre-
vented Captain Toynbee from exhibiting the numerous beautiful
drawings, executed during his Voyage, of microscopic marine ob-
jects, indicating many new forms of Crustacea, Tunicata, Acale-
phe and Molluscs, which he would otherwise have done. He had
lfowever transmitted through Mr. Elliot for presentation to the So-
ciety, a MS. Translation from the German of some portions of
Vogt’s letters on Zoology, relating to these families, which he had
found of use in his own researches. It was resolved that these
papers should be printed in the Journal.

Mr. Elliot also read letters to his address from Messrs. Herman
and Robert Schlagentwait, the former giving an account of the
progress made in completing their calculations and arranging their
collections, the latter proposing some Rules for the Orthography
of Indian Names which they have proposed adopting in their forth-
coming Publications.

The printed list of the Materials forwarded with their letters,
contains 43 Volumes, the result of their own labors, and 38 Vo-
lumes of Observations communicated by others, ‘‘a most precious
portion of which they add, particularly distinguished for their ac-
curacy, is from your Presidency.”

The Title of their work as fixed by the Court will be “ Results
of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia,’ and will consist
of about 9 Volumes with 50 Plates, chiefly containing positive
scientific matter, one Volume only being devoted to general des-
criptive Memoirs in the form of Humboldt’s Views of Nature, and
all personal adventures being excluded.

JAN. —MaR. 1858. ] Proceedings. Q77

The following is a list of the 43 Volumes of their own obser-
vations &c,

Vol, 1. Itinerary.

Vols. 2,-8, 4. Route Books.

These Volumes treat of almost every portion of the British Pos-
sessions in the Hast of the Countries contiguous to them. The 4th
Volume contains routes communicated by the Foreign Office,
Calcutta. >

Vol. 5, Comparison and correction of the Instruments.

Vols. 6, 7,8. Topography and Trigonometrical Measurements.

Vols. 9,10, 11, 12. Astronomical determination of Places and
Magnetical Observations.

Vols. 13, 14, 15, 16. Hypsometrical Observations and indica-
tions of the Barometer.

Vol. 17, 18, 19. General Meteorology and degrees of tempera-
ture of the Air.

Vol. 20. Rain, Height of Clouds.

Vol. 21. Optical phenomena of the Atmosphere, Observations
upon Dew, Glaciers.

Vol. 22. Degrees of temperature of Rivers.

Vols. 23,24. Degrees of temperature of the earth at different -

depths.

Vol. 25. Observations on the Physical state of the Sea. Por-
tions of Sea water and River water for analysis.

Vol. 26. Observations upon Springs. Cold and hot Springs.

Vols. 27, 28, 29, 30. Geological Observations.

Vols. 31, 32. Geological Collections.

Vols. 33, 34, 35. Hydrography of rivers.

Vol. 36. Observations on the temperature and depth of subter-
raneous waters.

Vols. 37, 38. Measurings of the different races of men.

Vol. 39. Geographical Vocabulary of the names of places. Ety-
mological and Ethnographical Remarks.

Vol. 40. Zoological Remarks. Zoological Collection, Ethnogra-
phical Collections.

Vol. 41. Geography of Plants, periodical phenomena of plants,
Snow limits.

278 Proceedings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES,

Vol. 42. Diameter of trees. Names of trees and plants, also the
use of plant. Collection of Plants.

Vol. 43. Letters and reports to His Majesty King Frederick
William IV. and to the Honorable Court of Directors of the East
India Company, and to Alexander Von Humboldt.

These are merely the Headings of the different Volumes. The
detailed Catalogue is in the Library of the Society.

The Scientific observations have been made in all parts of the
British possessions in the East and Highlands of Asia, and with
every variety of instrument.

Among other matters of interest, Mr. Herman Schlagentwaite
stated that he had prepared a valuable Ethnographic Series of Casts
of Heads of the various Indian races amounting to about 25, which
had been executed in copper by the Galvano-plastic process with
great success, and a specimen of which he had forwarded by the
Overland Mail, but it has not yet been received.

He adds that no tidings have been received of their brother Adol-
phe since May last, which was a source of great anxiety to them.

Mr. Robert Schlagentwaite’s Orthographical Remarks related
chiefly to the use of the proper equivalents for the letter * * *
which English writers usually represent by j & ch, but which the
Germans prefer expressing by dz & ts. This subject was referred
for report to the Sub Committee of Papers.

Lieut. H. P. Hawkes forwarded the first of a series of Papers
which he proposes submitting to the Society, entitled ‘‘ Notes on
various subjects.”’

Those contained in the present communication are :

1. On the best material for lining entomological cases.

2. On an artificial method of preserving duplicate specimens of
Lepidopterous insects in a portable form.

These were referred to the Sub-Committee of Papers.

~~

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[No. 6, NEW SERIES, | JAN.—MAR. 1858. | ;

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? This mark signifies that no Means can be take2 4 owing to the variable state of the Wind.

281

280
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INDEX or MATTER 1n Vot. III.

Abelmoschus Oil, 41.
Adale Oil, 37.
Africa, Burton’s Expedition into Eastern Intertropical, 256.
Agricultural &c., Society, Premia offered by, 268.
Allepey, singular natural mud breakwater at, 218.
Animal Oils, 44.
Backwater of Travancore, 203. ~_
Bartramiacexz, Neilgherry Mosses, 86.
Bees, on a true Parthenogenesis in, 110.
Belgaum Walnut Oil, 39.
Ben Nut Oil, 39.
Bonduc Nut Oil, 42,
Bryony Oil, 41.
Bruchiacez Neilgherry Mosses, 85.
Bryacez do do, 85.
Budhism, Remains of, in Madras Presidency, 225.
Cairo, Account of Geological researches at, 202.
Castor Oil, 20.
Cashew Nut Oil, 39.
Cat amunak Oil, 34.
Cat urraloo Oil, 38.
Cheerongee Oil, 37.
Cherroo Pinnacotay Oil, 38.
Coal in Scinde, 142.
Cobra, effect of its venom on the Mungovws, 267.
Cocoa nut Oil, 20.
Cocoa nut Oil, the best exported from Cochin, 21.
Coimbatore, method of catching Wild Elephants at, 58.
Copal Gum, Raw, from Zanzibar, 259.

Do do True do, 260.
Coimbatore notice of Crystalline Limestones in, 60.
Coins, Numismatic Gleanings, 220.

Do Salaka or Punch, 226.

Do Sinha type, 234.

Do Elephant type, 240.

Do Bulltype, 240.

Do Horse type, 246.

Do. Miscellaneous types, 247.
Colocynth Oil, 41.
Company’s monogram, 267.
Coongapillay Oil, 37.

rc

284 INDEX.

Condamunnee Oil, 42.

Coorookoo Oil, 34. ~
Cotton, Seed Oil, 39.

Cotton Premia for, 269.

Cress Seed Oil, 37.

Crgton Qil, 41.

Cucumber Seed Oil, 37.

Cuddapah, Cyclone at, notice of, 70.

Cummin wild Oil, 42.

Cyperus or Mat Grass Oil, 42.

Cyalheacee Neilgherry Ferns, 79.

Dicranacee Neilgherry Mosses, 86.

Demia extensa as an Antidote for Snake Bites, 267.
Elephants wild, method of catching in Coimbatore, 58.
Entomology, on the best material for lining Cabinets, 249.

Do method of preserving Duplicates of Lepidoptera, 251.
Essays on various subjects, Premia for, 270.
Fennugreck Oil, 41.

Ferns of the Neilgherries, 79.
FiSsidentize Neilgherry Mosses, 85.
Funarioidee do, 85.
Flora of the Pulney Hills, 169.
Fish Oils, 44.
Fibres, Piemia for, 269.
Gamboge Butter, 39.
Gardener’s Vade Mecum, Premia for, 271.
Garlic Oil, 42.
Gayapa Oil, 42.
Geological History of the Alluvium of Egypt, 252,
Gingeley Oil, 22.
Do Bastard Oil, 24.
Gleichemacee, Neilgherry Fern, 79.
Gleanings, Numismatic, 220.
Ground Nut Oil, 27.
Gunny Cloth, Premium for Substitute for, 270.
Gutta Percha Oil, 41.
Gutta Percha, Premium for Substitute for, 270.
Hemp seed Oil, 40.
Hymenophyllacee, Neilgherry Fern, 83.
Hypnoidee Neilgherry Moss, 87. .
Hypopterygiacee do. 87.
Horse taming. Mr. Rarey’s System of, 266.
Illoopoo Oil, 33.
Indigo, process of manufacturing as described by Marco Paolo, 212.
Kurung Oil, 33.
Lamp Oil, 24.

286 INDEX,

Plant Scenery of the World by Balfour and Greville, 153.
Polypodiacex, Neilgherry Ferns, 79.

Poovana Oil, 36.

Poppy Oil, 3],

Portia Seed Oil, 40,

Pottioidex, Neilgherry Mosses, 87. ae
Pulney Hills, Flora of, 169.

Vegetable Products of, 163.

Pumpkin Seed Oil, 37.

Premia for Raw Produce &c., 269. , ,

Quilon, Notice of, 212.

——— Battle of, 213.

Queries, 206.

Quinine, Premium for Plants yielding, 270.

Railway Madras, on the line selected for, 71.

Ramtill Oil, 30.

Rosebay Oil, 40.

Sagitta, specimens of the curious Genus of, 276.

Safflower Oil, 36. e
Sand box tree Oil, 42.

Sandal seed Oil, 38. ’

Saul seed Oil, 42,

Scientific Mission, Messrs. Schlagentweit’s, 137.

Silicate of Soda and Lime protect timber from fire, 118.
Silk Cotton seed Oil, 40.

Soap made with Cocoa nut Oil lighter than water, 21.

Soap Nut Oil, 39.

Spring mineral near Paroor in Travancore should be better known, 211.
Star Anise Oil, 42, >

Sterculia Oil, 38.

Sun flower Oil, 40.

Sweet Fennell Oil, 40.

Snake bites, on Demia extensa as an antidote for, 267.
Teak trees, on a concretion found in, 268.

Thevetia neriifolia, case of poisoning with the Seeds of, 140.
Thevetia Oil, 42.

Thorn Apple Oil, 42.

Thorny Trichilia Oil, 42.

Thortay Oil, 41.

Timber, protection from fire, 117.

Patents for the above, 120.

—_—— Reports on Experiments, 125.

Directions for covering with Silicate of Soda and Lime, 135.
Tobacco on the curing of, 268.

Travancore, backwater of, 205.

INDEX. 285

Linseed Oil, 28.
Leptotrichacee, Neilgherry Mosses, 86.
Leucobryacex, Neilgherry Mosses, 87.
Lime and Silicate of Soda, protection of Timber from fire by, 118.
Limestone Crystalline in Coimbatore, 60.
Linnean Society’s Journal, Notice of, 153.
Lycopodiacee, Neilgherry Ferns, 84.
Madder, Premium for the production of, 270.
<= « Madras Railway, on the line selected for, 71.
Malkungunee Oil, 40. «
Margosa Oil, 32.
Melon Seed Oil, 37.
————_ © Mimusops Oil, 42.
Mineral Spring at Paroor, 211.
Mniadelphacex, Neilgherry Mosses, 88.
Mnioidex, Neilgherry Mosses, 87.
Moodooga Oil, 42.
Moorgana Tallow, 38.
Mosses of the Neilgherries, 85.
Moths, on a true Parthenogenesis in, 110.
Mustard Oil, 30. e
Mineral Oils, 44.
Mungoos, effect of the Cobra’s venom on, 267.
Mylay, meaning of as applied to Coins, 267.
Naga Sumpaghee Oil, 38. -
Ps Nairs, remarks on, 204,
Neatsfoot Oil, 44.
Neeradimootoo Oil, 36.
Neilgherries, Ferns of, 79. <
——_—-—— Mosses of, 84.
ra Nellore, Cyclone at, Notice of, 65.
Numismatic Gleanings, 220.
“‘ Novara”’ Frigate Austrian Expedition, 264.
Nutmeg wild, Oil, 42.
Notes and Queries, 206.
Nature printing, letter from Mr. Smith on, 279.
Oils of Southern India, Report on, 1.
Index to Names &c. of, 49.
Ophioglossez } Neilgherry Ferns, 79.
Ommundaceez
Pearl Oyster of Ceylon Natural History of, 89.
Paper, Premium for Materiais for making, 270.
Paroor in Travancore, Mineral Spring at, 211.
Parthenogenesis, in Bees and Moths, 110.
Petroleum, 44.
Piney Tallow, 35.
Pinnacotay Oil, 33.

INDEX.

Travancore, full of Botanical Treasures, 206.

mineral Spring at Paroor in, 211.
———-Forests, List of Orchids in, 215.
Viscid Cleome Oil, 40.

Wax Oil, 444.

Wild Olive Oil, 38.

Wood Oils, 43.

Zanzibar, Captain Burton’s visit to, 267.

287

INDEX OF NAMES rn Vot, III.

ADGl, F. A. Esq., on a mode of protecting Timber from Fire, 117.

Balfour, Dr. J. reports a case of poisoning by Seeds of Thevetia Neriifolia, 140.

Balour, T. H. M D., A. M. &c. Plant Scenery of the World by, 153.

« Beddome, Lieut. R. H. Extract from his Report, on the Vegetable Products of

the Pulney Hills¢ 163.

Blanford, H. F. Esq., Notice of Occurrence of Crystalline Lime Stone in Coimba-
tore by, 60.

Brown, Revd. J. C. on Indian Infanticide, 159.

Burton, Captain, Letter from to the Bombay Geographical Society, on an Expe-*
dition into Eastern Intertropical Africa, 256.

Coplestone, F. Esq., Remarks on the Cultivation of Gingely by, 24.

Cox, Mr. exhibited, some years ago, at the Polytechnic Institution a Folio gra-
phic Press for printing from Leaves and Plants, 156.

Daljas, W. F. L. S. &c., Translation of a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees,
by Von Siebold, 110.

Decandolle’s Prodromu#Systematis Naturalis, 152.

Drew, C. Esq., Assist. Surgeon, the late, Obituary Notice of, 146.

Drury, Captain Heber. Notes of an excursion along the Travancore Back-
water, 203.

East India Company, on the Scientific Mission sent to India by, 137. :

Elliot, Wa'ter, Madras Civil Service, Numismatic Gleanings by, 220,

« Greville, R. Kaye, L. L. D., Plant Scenery of the World by, 153.

Hamilton, Captain D. Description of the method of catching wild Elephants, in
Coimbatore, 58. :
Hawkes, Lieut. H. P., Report on the Oils of Southern India, 1.
Do. Notes on various subjects, 249.
Do. Notes and Queries by, 256.
Hemery, Lieut. E. Notice of a Cyclone at Cuddapah, 70.
Hooker’s, Sir William, Journal of Botany has ceased to appear, 153. }
Homer, L. Esq., V. P. R. §. Account of some Geological Researches near Cairo
252.
Jackson, Lieut., Patent Process for preserving Timber from Fire, 120.
Inman, Mr. has completed 100 feet in the great experimental Shaft in search of
Coal in Scinde, 142.
Johnston, Revd. E. Lists of Orchids in the Forests of Travancore, 215.
Kelleart, E F. M. D., Report on the Natural History of the Pearl Oyster of Cey:
lon, 89.
Do. Report on the Tamblegam Oyster Fishery, 10d.
Livingstone, Dr. D., Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, 149.
Maclagan, Dr. D., Communication to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh on poi-
soning with the seeds of Thevetia Neriifolia, 140.

«

INDEX. 289

Maclean, W. C. Esq., M. D., A Treatise on Small Pox by, 158.
Maugham, Mr., Patent for preserving timber from fire, 120.
Mullins, Lieut. J., Description of a Cyclone at Nellore, 65.
Pears, Colonel T. T. on the Line selected for the Madras Railway, 71.
Prussia, King of, on the Mission sent to India by, 137. : P
Purdie, W. Esq., Government Botanist at Trinidad, Obituary Notice of, 142.
Salomon’s, W. C, Mode of protecting timber from fire, 123.
Schlagentweit, Messrs. on their Scientific Mission to India, 137, 276.
Schmid, Dr. B. the late. A List of Neilgherry Ferns, 79.
Do. Neilgherry Mosses, 84. ‘
Do. Obituary Notice of, 143
Siebold, Von, on a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees, 110.
Stocks, J. Ellerton, Esq., M. D. Obituary Notice of, 271.
Smith, Mr. H. on Nature Printing, 275.
Thwaites, M. Examination of the Plants of Ceylon, 149.
Toynbee, Captain, specimens of the Genus Sagitta received from, 276.
Von Siebold, on a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees, 110.
Walker, W. Esq., the late Obituary Notice of, 147.

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