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THE

MADRAS JOURNAL

OF

LITERATURE AND SCIENCE.

EDITED BY THE COMMITTEE

OF THE

ysuaAvras WMiteraryp Soctetwp

AUXILIARY ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

VLE MUT

MADR, As:
PRINTED BY PHAROAH AND CO.

ATHEN ZUM PRESS—MOUNT ROAD.

CONTENTS.

Page
T1.—A Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Todas of the Nilagivi
Mountains. Bythe Rev. F. Metz, of the German Evangelical
Mission (Continued from p. 146, Vol. I.) mehr ie more

11.—A Memoir on the Ancient Reservoirs at Aden. By Lieut. R. L.
Playfair, of the Madras Artillery, Assistant Political Resident,
Aden, = - =! = = = = - - - - 25

I1I.—The Tamil Epic Chintamani. By the Rey. P. Percival, - - 48
1V.—Entomological Papers, being descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera
with such observations on their habits, etc., as appear in any

way interesting. By John Nietner, Colombo Ceylon, [No.1V.] 50
V.— Observations on Provincial Exhibitions and the improvement of the
Resources of the several Districts of the Madras Presidency.

By J. Forbes Royle, M. D., - - - - = 4 - 64
Vi.—Journal of an Expedition over the Annamullay Mountains for the
purpose of examining the Teak Forests, and ascertaining by
what line the Timber could best be carried to the Coast. By

Captain Frederick Cotton, C. E., - - - - - - 80

SELECTIONS.

1,—New Cinghalese Plants. 2.—Observations on Free Labour Cotton of Hon-
duras and Yucatan, in the West Indies, and of Western Africa, and
Natal; also, Relative to Hast Indian, and Slave Grown Cotton of the Uni-
ted States > > = 7 = = m > 5 - - - 102

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1.—Fall of Meteoric Stones. 2.—Report upon Captain Taylor’s proposed
Jetty over the Surf at Madras. 3.—Report of the Committee appointed
to examine Messrs. Saunders’ and Mitchell’s project for erecting an Iron
Pile Pier at Madras. 4.—Col. Cotton’s project of a Breakwater for Ma-

dras. - - . - = = - = = = = = - 130
NOTICES OF BOOKS.
1.—Oriental. 2.—Natural History. 3.—Miscellaneous Notices. : - 158
PROCHKEDINGS.
1—Proceedings of the Managing Committee of the Madras Literary Society,
April 9th, 1857 - - - 166
2— Do. do. do, do. May 14th, 1857 - » - 169
3 Do. do. do, do. June llth, 1857 ° > - 171
METEOROLOGY.

Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observatory
for March, April and May 1857. — - - SUN VALI eh I i te - 173

CONTENTS.

Page.
Vil.—On the Relationship existing between the Animal and Plant. By
George Bidie, M. B., Assistant Surgeon, Madras - a - =. ¥

Vill.—Suggestions for a2 uniform System of Weights and Measures
throughout India. By W. H. Bayley, Esq., of the Madras Civil
Service - : - . - s 2 - 138
TX.—The Study of Living Languages. By Colonel Arthur Cotton, Ma-
dras Engineers - - - - - - - 264
X.—A mode of taking Stereoscopic Portraits with a common Camera. By
Lieutenant L. Paxton - - - - - - 253

XI.—Report on a reputed Coal Formation at Kota on the Upper Goda-
very River. By Philip W. Wall, Mineral Viewerat Madras - 256

XII.—On the Oxymel process in Photography. By J. Tawse, Madras - 270

SELECTIONS.
1.—New Cinghalese Plants. 2.—Aska Sugar Factory. 3.—Wood Oil - 283

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1.—Appearance of Coal at Nellore. 2.—Specimens of Cotton and informa-
tion desired with a view to the Chemical investigation of the Cotton
Plant. 3.—Graphite in Travancore. 4.—Government Horticultural
Garden, Ootacamund. 5.—Preservation of Timber. 6.—Height of
the Himalayas. 7.—Effects of the Sting of Scorpions. 8.—The Mul-
berry tree with reference to the culture of Silk. 9.—The Volvox Globator. 305

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

1.—Oriental. 2.—Natural History. 3.—Miscellaneous - - - 308
PROCEEDINGS.

The Managing Committee of the Madras Literary Society, and Auxiliary of
the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday evening the 19th of Augast, and 10th
of September, 1857 - = - - - - . - 315

METEOROLOGY.

Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observatory
for June, July, August and September - > > - 318

LIST OF PLATES.

I.—Map of Mr. Wall’s route up the Godavery.
II.—Section of the ground beneath the surface at Kota, &c. &c. &c.
III.—Fish remains from the Upper Godavery.

IV.—Tetracrypta cinnamomoides. Gard and Champ.—from Kew Misc.
Vol. V. Pl. V.

V.—Kokoona zeylanica Thw.—ZJbid., Pl. VI.

APRIL—JUNE 1857. | » 1

I. 4 Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Towas of the
Nizaciri mountains. By the Rev. F. Merz of the German
tivangelical Mission.

[ Continued from Vol. I. p. 146. ]

L
I (personal pronoun) OSS dn.
Ibex 237506 . barar.
Ice © 6). arr.
Idle R08 SAS, bute
Ichneumon 336 QR, kirpeshk.
If : Rate or Ses. yor or nor.
Ilness 3 TD. nif.
Impede ~OK BAF wd, baligadershbini.
Impotent, (verb imperson.) 208 woah OB, budivarshvichi.
Improper © 8 ase 29, sariakhadi.
Improve = BIW WY 4 ©. ultayisbint.
Impure 222 | jipt).
Incense Tra , dup.
Increase DBD BAXF AD, be Leduvershbini.
Indecent IID MIT. ndnillade.
Inflamation BoD . kav.
Infant female NDS . minik.
Infant male Qe s - popan.
Informer 298 Go os . jadikaran, DIO TIS S . more-
karan.
Insufficient 208 SSO, yeltiyadi.
Ink © 8. hari.

Insensible Soe 0 Spaz, onan ariwiehi.

Z

Insane
Interest
Inward
Ire

Tron

Itch

Tris of the eye

Jackal

Jack fruit

Toda Vocabulary. [NO. 3, NEW SERIES,

eS) 5 eae 2. puchch hididvichi.

“8, baddi.
Gd ell te
Co oF. uzhvazh.

e&
223. bijd.
Says, kabbun.
Kz. GO}jt.
sce Ded. kann mokh.

Ji
me nari.
= S Beye. parshavupome

Jest Sek ©. narbini, REAF wa. gutsershbint.

soa 85 DD. kutsbini.

Join
Journey O Spo. payana. 2
Joy 2p 9%. volsti, F BGR, chachchosh.
Jug BSA, adigi.
Jui Gs kar
Juice O,. karr.
Jump JD DARE WD. elthivershbini.
Justice a5, nayam.
Keep FOES YWO. hatsbinti.
Key ED, terp.
Kick a) 6 PD. bafthbini
c re 3 ©. bafthbini.
Kill BERS SRW. beshtvershdini.
Kind (noun) Sow 8, madari.
Kindness WS owe, dayam.

APRIL—JUNE 1857.) Yoda Vocabulary.

Kindred

King, Gentleman

Kiss.
Knee

BOT, paial.

BS &. aras.

255 BAF 9d, bervershbini.
DA wo, Mgmt.

Kneel DA 0 a aU) ~) Ty). migmu ursbini.

Knock
Know

Knife

Ladder
Lake
Language
Large
Late

Law suit
Lead (noun)
Leap
Leaf
Leather
Leave
Leech
Left

Leg
Lemon

Leopard

So 83 F ana, kutthivershbini.
Tey OD. arthbini.
L798, juri.
Ti.

005d 8 yenil.
95 | her.
weR. bash,
JO = . etud.
Ss BSS <0, tadeyayt.
POST, pirtyddi,
EoF ap, tisalu,
3 8 as R aNd, elthivershbini.
Jet exh,

ST os. thvach.
ano ES DES VD. butl’h vitt’hsbini.
SHS - epuf.
A edda.
TsO. hal.
coed Doe - yrzhmichch.
Bor 5. kirmen:

4 Toda Vocabulary. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

Leprosy
Liar

a are
Toes Toe) . kutthnuf.

Doe a. perkitt.

Lie down S28 D2. vorak heni, w/e © 5 3 Me, vorak hsbint.

Life

Lift up

Lime, chalk
Limit, boundary

Lips

8yD . tiv.

os yw. wikhsdini.
S505). nur.

Tela SS) tevaru.

S_S a5 Doo, kwizhvayt, So§® BV, melvay?,

under and upper lip.

Listen
Little
Lizard
Load
Lock, key

Long

Look

Loosen 2% QF 2D,

yrtt hsbint.

Loud

Louse

Love

Lust

Lake

Labour, work, (verb)

wye59.

WS} TOS ADD. wdrdisbini.
dS. yeddi.

VOSt, e 2® BS kejalsun.

. nerrigitti.

D035 JD. notsbini.

bisershbini, A065” ces JAD. butt’

UeKme. vulkigadara.
255. pén,

BPS BR WD, pervershbini.
BIISD . dvel. ,

55. her.

As oF MP. girthbini.

Ou

APRIL—JUNE 1857.) Yoda Vocabulary.

M.
Mad Be 5. perad, DES. puchchan.
Make aH. maidthbini.
Malediction war @. parthiti.
Malice (I have) © Ofo BSG F 2. kannakarthbine.
Man DOO. al.
Mango a) B95 Byoso. mafmenpom.
Many QV 890, upam.

Marry BoE BX FD. methvershbini, QO K bo ws
ERE WD. yenag kukh katershbini.

Marriage a0 J . meth.

Marsh, swamp Se) 96 . kennér.

Mat : 00% 8. mandari.

Matter Ase i ale

Meat ae & | buvad.

Measles 8 ORs, chikkamma.

Medicine a. ay . madd.

Meet o) OO ee RED. erachkaddershbini.
lit. I see half way.

Melt onan je. kargsbint.

Milk (noun) Boek. pazh.

Milk (verb) © SE Ryd. harrsbini.

Miscarry DAs ws BAR eae mokhbudadweshchi.

lit. the child has fallen down.
Might BS Bo. daddam.

Toda Vocabulary. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

6

Mist of 2 . Maj).

Mind soo SS. manasu.
Mind to OVS JP. unsbini.
Miser T 8. kari.

Mock Sv90H AND, komsbini.
Mocking Ova0azos konjan.
Money Dro 0. panam.
Moment oN 0S KF, yinnargalli.
Monkey Baye Ss. kodan.
Moon ax &. tiggal.
Month 85 WS. teldu,
Morning 2 TaN. belitdsh.
Morrow to TOD, makat.
Mother Os. avr.

Motherless, orphan “32 4 Sava . tobbarimokh.

Mourn GIVES JO. atsbini. (lit. I play.)
Mouse C8 ed. yizh.

Mouth DON, boyt.
Muscle DS WF. narbu.

Mount 8 Brae BS . hattiboken, Bas Asses . mok-
boken.
Mountain WS 5 - banna, 38 8, dalta, 3 NF. marsh,

Must Bee bek. must not OT. kulla.
Mute 9S bokk. Be quiet, me85 bokkir.

APRIL—JUNE 1857.) Toda Vocabulary.

Nail
Naked

Name

Narrative
Nation, tribe
Naught (it is)
Navel

Near

Neat
Neck
Needle

Neighbour
Nest

Never
New
News
Nickname
Night
Nine
Nineteen
Ninety:
Noise

Noon

IN:
OM. yrsh.
2055 TOR, bathugupt.
901. per.
nee kath.
+
So. kul.
Bee sO a, yenamadadi.
ant. bukku.
To}
> awd, hekhuri.
so FB, narshti.
a8, nadi.
ANOS AY ebb.
2S a8, BI99 . nerabalti al,
Fira Bn Bid
se $i: etwanu.
Oe. puthu.
HO. suddi.
ws 5 VS, kasper.
kaggar. dark cored) B yahut.
030) 5. unboth.
WPS Aa) Ss ponboth.

220, S, enboth,
++

Oo . dant.
wr » ushki.

/

5

North
Nose
Nostrils
No, not

Nothing, for

Nourish

Now

Toda Vocabulary. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

1K. badagu.
Dow F . mituf.
DH 6 ®).. mituftilti.

AIS A. adadi.(® with a shake of the head.)

“2 Woo. peradt.
BINA F apo, tadershbini.
oO. ent.

O.

Oath I make 20 F pe barthbini, © By Se & MP. satya-

madsbine.

Ocean
Oil
Old

Omen
One
Onion
Open
Once
Orient
Order, to
Other
Outside
Over
Owl
Ox

200 ey sounduru.
en) OF. ennat.
On) ley . parr.
SD Fo. saguni.
Bsr . vodd.
QO
CU? . wld. 3
(@r-) e 5
55 Jeo. tarrsbint.
—
Cie ye. unnar.

Se. mudi.

=) OT Pues } MP. apanemadsbini.

coo se & . yinnodd.
Ges, Dae. porrmoch.
Dos. mok.

F089 S. gunman.
VR. esht.

APRIL—JUNE 1857.; Toda Vocabulary. 2

Pain

Palace
Palate
Paper
Parasite
Part
Passion
Path

Pawn

Pawn, verb

Peaceful
Peacock

Pearl:

Pen, feather
Penis
Pepper
Perspiration
Perish

Piece

Pig

Pilfer
Pinch ?

iP.
Bos 8. padthti.

id
Sos oF, kuvat.
oO, PaO, kirrndlangi.
GOK & . hegach.
9983. dibiti.
Boo, palu.
Soseras . kinnaldar.
“SS. bekh.
SFT RS. bekktashken.
oud. ult.

D5 SXF. mirsh, (with the teeth shut) vide
hare Doge,

550 D. muttu.

ee) . tif,

a2. bud.

DSF, perki.

C8. uri.

SOI DA FD, kedavershbini,
Dome, tundu.

Ta. paddi.

FBABR EMD, hadadivershbint.
2D FR VP. nerbsbini.

Pipe an Jed fy. Awezhsh, = Sed 8. kwézht.

10 Toda Vocabulary. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

Piss B26 so AS. pisketvashken.

Pit S08. kudi. |

Place BID. tdvu.

Plantain | Ba B/o3o, pavom.

Play BI983, ata.

Play, verb OIE WO. disbini, anyF OD. narsbine.
Plenty QI Wd O, upam.

Pledge Bsa £3. ponnu, (verb) soo po 733 B Gox00% y Os

ponnugaranayisbini.

Plough 2030. nékhel.

Plough, verb Va CRO ess 6 De. uzhthbini.

Pocket ; Sos RQ, kuvash, S(O). hirrde
Point out 38 JO. hatsbini.

Poison Som, nanju, Bo, bissam,
Pond | S65 . ker.

Poor 2 asa , keleat, Sm nae S . Bédugaran,
wee Ss, baduvan. :

Potter ome = . kummaran.
Porcupine 55 eu mullandi.

Pour. S) “a re \O- alt hsbina

Portion Boon, palu,

Post to | oo ~ A oO. nillisbini.

Prepare PF - AVES oy >. voltgesitV?hsbins
Pride Be 5 . kuvaf.

Pray | BO e) Oy -. parthsbini.

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Toda Vocabulary. I]

Quench, spoil
- Quite

Rage (verb)
Rain .
Rain (verb)
Rainbow
Raise .

Raspberry

Property OIIG,. dsti.

Prostrate OZWS 9, addabudthbini, Fo ®)5d, 5 2a),
hdlmelbudthbini \
Proud TOS PS. huvafasti. (it is pride).
Prove DMRAE MP. rujagershbini.

Pull 228 99D, batsbine.

Pulse S) 03, haindti.

Purchase BOARS od Joe. belegwotyetsbini.

Purge 23 DDS. birutt hevichi.

Purse ae) ES 0. la iinone.

Push F Va ny ©. tallisbhini.

Putrid (it is) Ova EDS. hoduduvichi.
_ Pygmy RWG | kurud.

Q.
Quake Oy eee: afdthbini.
Quick “3608 . Berend.

OS® yo. hetthsbini.
EL, yelld.
iB,
DUBRE~WD. bijavershbini,
s ma.
ena 8, aduti.
me 6 80 5 x Ie
Gas d 2? tukhsbini, y8 2 PM NO. ettsbini.
=< 4 2 DPsopo. muzhpom.

. kuvar vorrvarsh.

12

rw

Recite
Recollection
Run

Rat

Razor
Reconcile
Red

Refuse
Regulate
Release
Require ,
Rénd, tear
Rhododendron
Rheumatism
Rib

Riches
Right

Right hand
Ring

Rise

River

Road

Roar

Rock
Roof

Toda Vocabulary. |No. 3, NEW SERIES,

oBBXF 9D, bindivershbini.

>). neppu.

BHF OD, votsbine.
CW. yizhzh.

oy fa® 8 . tarshudlt.
BP BRAT MP. voddegershbini.
S BD). keppu.

SO € oS SRS 9, kuladi eshtsbind.

omnS JOP. sarimadsbini.
am0eS BAX FP, butt hvershbini.
ans S XS 39. békeshtsbini.
SVBSRE WD. hirivershbini.
02) 2) F 3095 , birshmén.
B53, - san.

08 NSH uae murrelf.
JOE ooe &,, etud dst.
® 8. sari.

Wer TD. bazhkas.

ery ®. ebbal.

NS BAF, edadershbini.
wo, Dae

Oera5- . aldar.

GOS WD. kenddhbini.

>) & . arre.

Ny « - eakie:
Sy barri, = 6s VArris

APRIL—JUNE 1857.; Toda Vocabulary.

Root a3 5 . ber.

Rope SS Ko, haggam, Fos8, kannt.
Rose OR Woe. kadegpuf.
Rotten SF G9d8. hetaldvichi.

Rub 835 002. hitsbini.

Rubbish Ray. gebbu

Ruminate, dd. pers.

Run away
Rust
Rusty (it is) |

Dy RSE, mélgerchi.

By YO. védsbini.

OGRA F borg.

BD AF OS, borgevicht.
S

8x50, tiram.

Sack

Salep plant ase § 5 . tirkaltur.
Saliva — B20, yejjalu.

Salt GUD). uppu.

Salute BoA ses. kubbutt hikhen, Saookie aD,
8 i

salamgershbint.

Sand g Dar®. érmol.
Saturday So. sant,
Satisfied (not hungry) ng x 5 3H 2, birvakhsvichi.

Sauce, curry Fe So, haram.

Scatter eSB ad FO. birivershbini.
Scratch A QF OD. kuliurershbinz, 8 Jer. ets
| bint.
' Scent sro S 8. midthti.

2 |
“S55 = 3 oF ei mikvershcha,
coy Cy moe . kirrshtr.

Scent, imperson.

Scorpion

Seize

Toda Vocabulary. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

: SSB, maddellu.

ay HS WHO, MUAUTUM«
BISES WD. ndtsbini.
oor

e296 5) aE 5”. marivittPhiken.
Q- 5} DWP. batshini.

Send BajySBQs j MO. bokheddeshtsbini. (go I say)

Sentry

cor) wnr3 oi 5 kavalgaran.

Set (the sun sets) (2° e5 ) ye (bizh) bididu-

vet hchi.
Seven
Seventeen
Seventy

- Sew
Shade, shadow
Shake
Shame
Shameless
Shave
She

Shell
Ship
Short
Sheulder

SR oF . yxhezh.

rar) 5iy parr.

Sek S. éehzhoth.

S Biaatee huthitsbint.
BoQe, nérsh.
OYE JP. aliksbini.
Dee O. nanam.
IP HIG. ndnilldde.
WS JD. bansbini.
=) g Ae

oA, tengi.
Sw. kabel.

so AF 8. rurgiti.

25 BvasS. nebkéd.

Show T2S SP. kadsbini, neuter Dash & 2, tuvarshchi,

Shrub

“Bvewmy. dobbi.

APRIL—JUNE 1897.} Toda Vocabulary. 15

Shut oer DEED) D. muchvitt hsdini.
Sick w9S FD, bdrdthbini.

Sickle eG . kédarti.

Side © RE. Lirshk.

Sigh oF BAwy 2D. narigishini.

Sight Pees. not.

Sign SF. gurte

Silent, I am BOER F ODD, botershbini.
Silver 929 8. dil ti,

Sin BT, papame

Single BPs 8999. voddidi.

Sister says 38 aw S . ennorvetkukh.
Sit ARE SS, ershken, JF Foo. etarsbini.
Six HII, aru.

Sixteen st pezh.

Sixty “Bnd. aroth.

Skin athe &~. tuvarsh.

Sky “05. ban.

Slay DBA Gad FY OD, bishkershbini.
Sleep Gears © . vorkhen, Bias FR Dye. vorkhsbinz.
Slide, slip 0) OBR MD. ek’ hk’ hivershbini.
Slippery (it is) J293. PAW hichi

Slope. B23 0: vore.

Slow "230 ®, melli.

Small . 300 & , sinud,

16 Toda Vocabulary. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

Smarts, it DN, vascht.

Smell (good) DB D8. damoti.

Smell, bad LAB, jidivoti.

Smile a FOOD, kérdthbini.

Smoke Bye . pokh.

Snalee Baw . pad.

Sneeze BBA Fad, tipershbini.

Snore Saye ©. karsbini. |
So conI A), yingat, Bo7). angar,
Son | D2 , mokh.

Sorcerer - m2O8S FS. bilikaran.

Sorcery (he practices) IL INY & 2, vérshchi. the Curumba

\
enchants. 0 2 FB ysas RF 2+, Kurf vorshchi.

Soul VD) W, ussuru, ZPD . jin.

Soil WHO, bum. s

Sour (it is) ~ 976) @. bultsade.

Sorry, [am Bo JRE 22. dukham ershbini.

South Sm, tehku.

Sow, I yy a8, }2D, buitsbini.

Speak @Ber & 29, arvodthbini, 2 BF XD, arvor-
shbini.

Spear cats, yitt he 3

Spend SORA WD, isershbini.

Speech We. bash, BS VOR, parsng.

APRIL-JUNE 1857.} Toda Vocabulary. 17

Spine
Spittle
Spit.
Spider
Spoil
Spot
Staff
Stand
Star
Spread
Sprinkle
Squeeze
Squeak

Starve

Steal
Steel
Steep
Stench
Stink

Step (noun)

Sting

Stool (to go to)

Stone

Stop

Storm

arm, bénub.
QBS. divon, ABLE, divoti.
DBslsX FD. divorshbini.

B® BS. twdljen.

“SF BBX Fa, kedichershbini.
BOD. tév, BS. taf,
Svayer, hkélu.

39 Syd. nellsbini.
SoOVS. min.

jf JOP. birsbini.

AS iano. gitsbini.

ok a M2, nerbasbint.
a 8 °O. baltsbenz.
35 DE ea. bir erdihii

7 \
x 2 = 3 BQ F DD, hkadeduvershbini.

GUARS . ushh.

md 8, dalt.

BO. jidi,

ss Baws | nN Na» jecibutt hsbint.

cs =. hejje.

Go 5 Ss al 22. kudthvershbini.
+

So Qe 05% S. twarshbdken.

SH, hall.

a5 & we. parvadthbint.
+

aes hat.

18 Toda Vocabulary. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

Straw SOG F. murth, Boy, pullu.
Stream se, pa.

Strike Wonkyo. puyisbint.

String “SOOO. ndérus

Strong (man) Bas Boos, tatmoral.

Suck (calf ) a5 2 8, ek’hsti, (child) va Q erates 8.

morsh utyti.

Sugar TF Bass, kabote.
Sun Wes. bizh.
Sunday DIOS JRe$o. ddsvom.
Sure eSHOD, néjani.
Swallow DOA DS MYO. nuggivitt’hsbint.
Swamp So BS. henner.
Sweat evs. uri.
Sweep B oGRE 2D, dandershbini.
Sweet &28, dijati.
Swell 32@ 3, badthchi. (it swells.)
+
Tail WIE” O. barshm. ;
Take SA jr. tegsbini,
Tall DOwPe. nirrigitz; IL am tall, 92 S,ASQE D2.
nirrigivershbini.
Talk oR 9309. eshisdini.
Tamarind OY... bulti.
Tax Byes. bérvan. |
Thatch DOByqy& o, pullubersdini,

Tempest as, hit.

APRIL—JUNE 1857.) Toda Vocabulary. 19

Ten
Thirst
There
Thief
Thirteen
Thirty
Tie
Thorn

Thistle
Thread

Three
Thumb
Thunder
Bianders: it
Time

Tiger

Tinder
Tobacco
Token

Toll, custom
Tongue
Tooth
Touch
Tower
Town

Transgression

ES. pathu.

285 waen,. nirkhasti.
oo”. allt.

CES. katlan.
2p5 Kas - ponmud.
BS Ans. muboth.
we EQ yD. katt hsbini.
5 8. mult.

“22 © nekh.

Does. ntizh.

B35 . bevel.

e 8). errt. ,
3.88) oa &- 8, errierdthti.

FOO. kal.
09a F birsh.

®. tudhi.
mse . bokh, WD . bakh.
Son Fr, kurp.
<6) Fo. sukkam.
Ty). naf.
SE, RQ. parrsh,
iGo OF nm NO. muti hsbini.
Romy Oo. gopuru.
Gos . ir.
x oy » (warr

20

Trap

Treasure
Tree

Tremble ©
True

Trust

Truth
Tumble
Turban
Tusk
Turn
Twelve

Twenty
Twig
Twilight
Twin

Twinkle

Udder
Ulcer
Ugly
Umbrella

Uncertain

Toda Vocabulary. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

ee
WES, bathak.
wos, mén.
B59 WO. vdfsbini.
Th peED. nédhani. |
TS Ryd. nabbsbini.
ST Fo, satyam. :
208% MH BE 2°. bududuvershbdini.
soOS ws, mandepari.
AAW) kobbu.
8 &- NV 2. tirksbini.
Qpeorse, ponned.
ANSE o . evoth.
BoyS Svea). ménkobbu.
<M arom. nadujama..
Jones aes - emmormokh.
F ops We sm, ©. hannukiéisbene.
U.
Sa F, morsh, de5". mozh.
| ® Opes, punnu.
89S OD. dd hadi.
wS?. hwar.
298, nellille.

Uncle » 3335 BR Su ennenperud, Notes oH a

ennénkerud.

Under

Jer: erk.

APRIL—JUNE 1857.} Toda Vocabulary. Pat

Up
Urine

Understand

Unjust

Urge

Vagaband
Value, price
Vegetable
Venereal
Vertex

Vial

View
Violence
Voice
Vomit

Village

Wait
Walk
Wall
Want , famine.

Want, I

DR ai mok

ws av6 . uchchenir.
8S Fp. ardthbini.

pel

FISHorwe TOG, ndyam yiliade.
fs)

AMOK ST Sus, Me. balamgadershbini.

V.
ES O35. paradés.
B®, belle.
oO. SOppUle
BION, sili.
=O Obs. maddneren.
ESS 3. putt hi.
eas SS, ndt.
IDO, balam.
BS Sedan.
Doh BAF wo, tadvershbint.
Be 8. hatt'hi.

W.
BOERNE MD, hatershdini.
o BE 309, nadedsbint.
AWA. gddi.
me uc) panjam.

Soe A BSS ie. yenag bekade.

22

War

Warm, I

Wart

Toda Vocabulary. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

BK a jagala.
EwTo 2B Rap, bendwérshbini.

250, jatt hu.

Wash 5s 5 3aDDd, tuvatsbini, BX WD, arshbini.

Waste
Water
Wax
Way
Weak
Wear
Wealth
Wed
Week
Weigh
Well

Well, good

West
When

What
Wet
Wheat

Whistle, I

Where

BIS VTIDS Jay, hetthsihaksbini.

20S, - Wer.

OS . meshk.

arvorad | aldar,

0) RF, alpershbini.

OTIS YD, bitsbini.

O0e

Ry. dsti, ay Sy Ban

aS rae as Me, methagershbini.

MSS, ett hnal,
BaF 399, tuksbini.
WIAD, bavi.
DOS | mok.

ve x 5S. etvan.
do, Enum.

TES, ndd.

Aaj Hw, godubi.
29 Sd, neldthbini.

are
Cod, yell.

APRIL—JUNE1857.}

Whip
Whiskers
White
Who

Whore
Wide
Widow

Widower

Loda Vocabulary.

29S . chabak.
9 C09, MOYt.

wy ). belp.
OIDARWV. ariyé.

chzhtvi.
OKO. agalu.

Ee BAS.. muddegitti.
aS baruda.

Wife SacMA R$, kuyigyo, OF . akukh.

Willow
Wind
Wipe
Wilderness
Wing
Wink, I
Witcheraft
Wish
With
Wither
Without
Mrkhin

Witness

a5 =o§5. bakhmeén.
SOO. kétu.

a db, Sa. varrdthbini.
+.
At & . argad.

QSr, derki.

Bye AS 2yd. kateshtsbint.
20; pili, 2D, sini.
O50-3. ase.

25. nera.

pF RAF «>, vonagershbini.
se 5 8 porrmiils
eve. ult.

Desa, sékichi.

24: Toda Vocabulary. [No. 3, NEW SERIES.

Woman Ho. fulch.
Wood, forest ONE, kwarsh.
Word <O mati.
Work, I TOO ARP OD, kellasgershbint.
Worm Eom oe pup.
ys

2) ‘
Yard Joss A). emmagat, 4 yard Bows A). VOMMAG At.

Yawn OTSMES Oye. abitt hsbint.
Year wo wh - kuvar, en SS . uvazhar.
Yes SD. hd, ST, S29. attanddi.
Yesterday o2s5 . enner.

Yield BLD VO. vobbisdini.
Yoke O25. nokhun.

Young Is SRE EVs . mokhvarshal.

The verbs I have always written in the Ist person sin-
gular, because with several verbs I was not quite sure how
far the radix extends.

As the Todas very often do not pronounce their words
distinctly enough for a foreigner, it is possible that I may
have exchanged the following letters for each other
coy Oe fOr ON (a) = a(S) 2h LOL Ts or X—sh,
SF +t for my etc.

The more accurate I wish to be, the more difficult I find

it te reduce the Toda language to writing.

Ne €

APRIL—JUNE 1857.]| Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. ge

Tepe Memoir on the Ancient Reservoirs at Aden. By
Linut. R. L. Puayrair, of the Madras Artillery, Assist-
ant Political Resident, Aden.

THE expedient of constructing reservoirs in which to collect and
store rain water, has prevailedin Arabia from the remotest anti-
quity, these are generally found in localities devoid of perennial
springs, and dependant on the winter rains for a supply of water
during the summer months; or in those insular positions which |
are cut off from the copious torrents, that descending from the moun-
tains, fertilize the Tehama of Yemen, and in the beds of which a
constant supply of pure water may be procured by digging, a few
feet below the surface of the soil.

The first and most remarkable instance on record is the great
dam of Mareb, attributed by Aboo’l-Féda to Abd-esh-Shems sur-
named Saba, who founded the city from him named Saba, and af-
terwards Mareb.

Other historians however assign to it an earlier origin, and it is
related that Lokman, king of that remnant of the Adites who had
renounced idolatry at the preaching of the Prophet Hiid, and who
are usually called the second Adites, took up his abode about
B. ©. 1750 in the region of Saba.

This country was frequently ravaged by impetuous mountain tor-
rents, while at other times it was parched for want of a sufficient
supply of water, in order therefore to remedy these evils, he con-
ceived the idea of building a dam across the gorge of a valley con-
tained between two mountains, which he thus converted into a vast
reservoir of five leagues in length, for the reception of the rain water
descending from the hills.

The dam was built of cut stone, secured by iron or copper cramps,
and cemented with bitumen, forming a prodigious mass of masonry,
300 cubits broad, 120 feet high, and two miles in length; it was
provided with thirty sluices, through which the water was convey-

26 Memoir on the Aden Reservowrs. [NO. 3, NEW SERIES,

ed into canals for the irrigation of the fields and gardens of Mareb,
and by means of which, that city became what Pliny styledit, “ the
mistress of cities, and the diadem on the brow of the universe.”

The dyke having somewhat suffered from the lapse of time, was
repaired and consolidated by the Himyarite Queen Balkis, about
the commencement of the Christian Era, and in her time it was
deemed too strong ever to be destroyed.

That catastrophe did however at length take place, the dam which
had stood for 1700 years, yielded to the pressure of water from
within, and gave way, deluging the country far and wide, and car-
rying away the whole city with the neighbouring towns and people ;
and thus the prosperity of Mareb was destroyed.

This event took place about A. D. 120, and is famous in Arabi-
an History as the “ Sazl-el-Arim” or “ rush of water from the re-
servowr’ by which name it is mentioned in the Koran.

M. Arnaud, a French traveller, reached Mareb in 18483 after a
difficult and arduous journey, and succeeded in obtaining measure-
ments for a plan of this famous dyke, which I believe he has since
published; according to his account, it was situated between two
hills named Balak, which, when joined, by the wall, formed the re-
servoir ; the enclosed space is of such extent, that a shout from one
end, could not be heard from the other, and the massive masonry,

though rent here and there, still attests the original solidity of the
work.

This doubtless suggested similar reservoirs in other parts of
Arabia and the neighbouring coasts of Africa, which have usually
been subject to it, and with the spread of the Kaliphate West-

wards, the idea was introduced into Spain and other Mahomedan
conquests.

The Reverend Mr. Stern, who succeeded in reaching Sanaa in
September of this year, (1856) informed me that, during{the whole
of the route between that city and Menakhir, near Jebel Harraz,
large and beautifully constructed cisterns occur, these during his
visit were perfectly water-tight and contained a considerable supply
of water, though partly filled up and choked with long rank grass,

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. a7

This traveller did not observe any in the Tehama, probably they
are not required there, as the softer nature of the soil admits of con-
siderable absorption, whereby a sufficient supply of water can be ob-
tained from wells.

Lieutenant Burton in his “ First footsteps in Eastern Africa” de-
scribes several tanks and water-courses on the Island of Saad-ed-din
near Zailah, one of them is a work of some art, it consists of a long
sunken vault with a pointed arch projecting a few feet above the
surface of the ground, the exterior is of rough stone, and the inside
is carefully plastered with fine chunam.

Mr. Salt describes a connected set of four reservoirs on the Is-
land of Katto, in the bay of Amphila, they are excavated in the
form of a cross, each being thirty feet long, nine broad, and seven
deep, lined with chunam, and together capable of containing about
120,000 gallons of water; a tradition current amongst the. natives
ascribes their construction to the Persians, who conquered Yemen
from the Abyssinians early in the seventh century, and for some
time held unrivalled possession of the commerce of the Red Sea.

The same traveller, in his previous voyage with Lord Valentia,
discovered a number of similar cisterns in the Island of Dhalak
near Massowah, but of larger dimensions, the natives have a simi-
lar tradition regarding their construction to that current at Kutto,
they asserted that the original number was 316, but admitted that
they had never seen more than thirteen or fourteen.

The Island of Massowah also contains a number of oblong tanks,
some of which are of great extent, and are chiefly private property,
the scanty supply of rain water which they contain, is kept under
lock and key. )

Captain Haines, in his Memoirs on the South coast of Arabia,
mentions the discovery of several tanks amongst the ruins of Hosn
Ghorab, the cement of which was as hard as the solid rock, local
tradition assigned the peopling of that district, and the construc-
_ tion of the buildings there, to a race whom he calls Koum Harmas,
probably Koum Hormuz “ people of Hormuz,” or Persians, thus
confirming, in a remarkable manner, the traditions recorded by

28 Memotr on the Aden Reservoirs. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

Lord Valentia and Mr. Salt, regarding the origin of the tanks on
the Islands of Dhalak and Katto.

Colonel Chesney mentions the fact of similar reservoirs un-
doubtedly of Saracenic origin, existing in Granada, Cordova, Seville
and Gibraltar, these, from the perfection of their coating, continue
to be water-tight, though some of them, as those under the Castle
of Gibraltar, must have been in use upwards of seven centuries.

Two very remarkable cisterns exist in the ancient fortress on the
summit of mount Agatha, in the Termino of Mercadel, in the Island
of Minorca, the Moorish origin of which is attested by an Arabic
inscription. These differ from those of Gibraltar, by being raised
structures instead of excavations, and they are of much greater di-
mensions, being capable of containing 2173 tuns, or upwards of
half a million gallons of water.

Numerous other instances might be cited, but with the single
exception of the great dam of Mareb, none equal the magnificent
series lately discovered at Aden, which, when restored, will proba-
bly contain not less than twenty or thirty million imperial gallons.

There is no certain record of the construction of the Aden reser-
voirs, and the natives of the place have no tradition regarding them
in which they place much confidence. It is probable that some
are of great antiquity, and that others were built as the necessity
for them arose, or as the piety of individuals prompted them to con-
struct some work, by which a great public benefit might be con-
ferred upon their city. This latter supposition is supported by the
fact, that under the domed entrance to one of them lately restored,
a tomb, probably that of the founder, was discovered, and I have
been given to understand that an inscription was removed from
this tank by the late Surgeon Malcolmson, which probably would
have afforded some clue to its history.

My impression is, that the construction of these reservoirs was
first commenced after the second Persian invasion of Yemen, about
A. D. 600, but of this fact we have no authentic record.

It is related by the Imam Ali ibn Hoosain-el-Khuzraji, that
Melek-el-Mansoor Taj-ed-Din Abd-el- Wahab ibn Tahir, sovereign

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. 29

of Yemen, between his accession to the throne in A. D. 1472, and
the great famine which decimated Yemen in A. D. 1502, built
many religious edifices throughout the country, especially in Aden,
amongst others, numerous reservoirs, aqueducts, &c. the most im-
portant of which was the aqueduct to convey the water of Bir Am-
hait into Aden.

There is also a tradition in Aden, that about A. H. 906 (A. D.
1500,) the Governor persevered in digging wells for sweet water,
and being successful, the reservoirs were permitted to fall to ruins,
or to be filled up with the debris washed down from the hills.

Probably the water obtained from these wells, and from the Bir
Amhait, sufficed for the supply of the place, which had begun to
decline in consequence of the Indian traffic having been diverted
from its ancient channel, by the discovery of the route to Europe
round the Cape of Good Hope, and the preservation and repair of
the reservoirs became no longer a matter of pressing necessity.

The aqueduct above mentioned appears not always to have suffic-
~ ed for the supply of Aden, (which continued, as late as the seven-
teenth century, to have a population of 30,000 souls,) as, in a Latin
tract written by Resendius bearing date A. D. 1530 and entitled
‘«‘ Epitome Rerum Gestarum in India a Lusitanis,” he remarks, “ that
the water was daily brought in on camels, which on some days
amounted to 1,500 or 1,600 and even 2,000, and that if they came
in the day time, the water was taken to the city, but if in the
evening, it was deposited in a large cistern near the water house.”

The above extract is quoted by Mr. Salt, to prove that the aque-
duct from Bir Amhait did not exist in the time of Resendius, but
I think this conclusion hastily formed, as there is no reason to doubt
the fact that it was constructed by Abd-el-Wahab ibn Tahir, and
that the “ cistern near the water house’ was the large reservoir
built at the Aden termination of the aqueduct, to receive the water
of Bir Amhait.

This aqueduct and reservoir were in use when Aden was visited
by a deputation of French merchants of St. Malo under M. de Mer-
yeille in A. D. 1708, and the remains of both were seen and de-

30 Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

scribed by Mr. Salt himself in 1809, who describes the latter as be-
ing near a Beit-el-ma or water house, which formed a shelter for the
natives who brought supplies into the town.

The remains of the aqueduct still exist, and those of the reser-
voir were only destroyed by our Engineers a few years ago, when
constructing the Isthmus defences.

If then the aqueduct was not built during the visit of Resendius
the object of the cistern on the Isthmus, in a position where it
could never be filled by rain water, is not apparent, the more proba-
ble supposition is that water was brought in on camels during some
temporary stoppage of the aqueduct, and that the local tradition
which assigns the discontinuance of the use of the reservoirs for
the reception of rain water to this period, is correct.

The following is the description given by Mr. Salt of the tanks
within the crater of Aden :—‘* Amongst the ruins some fine remains
of ancient splendour are to be met with, but these only serve to
cast a darker shade over the desolation of the scene. The most re-
markable of these remains consists of a line of cisterns situated on
the N. W. side of the town, three of which are fully 80 feet square
and proportionably deep, all excavated out of the solid rock, and
lined with a thick coat of fine stucco, which externally bears a strong
resemblance to marble; a broad aqueduct may still be traced which
formerly conducted the water to these cisterns, from a deep ravine
in the mountain above; higher up is another still entire, which at
the time we visited it (November) was partly filled with water, in
front of it, extends a handsome terrace former:y covered with stuc-
co, and behind it rise some immense masses of granite, which being
in some parts perpendicular, and in others overhanging it, formed
during the hot weather a most delightful retreat.

Some Arab children who followed us in our excursions were high-
ly pleased when we arrived at the spot, and plunging headlong into
the water, much amused us by their sportive tricks,”

When Captain Haines visited Aden in 1835 several of the reser-
voirs appear still to have been in a tolerable state of preservation ;
besides the hanging tanks, or those built high upon the sides of the

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. 31

hills, several large ones were to be traced round the town, but since
the occupation of Aden by the British, no steps having, until late-
ly, been taken to repair or to preserve them from further destruc-
tion, they became entirely filled up with stones and soil washed down
‘by the rains, the people of the town were permitted to carry away
the stones for building purposes, and with the exception of the hang-
ing tanks above mentioned, which could not easily be destroyed or
concealed, all trace of them was lost, save where here and there a
fragment of chunam projecting above the ground, indicated the sup-
posed situation ofa reservoir, believed to be ruined beyond the pos-
sibility of repair.

About three years azo, Government sanctioned the repair of three
of the tanks which appeared in the best state of preservation, and
the result was so satisfactory that the Political Resident applied for,
and obtained permission to restore the remainder, The task of su-
perintending the work was entrusted to me, and I at first employ-
ed the convicts, and such free labor as the limited surplus of the
Municipal funds, aided by the sale of the rain water collected, en-
abled me to command, permission was subsequently obtained for
appropriating the quit rent on building grants, amounting to about
eight hundred Rupees per annum, for this purpose.

At this time no idea was entertained that the tanks were so nu-
merous and so vast as they subsequently proved to be, and it was
believed that they could all be restored in the manner above de-
scribed, without entailing any expense on the state: as the work pro-
gressed, and as day by day new discoveries were made, the impossi- |
bility of this became manifest, and Government was pleased to
sanction the employment of the public funds to ensure the work
being completed expeditiously and well.

At present much has been done and at a comparatively trifling
expense, which will be more than repaid by the first heavy fall of
rain, but much more remains to be done, and it will yet be years
ere all the reservoirs are put in a serviceable condition.

I despair of being able, without a plan, to give such a descrip-

tion as will enable any one who has not seen, thoroughly to under-
stand them,

iw

BR Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. [NO.3, NEW SERIES,

A glance at the map of Aden will show, that the range of hills
which forms the boundary of the crater, is nearly circular, on the
outer or Western side, the hills are very precipitous and the rain
water descending therefrom is carried rapidly to the sea by means
of a number of long narrow valleys separate from each other.

On the inner, or Eastern side, the hills are quite as abrupt, but
the descent is broken by a large table land occurring about midway
between the summit and the sea level, which occupies about one-
fourth of the entire superficies of the Peninsula.

This plateau is intersected by numerous deep ravines, nearly all
converging from the Shumshum range into the Tawela valley,
which thus receives about a quarter of the drainage of the Penin-
sula.

The steepness of the ravines, the hardness of the rocks and the
scarcity of soil on them, all combine to prevent any great amount
of absorption, and thus a very moderate fall of rain suffices to send
a stupendous torrent of water down the valley, which, ere it reach-
es the sea, not unfrequently attains the proportions of an unforda-
ble river.

The damage done by this torrent has frequently been considera-
ble, during my residence in Aden I have seen kutcha houses, fur-
niture, animals, and even human beings carried with irresistible
velocity into the sea, and during a fall of rain which occurred at
midnight on the 28th December 1842, so great was the rush of
water that upwards of two hundred animals, were carried away,
and nine men were missing in the morning, only three of whose
bodies were ever found.

Rain to this extent is exceptional in Aden, but few years pass,
during which many thousand tuns of water are not lost from want
of means to retain it.

Our predecessors were more provident as the gigantic reservoirs,
which occur chiefly in and near the main water-course, the Tawela
valley, attest. :

Most travellers have erroneously described them as excavated
out of the solic rock, but I am not aware of any such, Those under

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. 33

the foot of the hills are generally built at a re-entering angle of the
rock, which promises a copious flow of water, here the soil has been
carefully cleared away and a salient angle or curve of masonry built
across it, while every feature of the adjacent rocks has been taken
advantage of, and connected by small aqueducts, to ensure no water
being lost.

The overflow of one tank is conducted into another, and thus I
believe that a complete chain existed into the very centre of the
town, where small tanks which could not otherwise be filled, are
being daily discovered.

Their construction is extremely fantastic, the only principle which
seems to have been adhered to, is the avoidance of straight lines,
and the wisdom of this has been proved in the recent excavations,
as in almost every instance where a straight line has existed, it has .
been forced in by the rush of water without it.

They are generally of stone and mud masonry, roughly plastered
on the outside, and beautifully coated in the interior with chunam ;
flights of steps, gradients, platforms, &c. are heaped together and
give an exceedingly grotesque appearance to the whole: each large
tank has a smaller one in front of it, built for the purpose of retain-
ing all earth and stones carried down by the torrent, and permit-
ting a pure stream of water to flow into the reservoir beyond.

As before mentioned, the majority of the tanks are in and near
the Tawela valley, which intersects and receives the drainage of
‘the large table land under the Shumshum range. This valley is 700
feet in length from the point where it leaves the table land, to its
actual junction with the level plain of the crater. The hills through-
out its entire length are perpendicular, and at the head of the val-
ley they meet, leaving barely sufficient room for one man to pass.
The valley then gradually opens out, and at the gorge, it is one
hundred and fifty feet in breadth, the hills then circling round to
the right and left, form part of the walls of the crater of Aden.

Appendix A is a tabular statement of the various tanks which,
together with the aqueducts leading to them, have been thorough-
ly repaired and are now ready to receive water.

No. | is at the top of the valley just described, and is formed by
a wall drawn across it, connecting the hills on either side, precise-

a4 Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. [Nno. 3, NEW SERIES,

ly similar to, but on a much smaller scale than, the great dam of
Mareb.

The rocks within it have been coated with chunam to prevent
leakage, above it is another large but natural tank which retains
water during the greater part of the year, this was formerly inac-
cessible, but steps have now been cut, and hand rails and iron stan-
chions inserted in the rock, to facilitate communication with it.

No. 2 is situated lower down the valley, on the west or left side,
and at some distance from No. 1, the intermediate space being oc-
cupied by the Tawela well; formerly no communication existed be-
tween them, but a broad paved aqueduct has now been constructed
to answer the double purpose of preserving the water which may
overflow from No. 1, and the drainage of the intermediate rocks.

No. 3 is immediately adjoining No. 2 and connected with it by
means of a sluice near the top of the wall.

No. 4 is connected with No. 3in the same manner, and its over-
flow is conducted into a large aqueduct thirteen feet in breadth,
which runs down the centre of the valley, round the Bir Khalad
into No. 83.

No. 5 is situated on the east or right hand side of the valley,
near No. 1, and opposite No. 8, it is extremely fantastic in con-
struction, and has two deep wells in the centre, one of which is
thirty-five feet in depth.

No. 6 is connected with the preceding by means of a slit in the
rock which conveys the water into it.

No. 7 a tank of very similar construction, the overflow of which
is carried by a branch aqueduct across the valley, into the main
aqueduct, in which is situated the small tank No. 83.

No. 83 is, as above said, a small tank in the main aqueduct,
built for the purpose of preventing the soil and stones washed down
by the rain from falling into, and injuring the large one beyond it
(No. 8): here the overflow of all the other tanks above it, meet so
that no water descending from the hills can by any possibility es-
cape, it must all flow into the main channel, at some point of its
course.

No. 8 is a large reservoir through which the main aqueduct

Ne a a

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. 35

flows ; it was very much destroyed, one wall having been forced in,
either from the pressure of water from without, after the tanks and
aqueducts above it became ruins, or by the water finding its way in-
side the masonry and sapping its foundations. It has however
been repaired, and I am sanguine that it will prove water-tight.

Thus far only the series is complete, beyond, the main aqueduct
has not been finished, though it is in course of construction, and
the other tanks, which are finished, have not been united.

One of the most remarkable is No. 11, which is a double tank
situated below a deep rift in the hill, down which a great volume of
water flows, but as if to make sure of its being filled, the drainage
of the hill side behind it, is conveyed into it by an aqueduct lead-
ing through a small hole in the rock, not larger than a man’s head.
The entrance to this tank was originally domed, and contained an ©
inscription which has been removed, the dome has been restored.

The other tanks which have been restored, require no notice.

Appendix B is a statement of all the remaining reservoirs which
have been discovered, some of them are cleared out and nearly com-
pleted, others are in course of restoration, the rest have not been
commenced : of these immeasurably the finest is that marked I. It
is nearly a cylinder of one hundred and forty-eight feet in diameter
but the depth has not yet been ascertained, about twenty-four feet
have been cleared out, but the bottom has not been reached: into
this reservoir, the overflow of all the tanks from No. 1 to 10, in table
A and from A toH in Table B andprobably several others, will meet.

It may be imagined that in so arida spot as Aden, so many tanks
are useless and can never be filled, but I have known many falls of
rain during my residence here, which would have filled them all,
and many more had they existed. ;

I regret that Iam unable to delay the printing of this memoir,
until a plentiful fall of rain, which may be expected about this sea-
son, shall have tested their value.

But whether they al/ prove water-tight or no, it is hardly possible
to over estimate the value of these reservoirs in a place like Aden,
which with a population of 25,000 souls, has a daily supply of sweet
water not exceeding 15,000 gallons.

36 Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES,

Water containing three parts of saline matter in every 2000 is
usually considered unfit for domestic purposes, but in Aden, at least
15,000 of the inhabitants are compelled to drink water containing
as much as from five to ten partsin 2000. It cannot therefore be
doubted that the large increase to the water supply which these cis-
terns must afford, will prove an inestimable blessing which would be
cheaply purchased at almost any price.

Probably in the most unfavorable season not less than 6,000,000
gallons will be collected, this at once doubles the annual supply,
and reckoning the value of this increase at the minimum rate at
which water is ever sold in Aden, and at which it has a ready sale,
viz., one Rupee per hundred gallons, we have an annual revenue of
Rupees 60,000. Thus in a single year, and one far below the aver-
age, a greater sum of money will be collected than is likely to be re-
quired for the restoration of all the tanks.

I cannot refrain from quoting an extract of a letter addressed
to the Right Honorable Lord Elphinstone, under date the 27th
of July 1856, by one who saw the tanks on his route to England,
and which was communicated to the Political Resident by Govern-
ment.

**T was much interested in the tanks which Brigadier Coghlan
showed me; a short time ago they were as completely buried as
Herculaneum, and we passed over some, which being filled up to
the brim with rubbish, have less the appearance of being what they
are than Pompeii must have had before it was excavated. Six of
these have been cleared out and are quite ready to catch any drop
of water which falls, they are admirable and substantial works, most
beautifully chunamed, and most fantastic in their shapes, with all
sorts of queer steps: when they are all cleared out, Aden will be
quite independent of exterior sources for its water supply.”

Table C is an abstract statement of the receipts and expenditure
on account of the restoration of the reservoirs, from the commence-
ment of the work in 1855 to the end of 1856.

The total amount is Rupees 11,543-0-3 of which only Rupees
6,500 has been paid by the State, the balance having been collect-
ed from local sources.

Se ee a a oe ey

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. 37

A reference to Table A will show that tanks of the aggregate ca-
pacity of 8,538,715 imperial gallons have been completed at an ex-
penditure of 11,543 Rupees, in other words, that a permanent and
tolerably reliable water supply has been secured to Aden, at the rate
of five annas and three pies of original outlay, for a constant supply
of one hundred imperial gallons per annum. The best comment I can
offer on this is the fact, that at present, Government is paying to the
Haswah water contractor, one Rupee and twelve annas for every
hundred gallons of water supplied by him to the vessels of war in
the harbour and the various public departments located outside the
Main Pass, and the merchant vessels are paying nearly double that
price for worse water.

Itis much to be regretted that no regular register of the Pluvio-
meter has ever been kept in Aden; but an imperfect series of me- »
moranda exists in the records of the Jail, from which Table D has
been framed.

The falls numbered 5 and 8 and the two unrecorded, in Septem-
ber 1853 and March 1854, would have sufficed to fill all the reser-
voirs in the Peninsula, and those numbered 1,12 and 18 would pro-
bably have given not less than 6,000,000 gallons each. Thus in
the course of five years the reservoirs would have been entirely fill-
ed four times, and about twenty million gallons of water would
have been collected in addition at intermediate periods, or calcu-
lating the entire contents of the reservoirs, when all shall have
been cleaned out and repaired, at twenty million gallons, we may
expect tohave an annual supply oftwenty million gallons,in ad-
dition to that afforded by the wells.

This of course may be multiplied indefinitely by constructing
new reservoirs at Steamer Point and other localities where they do
not at present exist.

The above is of course merely conjectural, the tanks have never
been filled, and it is impossible to frame any calculations regarding
them, with even approximate accuracy, but I trust that sufficient
has been shown, to remove any doubts as to the advisability of car-
rying. on the work, and restoring all that have been discovered, the
more so as the expense cannot be very considerable.

38 Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,
TaBLe A.
Tabular statement of the Tanks already completed.

Extreme di- |
mensions, in |
|

|

|

Capacity in
feet. poe

; Imperial REMARKS.
o| a/c : Gall
aey) spat cee) see allons.
Ele|s |e
= o me o
Alwia) sé
1} 150} 60; 40 1,500,000/At the head of Tawela Valley.
| :
.| §On Westside of valley, nextto, and con-
ae oes ope nected with, No. 1, by an aqueduct.
31 301 34) 21 29,875 Cet cae age next to, and con-
s| 74} 30! 20 93,000 se side of valley, next to,
| On East side of valley, at d
Gli 41] 26 25, 98,0001) Pe nected ith ete
# . 4 On East side of valley, next to, and
7] 78] 80) 28 99,987 2 connected with, No. 6.

(On West side of valley, small tank
| | to prevent stones &c, falling into!
83| 26 16 9 22,464|< No. 8, connected by an aqueduct

| | with No. 4 and by another crossing
| L the valley with 7. |

| anata a 508,940 { pte side of valley, connected with
9| 39] 99 ‘4 52,500; On West side of valley. | |
10| AS) sO) ob, 75,181] Do. connected with No. 9. |

11) 99) 59, 28 Lape i ae gorge of valley on West

12] 33] 18) 15 45,000] § Outsi |

Outside valley, on the East side,

| ¢ above Parsee cemetry. |

13] 741 70| 33 486,750 oe detached tenk, on the Munsoo
rie heights above Church yard.

Total capacity . | 3,008,715

Re ee

|
|
|
|

a TE

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. 39

TABLE B.

Tabular Statement of Tanks, under repair, including all which have been
discovered, but not yet excavated.

half eleated out.

2 Probable

| = | capacity in REMARKS. |

| & | Imperial |

|g | Gallons, |

|
e ——

ae 15,255| Near Bir Khalad in Tawela valley.

|; B 54,315, Do. do. do.

Two small tanks joined together, at S. E. corner o
. | eel Tawela valley cleared out, but not repaired. .

| D 35,000} Next to C.—cleared out but not repaired.

|

| E 22,000) Next to D. Do.

| F 32,000} Next to E. Do.

| G | 600,000) Behind Parsee cemetry, about half cleared out.

| 3

Tank in front of I. to catch the stone &c. cleared out

| ca | a but not repaired.

| The largest yet discovered, situated just outside of
I | 4,000,000 Tawela valley, into which the overflow of all the above

| Ne aaa’ tanks, and No. 1 to 10, in Table A. meet ;—about

J 1.500.000 fe leading into it, not cleared out, but outline

Small tank to prevent stones falling into J, cleared
= 38,290 out, but not repaired.

Behind Parsee gardens, supposed to be ruined beyond
= epone the possibility of repair.

| M |Unknown. | Tank in which Parsee garden has been made.
N |Unknown. | Above Jew’s burying ground.
0 70,000} Above Sebundee Lines. ‘

——-

Memoir on the Aden Reservoirs. [No. 8, NEW SERIES,

40
Tasir. B. (continued)

| g | Probable

(S) ° e

ca |Cobe city ate Remarks,

=| .
| o0 | Imperial

ra) Gallons.

P 8,000 |} Near O.
| Q | Unknown. | Large tank, much destroyed, near furnaces.
R 260,000 | In good condition, above furnaces.
| S | Unknown, | Small tank, quite buried, below R.
| | UElaowa, Gee tank, quite buried, below S. will probably

contain upwards of one million gallons.

u | 340,000 ae tank near R. in good condition, aqueducts
destroyed.

Vv 116,000 In good order, high upon the hill above U. almost
inaccessible.

W | 190,000 | Next U. much destroyed.

x

NY:

320,000 | ‘Two small tanks be!ow W. much destroyed.

320,300 In corner of hill, near No. 11 of Table A. in good
order.

Z 84,000 | A large fissure in the rock, walled in, above Q.

a | Unknown.| Above Engineers’ store yard.

b

Unknown. | Above lines, 18th Regiment N. I._

e | Unknown., In lines of 18th Regiment N. I. quite buried.
d | Unknown,| Three tanks above Mess 18th Regimnent N, I.
e | Unknown.| Large tank, in Hydroos valley,

f | Unknown.| Small tank, below Hydroos bund.

g | Unknown.| In the town, near house of Abdulla Mater.

h | Unknown. Do. near Sebundee lines.

i 10,800 Do. behind town Police station.

Z 25,000 | At the Hejaff, in good order.
| NV. B. Several on Seerah island, not searched for.

4]

v0U'S.

Memoir on the Aden Reser

APRIL—JUNE, 1837.]

0 (0 | 46 00 46

6 \Z1| SSFOl O16) eis | es pana yedrorunyy &q pieg
0)

0 00¢'9 ao ed Ree eRe ie ea a doy A
010 | £6 010! be < youo seune g 18 SIOTAUOD Of), joy} Jo ple UL juers JuoTIUIALOy
[JO 1oqeuy ey} Jo 4s0o pajuwnsy oe [eg ee ah WN®
: I J crete cs veces ees ivad sity
6 21] SSP‘Ol j0 |0 | OF | jeaourar HY} JO} ssurpying jo pot pardaypoo eesl Toy Juary MO
| s1aumO oyy 0} pred uoljyesuedu0g G60 Po ekg ue
i | J09[|00 to}eM Jo ees Aq pazt[eary
g Iai] gse‘ol ttt 7707 read og Suranp “OORT |
jpopuedxe jelioyzur pue s0qgery] ;
6 "eee ne cane eee (one eT OS
| "909 seuue OM} 4B s}oTAuod geG |
fo Loqey ey JO anja peaqeullisyy
0 ZIl 69 0 (GI 69 "yovs suuue Z 7B S]OTAUOD gee DLE oe punyy yedTorun fy Wot) pid,

10S oe @2 ee eres ie- "==" (G04 SIN)
Ul pazoaT/oo ‘eggy TOF Juay 31ND
OP seceee 2955S SITOATOSAL UL) po

eee “apa 9
oe Buxs0p -}09][09 Iaqzva Jo avs Aq pezijvayy}

eee [enajem pus 109e7]

"OCST nel

‘vi sy cakyl cey ‘Si ace)

“OGQT Jo pula 94} [IN ‘CegyT Ut YAOM at} JO juauraouautUT0O
OY} WOT ‘UsPY 48 SAIOAIOSaY JUSTOUe ay} SuIMedat jo yunoooe uO S}UaWeSINGsIP pure s}dteo0r ay} JO JuaMo}YysS JOBIISAY

° FIAVI,

42 Memoir on the Aden Reservows. [Nxo.3, NEW SERIES,

TaBLE D.

Register kept in the Aden Jail, of the Rain which has fallen between the
12th of December 1851 and the end of December 1856.

| epee
‘ SS 1S aod!
& : 3 Be Se ] Remarks.
1 | 1851 | 12 | December. 150 | ‘No record ae
211852 3 | January. 150 | | this date.
Bol eae Va0D : Wee | |
2 2S oy bee 6-25 4 very heavy fall oc-
l 5 | 1853 | 6 | December. | "25 | ee September
6 ‘ 1 ; | 50 75| eee is not a
7 | 1854 | 11 | January. | 24
ph a Ree a - eae | |
; 9 Fe 13 ss | 04 A fall of about five)
| ow | 8 [ata | 25 la
asl . 25 | October. “17 | March 1884, which is
12 4 26 188 not recorded.
3 7 5 | December. 10
14 = 7 i 20
15 es, eele28 - 05 | 665
16 | 1855 | 2/ January. = °20
| Fe ee eee : 30 :
AB le ie gl 0 : 1-30 |
198 Se) ead - 24
905 28 ja12 i ‘10 | |
21 Fe 13 | February. mi | |
22 i. =, 21 | August. *48| 2-70) | ’
23 | 1856 | 11 | January. 40 | |
24 i 22 ye ‘70 | |
OB al ie kaa cog f 15 g
26 ES 11 | September. 13 7
27 :3 12 | ‘5 | 08 | 1°46

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] The Tamil Epic Chintamane. 43

Ill. The Tamil Epic Chintamani. By the Rey. P. Percivat.

When the despatch of the Honorable the Court of Directors on
their scheme of education was promulgated a year and a half ago,
through the vernacular periodical press, its provisions were looked
upon by intelligent natives, generally, as a beautiful theory never to
be followed by any practical result. It was, indeed, believed, that
so much of the despatch as related to English, might, for official
purposes, be carried out; but not the most sanguine of my ac-
quaintances among the natives had any belief in that which related
to the vernacular languages. Since however a beginning has been
made, and measures adopted for realizing the intentions of the Ho-
norable Court, it may easily be conceived how agreeably the friends
of education are surprized. The appointment ofa Director of Public
Instruction, the actual operations of inspection, the Establishment of
a Normal School under a competent and zealous Principal, areamong
the facts serving to assure the native mind that Government is in
earnest in the matter of public education. The Director has lately
put forth a Code of Instructions for the Head Masters of Talook
Schools which has created in many the greatest satisfaction. In
that carefully prepared document, it is, in the very first paragraph, -
stated, thatin the Talook Schools the instruction, the matter taught,
is to be conveyed through a vernacular medium ; when introduced,
«< English is to be studied only as a language.” When the pupil
has attained to a fixed standard in the vernacular, he will be per-
mitted to begin the study of English; and notbefore, These facts
are sufficient to show that public instruction is to be largely pro-
vided for, and that the vernacular languages will be made the vehi-
cles of useful knowledge to the masses of the population. That the
native mind is in any degree aroused by the facts occurring around
us is matter of thankfulness. These auspicious prospects are, how-
ever, lregret to say, not unattended by much of a discouraging
character ; the native himself is likely to prove the greatest obstacle
in the way of progress as regards vernacular instruction. And I

44 The Tami Epic Chintamant. [No. 8, NEW SERIES,

do not entertain a doubt that, unless Government adopt measures
to counteract certain tendencies in the native mind, the machinery
it is now forming with so much zeal, ability and expense, will be in
great measure inoperative. The native, arguing on palpable facts,
maintains that it is not vernacular attainment that confers office and
emolument, but a knowledge of English; and consistently enough
he is disposed to devote all his energies to the latter. The remedy
is, however, in the hands of Government.. Let it be promulgated,
by Government that in all cases a candidate for public employment
from the peon upwards, must pass a graduated examination in order
to test his knowledge of his own language; or present a certificate,
signed by competent authority, to show that the required standard
has been attained: this, and this only, will secure the efficiency of
the means adopted by Government, for promoting vernacular edu-
cation.

It is in place here to refer to a valuable contribution to the study
of the vernacular languages of Southern India in the form of a com-
parative Dravidian Grammar recently published in London by the
Revd. Mr. Caldwell. The study of comparative Grammar as regards
the Indo-European family of languages has made great progress in
the west; and for some time past the Dravidian tongues have been
matter of enquiry and investigation among oriental scholars in Eng-
land and on the continent of Europe. One or two works have
issued from the press in Europe in Tamil executed in the most beau-
tiful style. All these facts conspire to persuade tke inference that
an era is opening for the development of the treasures bequeath-
ed to the natives of Southern India by the talent and industry of
former ages.

Under these circumstances it may be of some benefit to direct
attention to some of those ancient works which, in Southern India,
have, for so many centuries, been the admiration of indigenous
scholars; and the patterns for guidance in the authorship of modern
times. By thus pioneering the way no doubt needs be entertained
as to the track being followed by a succession of adventurers who
will do good service. Whilst the attention of Europeans is drawn
to the ancient authors of the Dravidian race, and thereby much that

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] The Tamil Epic Chintamane. 45

is truly interesting and valuable disseminated in Europe, it must
not be overlooked that in the country itselfit is of the utmost
consequence to the progress of sound scholarship and correct taste
that the best authors be brought to light, and if possible, published,
under proper editorial supervision and responsibility.

Much, it is admitted, that is found in the indigenous literature
evenof the best periods, is, hke some portions of the works of Greece
and Rome, unfit for general perusal. The works of real value
should notwithstanding be published and rescued from oblivion.
In the course of time they may be expurgated ; objectionable sen-
timents and passages eliminated ; thus separated from the vile, the
precious would have an enduring value.

These general remarks are intended to introduce to more parti-
icular notice the Classical work entitled Chintamani.

Itis the opinion of native scholars that the Epic Chintamani,
which was composed by Terudévar sometimes called Tiruttakkadé-
var, was written about two thousand years ago; the author was a
Jaina and resided at Mylapore, now a suburb of Madras: although
this opinion may be incorrect, no doubt the work in question is very
ancient ; it was doubtless written several centuries ago. This cele-
brated work is one of the five classical productions which are re-

garded as undisputed authorities in all matters relating to Tamil
philology.

The five works are Chintamani, Chillapadikaram, Valleiyapathi,

Kundalakési, Manimékalei.

The book under notice contains the heroic story of a King named
Jivaka; his history is also foundin the Maha Purana, a work writ-
ten in Sanscrit. This Purana belongs to the Jainas, and, of course,
ig not one of the celebrated eighteen.

The author of Chintamani is regarded by all Tamil Scholars, an-
cient and modern, as one of the most learned men that ever appear-
ed. Itis said that he was acquainted with Agatteyam and Tol-
kappeyam, the celebrated ancient Tamil Grammars; and that he
was deeply read in all the best works then extant in the Sanserit
language, including the Sacred Vedas. The best writers in the Tamil
language refer to this work in illustration of their forms of con-

46 The Tamil Epic Chintaman. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

struction, and Grammarians quote this work as of undoubted autho#
rity.

Nacchenarkinnear of Madura, himself a man of great erudition,
anda commentator on three parts of Tolkappeyam, the Cural, and Sil-
lapadekaram, has also written notes on Chintamani. The com-
ments of this author, on Chintamani and the other works, are
regarded by the Tamil Literati as unquestionable authority. The
commentary of this writer composed before he had examined the
claims of the Jaina theology, was not at first received by that sect.
He afterwards, however, revised his commentary, conforming it to
their doctrinal peculiarities, and it was thenceforth received by them

as a correct exposition of his author.

The Chintamani contains three thousand one hundred and forty-
five tetrastichs, and it is divided into thirteen sections called Ilam-

bakam.

1. The story of the hero Jivaka commences with certain par-
ticulars relating to him prior to birth. When an infant, he was
cherished by a Chitty, a merchant, who rescued him from the forest
in which he was born; his mother having fled thither from the as-
sassin who had slain the King her husband. This section called
Namagal Ilambakam contains 408 verses.

2. The second section called Kovindiyar Ilambakam relates the
early exploits of young Jivaka. It appears that a gang of free-booters
attacked the city in which he dwelt, plundered it, and carried away
much property, driving before them, as they retired, the cattle be-
longing to the inhabitants. On this occasion the young hero distin-
guished himself by great bravery, pursued the plunderers, andrescued
the spoils they had taken. In consequence of this deed of valour,
a citizen named Pasukavalam was induced to give his daughter
Kovindeyar in marriage to the son of the Chitty the foster father of
Jivaka. This section contains 84 stanzas.

8. The third section is named Kandarvatatteyar Ilambakam so
called from the celebrated musician of the name of Tatteyar whose
skill on the Indian lute or vina was almost unrivalled. She formed
a resolution not to marry any one who did not surpass her in her

APRIL—JUNE 1857.| The Tamil Epic Chintamani. ay

favorite art. Jivaka entered the list of competitors for the hand
of Tattiyar, and his performance on the vina gained him the prize he
coveted. The history of these events contained in this section oc-
cupies 858 stanzas.

4. Gundmaleyar Ilambakam is the name of the fourth section
which contains 315 stanzas. This section presents to the reader two
young women of high family named respectively Gunamalei and
Churamanjari who contended for superiority in regard to certain
scented powders they possessed. These perfumes were so apparent-
ly identic in quality that it was impossible for ordinary persons to
determine which was the better. Jivaka decides the matter in favor
of Kunamalei: she accepts him in marriage.

This section further relates some particulars respecting Sudarsana-
jakshadéva who at that time appeared in the form of a dog, as the’
result of former deeds. He is metamorphosec by Jivaka and at-
tains his former position, on account of which he magnifies the
powers of his deliverer.

This section also relates the incident of Churamanjari’s escape
from an Elephant which was killed by Jivaka when about to at-
_ tack her.

Oo. The fifth section is called Pathumeiyar [lambakam. This
section narrates the travels of Jivaka in foreign lands. In the
course of travel he meets Pathumei, a daughter of the king of
Pallavam, when she was engaged in gathering flowers; as she was
thus employed she was bitten by a venomous serpent : she is healed
by Jivaka, and in gratitude gives him her hand in marriage. The
section contains 246 verses.

6. The sixth section is called Kemasariyar Ilambakam. Thig
portion of the work narrates the visit of Jivaka to Kshémadésam
where he performs prodigies that gain for him the admiration of
the king who bestowed on him his daughter in marriage : her name
was Kshema Sundari. This section contains 145 verses.

7. The seventh section is called Kanakamaleyar Jlambakam,
Here Jivaka the hero of the poem is found in Susanadésam.
The king suspends on high a mark, promising to give his daughter

48 The Tamil Epic Chintamanz. [apRit—sunz 1857.

in marriage to the person who might succeed in displacing it by an
arrow. Numerous royal personages compete for the coveted prize
which was obtained by Jivaka.

This section also relates the success of Jivaka in obtaining in
marriage for his foster father’s son the daughter of the king of
Saba, her name was Chisanti. This section contains 330 stanzas.

8. The eighth section is called Kimaleiyar Hlambakam, and con-
tains 107 stanzas, Jivaka taking his departure from Susanadéesam
proceeds to Nannadu where he meets his mother in Tandakara-
neyam, and salutes her. Having returned to his own city, he con-
nects himself with a merchant, who, in consequence of the prosperi-
ty he enjoyed, and which he attributed to the auspices of Jivaka,
gives him his daughter in marriage ; her name was Vimalei.

9. This, the ninth section, containing 108 stanzas, relates the
marriage of Jivaka with Suramanjari, who, on the occasion of the
dispute about the perfume, made a vow never to marry any other
person.

10. The tenth section is called Manamagal Ilambakam. This
section narrates the success of Jivaka in competing for the hand
of the daughter of his maternal uncle the king of Vidékam. The
king suspended a target, proclaiming that the prince who succeed-
ed in hitting it should have his youngest daughter. Jivakais the
successful party among many competitors and receives in marriage
the fair damsel. The assassin and late minister of Jivaka’s father,
who then reigned over the kingdom he had so unfairly obtained,
hearing of the fame of the young man, suspects that he may prove
to be the son of the deceased king. He therefore determines to
seize him and put him to death; and for this purpose proceeds to
take him by violence. Jivaka meets him, slays him, and ascends
the throne of his ancestors. There are 358 stanzas in this section.

11. The eleventh section is named Purmagal Ilambakam and
contains 51 stanzas. This section relates to the conquest by Jiva-
ka of the dominions of his father’s assassin. This country was
called ’Emangadésam.

12, The twelfth section is called Ilakaneiyar Ilambakam and

APRIL—JUNE, 1837.] The Tamil Epic Chintamant. 49

contains 221 verses. In this portion of the work the nuptials of
Jivaka and Ilakanei his maternal uncle’s daughter are described.

13. The thirteenth section is called Mutti Tlambakam. The
final portion of the poem describes the religious acts of Jivaka and
his wives, the partition of his dominions among his sons, and the
renunciation of all secular pursuits and objects by himself and his
devoted female associates.

This brief analysis of the work under notice, it is confessed, con-
veys but little to persuade the conviction of its superiority ; the
assumed facts of the Epic alone are here given. Though these may
appear inadequate as the basis of a work for which so much is
claimed, yet the work itself is so replete with credible incidents, so
wrought up by the vigor of literary talent, so interspersed with re-
marks inyolving the keenest intropection into the grounds of hu-
man action, so rich in theological sentiment, so redolent of all
the attractions of poetic genius, so full of circumstances evincing
the condition of the arts and the customs of social life at the period
‘ofits composition; that the scholar, the poet, and the antiquary must
~ be equally impressed in favor of the talent of the author, and the
unrivalled power of the language in which he has embodied the
splendid creations of his imagination.

Sometime ago an intimation was put forth in one of the weekly
Journals to the effect that the work, whose analysis is here briefly
sketched, would, if encouragement were afforded, be published.
The idea has not been abandoned; but such would be the weight
of the undertaking to a single individual, it can hardly be expect-
ed that any one will be bold enough to enter upon it. No doubta
considerable number of copies might be sold among the natives per-
haps 500, and in time, it is possible, the publisher might recover
the capital expended on the work.

90 Deseriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [NO. 3, NEW sERIEs,

IY Entomological Papers, being descriptions of new Ceylon
Coleoptera with such observations on their habits, ect., as
appear in any way wnteresting. By Joun Nizrnur, Co-
lombo Ceylon.

Non TV.

Trib. BEMBIDIIDZ.
Ochthephilus. n. g. LV.

Corpus oblongum, subparallelum, valde depressum, Caput mag-
num antice trigonum ; oculis magnis, ovatis, prominulis ; collo forti.
Mentum subquadrate emarginatum, lobis extus fortiter rotundatis,
apice abrupte acuminatis, dente parvo acuminato. Ligula parva
apice quadrate truncata, libera, paraglossis setiformibus marginem
anteriorem longe superantibus. Palpi robusti art. 4° elongato,
tenui, acuminato; maxillares art. 3° interne—, 2° externe incrassa-
to; labiales art. 3° robusto externe incrassato, 2° parvo, cylindrico.
Labrum parvum subtrigonum, antice emarginatum. Mandibule
elongate, recte, trigonee, apice arcuate, infra medium pluries den-
tatee. Antenne robuste corporis med. fere attingentes, art. 1° et
112 mediocribus, subzequalibus, 2-4 et 5-10 inter se subzqualibus
illis subcylindricis, his ovatis, Thorax subcordatus basi quadratus.
Pedunculus brevis. EHlytra apice rotundata. Pedes omnes sim-
plices, subzequales,anteriores tibiis profunde excavatis, tarsis leviter
contractis, art. 1-4 gradatim minoribus, art. 1° subcylindrico 2-4
subtrigonis, 5° sat magno, unguibus simplicibus.

43 Ochthephilus Ceylanicus N.

O. brunneo-testaceus, ‘pedibus palpisque testaceis tenuiter
pubescens ; fronte profunde 2-sulcata; elytris obsolete striatis, in
striis punctatis ; long. corp. 13 lin.

In fluminum ripis Bembidiorum more victitat.

This interesting little beetle might at first sight be mistaken for
a Lemophicus, the size, depressed form and color of which it has,

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 51

however, the prominent eyes, cordate thorax— to say nothing of
its habitat—remind one very soon of its real connexions, I do not
think there can be any doubt that this insect forms a new and in-
teresting addition to the Bemprp11p2. In fact the question, whether
it belongs to this tribe or not depends, in my opinion, mainly upon
the inferences drawn from the structure of the terminal joint of
the palpi. Itis true that this joint attains in Ochthephilus a degree
of development unequalledamongst the BEMBIDIID®; as, however,
this development is not confined to the one particular joint allud-
ed to, but affects the entire organ of which it forms a part, it can
hardly be said to be a variation of much importance ; and as, more-
over, the general shape (independently of the elongation) and mode
of insertion are the same as in the typical BemBrp11p I have
not hesitated to refer my n. g. to this tribe.

The head is as broad as the thorax and altogether of about the
same size, it is strongly triangular from the eyes to the tip of the
mandibles, the forehead is impressed with 2 deep longitudinal fur-
rows, the eyes are large, rather oval and prominent, behind them
the head is abruptly contracted into a thick neck. The antenne
are long and thick reaching nearly to the middle of the body,
joints 1 and 11, 2 4 5-10 are subequal amongst themselves, 5-11
oval, 1-4 subcylindric. The labrum is small, rather triangular be-
ing narrowed at its base, it is emarginated in front with a slight
angle in the middle emargination. The mandibles are long,
straight triangular, bent at the tip only, dentated below the middle
the one more so than the other. The maxille are thin and slender
gently bent outwards at the base and inwards at the apex the out-
er lobe corresponding with the inner one in shape and strength.
The palpi are robust, both the maxillary and labial ones have joint
4 elongated, thin and acuminated, in fact needle-shaped, firmly im-
planted in the preceding one not loosely hinged to it. The max-
illary ones have joints 3 and 2 robust, the former swollen on the
inner, the latter on the outer side. In the labial ones, joint 3 is
still plumper than in the others, but differs in shape by being in-
crassated on the outer instead of the inner side, the 2nd joint being
at the same time quite small and cylindric. The mentum is large

52 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

and simple as above described. The ligula is small, oblong, very
slightly narrowed and transversely cut away at the apex, the pa-
raglossee separate from its sides a little below the anterior corners ;
they are setiform and reach much beyond it. The whole organ is
of membranaceous texture having, however, a more substantial
centre or back. The thorax and elytra are simple and sufficiently
described above. I may add that the former is divided by a longi-
tudinal furrow and that both are furnished with a narrow margin at
the sides. The scutellum is very small and the abdomen furnish-
ed with a short peduncle. The legs are weak, simple and nearly
equal, the anterior tibie are deeply notched, the lower margin of
the fourth tarsal joint of the same pair is furnished with a long thin
spine, the apex of which fits in between the claws. I have been
unable to discover any footbrushes or other sexual distinctions in
the specimens before me, but it is not improbable that the tarsal
spine just mentioned occurs only in one sex.

The habits of the insect are those of the Bembzdia in whose so-
ciety it lives upon the banks of rivers, taking like them readily
toits wings. I have found it occasionally in considerable numbers
upon the sandy banks of the Maha Oya in the neighbourhood of
Negombo close to the edge of the water.

Trib. LEBIIDE vel PERICALIDGE.
Creagris. n. g. NV.

Corpus oblongum valde depressum. Caput magnum robustum ;
oculis mediocribus, ovatis, sat prominulis; collo brevi. Mentum
forma ferri equini vel trifurcatum (hine n. g. Creagris) lobis
angustis, subparallelis, apice oblique truncatis, dente lobis param
breviore, tenui, acutissimo. Ligula magna, cornea, angulis anticis
rotundatis, paraglossis connatis, marginem anteriorem non attin-
gentibus. Palpi maxill. art. 4° claviformi, apice fortiter truncato ;
labiales art. 4 subelliptico, truncato. Labrum maximum, subor-
biculatum, convexum. Mandibule parve, basi obsolete uniden-
tate, labro obtecte. Antenne robuste humeros. attingentes,
art. 1, 3 et 11 longitudine fere subequali, mediocribus, 2° parvo,
rotundato, 4-10 subzqualibus, cum 11° ovatis. Thorax parvus
capite sesqui minor, transyersus longitudine duplo fere latior,

a Ss Se ee ee

ae

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 53

infra med. fortius angustatus, basi parum prolongatus. Pedunculus
brevis. Elytra apicem versus leviter dilatata, apice fortiter subqua-
drate truncata. Pedes robusti, simplices, subzequales, ant. tibiis
profunde excavatis, omnes tarsis brevibus art. 1° sequentium 2 fere
longitudine, subcylindrico, 2 3 gradatim minoribus, magis minusve
triangularibus, 4° magna, profunde bilobo, 5° mediocri, unguibus
_simplicibus, art. 4° subtus dense penicillato.

44, Creagris labrosa N.

C. picea, ore antennisque, coxis, trochanteribus femorum tibia-
rumque apice et tarsis brunneis; dense punctata obsoleteque pu-
bescens ; elytris striatis; long. corp. 4$ lin.

Specimen singulum prope Colombo nocte ad lumen cepi.

I consider this scarce and interesting insect to form a passage be-
tween the Leprip and PEricaLip#, but am doubtful to which of |
these two tribes to refer it as, although it partakes of the character-
ristics of either, it is at the same time distinct from both. Distin-
guished in several respects, its most extraordinary character lies in
the curious shape of the mentum. Thisis, however, easily describ-
ed as large, of the shape of a horseshoe with a long, thin, very point-
ed tooth in the middle, the apical half of the sides (lobes) being at
the same time gently dilated, the apex itself being obliquely cut
away from the outer towards the inner side (the inner angle being
the most advanced) and slightly dentated at the edge thus formed.
Or it may also be described as a fork with the outer teeth some-
what enlarged, truncated at the apex and so forth. As far as I
know, this variation from the usual form of the mentum is re-
peated in no other Carabideous insect. The other parts of the
mouth have not much to distinguish them with the exception, how-
ever of the labrum which attains a very extraordinary degree of de-
velopment occupying rather more than one-third of the whole head,
although the latter itself is large and heavy. It is of a suborbicular
shape, very slightly produced in front into an obtuse angle, is vault-
ed, covers the mandibles, has two longitudinal impressions at the
sides of the base and is highly polished. The head has two im-
pressions in front of the eyes, is densely punctured and thinly
pubescent, it is strongly but gradually contracted behind the eyes

54 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

and formed into a short neck. The antenne are strong, and reach
to the shoulders, joints 1 3 and 11 are of about equal length, mid-
dling, the former two subcylindric, joint 2 is small, rounded, 4-10
subequal and with the 11th oval. The thorax is small, only halfas
large as the head, rather narrowed, strongly transverse, twice as
broad as long, slightly emarginated in front, the anterior angles
rounded, contracted below the middle, subquadratic and prolonged
at the base, posterior angles depressed, longitudinally divided by
a deep furrow. The elytra are striated and, as well as the thorax,
densely punctured and thinly pubescent. The legs are strong,
simple and subequal, the anterior tibiee are deeply notched, the first
joint of the tarsi is as long as the two succeeding ones together,
subcylindric, the 2nd triangular, the 3rd of a similar but more trans-
verse form, smaller—all three have the apical angles acuminated,
the 4th is large and deeply bilobed, the 5th middling, thin, the
claws simple. The tarsi are altogether short and strong, the first
joint is furnished with longer, the 2nd and 3rd with shorter stiff
hair, whilst the 4th is strongly penicillated below. The anterior
tibiee are slightly spinose, the others more so.

I believe the only specimen of this insect which has hitherto
come into my possession, and which has served as the type for the
above description, to be a female.

Trib. GALERITIDA.

Heteroglossa. n. g. N.

=<

Corpus oblongum, subparallelum, depressum tenuiter hirsutum.
Caput mediocre oculis semiglobosis, sat prominulis; collo brevi.
Mentum sat profunde subquadrate emarginatum, lobis magnis extus
fortiter rotundatis, apice abrupte acuminatis, dente magno exca-
vato, apice inflecto obtuso, magis minusve profunde sinuato. Ligu-
la subcornea apice libera, truncata, vel quadrata vel obconica
vel leviter bi-sinuata, paraglossis cylindricis, marginem anterio-
rem longissime superantibus, magis minusve arcuatis. Palpi hir-
suti, art. ultimo sat elongato, subcylindrico, apice truncato vel
subtrigono. Labrum transversum antice emarginatum. Mandi-
bule valide, trigone, apice arcuate, basi pluries dentate. An-
tenn robuste, corporis med. attingentes, art. 1° incrassato se-

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 55

quentibus 2 longiore, 2° parvo, 3-11 subequalibus. Thorax sub-
cordatus, basi transversim truncatus leviterque prolongatus. Pedun-
culus brevis. Elytra apice fortiter subquadrate truncata, costata,
costis 16 majoribus, in interstitiis subtilissime bicostulata, in sulcis
(sulco e tribus inter costas binas majores medio excepto) tenuiter
pilosa, in omnibus transversim regulosa. Pedes anteriores tibiis
sat fortiter emarginatis, tarsis maris art. 1-3 leviter dilatatis, subtus
squamularum seriebus 2 munitis, art. 1 elongato-trigono, 2-3
rotundato-trigonis, 8° precedente parum minore, 4° parvo cordato
3° plus sesqui minore, his omnibus angulis acuminatis, 5° magno,
unguibus simplicibus.

This diagnosis may appear somewhat vague, still I have been
unable to express the characteristics of the insects from which it is
drawn in more precise terms, although they have features quite pe-
culiar to themselves by which they are easily recognised when once
seen.

The points on which the three spec. which form this g. more or
less disagree are the following : 1, the labrum: this is more trans-
verse in H. elegans and less deeply emarginated in H. rujficollis
than in the other two spec. respectively—still in all three it is emar-
gmated and has moreover the peculiarity of being furnished with
bristles at the two anterior corners: 2, the mentum: this is sub-
quadratically emarginated, the lobes being strongly rounded on the
outer side, and abruptly acuminated at the apex, at the base of the
emargination it is furnished with a broad, excavated tooth which is
inflected and obtuse at the apex—so far all three species agree—
however, whilst in H. elegans and rujficollis this tooth is slightly
emarginated, at the apex, itis sharply notched in H. dimaculata,
in fact bilobed, the lobes being large and rounded at the apex. I
look upon this notch, which is sharp but not deep, as a mere varia-
tion from the emargination existing at the apex of the tooth of the
former two species. 3, the palpi: these, labial as well as maxillary
ones, have their terminal joint truncated at the apex—and so far
again all three species agree—however, whilst this joint is of ellip-
tic form in the palpi of Z. rujicollis, it is in HZ. elegans only so in
the labial ones that of the maxillary ones being cylindric at the base.

56 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

In H. bimaculata finally, this joint is rather clubshaped or subtrian-
gular and stronger truncated than in the former two species. 4,
the ligula: this organ is of subcoriaceous texture, middling size,
the shape of an oblong square, free and transversely truncated at
the apex—these characters are common to all three spec. and in H.
ruficollis I have nothing to add to it, however, the anterior margin,
which is straight in this species, is slightly bisinuated in H. elegans
the outer angles being acute and the central one obtuse. The ligu-
la of H. bimaculata differs from both the former in as far as it is nar-
rowed towards the apex and depressed towards the sides and the
front, the anterior margin is otherwise cut away straight, without
any sinuosities, but it is rather strongly armed with bristles. The
paraglosse agree in all three spec. in as far as they are highly de-
veloped, reach much beyond the anterior margin of the ligula and
are more or less bent inwards. ‘They assume their greatest deve-
lopment in H. elegans in which they nearly touch each other in front
of the anterior margin, being cylindric and slender at the same time.
In H. ruficols the paraglosse are somewhat shorter and straighter
and in HZ. bimaculata still more so.

On all other points the three spec. perfectly agree; in saying which
I lay particular weight upon the unusual sculpture of the elytra and
the rather peculiar hairy vesture of the insects, bearing also in mind
their general appearance, proportions, system of coloration, mode of
living, etc. As to the hairy vesture of certain parts of the body and
the sculpture of the elytra, it is true that these are not generally
looked upon as of much importance, however, they appear to me to
be so in this instance, as they present certain unusual variations re-
peated in all three species. The hairy vesture consists in thin yel-
lowish or reddish hairs thinly sprinkled over the back and still more
thinly over the whole of the lower surface of the insects, being at
the same time longer at the latter place. This vesture acquires its
greatest density on the legs, especially the tibicee and tarsi, whilst
their uniform presence at the palpi forms almost a generic charac-
ter. The elytra are exquisitely sculptured into about 8 larger costz
on either of them and into 2 smaller ones between every 2 of these,
the furrows thus formed are finely and transversely rugose and (with

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 57

the exception of the central furrow between every 2 larger coste)
thinly pubescent.

It just strikes me that this sculpture of the elytra may occur in
other GALERITID@. If so, the insufficiency of my means to ascer-
tain this fact with certainty, must plead my excuse for attaching un-
due importance to it. However, I should in this event, consider
my books of reference, none of which say anything to that effect,
greatly (and indeed more than myself) in fault, for not alluding to
it, as in my opinion it is sufficiently peculiar to be mentioned.

After this lengthy preamble I shall have but a few words to say
in finishing the description of the species.

45, Heteroglossa elegans. N.

H. supra rufo-castanea, capite obscuriore, maculis 2 humerali- —
bus obsoletissimis ferrugineis; subtus dilutior, pedibus antennis
oreque subtestaceis, elytris ad angulos apical. extern. testaceis;
long. corp, 34 lin.

In lacus Colombensis ripis, sub vegetab. putrescent. non infre-
quenter cepi.

An agile, pretty little insect of chocolate color, and with the ge-
neral features of the family. Head smooth, polished, above and
below slightly punctured, with 2 impressions in front of the eyes,
anterior angles of labrum rather acuminated. Thorax deeper and
more densely punctured than the head and with the elytra thinly
hirsute, rather strongly emarginated in front, less so behind; sides,
especially at the basal angles, depressed, divided longitudinally by
a deep furrow. Scutellum, like thorax punctured and hairy. Elytra
with the inner apical angle right and the outer rounded off, large-
ly punctured within the margin especially near the apex. Tibice with
a row of larger spines down the outer and a row of smaller ones
down the inner side, 4-calcarate at the apex, the 2 inner spurs

larger.

46. Heteroglossa ruficollis. N.

H. colore preecedentis sed obscurior, thorace pectoreque rufo-tes-
taceis, antennis art. 3 primis nigrescentibus; long. corp. 44 lin.

08 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 8, NEW SERIES,

Cum precedente sed rarius et per occasionem nocte ad lumen
cepl.

The shape of the body is quite that of the former but the insect
is larger. The head is less distinctly punctured than in the former
and there is an additional impression in the middle of the forehead.
The thorax is also less deeply punctured, but the divisional furrow
is more so than in the preceding species. The anterior tibize appear
somewhat less deeply notched. There is nothing else to add to the
description that has not been pointed out already.

47. Heteroglossa bimaculata. N.

H. subcastanea, thorace capiteque rufo-testaceis, elytris medio
maculis 2 flavis pictis, pedibus abdominisque apice testaceis ; long.
corp. 5 lin.

Ubi preecedentes infrequentissime legi.

Head, with the exception of the forehead, deeply punctured, with
2 impressions in front of the eyes, anterior angles of labrum round-
ed. Thorax densely and deeply punctured, with elytra thinly pu-
bescent. The latter with around yellow spot at the middle of each.

48. Chlenius princeps. NV.

C. aureo-viridis, scutello cupreo, elytris nigro-viridibus ad basin
et infra marginem viridibus, sutura nigra, subtus piceus, coxis tro-
chanteribusque 4 ant. dilutioribus, femoribus trochanteribusque 2
post. testaceis, tibiis tarsisque obscurioribus, ore antennisque brun-
neis, labro, mandibulis limboque castaneis; capite obsolete ruguloso,
punctulato; antennis art. 38° quarti prope longitudine; menti dente
forti laciniis apice rotundatis; thorace ovato-quadrato, latitudine
parum longiore, angulis ant. subrectis, post. rotundatis, basi forti-
ter 2-impresso, punctato; scutello canaliculato; elytris striatis, in
striis punctatis, ad strias, preesertim apicem versus, tema pilosis ;
long. corp. 8 lin., lat. 3 lin.

Specimen singulum f. prope Colombo sub-lapidibus cepi.

A very handsome species, distinguished by its size and compara-
tively great breath. The clypeus is impressed with 2 setigerous
pits near the ant. corners, The labrum is transverse, slightly sinu

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 59

ated in front, narrowed at the base and has the ant. angles strongly
rounded off. The last joint of both the maxillary and labial palpi
is cylindric and truncated at the apex, in the maxill. it is shorter
than in the labial ones, in the latter somewhat narrowed at the base
and slightly inflated at the middle, both appear slightly compress-
ed at the apex. ‘The elytra are strongly rounded at the apex. The
insect has a very strong smell, somewhat like musk, about it.

49. Chlenius maleolens. N.

C. capite. thorace scutelloque obscure cupreo-viridi-glaucescen-
tibus. elytris obscurioribus, pubescentibus, maculis 2 subapicalibus
flavis ornatis, subtus piceus, pedibus testaceis, ore antennisque
brunneis, mandibulis limboque castaneis; capite ad clypei margi-
nem post. profundis 2-foveolato punctulato, occipite leviter trans-
versim ruguloso; antennis art 3° quarto subzequali vel paulo bre-
viore ; menti dente apice leviter sinuato; thorace subquadrato, la-
teribus leviter rotundatis, profundius punctulato atque levissime
transversim rugoloso, ad basin 2-impresso, parce piloso; elytris
densius pubescentibus, striatis, in interstitiis 3-8 utrinque ante api-
cem macula suborbiculari flava ornatis ; long. corp. 64 lin,

Specimen singulum m. prope Colombo cepi.

Also a handsome and rare species, smelling strongly and disa-
greeably of creosote. Head thorax and scutellum are of a dull
bluish green color with copper reflexions on the back, the elytra
are of a blackish green, pubescent and adorned with 2 yellow spots
between the middle and apex, this is of an irregular, rounded out-
line and stretches from the middle of the 3rd interstice across to the
8 stria. The 4th joint of the maxill palpiis subcylindric, that of
the labial ones larger, plump and rather triangular. Tooth of the
mentum not bifid but truncated and merely slightly sinuated at the
apex. The elytra are narrowed at the apex.

50. Harpalus (Ophonus) senilis, N.

H. oblongo-ovatus, subdepressus, punctato-rugosus, griseo-pubes-
cens, supra eeneus, subtus piceus, ore pectoreque dilutioribus, pe-
dibus testaceis, antennis basi palpisque apice flavis; capite robusto
antice rotundato, postice parum angustato, thorace vix angustiore ;

60 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 8, NEW SERIES,

antennis humeros attingentibus art. 2, parvo, reliquis longitudine
subeequali; mandibulis obconicis robustis, una unidentata, altera
incisa; labro vix emarginato; palpis art. 4° ovato, apice abruptius
angustato, leviter truncato; thorace transverso, longitudine tertia
parte latiore, elytris vix angustiore, lateribus rotundato, infra med.
leviter angustato, basi subquadrato, hic vix, antice leviter emargi-
nato, angulis apicalibus obtuse acuminatis, basalibus subrecte ro-
tundatis; elytris punctato-striatis, apice fortius 2-sinuatis et angus-
tatis; tarsis art. 4° cordato; long. corp. 44 lin, lat. 13. lin,

Prope Colombo sat copiosus.

This as well as the succeeding two species fly very commonly into
rooms at night during the rainy weather. The present spec. is a
fine, comparatively large, robust insect. I may add to the above
description that the emargination of the mentum is of middling size,
its lobes rounded externally and its tooth just marked in the shape
of a slight obtuse rising at the bottom of the emargination. The
ligula is very small and narrow, the paraglosse very large adhering
to it and enveloping it fully and on all sides, the whole is very slight-
ly cut away at the apical angles and slightly, but abruptly and ra-
ther deeply, notched at the centre of the anterior margin. I may
further notice that some of the individuals before me have the apex
of the maxill. palpi prolonged, cylindric and slightly bent inwards ;
as this is not a sexual distinction and ag the insects thus distin-
guished differ in no other respect from the rest, I look upon them
as curious varieties.

51. Harpalus (Ophonus) rugosus N.

H. preecedenti simillimus sed sesqui minor, magis rugosus, an-
tennis robustioribus art. 5-11 ovatis leviter depressis, colore supra
parum obscuriore, subtus dilutiore, pedibus albidis, coxis tarsisque
brunneis, antennis totis castaneis ; long. corp. 34 lin.

The small size and, upon close inspection, the other peculiarities
just pointed out, readily distinguish this species from the former in
spite of their close affinity in otherrespects. They are both equally
common about Colombo, ak

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 61

52. Harpalus (Selenophorus) Colombensis. N.

H. statura preecedentis sed gracilior, glaber, supra lete ceneus,
subtus subcastaneus, pedibus albidis, coxis, tarsis, antennis palpis-
que testaceis, ore brunneo; capite transversim ruguloso; antennis
precedente tenuioribus, palpis gracilioribus apice magis angustatis ;
labro basin versus leviter dilatato ; mandibulis infra apicem abrup-
tius arcuate, una uni— altera bi-dentata; thorace lateribus prece-
dente minus rotundato, basi minus angustato, hic rugoso-punctato,
antice leviter longitudinaliter strigoso ; elytris striatis, parce punc-
tulatis, in interstitis 3°, 5° et 7° punctis majoribus impressis; long.
corp. 3 lin.

Prope Colombo sat copiosus.

A pretty little insect, very distinct from the preceding two. I
may add that it also differs somewhat in the paraglossa, the anterior
angles of which are distinct.

Trib. HARPALIDEG ?
Compsolepis. n. g. NN.

Corpus oblongum, robustum, subconvexum. Caput ovatum, me-
diocre ; oculis semiglobosis prominulis. Mentum leviter subsemi-
lunariter emarginatum, lobis extus rotundatis, dente vel parvo, ob-
tuso vel nullo. lLigula mediocris, cornea, oblonge quadrata, apice
transversim truncata, libera, paraglossis cylindricis apice truncatis,
sat robustis, marginem ant. parum superantibus. Palpi articulo
ultimo elliptico, truncato. Labrum apicem versus angustatum,
apice rotundatum. Mandibule valid, apice arcuate, una uni—
altera biedentata. Antenne filiformes, humeros parum superantibus,
art 2° parvo, reliquis longitudine subequali. Thorax mediocris
longitudine parum latior, antice vix, postice haud emarginatus, la-
teribus leviter rotundatus, basi parum angustatus, angulis omnibus
rotundatis, margine elevato. LElytra ovata, infra med. parum dila-
tata, apice leviter angustata et acuminata. Pedes subzequales, tibiis
apice bicalcaratis, calcaribus intus subtiliter serratis, ant. leviter
emarginatis, tarsis 2 ant. art. 1-3 leviter dilatatis gradatim minori-
bus, art. 1° cylindrico, 2° obcordato, 3° trigono, omnes art. 4° maris
bilobo, femine bifido, art. 59 magno, unguibus validis, simplicibus,

62 Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

subtus tarsis 2 ant. art. 1-4, intermed art. 2°-4° squamularum
longepedunculatarum seriebus duabus munitis.

53. Compsolepis foliolosa. N.

L. glabra, supra obscure brunnea, thoracis elytrorumque limbo tes-
taceo, subtus brunneo-testacea; pedibus albidis; antennis art. 8 pri-
mis flavis, reliquis nigrescentibus ; palpis art. ultimo testaceo, reli-
quis flavis ; thorace ad angulos basales profundius foveolato; ely-
tris striatis; prosterno canaliculato; long. corp. 3-4 lin.

Specimina nonnulla mens. Octob. prope Colombo nocte ad lumen
cepl.

The internal vesture of the tarsi of these otherwise inconspicu-
ous insects, constitutes their most important character and is alto-
gether of a very interesting nature. I proceed at once to describe
it at full length, premising that Z believe I have both the male and
female before me. The individual which I take to be the male is
smaller and of a darker color than the other. The legs, with the
exception of the tarsi, are the same in both sexes. They are of
middling strength, the tibia are furnished with 2 spurs at the inner
side of the apex, which spurs are finely serrated along their inner
edge, the tarsi have joints 1-3 of the first pair slightly dilated, the
posterior pair is elongated, subcylindric and the intermediate one
forms a passage between the two. Joints 1-3 of the first pair de-
erease gradually in size, joint 1 being at the same time subcylind-
ric, joint 2 rather cordiform and joint 8 rather triangular, joint 4 in
all the six tarsi is bilobed in the male and bifid in the female, this
character being, however, less distinctly expressed in the 2 post.
tarsi than in the 4 ant. ones; joint 5 is large and the claws strong
and simple, a membranaceous process of triangular form covers the
base of the latter above.

The internal vesture of the 4 ant. tarsiof the male is of the fol-
lowing description. The inner part of joints 1-4 of the 2 ant. ones
is furnished with 2 longitudinal series of peduncled squamule which
are of a broad, triangular form and lie like tiles upon each other co-
vering the sole of the tarsus, they are flanked by bristles which
partake of the nature of the scales being dilated in the shape of a
lancet. These squamule are without any particular color, they

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. 63

are unconnected amongst themselves, their edges are entire and
and they attain their highest development at the apex of the 4th
joint, in fact their development is gradual from the base of the Ist
joint to the apex of the 4th. The intermediate tarsi, although not di-
lated, are similarly provided as the anter. ones, but only at the apex
of the 2nd and at the 3rd and 4th joint, the squamule being of
rather a square shape, triangularly prolonged and peduncled at the
base; the Ist joint is naked in this pair.

The tarsi of the female are very much the same as those of the
male, excepting the 4th joint which, as above mentioned, is bifid.
A further distinction exists, however, in the squamule. In the 2
ant. tarsi of the female these are present at the apex only of the
ist and 2nd joint (hardly distinct at the former); however, they are
well developed in the 3rd and very highly in the 4th joint, the .
squamulaceous bristles are less conspicuous but the peduncle at-
tains extraordinary length in the 4th joint, the squamule do not
cover each other like tiles but stand more freely and loosely and
are curved inward so as nearly to touch in the middle, their shape
is that of an elongated triangle, they are veined and their apical
edge is serrated. Being such and placed upon long, slender, pedun-
cles they forcibly remind me of the leaflets of certain ferns (Adian-
tum) and hence the specific name foliolosa. The intermediate tarsi
are similarly provided, but, as in the male, the Ist joint is naked
and the 2nd furnished at the apex only. The lower edges of the 2
posterior tarsi are very neatly fenced in with small closely set
spines.

I feel doubtful as to the affinities of these insects, especially if in
reality I have described both sexes and if the vesture of the inter-
mediate tarsi is allowed to be of the same importance as that of the
anterior ones, however, I think they must find a place amongst the
HARPALID# as restricted by Lacordaire. I must not omit to men-
tion that the tooth of the mentum appears to be variable, one of my

specimens (a male) being decidedly without it, whilst another is
furnished with a small, obtuse one.

64 Observations on Provincial Exhibitions. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

VY. Observations on Provincial Exhibitions and the improve-
ment of the Resources of the several Districts of the Mad-
ras Presidency. By J. Forses Royzs, M. D.

1. The correspondence referring to the establishment of Pro-
vincial Agricultural Meetings for the distribution of Prizes in
the several Collectorates of the Madras Presidency, is pregnant
with important facts and inferences for the future improvement and
development of the Resources of these Provinces. Considering
the general state of information among the class of cultivators, not
only in India, but in other parts of the world, it is not surprising,
that the first enunciation of a proposal, in which money and jewels
were to be given and nothing received in return, was received in
some places with suspicion, and others with indifference, and in
most with unwillingness to exhibit. All this is justly ascribed to
the novelty of the proposed scheme and to the ignorance of the
great mass of the people; where itis said, ‘The person most
“ respected among the Hindoo population, is the man who does as
*‘ his ancestors have done; and who, on all occasions upholds the
‘‘ mamool or custom. The person looked upon with suspicion, is
«the man who troubles the village with change and novelty.” Coll.

page 157.

2. Though the success of Exhibitions in this country is ap-
pealed to, and spoken of as a thing not to be expected in the Hast,
I am far from participating in the sentiment. For I happen to be
one of those who practically experienced the difficulty of inducing
those who were the most able, to be the most ready to contribute
to the Great Exhibition of 1851. Having been entrusted by the
Royal Commissioners with the Department of Raw Products, my
principal business at first was to induce parties dealing in different
classes of Raw Products to contribute collections of specimens of
the Articles in which they dealt, in order that the Great Exhibition

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Observations on Provincial Hxhibitions. 65

of 1851, as it was wished that this being the first of the kind, should
contain a complete collection of all the Raw products, which were
known as Articles of Commerce. In representing the objects con-
templated and requesting different parties to contribute, so far from
alacrity, I found, with certainly some striking exceptions, disincli- —
nation in many to whom JI applied, to contribute. They alleged that
it was useless to exhibit things that were so common and known to
all the world, and which each and all in the same business might
contribute equally well. Difficulties were, however, overcome, and
will be so elsewhere with perseverance, especially as it is propos-
ed to continue the Madras Exhibitions for two or three years. It
seems desirable as suggested by some Collectors, that facilities
should be afforded for sale and barter. ‘The success of European
Exhibitions would be very limited, if it were not for the opportu-
nity afforded to manufacturers of making known and selling, or
taking orders for the sale of goods.

3. Though local officers are the best judges of the times at which
the proposed distribution of prizes should take place, as well as of
most of the things which require to be encouraged in their own
districts, yet there are other points which can be as well, if not
better settled, by those at a distance who have paid attention to
such subjects or have watched their working in foreign markets.

4, The first point deserving consideration is, whether the pro-
ductions of a district are intended for home consumption, or for
export to foreign markets. In the first case, the people of the dis-
trict are themselves the best judges of what they require, and what
they wish to have improved, or what to have introduced as new
cultures among themselves. In the second case, the purchasers in
foreign markets, or their agents and brokers, are the best judges of
what are the defects of any known product; or what are the kinds
of substances which are most likely to meet with purchasers, when
first introduced into their markets. But there are few important
cultures which may not be noticed under both heads, and to which
therefore the same general observations may apply. Thus there
are few Indian products, or rather few products sent to market by

66 Observations on Provincial Exhibitions, [No. 8, NEW SERIES,

the natives themselves, which may not be greatly improved in the
state of cleanness or of preparation in which they are sent to market.

5. Inthe Ganjam district the Collector says, the people are not
only “ very bad cultivators,” but they will not take the trouble to
clean and separate the good and bad seeds, nor learn that good rice
is often rendered of much less value, from the intermixture of even
a small quantity of inferior dark coloured grain. This was in vain
urged on the Ryots of Polaky, by Mr. Linares, a merchant of Calin-
gapatam, Coll. p. 27. But even in the district of Canara, where
the inhabitants are said to be “ generally alive to their own inter-

* ests,’ and where ‘“ some departments of Agriculture are carried

“ to a high pitch of perfection,” “ the methods of preparing the
articles for the market are often exceedingly defective,” Coll. p.
154. But nothing can be worse than the practice alluded to by
the Collector of the same district, and said to be almost peculiar to
India “ that is the system of Nerick or fixed price. A candy of
“‘ tobacco for instance is brought down to a low price by means of
* adulteration; the dealers have no resource, but to adulterate all
“the tobacco down to that value. For it is not the custom of the
“‘ country to say, bring it me unadulterated and I will pay youa
“higher price. This is never done,’ Coll. p. 160. So the cotton of
India never realizes the price which it would command, if sent in
a clean and unadulterated state; for the consumers being accus-
tomed to meet with a certain proportion of dirt, reduce the price at
which they purchase, so as always to cover their loss, this in ad-
dition to the shortness of the staple, assists in keeping Indian cot-
ton at a low price; so likewise the want of due preparation pre-
yents some Indian fibres, otherwise of good quality from attaining
their full value.

6. Though this subject is not alluded to by all the Collectors, it
is one of the greatest importance; for if the cultivators of India
could be convinced of the benefit which would ultimately result to
themselves, a great good would be effected. For the higher prices
which Indian products would then command in European markets,
would enable local purchasers to give a better price than they now
can, to the actual producers of the goods, Prizes might therefore

— 4 ro

oS ial a ah sew al

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Observations on Provincial Exhibitions. 67

be well given for ordinary products carefully harvested, or well
cleaned and prepared for market, especially when such are also ar-
ticles of export. Itis probable that local merchants would at once
give a better price for an improved article, though it might be some
time perhaps, before they were able to do away with the prejudice
against Indian products, because they are usually badly prepared,
and themselves be able to reap the benefit of improvement.

7. The next subject which we may consider as deserving en-
couragement, is that of the crops themselves, both in respect of the
quantity as well as the quality of the several cultivated products.
This will, of course, be different in the varying soils and climates of
the Presidency. Much may no doubt be done in this direction by
the Native cultivators, if they feel inclined, for instance by the se-
lection of the best kinds of seed in their own districts, or by inter-
changing such with similarly selected seed of other districts, so also
by the more careful culture of the soil, eradication of weeds, thin
sowing, drill husbandry, rotation of crops and though last, not the
least important, by the application of suitable manure. All ofthese
practices, the Natives of some districts at least of India, are well
acquainted with, but in the proper use of them few Europeans in
India are able to advise, as they have not usually studied or prac-
tised Agriculture, and are apt to think that improvement consists
in the introduction of European tools and practices into tropical
countries ; without in the first instance proving that these are the
most eligible. The American planters found the culture of Cotton
in the west of India well suited to the plant, the soil, and the
climate ; and therefore turned their attention latterly chiefly to the
cleaning of cotton. It appears to me that much good would result,
if careful enquiries were made respecting the Native mode of cul-
tivating different crops, and pointing out such as were most suc-
cessful by the results which they produced.

8. So also with regard to the tools employed by the Natives
in their Agriculture. They seem rude, but they are cheap. The
chief enquiry should be, are they effectual for the purposes for
which they are employed. Thus the Collector of Cuddapah says,
that the Agricultural implements in common use in the district,

> e *, ° « o,e
68 Observations on Provincial Kwhibitions. [No. 8, NEW SERIES,

are of a very rude nature, “though they answer the purpose ex-
ceedingly well.” Some of these implements are no “doubt sus-
ceptible of improvement. But such improvements can only be
made by those well acquainted with the working of the several
tools, and in the direction in which, and the extent to which charges
require to be, or may be carried. The simple introduction of
English ploughs, which has been so often tried, is of little practi-
cal value, for they require larger cattle than are commonly used,
and those must be supported on better food thanis usually sup-
plied to Agricultural cattle in India.

9. It is quite possible, however, for the Natives, if they pleas-
ed, to grow crops which would be valuable either for sale, for
cattle food or for manure: as for instance, several of the oil seeds.
These are already grown, as being useful to the Natives for their
oil, or as exportable articles ; but no where I believe to the extent
that is practicable. A part of any extra crop of these oil seeds
might be sold, but a part or the whole might be expressed, and the
oil only sold. The residual oil cake would serve for food for cattle,
and the manure from these animals, if not burnt, would be useful
for fertilizing the much impoverished fields. Or if the farmers
pleased, the oil cake would itself serve as manure since it has
been found from numerous experiments made in this country,* that
oil-cake is one of the best manures for cereal crops. But I pro-
pose shortly calling attention to this subject, as it seems one likely
to overcome a pressing difficulty. ?

10. The third head under which the improvement of districts
may be considered, is that of the introduction, and culture of new
substances, or of such, as though common in one district, are un-
known in another. This is a department in which, no doubt, much
may be done for increasing the comforts of the people, either by
bringing within their reach, articles of culture which may be con-
sumed on the spot, or furnishing them with products which may
be valuable for export; and enabling the people to exchange them

for the valued products of other countries. But much caution is re- —

quired in recommending for culture, any articles, which though

* ¢, e. in England.

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Observations on Provincial Exhibitions. 69

valuable in one district, may fail in another, merely from too rigidly
following the mode of culture which is found most suitable to an-
other district, where some little observed circumstance may differ.
For successful culture depends upon a due consideration of soil
and of climate, as well as of a due adaptation to these of the modes
of culture.

11, Not only however must the culture succeed, but there must
be a demand on the spot for the article produced, as is well ob-
served by several of the Collectors. Thus, the Collector of S.
Arcot says “‘I do not believe that anything short of an assurance
** that a remunerative price will be immediately given, will induce
“the Natives to attempt the cultivation of any novel species of
** produce.” Coll. p. 10. So again in Tanjore the Collector writes,
that the ‘“‘ Collectors have no desire for speculation, and no faith
«in mere assurances that articles fitted for the European trade
““ will meet with a ready sale at Madras, I believe that nothing
** will overcome this scepticism but the presence in the Provinces
* of. the Agent of some Mercantile firm, prepared to pay in ready
‘‘ money for all produce suited to his purpose. In Rajahmundry,
“in Vizagapatam, and in Ganjam, the Sugar Works are thus car-
“ried on, and in Cuddapah many lacs of Rupees are annually ex-
** pended on account of Madras Merchants in the preparation and
** purchase of Indigo.” Coll. p.123. From Canara the Collector
writes “In this district the Ryots want little encouragement to
‘* cultivate any articles, beyond a certainty of remuneration. But
“it is of no use to tell them that an article is of value in a distant
*‘ Market. This is nothing to them, the only question is, if they
‘© produce it, will any one give them money for it here. If they
*¢ will, they will produce it immediately.”’ Coll. p. 159. Thus he
states, “that he considers the Sunn* or Indian Hemp (probably
* Crotolaria juncea, or tenuifolia) to be the article which promises
“ best, and has a full belief that if there shall be a steady demand
“< for this article for the next two or three years, instead of being

* Note.—Specimens of this Canara Sunn having been examined by Practical
Men, both in England and Ireland, has been pronounced to be well suited to the
English Market, but it must be as cleanly prepared as the sample specimens,

70 Observations on Provincial Exhibitions. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

“‘ raised in a few villages on the coast to supply the fishermen with
** nets, it would become one of our staple products. Almost all
« the land flat enough for rice fields has been taken up, but we
‘have many thousands of acres of land of the same quality as
“‘ that upon which the Sunn is growing, lying unoccupied.” Coll.
p. 156. He adds we have lately had an instance in the case of
Fish-Oil, and the neighbouring country affords one in that of
Coffee, that a brisk steady demand is all that is wanted to intro-
duce a new article of commerce. Coll. p. 182. So the Collector of
S. Arcot writes “afew years ago the ground-nut called Manilla
“ Kotay (Arachis hypogea) was unknown hereabouts, but no
“* sooner was a remunerative price offered on the spot by a Mer-
* chant of Cuddalore for such produce, than it was extensively
“ cultivated, and the oil from it largely exported.” Coll. p. 110.
Hence it is evident that in proposing to the Natives to grow new
products for foreign Markets, it is not enough that these are valu-
able and in demand in such Markets, but we must take care that
there are local Merchants who will at once take them off the
hands of the Native Cultivators.

12. The same observations will apply, but in a still greater de-
gree, if we wish them to cultivate articles, not known in European
Markets; that is, such as are possessed of valuable properties and
which might become important articles of commerce, from being
likely to be useful in many established Manufactures, for instance
a new dye, an oil seed ora fibre, as all such are-in constant de-
mand and would be readily employed by some Manufacturers.
But if sent into an English Market with only their Indian names,
and some account of their properties, they would be pronounced
to be of ‘‘no value’’ because “ unknown in the Market.” In such
cases, the substances which have most chance of being employed,
are those which are most like in properties to others which are al-
ready in use; and for which they might be employed as substi-
tutes, especially if they can be sold at a cheaper rate, and are
likely to be supplied in large quantities. Some articles which ©
have long been known experimentally would at once be employed
by Manufacturers if there was any assurance of a regular supply,

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Observations on Provincial Exhibitions. T1

as the vegetable butter of Canara, or the oil of either species of
Bassia, known as the Zi/uppu and Mowah trees. So also the Sunn
fibre of Canara, if prepared like the “ Wuckoo Nav” of Travan-
core, or the best hemp of Bombay would find a ready market.
Other substances which are less known, must go through the same
course that these have done, before they can be enquired for.
That is they must be reported upon, written about, experimented
upon by Manufacturers statistical information respecting prices
and probable quantities supplied. After such a course the en-
quiry probably would be ‘ why, if there are such things, do they
«not come to us, as we are ready to employ them.’”’ For this is
the case at present with the abave vegetable fats, and the Rheea
fibre which is identical with the much valued product called China
Grass.

18. Itis no doubt in consequence of the numerous difficulties
met with in attempting to improve the culture of a district or in
introducing into it newor little known articles, that some Collectors
have recommended the establishment of experimental farms. Thus
the Collector of Masulipatam states that “to a great degree the
* Ryots of this country require as much teaching as children,
“‘ when any new product has to be introduced. Were there any
‘“‘ experimental farms under the charge of some one thoroughly and
practically acquainted with the best mode of raising and bringing
*“ to maturity different classes of valuable products, much valua-
“ble information as to the productions, really best suited to the
*‘ soil and climate of each district, would be obtained, and the
«* Ryots would be more encouraged by the actual sight of the pro-
“‘ duce grown on the Government Farms than by a thousand orders,
*s or the most benevolent advice from the Collector and his subor-
‘‘ dinates.” There is no doubt that much good might be and per-
haps would be produced by such experimental farms, if they were
efficiently, and also successfully carried on. But they would have
to be successful not only in producing good crops, but also in prov-
ing that these were profitable ones. ‘This there is great doubt of
there being for some time, in consequence of the extreme difficulty,
if not impossibility of finding well informed and efficient agents

“2 Observations on Provincial Exhibitions. [No. 3, NRW SERIES,

to take charge of them. For almost any one that was appointed,
would have much to learn, before he would be in a position to teach.
The expense of such a process, carried on in several districts at the
same time, would be a bar to its adoption, besides that the several
failures which would at first occur, would, for some time at least,
operate as a discouragement against the adoption of some, even of
their successful experiments.

14. The Board of Revenue suggest the propriety of ascertain-
ing whether the Government Cotton Farms have really exercised any
permanent influence, and whether the cotton of the Districts in
which they were established is sensibly superior to the produce of
districts not similarly favored. On this it may be observed, that
the inferences drawn from attempts to grow an exotic species of
cotton in all the different parts of India, would hardly apply to
farms intended to grow only such things as are suitable to each
particular district. But even with this exotic species of cotton, it
would be found that the Government farms have produced perma-
nent effects only where the climate was suitable to the American
species of cotton. For instance, no effect will be observed from the
farms which were established in the Bengal Presidency, as the cli-
mate was not suitable to the plant; still less so when it was cul-
tivated according to American methods, and all the farms were given
up before suitable modifications of culture could be determined on.
In Broach great success has attended the cleaning of cotton by
Amerian machinery, while in Dharwar and neighbouring districts
60,000 acres are under cultivation with American cotton, which
brings the highest prices of any Indian grown cotton in the Eng-
lish market. In Coimbatore good cotton was produced and ata
remunerative rate, according to Dr. Wight’s statements. If the
uncertainties of season -have not thrown discouragements in the
way of cultivation, some permanent effects ought to have been pro-
duced, though the Natives there, seem never to have taken to the
culture of American cotton as in Dharwar, and though the Govern-
ment engaged equally in both districts to purchase all that the ryots ©
would grow.

15, As considerable difficulties would be experienced in the

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Odservations on Provincial Exhibitions. 78

establishment of experimental farms and the several districts of the
Presidency, they would probably prevent their influence being so
extensive as might be wished, and therefore render inadvisable the
establishment of such farms. But there is a great variety of use-
ful and very valuable information, which is at present required, and
which can be only attained by means of one or more experimental
farms, and which when obtained might be made applicable to the
improvement of the culture of various districts. First, in ascer-
taining the best methods of culture of the different Indian crops,
according to the practices of the Natives themselves in the parts
where any crop is best cultivated, comparing these with the princi-
ples and methods of culture, at present most approved of in this
country; in ascertaining the peculiarities and advantages of the dif-
ferent methods of culture, of cropping, of rotation, &c. together
with the use of such manures as are procurable; trying the merits
of different tools; and making known the easiest methods of raise
ing water; and in addition, introducing the more valuable articles
of culture from other parts of the world, which have any similari-
ty in climate and vegetation to India. Such experiments are too
often confined to introducing English cereal crops, vegetables and

fruits, into situations where the soil and climate are so dissimilar

that any great success is hopeless. If such an experimental farm
were established near the Presidency under a Government officer,
and at the same time in connection with the Agri Horticultural So-
ciety, it might also be made a school of instruction in the princi-
ples and practice of Agriculture for young men from the Provinces.
These might be selected in the first instance by the several Collec-
tors, and then sent to the Presidency, where they should, like the
Native Medical Students, pass through a course of elementary, scien-
tific and practical instruction, and like them be subjected to exami-
nation. If they passed suck an examination satisfactorily, they might
then be sent back to the Collectors for appointments in the several
districts, of different natures, according to theirrespective merits. Such
a course would, without any great expense, introduce throughout all
the different parts of the Presidency a body of tolerably well qua-
lified individuals, who might be the medium of communication be-

tween the Collectors and Ryots in all matters relating to improved

74 Observations on Provincial Exhibitions. [No. 3,NEW SERIES,

culture ; and might themselves superintend an experimental field
of any particular culture, in order to give a practical proof to the
Ryots of the mode as well as of the advantages of the new culture.
It has been found advantageous even in Ireland to send round a
body of qualified instructors in improved farming and flax culture.

16. Further, the Board of Revenue call attention to the fact,
that several of the Collectors suggest prizes for the improvement of
eattle, sheep, &c., and as they consider it a matter of great con-
sequence, recommend its adoption. They also propose enquiring
whether it would be advisable in some districts (as Tanjore, &c.,)
to introduce a few cattle from other districts at the expense of
Government. Thus the Collector of Tanjore writes, ‘* there is pro-
“ bably no part of the habitable globe, and certainly no part of India
“‘ which produces such miserable animals, as are commonly used
‘‘ here. The whole country being under irrigation, there is no pas-

“ turage whatever. During the time of the cultivation they are fed —

* on the last year’s straw, and when the harvest is over they are
“© turned into the fields to find what subsistence they can on the stub-
“ble.” Coll. p.124. The first observation that presents itself on
reading this statement is, that not only is it not surprising that the
eattle should be reduced to this state, but it is hopeless trying to
improve them, unless some better food than the dried rice straw of
one season and the stubble of the next, is provided for them. The
improvement of the breed of cattle and of sheep is now conducted
on scientific principles by careful observers, but in no case I believe
do they attempt to make crosses and raise the character of a breed,
without at the same time taking care that food is supplied which will
suit the improved breed, whether it be of sheep or of horned cattle.
The Board observe that the cattle of Nellore, Mysore, Coimbatore,
&c., and the buffaloes of Canara are known to be very fine, andalittle
judicious expenditure in this way might be productive of much ad-
vantage. Having called attention to this sudject in my essay on the
Productive Resources of India, p. 1389 and 161, I would beg

to refer to the principles laid down by different breeders. Among |

the first of these, is the great importance of climate, secondly of
pasture. You must first of all be in possession of a pasture suitable
for the new comers, &c., also to the objection of breeding cn and an,

- (3) sean

APRIL—2UNE, 1857.] Observations on Provinctal Exhibitions. 15

and to the advantages of bringing the breed to the required size or
fineness by one or two crossings, rather than attempting at once
what we may wish for ultimately. But the subject is well under-
stood in some parts of India, as is evident from the greatly improv-
ed breeds of horses and of cattle. The latter both in Harriana in
the North-West of India, andin Mysore. The officers in charge of
such establishments should therefore be consulted on the best course
to be pursued.

17. Itis probable that the Natives might be induced to grow
some crops which would themselves be profitable, and the refuse
useful as food for cattle, for instance the Sorghum* of which the
stems are nutritious, and given to cattle in different parts of India,
and as I have suggested, oil seeds might be cultivated, of which the
oil might be sold and the cake given to cattle. The Experimental
Farm would be useful in eliciting information as well as in confirm-
ing and recommending whatever practice was most approved of.

18. Further, a very excellent suggestion, and likely to be pro-
ductive of useful results, was made by the Collector of Madura, and
considered worthy of adoption by the Board of Revenue, that is,
that Government should at their annual meetings for the distribu-
tion of prizes, take advantage of the opportunity of exhibiting mo-
dels or specimens of improved implements, such for instance, as
simple methods of raising water, improved methods of cleaning cot-
ton, or of separating fibres, models of oil and other mills, &c. ac-
cording as might be thought advisable in different districts. The
Collector of Madura suggests some Carpenters’ tools, also ordina-
ry Ironmongery such as locks, latches, &. The Board of Re-
venue also suggest the exhibition of improved produce from other
districts, as desirable for a district where a new culture is propos-
ed or commenced. All these are useful suggestions, and very im-
portant in a country like India, where, though some of the Arts
have attained a high degree of perfection, others have remained in
a rude and unimproved state for ages. From the advance which
the Natives of India have made in so many of the Arts and Manu-
factures, there is every reason to anticipate that they will do so in

* Jowari or Cholum.,

76 Observations on Provincial Exhibitions. [No. 3, NW SERIES,

others, indeed this is proved by their imitation of European Arms,
Ship building, &c., and by the very remarkable fact of two Natives,
named Soobaroidoo and Venkatareddy of Dowlaiswarum having, in
the preliminary exhibition held at Rajahmundry, exhibited two
working models of Steam Engines made by tuemselves ; upon which
the Right Honorable the Governor in Council observes—* It will
*“ not be the least valuable result of the large Engineering Works
‘in the district, that they have tended to introduce among the Na-
* tive community a taste for Engineering Mechanics, and a know-
“ ledge of the subject which, especially at the present time, is like-
“ ly to be most valuable.’ At the same meeting a Power Loom
imported by Mr. G. H. Faulkner, was the great point of attraction,
and its operations were earnestly watched by thousands.

19. In conclusion “ the Board consider it of great importance
‘‘ that (these) difficulties should not be overlooked, but they view
“them not as symptoms of ultimate failure, but as indications that
‘the measure must be carried out with steady perseverance, and
*‘ that no want of success at the outset must be allowed to cramp
‘¢ the effortsof Government.” Itremains only to add that the pro-
posed measures for the improvement of the several districts, as well
as the lists of their products and the prizes to be awarded for
them, as well as the results which are obtained, should be printed,
in order that the information may be generally diffused.

20. The two preliminary meetings in the districts of Guntoor
and Rajahmundry, having been as satisfactory as could have been
expected with so little previous notice, it has been proposed to hold
during the year 1856 nineteen agricultural exhibitions in different
districts of the Madras Presidency, and as the Governor General
in Council has confirmed the expenciture of 58,000 rupees for the
purpose, the measure promises to be as useful as any other public
work in India.

Connected with the correspondence respecting the establishment
of an Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures at Madras, and of others

for the distribution of prizes for agricultural products in the pro-_

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Odservationson Provincial Exhibitions. 17

vinces, is a recommendation from the Government of Fort St.
George for the establishment of a BotanicalGarden at Madras and for
the employment of not less than two able and experienced Botanists
and Mineralogists who should be kept continually moving about
the country, in order that a thorough knowledge of the rich and
varied productions of Southern India might be rapidly acquired
and turned to account.

In the Minute of the Right Honorable the Governor, regret is
expressed that nothing more (that is than assisting the Agri-Hor-
ticultural Society) should have been done by Government for gain-
ing an extensive and practical knowledge of the botanical produc-
tions of this province, that is the Madras Presidency. This ob-
servation appears to meshould have been qualified with the words
“‘ at present,’ for I believe that much has been done at different »
times, and that we possess as good a knowledge of the Botany of
India including the Madras Presidency, as of any other extra Euro-
pean country. Much of course still remains to be done as in most
other countries, but the want at present is rather to systematise and
to render easily accessible to the public the information that has
been accumulated, than to make investigations by the aid of those
who would have to spend some time in becoming acquainted with
what has already been done, before they could proceed to make new
discoveries. That I do not take too favourable a view of what has
been done, it would be enough to refer to the preface, p. XI. of
Dr. Wight’s Prodromus to the Flora of the Peninsula of India, where
the labours of Keenig, of Anderson, Berry, John, Roxburgh, Heyne,
Klein, Buchanan Hamilton, and of the venerable Rottler, are re-
ferred to. Of these, several were supported by Government in
their investigations. Dr. Wight’s own, though incomplete work, is
itself a record of what has been done to a certain extent, and no
better service could be done for diffusing a correct knowledge of
Peninsular Botany, than the completion of this work. In his illus-
trated work “‘ Icones Flore Indie Peninsule,’’ he has given ex-
cellent representations of about 2,000 Peninsular plants, independ-
ent of 300 plants figured by Dr. Roxburgh in his Coromandel
plants and those in Rheede’s Hortus Malabaricus. Dr. Cleghorn,

78 Observations on Provincial Exhibitions. [no. 8, NEW SERIES,

Professor of Botany at Madras, has himself made extensive Col-
lections and numerous drawings of the plants of the same part of
India.

Instead, therefore, of employing Botanists from Europe to make
fresh investigations, I conceive that it would be much more bene-
ficial for the diffusion of a taste for, and a knowledge of, the ve-
getable productions of the Peninsula, to employ a man like Dr.
Cleghorn, who is as well qualified for the task as any man likely to
be found here, to prepare a manual with brief characters of what
is known of the Botany of the Peninsular. But contrary to the
opinion of Dr. Wight, expressed at p. XXIII. of his preface, I
would advise the careful addition of the Native names of plants,
as I have always found, that such as are of use and are there-
fore important, have names by which they are well known to
the Natives. These names no doubt differ in different districts
and applying them may be more troublesome in the Madras Pre-
sidency than elsewhere, from the languages differing so much in
different parts, but this very fact makes the task more necessary.
If Dr. Cleghorn, could afterwards, or even at seasonable parts of
the year, make excursions into neighbouring districts, he might
usefully make any observations on the Geographical distribution

of the plants of the Peninsula, especially as connected with soil _

and climate, as these would give principles for the cultivation of
some and the introduction of other plants.

The above point is independent of that of the establishment of
a Botanic Garden at Madras which is recommended by the Right
Honorable the Governor. This however is not the first time that
there has been such an Institution at Madras, for without referring
to the times of Dr. Anderson, there was formerly, if lam not much
mistaken, a Botanic Garden at Madras, of which Dr. Wight was
Superintendent at the time that it was abolished, that is when Mr.
Lushington was Governor. This, however, does not militate against
the establishment of another Garden with definite objects, that is
for the introduction of useful plants of other parts of India, or
other warm countries and for the culture of Horticultural and
Agricultural Products. This I would therefore call an experimental

-
4
€

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Observations on Provincial Exhibitions. 719

rather than a Botanical Garden, though it might be appropriately
placed under the superintendence of the Professor of Botany with
the aid of a well educated gardener who would more readily learn
the peculiarities of Indian culture than any one not so educated.
This is well evidenced in the case of Mr. MclIvor, now in charge of
the Garden at Ootacamund, and whom TI selected out of several
candidates, as he combined in the highest degree, a knowledge of
the principles with the practices of Horticulture.

Though fresh Botanical investigations do not seem to me to be
necessary at present, it is very different with Mineralogical and
Geological enquiries, for the Madras Presidency is filled with
mountainous ranges which abound in Geological treasures, a cor-
rect knowlege of which as of the Rock formation, is greatly re-
quired. For this purpose one or two qualified persons might well ©
be appointed ; and if one excelled as a Geologist, the other should
be well qualified as a Mineralogist, having sufficient knowledge of
Chemistry, to be able to give a good account of the various soils
which might be met with. All such information would be practically
useful by affording data for the improvement of the Agriculture of
the several Provinces.

80 Journal of an Expedition [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

VI. Journal of an Expedition over the Annamullay Moun-
tains for the purpose of examining the Teak Forests, and
ascertaining by what line the Timber could best be carried
to the Coast. By Caprain Frepericx Corton, C. E.

Left Cochin at 21 P. M. in a boat with 10 oars, the tide and wind
in favor. Reached Allwye before sunset. The river there be-
comes shallow, but the boat, with the crew out of it, was taken
over the shoals without difficulty, the tide being at the time about
half flood. From Allwye to Sheura (4 miles) the river is very
shallow, but the boat was hauled over the sand-banks in a foot or
15 inches water. At Sheura, the Rajah of Cochin has a bunga-
low, and he is now living there for bathing; which he has the good
taste to prefer in fresh water and comparative solitude than in the
brackish water and most miscellaneous mob at Allwye the fashion-
able watering place of the Cochinese, who at this season emigrate
there in great numbers.

Allwye has one essential as a bathing-place, which is, that the
water is so shallow an infant may learn to swim in it without
danger; but beyond this, I see no other advantage in the small
stream to make up for its dreadful popularity. Above Sheura the
river makes a bend by which at least 3 miles are ‘lost in distance,
and as I met with several shallows in different parts of the stream
my progress was so slow that it was nearly daylight before I reach-
ed Malliatoor. The Allwye river is very much in character lke
the upper part of the Baypoor and Cotiaddy rivers of Malabar ;
but the banks are lower, and the country on either side differs, in
the absence of those laterite knolls which occupy so great a portion
of that district.

Malliatoor is a small village belonging to Cochin, on the north
side of the river, inhabited by Roman Catholics, whose houses
are exceedingly good, as should be their morals also, seeing that

APRIL—JUNE,1857.| over the Annamullay Mountains. 81

in this Parish of some fifty houses, there are no less than three
Churches. On enquiry however, it appeared that the whole res-
pectability of the place depended upon its active smuggling trade,
which works so successfully for those engaged, that its ecclesias-
tical endowments are well supported.

On the opposite side of the river, the Travancore Circar has an
Establishment for working the neighbouring forests; from which
800 logs of Teak are annually exported. The Conservator has a
bungalow here, and though the jungle begins at this point, if is
not considered feverish at any season of the year.

Elephants are caught near Malliatoor in pitfalls; and after two
years it is considered safe to use them in their old haunts. It is at
this season that they are taken, the want of water in the jungles
driving them to the large streams; near the banks of which, the
pits are dug. Fifteen elephants are kept at Malliatoor for the
work in the forests; but after the beginning of January, water
becomes so scarce in the hills, that they can no longer be employ-
ed, I find that there is a well-beaten path from this to Annamul-
lay in the Coimbatore district which is kept open by the smugglers
who bring Tobacco from the Palachy Talook, for sale in the Cochin
Territory. ?

On the 7th, I visited the Malliatoor Hill, which is only marked
in the printed map as a Theodolite station, but is not named.
For the first mile and a half, I walked over cultivated fields ; but
beyond them, I began an ascent which continued for a mile, and
brought me to the summit of a rocky knoll, having a command of
an eXtensive view. To the westward I could distinguish every
thing as far as the line of coast, but eastward, there was nothing
to be made out, save a confusion of low hills, buried in the densest
forest. None of these appeared to be of any considerable eleva-
tion; but in the sameness of colour, and absence of all marked
features, it was difficult to judge either of height or distance.

On the rocky hill I had ascended, I found a very filthy little
Church, which bears a character of such excessive sanctity, that it
is said to be visited every Haster by from five to six thousand

82 Journal of an Expedition [xo.8,NEW SERIES,

Pilgrims. I could not ascertain what had gained for the little
hill the respect that it received; and could only guess that in
their adoration of the type for the reality, the rubbish and confu-
sion of the place might be considered typical of the Cochin Chris-
tians’ creed. No one lives upon this hill, but the Chapel has a
weekly visit from the Priests at Malliatoor: who at other times
leave the Chapel to the care of a converted herd of Ibex; which
graze on the steep hill-side, and shelter in the sheds and out-
houses.

T saw fifteen of these very ugly goats about the knoll, all males,
which was remarkable, and I should have entered them in this my
diary, as having instinctively monastic habits, had I not been told,
that there were many more in number of the other sex just out of
sight amongst the bushes, which silenced the suggestion.

These civilized members of a forest family have not lost all
the habits of their race in general, They saunter with com-
posure on edges as sharp as knives, and stand with all four
feet upon a single point of rock. Nor are they in character less
wary than the Ibex tribe in general. Their cunning teaches
them that they are safer in the sanctuary of the Church, than on
their wonted haunts, the precipice; and having taken up their
abode upon the sacred hill, they bask in perfect safety, as if aware
that it was consecrated, In one of the Chapel offices, a black
buck was lounging on a bedstead, who knew his place better than
to take any notice of the Heretic intruder, and such was evidently
the feeling of the herd in general. This seems to speak of good
intelligence, yet judging by the head and face, the Ibex is a
sheepish jackass. Dull as these animals appear, they are said to
have all the cleverness of Priests, and when any thing goes wrong
on the hill, one of the old bucks goes down immediately to report
it in Malliatoor. Only a few days ago, one of these vigilant bergers
is said to have taken the three mile walk, to ask aman inthe ©
village when he meant to pay that silver elephant he had promised
to the Church if the pitfalls he was digging should prove success-
ful. An elephant having been taken, and the vow forgotten. 8

28th March. A guide has arrived who gives the following

APRIL—JUNE 1857. over the Annamullay Mountains. 83

statement of distances, and says that there is no open space after
Toonacadavoo is passed. (From Malliatoor the river turns to the
southward of east, and is no further navigable for boats, at this sea-
son.) To Attripully 20 miles north, Amakimtodoo 20 miles N. E.,
Oracumbum river 6 miles N., Yeddapally 20 miles N., Toonacada-
voo 20 miles N. E., Annamullay 12 miles N. E. Total 98 miles.
I know however that Attripully is not further than 12 miles; and
the printed map gives me so much confidence in the rest being still
more over-rated, that I shall dismiss all the people I can spare, and
make the attempt; particularly since it is possible that the Tobac-
co monopoly may shortly end its days, when this path will close
for want of use. If it was not for this man’s statement, I should
reckon upon one night only in the jungle, and the second I should
hope to be at Annamullay.

The guide who has come forward to take me through the hills
is a sturdy little smuggler with legs that look up to a mountain
scramble ; and with eyes that betoken more than the ordinary in-
telligence of southern Natives. When he was brought to give me
what information he could, (or rather would,) I heard his voice
at some distance round a corner, but could not gee what sort of
man I had to trust to; and twice I begged that he would show
himself, without my wish being gratified. On inquiry into the
eause of this, I found that one cf the party round me was
a Brahmin within 20 yards of whom it was not lawful for a
Teer to stand. This little matter of etiquette being disposed of,
I requested my Brahmin friend to take his leave that I might talk
with more freedom amongst my equals. This Brahmin however,
soft and effeminate as he appeared, was evidently on the same sub-
ject a man of information too; and unless he had a wonderfully
retentive memory for tales of travel, had more than once crossed
the hills by the smuggler’s path. It would not however have been
altogether right in me to suggest the possibility of his acting on
free-trade principles, which in this little state rendered a man lia-
ble to hard labor on the roads in irons; and after being indebted
to his civility for the knowledge of my little smuggler chief’s resi-
dence, it would have been gross ingratitude to hint that his sacred

84 Journal of an Expedition [|NO. 5, NEW SERIES,

limbs ought by law to have been wearing chains. I think it was
rather to the annoyance of all present, that I made up my mind to
start on the trip; but promises of a liberal present to my guide,
and double pay to all the coolies who accompanied me, satisfied them
if it did not suit those so well who had nothing to gain by my ex-
pedition, and might lose a profitable trade if Malliatoor becomes a
thoroughfare.

28th March. At 4 o’clock on the following morning, I set off
with Mr. Hamnett, the Civil Engineer’s writer, who volunteered to
accompany me, a servant also mounted 6 or 7 people to look after
the horses, &c., the smuggler guide and 16 coolies carrying about
half a load each. Having crossed over the village, we followed up
the course of the river for about a quarter of, a mile, then entered
the jungle and travelled nearly due north. For the first two hours
we got on very slowly and lost some little time in consequence of
a peon having played us false about our torches; a trifle that might
have made a great difference in the up-shot of one day’s work, had
we found the journey as long as we expected; for our guide had
given us to understand there were but few places where water
could be found; and our moving after dark without lights was out
of the question.

As Trode I kept a Memorandum of all the beds of streams we
passed; such changes as took place in the growth of the jungle;
the nature of the country we were passing through, and, as well as
I could, the general direction of the path we travelled. That memo.
I will place on record, in case any one who succeeds me in my of-
fice, should wish to follow up the examination of the hilis.

The jungle on this side is of large timber trees with a good deal
of underwood every where. In some places indeed it was so block-
ed up with the prickly head of the ground rattan that off the path-
way it was perfectly impenetrable. For the first nine miles there
was very little bamboo and no teak.

The soil was black and moist, even at this, the driest season of ~~

the year.

We passed in this space four nullahs, three of which had water in

a

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] over the Annamullay Mountains. 85

them in puddles here and there; and one about the seventh mile,
had a small stream running to the eastward. We crossed two
low rocky ridges from 380 to 50 feet high, but the road was re-
markably even upon the whole, till we reached the tenth mile,
where we made a steep ascent; and crossed a saddle perhaps 150
feet in height, with hills on both sides. At this point a cut has
been made through the narrow edge of the ridge to drag timber
through, and the coolies knew it by the name of the Attripully
Fort, though in passing it, I could make out no enclosure nor
anything artificial, but the cut I rode through. It may however
be that there is an embankment which runs along the ridge, as
lines of fortification of this kind are found in all these Western
jungles, even when the appearance of the forest otherwise, would
lead us to suppose that man had never entered it. From this -
ridge we descended rapidly into a bamboo jungle and in about

z mile came to Attripully Fall.

At this point a guard of four peons is stationed by the Travan-
core Government as a check on smuggling; an establishment so
far successful, if my Zeer guide’s information is correct, that the
gangs, wearied with their journey, very generally, throw down
their burthens here, and give themselves up to sleep, while the
peons are cooking for them, and small blame either to the guard
which might be raised to ten times its present strength, and would
be still unable to resist the force, the smugglers on this path could |
bring against it. From the account these peons give of the fever
at Attripully, Iam inclined to think that though appearances are
in favour of its being as unhealthy as a dense bamboo jungle could
be, it is not by any means so bad as might be imagined; and our

experience teaches that no one can say, except from actual trial,
what are, and what are not, the spots where fatal fever may be
found. Of the four peons stationed here, one was said to be ab-
sent with an attack of fever then; but it may very well have
been that he was busy cooking for a smuggler’s party or doing
a little business in the trade himself. One man in four aftera
four months’ residence is not so very bad a bill of health, consi-
dering how the men are housed, even supposing (what was most

86 Journal of an Expedition [no. 3, NEW SERIES,

improbable) that their tale was true. Indeed from all I heard at
Malliatoor about the fever, the forests on this side are not so dan-
gerous as those particular jungles of Malabar, which we consider
really fatal. It is true people talked of fever and men are said
occasionally to die of it; but still it is not dreaded like the Car-
coor fiend, or that awful pest at Bowally. And were Ito make
this trip again, I would not hesitate to spend a night at Attripully.

At this place the Codacherry river takes a sharp bend, and a }
of a mile above the turn there is a very pretty fall of 60 or 70 feet
in height, very picturesque even now, when the water in the river
is at its minimum. There is a specimen here of the effect of peb-
bles lodging where the rock is somewhat soft, and by the action
of the water wearing holes into the river’s bed, many feet in depth.
The whole bed of the stream is perforated in this manner both
above and below the falls; and several of the pits, after working
down some fifteen feet, have broken throughand left a flat arch
of rock spanning five yards or more, with a large open space be-
neath, through which one branch of the river flows. This rill
leaves the main stream by one of these tubular perforations and
then passes below the rocky arch. It is altogether a curious spot
and very picturesque. We stopped here two hours to rest and
breakfast ; and an addition was made to our party of two of the
watching peons, come by orders of the Malliatoor Ameen to learn
the road, and keep the information we obtained, for the use of any
one who should wish to try the path hereafter.

The peons seemed terrified on hearing what they had to do,
though one can hardly fancy why men living as these were, in a
hut built in the branches of a bamboo bush, deep in a jungle full

-

of elephants, should fear a change so trifling in their home, as.

they would find with us. But so it is; beyond this point they
had never been, and they dreaded the unknown as much as if
they had never left the pavement of a gas lit town.

As we gained the summit of one low hill upon our line of
march, the guide pointed to the flat surface of the rock upon the
right hand side and said ‘“* Many years ago a Christian Bishop was
killed upon that stone.”

gS gee ie fz fees 3

y.
m6

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] over the Annamullay Mountains. 87

He did not know the name or nation of the man who died there,
but seemed to have some reverence for the spot and spoke of the
murder as a martyrdom.

Our road to this had been due north, or nearly so, and by our
reckoning we had travelled 103 miles. We now turned to east,
north east, and left the river, though by the printed map the
stream flows very parallel to the course we took. The path was
well trodden all the way, and there were fresh notches on the trees
showing that the smuggler had passed it the day before. This
plan of notching the trees as they pass along must have been
adopted by the smugglers when the path was less open than it is
at present; for the road is now so clear that a horseman might
eanter along the whole of it. The traces of elephants though seen
everywhere, were none of them very recent, proving beyond doubt —
that we were not near the banks of the large river. This had
one advantage that it saved us from the risk we had run in rid-
ing to Attripully, of going when we least expected it, into well
secreted pitfalls; which here and there, so completely “ opened”
the road to all that came, that we had cause to doubt from step to
step the ground our horses trod upon. The pitfalls are of course
dug where the elephants most frequent the forest, and at this
season, as the minor rivulets are dry, their haunts are by the larg-
est streams. After riding five miles we came upon a heap of .
teak timber, which had been cut a few years ago by the Cochin
Cirear, and left there, after they gave up working the forests. Now
this, our guide, said was cut in a place called Nelliampoyd, but
where that was he did not know. This was bad news, in one res-
pect, for it showed me beyond a doubt that if I followed him I was
not to go the path I wished most to see, that which led west
of Annamullay. There was however, nothing to be done, the
guide knew one way only, and that of course led to where tobacco
was grown in greatest abundance east of the town of Annamul.-
lay.

In the first part of our ride there was a sad want of water, and
when the trees did not meet over head, the heat was excessive ;
but where the shade was good, the temperature was most agreea-

8& Journal of an Expedition [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

ble. From the absence of nullahs, we appeared to be following
a ridge, and the direction was due east.

The path continued very level till we had travelled about 52
miles; when we began the ascent of a hill called by our guide
Sholamooddy. The first ascent, which was at a slope of about
6 or 7 to one, occupied a quarter of an hour, after which, the rise was
gradual for one mile and a half; the whole height being perhaps
350 feet. After turning the summit of this we descended rather
rapidly for a few minutes, and came to the river which was reckoned
upon as the end of our first day’s march; if we were to be three
days in getting through; and the coolies had been preparing me
for a halt by complaining of fatigue. But I was to be saved a day
in a way I least expected. As we reached the nullah the guide
came running back with his hand over his mouth, and said ina
whisper that the place was occupied by a gang of smugglers, which
frightened the coolies out of their fatigue at once. Isent the
guide on to tell the smugglers that I did not want to see them, and
if they did not wish for a meeting, they had better get into the
jungle out of sight; which they did, leaving one man at the -
edge of the wood to see, I suppose, what sort of party we were
and what we did with the loads they had left. To my delight
the coolies now pressed on; I counted the loads of 30 men, but
had no further communication with the party. After two miles
more, we came upon a small stream, and the guide reported another
gang. These men all left the ground but one, who was the leader
of the party, a fine manly looking Nair who evidently had too
much at stake to be easily intimidated. The tobacco to the amount
of about 30 loads was in heaps undergoing the operation of sort-
ing, and was very lately gathered, much too wet to smoke, and acrid

enough to have cured the most inveterate Virginian of his love of

chewing. My coolies however could not overcome their taste for
pilfering, and seeing that the smuggler was on peaceful terms
with us, they began to rob the heaps, but this I put a stop to, and
bought a bundle of the nastiness to satisfy them all; putting myself
on a footing with the smuggler chief, and bringing myself under the
Cochin Code, within the reach of section this, of regulation that.

APRIL—JUNE1857.] — over the Annamullay Mountains. 89

After a conversation with this man for some few minutes, we
moved again, and very shortly began a long and steep ascent call-
ed Kurridy Kutum (alias Bear bank). This occupied us an hour
and forty minutes, and was the highest hill we had met with.
On the top of this, we had the first clear view, and very beautiful
it was. We were on the edge of a spur, with a deep and narrow
ravine on the left, and on our right there was a wide gorge with
bold hills on either side, anda low but broad and picturesque
water-fall lighted up the dark and otherwise unbroken forest.

From the end of this spur we descended by a path almost as
steep as could be climbed about as many feet, as we ascended by
Kurridy Kutum. At the foot of this we found a fine river, with
a large and deep pool of the most brilliantly clear water. This
river is known to the smugglers by the name of the Oracumbum,
and it is evidently one of the main branches of the Coadacherry
river.

Here we were to halt for the night, and if it were not that no
one in these jungles can feel sure that he is not breathing poison,
a traveller could not wish a more delightful resting place. I be-
lieve in most cases it is advisable to drink as little as possible of the
water that is found in these very dense jungles, but this was too
tempting and too delicious to be resisted, and if we were incautious
in swallowing a large quantity of this beautiful stream, I made up
for it in some degree by giving a pinch of quinine to every one of
the party and taking the same myself.

Nothing could be more suitable for a bivouac than the spot we
had chosen, a bed of high reeds grew along the river’s bank, af-
fording shelter from the wind which blew up the stream most
agreeably for the evening meal; but rather too chilly for comfort
or safety in the heavy dew of night. I hada cot with me which
I Sir Humphry Davyed by musquito curtains; and as some luxu-
rious smuggler had made himself a bower by tying the head of the
tall reeds together, I borrowed his lodging for the night and had
the snuggest lair imaginable.

There was very little conversation going on after the sun set, or

90... Journal of an Expedition [nNo. 3, NEW SERIES,

if there was, I slept too well to be disturbed by it. I heard no
sound till about 10 o’clock when I was awakened by a shout and
all the people calling out that there were elephants close by, I
left my cot and joined the people on the rocks in the bed of the
river, but the only sound I could hear, was the rushing of the
stream. Iwas as angry as people are who leave their beds so
hurriedly, and to pacify my wrath, a man got up a herd of Bison
on the other bank, where not a leaf was moving. This fancy pic-
ture did not take up our attention long, for the real cause of the
alarm was close at hand, to set our doubts at rest. The trumpet
of an elephant was heard within some twenty yards of us. The
people shouted, and I fired my gun, aiming (now I think of it) in
the direction cf the noise, as if I had a hope my ball would go di-
rectly down the throat of the intruder. This did not move the
beast, but a handful of dry leaves upon the embers of our bivouac
fire sent up a blaze sufficient to alarm him, and we saw him move
away, with most unsporting satisfaction. The elephant had come
by a path parallel to the river bed, and when the first noise startled
him, he must have stopped, and remained quite motionless ; for
where he stood was close upon my writer’s cot and within five
yards of mine, the reeds we slept in being so thick we could not
see him through them. It was a merciful escape for both of us.
We placed our cots upon the open rocks for more security, and had
no further interruption to ourslumbers. The smuggler guide gave
us a reason for the visit paid us that elephants were in the habit
of frequenting halting places to eat the ashes left from the travel-
lers’ fires ; a wholesome practice doubtless, for after eating acrid
leaves by waggon loads, it must be just as well to fake a bucket
full of potash now and then.

The position of this halting place is what would be called un-
doubtedly feverish, but from the account the smuggler gave me, it _

appears that with the exception of the northern edges of the An- —
namullays, there is very little fever in the jungle any where. This
if true, is a most curious fact, as in denseness and confined posi- .
tions it has all that suits our notions of “ malaria.”

The want of torches, and the elephants supposed to be on our .

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] over the Annamullay Mountains. 91

line of march, obliged us to remain till daylight. At six we start-
ed, but half an hour was lost in finding where the ponies could get
over. The river being formed of blocks almost square, with spaces
between them one foot or so broad, and from two to four feet deep
the most dangerous footing possible for horses; but favored here
again we got over without accident, and were clear of the reeds on
the river bank by half-past six.

The country we travelled through from this point is undulating,
and the forest, like the generality of what we traversed yesterday,
of fine trees with thick underwood. The soil rich, and the air in
the shade cool and pleasant. The direction of our march was from
east to north east, and the trees had all the fresh marks of the
smuggler’s knife till we had travelled an hour and thirty-five mi-
nutes at the rate of three miles an hour, at this point a path ran to |
the eastward, but the guide had doubts as to our horses being
able to descend a pass to which it led. This pass is called the Ka-
la Kumama; leaving this track we turned to the N. E. and had no
longer the fresh knife marks on the road side. The path however,
was well defined, and is evidently used by smugglers on some occa-
sions.

We saw here the first teak we met with, and the forest belongs
I believe to the Cochin State. At half-past eight, we halted fora
few minutes on the banks of the Yeddapara, a considerable river,
of indifferent water, about 24 feet deep where we forded it. This
stream was very unlike in character to the Oracumbum, and be-
spoke a more level country. The bed being sandy and the current
slow. This water runs to the westward, like all that we have
hitherto crossed, showing that we had still to turn the highest
ground of the range. The underwood here is chiefly young bam-
boo from the seed, which by my guide’s account has been in the
ground about 9 or 10 years. The age at which the bamboo flowers,
seeds, and dies, 13 very differently given, but it cannot be less, I
believe, than 30 years. IJ have seen several jungles of this plant
come to maturity and die, but till now I have had no opportunity
of seeing the crop rising again from seed. <A great extent of bam-
boo jungle at the foot of the Koondah ghaut died down four years

92 Journal of an Expedition [no. 3, NEW SERIES,

ago, and three years passed without any appearance of the fresh
plants. This year I have not examined the ground, but from this
man’s account, and the size of the plants in this locality, I am in-
clined to think, that the seed does not germinate for several years.

About 12 miles north of the Yeddapara we came upon the
first glade we had seen since leaving Malliatoor. This break in the
jungle is covered with waving grass, and scattered trees, itis about
+ of a mile in the broadest part, and extends nearly a mile. The
soil is moist, and it is trampled by elephants and bison in every
direction; a sounder of hogs crossed our path in this glade, the
only game of any sort we had met with, except the solitary elephant
at the Oracumbum river. Asa general thing, the deep forests of
the western coast give shelter to very few animals, and this the
broadest belt of forest I have crossed, appears to have less than
any; elephants seem to have almost sole possession of the Anna-
mullays. Their tracks are to be seen every where, and though
we saw so little of their recent traces, it is to be accounted for, by
our path leading us along low ridges too dry for them, at this
season, and not to their scarcity in the hills, for every single tree
by the way side, which was of sufficient strength to bear the pres-
sure, was covered with. the mud that had been rubbed from their
backs during the monsoon when they can find water every where
and wander where they will.

The teak as we advanced, became the principal tree of the
forest, and the growth is superb, far exceeding any thing now
left in the district of Malabar. At half past 10 we came upon a
strong party of men working for Mr. Gardiner and Gooroobucksing,
two Palghat timber merchants, who, asI understand their workmen,
are now cutting up and carrying away by permission of Govern-
ment some teak which was felled here several years ago, when the
jungle was supposed to belong to the Colungode Rajah, but which
has since been claimed as British property. The facts of this case I
am not acquainted with, and if I were, it is no concern of mine; I
cannot however, on the plea of its being out of my own division
allow to pass unnoticed, the wasteful manner in which this most
valuable forest is worked; but I must preface what I have to say

APRIL—JUNE1857.] — over the Annamullay Mountains. 93

by stating, that I have no acquaintance with the workin g of Teak
forests, nor any knowledge as to the terms upon which this timber
has been purchased by those engaged in its removal; and my re-
marks if they are of any value, can only be so by leading to an en-
quiry as to what are, and what ought to be, the means adopted for
saving to the utmost this most invaluable wood.

The jungle in which this Teak is cut is the most magnificent
forest I have ever seen, in any country, for the straightness and
height of the trees, as well as for their enormous girth. Those
which have been felled vary in size from two feet in diameter to
four, five and even six. Their growth in general is more like the
American pine than the oak, as they have clear branchless stems
of great length anda spreading head. The underwood is now
burnt, as it is I believe each year, and every stem may be examin- -
ed, as well as if it were lying in a timber yard.

As I rode through the forest in a direct line to save time, and
avoid if possible another night in the hills without shelter I could
only judge of what was doing, by what happened to fall in my
way, but that was quite sufficient to show me, that five-sixths
at least of this magnificent timber was totally lost. The order
given to the wood-cutters is to send down planks of the fol-
lowing dimensions ;* and the wood which is not suitable for cutting

to that measurement, is abandoned to be burnt with the under-

wood, in the next dry season. The people receiving these instruc-
tions seem to consider their work done well, when they procure in
a certain number of days, a certain number of planks, without the
slightest reference to the number of trees expended in procuring
them. ‘They are furnished with axes only, and (whether by the
timber merchants’ permission or not, Iam unable to say,) they save
their labour with axe, as much as they are able by the use of fire.
In the hurried view I had of the work it appeared that the length

oy

POG, Biv Lan, In.
Ou eK Ag
Dowiezeny Dunia LEE wise Ae
20 el ulOd xa 8h
Le deren 82 x 3h

94 Journal of an Expedition [no. 3, NEW SERIES,

required for the first class plank was cut out of the stem, where it
could be got with the least amount of labour which of course was
at the sacrifice of the thicker part of the butt. To bring the timber
into shape it is squared in some cases with the axe only, but in
many others, it is chopped in notches, so that a fire being placed
along the side, a flat face is given it by burning off the outer surface.
Many whole trees seem to be lost by this process, and I should
think that the timber saved was materially injured by the operation,
as the heat must destroy much of that essential oil on which the
durability of teak seems so materially to depend. The timber has
now to be cut into planks by the axe, and it will not be difficult
to imagine how much wood must be cut to waste before this is
effected, even if care were taken to economize it. The space
between the planks is at least as broad as the planks themselves
namely six inches; and in splitting them off, numbers are so much
injured as to be unfit to send out ofthe forest. I saw the remains of
one of these trees that was said to have yielded about 6 or 7 planks,
which, with asaw, would have beencutinto 15; and this statement
of 6 or 7 appeared to be merely a guess of what would have been
considered a good number to be procured from such a stem; in-
cluding those which were split and useless. The butt of this tree
which was abandoned was of the following dimensions.

In addition to this, the head of about the same length is left upon
the ground, and both will probably be burnt when the jungle is on
fire during the next dry season.

Whether the forests worked on account of Government are wast-
ed in this reckless way or not I cannot say, but even if the same
means are used, with every possible care, the loss must still be some-
thing enormous, and when I see that so great importance is attach-

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] over the Annamullay Mountains. 95

ed fo the economizing of teak, that a regulation of Government for-
bids the cutting of trees under a certain girth, I feel sure thatIlam
not writing uselessly in calling attention to this reckless waste.

I passed through no other fine teak forests belonging to the Bri-
tish Cirear, but if Iam correctly informed, this belt extends to the
eastward, and the value of the timber within the Company’s terri-
tory is immense. If such is the case, not one tree of teak should be
cut, till some European officer of intelligence has carefully examin-
ed the extent and position of these most precious forests, and the
best means are suggested for working them. But whoever under-
takes this will have to give his undivided attention to the work for
many months, as at present the hills are quite unknown except to
the wild people who inhabit them; and the smugglers, and Mop-
lah wood cutters, who want no change in the forest management.

Should the Company’s forests be as valuable as I am told they
are, they deserve immediate attention. The timber of the Anna-
mullays, is evidently at its full growth, and loss of time in cutting
will cause a clear loss of money. I would therefore recommend
some suitable person being sent to the hills with instructions to
enquire into the best means of cutting and transporting the timber,
the most advantageous size for moving it with reference to the ex-
pense of carriage when compared with its liability to injury if re-
duced to too small dimensions, and also whatextent of forest there
is, that an estimate may be formed of the capital it would be advisa-
ble to sink for opening roads, erecting saw mills, &c. &c. &c.

With regard to the best means of removing timber, I am of
opinion that such a road might be opened through the Annamul-
lay hills, as would admit of very heavy timber being taken through
them on wheel carriages. The streams which all flow to the west-
ward could be turned to account for its conveyance, when the fall
is not too rapid, and if it was found advisable to use machinery for
sawing the same streams would afford the power for working it.

To work these forests with inefficient means, or let them to per-
sons with small capital and no scientific knowledge, on terms which
make the value of the timber wasted no consideration, Is a sacrifice

96 Journal of an Expedition [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

of all but a trifling portion of the Annamullay teak; and a loss
of what in a few years money will not purchase.

A road from the southern Talooks of Coimbatore to Cochin
would be of the greatest importance to that district, and do more
for the port than any other improvement that could be suggested.
It appears very probable also that on enquiry it will be found, that
by opening a pass into the teak forests from the low country of
Coimbatore, the same communication continued to the westward
will serve both to lead the produce of Poolachy and Odamulla-
cottah by a direct line to water carriage, and take this vast amount
of timber to Cochin.

A road for timber, on which it would be necessary to move very
great weights, should, I imagine, differ in one respect from the line
which would be opened for general traffic. The slightest ascents
should be avoided at some sacrifice of distance, but from the
nature of the country I explored, and the gradual fall in the rivers
I crossed, Iam inclined to think that the road opened for the
heavier timber carriages would answer well enough for-other traffic,
bringing the produce of the southern Talooks of Coimbatore with-
in 70 miles of water carriage and little more than 100 of the port
of Cochin.

From the teak forest I descended into the plain of Coimbatore
by a pass opened for the transport of timber, and after riding 15
miles arrived at Annamullay soon after dark.

The distance we passed over, since leaving Malliatoor, calculated
by time with a careful memorandum of the rate at which we
moved is 57 miles; of which 53 are through an unbroken jungle.
This would in most parts of my division be 53 miles of danger
from fever, but here I really think the danger is very trifling. At

Malliatoor (which at a distance has the character of being feverish) a

I found very little fear of deadly fever in the neighbouring forest.
The smugglers declared to me that they did not suffer from it,
although the greater part of them are coolies hired for the occasion

and not at all acclimatized. The first I heard of fever, was on the_ 3

side of Coimbatore where the people cutting timber had in the
last few days begun to suffer from it,

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] over the Annamullay Mountains. 97

I had no means of ascertaining the height to which I ascended
in crossing thése hills, but my impression is that I was never more
than 1,200 feet above the sea.

The smugglers at the Annamullays are more dreaded by the peo-
ple of the neighbouring country than either the fever, or the wild
beasts, which are usually the great cause of alarm to those who
pass through the jungles of Malabar. In number they are formi-
dable no doubt. I fell in with 60 in two gangs, and I believe that
I did not see more than the average ofa day at this season. Onthe
second day I left their principal track, but I heard of their having
passed in considerable numbers. They carry no arms, but slings, and
the bambooon which they occasionally rest their loads; and have evi-
dently, from the reputation for ferocity they keep upon policy, andthe
nature of the country they traverse, little or no use for weapons of
any kind. Nairs, Teers and Moplahs are all concerned in this trade,
and if appears that a certain number of the latter are engaged with
each gang, as a protection against the parties of that race which
may be met with on the road. My Teer guide informed me that
without them, a gang of his caste might very probably be attack-
ed by one of Moplahs. My guide was a Teer, but the Nairs
seem to be more generally the leaders of parties, and many of each
gang are men hired for the occasion, who receive five per cent. of
the tobacco as their hire. It is evident that men of capital in the
open country are the leaders in the trade, and men of superior in-
telligence and daring do business with them as the heads of gangs,
each having with him a certain number of men in whom he can
trust. From the statements given to me by the smugglers, their
profit is about cent per cent. on a trip which occupies eight days.
They buy of course at a higher rate than the Sirear and sell it at a
very much lower price. A cooly earns from 2 to 3 Rupees ina
trip, according to the load he carries, and the luck he has in sell.
ing the bundles he receives as his hire.

The only inhabitants of the hills are, I believe, a quiet harmless
race of people, who live without houses, but assemble in consider-
able numbers in the spot which suits them as a residence for the
day or month. I was led to hope that I should see two or three

98 Journal of an Expedition [NO. 3, NEW SERIES,

hundred families on the banks of the Oracumbum, but I did not, as
it chanced, fall in with any.

It was a great disappointment to me to see nothing of this wild
race, who like the tribes that inhabit the mountain regions of the
world in general, are in all human probability the first possessors
of the plains. They have been fugitives from the invader of their
country, too proud it may be, to bear the slavery they were threat-
ened with: and contented rather to brave the miseries of the pre-
viously untrodden forest, than to take the place of menials to their
conquerors. This well-founded supposition gives a peculiar inter-
est to the people of the forest every where; and if the accounts of
the ‘ Kader tribe” are true, they have, after an unknown length
of time passed in banishment from all that civilized man considers
the commonest necessaries of life, still retained some of the finest
feelings the human race can boast of.

Since writing the diary from which this abstract is made, I have
had some intercourse with the wild people of the Annamullays, and
my acquaintance with them enables me to bear witness to their
many good and agreeable qualities. They are gentle in their man-
ners, kind and courteous, and always ready to help the stranger
who meets them in their forest. And if the shelter they have to
offer is but indifferent, their hospitality is greater in proportion to
their means, than that of more civilized races; for they will at any
moment, and in any spot, build a new house for the travellers, and
furnish it completely.

The little houses built on such occasions, are curious specimens
of simple ingenuity. They are made entirely of twigs and leaves
and grass; and there is not a stick in them an inch in diameter,
Light straight wands are stuck in the ground, enclosing a space
about 10 feet by 6. The sticks which are to help in forming the
sides of the house are about 5 feet high, while the two which are

to support the ridge of the roof may be 7 feet in length. Cross .

sticks are tied by strips of bark to support the uprights, and form
a network for holding the leaves or grass which is to form the wall.
The roof has gable ends, and is composed like the sides, of cross

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] over the Annamullay Mountains. 99

sticks tied together with some of the fibrous barks which seem al-
ways to be at hand.

The roof is of leaves, teak leaves being preferred when they can
be had. These are laid on like tiles, and as it appears to me they
only stay there because their friends the Kaders wish it. It is true
that in these dense forests the wind is little felt; but if an Engi-
neer staked his credit upon such a roof, I am perfectly certain that
neither his person nor his character would have a square inch to
shelter under. The thickness of the roof and walls could not be
one quarter of an inch, and the whole material of a house would not
be considered a load for the feeblest old woman who picks up sticks
to boil her kettle with.

I lived in huts of this kind with my friend Mr. Michael when we
were eXamining the forests, and spent many days in them during
the S. W. monsoon when there was constant rain. I will not say
that these dwellings were altogether water-tight; but the roof
being within reach as we lay upon our beds, we could always with
the point of our fingers slip the leaves that were out of place into
their right position, and stop the leaks that troubled us.

The furniture of these little houses consisted of a bed-stead, and
if required, atable. Both were made by sticking stakes into the
ground and tying sticks across, so that a plank or mat might rest
upon them; but as planks and mats were not always at hand, the
surface of the table or bedstead was formed from a thick bamboo.
The Kader holding it with one end resting on the ground, slash-
ed round each joint, driving his bill-hook lengthwise into the bam-
boo. When this had been done round every knot and joint, a cut
down one side of the bamboo laid it open, and it flattened out and
formed a strong and elastic mat (if it may be so called,) admirably
adapted to support the bedding. Each of these was about 18 inches
broad, and two were more than sufficient for a single bed, where
such sleep was to be hadas we found in our Annamullay wanderings.

One of the characteristics of the Kader was always said to be
his love of truth and so we found it on an acquaintance; although
on one occasion our faith in it was somewhat shaken; when seek-

100 Journal of an Expedition [no. 3, NEW SERIES,

ing for information as to a line of boundary, a man of one Kader
tribe stood upon a rock, and looking to the dark cloud overhanging
us, wished that the lightning might strike him to the earth if that
was not within Ais range of forest; and on his leaving the slab of
stone another man as earnest in his manner and as wild in gesture,
stood on the self-same spot and called the flash to settle the dis-
puted point by smiting him if he was not within his own tribe’s
limits. It was difficult to reconcile these counter statements; but

it was probably a point that had been fought for from the earliest
time.

The Kaders do not cultivate but live much on the roots and
fruits the jungle yields spontaneously. They do however obtain
grain and cotton cloth by barter with the people of the plains,
which they pay for in wild ginger, turmeric, bees-wax and gums
of different kinds. The mention of bees-wax calls to my recollec-
tion a conversation that astonished me not alittle. At the time
it passed, we were looking at some cliffs in the deep forest about
800 feet in height, against the face of which where reared bamboos
with the branches so cut off that they left an inch or two to rest
the foot upon, and thus formed simple ladders, not altogether easy
to use by the uninitiated because being single sticks they turn
round under the weight of those who climb them ; but these were
Kader staircases, and the use they made of them was most asto-
nishing. By means of these bamboos raised from ledge to ledge,
the wall of rock was gained step by step, and where the cliff over-
hung, the ladder was tied by twisted bark so as to bear the climber’s
weight. It was a marvel how they got the bamboos to the ledges
that supported them; but when I asked the little man who led me
through the forest how, after they had got the ladder in position,
they could take the combs from the bees that with their vigorous
attacks had driven us from the summit of the cliff the day before, he
began his story by saying “‘ We wait till there is no moon, and take
the darkest night.’”? Imagine the nerve required for that.

These little dwarfish people file their front teeth into points, to
facilitate their eating the hardest roots. There is some nerve shown
in this too, and we may look with wonder and respect upon the

; : :
, i a Ae j
=“ aay 4 ad . 7

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] over the Annamullay Mountains. 101

exiled lords of the ancient land, when we see that rather than
serve those who usurped the country they chuse to live where the
food was beyond their natural powers, and could be eaten only by
such a preparation of their teeth. It is possible that in the ab-
sence of better arms they reckoned upon these pointed teeth as
Weapons in case their conquerors should follow them to their
mountain home.

I must say a few words as to the consequences of this short ex-
cursion in the Annamullays. As itso happened that in 1847 the
Coimbatore district was taken within the limits of my range as
Civil Engineer of the 7th Division, the Government offered to place
means at my disposal for working the forests on the public account,
This I did on being allowed to select Lieut. Michael of the 39th Regt.
as the Executive Officer. Mr. Michael undertook the work, and
carried it out with great energy. The saving in the cost of teak
timber has been very considerable; and although it has not been
found practicable to substitute the saw for the axe in the prepa-
ration of the planks used in ship building; there has not been that
reckless waste which characterized the working of the forest for-
merly.

One good effect of Lieut. Michael’s labors in the hills has been

the emancipation of the hill people from those who rented the

wild products of the jungles, and had the monopoly of all that
was brought out of them for barter. This monopoly led to the
Kaders being in a state of dependence upon any low country
shopkeeper who offered the highest rent for the year. And it may
be supposed that under such circumstances they had but an indif-
ferent market for the produce of their labor, while cultivation on
their own account was strictly forbidden by the renters.

Mr. Thomas, the Collector of Coimbatore, availing himself of the
presence of Mr. Michael in the hills, obtained the sanction of Go-
vernment for his being invested with the powers of a Magistrate
and the discontinuance of the renting system; and thus gave the
Kaders freedom either to cultivate or trade, and to dispose of their
products to those who offered them the best price.

102 Selections. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

I wish I could add to this very favorable change in-the state of
the Annamullays, that it was no longer the resort of smugglers, but
unfortunately the Native States of Travancore and Cochin have not
yet followed the liberal policy of the British Government in sacri-
ficing the profits of the Tobacco Monopoly to the moral well-being
of the people. |

SELECTIONS.
New Cinghalese Plants.
Nod:

We now proceed to avail ourselves of the permission accorded
to us by Mr. Thwaites* to republish the new Plants discovered by
him, in the Island of Ceylon and contributed to the Kew Miscellany.

The two following plants occur in Vol. IV. page 1, of that valu-
able and interesting publication,

The first of the two is a new species of an already established
genus. Epicarpurus, one of the group of BATIE& which after hay-
ing been included among the EupHoRBIACEs® has now been rightly
transferred to the natural family of UrticaAcEa. The BATIEz are
well represented in Southern India by Batis spinosa of Roxburgh,
common in the N. Circars under the name of Gorati or Koriti;
Epicarpurus ortentalis (Trophis spinosa Roxb.) Telugu name, Stta-
nica; and Trophis aspera frequent in all parts of-the Carnatic, in
Telugu Barinika, in Tamil Puraya. Tothe same group also belong
the celebrated cow tree of the Caraceas, Galactodendron utile or Palo
de Vaca of Humboldt and the Jamaica bread-nut tree, Brosimum
Alicastrum, Sw.

The Indian congeners also abound in a milky juice but it does not
seem to be turned to any economical purpcese, except in the case
of Zrophis aspera, the juice of which is sometimes mixed with cow’s
milk and heated to cause it to curdle. Its leaves are employed as
a polishing agent by workers in ivory. W. E:

* Journal Vol I. p. 283-4, Proceedings of March 12, 1857.

oS

uv

Y
Doe!
Ms

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] New Cinghalese Plants. 103

On two new Plants, EPICARPURUS ZEYLANICA and DooNa ZEYLA-
wica, found in Ceylon; by G. H. W. Tuwatrtzs, Esa., Director
of the Botanic Garden of Peradenia.

EPicaARPuRUS ZEYLANICA, Thw.

Frutex ramosus, foliis subrhombeo-lanceolatis acuminatis glabris
remote spinuloso-serratis, floribus masculis dense capitatis, capi-
tulis oblongis, foemineis racemosis, pedicellis apice incrassatis fruc-
tiferis valde elongatis.

A shrub or small ree, eight or ten feet high, sparingly spinose,
much branched; the extremities of the young branches with a
few short scattered hairs. Bark dark brown, somewhat rugose.
Leaves smooth, flaccid, lanceolate or rhomboido-lanceolate, serrated,
one and a half to two inches and three-quarters long, by three-
quarters to one inch wide, tapering towards the slightly hairy very
short petiole, with glandular puncta very minute and numerous.
MALE INFLORESCENCE pale yellow; anthers nearly round, with a
sreen spot on the back ; bracts small, inconspicuous, Sepals mem-
branous, obtuse. FEMALE INFLORESCENCE: flowers green, on
rather long pedicels; sepals acute. St:gmas with brown villi on
their inner face.

The male of the species just described bears a considerable re-
semblance to J/orus, and might easily be mistaken for a member
of that genus, but it will be seen that the structure of the female
plant differs essentially from that of Morus.

The ovule in this plant, which at first merely causes a slight
protuberance on one side of the ovary during its development forces
itself out of it, as it were, and at last occupies the summit of the
flower having pushed the upper part of the ovary with the stigmas
on one side. It then has the appearance of a naked seed seated
upon an enlarged receptacle.

The Peradenia Herbarium contains another species of the genus,
allied to the above, but differing in its more rigid habit; the
branches, which are of a pale ash-colour, all terminating in spines.
The young male inflorescence differs too in being enclosed in rather
large brown scaly bracts ; and, in the only specimen of the female

104 Selecitons. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

plant I have seen, the sepals are large -and leaf-like, completely
covering the fruit. (It is probably Zrophis spinosa, Roxb.—Epicar-
purus Timorensis, Dene.) Thwaites.

We are indebted to Dr. Arnott for the following notes on the
genus Epicarpurus and its allies :—

Blume, in his Bijdr., p. 488, has established the genus Epicar-
purus for a plant he calls #. orientalis, and for which he cites
Rheede, Hort. Mal., vol. i. t. 43; this last is universally allowed
to be Zrophis aspera. Blume, in the edition I possess, and the
only one I ever heard of, gives us no information as to the relative
size of the two cotyledons; but M. Decaisne, in his ‘ Herb Timo-
rensis Descriptio,’ p. 171, says, ‘‘M. Blume.indique, dans son
Bijdragen, les cotylédons de son Epicarpurus comme tant inégaux.”
In the Z. Timorensis, which Decaisne describes and figures in that
‘memoir, the cotyledons are represented unequal, but he adds that in ~
“ Trophis aspera, Wall. L, n. 4,640,” the cotyledons are foliaceous

and equal.

I do not know precisely what plant M. Decaisne had before him,
but in all that I have examined under the name or similitude of 7.
aspera, the cotyledons are nearly as described by Roxburgh in his
Flor. Ind. vol. iii. p. 761, and represented in a drawing in the
E. I. C. Museum, tab. 118, viz., ‘ cotyledons two, very unequal,
the largest being nineteen-twentieths of the whole embryo, and
one side divided half-way through into two lobes: the small cotyledon
is hid between the lobes of the larger one.” If M. Decaisne has, from
its smallness, overlooked the one cotyledon, and mistaken the two
lobes of the greater one for two equal cotyledons, the difference be-
tween his, Roxburgh’s and my observations will be accounted for.
At all events, I consider that Z. aspera (and so marked is that
species that I have seen no other confounded withit) must be held
as the type of Epicarpurus of Blume.

In his ‘ Bijdragen,’ p. 507, Blume suggests that his Urtica spt-
nosa is another species of Hpicarpurus: Decaisne adds E. Timoren-
sis, and says that Albrandia of Gaudichaud also belongs to it. Gau-
dichaud’s character of Albrandia, in Freycinet’s Voy. p. 709, is too

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] New Cinghalese Plants. 105

imperfect to permit me either to affirm or deny this, and I have seen
no specimens; but all the species with which I am acquainted,
either by specimens or figures, are furnished with thorns and smooth
leaves, except the original species (Zrophis aspera): in all, except
it, the ovary undergoes an unequal development, the side to which
the ovule is attached enlarging more rapidly than the opposite one;
so that the style, which at first is at the apparent as well as real
apex of the ovary, appears at length lateral, and the ovule becomes
more elevated than the base of the style.

The original and genuine species of Epicarpurus scarcely exhi-
bits any tendency to this kind of resupination, and has no spines.
To the spinous section I refer Trophis spinosa, Roxb. FI. Ind. vol.
ili. p. 762 (7. taxzformrs, Hook. et Arn. in Bot. Beech. Voy. p. 215,
or 7. taxoides, Roxb. in HE. I. C. Mus. tab. 120, and in Roth, Nov.
Sp. p. 368), Epicarpurus Timorensis, Dene., which scarcely differs
as a species, unless characters not alluded to in the description and
figure can be derived from the specimens, and a Ceylon species,
from Mr. Thwaites, lately submitted to my inspection, in which the
perianth of the female flower does not seem to enlarge with and at
length conceal the fruit, in that respect resembling more the ge-
nuine Hpicarpurus, while the foliage and fruit are those of the spu-
rious group. All these have the female flowers solitary or nearly
so, and the males in globular heads or very short nearly globular
racemes; but if there be no mistake in Blume’s work, his Trophis
spinosa has the flowers spicate (at least his generic character indi-
eates this), and his short description of Urtica spinosa seems to in-
dicate the same structure.

Epicarpurus microphyllus, Raoul in Ann. Sc. Nat. ser. 8. vol. ii.

p. 117, and Choix de Pl. Nouv. Zelande, p. 14. t. 8, has the male
flowers in bracteated spikes or rather catkins, and the female as in

Epicarpurus orientalis, but the embryo is described “ cotyledonibus

conduplicatis equalibus plicatis foliaceis.”’ Raoul adds, “ Notre

Epicarpurus microphyllus appartient bien au genre ow je l’ai classé

par forme de ses cotylédons : les Trophis ont les cotyledons charnus
ef trés inégaux, tandis que dans la plante qui nous occupe ils sont

chiffonnés et foliacés.’’ Were the only difference between Zrophis

106 Selections. [wo. 3, NEW SERIES,

and Epicarpurus to consist in the proportion of the cotyledons, I
fear that they must be again united: in Hpicarpurus the cotyledons
are often thick, but they are constantly folded and crumpled. Of
the Trophis Americana,* which is the type of the genus Trophis,
I have not examined the seed, nor does M. Trecul (Ann. Sc. Nat.
ser. 8. vol. vill, p. 147) describe it; but there are abundant marks
of distinction in the spicate inflorescence and tubular perianth.

Trophis and Hpicarpurus both belong to the Moree as charac-
terized by Trecul, the stamens being inflexed during estivation.

In Trecul’s memoir alluded to, an error occurs as to Zrophis
spinosa, Roxb. This I have said is one of the thorny species of
Epicarpurus, and almost identical with Z. Timorensis of Decaisne,
as every one must acknowledge who reads attentively Roxburgh’s
description (Flor. Ind. vol. iii. p. 762); but Trecul refers it
(p. 128) to Cudrania Javanensis, a plant belonging tohis Artocarpee,
having the female flowers in dense capitula, arranged in umbels,
and with a simple style. In this he has been, perhaps, misled by
Blume, who, in his ‘ Bijdragen,’ p. 489, appears to have described
a species of Cudrania (probably C. obovata, Trec.) under the name
of Trophis spinosa, Roxb. Indeed Roxburgh himself may have led
others astray, the plant to which he gave the manuscript name of
Trophis spinosa at an early period of his botanical career, and under
which he deposited a drawing in the E. I. C. Museum (tab. 119),
and which name was adopted by Willdenow, never having been
published by him as such: in fact, his manuscript 7. spinosa, and
consequently the 7. spinosa of Willd. Sp. Pl. vol. iv. p. 734, is the
Batis spinosa of the ‘ Flora Indica’ (vol. iii. p. 762); noris 7. acu-
leata, Roth, Sp. Nov. p. 368, at all distinct: this, although belong-
ing to the Moree, has the habit of Cudrama, and is the Plecosper-
mum spinosum, Trec. (l.c. p. 124). So far as I can ascertain, the
Cudrania Javanensis, Trec., was unknown to Roxburgh, although

* Trophis Ramon from Mexico (Linnea, vol. vi. p. 857) is scarcely distinct.
The specific name, too, is unfortunate, being obviously the same as Ramoon, by
which ZT. Americana is known in Jamaica. Ramon isa Spanish expression for
small boughs or twigs, which, when broken off, are suitable as fodder for cattle,
and it does not indicate the species of plant. '

APRIL—JUNE, 1857. | New Cinghalese Plants. 107

I feel satisfied that the other species placed by Roxburgh in Batis
(B, fruticosa) is referable to Cudrania.

M. Trecul states that the specimens received by M. Delessert,
and at the Paris Museum, from Dr. Wallich, under No. 4641 of
his list, belong to two different genera; M. Trecul adds however,
that these specimens were from Nepal. Now herein, I believe, is
some error; for, although Cudrania Javanensis be found in Nepal,
I have reason to suppose that Plecospermum is not, and conse-
quently that there must have been some mixture of labels; indeed,
from the rapidity with which Dr. Wallich distributed the large col-
lection under his charge, he could not overlook every specimen, but
was obliged to leave much to those friends who assisted him. As
M. Trecul does not state the fetter attached to the specimens, I have
no means of checking the error, but shall here state in detail the
result of my own examination of most of the suite of specimens re-
served for the India House, and now belonging to the Linnean So-
ciety of London.

4641 A, Herb. Heyne, from the Peninsula, is Plecospermum spino-
sum, with some specimens accidentally mixed of Pisonia
aculeata.*

B, from Nepal, appears to be Cudrania Javanensis, but the
specimens are bad; this species, however, is to be seen in
various herbaria from Nepal, collected by Dr. Wallich, in
1822.

C, Rohileund. (On this I have no notes.)

_D, from the Hort. Bot. Calc., is Cudrania Javanensis, with
one piece of Plecospermum spinosum. ‘The former was in-
troduced from Nepal into the garden by Dr. Wallich, and
the latter from Coromandel by Dr. Roxburgh, in 1802; con- .
sequently both, being cultivated there, may have got mixed
by those who dried them; but it rather appears to me that

é

* In the Linnzan herbarium are two specimens, one marked by Linneus P.
aculeata, the other, with smaller leaves, is unnamed by him but marked by Sir J.
E. Smith P. mitis,L. This last agrees with the specimen mixed with Wall. L.
4641 A, but not with Linnzeus’s description of P. mitis, of which, however, he had

_ mo specimen.

108 Selections. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

the specimens of Plecospermum belonged to the letter E, from
which packet they had dropped out, and that they were not
derived from the garden at all; at the same time 1 may state
that in some herbaria specimens of Plecospermum only are to
be found under the letter D: it is readily recognized by the
paler, almost livid and obovate leaves.

EK, from the Peninsula (Herb, Wight), is Plecospermum spi-
nosum.
F, from Taondong. On this I have no notes; butif my re-
collection be correct, both C and F are species of Cudrania.

I may here add that of Wallich’s List,

No. 4642, or Zrophis Heyneana,is T. spinosa, Roxb. Fl. Ind., or T.
taxoides, Weyne and Roth, and is therefore a species of Epi-
carpurus.

4648 A, or Batis fruticosa,is Batis fruticosa, Roxb., butis a species
of Cudrania. :

B seems somewhat different.

Morus? scandens, Wall. L. n. 4652, is the same as MZ. Javanica,
Blume, Bijdr. p. 488, and Zrophis scandens, Hook. et Arn. Bot.
Beech. Voy. p. 214, andisa species of Malaisia, a genus of Moree,
closely allied to Zrophis, but perhaps sufficiently distinct by the
number of stamens.

To sum up these remarks :—TZyrophis spinosa, Roxb. Fl. Ind.
(and the only plant intended by him under this name in his
published works), is an Epicarpurus. T. spinosa, Roxb. MSS., and
of his earlier collections, as well as of Willdenow, or Batis spinosa,
Roxb. Fl. Ind., is Plecospermum spinosum of Trecul, to which also
T. aculeata of Roth must be referred, which is truly a Coromandel
plant, and not from Nepal. J. spinosa, Wall., from Nepal, is Cu-
drania Javanica; to which genus Batis fruticosa, Roxb., and several
species from the islands to the east of India, belong.

I have only to add that in the fifteenth volume of the Linnza,
Spanoghe, in his Catalogue of Timor plants, enumerates, at p. 355,
s‘ Trophis spinosa, Roxb.,” and “ 7. coccinea, Zp.:” notwithstanding

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] New Cinghalese Plants. 109

that he strangely refers these to the Zhymeleacee, leaving doubts
even as to their affinities, I am inclined to think that both are species
of Cudrania, and probably both described by Trecul.

Doona ZEYLANICA, Thw.
Nat. Ord. DIPTEROCARPEZ.

Cuar.Gun.—Deona, nobis.— Arbor ingens, resinifera, versus api-
cem ramosissima. Jolia alterna, stipulata, vernatione condup-
licata, nec plicata; stipulzs binis deciduis. Calyx persistens, 5-
partitus, in estivatione contortus ; sepalis duobus interioribus
minimis, tribus exterioribus majoribus crescentibusque. Corolla
5-petala ; pelalis ad basin connatis. Stamina 16, bi-seriata; fi-
lamentis dilatatis ad medium connatis ; antheris subquadratis in-
trorsis, longitudinaliter dehiscentibus, singula claviculo dorsali
instructa. Ovarium superum, 8-loculare, loculis 2-spermis;
ovulis semianatropis pendentibus. Stylus simplex, curvatus. Stig-
ma simplex. Inflorescentia ad apices ramorum, paniculata; pa-
niculis axillaribus terminalibusque.

Doona Zeylanica.

A tree, sixty feet in height and upwards, with a single trunk,
much branched towards the upper part. Bark rough and cracked.
Branches terete, smooth. Leaves petiolated, flat, penniveined with
very numerous intermediate reticulations, lanceolate, 2-23 inches
long and #? of an inch wide, dark green above, paler beneath,
rounded at the base, tapering towards the apex into a rather long
acumen with an abrupt point. Petioles 4 an inch in length, grooved
along the upper surface. Branches of the panicles pale, jointed,
with small brown deciduous bracts. Calyx pale green, tinged with
red, the three enlarged leaves becoming of a deeper red colour.
Petals pale rose-colour, darker at the tips. Stamens with white di-
lated jilaments, which are united more than half-way up. Anthers
yellow, with a dark red dorsal claviculus. Ovary, style, and stig-
ma pale green

This fine forest-tree is very abundant in some parts of the Cen~
tral Province of Ceylon, especially on the crests of the hills; the

110 Selections. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

timber is much esteemed for building purposes, and the resin which
exudes in considerable quantity from any wounded part of the tree
is sometimes used by the natives for burning in their houses, being
first mixed with the husks of paddy. The resin is soluble in spirits
of wine or turpentine, and makes an excellent varnish,

The tree is called by the Cinghalese “ Doon,” or Doon-gaba;
anglicé, Doon or Doon-tree ; whence our genericname Doona. (The
genus is nearly allied to Hopeaa.—Ep.)—Kew Mise. vol. LV. p. 1.

In a subsequent volume, the following character of the embryo
is added:

Embryo Cotyledonibus, foliaceis, valde inequalibus; harum
maxima inter stratum oleoso-albumenosum contorto-convoluto, in
germinatione inclusa; altera brevissima, in germinatione szepissime
emergente.

This shows the genus Doona, Thw. to be very distinct from
Hopea, Rox. t., the Cotyledons of which, like those of Vatica, L.
are subequal, very fleshy, and emergent in germination.

Seven species of Doona have now been detected in Ceylon.—
Lbid, vii. 377.

Observations on Free Labour Cotion of Honduras and Yucatan, in
the West Indies, and of Western Africa, and Natal; also, Rela-
tive to Hast Indian, and Slave Grown Cotton of the United States,
by JAmEs Bawxs, late of Honduras. Fe

¢ ‘ ,
4 a es. ae’ Te, eae. Se ee!

Extracted from the ‘“‘ Transactions of the SocizTy of Arts,’ for 1847-8.

My friend Dr. James THompson, having submitted tothe Society

a sample of the common indigenous Cotton of Yucatan, on the
Gulph of Mexico, and of the fine Anguella sort from British Hon-
duras, for the purpose of showing the valuable qualities that might
be obtained from these quarters by free labour, I was induced to 4
present several samples, collected by me in that Settlement; and, — |
at the suggestion of your Committee, the following observations 4
are thrown together :— | | :

The importance of our Cotton Manufactures; the successful 4 ;

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Observations on Cotton. 111

competition of the American white and gray fabrics with those of
Britain in foreign markets; the great production of the raw ma-
terial by slave labour in the States; the general inferiority of that
imported from India; the practicabilty of obtaining larger supplies
by free labour from other quarters within our reach ; the improve-
ment of the staple and consequently of the fabric; and the open-
ing of new markets in Africa and elsewhere, will be the subject
of the few accompanying remarks, but which deserve more atten-
tion than the writer has been able to devote to them.

AMERICAN COTTON, QUANTITIES, VALUES.
The Honorable Levi Woodbury, Secretary of the United States
Treasury, and Speaker of the House of Representatives, in a letter
on the cultivation and foreign trade of Cotton, states that :—

The Cotton crop of the United States in 1835 was estimated at
480,000,000lbs. weight; which, computing 300lbs. to the acre,
would give 1,600,000 of acres, and at 250lbs. per acre, 1,920,000
acres cultivated for Cotton.

Value of land 2,000,000 acres at 20 dollars per acre, about. £4
Sterling, is 40,000,000 dollars, or about £8,000,000 Sterling.

340,000 field hands, (that is slaves) supposed to be employed,
estimated then at 800 dollars each is 272,000,000 dollars, being
£54,400,000 Sterling; also 340,000 assistants, estimated at half-
price.

Total capital invested in the UnitedStates, in the production of cot-
ton, estimated at 800,000,000 dollars, being £160,000,000 sterling.*

The quantity in the year 1834-5, was 1,254,000 bales, of about
350 to 400 lbs. each, in 1842-3 it was nearly double, or 2,378,000
bales ;} so that the total investment in the cultivation of slave
grown Cotton in the States will be now nearly £300,000,000 Sterling,

Of the unfortunate system of slavery, which Britain left in her
former American plantations, the principal supports are Cotton,
Tobacco, and Rice. Out of 118,000,000 dollars of domestic ex-

* See Tables and Extracts from said Letter in American Almanac for 1837,
page93. .
7 Cotton crop of United States for 1343.

112 Selections. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

ports in the year 1840, the then value of cotton was 63,000,000
dollars: being £12,600,600 Sterling.

Tobacco, 9 to 10,000,000 dollars ; being £2,000,000 Sterling.
Rice under 3,000,000 dollars ;* being £400,000 Sterling,

Of above 2,000,000 bales of American Cotton exported in 1842-3,
Britain took nearly 1,500,000 bales; France below 350,000 bales ;
other foreign countries less than 200,000 bales. Of the growth of
that year, which was 2,378,000 bales, the American manufacturers
consumed 325,000 bales, or nearly as much as was exported to
France. Of Tobacco,} Great Britain and the Colonies took one-
third in quantity, but nearly one-half in value, in the year 1835;
so that England may be said to employ three-fourths of the
American slaves engaged in planting Cotton and half to a third
of those who cultivate Tobacco for export. It becomes therefore,
a national obligation on our part, to study every means by which
those products may be obtained by fairly paid labour.

Our supposed dependance on the “ Great Staple” of America is
thus expressed in the Times, (30th Oct., 1845,) in an article from
the Washington Union—of which the following is an extract “‘ The
«‘ English experiment in the Hast has signally failed. It was made
“ under the most favourable auspices in different parts of India.
‘Tt has succeeded in none of them. It was made under the eye
*‘ of ten experienced planters from the cotton regions of the United
“ States with the best American cotton-seed; but it has failed !
“6 Nature forbids any serious competition between the cotton of the
“‘ Hast Indies and that of the United States. The Southern portion
*‘ of our country stands unrivalled in the production of a staple
‘‘ which constitutes the basis of the most important manufacture
“ both in Great Britain and on the continent. Britain would have
‘attempted to make herself independent of the United States,
“throwing her own manufactures into Texas, upon terms that

* “Exports of United States, produce for 1840”——American Almanae for 1842,

page 118-9.

125.

+ Made up from Table of Tobacco Exports, in American Almanac 1838, page 4

Sethe: = < om

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Observations on Cotton. 113

* would have defied the competition of our own fabrics; and re-
“ ceiving the raw material in return, upon better terms than she
“could have obtained the growth of our own Southern cotton
“lands. The Acquisitr1on of Texas, therefore, makes her greatest
“‘ interest (the most important branch of her manufacturing system)
*‘ dependent upon us. In the same proportion, of course, it gives
*““ us every advantage in competition with her. The Acquisrr1ron
“‘ of Texas thus puts us in possession of almost all the best lands
‘in the world for the growth of cotton; and this is decidedly one
*“‘ of the most important staples, in every respect, than ean be cul-
“tivated by man. If we do not hold the monopoly of the article,
“* yet we produce it of better quality, and in greater quantity, than
** any other country. Thus it becomes an unfailing source of
“‘ wealth and abundance—of prosperity in peace, and of power in |
“ war.” This assertion brought several communications to the
Times, and Manchester Guardian ;* from which it appeared that,
though the American seed had generally failed, from excessive
drought or neglect of local irrigation, yet it had succeeded in
several districts, especially at Dharwar; was progressing among
the natives; that the American Saw Gin had been advantageously
applied, giving all the benefit of celerity, cleanness, and superior

* London Zimes, 30th Oct., 6th and 10th Nov., and 26th Dec. 1845. Man-
chester Guardian of the 27th Aug., 8th Nov., and 6th Dec. 1845. The Manches-
ter Guardian of the Ist Jan. 1842, and following, hasa valuable letter from the
Chamber of Commerce at Bombay, on improving Cotton cultivation of India.

*,* Since the above communication was made to the Society of Arts, much ya-
luable information has appeared in the Public prints, &c.

Besides the Parliamentary Report of 1848 on the Growth of Cotton in India,
twoarticlesinthe Manchester Guardian of 5th June, 1847 from the ‘‘ Bombay
Telegraph,’ and the ‘‘ Calcutta Englishman,” would show our friends of the
Washington Union that supplies of free grown Cotton from American Seed are far
from a hopeless attempt. If restrictions on Land, and internal commerce are re-
moved in the forthcoming renewal of the East India Company’s Charter; the
progressive opening of Railways through the three Presidencies, may persuade our
transatlantic customers that successful competition in Cotton will be soon main-
tained by Free Labour; and Great Britain is morally and pecuniarly interested
to encourage the United States by every fair compensation to a like attempt.

114 : Selections. [No. 8, NEW SERIES,

quality; and so much had the native manufacturers preferred it
that little had reached Lancashire.

A deputation from the Manchester Commercial Association having
waited on the Directors of the. Hast India Company, 5,000 bales of
the best and cleanest cotton from American Seed were to be pur-
chased, and shipped to this country, that English Spinners might
have an opportunity of testing its qualities, in comparison with
American Growth.

Thus has the American Saw Gin been advantageously applied
in India; and it may also be applied in Tropical Africa, where in-
digenous cotton exists ;—or wherever a favourable climate admits
of the seed being cultivated ; for it is upon the power, continuous
motion, and expedition of the Saw Gin, accompanied by the Screw
Press for baleing it, that free labour must depend for success ;
and, where the more productive climate of the Tropics affords so
much larger returns than more temperate regions, there is every
reason to expect successful competition with slave labour.

ROLLER AND SAW GINS.

A short explanation of the Roller and Saw Gins may enable
their application to be better understood. The Roller Gin, com-
monly used in India, consists of two pieces of round hard wood,
about 4 to 2 of an inch in diameter, fixed horizontally into an upright
frame, and turned by an endless screw, or oblique cogs, by means
of a crank-handle ; so that any cotton presented between the two
rollers is drawn through, and the seed not being able to pass, flies
off. Itso happens, however that the cotton of one seed gets en-
tangled with that of another, especially if small, (as some of that
of India is), whereby some seeds get pulled through, mixing with
the wool, and staining it from the oil crushed out by the pressure.
This process is slow, and drags much of the dirt of the field along
with it ; though it is supposed to hurt the staple less than the
Saw Gin. A modelof this Roller Gin may be seen in the East
India Company’s Museum, among those of oriental imple-
ments. When seeds are covered with a thick down, the process
is too slow to allow even fine cotton to be freed from the seed by

APRIL—IJUNE 1857,] Observations on Colton. 115

the Roller Gin : and till Whitney’s Saw Gin was invented many
fine and long stapled but downy seed-cottons were abandoned by
planters.

The Saw Gin consists of a number of circular blades of iron,
with teeth of about {th to $th of an inch long set round a wooden
cylinder, at about 3ths of an inch distant from each other ;—the
cylinder in the Hanp Saw Gin is moved by a small wheel and pinion :
the Saws just pass so far between the bars of an iron grating,
against which the cotton-seed rests, as to catch hold of the wool
and pull it through the bars, leaving the seeds to revolve till com-
pletely cleaned.

The cotton is swept from the Saws by a revolving fanner; on
each arm of which a line of hair brushes is fixed, or any other sub-
stance, (such as Spanish broom) that will effectually remove the -
cotton before it can be again catried through the grating.
When these brushes are neglected the cotton gets cut, and
its long staple injured ; they should, therefore, be often examined
and replenished. The cleaner, lighter, and longer stapled cotton is
blown to the distance of some yards behind the Gin, if there is
space ; the heavier and most dirty falling immediately at the back
of it. Thus two qualities may be obtained from the same cotton,
at the same time. The fanner above mentioned is kept in motion
by means of a band and pullies, connecting it with the wooden
cylinder. By the Saw Gin any seeds, however difficult to clean by
the Roller Gin, are swept clear of almost all the cotton on them;
and its operation is so expeditious, that while a man will not pick
more than 2lbs. of wool per day by the hand,—by a small Saw Gin
of eighteen saws he will clean from 50 to 70lbs. The same Gin,
driven by steam, or other power, will clean 300lbs, per day.

The Roller Gin, propelled by the foot, like a turning lathe, and
used in Demerara, formerly required the labour of seven days
turning, besides six persons cleaning, to obtain 300lbs. Dutch
weight ; thus giving only 23lbs. per man, and with very hard work.
By the aid of cattle, a saving of eight or nine days labour was ef-
fected and with very easy work for the people employed ; four well
grown cattle being sufficient to furnish from 900 to 1000lbs. per day

116 Selections. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

The Roller Gin is still used for finer Sea Island Cotton, which
would be injured by the Saw Gin. I am told, that the Saw Gin
has been improved by a mechanic in the service of the East India
Company, from whom he has received a pecuniary acknowledgment
for the improvement. An American gentleman, now in this coun-
try, has patented a different mode of cleaning, with all the celerity
of the Saw Gin, without injuring the staple; not only removing
the seeds, but even the small motes which weaken the thread and
render the web rough and irregular.

SCREW PRESS.

The other essential Implement to enable African or other Cot-
ton to compete with American is the Screw-Press. By compres-
sing the wool into a compact and square, instead of a bulky and
round bale, it can be brought at a freight of one farthing to one
half-penny per lb. which, otherwise, could not be shipped here
under one penny or three half-pence per 1b.

The cotton is thrown into a square box, and by means of a screw
it is pressed upwards against a beam, where the compactness of
the bale is secured by ropes previously arranged.

CLEANING COTTON FROM DIFFERENT KINDS OF SEED.

It is of importance to attend to the seeds being covered with a
thick down, or comparatively bare, and free from down. When
they are covered with a close adhesive down, however fine may be
the staple of the surrounding Cotton, the seeds are so difficult to
clean by the best Roller Gins as to make the article unremunera-
tive ; when the fine sorts are cleaned by the Saw Gin, they may
be torn and so reduced to the better qualities of New Orleans or
Egyptian, worth from 6d. to 8d. per lb.

If the seed is of the fine stapled sort, and bare of down, then
the Roller Gin may be employed, as injuring the fibre less than
the Saw Gin; of this kind is the American Sea Island, which,
when so cleaned, brings 12d. to 18d. per lb. The Anguilla and
some of the indigenous sorts of British Honduras, comparatively
bare of down, could be advantageously cleaned by the Roller Gin,
and are considered to resemble Sea Island. Hand picked samples

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Observations on Cotton. 117

have been valued from 10d. to 15d. and 18d, per lb., and Anguilla,
from 18d. to 2s. perlb. The clustered seed of Honduras, (sup-
posed the Kidney seed of Brazil,) isa strong and long stapled
cotton, but not fine ; the seed is almost bare, is very easily cleaned
by the Saw Gin, and, from its adhering together instead of being
in detached seeds, is easily picked from the tree, getting less mix-
ed with the Cotton leaves, which prove a detriment to the East
India Cotton. The Kidney sortis remarkably hardy in the Tropics,
and grows every where, whether near the sea or far inland. The
writer had some of both these Honduras sorts cleaned by the Saw
Gin, and sold by Messrs. Ewing and Co., of Glasgow, in 1841.
It was disposed of at 6d. per lb., in order to get its spinning quali-
ty tested. The Kidney, and some stained Sea Island were report- _
ed as adapted for mixing with ordinary quality of Orleans Cotton
for No. 60 to No. 64 weft; the other native Honduras seed, ofa
finer fibre, but also Saw Ginned, was considered fit for mixing
with fair American Bowed, or Orleans for No. 70 to 80 weft: the
value of the first on trial was stated at 64d. and of the latter at
63d. per lb.; or at one farthing, and three farthings more per lb.
on trial than was paid for it; these prices being then equal to, or
better than those of the best New Orleans. From a little of the
Anguilla, grown in Honduras, it seemed to thrive near the sea,
and was reported from hand picked samples, to be fit for making
the finest Nottingham Lace. It was the original of the American
Sea Island, having been sent from the West Indies by some Roy-
alist Emigrants to their Republican friends after the American
Revolution.* Though still of a fine sort, this kind has evidently
become coarser, and the seed larger than the parent Anguilla.
The Anguilla is entirely bare of down, and would be easily clean-
ed by the Roller Gin, It, however, yields only 173 per cent. of
wool from the Seed Cotton; while other kinds give about 25 per
cent. of their weight shortly after being collected, but more as the
seed becomes dry.

* Tropical Agriculturist Article ‘‘Cotton,’’ pages 36 to 38, which details some
interesting facts regarding the gift of Sea Island Cottonto the American planters.

118 Selections. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

QUANTITY PER ACRE.

The American Cotton was estimated by the Hon. Levi Woodbury
at 250 to 300 Ibs. per acre in 1835; since then, its cultivation
having extended to Alabama and southward, the returns of those
States are 400 Ibs. per acre and upwards, in consequence of their
finer climate and longer summer; in all probability, that of Texas
averages still more.

The Cotton Plant, which in Carolina is an annual, being killed
yearly by the frost, rising only to a spread and height of eighteen
inches becomes a perennial, of from five to six feet in height and
spread in warmer climates. If we may rely on an experiment
made on ten acres in Jamaica, the American Sea Island seed gave
a return of 500 lbs. of wool per acre, (corresponding with that in
Demerara) ; and was expected to yield at two crops per annum
1,000 lbs. per acre,* the wet season however is less favourable to
the opening of the pods, the regularity of the picking and the dry
quality of the Cotton; but the same description: ee Cotton in
Carolina gives only 150 to 180 lbs. per acre. ,

The expectation from crops in India is only 300 lbs. per acre, or
at most 300 to 500 lbs. of Wool from American seed. The native
seed is said to yield far less; and that exported is of an inferior
sort. The East India seed which I have seen is small, and would
easily pass through between the rollers, and having a close adhesive
tuft is the more difficult to clean unless by the saw gin. Both
causes may possibly be owing to a want of change of seed, ora
rotation of crops; the neglect of which is ascribed as causing the
abandonment of its cultivation in the West Indies, when it began
to spread in America.

AMERICAN AND ENGLISH FABRICS. a

The American White and Gray Cottons are now maintaining a 4
successful rivalry with British manufactures in foreign markets.
Their unbleached domestics, as also their white calicoes, command 2
a higher price, from their superior strength and durability, than
a eee

* Statement by HM. Gourgues to the Assembly of Jamaica,

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Observations on Cotton. 119

English goods.* While the American manufacturer saves the dif-
ference of freight, he buys a superior article, and gives $ acent. to
1 cent. more per lb. (1d. and 3d.) than for shipping qualities sent
to England.

The English manufactures for foreign markets are composed
greatly of East India Cotton, which is shorter and weaker, though
possibly finer, than American ; it is also greatly mixed with particles
of brown leaves and motes, which, notwithstanding all preparatory
processes, get spun into the thread and weaken its adhesion ; and
though they are removed in the dressing of white cloths, they yet
leave the web less entwined throughout: the leaves and motes are
occasioned by neglect of picking the Seed-Cotton from the pods
as they successively open.

The fibre of Cotton,} viewed through a microscope, is described
as having a range of hooks on its edges, by which one fibre ad-
heres to another. On this account it is said to be less fit for sur-
gical purposes than flax ; the fibre of which is found to be a suc-
cession of smooth hollow joints. Where these serrated edges are
less perfect the thread will be weakened, and to prevent their
breaking, the English Fabrics require a slower operation, especi-
ally when mixed with East India Cotton.

It is said by an English operative, who counted the strokes with
his watch in his hand, that the American spinner, having paid
from 5 to 10 per cent. higher for his selected wool, gains 20 per
cent. by the rapidity of his machinery; as, when weaving fora
foreign market, he can give 130 strokes at the loom per minute,
instead of 100 to 110. On this point, however, I only repeat the
information received. ‘The American manufacturer has likewise,
in different portions of the States, a great command of water-power,
and in selecting new situations, insuch an unoccupied country,

* In the year 1831 the export of American manufactures was £220,000 sterling.
—American Almanac for 1838, page 126. In 1841, it was £600,000 sterling,
chiefly of white cottons.— Ditto for 1843, page 191. In 1847, the value exported
was £816,500; and in 1848, it reached £1,143,600 sterling.—_Ditio for 1850, page
176. ;

7 Baines’ History of the Cotton Manufactures of Britain.

120 Selections. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

they allow no grog shops in their neighbourhood, they having
found that the expense of maintaining the paupers thereby created,
costs them more than each State gains by the sale of licenses to
publicans ; thus they save the strength, time, and continuous labour
of their workmen. Generally in their other manufactories, the
workmen breakfast at seven in the morning, before commencing
work, and are reckoned to save from fifteen to twenty minutes, which
otherwise would be lost in recommencing and collecting their

tools, &ce &e.
EAST INDIA COTTON.

Having mentioned the broken leaves mixed among the Indian
Cotton, let us now refer to the cause. The pod of Cotton consists
of three divisions, which on becoming ripe, open and separate from
each other under the influence of a hot sun, allowing their contents
to drop either more or less out, and to become exposed to wind
and weather. Three fine leaves surround the pod, which soon
become brown and dry, and get mixed with the Cotton when left
neglected on the tree; so as to render it very difficult to remove
the Cotton seed without breaking these dry and get mixed with
the Cotton when left neglected on the tree; so as to render
it very difficult to remove the Cotton Seed without breaking
these dry leaves, and intermixing them with the wool. But, if
the Seed Cotton is removed as the pods successively open, these
three leaves ere then tough and yellow, and allow it to be
picked out entire and unbroken. The smaller fingers of women
and children are found more nimble and better adapted than the
larger fingers of men, for picking out these three clusters of Seed
Cotton without breaking the leaves. The common Hast India
Cotton seems to be left long exposed, and comes home mixed with
leaves, twigs and sand: the refuse, when the whole is put through
the saw gin, being one-fourth of the quantity brought from the
field; whereas at Manchester, the waste on American does not ex-

ceed 10 per cent. This neglect is ascribed to the number of Hin- .

doo holidays, the control of country bankers over the growers, and
the apprehension of a higher annual land-tax being exacted by the
East India Company should they produce a better article.

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.| Observations on Colton. 121

It is replied that the Hindoos would work, notwithstanding holi-
days, were they liberally encouraged by resident Englishmen up
the country, instead of being under native agents, who most proba-
bly sell the best Cotton to weavers on the spot, and only forward
the less saleable to the coast. As the Company cannot now en-
gage in commercial speculations, the tenure of their charter induces
every encouragement to speedy local improvements. It appears
that the ultimate buyers, residing entirely on the coast, have no-
thing to do with its production or transport, and purchase it only
as an article of speculation or remittance; so that the exporter has
no direct interest in its original improvement. In quality the
Indian wool compares most nearly with the finest American, and
could its staple be a little improved, would rival it in the British
market. ‘It is likewise distinguished,’ observes Dr. Royle, “from
the American short-stapled cottons for some good qualities. ‘The
first of these is colour, by which yarn and cloth in which it is em-
ployed are much improved in appearance. The second is the
swelling of its thread, which, when the cloth is bleached enables
the intermediate vacancies to be filled up, giving the whole a more
substantial appearance. The third good quality is that in dyeing it
takes the colour more uniformly than other Cottons. The best qua-
lity of the Bombay Cottons are those from Broach and Surat, which
in good seasons, are found to be equal to middling-bowed Georgia.
With respect to long-stapled Cottons, the presumption is that they
can be grown in India of an equally fine texture with those of
America.”

The improved East India Cotton will probably, for some time to
come, be bought up and manufactured on the spot, as but little of it
has yet reached England, and must on its arrival compete with
American. A large proportion of it is likely to find a better market
in China. The averages of five years up to 1841-2 give only
66,000,000 lbs.* as exported to Britain, and 90,000,000 lbs. to
China. The largest quantity obtained from India is but one-sixth
of our consumption, and of this above one-third appears to be re-
exported from London.

* Anti-Slavery Reporter for October 1845, page 182,

122 Selections. [wo. 3, NEW SERIES,

AFRICAN COTTON.

Considering therefore the general quality and limited supply yet
received from India by free labour, the whole sea coast of Africa
presents a large, cheap, and more contiguous field for the wants of
England; while it offers an extensive market for our manufactured
goods. Park and almost all African discoverers speak of markets
for the sale of native cloths, made of their indigenous Cotton ; but
the separation of the raw material from the seed must occasion
them much trouble and loss of time. So far as I can learn, the
process is very rude, and by hand picking is very tedious. The
saw gin moved by the hand will become the means of supply-

ing their own wants first, and thereafter of increasing expor-

tation; the screw-press packing it into square bales for ship-
ment. The original mode of packing, still practised, was for a man
to stand inside of a large round bag and press it down with his
feet. St. Domingo Cotton is still liable to this objection, and is
thereby exposed to a double or triple freight.

The question is does Cotton abound on the coast of Africa?
From the reports of Missionaries and of gentlemen who visited
the Niger it appears to be plentiful ; and they are the men who by
acquiring the esteem of the Natives, rendering them teachable (as
in many instances they have), and residing among them, are the
most likely to introduce both the saw gin and screw-press. Of
cotton cultivation the natives most likely know more than Euro-
peans. :

I understand, from the Secretaries of the Wesleyan and Baptist
Missionary Societies, that the missionaries of those societies have
not only their sanction, but their instructions, to promote such
objects among the Natives at their several stations, as a means of
enabling the Natives to support their missons, and of drawing the
aborigines within reach of teachers. We find these Missionary
establishments all along the coast of Western tropical Africa ;—

and to the former has now been added the Scotch; or rather |

Jamaica establishment, at Old Calabar, near to Fernando Po.
The cost of a common eighteen saw gin, moved by a wheel and

pinion and crank-handle, is about £29 to £30. Larger and more : |

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Observations on Cotton. 123

powerful would follow, and could be driven by oxen by means of
simple gear; a forty saw gin with a screw-press is used in Virginia
to clean the crops of the neighbouring farmers at a per-centage on

the quantity ginned.

The advantage gained in Tropical Africa consists in the much
larger return, from the same extent of surface, than the colder
climate of the States can average. I have generally found a tree
yield upwards of eight ounces of wool at one bearing, on a space
of five feet square; which, at two crops per annum, would thus
produce 800 lbs. per acre, or double that obtained from the Sou-
thern States by slave labour.

In regard to experienced labourers for Africa, it is a gratifying
fact that many of the planters in Maryland and Virginia would
emancipate their slaves, provided they could be sent out of the
country so as to save them the expense of supporting them, which
the laws of these States make imperative on setting them free. In
proof of this disposition, the Governmert of St. Domingo was at
the charge, about twenty years ago, of conveying 13,000 Negroes
from the Slave States to that Island, where they were located as
free men. It is, in all probability, through them that the saw gin
has been introduced for Cotton ; the screw-press being still requir-
ed on the coast, previous to its shipment.

Natal, near the Cape of Good Hope, is now obtaining the atten-
tion of English colonists, as an extensive field and favorable cli-
mate for Cotton. Having furnished some Honduras seeds toa
gentleman connected with the Cape, a communication which ac-
companied them was printedinthe Graham Town Journal, of 10th
July 1845; embracing, more in practical detail, several of these
and other points relative to its cultivation. Iam informed that
some bales of Cotton have already been sent from Natal, and tro-
pical Africa should not be less productive. Among the samples
produced is a little brought from the Niger, of a strong useful
quality ; also two spindles of native made thread, and a piece of
cloth from Dahomi in Ashanti, woven in narrow strips of about
three inches broad and sewed together. It is dyed in different

124 Selections. [NO. 3, NEW SERIES,

shades, with African indigo; for which dye I am told each village
has its dye-pit ; all indicating the extent of Cotton cultivation in
Africa. But we must enable them to present the raw material in
a merchantable condition, by the preparatory process of ginning
and baleing, that they may be able to give us value in return for
Manchester and Glasgow manufactures. Among the communica-
tions to the Zimes* is one on the Culture of Cotton, signed “ An
African traveller,’ which states—‘‘ That in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, Europe derived all her supplies of Cotton from the
‘““west coast of Africa. Unfortunately, the slave trade offered
** sreater commercial advantages, and the produce of that continent
“*became neglected. Should it be so, when in one generation, by
“‘ the evidence of the American Cotton trade itself, England could
‘raise in Africa a source of supply, the quality of which should far
“surpass even the boasted fineness of the South Sea Island Cot-
“ton? From my knowledge of the continent of Africa, I can prove
“ that her spices, her indigo, her cotton, her coffee, her saltpetre,
“‘ her copper, her ivory, her quicksilver, and her gold could be put
‘“‘ into European markets at one-third the price of the similar pro-
** ducts either of India or America. The ancient Phcenicians were
* not the carriers, as has been long supposed, but the actual pro-
‘** ducers of the riches and luxuries with which they supplied the
‘inhabitants of Europe; and it is their empire which the French
‘are attempting to establish again in Africa.”

> SAMPLES PRODUCED.

Among the samples exhibited to the meeting of the Society were
the following —From Honduras, the clustered or kidney seed, show-
ing its form and staple, which was sold at 6d. and valued on trial
in 1841 at 61d. ; also its native Cotton, resembling Sea-Island,
which when saw-ginned, was valued at 62d.: the seed of it is
almost entirely free from down, and therefore capable of passing
easily the roller gin, and bringing a much higher price.

A specimen of the Anguilla, grown in British Honduras, is one
of the very finest Cottons known. Its seed is entirely free from

* Times, 10th November, 1845.

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.| Observations on Cotton. 125

down, easily separated, and therefore readily cleaned by the roller ;
its seed was the smallest among the samples. There are other
kinds (indigenous to Honduras), which are fine, but covered with
down ; rendering them difficult to clean except by the saw process ;
one kind is of a grey colour; another is red, furnishing the cream
coloured Cotton.

From other quarters there were produced a sample of Sea Island,
as grown in Jamaica from American seed; if was saw ginned.
Also a small sample of the same hand-picked, for the sake of com-
paring the fibres of each. Its seed is, like that of its parent, the
Anguilla, quite bare, and therefore easily ginned by either process.
It isthe Sea Island, from American seed, that is now grown in
Figypt, and generally quoted at 7d. to 9d. for saw ginned sorts
Some of the common leafy Cotton of India, as it came to England
contrasted with a specimen of improved Madras sort. In order to
show how the leaves get intermixed with the Seed Cotton, there
were shown two pods, as taken from the tree, when neglected and
exposed to the weather. These pods were from Jamaica; the wool
fine, and the seed as bare as Sea Island or Anguilla; thus proving
that we have various fine qualities capable of being rendered re-
munerative, in our own West Indian possessions, and having all the
advantages of larger tropical perennial crops than can generally be
got in the more temperate latitudes of the American States. How
far it will be profitable to grow these, will depend chiefly on the
greater productiveness per acre, in or near the Tropics, and the »
saving of time and hands on perennial compared with annual crops,
especially under a more improved system than was formerly practis-
ed. There is some valuable practical information in the forty-
seventh volume of the Transactions of this Society from a Planter
in Demarara ;—page 178.

As compared with other tropical products, it must be remember-
ed that coffee takes from three to five years before any returns can
be expected; and that the introduction of sugar making into Afri-
ca, would require an expensive apparatus at the outset, which

Cotton does not, while it returns a crop in about nine months after
planting.

126 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

CAPABILITIES OF HONDURAS AND YUCATAN.

In regard to the British settlement of Honduras, as a future field
for cultivation, it presents an extent of sea-board of above 200
miles, by from 50 to 100 miles inland, and is nearly three times the
size of Jamaica, the largest of our West India Islands, from which
it lies about 700 miles due west on the mainland; it possesses a
virgin soil, fine climate, several navigable rivers, and numerous
means of water carriage. Would government guarantee security
in its land, for the purposes of cultivation, it could afford scope for
the employment of large capital; but at present it is restricted to
the mere products of the forest, almost entirely to mahogany and
logwood: as it is, its imports now reach above £400,000 sterling
per annum, employing 22,000 to 28,000 tons of shipping.

Dr. Thompson has brought home one sort of the native Seed
Cotton of Yucatan, which is among those produced; it is fine, but
from its downy nature could only be cleaned by the saw gin. So
extensively was this article grown in Yucatan that, in the times of
the old Spanish Historians of the Conquest, the Natives came to
fight against the Spaniards in defensive armour thickly padded with
cotton. The Indians of that Peninsula, as described by Stevens,
are familiar with the culture of cotton, of sugar along the coast of
Campeachy, and of tobacco and maize in the interior. They can-
not know the use of the saw gin; but an American gentleman is
mentioned by Stevens* as now growing and manufacturing Cotton
in the neighbourhood of Merida, for disposal in that city and vici-
nity.

When Dr. Thompson was in Yucatan he saw mule loads of
Cotton in the seed (that is, as it came from the tree), conveyed to
Valladolid and Merida, to be soldthere ; thus carrying 75 per cent.
of unnecessary weight, by not freeing it from the seed on the farm
where if was grown.

The Indians, though nominally free, are much oppressed by the
Spanish descendants, and from their youth up to advanced age ina
state of debt for small advances. Were political disabilities re-

Te Sea STN re Sines ME eR

* Stevens’ Second Incidents of Travels in Yucatan.

APRIL-—JUNE, 1857] Observalions on Cotton. 127

moved, many of these Indian Yucatecas might be induced to settle
within the limits of British Honduras, with their whole families,
and cultivate cotton, rice, tobacco, and sugar with which they are
already acquainted ; but on which the length of this paper forbids
me to enlarge at present.

The great increase of slave-grown Cotton in the States, and our
dependance on it; the greater strength of their common fabrics,
and their competition in foreign markets with those of Britain;
the yet limited supply obtained from India, the demand for it in
China, the inferiority of that generally sent, and some of the causes
of that inferiority; the advantage gained by the use of the saw
gin; the practicability of introducing it and the screw-press along
the coast. of Africa, asa new means of obtaining more tropical
Cotton; the capabilities of Honduras and its samples; and the
various qualities of difierent seeds, have been thus cursorily glanced
at, in hope that these topics may receive more attention than it is
possible to give them on the present occasion.

Since the above was written the Yucatan Indians have been more
generally aroused to assert their independance; already about 4,000
have betaken themselves to the British Settlement for protection,
and are engaged in growing Rice and Maize for our Shipping and
Settlers. (See Honduras Watchman of 15th and 22nd Februry,
1851). Were the improvement of their native soil sanctioned by
Her Majesty’s Government, an emigration of free aboriginal la-
bourers would soon resume the production of the Cotton and Cho-
colate with which they were so familiar when Cortez landed on
their shores.

Grammars with Vocabularies of the Maya and Mosquitolanguages
now aflord means of communication with these tribes; the Carib
has had a like service rendered to itin the Settlement, and now
only waits the means of publication.

Note to page 124—Directions for Planting Cotton, and preparing it for Ship-

ment; taken from the Graham Town Journal—For many other useful details
the reader is referred to the Tropical Agriculturist by G. Kk. PorTER.

COTTON SEED requires a dry soil, and sandy rather than clay: it will
thrive in a poor soil, but better in good earth. The ground must be of that free

128 Selections. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

open nature to allow the tap-root to penetrate without obstruction. It is better
to try experiments on a small scale, as experience can be obtained at a cheap rate
in the first instance which may otherwise prove very costly—such as relates to
the soil for different kinds; the quantity from each tree, or from an average
number or proportion per acre; the proportion of cotton to the seed ; which is
finest, longest, or strongest; which is most easily cleaned, or most downy and dif-
ficult, or most subject to attacks of insects; or grows best near the sea or inland.

Tt is an object to destroy the insects, catterpillars, &c. as soon as they appear,
to prevent them depositing their eggs: for this purpose fowls and particularly
turkeys are serviceable; and perhaps indigenous cotton is less subject to insects
than newer kinds. <A great deal depends on keeping the seed in a dry and well
aired situation, and turning it over occasionally till required, removing any ap-
pearance of them, and burning refuse leaves &c. as soon as possible.

SEA ISLAND COTTON, which isan annual in the United States of only
18 inches apart, becomes a perennial in the tropics of six feet, and needs to be
planted six to eight feet apart, bearing well for five or six years; and in propor-
tion according to the temperature of the climate; giving a crop in 6 to9 months
according to the time of planting. It should be planted near the sea, and rather
on a saline soil. It must be cleaned by the Roller Gin to obtain the best price—
at present ls. to 1s. 6d.—formerly 1s. 6d. to 2s. The Egyptian is said to be from
Sea Island, and brings the best prices of the saw-ginned cotton, about 7d.

ANGUILLA is a very fine cotton, and the original of the Sea Island from the
Bahamas; it is said to be fit for making the finest lace when carefully picked
and roller-ginned, valued about 1839 at 2s. to 38s. per lb. It yields only 17% per
eent. of cotton; other kinds 23 to 25 per cent.

KIDNEY OR CLUSTERED SEED.—That of Honduras is very hardy, and
grows everywhere, near the sea or farinland, yielding about 8 ounces per tree,
of wool per crop, at 6 fect apart. Some kinds bear two crops. It can be picked
from the tree with ease, with ordinary care, without breaking a leaf, and is easily
cleaned by the saw-gin. Its value is equal tothe best New Orleans, and the
same machinery serves for spinning it.—In 1842 I sold it at 6d. per lb. in Liver-
pool and Glasgow.

DOWNY COTTONS.—When the seed is much covered with down or short
hair they can only be cleaned by the Saw Gin, however fine: so that the fine
sorts have their texture injured for the high priced class, and are therefore re-
duced to the ordinary sort. The American upland is very downy but strong, and
therefore can only be cleaned by the Saw Gin. Some kinds hayeso little down
that they can be cleaned by the Roller Gin. If the down is of red colour it makes
the cotton cream coloured.

INDIGENOUS COTTON deserves attention as most likely to stand the cli-
mate, and to be less the prey of worms and flies. They improve by cultivation,
and when neglected become small, covered with hair or down. They however indi-
cate the soil on which cotton will thrive if abundant.

APRIL—JUNE, 1857] Observaizons on Colton. 129

QUANTITY OF COTTON PER ACRE seems to vary according to climate
and soil,—the Sea Island at Edesto River and St. Simonds Island, U.S., yield-
ing 100 to 150 lbs. per acre on ‘‘ Pine Barrens,’’ or land previously unproduc-
tive. South Carolina yields 600 to 800 lbs. of seed cotton ver acre of land, ]5U to
200 lbs. of wool.—250 to 300 lbs. is reckoned by Levi Woodbury the average of
United States’ crops. The South is supposed to give 400 lbs. and upwards in
Louisana, Alabama, &c. A planter in Jamaica asserted to the wri‘er that he
had 1000 lbs. per annum from Sea Island at two crops? Whatever quantity it
would yield may depend on a long dry season, and hands enough to pick it as it
opens, A warm climate where no fvost, or little prevails, will have the advantage
in saving labour, and in abundant crops. It is an object to try whether, with
these advantages Free labour cannot compete with Slave labour, which with its
prime cost, deaths, clothing, food, &c. costs the Americans £30 or £40 per annum.

ESSENTIAL POINTS REGARDING COTTON.—Prevent the increase of
insects, particularly the cotton bug, by destroying tlem before their eggs are de-
posited, by use of lime in powder, sprinkled through a cullender on the leaves &c.
—keeping them free of weeds ;—turkeys and fowls are of great service.

PICKING THE TREES should be done as soon as the pods open, before the
seed cotton separates from its receptacles, it is then in its most clean state and ea-
sily collected. What is stained should be at once (in the act of picking) put by
itself, the picker having two bags, one for clean, another for stained ;—or a dif-
ferent set of pickers following for the stained alone.

DRY POD LEAVES.—Three fine leaves surround the pod which become
brown and very brittle (as the cotton is left longer on the tree); when neglected
it is very difficult to pick the seed-cotton from the pod without breaking these
leaves, and mixing it with the wool, but if picked asthe pod opens, these three
leaves are then yellow and very tough, and therefore unbroken,—so as to be got
separate from the new entire seed-cotton.

WOMEN AND CHILDREN are the best seed pickers,—their small fingers
getting hold of the tip of the three clusters which form the pod and pulling them
out entire without touching these three leaves, and having more nimble and pli-
ant joints save time and wages. If these dry leaves once get mixed, the Saw Gin
breaks them up to atoms, and they are spun into the threads, thus forming specks
which weaken and disfigure the gray cottons made from East India Wool.

POPULATION.—In order to secure plenty of hands for picking, it is desira-
‘ble to have cotton plantations near towns, or where plenty of young hands can ba
obtained to collect the ripe cotton as it opens, ere it blows about in the weather.

GINNING.—The use of the Saw Gin by rapid and powerful means is neces-
gary to compete with America for ordinary qualities ; a common hand Saw Gin
may do at the outset, but to any extent, Cattle, Water, or Steam, are necessary
to get the crop to market, and save expense of wages. The common !8 Saw Gin
will give about 50 to 70 lbs. of cotton wool (from 200 to 300 Ibs. of seed-cotton) :
—the same Gin by steam will turn out 300 Ibs. of wool.

130 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

SCREW PRESS can be driven by Cattle, as the cotton accumulates from the
Gin, both being under one roof. The screwing of the cotton into compact bales
saves heavy freight: say } or § (of a penny) per lb. instead of ld. or ljd. Itis
described in the ‘‘ Tropical Agriculturist.”’

CLASSING AND SEPARATION.—Besides clean and stained cotton, it will
be found on observati n that the worst and heaviest falls immediately at the bacl:
of the Gin, containing sand, earth, and dust, while the lighter and better is
thrown to some distance back:—the two should not be mixed, but packed and
marked separately,—which the Ginner and packer if only hired is apt to collect
allin one. When sold in Liverpool the manufacterers often obtain a deduction
of 2 per cent. and upwards for sand ani refuse.

FANNER AND BRUSHES.—In the Saw-Gin the brushes sweep the wool
off the saws, and the arms of the fanners blow it out of the frame, to a greater or
less distance. The brushes being of hair get worn out, and when this is the case
the cotion is apt to be carried round a second or third time, and passing through
the bars cf-the iron frame it gets entangled. Itis therefore of importance to
examine the brushes frequently, and to replace new hair. Spanish broom answers
very wellin place of hair. See that it touches and sweeps the tecth of the saws
fully,—keep the teeth clean and free from rust and damp.

Prevent if possible the cutting of the seeds on the saws, as the oil stains the
cotton. For this purpose sce that the mass of seed-cotton is always presenting a
fresh surface to the saws by moving round, which it willdo while there is cotton
on it, and full enough to pass against the saws and front of the box gently with-
out cramming.—Saw and Roller Gins may be had at Fawcrr anp Co.’s, ion
Foundry, Liverpool.

COTTON OIL.--Oil is got from the cotton-sced of America, and sent to New
York for sale, whenever the seed is not so fresh for sowing. Cattle and goats
are fond of the seed even three years after cleaning—but it should be singed if
any wool remains upon it. To obtain the oil the seed must be first bruised, and
then either pressed, or boiled with hotwater, skimmed off and evaporated. If
pressed preserve the oil-cake for feeding cattle in England—where Linseed oil-
cake is worth from £0 to £6 per ton.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Fall of Meteoric Stones.

On Saturday the 28th of February last, two large Meteoric Stones
having fallen with considerable velocity so as to bury themselves |
into the earth near the village of Parnallee in the district of Madu-
ra, the Rev. Mr. H. 8. Taylor, Principal of the American Mission

- APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Fall of Meteoric Stones. 131

there, having been made acquainted with the fact, proceeded him-
self to examine the spot, and at the request of the villagers report-
ed the circumstance of their fall to the Collector, The following
are Extracts from his letters upon the subject: —

‘¢ Near the Village of Parnallee in this Talook two Meteoric Stones have fallen.
I have been on to the ground and seen the places where they fell, and the exact
impression made in the earth where they lay. As no rain has fallen since, I was
able to see that there was no mistake about it. The noise made asthey came
through the air, made a deep impression on the minds of the people in that region,
and was heard, I find from reports, along the sea shore up to Teruchooly,
They fell about three miles apart from each other, The smaller one weighs
about 87 pounds, and sunk in the earth when it fell two feet and cight inches.
The larger one is from three to four times as large, and sunk in the earth two
feet and fourinches. It struck the earth flatwise. The smaller one fell about
perpendicularly. ‘The larger fell (coming from the North a little to the Wes:)
making an angle with a perpendicular line, of about fifteen degrees. Persons
Were standing near each place when they fell. Many worshipped them, The
villagers gave them up to me on condition that I shouid inform you, and save
them from trouble made (or rather which they feared some officials might make).
I do not make this statement officially, but I am ready, if you desire it, to make
an official statement on the subject. In writing this I have fulfilled my promise
to the people there.
%# * * * * In respect to Mr. Murray’s request through you, I would state
that I gave a somewhat minute account of their fall, &c. to Dr. Colebrooke with
liberty to publish should he think best in the Athenzum.* If he has done so,
this may not be needed. I will however give a few particulars.

* TO THE EDITOR OF THE ATHENAUM.

Srr,—Some of your readers may be interested to learn that two Meteoric stores
fell in the village of Parnallee in this district, and not far from Ramnad on the
28th of February and at noon. The fal! was preceded by a noise which it ig
stated, bere an analogy to the reverberation of thunder, though it was much
louder, and the stones were propelled with such force that though one of them
weighed 87 pounds, and the other was four times larger, they were neither of
them scen in their transit through the air, though numbe s of persons were
Standing by at the time, They fcll about 3 miles apart and both became deeply
imbedded in the ground, sending up a cloud of dust when they struck. They
were forwarded to Madura and are now in the Collector’s Cutcherry. They
bear evident appearances of having been subjected to the action of fire and are
covered with a black smoke-like coating. ‘heir formation appears to be partly
granit'c, with a good deal of ferruginous matter interspersed. The natives of
course accounted for their presence by attributing them to the wrath of a swamy
whom they sought to appease by worshipping them. Others held an equally
extravagant hypothesis and supposed them to have been blown from a cannon at

»

182 Scientific Intelligence. [no. 3, NEW SERIES,

They fell on the 28th of February, Saturday, at about noon, a little South
Kast of the Village of Parnallee, Latitude north, according to the Government
Map, 9° 14’, Longitude 78° 21' East.

The largest one fell a few seconds before the smaller one, and from two to
three miles North of it. As was manifest from the hole it made in the ground
when it fell it came from a direction some ten degrees West of North, making
an angle of about 15 or 20 degrees with a line perpendicular to the earth’s
surface. It struck the earth, (or at least lay in the bottom of the hole made by
it) flatwise, on the side that is most convex. The most round or convex side of
the smaller stone also was downward, this being the position they would naturally
assume as they passed with great velocity, through the resisting atmosphere, an
idea which did not occur to me till now. I had before simply noted the fact.
The larger stone sank into the earth when it fell two feet and five inches ina
perpendicular direction. The smaller one about two feet and eight inches. The
smaller one fell also about perpendicularly. The smaller does not appear in any
respect like a fragment of the larger one. The specific gravity of the smaller
one when it fell was about 3°3, water being the standard of unity. I observy-
ed that the specific gravity was increased after exposure to a shower, or rather
that of the smaller one was. I did not try that of the larger. The crack on
the convex sideof the larger one I did not perceive at all till it had been wet,
and then at first it was but just perceptible. Afterwards it gradually opened, I
suppose owing to the oxidation of the native iron it contains, perhaps however to
other causes. The stone had not been wet till they came into my hands, April

Ist. They each of them fellin cultivated fields, one of which had been harvested.
The straw in the other was still standing.

The noise seems to have been terrific to the Natives, causing those near to
crouch from fear, It came like two claps of thunder, as they fell one after the ~
other, and continuing for some time, but gradually growing less loud. As they
fell through the whole depth of our atmosphere this would naturally be the case.
The noise appears to have been heard at ‘Tuticorin forty miles distant. At this
place, sixteen miles North, it excited considerable interest among those abroad af
the time. The noise must have been great, occasioned by their great velocity.
Taking their specific gravity into the account, say 3°3, their size being about
that of large cannon balls, some allowance also being made for their irregular

Tuticorin. The report of the descent of these bodies was heard distinctly at
Tuticorin 40 miles off, and in all the surrounding villages.

The subject appears to me an interesting one for scientific enquiries, and this
is my chief reason for requesting you to have the goodness to cause its insertion
in the columns of your paper.

I am, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
J. COLEBROOKE,

Zillah Surgeon, Madura.
Mavura, 9th April 1857.—Atheneum.

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Jetty over the Surf at Madras. 133

shape, from the depth they penetrated the soil, which was of about common
hardness, those who have observed the power of projectiles in such cases, will be
able io calculate, approximately, what that velocity was.

Of the excitement among the Natives I suppose I need not speak. I visited
the place because of the rumours that were flying abroad, making it evident to
my mind that some thing peculiar had there transpired. First I saw the holes
from which, in the cultivated fields they had been freshly taken, no rain having
eubsequently fallen, and saw at the bottom the hardly compressed, and exact
impression left by them as they were taken up, and then as soon as I saw the stones,
I knew instantly they were the identical ones which had been taken up from
those places. As I was more or less known in that region, and there is no
gentleman whatever any where near, the rural people, utterly ignorant of the
cause, came in great numbers to state the facts and ask some explanation. Some
of them supposed they were gods that had fallen; some that they had been shot
from cannon on ships at Tuticorin, and some that a Brahmin had brought them
from the sea by his Munterums, Some rejected all these theories, but no one
could tell or feel satisfied as to how these things could be. By simply striking
my staff through the air I could explain to them the noise; and by tying a
stone to a string and swinging it, I could make them understand the centrifugal
and centripetal forces, and how that from some disturbance in these forces, s'ones
moving about some centre, like the Moon about the Earth, might fall. The ex-
planations gave them relief. They put confidence in me, and gave me the
stones at my request, that 1 might save them from the trouble of any official
investigation, and put them into some Museum or Scientific Institution.

P. S.—I forgot to say that there was nothing peculiar in the state of the
atmosphere. It was a clear day. When the stone is sent on to Madras, if any
scientific Gentleman makes an analysis of it, for the Museum, please be so good
as to ask a copy of it for me.

Report upon Captain Taylors proposed Jetty thrown over the Surf

at Madras.

The undersigned* having met agreeably to Fxtract Minutes of
Consultation, July 24th, 1856, have examined the Model of Captain
Taylor’s propcsed Jetty to be thrown over the surf at Madras, and
considered the subject as treated of in his Memorandum. The
Jetty would consist of a line of piles, or rather masts, planted in
the sandy bottom, but mainly dependent for their support upon
shrouds or stays secured to anchors on either side of the line. It

* FreD. C. Cotton, Lieut. Colonel.
Curis. Biprn, Master Attendant.
R. KENNEDY, Assist. Civil Engineer.

134 Scientefie Intelligence. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

would bea Pile Jetty, peculiar only from the lateral strength being
obtained by means of rigging, instead of the usual deep hold on the
ground and support from the connection of parallel lines of piles,
which ensures the stability of such works in general. The great
span from mast to mast can hardly be said to be a peculiarity of
structure, as it is not essential, and as Captain Taylor says ‘ if
might be necessary to support the centre of the great divisions by
one pile screwed or driven.”

After carefully reading Captain Taylor’s paper, the Committee
feel confident that it was written under a wrong impression as to
the difficulties to be contended with in piling across the surf; and
in the erroneous belief that several unsuccessful attempts have
been made to construct a pier.

Mr. Piron’s suggested Pier, the only one that ever approached
maturity would have rested on iron piles; and no executive diffi-
culties were anticipated in its construction by those acquainted with
such undertakings. That this project was not carried on to com-
pletion was not the result of failure in execution, but simply the
consequence of the work never having been attempted,

Such a Pier as Captain Taylor proposes, would be an ingenious
mode of constructing a temporary Jetty to meet a sudden occasion,
where spars of sufficient length, and the other requisite material
were procurable. But as a permanent means of crossing the surf
would have great disadvantages, liable to injury, not only from the
settling of the masts, but frem the anchors losing their hold by
the sudden shifts of sand that are of frequent occurrence in the
bed of the surf. It would in the opinion of the Committee be a con-
stant source of anxiety and expense till the masts had worked
down to the maximum depth required, when they would take the
place and act but indifferently the part of driven piles, which might
have been inserted far more accurately as to position without the
aid of means so complicated and cestly, as the rigcing and anchors
suggested by Captain Taylor.

With a strength andcapacity quite incommensurate with the
trade of Madras, sucha work when completed would do hardly

APRIL—JUNE,1857.] Iron Pile Pier at Madras. 135

more than establish the fact that a Pile Pier would suit the locality,
and in the view of the Committee no such mere experiment is nes
cessary. If no other work of the kind had ever been attempted,
the Court Town Pier on hollow iron piles carried through a heavy
suif on the coast of Ireland by the most simple means, would have
shown the perfect practicability of spanning the breakers of the
Madras beach by the aid of Mr. Mitchell’s screws. But there are
many such Piers in existence now, piles have been planted secure-
ly in water 50 feet deep, and cases are recorded of their having
been screwed into tne sandy bottom of the sea to a depth of five
and forty feet. The successful results of such trials prove more
than is required, and the Committee feel confident that ifthe ob-
ject were only, as Captain Taylor says, to carry water to ships’ boats
outside the surf, a double, or perhaps asingle line of iron piles
would effect the purpose more securely and more cheaply than the
Jetty proposed.

While thus giving their opinion against Captain Taylor’s propo-
sal, the Committee must be allowed to notice the great value of
such suggestions ; though the plan proposed may not be consider-
ed suitable on investigation, any reasonable project may be sug-
gestive of the work required ; or at all events give life to the sub-
ject; and in this case, if it had not chanced that a proposal from
England had brought the matter before Government again, this
project of Captain Taylor’s would have done so most opportunely,
and the Community of Madras is not the less indebted to him for
the effort to supply this egsential desideratum in the Port.

Jieport of the Committee appointed to examine Messrs. SAUNDERS
and MitcHELL’s project for erecting an Iron Pile Pier at Madras.

The undersigned Members of a Committee,* appointed to re-
port upon a Pier projected for the port of Madras, having examin-

* Trep. C. Corton, Lieut. Col., Engineers.
Curis. Brpen, Master Attendant.
R. KENNEDY, Assist. Civil Engineer.
J. GOOLDEN,
Wm. Burton Wricut, Locomotive Supt, Railway.

136 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

ed Messrs. Saunders and Mitchell’s plan and specifications; and
perused with care the recorded opinions of several who have on
previous occasions been engaged in similar enquiries, are now pre-
pared to speak with confidence upon the subject submitted for
their consideration.

The Extract from the Minutes of Consultation referring Messrs.
Saunders and Mitchell’s proposal for Report, does not specify
any particular points as requiring the special attention of the
Committee, from which they infer that a general opinion as to
the advisability of accepting their proposal is all that is expected
from them. But having divided their enquiry under the following
heads, they think it better to offer their opinion upon each import-
ant point investigated, viz.

1st. The practicability of constructing a Pier on Piles across the
Madras Surf.

2nd. The fitness of such a Pier for the Port of Madras, with
reference to its effect upon the Coast line, and the effect of the sea
upon it.

8rd. The suitableness of the proposed Pier in form and dimen-
sions; and in description and strength of material.

4th. The Estimated cost of the work, whether moderate or
otherwise ?

5th. The value of the suggested Pier whether such as to warrant
the outlay required for its construction ?

<a

On the first point, viz., the practicability of couetmaeane the pro-
posed Pier, the Comprties have no hesitation in offering a favora-.
ble opinion. They have every reason for believing that no soil will
be met with through which a Screw pile cannot be driven by the e.
apparatus used by the Contractors; andin the Court Town Pier they
have proof sufficient that the operation of screwing can be carried -4
on without the surf interfering with the work, while the remarka-
ble experiment quotec by Mr. Lennon in the year 1808, in which =
a single pile of wood (offering a far broader surface to the wave in ee
comparison with its strength than the wrought Iron piles suggested
in this case,) withstood the action of the surf for 6 monsoons, r

es ee ees es eee a ee

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.| fron Pile Pier at Madras. 137

satisfies them, that each solid Iron pile standing unsupported ex-
cept by its hold on the bed of the sea, is capable of resisting a
greater force than the blow of the Madras surf. Assured upon
these points, and having the support of all who adopted Mr. Piron’s
proposed Pier, which resembled the work now under review in all
essential particulars, and above all with the ample evidence before
them of Messrs. Saunders and Mitchell’s successes in works of a
like nature in other ports of the world, the Committee do not
hesitate to declare the work not only perfectly feasible, but simple
of construction, and such as may be rapidly completed.

Nor are the Committee less confident and unanimous in their
opinion upon the second point; viz., that an Iron pile Pier such as
is now proposed, is the most suitable means for spanning the
Madras surf. First, because it will cause less interference with —
the ocean-current than any other description of Jetty equally strong
and effective, and consequently will risk in a less degree any in-
jurious change’in the Coast line; and secondly, because with great
strength it will offer no unnecessary resistance to the wave, and
thus have one of the chief causes of injury reduced to the
utmost.

With regard to the plan of the proposed Pier which is that of
the letter , the head being parallel to the Coast, the Commit-
tee observe that this form is rendered necessary by the circumstance
of the direction of the ocean-current being parallel to the shore
and its velocity so great at times, that boats could not be moored
with safety across its course.

In examining the dimensions of the Pier, three points have been
considered.

1st, Whether the length will be sufficient to ensure the Pier-
head being beyond the break of the surf.

2dly, Whether its height above water is such that the sea will
not break over it and,

3rdly, Whether the area of platform is sufficient to accommodate
the trade of Madras.

The length of the Main Pier is to be 960 feet and the breadth

138 Scientific Intelligence. [no. 3, NEW SERIES,

of the Pier-head being 40 feet, the outer end of the Pier will be
1,000 feet from high-water mark on the beach.

From the best information that is obtainable it appears probable
that the surf never breaks at a greater distance from the shore
than from 500 to 600 feet, at times when cargo boats could ply;
though it may do so in stormy weather when the waves of the bay
are so broken that the outer surf cannot be distinguished.

Mr. Taylor, when Astronomer at Madras in 1844, offered the
following opinion upon the distance to which the surf extended :

‘From a careful measurement in the months of October, No-
vember and December 1838, it appeared that on occasions such
as it would be considered dangerous to permit a boat to go off
from the beach, the surf extended to a distance of 450 to 500 feet
from the shore: but that during a smart gale on the 6th December
the surf extended to or beyond a buoy which was 828 feet from
the shore, but the confusion was such as to render the distinction
between breakers (such as occur at sea) and the surf, very difficult.”
Captain Biden who has given his attention to the same subject,
and has had even better opportunities of judging than Mr. Taylor,
also gave an opinion upon this point, at the time Mr. Piron’s

proposed Pier was under consideration. He expressed himself as

follows:

“‘ The surf broke at 350 feet from the coping stone on the 14th
October 1844, when the last survey was made, and then the wea-

ther was moderate.” “ About 500 feet from the road-bulwark or

barrier, and 400 feet from the inner wash of the surf, is a ledge of

sand, and just outside this bank the depth increases from 10 to 15 — E

feet, but within and without this ridge of sand, and excepting that
sudden change, the soundings are very regular; this bank doubt-

less causes the break of the outer surf in iough weather.” From — FA
these statements and the opinions of others who have either like __
Mr. Taylor or Captain Biden taken the subject into considera-
tion, or who having passed much of their time in sight of the surf
have become acquainted with its peculiarities, the Committee do
not hesitate to say that if the head of the Pier is placed as Messrs.

*

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Iron Pile Pier at Madras. 139

Saunders and Mitchell propose, it will be beyond the break of the
surf, at all times when the sea is not too rough for cargo boats to
be employed.

The height of the platform above the ordinary high water mark
is 15 feet; which is far above the crest of the surf even in stormy
weather. That it may be found soon the occurrence of those
peculiar cyclones which raise the surface of the sea much above its
usual level, the Committee cannot say with perfect confidence ; but
as this effect upon the ocean on the Coast of Coromandel is by no
means the constant result of a hurricane, and as even the more usual
character of storm has on an average only visited Madras once in 10
years, they do not consider it necessary to recommend any change
in the projector’s plan to guard the Pier against a risk so remote.

‘The sufficiency of the wharfage room on the Pier-head will de- —
pend upon the rapidity with which the goods are despatched from
it, and this again will be mainly influenced by the facilities afford-
ed for their transit between the Pier and the shore.

The Committee observe that in the “ Main Pier’’ or that part
of the work which connects the head with the shore, only 17 feet of
the entire breadth which is 40 feet, is covered with platform. The
reason for this is not assigned, and they cannot think it a desirable
arrangement. They do not consider a breadth of 40 feet between
the outer lines of piles necessary for the stability of the work, and ©
would look upon so great a breadth on that account as causing a
needless expense. But when they compare the traffic of Madras
with the means afforded for cleaning the Pier-head, (bearing in mind
at the same time how much circumstances often compel the greater
part of a day’s work to be crowded into’a few hours) they came at
once to the conclusion, that the Pier is not too broad, and that the
change of: plan required is an increase in the breadth of the plat-
form and the number of lines of rail it bears. As now proposed,
there would be but two lines of rail which under the best arrange-
ment would not probably be found sufficient in the most active
season of the year; and as no arrangement however good, could
prevent occasional obstructions occurring, it would be unadvisable
to trust to one Railway for landing and one for shipping.

140 Scientefic Intelligence. . [No. 3, NRW SERIES,

In this particular therefore the Committee urge a change of plan.
They consider it advisable that the whole breadth should be cover-
ed, that there should be four lines of rail instead of two, both on
the Main Pier and the Pier-head; and that the rest of the space
should be fitted for the use of foot passengers. If this change is
made they believe that the wharfage may be found sufficient for
every purpose.

The materials used in the Pier are wrought iron and Baltic tim-
ber with cast iron screws on the foot of the piles. Regarding the
iron work generally, the Committee are satisfied on all points ex-
cepting as to the length of the piles. They consider the arrange-
ment of the material excellent and the scantling adequate. And
with reference to the perishable nature of iron when subjected to
the action of salt water, and air impregnated with salt, the Com-
mittee have only to remark that this material is now so universally
employed, and has been found to answerso well in situations
equally trying, that they feel confident the corrosion and consequent
consumption of iron when so circumstanced is not such as to ren-
der it unsuitable to the purpose. The waste of material is evident-
ly retarded by the oxidized coating, which in the first months covers
the surface of the iron, and the subsequent decomposition of the metal
is so slow that no considerable annual expenditure on repairs is
likely to be found necessary; while the arrangement of the iron
work in the Pier is such, as to render the operation of removing
injured portions practicable and simple. ‘

As to the length of the piles, some further consideration is in the
opinion of the Committee necessary. Their lengths as shown in
the plan which accompanies the specification appears to have been
determined upon a line of soundings not differing materially from
those now taken, and if the bottom of the sea near the coast re-
mained stationary, the depth at which the screws are shown in the
drawing would be sufficient. But as the combined action of the

i.

surf and current, causes at times a very rapid motion of the sand.

in shore, and considerable changes take place in consequence in 3
the depth of the sea along the Coast line, it is possible that pilesof
the length suggested might be undermined. The ocean current

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.| «Zron Pile Pier at Madras. 14{

strikes upon different points of the shore at different times; and
were it not for the stone bulwark and the groynes that guard the
beach, far greater changes might occurin the soundings on any
line chosen for the Pier, than need be feared now that the shore
cannot be encroached upon. What the maximum effect of this
current may be, the Committee have no means of determining ac-
curately. It is probably greater during storms than has been mea-
sured; as on the surf and current subsiding after the gale ceases,
the bed rises rapidly; but as the boatmen who navigate the surf
speak with confidence as to there never being deep water near
the shore, itis evident to the Committee that the addition re-
quired to the length ofthe piles is not such as to add greatly either
to the cost of the work or to the difficulty of constructing it.

If an effort is now made to detect what the maximum depth of ©
the surf is, some information may be obtained before the North
Hast monsoon ends; as that is the season in which the greatest
variation in the depth is likely to occur. This information might
be sent to England in January; and upon it the length of the piles
might with safety be calculated; due allowance being made for a
somewhat greater change taking place than had been observed.
As the Committee consider this undermining action of the current
to be the greatest danger to which the Pier will be exposed, they
beg to call particular attention to this portion of their report.

The Committee do not offer any objection to the use “ of Baltic
Timber” under the impression that by that name, is implied Red
Menel Pine; but ‘if that description of wood has been chosen
solely with a view to economy, they must express a doubt as to the
advisability of the selection since they believe that Teak of such
small scantling as is required in the Pier will hardly cost more
than Pine prepared with Creosote, while the former would be found
so much more durable than any description of Fir as to warrant if
necessary a very considerable additional outlay on its use.

With regard to the cost of the Pier, Estimates have been pre-
pared by two members of the Committee, who come nearly to the
same result; namely, that its actual cost, without any allowance
for Superintendence and risk would be £70,000. From this it will
appear that the Contractors have a margin of about 30 per cent.

142 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

for Superintendence and profit and the chance of loss, and consi-
dering the peculiar nature of the work, this does not appear to
the Committee to be unreasonable, though at the same time it is so
liberal an allowance that it is hoped the additions proposed by the
Committee may be included in the present Estimate, in which case
they do not doubt that it will be better economy to accept the
Contractor’s terms rather than to attempt the erection of the Pier
by the Government Engineers; who have no experience in works
of the kind.

The Committee find a difficulty in conveying in a figured state-
ment the value that might be assigned to the proposed Pier. But
a few words will show the existing impediment to the traffic of the
port which it is confidently hoped that this work will remove.

The trade of the port, both in respect of Passengers and Mer-
chandize, is carried on in Masoolah boats, calculated to carry two
tons of goods in very fine weather. These boats are drawn up on
the beach; nearly but not quite beyond the reach of the surf,
where the spray breaks over them to the injury of their contents
when they are such as to suffer from the effects of salt water.
Laden boats are launched with difficulty from the beach; and both
in landing and shipping goods, all must be done by manual labour
as cranes cannot in such a position be brought into use.

It is needless to remark that the passage through the surf en-
tails further risk of damage and that the inconvenience sustained
by passengers isin a sense greater even than that inflicted upon
goods traffic. But these difficulties are at the present day greatly
enhanced from various causes which are, first the insufficiency of
the boat accommodation for the increasing traffic of the port;
second, the difficulty of getting the boatmen to work with regula-
rity and order; and third, the constant pilfering that takes place
and which is facilitated by the length and often unavoidable devi-
ousness of the transit between the shore and the shipping. All ~
these obstructions to a regular and orderly traffic would be at once
removed on the establishment ofa Pier. The injury done at the
time of arriving at and departing from the shore would be alto-
gether removed, all extra expense avoided, and a facility of transit

APRIL-—JUNE, 1857] Tron Pile Pier at Madras. 143

secured to every description of traffic, which is altogether imprac-
ticable under the present system.

To speak now of the amount of traffic as it actually exists. The
lists of passengers, Emigrants and Troops landing and embarking
in a given time do not exhibit the number of those who land and
return to Vessels calling at the port; neither do they show the
many masters, Officers, and men, who land, and re-embark on
board the shipping on the roads; nor the far greater number still
of those who go off to Vessels to transact business or to work, and
if these could all be enumerated there would still remain uncounted
the very many who have occasion to cross the surf, but are deter-
red by the expense, discomfort or danger attending it, The pro-
bable passenger traffic cannot then be exhibited with any approach
to accuracy, and in attempting to show the goods traffic that may
be expected from the returns of the present trade, so great an
amount is missing inthe Custom House returnsin consequence of the
entire trade carried on between the port of Madras and all other
ports under the Madras Government being entirely unnoticed that
the Committee fear even these Statements may mislead those who
examine them. They are however induced to submit them as the
best data obtainable, begging that due allowance may also be made
for the increase that may be fairly expected when the difficulties of
the surf are removed.

Statement A* shows the exports and imports of Madras in the

eke

Statement of traffic of the Port of Madras in the years 1854-55, and 1855-56,
Value of Goods

1954-55. 1855-56,

Huneee. 5 Rupees.

Merchandize . . . 1,91,24,962 2,31,33,876

Imports. | Tyossure Pe: 64,81 950°, 187.16,696
Total. .2,56,06,917 3,68,50,572

|. { Merchandize 2,39,48,083 2,91,70,905
Exports. | posse, ate 82,06,956 44,18,750
Total. .3,21,55,039 3,35,89,655
Re-Mxports..Merchandize, 7,17,474 6,64,355
( Merchandize, . 4,37,90,519 5,29,69,145

Grand Totals.) Treasure, . + 1,46,88,911 1,81,35,446
Total...5,84,79,430 7,11,04,591

144 Screntific Intelligence. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

last 2 years, and the extraordinary increase in the trade, since the
year 1848, when the last proposal for a Pier was laid before the
public, will be found by examination of Statement B.*

By a Memorandum lately prepared by the Chamber of Com-

merce, it appears that the average number of boats daily employ- — 4

ed throughout the year is 70, which make 4 trips in the day. These
boats in fine weather carry two tons of measured goods or one ton
and a half of dead weight: but when the surf is high the load is
greatly reduced, as sails cannot be advantageously used in these
peculiar boats, they are worked entirely by manual labour, and
eleven men are required to make good the passage over the surf.
The cost of conveying goods by such means is necessarily exces~
sive. The minimum hire of a boat to the usual anchorage of the
square rigged vessels a distance of about one mile is one Rupee

and ahalf. To the outer anchorage about 13 mile is 3 Rupees. —
The cost of a boat to the anchorage of the country vessels is fifteen

Annas and for passenger boats to the shipping, the charge is 34
Rupees.

To these heavy charges upon each load of one and a half or two
tons, has to be added, the hire of tarpawlings to secure in some
degree the cargo from the spray of the sea; and also the pay of a

watching peon whose presence in each boat is necessary to prevent

the pillage which from the nature of the vessels employed, and

* B.
Total Tonnage of Vessels arriving at the Port of Madras for the year 1844
and 1855.

Tonnage.

English and|Country Ves-| Total Ton-
other Vessels sels. nage.

fe

Sse

a

From Ist Sept. 1843, to 31st Aug. 1844..] 1,23,297 76,124 1,99,421
From Ist Jany. to dlst Dec. 1855.......| 2,06,879 1,08,107 3, 14,986

Increase... 83,582 31,983 1,15,565

-~ ie '
aro

the rough sea they navigate, the police cannot prevent by observa-

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.| ron Pile Pier at Madras. 145

tion from the land. The proposed Pier will reduce these charges
to a comparative trifle, large boats worked by a few hands, aided
by sails, will be employed between the Pier and the shipping, and
ifa guard is necessary at all, one man only will still be required
in each boat however many tons she may convey. But the saving
on these accounts, great as they will be, will not equal in amount
the sum economized by the expedition with which vessels will be
cleared of their cargo and reloaded. The loss by demurrage is
now even greater than the charge on boat hire and the saving of
time that will be effected by the Pier must tell most favorably
upon the trade of the port. Another benefit that will be derived
from the Pier, and one of great moment is that it will enable ships
to obtain fresh water by means of their own boats; as pipes may |
be carried over the surf for this purpose and thus one of the great
objections to Madras as a calling port will be removed.

Although the Pier will not be approachable at all times, suitable
boats will in the opinion of the Committee be able to receive and
deliver cargo under the shelter of the T head whenever they can
be loaded with safety by the ship’s side. The skill that is now so
conspicuous in the management of boats in the surf, will soon be
applied to the new description of vessel employed, and even when
the weather is violent, communication will be held with the ship-
ping in cases of emergency ; besides greater facility being afforded
for sending off anchors to ships in need. While the possibility of
launching life boats from the end of the Pier in a severe storm,
which could by no other means be taken over the surf at such a
time will supply a desideratum that has long been sought for in
vain. Making therefore due allowance for the days when the Pier
could not be used for general purposes, the Committee still feel
eertain that its effect will be such as to alter entirely the character
of the Madras port. And as the returns show that a charge of five
per cent upon the outlay required, would hardly have amounted to
24 Annas upon the tonnage of vessels that anchored in the Madras
roads during the last year, they do not hesitate to say that the
benefit to be anticipated from the work is such as to warrant the
expenditure on its construction.

146 Scientefie Intelligence. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

The Committee have elsewhere stated it as their opinion, that
such a Pier as is now proposed will be the best means of spanning
the surf; they would now add that whatever improvement of the
port of Madras may hereafter be undertaken, they are confident
that it will be then admitted that the construction of a Pile Pier
was the first step to be taken.

Before closing their report the Committee would venture to offer
a suggestion that a proposal should be made to Messrs. Saunders
and Mitchell that in the execution of the work two lines of piles
connected by a platform should first be carried over the surf, and
that the full breadth should afterwards be completed. The Com-
mittee feel confident that such a work would be sufficiently stable,
and they observe from the Contractor’s pamphlet upon screw pil-
ing, that its execution would be perfectly practicable. They admit
that this mode of working would entail some inconvenience, and
additional cost; but the value of such a Pier for a year or two, in
the opinion of the Committee, would be well worth the difference
in expense, forif this plan was adopted, an immediate benefit
would be derived from the work. The Committee need hardly
say that some limit in the time of execution should be entered in
the specification.

Memorandum on the papers connected with the proposal for a Pier at
Madras, by Colonel A. Cotton. ~

It appears from the Report of the Committee on this question,
that they considered themselves called upon rather to give their
opinion upon the practicability, cost and advantages of a Pier;
and not to go into the greater question of what upon the whole it
might be best to do at the present juncture for the improvement
of the Port of Madras.

The points the Committee proposed to themselves for examina-
tion were,

1st, The practicability of a Pier on piles.
Qnd. Its fitness, with reference to its effect on the Coast
line, ke.

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Breakwatey for Madras. 147

3d. Its suitableness in form, &c.
4th. Its cost, &c.
5th. Its value, &c.

‘I propose therefore to consider the general question, viz., what
under present circumstances it would be most advisable to do for
the improvement of the Port of Madras.

I may observe that this is a question (that of the best mode of
correcting the evils of Madras as a Port) which I have had before
me for 20 years, and therefore I have had abundance of time to come
to a decision on the subject, and of the main point I feel perfectly
satisfied, viz., that a ship breakwater, consisting of a straight line
of loose stones, similar to those at Plymouth, Portland, &c., and
parallel with the beach, is the work that should be undertaken.

I therefore proceed to give my reasons for this conclusion ; in
respect of

ist. Its practicability.
2nd. Its effects.
3d. Its cost.

4th. The present circumstances.

Ist. Its practicability.—Of this I suppose there can be no doubt
in the minds of any in the least conversant with such matters.
To throw a quantity of stones into the sea is certainly one of
the simplest operations an Engineer can have to perform. But
it is a point we need no guessing about, because we have the
fact of many such works having been executed, and being now
in progress in the most exposed situations that could be found in
the world. After trying many fanciful modes of executing such
works, engineers are now Satisfied that nothing can be done be-
yond throwing a certain quantity of large stones down on agiven line
leaving it tothe sea to throw them into such a form, as will bear
its violence. In this way the breakwaters at Portland and Holy-
head are now being formed. I need not attempt to answer here
the various objections that might be started (as is universally the
case) by persons entirely unconversant with such matters, because
they are endless, but I may allude to one, because it has been so
often suggested, viz., that such a work might be swallowed up in

148 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

the bed of the sea; it might as well be suggested that it would per-
haps float away, but our best answer to this is, that the boat break-
water which was begun in these roads and never finished, remains
to this day. Asto material, there is plenty of stone obtainable
on the Coast at Covelong, on the line of the S. Coast canal gene-
rally, and on that of the Railway; as to the means of conveying it,
it may be done as that for the boat breakwater was, that is, pass-
ed over the surf on Catamarans if not by any better means that
may be proposed.

2nd. Its effect.—The effects of breakwaters are fully ascertained ;
they afford a perfect shelter for vessels in all weathers ; under them,
if there is good holding ground, vessels can ride out the most se-
vere storms. As respects the communication with the shore, they
preserve smooth water, and ensure perfectly convenient landing at
all times, excepting perhaps during the height of a gale when a
boat could not exist any where excepting close under the lea of
some shelter.

Butit by no means represents the true state of the case to say,
merely that a breakwater forms asafe harbour; it should be remem-
bered, that an artificial breakwater affords a harbour far superior
to any natural one. There is probably not a natural harbour in
the world, that has not some natural dangers connected with it,
for reefs and islands do not appear only where they are wanted
but too often just where they are not wanted: Butin making an ar-
tificial harbour, artificial reefs are of course placed only where they
will be useful. Thus an artificial reef parallel with the Coast at Mad-
yas would nothave arange of sandheads with a stormy monsoon blow-
ing direct upon them, and covered with breakers to seaward of it,
warning ships off from the harbour behind them, nor would it have
a five knots current within it, in which ships must anchor; nor
would it have a Back-bay in which vessels might be lost, nor a
stretch of 20 miles of water, over which if a hurricane blow, the
ships at anchor might be dashed against each other, as they have
been in Bombay. The port of Madras would be in every respect
superior to those of Calcutta and Bombay. There would be no
Pilotage, no time lost in running in or out at any time; and land-

APRIL—JUNE, 1857. ] Breakwater for Madras. 149

ing Piers might be constructed to any extent ata very small ex-
pense, and even carried out to where ships might be along side of
them. In fact for all the great desiderata of a port; for conveni-
ence of access, for smallness of risk in and going out, for cheap-
hess, and for security no port in the world would be superior to it.

Of course under the shelter of such a work, every thing in the
way of wet-docks or other conveniencies of a port might be con-
structed as in any other harbour and any length of wharf of any
kind might be constructed at a moderate expense.

I must however speak also of its “ effects” upon the line of
Coast. When lately in London, a Merchant Mr. Robertson the
member for Hastings asked me about the possible improvement of
the port of Madras, and when I suggested a breakwater, he put to
me what I consider the most pertinent question in the matter, viz ;
would not the sand gradually extend out from the shore till it
joined the breakwater. My reply is this; we need not theorize
when we have facts; North of Madras we have two natural break-
waters, the Pulicat and the Armegon shoals, and these are both to
this day unconnected with the coast at either end; this seems to
me perfectly conclusive. These reefs differ indeed from the pro-
posed breakwater .in that they do not come above the surface of
the water; but they are sufficiently near the surface for the main —
force of the swell of the sea to be expended on them instead of
breaking on the shore and this I consider to be just the same, so
far as the effect on the beach is concerned, as if they were above

water.

As it is of importance that this paper should be as short as possi-
ble, I had better not go into detail about the motion of the sand
on the beach. I will only say that itis caused by the surf strik-
ing the beach a little obliquely, so that the sand that is stirred up
is always deposited a little to leaward of where it was taken up,
and hence there is always a stream of sand moving along the coast,
and if the surf were prevented by a breakwater, there would
certainly be an accumulation of sand to windward of the point
where the action of the surf ceased; this accumulation I believe

150 Screntefic Intelligence. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

would proceed, but more and more slowly as the deep water was
approached till the current passing between the breakwater and
it, was increased by the diminution of the channel, sufficiently to
sweep away the sand as fast as the surf brought it forward, so
that I conclude there would be an accumulation of sand on the
beach to the Sd. of the breakwater, but from the example of the
two shoals to the North, I feel satisfied that the passage between
the end of the breakwater and the shore would never be closed.
In the progress of things during the construction of the groynes,
along the line of beach of late years, we have clear proof that the
quantity of sand, in motion along the coast is not so very great,
for since the number of groynes has been increased, extending as
they now do for three miles along shore, the filling up between
them with sand, has gone on very slowly, and it will probably be
some years before the whole length of beach is extended much to
seaward, though when there were only two or three groynes, the
sand was deposited very rapidly. The only remaining effect that
I believe the breakwater would produce on the line of the beach,
is that somewhat to the Northward of the Nothern end, the beach
would be cut away to some extent in consequence of the action of
the surf upon it, while the sand removed by it, was not replaced
by any surf under the lea of the breakwater, but this is of no im-
portance.

Iam thus perfectly satisfied that a breakwater would not have
any injurious effect whatever on the beach.

8rd. Its cost.—The section which such a work will naturally — 4

take is now well known ; the inner slope is about an angle of 45°
and the lower part of the outer one isthe same. From a little
above high water to a little above low water, the slope where the
seas are excessively heavy is about 5 to 1, hence the cost of such
a work very much depends upon the rise and fall of the tide. If
this is great, both the work must necessarily be so much higher,
and also the part on which the slope is so great must extend through .
a greater height, whereas in the present case, the rise being only 1

yard, the cost will be greatly diminished, as compared with such Z

works in England. Further I feel assured that the force of the +

APRIL—JUNE 1857.] Breakwater for Madras. 151

seas in this locality are far below those in that of the Plymouth
breakwater for instance, which is exposed to the long continued
gales that sweep across the wide stretch of the Atlantic. Our
gales never continue many days, and in the hurricanes the wind
never continues many hours in one direction. The comparatively
small power of the seas is shown by the fact that after a hurricane,
when the sea has risen above its ordinary level, very few stones
are thrown up on the beach out of the bulwark.

«« All experience tends to show that gales of wind and hurri-
canes have occured at intervals of several years and that there are
timely warnings indicative of their approach and also that they are
of short duration. or instance in the heavy gale of October 1842,
the sea and surf raged with great violence from 8 a. M., on -
the 23rd to 2 4.m., on the 24th, yet at 6 A. M., within 24 hours
from the commencement of the gale, and a few hours after its de-
cline, the surf had so completely subsided, that boats and catama-
yans were enabled to ply.””—Captain Biden.

Supposing that the work is placed in 6$ fathoms at low water,
that the long slope extends from one yard below low water to 2
yards above high water, and that the top of the work is 4 yards
above high water, the section would contain about 800 square
yards, or 1000 tons per yard in length.

Such a work may be made of any length at first and extended
as the trade of the port increase to any amount.

During the stormy season the number of vessels in the port will
always be moderate, because the coasting trade is stopped, and du-
ring the fine season if all the vessels occasionally cannot be covered
by it, they would still all have the benefit of the cheap, safe and
convenient, communication with the shore that it would afford, so
that as soon as a moderate length is executed all the main points
will be gained. It must also be remembered that very soon when
the coast canal is extended to the Godavery in the North, and the
Cauvary in the South, the coasting trade will be greatly diminished,
for the canal transit will be greatly cheaper than that by the coast.
On these accounts 1000 yards length of breakwater will afford the

152 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

main advantages which are sought, and if we estimate now for
2000 yards, we shall probably allow for enough considering the
present trade, and it is one of the great advantages of such a work,
that it may be carried out just as it is wanted, the length having
nothing to do with the stability.

As to the cost per ton we have had some considerable experience
at the Godavery and Kistna, were probably 13 million tons have
been quarried, and they have cost about 10 annas a ton on an average
including carriage, partly along railways and partly by water, and the
greater part of it with very imperfect apparatus. The quarrying
here will probably not be more expensive from the appearance of
the rock at Covelong, and superior apparatus would be used.
With large blasts and powerful cranes, so that there will be little
necessity for small charges, we know from the works at Portland
and Holyhead, how very cheaply suck work can be performed.

With respect to the crossing the surf, we have abundant proof
how cheaply a small jetty can be constructed sufficient for such a
purpose, in the way the sengle row of screw piles now extending
420 feet into the sea from the beach, has stood the late gales. It
is quite clear that two such rows supporting each other would be
quite sufficient to carry the stone to the back of the surf, if they
extended to 600 feet from the beach at Madras. But I believe
the best spot to obtain the stone at would be Covelong and the
Seven Pagodas, where the surfis more moderate. At the former
place there is a sort of cove formed by a projecting point of rocks,
and also a reef detached from the shore, out of which probably a
very good shipping place could be formed at little expense. There
is there perhaps 2? million tons of stone, which it would be worth
while to take and the rest might be got at the Seven Pagodas.
The distances from these places to the roads are respectively 20
and 80 land miles; and over this space the stone boats might be

towed by steamers. It must be remembered that the number of

stormy days in the year in this locality is very moderate, so that
such work would not be interrupted in the way itis in England.

Bringing the stone in this way, I think if we allow 50,000¥ for 7 ‘4

. pt F
EE OS ee ee ee ee

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.] Breakwater for Madras. 153

plant, viz. steamers, boats, rails, cranes, &c. for 1,200 tons a day
and 1 Rupee a ton besides for quarrying &c., we shall be safe, and
this would make 25 lacs for 2,000 yards,* and it might be extended
at the rate of 1,000 Rupees a yard.

There are excellent data now for this sort of work in England
from which allowing for the difference in the price of labor, very
safe estimates may be made. But this seems quite sufficient to
show that the cost of such a work would be very small compared
with the vast objects in view. The interest at 5 per cent. would
be 64 annas (10 pence) per ton on the present tonnage (315,000
tons) or } per cent. on the reported present value of the imports
and exports (711 lacs of Rupees). But these do not include the
coasting trade, which strange to say, is not entered in any form in
the Custom House returns.

Tne Pier Committee state that about 70 boats make an average
_ of 4 trips in a day throughout the year, carrying each 2 tons or
under, which would give about 150,000 tons a year shipped and
landed at an expense of from 8 annas (12 pence) to upwards of 12
annas (18 pence) a ton, or perhaps 10 annas (15 pence) on an
average, total 100,000 Rupees, besides Passengers. So that no
doubt on the present traffic the interest of the cost of such a work
would be saved in boat hire alone, leaving the diminution of risk
and detention of vessels, that of pilfering and damage of goods in
the boats, the time, convenience and safety of Pasgengers, &c. and

* Rough Estimate of the cost of a Breakwater, 2000 Yards in length, for Ma-_
dras Roads, in 63 fathoms water.

Rupees.
One Steam Tug of 100 tons burthen, and 40 Horse power, Rupees
25,000
Six do. - - - - - - 2,10,000
One Stone Boat of 109 tons, - ° - Rupees 5,000
gu do. - - - - 2 - - 1,50,000
Waggons, Cranes, Bovis, &e. - - - - 1,00,000
Jetty, &c., to facilitate loading boats, &e._ - - - - 40,000
ze 5,00,000
2000 x 800 = 16,00,000 at i3=2 Ma. Tens a ] Rupee zneluciine Sun-
dries, - 20,00,000

Total Rupees... 25,00,000

154 Scientific Intelligence. [NO. 3, NEW SERIES, :

those of all the future increase of traffic, as clear additional be-
nefits. a

The foreign trade increased 20 per cent. in the last year, and it
is quite certain that as the internal improvement of the country in
irrigation and cheap transit, and the wealth of the people are
quite in their infancy, the trade of the Port of Madras is also yet
quite in its infancy. We may safely infer that even if the present
partial system of improvement of the country is continued, the
trade of the port will be doubled and more likely quadrupled be-
fore a breakwater is finished, even if it is begun immediately.

At present the ordinary cost of conveying to the large vessels
is 12 annas or 18 pence per ton, which is equal to fully 150 miles
of carriage by the coast canal, so that a ton of goods from Tanjore
would pay the same for conveyance to Madras by the canal as from
the shore to the ship.

4th. Present circumstances.—The fact that the Hon’ble Court —
seriously consider the question of an expenditure of 100,000£ on 4
a Pier at Madras shows plainly the nature of the times at which ~
we have now arrived, and that to leave things any longer in the
old state in this port is not to be thought of. In fact whatever it q
may have been in times past, the port is now totally out of keeping —
with the whole of the present system of management of the coun- —
try. Tospend 3 millions on a Railway, and as somebody well ex- 7
pressed it, to endit in a massulah boat, is altogether prepos- —
terous. g

I think we may safely consider that all have now come to a de- E
cision on this point, and that something effective must be done to ~
this impertant port. The question then is confined to this point a 7
what is it to be? Itis quite certain that the main points will not be
attained by any Pier. It not only will not shelter the shipping, ©
but it will leave even the landing and shipping of goods and
passengers in a very imperfect state. There will bea great
swell at the end of the Pier, which will be quite exposed to the sea; ~
and most assuredly if ten lacs are spent upon it, there will even
then be the same urgent demand for a breakwater as there is now, F
It is quite certain at least according to my judgment that an expen-

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.} Breakwater for Madras. 15:

sive Pier of this sort, will be quite unnecessary after a breakwater
is constructed. Indeed when Madras is situated on a sheltered bay
{though an artificial one) the whole question of landing and ship-
ping will have to be reconsidered, for it is evident that almost any
thing may then be done in the way of wharfs, docks, &c., so that
in my opinion it will be a most grievous mistake to spend, in fact
to throw away 100,000£ upon a Pier, which would be totally un-
suited to the new state of things, that would be caused by the ex-
ecution of a work which may be done any day, which is certainly
the only work that can make Madras a safe and effective harbour,
and which will not cost so very much more than a Pier such as is
contemplated. In fact we may go far-
ther than that and safely say that if the
High water samesum of 10 lacs were spenton 600,000
Low water tons of stone, thrown down on a line of
me 2,000 yards in length, parallel with the
/ \ beach in 63 fathoms, forming a reef of a
| \ section of 300 square yards, or about 40
yards broad at the base and 12 yards
40 yards. high, that is reaching to within a yard of
low water, it would be far more beneficial than a Pier, for it would
certainly ensure almost smooth water for the ships, and entirely
destroy the surf.

Such an artificial reef would effectually destroy the oscillation of
the se2, which would break on it, instead of on the shore.

12 yards.

Hence to spend under these circumstances 100,000£ upon a Pier,
when 250,000£ would probably be sufficient to make Madras much
superior to any harbour now in India, and equal to any in the world,
appears to me the greatest mistake, and if it is thought that sucha
work would cost more than }million, it would not essentially alter
the case, for it is certain that it would be far more economical to
spend even halfa million in making a harbour than 100,000£ in mak-
ing a Pier. Five per cent on the latter sum would not be I Rupee
per ton on the present tonnage, and really the present tonnage is no
measure of the future tonnage. The mere formation of a harbour
_ would itself have a prodigious effect on the trade, and the Coast

156 Screntific Intelligence. [NO. 3, NEW SERIES,

Canal which is now so considerably advanced will alone go far to
collect the produce of a great part of the Presidency to Madras.
When once goods reach the Canal, the cost of bringing them to
Madras even from 2 or 300 miles will be so little, probably not more
than a Rupee a ton, that it will have a great effect on the trade,
and when by means of improved rivers, branch canals, or even of
cheap railways and common roads the whole interior is opened by
cheap transit to the coast canal, the increase of trade will certainly
be enormous.

But by no means the least important point in this question re-
mains to be considered. The Railway which is now under con-
struction is in a direct line from Calcutta and Madras towards Lon- -
don. Without a harbour at either end, and merely as a line con-
necting the E. and W. Coast of the Peninsula, I look upon this
work, as one of the least important lines on which 8 millions could
have been spent; assuredly nothing of any consequence either in
goods or passengers will ever be conveyed by it from one coast to
the other, and at least 200 miles of it are perhaps about the least
productive line of country that a railway could be carried through
in India. Further itis proved beyond all question that the pas-
senger traffic is the main source of profit on railways, and that the
great mass of passengers only travel a few miles (the average for
all England is 18), that is, they go to the next town and back.
Strange to say, this railway of 450 miles, is not to pass through
one of the few towns (only 7 and all but one very small) which lie
near its route, so that it looks as if the ultimate object had been to
make a railway, not to carry the people. But ifit is treated as part
of the line of communication between London, and Madras and Cal-
cutta, it then becomes a work of real importance though itis sode-
fective as a local communication. It would save 4 days in the fine >
season, and 5 in the 8. W. monsoon. In the latter season it would
be so many hundred miles dead to windward. But to make it thus
available, or at least to make it a thoroughly effective portion of the ©
line from London to Madras and Calcutta, it must have a harbour at
each end, and if 8 millions are spent on the road itself, itis surely _
worth while to spend 3 million more in order so to complete it,

APRIL—JUNE, 1857. ] Breakwater for Madras. 157

Can it possibly be said while we are spending so many millions
on the railways, that it is out of proportion to spend + million on
a harbour, ata seat of Government, and a place which is already
a great commercial centre, notwithstanding almost every kind of
hinderance, such as a want of internal cheap transit, an unshelter-
ed roadstead, a heavy surf, &c. The exports from Coringa have
increased seven-fold, since the improvements in irrigation and tran-
sit, although they do not extend beyond the little tract of country
which forms the delta of the Godavery ; what will they increase to
when 50 times that extent of country is opened out by cheap car-
riage, and how surely the same thing will take place at Madras, if
even the present partial system of internal improvement is perse-
vered in,

Tavoid going into any detail in this paper, respecting the construc- —
tion of the work, as I think it would be quite out of place; I will
only say that I feel assured that there will be no difficulty whatever
in it, beyond what ordinarily occurs in executing works of magni-
tude. And it must particularly be remembered that a work of this
kind may be carried to any extent and executed at any rate of pro-
gress that may be convenient, Five lacs or ten lacs a year may
be set apart for it, and in the very first year, a material, nay an es-
sential change, will be made in the port.

I conclude with earnestly requesting that these points may be
thoroughly considered, and with recommending that this obvious,
simple, and effective work may be at once undertaken. I append
a chart* of the coast N. of Madras, showing the Pulicat and Arme-
gon shoals. For thirty years it has been repeatedly proposed to use
the shelter afforded by the latter as a Harbour, in connection with
Madras. It has of course failed, because a harbour must be where
the Commercial community are, and there is 100 times too much
capital invested at Madras, in connection with the Port, to allow
of the trade being removed to another site. We must either make

* Note.—In this chart the Pulicat shoal is incorrectly laid down as though there
Was no passage between its southern extremity and the main, Whereas it will
be seen that in the plan marked in pencil the least depth is 5 fathoms as shown by
the soundings.

158 Notices of Books. (No. 3, NEW SERINS,

a city at Armegon, or a shoal at Madras, and the latter would per-
haps not cost a twentieth part of the former, so that there can be no
question which alternative to adopt. However all that has been
written by many able men to show that an effective harbour exists
under the shelter of the Armegon shoal, which is from 4 to 6 yards
under water, goes to prove that Madras would be a harbour even
before the Breakwater reached the surface of the Sea.

The Directors of the Assam Tea Company report that the
outturn for 1855-56 amounted to 638,000lbs. The outturn for
1856-57 is expected to reach 700,000lbs. The company is, how-
ever, embarrassed by the difficulty of procuring labour. The Ben-
galees and Dangars are turbulent and ill-conditioned, and the As-
samese alone are to be relied on. Their wages have been raised
eight annas a month, but the supply is still deficient. Nothing is
said about the financial position of the association.— Allen’s Indian
Mail, April 15, 1857.

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

Oriental.

Lieut. H. G. Raverty of the Bombay Army is bringing out a
Dictionary of the Pushto language to consist of 40,000 words and
to extend over 1,000 or 1,200 pages—also a Pushto Text book
which will contain selected portions, Poetical and Prose, of the
most celebrated authors carefully collated from M.S. copies in the
author’s possession. ‘When it is known that Lieut. Raverty has
been engaged over these works for the last nine years, and that he
possesses probably a better knowledge of Pushto than any other
European, we may feel certain that no labor has been spared
in their compilation, and that they will fulfil the expectations of the
most ardent linguist, A Pushto Grammar by the same author was
published in 1856 and was noticed very favorably in the Atheneum
of August 80, of that year, which says, |

** Except the meagre Vocabulary of Major Leech, the Chrestomathy of Prof.
Bernhard Dorn, and the short Grammar published by Captain Vaughan at

APRIL—JUNE, 1857,] Oriental Literature. 159

Caleutta in 1854, no work has been written to facilitate the acquisition of this
language, the Grammar, therefore, of Lieut. Raverty, which is sufficiently ela-
borate, and in which the rules are supported by copious and well chosen extracts
from classical Pushtu authors, will be gladly hailed by every linguist.”

As there are only a few copies of the Grammar remaining on
hand, if he can procure 250 subscribers, Mr. Raverty intends
publishing a 2nd edition revised and improved to be ready at the
same time with the Dictionary and Text book.

Another Sanskrit Grammar is announced from the Oxford Uni-
verty Press by Mr. Monier Williams, Professor of Sanskritat Haily-
bury ; its design is to show the relation that exists between San-
skrit and the classical languages of Europe, and the facility with
which Sanskrit may be acquired by Greek and Latin Scholars.

The Journal Asiatique, No. 32, for November and December 1856,
reviews a book lately published, entitled “‘ dear ussanddid.” Traces )
of wmportant personages, or The History of Delhi and its Monuments,
ancient and modern, by Saiyid Ahmed Khan, Delhi 1854. The Re-
viewer says :—

‘¢ This monograph of Delhi by Satyid Ahmed Khan, Magistrate of Delhi, and
author of several other works also written in the ordinary language of the N. W.
of India, is by far the most useful of any hitherto published in India in Hindusta-
ni (Urdu). The author informs his readers that his ancestors originally came from
Arabia, that they subsequently inhabited Herat and came to India during the
reign of Acbar. * Bs * * #

he principal and the only interesting portion of this volume is that which re
lates to the description of the ancient and modern monuments of Delhi. These
as well as the inscriptions found on them are very faithfully illustrated by correct
drawings which accompany the volume. * ra * % *

The preface contains an abstract of the history of the Kings of Delhi, one chap-
ter is devoted to the history of the Fort of Delhi built by Shah Jehan, and the
other smaller fortresses of this town. Another chapter contains a detailed ac-
count of the different buildings erected by the Kings and principal people of the
same city. The appendix is nothing more than an atlas containing sixty-five draw-
ngs of the buildings described in the work under notice,”

The Journal Asiatique for January 1857, No. 33, thus announces
the death of Mr. Von. Hammer, whose great work on Arabic Li-
terature was noticed in our last number.* The following account
of his last hours is given by his daughter:

* P, 270, Vol. I. N.S.

160 Notices of Books. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

Extract of a letter from the Baroness de Trenck de Tonder to M. Reinaud giv-
ing an account of her father’s death. Dated Vienna 13th December 1856.

* * * “Tn the midst of his sufferings my father continued to busy himself
with the studies which he had pursued during his long life. The day before his
death when scarcely able to speak, he explained to me with much difficulty that he
wished me tosend to the Imperial Library for an Arabic work which he heard had
just been published. Alas! he never cast eye upon it. He was constantly asking
for books to read or calling for his secretary to write to his dictation. On the very
last morning of his life, [ was obliged in order to keep him quict, to bring him paper
and ink and te place a pen between his fingers with which he traced a few illegible
words.

“ During the last fortnight, the oppression under which he labored prevented
hislying in bed. All that time he passed in an easy chair before his writing table
in the middle of his Library. Such a place was little suited for the attentions
which his state required. But we dared not changeit. Wesaw too well that he
wished to die surrounded by his books like a warrior on the field of battle.

‘‘On the morning of the 2Uth November he received the holy sacramentse
During the 23rd he was more restless and disturbed than usual. Hecontinued hows
ever to write with his pencil on his handkerchief and on his linen; at length he
began to doze. We listened with thankfulness to his quiet and regular breath-
ing. Twice or thrice he clapped his hands, a mode of calling his servants he
had acquired from his travels in the East. On drawing near however we found
him still in the same tranquil sleep. About aquarter past six a deep sigh drew
our attention to him; another followed; it was the last!

‘““T must adda few words relative to the state in which my poor father has left
the works in which he was engaged The seventh Volume of the History of Ara-
bic Literature is quite finished, and will be shortly despatched to the individuals
and to the Scientific Societies which have received the preceding Volumes. The
reflection that he had completed this Volume was a source of great comfort to
my father and he has left me full instructions for its distribution. He has ex-
pressed a hope in his will that the Imperial Academy will complete what is con-
sidered indispensable to the work, at least as far as regards the tables. M. Pfitz-
maier is engaged in the revision of the second Volume of the Persian chronicle of ~
Wassaf. I feel sure that the respect due tothe memory of the Translator and
Editor will prevent any delay in completing this publication which, you are
aware, is carried on under the auspices of the Imperial Academy.

I shall not astonish you, Sir, who know the indefatigable application and the
immense labors of my father when I tell you that his repositories contain nume-
rous writings in his own hand of which, unfortunately, the characters are for the
most part, almost illegible. I need not say that I feel it to be a sacred duty to
have these MSS. arranged by a skilful person, to whom, I trust, my practice ia
deciphering my father’s writing, will prove of some use.”

M. Reinaud adds in a note that M. de Hammer long ago completed a Transla-
tion in French of the Arabian tale of Antar. Some years since, the elder M. Pou-

APRIL—JUNE, 1857, | Natural History. 161

joulat being at Vienna, received the MS. from M. de Hammer for publication in
Paris, It is understood that this publication will not be much longer delayed.

Natural History.

A paper on the metalliferous deposits of Kumaon and Gurh-
wal by W. J. Henwood, late Chief Mineral Surveyor in the N. W.
Provinces, which was read before the R. Geological Society of
Cornwall has appeared in the last No. of the Edinburgh New Phi"
losophical Journal.*

Mr. Henwood met with copper pyrites and purple copper ore
in quartzose veins occurring sparingly in the granitic and gneiss
formation and somewhat more plentifully at the junction of the tale
and clay slates of Poker, Seera, &c.

Iron ores occur in great abundance throughout the clay slate .
formation and in some parts of the tale slate series. Mr. Henwood
particularly notices the fact that bunches of ore dip from the mass
of the nearest granite formation not only in the case of the iron of
the Himalayas but as regards the gold of Brazil.

The talc slate formation he found to exhibit a strong resemblance
to the gold districts of Brazil particularly to the Jacotinga forma-
tion in which the richest gold deposits occur. Accordingly he
found that gold mines were actually worked in Kumaon and Gurh-
wal, but in the rudest and most inefficient manner. The usual
method of preparing the rock for being worked was to soften it by
the application of fire.

‘¢ + But in their small and ill-ventilated mines this mode is very ineffective,
while the smoke and foul air, generated by the combustion, stop the work of
every other person in the mine at the time. The imperfection of the tools
and mode of working ; the ignorance which prevails of the advantages of
ventilation ; of the economy of labour, by extracting the ore through passages
large enough to allow the workmen unimpeded action; as well as the native
smelter’s inability to treat any but the richest and most fusible ores; render it,
therefore, an object of paramount importance, in the view of the Indian miner,
to avoid, by every possible device, the opening of large galleries. But the softer

and more fusible ores are far less plentiful than those which are too refractory for
the native smelting furnace ; and the two varieties of ore are so intimately mixed in

* No. I, Vol. I1I. new series—1856,
+ 2 Do. --do.- p. 139.

162 Notices of Books. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

the beds, that it is impossible to extract the former without breaking still larger
quantities of the latter also. In order, therefore, to obtain a supply for their
fur naces, as well as toallow the miner the free use of his tools, large excavations
are made, and a selection of ores, as far as practicable, is made under ground, and
that which is too refractory for use is heaped up within the mine, to such an extent
as scarcely to allow sufficient convenience for the exit of the miner, and the re-
moval of the ore. The ordinary mode of extraction is in bags of skin, tied to the
person of the labourer, who crawls, when possible, on ald fowrs, dragging the bag
after him over the rough floor of the opening. But in many places the opening
is too strait even for this, permitting passage only in a prostrate position, the suf-
ferer propelling himself by writhing, and by the aid of his elbows on the sides
and of his toes on the floor of the hole, In one mine, indeed, the opening is so
small, except in the part wrought under the Goorkha rule, that we found children
of only from 10 to 14 years old employed in the difficult and dangerous task of re-
opening a communication through fallen rubbish in a gallery of which the sides
were broken down.”

ee ee te be = etre »

M. Hasskarl, Superintendent of the Botanical Garden at Bui-
tenzorg, and the successful introducer of the Cinchona into Java has
been compelled to return to Europe for the recovery of his health. —
But before his departure he had commenced two works descriptive
of the Flora of Java, one entitled,—

RETZIA sive observationes botanice quas de plantis en Botanice
Bogorvensis annis 1855-56 fecit J. K. Hasskarl: and the other,—

OBsSERVATIONES Botanica de Firicisus Horti Bogoriensis et
ad montem Gedeh sponte sua crescentibus, Sc.

It is stated however that it is his intention now to embody all his
observations in a single work to be entitled Hortus Bogortensis
Descripius with notices or descriptions of about 600 species,—Kew
Mise. 1X. 196.

Miscellaneous Notices.

Among the new works upon Eastern subjects that have made
their appearance within the last year or so, The Kingdom and a
People of Siam, with a narrative of the mission to that country im
1855, by Sir J. Bowring, F. R. S., H. M. Plenipotentiary in
China, 2 vols. 8vo. 3826, stands pre-eminent perhaps for interest and ;
utility in a commercial and political point of view. Atthe same time
it is gratifying to find that India has made some important contribu- =
tions. The personal narrative of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Mecca, —

;
)

APRIL—JUNE 1857.]} Miscellaneous Notices. 163

by Captain Burton, Bombay Army, has already attained a second

edition. Captain Burton has also written a History of Sindh, and has
proved himself possessed of energy and observation which, coupled
to his intimate acquaintance with the various dialects of Arabic
and Persia, rendered him peculiarly fitted to undertake the pilgrim-
age of which he has given us so interesting a narrative.

A valuable work from the pen of a member of the Madras Medi-
cal Service has just been published, under the title of The Antiqui-
ties of Kertch and Researches in the Cimmerian Bosphorus ; with
remarks on the Lithnological and Physical History of the Crimea; by
Duncan Macpherson, . p., of the Madras Army, Folio, and Colored
engravings, Two guineas. Some of the early proof plates of the
antiquities were exhibited at our meeting in March last, and attracted
much admiration. ‘The notice of them will be found at page 284, ©
Vol. I.

More recently has been announced 4 Journal of two years’ Travel
in Persia, Ceylon, &c. by Robert Binning, Esq., Madras Civil Ser-
vice, 2 vols. 8vo. 28s. (Allen and Co).

The Atheneum of April 18, 1857, p. 496, concludes a favourable
review of Mr. Binning’s work in these words,—

‘* After this general picture, we might draw attention to many valuable details in
Mr. Binning’s work, but we shall content ourselves with saying that it will be found
a book of reference as to measures, dress, household matters and statistics. The
author’s opinions on Persian literature are especially valuable. A man who has
read through the 60,000 couplets of Firdausi, most of the lesser poets and a more
than usual quantum of historical and doctrinal works, is entitled to speak ex ca-
thedrd on Persian writings. Classical scholars may, indeed, be disposed to demur
to an authority who places the Shahnamah above the Iliad. There are many
points of comparison between Homer and the Persian Epie Poet; but we shall
not enter upon the parallel, which would form a good subject for a separate essay,
and would require a book toitself. One coincidence, however, may be noticed,
as to the martial enthusiasm the verses of both poets inspire. ‘' The Persian sol-
diery,’’ says Mr. Binning, ‘‘ when about to engage in combat, are accustomed to
sing aloud certain passages of the Shahndmah, which practice has the effect of
inspiriting them to absolute fury; as the verses of Homer did the warriors of
Greece, or as the Runic lays of the Skalds were wont to animate the fierce Ber-
serkars of old Norway.’’ Leaving the stout partizan of the Homeric cause to take
up Mr. Binning’s glove, we close the volumes in which the challenge is recorded,
with a hint to the Greek champions that they may perhaps in this encounter find
harder work than in the old fields of Marathon and Salamis,”

164 Notices of Books. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet; by M. VAbbe Hue,
2 vols. (Longman and Co.) has just made its appearance and gives
a History of the propagation of Christianity in those parts. << If it
should not’’ says the Atheneum, (April 25, 1857) ‘ be accepted
as philosophically impartial, it will at least enjoy the credit of being
thoroughly interesting.”

Les Anglais et? Inde ; by M. le Mor. Fridolin, which has appear-
ed in the last few numbers of the Revue des Deua Mondes is con-
cluded at page 298 of the Revue for the 15th March last, vol. VIII.

Mon. Fridolin has divided his subject into five parts and treated
them in the following order.

1. Les Fonctionnaires civils del’ Honorable sem * des Indes,
(Vol. VI. p. 301.)

2. L’Education des Hindous, les prisons et les Moyens de
repression contre les Khonds, les Thugs et les Datturias.(Vol. VII.
p. 768.)

3. Le Commerce, les Finances et les Travaux publics sous le
Government de l’Honorable Compagnie. (Vol. VII. p. 357.)

4, L’ Armee Anglo-Hindoue, Mzeurs et Scenes Militaires dans —

VInde. (Vol. VII. p. 721.)
5. Les Grandes villes de l’Inde, deux mois sur le Great Trunk-
Road. (Vol. VIII. p. 241.

The death of Dr. Robert Ball, Secretary of the Royal Zoologi-
cal Society of Ireland is thus reported by the Atheneum of the 18th
of April, p. 505.

‘‘ From Dublin we hear of the sudden death of Dr. Robert Ball,—an esteemed
Naturalist, whose name was recently brought under the reader’s notice in connex-
ion with the arrangements for the next meeting af the British Association. Dr.
Ball was born in 1802. He succeeded the late Dr. Whitly Stokes as Director of
the Museum in Trinity College. On the establishment of the Queen’s University
in Ireland, in 1851, he entered on the additional duties of Secretary of the Joint
Comunittee of Lectures in connexion with the Department of Science and Art;
and in 1855 he was nominated Assistant-Examiner for Ireland to the Civil Service
Committee. While holding these several appointments he was an active mem-
ber of most if not of all the scientific Societies of Dublin. He is best known as
Secretary of the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland and as Treasurer of the Royal
Trish Academy,—an officer next in corporate rank to that of President. In 1850

er 4 So i

APRIL—JUNE, 1857] Miscellaneous Notices. 165

the University of Dublin conferred on him the honorary degree of LL.D. His
published papers are scattered through the pages of different periodicals. Three |
have appeared in the Transactions or Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy,
yiz., ‘On the Species of Seals (Phocide) inhabiting the Irish Seas,’—‘ On the
remains of Oxen found in the Bogs of Ireland,’—and ‘ On the Cephalopoda of
the Irish Seas.’ That he was at all times ready to impart his information freely
to others, most of the zoological works published in these kingdoms during the
last few years afford ample testimony.”’

Dr. Ball’s books and collections are announced for sale in Dublin.

Since the issue of our last number, Mr. Prendergast has finished
his task, and we have now A complete Concordance of the Poetical
Works of Milton. The Concordance extends over 416 closely
written quarto pages, and some idea of the patience it must have
made trial of may be formed by referring to words like ‘ such,’
and ‘ though,’ the former of which we can now assert (on Mr.
Prendergast’s authority) that John Milton has repeated 256 times
"and the latter 273 times in his Poetical writings.

The Concordance has been made, it is said, ** from the Edition
by Sir Egerton Brydges, in 6 vols. 12mo. printed by Macrone, St:
James Square, London, 1835; but of course the references in res-
pect of Books and Lines are applicable to any Edition.”

The work came out in 12 parts, 2 Rs. each part, and was printed
by Messrs. Pharoah and Co., at the Atheneum Press, Madras.

The Rev. R. Caldwell whose Comparative Grammar of the Dravi-
dian Tongues, and whose lengthened labours as a Missionary in the
South of India were noticed in our last number,* has had the hono-
rary distinction of LL.D. conferred upon him by the Glasgow
University.

Lieut.-Gen. John Briggs, r. R. s., of the Madras Army, has just
issued a popular view of the present state and future prospects of
the Eastern Continental Empire entitled India and Hurope compared.
(Allen and Co.)

Chapters 1 and 2 are devoted to establish the identity of the
races as evinced in four peculiarities belonging to both and to no
other race of men. The areaand population of India is also given.

* p, 271, Vol. I.

166 Proceedings. [No. 5, NEW SERIES,

The remainder of the book, some 230 pages, is a statistical Com-
parison of the Military and Financial resources of the two countries,
their Commerce, Public Works and Educational Systems.

PROCEEDINGS.

The Managing Commitice of the MADRAS Literary Socrery and
Auniliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday Evening, the 9th
Apri, 1857.

The Secretary laid before the meeting the usual monthly State-
ment of the Society’s Funds.

Read a paper communicated, through the Honorable Walter
Elliot, Esq., by the Revd. Mr. Percival, on the Tamil Epic the Chin-

tamant.

After a few observations on the late Educational scheme intro-
duced into India, Mr. Percival alludes to the general satisfaction
caused by the Vernaculars, instead of English, as was at first ap-
prehended, being made the medium of instruction to the masses,
He briefly points out the increased attention the Dravidian Tongues
are attracting at the present day, both among Oriental Scholars
in England, and on the Continent of Europe.

That such is indeed the case, were other evidence wanting be-
sides the several Publications which have lately appeared in con-
nection with India, its Literature and Language, is sufficiently
proved by the fact that one or two Works in Tamil beautifully ex-
ecuted have issued from the Press in Hurepe.

Under such circumstances Mr. Percival ventures to remind us of
the benefits that are likely to arise were we to direct our attention
to some of the ancient works of Southern India, which for cen-
turies have been acknowledged by the Natives as Authorities, and

have earned the admiration of their best scholars. There are five

Classical Works he says answering to this description, and which
are reckoned of undisputed authority in all matters relating to
Tamil Philology.

APRIL—JUNE 1857,] Proceedings. 167

1. The Chintamani. 2. Chillapadikaram.
3. Valleiyapathi. 4. Kundalakési.
and, 5. Manimékalei,

For the subject of the paper under notice he has chosen the
Epic Chintamani composed by Terudevar. In regard to the action
of the Poem, and the incidents essential to its development, it is
little more than a Narrative of the fabulous acts of prowess and
skill of a King called Jivaka.

Independently of this however, Mr. Percival, whose acquaint-
ance with Tamil Literature is most extensive, states that the Poem
throughout exhibits such literary talent and is interspersed with
remarks involving such keen ,refrospection into the grounds of
human action, that it amply sustains the high character he claims
for it. In respect of its views it is peculiarly the Text Book of the |
Jains, and supports, with care, their various doctrinal peculiarities.
For the characteristics of the Jains as compared with the Buddhas
and Brahmins, vide Bombay Transactions, vol. 3, page 506. Though
Mr. Percival has thus pioneered the way, as it were, in this brief
notice of one of the five Classical Works in the Tamil Language,
we cannot but hope that he will find time to give us some account
of the remaining four, more particularly so when we consider that
his extensive acquaintance with the Oriental Tongues fits him in a
peculiar manner for the highly interesting task.

The Committee acknowledge with thanks the receipt of the fol-
lowing Reports, &c. from the Chief Secretary.

1. Mr. Herman Schlagentweit’s Observationsin Upper Assam, &c.
from January to May 1856.

2. Mr. Robert Schlagentweit’s Report on the progress of the
Magnetic Survey of India from November 18955 to April 1856.

8. Copies of Reports V, VI, VII, VIII & IX, of the Proceed-
ings of the Officers engaged in the Magnetic Survey of India.

The Society possesses Copies of Reports V, VI, VII & IX, re-
ceived from the Chief Secretary and acknowledged in last month’s
Proceedings. No. VIII. was printed at Agra instead of Lahore,
and some delay occurred in its issue.

4, Annals of Indian Administration, Part 1.

168 Proceedings. [No. 3, NEW SERIES,

5, India, No, 17—Reports on Mineral Deposits in Kumaon.

6. India, No. 20—Reports on Pegu, Tonghoo, and Salween, also
Major Jacob’s complaint against the Punjaub Board.

7. Selections from Madras Government Records—Correspond-
ence regarding the Railway.

8. Second Edition of Dr. Baikie’s account of the Neilgherries—

with 5 Plates in Tin Case.

9. Report on the Elliot Marbles by the Revd. W. Taylor.

Received by order of the Right Honorable the Governor in
Council at Bombay, the Bombay Magnetical and Meteorological
Observations for 1854 and 1855.

Received from the Smithsonian Institution the Smithsonian con-
tributions to Knowledge, Vols. VII and VIII, and the Eighth An-
nual Report of the Board of Regents of the Institution for 1853
and 1894.

Received, through the same source, a Prospectus intimating that
Professor Agassiz intends publishing, in a series of ten quarto
Volumes, the principal results of his extended investigations in the
Natural History of North America. It is proposed to print the Pros-
pectus in the fly leaf of the next number of the Journal, and the
Committee desire to warmly recommend the work to the lovers of
science throughout the Presidency.”

The Cummittee also take this opportunity of acknowledging the
receipt, from the Smithsonian Institution, of the Constitution and
Bye-Laws of the New Orleans Academy of Sciences, which came
accompanied by Vol. I, No. 1, of the Proceedings of the Academy.

In accordance with a wish expressed by the Members of the New
Orleans Society, the Committee will have much pleasure in effect-
ing an interchange of Scientific Productions with them.

The Committee also acknowledge with thanks the receipt from
the Honorable Walter Elliot, Hsq., of Volumes 9 and 10 of De
Candolle’s Prodromus Regni Vegetalis. As the Society is alrea-
dy in possession of the first 8 Volumes of the work, it was re-

solved that the succeeding Volumes be purchased, as they are, or ~

may be, completed.
The Meeting separated a little before 8 o’clock.

Lo - F ee

APRIL—JUNE, 1857] Proceedings. 169

The Managing Committee of the Mapras LitrrAry Society and
Auailiary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday Evening the 14th
May 1857.

The Honorable Mr. Elliot, read a letter from Dr. Jamieson of
Saharunpoor, announcing the dispatch of specimens of Himalayan
Teas, for the Madras Exhibition. Unfortunately they have not yet
arrived, having been forwarded from Calcutta in a sailing ship, and
meantime the Exhibition has closed. The Indian Teas are repre-
sented as being in much request at the periodical Auction Sales,
and as realizing good prices. The Black Teas fetch from annas
153 per lb. for Pouchong, to Rupees 1-15-8 for Souchong. The
Green Teas from Rs. 1-15-8 for Pekoe to Rs. 3-4-9 for Gunpowder
and Hyson. In preparing the Green Tea no colouring matter is |
allowed. The color and flavor are brought out entirely by mani-
pulation in cast iron pans. The quantity of land under the culti-
vation is about 1,600 acres annually. Upwards of a million young
seedlings and 20,000 lbs. of seeds are distributed gratis to private
individuals, to enable them to form Plantations on their own ac-
count. The Tea Plant is now cultivated from the Kalee River
in Kumaon to the Indus, or over 4° of Latitude and 6° of Lon-
gitude. It has also been introduced with success at Darjeeling.

Dr. Jamieson also forwards specimens of Woodcutting, for which _
Saharunpoor is famed. The woods used by the Engravers are
Doodia, Wrightia, Nauclea parviflora, &c.

An interesting letter from Dr. Drew was likewise read, giving an
account of his search for the Gutta Percha Tree of Wynaad. He
met with it very abundantly in some places, every fourth tree being
of this description. It is plentiful in the middle third of the Kar-
koor pass, more rare near Davilcotta, and disappears higher up ;
but it is said to be found immediately under the Nelagiri Peak. The
tree is large and lofty, so tall indeed, that it is impossible, with
the naked eye, to distinguish clearly the form of the leaves, and
were it not for the fruit and flowers lying on the ground, to know
that the tree was in flower. Dr. Drew doubts whether the tree is
isonandrous, and from a careful drawing and description trans-
mitted, it is clear that it does not fall under that genus as charac-

170 Proceedings. [wo. 3, NEW SERIES,

terized by Wight and Griffiths. The Pachounti, which was sent
to the late Exhibition from Travancore appears to differ both from
the Wynaad species and from the true Isonandra Gutta. The
whole group call for careful revision.

The Secretary read a letter from Lieut. H. G. Raverty, 8rd Bom-
bay N. I., Assistant Commissioner Mooltan, enclosing Prospectus
of a Dictionary and Text Book of the Pushto language, which he
has been engaged upon for the last nine years. Lieut. Raverty has
already published a Pushto Grammar, which was favorably noticed
in the London Atheneum of August 30th, 1856. Should 250 copies
of the latter be subscribed for, he intends publishing a second edi-
tion, revised and improved, at the same time with the Dictionary
and Text Book.

Resolved, that the Society take one Number of each Work, and
that the Prospectus be published in the Journal.

Read a letter communicated through the Honorable Mr. Elliot,
on the subject of Colonel Stacey’s magnificent collection of Coins.

Captain Wroughton, on behalf of the daughters of Colonel Sta-
cey, has offered the Coins for sale at Rupees 5,000, and the Coun-
cil of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, impressed with the import-
ance of securing so valuable a collection, have resolved to call on
all interested in Indian Archeology to aid the Society in their ef-
forts to preserve the collection in its integrity, and to deposit itin
a place accessible to all Numismatists. z 4

The Committee acknowledge with thanks the receipt of the fol- me
lowing contributions :

From the Chief Secretary. a
1. Report of the Committee appointed to examine Messrs. 4
Saunder’s and Mitchell’s project for erecting an Iron Pile Pier at 4
Madras. 3
2. Report of the Committee upon Captain Taylor’s proposed +s
Pier. a
3. Memo. of a project of a Ship Breakwater for Madras, by
Colonel A. Cotton, Madras Engineers. a
4, An account of the fall of two Meteoric Stones in the District ~

APRIL—JUNE, 1857,] Proceedings. 171

of Madura on the 28th of February last, by the Rev. H. 8. Taylor,
an American Missionary.
From Colonel Browne.

5. Observations on Free Labour Cotton in the West Indies, by
James Banks, late of Honduras.

The Managing Commitiee of the MApRAs LITERARY SocirETY and
Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Soctety, Thursday Evening, 11th
June, 1857.

The chair was taken at 3 past 6 by the Honorable Walter El-
liot, Esq. |

The Secretary laid the usual statement of accounts before the
Meeting, and brought to the notice of the Committee that the
Rules for the Society’s Management being nearly out of print, a
fresh batch of them would have to be printed, and might be taken

in hand atthe same time with the Catalogue now under revision,
and almost ready for the Press.

_ Resolved that the statement is satisfactory, and that fresh copies
of the rules be printed as suggested.

Read a letter from Colonel Balfour, c. 8., which was ordered to-
be recorded.

The Committee beg to acknowledge the receipt of the following
papers from the Chief Secretary.

1. Observations on Provincial Exhibitions and the improve-
ment of the Resources of the several Districts of the Madras Pre-
sidency, by J. Forbes Royle, m. p.

Dr. Royle expresses great satisfaction at the successful results
which have attended the attempts to develop the natural resources
of this Presidency. He points out the particular objects which
should be kept in view with regard principally to procuring mar-
kets, to the introduction of new Articles of Produce, of superior
implements of husbandry, the improvement of the breeds of Cat-
tle, &e.

172 Proceedings. [No, 3, NEW SERIES,

This valuable paper was communicated to the Sub-Committee
of Papers and will appear in the forthcoming Number of the
Journal.

2. No, X. of the Report of the Officers engaged in the Magne.
tic Survey of India.

The Committee also acknowledge with thanks the receipt of a
Catalogue Raisonne of the Books in the Medical College, present-
ed by the College.

Meteorological Observations, &e. &e.

APRIL—JUNE, 1857.]

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MADRAS JOURNAL

OF
Pere RATURE AND SCIENCE:

NO. 4—NEW SERIES,

July—September, 1857.

VII. On the Relationship existing between the Animal and
Plant. By Guorce Biviz, m.B., Assistant Surgeon, Ma-
dras.

Between the animal and plant of the higher orders there is such
an apparent difference of conformation, such a contrariety of habits,
that the mere casual observer will fail to recognise those secret
links, by which nature binds all her works into one harmonious
whole. In whatever direction however the contemplations of the
naturalist tend, from race to race or from kingdom to kingdom, he
discovers no rude gaps but a beautiful unison, for nzhal per saltum
is one of the great laws of creation. If we descend the scale of na-
ture, reaching the extreme boundaries, the lowest forms, of the ani.
mal and vegetable kingdoms, we find members of these great divi-
sions approximating so closely, that it becomes a matter of difficul-
ty to draw any line of demarcation. The limits here are also hazy,
because so far beyond the ken of unaided vision, and although the
microscope has unveiled nature’s secrets, disclosing a new world
grand in the plenitude of its minutie, still its scientific eye is finite
failing at times to decide which is the animal, and which the plant.
It has been said that “ stones grow, vegetables grow and live, and

-animals grow, live and feel,’”’ but this axiom is not sufficiently ex-
tensive in the terms of its definition. Thus plants in some instan- ~
ces seem capable of distinguishing between light and darkness, for

176 On the Relationship existing (No. 4, NEW SERIES,

many only open their leaves or flowers to the sunshine, while others
the planée tristes, the watchmen of the flower garden, only spread
abroad their beauties to the night. Other plants exhibit a certain
amount of irritability, or sensitive qualities, under mechanical or
chemical stimuli. The Drosera and Dionea woo the unwary fly
to its destruction shutting it up in deadly folds, while the J/imosa
senstitva and a few others will shrink from the most delicate
touch, and may be laid asleep, during any severe operation of the
gardener, under the influence of opium or Chloroform. If on
the other hand we assume as the characteristic of the animal, its
capability of changing its position, we still find similar properties
in the plant; for vegetable organisms are in some instances capa-
ble of changing their position and performing other movements.
Thus the Zoospores of Cryptogamic plants are locomotive, and the
Desmodium gyrans is possessed with a restless activity, its lateral
leaflets dancing a perpetual measure to the music of the air. Ag
we compare then these indications of sensibility, and these locomo-
tive powers in the vegetable with the humbler endowments of such
an animal as the sponge, which remains through life chained to one
little spot of rock, giving out no indications of sensibility, we must
at once be struck with the difficulties attending a true distinction,
and the intimate relation that exists between the two kingdoms in
question. ‘True, we cannot instance the automatic performances of
the vegetable as identical with the similar endowments of animal
life, but still they indicate a sympathy, a harmony existing between
the two organizations, and show us how closely the great principles
of animal and vegetable life converge. Indeed, as they approach
the common centre, the little cell that is the habitation of both, it
is perhaps impossible to say, here begins animal and there vegetable
life.* These, here in their infancy, are subtle essences far beyond
our conception, and the naturalist, as he gathers this new world to-
gether on the field of his microscope, can only judge and name, after

long and patient study of conformation and habits. |

Thus far we have dealt in generalities, let us now therefore exa-

* This animal and vegetable affinity is very amusingly discussed at p. 448 of
the April No, of the Dublin University Magazine 1857.—Ep.

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] between the Animal and Plant. V7

mine more closely the consanguinity of the two kingdoms, beginning
with the birth of the members of bothin a simple cell, and then con-
sidering what important parts cellular structures play throughout all
the economy of their future life. Buffon on beholding the smallest
animal of the existenceof which we are aware, the little monad that
swarms in stagnant water, imazined thatall vegetable and animals were
built up of these minute cells. True to its unchanging philosophy,
which laughs at every new truth, the world sneered at Buffon’s impro-
bable idea; but we know now that the sage naturalist saw truth in
his dreams. The smallest of the Infusoria, the most minute Cryp-
togam are but simple cells living an independent isolated life, and
every living structure however complex, however strange, has had a
cellular origin, and is indebted for its growth and maintenance to
the modification and development of cells.* The cell consists of an
enveloping membrane or cell wall, that encloses a peculiar fluid and
nucleus or cell-germ. True we find numerous examples of cells
that do not exhibit even the trace of a nucleus, but from these it
may either have been removed by absorption, or it may be destin-
ed to appear at some future era of their existence. The modes of
Cytogenesis are various, but nearly all agree in being common to the
animal and vegetable. To the older Physiologists the subject of
reproduction was fertile in speculation and romance, and it was only
when the theory of cells and their development became known,
that we were able to read its history in the earlier and more myste-
rious stages. In the higher animals and plants, the process is com-
plicated in accordance with the general plan of organization, but
as we approach the simple infusorial animal or cryptogamic plant,
we can with facility explore the plan of nature’s grand secret. Here
new generations originate in accordance with the laws of Cytoge-
nesis, the nucleus of the parent preparing a future race, or some
of the other systems obtaining by which the old cell begets the new.

Remembering then that Cytogenesis is in all cases the necessary
part of the process of reproduction, if from the generation of the
lower species we proceed upwards to the more perfect animal or
plant, we shall find that any complication of plan is merely sup-

* The exceptions to this general rule do not demand special notice.

178 On the Relationship existing [No. 4, NRW SERIES,

plementary for the nurture and development of a superior embryo.
It is unnecessary to compare the various structures that are met
with in the two kingdoms, as the results of the transformation of
cells. In both we find tubular tissues formed by the coalescence
of cells, sclerous tissues where the cells have been solidified by in-
ternal deposit, and in Ascidian Mollusca a considerable quantity of
cellulose, the substance proper of plants. Indeed one observer re-
lates, that cellulose can be detected by chemical reagents in the
corpora amylacea of the human brain; and if we can therefore
credit Virchow, the appellation “ timber headed”’ will after all have
a foundation in truth.

We now come to consider some of the functions of organic life,
premising that in all organs where these vital operations are car-
ried on, we find a true cellular structure retained. Beginning with
absorption and assimilation, we find these processes varying, ac-
cording to the rank of the animal or plant, in the respective
kingdoms, but still agreeing in the constant cellular agency.
Amongst individuals of humble status, the nutritious matter is at
once received through the cell wall by the process of endesmose, to
be elaborated and applied in the cavity of the cell to the various
wants of the structure. This of all methods is the most simple, and
a key to the plans of absorption and assimilation in the higher di-
visions, inasmuch as any apparatus more intricate is merely super-
added for the production of a more elaborate nutritious fluid, and
its transfer to distant parts of the organism. In the Vertebrata
absorption and assimilation obtain in their most perfect state, as
we find in this group a distinct tubular system, solely concerned in
the manufacture and translation of the chyle or alimentary fluid.
Between this and the simple endesmose and assimilation of the ani-
malcule, there are many intervening gradations of process, and as
an example of an animal occupying an intermediate position be-
tween the two extremes, we shall briefly contemplate the internal
economy of an Annelide, the Hirudo medicinalis. In this creature,
nearly the whole of the visceral cavity is filled by the stomach,
which consists of an elongated tube with a number of lateral sacs.
Over these ceecal appendages is spread a delicate net-work of the
terminal branches of the circulatory system, destined to receive by

ee

yuLY—seEPT. 1857.] belween the Animal and Plant. 179

endesmose the elements of nutrition, which thus pass in their crude
state into the general circulation, where they are elaborated and
fitted for their future destiny. In the vertebrate animal, the lac-
teals already referred to terminate by looped extremities amongst
a number of cells and nuclei; and during the passage of chyme
along the intestine these nuclei become developed into cells, and
the cells are busy at work selecting, absorbing and elaborating, and
then yielding up their contents to the loops of the lacteals. In
plants the root is the great organ of absorption, whether suspend-
ed in air, floating in water or buried in the earth. The root con-
sists of a cellular epidermis, and internal structure of vascular bun-
dles and cells. Here then cells are still the great organs of ab-
sorption, and if we trace the sap upwards through the alburnum and
leaves, and its return through the lactiferous vessels and cells of
the bark, we shall find them not less active and essential in the
process of assimilation. If we now review the function of respira-

- tion-in the animal and plant, we shall find that although by this

process the animal eliminates carbon and consumes oxygen, while
the plant fixes the former and gives off the latter, being thus so far
opposed in object, they nevertheless agree inasmuch as respiration
is carried on in both kingdoms, by means of organs of a cellular
structure. In both too the ultimate objects of the function are the
alteration and refinement of the circulating or nutritious fluid, the
blood in the one and the sap in the other being fitted for the pro-
duction of new or repair of old tissues, and for keeping up a sup-
ply of the various secretions. Respiration is therefore a depura-
tory process, and perhaps the least vital of any of the functions of
organic life, many of the changes it effects being merely the results
of a chemical action. We come now to speak of secretion, which
is carried on by means of certain cellular organs called glands.
These appropriate each a definite nature of material from the cir-
culating fluid, as it passes along fertilized by the results of absorp-
tion and assimilation. Besides their nutritious elements however,
the blood and sap contain unorganizable substances the effete pro-
ducts of tear and wear, which are separated to be excreted by
glands differing in no important particulars from those already
mentioned. The individual cells concerned in the manufacture of

180 On the Relationship existing [No. 4, NEWSERIES,

the various secretions, as they disclose no appreciable disparity in
structure to account for the dissimilarity of their products, must
therefore possess some special endowment or quality, whereby they
are enabled to make a selection of material. The mode in which
the gland as a whole is constructed can have no direct influence
in this respect, for secretions are vicarious, and the same gland as-
sumes different forms in different grades of the animal kingdom.
We have not space to compare the secretions of the two kingdoms,
and would merely insist on the similarity of secreting structures
in both, and the mysterious faculty that these possess of selecting
certain substances, and only these during health, from the circulat-
ing fluid.

Thus through all the functions of organic life, there exists
between the animal and plant a wonderful consanguinity. In
both we find a variety of processes instituted with a view to the
same results, and performed by means of structures identical in
the plan of their conformation. There are still however other re-
lations, equally strange, existing between the two kingdoms; and
these are perhaps more directly practical in their bearings than
those already noticed. The great Creator of the universe, has es-
tablished a fixed Geographical distribution of the varieties of the
animal and plant, that cannot be departed from without incurring
the risk of disease or even death. The Esquimaux enjoys perfect
health, living in his snow-hut and feeding upon raw flesh, the sup-
ply of which is far from regular or abundant; a mode of life that
would, to say the least of it, be dangerous to any native of a tem-
perate climate, and death to any member of an intertropical race,
On the same inhospitable shores of the frigid zone, we find a scan-
ty flora of Saxifragacez, Salices and Cochleariz, not one of which
has ever been removed toa milder climate with impunity. Still
more impossible would it be to transplant ana to adorn with our Mag-
nolias, Camellieze or Palme, the ice-bound coasts of Labrador or
Greenland; or to exchange for the Lion and Tiger of the one re-
gion, the fiercer and more powerful White Bear of the other.

Early in the summer of 1852, a dog and bitch only afew months
old were picked up by me on the shores of Melville Bay in about
75° N, Latitude, Both were in good health so long as we remain-

JULY-——SEPT. 1857.] between the Animal and Plant. 181

ed in high latitudes, but on the homeward voyage as we approached
the Orkney Islands, in the month of cold November, both animals
became sick, suffering from jfi/s. The dog died of congestion of
the brain, just as we sighted land, and towards the close of the fol-
lowing spring the bitch, which was then in the Highlands of Scot-
land, died I believe from the same cause. We have little reason
to doubt that in both these cases, elevation of temperature was the
exciting cause of disease. Of several varieties of hardy garden
seeds imported from England in tin cases, and sown in a garden
soil of fair quality in Kirkee this season, only a very few speci-
mens have lived to come above ground; and yet the seeds looked
fresh and healthy enough. In several colonies to which seeds, such
as corn and barley, have been sent from Europe, even these sturdy
plants suffered from the change of climate, and it was only after
the careful culture of a few years that they began to yield an abun-
dant return. On the other hand the agriculturist knows well the
advantage of having seed from a limited distance, where there is
not any considereble difference in climate involved in the change.
Those at all conversant with a pastoral life also know the change
in height and appearance that takes place in the Shetland breed of
ponies, when transported young from their native shores to the
south of Scotland or to England. Such a change of pasture and
climate has also no little influence on the breeds of cattle and sheep.

Indeed it is an article of our medical creed, that lccal climate,
and quality of soil exercise an important influence over animal and
vegetable life. Amid the dank exuberant vegetation of the jun-
gle, diseases exhibiting great vascular excitement are but too com-
mon; amid the smoke-begrimed, tainted atmosphere of the great
city what an enervated sickly debased race grow up, and who that
has seen in the same sphere a few plants tortured into existence,
can say that they looked healthy? The heather is a sturdier plant
than the rose or the shamrock, and in general hill tribes are en-
dowed with a physical energy superior to that of their neighbours
of the plains. On a poor miserable soil, with scarce vegetation to
cover its nakedness, we shall ever find a wretched and thinly scat-
tered population. Looking backwards to the Geological eras of
this venerable earth, we also find most wonderful relations, as to

182 Animal and Plant. [no. 4, New serine,

rank in their respective kingdoms, existing between the classes of
animals and vegetables living at the same time on the stage of the
world. Thus during the Paleozoic division of fossiliferous history,
amid awful forests, pestiferous jungle, and impenetrable underwood
consisting of Moenocotyledons, Gymnogens, Acrogens and Thallo-
gens, there lived molluscs and a few reptiles, while the waters of
the same period were occupied by corals and crustaceans, all ani-
mals of low type. Advancing to the next or middle great division,
we find specimens of the classes enumerated as characteristic of the
previous period, only modified in accordance with other features of
that creation. In addition to these however, we have gigantic rep-
tiles and birds, a few mammals and some dicotyledonous plants.
Then comes the tertiary period, when the dicotyledon is king of
the forest, when mammals of immense proportions are predominant,
and reptiles are dwarfed into something like their present size.
Thus throughout the two kingdoms we have a contemporaneous
progression from the lower to the higher forms, as the earth is
changed from an impracticable to the present world with all its
beauteous creations, of which man is lord. We find no traces of his
footsteps however, in the Paleozoic or any other formation, until
the earth has been made a fit and pleasant habitation for him and
his seed for ever. Neither have we a plant of the higher orders,
living together with animals or vegetable forms of low caste, during
an early fossiliferous era. The sun did not then shine with his pre-
sent benignity, not a bird looked down on its shadow in those dreary
waters teeming with monsters, never did its notes sing of verdant
plains, of pleasant groves, of fertile valley and bounteous river, but
the discordant cries of fearful forms, the weak in their death agony,
the strong rejoicing in their might, startled the echoes amid forests
of fabulous extent and trees of eccentric appearance. In each and
all of these periods of Geological history, we find certain classes of
animals co-existing with consonant grades of vegetable productions.
We find not a single departure from this rule, for throughout all -
the works of the great Creator there is a constant harmony.

‘f In reason’s ear they all rejoice
And utter forth a glorious voice,

The hand that made us is divine He

JULY—SEPT.1857.] Weitghis and Measures. 183

VIIL. Suggestions for a uniform System of Weights and
Measures throughout India. By W. H. Baytey, Ese., of
the Madras Civil Service.

The expediency of defining, by authority of Government, some
standard of Weight and Measure, applicable to the whole of our
Indian territories, is generally admitted; but what that standard
should be, what its multiples, and how it is to be effectually in-

troduced among the people, are questions on which opinions
greatly differ.

No system can be specified which will not be open to some ob-
jection, and the object of this paper is simply to propose for the
consideration of those interested in the matter, a few different
modes of arranging the Weights and Measures, in order that the
subject may be well discussed by those qualified t8 give an opinion,
before any one system is authoritatively adopted.

With the exception of the weight of the Rupee, (180 grains),
there exists no defined standard of Weight or Measure in India.
There are certain traditionary standards, but these differ all over
the country, and in practice are not adhered to, nor is there any
Law on the subject, by which the gross irregularities that prevail
can be checked.

In the adoption of anew and uniform system, it appears ne-
cessary either to determine on one that bears a close relation to
the most prevalent of the existing Indian systems, or else to adopt °
one that will accord with the Imperial Weights and Measures of
England. The former would be the most acceptable to the Native
population, and therefore more easily introduced: the other would
best suit the requirements of the increasing trade, and political
connection, with Great Britain.

The subject has to be considered under four heads. I. Weight.

TI. Measure of Length. III. Superficial measure. IV. Measure of
Capacity. The second and third points will be first alluded to, be-

is4 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

cause, as regards those two, there seems less difficulty in coming
to a conclusion as to the most applicable and feasible arrangement,

The unit of Zinear measure in India, is generally the distance
from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger of a tall man, and
is of course no standard at all. This length is known as the hal’h
or moolum, and averages 19} inches. It is always translated
exdit, though invariably exceeding the English cubit of 18 inches,
by 1} or 2inches. In the Southern Carnatic, the adee, or length
ofa tall man’s foot, is in use, and averages 104 inches. The Guz
(translated yard) is partially in use all over India, but varies in
different localities from 26 to 36inches. In Bombay it is 27 inches,
and in the North-West Provinces of India it has been defined by
the Government, for the purpose of Survey, at 33 inches.

Although the above are the Jndian linear measures, the English
yard and foot are very extensively adopted by Native artizans ;
and in all the Public Works of India, which give employment to
thousands of Natives, the English linear measure is universally em-
ployed. Considering therefore that this Measure is already so
familiar to the people, and that their own is so undefined, and
fluctuating in practice, there can be little doubt_but that the Eng.
lish Yard and Foot should be determined on for the new Metrical
system.

It might not be advisable to define the subdivisions of the
Yard and Foot, till the question is settled in England. Both Par-
liamentary Committees that have reported on the subject of Weights
and Measures, in 1841 and 1854, have recommended a decimal
subdivision, and it has been adopted already as regards the foot,
by English architects and surveyors.

The next point is Superficial measure; and this need only
be noticed in connection with Land-measure. According to the
ancient Indian system, an area of land is often named after the
quantity of seed required to sow it, or the quantity it will produce,
and of course the actual area differs according to the opinion of
the person who makes the estimate. Where linear definition ds
given, mention is made of Rods or Ropes, of so many cubits, bust

’

=... a

yuLyY—seEptT. 1857.] for India. 185

the cubit is undefined, and areas of the same denomination, are de-
rived from different multiples of Rod or Rope. Of the more de-
finite terms, the Beega prevails in Bengal and the North-West
Provinces. In Bengal it is 1,600 square yards, and in the North-
West Provinces it is 3,025 square yards. In the Bombay Presi-
dency it is not authoritatively defined, but averages about $ of
anacre. ‘The termis quite unknown in the Madras Presidency,
where the authorised measure is the Cawne of 57,600 square feet,
or 1°3223 acre; there are also other local land measures, defined,
but presenting great differences one from the other; as the chain
of 3°64 acres, the seed-cottah of 1°62 acres, the vaylie of 6°6 acres,
and the bullah of 3°82 acres.

The greater portion of the North-West Provinces of India
has been surveyed by Government Officers. The area of each vil-
lage (or rather parish, to use an English term) is given in Impe-
rialacres, but the areas of the fields appertaining to each village, are
given in local deegas. The introduction of the acre therefore was
only partial. In the Surveys lately made in the Bombay Presiden-
cy, the area of each field is recorded in acres, not only in the Eng-
lish, but in the vernacular accounts, and the term is well known
and understood among the people. In the Madras Presidency, the
districts of Bellary and Cuddapah were measured field by field (as
far as the land was cultivable) in acres, in 1803, and Kurnool in
the same way in 1842. In Salem, the records of field measure-
ments made about 1800, are entered both in the Native terms and
their equivalents in acres, and the acre is by far the best known.

Under the above circumstances, the introduction of the Im-
perial acre seems not only most desirable, but quite feasible.
Where lands have already been accurately measured, and contents
recorded in Native terms, those terms might be converted into acres;
and in the progress of the Surveys now going on, all measurements
might be at once in acres. This plan has already been successful-
ly adopted in the present re-survey of the Southern districts of Ma-
dras, and the acre is superseding the cawnve.

With regard to the subdivisions of the acre they have hither-
to in the Madras Presidency been in 40ths (or Goontas), and

186 Weights and Measures [no. 4, NEw smrizs,

and 16ths of 40ths; or else in 16ths (annas) and 4ths of 16ths. A
decimal subdivision is most desirable ; not only is the computation
far easier to the surveyors, but records in decimals, are far more in-
telligible than in Roods and Perches, and money values in relation
to areas more easily calculated. The areas récorded in the Ord-
nance Survey of Great Britain, in which Survey every field is mea-
sured, are now in acres, and decimals to the third place. There
cannot be a better authority for a decimal subdivision, and it offers
no difficulty to the Natives, as regards /anid measurement.* The
cawnie, itself, is in several districts in the Madras Presidency, sub-
divided into 100ths, and in the present re-survey of the Southern
Districts of Madras, the decimal subdivision of the acre has been
authorised, as stated in para. il.

The next subject to ke considered is that of Weight; and
this is important, inasmuch as the best method of fixing a standard
for measures of Capacity, is with reference to the weight of water
they will contain.

The difficulty connected with determining a standard of Weight
for the whole of India, is increased by the fact that there are
conflicting interests and opinions onthe subject. Some of the
best authorities urge that the Ponderary system of India, already
in some degree established, should be founded on the Rupee (the
tola of 180 grains), as the standard coin of the country, always
accessible in cases of doubt or suspicion. Others-there are, who
perceive in the increasing trade with Great Britain, the great want
of some system by which the Weights and Measures of both coun-
tries may be assimilated, and they object to the tola unit, because
no number of even tolas will correspond with one, two, three, four,
five, six, seven, eight, or ten pounds avoirdupois, the nearest ratio
being 350 tolas=91b. ; a most inconvenient proportion.

* It is hardly necessary to argue why a decimal subdivision of Land Measure,
should be easier of introduction than a decimal arrangement of Weights and Mea-
sures in general. It is, in practice, a mere division of account. In England not
one person in a thousand is the least put out by the substitution of Decimals fur
Roods and Perches: whereas, not one ina thousand but would be inconvenienced
(for a time) by the substitution of 10th of Gallons for Pints, or by Ounces of ten to
the Pound. :

JULY—SEPT. 1857. ] for India. 187

An arrangement on the Zola unit will first be considered.

Though the larger Weights throughout India are utterly devoid
(in practice) of rule or uniformity, being generally misshapen
lumps of metal, or stones, and varying in value as well as de-
nomination in every district almost,* there has from time imme-
morial been a small weight called a ¢ola, in use by Goldsmiths and
Jewellers, which has maintained a ponderary value of about 182 or
184 grains. When the Government of India, by Act VII. of 18338,
(the main purport of which was to fix the weight of the Furrucka-
bad rupee at 180 grains)} decided on 180 grains as the fola, they
in the same Act declared that this tola should be “the unit ofa
*“‘ general system of Weights in all Government transactions.”

The ‘“ Table” of Weights adopted by the Government of India
for the use of their own offices, is in accordance with Native usage
in Bengal, and was approved of by the Chambers of Commerce in
Calcutta and Bombay. It is as follows:

1 Tola ~— 180 Grains,

aelotas =~ 1 Chittak.

16 Chittaks = 1 Seer — 80 Tolas = 2:057148 lbs. avoir.
40 Seers = 1 Mun = (or maund) = 82?lbs. exactly.

* The traditionary and acknowledged unit of Weight is generally the RUPEE;
thus the “‘ Seer”’ is said to be so many Rupees weight; but it is very seldom pos-
sible to say what was the weight of the Rupee forming the original unit. The
Rupees of the different Native Governments varied considerably, and even under
the British rule the Sicca Rupee of Bengal was 192 grains, when the Arcot Rupee
of Madras was 1763, These differences in the small unit would effect the larger
ones considerably, and aggravate the uncertainty as to what was their original
and real value. Besides this, terms of the same denomination do not by any
means denote the same value. A Candy, (Khundee) for instance, in one place
differs very much from the Candy of another place. Again, a Candy (for in-
stance) of Metal, is not the same as a Candy of Tobacco; and there is a different
Candy for Cotton and Sugar. The Candy used in buying, is not always the same
in the same place, as the Candy used in selling.

+ The Furruckabad rupee used inthe N. W. Provinces, had hitherto been
180°234 grains. The Rupee of Madras and Bombay had been for some years 180
grains. The ‘ Sicca’”’ Rupee of Bengal still remained at 192 grains, but this coin-
age was discontinued in consequence of Act X VIL. of 1835, and since that date
the Company’s Rupee of 180 grains has been the only Rupse coined at any of the
Government Mints.

188 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

If any system of Weights is to be selected from those now
current in any part of India, the above seems to be the best, not
only because it is founded on a defined standard, originating in the
weight of the coin of the realm, but because it includes the “ Seer’
of 80 tolas, which is a weight known and acknowledged in some
degree all over India. It is in short a Ponderary system which as
far as facility of introduction is concerned, has a preference over
any other. |

It may however be well here to notice a remark that is some-
times made with reference to the Legislative Enactment above
referred to, and the Official “* Table” of Weights; and this is, that
it is needless to discuss any new scheme for a Metrical System,
inasmuch as the law has been already declared on the subject, and
the system actually in force ; all that is required being an endea-
vour to extend its use where prejudice has already prevailed
against it.

In reply to this it may be observed, first, that the Enactment
refersonly to Weiyhts; and secondly, that it only effects Govern-
ment transactions. Surely that cannot be called a Metrical system
which merely defines the Weights that the Government prefer
for their own use, and which leaves untouched the subject of
Measures, a point (in India especially) quite as important, and much
more difficult to arrange than that of Weight. Neither can it be
said that a system is in force, which is a mere guide for the terms
of account in Official papers, and by no means obligatory on the
people. I can confidently assert that, as regards the 140,000 square
miles comprised in the Madras Presidency, not a single bazar-man
has altered his Weights one grain, or his Measures one fraction of
a cubic inch in consequence of the Calcutta notification. Neither
was the Act intended to go farther than legalise the tola as a unit.
The ‘ Table of Weights’ has never been adopted in the Madras
Presidency, even in Government transactions. In the Fort St. George
Gazette of the 20th October, 1846, the following Table of Weights -
was published as that which was to be used in that Presidency :

180 Grains = Leto).
3 Tolas > = 4 Pallum.

JULY—SEPT. 1857.| for India. 189

40 Pollums = 1 Viss = 120 Tolas = 38:0857lbs. avoir.
3 Viss — 1 Maund = 960 Tolas = 24:6857lbs. avoir.

This “Table” was sanctioned for Madras by the Government of
India, and is, as will be seen on comparison, entirely different, with
the exception of the tola unit, from the Weights adopted for Cal-
cutta. :

The above remarks are made with the view of dissipating the
illusion that a Metrical system has already been defined by law,
and is actually in use to a considerable extent. The universal in-
troduction therefore of the Calcutta Table, although easier than
that of any other, would still not be quite so simple a matter as
some persons have been led to expect. In the Madras Presidency
it certainly would be difficult to get rid of the present Native sys-
tems of Weights, which in general correspond with the Table pro-
mulgated by the Government of that Presidency.

It will be observed that the Madras Government Table does
not acknowledge the “ seer” weight at all; but still aseer weight
of 80 tolas, known as the ‘* pucka” seer is met with all over India.
It is not much in use in Southern India, where the “ seer’ of 24
tolas, called the ** cutcha” seer, is more common.* There are also
* seers,” both in Madras and Bombay, of 84 Rupees weight. Still, a
seer of 80 tolas could no doubt be more easily introduced through-
out India than any other weight.

The Calcutta Oficial ‘ mun” or maund, is 82#lbs. avoir., and
is not known in any part of the Madras Presidency, except at
the Government Salt Depots, and in the Coast trade of grain to the
port of Madras. The Madras maund is 25lbs; the Bombay maund
is 28lbs.; and the Surat maund in use on the Western Coast is
314lbs.

* The original unit of WEIGHTin Southern India, seems to have been the gold
coin called by the English, a ‘‘pagoda.’”’ It is now uncurrent, but was about 523
grains weight. 80 pagodas weight is, according to the Native Tables, a ‘‘ seer’’
(cutcha) of 24 RUPEES weight. This corresponded with the average weight of the
old Native rupees of 175 grains; but since the introduction of the ‘‘ Company’s ru-
pee” of 180 grains, the “ pagoda weight’ is 54 grains generally. The same
confusion formerly existed in Bengal, between a Sicca WEIGHT of 1793 grains,
and a Sicca RUPEE of 192 grains.

190 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

The chief objection to the Ponderary system enunciated by the
Government of India, is that it cannot be made to accommodate
itself to the Imperial Weights of Great Britain, and this, consider-
ing the importance of the trade between the two Countries, and the
fact that one is a Dependency on the other, is a serious drawback.

The following Table shows the nearest proportions that can be
obtained, for converting the above system of Weights, to those of
Great Britain (avoirdupois).

38°889 Tolas = 1I]b.
850 Tolas = 9lbs. exactly.
1 Seer = 2:057143lbs.
35 Seers 72lbs exactly.
1 Mun = 82¢lbs. exactly: or (82'2857148...)
7 Muns = 576lbs. exactly.
49 Muns = 36 ewt. (of 112lbs.) exacily.
27-216 Muns = 1 ton (of 2240lbs.)
490 Muns = 18 tons exacily.
300 Muns = 11 tons (strictly 11:0204.)

|

It will be seen that under such a system, there will always
be difficulty and confusion in adjusting the weights of articles of
commerce to the English Table, and as the connection between the
two countries increases, and the Huropean element becomes more
marked, the inconvenience will be more practically felt.

Much stress has been laid upon the advantage of the ‘Seer’
and ‘ Mun’ of the above Table, in consequence of the ‘“ Seer” being
exactly equivalent to 24lbs. Troy, and the “ Mun” exactly 100lbs.
Troy. There is no doubt some convenience in this to the Mint, but
exceptas regards Bullion, and Medical prescriptions, Zroy weight is
practically unknown. The Parliamentary Committee in their Re-
port on the ‘ Restoration of Standards’ in 1841, condemn it as
‘‘ useless ;’’ and the Committee in their Report of 1854 on the ‘ Con-
struction of the Standards,’ state that ‘“ there is now a prospect of
‘“‘ attaining the long desired simplification of the British system of
‘‘ Weights, by the entire suppression of Troy weight.” To de- |
fend the Seer of 80 tolas and the Mun of 40 seers, because they
correspond with Zroy weight, may therefore be considered useless.

JULY—SEPT. 1857.} Sor India. 191

Mr. Prinsep, in his “ Usefub Tables” gives a list of some 300
Rupees of Native Mints, mostly of dates prior to any regular coin-
age of the Indian Government. They average about 175 grains;
and had the Government adopted 175 grains instead of 180 for the
rupee, a ‘‘ Seer” of 80 rupees would have been exactly 2lbs. avozr-
dupois ; and a ‘*‘ Mun’’ of 40 seers, exactly 80lbs. avoirdupois, and
25 Muns exactly 2,000lbs., or the proposed new Yon for Great Bri-
tain. ‘The rupee of 180 grains is now so well established in all the
Presidencies, and there is such an enormous silver circulation in
India, that it seems impracticable to reduce the Rupee to 175 grains ;
and if the same content of pure silver were retained, (which would
be necessary for the credit of the State) the “touch” would be
raised from +2 or -91666, to ‘942, which may be deemed too high
for durability. ‘The touch of silver in France (where, as in India,
it is the legal standard of value) is ‘900. In England it is -925.

Another objection may be made to the above Ponderary sys-
tem, namely, that the multiples are not. decomal; but the main
advantage of this system, is the comparative facility with which it
might be introduced, and this advantage would be lost if the usual
multiples were departed from. The only improvement that might
be effected without materially interfering with the reception of the
system, would be to subdivide the ‘seer’ into 80ths, or single
rupees, instead of into 16ths, or chittacks. The division by 80
would be simpler than by 16; the commercial minimum weight of
account would be 180 grains, instead of 900 as at present, and’the
*‘ quarter chittacks’ would be unnecessary. The lowest denomina-
tion of Avoirdupois weight in England, is the “ dram,” or 27°344
grains; but this the Parliamentary Committee of 1841 state ‘ does
not appear to be used at all.’ The + ounce, or 1092 grains, is the
lowest weight in general use.

The next plan for a system of Weights, that may be no-
ticed, is that in which the “ tola” of 180 grains, (being the weight
of the Rupee) is the unit, and its multiples Weights of 10, 100,
and 1000 tolas. Itis hardly necessary to urge that such a deci-
mal arrangement, however desirable for its intrinsic merit, would
be unacceptable both to the Native and the European community.

192 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

It would not coincide (except as r@bards the single tola) with any
one of the Native Weights in India, and this with the attempt to
introduce at the same time a novel system of notation, would be
fatal. The mercantile community, and those who are desirous to
see the Indian and English Weights assimilate to some degree,
would of course not be satisfied with such a scale.

Another proposition is to adopt the English Imperial Weights
at once. ‘The great objection to this would be the difficulty
of introducing all over India, a Weight so new to the people as:
a pound. It would represent neither a “seer,” (pucka or cut-
cha) a ‘‘pollum,” a ‘*‘ chittack,” or a ‘viss,”’ or any definite pro-
portions of them. Again, the question of multiples and sub-mv1-
tiples is not settled yet in England, and till this is decided, it would
be unwise either to endeavour to enforce in India the present Eng-
lish notation, which will probably be altered ere long, or to antici-
pate a decimal arrangement, and introduce multiples which may
not eventually be adopted in Great Britain,

There is however a Ponderary system, which I venture to
propose, as uniting the advantages of assimilation with the coin of
the country,—assimilation (within close limits) with the best known
of the existing Native Weights,—and assimilation with the Impe-
tial Weights of Great Britain.

I would propose a “seer” of 772 tolas, instead of 80. As
far as the facility for testing doubtful weights by the coin of the
country, this would answer as well as 80 tolas, for a quarter rupee
is just as much a coin of defined weight (45 grains,) as a whole
rupee, and where one can be obtained, the other can.

This ‘‘ seer’ would ciffer 24 tolas weight from the one adopt-
ed for Government transactions in Calcutta, but practically the
‘seer’ Weights in India, even though professing to be 80 tolas
weight, are seldom so much. The seer is generally said to be so
many rupees weight, and as the rupees of former days, on which
these seers were founded, averaged about 175 grains, (see para.
28) the orzginal weight would be more nearly obtained by a “ seer’
of 772 tolas. Besides, the 80 tola ‘‘ seer’ is not universal; it has

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] for India. 193

already been stated that the ‘seer’? weight varies in different lo-
calities, and to substitute a 772 tola weight in these localities,
would not be more of an innovation, than substituting a “ seer” of
eighty tolas.

The “seer” of 772 tolas would be only 5 grains short of a
double pound, or two pounds avoirdupois; that is, it would be 13995
grains, instead of 14000; which would only make a difference of
1:42lbs in the proposed new Ton of 2000lbs, a difference within

the limits of error in weighing. It would be advisable perhaps,

to define the “seer” legally, as equivalent to two avoirdupois
pounds; and it might at the same time be declared that a seer of
772 tolas weight would not be condemned as short. It is un-
doubtedly an advantage to have Weights which correspond with
the coins of the realm, but it never could be intended, that testing
by coins a use, should supersede testing by certified standards.
The assimilation to coin weight is desirable as a means of readily
checking irregularities, but in practice no one would be able by
coins, even if new, to state for certain whether a weight was 80
tolas, within 5 grains.* The advantage therefore of a coinage equi-
valent would remain, if the ‘“‘ seer’ weight were defined as two
pounds English.

The only weak point in the adoption of this “ seer,” is that
its sub-multiples could not be so simply arranged as those of the
80 tola seer, which can so easily be resolved into 80 single tolas.
The 712 tolas could not be subdivided into single tolas, or even
into the favourite Native subdivision of 16ths, so as to give an even
number of tolas; but this defect (and all systems that can be pro-
posed will have some) is more than counterbalanced by other ad-
vantages.

I would propose that this “seer” be subdivided into 16ths, as
the present seer is. A division by 16 would be much more ac-
ceptable to the native community than a decimal one, and all clerks

* The difference between 772 tolas, and 2lbs., is only equivalent to 1-16th ofa
grain in the rupee, an amount certainly too small to be taken into account when
testing weights by coin in circulation. ©

194 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

and accountants in India can divide by 16 as readily as English-
men by 12. There are also 16 Annas to the Rupee, which makes
the number convenient. With regard to the sub-multiples of the
‘* seer,” a coincidence with the smaller English Weights, is not of
much consequence in commerce. As regards the multiples, I
would propose a ‘‘ Mun” or maund Weight of 50 “ seers,’’ which
would be exactly the ewt. of 100lbs., which will no doubt, be soon
established in England, whatever may be the other decimal multi-
ples and sub-multiples.*

The next point to be considered, is a standard for the Mea-
sure of Capacity. It will be observed from what has been stated
in paras. 16 and 17, that the Government of India has neither in
Act VII. of 1833, nor inthe “ Table” set forth by them, made any
allusion to Measure of Capacity, although it is a matter of more im-
portance than the Weights, seeing that by far the greater portion
of the domestic transactions in India arein grain. The Calcutta
Chamber of Commerce, when on the 19th of May, 1836, they resolv-
ed to adopt the Weghts of the Government, urged the introduction
of the Imperial gallon for Liquids, and proposed that new Measures
of capacity for grain, should be regulated by the Weights, but they
did not show how this was to be done: nor does it seem at all ne-
cessary to make a distinction between “ Dry” and “ Liquid” Mea-
sures. The Government declined to act on the recommendation
of the Chamber, and whatever might have been contemplated by
Act VII. of 1833, nothing has ever been announced by way of de-
fining the capacities of the Grain Measures in Bengal. The only
Measures made up (at the Mint) by authority of the Government,
are the Imperial gallon and its sub-multiples, for use in the Medical
and Victualling departments; and it seems that the Court of Direc-
tors in their Despatch of 17th July, 1833, expected the ‘* gene-

——

* It is stated in the Report, dated 1854, of the Commissioners appointed to su-
perintend the construction of thenew Standards, ‘ Referring to chapters [named]
‘* of the Report of 1841, and the recommendations based thereon, tending to di-
‘¢ minish the confusion between Avoirdupois weight and Troy weight, and to ba-
‘nish the Stone of 14lbs, and the Hundred weight of 112lbs, we have to report
‘‘ that we adopt in their utmost extent the whole of those recommendations. ’
The Committee of 1841 recommended a“ centner’’ of 100lbs., anda “‘ stone”’ of 10lbs.

sJuLY—sEPT. 1857. ] for India. 195

ral adoption in India” of the Imperial Measures. The Madras Go-
vernment however in their Notification referred to in para. 20, pro-
mulgated a Table of Measures to be used in Government transac-
tions, as follows:

1 Olluck = 124 cubic inches.
8 Ollucks = 1 Measure (Puddee) = 100 cubic inches.
8 Measures = 1 Mareal = 800 cubic inches.

And this arrangement was sanctioned by the Supreme Government
for the Madras Presidency. Though 10 years have elapsed, these
Measures have not been adopted by the people; and evenin the
Town of Madras, the Government have authorised the stamping
with the Government Seal, the “ customary’’ Measure or ‘‘ Puddee’’
of 1042 cubic inches, which has been the vea/ standard since 1802.

In Bombay, the Government have attempted to introduce a
*¢ Seer-measure”’ of the capacity of 57 cubic inches, but this being
so much smailer than the usual ‘‘ Seer-measure”’ of that Presiden-
cy, the scheme has not met with success.

Mr. James Prinsep in his ‘“‘ Useful Tables” observes that
‘India does not, properly speaking, possess Dry or Liquid Mea-
‘‘ sures. Where these are employed, they depend upon, and in
“‘ fact represent, the ‘seer’ or “ maund” weeght.” This is true of
India generally, but in the neighbourhood of Madras, as already
shown, and in some of the Southern Districts, the ordinary grain
Measure is a “ puddee,” which does not represent any weight;”’
and the ‘“ puddee”’ varies greatly in different localities.

The most common grain Measure, and one which is to some
extent known in almost every part of India, is the “ seer-measure ;””
this is always understood to be a Measure which when heaped will
contain a ‘ seer’ weight of rice, or in some places instead of rice,
a mixture of the 9 most common grains, known as the nou-danium
measurement.*

As only heaped measure is recognised by Native usage, it is evi-

- * The 9 grains used in the Madras Presidency, are Rice, Chenna, Cooltee
Pessoloo, Minamaloo, Dholl, Anamaloo, Gingely oil-seed, and Wheat.

196 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NNW SERIES,

dent that there is no rule as to the cubic content of the Measures
used ; for vessels of very different cubic content may contain the
same when heaped, in consequence of having different diameters.
It is on this account that the values given to Indian Measures, in
such Tables as those of Major Jervis, or Dr. Kelly (in his Cambist)
being founded on the guaged cubic contents, do not represent the

true quantities.

In 1852, the Madras Board of Revenue instituted a special
enquiry into the Grain Measures of each district. They were
found to be of all shapes and materials. Some were in the form
of hour glasses ; some were joints of bamboo; and some earthen-
ware pots; but as a general rule, it was found that they were in
most districts intended when heaped, to contain a seer weight, or
a definite number of seers, either of rice, or of mixed grain, but
usually rice : and the “ seer’ weight was generally that of 80 tolas.
Measures in every district were guaged with Water, Rice, and
Cooltee or Horse gram, and it was found that (taking 100 cubic
inches of water to weigh 140 tolas, which at a temperature of 81°
is true to 3 a grain) Rice on an average, weighed 118 tolas to the
100 cubic inches.* From experiments made by myself a few years
ago, I found 100 cubic inches, of the 9 mixed grains, to weigh 115
tolas. From the Reports of Mr. Shaw, of Ahmedabad, in the
Bombay Presidency, in 1849, it appears that he found that a Mea-
sure holding 1372 tolas of water, held when struck 114% tolas of
mixed grain, which gives 1163 to 100 cubic inches ; and Mr. Reeves,
of Poona, found that a vessel containing 80 tolas weight of water,
would hold 66% tolas of mixed grain, which also gives 1165 tolus
to 100 cubic inches. Cooltee, or Horse gram, was found by the
Madras experiments to average 116 tolas to 100 cubic inches, but
it varied from 113 to 118. From the same experiments, the
weights of the heaps (of rice) on various diameters were determin-
ee

* In the Northern Districts, it averaged 111 Tolas ; in the Town of Madras 114
and in the other Districts 112 and113. The rice used was what is called in Ma-

dras, ‘‘ Putcharisee,’’ or RAW RICE, to distinguish it from ‘‘ Poolungul,”’ or that
which is scalded before husking. Old rice would weigh something lighter.

JULY—sEPT, 1857. | for India. 197

ed, as shown in the margin; butit is probable i'clas Wi |

that the dealers in the bazaar, would not heap rarely of Rice in
quite so liberally. The accuracy is of course ‘le oR:
not so great but that the diameter may be con- 9 9
sidered either the inner or outer. 24 24
The best “ Seer-measures” are about’ 32 to 33 3
32 inches in diameter, and 6 inches deep, but 3 4
they are never true cylinders. Their cubic con- 3 $
tents are from 66 to 663 cubic inches, holding 33 6
from 74 to 75 tolas of rice when struck, and 80 4 - 4
when heaped. It so happens, as may be seen 4, 9
by reference to the Appendix,* that a vessel of i He
66,4, cubic inches capacity will contain at a 5 15
temperature of 84° (a good day temperature for| 53 18
India,) 16650 grains, or exactly 924 tolas weight ° os
of water. This would hold on an average when 6 97
struck, 745 tolas weight of rice; and witha) 61 30
diameter of 3:7 inches, 80 tolasif heaped. Thus) 63 34
if a ** seer’’ of 80,tolas be adopted, such a Mea- ie -
sure would be exactly what is understood by} 72 45
the Natives of the country to be a “‘ Seer-mea- be i
sure.” 4 58
No measure of capacity could be more easily| 83 63
introduced than this, and a Tablet might bel $8 S
framed, according to which the multiples of the, 9 80
Seer should bear a correct proportion when| 92 92
10 104

struck, and also as correct a ratio when heaped,
as the circumstances of the case will admit; at all events nearer
than has hitherto satisfied Native usage.

The sub-multiples of the “Seer-measure” are generally (not
always) used for Ziguid measures in India. The only liquids sold
by measure, are Ghee, (clarified butter,) Oil, and Milk. No defined
measure is used for Arrack and Toddy (intoxicating liquors), and

* Vide page 212.
¢ Vide page 198,

198 Weights and Measures [NO. 4, NEW SERIES,

Spirits in Madras are sold by the “dram” of 5:775 cubic inches,
or j;th of the old Wine gallon.

Instead of making 40 ‘“ seer-measures’” = 1 ‘* Mun-mea-
.

b J

sure,’’ which might cause a confusion in the terms of Weight and
Measure, (and the term Mun or Maund is not in use as a grain
measure in Southern India,) it would be better to give some name
to a quantity represented by 100 Seers. This might be called
a ‘*Sotee,’ from so, a hundred. The “ Table’ adverted to in

the preceding page, would be as follows :

DRY AND LIQUID MEASURES. |

|Tolas of Tolas of
Cubic |Tolas of| Rice | Rice | Total
inches. | Water. | when in weight.
struck. | heap.

Diameter | Depth

Seers. : i
inches. | inches.

I.| 6i1 | 922.) 742s) 5h 807 ee 6-2
TL} 1232) 185°) T49 ort 160 | 4:5 Te
Ill. | 198-3 | 2772 4 2932 | 162 | 240] 5-8 9.0
IV.| 264-4] 370 | 298 | 22 | 820] 5% | 10-8
| V.| 330-5 | 4622 | 83722 | 272 | 400 | “62 109
VIII.| 528°8| 740 | 596 | 44 | 640| 73 | 12:8
| X.| 661-0| 925 | 745 | 55 |. 800 7-7 | 18-0
| LIQUID MEASURE.
| § | 33.0) 462 3.0 47
Pape MIUAG'S | 234 2°5 3:4
et 8-250 Tae et 22-6
ee pie

Although the above plan for Measures of Capacity would pro-
bably have the great advantage of facility of introduction, yet
it is objectionable for any Government to lend a sanction to heaped
measure ; moreover it will be observed that such a system does
not accommodate itself at all to any English Measure of Capacity.
Lastly, it would be indispensable that in every Measure used, the
exact diameter be retained, in order to secure correctness (as far
as it can be secured) in the heaped measure. This would give
rise to a great deal of inconvenience, and is not a necessary ele-
ment where struck Measures only are acknowledged.

JULY—sEPT. 1857.] for India. 199

I would propose as a Measure of Capacity, a vessel to be
called a “‘ Seer,’’ but exactly equivalent to an Imperial Quart.
The present ‘‘ seer-measure’’ averages a capacity of 664 cubic
inches : the Quart is 69°3185. The present ‘‘ seer-measure’’ con-
tains when struck, about 74 tolas of rice, or 76 of mixed grain,
and about 80 tolas of either when heaped : the Quart would con-
tain 78 tolas of Rice, or 80 of mixed grain when struck, and (with
a diameter of 4 inches,) about 86 tolas when heaped ; but heaped
measure should not be recognised by Government. I cannot but
think that if there exists an English Measure which corresponds
(taking struck content) so closely either to the Native ‘‘ seer’’ of
80 tolas, or to the “‘ seer’ of 77% tolas which I have proposed,
that it should be adopted, whichever of the two ‘‘seers’’ of weighé
the Government may select. It is also to be added, that the Quart
will contain an even number of tolas (rupees) weight in water ;
namely, 17460 grains, or 97 tolas exactly, at a temperature of 84°
Fahrenheit. This may be calculated from the Table at page 212.

The ‘* Seer-measure’’ then, would be defined as a vessel con-
tainmg 97 tolas of water at a temperature of 84°, and its bulk
69°3185 cubic inches. A reference to the water being distilled, or
to the height of the Barometer, will not be necessay in practice.
The Barometer in the Tropics fluctuates very slightly, and a fall
of 1 inch, due to an elevation of about 940 feet, would only make
a difference of °615 grain, to be deducted from the normal 97 tolas
assigned to the Quart-seer.

It would not be necessary, if the Government recognised
struck measure only, to define the diameters (or even the shapes)
of the vessels of capacity, for all that is required is that they con-
tain a certain number of tolas weight of water. Still for uniformity’s
sake, and the more easy discovery of fraud, the vessels should be
cylindrical, and it would be desirable that the models, as well as
all vessels made up at the Government Stores, should have a dia-
meter proportionate in some simple ratio, to the depth. The dia-
meter the same as the depth would be the best, but those who are
accustomed to measuring grain and salt, assert that this would be
too broad to be convenient, and a diameter one half the depth too

200 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

narrow. A good proportion is that of 3 to4, and the contents of a
cylinder being given, it is easy to compute the requisite diameter
and depth.
Let s=cubic contents given.
d=diameter to be found.
h=depth to be found.

3:4=diameter to depth.

Laie al z

— 3
Then [I] d = a8 ie

a/ “7854 Xx 4
&
And [II] hk = Ex 7854
From these Formule, we obtain the following Table for both
Dry and Liquid Measure.

Tolas | ape - |Tolas Rice.
| ts Diameter {Depth in
Quarts. Bae | Cubic inches. <n aaeies, aie he ions ia
ee 97 | 69°3185 | 4°04 5+39 78°3
hee a 138°6370 | 5:10 6°80 | 156°6
tit; Ye 291 2079555 | 5°83 | 7°80 | 234°9
TV. 3) 888 Aki 2772740 oi/6°42 | 8°57 | 8132
V. | 485 346'5925 | 6:92 9°28 | 391°5
| VIII. | 776 | 554-5480 | 8-09 | 10-79 | 626°4
3g | 970 693°1850 | 871 11°62 | 783°0
H
| ry 48 i 34°66 3.18 ‘495 | 39:2
i 243| 17°33 2.55 | 3:40 | 19°6
LF yal ili oe | 86°65 2°00 2°68 9°8

|

If the ‘‘ Seer’’ Weight of 772 Tolas=2lbs Avoirdupois, be adopt-~
ed, the ‘‘ Seer-measure’’ will, if the vessel be struck, correspond
sufficiently ; for the weight of rice varies from 112 to 114 tolas to
100 cubic inches ; and if the 9 grain standard is taken, the above
‘¢ Seer-measure’’ will containjust 80tolas, (at 116 tolas to 100 cubic
inches) and be when struck, the exact equivalent of what is now
the average ‘‘ Seer-measure’’ when heaped. This of course will

render its introduction much easier than any other struck Measure —

that can be adopted.

Even in Madras, where the ‘‘ Seer-measure’’ is not recognised

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] for India. 201

in the Government Notification, such a Measure averaging 80 tolas
weight of Rice when heaped, is in use in many of the Districts, and
the Sepoys of the Native army always buy by the Seer, generally
considering it to be Z of the Madras ‘‘ Customary’? Measure of 104}
cubic inches, which would give 694 cubic inches, or an Imperial
Quart. On the 17th July, 1855, the Madras Government, in conse-
quence of some dispute on the subject, decided that the Sepoys'’
** seer-measure’’ should be 54 of the ‘‘ Ollucks”’ named in their pro-
clamation of 1836, or 682 cubic inches. This closely corresponds
with the Quart of 693 eubic inches, which I propose as the stand-
ard ‘* Seer-measure.”’

The only multiple of the ‘‘ Seer-measure”’ that seems necessary for
Accounts, is one of 100 seers, which might, as proposed in another
place* becalleda ‘‘Sotee.’’ For sub-multiplesI would propose eighths
(Atees) as more in accordance with Native usage. It is seldom thata
less measure appears in Commercial accounts than single seers, and.
therefore there is not so much object in a Decimal swb-division.

The objection to the ‘‘ Seer’’ proposed by the Bombay Govern-
ment, which is a vessel holding a Seer of 80 tolas weight of water,
or a capacity of 57 cubic inches, is that it 1s a misnomer. If the
Native term ‘‘ Seer’’ is to be used at all, it should be the Native
idea of a Seer, that is, a vessel containing a seer weight of grain,
The new Seer for grain is not what it is supposed to be, and it is
no wonder that success has not attended the attempt to introduce
what the people consider a deception. A little difference above
the usual “‘ Seer,’’ would not have been of so much consequence,
but this proposed Seer only holds 70 tolas of mixed grain, even
when heaped. If it were desired to have a Measure analagous to a
Seer, to contain a definite number of tolas weight of water, it
surely would have been better to have guaged the Bazaar Seers
with water,t and have taken the average weight in tolas, about
98, and fixed on that for the standard Seer-measure ; but if the

‘© Seer-measure”’ is not to accord at all with the Native Measure,
a
* Vide page 198.

+ The Bombay Government in their Proceedings of the 30th July, 1849, pro,
posed this, but it does not seem to have been acted on.

202 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NRW SERIES,

it would be just as easy, and far better on other grounds, to intro-
duce an English Measure of Capacity at once.

With reference to the selection I have made of the Quart-
seer, (in consequence of its closely representing the Native ‘‘ Seer-
measure,’’ and also the two pound ‘‘ Seer-weight,’’) it may be said
that in the reform likely to be made in the English Measures, the
Quart will disappear, as not being a decimal part of a Gallon ; but
at all events the measure will be a quarter of a Gallon, and render
an accommodation to English Measures quite feasible. But it is
not certain that the Quart will be abolished, and it would be pre-
mature to argue on the supposition.

The Metrical System then that I would propose for India, as com-
bining more decidedly than any other that I can think of, the three
great objects, viz., assimilation to the English system, approxima-
tion to the existing Native system, and a means of testing both
Weight and Measure of Capacity by the coin of the country, is as
follows: I. For Linear measure, the English yard and foot, without
at present defining the subdivisions. II. For Zand measure, the
Acre, decimally subdivided. III. For Weight, the Seer, of 2lbs.
avoirdupois, corresponding to 772 Rupees weight ; with a multiple
of a ‘* Mun”’ of 50 seers, (= 100lbs.) and sub-multiples of ‘‘ Annas’”’
or 16ths of Seers. IV. For Measure of Capacity, a ‘‘ Seer-mea-
sure’’ identical with the English Quart, and defined as containing 97
tolas of Water at a temperature of 84°, (containing when struck,
about a ‘* Seer-weight’”’ of mixed grain ) with amultiple of a ‘‘ Sotee’’
or 100 seers, and sub-multiples of ‘‘ atees’’ or eighths.

It will be observed that in my proposed arrangement, no at-
tempt has been made to introduce a Decimal scale ; and to re-
move the supposition that I have (as many do have) a prejudice
against a decimal system, I must, at the risk of egotism, explain
that there are perhaps few unprofessional men who make more use
of decimals than I do. I have for many years been in the constant
habit of using the Slide Rule, essentially a decimal instrument, and
it is more natural to me to write ‘125 than?. In my official capa-
city I haye urged, and eventually with success, a decimal subdi-
yision of the Acre in the new Revenue Survey of the Carnatic, and

JULY—SEP?. 1857. ] for India. 203

I have also had occasion to recommend a decimal notation of the
Assay reports of the Madras Mint. My own feeling on the sub-
ject would therefore make me most anxious to adopt a Decimal sys-
tem, and I would advocate it-most strongly for England; but for
India, as India is at present, I cannot do so conscientiously, for I
am convinced that it will be difficult enough to introduce any new
Metrical system among a people so peculiarly wedded to custom
and usage, and that to attempt at the same time to introduce a new
notation would result in a total failure. If Englishmen would con-
sider how much they would object to a decimal subdivision of the
Day and Hour, they would have some idea of the objection of the
Natives of India to a decimal division of Weight and Measure.
There is not the same difficulty in the decimal multiples of an ac-
cepted Unit of Weight or measure, as there is in the sub-multiples.
In England there would be less difficulty in introducing Weights
of 10lbs. and 100lbs., than those of 10ths and |00ths of lbs., and
Measures of 10 and 100 Gallons, than those of 10ths and 100ths of
Gallons, and it is on this account that I have proposed decimal
multiples* and binary swb-multiples for India. The multiples of
the seer will bear a definite relation to British Weights and Mea-
sures ; the swb-multiples will not, but then the definite relation is
not so much required when small quantities only are in account.

The question is not which is theoretically the best system, but
which can be so introduced, as to secure equivalents with the Bri-
tish system, and at the same time preserve some established stand-
ard of the country. The intrinsic merit of a Decimal Cornage
will not be denied, and yet I have not met with any one acquaint-
ed with India, who would venture on a change. ‘The same rea-
sons influence me in objection to a Decimal Metrical System for
India. In some respects, the latter is of more difficult introduc-
tion than the former. Professor Airy, (the Astronomer Royal)
stated in his address at the Institution of Civil Engineers, Feb.
28th, 1854, that ‘‘a decimal scale could be, and ought to be, en-
forced in coinage, but scarcely in any thing else ;” and as regarded

* That is multiples of the sEER, No decimal multiples of the ToLa will cor-
respond with English weights.

204 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NuWw sERIEs,

Weight and Measure, it would be ‘‘ perfectly vain.”’* It is how-
ever probable that the attempt will be made, but it is not yet made,
and if this caution is observed in a country like England, it cer-
tainly ought to be exercised in India. A Decimal system is pecu-
liarly adapted for account, but for the ordinary transactions of life,
which affect the mass of the people, the binary scale is the most
natural, and the most convenient in every country ; and in India,
the interests of the mass demand that it be preserved in the sub-
multiples at least, of the Metrical standards.

Lastly, I will advert again to the fact that the Indian coinage is
not decimal ; the Rupee being subdivided into 16 Annas, and each
of these into 12 Pies. Unless the coinage is altered,—a measure
which I conclude the Government will not venture to attempt at
present,—the chief advantage of a decimal Metrical system is lost.
On this point I would refer to the evidence of Professor De Mor-
gan, the ablest and most zealous of the advocates for a Decimal
system in England. When examined before the Parliamentary
Committee of 1841, appointed to consider the subject of the ‘‘ Res-
toration of the Standards,”’ the Professor stated that in his opinion
** no decimal scule is practicable, that does not begin with the money.”
(Page 60. H. 10.)

The next point for consideration, is the best method of zn¢ro-
ducing anew and uniform Metrical system into such a country as
India, comprising as it does such an enormous extent of territory,
and containing so many races of people speaking different lan-
guages, already possessing each their own established Weights and
Measures, and deeply prejudiced against innovation.

It is the opinion of some who are acquainted with India, and
whose views are entitled to respect, that the introduction of a new
Metrical system should not be attempted by any compulsory mea-
sure, but be urged upon the people by encouragement, persuasion,

* The Decimal system was established by lawin France in 1795, but as regard-
ed Weights and Measures it was found that its enforcement was so difficult, that
in 1816, the ‘‘systeme usuel” was enforced for Retail Trade. It was not till
July, 1837, that it was decided finally to adopt the decimal scale, and to enforce
penalties for the use of any other. The law came into force on the Ist of Janu-
ary, 1840.

JULY—SEPT. 1857. | for India. 205

and personal influence ; in the same manner in short, as the intro-
duction of European literature and science, or Christian ethics.
I would submit however that the cases are not parallel ; we must
wait for the one, we cannot wait indefinitely for the other. In the
one case the Government has no right to compel the adoption of
their views, however correct and beneficial; in the other, it
becomes a posztive duty of the State to insist upon a just and defi-
nite mode of dealing among its subjects, and to introduce a new
and uniform system, not merely because they have found a bet-
ter one than any which exists in India, but because the existing
ones are radically bad, and open a door to every kind of uncer-
tainty, evasion, and fraud.

It does not require much argument to show that the Natives of
India will not of their own accord do what the people of England
would not do without a legal enactment, and if there zs a Law, it
must be compulsory, or it will be a dead letter. It would have
been deemed useless to attempt the introduction of a uniform Me-
trical system by a Proclamation in the Gazette, or by official in-
fluence, in England, where all classes of people admitted the in-
convenience of so much diversity, and itis not likely that such
measures will be successful in India, where the people do noé
admit such inconvenience, and the petty dealers are directly in-
terested in a continuance of the present irregularity. If official
influence is to be exerted, it will probably end in that kind of in-
fluence which is virtually compulsion ; a species of argument not
unknown to official subordinates in India, and which it would not
be wise to encourage.

It may be thought that as it is already a penal offence to use false
Weights and Measures, the public are sufficiently secured ; but there
is little use in testing them as long as the Standards are nof defined
by law. I may mention a few instances that have come under my
own knowledge, of the inconvenience arising from this laxity.

The first case was one, where the Land Revenue having been
fixed originally with reference to the produce and price of grain,
complaints were made of its pressure, in consequence of a con-
tinued fall (as it was asserted) of price. To ascertain the truth of

206 Weights and Measures [no. 4, NEWSERIES,

this, was of vital importance, and investigations were made by
Government, in the course of which it was discovered that in one
District, the official “* Price Returns” had been 20 per cent. in error
for some years, in consequence of the grain-dealers having altered
the capacity of their Measures. In the second case, a merchant at
a seaport town, sold a certain number of “‘ candies” of copper to a
captain of a vessel, who found on re-weighment for sale at Madras,
that the weight was short. The seller was able to show that he
sold by the Candy where he resided, and ifthe dispute had not
been settled by an amicable arrangement, no official authority
could have decided the question, inasmuch as the Candy is so
many Seers, and the Seer so many Rupees, but what Rupee no one
can tell: certainly not the present one, which is some grains hea-
vier than the Rupees of the Native mints, current when the Weights
were originally established. In the third case, a long correspon-
dence took place in the Military Department, in consequence of a
dispute as to whether a regiment of Sepoys had not overdrawn
their rations ; it being asserted that the Seer-measure of the town
where they were quartered, was too large. The Government re-
quested the opinion of the Board of Revenue, but the only answer
they could give, was that the Native ‘‘Seer’’ differed in different
places, at the option of the bazaar-men, and that as the
Government in their Proclamation had made no mention of a
Seer for use * in Government transactions,’ there was no
official definition of such a Measure. In the fourth case,
the Board of Revenue at Madras were informed that Mea-
sures of Capacity were in use in the Town, bearing the Govern-
ment stamp, and yet differing in capacity from the content prescrib-
ed by the Proclamation mentioned in another para. of this Paper.*
These Measures were examined, and found to be 4 per cent.
in error, but the Stamping Department asserted that they were
in accordance with an old Standard in their Office, and the Govern-
ment declined even to prohibit their Seal being affixed to Measures
openly at variance with their own Proclamation. All these in-
stances occurred within three or four years, and similar cases hap-

* Vide page 194.

JULY—sEPT. 1857.] for India. 207

pen constantly, for want of some positive law on the subject, and
the evil cannot be remedied by a mere Proclamation, which is not
binding. Itis now 10 years since the Madras Proclamation was
published, and models distributed over the country with injunc-
tions to the Public Officers to press their adoption; but, with very
few exceptions, the attempt has failed, and those very exceptions
only add to the discordance already prevailing. It is to little pur-
pose for Government to proclaim a Standard, if its use is not ene
forced, or if it is not to be considered as decisive in case of dis-
pute. It appears obvious, that where such inconvenient discre-
pancy and uncertainty exist, it is the duty of Government to decide
upon some Standard, and having once decided, not to allow the
people the option of accepting it or not. It will often happen
that when a practice is insisted on by law, and penalties attach-
ed to its infraction, no resistance will be made; whereas if the peo-
ple are aware that there is no law, and no means of enforcement,
their opposition will be most pertinacious, and if they can only
hold out long enough it must be effectual.

It may be said that in some of the Bombay provinces a new
Standard (referred to in para. 55) has been introduced with suc-
cess without legal compulsion. That a reform in the Weights—
that is, selecting the best known of those already in use—has
been partially carried out by the personal influence of some ener-
getic magistrates, is no doubt the case ; but as regards the Measures
of Capacity, a most important branch of metrology to the people
of India, the attempt has only succeeded apparently, in one or two
instances ; and to show how little is to be expected from the pro-
gress of education, and march of intellect, the reform has been found
impracticable (there being no Jaw to enforce it) in the towns of
Bombay and Surat, where it might be supposed that official influ-
ence and educational enlightenment would have aided the desired
object.*

Even in those cases where the shopkeepers are said to have

adopted the new Weights and Measures, assertions are not suf.

_ * The total failure of the late Municipal Act, in the Madras Presidency, may

be cited as another instance of the insufficiency of a non-compulsory Hnactment
to effect social reform, however needed.

208 eights and Measures [Nno. 4, NEW SERIES,

ficient. To my own knowledge, when the subject was under in-
vestigation at Madras, Reports were received from two Districts,
most positively asserting that the Government Standards were in
use ; but on subsequently sending for Measures actually used in
the bazaars, it was ascertained that the Civil authorities had been
misinformed completely. The statements of Native subordinates
cannot be depended upon in these matters, and they err often from
sheer ignorance; if it is wished really to ascertain whether certain
Weights and Measures are in use, the magistrate must not hear
with his ears, but see with his eyes, and nothing less ought to
satisfy Government.

Having thus given my reasons for believing that it is hopeless
to expect a reform of so great a magnitude as uniformity of Weight
and Measure throughout India, without some Legal enactment, I
would not be unmindful of the fact that great caution would be
requisite in carrying out that object. No Government should
promulgate any law which it is not able to enforce, or any’ which
cannot be enforced without oppression and tyranny. For these
reasons, the enactment ofa compulsory law as regards uniformity
of Weight and Measure to take effect all over India, and at once,
would be highly objectionable. It could not be enforced at all in
remote and thinly inhabited districts, and in many localities where
it could be enforced, the advantage to be derived from it would not
compensate for the inconvenience and annoyance resulting from
its compulsory introduction. I would therefore advocate a move-
ment to be made determinedly, but gradually, both as regards
place and time.

The enactment might be made applicable in the first instance,
only to the towns of Calcutta, Madras; Bombay, and Agra; to all
Military Cantonments and to such towns as the Government of
each Presidency might think fit to recommend ; and a distant but
distinct date (say one year prospectively) should be fixed for the
commencement of its operation.

By limiting the immediate action of the law to the principal
Towns and Cantonments, its enforcement will be practicable, and
benefit to be gained, sufficient to justify the employment of what
may be to some an unpalatable exercise of authority. It may be

,

JULY—sEPT. 1857.] for India. 209

reasonably expected that the people of the interior, in their traffic
with such Towns and Cantonments, will gradually acquire a know-
lege of, and a convenience in conforming to, the Standards ; so that
in a further period of time, the local operation of the law may be
extended. As regards the Towns and Cantonments specified, there
will be time beforehand for the people to make themselves acquaint-
ed with the new standards, to prepare new sets of Weights and Mea-
sures, and arrange their prices accordingly. During this period also,
every assistance and encouragement should be given by the officers
of Government to those who are likely to be inconvenienced by the
measure. ‘‘ Suaviter in modo, fortiter in re.”’

All Government transactions, accounts, tariffs, &c, should be in
terms of the new System, and in every purchase made by the Public
Departments, their own Standard Weights and Measures should
be employed. This would supersede the attempts (always futile)
to specify on every occasion, in equivalent terms of the authorised
standard, the ever varying and uncertain values of the Native
Weights and Measures. For general purposes, and as.a guide to
the Departmental officers, Tables of equalization should be prepar-
for each District, showing the average results of experiments made
to determine the value of the local Weights and Measures. Such
Tables though useful, will not of course be conclusive in every
case of purchase, inasmuch as Weights and Measures differ in
different villages, and the Tables can only give the result of the
average of the District. Such Tables have been lately compiled
in the Presidency of Madras.

In order to prepare the people for the reception of the new
Standards, not only should they be enforced in the chief Towns,
and used in all Government transactions, but they should be ex-
plained in all the Government schools, vernacular tracts on the
subject should be freely distributed, models should be kept in store
in all public offices (both for ascertaining the true equivalents of
the Native Weights and Measures, and to enable those who wish
to take copies), and it should be constantly and publicly notified
that the operation of the Act would be eventually extended to every
bazaar in the country. The Chambers of Commerce, and the Rail-
ways and other Companies, should be urged to co-operate, even in

210 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NEW SERIES,
localities where the Act did not as yet apply, and if the Metrical
system adopted, be one which conforms to English Weights and
Measures, compliance would be the more easily afforded.

The Enactment should authorise only struck Measure, without
making heaped measure actually illegal. By clause 7, Act 5th and
6th, Wm. IV. cap. 68, all bargains, sales, and contractsemade by the
heaped measure are declared null and void: and every person who
sells any article by the heaped measure, is liable to a penalty of £2.
Considering the repugnance of the Natives of India to struck measure,
it would not be advisable at present to make such stringent provi-
sions, but it should be distinctly notified that the system is adapted
only to struck measure, that no purchaser has a right to demand
any other, and that in any suit or action, where Measures of Capaci- °
ty are called in question, the law will recognise none but sérwck
measure. It will also be of importance carefully to explain to the
Native trooops what the new Weights and Measures are, and that
none but sfruck measure will be recognised in rations or allowances.

With regard to dealings in grain, there is no doubt that weighing
is a more accurate test of value than measurement, but the latter
is so much more expeditious and convenient, that it will always be
resorted to by the Natives of India, especially as long as the present
rudeness of their Balances remains unimproved. In England and
Ireland, corn is always sold by weight in the wholesale transactions
of large Towns, and many of the difficulties that occur in the Grain
Contracts of the Indian Commissariat would be obviated, if their
purchases were made by weight. The sale of salt by weight, in
the levy of the Excise, should also be insisted on.

Magistrates should be empowered under the new Act, to appoint
Inspectors, but no penalties should be inflicted except where the
Weights or Measures were tested in the presence of the Magistrate,
or his Deputy, and it would be well to deal leniently in all cases
where there was no wilful error, fraudulent intent, or repetition
of offence. |

It may be expected that when the time comes for enforcing the |
operation of the Act, some attempt will be made in the large towns,
to resist it, by a combination of the grain dealers to close their shops
as has been tried on some occasions with success. Provision for
this should be made in the Act.

Lg pee : ne

i NT

JULY—SEPT. 1857. ] for India. all

It should also be considered how far Government should endea-
vour to relieve the shopkeepers and others, of the expense of pro-
curing new Weights and Measures, by making them up in the
Arsenals, and selling them below cost price or taking old Weights
and Measures inexchange. In England the Parliamentary Com-
mittee of 1841, stated that it would cest the Government about
£200,000 to make new Weights alone, but they considered it would
be worth the expense.

There will be other details to be considered and embodied in
the Act, which may be left for future discussion: such as the
stamping of Weights and Measures ; the using of Casks, Bottles,
Jugs, &c. representing some defined Measure; the material with
which Weights and Measures should be made ; what articles should
be sold by weight only ; rules as to the publication of Price Lists ;
duties and powers of Inspectors; amount of fines and forfeitures,
and mode of recovery ; periodical re-verification of stamped Weights
and Measures, &c.

In concluding this Paper, I would wish it to be understood that
Ido not presume to set forth my individual opinion as at all de-
cisive. My object is, toobtain for so important and complicated a
subject that careful consideration which has not as yet been conced-
ed to it, and I would venture to express the hope that the Govern-
ment of India before finally deciding on a Metrical system, from
which if once promulgated they cannot retract, will obtain the
opinion of persons in all the Presidencies, interested in the subject,
and qualified to enter into it in detail. To those who are inclined
to take the subject into consideration, I would submit that the ques-
tion is not merely which is “‘ per se” the most correct system of Me-
trology, but which is best for India; and that the essentials to be
combined if possible; are I. The preservation of some standard of
Weight and Measure common to the whole of India. II. The
adaptation of the Weights and also the weight of water contained in
the Measures of Capacity, to the current coin of the country. III.
A definite but simple proportion (without fractions) between the
Weights and Measures to be now introduced, and those of Great Bri-
tain. It will also be necessary to bear in mind that the coinage of
India is not decimal, and there is no intention of changing it.

212 Weights and Measures [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

Memorandum by Mr. Bate, being an Enclosure in a Letter from
the Court of Directors of the E. I. Company to the Government of
Madras, dated 6th July, 1829, on the occasion of forwarding Stand-
ard Weightsand Measuresin accordance with Act 5, Geo. IV. cap. 74.

TasiEI. [Thermometer] Taste II. [ Barometer. |

Temp.}Grainstoadd Barometer|Grains to beadd-

oS

Fahr. | or deduct. S Inches. | edor deducted.

a eS accented ees nonce
55°. | + 25:30. | 4 ‘01 ‘0246
56 | 4+ 2246/8 02 0492
Py bev Wie itaes (SL ial 03 0738
58 | 4+ 16:00].8 | 04 0984
59 | + 1238] 22 05 1280
i eo eae

. ito) . e

= eae Nee 2a 08 "1268
yi aioe aD ot tae
65 | — 1460 | 2% 2 ‘4920
see ea A | ae
os. | Stee MEE rae
69 | — 3738/85 oe

—— ST 5p
is — Boke = Ex. Suppose the Barometer
25 Weta pred S at 29°54 inches. (below 30°)
73 | — 63°52 | 5 | ‘51-2300
ec ncarree eee he
‘ eae ; os ——o
76 | — Sey = 1:3284 grains to be
77 = i. S deducted from the Gallon of
78 | — 10067 So 70,000 grains.
80 — 116°98 5 If the Barometer is above

30 inches, the grains are to
be added.

~I
we)
|
S
co
~I
oe
At a temperature of 75° Fahr. a Gallon of distilled'water wei
grains.

90 |, — 210°28
91 — 220°66

GO
re)
|
1)
=)
S
}
—)

JULY—SEPT. 1857.| for India. 213
The following Abstract adapted to lbs. avoir. and to Tola (or

Rupee) weights, has been prepared from the above.

Grains of water Diff. Br

ae in 100 cuibcin. | in grains. sei Lal os,
80° 25203°6 3°6005 140°020
81° 25200°6 -3°0 36001 140°003
82° 25197°5 o'l 3°5996 139°986
83° 25194°3 3°2 3°5992 139.968
84° 25191°0 3°3 3°5988 139°950
G5° DUS is ¢ 3°38 3°5983 139°932
86° 24184°3 3°4. 3°5978 139°913
87° 25180°8 3°5 3'5973 139°894
88° 25177°3 3°5 3°5968 139°874
89° fa WB ag | 3°6 3°0963 139°854
90° 25170°0 39; 3°5957 1389°834 ©
91° 25166'2 3°8 3°5951 139°812

100° 25129°0 3°5899 | 1389°600

es

214 The Study of Living Languages. [no. 4, NEW SERIES,

IX. The Study of Living Languages. By Cotonrn Ar-
THUR Corron, Madras Engineers.

The learning of the living languages of foreign, semi-civilized,
and savage people has now become a matter of such immeasurable
importance that any man may be excused who makes the poorest
attempt to diminish the difficulties of such a work.

Englishmen especially, are at this moment employed by thousands,
as Merchants, Missionaries, Magistrates, &c., in learning hundreds
of different languages spoken by people in all stages of civilization,
from the lowest state of society upwards, and in their speedy ac-
quisition of a correct knowledge and free colloquial use of several
tongues of those tribes, hundreds of millions of the human race are
most deeply interested, as that upon which mainly depends both
their temporal and eternal interests. Yet I am not aware that there
is in existence a single work in which this subject is closely and
systematically investigated. It must be observed that the point
before us is, what is the best mode of acquiring a knowledge of the
language of savage and semi-civilized nations? and that this is in
some important respects quite distinct from both the acquisition of
dead languages and also of the living languages of nations who
have been fully civilized and, consequently, have a complete sys-
tem of literature, a great variety of books of instruction written by
extensively informed Natives and also thoroughly educated teachers.

There are difficulties in learning the languages of semi-civilized
and barbarous people which do not exist in the case of the lan-
guages of civilized nations, and with respect to the dead languages .
the principal points to be attended to and the objects aimed at are
so entirely different from those in living languages, that what is
applicable to the one is almost entirely inapplicable to the other.

Nothing can be more deplorable than this state of things. The
mischiefs arising out of it are incalculable. All, without excep-
tion who require to know such a language, and who make at-
tempts to acquire it, lose, probably from three fourths, to nineteen

sULY—sEPT. 1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 215

twentieths of the time so employed; a large portion lose the
whole, breaking down before they have acquired any useful know-
ledge at all; probably scarcely one in ten acquires a tolerably cor-
rect and free use of it, and scarcely one at all such a knowledge
as to make them really effective translators, an office of the high-
est possible importance, because the transference of English litera-
ture, for the great mass of the inhabitants of the earth, must pre-
cede the formation of a national literature among each tribe.

At present it may safely be said that no system whatever is fol-
lowed in studying such living languages for colloquial purposes.
Let any one individual of the thousands who are at this moment
so employed, be asked, whose system of study do you prefer, or
have you any of your own, and upon what grounds do you decide
upon this, or that point, and his answer would generally be such
as to show that he had no clear, definite, well-digested ideas on
the subject. Without the least previous investigation of the sub-
ject, without spending one single day in reading a treatise on if,
or considering it in his own mind, he usually blindly takes in hand
a matter upon which he will perhaps employ one or several years ;
taking at a venture as it were, any books or teachers that he may
happen to fall in with, or any ideas he may happen to have got
into his own head, he knows not how or whence; without any
solid grounds for concluding whether the mode he is pursuing will
lead to an economical or an enormously wasteful expenditure of
time, and, what is of more importance, whether he is laying the
foundation of a real, correct, and effective knowledge of the lan-
guage, or establishing himself in a totally false use of it, which,
when become habitual, will never be corrected.

Matters are in respect of this study of languages just as they
were in respect of road making before the time of Mr. McAdam.
Every man thought he was born a road maker, and those holding
the charge of roads did almost anything to them and called it re-
pairs. It was a most common thing for instance to throw a thick
layer of loose rounded gravel on the road, which at first caused al-
most the greatest possible resistance to the carriages and by des
grees was conyerted into mud, but never afforded any thing ap-

216 The Study of Lwing Languages. [no. 4, NEW SERIES,

_ proaching to a clean, hard surface. The road menders were quite
satisfied because they were doing something, but if asked, why
they did what produced an effect exactly the opposite to that which
was desired, they of course could not have given a reason. Road-
making has since been thoroughly investigated and though men
have not yet perhaps found out the best way of doing it, they have
now a real reason for what they do, and consequently a prodigious
improvement in roads has been produced.

Tt is high time that such a change should take place in reference
to this subject now before us, and any attempt at an examination
of it, with a view toa really sound system of study should be accept-
ed.

The thoughts contained in the following paper are the results
of such a consideration of the subject as could be given to it in the
midst of duties of another kind during a period of more than thirty
years.

Circumstances have not allowed of the writer following up the
study of any language, to any extent, having repeatedly moved,
from where one language was spoken to where another was used,
and his time being too much occupied with pressing business ; nor
has he had an opportunity of commencing the study of a language
with such materials, as he here recommends, ready prepared to his
hands.

In the course of this long period however he has had an opportu-
nity of trying his plans partially in several languages both on him-
self and others, and thus of correcting in some measure his first
ideas and forming something like a digested system in his own
mind; and he must state that as to the leading points in the sys-
tem here proposed, he has quite satisfied himself.

He has taken every opportunity of obtaining aid from others,
both by reading works of teachers of languages in Europe, and
also by trying to discuss the question with those who were study-
ing and had studied such kind of living languages. From the
former he has received some help, though often merely by being
taught what to avoid; but from the latter he received no assistance,

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] The Siudy of Living Languages. 217

simply because in general they had no distinct ideas at all on the
matter, nor any solid reason for any thing they had done in their
studies, He has however got various hints from observing what
progress different men had made in suchstudies when using different
means. On one occasion he met with a young man who had given
his whole time to Arabic for three years, and could not then pro-
duce a sentence in conversation, and soon after he was intimate
with another who in about 8 months and while loaded with other
duties, had obtained, if not an accurate yet such an effective, collo-
quial use of the same tongue, that he regularly transacted exten-
sive business in it with strangers of all sorts without the least diffi-
culty. Again, in India one meets every day with men who have
studied most diligently for one, two or three years, and yet all their
life after speak a language, that both from pronunciation and ex-
pression is almost, or quite, unintelligible to any Native, excepting
those who from being about them constantly in an official capacity
have learnt their language, (for what they used and called the Na-
tive language was really a language of their own invention) and so
have come to understand them.

The writer cannot conclude these remarks without expressing
his full assurance that the acquisition of a correct knowledge and
perfectly ready colloquial use of such languages will be found to
be a matter requiring very little time compared with what it does
at present, in most cases, when a better mode of learning is adopt-
ed, On one occasion he had an opportunity of observing the pro-
gress made by children in acquiring a new language in a certain
time. Out ofa number that embarked in a ship in India many
did not know a word of English, having previously used nothing
but some Indian language, and they were of various ages. Dur-
ing the four months of the voyage to England every one of them
had so perfectly acquired the use of Hnglish that they never were
at a loss, and latterly seemed to have as good a knowledge of it
as those who had always used it. Now if children of a few years
old, without the slightest assistance from teachers or study, could
thus pick up a colloquial use ofa ‘new language in four months
and talk it exactly like one who had never talked any thing else,

218 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

it seems certain that adults with a hundred times their power of
mind and with suitable books and teachers and regular study could
not fail to attain to areal knowledge and ready colloquial use
of anew language, and that without being years about it, unless
they were altogether wrong in the method of study they adopted.
In fact he cannot help declaring it as his opinion that when this
subject is fairly grappled with by men, the great supposed obsta-
cles to intercourse of strange languages will be found, compara-
tively speaking, a mere bugbear ; and that the acquisition of a new
language for all the ordinary purposes of life will be found to be
within the reach of almost all with a comparatively very small ex-
penditure of time and labour.

Before proceeding to propose a system of study of living lan-
guages, it may be well to make some remarks on the mistakes that
are commonly made at present, and the chief difficulties that are
usually met with, as well as on the time generally expended on
such study.

A great many of the common mistakes can easily be traced to
the circumstance that almost universally the students have previ-
ously been accustomed to study dead languages, and from their not
observing that almost all their ideas have been formed from that
study, while the principal points to be attended to in the study of
living languages are exactly those that are of little or no conse-
quence in that of dead ones, and wce versd. In learning Latin or
Greek, for instance, the sole objects usually are to be able to read
so as to understand the writings of highly educated men and (but
as very secondary) to write elegant formal essays. The following
are therefore the leading points aimed at;

Ist. A knowledge of the character.

2nd. A knowledge of the whole vocabulary of the language, in-

cluding a multitude of words seldom or never used collo-
guially in the ordinary business of life.

ard. A readiness in perceiving the meaning of long involved

formal sentences, such as are found in grave prose and in
poetical writings.

RTT

juLY—seEPT. 1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 219

Ath. A thorough knowledge of the whole grammar, so as to be
able to give a formal rule for any thing when questioned.

5th. And such a familiar knowledge of the idiom of the lan-
guage as will enable one to write formal papers in a good
style.

The points that are of little or no consequence are,

Ist. Correct pronunciation.

2nd. An extensive knowledge of the common expressions used
in the ordinary business of life.

8rd. A perfect readiness at recognizing the word by the sound
when rapidly spoken.

4th. The same in forming sentences to express our own thoughts.

Now, if we consider these things we shall perceive that the study
of the dead languages and that of the living languages of semi-ci-
vilized and barbarous nations are almost diametrically opposed in
respect of the objects to be attained. ‘The points that are essen-
tial in the one are either non-essential, or ofno importance whatever
in the other and vice verséd. A man may talk a language most
fluently, correctly and usefully, for all the ordinary business of life,
without knowing the character, without being able to quote a sin-
gle rule of grammar, without the knowledge of half or three-fourths
of the vocabulary of a language, and without any facility in com-
prehending the involved sentences of formal writings of learned
men ; while, without an accurate pronunciation, an ample acquaint-
ance with the common colloquial expressions of uneducated people,
and a most free and ready use of them, so that strangers can readi-
ly catch his words and comprehend his meaning, and without an
ear thoroughly exercised in the sounds of the language, so as at
once to recognise what is spoken by a Native, he has entirely miss-
ed his object, though he may know every word in the language and
every rule of grammar, and be able to write an elegant essay with-
out a mistake. Books of history, &c. donot furnish us with the
expressions of ordinary conversation. very country has tts own
peculiar forms and they must be learnt individualy ; no rales can
be given by which a student, who knows the words and grammar,
can invent them himself. In semi-civilised countries, where not

220 The Study of Living Languages. [xo. 4, NEW SERIES,

one in a hundred has read books, there is a large proportion of the
words, which are never used in conversation on ordinary matters,
and which therefore are so far from being of any use to the great
mass of those who have to acquire the language that they are
always in his way, if he has learnt them, leading him to ex-
press himself in words not in common use, and consequently
unknown to most of those with whom he has to communicate.
So far therefore from it being sufficient to follow the ideas which
aman has gathered while studying dead languages, they are in
fact the very opposite to those which are correct as respects the
study of such living languages as are here supposed.

If we examine the mode of study adopted generally, however it
may vary in minor points, the system, so far as that can be called
a system, which is indeed no such thing, is that suited to the dead
languages. A man takes up a book of stories, a grammar, and a
dictionary, and learning, almost exclusively by the eye, he pro-
ceeds exactly as if the use of his ear were of no consequence, as
ifhe must at once grapple with the whole vocabulary of the lan-
suage, and as if when he had got the materials of words and rules
of grammar, he could himself guess the forms of expression which
he must compound from them; like the idiot who was found to
have stored up in his box all the wheels, axles, &c., he could lay
his hand upon, thinking that when he had got enough he could
easily make aclock of them. The results of this-proceeding are
notorious. A youth in India has passed a splendid examination,
knows every word of the language and has a rule of grammar for
everything, loses his way out riding and cannot get home before he
is in danger of a stroke of the sun, because he cannot make any
Native he meets understand him, nor can he understand a sentence
spoken by them, and this after many months, often a year or two,
of intense study from morning to night. And what is still worse,
probably he is confirmed in a false pronunciation and a false mode
of expression from having almost entirely neglected these two great
essentials, or at least not having given them any thing like due at-
tention. The consideration of this source of many of the most
serious mistakes that are made in this study will be very useful.

Another great source of mistakes, is that such languages are

suLy—seEPt. 1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 221

generally learnt by men at that age when they have most confi-
dence in their own powers and when they are consequently always
disposed to take the bull by the horns. With this feeling the stu-
dent generally rushes into the midst of his enemies headlong, at-
tempting to grapple at once with the character, the pronunciation,
the whole grammar, the whole vocabulary of 20,000, or, as in Ara-
bic, 200,000 words, the language of books and the language of
conversation, &c. No wonder that such a one finds himself con-
tinually discouraged, that many give up in despair, that all waste
an enormous amount of time and mental effort, and that scarcely
one in a hundred ever talks like a Native. Whatever a man’s pow-
ers may be it is certainly sheer waste to set about matters in this
way, and he cannot possibly receive such clear impressions on his
mind as the same person would, if he concentrated his attention
upon one thing at a time.

It may also be well here to advert to some peculiar difficulties
which we necessarily encounter in the circumstances in which Eu-
ropeans are ordinarily placed in semi-civilized countries, and espe-
cially in a country like India, in which caste prevails. If an Eng-
lishman wishes to learn French or German, he can go and live
with a Native family, or throw himself continually into the society
of Natives, in inns and places of public resort, where his ear wil
be exercised from morning to night in the true pronunciation and
the real ordinary expressions of the language, and where conse-
quently, without the least effort even, though indeed slowly, he
ean hardly help acquiring a correct use of the language both as
respects pronunciation and expression. But there are few coun-
ities out of Europe where a Kuropean can thus freely associate
with the Natives, and in India he is effectually excluded from their
houses. Separate and special means must therefore be used, to
exercise the tongue and ear of the student, and to store his me-
mory with a stock of bona fide expressions.

Another difficulty is the great inferiority of Native Teachers com-
pared with European Masters. Indeed in a great proportion of
cases a man has to learn a language with the assistance of one
who is not a teacher at all by profession, and who therefore can-

222 =6The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,
not give him a hundredth part of the help derived from a practised
and well instructed teacher. Further, such languages are so ex-
tremely different from the European tongues, in every respect, that
a person is much more likely to be discouraged from the difficul-
ties he experiences than in learning a foreign European language,
and on this account it is especially necessary to adopt a system
that shall as far as possible tend to keep up the student’s courage.

These are some of the leading points that should be kept in
view in considering a system of study for such languages.

I would now propose some fundamental principles to be taken
as clues to the better understanding of the subject.

It is evident that there are two fundamental points to be attend-
ed to. The first, which is by far of the greatest importance of the
two, is; To be careful that we lay a sound foundation. This is a
universal principle and yet one at least as often forgotten in study-
ing languages asin other matters. Ifa false foundation is laid,
the erection can never be made sound. If aman once acquires a
false pronunciation or a false mode of expression he will never get
over it. Whatever he learns should be perfectly correct, and not
only so, he should have such a thorough knowledge of it that he
shall be fully assured in his own mind that his knowledge is cor-
rect, so that he may not afterwards be in doubt and liable to give
up what is right and substitute some guess of his owninstead. For
want of right modes of study, what numbers use all their lives some
language and pronunciation of their own invention, and never find
out how it is they can hardly have any intercourse with Natives by
means of it. The true value and true pronunciation of every word
encountered should be fully ascertained, and its use in a great va-
riety of forms of expression should be made thoroughly familiar,
before proceeding to other words, and no imperfect acquaintance
with a word or expression should be allowed. The second great
principle is of course; To save time; but this must always be |
subordinate to the former. In the main however the two princi-
ples are not only compatible but inseparable: nothing causes so
much waste of time as imperfectly learning things, receiving indis-

JULY—sEPT. 1857.) The Study of Living Languages. 223

tinct and shallow impressions of them, because such things are
always forgotten and have to be learnt over again. This is the
grand reason why such enormous time is wasted in this study.
A man attempts so much at once that every thing is partially
learnt and forgotten probably at least a hundred times over. He
begins with a book containing hundreds, more likely thousands of
words and long sentences involving innumerable rules of grammar,
and before he gets to the end of it has learnt in a sort of way and
forgotten every word in it and every expression over and over
again, and has probably in the end thoroughly apprehended and
acquired a familiar knowledge of not one twentieth part of the
words he has met with. He perhaps makes lists of the words
that he meets with and learns many hundreds by heart at once,
but he has no useful knowledge of one in twenty of them. No
word is effectually known till it is so thoroughly familiar, that it is
ready in his mouth at any moment, without the slightest effort of
memory, and till it can be used in a considerable variety of ex-
pressions ; in fact, till it is just to the student like one of the
words of his native tongue, and so wrought into his mind that it
cannot be forgotten again. It may however often appear that
time would be gained by adopting some plan which would endan-
ger the soundness of the foundation, and in this case such a plan
must be rejected.

The third great principle is ; To have such a system as shall en-
courage people, both to commence upon and go through with the
study of Native languages. It is of exceeding importance to ene
courage all persons, whatever their situations or occupations are,
when remaining for any time however short or uncertain in such
countries, to make themselves acquainted, as far as possible, with
the language of the people. - Numbers at present never attempt if,
solely because the usual mode of study cuts them off from all hope
of ever attaining to the smallest useful knowledge of it, without
such an expenditure of time and labour as they are afraid to en-
counter or their circumstances absolutely prevent. A system which
shall afford some useful results to every one who enters upon it,
and those in some degree proportioned to the time and labour ex-

224 The Study of Living Languages. [no. 4, NEW SERIES,

pended, is animmense desideratum. Jt would lead numbers to
make a beginning who now never attempt it; and many such, if
they once began, would not rest till they had obtained some con-
siderable knowledge of it.

An encouraging system is equally required for those who do at
present set themselves to the study with the purpose of going
through with it. Nothing can be more discouraging than the
means usually pursued at present, whereas if a man were pursuing
a system in which he felt at every step, that he was making real
useful progress, he would go on with tenfold spirit, always feeling
too, that stop where he would, his labour had not been thrown
away. In endeavouring to accomplish the first object the follows
ing rules may be laid down.

ist. The student is really to learn the language and not to ate
- tempt to teach himself. For instance, nothing is more common
than for a man, as soon as he has learnt a few words, with the
help of his grammar to begin to try and form sentences. In this
way he may certainly make a new language of his own, but it will
not be the language he proposes tolearn. Thus numbers attempt to
communicate with Natives by English sentences made up of foreign
words which consequently are not merely scarcely intelligible but
often convey no meaning at all, though perfectly correct as regards
both words and grammar. The student must not at first attempt
to take the smallest step alone. He must not pronounce a word
nor put two words together by himself. He must be content to
learn every thing, and that thoroughly, from a Native, sound by
sound, word by word, expression by expression, and not attempt
to go beyond this, till he has become so established in correct pro-
nunciation, in his knowledge of the correct value of words and in
the actual forms used by the Natives that there is no danger of his
substituting something of his own for the real ‘anguage.

It is by no means sufficient to learn a sound or expression once
or ten times: it can only be correctly acquired by exercise, by thou-
sands of repetitions, referring every time immediately to a correct
standard. Ifa man reads for an hour with a teacher and then
goes attempting to pronounce the words by himself for the rest of

JULY—SEPT.1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 225

the day, he will inevitably acquire a false pronunciation, unless he
is so thoroughly established in a correct pronunciation that there
is no danger of his losing it and then indeed abundant exercise of
his tongue, when alone, will be of the utmost use, but this at first
is ruinous.

‘Suppose a child were shown the form ofa letter and then as
soon as he had a rough idea of it should go on writing repetitions
of it without a standard before him, any body can tell what would
be the consequence ; at the end of a month he would be thoroughly
confirmed in writing such a letter as had never been seen before ;
and if he had occasionally the standard put before him, the conse-
quence would be that nine-tenths of his time would be passed in
learning to recede further from the original, and the other tenth in
trying to get rid of the habit of writing wrong and to bring himself
back to what was correct.

The same is the case with the student of languages, and in ge-
neral they are thus constantly employed in partially learning and
then unlearning, and the consequence is that even where an ap-
proach is made to a correct use of the language nine- ols of the
time employed is needlessly lost.

A third point is to learn one thing at a time.

If a number of things are pressing upon the attention at once, it
is impossible that a distinct and permanent impre$sion can be re-
ceived by any mind whatever its powers. Let us consider a person
learning a language in the way so commonly followed. He is
grappling with a sentence of many words. Here he has at once to
consider the character, the meaning of many new words, the pros
nunciation of them all, the inflexions of the nouns and verbs, the
syntax, the mode of expression, &e. The consequence is, his at-
tention is so overwhelmed and distracted that his mind is incapa-
ble of receiving a clear impression on any one point. No wonder
that so little progress is made, that the knowledge acquired is so im-
perfect and incorrect, and that the student is so constantly discou-
raged. Often his progress is one continued effort to bear up against
the most depressing feeling that he can never master the difficulties,
as a man wears himself out sometimes in trying to carry a load be-

226 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NRW SERIES,

yond his strength, when if he would divide it and carry a portion
of it at a time, he would not only accomplish his task and that
comfortably, but would gain strength by the exercise. How many
especially in hot climates are so injured in their health, not by
learning a language, but by the way in which they learn it, that
when they have some use of it they are obliged to lay by for a
time. Whereas if they would learn one thing at atime, they
would attain to such a cléar and sound knowledge and go on so
comfortably that they would be in no danger of ending without an
effective use of the language,

A fourth point is to take care to give the whole strength to the
really essential parts of the subject. What are the things that
constitute a sound knowledge in this case? Certainly not a
loose imperfect idea of the value of almost all the words of the
language, with a rough guess at their pronunciation and the
mode of putting them together, the power of reading the character,
of understanding a book with the help of time for consideration,
of recognizing the words by sight, &c. Thisis the foundation
that is usually laid; such a student now commences to apply his
knowledge of the language to the principal, perhaps the only pur-
pose for which he has studied it; viz., conversation. He finds
of course that his being able to recognize the words when he sees
them is of no use to him; he has no facility in recognizing them
by the ear, which was the only thing he required ; he says the Na-
tive, he is attempting to talk with, speaks too fast. The fact is
that he has not been learning the one grand thing he had to learn,
the use of his ear. Next, he finds his knowing all the words in the
language, in a certain way is of little or no tse to him, because
what he needs is the perfectly ready, familiar use of one in ten of
them, but he cannot put a dozen together in that ready way which
is necessary for conversing.

Next, when he has with much difficulty put a sentence together
he is paralyzed by seeing a civil, enquiring stare on the counte-
nance of his companion, in consequence of the imperfection of his
pronunciation, and the English mode of expression he uses. His
failure usually produces utter discouragement, unlegs he has such

JULY—sEPT.1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 227

a good opinion of himself that he attributes it entirely to the stu-
pidity of the Native. Th reality he has been giving the whole of
his attention to matters that are of little or no use to him, while
he has almost entirely neglected those that are essential.

This brings us to the fifth principle, that the language must be
learnt by the ear and not by the eye. This is one of the great funda-
mental mistakes made almost universally in studying living langua-
ges: the student never fora moment studies without seeing the
words, though he knows that his whole object is to recognize them
by his ear, without any assistance from the eye. A man might just
as well attempt to train himself for a walking journey by sitting
down fora year and turning a winch with his arms, or try to
strengthen his limbs by moving for 6 months on crutches. Every
bedy knows the consequence of this system, but every body pursues
it. From the first the ear must be the main medium of receiving
instruction and though the eye may be used a little at first with
some advantage just to help the memory, yet after a little time the
ear should be employed alone in conversation.

_ Aman may consider he has laid a sound foundation when he
has made the following acquisitions.

1st. ‘The perfectly accurate pronunciation and thoroughly fami-
liar knowledge of a certain number of the most generally used
words, however small, so that they are to him exactly as words of
his own language, that is, that he has not to search about in his
memory for them when he wants them, but that they will come of
themselves, and these pronounced so that a Native cannot but re-
cognize them.

2nd. The power of putting-these together in a good number _
of real bona fide Native expressions, however short, without any
effort, expressions which he can confidently use, because he knows
they are real, as he actually learnt them from a Native, and not
ones that he has invented and which consequently may or may not
convey the meaning he intended or any meaning. One will often
hear a Native who has learnt English at a school use a sentence
which is unexceptionable as to grammar, &c., but which is objec-

228 = The Study of Living Languages. [NO. 4, NEW SERIES,

{ionable as conveying no meaning whatever to an Englishman.
Thus a Tamil man may say in English, “If you see this that is
good,” and the Englishman to whom it is addressed cannot even
guess what he means to express, though the same expression con-
veys a clear idea to the Tamulian.

3rd. An ear so exercised in the sounds of the language that
the words spoken by a Native, if they have been learnt, are at
once recognized by the student so that what is said within the
limit of the student’s vocabulary can be apprehended at once with-
out seeing the words written, and withoyt a moment’s consi-—
deration.

4th. The knowledge of so much grammar as is necessary to
form sentences of a few words only.

This is the sort of knowledge of a language that a child of three
or four years old has. He coes not know a single rule of grammar
he cannot perhaps read or write a letter, his whole yocabulary pro-
bably consists of a thousand words, but within the limits of the
matters he has to converse about, he can say with perfect freedom
and almost perfect correctness any thing he wants without a mo-
ment’s hesitation, and he understands on the instant every thing
that is said to him, and that even though some of the words used
are unknown to him. He has in fact a sound foundation, what he
knows is real, and he has only to go on adding to his stock of
words and expressions, and to correct some unimportant errors,
which however are such as do not in the least prevent his being
understood. An adult student, who has such a knowledge, is
in a right position, because he can converse within certain limits,
and therefore he is in the way of exercising himself an contact with
a correct standard, and he has nothing of consequence to unlearn ;
his progress is not stopped by established habits of false pronunci-
ation, and false expression, nor by habitual dependance upon his
eyes to assist his memory. His only care then in conversation
should be, not to attempt too much, but to content himself with
common subjects and simple expressions, and only giving himself
more liberty, as by learning he increases his stock of words, ex-
pressions, &c. The knowledge of the character has nothing to do

OEE

juLY—seEPT. 1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 229

with this foundation, it is not in any way an assistance in acquir-
ing it, and itisa greathindrance. A child uses his language freely
and correctly without knowinga letter. Zhe character has no con-
nection with the pronunciation of a language, which must be learnt by
the ear alone, and the sounds so acquired are just as well repre-
sented by the student’s own letters as by any others. Neitherisa
knowledge of almost the whole language necessary to it, the words
in common use about ordinary matters form only.a very small pro-
portion of the words of a language, and three-fourths of the words
which occur in the books ordinarily read are of no use whatever
to the beginner; they are on the contrary the greatest hindrance
to him by preventing his thoroughly learning those that he ought
to have a familiar use of. Let us recapitulate the things necessary
to form a sound foundation.

1st. A small vocabulary thoroughly known and become as fa-
miliar as the words of one’s mother tongue.

2nd. Anaccurate pronunciation of these and the organs of speech
thoroughly exercised in them, so that they can be spoken with per-
fect freedom.

3rd. So much grammar as is necessary to put these words to-
gether in short simple forms of expression.

4th. An ear so thoroughly exercised in the sounds of the com-
monest words as spoken by a Native that they can be instantly re-
cognized when heard.

5th. The knowledge of a considerable stock of the commonest
expressions of the language, so that the words known can be made
into bona fide sentences.

When such a foundation has been laid, the student has only to
proceed to add more words, more grammar and more expressions
by degrees, only taking care to learn nothing but what is imme-
diately wanted and to learn thoroughly whatever is learnt at all.
When considerable progress has thus been made, he may proceed
to learn the character if he requires it and to read books, &c.

“Let us now consider more particularly the second main point,
viz., to save time.

230 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEWSERIES,

As in other matters, the right way of acquiring a correct know-
ledge of a language will be found to be suitable for the attainment
of this main object also.

The things that are necessary to ensure a sound foundation are
equally so to secure the saving of time; but we will now consider
the details especially with reference to the latter. The first thing
then is, to do one thing ata time. Surely this is a principle that
will at once commend itself to every one. We have to learn the
character, the words, pronunciation, the grammar, the expressions,
&e. Our plan therefore should be as far as possible to separate
these, and have the attention concentrated upon one of them at a
time. This certainly cannot be fully accomplished; but it can be
sufficiently, for practical purposes.

The second is, to learn thoroughly whatever is learnt. How can
there be any question about the waste of time produced by parti-
ally learning things and so forgetting them over and over again ?
We may safely say that, as ordinarily studied, the meaning of every
word, its pronunciation, points of grammar, expressions, &c., are
partially learnt and forgotten again hundreds of times over. Every-
thing that is learnt should be so followed up that it may be inde-
libly fixed in the memory and be as much part of the student him-
self as any thing in his own language.

Thirdly, learn only what is really wanted. Surely this also is most
obvious. To learn at first words which will either never be of
any use to him, or not till he is far advanced in the language,
is entire waste of time. The same with forms of expression, &c.
An Englishman never thinks it necessary to learn all the words of
his own language, he never knows half of them, much as he reads;
and how many must there be in every language that he need never
know. The student should first begin with such words as are of
universal use in common life and then, when he has made some
progress in the language, commence upon those which are neces-
sary for his particular profession. Even in English there are num-
bers of words which, though common in books, are never used in
ordinary conversation ; but this is much more the case in languages
in which ninety nine hundredths of the people scarcely ever read a

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 231

book at all. To the beginner such book words, as he cannot dis-

tinguish them from others, are nothing but a serious hindrance
to him.

Bishop Heber remarks that to make himself intelligible to the
great mass of his hearers who were uneducated persons, he used
to find it advisable to confine himself as far as possible to words
of Saxon-derivation, that is, to words commonly used in conversa-

tion. If such a precaution were necessary in England, how much
more in semi-civilized countries.

Can there be any question but that by a system of study based
upon these principles, by far the largest part of the time usually
spent upon acquiring a colloquial use of a foreign language may
be saved. Look at the progress a child makes in a really useful
knowledge of a language, whether his first, or one picked up after-
wards, from being associated with those who speak it, with such
extremely small powers of mind, without any effort, and without
any materials. Can it be supposed that an adult with such enor-
mous advantages, with properly prepared materials, and with dili-
gent study could not make much more rapid progress, if he pur-
sued a right system.

The system that I would now propose, founded on these princi-
ples, is as follows:

Ist. The language is to be learnt through the medium of the
English character.

The object of this is to get rid of any thing which is not abso-
_lutely necessary to be learnt at first.

It may be said that it takes a very little time to learn the Na-
tive character ; and so it does to learn it im a certain way, that is,
so that by fixing the thoughts upon a letter and taking a little
time for consideration, it may be recollected to represent a certain
sound, but it will be along time before the character is so fami-
liar as not to occupy the attention most seriously, and that at the
time when there is the greatest demand upon it. But not only is
a known character preferable at first on this account, but it is also
“superior as a medium to the Native character, as being less liable
to lead to mistakes. In an Indian language for instance, in which

252 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

there are two or three »’s and as many /’s, the beginner is always
liable to forget which is which; but the plan of noting the sound
by English letters with one or two dots under those that represent
peculiar Native sounds, effectually prevents any such mistakes, the
dots remind the reader in the readiest manner that they represent
such sounds as are those upon which the attention should be espe-
cially concentrated. Every letter in the Native language must be

represented by one certain letter of English, so that the proper

spelling may be known. As to the learning of the Native charac-

ter ultimately, if the student should require it, itis the easiest thing
in the world when the language is known in other respects, and
the whole attention is available for the letters only. The time re-
quired for this is most trifling but even were it considerable it
would still be necessary to learn at first through the medium of
the English character, on account of the enormous loss of time
arising from having the attention overburthened at first. I there-

fore reject the Native character as being,

Ist. Quite unnecessary for learning the language.

2nd. As being a most serious hindrance, absorbing a great
deal of the attention, when its utmost efforts are required for those
things which are essential.

3rd. As not being required at all by a great proportion of those
who need to acquire a foreign language.

4th. Asa thing that can be acquired with a hundredth part of
the time which would be consumed at first, after the other parts of
the study have been matured.

5th. As being more liable to be mistaken by the beginner than
the English character.

If it be said, but how can it be avoided when there are no ele-
mentary books of the language in the English character ? I answer,
Firét, that I am here proposing a new system, and of course would
have books prepared suitable to it ; Second, that in many languages,
as in those of Bengal, many books have already been prepared in
this way; Third, that in many situations the student could, with
the assistance of a Native, easily provide himself with the first ele-

2S ee

guLyY—sePT. 1857.) The Study of Living Languages. 233

mentary books, without much loss of time, and certainly with much
less expenditure of time, than by studying in the common ways
with such books as are already provided; and Fourthly, that if
there is no alternative, we must of course begin by learning the Na-
tive character, but still if we follow out the other parts of the sys-
tem here proposed, it will be much less a hindrance to him than to
those who adopt the usual means, because he will seldom have te
read any words but those which he knows, and then the strange cha-
racter is comparatively a small hindrance. Of course, in applying
the English character, the value of each letter must first be defined,
as is now fully recognized as an essential principle, and which
is always acted upon in the Bengal books. The letter, 4, for
instance, has in English seven distinct sounds as in the words,
hat, mast, all, many, America, Yacht, make. In all the East In-
dian languages, the letter which represents the sound of our 4, in
iast or long 4, somewhat modified, represents the sound of our
A in amuse, or short A, and therefore this letter, with and without
a long mark over it, should represent these two sounds and be used
whenever the corresponding characters are used or implied in the
foreign word. With respect to the other sounds of it, some are un-
known in certain languages, as for instance the sounds of that let-
ter in the words hat and Yacht are unknown in any Asiatic lan-
guage. No Native Indians can pronounce the words Aaé and hot,
but are under the necessity of substituting some other vocal sound
for them, till they have learnt the true pronunciation. The other
sounds of it will of course be represented by those English vowels
which more properly represent them, only taking care, to use the
same letter to represent the long and short sound, distinguishing
the former by a long mark over it. Thus the sound of # in Hen,
and féte which are properly the same sound pronounced long or
short, are represented in the Indian languages by modifications of
the same letter and should therefore both be represented by #.
With respect to the sounds which are either unknown in English,
or not represented by any one English letter, they should either be
represented by a combination of English letters, if possible, or if
not by a letter or letters, distinguished by a mark ; as for instance
one or more dots under them, There are, for instance, four let-

234 The Study of Living Languages. [no. 4, NEW SERIES,

ters that represent in the Tamil language the sound of our N, or
some modification of it; one, is precisely the sound of it, the tongue
being placed in the same position as by us. This will be repre-
sented of course by our N. The second is the same in sound, though
represented by a different character, but it occurs only when pre-
ceding and combined with a certain other consonant, this may also
be represented by a simple English J, as the sound is the same.
The third has the sound of Ny in English and therefore should be
represented by those consonants, the sound is that of our NV, in
New. The fourth is a sound unknown in English: it is pro-
nounced by the tongue being turned entirely back, so that the
under part of its tip touches the roof of the mouth. An JN, sound-
ed with the tongue in this position is the sound required. This
therefore should be represented by an N, with a dot under it, the
dot or dots being the invariable mark of a sound quite strange to
an Englishman, so as to be the readiest warning to the student that
the tongue must be placed in a position which is new to him. This
is much preferable to the Native character itself, because there can
be no mistake about it without any effort of memory, whereas the
foreign character will always require the student to consider which
of the several sounds of N it represents.

It may be observed here, that, in general, probably in all cases, _
the languages of semi-civilized people that are written, have an in-
variable sound for each character, so that there is no such difficul-
ty in representing them by the English characters as there would
be in representing English by some foreign character, on account
of the vocal sounds being represented in different words by differ-
ent vowels; as, Hat, yacht, many, all, &c., and grief, leaf, seed,
previous, Marine, receive, and homeeopaihy. In writing English
therefore in a foreign character, there would be no alternative but
to use a certain letter for each sound, however that sound is repre-
sented in English writing, and correct English spelling must be ©
learnt afterwards. But these difficulties do not exist in applying
the English character to represent the sounds of most of the writ-
ten languages of semi-civilized nations.

2nd. Begin with a restricted vocabulary. In the first place,

——

ee

JULY—SEPT.1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 285

reject of course all words which will never be required, such as
those used only in learned works: next, reject all those that hard-
ly ever occur even in books. Next let alone those that are chiefly
in use only in certain particular lines of life, and are more or less
technical. Again, have nothing to do with any words that are not
commonly used in the ordinary matters of life. What can be gain-
ed but clear loss by burthening the young beginner with a multi-
tude of words, by far the greater part of those in the language, that
will be thus rejected, when they have nothing whatever to do with
his acquiring a useful knowledge of the language, and when, if re-
quired, they can afterwards be added in a tenth part of the time
that they would require at first. Probably out of twenty thousand
words in a language, the knowledge of 5,000 would set him so per-
fectly at liberty in all ordinary conversation that neither he him-
self nor those he converses with would be reminded that he does
not know all. Andif occasionally a person used one of the re-
maining words, probably he could not mistake the meaning of it in
the midst of so many known ones. And if he could not perceive
what it must mean, he could have no difficulty in asking the mean-
ing or understanding the explanation. Having thus relieved our
student from such a mass of useless labor, let us next divide these
5,000 words, or whatever the number is, into several portions, tak-
ing out first one thousand and then another of the least common
and least immediately necessary words, till we have only a thousand
left. Out of these we again take 250 three times and then 150 in
the same way, so that to begin we have only 100 of the commonest
words in the language, but consisting of all the different parts of
speech so that little sentences may be formed out of them. The
learner then deals with only one of these batches of words at a time,
not troubling himself with the others till he knows the first batch
as well as he does so many words of his own language. ‘This is
one of the great essentials of the system proposed. Words should
never be partially learnt and forgotten again, nor imperfectly, that
is, so that their true value and use are not thoroughly known.

‘When once a word is taken up, it should of course be thoroughly
secured both as respects the meaning of it and its use, and it must

2386 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

be particularly observed that it is not the bare knowledge of a word
that is wanted, so that a person by more or less thought can recall
it to his mind, it must, to be of any use in conversation, be per-
fectly familiar, and it must have been repeated aloud so many times
that the organs of speech have been thoroughly exercised in it, and
that it may be pronounced both correctly and with the utmost free-
dom. Nothing but multiplied repetitions of it aloud with continued
reference to a correct standard, and in connection with various other
words can accomplish this. It must take some time thus to appro-
priate new words, and especially the first 100 words of a language,
but the process cannot possibly be hastened, but on the contrary
indefinitely delayed, by attempting thousands of others before the
first are secured.

The number 100 is chosen for the first batch, as being about the
smallest number that can enable one to make up some variety of
short sentences, so that each word may be seen in a variety of si-
tuations and in its various inflections; and they are sufficient to
provide for exercising the student in the first rudiments of grammar.

srd. To each of these batches of words a set of sentences is to
be added ; these are all to be the commonest colloquial expressions.
They should consist of a certain number written on each word in -
the batch, and contain no words that are not init. It is essential
that they should be written by Natives, and those who cannot speak
English would be preferable, in order that there may be a security
for the sentences being true Native expressions. It is also essen-
tial that the writers should not be highly educated men, but ordi-
nary intelligent men of the middle classes, otherwise the sentences
would be almost sure to be full of fanciful things. The list of
words should be given to several different persons in order to se-
cure a good variety of expressions, and some selection should be
made. The first set ought not to consist of less than 1,000 sen-
tences, that is 10 to each word, in order that by means of this
batch of words the first rudiments of grammar may be quite fa-
miliar, and some considerable notion obtained of the general
style of expression peculiar to the language, keeping throughout
the grand object in view, which is to arrange that, so far as pos-

JULY—SEPT.1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 23'7

sible, the attention may be concentrated on one thing at a time.
When a hundred words have been acquired, all the use possible
should be made of them as the vehicle for conveying instruction
in other respects before the attention is encumbered by new words,
in order that when new words are taken in hand the student may
have his attention in a great measure released from the pressure of

the elementary points of grammar, peculiar style of expression, &c.

It is also most essential that these sentences should consist of
only two or three words, never more than the latter. It is asto-
nishing how very little new matter overloads the attention of a be-
ginner, and the utmost care is necessary that no more should ever
be placed before him at a time than that he can receive a distinct
impression of it. A sentence of four or five words is quite too
much at first, and nothing is gained by attempting more than the
student is equal to. Comparatively speaking, a very considerable
time must be given to the first set of sentences, for there is a great
deal to be learnt by them.

It is evident that they involve almost all the pronunciation, the

inflexions of the nouns and verbs, the mode of combining the
different parts of speech, the exercise of the organs of speech and
that of the ear on the sound offhe language, &c.
_ The first progress of a student in a new language, at least in
one entirely dissimilar to his native tongue, is indeed astonishing-
ly slow, and it is of no use attempting to push him on faster than
he can go. We constantly meet with what are called, easy books
for beginners, but probably there is not one published in any lan-
guage that is a hundredth part easy enough or that does not seem
to suppose a progress at first a hundred times more rapid than any
student makes.

The sentences must of course be translated into English, but it
is essential that they should not be written originally in English
and then translated into the foreign language.

We do not want to teach a man to speak English sentences in
foreign words, but to use the foreign expressions.

The second set of words consisting of 150 may perhaps contain

ten sentences for each word, or 1,500 in all. -

238 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

These may be a little longer than the first, as the student will
be able to obtain a clear impression of a greater number of words
together, but probably they should not exceed five. After this,
the sets of sentences may consist of fewer upon each word, and
perhaps only one upon each of the last two batches, and they may
be lengthened gradually, the last being of any length.

The essential points of these sentences are therefore,

First, that they should be bona fide expressions commonly used
in the language, and consequently that they should be originally
written in the language by a Native. 2nd, That they should be
simple, ordinary, colloquial expressions, and therefore that they
should not be written by learned men who would probably spoil
them. 8rd, That they should be extremely short, the first set not
exceeding three words, and the others very gradually lengthened.
4th, That there should be a large number of them in the first set
of words, so as to make as much use as possible of those words
before proceeding to new ones. Sth, That there should be as great
a variety of expressions in the sentences as possible.

In printing the sentences there should be, first, the Native words
separately and in the proper character: 2nd, Under each of them
the same word in the English character: 3rd, The most exact
English meaning of each individual word ; and 4th, The full pow-
er of the sentence freely given in English.

-

The use of the Native character is, to enable a Native to teach
from the book, who does not know English.

As one great point in preparing these materials is, to provide
for a person having to learn the language, with the help of Natives
who do not understand English, or who are not thoroughly quali-
fied teachers, it is desirable if possible that these sentences should
have numerous notes subjoined, giving all the information that
can be suggested by each sentence and that can in any way help
to give the student an intelligent knowledge of the language.
These notes should, if possible, be written by an intelligent Eng-
lishman, who will know from his own experience what misappre-
hensions beginners are liable to form on account of their English

JULY—SEPT. 1857. The Study of Living Languages. 239

ideas, and what points are likely to be difficulties to them. If
the first two sets of words had ten sentences in each, and the last
thousand words four on each, the whole of the sentences, on, sup-
pose, 2,000 words would amount to about 10,000 which would
be sufficient to make the student thoroughly at home in expressing
himself freely on all common subjects. Besides these general
words and sentences, each student, according to his profession,
ought to have a separate set of words and expressions belonging
to his peculiar occupations, whether those of a Magistrate, a Mer-
chant, a Missionary, an Engineer, &c.

But it would be of no use his acquiring this information till he
was in some good measure grounded in the more general use of the
language, and therefore he should not perhaps take such a list of
words in hand till he had gone through the first two thousand ge-
neral words with their sentences. The professional sentences should
contain, of course, only those words already learnt in addition to
the technical words. With these sets of words and sentences there
should be a short grammar, containing only the first rudiments, in
the simplest possible form, so that it can be referred to without
loss of time on any point. This however in fact should be made
comparatively very little use of. Rules of grammar are not want-
ed, a man in conversation cannot possibly stop to form the parti-
ciple of a verb from the root, by considering the rules. If it does
not come of itself into his mouth nothing can make amends for that
defect. Whatis wanted is, such a knowledge of grammar as a
‘child of four years old possesses ; that is, a knowledge which ena-
bles him to speak correctly, intelligibly, and without hesitation,
though he does not know a single rule for anything he says. His
speaking must be independent of any rules, whether he has learnt
any or not. Yet a short grammar, to be looked into occasionally,
at first may be of some little assistance in acquiring the inflexions
of the nouns and verbs, &c. But the grand means of acquiring a
grammatical use of the language must be simply the repetition
multiplied, of a good variety of correct forms of expression.

‘Nothing can be more absurd than insisting upon knowing the
rules of grammar before a student can beallowed to know a language.

240 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

Ifa man talks English grammatically, that is, correctly, he is
never examined as to whether he knows any rules ; perhaps he
never learnt a line of any English grammar, but it makes no dif-
ference. But it is always expected that a man studying a foreign
language should be able to stand an examination of a kind neither
he nor his examiner could stand in his mother tongue. The same
man who meets a stranger in the street and knows well by the first
sentence that he utters whether he is perfectly acquainted with En-
glish or not, is perhaps on his way to some place where he will
pass hours in ascertaining whether a student has a good knowledge
of a language foreign to him.

These are therefore the materials which I would put into any
man’s hands, who wants to study a foreign language for colloquia!
purposes: viz., a vocabulary of perhaps 2,000 words, divided into
sets of, from 100 to 250, with about ten thousand common forms
of expression, composed only of each set of words and those words
previously learnt. These printed both in the Native and English
character, with a verbal and a free translation, the sentences to be
aided if possible by copious notes giving all the collateral in-
formation possible; and to these to be added a very short rudi-
mental grammar.

It will not perhaps be necessary to give the verbal translations
of any but the first 2 or 3000 sentences. :

As to the student’s further study, he may of course now with
perfect ease follow the ordinary plan; that is, take up any book
that contains the sort of words and matter most suited to his line
of life, with an ordinary dictionary and grammar to which however
he will have very seldom to refer. He will know so large a pro-
portion of the words that the context will generally show the mean-
ing of any new word he meets with, and he will lose very little of
his time in that which usually occupies about three-fourths of all
the time expended in such studies, viz., in turning over the leaves
of a large dictionary and guessing which of the several meanings
there found for a word is compatible with those of the other words
of the sentence before him, many of which he has also yet to ascer-

guty—sept. 1857.) The Siudy of Living Languages. 241

fain. But his great business should of course be to converse as con-
stantly as possible in order further to exercise his tongue and his
ear, and to add to lis stock of forms of expression. It is to be re-
membered that, in using books, a principal exercise should be,
reading aloud and having them read aloud to him by a Native.

“Ifhis occupation will require formal writing or translating, of
course he must exercise himself a good deal with books. It is
well known that the most easy and certain way of acquiring a cor-
rect and easy style in writing in any foreign language is to make
or procure accurate translations of Native books, and then re-trans-
late them, comparing such re-translation with the original and
thoroughly considering the difference between them. This can be
done with the greatest ease and economy of time when sucha
good fundamental knowledge has been acquired as is supposed to
be obtained through the system now proposed.

The next point to be considered is the mode of using these
materials.

The student begins with the English letters representing the
sounds. The teacher sounds each letter and the student repeats
it immediately after. This is done many times with those letters
which represent sounds entirely strange to the learner. The most
essential thing is to learn where to place the tongue in these last
sounds, without doing which it is impossible he should utter them
correctly ; and this must be most patiently and diligently practis-
ed, because this new motion of the tongue must be acquired to
the same degree of facility as he has in pronouncing the sounds
of his own language. This cannot possibly be effected except by
long continued use of the organs of speech. At first, each of
these letters should be pronounced perhaps ten times over by the
teacher, and repeated by the student instantly, the latter always
observing carefully the difference between his own pronunciation
and that of the teacher’s, which immediately follows.

The grand means to attain to a correct pronunciation must
always be thus for the learner to attempt it both immediately after,
and immediately before, hearing it correctly pronounced by a Na-
tive. Just as in learning to write it is not sufficient first to look

242 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

at the original and then try to imitate it, but after writing it to
look again at the original to see in what respect the copy has fail-
ed. Of course it will only be necessary to do this with the new
sounds, which will generally be only very few.

The student next takes the first list of 100 words, which are all
written in the shortest form, that is, the radical form of the verb,
&e,, as we should write in English, good, go, little, come, §ce. The
teacher should then pronounce the first word deliberately and dis-
tinctly, and the student should repeat it, followed by the English
meaning of it, when it should again be repeated by the teacher,
and this suppose five times at first.

In this way the whole hundred words would be gone over many
hundred times before the student ventures to attempt pronouncing
them by himself. The teacher and student should sit at some dis-
tance apart, so that it may be necessary to speak pretty loud. In
these first exercises the student should have the printed words
before him, that he may have the assistance of sight in addition to
that of hearing in impressing them on his memory. It will of
course be at first tiresome to continue this exercise long, neverthe-
less the longer the better, and if a person could arrange to do it
for one or two hours, at three or four different times in the day it
would probably be best—but he should not attempt to learn them
by heart because his pronunciation will not be sufficiently confirm-
ed. ;

When he has become tolerably familiar with the words of the
first set of sentences, both as to pronunciation and meaning, by
thus repeating them with his teacher several times and with his
book before him, he should put down his book and go over them
again in the same way several times, without seeing the words, so
as to be wholly dependent upon the ear. From the first, the ear
must be exercised as far as possible without any aid from the eye.
It must be kept continually in mind that the sight is to be used as
little as possible for the reasons before given. The sentence should
not be read together the first time of going over because the stu-
dent is not yet able to receive any distinct impression from more
than one word ata time, The student should not yet trouble him-

guLY—SsEPT. 1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 243

self about the mode of framing the inflexions that he meets with,
but be content to take the word with its exact English meaning as
he finds it. In this way he should go through the first 1,000 sen-
tences with his teacher which will perhaps take him 15 hours, or
suppose three days’ study, during which time he would have re-
peated every one of the first hundred words on an average about
a hundred and fifty times, including the separate readings of the
list of words.

Less than three times repetition of each word is not sufficient
to ensure the students correcting himself when he pronounces it
imperfectly the first time.

After the first and second reading of the sentences, repeating
each word by word, the whole sentence should be repeated in the
same way at least three times over, the student repeating the free
English translation after the foreign sentence.

The readings should be repeated till every word has been heard
and uttered suppose 600 times. During these readings the gram-
mar of the nouns and verbs may be looked intoa little ; and, lastly,
the sentence should be learnt by heart. And when the student is
well exercised in the pronunciation by these means, so that he can
trust himself to utter it without first hearing it spoken, the sentence
should be again gone over in the same way, but the teacher begin-
ning by repeating first the English word, when the student gives
the foreign one, the teacher immediately repeating it again and so
on. Butifitis found that the student cannot yet remember the
word and pronounce it with perfect ease, they should be read over
again in the former way. When able to do it, the whole set of
sentences should be again gone through without the words being
repeated individually, the teacher the first time giving the foreign
sentence, and the next time giving first the English sentence.

It may be supposed that all this will not be necessary; and it
certainly is not, in order to obtain such a knowledge as is usually
supposed to be sufficient, that is, aknowledge which, when brought
to the trial of conversation, is found to be of little or no use. But
it will be found that, to obtain a really familiar acquaintance with
this first set of words and their easy and correct pronunciation and
use, these multiplied repetitions are absolutely necessary.

244 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEW SERIMS,

Nothing but a long continued exercise of the ear and the organs
of speech upon a great variety of actual expressions can give either
that quickness at hearing and pronouncing, or that facility of cor-
rectly combining the words, which are essential to their effective

colloquial use.

It must be particularly observed that this first set of sentences
thus acquired implies much more than might appear from the first
glance, namely, there is involved in it as it were the whole pro-
nunciation of the language ; for a man who can pronounce freely
and correctly 100 words will have little difficulty in pronouncing
all the rest: 2nd, a knowledge of all the inflexions of the nouns
and verbs: 3rd, the mode of combining and arranging the different

parts of speech.

Thus, though only 100 words are used, some real and considera-
ble progress has already been made in the knowledge of the lan-
guage.

This first set of sentences should not be laid aside till they are
so perfectly familiar, that almost any one of them can be repeated
with the utmost readiness, on the English translation being uttered.
Nothing whatever will be gained by. meddling with new materials
till these first are thoroughly wrought into the student, and made
as much part of himself as the words and expressions of his own
language. J

The second set of words and sentences must be read over and
thoroughly appropriated in the same way as the first.

Probably these first 250 words with their sentences may be mas-
tered in a month of steady study of 3 or 4 hours a day, and 750
additional words with about 3,000 longer sentences in another
month, completing the first 1,000 words in tvo months. After the
thorough grounding which this will give in every respect, in pro-
nunciation, in expression, in hearing, in grammar, &c., the additions
will be made with much greater rapidity.

Every thing depends upon this first grounding being through
and complete. Nothing but such repetitions will accomplish this
object—there is no other way of doing it.

sJULY—sEPT. 1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 245

A soldier may be shown how to march, and he may be made to
move his legs in the manner shown in a few steps, but nothing but
long continued practice can possibly enable him to do it both cor-
rectly and with ease; and it is the same with the muscles of the
tongue, the ear, and the brain, as it is with the limbs.

‘A girl may have the finest ear possible, but that will not enable
her fingers to run over the notes of a piano or her throat to produce
the notes of a song freely and correctly, without long exercise of
those organs.

After the first month the teacher will be required much less,
because the student can be trusted to pronounce when he is alone,
provided he exercises with the teacher for some time daily. He
should always read aloud by himself just as when he reads
with the teacher, both because, the great point is the exercise of
the organs of speech, and hearing, and also because the pronoun-
cing of the word is so great a help to remember the meaning. It
must however be remembered that in this solitary study as little
use as possible should still be made of the eye. The word or
sentence should be merely glanced at when necessary and the re-
petition should then be made without looking at the book.

With respect to the time required, I cannot speak certainly,
because I have never had an opportunity of seeing the study com-
menced with such materials properly prepared beforehand ; but
so far as I have seen it tried with imperfect materials, the result
was certainly excellent.

In the only case where an approach was made to a fair trial, a
gentleman studied irregularly, but equal to about two months’
continuous study of five hours a day, and from that time he went
out and performed all his duties without an interpreter, having
constantly to converse with the middling and lower classes, most

of whom had never spoken to a European before.

This was areal, practical and effective acquaintance with the
language, though within small limits as to his number of words
and expressions at first starting; but then his ear and tongue
having been well exercised, he could both make himself under-

246 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

stood and he could recognize the words spoken to him, and con-
sequently he was ina position to make steady progress in the
correct use of the language from his intercourse with the people,
and this he accordingly did. It would of course have been much
better if he could have continued the same course of study, though
it were only for an hour or two a day, by which he would have
far more rapidly added to his stock of words and expressions.*

It is very probable that many persons would complete the ap-
propriation of the first 1,000 words and their sentences in one

month.

I would now only ask which is preferable as a foundation, such
a really effective use of a language, though within small limits ;
or such a loose, vague, and useless knowledge of a vast number of
words, with the rules of grammar, as is usually acquired after at
least many months of hard study, during the whole of which time
too, the attention has been kept in a very injurious state of ten-
sion by the overwhelming load of new things that has continually
been laid upon it at one and the same time. I believe that in ge-
neral little effective colloquial use of such a language is acquired
within a year of hard study, and that often two or three years or
more pass before the student can talk it tolerably, though only a
portion of that time of course is actually employed in study. On
one occasion, I was acquainted with two men who studied intense-
ly (about ten hours a day) for nine months, after which upon trial
they found that they could scarcely hold the slightest communica-
tion with Natives.

A remarkably apposite passage from the life of Dr. Hope may
here be quoted which I have just met with, and in which a part of
the very means here proposed are stated to have been used by him
with the most remarkable success, though he did not begin upon
this plan, but merely learnt the colloquial use of a language after

* An educated Native, who had, I believe, helped to teach this gentleman,
lately told me that he had overheard Natives speaking of him, who said that if
they had not seen him, they should not have known that it was not a Native who
was speaking Teloogoo.

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 247

he had acquired a considerable stock of words. He had already
picked up a good knowledge of French and Italian, so far as mere
reading went, and he imagined like many others that a little prac-
tice on the road would enable him to speak the language suffi-
ciently to carry him through his tour; but it was a very different
thing to hear the lessons of professors and to converse with the
Natives ofthe country. Of this he found a very humiliating proof.
He went to engage apartments at a private hotel, but after a pan-
tomimic performance of twenty minutes between himself and the
landlady, it was found that neither could in the slightest degree
understand the other, and after laughter and reciprocal bows he
returned in despair. Having settled at another hotel, he now de-
termined to devote twelve hours a day to the mere practice of
speaking French. His first step was to engage a French Master
for twelve lessons, and to make him go through the drudgery of
reading three words at a time, while he mimicked them as closely
as he could. This was singularly disagreeable to the master, but
it was all that Dr. Hope wanted and he was inflexible. He thus
secured himself against any gross error in pronunciation. He
happened to possess a Wanostrocht’s grammar with a key to it, a
grammar which is remarkable for the great number of simple exer-
cises which illustrate each rule. He nowtranslated these exercises
from English to French, correcting himself by constant reference to
the Key. In this way he went two or three times through the
grammar in the course of a month gaining flexibility of tongue and
losing the fear of hearing his own voice. He at the same time
adopted another device ; he went to dine daily ata small and crowd-
ed restaurant frequented by the Garde du corps, where the company
was so closely packed that he could not help hearing the conversa-
tion of two or three contiguous talkers. In this way his ear got fa-
miliarized with all the sounds of the French language, whether quick
or slow, correct or provincial. At the end of a month he ventured
to sally forth, and, having a fancy for the rooms of the private hotel
to which he had originally gone, he waited on the landiady. On
entering he addressed her in fluent French, explained his wishes,
&c., the landlady the meanwhile, with up-raised hands and a look
of utter amazement, exclaiming, ‘‘ Voila un miracle! you cannot

248 The Study of Living Languages. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

be the same gentleman that called here a month ago and could not
speak a word of French.”

This case has no reference to the principles here proposed, so
far as the use of a restricted vocabulary is concerned, but it shows
how perfectly ineffectual the knowledge of book language and the
exercise of the eye was, for colloquial purposes, and how complete
the success was both in respect of time and effect, when the means
here proposed were used, viz., the thorough appropriation of a good
stock of simple familiar sentences, and the diligent exercise of the
ear and tongue.

He was totally without the colloquial use of the language, so that
he could neither understand a word spoken nor speak one intelli-
gibly when he began to adopt the means he did, and in one month
he found himself perfectly at liberty in conversation.

In the same memoir it is afterwards related;—‘* Having had a
lesson in France on the inconvenience of not being able to speak
the language of a country in which one is travelling and studying,
Dr. Hope guarded against a similarinconveniencein Italy. Before
leaving Paris he improved his pronunciation of Italian by taking
twelve lessons, as he had formerly done in French, and he provid-
ed himself with a brief practical Italian Grammar, with Exercises
referring to the rules, and a key to them.

“ During atour in Switzerland it was agreed that he should walk
in advance of his friend for an hour daily, to give him an opportu-
nity of practising these exercises viva voce. This plan answered per-
fectly ; at the end of the time he spoke Italian fluently.”

It may perhaps help to show yet more distinctly how far the
principles kere advocated differ from or agree with some of the
commonly received notions on the subject, if I place my views side
by side with those lately advanced in an elementary book for help-
ing the student of an Indian language.

The Ist principle laid down is, “ Do not proceed too quickly.
An entirely new language requires great accuracy in the mastering
of its elements.”’ In this I agree, but I consider the book itself
implies a progress in the learner immeasurably beyond the reality.

guLy—seEPt. 1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 249

2nd, “ Write down every thing from the beginning. Read al-
ways with pen ot pencil in hand.” This is directly opposed to two
of my principles, one an essential one, the other, one of great im-
portance. The first, that every thing is to be learnt through the
ear, and not through the eye, because it is the ear that is to be em-
ployed in using the language and not the eye. The other, that the
foreign character should not be used by the beginner, because time
must be saved in learning one thing at a time, and the character is
“not necessary to enable one to learn the language itself.

3rd, ‘* Read aloud all the exercises with a Tamil teacher, and be
very careful in ascertaining the correctness of what you have writ-
ten.” Here it is evident that there was some sort of loose notion
about the exercise of the fongue, but it also shows that there was
nothing like a real apprehension of the essential importance of
this, nor of the extent to which that exercise should be carried.
Nor is any thing at all said about that which I insist upon, as the
main point, viz., the impossibility of learning to pronounce cor-
rectly, and the certainty of being established in a false pronunci-
ation, unless for some considerable time, no word is pronounced
without referring at the time to a correct standard, without the
student hearing one word at a time pronounced both immediately
before and immediately after himself bya Native. As to the latter
clause of this hint, I urge that the only possible way to secure the
correctness of what one learns is not to attempt to invent anything,
but to be content to learn every thing, every sound, every word,
every expression from a Native.

4th, ‘‘ At first, whenever you meet with a new word look for it
in the vocabulary, and decline and conjugate it in full. My rule
is, never meet with a new word, and never lose a minute in look-
ing for a word in a vocabulary, or in guessing which of the different
meanings that may be there given is the right one ; and never
lose time in declining and conjugating a word in full. Use only
limited lists of words, and thoroughly appropriate every one by
hearing it applied in a great variety of short sentences, in the
course of which exercises, the grammar will necessarily be picked
up long before the pronunciation and value and use of the word

250 The Study of Living Languages. [no. 4, NDW SERIES,

are fully acquired. Yet it will be of some use to look occasionally
into a short grammar containing the inflexions of words.

5th, “ Begin to talk, though with stammering lips, as soon as
possible, the very first day. Never speak English to a Native if
you can help it. Why say sa/é, when you know the word, Uppu?
Do not be afraid of making mistakes.”’

This rule contains the very essence of the ordinary system, or
rather of the old notions. It is diametrically opposed to the
universally acknowledged and universally applicable principle.
«© Whatever is habitual is easy.”’ It is always easier to do a thing
the second time than the first. My principle is, Be afraid of one
thing, making mistakes. Every time that a mistake is made,
one step more is taken towards a confirmed habit of making that
mistake. Why do men in talking English as their own language
go on putting A’s in the wrong places and leaving them out
all their lives, in spite of their getting into a different class of
society, where they continually hear the correct pronunciation in
this respect, without ever being corrected? Because by habit
their perceptions have been so blunted that they never per-
ceive that they make a mistake. Do we not keep this prin-
ciple of avoiding mistakes in view in almost all other cases
excepting this? Do we set a child to make a rude imitation of
some letter and then leave him to repeat it without a standard ?
or, do we insist upon his incessantly looking ata standard, and
never making one written letter without trying to imitate that
standard which is placed before his eyes ?

My principle therefore is, never, attempt to guess at any thing,
whether it is a sound, or word, or an expression. ‘Take the most
effective steps you can to prevent your ever “ making a mistake.”
Is there not enough work to do to learn the real language, that
you must take measures to oblige yourself to add to it the un-
learning of your own mistakes? Every time you pronounce a
word wrong you have that to unlearn, Onno account therefore
attempt to speak in the proper sense of that word till you are
established in

Ist. A sound pronunciation,

JULY—sEPT. 1857.] The Study of Living Languages. 251

2nd. In the knowledge of the true value of astock of words.
ord. In that of a good amount of Grammar.

4th. In that of a large stock of bona fide Native expressions.
Is not this principle undeniable? Does a drawing master tell
his pupil, Go and make rude and absurd drawings of a hand or
a foot, and then occupy yourself in unlearning the habit you have
been acquiring, or does he set before his pupil a true represen-
tative of a thing, and say, Imitate this, with the most earnest and
close attention and never make a line without referring to the
standard? Which pupil would make the greatest’ progress and
which would be most likely to attain to perfection in his study,—
one who was always trying to make rude drawings of a foot out
of his own imagination and then laboring to correct them, or
one who did not attempt to invent at all, but kept exercising
himself in imitating a correct representation of a foot.

6th ‘Be very careful in noting down differences in idiom
between your own language and Tamil. If you hear much Chris-
tian or Cutcherry Tamil, beware of thinking all you hear to be
really Tamil. Try to cultivatea Tamil ear, so as to detect an
unidiomatic expression as you would a false note in music. You
should understand all you hear ; you need not wse any expression
that is not good Tamil.”

I would only ask how a student can possibly learn to distinguish
between true language and false, except by learning the true, and
taking care as far as possible not to come in contact with false
language, whether coming from himself or any body else, till he
has acquired a sound taste and judgment, by a confirmed know-
ledge of the true language.

The simple rule is, Zearn the true language, and then you will
not waste your time in acquiring and trying to unlearn a false one.
Sow clean wheat in your ground, and not wheat and weeds mixed
together, and then you will not require to employ all the season in
trying in vain toroot out the weeds which you have yourself
sown.

Itis this sort of instructions, continually inserted in books of
instruction in languages, and which are directly opposed to well

252 The Study of Living Languages. [NO. 4, NEW SERIES,

known general principles, which show so plainly how entirely un-
digested the subject still is, and how people in general are still
acting upon notions that they have never examined, and which
will not bear the least examination.

In the book which is prefaced by these rules, the materials pro-
vided to assist the learner of Tamil are all prepared upon the usual
false principles :—

1st. An unlimited vocabulary is used, so that every word must
be learnt and forgotten a hundred times over.

2nd. All sorts of words are introduced, words perfectly useless
to a beginner, words derived from Sanscrit and scarcely ever used
in conversation, words used only in books translated from Eng-
lish by Englishmen, &c.

8rd. The sentences are certainly not all written by a Native, so
that the learner takes up the book with the encouraging feeling
that he does not know which are true Tamil sentences and which
are not.

4th. Almost all the sentences are much too long for a beginner.

5th. Many of the sentences are such as it is quite useless for a
beginner to learn.

6th. English sentences are given without the corresponding Ta-
mil. How is the /earner to discover what the proper Tamil would
be unless he is told?

7th. The same with the Tamil sentences. What can be the use
of leaving the learner to guess what the English meaning is, know-
ing that when he has guessed it, it may be either right or wrong.
Suppose a Tamil man were learning English, how could he find
out the expression we use when we ask who a certain person is?
How could he ever guess the expression, Who's that? Or could
he find out of himself these expressions, What's the matter ?
Where has he been? Come away. Id ratner not. Never mind
Whether or not. I can’t help it: You might as well set a man to
guess, at the words of a language as at its common expressions.

When I put this book into a Moonshee’s hand, the first thing
he said, was, Many of these sentences are not common Tamil ex-
pressions, and many of the words are not commonly used in con-

versation.

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] Stereoscopic Portraits. 258

This might be said of almost any book, E suppose every book,
of the kind. What is a learner to do who has no better materials ?
It is destructive for a learner to use a book, when he is not sure
whether the sentences are Tamil or not.

I mention these particulars of this book, as illustrative of the
mistakes, and undigested ideas that are current on the subject.

X. A mode of taking Stereoscopic Portraits with a common

Camera. By Lvieut. L. Paxron.

(Communicated to the Madras Photographic Society and by them to the
Journal for publication).

Thinking it may be useful to Photographers who wish to take
Portraits for the Stereoscope, but who have only a common Camera
I send the plan of an addition by which this may be done.

As yery nice work is not required, it may be made by an ordi-
nary carpenter and at a very slight expense. The time taken to
do both pictures is but little above that required for the two ex-
posures. ‘The back of the Camera B. re-
mains unaltered with the exception of thin
strips of wood c¢. ¢. which are attached to
it to receive a thin screen S. which sepa- {
rates the pictures; the length of the screen
depends on the focus of the Lenses.
There should be as little interval between
it and the exposing frame at one end,
and the back line of the combination on
the other as possible.

The front of the Camera required may be made of teak wood in

254 A mode of taking Stereoscopic [NoO. 4, NEW SERIES,

eS S|
Scale of Inches.

All parts of slider and front of Camera should be carefully
blacked, the slider should move freely between the partitions,
which should not however be too far spent so as to admit light.

P position of Pivot for Stereoscope pictures.

A do. for single pictures.

°

Slider half size.

the form re-
presented in
Figs. A. and
D. the Lenses
being merely
fitted into the
shifter Ei. as in
the accom-
panying figure
so as to ren-
der it unneces-
sary to injure
the Original
Camera by re-
moving ‘the
screw ring.

In taking a
picture, the
lens being at 1
Fig. A ,theex-
posure for the
first picture is
made in that
position, the
lens is then
closed and
shifted to 2,
the exposure
made and the
pictures are
completed.
After printing
however, the
pictures are in
their wrong
position and
require to be

+ JULY—SEPT. 1857.] Portraits with a common Camera. 255

changed theright one becoming the left
and vice versd. Whilst for glass positives
it is necessary to use separate glasses, the
frame having a smaller central support as
below. Asthe centre ofthe lenses in taking
Stereoscopic pictures is a little above the
centre of the Camera, the position of the
glass plate must be made to correspond.

I do not observe that the glasses being
parallel instead of converging towards
the object makes any perceptible
difference in the pictures, but
when a table is used to support
the Camera, such convergence
might be easily given by having
a pivot under the front of the Ca-
mera and limiting its lateral motion
by screws placed as in the accom-

panying figure F.

I have found it impossible to
get made here the rather com-
plicated exposing frame usually
described in books on taking
Stereoscope pictures, when a
system of parallel bars is used
on a table to shift the Camera
and at the same time to move
the collodionized plate. With a
Camera constructed as above the
parallel frame might be used
- $S two snipe shot wingh alge it to ea pdvente Hae: ete Ofer
move easily. gures and distant objects, moving

the object glass ina direction contrary to that given to the Ca-
mera, when the pictures would be in their correct places on the
glass. I send enclosed a picture or two which will show that

256 On a reputed Coal Formation [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

the system answers,* though they are not very good specimens
of Photography. Two of them are specimens of Hindoo carving in
stone, the camera having been constructed a good deal with the
idea of copying the curiosities in the many temples in this part of
the country.

XI. Report on a reputed + Coal Formation at Kota on the
on the ( Upper) Godavery River. By Purr W. Watt,
Mineral Viewer at Madras.

IT have visited and examined the district around the village of
Kota near the junction of the Pranheeta and Godavery rivers upon
which reports have been made to Government of the probability of
Coal being found beneath the surface there.

Although, in the report made by Dr. Walker in the year 1848
I could discover no positive evidence of the probability of the ex-
istence of a Coal formation in this district, I considered it desira-
ble to provide myself with some means of making more than a
mere superficial examination, of this particular locality, on account
of the confidence with which opinions had been expressed, upon
the subject, and that both Drs. Walker and Bell, whose examina-
tions of the country must have been very extensive and minute,
were led to expect satisfactory results from a search beneath the sur-
face at this place.

Having seen in the Arsenal Stores at Madras, some light sets of
Boring tools, (used for the trial of the ground for foundations of
Public Works,) I applied for and obtained the use of two sets of

* We have examined these pictures and find them to be Stereoscopic.—A. J: 5, |
Src. Puot. Soc.

+ Vide Dr. Walker’s report on boring for Coal at Rothe page 261, Vol. I. No.
II. N.S. of this Journal.

JULY—SEPT. 1857.) at Kota on the Godavery. 257

these ;—in order to adapt them to my purpose it was necessary to
make some few additions to them ;—these I readily got construct-
ed at the Government Workshop at Dowlaishweram, and also ob-
tained from the officer in charge of that establishment, mechanics
with other tools I considered it desirable should accompany me.

A detachment of seven Privates and one European Corporal of
the Corps of Sappers and Miners who had been practising the use
of the Boring tools in Dowlaishweram, were also by the kindness
of the Commandant of Sappers placed at my disposal.

Thus equipped, my purpose was to reach Kota as expeditiously
as possible, set my staff to commence boring at that place and pro-
ceed myself to examine the surrounding country.

By this means I hoped to get my boring party into working
order at Kota and provided with such appliances, as I required
from the district ; and, in the event of my subsequent examination
determining any particular spot where boring would be more desir-
able, I proposed removing my Plant and Staff from Kota to this
place.

In the examination of the country I had proposed, I perceived
much information was open to me in my march to Kota, if it could
be undertaken along the course of the river. I obtained therefore
the use of one of the Upper Godavery Paddle boats worked by six
coolies ; this I found of great service, it accompanied me to within
a few miles of Aheree in the Nagpore country.

I left Dowlaishweram with my staff and materials on the 7th
February, the Government Steamer Pottinger conveying us part of
the distance to Buddrachellum, and arrived at Kota on the 18th of
March, my camp with the tools, &c. arriving on the following day.

The great length of time occupied in thus performing a march of
240 miles was mainly owing to the difficulty with which I procur-
ed carriage for the materials. Government had provided me with
one Elephant, and on further application had given orders for two
more to join me, but unfortunately I only became aware of the dif-
ficulties of this nature in my way and made my application for
these animals, a short time before my departure, they reached me
therefore in time to be of service only on my return march.

258 On a reputed Coal Formation [no. 4, NEW SERIES,

After leaving the Government Steamer, I sent my camp to march
by land, and proceeded myselfin a Paddle boat, taking only the road
through the jungle occasionally.

My staff could have reached Kota in somewhat less time than
they did, if it had not been impeded by the slow progress of the
materials ;—I had found it requisite to give instructions that the
whole party should keep together as much as possible.

As for myself, I found it requisite to make my observations
along the course of my march somewhat in detail and to visit every
spot on either side of the river where the possibility of an oppor-
tunity of examining any exposed section of the rocks of the coun-
try might be presented, my own daily rate of progress could not
therefore have been expedited.

The result of the observations in my journey was, that I had
passed over a considerable extent both superficially and in thick-
ness of a sedimentary deposit of sandstone and limestone, and at
its edge or junction with some one or more great volcanic disturb-
ances or faults, these had in fact formed the valley of the river,
the channel forming a tolerably general line of division between
the metamorphic range of hills on the eastern and sandstones &c.
on the western side, occasional arms or branches of this metamor-
phic range, stretching across the line of the river and forming the
great obstructions or barriers in its bed at Buddrachellum, Encham”
pilly and Aheree. :

In the course of my examination of these sedimentary beds in
my march up the river, I found nothing in the remotest degree
approaching to those indications which are met with in European
Coal districts, neither in my examination of the pebbles in the
river bed did I discover any thing of this nature.

I could of course form no conclusion at all or be surprised at
this negative evidence, as I was quite prepared to meet with a
totally different state of circumstances connected with Coal dis-
tricts in India to those of Europe, and that therefore an actual
examination of the rocks in any district in detail through their
entire thickness was necessary, in order to pronounce decidedly

JULY—SEPT.1857.] at Kota on the Godavery. 259

that the probabilities were against Coal being found in them or
otherwise.

On my arrival at Kota, I found I was still in the same series of
sedimentary rocks I had been passing over in my journey along
the river, and was fortunately soon able to identify the limestone
at Kota under which the Coal was presumed to exist, with the
limestones I had observed at other places on the river, one of
which was at a point 80 miles lower down.

This limestone although seen cropping out at several places on
the river—at Yeytoor, a village, 2 miles below Chintagorem, at a
point on the left bank opposite Pallemella, (Warrugoora,) and sub-
sequently as I discovered at a place a little north of Kumalapet-
ta, I had not been able to observe beyond a very small extent in
thickness, I therefore proceeded on arriving at Kota to carry out
my original intention to start my people to bore, and immediate-
ly selected a site upon this limestone which offered the best facility
for carrying on the work.

A Sketch Map* showing the nature of the rocks and their incli-
nation as indicated by an arrow pointed in the direction in which
they dip is herewith appended, the dark blue line shows the out-
cropping of the limestone.

At Dowlaishwerum there are sedimentary deposits, consisting of
a series of thin layers of very bright colored clays, above this a
very irregularly stratified sandstone, of various degrees of hard-
ness, a very small extent of this sandstone now remains in this
district in isolated hills, it having been removed by the denuding
action of water from the intervening valleys, its thickness does not
seem to be very great about 50 to 60 feet, this and the underlying
clays appear to be the result of the decay and washing of the vol-
canic hills lying to the north.

This character of formation extends to Rajahmundry.
Proceeding thence along the course of the Godavery, the banks
consist of alluvial deposits until we reach Polaveram, we now enter

* Vide Plate I.

260 On a reputed Coal Formation [no. 4, NEW SERIES,

a volcanic country, syenite and other forms of granite with meta-
morphic rocks are only to be seen for a considerable distance. ‘The
river here passes through a narrow valley termed the Gorge, formed
by an apparent fissure in the range of altered and volcanic rocks.
This character of country continues till we reach Parnasala about
20 miles above Buddrachellum, with the exception of one spot,
Riagoodum (right bank) 6 miles south of Buddrachellum, where
the first appearance of a sedimentary deposit occurs. It consists
of beds of sandstone very various in texture, deeply tinged with iron,
and having veins of a harder sandstone, containing a larger per-
centage of iron traversing this mass in various directions. It is
very uneven in its bed and much disturbed, the average dip is to
N. W., in amount 20.°

Between Parnasala and Lingala we again have sedimentary beds,
consisting of very coarse conglomorates and breccias, the latter
containing angular fragments of limestone.

The course of the river is now for some distance entirely through
a country formed of stratified rocks, the out-croppings of which
are at frequent intervals to be seen projecting into the stream and
onits banks.

These sedimentary beds extend into the country on the right
bank only, on the left bank a range of hills composed of metamor-
phic rocks extend along the course of the stream. These consist
of sandstones that have undergone various amounts of alteration in
some places rendered only partially crystalline by the action of the
volcanic heat, whilst in others their original character is entirely
lost, generally they do not show any violent disturbance except at
particular places, these are at Buddrachellum, Enchampilly and
Aheree, and form the points of obstruction in the navigation of the
stream. The stratified rocks seen on the right bank consist of
series of sandstones in general character, resembling that already
described as occurring at Riagoodum. They are occasionally much
disturbed and contorted, in one place opposite Nargarum, they are
standing vertical, the surface of beds being scored and polished by
the attrition of the beds upon one another ;—where however agene-
ral inclination of the beds is to be ascertained, it is to the W.

JULY—sEPT. 1857.] at Hota on the Godavery. 261

occasionally alittle to the S. of W. and sometimes to the N. of W.,
the direction of the river being N. W., at this part we are travers-
ing in our course up the channel from the lower to the higher of
the stratified rocks.

We continue in this upward direction in the series until we reach
Yeytoor, where occur the uppermost beds I was able to exa-
mine. These consistof very uniformly stratified limestones 6 inches to
18 inches thick, the layers parted by soft clays and fibrous limestone,
of these there were only visible above the water in the river 12 or
15 feet in thickness, above these occur beds of deep red marls, and
variegated clays, their inclination is very small being about 5°
only, and to the W. S. W.

From Yeytoor to Taicologodeen the course of the river leads
us downwards, in the series again we pass over red and pink clays,
and lastly to a white sandstone, at the latter place. Immediately
after Taicologodeen we came into the metamorphic rocks forming
the Enchampilly barrier.

After passing over about 12 miles of these, there occur near the
village of Punkenna beds of limestone, very similar in external
appearance to those seen at Yeytoor, they are in thickness from
12 to 18 inches and parted by thin seams of clay and fibrous lime-
stone, their dip is tothe N. E. about 5° to 10°,—at low states of
the water in the river, they are seen on both banks, a considerable
extent in superficial area being on the left, but owing to their low
inclination a small amount only in thickness can be cbserved.

From this point to Nuggrum, we have frequent opportunities to
observe the beds on both banks of the river, the general dip of
them is N. E., the course of the river being N. W. we traverse
along the strike of these beds somewhat however to the deep; we
reach the lowermost beds on the right bank opposite Nuggrum ;
they consist almost entirely, of ferruginous sandstone, of various
degree of coarseness and traversed by numerous veins of a harder
description of the same material.

Between Punkenna and a point in the river opposite Mahadeo-
pore, we get at very low states of the water in the river a small

262 On a reputed Coal Formation [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

extent of mottled clays, these again outcropping at Sironcha where
we have left the main stream of the Godavery for its tributary the
Pranheeta, these are the immediate underlyers of the limestone beds
at Punkenna as inferred from their relative position and their dip,
and subsequently confirmed by the boring to be the case.

At Sironcha the Fort stands upon a hill, the side of which to-
wards the river presents a steeply scarped face, and good section
of these clays, they are here very hard, very various in colour from
a deep red toa fine pink and grey, they dip to the N. E. or N.
N. E. about 20°, they consist of layers of 3 to 6 feet in thickness,
the lowermost layers being interstratified with the uppermost beds
of the sandstone series beneath.

At Nuggrum, a well exposed section of this sandstone shows
that the alternation with these clays has ceased, as also on the op-
posite bank of the river we have still lower beds of sandstone with-
out clays.

Proceeding again up the river, the Sironcha clays are seen to
continue for some little distance on the left bank, exposing beds
above those at Sironcha, they assume a much deeper red colour
here, on the right bank we have the sandstone occasionally ap-
pearing.

The limestone at Kota is the next rock to be seen, it has a N. LE.
dip of about 5°, the general inclination of the beds from the En-
champilly barrier to this point.

The banks of the river for some distance are now alluvial soil,
until the villages of Annumpully and Sumpatum, here we have a
whitish sandstone with alayer of red clay; in the bed of the river
immediately above this point I observed lumps of limestone and
red clay in appearance closely resembling the beds at Kota, the
stone is not any where on the banks exposed in situ, but from the
fragments found being large and angular, not worn at all on their
edges their position is without a doubt at this place and outcrop
only concealed by the water.

This is the last point in my observation along the river of the
unaltered sedimentary rocks, those next exposed are metamorphic

JULY—SEPT.1857.] at Hola on the Godavery. 263

&

in character and continue to Aheree, the extremity of my journey
in this direction.

Such was the information afforded in the course of my journey
up the river; I had passed, in travelling from the Doomgoodiem to
the Enchampully barriers, over a series of conglomerates and sand.
stones, and subsequently beds of limestone, having a tolerably uni-
form dip to the S. W. and from Euchampully westward, over what
appeared to be the same series in an inverse order commencing
with the limestone and haying an inclination to the 8S. E. or in the
opposite direction, all of these dipping towards an imaginary line
or synclinal axis,—this line passes through a point midway between

Yeytoor and Waragooroo, in a direction slightly to the westward of
north.

That they were the same series was evident, from the order of su-
perposition of the various beds, and from the fact of the identity
of the limestone being clearly made out at two points, viz. at Yey-
toor and at Kota, by the abundance of fish scales of the same cha-
racter being found, at these two places.

In the town of Mahadeopore, a red sandstone is seen cropping
out, with the same hard iron veins traversing it as in the neigh-
bouring river bank, and still further to the 8. W. about 3 miles
from Mahadeopore, a smallrange of hills called Guntay Magoota,
presents on its western side, a well exposed section of 200 to 300
feet in height. These beds are sandstone throughout in strata of
8 feet and upwards in thickness, the lower beds being very hard
and compact: the upper beds as seen at the top of the hill, con-
tain angular fragments of indurated clay, white or reddish in color
or composed of thin layers, alternately white and reddish ;—sandstone
containing these fragments of clay, is to be seen near Nargarum,
south of Yeytoor, it no doubt is the same bed, dipping from this
place under the limestone to Guntay hills. °

The beds at Guntay dip to the N. E. about 15° to 20°, they are
much more uniform in the direction of their dip than on the river
bank, where their close proximity to the line of the fault running

R64 On a reputed Coal Formation [NO. 4, NEW SERIES,

along the eastern or Nagpore side from Buddrachellum, has caused
them to be much disturbed in places, on this account it is very dif-
ficult to ascertain their general inclination cither in amount or di-
rection, and a large number of observations were requisite before
this could even be surmised.

At Kota the beds of limestone dip at a very low angle and a very
small amount in thickness of the beds can be observed ;—resting im-
mediately upon them is alluvial soil, forming the river bank at
this place: for some distance both up and down the stream, the
nearest place where beds lying beneath those at Kota is to be seen
is at Annaveram, one mile distant,—here a whitish sandstone crops
out having alsoa N. E. dip; by comparing the inclination of the
strata at Kota and the distance between these two places,—I found
ihe thickness of the intervening beds could not exceed much if at
ali 200 feet,—having started my boring, therefore, at Kota I deter-
mined to continue it there and examine as much as possible of these
concealed strata, which I could nowhere,—either up or down the
river, examine sufficiently in detail at the surface,

The boring was commenced on the 19th of March,—on the 6th

of May, it had reached 111 feet in depth and come upon a bed of red
sandstone; this proved about 5 feet in thickness, and was succeeded

by blue clay, and sandstone alternately ; we continued the boring ©

until the 14th, when it had reached the depth of 145’ 8’”’ and was
in a white sandstone much resembling that I had seen cropping out
at Annaveram and which I concluded to be the same,

The boring was through 30 feet of very hard limestone beds,
with partings of thin beds of shaly and fibrous limestone and clays,
after which a series of hard calcareous clays and marls, variegated
in color, or of decided blue or red, until the sandstone was reach-
ed; no where did I perceive the slightest trace of Coal.

* A section of the ground as shown by this boring is appended.
Through the limestones and succeeding clays, our tools brought
up frequently traces of the fish remains mentioned below.

a reins —
es

* Vide Plate II

JULY—SEPT.1857.] at Kota on the Godavery. 265

I was somewhat surprised I did not pass through in boring the
bituminous shale alluded to by Dr. Walker in his report, upon ex-
amination of the beds in position above those I was boring through
however, I found this substance interstratified with thin layers of
sandstone about 1 inch thick, and layers of limestone, and at the
same time quantities of the fish remains.*

Organic Remains. At Kota in the limestone beds, I found great
abundance of fish scales, no doubt similar to those brought from
this spot, by Drs. Walker and Bell, they proved of much value to
me as identifying the beds at Yeytoor, where I also found them,—
with those at Kota.

At Yeytoor, I also found impressions, answering the description
given of the Crocodilian remains found by Dr. Bell.

At Sumpatum, in the white sandstone, the immediate underlyer
- of the marls and clays of the limestone series, there occur very large
silicified trunks of trees, they are in considerable number and by
the action of the water wearing away the enclosing sandstone, they
are seen prominently projecting from the surface of the rock.

Near the same place and in this sandstone are a number of he-
mispherical calcareous projections in size from 12 to 18 inches dia-
meter,—a sketch of one is appended.*

In the bed of the river in several places I found masses of Lignite,
it is of a jet black color, and from its frequent occurrence has no
doubt been instrumental in giving the reputation to the Godavery
river, as being a coal producing district. It does not appear to
exist in beds, but in isolated masses in the alluvium from which
it is washed out by the action of the river.

One piece was inclosed in the sandy bed of the river, surround-
ed by heaps of large water worn pebbles, with which it could never
have been transported on account of its extreme friability, the cen-
tral portion is silicified and preserves apparently the structure of
the original wood from which it has been converted, the outer coat-
ing is the lignite in various states of carbonization, part being brown

* Vide Plate III,

266 On a reputed Coal Formation [no. 4, NEW sERIne,
and preserving the original texture of the wood, and still even flexi-
ble, whilst other portions are completely converted to a substance
having all the appearance of coal. The silicified nucleus is tra-
versed by veins of iron pyrites. Great numbers of these silicified
pieces of wood are met with, in every part of the bed of tne river.

In the Tal river, a small tributary of the Godavery, running into
it near Lingala, I observed in my return journey,—the debris of a
slaty coal, not in isolated masses, but thickly scattered over the
river bed, it had been washed from its position in the banks or in
geome of the nullahs of this river.

It was unfortunate that this material did not come to my notice
earlier; as it would have been very desirable to make some exami-
nation of the district, through which the Tal runs, the monsoon
rains hovever had commenced on my arrival there and rendered an
expedition into this unexplored district impracticable this season.

Mr. Tuke in his survey of the Sebbery river mentions the fact
of a report that coal exists up that valley, as the Tal river runs into
the same line of country that report seems to be confirmed in proba-
bility by the finding of the material in the Tal.

The line of fault, before alluded to, as observable along the whole
course of the river has a tolerably general direction to the N. E.,
points of greatest disruption and alteration being observable at the
Buddrachellum, Enchampilly and Aheree Barriers ;—at these places
the beds are turned up on end, and contorted in every possible
manner,—at the intermediate places the whole masses of country
seems to have been upheaved, the beds preserving a tolerably ho-
rizontal position ; this feature is well observed in the hills south of
Dewulmuree, where the strata can be traced running in horizontal
lines from hill to hill, the intervening valleys having been formed
by the washing away of portions of these beds ;—towards the lower
part of the river, at Kota and also at Albaka the beds have an in-
clination downwards from this line of fault, so that, in travelling
in a north easterly direction from the river, a recurrence of the series
described, or portion of it, may be expected to be again met with. I

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] at Hota on the Godavery. 267

was informed by Dr. Jerdon who had just traversed this country that
he had there seen ferruginous sandstone of great thickness, and also
that it contained some thin seams of coal.

The river bed at Dewulmuree is entirely composedof alteredrocks,
inclined at a very high angle, amongst them the Kota limestone and
its accompanying red clays can be clearly made out, also in the jun-
gle path between Dewulmuree and Aheree, they are again seen much
broken up and disturbed—(Fig. 1) is a section taken along this
road.

Fig. 1
eo ro) 8
: oe
2 AES SPE ee?
A a Ste Ays 3S
~ SQYoan £2 ¢
md Ee SS oa Fea) 9
E Sq Ro ~ =
=] z = og e q ,
Q Red Clays Limestone eC Hoe a <I
Sandstones ?

7

In the papers published in the transactions of the Geological So-
ciety* on the Geology of the neighbourhood of Nagpore, it is stated
that the Godavery sandstones extend into the district around Nag-
pore, the series there detailed is ferruginous sandstone, laminated
sandstone, clay shale and limestone, the limestone being the lowest
in the order of superposition, according to this description the series
at Nagpore can hardly be identical with that of the Godavery as it
will be observed that the relative position of the sandstone, and
limestone series is reversed at Kota, the limestone being upper-
most. I observed in the hills above Kota to the N. E. or deep of
the limestone, beds of sandstone, but I considered the evidence to-
lerably conclusive of their being upheaved and not overlying beds,
being on the opposite side of the line of fault I have before allud-
ed to, to that of the limstone.

* In Quarterly Journal, Vol, XI, Pt. 3,

268 On a repuled Coal Formation [No. 4, NEWSERIES,

/

The following is a section of the beds as exposed along the river
from the limestone at Kota northwards.

' ' e
+ ro uo 4
wa a0 ae ER
= oa 03
cs) 5m a, oA a
—! 8) PS mmo As al
oe ops Key
= § Beto Sree A See °
& = abe Weg ee eh td
2a Penn Srna a A. 4
3 0.8 = 0D. eae = ES i
s > M4 < G&© a2 oe <q N
'
ore
’ H
' '
: H

The sandstone at a 6 has a distinct cleavage structure running
across the planes of stratification inclined 10° to the W. it is very
close and compact, but still preserves its granular texture, the face
a bis scored and polished, the beds seen at Atta Kota have the
same dip but are less compact, this sandstone forms the range of
hills to the north of Kota.

At ©, the beds of limestone become horizontal and subsequent-
ly dip in an opposite direction to their general inclination, there is
here a thin bed of laminated or micaceous sandstone.

“tes

JULY—SEPT. 1857. |

Sandstone Hills

VLOY VILY

JOC

(3GF[ SULI0G) YLO

2)
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a KHYVYAAVNNY
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WNIANITY

.YLOOOVIT AVL
“NOD 5, POP TIT

SECTION ACROSS THE VALLEY OF THE GODAVERY RIVER FROM MAHADEOPORE HILLS

at Iota on the Godavery.

269

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27 On the Oxymel process [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

XII. On the Oxymel process in Photography. By J.
TawskE, Madras.

My difficulties with Oxymel have been of two kinds, and which
from what I have heard I believe are very generally met with in
this country.

The first of these was rather humiliating in its nature. Aftera
picture had been obtained sometimes at a considerable distance
from my place of residence, on proceeding to wash the plate after
the development the entire film of Collodion came away in sections
leaving nothing but the bare glass. I was at first inclined to at-
tribute this to a peculiar state of the Collodion, or to an acid bath
which I was told was productive of this consequence. The Collo«
dion used however was successively Hockin’s, Thomas’s, and
Horne’s, and my bath when I first commenced was perfectly neutral
to test paper. It then occurred to me to roughen the margin of
the plate not simply on the edges but on a space § of an inch all
round as has been recommended by Mr. Hardwich. This succeed-
ed admirably, the film adhered perfectly during repeated and vio-
lent washings.

The second difficulty I experienced in the production of a nega-
tive picture was the want of intensity. I followed the details of
Mr. Llewellen’s process minutely, but in each case the result was
a pale picture, showing ill as a positive and at the same time too
weak to print. After repeated experiments I find that the remedy
for this is as follows, I must first premise that the developing so-
lution I use is the following :

Pyropalite Cid osc sos ees ee
Glacial Acette Acid 0... nse. Ome
Alcohol.. *eeevoceecreovos@O@eeee €8%°8 88 8 6 6 10

As soon as the plate is taken out of the frame it is immersed for
an instant in distilled water, anc then placed on the levelling stand.
A rapid washing so as merely to wet the film is all that is required,

sSULY—SEPT. 1857. ] tn Photography. . O77)

the small quantity of organic matter remaining on it tending to
give density. The picture is then to be brought out in the usual
way, but in this process I find that a large quantity of a 40 grain
solution of Nitrate of silver is required before the image will appear,
viz. about 5 or 6 drops to the drachm of the developing solution.
The developer at this stage should not be applied further than is
necessary to bring out all the details of the picture. When this
is done I wash the plate well with common water and then treat
with Cyanide of Potassium. The picture is nowa bad positive and
requires deepening. This is done by washing the Cyanide well off
the plate, and then again carrying on the development with
Pyrogallic Acid and Nitrate of silver, rocking the plate to and
fro to make it flow evenly over its surface. The high lights im-
mediately deepen into beautiful blacks, while the dark shadows
should remain clear and free from any deposit of Metallic silver.

In my first experiments with Oxymel, I developed at once before
fixing, and invariably got a certain degree of foggyness in the dark
shadows which whitened them to such an extent that they were
almost opaque and required a long exposure te print on paper. Two
of the negatives produced at the last meeting were of this charac-
ter.

The process is extremely easy in all its details. The following
formule are I find the best in this climate.

Bath.
Distilled Water.........¢.+0.-- 1 02
Crystallised Nitrate of Silver..... 80 grains.

saturated with Iodide of Silver in the usual way. The proportion
of Iodide of Potassium I have used for this purpose is 5 grains to
90 oz. of the silver solution. After filteration I add to every 20
oz. of the Bath 10 minims of glacial Acetic Acid. This I find
tends to preserve the clearness of the pictures under the deve-
loper.

The Collodion must of course be what is commonly used for ne-
gatives.

In this process many failures are due to the bad quality of Oxy-

272 Onthe Oxymelprocessin Photography. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

mel used. It is frequently very dark in color owing to the large
quantity of wax always present in inferior honey.

After the plate has been washed fora little in distilled water
after being excited in the bath, it is to be plunged into a flat dish
containing enough of the Oxymel bath to cover it. This bath is
prepared as follows, and may be used repeatedly.

Oxymel......sensesees ] 02. ) Filter.
Distilled Water.......... 4 5) f

The plate is left in this bath for a minute andis then well drain-
ed before being placed in the Camera frame. The plates will keep
perfectly well for a week in this climate even during hot weather.

The exposure is long, viz. with a Ross’ 4 inch landscape lens
and 4 in diaphram as much as 9 or 10 minutes will be needed to
bring out dense foliage. But this process has one advantage over
others on Collodion, viz. that provided a sufficient length of ex-
posure has been given, no ill effects follow from over exposure, as
the picture seems to correct itself in the development, fogging being
prevented by care being taken not to carry the first development
too far.

The picture is then washed and-dried in the usual way, and
finally varnished.

ee _—_ a ae

SULY—SEPT. 1857.] New Cinghalese Planis. 278

SELECTIONS.

Thwaites’ New Cinghalese Plants.
No. II.

On TETRAcCRYPTA and Koxoona, Genera of Ceylon Plants ; by G.

H. K. Tuwaires, Hsq., Superintendent of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Peradenia, Ceylon.

(With two Plates, Taz. IV. V.)

I. TeTRAcRypra, (rard. et Champ. Nat. Ord. Hamamelides ?
(Anisophyllea, Br. ; Anisophyllum, Don.)

Tetracrypta cimnamomoides, Gard. et Champ. in Hook. Journ. Bot. et
Kew Garden Mise. v. 1. p. 314%. Anisophyllum Zeylanicum,
Benth. in Niger Flora, p. 342, et Appendix, p. 575. Tas. IV.

Has. Mountains of the Central and Western Provinces of Ceylon ;
alt. 3000 ped. Herb. Hort. Bot. Reg. Perad. n. 2205. Nom
vern. “© Wellepeyenna.”

Arbor ramosa 40-50-pedalis, cortice levi. Ramzi inferiores hori-
zontales, superiores suberecti; ramulis appresse puberulis. Folsa
disticha, coriacea, breve petiolata, lanceolata, cordato-acuminata,

* The generic name has occasioned a great deal of confusion. Brown
first proposed the genus, for a West African species that yields a large
edible fruit (in Hort. Soc. Trans. vol. v. p. 446), under the name of Ani=
sophyllea, but gave no description. Don, in his West African collections,
applied the name Anisophyllum, Don, MSS., to the same plant. Mr.
Bentham, in the Niger Flora, took up Don’s name for the West African
plant, referred it doubtfully to Rhizophorez, and added in a note a des-
eription of the Ceylon species drawn up from Mr. Walker’s specimens.
In the same year, or perhaps the previous year, Gardner and Champion
published Tetracrypta in the ‘ Madras Journal of Science’ we believe, and
subsequently in the Kew Garden Miscellany, and referred it to Hamame-
idee. In the supplement to the Niger Flora Mr. Bentham points this
out, and states that the name Anisophyllea of Brown has the priority.

QT4 Selections. [No. 4, NNW SERIES,

basi angustata, 5-nervia, utrinque glaberrima ; juniora rubra ;
paria vernatione opposita dissimilia squameformia, unico 5-nervi
marginibus involutis demum explanato foliaceo, altero 1-nervi
plano stipulam referente cito deciduo. Racemi supra-axillares,
solitarli v. gemini, strigoso-puberuli. JJoves parvi, subsessiles,
bracteati. Bractee minute. Calycis limbus superus, 4-fidus,
lobis acutis, valvulis persistentibus. Pefala minuta, carnosula,
laciniata, agstivatione induplicativa, segmentis 5 linearibus su-
bulatis. Stamina 8, alterna breviora, filamentis subulatis calyce
insertis ; antheris versatilibus longitudinaliter dehiscentibus,

Styli 4, erecti, conico-subulati ; stigmatibus capitatis. Ovarium

4-loculare ; loculis 1-ovulatis ; ovulis pendulis anatropis. Fruc-

tus indehiscens, abortu l-spermus. Semen pendulum, albumi-
nosum?

This is a handsome tree, 40 feet and upwards in height: its wood
is very hard and valued by the Cinghalese for building purposes.
Young stems and leaves downy, of a bright-red colour. The dissi-
milarity in the pairs of young leaves is very remarkable, one being
flat, single-nerved, and soon falling away, whilst the other is five-
nerved, has involute margins, grows rapidly, and is carried up by
the elongating stem to some distance above the smaller one. Old
leaves coriaceous, distichous, alternate, shortly petioled, 3-4 inches
long, 1 inch broad, lanceolate, tapering to along narrow blunt
point: nerves five, strong, parallel. tacemes single or in pairs
from the upper part of a large scar, which extends upwards’ from
the axil of the leaf, pendulous or nodding, 1-14 inch long, pube-
scent, eight-to twelve-flowered. Lowers nearly sessile, with small
bracts, white, 1 line long, pubescent. Calyx of four valvate co-
riaceous green lobes. Corolla of as many small incurved white
petals, seated on the calyx, split below the middle into subulate
lacinie. Stamens eight, alternately longer and short; filaments
subulate ; anthers versatile ; pollen minute, elliptical, with a dark

Under these circumstances we have thought it desirable to retain the name
Tetracrypta, both because it was accompanied with the first published
account of the genus, and because it was the only one to which Mr.
Thwaites appears to have had access,

JULY—SEPT.1857.] New Cinghalese Planis. 215

central line. Ovary inferior, four-celled, with four erect styles
and small capitate stigmas; cells with one anatropous ovule, pen-
dulous from the summit of each. Fruit coriaceous, grooved, ellip-
tical-ovate, with 2 narrow top and persistent calyx, one-celled, with
one pendulous seed, which has only been collected unripe, but
appears to be albuminous and to have an axile embryo.

“Prats IV. Fig. 1, 2. Very young leaves and stipules in verna-
tion. 3. Flower. 4. Vertical section of the same. 5. Petal. 6.
Stamens. 7. Transverse section of ovary. 8. Branch and nearly
ripe fruit. 9. Vertical section of immature fruit. 10. Ditto of
nearly ripe fruit :—all but fig. 8 and 10 magnified.

II. Koxoona, Thw., gen. nov. Nat. Ord. Hippocrateacez.

Gen. Char. Calyx brevis, persistens, margine 5-lobo. Petala.5,
eestivatione contorta, firma, concava, glanduloso-punctata, deci-
dua. Stamina 4, petalis alterna; filamentis basi disco glandu-
loso immersis ; antheris oblongis, introrsis, longitudinaliter de-
hiscentibus. Ovariwmn disco immersum, 38-loculare, loculis 4-ovu-
latis ; ovulis biserialibus, adscendentibus, anatropis. Stylo brevi,
conico ; stigmate capitato, 3-lobo. Capsula 3-locularis, loculis
4-spermis. Semzna late alata, exalbuminosa, erecta ; embryone
orthotropo, cotyledonibus planis, radicula infera.—Arbor ingens,
vamosa, cortice rugoso. Folia opposita, petiolata, obovata vel re-
tusa, versus petiolum angustata, obscure remote crenulata, levia,
coriacea, subtus minute glanduloso-punctata, stipulata. Stipule
minute, colorate, acute, subpersistentes. Inflorescentia paniculata,
axillaris, Bractezee minute. Flores pedicellati, leves.

Kokoona Zeylanica, Thw. Taz. V.

Has. Central provinces of Ceylon, Ambagamowa district; elev.
4000 feet. Herb. Hort. Reg. Bot. Peradeniensis, No. 2584.

A large forest-tree, 60 feet or upwards in height, much branch-
ed especially towards the top. Sark rough, when cut of a yellow
colour, somewhat corky. Leaves dark green, smooth, underneath
paler, with very numerous minute dark red glandular dots. St-
- pules very minute, deep red, subpersistent. Panicles axillary, ra-
eeme-like. racis very minute, acute. lowers dull yellowish-

276 Selections. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

brown. Calyx minute, with five shallow lobes, persistent. Petals
five, concave, firm in texture, with minute pale glandular dots on
the inner surface, twisted in &stivation. Stamens five, alternate
with the petals, inserted into depressions of the dark green angular
disc. Ovary three-celled, each cell with four ascending anatro-
pal ovules. Style short. Stigma capitate, somewhat three-lobed.
Capsule 1-4 inches long, oblong, bluntly triangular, three-valved,
three celled. Seeds imbricated, winged, erect, exalbuminous. Wing
very broad, oblong, truncate or blunt, Embryo orthotropal ; coty-
ledons flat.

In habit and general appearance this plant resembles the Celas-
tracee, though it would seem to differ almost as much from mem-
bers of that natural family as do the Hippocrateacee, from all the
genera of which latter Order it differs in having five stamens.

The yellow bark is sold in the bazaars, and when pounded is
used by the Cinghalese as a kind of cephalic snuff, being mixed
with ghee and introduced into the nostrils in order to relieve severe
headache, by encouraging a copious secretion from the nose.

The native name of the tree is Kokoon, which has suggested the
generic name.

Prate V. Fig. 1. Flower. 2. Stamen. 3. Ovary and disc cut
longitudinally. 4. Transverse section of the same. 5. Small, imma-
{ure capsule. 6. Transverse section of the same. 7. 8. Seeds. 9.

Branch and stipules :—all but fig. 5 and 6 magnified.—Kew Miscel.
70l. V. p. 378,

Aska Sugar Factory.

My visit to Aska has enabled me to gain much information
regarding the manufacture of sugar, while my tour through the
country has admitted of my following up an enquiry I begun in
Rajahmundry as to the profits from its cultivation. The result of
my observations is a conviction that it is, to the interest of Govern-
ment to encourage the growth of this article to the utmost, and if
that is done Iam confident that it will become the great crop of

JuLY—sEPT. 1857.] Aska Sugar Factory. 277

the whole District of Ganjam, yielding, as it will, a profit far ex-
ceeding that from any of its other products.

The Aska factory has been raised to its present state of perfec-
tion by the most indefatigable energy, through many years of diffi-
eulty and loss. It is now in very high order and capable of manu-
facturing more than 12,000 tons annually, a very much greater
quantity of sugar than the District yields at present, and the difi-
culty it has now to contend against, is the deficiency of supply. If
my information is correct, the whole extent of land cultivated with
sugar in the District is between 3 and 4,000 acres, which witha
fair allowance for loss, occasioned by insufficient means of irriga-
tion, floods, and other accidents, does not yield more than 4,50,000
pots of Goor ; sufficient for the manufacture of about 4,500 tons of
the fine yellow sugar exported.

The Aska works have not the command even of this supply ;
there is not only a considerable home consumption, but there is a
great demand for sugar in the south of Orissa and in Nagpore
which leads to an active competition in the purchase and although
the price has been raised lately, and the quantity brought into the
factory at the time I was there varied from 4,000 to 5,000 Rupees
worth daily, there is still a fear, lest the quantity should be too
small to make the work pay a fair profit for the season’s working.
The lowest quantity of sugar that should be turned out from these
works should be 3,000 tons a year; which with the present low
farming would be produced on 4,000 acres of land, but with the
greater capacity of the Aska Machinery and the native demand for
consumption, and export by land, we have evidently a market
which can only be supplied by the Government giving every en
couragement to the growth.

It would answer well enough for Europeans to take up the cul-
tivation of sugar, as the profit from a manageable area would be
sufficient inducement. In this respect it differs from the cultiva-
tion of grains and seeds and from cotton also which are produced
in so small quantity from each year that the cost of management
would absorb too much of the profit, if an European undertook if.
Nor has sugat the great disadvantage of being a precarious crop as

278 Selections. [vo. 4, NEW SERIIs,

Indigo is; only one precaution is necessary ; and that in Ganjam
is easily provided for, the supply of water throughout the year
should be secure. It is difficult to understand why Europeans
have not taken up this cultivation, I find that the land will yield
an equal weight of sugar with land in the West Indies; there is a
market for the produce at hand, and labour to be had at 2 pence
aday. Yet the inhabitants of this country are emigrating, and
some even going to the West Indies to work on the very same cul-
tivation, with no one single advantage. The whole difference
between the two countries that causes this remarkable state of
things is that there is capital in the one country, and not in the
other.

If English settlers brought their money and intelligence to bear
upon this cultivation, Ganjam could, I am convinced, undersell all
the great sugar growing countries of the world; but we need not
wait for them. There is a population sufficient and as much en-
terprize as could be expected, and if the Government acting in the
capacity of landlord, did all that is in its power to help the cul-
tivators, it might without taking any part in the actual cultivation
or advancing money, give such a stimulus to the growth of sugar,
as would make it the great staple of the District.

In looking through the expenses of sugar cultivation, I find that
there is as much enterprize as could be expected where those who
bear the toil and risk, have to pay the profits of their work, to
those who supply the capital required. Iam told by people of all
classes that where the sugar grower works with borrowed money,
his cane yields him no better profit than Rice, and those who take
up the growth of sugar are very often induced to doso by the trifle
of ready money they obtain as an advance from the merchants to
secure the crop. The several expenses of a sugar garden are, the
cost of the cuttings (or seed cane.) The land Revenue; prepar-
ing the land by manuring, &c., watering, and buying or hiring the
mill and pans for manufacturing the Goor. The usual size of a
garden is about 10 Buarnums or 2 acres, the cuttings for which,
cost usually 40 Rupees. The Assessment on the landis, I believe,
about 30 Rupees; I have an account of the cost of cultivation, but

yuLY—sEPT. 1857.] Aska Sugar Factory. 279

I do not trust it sufficiently to quote it. The cost of watering de-
pends upon the position of the land, but sites are usually chosen
where irrigation can be had a part of the year and where a very shal-
low well will supply water with the least labour when the irriga-
tion fails. The purchase of cuttings is in most cases the greatest
item of expense, and as the money has to be laid out a whole year
before the crop is cut, the interest is very heavy upon that portion
of the outlay. The Revenue is also taken before the crop is sold,
and money has to be advanced on that account. The cost of cul-
tivation having in like manner to be advanced, the land is poorly
worked and sparingly manured, and as the cost of watering must
be kept down as low as possible for the same reason. land is cho-
sen where water is near the surface, whether it is liable to flood, or
is difficult to drain, or in other respects unsuitable for a sugar crop.
In short the cultivation generally is carried on under the disadvan-
tages of the very cheapest farming, and as those who lend the
money work upon the common Indian principle of taking all that
they can get when they have a chance, without reference to the
future; the growers find themselves with tittle profit even in the
best seasons, and in case of accident hopelessly in debt. Under
such circumstances, it is no wonder that the extension of the growth
of sugar is slow, although experiment has shown, that under good
farming, the profit from an acre is very moderately estimated at
100 Rupees.

The Government might do something to remove these difficulties,
and the European purchasers might also help. The most import-
ant step the Government could take would be, to secure a certain
supply of water to land suitable for sugar, so as to remove the cost
of working wells and make water so cheap, that as much may be
given to the cane as it can take up and convert into sugar. This
will, if well managed, work favorably in more ways than one. The
best land may then be chosen having soil suitable, and being ca-
pable of good drainage. In Rajahmundry where the wells were 15
feet deep, working them was so expensive, that a supply of water
for an acre from a channel flowing through the year, was consider-
ed by the ryots worth 50 Rupees in the saving of labour only; so
wells are not used, and the farming altogether is poorer, but the

280 Selections. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

water would be worth no less; this estimate, it must be remem-
bered, is made by those who had to pay for the water, and who cal-
culated only the cost of the quantity they raised from the wells,
whereas the supply taken from the channels was at least double
and it contained a manure not found in well water. In conse-
quence of the very favorable climate of Ganjam in which rain falls
in almost every month of the year, and for 7 or 8 months there is
a stream in the rivers, the cost of a constant supply of water for
the year would be smaller than it is in most Districts, and as the
monsoon there is hardly less certain than it is on the western coast,
there would be nothing precarious in the supply of water.

The works I would recommend for this cultivation are, annicuts
on the considerable streams, and tanks on the smaller tributaries
so arranged, that when the river failed, the tank water might be
thrown into the channels. The country seems well adapted for
works of this kind and the land suitable for sugar, (if such irriga-
tion is given to it) is unlimited. In speaking of this to a wealthy
land holder, he thought the plan all very good, but he believed the
whole soil of Ganjam to be so peculiar, that ‘‘ bunds of tanks
could never be made of it,’ I need not say that this was purely
imaginary, and Major Birdwood will gladly undertake to prove to
the contrary as soon as he has determined on suitable positions for
his works, and obtained sanction for the sums required to build
them. ;

Another relief that the Government might give to the sugar
growers is to take the Revenue from the land after the crop is sold,
holding the land as security; 1am quite aware that there is not
one Sheristadar in the service who would not object to this; and
it would be a most unpopular move with the influential people of
the country, because it would help to relieve the ryots from the
thraldom in which they are held by the capitalists. So much is
this mode of relief objected to, that when a gentleman in Rajah-
mundry offered to pay the kists for the sugar growers, a party of
Sowcars offered him 3,000 Rupees not to begin that system. If
the security is good, the Government will not, I am sure, object to
this innovation ; and I am certain, if it was tried, it would be found

JULY—SEPT. 1897.] Aska Sugar Factory. 281

that no native land-owner would allow the field to pass out of his
possession that had once yielded him the full profits of a sugar
crop. land let on such favourable terms, and supplied with water
for sugar the whole year through, might well be paid for at 15 Ru-
pees the acre ; it would be worth 50 Rupees, but 15 would pay the
Government well. Where very high profits are received from the
land, as there would be in this case, there will soon be an inter-
mediate man in possession of it who will be the gainer by the re-
duced Assessment, not the actual cultivator. Even with the As-
sessment I name, the land would be saleable at a high price, and
the man of capital would be the sugar grower ; the cultivator
would then be his servant ; paid it may be from the crop, but he
would not as now have risked the cost of cultivation. The owner
who possesses land so valuable will not only secure its being cul-
tivated, but will see that the right crop is grown, and to do this,
his terms with the cultivator must be liberal. I believe that
nothing would so certainly lead to a class of wealthy land-owners
as an irrigation suited to the growth of sugar, and terms favorable
to introduction. And I have not yet seen any province of the Presi-
dency better suitedto the plant andits high cultivation than Ganjam.

I have noticed the comparatively large sum required for the
cuttings of a new sugar garden, and the want of money for pur-
chasing them will be an impediment to the growth, when the Go-
vernment has done all that I recommend. Iam generally averse
to Government attempting any cultivation of its own, simply be-
cause my experience leads me to expect that no good will result
from it. I would otherwise suggest that a few acres of land should
every year be planted with cane to be distributed as cuttings ; I be-
lieve that great encouragement might be given by this means, and
at no expense as the actual cost under tolerable management would
make them very cheap to the purehaser, but the success of this
would depend upon those who undertook the management, and I
cannot say who has either time or taste for that. I have however
suggested this mode of giving an advance, tothe owners of the Aska
sugar factory and I am perfectly certain that it is worth their while
to make the trial.

282 Selections. [wo. 4, NEW SERIES,

Before leaving the subject of sugar I must be allowed to call at-
tention to the factory at Aska which is now the centre of a traffic
on which the prosperity of a great portion of the Ganjam District
depends. The variety of trades and manufactures to which it has
given rise can only be understood by following the processes in the
factory. But its effect may be in some degree estimated by a con-
sideration of the facts, that the consumption of fuel is about 24,000
Rupees worth annually and 6,000 tons of Goor will, it is expected,
be this season purchased from the ryots at a very remunerative
rate. If this supply is obtained, more than 3,000 tons of sugar
will be shipped, and the profits from the works will be satisfactory.
But whether working to the profit anticipated or to loss such as it
has hitherto had, it has equally a claim to every help from the Go-
vernment, The enterprizing owners have run a great risk, and
several have met with a loss not liking to go on, in the venture.
A capital has been sunk which would have made no insignificant
appearance in our list of Public Works ; very few of which indeed
approach the Aska factory in cost, and it is more directly beneficial
than almost any thing that has been done by the Engineer Depart-
ment, excepting only our largest irrigation works, from the sum it
annually circulates in the District and which will this season near-
ly equal in amount half the Revenue of the Collectorate. Iam
induced to offer these remarks because I have met with a feeling
here and there that such great works might very well be left to
themselves. There is a very common notion that great manufac-
turers make great profits, and can fight their own battle and more-
over that they have rather a too determined way of asking for what
they want. This may be true in some cases, and I hope it may
be so with the Aska manufacturers. Their success will be a most
valuable example ; they will deserve all they earn, and if their de-
mands are always as reasonable as they now are, they cannot be
too resolute in making them. What they most want are, encour-
agement to the growth of sugar, and such fine roads elsewhere as
that which has been opened to their benefit, between Aska and the
port of Moonsoorcottah.— Observations made on a tour in Ganjam,
an March and April 1856,—By Lieut. Col, F. C, Corron,

JULY—SEPT. 1857. ] Wood Oil. 283

On Wood Oil,

The Balsam obtained from various trees of ‘the order Dirtz-
ROCARPEG.

The value and importance of this article of Indian produce in-
vests all information existing on the subject with much local in-
terest.

Up to a recent period it appears to have been little known in the
Home market at least as far as regards its medicinal properties.

In 1854 Mr. Coartes Lowe, Assistant in the Royal Institution,
Manchester brought it to the notice of the Pharmaceutical Society,
under the description of “ 4 new variety of Balsam of Copaiba’’ in
the following terms :

‘“¢ An organic fluid was lately placed in my hands by Mr. Grace Calvert
for examination, which he had received from an oil merchant of this city,
who stated that all he knew of the substance was, that it was obtained by
the incision of a certain tree growing on the coast of India. From the
characters it presents I have ascertained it to be a balsam of copaiba, but
as it differs in some of its properties from other balsams that I have ex-
amined, I forward you the following notice, in hopes that it may prove
interesting to some of your numerous readers.

In appearance this balsam of copaiba is dark coloured and turbid. Its
turbidity is due to a greenish resinous matter, held in suspension, which
is, however, easily separable, either by filtration or deposition, leaving a
brown transparent liquid of sp. gr. 0.970. When the latter eee is sub-
mitted to a careful distillation it yields :—

Essential oil......000 Sdocedacaasod - 685 per cent.

ESTE Ste nS ented se pda JaOU Cone Sor 34 a

Acetic acid and water..........0. 1 Fs
100

I find that the essential oil in its various reactions with potassium,
iodine, nitric acid, &c., and moreover in taste, exactly corresponds with
those presented by pure essence of copaiba. The resin left by distillation
of the balsam, either with or without water, is, if deprived of the whole of
the essential oil, extremely hard. Its entire solubility in coal naphtha
proves the absence of any of the soft resin which exists in most of the

284 Selections. [NO. 4, NEW SERIES,

we

copaiba of commerce. This hard resin (copaivie acid) being most pro-
bably the active principle of balsam of copaiba, I am induced to think its
quantity and purity in the one I have examined is indicative of its supe-
rior value asa medicament. The dark colour of the balsam may perhaps
limit its employment, but the large quantity of copaivie acid it contains
renders it valuable, as the latter may be made available by heating the
filtered balsam to the boiling point with a small quantity of caustic potash
or soda lye, of sp. gr. 1.34, and separating the resinate of potash or soda
from the essential oil. The alkaline resinate may then be dissolved in
water, giving a colourless solution (similar to Frank’s specific), or the
balsam may be treated with magnesia to form the ordinary copaiba pill.

I have in conclusion remarked :—

lst, That the essential oil obtained by the distillation of balsam of co-
paiba has, like several other hydrocarbons, the property of dissolving
indigo.

2ndly, The new variety of balsam above described presents the curious
property of becoming gelatinous (so much so that the tube may safely be
inverted), if heated to 230° Fah., even if a sealed tube be employed.
This character being dissimilar to the one given in the same circumstances
with such other balsams as I had at my disposal, I am induced to attribute

it to the large amount of “‘ hard resin”’ it contains.

8rdly, Balsams of copaiba in general give, on distillation with two per
cent. sulphuric acid, a beautiful blue volatile oil. Chlorine, hypochlorite
of lime, and bichromate of potash, give a similar character with the bal-
sam, which appears to me to be due to the oxidation of the hard resin,
as I have been unable to obtain but a small proportion of the blue-colour-
ed oil when I employed a balsam containing “ soft resin,’ comparatively
to when I made use of the one above described, which, as I have already
remarked, contains only ‘ hard resin.’’ A further support of this view
is, that pure essence of copaiba assumes no blue colouration when distilled
as above.

4thly, That cold sulphuric acid produces a purple colouration with bal-
sam of copaiba, similar to that obtained by its action on cod-liver oil.
Such being the case, it is probable that a small quantity of it, mixed with
olive or some other oil, may be sold by unprincipled persons as genuine
cod-liver oil.—Pharmaceutical Journal, XVY. 65.

In 1856 the same substance was again noticed by Mr. DanizuL
Hanzury under its ordinary name of Wood Oil, a substitute for

Copaiba, |

JULY—sEPT. 1857.] Wood Oil. 285

«« Among the drugs that have recently appeared in the London market,
I have observed one article to which I am desirous of drawing attention.
It is a liquid imported in considerable quantity from Moulmein in Burmah,
and offered for sale under the name of Balsam Capivi, but known in India
as Wood Oil or Gurjun Balsam.

To Balsam of Copaiba, however, it presents so remarkable a resem-
blance, that, but for the locality from which it was imported, it would
hardly have been noticed as anything else than Copaiba of rather unusual-
ly dark colour.

In the Paris Universal Exhibition there are two samples of a similar
liquid, labelled Wood Oil, one of them being sent among the Materia Me-
dica of Canara, the other from the Tenasserim provinces. Through the
kindness of Dr. Royle, specimens of each have been placed at my disposal.
Though comparatively a new drug in English trade, Wood Oilis an article
of common occurrence in the bazaars of India.

From its similarity to Copaiba, it might be supposed to have its origin
in some plant nearly allied to Copaifera: such, however, is not the case,
it being the produce of the natural order Dipterocarpee.

The following is Roxburgh’s account of the manner of obtaining it from
Dipterocarpus turbinatus, an immense tree, native of Chittagong, Tip-
perah, Pegue, and other places to the eastward of Bengal.*

‘ This tree is famous over all the Eastern parts of India and the Malay
Islands, on account of its yielding a thin liquid balsam, commonly called
Wood Oil, which is much used for painting ships, houses, &c.

‘ To procure the balsam, a large notch is cut into the trunk of the tree,
near the earth (say about 30 inches from the ground), where a fire is kept
up until the wound is charred, soon after which the liquid begins to ooze
out. A small gutter is cut in the wood to conduct the liquid into a vessel
placed to receive it. The average produce of the best trees during the
season, is said to be sometimes 40 gallons. It is found necessary, every
3 or 4 weeks, to cut off the old charred surfaces and burn it afresh; in
large healthy trees abounding in balsam, they even cut a second notch in
some other part of the tree, and char it as the first.

‘ These operations are performed during the months of November, De-
cember, January and February. Should any of the trees appear sickly
the following season, one or more years’ respite is given them.’

* Flora Indica (ed. Carey) vol. ii. p. 613.

286 Selections. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

The same author also states that Wood Oil is afforded by D. costatus (D.
engustifolius W. et A.), D. alatus Roxb, and D. incanus Roxb., the last
mentioned being reputed to furnish the largest proportion of the best sort.

Closely allied to the Wood Oil of Dipterocarpus is the oleo-resin termed.
Camphor Oil, produced by Dryobalanops Camphora Colebr., a tree of the
same natural order. For a specimen of this oleo-resin and of an analogous
liquid called Zagam Oil, both brought from Sumatra by Dr. J unghuhn, [
am indebted to the courtesy of Dr. J. E. De Vrij of Rotterdam.

Wood Oil, as imported from Moulmein, is after filtration, a transparent,
dark brown liquid, of somewhat greater consistence than “Olive Oil, a sp.
gr. of .964 and an odour and taste like copaiba, though perhaps hardly so
strong. One part of it treated with two parts of alcohol sp. gr. .796, is
dissolved with the exception of a minute quantity of darkish flocculent
matter, which subsides upon repose. }

But its most curious property (as noticed by Mr. Charles Lowe with re-
ference to a liquid which I suppose to have been Wood Oil*) is that exhi-
bited when it is heated in a corked vial to about 266° F. (180° C.)+ Thus
treated, it becomes slightly turbid, and so gelatinous that the vial may be
inverted, even while hot, without its contents being displaced ; and on cool-
ing, the solidification is still more complete. Gentle warmth and agitation
restore toa great extent its fluidity, but solidification is again produced
upon the liquid being heated to 266°. Copaiba displays no such pheno-
menony

According to Dr. O’Shaughnessy, when Wood Oil is heated in a retort,
a yellowish white, crystallizable, solid substance having many of the pro-
perties of benzoic acid sublimes into the upper part of the vessel, to the
extent of about one per cent. of the Wood Oil taken. In my own expe-
riments, I have not detected any of this substance. It is true that when
Wood Oilis heated, a scanty, opaque white sublimate condenses in the
cooler part of the vessel, but this appears to arise from the condensation of
a little water among the minute drops of essential oil, since it is not pro-
duced if the Wood Oil has been previously agitated with some fragments
of dried chloride of calcium.

With regard to its medicinal properties, there appears to be no doubt

* Ona new variety of Balsam of Copaiba, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xiv.
pp. 65, 66.

T Mr. Lowe says 230° F., but a much’more striking effect is produced on the
Wood Oil by the temperature I have named,

JULY—seEPT. 1857.] Wood Oil. 287

ww

from an extensive set of experiments instituted by Dr. O’Shaughnessy,
confirmed by trials made by other practitioners in India, that Wood Oil
is nearly equally efficient with Copaiba, in the diseases in which that drug
is indicated.* It may be administered as an emulsion, “or in pills made up
with magnesia. Dr. O’Shaughnessy has used the essential oil in doses of
from 10 to 30 drops.

From the close similarity of Wood Oil to Copaiba, a mixture of the two
may be anticipated ; from pure Copaiba, such a mixture will probably be
detected by a difference in its optical properties.’-—Pharmaceutical Jour-
nal, XV. 321.

Still date “‘ a note” appeared in the same serial translated from
a paper by Mr. Gurizourt, in the French Journal de Pharmacie
et de Chimie for September 1856, which we here reproduce ;

‘This curious Indian production, named by the English Wood Oil or
Gurjun Balsam, has already formed the subject of two notices} published in
the Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, by Messrs. Charles Lowe
and Daniel Hanbury.

Mr. Lowe, who knew merely that this resinous liquid is extracted in.
India from incisions made in a tree, considered it Balsam of Copaiba
rendered turbid by a greenish resin suspended in it. [He found that] the
filtered balsam formed a brown transparent liquid, which yielded by dis-
tillation as follows:

SRE MTA AON Oertav. so o's a: vis cic ein «e's 65
ipbfard]) Resin ic... 5. Soin weaagar Al mabe
Mcehie seid and, Water iso. ck.

100

According to Mr. Lowe, the volatile oil possesses all the characters of
that of copaiba ; and the “ hard resin,” which he regards as pure Copaivic
Acid, exempt from the ‘‘ soft resin’? which, according to him, exists in the
greater part of the copaiba of commerce, appears to him indicative of
superiority as a medicine. I must acknowledge that I but ill comprehend
this conclusion, and that Iam the less convinced of the identity of the
hard resin with copaivic acid, since Mr. Lowe has recognized in the new
resinous balsam the singular property of becoming solid when exposed in
a closed vessel, to a temperature of 230° F. Copaiba presents no similar
phenomenon.

I find stated moreover this difference, viz., that the new balsam distilled

* Bengal Dispensatory (1842) pp. 222—224.
+ The two selections from the Pharmaceutical Journal given above.—ED.

288 Selections. [No, 4, NEW SERIES,

~

with the addition ofa small quantity of oxidizing agent, as chlorine, hypo-
chlorite of lime, or bichromate of potash, yields an essential oil of a fine
blue, whilst ordinary copaiba containing “ soft resin’’ (I still scarcely
understand), afford hardly any coloured essential oil. The notice con-
cludes with pointing out a possible sophistication which appears to me little
to be feared ; it is, that cold sulphuric acid produces with copaiba a purple
colouration similar to that obtained with cod-liver oil, so that, as the
author supposes, dishonest persons might substitute for the latter, a mix-
ture of olive oil or of some other fatty oil, mixed with a small proportion

of copaiba.

Mr. D. Hanbury informs us in his notice, that Wood Oil is extracted
from Dipterocarpus turbinatus by a very peculiar process, which! will
state in a few words, in order the better to show the nature of the product.
To obtain the oil, a large incision is made in the trunk of the tree at about
30 inches from the ground, on which a fire is lighted and kept up until
the incision is charred : soon after this, the liquid begins to flow. It is
conducted by a little trough into a vessel placed to receive it. The aver-
age produce of one of the better trees ina single season, is 80 gallons-
Roxburgh [from whom this account is taken] adds that Wood Oil is also
produced by Dipterocarpus incanus, D. alatus, and D. costatus. The first
of these three is reputed to yield the best sort, and in the greatest quan-
tity.

The Wood Oil which forms the subject of Mr. Hanbury’s notice has
been imported in large quantity from Moulmein in Burmah : when filter-
ed, it is a transparent liquid of asomewhat dark brown when seen by
transmitted light, but appearing opaque and of an obscure green if viewed
by reflected light. It possesses therefore, in a very marked degree, the
dichroism observable in all resin-oils obtained by the action of fire. JI
particularly notice this character which determines the nature of Wood
Oil, and shows that it is not simply a natural product like Copaiba ; but
that it is in part the result of a liquid modification of the Dipterocarpus
resin, effected by the agency of heat. This Moulmein Wood Oil is of
somewhat greater consistence than Olive Oil; it hasa sp. gr. of :964,
and possesses an odour and taste very analogous to those of copaiba. It
dissolves in twice its weight of absolute alcohol, with the exception of a
minute residue which is deposited upon repose.

But the most curious property of this oil, already recognized by Mr.
Lowe, and afresh observed by Mr. Hanbury, is that of solidifying when
heated in a closed vial to 266° F.; at this temperature the oil becomes
turbid and so gelatinous, that it is not displaced upon the inversion of the

a Fay

JULY—sEPT. 1857.] Wood Oil. 289

vial. After cooling, the solidification is yet more perfect ; but a gentle
warmth, assisted by slight agitation, restore its former liquidity. Mr.
Lowe has given the temperature of 230° F. for the solidification of the
oil : I suppose that the different temperatures noted by these two observers
may be accounted for by some difference in the liquids on which they
operated; for as the sorts of copaiba furnished by different species of
American Copaifere and the turpentines by various pines and firs, are not
identical, so we may reasonably conclude that the Wood Oils yielded by
various species of Dipterocarpus are not absolutely similar ; the greater or
less degree of heat to which the oil has been subjected in the process of
extraction, may also cause a variation in the properties of the product.

What I assert here is not a matter of supposition, but at present of certain-
ty. Atthe Universal Exhibition of 1855, there were two samples of Wood
Oil, the one sent from Canara, the other from Tenasserim. One of these
samples (I do not know which), enclosed in a small white earthen pot,
which in fineness of paste was midway between stone-ware and porcelain,
had been given by Dr. Royle to M. Delesse, the member of the interna-
tional jury who had been commissioned to report upon the bitumen and
petroleum forwarded to the Exhibition. M. Delesse not finding it to be
what he was seeking, sent me the specimen, which I judged at once must
be the new copaiba announced by Mr. Lowe. In fact, it approached
much nearer to the balsam examined by Mr. Lowe than that which has been
presented to me by Mr. Hanbury.

The Wood Oil of Mr. Hanbury has almost the liquidity of Olive Oil ;
held up to the light of the sun, it is seen to be perfectly transparent, and
of the colour of dark Malaga wine : seen by reflected light, it appears opaque,
and of an olive green. With ammonia and magnesia, it behaves in a very
different manner from Copaiba. Mixed with liquid ammonia 22° B., in
the proportion by weight of 5 parts of Wood Oil to 2 parts of alkali, it
immediately forms an opaque and very thick mixture, which does not

alter by keeping.
It does not solidify upon the addition of a sixteenth of its weight of cal-
cined magnesia, and the two bodies separate upon repose.

The Wood Oil of M. Delesse has the appearance of a thick and slightly
gelatinous liquid. After having deposited a small quantity of green resin
which was suspended in it, it became almost transparent: placed between
the eye and the sun, it is seen to be ofa pure deep red : viewed by reflec-
tion, it still appears red, but turbid, and resembles a liquid in which finely-
powdered Cochingal might be suspended. The complimentary colour cf

290 Selections. [NO. 4, NEW SERIES,

red is not therefore apparent by this means, but it becomes manifest when
after agitation, a thin layer of liquid covers the upper sides of the bottle.
Then, in whatever way we look at this thin layer, it appears of a beautiful
green hue.

This same green colour appears again and remains, when, after having
dissolved the Wood Oil in alcohol, the solution is left to spontaneous evapo-
ration : one may then see towards the upper part of the capsule, between
the portions of green resin, white starry tufts which are due to a peculiar
principle, the future examination of which I leave to those who have a
larger quantity of the liquid at their disposal. As to the resin, it has
acquired a permanent green hue, which is also perceptible in the dry resin
which remains after the Wood Oil has been boiled for a considerable time
with water. This green colour, which is that also of the beautiful Piney
Resin (Vateria Indica L.) that was shown at the Exhibition, establishes a
point of relation between two products originating in trees belonging to
the same family, that of the Dipterocarpee. But there the resemblance
stops, for the resin of Vateria Indica is insoluble in alcohol, and very im-
perfectly so in ether, whilst the green resin of Wood Oil is easily soluble
in either of these menstrua. Finally, the Wood Oil of the Exhibition behaves
as Copaiba, when treated with ammonia or calcined magnesia. With one
sixteenth of calcined magnesia it very speedily solidifies, and a mixture of
it with ammonia becomes liquid, and almost transparent, after an instant
of opacity.

I am far from concluding with Mr. Lowe, that the two oleo-resinous
bodies [Copaiba and Wood Oil] are chemically identical; but as regards
their employment in medicine, I think, as in the case of bodies of analogous
composition, such as turpentines and balsams, liquid or solid, all their
vegetable components may be of use as a remedy for a catarrhal condition
of the mucous membranes. I may remark, in conclusion, that Mr. Han-
bury’s Wood Oil, and that from the Exhibition, have probably not been
extracted by a similar process. It seems to me that the former has been
obtained by the action of fire in the manner described by Roxburgh; the
latter has doubtless been obtained without the intervention of this agent,
for I do not find in it the indication which characterizes oils that are the
result of the action of fire upon resins.”"— Pharmaceutical Journal, XV. 332

The foregoing extracts show how valuable an article of com-
merce these oils which are largely produced both in India and
Pegu are likely to become when they shall have obtained the amount
of attention they deserve.

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] Coal at Nellore. 291

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Appearance of Coal at Nellore.

(Extract of a letter dated February 4th, 1857 from G. Powntt, Esq. Assistant
Engineer N.D. to Col. Fann, Chief Engineer, Madras.)

‘I proceeded to the Caligherry Talook of Nellore in order to procure if
possible, some more coal, from or about the locality where, in 1856 I

tuumerapicee of tolerable good quality. * * * * * * * * * %

* * * * T have found in four different spots, small pieces of a
black heavy substance, possessing every appearance of coal: which, from
its strong similitude to that matter, I have taken the liberty of calling
“coal :”’ and consequently the places from whence I eventually procured
it in quantities, ‘‘ Seams :’’ to each of which, for the sake of reference, I
have attached a letter, Ex: Gr: Seam A. Seam B. &c., leaving however
its merits and quality to be judged of and proved by a more competent
authority, for which purpose, I collected asmall quantity from each Seam,
and have yesterday despatched two coolies to your Office, with samples
of the various sorts found, together with their accompanying clays, crys-
tals, sandstone and limestones: having at the time of collection carefully
noted by an inclinometer, their dip and strike. In some instances however
owing to the variety of directions in which the coal lay, I could obtain no
positive dip or strike but was obliged to take an average one by noticing
the angle and direction which the majority had.

“With the exception of one specimen called ‘ coal in laterite,” the
whole has been collected from within a circle of about five miles diameter
of which, a village called Yapanapy, (three miles North East of Caligher-
ry) may be considered as the centre.

“‘ The position of the various “‘ Seams’ is as follows. Seam A. is about
half a mile due North of Yapanapy, in the South bank of a nullah, which
forms the Southernmost supply channel of the Chinnacranca tank and
running nearly due East and West passes half a mile North of Yapanapy.
Seams B. C. and D. are in the banks of branches of the same nullah : but
these run nearly midway between Yapanapy and a village called Polum-
paud. It was I believe, between the latter, and a village called Iyapa-
reddypollium where I found the coal in 1886 ; which I imagine must have
been detached and carried some considerable distance, from its bed in one
of these nullahs, by the water which usually flows down them in the
monsoon season.

292 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 4, NEWSERIES,

‘‘ From a few samples I have seen of various stones said to have been
brought from the Oodagherry Talook ; and from the report of Natives, I
should consider that the country in that direction was far superior to the
country about here, in a geological point of view. Some of the stones
which are said to come from Oodagherry, certainly look very like ordi-
nary mountain lime: but as I am at present without any of the various
chemicals requisite for proving limestone, I am unable to speak positively

on the point.

* * * Upon showing a small piece of ‘* Blue Mountain limestone,”’
which I generally carry about in my pocket, toa Native while out ex.
ploring about nine miles West of the town he informed me, that he had
seen stone of the same “‘ caste,”’ either in the hills between Dootaloor and
Oodagherry or in the mountains, West of latter town; and that it was ge-
nerally used for making images, and pillars of small temples.”

We have much pleasure in subjoining the following Report by
Mr. Wall, the Mineral Viewer, upon the several specimens forward-
ed by Mr. Powell.

The minerals are chiefly of volcanic origin, consisting of specimens of
chrystallized schorl and mica; there are also several pieces of sedimenta~
ry rocks, micaceous sandstones and cherts, ferruginous sandstone, two or
three pieces of chert, probably silicified wood, and samples of nodular~
limestone or kunkur.

The series indicate a volcanic district with sedimentary deposits, the de-
bris of those in the neighbourhood ; none are at all connected with the oc-
currence of coal. The black substance looked upon by Mr. Powell as coal
is schorl, this substance is readily distinguished from coal by its non-com-
bustible properties.

Besides the minerals enumerated above there is a combustible substance
amongst them, asphaltum, this differs much in appearance from coal and 4
when heat is applied to it, it will be found to melt very readily.

The following is a list of the minerals forwarded :—

Voucanic Rocks.
Chrystallized schorl.
Do. mica black and white.
Schorl and mica imbedded in compact quartz.
Granular quartz.
Varieties of granite in a state of decomposition.
Kaolin or decomposed felspar.

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] Coal ai Neilore. 293

Pitchstone.

Asphaltum.

SEDIMENTARY Rocks,

Ferruginous sandstone.
Micaceous do.

Do. schorl.
Chert.
Kunkur

Amongst the above may be mentioned as of economic value.

Asphaltum,
Kaolin.
Kunkur.

Further search should be made for the Asphaltum if it can be obtained
in any quantity.

Further samples of Kaolin should also be forwarded from the district,
that of a white color being valuable for pottery.

I have also examined the small pieces of the lumps of coal found by Mr.
Powell in 1856. It is slightly bituminous or coking coal, and is of a quality
very superior to those samples I have had the opportunity to examine as
the production of this country. Had this piece been transported from its
position ‘‘ in situ’’ by the action of water to the place where found, it is
not probable but that a further search would have produced more speci-
mens ; this from Mr. Powell’s letter seems not to have been the case.

The most reasonable explanation regarding it seems to be that it isa
piece of foreign coal that has been conveyed into the district and accidently

dropped.
If however the opportunity offers to Mr. Powell for further search he

should do so, along the nullahs in direction towards their rise and towards
the part of the country where the sedimentary rocks are to be observed.

I am informed by Dr. Hunter that D. White, Esq, forwarded to him
in 1850, from the Tada Talook in Nellore, a piece of coal. Upon examin-
ing this specimen now in the Museum of Industrial Arts, I find it to be
Lignite ; this substance is met with very frequently in many parts of India,
and occurs in the alluvial deposits in isolated lumps, it burns with much
flame and smoke, emitting a strong pyroligneous odour, and upon examin-
ing the ash after combustion, it will be found to preserve the original form
of the material, it is somewhat lighter in weight than coal, the specific gra-
vity of some pieces I met with in the bed of the Godavery was 1:23, whilst

that of Coal is from 1°30 to 1°45.

294 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

Specimens of Colton and information desired with a view to
the Chemical investigation of the Cotton Plant.

Mr. Mallet, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Alabama
W. S. is engaged in investigating the Chemistry, Natural history
and Physical condition of the cotton plant, and has applied to the
Court of Directors for specimens and information which may ena-
ble him to extend his researches to the varieties produced in India.

The following Memo. was at the same time drawn up by Mr.
Mallet to serve as a guide as to the kind of information desired by
him from those supplying him with specimens.

It would be desirable to have specimens from four or five of the Cotton
growing localities of India, differing in soil and climate, those which are
most important now, or may be expected hereafter to become so.

Separate analysis should be made of the ash of the following parts of the
plant, and specimens will therefore be required of

(ist.) The root.

(2d.) The stem (with smaller branches and twigs.)
(3d.) The leaves.

(4th.) The bole or pod.

(Sth.) The seed.

(6th.) The fibre or cotton.

About four pounds of each of these parts (in the green state) would be
needed, hence a sufficient number of entire plants should be collected to
yield at least the above amount of each part. :

The total weight of the entire plants clear of earth and in their fresh
green state must be stated, they must be weighed free from rain or extra-
neous moisture.

The specimens should be gathered in dry weather and just after the bole
has fully opened.

The whole of the root, as of every other organ should be taken, each
specimen should then be put up in. paper or cotton cloth, and distinctly
marked and referred to a list, the marks legible and indelible.

Besides the plants, about four pounds weight of the soil in which they
were grown should be also put up in cotton cloth, and similarly labelled,
carefully referring to the plants taken therefrom.

Information as to the following points accompanying the specimens
would be very important and valuable.

guty—seEPt. 1857.] Graphite in Travancore. 295

(1st.) Nature and depth of the soil as to dryness or moisture reten-
tiveness, what other crops are grown in it, is it deemed very fertile, any
special weeds ?

(2d.) Geological and topographical character of the District, nature
of underlying rock, level above the sea, well or ill-drained naturally ?

(3d.) Climate (especially as regards rains, their amount and the sea-
sons at which they fall), is irrigation employed, when and how long in the
year ?

(4th.) Kind of seed used and whence obtained.

(5th.) General character of plant whether herbaceous or tree cotton ?

(6th.) Average height of plant and spread of branches, distances
from plant to plant ?

(7th.) Average spread of roots in depth and laterally ?

(8th.) Mode of cultivation, time of planting, distance at which
plants are placed apart, amounts of labor bestowed upon weeding during
growth time, of flowering time, of picking, duration of picking, &c., “ gin-
ned’’ cotton fibre produced per acre, weight produced per hand employed.

(9th.) Manure used, if any Cotton seed returned to the soil. Stalks
allowed to decay on the field.

(10th.) Diseases or ravages of insects to which the plant is subject.

Some samples of the “ ginned” cotton ready for market might be use-
ful as affording by comparison with the raw fibre an idea of the degree of
care with which the seed is separated. The value of the fibre depends to
a very great extent upon the attention given to this mechanical prepara-
tion,

Graphite in Travancore.

(Extract of a letter dated Trevandrum, 16th July 1857, from Lieut. General W.
CvuuL_en, Resident at Travancore and Cochin to E. Maurpy, Esq., Acting
Chief Secretary to Government, Fort Saint George.)

* In continuation of former* communications on the existence of
Graphite in Travancore, I have now the honor to report that I
have just returned from a visit to the locality from whence the
specimens were procured by me, though presented by Mr. John
Loch, for the Exhibition in London in 1851; and I have brought
in with me upwards of a ton of the ore, and out of whichI ex-

:s * Vide p. 257, Vol. I. No. IL. N.S, of this Journal.— Ep.

296 Screntrfic Intelligence. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

pect with ease to select at least 10 or 12 ewts. perhaps more, which
will be nearly if not entirely pure and free from laterite, clays or
particles of quartz, and from which I hope that a fair estimate may
be formed of its commercial value, when the working of the mine
is properly conducted.

** The plumbago deposit is at a place called Ponalaul in the Oola-
malakul Property about 10 miles from Trevandrum in a North East
direction on the road to Areenaud. It is found in a rather loose
gravelly laterite, and 4 or 5 feet below the surface.

“A hole of about 15 to 20 feet diameter and about 4 to 5 feet
deep was first sunk to the plumbago which appeared to form a
nearly horizontal layer of from 1 to 2 feet in thickness, but its
breadth was not correctly ascertained. Having laid open the
whole surface of the plumbago in the pit, and as it seemed to tread
in a South West direction, a trench B C was dug from the well at
B towards C about 18 feet long and 384 to 44deep until the
plumbago vein or deposit was again met with, and it was traced as
far as C where a narrow trench was dug at right angles to B C,
and the Graphite was there again found. From the limited area
exposed in the original pit about 1} ton of Graphite was obtained.
The deposit appeared to be extensive and traces of Graphite were
also discovered in other holes sunk at various distances from the
main deposit. The total quantity of crude or uncleared ore
brought in was about 2,700 lbs., of which perhaps 3 or 400 lbs.
may have been strictly foreign matter or laterite clays, but in some
of the masses it required a good deal of trouble to get rid of the
clay which formed thin seams or partings in the masses of ore, and
which to separate entirely from some of the smaller lumps, requir-
ed a good deal of abrasion and loss, With more care and leisure
which I could not at the time readily affora, I have no doubt I
might have obtained from 1,800 to 2,000 lbs., instead of as now
only 1,000 to 1,200 lbs. of pure Graphite from the crude collection
of 2,700 lbs.

*“‘ The hire for digging the above 2,700 lbs. crude ore was about 3
Rupees, the carriage by men to Trevandyum 12 Rupees or total 15
Rupees or at the rate of about 3 Rupee per 100 lbs., or for the

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] Oolacamund Government Garden. 297

cleared Graphite, which I have prepared for shipment, at the rate
of 1 Rupee per 100 Ibs., but as I have above noticed I have little
doubt that with ease it may be put down at Trevandrum which is
within 15 mile of the sea at 2 Rupee per 100 lbs., without includ-
ing any duty that the Travancore Government may hereafter con-
sider it advisable to impose.

“ From the smaller fragments of the Graphite I have by pounding
it and washing the powder in water endeavoured to separate the
clays, and I believe I have succeeded to a considerable extent, and
I shall also prepare for dispatch 1 or 2 cwts. of this powder.

** T beg to forward a few coarsely made pencils prepared from
the Graphite by a common peon, which would seem to prove the
good quality ofthe material. I have prepared boxes to hold about
200 lbs. each, and the Government may perhaps approve of its being
dispatched by sea from Cochin to England, and may approve of in-
structions being sent to the Collector of Malabar or Master Attend-
ant at Cochin, to make arrangements for its shipment.

Government Horticultural Garden, Ootacamund.

For some years, I have read the Reports of this Government
Institution with much pleasure, although I had not seen Mr.
MclIvor or his Garden ; but this year, my forest duties necessitat-
ing my proceeding to the Neilgherry Hills, I delayed forwarding
the remarks called for, until I had an opportunity of ascertaining
by inspection, and noting in some detail, ‘‘ The present condition,
resources and prospects of the Institution.”

_ Ten years have elapsed since the Marquis of Tweeddale origi-
nated the scheme of this Garden, and the Court of Directors
selected (on the recommendation I believe of Dr. Royle and Sir
Wn. Hooker) the present Superintendent, who is eminently qua-
lified by early training at the Royal Gardens, Kew, for carrying
out the objects of the Institution.

The earlier stages of the Garden’s existence have passed, and
I need not perhaps allude to the great difficulties to be overcome

298 Scientific intelligence. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

in commencing a Garden on these Mountains with a scanty income
of 100 rupees per mensem, and the experience to be gained before
exotics from various lands could be successfully introduced. I
will, however, observe that the present condition of the Garden
is very creditable to Mr. Melvor, who has labored by himself
from the beginning without the aid of professional advice, and al-
though much remains to be done, yet on making inquiry, I find
it generally admitted by visitors that great progress has been made

during the past year.

In the upper part, the borders and beds have been well planned
and arranged, and have a neat and trim appearance. The view
from the higher terraces is romantic, and from them only can the
general plan be well seen and understood. On the grassy banks
along the sides of the main walk, are clumps of showy flowers,
and scattered through the ground are fine standard Acacia, Lu-
calipti, Conifere, Psoralea, Swainsonia, Pultene, Humee, Hakee,
&c. Excepting a few specimens of Mahonia Laschenaulta, Rhodo-
dendron Arboreum, Sapota Elengoides, Myrtus tomentosa, Ilex Wigh-
tiana and Viburnum acuminatum ; all the rest of the trees in the
Garden seem to be introduced.

The lower part of the Garden is not in good order. It was ori-
ginally a swamp, and suffers from frost in clear winter nights ; the
cold air formed on the slopes of the Mountains, rolls down into the
valley and envelopes the herbage, blighting many tender plants,
It is now protected from the high winds by rows of Australian
trees, and there is a prospect of Mr. Mclvor devoting his energies
to it as soon as the Conservatory is finished. As Dahlias and
many other plants which are not hurt on the upper slopes are kill-
ed by the frosts below, and as this evil cannot be entirely averted,
it is proposed to make this part a grassy lawn for exhibitions of
Native produce, with an avenue of 50 feet in breadth leading from
the gate to the Conservatory.

GeneRAL Resuxits.—I have great pleasure in observing that the
introduction of the seeds obtained through Government from Saha-
runpore, Darjeeling, China, Australia and the Cape has been most

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] Oofacamund Government Garden. 299

satisfactory, A very considerable number of Timber and Forest

trees, Shrubs and Herbaceous plants have been secured to the
country, and thrive remarkably well, which alone renders the ef-
forts of Mr. Mclvor of great importance, especially as the seeds are
sufficient for abundant distribution.

Timper TreEs.—Amongst the Timber trees are the Blue Gum
tree, the Deodar and the Patagonian Pine, perhaps I may add
the Turkey Oak, Turkey Box and the Irish Yew, these latter are
still of small size. The European Pines (Larix and Abies) have
not answered well. On the other hand, the Acacia Rubusta of
Australia is in such abundance as to stamp a peculiar feature in
the scenery, which is entirely wanting in the drawings of Ootaca-
mund (Colonel McKurdy’s) printed 15 years ago.

Fruit Trers.—The best varieties of English Apples and Pears
are cultivated. Figs and Vines grow well. Also Oranges and
Lemons—these latter succeed remarkably at the branch Garden
* Kulhutty” which I visited and found the following trees bear-
ing fruit,—Natal Plum, Newton Pippin, Malta Orange, St. Mi-
chael’s Orange, Spanish Citron and Ischia Figs. Numerous grafts
and seedlings have been sent to various parts of the country, as to
Ramandroog in Bellary, Koodramooka in South Canara, and the
Baba Booden Hills, Mysore. A complete set of Fruit Trees is
about to be supplied to the Bangalore Garden, from which by rea-
son of its central position and the cheaper carriage, I expect there
will be a most abundant distribution of valuable productions radi-
ating over the country.

Mepicinat Propucts.—The Digitalis purpurea (Fox glove) is
srown for the supply of the Medical Store on annual indent;
the Spearmint and Peppermint thrive remarkably in the Upper
Garden and could be supplied in large quantity. Two large and
healthy Jalap Plants are in great luxuriance ; these Mr. MclIvor
proposes to remove to the Subsidiary Garden at Kulhutty with the
hope of being able to propagate them extensively. This would
be a great result. Two Cinchonaceous plants from Patagonia re-
ceived from Mr, Lobb under the name of Cinchona micrantha, and

500 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,
-
a small specimen of the Cephdelis Ipecacuanha are in the Garden,
but they appear to suffer from the misty atmosphere. It is of the
utmost consequeuce, that the introduction of the true Cinchonas
should be fairly tried on the Neilgherries, and Mr. MelIvor is well
able to conduct the experiment. The drugs have been hitherto
delivered free of charge, it seems to me that the cost of productions
should be charged to the Medical Department, as this Institution

has always been hampered for want of Funds.

Buitpines.—The Conservatory sanctioned at an estimated cost
of Rupees 4,300 is far advanced towards completion, and will un-
questionably be a great acquisition to the Garden. The structure
was designed by Capt. Francis, Engineers, and approved by Mr.
MelIvor. The delay in its erection has been unavoidable, as re-
ported by the Committee.

The seed-house lately suffered serious damage from fire and re-
quires to be rebuilt. ‘he site selected by Mr. Mclvor is close to
his Bungalow ina dry and convenient situation. This is a most
important department of the Garden, from which seeds ripe and
correctly named can be at all times distributed to various parts of
the country. An alteration of this old seed-house so as to admit
four or even six apprentices and sleeping quarters would be highly

advantageous. A plan and estimate amounting
oe to Rupees 1,650 has been forwarded* I under-
stand by the Committee for sanction. This provides I believe for
flues and close-fitting drawers, dryness being essential for the pre-
servation of seeds.

Serps.—Mr. Mclvor has made some important attempts at grow-
ing European vegetable seeds in India. Experimental samples of
many kinds have been sent by him to Dr. Wight, and these are
now under trial in the Garden of the Horticultural Society, Lon-
don. If a favorable opinion be given, Southern India will no
longer be dependent for kitchen garden seeds upon England, France
or the Cape. So far as the seeds have been tested in this country
the result has been favorable, especially the Lettuce, Carrots, &c.
It has occurred to me that the Soldiers’ Gardens of this Presidency
should be supplied with Neilgherry and English seed in equal

juLty—sert. 1857.] Oolacamund Government Garden. 501

quantity, and from the Reports received a few deductions may be
drawn as to their comparative value.

Nia
o

Financres.—The statement in future years may be improved by
entering more into detail, and showing clearly the various items of
receipt and expenditure, as for instance, the expenses of the Kul-
hutty Nursery and the Horse Allowance for visiting it, and the
monthly outlay for labour. These appear at present under the
head of “ Working expenditure.” The accounts should be audit-
ed by one or more of the Garden Committee.

In the previous report of the Garden, it was stated that the total
outlay was about rupees 200 per mensem, but this year, I am happy
to observe that the income has risen to nearly rupees 400 per men-
sem, being 100 rupees of Government allowance and about 300
rupees by sales ; this shows an encouraging state of progress in a
financial point of view, and has allowed Mr. Mclvor to carry out
considerable improvements in the Upper Garden.

Prices.—The extreme facility with which many trees and plants
may be propagated, and the comparative mildness of the winter,
during which season many exotics continue to grow from cuttings
(if planted out of the reach of frost) would warrant their sale at a
reduced rate.

It is the object of Government to introduce as many species as
possible at the lowest cost, consistent with the repayment to the
garden of the actual expenses of introduction and propagation,
with a sufficient surplus to meet the repairs of buildings, &c. and
to admit of the extension of operations.

- A strong feeling generally prevails that the prices named in the
Catalogue are high, and I cannot doubt, but that advantage would
arise from lowering them (as formerly urged by me). I have dis-
cussed fhis point with Mr. MclIvor, who naturally adduces the
fact that the income of the Garden depends largely upon sales ; I
am disposed to meet his objection by recommending that Govern-
ment should sanction the debit of the actual cost of drugs supplied
to the Medical Board, and of trees to the Department Public

302 Serentific Intelligence. [No. 4, NEW SERIES, '

Works. Certain trees, for instance, might be supplied to the
roads at one anna each, or rupees five per hundred, and the cooly
hire for collecting and preparing the drugs should, I think, be
charged to the Medical Department ; this Mr. McIvor states would
allow of a reduction of 25 per cent.

The Acacia Robusta, Weeping Willow, Cypress, Ivy, kc. are of
very easy culture and could certainly be sold at a reduced rate.
Fuchsias, Chrysanthemums, Geraniums, &c. &c. would be dear at
English prices, but with fruit trees especially a low price is to be
desired. Vines and Figs propagate readily from cuttings ; Apples
and Pears can be grafted during a great part of the year, anda
cheaper rate would repay their cost. Plums, Peaches and Cher.
ries are more difficult of propagation, and their price might rea-
sonably be higher. On the whole, it appears to me that a con-
tinuance of the present rates will cause a partial failure of the
object of the Institution and induce Residents to procure plants
and seeds from England instead of availing themselves of the local
Establishment, where the same plants are procurable.

In the weekly market at Ootacamund there is an increasing
display of fine specimens of Garden produce. The proposal of
establishing an Annual Exhibition of Vegetables, Fruits and Flow-
ers is a good one. Government might contribute 100 rupees to-
wards the expenses of this, on the condition that the Committee
raise an equal sum from among the Residents.

Coonoor Nursery.—Before leaving the Neilgherry Hills, I
visited the Coonoor Subsidiary Garden in company with Mr.
Mclyor. It is wellsheltered and well watered, situated 15 mile from
Coonoor. Nine gardeners are employed, including the Maistry at
the cost sanctioned of 50 Rupees per mensem. The Orange ap-
pears to grow here in as great perfection as at Malta or Canton,
and when the Garden is in full operation will probably'do away
with the necessity of keeping up the Kulhutty Nursery which
might,be then sold with advantage. There would be three Gar-
dens forming a graduated series in one line of road. Alpine,
Subalpine, and Tropical, viz., Ootacamund, Coonoor, and Burliar.

JULY—SseEP?. 1857.] Preservation of Timber. 303

The latter, indeed, is the private property of E.

Jack trees.

Nutmeg do. B. Thomas, Esq., Collector of Coimbatore, but
Cl do. . - . :
‘ATiveice as. from his zeal in Arboriculture, and great libera-
Cinnamon trees. : : : . °
Cocoa oi apd to all Ls its usefulness for dissemi-
Vanilla creeper. nating Tropical products is almost as great as if
Peach trees. : : hs
Drange do. it were public property. In the margin, I annex
ime do.

Pumplemoss trees. list of the Fruit trees, Aromatic shrubs, &c.
Grenadilla Vine. now cultivated in this rich but confined nook, in

Mangosteen. ;

Rose apple. which the Cocoa tree, Nutmeg, Allspice, &c.,
Loquat. ; ee
Pine apple. have succeeded admirably, and from which it is

the hope of Mr. Thomas, that they may be ex-
tensively spread over congenial climates, such as the Wynaad and
other parts of Malabar.—Memorandum on the Government Garden
of Ootacamund by H. Cireacuorn, Supt. Botanical Gardens.

Preservation of Timber.

The Permanent Way Company, 26 Great George Street, West-
minster, are employing with success Dr. Boucherie’s method of
preserving timber. Solutions of preservative substances are in-
troduced by the patent process into various kinds of timber, in
such a way as to expel the fermentescible sap, and substitute mat-
ter less liable to undergo destructive changes. It has been found
that sulphate of copper, dissolved in the proportion of at least 24
Ibs. to 22 gallons of water, is the best preservative. It is said
that white pine thus impregnated with sulphate of copper, placed
in the ground as railway sleepers, or exposed to the action of the
air, lasts longer than oak unprepared placed in the same situa-
tions. ‘The Directors of the Chemin de Fer du Nord state, that
Dr. Boucherie’s process has produced most satisfactory results as
regards sleepers when completely prepared. Those in use s:nce
1846 were as good in 1855 as when laid down. The sleepers are
Beech, Hornbeam, Birch, and Pine. The posts for the telegra-
phic wires prepared by this process, have also shown great dura-
bility. The process thus appears to impart durability to woods
which are cheap and abundant.—Ldinburgh Philosophical Journal,
April 1857. 7

S04 Seientific Intelligence. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

Height of the Himalayas.

It appears from a late survey made of the Himalaya range, by
Colonel Waugh, that the Khanchinjinga, which has been hitherto ;
supposed to be the highest summit, is in fact not so—a higher
mountain having been discovered, situated between Katamandoo
and Khanchinjinga. This last named is 28,156 feet above the
level -of the sea; but the new summit reaches the enormous height
of 29,002 feet. It has been proposed to call this Mount Everest,
after a former surveyor-general of India,—Jbid.

Effects of the sting of Scorpions.

Mr. Westwood communicated an extract from a letter of a cor-
respondent in India relative to the effects of a sting of a Scorpion.
It is described as very severe, resembling the pain of a dozen wasp
stings concentrated in the same spot. The finger began to swell,
and the whole arm pained excessively, with a feeling of sickness.
Ipecacuanha powder was applied, in the form of a paste, to the
sting, and brandy and water taken liberally. A native doctor, on
being sent for, after rubbing the arm, at length suggested a native
remedy, namely a small pan of live charcoal, upon which were oc-
casionally, as they melted, thrown pieces of wax, the smoke from
which was allowed to arise over the wound, and which allayed the
pain to such a degree that in about an hour and a half the patient
was able to smoke. The stung finger was still insensible to the
touch and very much swollen, the arm cold as ice, although it had
been rubbed for two hours, whilst the sound hand and arm were
hot. More brandy and water, with cigars were tried. The pa-
tient fell into a long sleep, and awoke next morning with but slight
remains of the pain of the sting.—Zoologist, 5642.

How to get rid of Musquitos.

Mr. Fortune exhibited samples of the article known as “ mus-
quito tobacco” in China. He stated the composition to be the saw-
dust of pine and juniper, with the powdered roots of a species of
Artemisia and a small quantity of Arsenic. These are formed into

JULY—sEPT. 1857.] The Culture of Silk. : 308

a paste, and coated over slender sticks, of about two feet in length,
which are burnt as candles and never fail in driving the musquitos
from the room. Mr. Fortune added that the Artemisia, which is
a species growing wild on the Chinese hills, is employed to fumi-
gate bee-hives, in order to take the honey without killing the bees.
—Zoologist, 5644.

The Mulberry-tree with reference to the culture of Silk.

The art of rearing silk worms for the sake of the thread spun
by them had its origin we believe in China. About the 6th cen-
tury it was introduced into Greece, from whence several centuries
afterwards it was carried into Sicily and found its way thence into
Italy and Europe. It is now carried on very successfully in many
countries but particularly inthe South of France, Italy and Spain.
East Indian silk comes chiefly from Bengal and is inferior in
quality to both}China and Europe produce. Itisalso made to some
extent in Mysore, Cuddapah, Pondicherry and various parts of the
Dekhan.

As the mulberry tree plays an important part in the process of
silk manufacture, the following extract of a letter from the corres-
pondent of the Zzmes, dated Paris 22d June, 1857, is inserted as
bearing on the conditions under which the culture of silk is most
successfully prosecuted, and pointing to the advantage which
might attend an experiment on some of the more elevated hill-
tracts of India, as the Nilagiris, Baba Booden, Pulney, Bella Run-
gan and other ranges, where we believe it has never been tried.

‘“‘ The silk crop is sufficiently advanced in the south of France for the
growers to be certain that it will be more productive than last year. M.
Dumas, who was commissioned by the Academy of Sciences to investi-
gate the causes of the disease which destroyed so many silkworms last
year, and to discover a means of removing it, proceeded to Alais last
month for the purpose of minutely examining the state of matters. He
has smce communicated to the Academy the results of his observations:
M. Dumas has discovered that all the reports relative to the leaves of the
mulberry trees being diseased are unfounded. ‘The leaves throughout the
south this year are splendid, and where the eggs are sound the results have

306 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

been most satisfactory. M. Dumas states that the eggs produced in France,
Spain, Piedmont, and Lombardy have in general failed, as well as many
of those imported from the East, but it is suspected that the latter were
produced in infected countries and sent to the East to be sold as if produc-
ed there. The eggs from Adrianople, Lebanon, and the Roman States
were remarkably successful. Whenever M. Dumas could ascertain the
origin of the sound eggs he universally found that they were produced in
a mountainous country—that is, in pure air frequently renewed, and that
the silkworms were fed on mulberry trees grown in elevated situations,
One fact demonstrates what influence an elevated situation exercises on
the health of the silkworm. M. Dumas found an intelligent breeder of
silkworms, named Etienne, living on the small mountain of St. Germain,
near Alais. Four years since he usedeggs brought from Italy, and his
success was complete. While all the silkworms bred in the low grounds
died, he again succeeded, and even last year he produced a quantity of
eggs sufficient for himself and for several other breeders. His success and
that of the other breeders who made use of his eggs was so great that at
this moment the entire country is astonished at it. M. Dumas says, in
conclusion, that this year the breeders have tried every description of egg
and every system. ‘They were favoured by admirable spring weather and
faultless mulberry leaves. It may be expected, therefore, that next year,
if the weather should prove favourable, the experience now gained will
enable the breeders to resume the course of their ancient prosperity.”

The Volvox Globator.

In illustration of Mr. Bidie’s paper in the present No. on the
connection between the animal and the plant, we observe by
recent No. of the Journal of the Microscopical Society that the well
known animalcule—the Volvox globator—which has always hitherto
been classed among the Inrusorra is now proved to belong to
the Vegetable kingdom.

In fact the limit between these two great divisions of organised
forms appears to be indefinable. It has certainly not yet been
discovered although many attempts have been to prescribe the
exact boundary that separates them.

The earlier physiologists considered that such a limit was ob-
tained by the presence pr absence in the organism of a power of

|

JULY—SEPT. 1857.] The Volvox Globator. 807

spontaneous motion or more properly locomotion. But this was
soon seen to be insufficient for most of the Polypes and some of
the Echinodermata ; all Cirripedes ; and even some of the higher
orders—the Serpula among ArricuLaTa and the Oyster among
Mo.uwvscs are fixed to the rocks on which they grow.

_ On the other hand the Spores of many Atce@ is of Vaucheria and
of the Sponges have a very rapid locomotion.

The next distinction attempted to be drawn was taken from the
mode of deriving nourishment, ‘“ plants” it was said “absorbing
“ nutriment by means of fibres at the lower extremity of the body,
“‘animals by an opening (or mouth) at the upper end, conducting
‘to a capacious sac’ (or stomach.)

But the Gregarina,a genus of microscopic parasites infesting
gregariously the intestinal canals of insects, worms, &c. and seve-
ral of the free InrusorIA have neither mouth nor stomach and
there is no stomach in Cestordea one of the larger Enrozoa. They
are supposed to derive nutriment by absorption through the skin.

A third characteristic was supposed to have been found in the fa-
culty possessed by plants of exhaling oxygen whilst animals expire
carbonic acid. But here too the distinction fails; some of the free
moving Polygastria eliminate pure oxygen in one stage of their
existence while Mushrooms and Sponges have been found to give
out pure carbonic acid gas.

Another chemical distinction it was thought had been discover-
ed in the quaternary composition of animals which are resolvable
into carbon, oxygen, bydrogen and nitrogen, whereas owing to the
absence of the last mentioned element, the constitution of plants
is ternary. Cellulose indeed is a binary compound of carbon and
hydrogen only. But neither does this definition hold. Nitrogen
is found in Alge, Fungi and most cryptogamous plants. And on
the other hand, the mantle of Frustulia a mouthless Polygastria
and the thick cellular coat of <Asczdia are binary compounds. Mr.
Bidie has shown that there is reason to suppose the same binary
constitution is not unknown among the highest order of animal ex-
istence, in the brain of MamMarta.

308 Serentifie Intelligence. [No, 4, NEWSERIES,

Some writers have maintained that the green coloring fluid which
circulates round the cells of plants under the name of Chlorophyll
was peculiar to vegetable productions only, but it occurs likewise
in green Planarice and in fresh water Polypes. With more reason
the presence of starch has been thought to indicate a vegetable
origin. But the test is not infallible. Others have supposed the
power of continuing their race by voluntary division to be a distinc-
tive function of the lower order of animals endowed with locomo-
tion. But red snow and the yeast plant (Zorula) are propagated
by spontaneous fission and in many of the simple ALaq@ the cells
elongate and divide themselves to form new individuals.

Hence it appears that a line of demarcation between these two
great divisions of created existence has still to be discovered. Nay
some have asserted the existence of organised bodies in an animal
state at one period of their lives and in a vegetable one afterwards.
This view, first started by Bory de St. Vincent, has more recently
been revived by Kiitzing who gives an elaborate description in his
work on the Anca of an organism which he calls the Ulothrix Zo-
nara, the young of what are propagated in the form of minute ani-
malculz which he declares he has detected in the cells of the plant
and which afterwards become vegetable threads or lines and give
out a new series, of animal offspring! The views of the most re-
cent writers on the particular example cited below appear how-
ever to be still divided. In arecent work of that most distinguish-
ed of living physiologists, Professor Owen,* the Volvox globator re-
tains its place among the Polygastria at the lowest extremity of ani-
mal life, whilst the following extract shows that, more careful ob-
servations are considered to have established its plang among the
ALGe in the vegetable kingdom.

“In a paper cently read before the Academy of Sciences in Paris,
Professor Coun states that his own observations on the Volvocince
have convinced him that the members of that family must be re-
garded as belonging to the vegetable kingdom, and that the Vol-
vox globator in particular, is properly placed among the Atea. In
this singular plant, as well as in Hudorina, Gonium. Stephanosph

a

* Lectures on Animals without Vertebre, 1805.

JULY—SseEPT. 1857.] The Volvox Globator. 309

era, and the other Volvocinee, each spherurle is, propely speaking,
not so much an individual as an association or family of individu-
als a sort of vegetable polypary.”’

“« The globe of Volvoz is formed at its periphery of an infinitude
of very minute hexagonal cells attached to each other in the same
way as are the elements of an epidermic tissue. Each of the cells
is furnished with two motile cilia and may be compared with a
Chlamydococcus. The green endochrome is suspended as it were,
in the cavity, being connected with the wall only by means of fili-
form processes.

* Likeall the Ataq, the Volvocineeé present two distinct modes of
reproduction; but up to the present time naturalists have been ac-
quainted with only one of these, consisting in the repeated seg-
mentation of the constituent cells, and resembling the fissiparity of
Chlamydococcus and Gonium, or that of most of the Palmellacee.

“The second mode of reproduction of Volvox requires a sexual
conjunction and is not observed indifferently in all individuals.
The spherules endowed with the sexual function, are distinguish-
ed by their volume and the more considerable number of their
component utricles ; they are generally moncecious that is to say
they enclose at the same time male and female cells although the
majority of their contents are neuter. The female cells soon ex-
ceed their neighbours in size, assume a deeper green colour, and
become elongated like a matrass towards the centre of the Volvoz.
The endochrome of these cells does not undergo fission. In the
other cells on the contrary, which acquire the size and form of the
female cells, the green plasma may be seen to divide symmetrical-
ly into an infinity of very minute particles or linear corpuscles, as-
sociated into discoid bundles. These are furnished with vibratile
cilia, and oscillate, at first slowly in their prism, but the movement
soon becomes more active, and the bundles speedily break up into
their constituent elements. The free corpuscles are very agile,
and it is impossible to regard them as anything but true spermato-
zoids; they are linear and thickened at the posterior extremity :
two long cilia are placed behind their middle, and the rostrum
which is curved like the neck of a swan possesses sufficient con-

$10 Scientific Intelligence. [NO. 4, NEW SERIKS,

tractibility to execute the most varied movements. These sper-
matozoids so soon as they are able to disperse themselves in the
cavity of the Volvox, quickly crowd around the female cells into
which they eventually penetrate; arrived there, they attach them-

selves by the beak to the plastic globule, destined in each cell to |
form a spore, and with which they are gradually incorporated.
Fecundation having been thus effected, the reproductive globule
becomes enveloped successively by an integument exhibiting coni-

cal pointed eminences and by an interior smooth membrane ; the
chlorophyll which it contained is now replaced by starch grains and |
a red or orange coloured oil. Thisis the condition of the spore at |
maturity and occasionally forty of these bodies may be counted
in a single globe of Volvox. The germination of these reproduc-
tive bodies has not yet been.observed, so that their history cannot ‘
be regarded as complete: but from analogy it may, in the mean-
while, be assumed that they germinate in the same way as do the
spores of “dogonium Spheroplea, and other Auaa belonging to
the same order. It may be maintained moreover, as certain
that the Spherosira volvoz, Ehr., is nothing else than a mone-
cious Volvor globator; that his Volvox stellatus is also V. glo-
bator, observed at the time when it is filled with stellate spores,
and, lastly, that the V. aureus of the same author differs from
the other forms of the same species, simply in the smooth [and
coloured | condition of the spores.” —Journal Microscop. Society, Vol.
V, page 149, No. XIX for 1857.

It must be added that Professor Corn is by no means the first
discoverer of the true nature of the Volvocine.

At the meeting of the Microscopic Society of London on the
26th May 1852 a paper on “the structure and development of
Volvoz globator and its relations to other unicellular plants” was
read by Mr. Georce Busx, F. R. S. followed by a copious Appen-
dix in the Oct. of the same year. Between which Professor William-
son also submitted a paper on “the farther elucidation of the
structure of V. globator” at the meeting of the 21st June, These
papers which go into the subject at great length are of too techni-
cal a character to suit the purpose of this Journal.

JULY—SsEPT. 1857.] Oriental Literature. 311

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

Oriental.

SALAMAN AND ABsAL, an Allegory translated from the Persian of
Jami. London, 1856, in 8vo. XVI. et 84 pages.

The Journal Asiatique for February and March 1857, No. 34,
announces the publication of the above poem in English blank
verse, and says of the translator :—

“« He is a pupil of M‘Cowel, the Editor of the Grammaire pracrite de
Vararuchi, a favorite with men of letters generally and especially with
the friends of Persian literature with the translation of which he occupies
himself. We know that in the greater part of Persian Poems the narra-
tive is interspersed with anecdotes intended to place in relief the opinions
the author; but these do not detach themselves sufficiently from the
original text, and a certain obscurity sometimes arises thereby. The
author of the translation has remedied this inconvenience by putting
the anecdotes into shorter verses, and by using italics so as to distin-
guish them entirely from the principal narrative and to permit the reader
to pass them over, should he so choose, without losing the thread o¢
thestory. * * * ™ Jami was born at the commencement of the 15th
century, and lived 81 years. He was already an old man, when he wrote
Salaman o Absal and he complains in the introduction of his poem, “ that
his 2 eyes were no longer of any use to him, and that European spectacles
had not given him four eyes’’*

A new Persian grammar is announced by Mr. A. H. Bleeck un-
der the title of a 4 Concise Grammar of the Persian Language
(Quaritch). It is a small but useful work, and to the great majori-
ty of students, who do not pretend to acquire more than a fair know-
ledge of Persian, it will be found preferable to the large voluminous
dictionary of Mirza Ibrahim and others. Mr. Bleeck has given a
brief notice of Persian literature in the preface to his grammar, and
a list of books which he recommends to the attention of beginners.

* The translator by the substitution of one word for another has rendered the
reading.
* * * “My two eyes see no more
Till by Feringhe glasses turned to four.’’

312 Notices of Books. [no. 4, NEW sErius,

Natural History.

Flora Algeria. —M. Corson is continuing to publish his Flora of Algeria,
and is about to take a 4th Botanical trip into that country. He proposes
to examine the numerous cases of the so called desert of Sahara. On the
mountains of Atlas at each journey species have been discovered which
were supposed to be peculiar to Egypt or Arabic.—Z£d, Phil, Jour, April
1857. :

American Oology.—* We have in the press the first part of Dr. Brewer’s
great work on American Oology. It will include the rapacious birds, and
perhaps the swallows. There will be five quarto plates to this part, all the
figures taken in photograph, from the original eggs, and printed in colors.
The result is extremely beautiful and accurate.’’"—(Letter from Dr. Bird,
Smithsonian institute, Washington.) —Ed. Phil. Jour. April 1857.

Mr. F. Moore communicated a paper ‘ On the habits of some birds ob-
served in the plains of N. W. India in 1849,’ by the Rev. T. Philipps,
Baptist Missionary. The names of the birds described in this paper (sixty
in number) had been determined by comparison with specimens in the
Museum of the Hon. East India Company.

Mr. Moore read a paper containing descriptions of some new species of
Lepidopterous insects from Northern India, characterized as follows :—
Pieris Nama, E, Doubleday, M. S., P. Seta,, Moore ; P. Sanaca, Moore ;
P. Indra, Moore ; P. Durvasa, Moore; and Papilio Janaka, Moore.—D.

W.M.

Miscellaneous. )

Glimpses of Lifeand Manners in Persia, by Lady Sheil, London,
1857, in 8vo. (402 pages.)

This book is thus noticed in the Journal Asiatique for April—
May 1857, and we have much pleasure in endorsing the reviewer's
opinions upon it, who informs us that,—

‘“‘ Lady Sheil accompanied her husband Colonel Sheil, during his em-
bassy in Persia and passed 3 3 years in the country, principally at Tehe-
ran; she made once a voyage to Ispahan and passed a summer in the
mountains of Mazenderan. An elegant accomplished lady, she took the
trouble to learn to speak Persian, and she communicates to us, in an agree-
able and unpretending manner, her observations on the manners and cus-
toms of the country, and on every thing that she had an opportunity of

'

yuLY—sePt. 1857.] Miscellaneous. 313

seeing satisfactorily. The Colonel has added to his wife’s Journal a series
of detailed and very instructive notes on the ruins of Anz, on the Koords,
the Turcomans, the Nestorians; on Khiva, on Affghanistan, on the silk ma-
nufactures of Persia, on the Persian army, on the Revenue of the country,
and on the Nomadic tribes of whom he gives a nominal and numerical
list. These notes have a real value, as Colonel Sheil knows Persia well; he
has lived there for 21 years, as Military Instructor, Colonel of a Regi-
ment and finally as Ambassador. It is a pity that he has not gone into
more detail in these notes, especially those which refer to the Nomadic
tribes, concerning whom we have still but little information, while their
study is extremely interesting from many points of view.

After the same manner also the Vicountess Falkland has given
to the world a selection from her Oriental observations, in the
form of a book entitled Chouchow ; being selections from a Journal
kept in India, Egypt, and Syria, 2 vols. (Hunt and Blackett.) The
name at first sight is not a very inviting one, but the book improves
upon acquaintance and contains a narrative of many amusing scenes.
Lady Falkland accompanied her husband (Lord Falkland) in 1848,
when he was made Governor of Bombay, and the work under no-
tice is a pleasant precis of her personal experiences in the East. It
is not a volume demanding much attention, but at the same time,
is pleasantly written and for light reading is attractive and inter-
esting.

The list of new works for September, includes a work entitled,—
British India, its History, Topography, Government, Commerce, Sc.
By R. M. Martin. 1 vol. imp. 8vo. cloth, price 21s.

Also a little volume on “ India” generally, by Mr. Stocqueler,
and entitled Jndia. (Foolscap 8vo. boards, price 1s. 6d.)

Mrs. Young who is a great admirer of everything Indian has ad-
ded to her oriental sketches a book entitled Zhe Mosiem Noble:
his land and people; with some notices of the Parsees or Ancient Per-
stans. (Saunder’s and Ottley.) The Atheneum does not review
it very favorably, and thinks it will add little to her reputation.

- Another contribution to our knowledge of Mahomedan life and
manners, appeared about the same time as Mrs. Young’s book, en-

314 Notices of Books. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

titled Autobiography of Lutfullah, a Mahomedan gentleman; and
his transactions with his fellow creatures ; interspersed with remarks
on the habits, customs, and character of the people with whom he had
to deal. Edited by Edward B. Eastwick. (Smith, Elder and Co.)

The promised “* Memoirs and letters of the late Colonel Armine
J. H. Mountain, C. B., have at last appeared, edited by Mrs. Ar-
mine J. Mountain, his widow. To Military readers the memoirs
will have a peculiar interest, as Colonel Mountain was for some-
time Adjutant General of the Forces in India, and died at Futty-
ghur in January, 1854.

The Rev. J. C. Browne, Assistant Chaplain on the Bengal Esta-
blishment has written a small work on Indian Infanticide. It has
been published in England, and is priced 10s. 6d.

Having had opportunities of consulting official and other docu-
ments not easily accessible to people generally, Mr. Browne says
that he has been enabled to collect information of a valuable na-
ture on this interesting subject.

The Library of the Society has been furnished by Government
witha copy of the Cyclopedia of India and Eastern Asia. By Edward
Balfour, 1. R. c. s.E., Surgeon, Madras Army. It is issued in
Nos. of 100 pages each. Four Nos. have already appeared, con-
taining in all 2,755 words, which reach as far as C in the Alpha-
betical arrangement.

Such a work undertaken by one man, and one too engaged upon
numerous other duties, however studious and diligent he may be,
cannot but contain many imperfections. The author himself is
aware of this, but having long felt the want of some portable book
of reference on scientific and economic subjects connected with Eas-
tern countries, he has liberally come forward with his services and
has laid the foundation stone as it were of a work which is in-
tended to supply that want. There is no question but that his
long residence in India, his Scientific researches and his very vari-
ety of duties eminently fit him for a work of this character, which
however imperfect and incomplete as a whole, will be of great uti-
lity, and prove a valuable aid to others who may wish to walk in

JuLY—SEPT. 1857. ] Proceedings. 315

his footsteps. That there will be found such others willing to aid
in the good work we feel assured.

As more consonant with the times though of less literary impor-
tance, there have been announced within the last month or two ;

A new edition of The Mission the Canpand the Zenana, by Mrs.
Colin MacKenzie, under the title of Six years in India ; Delhi
the city of the great Mogul, with an account of the various tribes in
FHindoostan, Hindoo, Sikhs Afghans, ce.

Our Indian Army ; a Military History of the British Empire in
the Kast. By Captain Rarrer.

Dacoitee in Excelsis ; or the spoliation of Oude by the East India
Company.

Whatever the aim may have been of the author of this last men-
tioned publication, whether to get up a diversion in favor of the
Oude Ladies at home, or to stimulate attention to Indian affairs, he
could not well have selected a subject more mal-apropos to the
present time. Neither he nor his subject will attract much sym-
pathy just now.

The several publications and pamphlets elicited in explanation
of the present disastrous mutiny in Bengal are too numerous to
mention,

Sees

PROCEEDINGS.

The Managing Committee of the Mapras LITERARY Society and
Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday evening the
13th of August, and 10th of September, 1857.

The Honorable Walter Elliot in the Chair.

The usual Financial Statement had been read, it was decided
that the Funds were in after a satisfactory state, such a3 to allow of
the Library being stocked with such Standard works on different
subjects as in the opinion of the Committee were calculated to
complete the different branches of Literature.

316 Proceedings. [No. 4, NEW SERIES,

Several specimens of carved wood from Saharunpoor were laid
on the table. Dr, Jamieson, the Superintendent of the Botanical
Garden at that place, intended that they should have appeared in
the Exhibition, together with specimens of the different kinds of
Tea grown in the Himalayan Plantations. But the packages
having been late in reaching Calcutta, and having been then for-
warded in the Ship “ Gustave” which took two months after leay-
ing the Sand Heads to reach Madras, the articles did not arrive
till long after the Exhibition had closed.

The specimens consisted of Platters, Pen Trays, &c., carved in
the beautiful white wood of Wrightia anti Dysenterica or the dark-
er timber of species of Nauclea Doodia, &c. The designs represent
different kinds of foliage, and are generally elegant. Some of
them are in considerable relief. The large Platters are sold for
3 Rupees, the Trays for 1 Rupee each, at the place of manu-
facture.

Mr. Elliot exhibited a series of microscopic drawings of Marine
Animalcule made by Mr. E. M. Wrench of the 12th Lancers, dur-
ing his voyage from England in the “ Gloriana,” in the early part
of the year.

Mr. E. read a short notice identifying such of the specimens as
were depicted with sufficient clearness to exhibit their generic
characters. :

These were found to be, for the most part minute Crustaceans
belonging to the division of Copepods, Milne Edwards, and prin-
cipally to the Genera of Pontia and Cyclops.

An Amphipod Crustacean approaching nearly to the Genus
Vibiha and found in the cavity of a Diphya was also conspicuous-
ly represented.

Besides these were one or two Annelides, minute Beroes a very
small Afedusa belonging to the Gergonidw, and several remarka-
ble forms apparently of undescribed animals.

Although not represented with sufficient minuteness of detail to
allow of more accurate identification, Mr. Wrench’s drawings are
executed with great spirit and appearance of truth. Mr, E. pro-

JULY—SEPT. 1857. ] Proceedings. 317
posed that a selection of them should be engraved for publication
in the Journal, with a view of showing how large and interesting a
field of discovery exists for persons provided with a Microscope,
during long voyages. He also proposed in connection with the
same subject, that an excellent Memoir on Animalculus and other
organized bodies, which give a colour to the Sea, by Camille Da-
reste, should be re-published among the selections. It appeared
originally in the Anneles des Sciences Naturelles, and has been
translated for the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.

The subject was referred to the Committee of Papers.

The Committee have to acknowledge the receipt of the follow-
ing Papers.

The Study of Living Languages, by Colonel A. Cotton,

Suggestions for Weights and Measures for India, by W.H.
Bayley, Esq.

A plan for taking Stereoscopic Portraits with a common Ca-
mera, by Lieut. Paxton, from Dr. Scott.

The Oxymel Process in Photography, by J. Tawse, Esq.

318 Extract from Meteorological Observations [wo. 4, NEW SERIES,

DAILY
JUNE 1857. JuLy 1857.

—_—_———_—_—_—_ Se eee
4 ses THERMOMETERS. | | : RSs THERMOMETERS. |
ra ERP Means. | : | , | * et Means. : | ‘

B50 | ia] B | a] 6 [eee Naess) ie be

2ESloy|we| 2 2/E | 2 2 PEalylwe| 2/4] e | g

inches o|e | ik ies | Ins. Inches) 9.9 = Ins. }
1 a 88:0 77°9| 102°3) 82-2} 2 |0-009|Hazy | 29:723) 881] 75-7| 103-2] 81°61s s w| ....|Hag
2 | -706) 88:6 77°4) 103-5) 81-8}w s w| ....|Clear | -722]85.7|76'8| 991) 79°8)s.s w 0060 Cod
3 716 88-9| 78:8 101-6 83:8} s ..-./Hazy | *694) 87:2) 76:9} 102°9| 81°3}ss w| ....| dae
4 | 709 ‘87 9)78°3) 101-3 62 Bee date 102°8} 815]? | -006)
5 | 74!) 87° 1 78°5| 979/816) s | ..,..|Ovest.| +693) 87-0) 76:0) 100°3) 83-4) w by s| -039 Oven
6 | | | 98°3) 83 als by w] ... 695] 89:7] 76°7| 102-7| 83: 2iw s wl ....|Clodi
7 | 750) 87: 2 79°65 5 97°3| 814s by z| ....|Clody.| -718] 86-6]77-4| 99-4/81-0l3 8 w| .- aq’
8 | 708) 87°5) 79'S, 99.4) 82-4] > | ....|Hazy | -730| 87°6/77-3! 101-4] 82°8| s w “193! Hhay
9 | -687 86-9) 796 98-4769] 5 let... Clody.| 747] 87-1/77-5] 101°1| 82:2] sw | ..../Ove
10 | -723/830 78- 2 s98\76-7| > |1-770| do | -711|86-5/77-4 ei 81: ie BW) sees cf
11) -740) 82:8 78:2 942/786 w_ |0-325| do #785) 8 003] il
12 | 656 85° 6 78° 1 100°4,79'llw s w] ....| do ‘704, 85°7| 77:0 0m 2) 80: a a s w| 570 Clod q
13 | | 987/792] sw | .... 713)'87:2\ 76 7| 99 7/82 ile 8 W 1 dq
14| 691 81-7 76-9, 8691796) w | -220/Ovest.| -694|87°9| 75:6 100°8| 81- i ail ott "i
15 | -706, 82-4 72 937/79 0) w do | -670!87 7/760 98 3] 826w s wl . Jone
16 | -673| 83-6 762) 94:7|79°0! ws w do | +660; 86'8 76:9} 99 8] 81:9 s w ovelfl
17 | “684) 84-1 75-2 95-479 Ww ...| do | -674|86:7/77 3| 99:0] 81:2] 5 w - |Cloil
18 | -707| 85-0 761 98:1) 78'Slw s w| ....|Clody. ees 010 ig
19 | 694] 86-1 76:9'100 3 811) w | 100! do | +720] 86:7,78-0} 98°681°8| s . Clow
20 | | | 98:0, 80'5lw 8 w 056 737 36-2) 78-31 100-7] 80'3's sw | sss. adi
21 | 1666) 85-4 76: 4 99°7, 805} w | -024/Ovest.! -750| 83:8) 77°41 95°1/77:8;s s w| -007/O vail
22) -661|85-2 755 91-4) 81-3|w by s| -034| do | -759/83-7'77-7| 95 7/76-2w s wl -006 Clog

23-7141 87.7762 101-6) 802}w s w| ....|Clody.) 760] 837/776) 942/802] 5 w | -199} adie
24-734] 88-0 7°4| 10211809 s w | ...,|Hazy | -766 : 780 975/791]. sw] 030) dqi

25 | .731/88-8| 77°3| 1029/8383 w | ...,| do 96-0179 0| 8
26.7531 85-4) 77:3] 100°5| 80:8 s w | -330|Clody.| +748| 80.7,76 3! 84°81 76-7] >
2a | | 100-9 80-3 Ww sw) .... 773] 77-6) 74°4 71/741 w
28 | -736| 84-5 76-31 95-2 82-0. w sw] .y25/Ovest | 772) 79°8| 74-5) 89-6 76 0|w 8 w
29.| +733] 86-7, 749) 102-1] 80-3 w bys| -gq7|Clody.| -709/ 79°7| 75:1] 93-4) 77 Olw 8 w
20} -740'88-7, 75:0, 97-4 826 Ww do | -670| 81°81 75-3, 94-4177-6| s w |
4 Caetae 4 : 707| 81:6] 75°2| 91°1/77-6] w | -029| doy

(CI pa:
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2940 29°719! 85°1| 76°6} 97-6) 80°] 2°270
| | Sum

Mean,

? This mark signifies that no Means can be | |

JULY—SEPT.1857.] kept at the Madras Magnetic Observatory. 319
MEANS.
August 1857 | SEPTEMBER 1857. |
: |
o.| THERMOMETERS. | | + 6 | THERMOMETERS. &
a's | eed hee ~ dq | 8
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“764! 83 5 77:1) 95°3)791w sw ‘010/Ovest.| 795] 86-0 779} 96:1)/83°'5s by EB ....| do OY
802| 84 8 77:9} 979] 89-2, sw | -232/Clody.| °785|86-9)77'3) 98-4|82-7| s w do j.3
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| 98'8} 81> Tw SW | SE 719) 87: cre 101 1; 83°0} s w .|Ovest.| 8
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71918 7.8 73-9] 1000] 80°7 w sw ess-| do "796| 85°5 75-1] 95:-9)79°6) ? .|Hazy | 10
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|-708| 87-5| 75-4] 1001824 w | ....\Clody.| 72982-01753) 89-9) 78-6] w | -310| do | 17
737/849 75-7] 95-9) 81.6 w |.--Ovest.| °788/84:6175-5| 97°2/81.9| w | -220/ do | 18
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‘776, 85°5! 76 9) 101:0| 79°4|w s w .|Clody.| “900 85-3/78°5) 96-5|81-2 s w do | 95
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INDEX or MATTER in Vot. IL.

Acar ussanadid, by Saiyid Ahmed Khan, 159.

Aden, Memoir on the Ancient Keservoir at, 25.

, Tanks within the Crater of, described by Mr. Salt, 30.

, Repairs to the Tanks at, authorised by Government, 31.
, Tabular Statements, &c., of the Tanks at, 38.

, Register of Rain at, 42.

Algerian Flora, 312.

American Oology, 312.

Animal and Plant, on the relationship between, 175.

Aska Sugar Factory, 276.

Bembidiide, 50.

Breakwater at Madras, 146.

Camera common, mode of taking Stereoscopic Portraits with, 253.
Chintamani, the Tamil Epic, 43.

-——, one of the five Classical Tamil Works, 45.
Chillapadikarum, one of the five Classical Tamil Works, 45.

Chleenius princeps, 58.
maleolens, 59.'
Chow Chow, by Lady Falkland, 313.
Cinghalese Plants, new, 102,373.
Coal, appearance of, at Nellore, 291.
Coal Formation, Report on a reputed, at Kotah on the Godavery, 256.
Coleoptera of Ceylon, 50,
Compsolepis, 61.
——_—_——-——-, foliolosa, 62.
Conoor, Nursery at, 302.
Cotton of Honduras, &c., observations on, 110.
Cotton, specimens of, and information regarding desired, 294,
Creagris labrosa, 53.
Cryptogamic Plants, Zoospores of, locomotive, 176.
Cyclopedia of Indiaand Hastern India, by Mr. Balfour, 314.
Cytogenesis, 177.
Dacoitee in excelsis, 315.
Desmodium gyrans, 176.
Doona Zeylanica, 109.
Drosera and Dionzxa, 176.

Hpicarpurus Zeylanica, 103.
Everest Mount, proposed name for the highest of the Himalayas, 304.

322 INDEX,

Flora Algerie, 312.

Galeritide, 54.

Graphite in Travancore, 295.

Gutta Percha Tree, search for in Wynaad, 169.

Harpalide, 61.
Harpalus senilis, 59.
- rugosus, 60.
Heteroglossa, 54.
, elegans and ruficoljis, 57.
—, bimaculata, 58.
Himalayas, Height of the, 304.
Hirudo medicinalis, 178.
Horticultural Garden, Ootacamund, 297, ;

Infanticide, Indian on, by the Rev. J. C. Browne, 314.
Indian Army, our, by Captain Rafter, 315.

India, by Stocqueler, 313.

Iron Pile Pier at Madras, Report on Messrs. Saunders’ and Mitchells’ project, 135
Jetty over the Surf at Madras, Report on, proposed by Captain Taylor, 133.
Khanchinjinga, not (as supposed) the highest of the Himalayas, 304.

Kokoona Zeylanica, 275.

Kota on the Godavery, Report on a reputed Coal Formation at, 256.

Kumaon and Gurhwal, on the Metalliferous deposits of, 161.
Kundalakési, one of the five Classical Tamil Works, 45.

L’ Anglais et Lb.’ Inde, par M. Fridolin, 164.

Languages living, on the Study of, by Colonel A. Cotton, 214.
Lebiide, 52.

Lutfullah, a Mahomedan Gentleman, Autobiography, 314.

Mareb, great dam of, first instance on record of a reservoir in Arabia, 25.

, was repaired by Queen Balkis, and destroyed about A. D. 120, 26.
Manimékalei, one of the five Classical Tamil Works, 49.

Measures and Weights for India, suggestions for a uniform system of, 183.
Meteoric Stones, Fallof, ia Madura, 130.

Mimosa Sensitiva, 176.

Moslem Noble, by Mrs. Young, 313.

Mulberry Tree, with reference to Silk Culture, 309.

Musquitos, how to get rid of, 304.

Nellore, appearance of Coal at, 291.
Ochthephilus, 50.

, Ceylanicus, 50.

Oology American, 312.

Ootacamund Government Garden, 297.
Ophonus, 59.

Oxymel Process in Photography, 270.

Persia, Glimpses of Life and Manners in, 312.

©9
29
Go

INDEX.

Persian Language, Concise Grammar of, 311.
Pericalide, 52.
Photography, on the Oxymel process in, 270.

Plant and Animal, on the relationship between, 175.
Plumbago in Travancore, 290.

Preservation of Timber, Dr. Boucherie’s method, 398.
Pushto Dictionary and Text book, 158.

Reservoirs at Aden, Memoir on the ancient, 26.
— numerous in Arabia and Africa, 26.
—— in Gibraltar and Minorea, &c. &c , 28.

Salaman and Absal, translated from the Persian of Jami, 311.
Sanscrit Grammar, New, 159.

Scorpion, on the Sting of, 304.

Six Years in India, by Mrs. Colonel Mackenzie, 315.
Stereoscopic Portraits, mode of taking with common Camera, 253.
Sugar Factory, Aska, 276.

Tamil Epic, Chintamani, 43.

Teas from the Himalayas, 169.

Tetracrypta Cinnamoides, 273.

Timber, preservation of, Dr. Boucherie’s method, 303.

Todas of the Nilagiris, their Vocabulary, 1.

Travancore, Graphite in, 295.

Valleiyapathi, one of the five classical Tamil Works, 45.
Volvox Globator, belongs to the Vegetable Kingdom, 306,

Weights and Measures for India, suggestions for a uniform system of, 183.
Wood Oil, 283.

Zoospores of Cryptogamic Plants are locomotive, 176.

INDEX or NAMES 1n Vot. II.

Agassiz Professor—Prospectus of ‘‘ Natural History of North America.”’ 168,
Arnaud Monsieur, measures an immense reservoir at Mareb, 26.

Baikie, Dr., account of the Neilgherries, 2d Ed., 168.

Balfour, Edward, Surgeon, Cyclopedia of India and Eastern Asia, 314.

Ball, Dr. Robert, Death of, 164.

Banks, James, observations on free labor Cotton in Honduras, &c., 110.
Bidie, George, M. D., on the relationship between the Animal and Plant, 175,
Binning, R., * Journal of two years travels in Persia, &c.”’ 163.

Bleeck, Persian Grammar, by A. H., 311.

Boucherie, Dr., his method of preserving timber, 303.

Bowring, Sir J., “ on the Kingdom and People of Siam,’’ i62.

Brewer’s American Oology, 312.

824 INDEX.

Briggs, Lieut. General, “ India and Europe compared,” 165.

Browne, Rey., J. C., on Indian Infanticide, 3814.
Burton, Captain, ‘“‘ Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Mecca,” 162.

Caldwell, Rev. R., has received the honorary distinction of LL.D., from the Uni-
versity of Glasgow, 165.
Chesney, Captain, mentions Reservoirs of Saracenic originin Granada Cordova,

&c., 28.

Cleghorn, Dr., well qualified to prepare a Manual of the Botany of the Peninsula,
78.

——_—_—- -———,, Memorandum on Ootacamund Garden, 297.

Corson, Monsieur—-Flora Algeria, 312.

Cotton, Colonel A., Madras Engineers, on the study of Living Languages, O14,

, Memorandum on proposals fora Pier at Madras, 146.

Cotton, Captain Frederick, C. E., Journal of an Expedition over Annamullay
Mountains, 80.

——., Colonel F. C., observations on a Tour in Ganjam, 276.

Cullen, Lieut. General, on Graphite at Travancore, 295.

Drew, Mr. C. account of his search in Wynaad for the Gutta Percha Tree, 169.

Eastwick, E. B., Editor of Autobiography of Lutfullah, 314.

Elliot, Hon. Walter, presents the Society with Vols. 9 and 10 of De Candolle’s.
Prodromus Regni Vegetalis, 168.

Falkland, Lady, Chow Chow, by, 313.

Fridolin, M. le Mor. Les Anglais et L’Inde, 164.

Haines, Captain, mentions the discovery of several Tanks in the ruins of Hosn
Ghorab, 27.

Hanbury, Mr. Daniel, Remarks on Wood Oil, 284.

Hasskarl, M., Superintendent of Botanical Garden at Buitenzorg, intends to pub-
lish a work entitled ‘‘ Hortus Bogoriensis descriptus,’’ 162.

Henwood, Mr. W. J., on the Metalliferous deposits of Kumaon, &c., 16].

Huc. M.1’Abbe, ‘* Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet,” 164.

Jacob, Major, Complaint against the Punjaub Board, 168.
Jamieson, Dr., presents specimens of Himalayan Teas, and of Wood for en-
graying, 169.

Lowe, Mr. Charles, Remarks on Wood Oil, 283,

MclIvor, Mr., in charge of the Government Garden at Uotacamund, 79.
Macpherson, Duncan, M. D., Antiquities of Kertch, &c., 163.

McKenzie, Mrs. Colin, New Edition of the Mission, Camp and Zenana, 316,
Mallet, M., desires specimens of Cotton for Chemical bins 3 294.
Metz, Rev. F.. Vocabulary of the Toda Dialect, 1.

Michael, Lieut., Executive Officer Anamullay Forest, 101.

Moore, Mr., on the habits of some birds in N. W. India, 312.

—, on new species of Lepidopterous Insects from N. W. India, 312.
Mountain, Lieut. Colonel, the late, Memoirs and Letters of, 314.

Nietner, J., description of new Ceylon Coleoptera, 50.

INDEX. 625

Paxton, Lieut. L., mode of taking Stereoscopic Portraits with a common Ca-
mera, 253.

Percival, Rey. P., on the Tamil Epic Chintamani, 43.

Playfair, Lieut. R. L., on the Ancient Reservoirs at Aden, 28.

Powell, G., on the appearance of Coal at Nellore, 291.

Prendergast, G. L., his Concordance of Milton, 165.

Rafter, Captain, our Indian Army, by, 315.

Razerty, Lieut., H.G., Pushto Dictionary and Text Book, by, 158.

Royle, J. Forbes, u.p., on Provincial Exhibitions, and improvement of Resources
of the Madras Presidency. 64.

Saiyid Ahmed Khan, Review of ‘‘ Acar Ussanadid” by, 159,

Salt, Mr., describes four reservoirs on the Island of Kititto in Arabia, 27.

and in the Crater at Aden, 30.

Saunders and Mitchell, Report on their project for an Iron Pier at Madras, 13¢

Schlagentweit, Mr. Herman, observations in Upper Assam, &c., 167.

, Mr. Robert, on the Magnetic Survey of India, 167.

Shiel, Lady, Glimpses of Life and Mannersin Persia, by, 312.

Stern, Rev. Mr., mentions well constructed Cisterns in Arabia, 26.

Stocqueler, Mr., India, by, 313.

Taylor, Rev. H.&., Account of the Fall of Meteoric Stones at Parnallee, Ma-
dura, 130.

Taylor, Captain, Report on his proposed Jetty at Madras, 133.

Taylor, Rev. W., Report on the Elliot Marbles, 168.

Thompson, Dr., on the Cotton of Yucatan, 126.

Thwaites, Mr., New Plants discovered in Ceylon. 102,273.

Yon Hammer, M., Account of his death by his daughter, 159.

Wall, P. W., Mineral Viewer at Madras, on a reputed Coal Formation at
Kota, 256.

Wight, Dr., his Botanical Labors, 77.

, formerly Superintendent of Botanical Garden at Madras, 78.

Williams, Mr. Monier, Sanskrit Grammar, 159.

Woodbury, Hon. Levi, on the cultivation and trade of Cotton, 111.

Young, Mrs., the Moslem Noble, by, 313.

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